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 A. KEPORT 
 
 UPON TIIK 
 
 CONDITION OF AFFAIRS 
 
 JX THE 
 
 TEPtPiITOPtY OF ALASKA. 
 
 
 BY 
 
 
 HENRY W. TT-'LIOTT, 
 
 
 SPECIAL AGENT TKEASUKY DZPARTMEXT. 
 
 • • 
 
 
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 VV ASHINGTOX: 
 
 
 COVECNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 
 1875.
 
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 t:-^ 
 
 LETTER TO THE SECEETAEY OF THE TREASURY. 
 
 Washington, 1). C, Nove/aher 1 G, IST'i. 
 
 Sir: Iu compliance \vitb the provisions of the act of Congress 
 api)roved April 22, 1874, I have the honor to snbniit the fol- 
 lowing report upon the condition and importance of the fur- 
 trade in the Territory of Alaska ; "the present condition of the 
 seal-fisheries of Alaska ; the haunts and habits of the seal ; the 
 preservation and extension of the fisheries as a source of reve- 
 nue to the United States, with like information respecting the 
 fur-bearing animals of Alaska generally ; the statistics of the 
 fur-trade ; and the condition of the people or natives, especially 
 those upon "whom the successful prosecution of the fisheries and 
 fur-trade is dependent :'' 
 
 The first measure suggested by my inves'jigations this season, 
 is one of reform in the present government of the Territory. Ife 
 is supposed that a useless outlay of money and labor is 
 not intended to be persisted in, when the same annual expend- 
 iture will give prompt and effective supervision over interests 
 iu that region which seem now to be sadly neglected. The 
 present mismanagement of affairs in Alaska is not attributable 
 to any other cause than that of the universal ignorance prevail- 
 ing in the United States, at the time of the transfer, in regard 
 to the form of government needed, and since then no one seems 
 to have taken any intelligent or active interest iu the matter. 
 In the following report, herewith submitted, I desire to draw 
 your attention to the statements and suggestions contained in 
 the chapter devoted to this subject, and I trust that yon may 
 be pleased to give them your approval. 
 
 The pecuniary value of the fur-seal interests of the Govern-, 
 ment renders it highly important that the Treasury Department, 
 now intrusted with its care and snpervi&ion, should possess 
 definite and authoritative information as to its proper manage- 
 ment — for its perpetuation in its original integrity, at least. I, 
 therefore, take great pleasure in calling your attention especially 
 to the accompanying report upon the subject, which embodies 
 the results of three seasons' (1872, 1873, and 1874) close per- 
 
 4053G3
 
 4 ALASKA. 
 
 sonal observation and research on the ground, with maps and 
 ilhistrations. 
 
 In connection with the condition of the natives of the Terri- 
 tory, on whom the successful prosecution of the fur-trade is 
 dependent, I have been led into a very careful study of the 
 history and habits of the sea-otter in this country, to the suc- 
 cessful hunting of which between four and five thousand Chris- 
 tian Aleutians and Kodiakers look for a means of livelibood. 
 Since the transfer, fire-arms, formerly proscribed, have been 
 introduced among the sea-otter hunters. This, in combination 
 with the keenest rivalry of opposition traders, makes it only a 
 question of a very short time ere these valuable and interesting- 
 animals are exterminated, on the existence of which so many 
 christianized natives are totally dependent for all of the com- 
 forts, and many even of the necessities, of a semi-civilized 
 life. The remedy for this is a very simple and eftective one, and 
 I beg leave to refer to my discussiou of the subject in this 
 report nnder the head of the sea-otter and its hunters. 
 
 In my report it will be seen that I have given the Yukon, 
 Aleutian, and Sitkan sections close attention, having yet to 
 more fully examine the Kodiak, Cook's Inlet, and Copper Eiver 
 districts ; that I have, in connection with Lieut. Washburn , 
 3Iaynard, United States Navy, my associate during the past 
 season, carefully resurveyed the area and position of the breed- 
 ing-grounds of the fur-seal on the Prybilov Islands. We sur- 
 veyed Saint Matthew's Island, which is contiguous and was 
 entirelj' unknown and uninhabited, in order to settle the ques- 
 tion, so frequently asked, and to which no definite reply could 
 be given, as to whether or not it was suitable ground for fur- 
 seals to land upon and breed, should these animals ever become 
 dissatisfied with their present locality ; and that 1 have com- 
 piled, from Itussian and other authorities, facts and statistics 
 as to the extent of the fur-trade in the early days of the Terri- 
 tory, so as to compare with the condition of this business at the 
 present, as I get it from traders and agents in the country gen- 
 erally. Of necessity, I have been obliged to use my judgment 
 in selecting and taking these figures, both from the written as 
 well as the verbal authorities. These I submit as being very 
 nearly correct, to the best of my knowledge and belief. The 
 remarkable increase in the catch of fur-bearing animals since 
 the change of ownership of the country is most striking, but 
 in perfect harmony with the strong contrast between the indo-
 
 ALASKA. 5 
 
 lent, make shift managemeut of the Eassian-American Fur 
 Company iu later times and that of our energetic, economical 
 traders. 
 
 The extravagant statements which have been made in regard 
 to the resources of this Territory, which, on the one hand, were 
 they true, would lit it for the future reception of a highly-civil- 
 ized population, while, on the other, it would be made a land 
 of utter desolation, worthlessness, and an entire loss of seven 
 millions of purchase-money, besides being a burden to the 
 General Government, these announcements, so often made 
 and reiterated throughout our country, have caused me to pay 
 great attention to the subject, and in this report I have endeav- 
 ored to give a concise description of the agricultural character 
 of the Territory as I have seen it, which thus far might be truth- 
 fully summed up in saying that there are more acres of better 
 land lying nowaswildernessand jungle in sight on the mountain- 
 tops of the Alleghanies from the car-windows of the Pennsylvania 
 road than can be found in all Alaska ; and when it is remem- 
 bered that this land, wild, iu the heart of one of our oldest and 
 most thickly-populated States, will remain as it now is, cheap, 
 and undisturbed for an indefinite time to come, notwithstand- 
 ing its close proximity to the homes of millions of ener.r^etic 
 and enterprising men, it is not difficult to estimate the value of 
 the Alaskan acres, remote as they are, and barred out by a 
 most disagreeable sea-coast climate, leaving out altogether the 
 great West and vast agricultural regions of British America ; 
 but then, directly to the contrary, it would be wrong- to hint by 
 this statement, true as it is, that the country is worthless, for 
 on the Seal Islands alone the Government possesses property 
 which would not remain in the market many days unsold were 
 it offered for seven millions, and from which the annual 
 revenue is doubly sufficient to meet all expenditures for the 
 proper government of the whole Territory, if the matter was 
 correctly adjusted. Again, it should be understood that, be- 
 yond a few outcrops of Tertiary coal and small leads near Sitka 
 of gold and silver, with reports of native copper in situ, nothing- 
 is known whatever of the mineral wealth of the Territory at 
 the present writing, as far as I can learn, but which I have 
 reason to think will develop into some value. 
 
 My opinion with reference to the fishing interests in the Ter- 
 ritory has been almost entirely formed by the accounts of old, 
 experienced fishermen whom I have met in the country person-
 
 6 ALASKA. 
 
 ally enjinged in fishing- in these waters. The value and proba- 
 ble yield of the cod-banks of Alaska have been greatly overrated, 
 but it may be reasonably anticipated that the success attending 
 the canning of salmon on the Columbia Pdver will stimulate the 
 prosecution of this industry at the mouths of all the large 
 streams and rivers of the Territory. 
 
 In connection with my survey of affairs in the Territory, the 
 Seal Islands in especial, I have been most fortunate in being 
 associated with a gentleman so efQcient and conscientious as 
 Lieut. Washburn Maynard, the officer selected by the Secre- 
 tary of the Kavy, in compliance with the act of Congress, to- 
 accom])any me on this tour of investigation, and to report in- 
 dependently. 
 
 It is also fitting that I should speak in flattering terms of the 
 high character of the service rendered us this season by Capt» 
 J. G. Baker, commanding the United States revenue-cutter 
 Eeliance, who carried us with all care and expedition to such 
 points as we saw fit to designate, and which it was possible to 
 visit in a sailing-vessel, with the time allotted. 
 
 The several subjects within the scope of my report I have 
 arranged, and herewith respectfully present in the following 
 order, viz : 
 CHAPTER I. The character of the country. 
 
 II. The natives or people of Alaska ; their 
 
 CONDITION, «S:c. 
 
 III. The duty of the Government in the Ter- 
 ritory OF Alaska. 
 TV. Trade in the Territory and the traders, 
 
 STATIONS, &C. 
 V. The SEA-OTTER AND ITS HUNTING. 
 
 VI. The CONDITION of affairs on the Seal 
 
 Islands ; Prybilov group. 
 YII. The haeits of the fur seal. 
 YIII. Fish and fisheries. 
 IX. Ornithology of the Prybilov Islands. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I have endeavored in the preparation of this report to be 
 as concise as possible, perhaps so to a fault, but the enumer- 
 ation of the thousand and one little things that have combined 
 to form opinion, and indirectly influence one's judgment, can 
 interest no one but the writer.
 
 ALASKA. 7 
 
 On tlie subject of Alaska, it is safe to assert that no otliei> 
 unexplored section of the world was ever brought into notice 
 suddenly, about which so much has been emphatically and 
 positively written, based entirely upon the whims and caprices 
 of the writers, and, therefore, it will not be at all surprising if 
 the truth in regard to the Territory does frequently come into 
 contiict with many erroneous popular opinions respecting it. ^ 
 
 With the hope that the results of my labor as presented in 
 the following report will meet with your approval and support, 
 
 I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient 
 servant, 
 
 HENRY W. ELLIOTT, 
 S2}€cial Agent Treasury De])artment. 
 
 Hon. B. H. Bristow, 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 THE TERRITORY OF ALASKA. 
 
 So much has been said pro aud con as to the natural wealth 
 and advantages of our new acquisition, the Territory of Alaska, 
 that the widest possible divergence of opinion has arisen upon this 
 subject ; on the one hand, we hear that here is a country no more 
 rugged or uninviting than is Sweden or oSTorway, where a high 
 civilization exists, with just as much natural adaptation for the 
 home of advancing humanity, with vast forests of the finest 
 ship-timber, with iron, copper, coal, and possibly rich gold and 
 silver mines, with valleys aud plains upon which sheep aud cattle 
 can be bred and raised without more than ordinary care, so abun- 
 dant is the grass and other vegetation ; that the climate is ex- 
 tremely mild on the seaboard, no more damp and foggy than 
 on the coast of Oregon, &c. ; while, on the other hand, we are 
 as gravely told that it is an area of total desolation ; that it is 
 locked up in the grasp of winter's frosts for eight or nine months 
 in the year ; that icebergs and snow fill the sea and drift in 
 fathomless rifts ; that it is bare and barren, only moss and 
 swale grass 5 that even the inhabitants there drag out a miser- 
 able existence on seal-meat, oil, and like food ; and that it will 
 never become the home of white men, because there is no object 
 in the land that will draw them there save the small fur-trading 
 interests. 
 
 There is truth in both declarations, but no such thing as a 
 happy medium can be struck between the two views; a fair, 
 dispassionate statement in regard to this matter, however, at 
 the time of the transfer of the Territory, coukl hardly have been 
 made, no citizen of the United States having the means ov the 
 opportunity to form a proper judgment. The Russians did not 
 live here as a people, but as a companj^ of fur-traders only, 
 with a single eye to the getting of skins ; and the matter of 
 their subsistence while so doing was comparatively of little 
 importance; but it should be said that at all of their posts 
 throughout the Territory they fully tested the capabilities of 
 soil and climate for garden-products, and at many of them
 
 10 ALASKA. * 
 
 gave bogs aud cattle a trial, with a deep interest in the success- 
 of their experiments. The Eussian American Company in re- 
 tiring from the country gave us a generally correct map of the 
 Territory, accurate figures as to the numbers and distribution 
 of the natives ; but upon other points the most vague or else 
 conflicting data, and in this condition of knowledge we took 
 possession of the country. Its true status, therefore, and real 
 importance were simply unknown to our people. 
 
 Since that time, however, quite a number of adventurers, 
 traders, miners, fishermen, and the like have had their atten- 
 tion and interest centered here, and the resources of the country 
 in small sections have been keenly scrutinized with a view to 
 what the country could or could not yield in supply of human 
 wants. 
 
 THE DIVERSIFIED CHARACTER OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 Everybody is familiar with the geographical position of 
 Alaska, with its extended area of coast-line, stretching from a 
 trifle south of the 55th parallel of north latitude, above Fort 
 Simpson, on the British Columbian Territory, far to the north- 
 ward and westward away into the Arctic Ocean and above the- 
 arctic circle; and, in describing the character of this vast trend 
 of land, it should be divided into several natural districts, by 
 reason of the local difference between them. 
 
 The Sitl-an district. — Startiugfrom Portland Canal and running 
 north to Cross Sound aud the head of Lynn Canal, the eye glances 
 over a range of country made up of hundreds of islands, large 
 aud small, and a bold, mountainous coast, all everywhere rugged 
 aud abrupt in contour, aud, with exception of highest sum- 
 mits, the bills, mountains, and valleys, the last always narrow 
 and winding, are covered with a dense jungle of spruce and 
 fir, cedar and shrubbery, so thick, dark, and damp, that it is 
 traversed only hj tbe expenditure of great physical energy, 
 and a clear spot, either on islands or mainland, where an acre 
 of grass might grow by itself, as it does in tbe little "parks" 
 far in the interior, cannot be found. In these forest-jungles, 
 especially on tbe lowlands and always by tbe water-courses, 
 will be found a fair proportion of ordinary timber of tbe char- 
 acter above designated. The spruce and fir, however, are so 
 heavily charged with resin, that they can be used for nothing 
 but the roughest work; the cedar is, however, an excellent ar- 
 ticle. But back from the Coast Kange here, on which our bound-
 
 ALASKA. 1 1 
 
 ary-line is dotted, springs up quite a different country again, 
 higher everywhere from the sea-level by thousands of feet, dry, 
 with not one-tenth part of the raiu-fall, vast rolling plains or ta- 
 ble-lands and rounded mountain-tops, over which fiiehas swept 
 not many years ago, for the last time, as it has frequently done 
 before, utterly destroying* the pine-forests, leaving* nothing but 
 the blackened and bleached trunks ])iled upon and across one 
 another at the sport of tierce gales ; and springing up from be- 
 neath this desolation and shutting over it is a new forest of 
 young" pine and iioplars, with a large number of service-berry 
 and salal bushes interspersed. The valleys here widen out, 
 and contain large tracts of excellent ground for cultivation, 
 with the significant objection, however, of being subject to 
 frosts so late in the spring as June 10, and so early in the 
 summer as the 20th of August. This, of course, excludes the 
 question of agricultural utility ; and although the grass grows 
 everywhere here in the valleys in the most luxuriant manner, 
 yet cattle cannot run out through the winters, which are here 
 bitterly cold; widely different from those a hundred miles only 
 to the westward across the Coast Eange. Here, under the pow- 
 erful influence of the great Pacific, winter is never anything 
 but wet and chilly, seldom ever giving the people a week's 
 skating on the small lake back of Sitka. Day after day there 
 are high winds and drizzling rains, with breaks in the leaden 
 sky showing gleams of clear blue and sunlight ; and here the 
 agriculturist or gardener has like cause for discouragement, 
 for nothing will ripen ; whatever he plants grows and enters on 
 its stages of decay without perfecting. It must, moreover, be 
 remarked that there is but very little land fit even for this un- 
 satisfactory and most unprofitable agriculture, i. e., i)roperly- 
 drained and warm soil enough for the very hardiest cereals. 
 There is not one acre of such tillable land to every ten thou- 
 sand of the objectionable character throughout the larger por- 
 tion of this area, and certainly not more than one acre to a 
 thousand in the best regions. Grass grows in small localities 
 or areas, wherever it is not smothered by forests and thickets, 
 in the valleys over this whole Sitkau district ; its presence, 
 however, is not the rule, but the exception, so vigorous is the 
 growth of shrubbery and timber; and even did it grow in large 
 amount, the curing of hay is simply impracticable. Although 
 the winters are mild, still there is not enough ranging-ground
 
 1 2 ALASKA. 
 
 to sup])ort herds of cattle througbout the year and liave them 
 within control. 
 
 Mount Saint Ellas district.— F^eachiug from Cross Sound to 
 Prince William's Sound is a second and clearly-defined region, 
 exhibiting a bald, bare sea-front, with scarcely au island or a 
 rock in its long stretch of over three hundred miles ; little belts 
 of spruce timber skirt the lowlands by the sea, while that which is 
 hilly and mountainous is almost bare ; grass and berries grow, 
 however, in great abuudauce. It is the most cheerless, but at 
 the same time the most interesting, portion of the Territory, not 
 from any other point of view, however, than that of the tourist 
 or geologist, who will find Mount Saint Elias the highest peak in 
 North America, and the superb mountains of Fairweather and 
 Cillou, and the country about them, covered, for miles and miles, 
 with mighty glaciers, a field of most instructive interest. An 
 immense mass of ice comes down into the head of Lynn Canal, 
 which, the Indians say, originates and travels from Mount Fair- 
 weather over fifty miles away. This glacier is some eight miles 
 wide where it faces the sea in the channel, and many hundred 
 feet in thickness, perfectly magnificent, and should be visited, 
 for, as yet, this region, like the most of our new Territory, has 
 not been trodden by the foot of white man, and seldom even by 
 the savage. Its exceptional presentation of timber, its long 
 reaches of rounded, low, barren hills, and relative scarcity of 
 both birds and animals, make this section about as uninviting, 
 on economic grounds, as any in the Territory, and the paucity 
 of Indian life within its limits speaks definitely for its poverty 
 as to game and fish. 
 
 CooTc's Inlet district. — I refrain from giving the reports which 
 I received from this section, inasmuch as they are very contra- 
 dictory in many leading features ; though, in a general way, the 
 ideas given me are undoubtedly correct. Thej^ represent the 
 country similar to Kodiak, with more timber. 
 
 The Peninsular and Kodialc Island. — This region, lying between 
 Iliamna Lake and the False Pass, between the head of the Pen- 
 insula of Alaska and contiguous islands, is the most valuable 
 section of the entire Territory, possessing the most equable cli- 
 mate, especially so at Kodiak, growing the besc garden-sup- 
 l)lies of potatoes, turnips, ike, the only place where hay can be 
 made, enough fora few head of stock, with anything likeacertain- 
 ty, from season to season f but the country comprised in this dis- 
 trict, which forms the southern and western half of the Peninsula,
 
 ALASKA. 13 
 
 does not possess any of tbe above-mentioned qualifications in the 
 same degree by any means. The island of Kodiak and the whole 
 district is, however, rugged and mountainous, with numerous 
 small lakes and tiny rivers or streams, up which a considerable 
 number of salmon run every year. Timber, of spruce and fir, 
 grows in fair quantity in the northern and eastern end of Ko- 
 diak, all the islands to the eastward, and down the Peninsula 
 as far as Chignik Bay ; it is not large, but in size for fuel, rough 
 building, »S:c. Grass grows most luxuriantly, especially on Ko- 
 diak, but the area suitable for its support is limited, there be- 
 ing no i)lains or dry and accessible valleys in which to cut and 
 cure it. There are many winters here in which cattle might 
 be kept in small numbers without exceptional care and expense, 
 i. e., enough to afford milk and beef for a small settlement, and 
 also sheep and hogs. Little patches of land can be found 
 where a small garden will thriveconsistingof potatoes, turnips, 
 &c. 5 but reaching down to the Aleutian Islands, and over them, 
 is a region bare entirely of timber and nearly so of shrubbery, 
 rugged, abrupt, and extremely mountainous, the surface broken 
 into patches set, as it were, on end j this is no country adapted 
 for agriculture, for the prevalence of foggy, dark weather would 
 render even the limited area that could be utilized with sun- 
 light unserviceable for the production of fruits and vegetables. 
 Soil there is suflBciently rich and deep, but it is too cold to ma- 
 ture or ripen garden-products, except in very favored locali- 
 ties where, as at Ounalashka, a few potatoes of inferior quality, 
 good turnips, and lettuce, are in the favorable seasons raised. 
 The Western Islands are all essentially volcanic, with scarcely a 
 trace of sedimentary rock to be found; consisting of high, 
 steep ridges and jieaks of porphyries and volcanic tufa, with 
 here and there syeuitic granites. The vegetation, such as it is, 
 principally Empetrum nigrum, grows most rank and luxuriant 
 on the flanks and even the summits of many of these high 
 places, and the light, frail stems of this plant, which are of about 
 the size of strawberry-vines, the natives gather and bring down 
 from the hills in large bundles for fire-wood. The only shrub that 
 lifts its head above the earth, of value as wood, is a willow, (Salix 
 reticulata,) which grows in scattered clumps along the little water- 
 courses, twisted and contorted, yet of sufficient size to furnish 
 in early days strong and serviceable frames for native skin- 
 boats or " baidars." Scattered over the Aleutian Islands and 
 on the Peninsula are many' small lakes, some of them quite
 
 14 ALASKA. 
 
 large. The Peninsular country is more rolling and level, on 
 the north shore especialh' so ; for from Port MoUer on up to the 
 head of Bristol Bay extensive flats make out from the high- 
 lands and stretch between them and the sea in width varying 
 from ten to sixty miles. 
 
 There are a number of volcanoes in this district, such as that 
 of Makooshin, on Ounalashka Island, Akootan and Shishaldiu, 
 on Oonimak, which, however, do not eject lava, but emit smoke, 
 steam, and ashes, although in times past and within the memory 
 of man large stones have been thrown out by many of them, 
 and still earlier lavahas been poured out on Oonimak in immense 
 streams. The seared, rugged courses of the once liquid rock 
 make traveling on that island excessively fatiguing. Akootan, 
 on Akootan Island, and Makooshin are, perhaps, the most active, 
 or as lively as anj- in the Territory to-day. There has been no 
 disturbance on their account in the country for the last thirty 
 years to mention, but previous to that time many severe earth- 
 quake shocks have been recorded, and the growth of a new 
 island, JBogaslov, twenty miles north of Oomnak, in Bering 
 Sea, has been witnessed by the present generation, and I think 
 that the phenomena attending the appearance of this island far 
 out at sea and alone must have been coincident with the whole 
 history of the formation of the Aleutian Chain, and therefore I 
 may be excused for giving the substance of the story as told by 
 several of the Russian writers. 
 
 In the fall of 179G the residents of Oonimak and Ounalashka 
 were surprised by a series of loud reports and tremblings of 
 the earth, followed by the appearance of a dense dark cloud, 
 full of gas and ashes, which came down upon them from the 
 sea to the northward, and, after a week or ten days, during 
 which time the cloud hung steadily over them, accompanied 
 with earthquakes and subterranean thunder, it cleared away 
 somewhat, so that they saw distinctly to the northward a bright 
 light burning above the sea, and, upon closer inspection in their 
 boats, the people found that a sniall island, elevated about 100 
 feet above sea-level, had been forced up and was still in the pro- 
 cess of elevation and enlargement, formed of lava and scoriae. 
 The volcanic action did not cease on this island until 1S25, when 
 it left above the water an oval peak, almost inaccessible, 400 to 
 500 feet high, and four or five miles in circumference. It was 
 soon after this occupied by sea-lions and resorted to by sea-fowl.
 
 ALASKA. 15 
 
 whicU were found here ii) 1825, when tbe Russians lauded for 
 tlie first time, and the rocks were still warm. 
 
 ';In tbis way aud recently, geologically speaking, were tbe 
 Aleutian Islands formed from tbe Peninsula westward, includ- 
 ing tbe Prybilov Group and Saint 3Iattbew's, tbeir appearance 
 marking tbe course of a line of least resistance in the earth's 
 crust. 
 
 The Yulxon District. — In tbis division may be placed all that 
 countrj' above tbe bead of Bristol Bay aud north and west of 
 the Peninsular Bauge of mountains as they extend far into tbe 
 interior, reaching to the arctic and far beyond, an immense area 
 of desolate sameness, almost unknown, and likely to be so for 
 an indefinite time, the banks of tbe Yukon Eiver being the 
 only track traversed as yet by white men into the interior. 
 This great range of country may jiroperly be divided into two 
 sections, the bills or timber-lands and tbe plains or tundra. Tbe 
 former seldom approach the waters of Bering or the Arctic Rea 
 nearer than fifty or sixty miles, and generally trend some two to 
 three hundred miles back. Tbe general contourof the interior 
 is a vast undulating plain, with high, rounded granitic hills aud 
 ridges scattered here and there, on the flanks of which, and by 
 the countless lakes aud water-courses, grow in tolerable abun- 
 dance spruce, fir, hemlock, birch, and poi)lar, with a large number 
 of hardy shrubs indigenous all the world over to these latitudes. 
 The summers short, but warm and pleasant j the winters long, 
 and bitter]^' cold aud inclement. 
 
 The tundra, however, which fronts the whole coast-line of 
 this, the most extensive section of tbe Territory, is, indeed, 
 cheerless and repelhint at any season ; in the summer it is a 
 great flat swale, full of bog-holes, slimy, decayed peat, innumer- 
 able lakes, shallow, stagnant, aud from all places swarm mos- 
 quitoes of the most malignant typ?, while in winter it is a wide 
 snow plain, over which fierce gales of wind, at zero tempera- 
 ture, sweep in constant succession, making travel as painful 
 and dangerous as can be well imagined. In this season all ap- 
 proach to tbe coast is barred by a great system of shoals and 
 banks, which extend so far out to sea that a vessel drawing 10 
 feet of water will be hard aground, out of sight of land, ofl' tbe 
 mouth of the Yukon. 
 
 There is a vast area of tbis district between the head of 
 Cook's Inlet and tbe Arctic, and far back into the interior, that 
 is entirely unknown, but as traders are extending their routes 
 in all directions, this interior may in time be explored aud noted.
 
 1 6 ALASKA. 
 
 The Ounahoihl-a District. — Under this head may be phicedtho 
 Aleutian Islands ; and as Illolook or Ounalashka Village is 
 the most important place among them, both with regard to 
 population and trade, and the best position as a port, its name 
 may be fitly applied to the whole region. 
 
 This great cliaiu of rugged islands, enveloped during the 
 greater part of the year in fogs, and swept over by frequent 
 gales, that, in combination with the mists and currents, make 
 it a region dreaded by the mariner, abounds in sharp hills, and 
 hilly or bluffy mountainous masses. Nearly every island — and 
 there are many, small and large — is as it were set up on end^ 
 with small patches of bottom-laud here and there, in rare Inter- 
 vals, at the base of the hills and mountains. 
 
 The appearance of any of these islands from a ship approach- 
 ing them during the summer, on a clear sunny day — and such 
 days are occasionally known — is most attractive: a rich, dark 
 coat of vivid greeu clothes the valleys, hills, and mountains, 
 quite to the snow-line. In these narrow defiles and bot- 
 tom-land patches, the grass is most luxuriant, growing w^aist- 
 high, with low, stunted willow-bushes here and there in small 
 quantity; and it is at first not apparent, when one strolls about 
 the country on such a day, that it is utterly worthless as an ag- 
 ricultural or stock-raising countrj^ The mountains principally 
 consist of syeuitic granites and porphyries, with sharp sum- 
 mits and abrupt slopes, and present numerous small water- 
 courses, with little or no valley-ground. The vegetation is rank 
 and luxuriant, and, in favorable seasons, the grasses ripen their 
 seeds well. Quite a variety of berries abound ; for exami^le, 
 salmon, huckle, crow, and blue berries. -The only timber is a 
 slight willow, nowhere larger than a man's wrist, and not over 
 7 or 8 feet high, growing in small, scattered clumps, with 
 stunted specimens climbing way up the hill-sides. The thick, 
 dense carpet of crow-berry plants, into which one sinks at every 
 step ankle-deep, covers the entire country-, and makes traveling 
 very tedious for a pedestrian. Several species of grass grow 
 everywhere in patches, and if more sunlight were to fall upon 
 these cold, moist places, where vegetation now springs up every 
 year in such quantities, but of such inferior quality, hay might 
 be cured, and it might be called a fair grazing-country ; but al- 
 though the islands would amply support herds of cattle and 
 flocks of sheep during the summer-months, these animals 
 would generally need shelter and feed for three to five months
 
 ALASKA. 17 
 
 as winter comes on, and far into the spring during- late seasons, 
 wlien liigh winds rage and keep the snow in drifts. Bitiley 
 might also be grown with a little more sunlight ; and potatoes 
 might also be matured year after year in fair quantity, and a 
 good kitchen-garden established in the most favored sections ; 
 but perpetual fogs and mists hang like j^alls over the land and 
 render it of no agricultural importance. 
 
 The summers are mild, foggy, and humid, with an average 
 temperature of 50° Fahrenheit, with winters also mild, foggy, 
 and humid, and an average temperature of 30°. Minimum 
 thermometer here seldom or never falls lower than 10° ; there 
 never has been recorded four consecutive weeks of temperature 
 lower than 3° or 5°. The weather begins to grow colder in 
 October, and does not become milder until xVpril. The natives 
 here think that 12° to 15° is pleasant weather, but if it goes 
 down to 3° or 5°, it is to them, horribly cold. There are, how- 
 ever, exceptional seasons. For instance, the summer of 1831, in 
 July and August the thermometer did not rise above 35°, and 
 evenings were not uncommon with as low a temperature as 12°. 
 
 Eain falls at all times and with all winds, but mostly in the 
 autumn, with southeast and easterly winds, and less with 
 southwest winds in winter. 
 
 Snow begins to fall in September, (and even in August,) and 
 does not cease earlier than May, although it frequently melts 
 as fast as it falls far into December. It is seen on the higher 
 mountains all the year round. The average snow-fall is from 
 2 to 5 feet; the high, driving winds make the snow intensely 
 disagreeable and impede traveling. 
 
 The cloudiness of the district is remarkable ; there are not a 
 dozen cloudless days in the whole year; about thirty' to fifty 
 fine days ; and Veniaminov says, after living there ten years, 
 " that the sun may he seen in a hundred to a hundred and sixty 
 days during the year." 
 
 Thunder is seldom ever heard, and lightning never seen ; 
 although the clouds seem to constantly suggest it. Auroras 
 are also almost unknown, and when seen are very faint. 
 
 The old Aleuts here say that in early times the snow was 
 deeper and the cold greater than it has been for some time 
 past, while, on the other hand, they assert that the winds are 
 getting stronger and harsher as time rolls on with them. Veni- 
 
 2 AL
 
 18 ALASKA. 
 
 aniinov* says, "In all the time of my living here there uas 
 not one day from morning to evening that was entirely with- 
 out wind, or was a perfect calm." The winds blow hero strong 
 from all quarters, strongest in October, i!^ovember, December, 
 and ]\Iarch. The gales do not usually last more than three days 
 at a time, but they follow in quick succession in the seasons 
 above mentioned. 
 
 There are a multitude of little lakes of fresh water on the 
 islands, and in nearly all of the small streams (for there are no 
 large ones) are found brook- trout of good quality. 
 
 In view of the foregoing, what shall we say of the resources 
 of Alaska, viewed as regards its agricultural or horticultural 
 capabilities ? 
 
 It would seem undeniable that owing to the unfavorable cli- 
 matic conditions which prevail on the coast and in the interior, 
 the gloomy fogs and dampness of the former, and the intense, 
 protracted severity of the winters, characteristic of the latter, 
 unfit the Territory for the proper support of any considerable 
 civilization. 
 
 Men may, and undoubtedly will, soon live here, in compara- 
 tive comfort, as they labor in mining-camps, lumber and ship- 
 timber mills, and salmon-factories, but they will bring with 
 them everything they want except fish and game, and when 
 they leave the country it will be as desolate as they found it. 
 
 Can a country be permanently and prosperously settled that 
 will not in its whole extent allow the successful growth and 
 ripening of a single crop of corn, wheat, or potatoes, and where 
 the most needful of any domestic animals cannot be kept by 
 poor people ? 
 
 The Kussians, who have subdued a rougher country, and set- 
 tled in large communities under severer conditions than have 
 been submitted to by anj' body of our own people as yet, were 
 in this Territory, after some twenty years at least of patient, 
 intelligent trial, obliged to send a colony to California to raise 
 their potatoes, grain, and beef; the history of their settlement 
 there, and forced abandonment in 1842, is well known. 
 
 We may with pride refer to the rugged work of settlement 
 so successfully made by our ancestors in New England, but it 
 is idle to talk of the subjugation of Alaska as a task simply re- 
 quiring a similar expenditure of persistence, energy, aud ability. 
 
 * Zapieskie, &c., vol. 1, p. 98.
 
 ALASKA. 19 
 
 In MassacLusetts* our forefatbers had a land in tchlch all the 
 necessaries of life, and many of the luxuries, could be x>^oduced 
 from the soil ivith certainty from year to year; in Alaska their 
 lot would have been quite the reverse, and they could have main- 
 tained themselves therewith no better success than the present 
 inhabitants. Attention should be directed to the development 
 of its mineral wealth, which I have reason to think will yet 
 prove to be considerable, and effort should be made to stimu- 
 late and protect the present available industries of the fur- 
 trade, the canning of salmon, &c. 
 
 *"I bave seen with surprise and regret, that men whose forefathers 
 ■wielded the ax in the forests of Maine, or gathered scanty crops on the hill- 
 sides of Massachusetts, have seen fit to throw contempt and derision on the 
 acquisition of a great territory naturally far richer than that in which 
 they themselves originated, (!) principally on the grovmd that it is a ' cold' 
 country." (W. H. Dall, Alaska and its Eesources, p. 242, Boston, Lee & 
 iShepard, 1870.)
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE NATIVES OR PEOPLE OF ALASKA— THEIR 
 
 CONDITION. 
 
 THEIR LIFE IX THE PAST, IN THE PRESENT, AJJD PROSPECTS 
 
 FOR THE FUTURE. 
 
 In taking tbe subject of the condition of the people of Alaska 
 into consideration, tbe character of tbe country in wbicb tbey 
 live should always be kept in mind, for tbe life of any people 
 is inseusiblj' but surely molded by tbe climate aud land in 
 ■u-bicb they are found : under favorable and genial influences 
 of soil and climate, a rude race may be raised from barbarism, 
 pass into civilization, and be sustained by these favoriug sup- 
 ports. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Territory are divided into two decidedly 
 distinct races, widely different in habits and disposition ; one of 
 these two classes consists of the Christian Aleuts, who live 
 upon the Aleutian Islands, the Seal Islands, the Peninsula of 
 Alaska, the adjacent Islands, and Kodiak ; the Indians, occui)y- 
 ing all the rest of the inhabited country, constitute the other. It 
 will be seen by a Russian table which I submit in connection 
 with this subject that quite a large number, in 18G3, of the 
 natives, outside of the district above specified, are claimed as 
 Christians, but I cannot recognize the claim to-day ; they have 
 worn off what little Christianity they may have possessed ten 
 years ago, and there is no Christian iuliueuce, properly speaking, 
 in the Territory, outside of the Aleutians and the people of 
 Kodiak ; these people are naturally fitted for the reception of 
 the x^rinciples of Christianity, or otherwise they would have 
 remained Indians, as the others, who are savages, have done. 
 The Russian Greek Catholic priests spared no effort iu their 
 attempts to convert the Koloshians of Sitka and those of 
 kindred stock elsewhere in the Territory, but met with partial 
 failure in every iust.ance. 
 
 The fact that among all the savage races found on the north- 
 west coast by Christian pioneers and teachers the Aleutians 
 are the only practical converts to Christianity, goes far, in my
 
 ALASKA.. 21 
 
 opinion, to set them apart as very differently constituted in. 
 mind and disposition from our aborigines, to whom, howev^er, 
 they are intimately allied. They adopted the Christian faith 
 with very little opposition, readily exchanging their barbarous 
 customs and wild superstidous for the agreeable rites of the 
 Greek Catholic Church and its more reliucd myths and legends. 
 At the time of their first discovery they were living as savages 
 in every sense of the word, bold and hardy ; but now, to all out- 
 ward signs and professions of Christianity they respond as 
 sincerely as our own church-going people. 
 
 The question as to the derivation of these people is still a 
 mooted one among ethnologists ; in all points of personal bear- 
 ing, intelligence, character, as well as physical structure, they 
 seem to form a link of perfect gradation between the Japanese 
 and Eskimo, although their traditions and language are entirely 
 distinct and peculiar to themselves ; they, however, claim to 
 have come first to the Aleutian Islands from a " big land to the 
 westward," and that when thev came here first thev found the 
 land uninhabited, and that they did not meet with any peo})le 
 until their ancestors had pushed on to the eastward as far as the 
 Peninsular and Kodiak. 
 
 The Aleuts, as they appear to-day, have been so mixed with 
 Eussian, Koloshian, and Kamschadale blood, «S:;c., that they 
 Ijresent characteristics in one way or another of the various 
 races of men from the negro up to the Caucasian. The pre- 
 dominant features among them are small, wide-set, dark eyes, 
 broad and high cheek-bones, causing the jaw, which is full and 
 square, to often appear peaked ; coarse, straight black hair, 
 small, neatly-shaped feet and hands, together with brownish- 
 yellow complexion. The men will average in stature five feet 
 four or five inches; the women less in proportion, although 
 there are exceptions among them, some being over six feet in 
 height, and others dwarfs. 
 
 The number of these people, including those of Kodiak, who 
 resemble the Aleutians only as Christians, having no other luit- 
 ural or blood affinity, is about 5,000, but when first discovered 
 by the Eussians they were four and five times as many; at least 
 20,000 were living on the Aleutian Islands and the Peninsular in 
 17G0; and from that time, in obedience to that natural hiw 
 which causes an inferior class to succumb to its superior when 
 brought into opposition, the Aleuts were quickly diminished in 
 number until it became an object of care and solicitude on the
 
 22 ALASKA. 
 
 part of the Russians to save them for the prosecution of the fur- 
 trade, lu 1834 they numbered only about 4,000. Kodiak in- 
 chided, and therefore they have not diminished nor increased 
 to any noteworthy degree during the last forty years. There 
 lias been a slight increase, if any, up to the present time. 
 
 When first discovered they were living in large " yourW'' or 
 ^^ oo-laga-muh''^ houses partially underground, which resemble 
 very much such a structure as our farmers put up for a root- 
 cellar, with the diliereuce only of having the entrance through 
 a hole ill the top, going in and out on a rude ladder or notched 
 timber post. Some of these yourts were very large, as shown 
 by the ruins to-day ; one on Oonimak Island, north side, is 
 over 500 feet in length, with corresponding width, and one at 
 Koshegau, Ounalashka Island, the foundations still standing, 
 shows that it was 87 yards long and 40 wide; and an old 
 woman who was living only two years ago, remembered when 
 her people lived there, and called it "a handsome house." In 
 these yourts they lived by forties, fifties, and hundreds as a 
 single family, with the double object of protection and warmth, 
 where fuel was so scarce and precious. 
 
 For a full account of them as they existed when first visited 
 by the Russian priests I can do no better than call attention to 
 the history of their lives and condition, as published by Father 
 Yeniamiuov,* a noble missionary, and who made good use of his 
 time in recording faithfully the custom of a people which has 
 been entirely changed by Christianity in less than one hundred 
 years. As an illustration, showing how exceedingly supersti- 
 tious they were in these early days, I may mention that there 
 is a small stream running into the northwest head of Beaver 
 Bay, Ounalashka Island, forming a very pretty little water- 
 fall, and near by it is a large mass of dark basaltic rock ; the 
 water of this creek the Aleuts never dared to drink for fear of 
 instant death, and to the stone they paid homage, and revered 
 it as a devil petrified. 
 
 As they are living at this time, nearly every family is in 
 possession of a hut or " harrahJcie,^^ built partly underground, 
 walled up on the sides, and roofed over with dirt and sod ; a 
 small window placed at one end, and a low door at the other, 
 which opens into a low, dark alley, which in turn communi- 
 cates with the living-room by another small door. This liviug- 
 
 * A translation is published in Alaska and its Resources, W. H. Dall : Lee 
 &. Sbepard, 1870.
 
 ALASKA. 23 
 
 room is not large, seldom over tea feet square, and often not 
 more than seven or eight, witli a hard earthen or wooden floor; 
 the walls are neatly boarded up and sometimes papered and em- 
 bellislied with pictures of cliurch saints. lu this room the Aleut 
 spends most of his time when not hunting; shuts himself up 
 in it with his family, builds a hot fire, lasting only a few 
 minutes, in the little stove or Kussian oven, and either drinks 
 cup after cup of tea, or stupefies himself with "(/i<«ss" or 
 native beer, aud lies for hours, and days even, in dull, stupid 
 enjoyment on his pallet. I have looked into a barrabkie where 
 there were twenty men, women, and children packed into a 
 living-room not more than ten feet square, all drinking tea, 
 with the perspiration rolling down in beady streams from 
 every face. Many of these huts are damp aud exceedingly 
 filthy, while others are dry and cleanly ; but the temper and 
 disposition of the Aleuts is that of improvidence and shiftless- 
 ness, and all exist, with a few excei)tious, as a matter of course, 
 in a state of ignorance, though a great many read and write, 
 in consequence of their relationship to the church, the services 
 of which are recited in the Russian tongue, and as most of the 
 subpriests, deacons, &c., are recruited from the ranks of the 
 people themselves, (the boys only being educated for this ]»ur- 
 pose.) a large proportion of them speak and read Kussiau well 
 enough for all ordinary use. 
 
 The manners and customs of these people, to-day, possess 
 in themselves nothing of a barbarous or remarkable character, 
 aside from that which belongs to a state of advanced semi- 
 civilization. They are exceedingly polite and civil, not only to 
 their trading agents, but among themselves, and visit one with 
 another freely and pleasantly, the women being great gossips ; 
 but, on the whole, their intercourse is very quiet indeed, for the 
 topics of conversation are few, and, judging from their silent 
 but unconstrained meetings, they seem to have a mutual knowl- 
 edge, as if by sympathy, as to what may be occupying each 
 other's minds, rendering speech superfluous. It is only when 
 under the influence of beer or liquor that they lose their natu- 
 rally quiet and amiable disposition and fall into drunken 
 orgies. 
 
 Having been so long under the control and influence of the 
 Kussians, they have adopted many of the customs of the latter, 
 in giving birth-day dinners, naming their children, &c. They 
 are great tea-drinkers, but seldom use coffee. On account
 
 24 ALASKA. 
 
 of scarcity of fiu4, they use a j?reat ainoaut of bard bread, soda 
 and sweet crackers, instead of buying flour and baking it. 
 
 Tliey are remarkably attached to tlieir church, which is well 
 adapted to them, and no other form of religion could be better 
 or have a firmer hold upon the sensibilities of the people. 
 Their chastity and sobriety cannot be commended. 
 
 As parents, they are very indulgent while their children are 
 infants or under the age of eight or nine years, but when this age 
 is attained by their oflspriug they become harsh disciplinarians 
 and task-masters, putting burdens upon young shoulders that are 
 heavy enough for adults, always exacting implicit obedience. 
 Though many children are born, the mothers are not successful in 
 rearing them, for they are extremely negligent in regard to air 
 and diet, irregular in their meals and slumbers, shiftless and un- 
 clean, and they frequently indulge in intoxication while nurs- 
 ing their infants. These vices cause an excessive mortality 
 among the children. The Aleuts are dependent entirely upon 
 themselves, except at the Seal Islands, for relief and aid in 
 case of illness, yielding themselves to such treatment as they 
 can get with the utmost patience and resignation. They believe 
 generally in a mild form of Shamanism, or in the laying on of 
 hands, which is practiced usually by old women. 
 
 The average Aleut is a bold, hardy trapper, as he must be to 
 be successful as a sea-otter hunter, and this is the only profes- 
 sion or calling that his country can offer him. He is a patient, 
 steady workman, and supplies as good manual labor as could 
 be desired, and such as is required in the country. The Itussians 
 made sailors, navigators, carpenters, blacksmiths, store-keepers, 
 &c., of this race ; but since the transfer of the Territory there 
 are too many of our own people of that class idle for the Aleuts 
 to compete with, and who come directly into the country in re- 
 si)onse to any demand for such labor, so that he talis back upon 
 the sea-otter as his sole support against a relapse into barbar- 
 ism. Competition in this business he has no occasion to fcar 
 from the white man, who would never consent to spend the 
 same amount of skill and energy for the returns which satisfy 
 the Aleutian hunter. 
 
 It will therefore be evident that the good condition of the na- 
 tive hunters of this Territory is a matter of great importance 
 to the traders who have any deep interest in the fur-trade ; and 
 it is not remarkable, in view of the clearness of the case, as above 
 stated, that the Aleuts to-day are existing in greater comfort,
 
 ALASKA. 25 
 
 iu better bouses, witb greater facibties for bunting, and receive 
 better pay tbau tbey ever reabzed before for tbeir skins. Of 
 tbis I am confident, by personal observation of tbe present, and 
 from a knowledge of tbe past derived from tbe archives of tbe 
 Eussian company, and tbe bistory, meager but true, of tbe 
 early traders in tbe country. Tbe enligbtened and true business 
 policy adopted by tbe agents of tbe Alaska Commercial Com- 
 pany witb regard to tbe improvement of tbe condition of tbe 
 bunters of tbe Aleutian Islands bas already begun to bear its 
 golden fruit in an immensely-increased yield of sea-otters every 
 year. Tliis statement is fully corroborated by a person of all 
 men in tbe whole country best qualified to pass an independent 
 and correct opinion, Fatber Innocent Sbiesnekov, an intelli- 
 gent and pious Greek Catbolic priest, in charge of tbe Aleu- 
 tians, who was born and raised on tbe ground, and witb wbom 
 I bave had several interviews bearing upon tbe subject of tbis 
 chapter. 
 
 There is one general evil, not confined to tbis section of tbe 
 Territory, but more injurious to tbe people bere than elsewhere, 
 and tbat is tbe curse of beer drinking and tbe disorders wbicb 
 arise constantly from its effects. These people bave an inordi- 
 nate fondness for spirituous liquors, and as tbis is not permitted 
 to be made, vended, or brought into tbe Territory, tbe traders 
 among these natives keep sucb a sbarp lookout for wbisky- 
 scbooners, that tbe traffic is tborougblj^ suppressed among tbe 
 Aleutians; and tbe people, tberefore, determined to bave some 
 means of ministering to tbeir craving appetites for strong drink, 
 brew a thick, sour, alcobolic beer, by fermenting sugar, bops, i 
 flour, dried apples, &c., together, in certain proportions, witb j 
 water, and many of them manage to keep intoxicated and stu- > 
 pefled for weeks, and even montbs, at a time ; beating tbeir 
 wives and cbildreu, destroying their bouses, and recently, on 
 several occasions, committing murder. Tbis practice uiakes 
 every one of the settlements at frequent intervals, and always 
 after tbe return of a successful bunting-party, a scene of la- 
 mentable debauchery, wbicb can only be stopped either by pro- 
 bibitiug tbe sale or importation of sugar into tbe Territory, or 
 by empowering Government agents to inflict sumiuary punisb- 
 ment for tbe least criminal oftenses growing out of intoxication. 
 ^0 great severity in the punisbment would be required, for it 
 must be said, to their credit, that tbey are naturally a law-abiding
 
 26 ALASKA. 
 
 people, and the mere presence of an officer is, with fe<v excep- 
 tious, enough to secure obedience. 
 
 For the present demoralization among the natives of the Ter- 
 ritory in this respect (and it is a vital one) the Government 
 alone is responsible. The people, duriug the last lour or five 
 years, have indulged in all manner of excesses while under the 
 influence of beer, and have observed that, do what they will, 
 from beating their wives up to cold-blooded murder, there is 
 no authority in the land to punish them ; and this knowledge 
 tends to continue this unhappy state of affairs. This laxity is 
 an injustice toward the orderly and more soberly-inclinetl por- 
 tion of the communities, subjecting them to the control of the 
 leaders of drunken revels and toan immense amount of unneces- 
 sary suffering. The sea-otter traders would gladly pay, in the 
 form of a slight tax on the skins of that animal, more than 
 enough to afford a liberal salary twice over for the services of 
 some man armed with authority to suppress this demoralization 
 and attend to other urgent matters neglected on the part of the 
 Government. 
 
 From the Aleuts we pass to the consideration of the rest of 
 the people (Indians) of the Territory, who, by far the most 
 numerous, are living now as the}' were when first discovered, 
 over a hundred years ago; those of the north, belonging to the 
 Eskimo race and immediate derivatives, are quite amiable in 
 their barbarism when compared with the Koloshes and other 
 tribes of Indians proper in their neighborhood. Any steps that 
 may be taken for the elevation and improvement of the condi- 
 tion of these Indians in the Territory of Alaska, however well 
 intended, would be entirely abortive. If they work, and they 
 frequently do, on the coasters as seamen, and about the sound 
 and Victoria as laborers, wood-cutters, «&c., the money neces- 
 sary for a debauch or a gambling game is the incentive. The 
 condition of any savage people is one that arouses the sympathy 
 of benevolent minds, and for its amelioration has absorbed the 
 best energies and resources of hundreds of brave, devoted men 
 who have labored in our country, but the result of such labor 
 can only be successful under certain conditions of life and 
 mental constitution of a savage race not found in Alaska. 
 The Russian priests energetically struggled with these Indians 
 of Alaska, from Bering's Straits down to Queen Charlotte's 
 Island, backed up and cordially aided by the Russian- American 
 Company, which hoped to gain more control over the natives,
 
 ALASKA. 27 
 
 (and would have done so had the missionaries sncceeded,) but 
 the result was most unsatisfactory. A thin varnish of decency-, 
 honesty, morality, &c., was put on, but the subject had to be 
 revarnished every day or his evil nature would continue to 
 shine out. 
 
 From what we are led to plainly understand by the history 
 of well-directed and persistent eftbrts in the past, we can only 
 consider the present condition of the Indians of Alaska as 
 that of savages, and beyond the power of the Government or 
 of the church to change for the better. If they were a people 
 living in a country favorable to exertion and were merely lazy 
 and ignorant, then there would be hope with some assurance of 
 success in effecting a change for the better, but the case is 
 worse, for the obstacles are insuperable. 
 
 They are living in the manner customary with all Indians 
 who have an abundance of fish and game, and when they suffer 
 in any section of the Territory, as they frequently do, for M'aut 
 of food, it is on account of the indolence and improvidence 
 during the seasons of plenty, for all of these people on the main- 
 land who, at regular periods of the year, have access to a most 
 lavish profusion of fish and the flesh of deer, are never caught 
 by a severe winter with a full supply of provisions on hand, 
 and exist through the long, cold spring-months most miserably, 
 often living upon their skin-garments, offal, &^^. As an instance 
 of this improvidence, Captain lien nig, an old trader, cites the 
 following case: At the mouth of the Koishak Eiver, which 
 empties into Bristol Bay between the Peninsula and the main- 
 laud, the reindeer pass by swimming in large herds across in 
 September as they go in feeding to and from the peninsula; the 
 natives at this season run along the bank as the deer rise from 
 the water and spear them with great ease and in any number 
 that fancy or want may dictate. At one time Captain Heunig 
 counted here seven hundred deer carcasses as they lay rotting 
 and untouched save by the removal of the hides; not a pound 
 of meat of the thousands putrefying had been saved by the 
 natives, who would be living perhaps in less than five mouths 
 in a state of starvation. 
 
 These Indians are not steady, persistent hunters like the 
 Aleuts ; they are fickle, and have far less to gain by trade in 
 their estimation than the Aleutians, who, on the contrary, are 
 not satisfied with a small amount of tobacco and a few beads, 
 which are the staple commodities with the Indians, together
 
 28 ALASKA. 
 
 with a little powder and ball. The Aleuts want good clotbes ; 
 they desire to dress their women and children well ; they crave 
 tea, sugar, Hour, &c., all of which are simply despised by the 
 savage, and, consequently, a little hautiug will obtaiu all he 
 wants in return from the trader, and exertion beyond this, ou 
 his part, ai)pears to him simply absurd or ridiculous. 
 
 While the sea-otter trade in Alaska, therefore, is well devel- 
 oped, the fur-trade on the mainland is by no means of the 
 importance it might be made to assume were the hunting as 
 energetically followed up as is that prosecuted by the people of 
 Kodiak and the Aleutian Islands ; the industry and energy, 
 howev^er, of ourtraders will undoubtedly add largelj^ every suc- 
 ceeding year to the yield, in creating desire among the Indians, 
 and thus stimulating exertion on their part in hunting so as to 
 insure its gratification. 
 
 I shall not enter into a description of these Indians. Their 
 treacherous, indolent lives have been most accurately and fully 
 described by a score of writers ; one of the earliest, that of 
 Portlock and Dixon, in 1786, 1787, and 1788, reads as if it had 
 been written from my own notes taken this season, so little 
 have they changed in the main of habit and disposition. Of 
 course, when the Russians were obliged, in 1832,* to commence 
 the liquor-trade with them in self-defense against American 
 adventurers and the Hudson Bay Company, and the small-pox 
 in 1835 swept like wild-fire through all the villages on the north- 
 west coast, destroying nearly one-third of them, the combination 
 of two such terrible evils, whisky and the plague, demoralized 
 and diminished them to such an extent that they never have 
 recovered their former strength, nor is it now probable that they 
 will recover it. 
 
 The number of Indians now living in the Territory is, accord- 
 ing to best authority and my judgment, between eighteen and 
 twenty thousand. Of this number, between ten and twelve 
 thousand belong to that district bounded ou the north by Cook's 
 Inlet and south by Fort Simpson ; the remainder inhabit that 
 stretch of country reaching from Bristol Bay to Kotzebue Sound, 
 and back into the far interior, where there are several tribes, 
 siipi>osed to be quite numerous, about which very little is 
 known even by the traders. 
 
 On this coast-line of Alaska, between Bering's Straits and 
 
 *Tbi8 was stopped ia 1842. A treaty was made between them aud the 
 Hudson Bay Company.
 
 ALASKA. 29 
 
 Fort Simpson, are foniid six distinct tongues tbrougli wbicli 
 their relations of afiinity may be traced, viz : tbe Aleutian; the 
 Kodlalc ; tbe Kenai, or CooA'.s' Inlet ; tbe YaMootat, or Mount 
 Saint El ias country ; tbe Sitkan; and thG Kahgan, or Prince of 
 Wales Island. 
 
 The Aleutian tongue is tbe language of tbe inhabitants of 
 tbe Aleutian Islands and part of tbe Peninsula ; it is divided 
 into two dialects, one spoken by tbe Aleuts of Atka, and tbe 
 other by those of Ounalasbka. 
 
 The KoDiAK TONGUE is the root of all the dialects spoken 
 on tbe shores of Bering Sea, and still farther north and to the 
 east; it is the tongue spoken by the Clwochkie of the Asiatic 
 side, and is divided into six distinct dialects, and tbese again 
 subdivided, so that tbe Kodiak root is the language of the fol- 
 lowing tribes : 
 
 Tbe Malemutes, of Kotzebue Sound, Kortoii Sound, Port Clar- 
 ence, tbe Diomedes, King, Sledge, and Saint Lawrence Islands. 
 
 Tbe Aziagmutes, of Saint Michael's, part of tbe Pastol Bay 
 and as far north as Norton's Sound. 
 
 The Agoolmutes, of tbe moutb of tbe Yukon Kiver. 
 
 Tbe Magmutcs, between CapeEomanzov and Cape Aviuov. 
 
 The Koslcoquims, of Koskoquini Bay and liiver. 
 
 Tbe Aglahmutes, of tbe Nushagak country, and part of tbe 
 Peninsula. 
 
 The Xunivaks, of Nunivak Island, who use a dialect almost 
 like tbe pure Kodiak, which is spoken on tbat island. 
 
 Tbe Kcyoukons, of the Middle Yukon Eiver. 
 
 Tbe IngaleeJcs, of the Lower Yukon Iliver. 
 
 The Choogaks, between Cape Elizabeth and tbe moutb of 
 Copper Eiver, (taking all tbe south shore of tbe Kenai Penin- 
 sula and Prince William's Sound.) 
 
 Tbe Kenai tongue can hardly be called of Kodiak deriva- 
 tion; it is divided into four dialects: 
 
 The Kenai, of tbe Gulf of Kenai, or Cook's Inlet. 
 
 Tbe Maidnorskie, or people on Copper Eiver. 
 
 Tbe Kolchans, or people of the Upper Koskoquim Eiver — 
 quite a large tribe, estimated at six or seven thousand. 
 
 Tbe KahvicJqyaks, a people on the Upper Yukon. In this dia- 
 lect are many words of Kodiak and Yahkutat. 
 
 The Kenai language is tbe most difticult of all tbe Indian 
 tongues, so abounding in a profusion of barsh, guttural sounds 
 that their own savage neighbors frequently try in vain to ac- 
 quire them when it is for their interest to do so.
 
 30 ALASKA. 
 
 The Yaukutat tongue is spoken only by tbe people of Yali- 
 kutat, or that belt of coast between Lituya Bay and Copper 
 Eiver; it is divided into two dialects, viz : 
 
 The YahJciitats, from Icy Bay to Cross Sound. 
 
 The OogalensMe, from mouth of Copper River to Icy Bay. 
 
 The Sitka, or KoLOsn tongue, is spoken by all the Indians 
 from Lituya Bay to Prince of Wales Island, the Stickeeu, and 
 without any dialects, although there are eight or ten tribes, and 
 they are relatively numerous. 
 
 The Kahegan, or Prince of Wales, is spoken on that 
 island and Queen Charlotte's, and completes the list of lan- 
 guages in the Territory, as far as I can intelligently compile 
 and arrange them. 
 
 From the tables which I give at the close of this chapter, the 
 relative population of these difierent tribes can be recognized, 
 and by them it will be seen that, save where the Aleutians and 
 Kodiakers are living, together with a number of Russian half- 
 breeds or Creoles, there are no organized or fixed settlements 
 in the Territory; the Indians roaming at will in the mountains 
 and over the plains during the summer, fishing and berrying 
 j)rincipally, until the severitj' of approaching winter drives them 
 back to underground houses in the north, and wooden huts and 
 large barracoons by the sea at the south, where, reeking in filth, 
 four and five months are passed in perfect comfort to them, pro- 
 vided that they have food — passed in sloth and sleep, with the 
 exception of a small proportion of them who are marten, mink, 
 and fox trappers. These men frequently perform an astonishing 
 amount of labor, enduring incredible hardships, should the^' 
 happen to be ambitious, but this is a very rare quality. 
 
 The two leading stations in the Territory, (excepting the Pry- 
 bilov Islands,) both with regard to trade aijd population, are the 
 villages of Ounalashka and Kodiak, each with an Aleut and 
 Creole population of four hundred, more than double the num- 
 ber occupying any other settlement, save that of Belcovskie, 
 which has two hundred and forty-eight, with a sea-otter trade 
 fully equal or superior to either Ounalashka or Kodiak. Then 
 following in order of trade and population, we have the villages 
 of Unga, of one hundred and sixty-two souls; Atka, of one 
 hundred and thirty-one souls ; Oomnak, of one hundred and 
 nineteen souls ; then comes Sitka, with a population to-day, 
 principally Russian half-breeds, of one hundred and eighty-six,* 
 * Not couutiug the troops, Government eniployds, or Indians.
 
 ALASKA. 31 
 
 aud no trade wbatever to mention, and commerciallj of less 
 importance than any one of the following points, in addition to 
 the list above, viz : Koslioqnim, Nusliagak, and Saint jMidiael's. 
 Even shonld trade ever be re-establisbed in Sitka, it would con- 
 sist principally of the fur of marten, mink, and beaver, with 
 air-dried deer-skins ; but as matters now stand in the Territory, 
 there is no future for Sitka ; a change only in the supervision of 
 the interest of the Government in that district can benefit it, 
 or make it worth the attention of a small trader to live there. 
 On this point I speak at length in my chapter on the duty of 
 the Government in this respect. 
 
 The sum and substance of my investigations with reference 
 to the condition of the people of Alaska during the past season 
 may be given briefly as follows : That the Indians are living 
 as usual, in nearly the same number and in the same condition 
 as when under Eussiau rule, with the marked and significant 
 exception that they have been under no restraint whatever by 
 government for the past five years, such as they were ac- 
 customed to have imposed upon them by the old rer/ime, and 
 that this is rapidly making it troublesome and dangerous for 
 small traders to go in among them on the northwest coast. 
 Those in the vicinity of Sitka have become familiar with the pro- 
 cess of distillation of whisky from molasses, and make a large 
 amount of it openly, in addition to what they get by illicit 
 trading. 
 
 The Christian Aleuts and Kodiakers are in, if anything, a 
 better condition than at the time of the transfer; some sec- 
 tions, as at Ounalashka, in a greatly improved state, which is, 
 by the way, promised to all the rest in the course of a few 
 years, if proper, prompt steps are taken by Government. 
 But the condition of ^the small population of Creoles, chiefly at 
 Sitka, is changed very much for the worse; they were store- 
 keepers, clerks', sailors, traders, artisans, &c., of the old com- 
 pany, and there is no longer any great demand for that labor 
 in the country, and not likely to be during their lives, at least; 
 they are unfortunate in not having the training or the energy 
 to make good hunters, for this is the only industry the Terri- 
 tory holds out for them. To say that they are now in spirit 
 and purse poor, is true, but still they are not in any physical 
 misery, the abundance of fish and game preventing such a re- 
 sult. From my observation and knowledge of them, I can truly 
 state that they are now in a better condition in the Territory,
 
 32 ALASKA. 
 
 living as they do, than cliey would be anywhere else iu our 
 coimtry, with an exceptional case, of course, here and there, for 
 they are not distinguished by either energy or industry, as a 
 class. 
 
 I have been assured by the Russian bishop having the spirit- 
 ual direction of affairs in the Greek Catholic Church, now es- 
 tablished in the Territory, that there is no intention on the part 
 of the home church to neglect its interest there ; that he is at 
 the present time busily engaged iu fitting a class of young 
 Russians for the work of priests and teachers in Alaska, by 
 giving them a thorough knowledge of the English language in 
 addition to the regular course of discipline usually necessary 
 for his church. 
 
 If «-e, on the part of the Government, attempt to teach them, 
 we shall soon have to feed some eight or ten thousand paupers. 
 All they need is to be sustained and protected in their hunting 
 industries, as is indicated iu the following chapter, and they 
 will take care of themselves. 
 
 ..^
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 
 THE DUTY OF THE GOVERNMENT WITH REGARD 
 TO THE TERRITORY AND ITS PEOPLE. 
 
 The measures which are now in force for the support of law 
 and order in the Territory- are entirely inadequate and costing 
 much more than a correct and efficient system would. The 
 case is a plain one, and the facts in regard to it are as follows: 
 
 The Territory of Alaska was received from the hands of a 
 powerful fur-trading organization which held absolute sway 
 over the entire domain, even to the life and death of the peo- 
 ple, and which had governed the land despotically for more 
 than sixty years. It was fully ]>repared at any moment to 
 carry out its orders, and was supported by a small fleet of sail 
 and steam vessels, and a regularly-organized troop of employes 
 and retainers, over two thousand in number, i^laced here and 
 there throughout the country, the headquarters beiug at Sitka, 
 for political reasons. 
 
 War and revenue-marine vessels, with duly-authorized officers 
 and agents, were sent to the principal stations, villages, aud 
 ports, where tliey ran up our flag and louily proclaimed the lact 
 to the people, or natives, that they were now free and independ- 
 ent ; that no person or parties had the power to control or di- 
 rect their trade in furs, or any other matter to which they might 
 turn their attention ; that crime of all description, theft, mur- 
 der, &c., would be jiromptly dealt with, and that the agents of 
 the iVmerican Government would visit them at irregular though 
 frequent intervals, or upon call, with these vessels fully prepared 
 to enforce and execute the law. This was done in 18G3 and 18G9. 
 This is all that has been done, and to-day, as matters are con- 
 ducted, the country is as far from control by our Government 
 as though it were a foreign laud, the agents of the Government, 
 both military and civil, being unable to exercise any effectual 
 supervision over the affairs of the Territory, or to enforce the 
 laws. 
 
 The proprietj' of quartering troops in this Territory may be 
 seriously questioned ; for where any considerable body of na- 
 tives exist they will be found upon the seaboard and estuaries, 
 
 3 AL
 
 34 ALASKA. 
 
 and the only way by wliicli their villages can be reached is by 
 ■water. Traveling by laud is siin[>ly impossible, so that to-day 
 the two companies of artillery at Sitka are entirely unable to 
 correct the most wanton outrage which the Indians might see 
 lit to perpetrate but a mile from their sentry-lines. 
 
 The practical result of quartering troops among people like 
 these in Alaska is bad. The communities thus visited were 
 net remarkable for sobriety, morality, or industry before the 
 coming of our troops, but after their arrival the cliauge for the 
 worse, wherever the natives were brought m contact with them, 
 was very marked. Honorable officers find it sufficientl}* diffi- 
 cult to restrain their subordinates in camps and posts remote 
 from demoralizing temptation, but when their men are sur- 
 rounded by simple natives who will sell themselves for rum and 
 tobacco, the inevitable result follows of debauchery and intem- 
 l)erance. The history of the military occupation of this Terri- 
 tory by our Government, although brief, reilects no honor upon 
 the troops, and is a most unfortunate one for the natives with 
 whom they came in contact, so much so that all the posts 
 throughout the Territory have been discontinued except that 
 of Sitka, of which the law, I believe, compels a continuance, 
 and which, 1 trust, will be soon repealed for the relief of the 
 troops, the credit of the Government, and also a saving of un- 
 necessary expense to the public Treasury in moving the sol- 
 diers to and from the Territory and of subsidizing a mail- 
 steamer to carry their letters, «&;c. 
 
 The present statute, which provides ostensibly for the gov- 
 ernment of the Territory, authorizes the appointment of a col- 
 lector of customs and four or five deputies there, the former lo- 
 cated at Sitka, the others at Oanalashka, Kodiak, and Wran- 
 gel, where they are able only to conjecture as to the condition 
 of revenue details in their respective districts, for they are un- 
 able to leave their posts. The collector of customs cau exer- 
 cise no adequate vigilance against the illicit manufacture and 
 trade in whisky, smuggling, &t3., with the sailing-cutter which 
 is allotted to this district. A small steim-vessel alone can fol- 
 low these traders and smugglers through the innumerable nar- 
 row ami intricate channels and fj lords of the xVleutian and 
 Alexander Archipelagoes. 
 
 With the present sailing cutter, no calculation can be made 
 with reference to her movements; she is at the mercy of wind 
 and tide ; how long will be her trip to-^ given place, and when
 
 ALASKA 35 
 
 kIic will return, no satisfactory conjecture can be made; she 
 may be absent but a few days, and the absence may be protracted 
 a month. If the natives were to seize a trader's schooner a 
 hundred, or even fifty, miles away from Sitka, and were the col- 
 lector to get instant word of it, weeks might elapse before the 
 sailing-cutter could get upon the ground of tlie outrage, and 
 would even then be utterly unable to follow the outlaws. 
 There is no trading done at Sitka ; the eight or ten thousand 
 Indians between Cross Sound and Fort Simpson trade entirely 
 in the inshore passages and channels with all sorts of men and 
 craft; what is going on no one knows, and, as matters now 
 stand, the collector and his deputies are certainly not to blame 
 if they never know. 
 
 As matters now stand, the town-site of Sitka is the only place 
 in the Territory where the merest shadow of ability exists on 
 the part of the Government to sustain law and order, protect 
 property, &c. The troops there stationed are ntterly helpless to 
 do anything outside of their station, and what is more, the Indi- 
 ans know it and laugh at them when they are reproached and 
 warned tor misdemeanors. The collector of customs has a sail- 
 ing-cutter, which is of no earthly use, for she cannot be used 
 in the intricate inside passages, where the i)rincipal body of 
 natives live, and can at the best make a wide, shy visit to Ko- 
 diak or Ounalashka, or some such outside sea port, and then 
 is at the mercy of the most fickle and uncertain weather for 
 sailing, so that no calculation can be made upon her going or 
 coming. 
 
 Th? natives of the Territory have been living since the trans- 
 fer under no effectual government restraint — a sudden and per- 
 nicious change from the strict Eussian regime ; for now every- 
 ^Yhere in the Aleutian Islands and at Kodiak the natives are 
 in the habit of drinking " quass," or home-brewed beer, to such 
 an extent that it bids fair to ruin them unless checked. The 
 leaders in drunken orgies are getting perfectly reckless, for thej^ 
 liave noted the fact that during the past five years there has 
 been no punishment or notice taken by proper authority of 
 crime, including theft, wife-beating, and murder ; that there is 
 no such thing as the shadow, even, of suspicion or power on the 
 part of the Government, of which they have only heard and 
 know nothing. 
 
 That these people have not behaved worse during the last 
 two or three years in their present life of unchecked license is
 
 36 ALASKA. 
 
 a strong evidence of their naturally' amiable and law-abiding 
 disposition, and it is manifestly wrong on the part of the Gov- 
 ernment to allow the disorderly element in the Aleutian aLcl 
 Indian communities to gatbci^ such strength by continued inat- 
 tention ; for it is leading to the rapid demoralization of the 
 Aleutians, and is maldng it unsafe for white traders to venture 
 singly among the Indians. I therefore most earnestly call 
 attention to a plan for reform in the Territory, which will not 
 annually draw from the Treasury more than half of what is 
 received every year from the tax netted from the Seal Islands 
 alone. 
 
 The annual revenue derived by the Government from the Ter- 
 ritory, about 8300,000 net, is sufficient to support the proposed 
 system of government, and afford an unexpended balance, 
 every year, of from 8100,000 to 8150,000; and it would also 
 result, in a very few years, in adding greatly to the receipts. 
 
 The following is the plan, after much deliberation, which I 
 venture to propose : * 
 
 1. Withdrawal of the troops from the Territory. 
 
 2. The placing of the collector of customs at Kodiak where 
 he can live without the slightest danger of injury from savages, 
 although if left alone at Sitka he would be subjected to no ac- 
 tual rish. There is no reason why the central point for the 
 action of the revenue-ofacers should be at Sitka in preference 
 to either Kodiak or Ounalashka ; both of the latter being better 
 situated, with ten times the amount of trade, and double the 
 law-abiding population ; but the deputy, now at Kodiak, might 
 be transferred to Sitka. 
 
 3. A small revenue-steamer should be provided, with a single 
 gun, and having compound engines, so that she will use but 
 three or four tens of coal per diem, and steam seven to eight 
 knots per hour, and fitted with spars to take advantage of 
 favoring winds. Such a vessel could move to any point on 
 brief notice. She should cruise steadily throughout the year, for 
 she would move in good, sheltered channels. The appearance 
 of this vessel, at frequent intervals, would be all that is 
 necessary to guarantee security of life and property to traders 
 throughout the entire district. Her cruising-trips would estab- 
 lish a prompt means of communication between posts; and she 
 could visit Tongass or Fort Simpson every two or three 
 
 •Always excepting the Prybilov Group of Seal Islands, which are well pro 
 vidcd for by special acts of Congress, approved July 1, 1870, and March 5, 1872
 
 ALASKA. 37 
 
 niontlis aud obtain the mail for the Territory, wliicb the reve- 
 uue-cutter stationed on Puget Sound should be detailed to 
 bring at preconcerted intervals of two or three months, and, by 
 so doing, give the Territory a mail-system. 
 
 4. The abolition of the i)resent subsidized mail-steamer 
 which runs between Portland and Sitka. The handful of white 
 citizens there, only two of them citizens of the United States, 
 have no more right to claim the i^rivilege of a mail-steamer, 
 which 11020 rims for their hencjit exchtsively, than have the in- 
 habitants of Kodiak, Oimalashka, or Saint Michael's, or half a 
 dozen other villages of greater population or of more impor- 
 tance in this Territory. 
 
 5. The appointment of an agent, a man of character tmd edu- 
 cation, who will have an opportunity to keep the Government 
 well informed of the exact condition of the people in the Terri- 
 tory and its resources, by reason of the facilities for travel 
 afforded by the revenue-steamer. 
 
 G. The extension of the jurisdiction of the courts of Oregon 
 or Washington Territory over this Territory, so that when per- 
 sons belonging to the Territory, guilty of murder, arson, &c., 
 are arrested and sent down for trial, they can be punished, 
 aud not permitted to escape, as they have been in more thau 
 one case already, for want of this jurisdiction. 
 
 7. The laws relating to our mining-lands might be so ex- 
 tended as to include the Territory of Alaska. Gold and silver, 
 copper, iron, and coal exist here, and there is no predicting 
 what the future may bring forth, for i)rosi)ectors are constantly 
 at work. 
 
 By placing matters in the Territory on such a footing as I 
 have described, at least some deiinite approach to a system of 
 law and order would be initiated. There would be a steady 
 and prompt means of communication between all the stations 
 where life and property exist. No whisky-smuggling or o[)- 
 pression of the natives could be carried on without its speedy 
 apprehension and suppression, and the petty crimes which are 
 so aggravating and demoralizing at present throughout the 
 Territory would quickly cease. The annual revenue now 
 derived from the Territory is more than sutiflcient to support 
 the whole system recommended. 
 
 Beyond the adoption of tbis plan, in my judgment, on 
 the part of the Government, nothing more is required by the 
 Territory and its people. Any scheme of establishing Indian 
 
 405363
 
 38 ALASKA. 
 
 reservatious or agencies iu this country, with an idle and mis- 
 chievous retinue of superinteiideuts, chaplains, and school- 
 teachers, seems to me entirely uncalled lor. The people here 
 are keen hunters and quick-witted traders, and need no help 
 or care beyond that I have indicated. Such of them as are 
 christianized have long ago embraced the Greek Catholic faith, 
 and adhere to it with devotion. The rest, or Indians, as they 
 are called, are just as far from being in a Christian state of 
 n)ind as they were when first approached by the Russian priests, 
 over a hundred years ago. 
 
 With regard to the education of the children of the better 
 class of the natives, that is, the Christian Aleuts, there appears 
 to be one invincible obstacle. The children, speaking a strange 
 tongue, will not attend school, and their parents, as a body, 
 will either i:)revent or discourage them by positive command, 
 or by utter indifference. If they are to be educated, their church 
 alone can do it. It now controls them perfectly in this matter 
 of education. 
 
 That the children will not attend school has been most 
 thoroughly tested already, not only by the Russians, but by 
 ourselves during the past four years on the Seal Islands. In 
 1835 a school was opened at Ouualashka, and presided over by 
 one of the most indomitable and excellent of men, Veniaminov, 
 who tells us that in this settlement of over 275 souls then, only 
 " twelve boys could be brought together." When more than 
 this is wanted by Alaska in the way of legislation by Govern- 
 ment, it will suggest itself in due time, and iu reason.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 TKADE m THE TERRITORY, AND THE TRADERS, 
 STATIONS, STATISTICS, ETC. 
 
 Trade is devoted cliiefl^' to furs, with occasional dealings 
 in oil and ivory ; it is divided among a lew i)arties, the Alaska 
 Commercial Company having a large preponderance, by virtue 
 of greater resources and greater energy, than any or all of its 
 competitors combined; the sagacity of its traders, and the kind- 
 ness with which they treat the natives, have resulted in even 
 Inore than quadrui)ling the yield of furs in the Yukon and 
 Onnalashka districts, as reported by the Russian American Fur 
 Company at the time of the transfer. Tlie o[)eration of this 
 company is confined to the country west from Kodiak, embracing 
 the Aleutian Islands, where they at the present time have but 
 little competition ; on the Yukon, Koskoquim, and Onnalash- 
 ka they are o])poscd by Charles Jansen, and by David Shirpser 
 at Belcovskie and Kodiak, anJ a number of small traders and 
 whalers in Kotzebue Sound. The trade east of Kodiak, up 
 Cook's Inlet, down the coast back of Sitka, to Fort Simpson, 
 is, so far as is known — for I was unable to examine this dis- 
 trict — given up to small traders who j^ly in and out in light 
 schooners, canoes, &c., and, doubtless, is quite extensive and. 
 largely illicit, for the natives will not trade at Sitka for money ; 
 so the inference plainly is that they dispose of their furs for 
 whisky, &c., in the inshore passages, where smuggling can be 
 carried on. 
 
 When the Russian traders first opened up the country the 
 natives were everywhere found engaged in fierce intestine wars, 
 and not prosecuting the chase of fur-bearing animals more 
 than enough to supply themselves with skins for manufac- 
 ture into garments ; depending on the sea for their principal 
 means of subsistence. 
 
 They used the skin of the sea-otter and beaver generalh' for 
 cloaks, employing usually three sea-otters for one cloak ; one of 
 these skins was cut into two pieces and afterward sewed to- 
 gether, so as to form a square, and were loosely tied about the 
 shoulders with small leather strings, fastened on each side; it
 
 40 ALASKA. 
 
 was the siglit of these sea-otter cloaks that excited the greed 
 aud cupidity, aud stimulated the ad\euturoas trips made by the 
 first Eussiau traders in the Aleutian Islands, aud the weari- 
 some voyages of the English and French to the coast of Van- 
 couver's Island, aud to the northward as far as Cook's Inlet, so 
 early as 1785-80. The beauty and value of the skin of the sea- 
 otter alone drew men, who, in spite of all danger, visited every 
 mile of the rugged coast of this Territory, nearly a hundred 
 years ago, in rude, clumsy ships and shallops, and deijended 
 upon ruder nautical instruments, without charts, &c. 
 
 The hardships endured aud perils eucouutered by these hardy, 
 indomitable adventurers can be appreciated only by the seaman 
 of to-day, who may sail in their tracks, provided with a gener- 
 ally correct chart of a coast then absolutel}' unknown, in the 
 best sailing-vessels, fully equipped with perfect nautical instru!- 
 ments, and yet this modern sailor cannot sleep day or night 
 with safety while he is on the coast or among the islands, so 
 severe is the trial. 
 
 The first great demand by the natives in the Territory, as an 
 equivalent for their furs, was iron ; the English traders usedto 
 make it up into thick wrought bands, about eighteen inches to 
 two feet in length, with a breadth of two inches, called " toes ; " 
 for one of these, at first, they readily procured a fine sea-otter 
 or two, and a hatchet would obtain two or three ; tobacco, the 
 present great staple of trade, was then scarcely in demand, 
 but soon became so ; flour, when given by the liussians to some 
 xVleuts atOunalashka, in 1788, was taken by them up to a hill- 
 top and thrown by handfuls to the wind, the natives enjoying 
 the sight of the mock snow-storm spectacle much more than 
 the use of the material for food ; over on the mainland, Avhen 
 crackers and sugar were given to some natives, at Xushagak, 
 they spit it from their mouths with disgust, wearing an expres- 
 sion of exceeding dislike for the strange food ; lead pleased 
 the Aleutians at first ver^^ much, it could be cut and fashiotied 
 so readily, but the most determined trials on their part failed, 
 of course, to make it retain a cutting-edge, and they finally gave 
 it up. 
 
 By degrees, however, and quite rapidly, iron with form of 
 spear heads, axes, knives, kettles, &c., became a drug among 
 the peoi)le generally, aud a taste for the wearing of cotton 
 and woolen goods, the use of tea and tobacco, caused the natives 
 of the Aleutian Islands to strain every nerve in hunting the sea-
 
 ALASKA. 41 
 
 otter, and so effectually did they do so that ibe animals dimin- 
 ished in a very short time to bat a fraction of their former 
 number; but the natives of the mainland, a very different class 
 of people, and incapable of living in as advanced a civilization 
 as the Aleutians, were never aroused, aud never will be, to any 
 such activity by any legitimate effort to trade ; they only covet 
 tobacco and rum, and a little of either, used as an Indian uses 
 them, goes a long way. 
 
 Therefore, while we may say that the fur-trade of the Aleu- 
 tian Islands aud the Peninsula, as far as Kodiak, has been aud 
 is to-day developed to its full importance, it is very evident 
 that, with regard to the rest of the Territory, the annual yield 
 can be and will be greatly augmented by the exertions of our 
 energetic aud industrious traders who are now scattered in 
 keen rivalry over the ground. 
 
 By the very nature of the business, character of country, 
 and climate of Alaska, white men will never themselves do any 
 sea-otter hunting or mainland trapping; it rests solely with 
 the natives, and the annual yield depends entirely upon the 
 exertions which these people may be inclined to make as a 
 means of procuring coveted articles in the hands of the traders. 
 The hardship and privation to which the fox aud marten trap- 
 pers, and especially the sea-otter hunters, are subjected while 
 in pursuit of their quarry are very great, yet not so great but 
 that white men could endure and would endure them did it pay 
 well enough ; but it will be seen by reference to the tables 
 giving the fur yield of the Territory that in proportion to the 
 number of hunters, all of whom are more or less skillful, the 
 return is a small one, and would not equal the earnings of the 
 ordinary mechanic or day-laborer in our country, with the 
 marked exception of the Avages of the inhabitants of the Seal 
 Islands, who live better and receive more pay than a majority 
 of our people who are dependent upon manual labor for support. 
 
 The life and labor of the trader on the mainland and islands 
 is one of much discomfort, and at certain seasons of the year 
 of incessant activity. A chief trader, though burdened with 
 much responsibility, lives quietly and comfortably at the re- 
 doubt or station where he is posted, the headquarters usually 
 of a very large district; but the trading is all done by deputy 
 traders, who are under the control of this head officer. These 
 men start out from the post alone, perhaps accompanied by an 
 Indian, with a dog-team aud sled, which is loaded with several
 
 42 ALASKA. 
 
 liundred-weiftbt of goods, such as are likely to be most prized 
 by the tribes they iutend to visit for the purposes of trade, 
 usually tobacco, calico, beads, and powder and ball, caps, »&c. ; 
 but the great bulk is generally tobacco. These men start in 
 the dead of winter, provided with nothing but a blanket, a 
 tent, a few pounds of dried meat or fish, and tea, and go in 
 this way from tribe to tribe, from settlement to settlement, 
 until the intended circuit is made or the goods disposed of. 
 
 When the trader reaches a settlement he incpiires if the 
 Indians there have any furs ; if so, he pitches his tent and 
 unpacks his goods under it, seats himself in the middle, near 
 an aperture in the teut, so that the natives may approach and 
 look in upon his assortment. Their skins are then passed 
 through the opening with an intimation of what is desired 
 from the trader's stock in exchange. The trader examines the 
 skins, tosses them over into a common heap, and tears off the 
 cloth or passes out the tobacco as the Indians require; and 
 this continues till the business is concluded. 
 
 If the trader finds at the close of his trading at any one or 
 more settlements that the bulk or weight of his furs is too great 
 for removal on his sled, he gives the surplus into the care of 
 some one of the people, counting over to him in the presence 
 of the whole village all the skins. This man takes charge and 
 honestly guards them until the trader comes in person or sends 
 for them, and the whole community seems to feel as if their 
 reputation were at stake, for they will neither molest the 
 trader's cache nor permit others to do so. This is certainly a 
 strange and most noteworthy characteristic of the Indians of 
 the great interior of Alaska, designated in this report as the 
 Yukon district. 
 
 The trading on the northwest coast, however, from Paget 
 Sound up to Prince William's Sound, w^as and is conducted in 
 a very different manner from that of the Yukon district. Here 
 the traders, large and small, employed vessels varying from 
 steamers of considerable size to sloops. Since, however, the 
 Avitlubawal of the Russian American Company from the Terri- 
 tory, and the steamer Labouchere of the Iludson Bay Com- 
 pany, but one trading-steamer remains upon this coast, viz, th^e 
 old Otter, the property of the last-named corporation. Sailing- 
 vessels, small schooners principally, monopolize the trade, and 
 of these there are eight or ten at least. 
 
 The practice of these trading vessels is to cruise along the
 
 ALASKA. 4 
 
 Q 
 
 coast, rnnning into the uuinerous cauals, cbaunels, and harbors 
 so characteristic of the region, where they come to an anchor, 
 within easy reach of the shore, and wait for the natives to 
 come off to them iu their canoes laden with whatever they 
 may possess fit for barter. The trading itself is tedious be- 
 yond all measure. The natives will sit iu their canoes 
 around the vessel for hours before showing the least atten- 
 tion or desire for business; then when it does begin the 
 haggling baffles description; each Indian after the other try- 
 ing to get a little more than his predecessor, no matter how 
 slight or insignificant it may be. The traders of course dare 
 not, even to gain precious time, deviate i'rom an invariable 
 rule or tariff iu barter, and so the slow exchange goes on. The 
 Indians throughout this whole section are shrewd and artful 
 traders, and do not scruple to adopt any means by which they 
 can outwit or deceive the white trader, so that it is unfortu- 
 nately a case of diamond cut diamond wherever traders meet 
 the natives of the northwest coast to-day. 
 
 With the Indians of the Territory trade is carried on with- 
 out the use of coin, but on the Aleutian Islands, among the 
 Ciiristiau Aleuts, the people take cash for their furs and \)'dy 
 over the counters of the different stores for their goods ; and 
 this necessitates the keeping of accounts, since the traders 
 often find it to their advantage to give credit to a penniless 
 hunter. These accounts the Aleuts keep in very good shape, 
 and thev are seldom in error over their reckoning. 
 
 The liussiaus pursued a different course from our people iu 
 conducting their trade in this region, where they were free from 
 the competition of rival traders. Baranov, the real founder 
 and maker of the Russian American Company, was a man of 
 indomitable energy and foresight, and gave the afiairs of the 
 company his vigilant personal supervision everywhere and at 
 all times, but his successors were unlike him, and made no 
 exertiou to pay dividends to the stockholders, or to pay debts. 
 All of these gentlemen, with one exception. General Vivia- 
 tovskie, were officers of the imperial fleet, and lived in official 
 rotation at Sitka, which was selected in preference to Kudiak 
 as a better position in which to menace and repel the advances 
 of the Hudson's Bay people along the coast belonging to 
 Alaska. They were surrounded by a troop of subordinates, 
 living without regard to cost or expenditure of time or labor ; 
 a fleet of fourteen or fii'teeu vessels, steam and sail. Indeed,
 
 44 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 no better commentary on tbe management can be made than 
 a reference to their arcliives, where in almost any one year, 
 look, for instance, January, 18G3, (Techmainov, vol. ii, p. 224,) 
 at this table showing the number and distribution of the em- 
 ployes and dependents : 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Knssiana, Fins, 
 and foreigners. 
 
 Russian Creoles. 
 
 Alpiites and 
 Kuriles. 
 
 Total. 
 
 District of Sitka 
 
 District of Kodiali;. . . 
 District ofOuiialasbka 
 
 Men. 
 
 418 
 
 12SI 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 Women. 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 Men. 
 
 210 
 
 480 
 
 131 
 
 04 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 Women. 
 300 
 489 
 125 
 106 
 21 
 5 
 
 Men. 
 
 36 
 
 1,010 
 
 749 
 
 .307 
 
 14 
 
 126 
 
 Women. 
 
 31 
 983 
 frij 
 342 
 
 U 
 108 
 
 Men. 
 
 064 
 1,619 
 
 684 
 
 403 
 71 
 
 131 
 
 Women. 
 381 
 1,473 
 
 9G0 
 
 l^isti'ict of Atka 
 
 
 448 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 District of Kurilcs . . . 
 
 
 113 
 
 Total 
 
 5S(J 
 
 51 
 
 944 
 
 1,040 
 
 2, 302 
 
 2,310 
 
 3, 822 
 
 2,406 
 
 
 
 Or a grand total of G,977 dependents of all classes, and of this 
 number over 1,200 were paid regular salaries, from the governor 
 down to the serf. 
 
 And yet, with this small army of servants and dependents, the 
 Russians, for the last forty years of their possession, did not 
 get one-half of the furs annually that our traders now secure 
 every year since their establishment iu the Territory, while 
 there are not over two hundred men engaged iu the whole busi- 
 ness at present. 
 
 Take the sea-otter trade for instance. The Eussians called 
 it a fair season when they secured in the course of the year, 
 throughout the whole Territory, 350 to 400 sea-otters ; many 
 years occurred in which less than 200 were taken ; but during 
 the last two years 2,500 to 3,000 have been captured each sea- 
 son iu the Aleutian and Kodiak districts alone; and I estimate 
 that not less than 500 have been taken from Cook's Inlet down 
 to Fort Simpson. This great increase in the development of 
 the business is simply due to the active personal supervisioa 
 of the present agents and traders. 
 
 In connection with this view of the trade and traders in the 
 Territory, it is proper to mention the operations of tiie Ahiska 
 Commercial Company, as it has been the subject of comment 
 by the press. The whole matter appears to amount to this, 
 that the fur-trade of Alaska, (always excepting the Seal 
 Islands,) placed, as it is, in a fair field for competition, will 
 sooner or later be controlled by those who invest the most 
 raouey in the undertaking and send the best men for the work, 
 who uiaUe their stations more attractive to the natives, aud
 
 ALASKA. 45 
 
 reuder commuiiicatiou between their wide-scattered posts more 
 frequent and regular. It will be more difficult every year lor 
 small or inexperienced traders to do anything at the fur-trade 
 in this Territory, and the trade does not appear extensive 
 enough to support the operations of two com[)anies, each with 
 as much capital invested as the one in question. The result 
 would be that oue would have to withdraw. As far, however, 
 as the Government is concerned, the field for trade in Alaska 
 is free and open to all ; a practical illustration of which is 
 shown in the following statement of affairs existing at Ouna- 
 lashka : 
 
 Ouualashka is an Aleutian village of some four hundred 
 souls, men, women, and children ; of these sixty are first-class 
 seaotter hunters, and this is their i)rofession. The Alaska 
 Commercial Company have erected three large warehouses 
 fronting a wharf, where their vessels unload and load ; a large 
 store-house, filled with a most extensive selection of goods ; a 
 very large dwelling-house for their traders; with office, court- 
 yard, stables for cattle and sheep, a blacksmith- shop, «S:c., all 
 finished in first-class style, and furnished thoroughly through- 
 out. The company have also erected and are building snug 
 cottages for their best hunters to live in ; and there is a school- 
 house, where the native children are invited to attend, which 
 some do. In opposition to this, a young man is placed in a 
 small, weather-worn, rickety shanty, which is made to serve 
 as warehouse, store, and living-room for the agent ; a most 
 meager stock of goods, no assortment whatever; and yet this 
 young man, who has not got one dollar to back him, came to 
 me and complained of the almost total loss of his trade, and 
 said in explanation that it was due to the fact that though the 
 uatives wanted to trade with him, yet they were living under 
 the influence of fear to such an extent that they dared not do 
 it, and hence transferred their trade. I told him, after looking 
 about the place and talking with the natives aiul their priest 
 for three or four days, that the only fear that these i)eoi)le of 
 Ouualashka had in the matter was a most wholesome one; it 
 was the fear, coupled with au absolute certainty, that, as he 
 was situated for trade, they w^ould not do as well at his estab- 
 lishment as they could at his oi)ponent's, and the dullest of 
 them could readily appreciate it ; therefore, if any successful 
 opposition to the Alaska Commercial Company is to be made 
 in the Territory where it is established, money must, be freely
 
 46 ALASKA. 
 
 expended in bnildings and upon the people, who will go with 
 wonderful promptness and unanimity wherever they can make 
 the most in trade and are best treated, for they are keen and 
 shrewd. 
 
 I now pass to the consideration of the several trading- dis- 
 tricts, and the character and quality of the furs obtained from 
 them resjiectively. 
 
 THE YUKON DISTRICT. 
 
 KoTZEBUE Sound : 
 
 The trade at this place with the natives is principally by 
 whaling- vessels, which are supplied with liquors; they tit out 
 and clear from the Sandwich Islands for the arctic, and take 
 advantage of the impunity with which they can visit this port 
 and profit by this illicit occupation ; for the natives here, as 
 everywhere else, are passionately fond of liquor, and a large 
 proportion of the best furs from the Lower Yukon, the region 
 south of Saint ]\Jichael's, is picked out by Indian traders and car- 
 ried to this place, where they can be exchanged for whisky. 
 The trade, however, that belongs to the sound itself is not ex- 
 tensive ; only a small number of Eskimo live here, in scattered 
 settlements along the coast, at the mouths of debouching creeks, 
 &c. The catch of fur-bearing animals is not large; the people 
 themselves live more by trading than by hunting, i. e., trading 
 between the people living far to the southward and eastward 
 on the one hand, and the whalers and others, making prolits as 
 middlemen. 
 
 Norton's Sound : 
 
 A. few Eskimo traders live here ; the catch and yield of fur- 
 bearing animals unimportant. These people assist the Kotzebue 
 traders in getting their furs carried up and over to that place, 
 and many of them go over to Port Clarence with an assortment 
 of furs, beaver principally, where they meet the ])eople from 
 the Asiatic side, who cross Bering's Straits in the winter on the 
 ice by way of the Diomede Islands, with dog-sleds, loaded with 
 tame reindeer-skins'^ tanned, which are in great demand by the 
 natives of this district for manufacture into cloaks, coats, par- 
 Mes, &c., while the Asiatics are equally desirous of getting any 
 and all kinds of fur, such as mink, marten, land-otter, beaver, 
 «S:c., but desire beaver especially.
 
 ALASKA. 47 
 
 The Diomedes, King's Island, Sledge Island, and Saint 
 
 Lawrence — 
 
 Are inhabited by a few Eskimo, but there is no trade with 
 tbem worth inentioiiiiig ; tliey have a little walrus-oil and ivory, 
 and a few red foxes, and occasionally get some whalebone. 
 
 Salnt MicnAEL's: 
 
 This is a shipping-point only for the accumulated furs gath- 
 ered by the traders from the Lower and Upper Yukon, at Na- 
 lato. Fort Yukon, and the Tannauah. The present annual yield 
 from these points is the largest and most valuable from the 
 mainland of Alaska. A vessel coming to Saint Michael's in the 
 summer will find from one hundred to one hundred and fifty 
 Indians; they have come in from long distances to the north- 
 west, eastward, and southward ; but the fur-trading on the 
 Yukon Iviver and its many tributaries is very irregular as to 
 time and place year after year, the traders constantly moving 
 from settlement to settlement. This year they may only get a 
 thousand skins where they got five thousand last season, and 
 vice versa. It is impossible to say where the best place for 
 trade will be, the catch in different sections varying every 
 winter with the depth of snow, the severity of climate, &c. 
 
 NUNIVAK : 
 
 Trade here is small and unimportant, i)rincipally walrus-oil, 
 some ivory, and a few red foxes. 
 
 Cape Eomanzov : 
 
 Traders come up from the Koskoquim and down from the 
 Y'ukon to this point, where they get some very good furs, mink, 
 marten, and foxes. At Cape Aviuova, the district there is quite 
 celebrated for its marten catteh, both in quantity and quality; 
 a large number of brown bear range here, where they subsist 
 upon berries, roots, reindeer, &c. The Indians live in small 
 huts and settlements scattered all along the coast down from 
 Saint ilichael's. 
 
 Koskoqui:m : 
 
 The trade is extensive, and done principally at Kolmakov 
 lledoubt, about one hundred and fifty miles up the river from 
 its mouth, and at a station some sixty miles below it. The 
 traders come down the river in June with their cargoes and 
 meet the ships. The i)rincipal trade is beaver, red foxes, mink,
 
 48 ALASKA. 
 
 (plenty,) marten, laud-otter, (abuudaut,) bears, browu and 
 black. Tbe people of this district keep traveling all the year 
 round. 
 
 KUSHAGAK : 
 
 About tbe same as at Koskoquim, but tbe quality of sable 
 or marten deteriorates very mucb and rapidly as the trader 
 goes soutb from this region. Tbepeople are also great travelers, 
 always on the move. This section closes the Yukon district, 
 ■which forms the western boundary of that of the Peninsula 
 and Kodiak. In this country, between Kotzebue and its so'Uth- 
 ern boundary back into the interior as far as a thousand miles, 
 furs are gathered as follows : 
 
 Bearer are taken of the very best quality and in the greatest 
 quantity, and an immense number of musk-rat skins, for the 
 trader must buy everything, (these musk-rat skins are princi- 
 pally shipped to France and Germany, for i^oor people wear 
 them;) of red foxes, quite a large number are taken. Black 
 foxes are seldom obtained, perhaps three or four on an average 
 during tbe year. Silver-gray foxes, a small number annually. 
 Mink and marten of very fine quality from Koskoquim to the 
 nortbwi\rd, but from this point to the southward this fur deteri- 
 orates rapidly. Land-otter, quite a large number of the best 
 quality. Black and hroicn hear, a few ; a small trade in swans''- 
 doivn. Eifter-doion, with profit, cannot be sold in San Francisco, 
 but it is valuable in Russia. (German goose-down is used by 
 our upholster- rs in preference, as it is much cheaper and just 
 as good.) Reindeer-skins are dried; quite a large number of 
 tbese which go east are tanned, and make a very superior 
 leather. 
 
 Figures to show the number of skins taken out of the coun- 
 try might easily be obtained were it under the control of a sin- 
 gle cor[)oration, as it was under the Russian rule, but as it is 
 now, witb ten or a dozen iiulependent traders, large and small, 
 all studiously concealing or purposely exaggerating their trans- 
 actions in order to draw or divert trade, tbe figures, were tbey 
 furnished, would be quite unreliable. The following table, how- 
 ever, sbow'iug the yield of this district during a period of 
 twenty years, between 1842 and ISGl, as given by Russian au- 
 thority, may be deemed correct; and I was assured by Father 
 Shiesneekov, of Ounalasbka, a Russian priest, born and raised 
 in tbis country, that the present yield of furs is at least four
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 49 
 
 Mines as great every year, compared with tbe table, owing to 
 the greater activity ami energy of our traders : 
 
 Table lihowbifj the number of nkins faken bij the Eiisslan American Company from 
 the Yukon district, during the period between 1842 and 1861, txventy years. 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ■*^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 -4^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 ZJ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 a; 
 
 X 
 
 x" 
 
 
 a 
 
 ■- 
 rt 
 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 fH 
 
 l^H 
 
 ^ 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 Koskofiiiira . . . 
 
 32, 396 
 
 1,165 
 
 2,098 
 
 
 
 3,590 
 
 320 
 
 
 327 
 
 93 
 
 Saint Michael's 
 
 49, 398 
 
 4,954 
 C,119 
 
 8, Hd3 
 10, 951 
 
 330 
 
 4,CG8 
 
 10, 210 
 
 
 52 
 
 1,007 
 
 183 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 81, 794 
 
 330 
 
 4,CG8 
 
 13, 80(3 
 
 320 
 
 52 
 
 1,334 
 
 270 
 
 Guided by this exhibit, if I could rely ou what has been 
 affirmed by the traders whom 1 have met in the Territory, the 
 catch in the Yukon district during the last three years has 
 iiveraged six times as much as the Russian annual average. 
 
 the peninsular and kodiak. 
 Oagashik : 
 
 This is the only trading-station on the north shore of the 
 Peninsula, and it is in itself inconsiderable; the people have a 
 few red foxes, a few beaver, but quite a fair number of reindeer- 
 skins, the country being fairly alive v^^ith these animals; they 
 also are adjacent to the large walrus hauling-grounds in Bris- 
 tol Bay, and some ivory is secured by them ; they have a few 
 brown bears, an occasional wolf-skin, and a little swans'-down. 
 
 Belcovskie : 
 
 A sea-otter post: the natives bring in the skins of these 
 animals, which they obtain at Saanach and the Cliernobour 
 Eocks; the trade otherwise is unimportant — a few red foxes 
 and brown bears. 
 
 Saanach. A sea-otter post recently established : nearly two- 
 thirds of the sea-otters captured in the whole Alaskan district 
 are taken around this island. 
 
 Uiifja. A sea-otter post, with small trade in red foxes, black 
 and brown bears, &c. 
 
 Kodial; or Saint FauFs.— Once, the headquarters of the old 
 Eussian American Company, but since 1825 it has been a 
 mere trading post; a large nur.iber of sea-otter hunters make 
 it their home, and bring in their quarry for trade there ; all the 
 trade of Keuai and Cook's Inlet came in here under the old 
 4 AL
 
 50 ALASKA. 
 
 regime, but it is now confiued principally to the sea-otter trade ; 
 the Cook's Inlet and Katmai trade is mostly engrossed by 
 trading-schooners ])lyiug between these places and Paget 
 Sound; the yield of this district uuder the Eussiau control 
 is given for twenty years, 1842-lSGl, inclusive, as follows: 
 Sea-otters, 5,809 ; beaver, 85,381 ; marten, 14,295 ; miuUs, 1,175 ; 
 musk-rats, 14,313; wolverines, 1,276; marmots, 712; wolves, 58. 
 
 In the Cook's Inlet district, the JIount Saint Elias and 
 SiTKAN DISTRICTS, there are no well-established trading-posts, . 
 the business being conducted on shipboard everywhere, the 
 natives coming ofi" to the trading-schooiK^rs in their canoes. 
 At the time of the Eussian occupation there was considerable 
 trading done at Sitka, but now it has fallen off entirely, the 
 natives of that place and vicinity going back into the inside 
 passages, where they can trade with whisky-schoouers in per- 
 fect security, as affairs are now conducted in the Territory. 
 
 A large varietv of furs are brought in from the dense forests 
 and high mountains of this region — such as red, black, and sil- 
 ver foxes, brown and black bears, mink, marten, porcupines, 
 beaver, land and sea otter, fur seal, hair-seal, deer, rabbits, 
 squirrels, mountain-goats, ermines, and the hoary marmot or 
 "whistler. 
 
 The Ounalashka district : 
 
 This embraces the whole of the Aleutian Archipelago, and is 
 given entirely to the sea-otters; there is nothing else in this 
 section fit for trade save a few red and black foxes, and in it 
 are established six stations, viz : Ounalaslri, the largest aud 
 i:»rincipal one, Alcootan, Chcrnovslde, Oomnal\ Atlca, aud Attou, 
 Avhicli are the homes of the sea-otter hunters, and where they 
 trade. 
 
 ' The stations enumerated in the foregoing districts comprise 
 all that are established in the Alaskan Territory. 
 
 the value of the fur-trade. 
 
 With the exception of the Sitkan and Cook's Inlet districts, 
 the gross value of the anijual fur-production of Alaska can be 
 closely ascertained. I append to this head several tables from 
 Enssian authorities in reference to the subject, aud call atten- 
 tion to the fact that for the last uiuety years or more, up to the 
 present date, the prices of the leading furs in our market to-day 
 are very much what they were then, with the exception of the
 
 ALASKA. 51 
 
 fur-seal, which has been greatly enhanced in value by reason of 
 improvement in dressing, but the marten and the sea-otter 
 stand to-day at almost the same figures at which they were 
 bought and sold a hundred years ago in China, where the value 
 of mouey has remained the same; the native hunters, how- 
 ever, receive now three, four, and five times as much as they 
 were paid by the Russian American Company for their skins. 
 The following list may be taken as very nearly correct, and 
 shows the gross value of the fur-trade of the Territory to the 
 traders for the year 1873 : 
 
 100,000 fur-seal skius, at an average of $7 $700, 000 
 
 3,000 sea-otter skins, at an average of $75 225,000 
 
 50,000 skins from the Yukon district, assorted, at an average of $2. 100, 000 
 30,000 skins from all the rest of the Territory, (this is a very un- 
 satisfactory estimate,) at an average of $2 60, 000 
 
 A grand total of 1,085,000 
 
 Which is more than double the annual receipts of any one of 
 the best of the last twenty years of the Eussian American 
 Company, so far as can be judged by reference to their state- 
 ments, as is shown in the table at the close of this article. 
 
 It seems that the Seal Islands represent two-thirds of the 
 whole value of the fur-trade of Alaska, and that with the sea- 
 otter interest combined there is scarcely anything left. 
 
 Matters are now so arranged on the Seal Islands that the Gov- 
 ernment nets a revenue of $300,000 per annum, with the pres- 
 ervation of its interest there in all of its original integrity. 
 With reference to the sea-otter trade, I think I clearly show 
 the necessity for protection from the Government in my dis- 
 cussion of the subject in this report, and, in regard to the 
 remaining interests, the country itself protects them.
 
 52 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 Table showing the yield of the cliffcreut stations in 1-he Territory of Alaska, from 
 the archives of the liussian American Fur Company, for a period of twenty 
 years, between 1842 and ItiGl. 
 
 
 en 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 'a 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 "3 
 
 5 
 
 'Ee 
 
 CJ 
 
 g 
 o 
 o 
 
 Kodiak. 
 
 
 
 49, 398 
 4,954 
 
 32, 396 
 1, 105 
 
 
 
 
 
 85, 381 
 
 T,iTiii.ottfr 
 
 
 
 
 329 
 
 5,080 
 
 979 
 3,611 
 
 
 
 
 2,242 
 
 1,188 
 
 5,809 
 
 
 309, 701 
 
 
 
 
 "PflVOfi lilfiolv 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10, 216 
 
 3, 590 
 320 
 
 
 
 19, C71 
 
 5,731 
 
 
 
 34, 794 
 
 2,503 
 
 1,C85 
 
 
 T'rtTPs whitft 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Mirtf^Tia 
 
 
 8,853 
 
 330 
 
 52 
 
 1,007 
 
 S,098 
 
 
 
 
 
 14,295 
 
 ;Miuks 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,276 
 
 
 
 327 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "XVolves 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 183 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,008 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14,313 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 712 
 
 
 4,100 lbs 
 
 116 lbs. 
 3,315 prs. 
 
 1,040 lbs. 
 
 
 
 21,040 lbs 
 
 
 51,840 lbs 
 
 f ^Astftnim 
 
 0,830prs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Table showing the exportation of furs by the Russian-American Company. 
 
 Variety of fur. 
 
 Period of 
 1797-1821, 
 (24 years.) 
 
 Period of 
 1821-1842, 
 (21 years.) 
 
 Period of 
 18^2-1661, 
 (19 years.) 
 
 Sea-otter, adult and 1-year old skins 
 
 72, 894 
 
 34, 546 
 
 14, 909 
 
 1, 232, 374 
 
 34, 540 
 
 13, 702 
 
 21, 890 
 
 30, 950 
 
 30, 302 
 
 4, 234 
 
 17, 2t9 
 
 4, 802 
 
 1,151 
 
 1,389 
 
 121 
 
 1, 602 
 
 27 
 
 25,416 
 
 23, 500 
 
 29, 442 
 
 458, 502 
 
 102, 034 
 
 17,913 
 
 20, 402 
 
 45, 947 
 
 55,714 
 
 13, 038 
 
 15, 006 
 
 15,481 
 
 1,504 
 
 4,253 
 
 201 
 
 5, 35j 
 
 25, P09 
 25, 797 
 
 I^and-otters 
 
 70, 47.1 
 
 Fur-seals 
 
 372, 894 
 
 Beavers 
 
 157, 484 
 
 Foxes, black 
 
 Foxes, cross or silver 
 
 > 77, 847 
 
 Foxes, red 
 
 
 Foxi. s, blue 
 
 I 54, 134 
 
 Foxes, ■white 
 
 Martens 
 
 12, 782 
 
 Minks 
 
 872 
 
 AVolverines .,. ._.. 
 
 10 
 
 "Lvns 
 
 6, 927 
 
 Tv'olves 
 
 24 
 
 Beai's 
 
 1,893 
 
 Sealiotis, youug 
 
 
 Musk rats 
 
 4,491 
 
 6,570 
 
 "VValru.s-teetli 
 
 64, 640 lbs. 
 
 20 lbs. 
 
 47, 040 lbs. 
 
 2C0 040 lbs. 
 
 Castonim 
 
 
 4 900 lbs. 
 
 Wbale-bone 
 
 
 138 200 lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 The following shows the amount of food-supplies required, 
 iudepeudeut of tea, tobacco, and liquor, for tlie annual subsist- 
 ence of the employes of the Eussiau-American Company, 
 (18G3 ;) a year's supply or more was always kept in advance in 
 case of an emergency, (from Techmainov :)
 
 ALASKA. 53 
 
 Wheat, 14,000 poods, at 3 rubles and 26 kopecks a pood, (or 
 30 pounds.) 
 
 Flour, 498 poods, at rubles and 31 kopecks a pood. 
 
 Peas, 404 poods, at 4 rubles and 90 kopecks a pood. 
 
 Split wheat, 404 poods, at 4 rubles and 90 kopecks a pood. 
 
 Salt, 922 poods, at 3 rubles and 78 kopecks a pood. 
 
 Butter, 498 poods, at 20 rubles and 20 kopecks a pood. 
 
 Hams, 92 poods, at 50 kopecks a pound. 
 
 The rubles are paper, equal to 20 cents each. A pood is 3G 
 pounds Euglish, or 40 Eussiau pounds.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 THE SEA-OTTER AND ITS HUNTING. 
 
 The sea-otter, like tbe fur-seal, is another illustration of an 
 animal long known and highly prized in the commercial world, 
 yet respecting the habits and life of which nothing definite 
 has been ascertained or published. The reason for this is obvi- 
 ous, for, save the natives who hunt them, no one i^roperly quali- 
 fied has ever had an opportunity of seeing the sea-otter so as 
 to study it in a state of nature, for, of all the shy, sensitive 
 beasts, upon the capture of which man sets any value, this 
 creature is the most keenly on the alert and difficult to obtain ; 
 and, like the fur-seal in this Territory, it possesses the enhanc- 
 ing value of being principally confined to our country. A truth- 
 ful account of the strange, vigilant life of the sea-otter, and of 
 the hardships and perils encountered by its hunters, would sur- 
 pass in novelty and interest the most attractive work of fiction. 
 
 When the Eussian traders opened up the Aleutian Islands 
 they found the natives commonly wearing sea-otter cloaks, 
 which they parted with at first for a trifle, not placing any es- 
 pecial value on the animal, as they did the hair-seal and the 
 sea-lion, the flesh and skins of which were vastly more palata- 
 ble and serviceable to them ; but the offers of the greedy 
 traders soon set the natives after them. During the first few 
 years the numbers of these animals taken all along the Aleu- 
 tian Chain, and down the whole northwest coast as far as Ore- 
 gon, were very great, and compared with what are now captured 
 seem perfectly fabulous ; for instance, when the Prybilov Isl- 
 ands were first discovered, two sailors, Lukannon and Kaiekov, 
 killed at Saint Paul's Island, in the first year of occupation, 
 five thousand; the next year they got less than a thousand, and 
 in six years after not a single sea-otter appeared, and none have 
 appeared since. When Shellikov's party first visited (book's 
 Inlet, they secured three thousand ; during the second year, 
 two thousand; in the third, only eight hundred; the season 
 following they obtained six hundred ; and finally, in 1812, less 
 than a hundred, and since then not a tenth of that number. 
 The first visit made by the llussians to the Gulf of Yahkutat,
 
 ALASKA. 55 
 
 in 1794, two thonsaud sea-otters were taken, but they diraiu- 
 isbed so rapidly that in 1799 less than three hundred were taken. 
 In 1798 a large party of llussians and Aleuts captured in Sitka 
 Sound and neighborhood twelve hundred skins, besides those 
 for which they traded with the natives there, fully as many 
 more; and in the spring of 1800 a few American and English 
 vessels came into Sitka Sound, anchored off the small llussian 
 settlement there, and traded with the natives for over two 
 thousand skins, getting the trade of the Indians by giving fire- 
 arms and powder, ball, «S:c., which the Russians did not dare 
 to do, living then, as they were, in the country. In one of the 
 early years of the Russian American Company, 1804:, Baranov 
 went to the Okotsk from Alaska with fifteen thousand sea-otter 
 skins, that were worth as much then as they are dow^, viz, fully 
 $1,000,000. 
 
 The result of this warfare upon the sea-otters, with ten hunt- 
 ers then where there is one to-da}-, was not long delayed. Eve- 
 rywhere throughout the whole coast-line frequented by them the 
 diminution set in, and it became difficult to get to places where 
 a thousand had once been as easily obtained as twenty-five or 
 thirty. A llussian chronicler says: "The nnmbersof several 
 kinds of animals are growing very much less in the present 
 as compared with past times ; for instance, the company liere 
 (Ounalashka) regularly killed more than a thousand sea-otters 
 annually; now (1835) from seventy to a hundred and fifty are 
 taken ; und there was a time, in 1820, when the returns from the 
 whole Ounalashkau district (the Aleutian Islands) were ou]y Ji/- 
 teen skins." 
 
 It is also a fact coincident with this diminution of the sea- 
 otters, that the population of the Aleutian Islands fell off almost 
 in the same proportion. The Eussians regarded the lives 
 of these people as the3' did those of dogs, and treated them ac- 
 cordingly ; they took, under Baranov and his subordinates, hunt- 
 ing-parties of five hundred to a thousand picked Aleuts, eleven 
 or twelve hundred njilesto the eastward of their homes, in skin- 
 baidars and bidarkies, or kyacks, traversing one of the wildest 
 and roughest of coasts, and used them not only for the severe 
 drudgery of otter-hunting, but to fight the Koloshians and 
 other savages all the way up and down the coast; this soon 
 destroyed them, and few ever got back alive. 
 
 When the Territory came into our possession the Eussians 
 were taking between four and five hundred sea-otters from the
 
 56 ALASKA. 
 
 Aleutiati Islands and sonth of the peninsula of Al:islc;i, with 
 perhaps a hundred and tifty more from Kenai, Yalduitat, and 
 the Sitkau district; the Hudson's Bay Company and other 
 traders gettiug about two hundred more from the coast of Queen 
 Charlotte's and Vancouver's Islands, and off Gray's Harbor, 
 Washington Territof}'. 
 
 Now, during the last season, 1873, instead of less than seven 
 hundred skins, as obtained by the Russians, our traders secured 
 not much less than four thousand skins. This immense differ- 
 ence is not due to the fact of there being a proportionate in- 
 crease of sea-otters, but to the organization of hunting-parties 
 in the same spirit and fashion as in the early days above men- 
 tioned. The keen competition of our traders will ruin the busi- 
 ness in a comparatively short time if some action is not taken 
 by the Government ; and to the credit of these traders let it be 
 said, that while they cannot desist, for if they do others will 
 step in and profit at their expense, yet thej' are anxious that 
 some prohibition should be laid upon the business. This can 
 be easily done, and in such a manner as to perpetuate the sea- 
 otter, not only for themselves, bnt for the natives, who are de- 
 pendent upon its hunting for a living which makes them supe- 
 rior to savages. 
 
 Over two-thirds of all the sea-otters taken in Alaska are 
 secured in two small areas of water, little rocky islets and reefs 
 around the island of Saanach and the Cheruobours, which 
 proves that these animals, in spite of the incessant hunting all 
 the year round on this ground, seem to have some particular 
 preference for it to the practical exclusion of nearly all the rest 
 of the coast in the Territory. This may be due to its better 
 adaptation as a breeding-ground. It is also noteworthy that 
 all the sea-otters taken below the Straits of Fucn are shot by 
 the ludiaus and white hunters oft" the beach in the surf at 
 Gray's Harbor, a stretch of less than twenty miles ; here some 
 fifty to a hundred are taken every year, while not half that 
 number can be obtained from all the rest of the Oregon and 
 Washington coast-line; there is nothing in the external appear- 
 ance of this reach to cause its selection b^^ the sea-otters, ex- 
 cept perhaps that it may be a little less rocky. 
 
 As matters are now conducted by the hunting parties, the 
 sea-otters at Saanach and the Cheruobours do not have a day's 
 rest during the whole year. Parties relieve each other in suc- 
 cession, and a continual warfare is maintained. This persistence
 
 ALASKA. ' 57 
 
 is stiir.ulatcd by the traders, and is rendered still more deadly 
 to the sea-otter by the use of rifles of the best make, which, iu 
 the bauds of the young and ambitions natives, in spite of the 
 warnings of the old men, must result in the extermination of 
 those animals, as no authority exists in the land to prevent it. 
 These same old men, in order to successfully compete with 
 their rivals, have to drop their bone spears and arrows and 
 take up fire-arms in self-defense. So the bad work goes on 
 ra[)idly, thongh a majority of the natives and the traders 
 deprecate it. 
 
 With a view to check this evil and to perpetuate the life of 
 the sea-otter in the Territory, I offer the following suggestions 
 to the Department : 
 
 1st. Prohibit the use of fire-arms of any description iu the 
 hunting of the sea-otter in the Territory of Alaska. 
 
 2d. Make it unlawful for any party or parties to hunt this 
 animal during the months of June, July, and August, fixing a 
 suitable penalty, fine, or punishment. 
 
 The first proposition gives the sea otter a chance to live; and, 
 with the second, may possibly promote an increase in the num- 
 ber of this valuable animal. 
 
 Theenforcement by theGovernmentof this prohibition will not 
 be difflcult, as it is desired by a great majority of the natives 
 and all the traders having any real interest in the perpetuation 
 of the business. A good deputy attached to the customs, whose 
 salary and expenses might be more than paid by a trifling tax 
 upon each otter-skin, sa^^ $1, could, if provided with a sound 
 whale-boat, make his headquarters at Saauach and Belcovski 
 and carry the law into effect. The trade of the Kodiak dis- 
 trict centers at the village of that name, and the presence of 
 the collector or his deputy will exert authorit}-, and cause the 
 old native hunters and many of the younger who have reflec- 
 tion to comply with his demands. The collector then being 
 provided with the small revenue-steamer spoken of iu my 
 chapter upon the duty of the Government toward the Territory, 
 can insure compliance with the instructious giveu him, and 
 punish violations. 
 
 This proposed action on the part of the Government is urgent 
 and humane, for upon the successinl hunting of the sea-otter 
 some five thousand Christianized natives are entirely dependent 
 for the means to live in a condition superior to barbarism.
 
 58 ♦ ALASKA. 
 
 THE HABITS OF THE SEA-OTTE-^, {EnJiyclra mnvlna.) 
 
 I have bad a number of interestiug interviews with several 
 very intelligent traders, and an English hunter who had spent 
 an entire winter on Saauach Island, shooting sea-otters, and 
 enduring;, while there, bitter privation and hardship ; and 
 chieHy from their accounts,' aided b^^ my own observation, I 
 submit the following: 
 
 Saanach Island, Islets, and Reefs, is the great sea-otter ground 
 of this country. The island itself is small, with a coast-line 
 circuit of about eighteen miles. Spots of sand- beach are found 
 here and there, but the major portion of it is composed of enor- 
 mous water-worn bowlders piled up by the surf. The interior 
 is low and rolling, with a ridge rising into three hills, the mid- 
 dle one some 800 feet in height. Tbere is no timber on it, but 
 abundant grass, moss, &c., with a score of little fresh-water 
 lakes, in which multitudes of ducks and geese are found every 
 spring and fall. The natives do not live upon the island, 
 because the making of fires and scattering of food-refuse alarms 
 the otters, driving them off to sea; so that it is only camped 
 upon, and fires are never built unless the wind is from the 
 southward, for no sea-otters are ever found to the north of the 
 island. The sufferings to which the native hunters subject 
 themselves every winter on this island, going for many weeks 
 without fires, even for cooking, with the thermometer down to 
 zero, in a northerly gale of wind, is better imagined than de- 
 scribed. 
 
 To the southward and westward, and stretching directly out 
 to sea, some five to eight miles from Saauach Island, is a suc- 
 cession of small islets, bare, most of them, at low water, but 
 with numerous reefs and rocky shoals, beds of kelp, »S:c. This 
 is the great sea-otter ground of Alaska, together with the 
 Cherrobour Islets, to the eastward i bout thirty miles, which 
 are simihir to it. 
 
 The sea-otter rarely lands upon the main island, but it is 
 fouiul jnst out of water on the reef rocks and islets above men- 
 tioned, in certain seasons, and at a little distance at sea during 
 calm and pleasant weather. 
 
 The adult sea-otter is an animal that will measure from three 
 and a half to four feet at most, from nose to tip of tail, which is 
 short and stumpy. The general contour of the body is closely 
 like that of the beaver, with the skin lying in loose folds, so 
 that when taken hold of in lifting the boJy out from the water,
 
 ALASKA. 59 
 
 it is as slack and draws up like the bide on the nape of a young- 
 dog. This skin, which is taken from the body with but one 
 cut made in it at the posteriors, is turned inside out, and air- 
 dried, and stretched, so that it then gives the erroneous impres- 
 sion of an animal at least six feet in length, with girth and 
 shape of a weasel or mink. 
 
 There is no sexual dissimilarity in color or size, and both 
 manilest the same intense shyness and aversion to man, coupled 
 with the greatest solicitude for their young, which they bring 
 into existence at all seasons of the year, for the natives get 
 young pups every mouth in the year. As the natives have 
 never caught the mothers bringing forth their ofl'spring on the 
 rocks, they are disposed to believe that the birth takes place 
 on kelp-beds, in pleasant or not over-rough weather. The fe- 
 male has a single pup, born about 15 inches in length, and pro- 
 vided during the first month or two with a coat of coarse, brown- 
 ish, grizzled fur, head and nape grizzled, grayish, rufous white, 
 with the roots of the hair growing darker toward the skin. 
 The feet, as in the adult, are very short, webbed, with nails 
 like a dog, fore-paws exceedingly feeble and small, all covered 
 with a short, fine, dark, bister-brown hair or fur. From this 
 poor condition of fur they improve as they grow older, shading- 
 darker, finer, thicker, and softer, and by the time they are two 
 years of age they are "prime," though the animal is not full- 
 grown until its fourth or fifth year. The white nose and nuis- 
 tache of the pup are not changed in the adult. The whiskers 
 are white, short, and fine. 
 
 The female has two teats, resembling those of a cat, placed 
 between the hind limbs on the abdomen, and no signs of more ; 
 the pup sucks a year at least, and longer if its mother has no 
 other ; the mother lies upon her back in the water or upon 
 the rocks, as the case may be, and when she is surprised she 
 protects her young by clasping it in her fore-paws and turning 
 lier back to the danger ; they shed their fur just as the hair of 
 man grows and falls out ; the reason is evident, for they must 
 be ready for the water at all times. 
 
 The sea-otter mother sleeps in the water on her back, with 
 her young clasped between her fore-paws. The pup cannot 
 live without its mother, though frequent attempts have been 
 made by the natives to raise them, as they often capture them 
 alive, but, like some other species of wild animals, it seems to
 
 60 ALASKA. 
 
 be so deeply imbued with fear of inau that it invaiiably dies 
 from self-imposed starvation. 
 
 Their food, as might be inferred from the flat molars of denti- 
 tion, is almost entirely" comi^osed of clams, muscles, and sea- 
 urchins, of which they are very fond, and which they break by 
 striking the shells together, held in each fore paw, sucking out 
 the contents as they are fractured by these efibrts ; they also 
 undoubtedly eat crabs, and the juicy, tender fronds of kelp or 
 sea-weed, and fish. 
 
 They are not polygamous, and more than an individual is 
 seldom seen at a time when out at sea. The flesh is verj' un- 
 palatable, highly charged with a rank smell and flavor. 
 
 They are playful, it would seem, for I am assured by several 
 old hunters that they have watched the sea-otter for a half an 
 hour as it lay upon its back in the water and tossed a i^iece of 
 sea-weed up in the air from paw to paw, apparently taking 
 great delight in catching it before it could fall into the water. 
 It will also play with its young for hours. 
 
 The quick hearing and acute smell possessed by the sea-otter 
 are not equaled by any other creatures in the Territory. They 
 will take alarm and leave from the effects of a small fire, four 
 or five miles to the windward of them ; and the footstep of man 
 must be washed by many tides before its trace ceases to alarm 
 the animal and drive it from lauding there should it approach 
 for that purpose. 
 
 There are four principal methods of capturing the sea-otter, 
 viz, by surf-sliooting, by spearmg-surrounds, by cluhhing, and by 
 nets. 
 
 The surf-shooting is the common method, but has only been 
 in vogue among the natives a short time. The young men have 
 nearly all been supplied with rifles, with which they patrol the 
 shores of the island and inlets, and whenever a sea-otter's head 
 is seen in the surf, a thousand yards out even, they fire, the 
 great distance and the noise of the surf preventing the sea- 
 otter from taking alarm until it is hit; and, in nine times 
 out of ten, when it is hit, in the head, which is all that is ex- 
 posed, the shot is fatal, and the hunter waits until the surf 
 brings his quarry in, if it is too rough for him to venture out 
 in his " bidarkie." This shooting is kept up now the whole 
 year round. 
 
 The spearing-surround is the orthodox native system of cap- 
 ture, and reflects the highest credit upon them as bold, hardy
 
 ALASKA. 61 
 
 watermen. A party of fifteen or twenty bidarkies, with two 
 men in each, as a rale, all under the control of a chief elected 
 by common consent, start out in pleasant weather, or when it 
 is not too rough, and spread themselves out in a long line, 
 slowly paddling over the waters where sea-otters are most 
 usually found. When any one of them discovers an otter, 
 asleep, most likely, in the water, he makes a quiet signal, and 
 there is not a word spoken or a paddle splashed while they are 
 on the hunt. He darts toward the animal, but generally the 
 alarm is taken by the sensitive object, which instantly dives 
 before the Aleut can get near enough to throw his sjiear. The 
 liunter, however, keeps right on, and stops his canoe directly 
 over the spot where the otter disappeared. The others, taking 
 note of the position, all deploy and scatter in a circle of half a 
 mile wide around the mark of departure thus made, and pa- 
 tiently wait for the re-appearance of the otter, which must take 
 place within fifteen or thirty minutes for breath ; and as soon 
 as this happens the nearest one to it darts forward in the same 
 manner as his predecessor, when all hands shout and throw 
 their spears, to make the animal dive again as quickly as pos- 
 sible, thus giving it scarcely an instant to recover itself. A 
 sentry is placed over its second diving- wake as before, and the 
 circle is drawn anew ; and the surprise is often repeated, some- 
 times for two or three hours, until the sea-otter, from inter- 
 rupted respiration, becomes so filled with air or gases that he 
 cannot sink, and becomes at once an easy victim. 
 
 The coolness with which these Aleuts will go far out to sea in 
 their cockle-shell kyacks, and risk the approach of gales that 
 are as apt to be against them as not, with a mere handful of 
 food and less water, is remarkable. They are certainly as hardy 
 a set of hunters, patient and energetic, as can be found in the 
 world. 
 
 The clubbing is only done in the winter-season, and then at 
 infrequent intervals, which occur when tremendous gales of 
 wind from the northward, swee[)ing down over Saanach, have 
 about blown themselves out. The natives, the very boldest of 
 them, set out from Saanach, and scud down on the tail of the 
 gale to the far outlying rocks, just sticking out above surf-wash, 
 where they creep u\} from the leeward to the sea-otters found 
 there at such times, with their heads stuck into the beds of kelp 
 to avoid the wind. The noise of the gale is greater than that 
 made by the stealthy movements of the hunters, who, armed
 
 62 ALASKA. 
 
 each with a short, heavy, wooden dnb, dispatch the auimals, 
 one after another, without alarming the whole body, and in this 
 way two Aleuts, brothers, were known to have slain seventy- 
 eight in less than an hour and a half. 
 
 There is no driving these animals out upon land. They are 
 fierce and courageous, and, when surprised by a man between 
 themselves and the water, they will make for the sea, straight 
 without any regard for the hunter, their progress, by a succes- 
 sion of short leaps, beiug very rapid for a small distance. The 
 greatest care is taken b^^ the sea-otter hunters on Saauach. 
 They have lived in the dead of a severe winter six weeks at a 
 time without kindling a fire, and with certain winds they never 
 light one. They do not smoke, nor do they scatter or empty 
 food-refuse on the beaches. Of all this I am assured by one 
 who is perhaps the first white eye-witness of this winter-hunt- 
 ing, as he lived on the island through that of 1872-73, and 
 could not be induced to repeat it. 
 
 The hunting by use of nets calls up the strange dissimilarity 
 existing now, as it has in all time past, between the practice of 
 the Atka and Atton Aleuts and that of those of Ounalashka and 
 the eastward, as given above. These people capture the sea- 
 otter in nets, from IG to 18 feet long and 6 to 10 feet wide, with 
 coarse meshes, made nowadays of twine, but formerly of 
 sinew. 
 
 On the kelp-beds these nets are spread out, and the natives 
 withdraw and watch. The otters come to sleep or rest on these 
 places, and get entangled in the meshes of the nets, seeming to 
 make little or no effort to escape, paralyzed as it were by fear, 
 and fall in this way easily into the hands of the trappers, who 
 tell me that they have caught as many as six at one time in one 
 of these small nets, and frequently get three. They also watch 
 for surf-holes or caves in the bluffs, and, when one is found to 
 which a seaotter is in the habit of resorting, they set this net 
 by spreading it over the entrance, and usually capture the an- 
 imal. 
 
 No injury whatever is done to these frail nets by the sea- 
 otters, strong animals as they are ; only stray sea-lions destroy 
 them. The Atka people have never been known to hunt sea- 
 otters without nets, while the people of Ounalashka and the 
 eastward have never been known to use them. The salt-water 
 and kelp seem to act as a disinfectant to the net, so that the 
 smell of it does not repel or alarm the shy animal.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE CONDITIOX OF AFFAIRS ON THE SEAL 
 ISLANDS, PEYBILOV GKOUP. 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF THE ISLANDS. 
 
 When the Eussians first came into the country, in 1700-'G5, 
 the abundance of sea-otter skins and their immensely-greater 
 value than that of any others found, caused very little atten- 
 tion to be paid to the skins of fur-seals or those of other aui- 
 mnls; but the great diminution of otter-skins toward the end 
 of 1777-'78 raised anew the question, often asked the natives 
 but in vain, as to where the fur-seal bred, such numbers of 
 them were seen every year in the spring passing north and in 
 the autumn going south through the narrow channels, straits, 
 &c., between the Aleutian Islands. This regular routine of 
 travel followed by these animals every year pointed to some 
 unknown breeding-ground in Bering Sea, and search was made 
 for it, resulting in the discovery of the group under discussion, 
 in 1786-'87, by Gehrman Prybilov, commanding a small schoon- 
 er, and serving one of the twenty-eight different trading-com- 
 panies and traders then about the Aleutian Archipelago. The 
 islands were without population, or the traces even of human 
 habitation. 
 
 The island of Saint George was first discovered and named 
 after the little vessel commanded byPrybilov,* and in the follow- 
 ing year, July, 1787, the island of Saint Paul was noticed by 
 the men stationed at Saint George looming on the northwest 
 horizon, twenty-seven miles distant. 
 
 Prybilov endeavored to keep the discovery to himself, but in 
 less than a month after his return to Ounalashka it was well 
 known. The competition there was so lively, that as many as 
 six companies established themselves at once on the Seal Islands, 
 and a number of irregular visitors now and then appeared. The 
 rapacity and shiftlessness of their management is well described 
 by a Russian historian, from whom I have translated extracts 
 bearing upon this subject, and which will be found in its proper 
 
 * Prybilov died at Sitkii while ia comiimud of the ship " Three Saiuts," 
 March, 1796.
 
 G4 ALASKA. 
 
 place. In 1799 the Knssiau American Company received the 
 niouo[)()ly of all Alaska, and it at once organized a colony of 
 '' one liundred and thirty-seven souls" at Sitkaand Ounalashka, 
 principally natives of the latter place, and planted the settle- 
 ments which still exist on the islands, and after many years of 
 most faulty management of the sealing business they came to 
 regard it with so gpod an eye to its preservation and perpetua- 
 tion, that their rules and regulations in regard to these points 
 are still in force, no subsequent observation having suggested 
 an improvement on them until the date of the writer's arrival 
 on the islands, April, 1872. 
 
 Too much credit cannot be given to certain agents of the old 
 Russian company, and a countryman of ours, in 1868-09,* who 
 have by their attention and action saved this most interesting 
 and valuable exhibition of animal life from the wanton, improv- 
 ident destruction which has been visited upon the great fur-seal 
 rookeries of the Southern Ocean. 
 
 The fact that the fur-seals frequent these islands, and those 
 of Bering and Copper, on the Eussiau side, to the exclusion of 
 all other land, is at first a little singular; but when we come to 
 examine the subject we find that these animals, when they 
 come out to lie two or three months on the land, as they must 
 do by their habit during the breeding-season, require a cool, 
 moist atmosphere ; also, firm and dry land, or dry rock, upon 
 which to take their positions and remain for the season; if the 
 rookery-ground is hard and flat, puddles are formed, making a 
 slime, w hich very quickly takes the hair off the animals; hence 
 they carefully avoid any such landing. If they occupy a sandy 
 shore, the rain beats the sand into their large, sensitive eyes, and 
 into their fur, so that they are obliged from irritation to leave. 
 The Seal Islands now under discussion offer very remarkable 
 advantages for landing, especially Saint Paul, where the ground 
 of basaltic rock and of volcanic tufa or cement slopes up grad- 
 ually from the sea, making a suitable resting-place for millions 
 of these intelligent animals, which lie out here two and three 
 months every year in perfect peace and contentment. 
 
 There is no ground of this character offered elsewhere in the 
 country, on the Aleutians, on the mainland, or on Saint Mat- 
 thew's, or Saint Lawrence ; the latter islands were surveyed 
 during the past season to settle this question, and the notes 
 will be found in the appendix. 
 
 * H. M. Hutchiusou.
 
 ALASKA 65 
 
 I. DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLANDS. 
 
 The Prybilov gi'oupof fur-seal islands occupy tbe most iso- 
 lated poitiou of any land in Bering- Sea, the three nearest land- 
 l)oints to them being nearly equidistant; Saint Matthew's 
 jind Xunivok Islands, Cape isewenh;im, on the mainland, and 
 Ounalashka Island, all about one hundred and eighty miles off; 
 and in this location ocean-currents from the great Pacific, to 
 the southward, warmer than the normal temperature of their 
 latitude, ebb and flow around them on their way to the Arctic 
 and elsewhere, and give rise in this way during the summer 
 months and early autumn to constant thick, humid fogs and 
 drizzling mists which hang in heavy banks over the islands 
 and sea, seldom breaking away to indicate a pleasant day. 
 
 By the middle or end of October, high, cold winds carry off 
 the moisture and clear up the air, and by the end of January 
 or early in February, usually bring down from the north and 
 northwest great fields of broken ice, not very heavy or thick, 
 but still covering the whole surface of the sea, shutting in the 
 land completely, and hushing the wonted roar of the surf for 
 a month or six weeks at a time. In exceptionally cold seasons, 
 for three and even four months the coast will be ice-bound; and 
 winters, on the other hand, occur, like the last one, (1873-'74,) 
 in which not even the sight of an ice-floe was recorded, and 
 there was very little skating on the little lakes, but this is not 
 often the case. The breaking up of winter-weather usually 
 commences about the first week in April, the ice beginning to 
 leave or dissolve at that time or a little later, so that by the 
 1st or the oth of May generally, the beaches and rocky sea- 
 margins are clear and free from ice and snow ; although snow 
 occasionally lies in gullies and leeward hill-slopes, where it has 
 drifted during the winter, until the end of July and middle of 
 August. Fog, damp, thick, and heavy, closes in about the end 
 of May, and this, the usual sign of summer, holds on steadily 
 until the middle or end of October. 
 
 The periods of change are exceedingly irregular in autumn 
 and spring, but in summer the uniformity of the weather, with 
 cool, moist, shady, gray ibg, is constant, and to this certainty 
 of favorable climate, coupled with the perfect isolation and ex- 
 ceeding fitness of tne ground, is due, without doubt, the prefer- 
 ence for it manifested by the warm-blooded animals which 
 come here every year, to the practical exclusion of all other 
 ground, in thousands and hundreds of thousands, to breed. 
 5 AL
 
 66 ALxVSKA. 
 
 Tbe climate of these islauds lias received careful attention, 
 as will be seen by reference to the report of Mr. Charles P. Fish, 
 of the United States Signal-Service, to which reference may be 
 made for more detailed information upon the subject. I sim- 
 ply remark here that the winter of 1872-73 was one of great 
 severity, and, according to the natives, such as is very seldom 
 experienced j but cold as it was, however, the lowest marking 
 by thermometer was but 12° Fahrenheit below zero, and that 
 for a few hours only during a day in February, while the mean 
 of the month was 18^ above. The coldest month, March, gave 
 a mean of 12° above, while the mean of a usual winter is no 
 lower than 22° or 20°; but the high north winds which I ex- 
 perienced during that winter were blowing more than three- 
 fourths of the time, and made all outdoor exercise impractica- 
 ble. On a daj' in March, for example, its velocity was at the 
 rate of eighty-eight miles per hour, with as low a temperature 
 as —4°! With a wind blowing but twenty or twenty-live miles 
 an hour, at a much higher temperature, as at 15° or 16° above 
 zero, it is necessary to be most thoroughly wrapped np to 
 guard against freezing, if any journey is to be made ou foot. 
 
 There are here, virtually, but two seasons, winter and summer. 
 To the former belong November and the following months up to 
 the end of April, with a mean of 20° to 28°, while the transition 
 to summer is but a slight elevation in temperature, only 15° to 
 20°; of the summer months July is perhaps the w.'.rmest, usually ^ 
 with a mean of 4G° to 5G° in ordinary seasons. 
 
 It is astonishing how rapidly snow melts here at a single 
 degree above freezing, and after several consecutive days in 
 April or May at 34° and 3G°, grass begins to grow, even if it be 
 under melting drifts and the frost is many feet in depth under 
 it. In the appendix I have placed a table, compiled from the 
 report of Mr. Fish, above referred to, as interesting in show- 
 ing the character of a very severe winter ou the Seal Islands.^ 
 
 Theforraation of these islands was recent, geologically speak- 
 ing, and due to direct volcanic agency, Vv'liich lifted them abruptly 
 though gradually Irom the sea-bed, building upon them below 
 the water's-level as they rose, and subsequently above, by spout- 
 holes or craters, from which water-{)ud<lled breccia and vol- 
 canic ashes and tufa were thrown. Soon after the elevation 
 and deposition of the igneous matter, all volcanic action must 
 have ceased, though the clearly blown-out throat and smooth, 
 sharpcat, funnel-like wails of a crater on Otter Island (one of
 
 ALASKA. 67 
 
 the group, six miles south of Saint Paul's) would seem to 
 indicate quite recent act.ion, and this is the only i)lace on the 
 Prybilov Islands where snything has been discharged from a 
 crater at so late a date. 
 
 Since the period of the upheaval of the group under discus- 
 sion the sea has done much to modify and enlarge the most 
 important island, Saint Paul's, while the others, Saint George 
 and Otter, being lifted abruptly above the power of water and 
 ice to carry and deposit sand, soil, and bowlders, are but little 
 changed. 
 
 Saint Paul's Island is the largest and far the most import- 
 ant and valuableof the whole group. Upon my first arrival there 
 in April, 1872, I was surprised to find that no steps had been 
 taken to obtain an accurate or even approximately correct idea 
 of the size and shape of it. I at once set to work upon it, and 
 give herewith as the result of this labor the tirst definite figures 
 as to its dimension and area, together with a map showing the 
 outline and topography, with special sketches of the area and 
 position of each fur-seal "rookery" or breeding-ground. 
 
 The Keef Point of the island stands in latitude 57° 8' north, 
 and west longitude 170° 12', being the most southerly land. 
 The island is In its greatest length, between northeast and 
 southwest points, 13 miles air-line, and in greatest width a 
 little less than six. It has a superficial area of about 33 
 square miles, or 21,120 acres, of diversified, rough, and rocky 
 uplands, small, rounded hills, which either set down boldly to the 
 sea, or fade into wet, mossy flats and dry drifting sand-dune 
 tracts. It has 42 miles of shore-line, IGi of which are used 
 by the fur-seals en masse. 
 
 At the time of its first upheaval above the sea it must 
 have presented the appearance of ten or twelve little rockj-- 
 blufi" islets or points, upon some of \vhich were craters, vomit- 
 ing breccia and cinders, but with little or no lava overflowing ; 
 the plutouic power after this ceased to act, and the sea com- 
 menced the work of building on to the skeleton thus created, 
 and today so thorough and successful has it been in its labor 
 of sand-shifting, together with the aid of ice-floes, in their ac- 
 tion of grinding, lifting, and shoving, that nearly all of the 
 scattered islets, within the present area of the island, are com- 
 pletely bound together by bars of sand and bowlders, which are 
 raised above the highest tides by winds that whirl the sand up
 
 68 ALASKA. 
 
 as it drives out from the wash of surf, and roclis lifted and 
 pusbed up by ice-fields. 
 
 The saud wbicb plays so important a part in tbe formation 
 of Saint Paul's Island, and wbicb is almost entirely wanting on 
 and around tbeotbers in this group, is largely composed of ^o- 
 raminifera, together with Diatomacea mixed in with tbe volcanic 
 base. It changes color like a chameleon as it passes from M'et 
 to dry, being a rich steely-black at tbe surf-margin, then dry- 
 ing out to a soft purplish brown and gray, succeeding to tints 
 most delicate, of reddish and pale gray when warmed by tbe 
 sun and drifting with the wind. The sand-dune tracts on this 
 island are really attractive in tbe summer at certain times 
 when the weather is pleasant ; the most luxuriant grass and a 
 variety of beautiful flowers exist in profusion on them. 
 
 As these sand and bowlder bars were forming on Saint Paul's 
 Island, in making across from inlet to inlet, they inclosed small 
 collections of sea-water, thus giving rise to a number of lakes, 
 Avbicb nearly all become fresh ; in them are no reptiles or fish, 
 but a great number of minute Eotifcra sport about in all of 
 them whenever tbe water is exan)ined ; several water-plants 
 and alga3 flourish, especially so in the large lake, which is very 
 shallow. 
 
 The total absence of a harbor in the group is much to be re- 
 gretted. The village of Saint Paul, as will be seen by reference 
 to the map, is located so as to command the best landings that 
 can be made from vessels during the jirevaleuce of any winds 
 other than southerly ; from these there is no shelter for vessels, 
 unless they run around to the north side, where they are unable 
 to hold communication or to discharge. At Saint George mat- 
 ters are still worse, for all northerly, westerly', and easterly 
 winds drive the shipping away from the village roadstead, and 
 weeks often pass at either island before a cargo is landed at its 
 destination. The approach to Saint Paul during thick weather 
 is very hazardous, for the land is mostly low, and does not loom 
 uj) like Saint George through tbe fog; there are, besides, nu- 
 merous reefs making out, which are not found around the other 
 island. Captain liaker carefully sounded out these localities 
 last summer, while waiting for us, and I have placed the result 
 of this valuable work on my chart, so that the next captain of 
 a revenue-vessel coming here will be able to feel his way in 
 with some degree of security. 
 
 Saint George's Island is next in order of importance and
 
 ALASKA. 69 
 
 size, and in regard to its size, sliape, &c., I found the same 
 want of Icnowledgo experienced at Saint Paul's ; a survey, which 
 I immediately made on my first arrival, June, 1873, gives to 
 the island a length of not quite ten and a half miles by four 
 and a quarter between points of the greatest width. It has an 
 area of about twenty-seven square miles ; has twenty-nine 
 miles of coast-line, of which only two and a quarter are visited 
 by the fur-seals, and which is in fact all the eligible landing- 
 ground afforded them by the structure of the islaiul, which 
 rises evtu-ywhere else, save at the village-front, abruptly froni 
 the water, which breaks boldly at the bases of the lofty cliffs 
 all around. ISearly half of the shore-line of Saint Paul is a 
 sand-beach, while on Saint George there is less than a mile of 
 it all put together, viz, a few hundred yards in front of the 
 village, the same extent at the Garden Cove, southeast side, 
 and less than half a mile at Zapaduie, on the south side. Sev- 
 eral thousand sea-lions hold exclusive though shy possession of 
 half a mile of good landing on the east side. 
 
 " Tohtoi .Ifec.s," or East Cape, lies in north latitude 5Go 37' 1",* 
 and the west end, or '■'■ Balnoi il/ees," 5G° 38' 3",* with west 
 longitudes of 169° 27'* and 109° 44'*, respectively, while the 
 village, on the north shore, is in 50° 3flL' IC'.G, 169° 19' 6". 
 
 On tlie north shore of the island, three miles west from the 
 village, a grand bluff wall of basalt and tufa intercalated rises 
 abruptly from the sea to a height of 920 feet at the reach of 
 greatest elevation, and runs clear around the island to Zapad- 
 nie, a distance of some ten miles, without affording a single 
 passage-way up from or down to the sea. Upon the innumer- 
 able ledges and iu countless chinks and crannies millions of 
 waterfowl breed during the summer-months. 
 
 The general elevation of Saint George, while not great, is on 
 an average three times as great as that of Saint Paul, which is 
 quite low, and slopes gently to the sea east and north. But 
 Saint George rises abruptly, with exceptional spots for land- 
 ing. The highest land on Saint George is 930 feet, and the 
 summit of the high bluffs before mentioned ; that on Saint 
 Paul is Boga Slov Hill, GOO feet. All elevations on either island 
 10 or 12 feet above sea-level are rough and hummocky, with 
 
 * These observations are taken from llnssian authority, and are several 
 miles out of the way, but the only ones available. That of the village was 
 determined hy Lieutenant Mayuard last summer, July 10, and may bo cou- 
 Bidered accurate.
 
 70 ALASKA. 
 
 the exceptiou of the summits of a few ciutler-hills. The supply 
 of water is abundaut aud good. The only liviug stream of 
 water ou the Seal Islands is found on Saint George, a small 
 clear brook that empties into the Garden Cove ; but the area 
 covered by fresh-water lakes on this island is very much less 
 than that of Saint Paul. 
 
 Weathered out or washed from the basalt aud i^ockets of 
 olivine on the islands are aggregates of augite, seen most 
 abundant on the summit slopes of Ahlucheyeh Hill, Saint 
 George. Specimens from the stratified bands of old, friable, 
 gray lavas, so conspicuous on the bluffs of the north shore of 
 this island, show the existence of hornblende and vitreous feld- 
 spar in considerable quantity, while on the south shore, near 
 the Garden Cove, is a large dike of a bluish and greenish-gray 
 Ijhonolitic rock, in which numerous small crystals of spinel are 
 found. A dike with well-defined walls of old, close-grained, 
 clay-colored lava is close by the village of Saint George, about 
 a quarter of a mile east Irom the lauding, in the face of breccia 
 bluffs that rise from the sea. It is the only example of its kind 
 on these islands. 
 
 The foundations of the islands, all of them, are basalt, some 
 compact, grayish-white,#but most of them exceedingly porous 
 and ferruginous ; and upon this solid floor are many hills of 
 brown and red basaltic tufasf cinder-heaps, &c. "Polovina 
 Sopka," the second point in elevation on Saint Paul's, (550 feet,) 
 is almost entirely built up of red scorite and breccia. The 
 bluffs at the shore, "Polovina Point," show the hard basaltic 
 underpinning upon which the hill rests. The tufas ou both 
 islands decompose and weather into fertile soil, which the 
 severe climate renders useless. There is not a trace of a granitic 
 or gneissic rock found in situ. Several metamorphic bowlders 
 have been collected, which were dropped upou the beaches by 
 ice-Hoes, brought dowu by the strong northwesters from the 
 Asiatic coast. 
 
 The black-brown tufa and breccia bluffs at the East Laud- 
 ing, Saint Paul's Island, rise abruptly from the sea there GO to 
 80 feet, with stratified horizontal bands of a light-gray calcare- 
 ous conglomerate or cement, in which are imbedded sundry 
 fossils characteristic of the Tertiary age, such as Cardium green- 
 landicum, decor<ifuni, Astartc pcctuncida., &c. This is the only 
 locality in the Prybilov Islands where any paleontological evi- 
 dence of their age can be found.
 
 ALASKA. 7 1 
 
 Otter Island rauks tliiid in the gronp, and lies six miles 
 south-soutliwest froin the "Reef Point" of Saint Paul's Island. 
 It is about a mile and a qnarter in greatest length by less than 
 half a mile in extreme width. The east, south, and west shores 
 are bold and bluffy, not to be approached by men, and hardly 
 by seals, during rough weather ; but the north shore, for most 
 of its extent, rises quite gradually from the surf; the beach is, 
 however, broken and rocky, with uo sand. The highest point 
 is the summit of the bluffs on the west end, some 300 feet. A 
 small shallow lake lies near the north shore and landing; water 
 impure aud uncertain. 
 
 On this island there is no breeding-ground occupied by the 
 fur-seals, but the non-breeding seals lie out here in large num- 
 bers off and on during the season. 
 
 Waleus Island, fourth and last, is of little or no commer- 
 cial importance, but a very interesting spot — a mare table-rock, 
 elevated but slightly above surf-wash, a quarter of a mile in 
 length and a hundred yards in width, aud, like Otter Island, 
 has bold water all around, and, better still, entirely free from 
 reefs or sunken rocks. It lies six miles south-southeast from 
 northeast point of Saint Paul's. There is uo fresh water 
 on it. 
 
 It is not resorted to by the fur-?eals, but several hundred 
 male walrus {Ro,smarus) are found here most of the year, and a 
 few sea-lions breed there. On account of rough weather, fogs, 
 &c., the island is seldom visited by the natives of Saint Paul, 
 aud then only during the egging-season, in June and July,when 
 the island is literally swarming with breeding water-fowl. 
 
 The opportunity afforded here of seeing the strange walrus- 
 herds to the very best advantage is not equaled by any other 
 place in the Territory. Here can also be plainly seen the move- 
 ments and habits of myriads of nesting water-fowl. 
 
 Vegetation on these islands, with the exception of the last 
 named, such as it is, is fresh and luxuriant during the growing 
 season of June and July and early Au,gust, but the beauty and 
 economic value of trees and shiubbery seem to be denied to 
 them by climatic conditions, though I am strongly inclined to 
 believe that any of the hanly shrubs and trees indigenous at 
 Sitka and Kodiak would grow here if transplanted properly on 
 some of the southern hill-slopes most favored by soil, drainage, 
 aud position for shelter; but they would never mature their 
 seed, owing to the want of suidight to ripen, so that reproduc-
 
 72 ALASKA. 
 
 tiou of their kiutl would not follow. There arc, however, ten 
 or twelve species of grasses growing in every variety, irom 
 close, curly, compact tufts on the seal-grounds, to tall stalks, 
 standing in favorable seasons waist-high ; the "wheat" of the 
 north, [Elymiis,) together with over a huudr, d varieties of an- 
 nuals, perennials, sphagnum, cryptogamic plants, &c., all flour- 
 ishing in their respective positions, and covering nearly every 
 Ijoint upon which plants can grow with a living coat of the 
 greenest of all greens, as there is not sunlight enough to ripen 
 any deep tinge of yellow into it — so green that it gives a deep- 
 blue tint to gray noonday shadows, contrasting pleasantly with 
 the varied russets, reds, yellows, and grays of the lichen-cov- 
 ered rocks and the bronzed purple of the wild wheat on the 
 sand-dune tracts in autumn, and the innumerable blue, yellow, 
 pink, and white blossoms everywhere interspersed. Occasion- 
 ally by looking closely into the thickest masses of verdure our 
 common wild violet will be found. The floral display predomi- 
 nates greatly on Saint Paul, owing to the absence of the same 
 extent of warm sand dune country on the other islands. 
 
 By the end of August and first week in September of normal 
 seasons, the small edible berries [Empetrum nigrum and liuhus 
 chamccmonis) are ripe, which are found in considerable quanti- 
 ties, the former being small, watery, and black, about the size 
 of an English or black currant, and the other resembling an 
 unrii:»e and partly-decayed raspberry. They are the only fruit 
 aflorded by the islands, and are of course keenly relished by 
 the natives. 
 
 There are very few insects on the Seal Islands. A large 
 flesh-fly appears during the summer in a striking manner, and 
 settles upon the long grass-blades which flourish on the killing- 
 grounds especially, settling by tens of millions, causing the 
 vegetation over the whole slaughtering-field and vicinity to 
 fairly droop to the earth as though beaten down by a tornado 
 of wind and rain. Our common house-fly is not present, and 
 those just mentioned never come into the dwellings unless by 
 accident. It docs not annoy man or beast. There are no mos- 
 quitoes. A small gnat flits about, inofleuibive, taking shelter in 
 the grass. 
 
 Aside from the seal-life on the Prybilov Islands, there are no 
 indigenous mammalia with the exception of blue and white 
 ■foxes, and the lemming, {Myodes ohensis,) which latter is re- 
 stricted, singularly enough, to the island of Saint George,wher6
 
 ALASKA. 73 
 
 it is exceedingly abundant. Its burrows and paths under and 
 among the grassy hnmmocks and mossy flats literally checker 
 ever^" square rod of land there covered with this vegetation ; 
 and although Saint Paul's Island lies but twenty-nine miles to 
 the northwest, not a single one of these active, curious little 
 animals is found there. 
 
 The foxes ( Vuljws lagopus) are also, of their kind, restricted 
 to these islands, not being found elsewhere, except stray exam- 
 ples, which get cast away on the ice at^Attou or Saint Mat- 
 thew's, and find here among the countless chinks and crevices 
 in the basaltic formation comfortable holes for their accommo- 
 dation and retreat, feeding fiit upon sick and pup seals, water- 
 fowl, and eggs during the summer, and living through the win- 
 ter upon the bodies of seals left upon the breeding-grounds and 
 the carcasses upon the killing-fields. 
 
 The islands are as yet free from rats, but mice have been 
 brought long ago in ships' cargoes, and are a great pest in the 
 winter. 
 
 As might be inferred from their formation, these islands pos- 
 sess no mineral wealth of economic value whatever. 
 
 Stock cannot be profitably raised here ; the i^roportion of 
 severe winter is too great, as from three, at least, to perhaps 
 six months of the year they would require feeding and water- 
 ing, with good shelter. To furnish animals with hay and grain 
 is a costly matter, and the dampness of the growing or summer 
 season on both islands renders hay-curing impracticable. 
 
 Perhai)S a few head of hardy Siberian cattle might pick up a 
 living through a rough winter on the north shore of Saint Paul 
 among the grassy sand-dunes there, with nothing more than 
 shelter and water given them, but the care of them would 
 hardly return expenses, as the winter-grazing ground would not 
 support any great number of animals, it being less than two 
 square miles in extent, and half of this area being unpro- 
 ductive. 
 
 I am strongly inclined to think that reindeer would make a 
 successful issue with any struggle here that they might have 
 for existence, and be the source of an excellent supply, summer 
 and winter, of fresh meat for the agents of the Government and 
 the company who may be living upon the islands. The IJus- 
 sians, as well as the present occupants of the place, were in the 
 habit of keeping, and still do keep, a few head of cattle, and a 
 number of hogs aud chickens throughout winters for table use,
 
 74 ALASKA. 
 
 but it is without profit, except as a luxury. The natives take 
 their poultry into their houses, and relish their pork after the 
 hogs have fed fiit upon seal- carrion, and therefore it is profitable 
 to them. 
 
 In the appendix will be found a detailed chapter upon the 
 ornithology of these islands, but the great exhibition of i^inni- 
 l)etlia preponderates over every other form of animal life. Still 
 the spectacle of birds nesting and breeding, as they do on Saint 
 George's Island, to the number of millions, flecking the high 
 basaltic bluffs, (a shore-line of that character twenty miles in 
 length,) black, brown, and white, as they perch or cling to the 
 clifts in the labor of incubation, is a sight of exceeding interest 
 and constant novelty, affording the naturalist opportunity for 
 investigation into the most minute details of the reproduction 
 of these vast flocks of circumboreal water-lbwl. Saint Paul's 
 Island, owing to the low character of its shore-line, a large por- 
 tioQ of which is but slightly elevated above the sea and is 
 sandy, is not visited by such myriads of birds as are seen at 
 Saint George ; but the small rock. Walrus Island, is iairly cov- 
 ered with seafowls, and the Otter Island bluffs are crowded to 
 their utmost. The variety in these millions of breeding-birds 
 is not great, since it consists of only ten or twelve names, and 
 the whole list belonging to the Prybilov Islands, stragglers 
 and migratory, contains but forty species. Conspicuous among 
 the last-named class is the robin, which was brought from the 
 mainland, evidently against its own will, by a storm or gale of 
 wind, as must also be the case with the solitary hawks and 
 owls occasionally noticed here. 
 
 After the dead silence of a long ice-bound winter, the 
 arrival in the spring of large, noisy flocks of "choochkies" 
 {Phalcris microceros) is most cheerful and interesting. These 
 are bright, fearless little birds, with bodies generally plump and 
 fat, and come usually in chattering floclis by the 1st to the 5th of 
 May. They are caught by the people, to any number required, 
 in hand scoop-nets, as they fly to and from their nests, made in 
 the cliffs and among bowlders. They are succeeded about the 
 20th July by large flocks of fat, red-legged turn-stones, likewise 
 edible, {Strcpsilas inicrprcs,) which come in suddenly Irom the 
 west or north, where they have been breeding, and stop on the 
 islands for a mouth or six weeks, to feed fat upon the flesh flies 
 and their eggs, which swarm over the killing-grounds; these 
 handsome, red-legged birds go familiarly among the seals,
 
 ALASKA. 75 
 
 chasing flies, gnats, &c. They are followed, as they leave in 
 September, by several species of jacksnipe, {Friuga aiul Chara- 
 chius,) which, howeyer, depart by the end of October and early 
 in November, and when winter fairly closes in upon the islands, 
 tlie loud roaring, incessant seal-din, together with the screams 
 and darkening flight of innumerable water-fowl, are reidaced 
 by absolute silence, marking out, as it were, iu lines of sharp 
 and ^ivid contrast, summer's life and winter's death. 
 
 I have been unable to discover a single representative of the 
 reptiles on the islands, and a small list only of the fishes and mol- 
 luscans rewarded the most carefnl search. The presence of such 
 great numbers of seals in the water about the islands during 
 five and six months of every year renders all fishing abortive, 
 unless expeditions are made seven or eight miles, at least, from 
 the land, with the exception of halibut, which the natives cap- 
 ture within two or three miles of the reef-point and south 
 shore during July and August ; but the weather is usually, 
 after this season, too stormy and cold for the fishermeu to 
 venture in their bidarkies during the fall or spring. 
 
 II. THE NUMBERS OF FUR-SEALS WHICH ANNUALLY VISIT 
 
 THE ISLANDS. 
 
 Until my arrival on the Seal Islancjs, April, 1872, no stejJS 
 had been taken toward ascertaining the extent or the impor- 
 tance of these interests of the Governmentby either theTreasury 
 agent in charge, or the agent of the company leasing the islands. 
 This was a matter of no especial concern to the latter, but was 
 of the first importance to the Government. It had, however, 
 failed to obtain a definite knowledge upon the subject, on account 
 of the inaccurate mode of ascertaining the number of the seals 
 which had been adopted by its agent, who relied upon an 
 assumption of the area of the breeding "rookeries," but who 
 never took the trouble to ascertain the area and position of 
 these great seal-grounds intrusted to his care. 
 
 After a careful study of the subject during two whole seasons, 
 and a thorough review of it during this season of lS7i, in com- 
 pany with my associate. Lieutenant Maynard, I propose to show 
 plainly and in sequence the steps which have led me to a solu- 
 tion of til 3 question as to the number of fur-seals on the Prybi- 
 lov Islands, together with the determination of means by which 
 the agent of the GovC'rumeut will be able to correctly report 
 upon the condition of the seal-life from year to year.
 
 76 ALASKA. 
 
 At tbe close of my investigation for tbe season of 1872, the 
 fact became evident that the breeding seals obeyed implicitly 
 atine, instinctive law of distribution, so that the breeding-ground 
 occupied by them was always covered by seals in an exact ratio, 
 greater or less, to the area to be held ; that they always covered 
 the ground ev^enly, never crowding in at one place and scatter- 
 ing at another ; that the seals lay just as thickly together where 
 the rookery was a small one of only a few thousand, as at 
 Naspeel, near the village, as they did where a million of them 
 came together, as at Northeast Point. 
 
 This fact being determined, itis at once plain tliat just as the 
 breeding- grounds of the fur-seal on these islands expand or contract 
 in area from their present dimensions, so the seals icill have in- 
 creased or diminished. 
 
 Impressed, therefore, with the necessity and the importance of 
 obtaining the exactarea and position of these breeding-grounds, 
 1 surveyed them in lS72-'7 3 for that purpose, and resurveyed 
 them this season of 1874 ; the result has been carefully drawn 
 and plotted out, as presented in the accompanying maps. 
 
 The time for taking these boundaries of the rookeries is 
 during the week of their gr, atest expansion, or when they are 
 as full as they are to be for the season, and before the regular 
 system of compact, even organization breals up, the seals then 
 scattering out in pods or clusters, straying far back, the same 
 number covering then twice as much ground in places as they 
 did before, Avhen marshaled on the rookery-ground proper; 
 the breeding-seals remain on the rookery perfectly quiet an.d 
 en masse for a week or ten days during the period of greatest 
 expansion, which is between the lOtli and 20th of July, giving 
 ample time for the agent to correctly note the exact boundaries 
 of the area covered by them ; this step on the part of the Gov- 
 ernment officer puts him in i)ossession every year of exact data 
 ui)on which to base a report as to the condition of the seal-life, 
 as compared with the year or years previous. In this way my 
 record of the precise area and position of the fur-seal breeding- 
 grounds on Saint Paul's Ishind in the season of 1872, and that 
 of Saint George in the season of 1873, correctly serves as a 
 definite basis for all time to come u[)on which to found author- 
 itative reports from year to year as to any change, increase, or 
 diminution of the seal-life. It is, therefore, very important that 
 the Government should have an agent in charge of these novel 
 and valuable interests who is capable, by virtue of education
 
 ALASKA. 77 
 
 and energy, to correctly observe and report the area and posi- 
 tion of tbe rookeries year by year. 
 
 With a knowledge of tbe superficial area of these breeding- 
 grounds, the way is opened to a very interesting calculation 
 as to the number of the fur-seals upon them. For an estimate 
 based apparently upon good foundations, the following is the 
 plan by which I have been guided : 
 
 When the adult males and females (fifteen of the latter to 
 every one of the former) all arrive upon the rookery, I think a 
 space a little less than two feet square to each female is a large 
 one for that required by each animal, in obedience to its habit, 
 and may safely be said to be under the mark ; now, every female 
 or '•'■eow^' on its tico feet square doubles herself , that is, brings 
 forth her young, and in a few days, or about a week after its 
 birth, she visits the water, and is not one-quarter of the time 
 on h\nd again during the season. In this way it is clear that 
 the female seals almost double their number on the rookery- 
 grounds without causing the exj)ansion of the same beyond the 
 limits that would be required by the adults alone ; for every 
 100,000 breeding-seals will be found to consist of more than 
 85,000 females and less than 15,000 males, and in a few weeks 
 after the landing of the females, they will show about 180,000 
 males, females, and young, on tbe same area of ground occu- 
 pied previous to the birth of the " pups." 
 
 I^Tow the males, being treble and quadruple the size of the 
 females, require about four feet square for their use on this 
 same ground, but as they are less than one-fifteenth the number 
 of the females, they therefore occupy only one-eighth of the 
 breeding-ground of the 100,000 supposed, and this surplus area 
 of the males is more than balanced b3' the 15,000 to 20,000 
 virgin females which come on to this breeding-ground forthelirst 
 time to meet the males ; they come, rest a few days or a week, and 
 retire, leaving no young to show their presence on the island. 
 Taking all these points into consideration, I quite safely calcu- 
 late upon two square feet to every animal, big and little, on the 
 breeding-grounds. Without following this system of computa- 
 tion, a person may look over these swarming myriads of seals, 
 guessing vaguelj' and wildly at any number, from one million 
 up to six or seven. 
 
 Below are the figures made from my survey of the area and 
 position of the breeding-grounds of the fur-seal on Saint Paul's
 
 78 ALASKA. 
 
 Island, Jiilv 10-lS, 1872, It is the first survey ever made on the 
 island : 
 
 Seals— ^ $ o 
 
 ''Novastosliuab," or Northeast Point, has 15,840 
 feet of sea-margin, with 150 feet of average depth, 
 making- ground for 1, 200, 000 
 
 "Polavina" Rookery lias 4,000 feet of sea-margin, 
 with 150 feet of average depth, making ground 
 for 300, 000 
 
 "Lukannou" Rookery has 2,270 feet of sea-margin, 
 with 150 feet of average depth, making ground for. 170, 000 
 
 " Keetavie " Rookery has 2,200 feet of sea-margin, 
 with 150 feet of average depth, making ground 
 for 105, 000 
 
 " Reef" Rookery has 4,016 feet of sea-margin, with 
 150 feet of average depth, making ground for 301, 000 
 
 " Garbutch " Rookery has 3,060 feet of sea-margin, 
 
 with 100 feet of average depth, making groundfor. 183, 000 
 
 " Nahspeel" or Village Rookery has 400 feet of sea- 
 margin, with 40 feet average depth, making ground 
 for 8, 000 
 
 " Lagoon" Rookery has 750 feet of sea-margin, with 
 100 feet of average depth, making ground for 37,000 
 
 " Tolstoi " Rookery has 3, 000 feet of sea-margin, 
 with 150 feet of average depth, making ground 
 for 225, 000 
 
 " Zapadnie " Rookery has 5,880 feet of sea-margin, 
 with 150 feet of average depth, making ground 
 for l 441, 000 
 
 A grand total for Saint Paul's Island of males, 
 
 females, and young, of 3, 030, 250 
 
 The breeding- grounds on Saint George's Island, surveyed July 
 12-15, 1873, gave the following figures j also the first survey 
 ever made here : 
 " Eastern " Rookery has 900 feetof sea-margin, with 
 
 60 feet of average depth, making ground for 25, 000 
 
 "Little Eastern" Rookery has 750 feet of seamar- 
 
 gin, with 40 feet of average depth, making ground 
 
 for \ 13, 000 
 
 " North" Rookery has 2,000 feetof sea-margin, with 
 
 25 feet of average depth, making ground for .... 25, 000
 
 ALASKA. 79 
 
 "North" Kookery has 750 feet of sea-margin, with 
 150 feet of average depth, making ground for 52, 000 
 
 " Starry Ateel" Rookery has 500 feet of sea-margin, 
 with 125 feet of average de])th, making ground 
 for 30,420 
 
 "Zapadnie" llookery has GOO feet of sea-margin, 
 with 00 feet of average depth, making ground for. 18, 000 
 
 A grand total for Saint George's Island of 
 
 males, females, aud young, of 103, 420 
 
 These figures show a grand total of 3,193,070 breeding-seals 
 and their young, and this oggrccjate is entirely exclusive of the 
 great numbers of the non-breeding seals, which are never permit- 
 ted to come upon the same ground with the females by the 
 males in charge. This class of seals, to which the killing is con- 
 fined, come up on the laud and sea-beach between the rookeries, 
 going to and from the sea at irregular intervals during the sea- 
 son. It has no systematic, definite method, like the breeding- 
 class, of filling up to certain bounds and keeping so for several 
 weeks at a time, and is, therefore, beyond reach for ground 
 npon which to found cnlculation, and I can only give an esti- 
 mate based upon my close observation with especial reference 
 to this subject, and this is my conclusion : 
 
 The non-breeding seals, consisting of all the yearlings and all 
 the males under six or seven years, seem nearly equal in number 
 to the breeding-seals, and I put them down at 1,500,000 as a 
 fair estimate, and make the sum of the seal-life on the Prybilov 
 Islands over four million sei^en hundred thousand. 
 
 The seals after leaving these islands in the autumn and early 
 winter do not visit land again until the time of return, next 
 April, May, and June, to the grounds here, or those of the Eus- 
 sian " Copper" and " Bering" Islands. They spread themselves 
 out over the vast North Pacific, following schools offish, or fre- 
 quenting shoals and banks where an abundance of fishy food is 
 found. They can sleep with the greatest comfort and sound- 
 ness on the surface of the water, and in this state they are often 
 surprised by the natives of the northwest coast, all the way up 
 and down, from the Columbia Kiver to Bering Sea. On the 
 killing-grounds at Saint George, June, 1873, the natives would 
 frequently call my attention to seals that they were skinning, 
 in which buck-shot were imbedded and encysted just under the
 
 80 ALASKA. 
 
 liide in tbe blubber. From one animal Qfteen shot were taken, 
 and tbe holes wbicli they mnst have made in the skin wer<2 
 entirely healed so as not to leave a scar. These bullets were 
 undoubtedly received from tbe natives of the northwest coast, 
 anywhere between tbe Straits of Fuca and tbe Aleutian 
 Islands, used by them in attempting the capture of the animals 
 some season or seasons previously. A small number of seals, 
 not dcfiiiitely known, however, are taken by the Indians every 
 year along tbe coasts above mentioned, who surprise them 
 while soundly asleep in the water, either by shooting or spear- 
 ing. Tbe number taken in this way every year will not average 
 5,000 ; some seasons more, some seasons less. 
 
 That these animals are preyed upon extensively by killer- 
 whales, {Orca gladiator,) sharks, and other foes now unknown, 
 is at once evident ; for were they not held in check by some 
 such cause, they would quickly multi|)ly to so great an extent 
 that Bering Sea itself could not contain them, and the present 
 auHual killing of one hundred thousand out of a yearly surplus 
 of over a million males does not, in an appreciable degree, dimin- 
 ish tbe seal- life, or interfere in the slightest with its regular 
 perpetuation on the breeding-grounds every year. We may 
 jjroperl^- look upon this number of four and fis^e millions of fur- 
 seals, as we see them here every year on these islands, as the 
 maximum limit of increase assigned by natural laws. I think 
 I make this clear in my chapter upon tbe habits of these valua- 
 ble and interesting animals, without a knowledge of which it 
 is not i)0ssible for any one to fully appreciate the truth of these 
 generalizations. Before, however, the subject of tbe possible 
 increase or diminution of tbe seal-life is taken up for discussion, 
 it is best to consider tbe — 
 
 III. MANNER IN WHICH THE SEALS ARE ANNUALLY TAKEN. 
 
 Talcing the seals. — By reference to tbe habits of tbe fur- 
 seal, it is plain that two-thirds of all the males that are born 
 (and they are equal in number to tbe females born) are never 
 permitted by the remaining third, strongest b^' natural selec- 
 tion, to land upon the same ground with tbe females, which 
 always herd together en masse. Therefore, this great band of 
 bachelor seals, or " holluscbickie," is compelled, when it visits 
 land, to live apart entirely, miles away frequeutli', from tbe 
 breeding-grounds, and in this admirably perfect manner of na- 
 ture are those seals which can be properly killed without injury
 
 ALASKA. 81 
 
 to the rookeries selected and held aside, so that the natives can 
 visit and take them as they woukl so many hogs, without dis- 
 turbing in the slightest degree the peace and quiet of the breed- 
 ing-grounds where the stock is perpetuated. 
 
 The manner in which the natives capture and drive the hol- 
 luschickie up from the hauling-grounds to the slaughtering- 
 lields near the villages and elsewhere, cannot be improved upon, 
 and is most satisfactory. 
 
 In the early part of the season large bodies of the young 
 bachelor seals do not haul up on laud very far from the water, 
 a few rods at the most, and the men are obliged to approach 
 slyly and run quickly between the dozing seals and the surf, 
 before fhey take alarm and boU into the sea, and in this way a 
 dozen Aleuts, running down the long sand-beach of English 
 Bay, some driving-morning early in June, will turn back from 
 the water thousands of seals, just as the mold-board of a 
 l)low lays over and back a furrow^ of earth. As the sleei)ing 
 seals are first startled they arise, and seeing men between them 
 and the water, immediately turn, lope and scramble rapidly 
 back over the land ; the natives then leisurely walk on the 
 flanks and in the rear of the drove thus secured, and direct 
 and drive them over to the killing-grounds. 
 
 A drove of seals on hard or firm grassy ground, in cool and 
 moist weather, may with safety be driven at the rate of half a 
 mile an hour ; they can be urged along with the expenditure of 
 a great many lives in the drove, at the speed of a mile or a mile 
 and a quarter even per hour, but this is highly injudicious and 
 is seldom ever done. A bull-seal, fat and unwieldy, cannot 
 travel with the younger ones, but it can lope or gallop as it 
 were over the ground as fast as an ordinary man can run for a 
 hundred yards, but then it falls to the earth supine, utterly ex- 
 hausted, hot and gasping for breath. 
 
 The seals, when driven thus to the killing-grounds, require 
 but little urging ; they are permitted to frequently halt and 
 cool off, as heating them injures their fur; they never show 
 fight any more than a flock of sheep would do, unless a few old 
 seals are mixed in, which usually get so weary that they prefer 
 to come to a stand-still and fight rather than to move; this 
 action on their part is of great advantage to all parties con- 
 cerned, and the old I'ellows are always permitted to drop behind 
 and remain, for the fur on them is of little or no value, the 
 pelage very much shorter, coarser, and more scaut than in the 
 6 AL
 
 82 ALASKA. 
 
 younger, especially so on the parts posteriorly. This cliauge in 
 the condition of the fur seems to set in at the time of their 
 shedding, in the fifth year as a rule. 
 
 As the drove progresses the seals all move in about the same 
 way, a kind of a walliiug-step and a sliding, shambling gallop, 
 and the progression of the whole body is a succession of starts, 
 made every few minutes, spasmodic and irregular. Ev'ery now 
 and then a seal will get weak in the lumbar region, and drag 
 his posterior after it for a short distance, but finally drops 
 breathless and exhausted, not to revive for hours, days per- 
 haps, and often never. Quite a laige number of the weaker 
 ones, on the driest driving-days, are thus laid out and left ou 
 the road; if one is not too much heated at the time, the native 
 driver usually taps the beast over the head and removes its 
 skin. This will hapi)en, no matter how carefnlly they are 
 driven, and the death-loss is quite large, as much as 3 or 4 
 per cent, on the longer drives, such as three and four miles, 
 from Zapadnie or Polavina to the village on Saint Paul's, and 
 I feel satisfied that a considerable number of those reji'cted 
 from the drove and permitted to return to the water die sub- 
 sequently from internal injuries sustained on the drive from 
 overexertion. I therefore think it improper to extend drives 
 of seals over any distance exceeding a mile or a mile and a 
 half. It is better for all parties concerned to erect salt-houses 
 and establish killing-grounds adjacent to all of the great haul- 
 ing-grounds on Saint Paul's Island should the business ever be 
 developed above the present limit. As matters now are, the 
 ninety thousand seals belonging to the quota of Saint Paul 
 last summer were taken and skinned in less than forty days 
 within one mile from either the village, or salt-house on .North- 
 east Point. 
 
 Killing the seals. — The seals when brought up to the kill- 
 ing grounds are herded there until cool and rested; then 
 squads or "pods" of fifty to two hundred are driven out from 
 the body of the drove, surrounded and huddled up one against 
 and over the other, by the natives, who curry each a long, 
 heavy club of hard wood, with which they strike the seals down 
 by blows upon the head; a single stroke of a heavy oak 
 bludgeon, well and fairly delivered, will crush in at once the 
 slight, thin bones of a seal's skull, laying the creature out life- 
 less; these strokes are usually repeated several times with 
 each animal, but are very quickly done.
 
 ALASKA. 8 
 
 o 
 
 The killing-gana:, consisting usually of fifteen or twenty 
 men at a time, are under the supervision of a cbief of their 
 own selection, and have, before going into action, a common 
 understanding as to what grades to kill, sparing the others 
 ■which are untit, underage, &c., permitting them to escape and 
 return to the water as soon as the marked ones are knocked 
 down ; the natives then drag the slain out from the heaj) in 
 ■which the^' have fallen, and spread the bodies out over the 
 ground just free from touching one another so that they will 
 not be hastened in "heating" or blasting, finishing the work of 
 death by thrusting into the chest of each stunned and sense- 
 less seal a long, sharp knife, which touches the vitals and 
 bleeds it thoroughly ; and if a cool day, another "pod" is started 
 out and disposed of in the same ^vay, and so on until a thou- 
 sand or two are laid out, or the drove is finished ; then they 
 turn to and skin; but if it is a warm day, every "pod" is 
 skinned as soon as it is knocked down. 
 
 This work of killing as well as skinning is performed very 
 rapidly; for example, forty-five men or natives on Saint Paul's 
 during .Tune and July, 1872, in less than four working-weeks 
 drove, killed, skinned, and salted the pelts of 72,000 seals. 
 
 The labor of skinning is exceedingly severe, and is trying to 
 an expert, requiring long practice before the muscles of the 
 back and thighs are so developed as to permit a man to bend 
 down to and finish well a fair day's work. 
 
 The bcdy of the seal, preparatory to skinning, is rolled over 
 or put ujion its back, and the native makes a single swift cut 
 through the skin down along the neck, chest, and belly, from 
 the lower jaw to the root of the tail, using for this purpose a 
 large, sharp knife. The fore and hind flippers are then succes- 
 sively lilted, and a sweeping circular incision is made through 
 the skin on them just at the point where the body-fur ends ; 
 then, seizing a flap of the hide on either one side or the other of 
 the abdomen, the man proceeds to rapidly cut the skin clean 
 and free fro:n the body and blubber, which he rolls over and 
 out from the skin by hauling up on it as he advances with his 
 work, standing all the time stooping over the carcass so that 
 his hands are but slightly above it or the ground. This opera- 
 tion of skinning a fair-sized seal takes the best men only a min- 
 ute and a half, but the average time on the ground is about 
 four minutes. 
 
 J^othing is left of the skin upon the carcass save a small
 
 84 ALASKA. 
 
 patch of each upper lip, on which the coarse mustache grows, 
 the skiu on the tip of the lower jaw, the insignificant tail, to- 
 gether with the bare hide of the flippers. 
 
 The blubber of the fur-seal is of a faint yellowish white, and 
 lies entirely' between the skin and the flesh, none being depos- 
 ited in between the muscles. Around the small and large intes- 
 tines a moderate quantity of hard, firm fat is found. The blub- 
 ber possesses an extremely offensive, sickening odor, difficult to 
 wash from the hands. It makes, however, a very fair oil for 
 lubricating, burning, &c. 
 
 The flesh of the fur-seal, when carefully cleaned from fat or 
 blubber, can be cooked, and by most i)eople eaten, who, did 
 they not know w hat it was, might consider it some poor, tough, 
 dry beef, rather dark in color and overdone. That of the pup, 
 however, while on the land and milk-fed, is tender and juicy but 
 insipid. 
 
 The skins are taken from the field to the salt-house, where 
 they are laid out open, one upon another, " hair to fat," like so 
 many sheets of paper, with salt profusely spread upon the 
 fleshy sides, in "kenches"' or bins. After lying a week or two 
 salted in this style they are ready for bundling and shipping, 
 two skins to the bundle, the fur outside, tightly rolled up and 
 strongly corded, having an average weight of twelve, fifteen, 
 and twenty-two pounds when made up of two, three, and four 
 year old skins respectively. 
 
 The company leasing the islands are permitted by law to 
 take one hundred thousand, and no more, annually : this they 
 do in June and July ; after that season the skins rapidly grow 
 worthless by shedding, and do not pay for transportation and 
 tax. The natives are paid forty cents a skin for the catch, and 
 keep a close account of the progress of the work every day, as 
 it is all done by them, and they know within fifty skins, one 
 way or the other, when the whole number have been secured 
 each season. This is the only occupation of some three hun- 
 dred and fifty people here, and they naturally look well after 
 it. The interest and close attention paid by these Aleuts on 
 both islands to this business was both gratifying an.d instruct- 
 ive to me while stationed there. 
 
 The common or popular notion regarding seal-skins is that 
 they are worn by those animals just as they appear when offered 
 for sale. This is a very great mistake; few skins are less at- 
 tractive than the seal-skin as it is taken from the creature. 
 The fur is not visible, concealed entirely by a coat of stilTover-
 
 ALASKA. 85 
 
 bair, dull gray, brown, and grizzled. The best of these raw 
 skins arc worth only $5 to $10, but after dressing they bring 
 from $25 to $40 ; and it takes three of them to make a hid;^ 's 
 sack and boa. In order that it may be apparent that there 
 is reason for this great advance in price over the raw quota- 
 tion, I take great pleasure in submitting a descri[)tiou of the 
 process, kindly furnished me by a leading furrier i)ractically 
 an<l skillfully conversant with the subject, probably the only 
 person in the country long familiar with it. His communication 
 is as follows : 
 
 "Albany, October 22, 1874. 
 
 " Sir : The Alaska Commercial Company sold in London, De- 
 cember, 1873, about sixty tbousand skins taken from the islands 
 leased by our Government of the catch of 1873. The remain- 
 der of the catch, about forty thousand, were sold in March. 
 This company have made the collection of seal from these 
 islands much more valuable than they were before their lease, 
 by the care used by them in curing the skins, and taking them 
 only when iu season. We have worked this class of seal for 
 several years — when they were owned by the Eussiau Ameri- 
 can Fur Company, and during the first year they were owned 
 by our Government. 
 
 •' When the skins are received by u»s iu the salt, we wash off 
 the salt, placing them upon a beam somewhat like a tanner's 
 beam, removing the fat from the flesh-side with a beaming- 
 knife, care being required that no cuts or uneven i)laces are 
 made in the pelt. The skins are next washed iu water and 
 placed upon the beam with the fur up, and the grease and 
 water removed by the knife. The skins are then dried by mod- 
 erate heat, being tacked out on frames to keep them smooth. 
 After being fully dried, they are soaked iu water and thoroughly 
 cleansed with soap and water. In some cases they can be un- 
 haired without this drying-process, and cleansed before drying. 
 After the cleansing-process they pass to the picker, who dries 
 the fur by stove-heat, the pelt being kept moist. When the 
 fur is dry he places the skin on a beam, and while it is warm 
 he removes the main coat of hair with a dull shoe-knife, grasp- 
 ing the hair with his thumb and knife, the thumb being pro- 
 tected by a rubber cob. The hair must be pulled out, not 
 broken. After a portion is removed the skin must be again 
 warmed at the stove, the pelt being kept moist. When the 
 outer hairs have been mostly removed, he uses a beaujing- 
 knife to work out the finer hairs, (which are shorter,) and the
 
 8G ALASKA. 
 
 remaining coarser hairs. It will be seen that great care must 
 be used, as the skin is in that soft state that too much pressure 
 of the knife would take the fur also ; indeed, bare spots are 
 made; carelessly-cured skins are sometimes worthless on this 
 account. The skins are next dried, afterward dami^ened on the 
 l)elt side, and shaved to a fine, even surface. They are then 
 stretched, worked, and dried ; afterward softened in a fulling- 
 mill, or by treading them with the bare feet in a hogshead, one 
 head being removed and the cask placed nearly upright, into 
 which the workman gets with a lew skins and some fine, hard- 
 wood sawdust, to absorb the grease while he dances upon them 
 to break them into leather. If the skins have been shaved 
 thin, as required when finished, any defective spots or holes 
 must now be mended, the skin smoothed and pasted with paper 
 on the i^elt-side, or two pasted together to protect the pelt in 
 dyeing. The usual process in the United States is to leave the 
 pelt sufiQciently thick to protect them without i^asting. 
 
 " In dyeing, the liquid dye is put on with a brush, carefully 
 covering the points of the standing fur. After lying folded, 
 with the points touching each other, for some little time, the 
 skins are hung up and dried. The dry dye is then removed, 
 another coat applied, dried, and removed, an<l so on until the 
 required shade is obtained. One or two of these coats of dye are 
 put on much heavier and pressed down to the roots of the fur, 
 making what is called the ground. From eight to twelve coats 
 are required to produce a good color. The skins are then 
 washed clean, the fur dried, the pelt moist. They are shaved 
 down to the required thickness, dried, working them some 
 v» hile drying, then soltened in a hogshead, and sometimes run 
 in a revolving cylinder with fine sawdust to clean them. The 
 English i)rocess does not have the washing after dyeing. 
 
 " I should perhaps say that, with all the care used, many skins 
 are greatly injured in the working. Quite a quantity of En- 
 glish dyed seal were sold last season for $17, damaged in the 
 dye. 
 
 " The above is a general process, but we are obliged to vary 
 for different skins; those from various parts of the world 
 require different treatment, and there is quite a difiiirence in 
 the skins from the Seal Islands of our country — I sometimes 
 think about as much as in the human race. 
 " Yours, with respect, 
 
 "GEO. C. TREAD WELL & CO. 
 
 " n. W. Elliott, Esq."
 
 ALASKA. 87 
 
 From this subject of the maimer in which the sealing-busi- 
 ness is conducted on the ishxuds and elsewhere, we naturally 
 turn to the — 
 
 IV . PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SEAL-LIFE AND ITS VALUE. 
 
 A question frequently asked in regard to these islands is 
 this : "At the present rate of killing the seals, it will not be long 
 before they are exterminated; how much longer will they 
 last?" The answer is, that as long as matters are conducted 
 on the Seal Islands as they now are, one hundred thousand 
 male seals, under the age of five years and over one, may be 
 safely taken every year without the slightest injury to the regu- 
 lar birth-rate or natural increase, provided the animals are not 
 visited by any plague or pestileuce, or any such abnormal cause 
 for tbeir destruction, beyond the control of man, and to which, 
 like any other great body of animal life, they must ever be sub- 
 ject. 
 
 From my calculatious already given it will be seen that a 
 million "pups," or youngseals,are born upon these islands every 
 year. Of this million, one-half are males. These 500,000 young 
 males leave the ishmdsfor sea, when they are between five and 
 six months old, very fat and hearty, having suflered but a tri- 
 fling loss in number (about 1 per cent.) while on and about the 
 islands, about which there are no enemies whatever; but after 
 they get well douu into the Pacific in quest of food, they form 
 the most helpless of their kind to resist or elude sharks, 
 killers, &c., and they are so diminished in number by these 
 natural enemies, that when they return to the Prybilov Islands 
 in the following year, July, they will not present more than one- 
 half of the number with which they left the ground of 
 their birth the previous season ; that is, li50,000. By this time 
 these survivors of last year's birth have become strong, active 
 swimmers, and when they leave again, as before, in the fall, 
 they are as able as any others of their older classes to take 
 care of themselves, and at least 225,000 of them safely return 
 in the second season after birth, and are very slightly diminished 
 after that during their natural lives of filteen to twenty years 
 each ; and the same will hold good with the females. 
 
 Now, the number of bulls required for the annual stock of 
 225,000 virgin cdws, to be saved for this service every year, is by 
 their law and habit onlij onefificeuth of the number of cows, as 
 on all the breeding-grounds oue male will have ou an average
 
 88 ALASKA. 
 
 fiftee!! cows; but to make sure that wo save two-year-old bulls 
 euougli every season, we will more tban double this [iroportion 
 and set aside one-fifth of the young males in question, and that 
 will leave 180,000 seals in good condition that can be safely 
 killed every year without the slightest injury to the perpetua- 
 tion of the stock itself. 
 
 In the above showing I have put the largest estimate upon 
 the loss sustained at sea by the youngest seals, too large I am 
 morally certain, but I wish to lilaco the matter in the very 
 worst light in which it can be i)ut, and to give the seals the 
 full benefit of every doubt. 
 
 With regard to the increase of the seal-life, I do not think it 
 Avithiii the power of human management to promote this end 
 to the slightest appreciable degree beyond its present extent 
 and condition in a state of nature; for it cannot fail to be evi- 
 dent, from my detailed description of the habits and life of the 
 fur-seal on these islands during a great part of the year, that 
 could man have the same supervision and control over this 
 animal during the ichole season which he has at his command 
 while they visit the land, he might cause them to multiply and 
 increase, as he would so many cattle, to an indefinite number, 
 onl}- limited by time and means ; but the case in question, unfor- 
 tunately, takes the fur-seal six months out of every year far 
 beyond the reach, or even cognizance, of any one, where it is 
 exposed to known powerful and destructive natural enemies, 
 and many others probably unknown, which prey upon it, and, 
 in accordance with a well-recognized law of nature, keep it at 
 about a certain number which has been for ages, and will be 
 for the future, as affairs now are, its maximum limit of in- 
 crease. This law holds good everywhere throughout the animal 
 kingdom, regulating and preserving the equilibrium of life in a 
 state of nature. Did it not hold good, these Seal Islands and 
 all Bering Sea would have been literally covered, and have 
 swarmed with them long before the Eussians discovered them ; 
 but there were no more seals when first seen here by human 
 eyes in 17SG-'S7 than there are now, in 1874, as far as all evi- 
 dence goes. 
 
 With reference to the amount of ground covered by the seals 
 when first discovered by the Russians, I have examined every 
 foot of the sh' ire-line of both islands, where the bones, &c., 
 might be lying on any deserted ground since then, and, after 
 carefully surveying the new ground now occupied by the seals,
 
 ALASKA. 89 
 
 and comparing this area with that; which thej' have deserted, 
 I feel justitied in stating that, for the last twelve or fifteen 
 3'ears at least, the fur-seals on these islands have not diminished, 
 nor have they increased as a body to any noteworthy degree; 
 and daring all this time the breeding-grounds have never been 
 disturbed, and they have been living in a perfectly quiet and 
 natural condition. Without some natural check upon this life, 
 with a million of young born every year, during the last ten at 
 least, the annual taking of a hundred thousand males would 
 not in the slightest degree retard the increase which would set 
 in at once were it not for this check aforesaid. 
 
 What can be done to promote their increase? We cannot 
 cause a greater number of females to be born every year ; wo 
 do not touch or disturb these females as they grow up and live, 
 and we save more than enough males to serve them. Nothing 
 more can be done, for it is impossible to protect them from 
 deadly enemies in their wanderings for food. 
 
 Tliis great body of four and five niillions of hearty, active 
 animals must consume an enormous amount of food every year. 
 They cannot average less than five pounds of fish each per 
 diem, (this is not half enough for an adult male,) which gives 
 the consumption of over three million tons offish every year! 
 
 To get this immense food-supply the seals are compelled to 
 disperse over a very large area of the North Pacific and fish. 
 This brings them into contact more and more with their enemies 
 as they advance south, until thej- reach a point where their 
 annual destruction from natural foes is equal to their increase, 
 and at this point their number will remain fixed. About the 
 Seal Islands I have failed to notice the least disturbance amon j 
 these animals by anything in the water or out, and from my 
 observation I am led to believe that it is not until they descend 
 well to the south in the North Pacific that they meet with 
 sharks and voracious killer-whales.* 
 
 In view, therefore, of all these facts, I have no hesitation in 
 saying quite confidently that, under the present rules and regu- 
 lations governing the sealing interests on these islands, the in- 
 crease or diminution of the life will amount to nothing; that 
 the seals will continue for all time in about the same number 
 and con<lition. 
 
 To test this theory of mine, I have put the Government in 
 
 *"In the stomach of one of these auiinals (year before last) fourteen small 
 harp-seals were fouud." — Michael CarvulVn Uijyort, Canadian Finkcricn, 1872.
 
 90 ALASKA. 
 
 possessiou of data which will serve as a correct guide from year 
 to year. 
 
 As the seals come to laud boldly first and last, and are not wild 
 or wary, the breeding-grounds may and should be inspected 
 throughout, every few days, by the agent in charge, irom the 
 time of the early arrivals in May until the period of general 
 departure in the autumn, in order that he may map down and 
 fix in black and white the precise boundaries assumed by the 
 breeding-seals for the season, giving the result at the close of 
 his labors of an accurate survey of the area awA position of the 
 ground covered during the season by the cows, bulls, and pups 
 on the rookeries, so that he can at once detect anj^ change that 
 may and is likely to occur in their hauling and numbers for the 
 next season. 
 
 This is the only w^ay in which an agent of the Government 
 can correctly report, year after year, as to the condition of the 
 seal-life on these grounds, detecting any increase or diminution 
 of the same as season succeeds season. This is a step impera- 
 tively necessary for a Government agent to take, and should 
 not be neglected. 
 
 During the first week of inspection some of those arriving 
 earliest will frequently take flight to the water when ajiproached, 
 but these runaways soon return. By the end of May, however, 
 they will hardly move to the right or left when you attempt 
 to pass through them. At this time, about two weeks before 
 the females begin to come in a body, they become entirely 
 indifferent to man or anything else save their ow^n kind, and so 
 continue the rest of the season. 
 
 The seals upon the rookeries and hauliug-grouuds are not 
 afiTected by the smell of blood and carrion arising from the 
 killing-grounds or from the stench of blubber-fires which 
 burn in the native villages. This trait is well illustrated by 
 the attitude of the two rookeries near the village of Saint Paul's. 
 The breeding-ground on the spit at the head of the lagoon is 
 not more than forty yards from the great killing-grounds, being 
 separated only from the seventy or eighty thousand rotting 
 carcasses by a slough less than ten yards wide. The seals can 
 smell the blood and carrion upon this fiehl from near the time 
 they land in tbe spring until they leave in the autumn ; while 
 the general southerly summer-winds waft to them the odor and 
 sounds of a native village not over two hundred rods south of 
 them. All this has no efiect upon the seals, for the rookery, as
 
 ALASKA. 91 
 
 the natives declare, has been slightly but steadily increasing. 
 The seals everywhere ou the breeding-grounds will become 
 speedily habituated to close observation when it is quiet and 
 undemonstrative, and take little notice of the approach of the 
 observer. 
 
 The seals will be found to change a little every year from 
 rookery to rookery, but the aggregate number will be steadily 
 about the same. The condition of the seal-life this season of 
 1874 compares very favorably with that of 1872, as will be seen 
 from extracts from my notes taken on the ground : 
 
 "Northeast Poikt, July 18, 1874. 
 
 " Quite a strip of ground near Webster's house has been 
 deserted this season, but a small expansion is observed on 
 Sea Lion Hill. The rest of the ground is as mapped in 1872, 
 with no noteworthy increase in any direction. The condition of 
 the animals and their young, excellent ; saiall irregularities in 
 the massing of the families due to rain ; sealions about the 
 same ; none ou the west shore of the point." 
 
 " The aggregate of life on this great rookery is about the 
 same as iu 1872, the 'hollusehickie,' or killable seals, hauling as 
 well and as nuuierously as before. The proportions of the dif- 
 ferent ages among them, of two, three, and four year olds, pretty 
 
 well represented." 
 
 " POLAVIXA, Jiihj 18, 1874. 
 
 " Stands as it did in 1872 ; breeding and hauling grouuds in 
 excellent condition; the latter, on Upper Polaviua,are changing 
 down upon Polaviua sand-beach, trending for three miles to- 
 ward Xortheast Point. The numbers of the 'hollusehickie' 
 on this ground of Polaviua, where they have not been disturbed 
 now for some five years to mention in the way of taking, do 
 not seem to be any greater than they are on the hauling-grounds 
 adjacent to Northeast Point and the village, from which they 
 are driven almost every day during this season of killing." 
 " LUKANNON A^'D Ketavie, Juhj 19, 1874. 
 
 "Xot materially changed in anj' respect from its condition at 
 
 this time in 1872." 
 
 " GoRBOTCH, Jiay 19, 1874. 
 
 " Just the same. Condition excellent." 
 
 " Keef, July 19, 1874. 
 
 "A slight contraction on the south sea-margin of this ground, 
 compensated for hy expansion under the bluffs on the north- 
 west side. Condition excellent."
 
 92 ALASKA. 
 
 " Naspeel, July 20, 1874. 
 
 " A diminution of one-Lalf at least. Very few here this year. 
 
 It is no place for a rookery j uot a pistol-sbot from the natives' 
 
 houses." 
 
 '< Lagoon, Jnhj 20, 1874. 
 
 " Xo noteworthy change ; if any, a trifling increase. Condi- 
 tion good." 
 
 " Tolstoi, Jnhj 21, 1874. 
 
 " No perceptible change in this rookery from its good shape 
 of 1872. The condition excellent." 
 
 " Zapadnie, JuJij 22, 1874. 
 
 " An extension or increase of 2,000 feet of shore-line, with 
 an average depth of 50 feet of breeding-ground, has been built 
 on to Upper Zapadnie toward Tolstoi ; the upper rookery proper 
 has not altered its bearings or proportions ; the saud-beach belt 
 between it and Lower Zapadnie deserted by the breeding-seals 
 almost entirely, and a fair track for the holluschickie lett clear, 
 over which they have traveled quite extensively this season, 
 some 20,000 to 25,000 lying out to-day. Lower Zapadnie has 
 lost in a noteworthy degree about an average of 20 feet of its 
 depth, which, however, is much more than compensated for by 
 the great increase to the upper rookery. 
 
 " A small beginning had been made for a rookery on the 
 shore just southwest from Zapadnie Lake, in 1872, but this 
 year it has been entirely abandoned." 
 
 On Saint George a survey gives for this season the following 
 in comparison with that of 1873 : 
 
 " Zapadnie, JuhjS, 1874. 
 
 " This rookery shows a slight increase upon the figures of last 
 year, about 5,000. Fine condition." 
 
 " Starky Ateel, JuIyG, 1874. 
 " No noteworthy change from last year." 
 
 " N(JiiTH liOOKERY, July 0, 1874, 
 " No essential change from last year ; condition very good." 
 
 " Little Eastern, July 6, 1874. 
 " A slight diminution of some 2,000 or so. Condition excel- 
 lent." 
 
 " Eastern Eookery, July 7, 1874. 
 " A small increase over last year of about 3,000, making the 
 aggregate seal-life similar to that of last season, witii the cer- 
 tainty of a small increase.
 
 ALASKA. 93 
 
 •' The unusually early season, this year, brougbt the rookery- 
 bnlls on to tlie ground very much in advance of the general 
 time ; they landed as early as the lOth of April, but the arrival 
 of the cows was as late as usual, corresponding to my observa- 
 tions during the past two seasons. 
 
 " The general condition of the animals of all classes is most 
 excellent — they are sleek, fat, and free from any taint of 
 disease." 
 
 In this way it must be plain that the exact condition of these 
 animals can be noted every season, and should a diminution be 
 noticed, due to any cause known or unknown, the killing can be 
 ])romptly stopped. Four years have passed, with the end of 
 this season, in which 100,000 young males have been annually 
 taken, and the effect on the seal-life cannot be seen ; it has not 
 injured it, to a certainty, and it has not i)romoted an increase. 
 Two years more will make the matter conclusive, for then, if 
 the breeding-grounds are as well supplied with males as they 
 now are, then it will be evident that enough are saved every 
 vear for that service. 
 
 We know pretty well now how many we can take without in- 
 jury, but we do not know how many more than 100,000 can 
 be. This problem of developing these interests to their full im- 
 portance should not be taken in hand for a few j'ears yet, not 
 until the present system which I have drawn up for the watch- 
 ing of the rookeries has been in operation for three or four 
 years ; then, if it is advisable, on account of the superabun- 
 dance of male seal-life, and the market will stand the increase 
 of raw material, the killing may be very gradually increased 
 from year to year, but not ovqy Jive thousand each season. The 
 rookeries, like a barometer, will show a falling off of necessary 
 bulls when the killing has reached a point where the increase 
 is detrimental. This can be seen at once by the proper persons 
 and the killing checked without delay, in ample time to pre- 
 vent harm. 
 
 In this chapter I have given a translation of Bishop Veniami- 
 nov's history, the only one written, and very valuable as illus- 
 trative of the manner in which the Russians conducted affairs 
 on the Prybilov Islands ; but it is at once apparent that much 
 of it was written necessarily from hearsay and not based upon 
 fact or personal observation, hence many grave errors are con- 
 tained in it.
 
 94 ALASKA. 
 
 THE PROPRIETY OF LEASING THE ISLANDS. 
 
 It will be remembered that at the time this question was be- 
 fore Congress much opposition to the principle of leasing was 
 made, on the ground that the Government would realize more 
 by taking the whole management of the business into its own 
 hands. As to what arguments were used on either side of the 
 question I am ignorant, but after a careful and impartial sur- 
 vey of the subject on the ground itself, and in the trade, I am 
 satisfied that those members of the House aud Senate who, by 
 their votes June, 1870, directed the Secretary of the Treasury 
 to .lease the Seal Islands of Alaska to the highest bidder, did 
 the only correct and profitable thing that could be done in the 
 matter, both with regard to the preservation of the seal-life in 
 its original integrity, and its own pecuniary gain ; and to make 
 this statement of mine perfectly evident, the following facts 
 may be presented : 
 
 First. When the Government took i^ossession of these inter- 
 ests in 1868-'G9, the gross value of a seal-sldn then in the best mar- 
 ]cet, London^ icas less than the present tax and royalUj paid upon 
 it hy the lessees ! 
 
 Second. By the action of the intelligent business men who 
 took the lease, in stimulating aud encouraging the dressers 
 of the raw material, aud in combining with leaders of fashion 
 abroad, the demand for the fur has been greatly increased, and 
 the price of the raw material has doubled, so that while the 
 Government gets and nets nearly half of the gross sales, yet 
 the lessees have a good margin of 15 to 20 per cent, at least ou 
 their capital, sustained entirely by their business capacity and 
 energy. 
 
 Third. The Government, should it attempt to manage this 
 business, could not secure the services of such men as those who 
 compose the business management of the Alaska Commercial 
 Company without paying salaries to four and five agents as large 
 or larger than that giveu to the President of the United States. 
 This, however, the Government might cheerfully do, did it 
 guarantee the selection and api)ointment of such men as those 
 above mentioned, but it does not follow under our system of 
 government, or any other that I know of, that a large salary 
 indicates a corresponding amount of ability on the part of its 
 recipient; an imbecile or a very common man is just as apt
 
 ALASKA. 95 
 
 to secure it as not. Ordinary men cannot conduct this business 
 successfully.* 
 
 Fourth. As matters now stand, the greatest and best inter- 
 ests of the lessees are identical with those of the Government ; 
 that is, the preservation and, if possible, the increase of the 
 seal-life; and if these lessees had it in their power, which they 
 certainly have not, to rain these interests by a few seasous 
 of rapacity, they are too prudent to do so. 
 
 Fifth. The frequent changes made in the office of the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury, who now, very properly, has the control 
 of the business as it stands, do not guarantee on his part the 
 close, careful scrutiny likely to be exercised by the lessees, who 
 have but one purpose to carry out ; and the character of the 
 leading men among them is enough to assure the public that 
 the business is in responsible hands, and in the care of persons 
 who will use every eftbrt for the preservation of the seal-life, as 
 it is their interest to do. 
 
 It is frequently urged with great persistency bjMnisinformed 
 
 * Another great obstacle to the success of the business, if controlled entirely 
 by the Government, would arise in the disposal of the skins afttr they have 
 been brought down from the islands. The Government would need to offer 
 them at public auction in this country, and would be at the mercy of any 
 well-organized combination of buyers; the Government agents conducting 
 the sale could not counteract the efforts of such a combination as success- 
 fully as the agents of a private corporation, who can look after their inter- 
 ests in all the markets of the world and are supplied with money to use in 
 manipnlatiou of the market. 
 
 On this ground I feel quite confident that the Treasury of the United 
 States receives more money, net, under the system now in operation than 
 it would by taking the exclusive control of the business; were any Gov- 
 ernment ofScer supplied with, say, §100,000, to expend in " working the 
 market," and intrusted with the disposal of 100,000 seal-skins, whenever he 
 could so do to the best advantage of the Government, and were this agent 
 a man of first-class business energy and ability, I think it quite likely the 
 same success might attend his labor in the London market that distinguishes 
 the management of the Alaska Commercial Company; but the usual cry of 
 fraud and robbery that would be raised against him, however honest he might 
 be, would be such as to bring the whole business into positive disrepute or 
 constant suspicion. The Government officer in this matter is placed at a 
 great disadvantage should any such line of action be adopted, and the most 
 prolitable course is for the Government not to offer in the markets through 
 agents, but to pursue its present policy, levy a tax, and watch carefully the 
 condition of the seal-life from year to year, as the killing is increased and 
 the business developed to its full extent. 
 
 In this way Alaska may be made to yield, by a tax laid on its Seal Islands 
 alone, a very handsome rate of interest upon the money paid for the entire 
 Territory.
 
 96 ALASKA. 
 
 or jealous antliority that the lessees can and do take tliousands 
 of skins iu excess of the limit of law, and that this catch iu 
 excess is slyly shipped to China and Japan from the islands, &c. 
 
 To show the folly of any such move as this on the part of the 
 company, if even it were possible, I will briefly recapitulate 
 the conditions under which the skins are taken. The natives 
 do all the driving and skinning for the company ; no others are 
 permitted or asked to land upon the islands to do this work as 
 long as the inhabitants of the islands are equal to it. Every 
 skin taken by the natives is counted by themselves, as they 
 get forty cents per pelt for the labor; and at the expiration of 
 every day's labor in the field the natives know exactly how 
 many skins have been taken by them, how many of these skins 
 have been rejected by the company's agent because they were 
 cai'elessly cut and dam.'iged in skinning, (usually about three- 
 fourths of 1 per cent, of the whole catch,) and they have it re- 
 corded every evening by those au)ong themselves who are si)e- 
 cially charged with the dut^'. Thus, were 150,000 skins taken, 
 or 200,000, the natives would know it as quickly as it was 
 done, and would demand their compensation for the labor; and 
 were any ship to approach the islands at any hour of the day 
 or night, these people would know it at once, and would be 
 awai'e of any shipment of skins that might be attempted. It 
 would be common talk among the three hundred and seventy 
 inhabitants, and thus leave it an open afl'air to any i)erson who 
 might come upon the ground charged with investigation. 
 These people are constantly going to and from Ounalashka, 
 where they have intimate intercourse with bitter enemies of 
 the company, to whom they would not hesitate to tell the whole 
 state of affairs on the islands. Should anything, therefore, be 
 done contrary to the law, the act would be promptly reported 
 by these people, even if the Treasury agents were in collusion 
 with the company, which, however, is simply out of the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 The Treasury agents count these skins into the ship, and one 
 at least of their number goes down to San Francisco upon the 
 vessel, where they are all counted out again by the custom- 
 house oflQcers of that port. Of the one hundred thousand skins 
 annually taken, the company's steamer "Alexander" usually 
 carries down between sixty and seventy thousand, while the 
 balance of the catch are put into the hold of a sailing-vessel
 
 ALASKA. 97 
 
 at Ouualasklia, and counted again and certified to by the Treas- 
 ury agent. 
 
 It will at once be seen by examining the state of affairs and 
 the conditions upon which the lease is granted, that the most 
 scrupulous care in fulfilling the terms of the contract is the 
 best and most profitable course for the lessees to i)ursue; that 
 it would be downright folly in them to deviate in the slightest 
 degree from the letter of the law, and thus lay themselves open 
 at any time to discovery and the loss of their contract ; their 
 action can be investigated at any time by Congress, of which 
 they are aware. They cannot bribe these three hundred and 
 seventy-odd people on the islands to secrecy any more than 
 they can conceal their action from them on the sealing-tields; 
 and any man of average ability can go among these people and 
 inform himself as to the most minute details of the sealing- 
 catch from the time the lease was granted, should he have rea- 
 son to suspect the honesty of the Treasury agents. 
 
 I therefore have no hesitation in stating that as far as the re- 
 lationship existing between the Alaska Commercial Company 
 and the Government is concerned, the best interests of the lat- 
 ter are honestly and faithfully served, simply because it is the 
 very best policy for the former so to do ; that all the conditions 
 of the lease are most scrupulously complied with and observed, 
 and that the lessees hold themselves ready at any moment to 
 comply with any just and proper modification of the regulations 
 that time may develop. 
 
 With regard to the profits of this company upon their yearly 
 catch of one hundred thousand seals, the agents of the Gov- 
 ernment have no concern whatever ; after they have observed 
 the faithful fulfillment of the terms of the contract existing be- 
 tween the company and the Government, the amount of their 
 profit is a pure matter of business ov^er which the let-sees have 
 entire control, and in regard to which they should not be- sub- 
 jected to impertinent inquisition. 
 
 THE CO^^DITION OF THE NATIVES ON THE SEAL ISLANDS. 
 
 This has been wonderfully improved by the action of the les- 
 sees during the short time they have had control of affairs there. 
 The truth of this will be realized by any one who may take the 
 trouble to contrast the present condition of the people on these 
 islands with what it was previous to the granting of the lease, 
 and with that also of the people of their class who are now 
 7 AL
 
 98 ALASKA. 
 
 living upon tbe Aleutian Islands and the mainland. Tlie rn- 
 quirer will learn that these people, now so well and comfort- 
 ably clad, fed, and housed, were at the time of the tiansler of 
 the Territory so poor and ill-provided for that they could not 
 in many instances cover their nakedness ; that they existed in 
 absolute squalor; whereas they are now living in snug houses, 
 such as our laboring classes occupy in the United States ; that 
 they earn and receive in coin, in less than two working-months 
 every year, more than the same number of our common work- 
 ingmen receive on an average for a whole year's service ; and 
 also that for all extra work other than of seal-skinning, such 
 as loading and unloading the company's vessels, building, grad- 
 ing, «S:;c., these people are paid by the day from fifty cents to 
 one dollar, according to the character of service rendered. 
 
 The agents of the company here do not pay the least atten- 
 tion to or interfere with the private life and personal rehitions 
 of the people among themselves ; and let me here state, to the 
 credit of these people, that the peaceful and harmonious man- 
 ner in which they live together as a rule, during nine idle 
 mouths at least every year, would contrast most favorably with 
 the lives of an equal number of our own working classes were 
 they suddenly brought to these islands and put on the same 
 footing. I will only hint at the insubordination and utter 
 worthlessness of such a community after six or eight mouths 
 of torpidity and isolation. 
 
 It is true that the natives here have an inordinate fondness 
 for liquor, and would destroythemselves were they not restrained 
 in this propensity by the difficulty of obtaining this demoraliz- 
 ing beverage, and hence the importance of the liquor i)rohibi- 
 tion, which should be rigorously enforced. 
 
 Only a small proportion of the present population are de- 
 scendants of the pioneers who were brought by the several 
 Eussian companies in 1787-'88 — a colony of 137 souls — recruited 
 I)rincipally from the Aleuts at Ounalashka and Atka. Their 
 early life here was one of much hardship, and on several occa- 
 sions they were in actual need. They lived in a co-operative 
 manner at first, in large barracoous or bariabkies, i)artly under- 
 ground, economizing in this way their limited supply of fire- 
 wood, beiug dependent upon the sea for such drift timber as 
 might chance to lodge as the currents, deflected from the Yau- 
 kou and elsewhere, sweep around the islands j but during the
 
 ALASKA. 99 
 
 past twenty-five or tliirty years they have all come into the 
 general ownership and occupation of a hut to a family. 
 
 Thelvussian Fur Company, controlling the islands, maintained 
 on Saint Paul and Saint George a store and an agent, the 
 people supporting a priest and building a church upon each 
 island, and living in this manner very dirty, poor, and miser- 
 able, they were brought into contact with the Americans at 
 the time of the transfer of the Territory. 
 
 The people are now supplied without charge with a physi- 
 cian and medical stores on each island, and also a school ; but 
 the school is not well attended except by the very young chil- 
 dren, principally the little girls, although every winter fifteen 
 or twenty of the boys and young men are taught the Russian 
 alphabet and church-service by three or four of the elder per- 
 sons. The non-attendance at school is not to be ascribed merely 
 to indisposition on the part of the children and parents to at- 
 tend the English schools established by the Alaska Commercial 
 Company on both islands. The view expressed to the writer b^- 
 one of the oldest and most intelligent of the people may be 
 explanatory of their feeling and consequent action. 
 
 "I do not," said old Philip Yollkov, " have any objection to 
 the attendance of my children, nor have my neighbors to that 
 of theirs, on your (English) school; but if our boys and young 
 men neglect their Russian lessons, who is going to take our 
 places when we die, in our church, at our christenings, and at 
 our burials?'" To any one familiar with the teachings of the 
 Greek Catholic faith the objection of Vollkov is well taken ; 
 but it is to be hoped that in the course of time, however, the 
 Russian church-service may be conducted in English, for until 
 then no satisfactory work can be done by an English school- 
 teacher among them in the w'ay of education. 
 
 Up to the time of the transfer of the islands to the Alaska 
 Commercial Company the inhabitants all lived in huts or sod- 
 walled and dirt-roofed houses or barrabkies, partly under- 
 ground. jMost of these huts Mere, and are, damp, dark, and 
 exceedingly filthy. Under the Russian regime the people gen- 
 erally here had some excuse for such squalor ; but as the case 
 now stands it is due to the improvidence or shiftlessnessof the 
 natives themselves if they are living in this unclean condition 
 and wear an appearance of discomfort. The use of seal-fat for 
 fuel causes the deposit upon everything within doors of a thick 
 coating of greasy, black soot, strongly impregnated with a rank,
 
 100 ALASKA. 
 
 moldy, and indescribably oifensive odor. In early times tbey 
 were obliged to burn blubber very largely, having no other fuel 
 at command than the ])recarious supj)ly of drift-wood that the 
 ocean-currents might bring them ; but by the terms of the lease 
 they are now supplied with a suflicieut quantity of coal to make 
 them quite comfortable during tbe winter. 
 
 Since the Alaska Commercial Com])any have taken posses- 
 sion of the islands, the natives are being quite rapidly j)ui into 
 neat and habitable houses, and plenty of lumber is distributed 
 among those who have not as yet been removed to patch and 
 make comfortable their old huts, and at the expiration of three 
 more seasons the whole popukition of above eighty famibc^s 
 will be occupants of as many suitable houses, where they will 
 live more healthily. 
 
 The example of the agents of the company on both islands 
 and the assistant agent of the Treasury on Saint George during 
 the last three years, who have maintained perfect order, neat- 
 ness, and industry about their buildings and business, has been 
 a silent but powerful one for the better among the people. The 
 intercourse of these gentlemen with the natives is always court- 
 eous, pleasant, and often generous, when deserved; giving 
 the simple inhabitants a slow but steady elevation toward mo- 
 rality, sobriety, and industry, such as they never have had be- 
 fore, having been treated like so many animals by the Russians ; 
 and the conduct of most of the United States revenue and mil- 
 itary ofSoers and men stationed here between the transfer of 
 the Territory and the granting of the lease cannot be described 
 as other than disgraceful, their behavior being marked by drunk- 
 enness, debauchery, and brawls, their habits soon rendering 
 the luxme American oifensive to even these simple people. 
 
 The population of Saint Paul is, at the present writing, 220 
 men, v»'omen, and children; that of Saint George, 138. It has 
 neither much increased nor diminished during the last fifty 
 years, but would have fallen off had not recruits been regularly 
 drawn from the mainland and other islands, the births not 
 being equal to the deaths. In view of the great improvement 
 in their condition, it may be reasonably anticipated that these 
 people will at least hold their own, even though they do not 
 increase to any remarkable degree. 
 
 As an incentive and encouragement for their good behavior, 
 they have been assured that as long as they are capable and 
 willing to perform the labor of skinning the seal-catch, so long
 
 ALASKA. 101 
 
 will they enjoy the exclusive privilege of participating in this 
 labor and its reward. As to the especial fitness of these people 
 for the labor connected with the sealing bnsiuess, no comment 
 is needed; nothing better in the way of mamial service, skilled 
 and rapid, conld be rendered by any other body of men eqnal 
 in numbers. They appear to shake off the periodic lethargy of 
 winter, and rush with enthusiasm into the severe exercise and 
 duty of capturing, killing, and skinning the seals. 
 
 Seal-meat is their staple food, and the village of Saint Paul, 
 220 souls, consumes about 400 pounds per diem, and they are 
 permitted every fall to kill about 5,000 pups, or an average of 
 22 or 23 to each man, woman, and child. The pups will dress 
 10 pounds. This shows an average consumption of 515 pounds 
 of seal-meat to each person during the year. In addition, the 
 natives eat a great deal of butter and sweet crackers. If these 
 people could get all they desire, they would consume about 500 
 pounds of butter and 450 pounds sweet crackers ])er week, and 
 indefinite quantities of sugar. Of this article, 150 pounds a 
 week is allowed them in this village. If nnable to get sweet 
 crackers, they consume about 300 pounds of hard or pilot bread, 
 and, in addition to this, about GOO pounds of flour per week : of 
 tobacco, 50 pounds; candles, 75 pounds; rice, 50 pounds each 
 lier week ; they burn over GUO gallons of keroseue oil during the 
 year; vinegar is used in limited quantities, about 50 gallons per 
 season ; mustard and pepper, ^ to lA pounds per week for the 
 whole village; beans they reject; split pease, a few; salt meats 
 they will take reluctantly if given to them, but will never buy 
 them ; they use a little cofiee during the year, about 100 pounds ; 
 canned fruit they will purchase to any quantity, and would 
 bankrupt themselves to obrain it, if the opportunity were afford- 
 ed; potatoes they sometimes demand, as well as onions, but 
 these vegetables cannot be brought here to advantage. 
 
 The question will nsiturally be asked, How do these people 
 employ themselves throughout the long nine months in which 
 they have little or nothing to do? It may be answered that 
 they are entirely idle during most of this period. Some of the 
 men are, however, disagreeable exceptions, as they are enthu- 
 siastic gamblers, passing whole nights at their sittings, even 
 during the sealing-season, playing games at cards taught them 
 by the Russians and persons who have been on the islands since 
 the transfer of the Territory. But the majority of the men, 
 women, and children, being compelled to make no exertion to
 
 102 ALASKA. 
 
 obtain the necessaries of life— sach as seal-meat, Larrt bread, 
 tea, &c. — sleep most of tbe time when unoccupied in cooking, 
 eating, and tbe daily observance of tbe routine of tbe Greek 
 Catholic Church. Their rebgious duties alone preserve them 
 from absolute stagnation ; for, in obedience to its teachings, 
 they attend church quite regularly, make and receive calls on 
 their saints' days, which are very numerous, and their birth- 
 days are generally enlivened with home-brewed beer, or " quass," 
 upon which all classes become more or less intoxicated. They 
 add to these entertainments of the emannimUc the music of the 
 accordeon, an instrument of which they are very fond ; and a 
 great number of the women in particular can play inditfer- 
 ently a limited selection of airs, many of which are the old 
 battle-songs and ballads so popuhir during the rebellion, and 
 which the soldiers quartered here in 18G9 taught them. From 
 the soldiers, also, they learned to dance various iigures, and to 
 waltz. These dances, however, the old folks do not enjoy, and 
 they seldom indulge in them, unless under the intluence of beer. 
 
 From the following statement it will be seen that these people 
 are doing better work every succeeding season ; for example, 
 90,000 seals were taken this year in sixteen days less time than 
 it took to get 75,000 in 1871, viz : 
 
 In Saint Paul's Island, 1871,55 days' work of GO men secured 
 75,000 seals. 
 
 In 1872, 50 days' work of 71 men secured 75,000 seals. 
 
 In 1873, 40 days' work of 71 men secured 75,000 seals. 
 
 In 1874, 39 days' work of 84 men secured 90,000 seals.* 
 
 This shows plainly that they are in better physical condition 
 than at hrst ; it furnishes also undeniahle inoof of the undimin- 
 ished supply of killable seals. 
 
 INHABITANTS OF SAINT PAUL, JULY 1, 1870, TAKEN FROM 
 PHILIP VOLKOV'S LISTS, AUGUST 8, 1873. 
 
 [The names in italics are either dead or absent from the island at the present writing.] 
 
 1. Philip Keemachneek. G. Mareena, Ms icife. 
 
 2. JEfft'oseenia, hisivife. 7. Alexsandcr, his so7i. 
 
 3. Ivan, his son. 8. Sylvester, Ms son. 
 
 4. Danelo, Ms son. 9. Eefeem Anoolanalc. 
 
 5. Vasseele Seedoolee. 10. Matroona, Ms wife. 
 
 *Tl)is increase of 15,000 on Saint Paul was made this season with a 
 E,inn\iiv reduction on Saint Geoi'ge; tbe proportion of seal-life being small on 
 the latter compared with tbe former.
 
 11. 
 
 Simeon, adopted son. 
 
 50. 
 
 12. 
 
 Marlca Aveelyah. 
 
 51. 
 
 13. 
 
 Fcclceehat, his u-ife. 
 
 
 14. 
 
 Peter Peesheiikov. 
 
 52. 
 
 15. 
 
 Matrooua, bis wife. 
 
 53. 
 
 IG. 
 
 Ivan Eemanov. 
 
 54. 
 
 17. 
 
 Anna, his wife. 
 
 55. 
 
 18. 
 
 Yeagor, his son. 
 
 5G. 
 
 19. 
 
 Loobov, his stepclaugbter. 
 
 57. 
 
 20. 
 
 Maxseem, bis step-sou. 
 
 
 21. 
 
 INIaria, bis niece. 
 
 58. 
 
 22. 
 
 Nickolai Krukov. 
 
 59. 
 
 23. 
 
 Peter Krukov. 
 
 GO. 
 
 24. 
 
 Agrafeena, his wife. 
 
 CI. 
 
 25. 
 
 Ivan Korcbooteen. 
 
 G2. 
 
 2G. 
 
 Ooleeana, his wife. 
 
 G3. 
 
 27. 
 
 Yabkov Koocbootin. 
 
 G4. 
 
 28. 
 
 Lookabria, bis sister. 
 
 05. 
 
 29. 
 
 yatalia Mal-ooleena. 
 
 GG. 
 
 30. 
 
 Maria Parancbina. 
 
 G7. 
 
 31. 
 
 Keesar Sbabbjlean. 
 
 08. 
 
 32. 
 
 Agrafeena, bis wife. 
 
 G9. 
 
 33. 
 
 Xeckou, his sou. 
 
 70. 
 
 34. 
 
 Eilhsim ia Plottn iko va. 
 
 71. 
 
 35. 
 
 Avdotia, her daughter. 
 
 72. 
 
 3G. 
 
 Prokoopee Meeseekiu. 
 
 73. 
 
 37. 
 
 Eveduxsia, his wife. 
 
 
 38. 
 
 Avdotia Meeseekina, bis 
 
 74. 
 
 
 step -mother. 
 
 75. 
 
 39. 
 
 Anna, daughter of Meesee- 
 
 7G. 
 
 
 kiu. 
 
 
 40. 
 
 Deemeetree Veatkiu. 
 
 78. 
 
 41. 
 
 Evelampia Yeatkiu. 
 
 79. 
 
 42. 
 
 Balakshiu, (Benedict.) 
 
 80. 
 
 43. 
 
 Matrooua, his wife. 
 
 81. 
 
 44. 
 
 Meexbae, his son. 
 
 82. 
 
 45. 
 
 , Balakshiu, 2d, (Benedict.) 
 
 83. 
 
 4G. 
 
 , Stepan Krukov. 
 
 84. 
 
 47. 
 
 . Natalia, his wife. 
 
 85. 
 
 48, 
 
 . Avdokia Seeribneekova, 
 
 8G. 
 
 
 (widow.) 
 
 87. 
 
 49 
 
 . Tiiuofay, her sou. 
 
 88. 
 
 103 
 
 Olga, her daughter. 
 
 Paraskeevee, her daugh- 
 ter. 
 
 Akooleena, her daughter. 
 
 Michael Barrbov. 
 
 Malauia, his wife. 
 
 Agues, bis daughter. 
 
 Dauiel, his nephew\ 
 
 Avdotia Schepeteeuah, 
 (widow.) 
 
 Tahreentee, her sou. 
 
 Elarie, her sou. 
 
 Hee uue-iah, her daughter. 
 
 Kerick Booterin, 1st chief. 
 
 Seeg-lee-teekiab, his wife. 
 
 Patalamon, his son. 
 
 Kerick, his son. 
 
 Saloinayee, his daughter. 
 
 Ooleeta, his daughter. 
 
 George Booterin, his son. 
 
 Carp Booterin. 
 
 Lookariah Booterin. 
 
 Alexander Paucov. 
 
 Porfeerie, his sou. 
 
 Avdotia, his step-daughter. 
 
 Paraskeevie, his step- 
 daughter. 
 
 Yakov Sooty ah gin. 
 
 Eeroadea, bis wife. 
 
 Feedosayee Saydeek. 
 
 Anesia, bis wife. 
 
 Anna, bis daughter. 
 
 Feoktista, bis god-mother. 
 
 Dayneese Saydeek. 
 
 Baiz yahzeel-ov, {Edanqjia.) 
 
 An7ia, his wife. 
 
 Maria, his daughter. 
 
 ]\Iaroon Nakock. 
 
 Paraskeevie, bis wife. 
 
 Zacbar, his step-sou. 
 
 , nephew. 
 
 Paraskeevie, niece.
 
 104 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 103. 
 101. 
 
 105. 
 
 89. Natalia Habaroova. 127. 
 
 90. Pavel IJabarov, ber son. 128. 
 
 91. Faul Shics-neel'ov, {^^riest.) 129. 
 
 92. Mechahelo, his son. 130. 
 
 93. Meeloveedova,Alexsandra, 131. 
 
 (widow.) 132. 
 
 91. Simeon, lier son. 133. 
 
 95. Alexsandra, her daughter. 134. 
 
 9G. Autone, lier son. 135. 
 
 97. Marcia, ber daugbter. 13G. 
 
 98. Kerick Artamauov. 137. 
 
 99. Olga, his wife. 138. 
 
 100. Melauia, bis daugbter. 139. 
 
 101. Yasseleesee, bis daugbter. 140. 
 
 102. Kab-sayn-jab, bis 141. 
 
 daugbter. 142. 
 
 Gearman Artamauov. 143. 
 
 Anna Tarautayvab, 144. 
 
 (widow.) 145. 
 
 Anna, ber daugbter. I'lG. 
 
 100. Stepan Bayloglazov. 1^^- 
 
 107. Yealeeua, bis wife. I'iS- 
 
 108. Sai/rgee, his son. 140. 
 
 109. Anna, bis daugbter. 150. 
 
 110. Paraskeevie, bis adopted 151. 
 
 girl. 152. 
 
 111. Ermolie Cusbing. 153. 
 
 112. Faokla, bis wife. 154. 
 
 113. Faokla, bis daugbter. 155. 
 
 114. Oolyabnab, bis daugbter. 156, 
 
 115. Aggie Cusbing, bis son. 157. 
 IIG. Autone Sootyabgeu. 158. 
 
 117. Oolyabnab, bis wife. 159, 
 
 118. Meetrofau, bis sou. 100. 
 
 119. Meehaie, his son. 
 
 120. Yabkov Mandrigau. IGl. 
 
 121. Afanasbia, bis wife. 
 
 122. Loolcaylccan, his son. 1G2. 
 
 123. Maria, bis daugbter. 1G3. 
 
 124. Oseep Pabomov. 1G4. 
 
 125. Varvarab, bis wife. 1G5. 
 
 126. Maria Seedova, (widow.) IGG. 
 
 Abkakee, ber sou. 
 
 , daugbter. 
 
 , daugbter. 
 
 , daugbter. 
 
 , daughter. 
 
 Alexsayee Neederazov. 
 
 Akooleena, bis wife. 
 
 Cbristeeua, bis daugbter. 
 
 Agrafeena, bis daugbter. 
 
 Keer Saydeek. 
 
 Yealeena, bis wife. 
 
 Maria, his daughter. 
 
 Ivau 3Iandrigau. 
 
 Tatabyabn, bis wife. 
 
 Yasseelee, bis sou. 
 
 ]Marfa, bis daugbter. 
 
 Feelat Teetov. 
 
 Peter, bis sou. 
 
 Yeaon, bis son. 
 
 Yeagor Arkasbav. 
 
 Alexsandra, bis wife. 
 
 Martin, bis step-son. 
 
 Nekolaie, bis step-sou. 
 
 Stepan, bis step son. 
 
 Kereek, bis son. 
 
 Arsaynee, his son. 
 
 Tatayabnab, his daugbter. 
 
 Timofay Evanov. 
 
 Fevronia, bis daugbter. 
 
 Paymen Kooznitzov. 
 
 Oseep Baizyabzeekov. 
 
 Alexsandra, bis wife. 
 
 Paul, bis son. 
 
 Kabsaynyab, bis step- 
 daughter. 
 
 AvdoUia, bis step-daugh- 
 ter. 
 
 Kahsaynyah, his daughter. 
 
 Ivan Paranchin. 
 
 Zabarrov Evemainov. 
 
 Keereenayah, bis wife. 
 
 Fevronia, bis daugbter.
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 105 
 
 167. Ivan Ilapov. 205. 
 
 1G8. Anna, sister-in-law. 200. 
 
 1G9. Alexsandra^Ms daugliier. 207. 
 
 170. Ivan, his son. 208. 
 
 171. Yeagor Koicliootin. 209. 
 
 172. Zachar Saydeek. 210. 
 
 173. Oosteeuia, his wife. 211. 
 
 174. Yasseelee, his son. 212. 
 
 175. Marvra, his danghter. 213. 
 170. Kelvn^ his nephew . 214. 
 
 177. Feelip Saydeek. 215. 
 
 178. Stepan Skahvortsov. 216. 
 
 179. rhilip Vollkov. 217. 
 
 180. Ellen, his danghter. 218. 
 
 181. Matroona, his daughter. 219. 
 
 182. Markiel Vollkov, his son. 220. 
 
 183. Gavreelo Korchurgin. 221. 
 
 184. Lnkajlean, his sou. 222. 
 
 185. Ivan Sooiyahgen. 223. 
 180. Heeyoniah, his wife. 224. 
 
 187. Aneesia, his daughter. 225. 
 
 188. Einelian Sootyahgen. 220. 
 
 189. Marko Korchootin. 227. 
 
 190. Dare:7ah, his wife. 228. 
 
 191. Ivan, his son. 
 
 192. Zeenovia, his daughter. 229. 
 
 193. Timofay Giotto v. 230. 
 
 194. Maria, his wife. 231. 
 
 195. , Ms son. 
 
 190. Ivan, his son. 
 
 197. Yeafeemia, his daughter. 1. 
 
 198. Iraklin Mandrigan. 2. 
 
 199. Oosteeuie, his wife. 3. 
 
 200. Eeon, his son. 4. 
 
 201. Paul Soovorrov. 5. 
 
 202. Yassa, his wife. 6. 
 
 203. , his son. 7. 
 
 204. Akyleena, his mother. 8. 
 
 Afjrafccno, his adopted (jirl. 
 Eefeem Korchootin. 
 Pahdigayee, his wife. 
 Peter, his son. 
 Lnka Mandrigan. 
 Eereena, his wife. 
 Neekeeta Yitchmaino.v 
 Christeena, his daughter. 
 Domenah, his daughter. 
 Taheesah, liis daughter. 
 Ivan Yitchmamov. 
 IMichael Korzerov. 
 Alexsandra, his wife. 
 Stepan Korzerov. 
 Paul Korzerov. 
 Ivan Kozlov. 
 Palahgayah, his mother. 
 Feodor, her sou. 
 Uvediiclcsia, her daughter, 
 Phitone Tarakanov. 
 Marfa, his wife. 
 Alcoolena, his mother. 
 Kericlc Tarakanov. 
 Domiau M. Kok, (John 
 
 Prater.) 
 Oolyahnah, his wife. 
 Anna, his daughter. 
 Salomayali, Artomanov's 
 
 daughter. 
 White men in charge. 
 Dr. Mc In tyre. 
 H. W. Mclntyre. 
 Dr. Cramer. 
 John M. Morton. 
 Chas. Bryant. 
 D. Webster. 
 
 , a cooper, 
 
 , a carpenter.
 
 106 ALASKA. 
 
 A^inual division or cash settlement made hy the natives on Saint 
 PaiiPs Island, among themselves, the ])roceeds of their ivork in 
 taling and sMnning 75,000 seals, at 40 cents per sl;in, $30,000, 
 with extra icork connected with it, malcing $30,037.37. 
 
 Sevonty-iour shares, proportioned as follows : 
 
 December 31, 1872. — 37 first class shares, at $451 22 racb. 
 
 23 second-class shares, at . 40G 99 each. 
 
 4 third-class shares, at. . . 3G0 97 each. 
 
 10 fourth-class shares, at.. 315 85 each. 
 
 The shares do not represent more than Ibrty-flve able-bodied 
 
 men. 
 
 Annual division or cash settlement made hy the people on Saint 
 George's Island, among themselves, the proceeds of their tcorJc in 
 talcing and skinning 25,000 seals, at 40 cents per skin, $10,000. 
 
 Aug. 1, 1873.— 17 shares, each 961 skins, or $384.40. $G, 294 80 
 
 2 shares, each 935 skins, or $374. . . 748 00 
 
 3 shares, each 821 skins, or $328.40. 985 20 
 
 1 share, 820 skins, or $328 328 00 
 
 3 shares, each 770 skins, or $308. . . 924 00 
 
 3 shares, each 400 skins, or $1G0. . . 480 00 
 
 Twenty-nine shares, or the twenty-nine laboring sealers ; of 
 this number two are women. Only twenty -live of them are 
 able-bodied men. 
 
 The divisions above are the result of their own choice. They 
 make this apportionment among themselves without advice or 
 suggestion from the agents of the company. Tliese people have 
 $3,320 on interest in the office of the Alaska Commercial Com- 
 pany at this date, and have credit on the books for $31,800; 
 and when the division is made up on Saint Paul at the regu- 
 lar annual time of settlement in ])ecember, $30,000 will be 
 added to the above exhibit. 
 
 The people here are occupying, rent-free at the present time, 
 thirty frame houses built by and belonging to the Alaska 
 Commercial Company on the Seal Islands. Twenty of these 
 houses are new frame, 11 by 20 feet. 
 
 These people have their misers and spendthrifts, but it will 
 be seen that very few of them care much for saving their money, 
 inasmuch as only four or tive of them have as yet taken any 
 steps toward such action. One man on Saint Paul has over 
 $1,800 saved, and drawing interest at 9 per cent, to-day.
 
 ALASKA. 107 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE BUSINESS AS CONDUCTED BY THE 
 
 KUSSIANS. 
 
 [Translated by the writer from Voniamiuov's Zapieskic, &c., Saint Petersburg, 
 
 1842, voI.ii,pi). 5Grf. *] 
 
 From tlie time of the discovery of the Prybilov Islands, up 
 to 1805, (or tbilt is, uutil the time of the arrival iu America of 
 General Resanov,) the taking of fur-seals on both islands pro- 
 gressed without connt or lists, and without responsible heads 
 or chiefs, because then (1787 to 1805 inclusive) there were a 
 number of companies represented by as many agents or leaders, 
 and all of them vied with each other in taking as many as they 
 could before the killing was stopped. After this, in 180G and 
 
 1807, there were no seals taken, and nearly all the people were 
 removed to Ounalashka. 
 
 In 1808 killing Avas again commenced^ but the people iu this 
 yearwereallowed tokillonlyonSaintGeorge-jOnSaintPaulhunt- 
 ers were not permitted this year or the next: it was not until 
 the fourtb year after this that as many as half the number pre- 
 viously taken wereanuually killed. rromthistime(SaiutGeorge, 
 
 1808, and Saint Paul, 1810) up to 1822, takingfur-seals progressed 
 on both islands without any economy and with slight circum- 
 spection, as if there were a race in killing for the most skins. 
 Cows were taken in tJie drives and hilled^ and were also driven 
 from the rookeries to places where they were slaughtered. 
 
 It was only in 1822 that G. Moorayvev (governor) ordered 
 that young seals sbould be spared every year for breeding, and 
 from that time there were taken from the Prybilov Islands, in- 
 stead of 40,000 to 50,000, which Moorayvev ordered to be spared 
 in four successive years, no more than 8,000 to 10,000. Since 
 this, G. Chestyabkov, chief ruler after Moorayvev, estimated 
 that from the increase resulting from the legislation of jNIooray- 
 vev, which was so honestly carried out on the Prybilov Islands 
 that in these four years the seals on Saint Paul increased to 
 double their previous number, be could give an order which in- 
 creased the number to be annually slain to 40,000, and this last 
 order or course directed for these islands demanded as many 
 seals as could be got, but with all possible exertion hardly 
 28,000 were obtained. 
 
 After this, when it was most plainly seen that the seals were, 
 on account of this wicked killing, steadily growing less and less 
 
 * Tlio italics aro mine, and the translation is nearly literal, as might bo inferred by the 
 idiom here and there.— H. W. E.
 
 108 ALASKA. 
 
 in number, the directions were observed for greater caution in 
 killing the grown seals and young females which came in with 
 the droves of killing-seals, and to endeavor to separate, if pos- 
 sible, these from those which should be shiin. 
 
 But. all this hardly served to do more than keep the seals at 
 one figure or number, and hence did not cause an increase. 
 Finally, in 1834, the governor of the company, upon the clear 
 (or "handsome") argument of Baron Wrangel, which was 
 l)laced before him, resolved to make new regulations respecting 
 them, to take eflect in the same year, (1834,) and, following this, 
 on the island of Saint Paul only 4,000 were killed instead of 
 ] 2,000. 
 
 On the island of Saint George the seals were allowed to rest 
 m 1826 and 1827, and since that time greater caution and care 
 have been observed, and head-men or foremen have kept a care- 
 ful count of the killing. 
 
 From this it will be seen that no anxiety or care as to the pres- 
 ervation of the seal-life began until 1805, (i. c, with the united 
 comj^anies.) 
 
 It is further evident that all half-measures, seen or not seen, 
 were useful no longer, as they only served to preserve a small 
 portion of the seal-life, and only the last step (1834) with the 
 present people or inhabitants has proved of benefit. And if 
 such regulations of the company continue for fifteen years, (/. e., 
 until 1849,) it may be truly said that then t<ie seal-life will be 
 attracted quite rapidly under the careful direction of head-men, 
 so that in quite a short time a handsome yield may be taken 
 every year. In connection with this subject, if the company 
 are moderate and these regulations are carried out, the seal- 
 life will serve them and be depended upon as shown in this 
 volume. Table No. 2. 
 
 Xearlv all the old men think and assert that the seals which 
 are spared every year, (" zapooskat kotov,") i. e., those which 
 have not been killed for several years, are truly of little use for 
 breeding, lying about as if they were outcasts or disfranchised 
 always. About these seals, they show thp^t after the seals were 
 s])ared, they were always less than they should be, as, for 
 instance, on the island of Saint George, after two years of sav- 
 ing or sparing of 5,500 seals, in the first year they got, instead 
 of 10,000 or 8,000, as expected, only 4,778. 
 
 But this diminution, whi(;h is shown in the most convincing 
 manner, (I,) is due to wrong and injustice, because it would not
 
 ALASKA. 109 
 
 have been otherwise with any kind of animals — even cattle 
 would have been exterminated ; because a great many here 
 think and count that the seal-motber brings forth her young in 
 her third year, i. c, the next two years after her own birth. As 
 it is well shown here, the si)ared seals (*' zapooskie") were not more 
 than three years old, and tlierefore it was not possible to dis- 
 cern the correct or true numbers as they really were. Taking the 
 females killed by the people, together with all the seals which 
 were purposely spared, it was seen that the seal-mothers did 
 DOt begin to bear earlier tJum the fifth year of their lives. Illus- 
 trative of this is the following : 
 
 {a) On the island of Saint George, after the first "zapooska," 
 in 1828, the killing of five-year-old seals was continued gradu- 
 ally up to five times as many as at first; with those of five 
 years old, the killing stopi)ed ; then next year twelve times as 
 many six-year-olds were observed on the islands as compared 
 with their number of the last years, and with or in the seventh 
 year came seven times as many. This shows that females born 
 in 1828 did not begiu to bear young until their fifth year, and 
 become with young accordingly : that the large ones did not 
 appear or come in six years, (from 1828,) as is evident, for in 
 the fifth year all the females did not biiug forth. 
 
 h. It is known that the male seals cannot become "seecatchies" 
 (adult bulls) earlier than their fifth or sixth year; following 
 this, it may be said that the female bears earlier than the fourth 
 year. 
 
 c. If the male seal cannot become a ball ("seecatchie") 
 earlier than the fifth year, then, as Buffon remarks, " animals 
 cau live seven times the length of the period required for their 
 maturity;" therefore a seecatch cannot live less than thirty years, 
 and a female not less than twenty-eight.* 
 
 Taking the opinion of Buffon for ground in saying that 
 animals do not come to their full maturity until one-seventh 
 
 * "This remark is sustained by the observatiou of oklmeu, and especially 
 by oue of tlio l)est Creoles, Shiesueckov, who was ou the island of Saint Paul 
 in 1817, and who knows of one " seecatcb," (known by a bald bead,) which 
 in that time had already a large berd of cows or females, surrounded and 
 hunted by a like number of females and strong, savage old bulls ; therefore 
 it may be safely thought that this bull did not get his growth until his lifth 
 year, aud at this time he could not have been less than ten years old ; and 
 this same bull came every year to the island and the same place for fifteen 
 years in succession, up to 1S3-3, and it was only in the later years that his 
 harem grew smaller aud smaller in number."
 
 110 ALASKA. 
 
 of their lives has passed, it goes also to prove that the female 
 seal cannot bear young before her fourth year. 
 
 It is vrithout doubt a fact that female seals do not begin to 
 bear young before their fifth year, i. c, the next four years after 
 the oue of their birth, and not in the third or fourth. Certainly 
 we can allow that some females bear in their fourth year; that, 
 however, is not the rule, but the exception. To make it more 
 apparent that females cannot bear young in their third year, 
 consider the two-year-old females, and compare them with "see- 
 tatchie" (adult bulls) and cows, (adult females,) and it will be 
 evident to all that this is impossible. 
 
 Do the females bear young every year; and how often in 
 their lives do they bring forth ? 
 
 To settle this question is very difficult, for it is impossible to 
 make any observations upon their movements; but I think that 
 the females in their younger years (or i)rime) bring forth every 
 year, and as they get older, every other year ; thus (according 
 to people accustomed to them) they may each bring forth in 
 their whole lives from ten to fifteen young, and even more. 
 This opinion is founded on the fact that never (except in one 
 year, 1832) have an excessive number of females been seen 
 Avithout young ; that cows not pregnant hardly ever come to the 
 Prybilov Islands ; that such females cannot be seen every year. 
 As to how large a number of females do not bear, according to 
 the opinions and personal observations of the old people, the 
 following may be depended upon with confidence: not more 
 than one-fifth of the mature or " effective" females are without 
 young ; but to avoid erroneous impressions or conflicting state- 
 ments between others and myself, I have had but one season, 
 (" trayt") in which to personally observe and consider the multi- 
 plication of seals. 
 
 There is one more A'ery important question in the considera- 
 tion of the breeding or the increase of seals, and that is, of the 
 number of young seals horn in one year, lioio many are males ; and 
 is the number of males always the same in yroj)ortion to the 
 females f 
 
 Judging from the holluschickie accumulated from the "za- 
 pooska" in 1822-24 on the island of Saint Paul, and in 182G-'27 
 on the island of Saint George, the number of young males was 
 ver^^ variable ; for example, on the island of Saint Paul, in three 
 years 11,000 seals were spared, and in the following three years 
 there were killed 7,000, i. c, about two-thirds of the number
 
 ALASKA. Ill 
 
 saved ; opposed to this, on the island of Saint George, from 
 8,500 spared seals in two years, less than 3,000 were taken, 
 hardly one-third. 
 
 Why this irregularity ? Why should more young males be 
 born at one time, and at another less? Or why should there 
 be years in which many cows do not bear young? 
 
 According to the belief of the people here, I think that of the 
 number of seals born every year, half are males, and as many 
 females. 
 
 To demonstrate the above-mentioned conditions of seal-life, 
 the table, No. 1, has been formed of the number of seals annu- 
 ally killed on the Prybilov Islands from 1817 to 1838, (when this 
 work was ended.) 
 
 From this it will be seen that — 
 
 1. No single successive year presents a good number of 
 seals killed as compared with the previous year; the number is 
 always less. 
 
 2. The annual number of seals killed was not in a constant 
 ratio. 
 
 3. And, therefore, in the regular hunting-season there is less 
 need or occasion during the next lifteen years to demund the 
 whole seal kind. 
 
 4. Few^er seals were killed in those years generally- following 
 a previous year in which there were larger numbers of the 
 "holluschickie;" that is, when the young males were not com- 
 pletely destroyed, and more were killed when the number of 
 " holluschickie " was less. 
 
 5. The number of "holluschickie" is a true register or show- 
 ing of the numbers of seals; i. e., if the "holluschickie" 
 increase and exist like the young females, and conversely. 
 
 G. Holluschickie break from the (common) herd and gather 
 by themselves no earlier than the third year, as seen in the case 
 of the spared seals on the islands of Saint George and Saint 
 Paul, the latter from 1822-'24, 1835-'37, inclusive; the former 
 from 182G-'27. 
 
 7. The number of seals killed on the island of Saint George 
 after two years ("zapooska") was resumed and gradually in- 
 creased to five times as many. 
 
 8. In the fifth year from the first "zapooskie" (or saving) it 
 became possible to count or reckon on the number remaining, 
 and six-year-olds began to appear twelve times as numerous, 
 and seven-year-olds came in numbers sevenfold greater than
 
 112 ALASKA. 
 
 their previous small number 5 and, therefore^ the number of 
 three-year-old seals was quite coustant. 
 
 9. If on the island of Saint George, in 182G-'27, the seals 
 bad not had this rest, ("zapooska,") and the killing had been 
 continued, even at the diminished ratio of one-eighth, in 1840 
 or 1842 there would not have been a single seal left, as api)ears 
 by the following table : 
 
 Seals. 
 
 1825 5,500 
 
 1826 4,400 
 
 1827 3,520 
 
 1828 2, BIG 
 
 1629 2,468 
 
 1830 2,160 
 
 1831 1,890 
 
 1832 1,554 
 
 Seals. 
 
 1833 1,3G0 
 
 1834 1,190 
 
 1835 1,040 
 
 1836 850 
 
 1837 700 
 
 1838 580 
 
 1839 500 
 
 1840 400 
 
 10. Following two years of "zapooska," (saving,) the seal -life 
 is enhanced for more than ten years, and the loss sustained by 
 the company in the time of "zapooskov" (about 8,500) is made 
 good in the long run. The case may be thus stated: If the 
 company had not spared the seals in 1826-'27, they would have 
 received, from 1820 to 1838, (twelve years,) no more than 24,000, 
 but by making this zapooska regulation for two years they got 
 in ten years 31,570, and, beyond this, they can yet take 15,000 
 without another, or any, zapooska. 
 
 11. And in this cace, where such an insignificant number of 
 seals was spared on Saint George, (about 8,500,) and in such a 
 short time, (two years,) the result was at once significant every 
 year; that is, three times more appeared than the number 
 spared. The result, therefore, must be large annually on the 
 island of Saint Paul, where, in consequence of the last orders 
 or directions of the governor, already i'our years of saving have 
 been in iorce, in vrhich time over 30,000 seals have been left for 
 breeding. 
 
 On this account, and in conformity with the above, I here 
 present a table, a prophesy of the seals that are to come in the 
 next fifteen years from 7,000 seals saved on the island of Saint 
 Paul in 1835. 
 
 On the island of Saint Paul, at tlie direction of the governor, 
 a "zapoosk " or saving was made of 12,700 seals; that is, before 
 the year 1834 there were killed 12,700 seals, and on the following 
 year, if this saving had not been made, according to the testi- 
 mony of the inhabitants, no more than 12,200 seals would or
 
 ALASKA. 113 
 
 could have been taken from the islands, it being tlionglit that 
 this number (12,200) was only one twenty-fifth of the whole ; 
 bnt instead of killing 12,200, only 4,052 were taken, leaving in 
 1835, for breeding, 8,148 fresh young seals, males and females, 
 together. 
 
 In making this hypothetical table of seals that are to come, 
 I take the average killing, that is, one-eighth part, and proceed 
 on the supposition that the number of saved seals will not be 
 less than 7,060. 
 
 In the number of 7,000 seals we can calculate upon 3,000 
 females; that is, a slight mnjority of males. With the new 
 females born under this" zapooska" I place half of those bom 
 the first year, and so on. 
 
 Females, in the twelve or eighteen years next after their birth, 
 must become less in number from natural causes, and by the 
 twenty-second year of their lives they must be quite useless for 
 breeding. 
 
 Of the number of seals which may be born during the next 
 four years of " zapooska." or longer, we may take half for 
 females. This number is included in the table, and the males, 
 or "holluschickie," make up the total. 
 
 From the II Table, observe that — 
 
 1. Old females, that is, those which in 1835 were capable of 
 bearing young, in 1850 must be canceled, (minus.) They prob- 
 ably die in proportion of one-eighth of the whole number every 
 year. 
 
 2. For the first four years of zapooska, until the new females 
 begin to bear, their number will be generally less. 
 
 3. A constant number of seals wiil continue during the first 
 six years of their zapooska ; in twelve years these seals will 
 double, in fourteen years they will have increased threefold ; 
 and after fifteen years of this zapooska or saving of 7,000, in 
 the first year 24,000 may be taken from them, in the second 
 28,000, in the third 32,000, in the fourth 30,000, in the fifth 41,000; 
 thus in five years more that 100,000 can be taken. Then, under 
 the supervision of persons who will see that one-fifth of the 
 seals be steadily spared, 32,000 may be taken every year for a 
 long time. 
 
 4. Moreover, from the production of fifteen years " zapooska" 
 there can be taken from 00,000 to 70,000 hoUuschickie, which, 
 together with 100,000 seals,^makes 230,000. 
 
 5. If this "zapooska" for the next fifteen years is not made 
 
 8 AL
 
 114 ALASKA. 
 
 for the seaMife, diminution will certainly ensue, and all tbis 
 time, with all possible effort, no more than 50,000 seals will be 
 taken. 
 
 Here it should be said that this hypothetical table of the 
 probable increase of seals is made on the supi)osition of the 
 decrease of females, and an average is taken accordingly. 
 Furthermore, on the island of Saint Paul, in 183G-'37, instead of 
 7,900 seals being killed, but 4,800 were taken. Hence it follows 
 that these 1,500 females thus saved in two years, and which 
 are omitted from the table, will also make a very significant 
 addition to the incoming seals.* 
 
 * I jrive this chapter of Veniamiuov's without abridgment, although it is 
 full of errors, to show that while the Russians gave this matter evidently 
 much thought at headquarters, yet they failed to send some one on to the 
 ground, who, by first making himself acquainted with the habits of the 
 seals from close observation of th*ir lives, should then be fitted to prepare 
 rules and regulations founded upon this knowledge. These suggestions of 
 Veuiamiuov were, however, a vast improvement on the work as it was con- 
 ducted, and they were adopted at once, but it was not until 1845 that the 
 great imj)ortance of never disturbing the breeding-seals was recognized. 
 
 H. W. E.
 
 ALASKA. 
 
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 ALASKA. 
 
 From tliis table beliold tbat — 
 
 a. Every tifteeu years, from 3, GOO females, tberecan be received 
 iu sixteen years 24,700 seals j iu sisteen years still more; and 
 in twenty years 41,040. 
 
 b. In the twenty-first year the incomers begin to diminish, 
 provided that if in the mean time, or the following sixteen years, 
 a certain number of young seals are not left to breed ; and 
 if every year a known number are left to breed, then in all 
 following years the yield will never be less than 20,000 every 
 year. 
 
 Taule III. — Calculation as to the coming of the seals on the island of Saint 
 George, made up fi'om two gears, and based upon that experience, (1827-'28.) 
 
 
 TT-_ 
 
 1. 
 
 o 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. ' 9. 
 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 
 Grand 
 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1 
 
 1833.1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1830 
 
 1837. 
 
 total. 
 
 1 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 - 
 
 2,200 
 Breeding 
 Li"ht . 
 
 
 
 
 
 450 
 
 700 
 3C0 
 700 
 
 700; 700 
 
 coo: 600 
 
 550 400 
 
 1,8501,700 
 1,800 1,700 
 
 700 
 COO 
 250 
 
 700 
 600 
 100 
 
 700 
 
 600 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■\ 
 
 1,700 
 
 1 .'iOO 
 
 1 200 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' ' '" 
 
 1.200 
 l,-,00 
 
 
 
 Females 
 
 Holluscbickio . 
 
 2, 200 
 2,200 
 
 2,0:iO 
 2,050 
 
 1.700 
 l.CuO 
 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 
 l,4.-.0 
 1,450 
 
 1,7G0 
 1,700 
 
 1,550 l,400' 1,350 
 1,50011.500:1,400 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 4,400 
 
 4,1003,300 
 
 3,000 2,400J2,900 
 
 3,520 
 
 3,6.-)0'3,400 
 
 3,050 
 
 2,9002.750 
 
 1 
 
 30, 870 
 
 The actual taking of seals was as follows 
 
 Seals. 
 
 In 1828 4,778 
 
 In 1829 3,661 
 
 In 1830 2, 834 
 
 Inl83L 3,084 
 
 In 1832 3, 296 
 
 In 1833 3,212 
 
 Inl834 3,051 
 
 In 1835 2, 528 
 
 In 1836 2,550 
 
 In 1837 2, 582 
 
 Total 31,476 
 
 From this table it will be seen that up to 1838 my cal- Seals. 
 
 culation makes a yield of 30, 870 
 
 While the actual result was 31, 476 
 
 Difference of. 
 
 606 
 
 The difiFereuce determines that the hypothesis upon wliich 
 the table is based is correct.
 
 ALASKA. 117 
 
 A CONFERENCE WITH THE NATIVES OF THE SEAL ISLANDS, 
 
 JULY 25-20, 1874. 
 
 For the purpose of learniHg what these people mijrht have to 
 say ill regard to the seal business as it is now conducted, Lieu- 
 tenant Maynard and myself asked the chiefs to select those 
 men among themselves who knew most in regard to the matter, 
 especially tliose who had been most in the habit of noting the 
 rookeries, and have them meet us privately to hear what they 
 might feel disposed to do if they had anything to say in the 
 matter; and accordingly some fifteen of them, oldest and wisest, 
 including all the chiefs of Saint Paul and one that belongs to 
 Saint George, met us. We had a smart Russian creole for in- 
 terpreter, a sailor from our own vessel, and sat for two long 
 evenings with them in conference. The result maybe summed 
 up OS follows : 
 
 In regard to the condition of the seal-life, the natives are both 
 watchful and solicitous, but do not present any argument 
 against the annual killing of 100,000 young males over one year 
 and under five, as is now conducted ; that is, 90,000 on Saint Paul 
 and 10,000 on Saint George; but the Saint Paul people have a 
 very natural and strong feeling that they should alone reap the 
 benefit that arises from the increase in the number killed on 
 their island ; that the $0,000, which is represented by the ad- 
 ditional 15,000 killed last summer on this island, should be 
 shared among themselves, and feel a little sore about having 
 the Saint George people come over here to do this work and take 
 the proceeds, which they did on their own island (Saint George) 
 last year. They do not think 90,000 any too many on Saint 
 Paul, if they alone shall kill the animals and take the reward; 
 but suddenly, when it is found that they are to be paid only for 
 the original erroneous pro rata, 75,000, they become very fearful 
 of the result of killing 90,000, with as many five-year-old bulls 
 as have been killed this summer. As this solicitude is due to 
 no other reason than this very perceptible anxiety, its expres- 
 sion must be taken with some reservation. But this constant 
 anticipation of injurious results, even if there exist no grounds 
 for apprehension, is of great advantage to both the agents of 
 Government and the company; for the public may rest assured 
 that the first evidence of any decrease of seal-life on these rook- 
 eries of Saint Paul will be at once observed by the jealous eyes 
 of their many native keepers, even were there no agents of
 
 118 ALASKA. 
 
 (itlior party HOW in control capable of discerning it,wbich is not 
 likely, however, to be the case. 
 
 We explained to them, in return, that the law which limited 
 the killing- on Saint George to 25,000, and on Saint Paul to 
 75,000, was based npon the imperfect information furnished by 
 the agents of the Government sent to the islands, and that kill- 
 ing 25,000 out of 100,000 on an island where there was not 
 one-twentieth of the number of seals that were on the ground 
 where the remaining 75,000 were taken, was entirely wrong, and 
 must be corrected, for the best interests of all partfes concerned ; 
 and that they had no right to profit at tlie expense of their 
 brethren on Saint George, who were expected, at the tiuie the 
 law was made, to share equally with them the proceeds of this 
 labor, and in this spirit the defective law was framed. This 
 explanation appeared to relieve their minds. 
 
 They spoke to us with great satisfaction of the bettered con- 
 dition in which they are living as compared with the state in 
 which they lived but a short time since. A very perceptible 
 shade of gloom settled on the countenances of all when we as- 
 sured them that the Government could not permit any more 
 "quass"or beer drunkenness among them. We set forth the 
 propriety of this course on the part of the Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury as justi&ed by the following reasons: 
 
 1. They are at present living without the restraint of police- 
 men and prisons, lines, &c., which we em[)loy for the suppression 
 of such disorder in our own land, and it was best for them to live 
 sober and avoid the necessity of having such institutions. 
 
 2. That they were, by the great generosity of the Govern- 
 ment and the company, allowed to enjoy the sole privilege of 
 participation in the sealing-labor and its good reward, by which 
 they were enabled to live in such comfort and ease ; that if they 
 indulged in drinking they would drop out from the skinning- 
 gangs, and be unable in a few years to attend properly- to their 
 duty on the killing-grounds f that then the company would 
 have the power and would be justified in procuring others to do 
 this work, and that then but a short time would elapse before 
 the labor of persons not addicted to drink would crowd them 
 and their children out of their comfortable possession. 
 
 In the course of our conversation with them in regard to the 
 events of early days on the island, they gave the following as 
 facts, relying on the " vivid imaginations and faithful memories"
 
 ALASKA. 119 
 
 with which they are credited by the mau who, of all men, best 
 liuew them, Veniaminov: 
 
 " In 1835, ou the ' Lagoon ' rookery, there were only two bulls ; 
 the cows were, however, in number excessive; about as many 
 as are on 'Na Speel' to-day, (2,000.) On 'Zapadnie' about one 
 thousand cows, bulls, and pups ; at Southwest Point there was 
 nothing; two small rookeries were on the north shore of Saint 
 Paul, near a i^lace called ' Maroonitch ; ' they have been de- 
 serted, however, by the seals for a long time ; the oldest man 
 ou the island, Zachar Seedick, aged 57, has never seen them 
 there ; has only heard of it. 
 
 " On Xortheast Point there were seven small rookeries running 
 around the point; only fifteen hundred cows, pups, and bulls, 
 all told ; this number includes the ' holluschickie,' which in 
 those da^s lay in among the breeding-seals, there being so few 
 bulls that they were permitted to do so. On ' Polavina ' there 
 were about five hundred cows, bulls, pups, and ' holluschickie;' 
 on 'Lukannon' and ' Ketavie,' about three hundred; only ten 
 bulls on 'Ketavie,' so few young males lying in all together that 
 they took no note of them on these rookeries; on the 'Eeef 
 and 'Gorbotch,' about one thousand only; of these some eight 
 hundred, 'holluschickie' included, lying in with the breeding- 
 seals ; there were about twenty old bulls only on Gorbotch, and 
 but ten on the Eeef ; on 'Xau Speel' there were about a hun- 
 dred. The village was here then as now. 
 
 "In 1845 we took the young males alone, respecting the 
 sexes for the first time ; took only about twenty a day on North- 
 east Point ; on the Eeef, all the way from one hundred and 
 fifty to two hundred a day. 
 
 "In 1857 the breeding-rookeries were nearly as large as they 
 are now ; hut have been rather gradually increasing ever since. 
 Prior to 1835 the village was up at the little fresh-water lake, 
 and the seals are reported, previous to this date, many years, 
 to have ran all over the i)resent village ground, very much as 
 they do at Zapadnie to-day." 
 
 In regard to the numbers of the fur-seal when the Russians 
 first took possession of the ground, in 1787, the present genera- 
 tion, descendants of these pioneers, have onl^^ a general vague 
 impression that the seals were somewhat more numerous in the 
 first days of Eussian occupation than they are now. 
 
 With regard to the probable truth of the foregoing statement 
 of the natives to us, I can only call attention to the fact that
 
 120 ALASKA. 
 
 the entire sum of seal-life, as given by tbem, is 4,100 of all 
 classes ; now, Bishop Veniamiuov publishes an authentic record 
 of the killing on these islands from 1817 to 1837, (the time in 
 which he finished his work,) by which it will be seen that iu 
 this year of 1835, 4,052 seals were killed and taken ; and if the 
 account of the natives was true, that would leave on the island 
 only 51) for 183G, in which 3'ear, however, 4,040 were kiHed, and 
 in 1837 4,220, and there was a steady increase in the killing 
 by the liussians up to 1850, wheu they governed their catch 
 bv the market alone. 
 
 This great diminution of the seal-life, setting in at 1817 and 
 running on steadily in decline until 1834, when it began to 
 mend, is well accounted for by Veniaminov's account. From 
 this it will be seen that after greedy Russian companies on 
 these islands had killed seals for over fifteen years iu unknown 
 numbers without causing any great change iu the ratio of num- 
 bers, a diminution began gradually to set iu, which became 
 obvious iu 1817, and attained its maximum in 1834-'35, wheu 
 hardly a tithe of the former numbers appeared on the ground ; 
 but from that year change in the management, &c., promoted 
 an increase, and they steadily augmented up to their former 
 great numbers, by 1855-'57 reaching a maximum at which they 
 have remained, as far as my investigations throw light on the 
 subject ; a few years more of proper observation on the ground 
 here will settle the matter to the satisfaction of all concerned. 
 
 A variety of reasons have been given for this diminution, 
 but the case is clear that as the animals to be slaiu were 
 selected at random on the breeding-grounds from males and 
 females, they gradually, in consequence of this incessant mo- 
 lestation, began to shun the islands, seeking some other land, 
 and there breeiiing, in spite of many natural difdculties ; but 
 as soon, however, as the Russians began to respect the priuci- 
 l)le of never driving or killing the females, the seals gradually 
 regained their confidence, and finally returned to these islands, 
 the most convenient and best adapted for their occupation in 
 the northern hemisphere. This was the reason for their dis- 
 appearance at that time, or they were suffering from the rav- 
 ages of some unknown distemper.
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 THE HABITS OF TUE FUR-SEAL, ETC. 
 
 TnE Seal-life ON the Prybilov Islands may be classed 
 uuder four heads, as follows, viz : 
 
 The Fur-Seal, {CaUorldnus urslnus,) Kautickie of the Ilus- 
 slans. 
 
 The Sea-Lion, {Etimetopias stellerii,) See vitcbie of the Kus- 
 sians. 
 
 The Hair- Seal, {PhocavituUtia,)'NeaY\ii^a]i oftheEussiaus. 
 
 The Walrus, {Rosmarus arctieus^) Morsjee of tbe Kassiaus. 
 
 Of the above, tbe bai^-seal is the animal upon wbich pop- 
 ular and, indeed, scientific opinion is founded as to what a seal 
 appears like, and has in this way given to the people a false 
 idea of its relatives, above enumerated, and has made it exceed- 
 ingly difficult for the naturalist to correctly discriminate be- 
 tween them; for, although it belongs to the same family, it 
 does not even have a generic affinity to those seals witli which 
 it has been persistently confounded, viz, the fur-seal and sea- 
 lion, no more so than has the raccoon to the black or grizzly 
 bear, both being* as nearly related to each other. 
 
 A detailed description of this seal, Fhoca vitulina, is quite 
 unnecessary, as species of the genus are common pets all over 
 the world where zoological gardens are established, and its 
 grotesquely stuffed skin is still more frequently to be met with. 
 
 It differs, however, so completel}' in shape and babit from its 
 congeners on these islands, that it may be well, so as to pre- 
 serve a sharp line of distinction, to state that it seldom comes 
 up from the water more than a few rods, at the most, generally 
 resting at the margin of the surf-wash; it takes up no position 
 ou land to bold and protect a harem, preferring the detached 
 water-worn rocks which occasionally project out a little above 
 the sea-level and are only wet entirely over by heavy storms ; 
 and the animal when it is disturbed immediately goes to sea. 
 Upon these small spots of rocky, wet isolation from the main 
 island, and some secluded places on the north shore, the " nearh- 
 pah," as tbe natives call it, brings forth its young, which is a
 
 122 ALASKA. 
 
 single pup, perfectly wLite, weighing about tliree or four pounds. 
 This pup grows rapidly, and weighs, in three to tour months, 
 forty or fifty pounds, and at that time has a coat of soft, steel- 
 gray hair on the head, limbs, and abdomen, with the back most 
 richly mottled and barred lengthwise with dark-browu and 
 brown-black. When they appear in the spring, following, this 
 gray tone to their color has become a dingy ocher, and the mot- 
 tling appears well over the head and on the upper side or back 
 of the flippers, or feet, correspondingly dim. 
 
 There is no appreciable difference as to color or size betweea 
 the sexes. 
 
 They are not polygamous, as far as I have observed. 
 
 They are exceedingly timid and wary at all times, and in this 
 way they are diametrically opposed, not by shape alone, but by 
 habit and disposition, to the fur-seal and sea-lion. 
 
 Their skin is of little value compared with that of the fur- 
 seal, and their chief merit is the relative greater juiciness and 
 sweetness of their flesh to those who are in any way partial to 
 seal-meat. 
 
 I desire also to correct a common error, made in comparing 
 PJiocidcc with Otaridce, where it is stated that, in consequence 
 of the peculiar structure of their limbs, their progression on 
 land is '■'-mainli) acconqyllshcd bj' a wriggling, serpentine motion 
 of the body, slightly assisted by the extremities." This is not 
 so; for, when excited to run or exert themselves to reach the 
 water suddenly, they strike out quickly with both fore feet, 
 simultaneously lift and drag the whole body, without any wrig- 
 gling whatever, from G inches to a foot ahead and slightly from 
 the earth, according to the violence of the eftbrt and the char- 
 acter of the ground; the body then falls flat, and the fore-flip- 
 pers are free for another similar action, and this is done so 
 earnestly and rapidly that in attempting to head off a young 
 nearhpah from the water I was obliged to leave a brisk walk 
 and take to a dog-trot to do it. The hind feet are not used 
 when exerted in rapid movement at all, and are dragged along 
 in the wake of the body, perfectly limp. They do use their 
 posterior parts, however, when leisurely climbing up and over 
 rocks, or playing one with another, but it is always a Aveak 
 eflbrt, and clumsy. These remarks of mine, it should be borne 
 in mind, apply only to the Phoca ritidina, that is found arouud 
 these islands at all seasons of the year, but in very small num- 
 bers. I have never seen more than twenty live or thirty at any
 
 ALASKA. 123 
 
 one time, but I think its principle of locomotion will be found 
 to apply on land to all the rest of its genera. 
 
 The scarcity of this species and of all its generic allies is 
 notable in the waters of the Xorth Pacific as compared with 
 those of the circnmpnlnr Atlantic, where the hair-seals are 
 found in immense numbers, giving employment every year to a 
 fleet of sailing and steam vessels which go forth from St. John's, 
 Halifax, and elsewhere, fitted for seal-fishing, taking over 
 three hundred thousand of these animals each season, the 
 I)rincipal object being the oil rendered from them, the skins 
 having but small commercial value.* 
 
 •» 
 
 THE FUR-SEAL, (OALLORHINUS URSTNUS,) 
 
 Whichrepairs totheseislands tobreed, &c.,in numbersthatseem 
 almost fabulous, is by far the highest organized of all the Pinni- 
 pedia, and, indeed, for that matter, when land and water are fully 
 taken into account, tliere is no other animal superior to it from 
 a purely physical point of view ; and few creatures that can be 
 said to exhibit a higher order of instinct, approaching even 
 intelligence, belonging to the animal kingdom. 
 
 Kegarding a male six to seven years old, and full grown, 
 when he comes up from the sea in the spring on to his station 
 for the breeding-season, we have an animal that will measure 
 6J to 7^ feet in length, from tip of nose to end of tail, and 
 weighing at least 400 pounds, and sometimes as much, perhaps, 
 as GOO. (?) The head, which in comparison with the immense 
 thick neck and shoulders, seems to be disproportionately small ; 
 but as we come to examine it we will tiud that it is mostly all 
 occupied by the brain ; the light frame-work of the skull sup- 
 ports an expressive pair of large bluish-hazel eyes, and a muz- 
 zle and jaws of nearly the same size and form observed in any 
 fall-blooded Newfoundland dog, with the difference of having 
 no flabby, hanging lips ; the upper lips support a white and 
 yellowish-gray mustache, long, and, when not torn in combat, 
 luxuriant, composed of heavy stiff bristles. 
 
 Observe it as it comes leisurely swimming on toward the 
 land ; how high above the water it carries its head, and how 
 deliberately it surveys the beach, after having stepped up on it ; 
 
 * Au excelleut and, I have every reason to believe, correct descrip- 
 tion of this seal-fishery in the North Atlantic has been published by Michael 
 Carroll, who writes in a manner indicative of great familiarity with the 
 business.
 
 124 ALASKA. 
 
 it may be truly said to step with its fore fli pikers, for they regu- 
 larly alternate as it uioves up, carrying- the head well above 
 them, at least three feet from the ground, with a perfectly erect 
 neck. 
 
 The fore feet, or hands, are a pair of dark bluish-black flip- 
 pers, about 8 or 10 inches broad at their junction with the 
 body, running out to an ovate point some 15 to 18 inches from 
 this union, which is at the carpal joint, corresponding to our 
 wrist; all the rest of the fore-arm, the uhia, radius, and 
 humerus, being concealed under the skin and thick blabber 
 foUls of the umin body and neck, concealed entirely at this 
 season when it is so fat ; but later, when flesh or fat has been 
 consumed by absorption, they come quite plainly into view. 
 
 On the upper side of these flippers, the hair straggles down 
 finer and fainter, as it comes down to a point close to and 
 slightly beyond where the phalanges and the metacarpal bones 
 are jointed, simihir to the spot where our knuckles are placed, 
 and there ends, leaving the skin bare and wrinkled in places at 
 the margin of the inner side, showing five small pits containing 
 abortive nails, which are situated immediately over the union 
 of the phalanges with their cartilaginous continuations to the 
 end of the flipper. 
 
 On the under side of the flipper the skin is entirely bare from 
 the end up to the body connection, dee|)ly and regularly wrin- 
 kled with seams and furrows, which cross one another, so as to 
 leave a kind of sharp diamond-pattern. 
 
 But we observe as the seal moves along that, though it han- 
 dles its fore limbs in a most creditable manner, it brings up its 
 rear in quite a different style ; for after every second step ahead 
 with the fore feet It arches its spine, and with it drags and lifts 
 together the hinder limbs to a fit position under its body for 
 another movement forward, by which the si)ine is again straight- 
 ened out so as to take a fresh hitch up on the posteriors. This 
 is the leisurely and natural movement on land when not dis- 
 turbed, the body being carried clear of the ground. 
 
 The radical difference in the form and action of the hinder 
 feet cannot fail to strike the eye at once. They are one-seventh 
 longer and very much lighter and more slender; they, too, are 
 merged in the body like those anterior; nothing can be seen of 
 the leg above the tarsal joint. 
 
 The shape of this hind flipper is strikingly like a human foot, 
 provided the latter were drawn out to a length of 20 or 22
 
 ALASKA. 125 
 
 iuclies, the instep flattened down and the toes run out into 
 thin, membraneous, oval-tipped points, only skin-thick, leav- 
 ing- three strong cylindrical grayish horn-colored nails, hall' an 
 inch long, back six inches from these skinny toe-ends, without 
 any nails to mention on the big and little toes. 
 
 On the upper side of this loot the hair comes down to the 
 point where the metatarsus and phalangeal bones joint and 
 fades out; from this junction the phalanges, about six inches 
 down to the nails, are entirely bare and stand ribbed up in bold 
 relief on the membrane which unites them as a web ; the nails 
 nuirk the ends of the phalangeal bones aud their union in turn 
 Avith the cartiliiginous processes, which run rapidly tapering 
 and flattening, out to the ends of the thin toe-flaps. 
 
 Now, as we look at this fur-seal's progression, that which 
 seems most odd is the gingerly manner (if I may be allowed 
 to use the expression) in which it carries these hmd-flipi)ers; 
 they are held out at right angles from the body directly oppo- 
 site the pelvis, the toe-ends and flaps slightly waving and curl- 
 ing or drooping over, supported daintily, as it were, above the 
 earth, only suffering its weight behind to fall upon the heels, 
 which are opposed to each oth^er scarcely five inches apart. 
 
 We shall, as we see him again later in the season, have to 
 notice a different mode of progression, both when lording it 
 over his harem or when he grows shy and restless at the end 
 of the breeding-season, and now proceed to notice him in the 
 order of his arrival aud that of his family, his behavior during 
 the long period of fasting and unceasing activity and vigilance 
 and other cares which devolve upon him, as the most eminent 
 of all polygamists in the brute world; and to fully comprehend 
 this exceedingly interesting animal, it will be necessary to refer 
 to my drawings and paintings uuide from it and its haunts. 
 
 The adult males are first to arrive in the spring on the ground 
 deserted by all classes the preceding year. 
 
 Between the 1st and 5th of May, usually, a few bulls will be 
 found scattered over the rookeries pretty close to the water. 
 They are at this time quite shy and sensitive, not yet being 
 satisfied with the land, and a great many spend day after day 
 before coming ashore idly swimming out among the breakers a 
 little distance from the laud, to which they seem somewhat re- 
 luctant at first to repair. The first arrivals are not always the 
 oldest bulls, but may be said to be the finest and most ambi- 
 tious of their class; they are full-grown aud able to hold their
 
 126 ALASKA. 
 
 Stations ou tbe rocks, wbicli tbej^ immediately take up after 
 comiug ashore. 
 
 I am not able to say authoritatively that these animals come 
 back and take up the same position ou tbe breeding-grounds 
 occupied by tliem during the preceding season; from mj' 
 knowledge of their action and habit, and from what I have 
 learned of the natives, I should say that very few, if any of 
 them, make such a selection and keep these places year after 
 year. One old bull was pointed out to me on the Kecf Gar- 
 butch Eookery as being known to the natives as a regular vis- 
 itor at, close by, or on the same rock every season during the 
 past three years, but he failed to re-appear ou the fourth ; but 
 if these animals came each to a certain i:»lace and occupied it 
 regularly, season after season, I think the natives here would 
 know it definitely ; as it is, they do not. 1 think it very likely, 
 however, that the older bulls come back to the same rookery- 
 ground where they spent the previous season, but take up their 
 l)o.sitions on it just as the circumstances attending their arrival 
 will permit, such as fighting other seals which have arrived be- 
 fore them, &c. 
 
 With the object of testing this matter, the Russians, during 
 the early part of their possession, cutoff the ears from a given 
 number of young male seals driven up for that purpose from 
 one of the rookeries, and the result was that cropped seals were 
 found on nearly all the different rookeries or " hauling-grounds" 
 on the islands after. The same experiment was made by agents 
 two years ago, who had the left ears taken off from a hundred 
 young males which were found on Lukannon Eookery, Saint 
 Paul's Island ; of these the natives last year found two on No- 
 vashtosh-nah Rookery, ten miles north of Lukannon, and two 
 or three from English Day and Tolstoi Rookery, six miles west 
 by water; one or two were taken on Saint George's Island, thir- 
 ty-six miles to the southeast, and not one from Lukannon was 
 found among those that were driven from there; and, proba- 
 bly, had all the young males on the two ishinds been driven up 
 and examined, the rest would have been Ibund distributed quite 
 equally all around, although the natives say that they think 
 the cutting off of the animal's ear gives the water such access 
 to its head as to cause its death; this, however, I think re- 
 quires confirmation. These experiments would tend to prove 
 that when the seals approach the islands in the spring, they 
 have nothing but a general instinctive appreciation of the fit-
 
 ALASKA. 127 
 
 ness of the land as a icJioIc, and no especial fondness for any 
 particular spot. 
 
 The landing of the seals upon tlie respective rookeries is in- 
 fluenced greatly by the direction of the wind at the time of 
 approach to the islands. The prevailing winds, coming from 
 the northeast, north, and northwest, carry far out to sea the 
 odor or scent of the pioneer bulls, which have located them- 
 selves on different breeding-grounds three or four weeks usually 
 in advance of the masses ; and hence it will be seen that the 
 rookeries on the south and southeastern shores of Saint Paul's 
 Island receive nearly all the seal-life, although there are miles 
 of eligible ground on the north shore. 
 
 To settle this question, however, is an exceedingly diflScult 
 matter ; for the identification of individuals, from one season to 
 another, among the hundreds of thousands, and even millions, 
 that come under the eye on a single one of these great rook- 
 eries, is really impossible. 
 
 From the time of the first arrivals in May up to the 1st of 
 June, or as late as the middle of this month, if the weather be 
 clear, is an interval in which everything seems quiet ; very few 
 seals are added to the pioneers. By the 1st of June, however, 
 or thereabouts, the foggy, humid weather of summer sets in, 
 and with it the bull-seals come up by hundreds and thousands, 
 and locate themselves in advantageous positions for the recep- 
 tion of the females, which are generally three weeks or a month 
 later, as a rule. 
 
 The labor of locating and maintaining a position iu the rook- 
 ery is really a serious business for those bulls which come in 
 last, and for those that occupy the water-line, frequently result- 
 ing in death from severe wounds iu combat sustained. 
 
 It appears to be a well-understood principle a,mong the able- 
 bodied bulls that each oue shall remain undisturl)ed on his 
 ground, which is usually about ten feet square, provided he is 
 strong enough to hold it against all comers ; for the crowding 
 in of fresh bulls often causes the removal of many of those 
 who, though equally able-bodied at first, have exhausted them- 
 selves by fighting earlier, and are driven by the fresher animals 
 bade farther and higher up on the rookery. 
 
 Some of these bulls show wonderful strength and courage. 
 I have marked oue veteran, who was among thefirstto take up 
 his position, and that one ou the water line, where at least fifty 
 or sixty desperate battles were fought victoriously by him.
 
 128 ALASKA. 
 
 with nearl}' as many difi'erent seals, A\iio coveted bis position, 
 and when the fij^htiiiii-season was over, (alter the cows have 
 mostly all hauled up,) I saw him, covered with scars and j;ashes 
 raw and bloody, an eye gouged out, but lording it bravely over 
 his harem of tifteen or twenty cows, all huddled together on 
 the same spot he had first chosen. 
 
 The fighting is mostly or entirely done with the mouth, the 
 opponents seizing each other with the teeth and cleuching 
 the jaws; nothing but sheer strength can shake them loose, 
 and that effort almost always leaves an ugly wound, the sharp 
 canines tearing out deep gutters in the skin and blubber or 
 shredding the tiippers into ribbon-strips. 
 
 They usually approach each other with averted heads and a 
 great many false passes before either one or the other takes the 
 initiative by griping; the heads are darted out and back as quick 
 as flash, their hoarse roaring and shrill, piping whistle never 
 ceases, while their fat bodies writhe and swell with exertion and 
 rage, fur flying in air and blood streaming down — all combined 
 make a picture fierce and savage enough, and, from its great 
 novelty, exceedingly strange at first sight. 
 
 In these battles the parties are always distinct, the offensive 
 and the defensive ; if the latter proves the weaker he with- 
 draws from the position occupied, and is never followed by his 
 conqueror, who complacently throws up oneof his hind flippers, 
 fans himself as it were, to cool himself from the heat of the 
 conflict, utters a peculiar chuckle of satisfaction or couteuipt, 
 with a sharp eye open for the next covetous bull or '' see- 
 catch."* 
 
 The period occupied by the males in taking and holding their 
 positions on the rookery offers a favorable opportunity in 
 which to study them in the thousand and one different attitudes 
 and postures assumed between the two extremes of desperate 
 conflict and deep sleep — sleep so sound that one can, by keep- 
 ing to the leeward, approach close enough, stepping softly, to 
 pull the whiskers of any one taking a nap on a clear place ; but 
 after the first touch to these whiskers the trifler must jump 
 back with great celerity, if he h^s any regard for the sharp 
 teeth and tremendous shaking which will surely overtake him 
 if he does not. 
 
 The neck, chest, and shoulders of a fur-seal bull comprise 
 
 * "See-carcb," uative name for the bulls oa the rookeries, especially those 
 which arc able to maiutaiu their position.
 
 ALASKA. 129 
 
 more than two-thirds of his wliole weight, and in tliis long 
 thick neck and lore limbs is embodied the larger portion of his 
 strength ; when on land, with the fore feet he does all climbing 
 over rocks, over the grass3- hnintnocks back of the rookery, the 
 hind flippers being gathered ui) after every second step forward, 
 as described in the manner of walking; these fore feet are the 
 propelling power when in water, almost exclusively, the hinder 
 ones being used as rudders chiefly. 
 
 The covering to the body is composed of two coats, one being 
 of short, crisp, glistening over-hair, and the other a close, soft, 
 elastic pelage, or fur, which gives distinctive value to the pelt. 
 
 At this season of first " hauling up" in the spring, the pre- 
 vailing color of the bulls, after they dry oft" and have been ex- 
 posed to the weather, is a dark, dull brown, with a sprinkling 
 of lighter brown-black, and a number of hoary or frosted-gray 
 coats ; on the shoulders the over-hair is either a gray or rufous- 
 ocher, called the '• wig ; " these colors are most intense upon 
 the back of the head, neck, and spine, being lighter underneath. 
 The skin of the muzzle and flippers, a dark bluish black, fading 
 to a reddish and purplish tint in some. The ears and tail are 
 also similar in tint to the body, being in the case of the former 
 a trifle lighter; the ears on a bull fur-seal are from an inch to 
 an inch and a half in length ; the imvUions tightly rolled up on 
 themselves so that they are similar in shape and size to the lit- 
 tle finger on the human hand, cut off at the second (phalangeal) 
 joint, a shade more cone-shaped, for they are greater in diame- 
 ter at the base than at the til). 
 
 I think it probable that the animal has and exerts the power 
 of compressing or dilating this scroll-like pavilion to its ear, 
 accordingly as it dives deep or rises in the water; and jUso, I 
 amquilesure that the hair-seal has this control over the meatus 
 extcrnus, from what I have seen of it : but I have not been able 
 to verify it in either case by observation ; but such opportunity 
 as I have had, gives me undoubted proof of the greatest keen- 
 ness in hearing ; for it is impossible to ap])roach one, even when 
 sound asleep ; if you make any noise, frequently no matter how 
 slight, the alarm will be given instantly by the insignificant- 
 looking auditors, and the animal, rising up with a single motion 
 erect, gives you a stare of astonishment, and at this season of 
 defiance, together with incessent surly roaring, growling, and 
 " spitting." 
 
 This spitting, as I call it, is by no means a fair or full expres- 
 
 9 AL
 
 130 ALASKA. 
 
 sion of tlie most cliaracteristic sound and action, peculiar, so far 
 as I liave observed, to the I'ur-seals, the bulls in particular. It 
 is the usual prelude to their couibats, and follows souiewliat in 
 this way: when the two disputants are nearly within reaching 
 or striking" distance, they make a number of feints or false 
 passes at one another, with the mouth wide open and lifting 
 the lips or snarling, so as to exhibit the glistening teeth, and 
 with each pass they expel the air so violently through the 
 larynx as to make a rapid choo-choo-choo sound, like the steam- 
 puffs in the smoke-stack of a locomotive when it starts a heavy 
 train, and especially when the driving-wheels slip on the rail. 
 
 All the bulls now have the power and frequent inclination to 
 utter four entirely distinct calls or notes — a hoarse, resonant 
 roar, loud and long; alow gurgling growl; a chuckling, sibi- 
 lant, piping whistle, of which it is impossible to convey an ad- 
 equate idea, for it must be heard to be understood; and this 
 spitting, just described. The cows* have but one uote — a hol- 
 low, iirolonged, hlaa-ting call, addressed only to their pui)s; 
 on all other occasions they are usually silent. It is something 
 like the cry of a calf or sheep. They also make a spitting- 
 sound, and snort, when suddenly disturbed. The pups '■'■bla-af^ 
 also, with little or no variation, the sound being somewhat 
 weaker and hoarser than that of their mothers for the first two 
 or three weeks after birth ; they, too, spit and cough when 
 aroused suddenly from a nap or driven into a corner. A. num- 
 ber of pups crying at a short distance off bring to mind very 
 strongly the idea of a flock of sheep '' baaaa-in(}." 
 
 Indeed, so similar is the sound that a number of sheep 
 brought up from San Francisco to Saint George's Island during 
 the summer of 1873 were constantly attracted to the rookeries, 
 
 *Without explanation 1 may be considered as lualiin^ use of misapplied 
 terms iu describiu<i; these animals, for the inconsistency of couplin<r "pups" 
 with " cows" and " bulls," and " rookeries" with the breediug-gronnds of the 
 same, cannot fail to be noticed ; but this nomenclatui-e has been given and 
 used by the Eaglisb and American whalemen and sealing-parties for many 
 years, and the cliaracteristic features of the seals suit the odd naming ex- 
 actly, so much so that I have felt satisfied to retaiu the style throughout as 
 rendering my description more intelligible, especially so to those who are en- 
 gaged in the business or may be hereafter. The Russians are more ccns-ist- 
 ent, but not so "pat." The bull is called "see-catch," a term implying 
 strength, vigor, «fcc.; the cow, " niatkah," or mother ; the pups, '"kotickie," 
 or little seals; the non-breeding males, under six and seven years, " hollus- 
 chickie," or bachelors. The name applied collectively to the fur-seal by 
 them is " morskic-kot," or sea-cat.
 
 ALASKA. 131 
 
 running in among tlie seals, and had to be driven away to a 
 good feeding-ground by a small boy detailed for the puri)ose. 
 
 The sound arising from these great breeding-grounds of the 
 fur-seal, where thousands upon thousands of angry, vigilant 
 bulls are roaring, chuekling, piping, and nudtitudes of seal- 
 mothers are calling in hollow, bla ating tones to their young, 
 which in turn respond incessantly, is simply indescribable. It 
 is, at a sbght distance, softened into a deep booming, as of a 
 cataract, and can be heard a long distance off at sea, under 
 favorable circumstances as far as five or six miles, and fre- 
 quently warns vessels that may be approaching the islands in 
 thick, foggy weather, of the positive, though unseen, proximity 
 of laud. iSlght and day, throughout the seasou, the din of the 
 rookeries is cteady and constant. 
 
 The seals seem to sufi'er great inconvenience from a compar- 
 atively low degree of heat; for, with a temperature of 40° and 
 48° on land, during the summer, they show signs of distress from 
 heat whenever they make any exertion, i^ant, raise their hind 
 flippers, and use them incessantly as fans. With the thermom- 
 eter at 5i>°-C0o, they seem to suffer even when at rest, and at 
 sucli times the eye is struck by the kaleidoscopic appearance 
 of a rookery, on which a million seals are spread out in every 
 imaginable position their bodies can assume, all industriously 
 fanning themselves, using sometimes the fore flippers as ven- 
 tilators, as it were, by holding them aloft motionless, at the 
 same moment fanning briskly with the hind flipper, or flippers, 
 according as they sit or lie. This wavy motion of flapping and 
 fanning gives a peculiar shade of, hazy indistinctness to the 
 whole scene, which is difficult to express in language; but one 
 of the most prominent characteristics of the fur-seal is this fan- 
 ning manner in which thej" use their flippers, when seen on the 
 breeding-grounds in season. They also, when idling, as it 
 were, offshore at sea, lie on their sides, with only a partial ex- 
 posure of the body, the head submerged, and hoist up a fore or 
 hind flipper clear of the water, while scratching themselves or 
 enjoying a nap; but in this position there is no fanning. I say 
 "scratching," because the seal, in common with all animals, is 
 preyed upon by vermin, a species of louse and a tick, peculiar 
 to itself. 
 
 All the bulls, from the very first, that have been able to hold 
 their positions, have not left them for an instant, night or day, 
 nor do they do so until the end of the rutting-season, which
 
 132 ALASKA. 
 
 subsides entirely between the 1st and 10th of Angust, begin- 
 ning shortly after the coming of the cows in June. Of necessity, 
 therefore, this causes them to iast, to abstain entirely froui food 
 of any kind, or water, for three mouths, at least, and a few of 
 them stay four months before going into the water for the first 
 time after hauling up in May. 
 
 This alone is remarkable enough, but it is simply wonderful 
 when we come to associate the condition with the unceasing 
 activity, restlessness, and duty devolved upon the bulls as 
 heads and fathers of large families. They do not stagnate, like 
 bears in caves; it is evidently accomplished or due to the ab- 
 sorption of their own fat, with which they are so liberally sup- 
 plied when they take their positions on the breeding-ground, 
 and which gradually diminishes while they remain on it. But 
 still some most remarkable ])rovision must be made for the en- 
 tire torpidity of the stomach and bowels, consequent upon their 
 being empty and unsupplied during this long i)eriod, which, 
 however, in spite of the violation of a supposed physiological 
 law, does not seem to affect them, for they come back just as 
 sleek, fat, and ambitious as ever in the following season. 
 
 I have examined the stomachs of a number which were driven 
 up and killed immediately after their arrival in the spring, and 
 natives here have seen hundreds, even thousands, of them 
 during the killing-season in June and July, but in no case has 
 anything been found other thai^ the bile and ordinary secre- 
 tions of healthy organs of this class, with the exception only of 
 finding in every one a snarl or cluster of worms,* from the size of 
 a walnut to that of one's fist, the fast apparently having no effect 
 on them, for when thret; or four hundred old bulls were slaugh- 
 tered late in the fall, to supply the natives with "bidarkee" or 
 canoe skins, I found these worms in a lively condition in every 
 X)auuch cut open, and their presence, I -think, gives some reason 
 for the habit which these old bulls have of swallowing small 
 bowlders, the stones in some of the stomachs weighing half a 
 l^ound or so, and in one paunch 1 found about five pounds in 
 the aggregate of larger pebbles, which in grinding against one 
 another must destroy, in a great measure, these intestinal i)ests. 
 The sea-lion is also troubled in the same way by a similar 
 species of worm, and I have preserved a stomach of one of these 
 animals in which are more than ten pounds of bowlders, some of 
 them alone quite large. The greater size of this animal enables 
 
 *Nematoda.
 
 ALASKA. 133 
 
 it to swallow stones wbicli weigh two and three pounds. I can 
 ascribe no otber cause for this habit among these animals than 
 that given, as thej'^ are of the highest tj'pe of the caruivora, 
 eating fish as a regular means of subsistence; varying the mo- 
 notony of this diet with occasional juicy fronds of sea-weed, or 
 kelp, and perhaps a crab, or such, once iu a while, provided it 
 is small and tender, or soft-shelled. 
 
 Between the 12th and 14th of June the first of the cow-seals 
 come up from the sea, and the bulls signalize it by a universal, 
 spasmodic, desperate fighting among themselves. 
 
 The strong contrast between the males and fenniles in size 
 and shape is heightened by the air of exceeding peace and 
 amiability which the latter class exhibit. 
 
 The cows are from 4 to 4^ feet in length from head to tail, 
 and much more shapelj^ in their proportions than the bulls, the 
 neck and shoulders being not near so fat and heavy in propor- 
 tion to the posteriors. 
 
 When they come up, wet and dripping, they are of a dull, 
 dirty-gray color, darker on the back and upper parts, but in ii 
 few hours the transformation made by drying is wonderful ; 
 you would hardly believe they could be the same animals, for 
 they now fairly glisten with a rich steel and maltese-gray luster 
 on the back of the head, neck, and spine, which blends into an 
 almost pure white on the chest and abdomen. But this beauti- 
 ful coloring in turn is altered by exi)osure to the weather, for 
 iu two or three days it will gradually change to a dull, rufous 
 ocher below, and a cinereous-brown and gra3'-iuixed above ; this 
 color they retain throughout the breeding-season up to the time 
 of shedding the coat in August. 
 
 The head and eye of the female are really attractive; the ex- 
 pression is exceedingly gentle and intelligent; the large, lus- 
 trous eyes, in the small, well-formed head, apparently gleam 
 with benignity and satisfaction when she is perched up on some 
 convenient rock and has an opportunity to quietly fan herself. 
 The cows appear to be driven on to the rookeries bj' an accu- 
 rate instinctive appreciation of the time in which their period 
 of gestation ends ; for in all cases marked by myself, the pups 
 are born soon after landing, some in a few hours after, but 
 most usually a day or two elapses before delivery. 
 
 They are noticed and received by the bulls on the water-line 
 stations with much attention; they are alternately coaxed and 
 urged up on to the rocks, and are immediately under the most
 
 134 ALASKA. 
 
 jealou.s supcrvisiou ; but owing to the covetous and ambitious 
 nature of tlie bulls, \Ybic'li occupy the stations leaihiug \\i\y 
 back I'loui the water-line, the little cows have a rough-and-tum- 
 ble time of it wheu they begin to arrive in small numbers at 
 first ; for no sooner is the pretty animal fairly established on 
 the station of bull number one, who has installed her there, he 
 perhaps sees another one of her style down in the water from 
 which she has just come, and in obedience to his polygamous 
 i'eeling, he devotes himself anew to coaxing the later arrival in 
 the same winning manner so successful in her case, when bull 
 number two, seeing bull number one oft his guard, reaches out 
 with his long strong neck and picks the unhappy but passive 
 creature up by the scruff of hers, just as a cat does a kitten, 
 and deposits her on his seraglio-ground; then bulls number 
 three, four, and so on, in the vicinity, seeing this high-handed 
 operation, all assail one another, and es[)eciall5' bull number 
 two, and have a tremendous fight, perhaps for half a minute or 
 so, and during this commotion the cow generally is moved or 
 moves farther back from the water, two or three stations more, 
 where, when all gets quiet, she usually remains in peace. Her 
 last lord and master, not having the exposure to such diverting 
 temptation as had her first, he gives her such care that she not 
 only is unable to leave did she wish, but no other bull can seize 
 upon her. This is only one instance of the many different trials 
 and tribulations which both parties on the rookery subject 
 themselves to before the harems are filled. Far back, fifteen or 
 twenty stations deei) from the water-line sometimes, but gen- 
 erally not more on an average than ten or fifteen, the cows 
 crowd in at the close of the season for arriving, July 10 to 14, 
 and then they are able to go about pretty much as they please, 
 for the bulls have become greatly enfeebled by this constant 
 fighting and excitement during the past two months, and are 
 quite content with even only one or two partners. 
 
 The cows seem to haul in compact bodies from the water up 
 to tlje rear of the rookeries, never scattering about over the 
 ground ; and they will not lie quiet in any position outside of 
 tlie great mass of their kind. This is due to their intensely 
 gregarious nature, and for the sake of protection. They also 
 select land with special reference to the drainage, having a 
 great dislike to water-puddled ground. This is well shown on 
 Saint Paul. 
 
 I have found it difQcult to ascertain the average nuuiber of
 
 ALASKA. 135 
 
 COWS to one bull on the rookery, but I tbiiik it will bo nearly 
 correct to assign to each male from twelve to fifteen females, 
 occupying tbe stations nearest the water, and those back in the 
 rear from live to nine. I have counted forty-live cows all under 
 the charge of one bull, which had them penned up on a Hat table- 
 rock, near Keetavie Point; the ball was enabled to do this quite 
 easily, as there was but one way to go to or come from this 
 seraglio, and on this path the old Turk took his stand and 
 guarded it well. 
 
 At the rear of all these rookeries there is ahvays a large num- 
 ber of able-bodied bulls, who wait patiently, but in vain, for 
 families, most of them having had to fight as desperately for 
 the piivilege of being there as any of their more fortunately- 
 located neighbors, who are nearer the water thgin tliemselves; 
 but the cows do not like to be in any outside position, where 
 they are not in close company, lying most quiet and content in 
 the largest harems, and these large families pack the surface of 
 the ground so thickly, that there is hardly moving or turning 
 room until the females cease to come up from the sea; but the 
 inaction on the part of the bulls in the rear during the rutting- 
 season only serves to qualify them to move into the places 
 vacated by those males who are obliged to leave from exhaus- 
 tion, and to take the positions of jealous and fearless protectors 
 for the young x)ups in the fall. 
 
 The courage with which the fur-seal holds his position, as 
 the head and guardian of a family, is of the very highest order, 
 compared with that of other animals. 1 have repeatedly tried 
 to drive them when they have fairly established themselves, 
 and have almost always failed, using every stone at my com- 
 mand, making all the noise I could, and, finally, to put their 
 courage to the full test, I w^alked up to within 20 feet of a bull 
 at the rear and extreme end of Tolstoi Eookery, who had four 
 cows in charge, and commenced with my double-barreled 
 breech-loading shot-gun to pepper him all over with nuistard- 
 seed or dust shot. His bearing, in spite of the noise, smell of 
 P'owder, and pain, did not change in the least from the usual 
 attitude of determined defense which nearly all the bulls as- 
 sume when attacked with showers of stones and noise; he 
 would dart out right and left and catch the cows, which tim- 
 idly attempted to run after each report, and tling and drag 
 them back to their places; then, stretching up to his full height, 
 look me directly and defiantly in the face, roaring and spitting
 
 li3o ALASKA. 
 
 most vcliomently. The cows, however, soon got awp.y from 
 him 5 but lie still stood his grountl, making little charges on rae 
 of 10 or 15 feet, in a succession of gallops or lunges, spitting 
 furiously, and then retreating to the old position, back of which 
 he would not go, fully resolved to hold his own or die in the 
 attempt. 
 
 This courage is all the more noteworthy from the fact that, 
 in regard to man, it is invarjably of a defensive character. 
 The seal, if it makes you turn wben you attack it, never fol- 
 lovrs you much farther than the boundary of its station, and 
 no aggravation will compel it to become offensive, as far as I 
 have been able to observe. 
 
 The covi's, during the whole season, do great credit to their 
 amiable exprej^sion by their manner and behavior on the rook- 
 ery : never fight or quarrel one with another, and never or sel- 
 dom utter a cry of pain or rage when they are roughly handled 
 by the bulls, who frequently get a cow between them and tear 
 the skin from her back, cutting deep gashes into it, as they 
 snatch her from mouth to mouth. These wounds, however, 
 heal rapidly, and exhibit no traces the next year. 
 
 The cows, like the bulls, vary much in weight. Two were 
 taken from the rookery nearest Saint Paul's Village, after they 
 had been delivered of tbeir young, and the respective weights 
 were 5G and 101 pounds, the former being about three or four 
 years old, and the latter over six. They both were fat and in 
 excellent condition. 
 
 It is quite out of the question to give a fair idea of the posi- 
 tions in which the seals rest when on land. They may be 
 said to assume every possible attitude which a flexible body can 
 be put into. One favorite iiosition, especially with the cows, is 
 to i)erch upon a ])oint or top of some rock and throw their 
 heads back upon their shoulders, with the nose held aloft, then, 
 closing their eyes, take short naps without changin,!?, now and 
 then gently fanning with one or the other of the long, slender 
 hind flippers; another, and the most common, is to curl them- 
 selves up, just as a dog does on a hearth rug, bringing the tail 
 and the nose close together. They also stretch out, laying the 
 head straight with the body, and sleep for an hour or two with- 
 out moving, holding one of the hinder flippers up all the time, 
 now and then gently waving it, the eyes being tightly closed. 
 
 The sleep of the fur-seal, from the old bull to the young pup, 
 is always accompanied by a nervous, muscular twitching and
 
 ALASKA. 137 
 
 slight sbifting of the flippers; quivering and uneasy rolling of 
 the body, accompanied by a quick folding anew of the fore 
 flipi^ers, which are signs, as it were, of their having night- 
 mares, or sporting, perhaps, in a visionary way, far off in some 
 dream-land sea; or disturbed, ^x^rliaps more probably, by their 
 intestinal parasites. I have studied lumdreds of all (tlasses, 
 stealing softly up so closely that I could lay my hand on them, 
 and have always found the Sleep to be of this nervous descrip- 
 tion. The respiration is short and rapid, but with no breath- 
 ing (unless your ear is brought very close) or snoring sound; 
 the heaving of the flanks only indicates the action. I have 
 frequently thought that I had succeeded in linding a snoring 
 seal, especially among the pups, but a close examination always 
 gave some abnormal reason for it, generally a slight distemper, 
 by which the nostrils were stopped up to a greater or less 
 degree. 
 
 As I have said before, the cows, soon after landing, are de- 
 livered of their young. 
 
 Immediately after the birth of the pup, (twins are rare, if 
 ever,) it finds its voice, a weak, husky hlaat, and begins to pad- 
 dle about, with eyes wide open, in a confused sort ot way for a 
 few minutes until the mother is ready to give it attention, and, 
 still later, suckle it; and for this purpose she is provided with 
 four small, brown nipples, placed about eight inches apart, 
 lengthwise with the body, on the abdomen, between the fore 
 and hinder flippers, with some four inches of space between 
 them transversely. The nipples are not usually visible ; only 
 seen through the hair and fur. The milk is abundant, rich, 
 and creamy. The pups uurse very heartilj', gorging them- 
 selves. 
 
 The pup at birth, and for the next three months, is of a jet- 
 black color, hair, eyes, and flippers, save a tiny white patch 
 just back of each fore foot, and weighs from 3 to 4 pounds, and 
 12 to 14 inches long ; it does not seem to nurse more than once 
 every two or three days, but in this I am most likely mistaken, 
 for they may have received attention from the mother in the 
 night or other times in the day when I was unable to watch 
 them. 
 
 The apath}^ with which the young are treated by the old on 
 the breeding-grounds is somewhat strange. I have never seen 
 a cow caress or fondle her offspring, and should it stray but a 
 short distance from the harem, it cau be picked up a'^d killed
 
 138 ALASKA. 
 
 before the motlier's eyes vritliout causing Ler to show the 
 slightest concern. The same indiiference is exhibited by the 
 bull to all that takes place outside of the boundary of his se- 
 raglio. While the pups are, however, within the limits of his 
 harem-ground, he is a jealous and fearless protector ; but if the 
 little animals pass beyond this boundary, then they may be 
 carried off without the slightest attention in their behalf from 
 their guardian. 
 
 It is surprising to me how few of the pups get crushed to 
 death while the ponderous bulls are tioundenng over them 
 when engaged in fighting. 1 have seen two bulls dash at each 
 other with all the energy of furious rage, meeting right in the 
 midst of a small " pod" of forty or fifty pups, trampling over 
 them with their crushing weights, and bowling them out right 
 and left in every direction, without injuring a single one. I do 
 not think more than 1 per cent, of the pups born each season 
 are lost in this manner on the rookeries. 
 
 To test the vitality of these little animals, I kept one in the 
 house to ascertain how long it could live without nursing, 
 having taken it immediately after birth and before it could get 
 any taste of its mother's milk ; it lived nine days, and in the 
 whole time half of every day was spent in floundering about 
 over the floor, accompanying the movement with a persistent 
 hoarse blaating. This experiment certainly shows wonderful 
 vitality, and is worthy of an animal that can live four months 
 without food or water and preserve enough of its latent strength 
 and vigor at the end of that time to go far off to sea, and return 
 as fat and hearty as ever during the next season. 
 
 In the pup, the head is the only disproportionate feature 
 when it is compared with the proportion of tbe adult form, the 
 neck being also relatively shorter and thicker. I shall have to 
 speak again of it, as it grows and changes, when I finish with 
 the breeding-season now under consideration. 
 
 The cows appear to go to and come from the water quite fre- 
 quently, and usually return to the spot, or its neighborhood, 
 where they leave their pups, crying out for them, and recogniz- 
 ing the individual replies, though ten thousand around, all to- 
 gether, should blaat at once. They quickly single out their 
 own and attend them. It would be a very unfortunate matter 
 if the mothers could not identify their young by sound, since 
 their pups get together like a great swarm of bees, spread out 
 upon the ground in " pods" or groups, while they are young.
 
 ALASKA. 139 
 
 ami not very large, but by the middle and end of September, 
 until they leave in November, they eluster together, sleeping 
 and IVolicking by tens of thousands. A mother conies np from 
 the water, where she has been to wash, and perhaps to feed, 
 for the last day or two, to about where she thinks her pup 
 shouhl be, but misses it, and tinds instead a swarm of pups iu 
 Avhich it has been incorporated, owing to its great fondness for 
 society. The mother, without at first entering into the crowd 
 of thousands, calls out, just as a sheep does for her lamb, lis- 
 tens, and out of all the din she — if not at first, at the end of a 
 few trials — recognizes the voice of her offs[)ring, and then ad- 
 vances, striking out right and left, and over tlie crowd, toward 
 the position from which it replies ; but if the pup at this time 
 happens to be asleep she hears nothing from it, even though it 
 were close by, and in this case the cow, after calling for a time 
 without being answered, curls herself up and takes a nap, or 
 lazily basks, and is most likely more successful when she calls 
 again. 
 
 The pups themselves do not know their mothers, but they 
 are so constituted that they incessantly cry out at short inter- 
 vals during the whole time they are awake, and in this way a 
 mother can pick, out of the monotonous blaating of thousands 
 of pups, her own, and she will not permit any other to suckle. 
 
 Between tlie end of July and the 5tli or 8th of August the 
 rookeries are completely changed in appearance ; the systematic 
 and regular disposition of the families, or harems, over the 
 whole extent of ground has disappeared; all order heretofore 
 existing seems to be broken up. The ruttiug-season over, those 
 bulls which held positions now leave, most of them very thiu 
 in Hesh and weak, and I think a large proportion of them do 
 not come out again on the laud during the season ; and such as 
 do come, appear, not fat, but iu good flesh, and in a new coat 
 of rich dark and gray -brown hair and fur, with gray and gray- 
 ish-ocher "wigs" or over-hair on the shoulders, forming a 
 strong contrast to the dull, rusty-brown and umber dress in 
 which they appeared during the summer, and which they had 
 begun to shed about the 15th of August, in common with the 
 cows and baclielor seals. After these bulls leave, at the close 
 of their season's work, those of them that do return to the; land 
 do not come back until the end of September, and do not haul 
 up on the rookery-grounds as a rule, preferring to herd together, 
 as do the young males, on the sand-beaches and other rocky
 
 140 ALASKA. 
 
 lioints close to tlie water. The cows, pups, aud those bulls 
 which have been iu retirement, now take possession, in a very 
 disorderly manner, of the rookeries; also, come a large number 
 of young, three, four, and tive year old males, who have not 
 been permitted to laud among the cows, during the rutting- 
 season, by the older, stronger bulls, who have savagely fought 
 them ofl' whenever they made (as thej' constantly do) an attempt 
 to land. 
 
 Three-fourths, at least, of the cows are now off in the water, 
 only coming ashore to nurse and look after their pups a short 
 time. They lie idly out in the rollers, ever and anon turuiug 
 over and over, scratching their backs and sides with their fore 
 and hind flippers. i^Tothing is more suggestive of immense 
 comfort and enjoyment than is this action of these animals. 
 They appear to get very lousy on the breeding-ground, and the 
 frequent winds and showers drive and spatter sand into their 
 fur and eyes, making the latter quite sore iu many cases. They 
 also pack the soil under foot so hard and solid that it holds 
 water in the surface depressions, just like so many rock basins, 
 on the rookery; out and into these i^uddles they flounder and 
 i:>atter incessantly, until evaporation slowly abates the nuisance. 
 
 The pups sometimes get so thoroughly plastered in these 
 muddy, slimy puddles, that their hair falls oft" in patches, giving 
 them the appearance of being troubled with scrofula or some 
 other plague, at first sight, but they are not, from my observa- 
 tion, permanently injured. 
 
 Early in August (8th) the pups that are nearest the water on 
 the rookeries essay swimming, but make slow and clumsy prog- 
 ress, floundering about, when over head in depth, iu the most 
 awkward manner, thrashing the water with their fore flippers, 
 not using the hinder ones. In a few seconds, or a minute at 
 the most, the youngster is so weary that he crawls out ui)on 
 the rocks or beach, and immediately' takes a reCui)erative luip, 
 repeating the lesson as quick as he awakes and is rested. Tiiey 
 soon get familiar with the water, and delight in it, swimming 
 in endless evolutions, twisting, turning, diving, and when ex- 
 hausted, they draw up on the beach again, shake themselves as 
 young dogs do, either going to sleep on the spot, or having a 
 lazy frolic among themselves. 
 
 In this matter of learning to swim, I have not seen any 
 " driving" of the young pups into the water by the old iu order
 
 ALASKA. 141 
 
 to teach tliem tbis process, as has been affirmed by writers on 
 the subject of seal-life. 
 
 The pups are constantly shifting?, at the close of the rntting- 
 season, back and forth over the rookery in large squads, some- 
 times numbering thousands. In the course of these changes 
 of position thej- all come sooner or later in contact with the sea ; 
 the pup blunders into the water for the first time in a most 
 awkward manner, and gets out again as quick as it can, but so 
 far from showing any fear or dislike of this, its most natural 
 element, as soon as it rests from its exertion, is immediately 
 ready for a new^ trial, and keeps at it, if the sea is not too 
 stormy or rongh at the time, until it becomes quite familiar 
 with the water, and during all this period of self-tuition it 
 seems to thoroughly enjoy the exercise. 
 
 By the 15th of September all the pups have become familiar 
 with the water, have nearly all deserted the background of 
 the rookeries and are down by the water's edge, and skirt the 
 rocks and beaches for long distances on ground previously un- 
 occupied by seals of any class. 
 
 They are now about live or six times their original weight, and 
 are beginning to shed their black hair and take on their second 
 coat, which does not vary at this age between the sexes. They 
 do this very slowly, and cannot be called out of molting or 
 shedding until the middle of October, as a rule. 
 
 The pup"s second coat, or sea-going jacket, is a uniform, 
 dense, light pelage, or under-fur, grayish in some, light-brown 
 in others, the tine, close, soft, and elastic hairs which compose 
 it being about one-half of an inch in length, and over-hair, two- 
 thirds of an inch long, quite coarse, giving the color by which 
 you recognize the condition. This over-hair, on the back, neck, 
 and head, is a dark chinchilla-gray, blending into a white, just 
 tinged with a grayish tone on the abdomen and chest. The 
 upper lip, where the whiskers or mustache takes root, is of a 
 lighter-gray tone than that which surrounds. This mustache 
 consists of fifteen or twenty longer or shorter whitish-gray 
 bristles (one-half to three inches) on each side and back of the 
 nostrils, which are, as I have before said, similar to that of a 
 dog. 
 
 The most attractive feature about the fur-seal pup, and up- 
 ward as it grows, is the eye, which is exceedingly large, dark, 
 and liquid, with which, for beauty and amiability, together with
 
 142 ALASKA. 
 
 iutelligence of expression, tbose of no other animal can be com- 
 liared. The lids are well supplied with eyelashes. 
 
 I do not think that their range of vision on land, or out of the 
 water, is very great. I have had them (the adults) catch sight 
 of ray person, so as to distinguish it as a foreign character, three 
 and four hundred [)aces off, with the wind blowing strongly 
 from them toward myself, but generally they will allow you to 
 approach very close indeed, before recognizing your strangeness, 
 and the pups will s{;arcely notice the form of a human being 
 until it is fairly on them, whereupon they make a lively noise, 
 a medley of coughing, spitting, snorting, blaating, and get 
 away from its immediate vicinity, but instantly resume, how- 
 ever, their previous occui)ation of either sleeping or playing, 
 as though nothing had happened. 
 
 But the power of scent is (together with their hearing, before 
 mentioned) exceedingly keen, for I have found that I would 
 most invariably' awake them from soundest sleep if 1 got to the 
 windward, even when standing a considerable distance off. 
 
 To recapitulate and sum up the system of reproduction on 
 the rookeries as the seals seem to have arranged it, I would say, 
 that- 
 First. The earliest bulls appear to laud in a negligent, indo- 
 lent way, shortly after the rocks at the water's edge are free 
 from ice, frozen snow, &c. This is generally about the 1st to 
 the 5th of May, They land first and last in perfect confidence 
 and without fear, very fat, and of an average weight of five 
 hundred pounds ; some stayiug at the water's edge, some going 
 away back, in fact all over the rookery. 
 
 Second. That by the 10th or 12th of June, all the stations on 
 the rookeries have been mapped out, fought for, and held iu 
 waiting for the cows by the strongest and most enduring bulls, 
 who are, as a rule, never under six years of age, and sometimes 
 three, and even occasionally four times as old. 
 
 Third. That the cows make their first appearance, as a class, 
 by the 12th or 15th of June, in rather small numbers, but by 
 the 23d and 25th of this month they begin to flock up so as to 
 fill the harems very perceptibly, and by the 8th or 10th of July 
 they have most all come, stragglers excepted ; average weight 
 eighty pounds. 
 
 Fourth. That the rutting season is at its height from the 10th 
 to the 15th of July, and that it subsides entirely at the end of
 
 ALASKA. 143 
 
 this luontb and early in August, and that it is conflncd en- 
 tirely to the land. 
 
 Fifth. That the cows bear their first young when three years 
 of age. 
 
 Sixth. That the cows are limited to a single pup each, as a 
 rule, in bearing, and this is born soon after landing; no excep- 
 tion has thus far been witnessed. 
 
 Seventh. That the bulls who have held the harems leave for 
 the water in a straggling manner at the close of the rutting- 
 season, greatly emaciated, not returning, if at all, until six or 
 seven weeks have elapsed, and that the regular systematic dis- 
 tribution of families over the rookeries is at an end for the season, 
 a general medley of young bulls now free to come up from the 
 water, old males who have not been on seraglio duty, cows, and 
 an immense majority of pups, since only about 25 per cent, 
 of their mothers are out of the water at a time. 
 
 Tlie rookeries lose their compactness and definite boundaries 
 by the 25th to 28th July, when the pups begin to haul back and 
 to the right and left in small squads at first, but as the season 
 goes on, by the 18th. August, they swarm over three and four 
 times the area occupied by them when born on the rookeries. 
 The system of family arrangement and definite compactness of 
 the breeding-classes begins at this date to break up. 
 
 Eighth. That by the 8tli or lOth of August the i)ups born 
 nearest the water begin to learn to swim, and by the 15th or 
 20th of September they are all familiar more or less with it. 
 
 Ninth. That by the middle of September the rookeries are 
 entirely broken up, only confused, straggling bands of cows, 
 young bachelors, pups, and small squads of old bulls, crossing 
 and recrossing the ground in an aimless, listless manner ; the 
 season is over, but many of these seals do not leave these 
 grounds until driven off by snow and ice, as late as the end of 
 December and 12th of January. 
 
 This recapitulation is the sum and substance of my observa- 
 tions on the rookeries, and I will now turn to the consideration 
 of the 
 
 HAULING- GROUNDS, 
 
 upon which the yearlings and almost all the males uiuier six 
 years come out from the sea in squads from a hundred to a 
 thousand, and, later in the season, by hundreds of thousands,
 
 144 ALASKA. 
 
 to sleep and frolic, going from a quarter to lialf a mile back 
 from the sea, as at English Bay. 
 
 This class of seals are termed "holluschukie" (or "bachelor 
 seals") by the natives. It is with the seals of this division that 
 these people are most familiar, since tbey are, together with a 
 few thousand pups and some old bulls, the only ones driven up 
 to the killing-grounds for their skins, for reasons which are ex- 
 cellent, and which shall be given further on. 
 
 Since the "holluschukie" are not permittetl by their own 
 kind to laud on the rookeries and rest there, they have the 
 choice of two methods of landing and locatiug. 
 
 One of these opportunities, and least used, is to pass up from 
 and down to the water, through a rookery on a pathway left by 
 common consent between the harems. On these lines of pas- 
 sage they are unmolested by the old and jealous bulls, who 
 guard the seraglios on either side as they go and come; gener- 
 ally there is a continual file of them on the way, traveling up 
 or down. 
 
 As the two and three year old holluschukie come up in small 
 squads with the first bulls in the spring, or a few days later, 
 these common highways between the rear of the rookery-ground 
 and the sea get well defined and traveled over before the aiTival 
 of the cows; for just as the bulls crowd up for their stations, so 
 do the bachelors, young and old, increase. These roadways 
 may be termed the lines of least resistance in a big rookery ; 
 tbey are not constant; they are splendidly shown on the large 
 rookeries of Saint Paul's, one of them (Tolstoi) exhibiting this 
 feature finely, for the hauliug-ground lies up back of the rook- 
 ery, on a fiat and rolling summit, 100 to 120 feet above the sea- 
 level. The young males and yearlings of both sexes come 
 through the rookery on these narrow pathways, and, before 
 reaching the resting-ground above, are obliged to climb up an 
 almost abrupt blufit", by following and struggling in the little 
 water-runs and washes which are worn in its face. As tbis 
 is a large hauliug-ground, on which fifteen or twenty thousand 
 commonly lie every day during the season, the sight always, at 
 all times, to be seen, in the waj' of seal cliuibing and crawling, 
 was exceedingly novel and interesling. They climb over and 
 up to i)laces here where a clumsy man might at first sight 
 say he would be unable to ascend. 
 
 The other method by which the "holluschukie" enjoy them- 
 selves on land is the one most followed and favored. They, in
 
 ALASKA. 145 
 
 this case, repair to the beaches unoccupied between the rook- 
 eries, and there extend themselves out all the way back from 
 the water as far, in some cases, as a quarter of a mile, and even 
 farther. I have had under my eye, in one straightforward 
 sweep, from Zapad-nie to Tolstoi, (three miles,) a million and a 
 lialf of seals, at least, (about the middle of July.) Of these I 
 estimated fully one-half were pups, yearlings, and "holluschu- 
 kie."' The great majority of the two latter classes were hauled 
 out and packed thickly over the two miles of sand-beach and 
 Hat which lay between the rookeries ; many large herds were 
 back as far from the water as a quarter of a mile. 
 
 A small flock of the younger ones, from one to three years 
 old, will frequently stray away back from the hauling-ground 
 lines, out and up onto the fresh moss and grass, and there 
 sport and play, one with another, just as puppy-dogs do; and 
 when weary of this gamboling, a general disposition to sleep is 
 suddenly manifested, and they stretch themselves out and curl 
 up in all the positions and all the postures that their flexible 
 spines and ball-and-socket joints will permit. One will lie 
 upon his back, holding up his hind flippers, lazily waving them 
 in the air, while he scratches or rather rubs his ribs with the 
 fore hands alternately, the eyes being tightly closed ; and the 
 breath, indicated by the heaving of his flanks, drawn quickly 
 but regularly, as though in heavy sleep ; another will be flab 
 upon his stomach, his hind flippers drawn under and concealed, 
 while he tightly folds his fore feet back against his sides, just 
 as a fish will sometimes hold its pectoral fins ; and so on, with- 
 out end of variety, according to the ground and disposition of 
 the animals. 
 
 While the young seals undoubtedly have the jiower of going 
 without food, they certainly do not sustain any long fasting 
 periods on land, for their coming and going is frequent and 
 irregular; for instance, three or four thick, foggy days will 
 sometimes call them out by hundreds of thousands, a million or 
 two, on the different hauling-grounds, where, in some cases, 
 they lie so closely together that scarcely a foot of ground, over 
 acres in extent, is bare ; then a clearer and warmer day will 
 ensue, and the ground, before so thickly i^acked with animal- 
 life, will be almost deserted, comparatively, to be filled again 
 immediately on the recurrence of favorable weather. They are 
 in just as good condition of flesh at the end of the season as at. 
 the first of it. 
 
 10 AL
 
 146 ALASKA. 
 
 These bachelor-seals are, I am sure, v.ithout exceptiou, the 
 most restless animals in the whole brute creation ; they frolic 
 and lope about over the grounds for hours, without a moment's 
 cessation, and their sleep alter this is short, and is accomi^anied 
 with nervous twitchings and uneasy movements j they seem to 
 be fairly brimful and overrunning with warm life. I have 
 never observed anything like ill-humor grow out of their play- 
 ing together ; invariably well pleased one Mith another in all 
 their frolicsome struggles. 
 
 The pups and yearlings have an es])ecial fondness for sport- 
 ing on the rocks which are just at the water's level, so as to be 
 alternately covered and uncovered by the sea-rollers. On the 
 bare sumnjit of these water-worn spots they struggle and 
 €-lamber. a dozen or two at a time, occasionally, for a single 
 rock; the strongest or luckiest one pushing the others all oft, 
 which, however, simply redouble their efforts and try to dis- 
 lodge him, who thus has, for a few moments only, the advan- 
 tage; for Avith the next roller and the other pressure, he gen- 
 erally is ousted, and the game is repeated. Sometimes, as well 
 as 1 could see, the same squad of " hoUuschukie" placed 
 around a rock thus situated, off " ^ah Speel" rooker^', during 
 the whole of one day; but, of course, they cannot be told apart. 
 
 The "holluschukie," too, are the champion swimmers; at 
 least they do about all the fancj' tumbling and turning that is 
 done by the fur-seals when in the water around the islands. 
 The grave old bulls and their matronly companions seldom 
 indulge in any extravagant display, such as jumping out of the 
 water like so many dolphins, describing, as these youngsters 
 do, beautiful elliptic curves, rising three and even four feet 
 from the sea, with the back slightly arched, the fore flippers 
 folded back against the sides, and the hinder ones extended and 
 pressed together straight out behind, plumping in head first, 
 reappearing in the same manner after an interval of a few 
 seconds. 
 
 All classes will invariably make these dolphin-jumps when 
 they are suddenly surprised or are driven into the water, turn- 
 ing their heads, while sailing in the air, between the "rises" 
 and " plumps," to take a look at the cause of their disturbance. 
 They all swim with great rapidity, and may be fairly said to 
 <lart with the velocity of a bird on the wing along under the 
 water; and in all their swimming I have not been able yet to 
 satisfy myself how they use their long, flexible, hind feet, other
 
 ALASKA. 147 
 
 tliaii as .steering modiains. The propelling motion, if tliey bave 
 any, is so rapid, iliat my eye is not quick enough to catch it ; 
 the fore feet, however, can be very distinctly seen to work, 
 feathering forward and sweeping back flatly, opposed to the 
 water, with great rapidity and energy, and are evidently the 
 sole i)ropnlsive power. 
 
 All their movements in the water, when in traveling or sport, 
 are quick and joyous, and nothing is more suggestive of intense 
 satisfaction and great comfort than is the spectacle of a few 
 thousand old bulls and cows, off and from a rookerv in August, 
 idly rolling over, side by side, rubbing and scratching with 
 the fore and hind flippers, which are here and there stuck up 
 out of the water like lateen-sails, or ''cat-o'-uine tails,'' in either 
 case, as it may be. 
 
 When the '' holluschukie'" are ui) on land they can be readily 
 separated into two classes by the color of their coats and size, 
 viz, the yearlings, and the two. three, four, and five year old 
 bulls. 
 
 The first class is dressed just as they were after they shed 
 their pupcoats and took on the second the previous year, in 
 September and October, and now, as they come out in the 
 spring and summer, the males and females cannot be distin- 
 guished apart, either by color or size; both yearling sexes 
 having the same gray backs and white bellies, and are the 
 same in behavior, action, weight, and shape. 
 
 About the 15th and 20tli of August they begin to grow 
 " stagey," or shed, in common with all the other classes, the 
 pups excepted. The over-hair requires about six weeks from 
 the commencement of the dropping or falling out of the old 
 to its full renewal. 
 
 The pelage, or fur, which is concealed externally by the hair, 
 is also shed, and renewed slowly in the same manner; but, 
 being so much finer than the hair, it is not so apparent. It was 
 to me a great surprise to " learn," from a man who has been 
 heading a seal-killing party on these Islands during the past 
 three years, and the Government agent in charge of these in- 
 terests, that the seal never shed its fur; that the over-hair only 
 was cast off and replaced. To prove that it does, however, is a 
 very simple matter, and does not require the aid of a micro- 
 scope. For example, take up a prime spring or fall skin, after 
 every single over-hair on it has been i)lucked out, and you will 
 bave dilficulty. either to so blow upon the thick, fine fur, or
 
 148 ALASKA. 
 
 to part it with the fingers, as to sbow the bide from wliicb it 
 has grown ; theu take a " stagey" skin, by the end of August 
 and earl}' iu September, wheu all the over-hair is present, about 
 one-third to one-half groicn, and the first puff you expeud upon 
 it easily shows the hide below, sometimes quite a broad welt. 
 This under-fur, or pelage, is so fine and delicate, and so much 
 concealed and shaded by the course over-hair, that a careless 
 eye may be pardoned for any such blunder, but only a very 
 casual observer could make it. 
 
 The yearling cows retain the colors of the old coat in the new^ 
 and from this time on shed, year after year, just so, for the 
 young and the old cows look alike, as far as color goes, when 
 they haul up on the rookeries in the summer. 
 
 The yearling males, however, make a radical change, coming 
 out from their " staginess" in a uniform dark-gray and gray- 
 black mixed and lighter, and dark ocher, on the under and up- 
 per parts, respectively. This coat, next year, when they come 
 np on the hauling-grounds, is very dark, and is so for the third, 
 fourth, and fifth years, when, after tbis, they begin to grow 
 more gray and brown, year by year, w ith rufous-ocher and 
 whitish-gray tipped over-hair on the shoulders. Some of the 
 very old bulls become changed to uniform dull grayish-ocher 
 all over. 
 
 The female does not get her full growth and weight until the 
 end of her fourth year, so far as 1 have observed, but does the 
 most of her growing in the first two. 
 
 The male does not get his full growth and -weight until the 
 close of his seventh year, but realizes most of it by the end of 
 the fifth, osteologically, and from tbis it may be, perhaps, truly 
 inferi'ed tbat tbe bulls live to an average age of eighteen or 
 twenty years, if undisturbed in a normal condition, and tbat the 
 cows attain ten or twelve under tbe same circumstances. Tbeir 
 respective weights, when fully mature and fat in the spring, 
 will, I tbink, strike an average of four to five hundred pounds 
 for the male and from seventy to eighty for the female. 
 
 From the fact tbat all the young seals do not change much in 
 weight, from tbe time of their first coming out in tbe spring 
 till tbat of tbeir leaving in the fall and early winter, I feel safe 
 in saying, since they, too, are constantly changing from land to 
 water and from water to land, that they feed at irregular but 
 not long intervals during tbe time they are here under observa- 
 tion, I do not tbink tbe young males fast longer than a week 
 or ten days at a time, as a class.
 
 ALASKA. 149 
 
 The leave evideuces of tlieir beiug on these great repro- 
 ductive fields, chiefly ou the rookeries, such as hundreds of 
 the dead carcasses of those of them that have been infirm, sick, 
 killed, or >Yhich have crawled off to die from death-wounds re- 
 ceived in some struggle for a harem ; and over these decaying, 
 putrid bodies, the living, old and young, clamber and i)atter, 
 and by this constant stirring up of putrescent matter give rise 
 to an exceedingly' disagreeable and far-reaching "funk," which 
 has been, by all the writers who have spoken ou the subject, re- 
 ferred to as the smell which these animals have in rutting. If 
 these creatures have any such odor peculiar to them when in 
 this condition, I will frankly confess that I am unable to dis- 
 tinguish it from the fumes which are constantly being stirred 
 up and rising out from these decaying carcasses of old seals 
 and the many pups which have been killed accidentally by the 
 old bulls while fighting with and charging back and forth 
 against one another. 
 
 They, however, have a peculiar smell when they are driven 
 and get heated ; their steaming breath-exhalations possess a 
 disagreeable, faint, sickly tone, but it can by no means be con- 
 founded with what is universally understood to be the rutting- 
 odor among animals. The finger rubbed ou a little fur-seal 
 blubber will smell very much like that which is appreciated in 
 their breath coming from them when driven, only stronger. 
 Both the young and old fur-seals have this same breath-smell 
 at all seasons. 
 
 By the end of October and the 10th of November the great 
 mass of the "holluschukie" have taken their departure; the 
 few that remain from now until as late as the snow and ice will 
 permit them to do, in and after December, are all down by the 
 water's edge, and hauled up almost entirely on the rocky 
 beaches only, deserting the sand. The first snow falling makes 
 them uneas}', as also does rain-fall. 1 have seen a large haul- 
 ing ground entirely deserted after a rainy day and night by its 
 hundreds of thousands of occupants. The falling drops spat- 
 ter and beat the sand into their eyes, fur, &c., I presume, and 
 in this way make it uncomfortable for them. 
 
 The weather in which the far-seal delights is cool, moist, 
 foggy, and thick enough to keep the sun always obscured so as 
 to cast no shadows. Such weather, continued for a few weeks 
 in June and July, brings them up from the sea by millions ; 
 but, as I have before said, a little sunlight and the temperature 
 as high as 50° to 55^, will send them back from the hauling-
 
 150 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 grounds almost as quickly as they came. These sunuy, warm 
 days are, however, ou Saiut PauFs Island, very rare indeed, 
 and so the seals can have but little ground of complaint, if we 
 may presume that they have any at all. 
 
 I saw but three albino pups among the hundreds of thousands 
 on Saint Paul's and none on Saint George. The}' did not differ 
 in any resjject from the other (normal) pups in size and shape. 
 Their hair, in the first coat, was, all over, a dull ocher ; the flip- 
 pers and muzzle were a flesh-tone, and the iris of the eye sky- 
 blue. The second coat gives, them a dirty yellowish-white 
 color, but it makes them exceedingly conspicuous when in among 
 the black pups, gray yearlings, and " holluschukie." 
 
 I have also never seen any malformations or "monsters" 
 among the pups and other classes of the fur-seal ; nor have the 
 natives recorded anything of the kind, so far as I could ascer- 
 tain from them. 
 
 Another curious fact may be recorded, that, with the excep- 
 tion of those animals which have received wounds in combat, 
 no sick or dying seals are seen upon the islands. Out of the 
 great numbers, thousands upon thousands of seals that must 
 die every year from old age alone, not one have I ever seen 
 here. They evidently give up their lives at sea. 
 
 TaT)le alwwitig the Kcigltf, size, and (jrowih of llie fur-seal, (CaUorhbius iirsi)it(s,} 
 from the I) up to the adult, maU and female. 
 
 [Tbe weigbts and measurement'* -were taljen by Mr. Samuel Falconer and the writer on tlio 
 killing-grounds at Saint George's Island, in 1873.] 
 
 Age. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Girth. 
 
 Gross 
 
 weight of 
 
 body. 
 
 Weight 
 of skin. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inch eg. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pound.'!. 
 
 
 One week 
 
 12 to 14 
 
 10 to lOJ- 
 
 to 7* 
 
 li 
 
 A male and female, being 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the only one of this class 
 handled. 
 
 Sis months 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 A mean of ten examples, 
 males and females alike ia 
 
 .size. 
 
 One year 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 39 
 
 4Jt 
 
 A mean of six examples, 
 males and females alike ia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 size. 
 
 Two years 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 58 
 
 5.V 
 
 A mean of thirty examples, 
 all males, July 24, 1873. 
 
 Three years 
 
 52 
 
 30 
 
 87 
 
 7 
 
 A mean of thirt.y-two exam- 
 ples, iill males, July 24, 
 1873. 
 
 Four years 
 
 08 
 
 42 
 
 135 
 
 12 
 
 A mean of ten examples, all 
 males,.Julv 24.1873. 
 
 Five years 
 
 6,j 
 
 52 
 
 200 
 
 IC 
 
 A mean of live examples, all 
 males, July 24, 1873. 
 
 Six years 
 
 72 
 
 64 
 
 280 
 
 25 
 
 A mean of three examples, 
 all males, July 24, 1873. 
 
 Eight to twenty 
 
 75 to SO 
 
 70 to 75 
 
 400 to 500 
 
 45 to 50 
 
 An e.stiina1c onlv, calcnlat- 
 
 years. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing on their weight when 
 fat, and early in the sea- 
 son.
 
 ALASKA. 151 
 
 The females, adults, will correspond with tlie three-year-old 
 males in the above table, the younyer cows weighing tVequently 
 only 75 pounds, and many of the older ones going as high as 
 120, but an average of 80 to 85 pounds is the rule. 
 
 The five and six year old males, when they tirst make their 
 appearance in May and June, are very much heavier than at 
 the time I weighed them in July ; they are then, perhaps, when 
 fat and fresh, fully oue-tliird heavier than the exhibit on the 
 table, but the cows and other classes do not sustain protracted 
 fasts, and do not vary much through the season.
 
 152 ALASKA. 
 
 THE SEA-LIOX, (EUMETOPIAS STELLERI,) "SEE-A'ITCIIIE" OF 
 
 THE RUSSIAN'S. 
 
 This animal, althongli much below the fur-seal with reference 
 to intelligence and physical organization, ranks next in natural 
 order, and can, as well as its more sagacious and valuable rela- 
 tive, be seen to better advantage on these islands than else- 
 where, i^erhaps, in the world. 
 
 By looking at the plate, a glance will show at once the 
 marked difference between this animal and the CaUorhinus. It 
 has a really leonine appearance and bearing, greatly enhanced 
 by the rich, golden-rufous of its coat, ferocity of expression, 
 and bull-dog-like muzzle and cast of eye, not round and full, 
 but showing the white, or sclerotic coat, with a light, bright- 
 brown iris. 
 
 Although provided with tlippers to all external view as the 
 fur-seal, he cannot, however, make use of them in the same 
 free manner. While the fur-seal can be driven live or six miles 
 in twenty-four hours, the sea-lion can barely go two, the con- 
 ditions of weather and roadwa.y being the same. The sea-lions 
 balance and swing their long, heavy necks to and fro, with every 
 hitch up behind of their posteriors, which they seldom raise from 
 the ground, drawing them up after the fore feet with a slide 
 over the grass or sand, rocks, &c., as the case may be, and 
 pausing frequently to take a sullen and ferocious survey of the 
 field and the drivers. 
 
 The sea-lion bull of Bering Sea, when full-grown and in 
 good condition, will measure off in length 11 to 12.5 feet from 
 uose to tip of tail, (v/hich is seldom over 3 or 4 inches long,) 
 and girth 10. Unfortunately, I was not able to weigh one of 
 these big bulls, and can, therefore, only estimate this weight 
 at a thousand pounds, while, perhaps, some of the largest and 
 finest old fellows will touch twelve to thirteen hundred ; but I 
 doubt it. 
 
 The sea-lion is polygamous, but does not maintain any such 
 regular system and method in preparing for and attentiou to 
 its harem like that so finely illustrated on the breeding-grounds 
 of the fur-seal. It is not numerous, comparatively speaking, 
 and does not "haul" more than a few rods back from the sea. 
 It cannot be visited and inspected by man, being so shy and
 
 ALASKA. 153 
 
 wary that ou the slightest approach a stampede into the water 
 is the certain result. Tbe males come out and locate on the 
 narrow belts of rookery-ground, preferred and selected by 
 them ; the cows make their appearance three or four weeks 
 after them, (1st to Gth June,) and are not subjected to that in- 
 tense jealous supervision so characteristic of the fur-seal harem. 
 The bulls fight savagely among themselves, and turn off from 
 the breeding-ground all the younger and weak males. 
 
 Tbe cow sea-lion is not quite half the size of the male, and 
 will measure from 8 to 9 feet iu length, with a weight of four 
 and live hundred pounds. She has the same general cast of 
 countenance and build of the bull, but as she does not sustain 
 any tasting period of over a week or ten days, she never comes 
 out so grossly fat as the male or "see-catch.'- 
 
 The sea-lion rookery will be found to consist of about ten to 
 fifteen cows to the bull. The cow seems at all times to have 
 the utmost freedom in moving from place to place, and to start 
 with its young, picked up sometimes by the nape, into the 
 water, and play together for spells iu the surf-wash, a move- 
 ment on tbe part of the mother never made by the fur-seal, 
 and showing, in this respect, much more attention to its off- 
 spring. 
 
 Tliey are divided up into classes, which sustain, in a general 
 manner, but very imperfectly, nearly the same relation one to 
 the other as do those of the fur-seal, of which 1 have already 
 spoken at length and in detail ; but they cannot be approached, 
 inspected, and managed like tlie other, by reason of their wild 
 and timid nature. They visit the islands in numbers compara- 
 tively small, (I can only estimate,) not over twenty or twenty- 
 five thousand onSaintPaul's and contiguous islets, and not more 
 than seven or eight thousand at Saint George. On Saint Paul's 
 Island they occupy a small portion of the breeding-ground at 
 ]S'ortheast Point, iu common with the CallorJiinus, always close 
 to the water, and taking to it at the slightest disturbance or 
 alarm. 
 
 The sea-lion rookery on Saint George's Island is the best 
 place upon the Seal Islands for close observation of these ani- 
 mals, and the following note was made upon the occasion of 
 one of my visits, (June 15, 1873:) 
 
 "xVt the base of cliffs, over 400 feet in height, on the east 
 shore of the island, on a beach 50 or GO feet iu width at low 
 water, and not over 30 or 40 at flood-tide, lies the only sea-lion
 
 154: ALASKA. 
 
 rookery- on Saint George's Island — some three or four thousand 
 cows and bulls. The entire circuit of this rookery- belt was 
 passed over by us, the big', timorous bulls rushing off into the 
 water as quickly. as the cows, all leaving their young. ]\[any 
 of the females, perhaps half of them, had only just given birth 
 to their young. These pups will weigh at least twenty to twen- 
 ty-five pounds on an average when born, are of a dark, choca- 
 late-brown, with tbe eye as large as the adult, only being a suf- 
 fused, watery, gray-blue, where the sclerotic coat is well and 
 sharply defined in its maturity. They are about 2 feet in length, 
 some longer and some smaller. As all the pups seen to-day 
 were very young, some at this instant only born, they were dull 
 and apathetic, not seeming to notice us much. There are, I 
 should say, about one-sixth of the sea-lions in number on this 
 island, when compared with Saint Paul's. As these animals 
 lie here under the cliffs, they cannot be approached and driven; 
 but should they haul a few hundred rods up to the south, then 
 they can be easily cnptured. They have hauled in this manner 
 always until disturbed in 18G8, and will undoubtedly do so 
 again if not molested. 
 
 " These sea-lions, when they took to the water, swam out to 
 a distance of fifty yards or so, and huddled all up together in 
 two or three packs or squads of about five hundred each, hold- 
 ing their heads and necks up high out of water, all roaring in 
 concert and incessantly, making such a deafening noise that 
 we could scarcely hear ourselves in conversation at a distance 
 from them of over a hundred yards. This roaring of sea-lions, 
 thus disturbed, can only be compared to the hoarse sound of a 
 tempest as it howls through the rigging of a ship, or the play- 
 ing of a living gale upon the bare branches, limbs, and trunks 
 of a forest-grove." They commenced to return as soon as w'e 
 left the ground. 
 
 The voice of the sea-lion is a deep, grand roar, and does not 
 have the flexibility of the CaUorhinns, being confined to a low, 
 muttering growl or this bass roar. The pups are very playful, 
 but are almost always silent. When they do utter sound, it is 
 a sharp, short, querulous growling. 
 
 THE DRIVE OF THE SEA-LIONS ON SAINT PAUL'S ISLAND. 
 
 The natives have a very high appreciation of the sea-lion, or 
 see-vitchie, as they call it, and base this regard upon the supe- 
 rior quality of the flesh, fat, an<l hide, (for making covers for
 
 ALASKA. • 155 
 
 their skin boats, hidarl-ics and lldarralis,) siuews, iiitestiues 
 &c. 
 
 As I have before said, the sea-lioii seklom hauls back far 
 from the water, generally very close to the surf-margin, and in 
 this position it becomes quite a difiticult task for the uatives ta 
 approach and get in betweeu it and the sea unobserved, for, 
 unless this silent approach is made, the beast will at once take 
 the alarm and bolt into the water. 
 
 By reference to my map of Saint Paul's, a small point, near 
 the head of the northeast ueck of the island^ will be seen, 
 upon which quite a large number of sea-lions are always to be 
 found, as it is never disturbed except on the occasion of this an- 
 nual driving. The natives step down on to the beach, in the little 
 bight just above it, and begin to crawl on all fours flat on the 
 sand down to the end of the neck and in between the dozing sea- 
 lion herd and the water, always selecting a semi-bright moonligbt 
 uiglit. If the wind is favorable, and none of the men meet with 
 an accident, the natives will almost always succeed in reach- 
 ing the point unobserved, when, at a given signal, they all jump 
 up on their feet at once, yell, brandish their arms, and give a 
 sudden start, or alarm, to the herd above them, for, just as the 
 sea-lions move, upon the first impulse of surprise, so they keep 
 on. For instance, if the animals on starting up are sleeping 
 with their heads pointed in the direction of the water, they 
 keep straight on toward it; but if the^^ jump up looking over 
 the land, they follow that course just as desperately, and noth- 
 ing turns them, at first, either one way or the other. Those 
 that go for the water are, of course, lost, but the natives follow 
 the land-leaders and keep urging them on, and soon have them 
 in their control, driving them back into a small pen, which they 
 extemporize by means of little stakes, with flags, set around a 
 circuit of a few hundred square feet, and where they keep them 
 until three or four hundred, at least, arc captured, before they 
 commence their drive of ten miles overland down south to the 
 village. 
 
 The natives, latterly, in getting this annual herd of sea-lions, 
 have postponed it until late in the fall, and when the animals 
 are scant in number and the old bulls poor. This they were 
 obliged to do, on account of the pressure of their sealing-busi- 
 uess in the spring, and the warmth of the season in August and 
 September, which makes the driving very tedious. In this way 
 I have not been permitted to behold the best-conditioned 
 drives, i. e., those in which a majority of the herd is made up
 
 156 ALASKA. 
 
 of fine, euormously fat, aud heavy bulls, some four or five liuu- 
 (Irecl in number. 
 
 The natives are compelled to go to the northeast point of the 
 island for these animals, inasmuch as it is the only place with 
 natural advantages where they can be ai^proached for the pur- 
 pose of capturing- alive. Here they congregate in greatest 
 number, although they can be found, two or three thousand of 
 them, on the southwest point, and as many more on " See- 
 vitchie Cammiu" and Otter Island. 
 
 Capturing the sea-lion drive is really the only serious busi- 
 ness these people on the islands have, and when they set out for 
 the task the picked men only leave the village. At Northeast 
 Point they have a barrabkie, in which they sleep and eat while 
 gathering the drove, the time of getting which depends upon 
 the weather, wind, &:c. As the squads are captured, night after 
 night, they are driven up close by the barrabkie, where the 
 natives mount constant guard over them, until several hundred 
 animals shall have been secured, and all is ready for the drive 
 down overland to the village. 
 
 The drove is started and conducted in the same general man- 
 ner as that which I have detailed in speaking of the fur-seal, 
 only the sea-lion soon becomes very sullen and unwilling to 
 move, requiring spells of frequent rest. It cannot pick itself 
 up from the ground and shamble otf on a loping gallop for a few 
 hundred yards, like the Callorhimis^ and is not near so free and 
 agile in its movements on land, or in the water for that matter, 
 for I have never seen the Eumetopms leap from the water like 
 a dolphin, or indulge in the thousand and one submarine acro- 
 batic displays made constantly by the fur-seal. 
 
 This ground, over which the sea-lions are driven, is mostly a 
 rolling level, thickly grassed and mossed over, with here and 
 there a fresh-water pond into which the animals plunge with 
 great apparent satisfaction, seeming to cool themselves, and 
 out of which the natives have no trouble in driving them. The 
 distance between the sea-lion x)en at Northeast Poiut and the 
 village is about ten miles, as the sea-Iious are driven, and occu- 
 pies over five or six days under the most favorable circum- 
 stances, such as wet, cold weather ; and when a little warmer, 
 or as in July or August, a few seasons ago, they were some 
 three weeks coming down with a drove, and even then left a 
 hundred or so along on the road. 
 
 After the drove has been brought into the village on the kill-
 
 ALASKA. 157 
 
 iug-grouucis, the natives shoot down the bulls and then sur- 
 round and huddle u[> the cows, spearing them just behind the 
 lore-flippers. The killing of the sea-lions is quite an exciting 
 spectacle, a strange and unparalleled exhibition of its kind ; 
 and I cannot do better than to refer directly and silentlj' to my 
 
 ■ 
 
 illustrations of it. The bodies are at once stripped of their 
 hides and much of the flesh, sinews, intestines, (with which the 
 native water-proof coats, &c., are made,) in conjunction with 
 the throat-linings, {cesoph a {/us,) and the skin of the flippers, which 
 is exceedingly tough and elastic, and used for soles to their 
 boots or " tarhosars.'- 
 
 As the sea-lion is without fur, the skin has little or no com- 
 mercial value ; the hair is short, and longest over the nape of 
 the neck, straight, and somewhat coarse, varying in color greatly 
 as the seasons come and go. For instance, when the Uumetopias 
 makes his first appearance in the spring, and dries out upon 
 the land, he has a light-brownish, rufous tint, darker shades 
 back and under the fore flippers and on the abdomen ; by the 
 expiration of a mouth or six week, 15th June, he will be a bright 
 golden-rufous or ocher, and this is just before shedding, which 
 sets in by the middle of August, or a little earlier. After the 
 new coat has fairly grown, and just before he leaves the island 
 for the season, in November, it will be a light sepia, or vandyke- 
 brown, with deeper shades, almostdark upon the belly; the cows, 
 after shedding, do not color up so dark as the bulls, but when 
 they come back to the land next year they are identically the 
 same in color, so that the eye in glancing over a sea-lion 
 rookery in June and July cannot discern any noted dissimilar- 
 ity of coloring between the bulls and the cows f and also the 
 young males and yearlings appear in the same golden-browu 
 and ocher, with here and there an animal spotted somewhat 
 like a leopard, the yellow, rufous ground predominating, with 
 patches of dark-brown irregularly interspersed. I have never 
 seen any of the old bulls or cows thus mottled, and think very 
 likely it is due to some irregularity in the younger animals 
 during the season of shedding, for I have not noticed it early 
 in the season, and failed to observe it at the close. Many of 
 the old bulls have a grizzled or slightly brindled look during 
 the shedding-period, or, that is, from the 10th August up to the 
 10th or 20th of November; the pups, when born, are of a rich, 
 dark chestnut-brown ; this coat they shed in October, and 
 take one much lighter, but still darker than their parents', 
 
 but not a great deal.
 
 158 ALASKA. 
 
 Although, as I liave ah^eady indicated, the sea-lion, in its 
 habit and disposition, approximates the fnr-seal, yet in no 
 respect does it maintain and enforce the system and regu- 
 larity found on the breeding-grounds of the CoUorhinus. The 
 time of arrival at, stay on, and dei)arture from the island is 
 about the same; but if the winter is an open, mild one, the sea- 
 lion will be seen frequently all tbrongh it, and the natives 
 occasionally shoot them around the island long after the fur- 
 seals have entirely disapjienred for the year. It also does not 
 confine its landing to these Prybilov Islands alone, as the fur- 
 seal unquestionably does, with reference to our continent ; for 
 It has been and is often shot upon the Aleutian Islands and 
 many rocky islets of the northwest coast. 
 
 The sea-lion in no respect whatever manifests the intelligence 
 and sagacity exhibited by the fur-seal, and must be rated far 
 below, although next, in uaturfJ order. I have no hesitation 
 in putting this Uiimetopias of the Prybilov Islands, apart from 
 the sea-lion common at San Francisco and Santa Barbara, as a 
 4listiuct animal; and I call attention to the excellent descrip- 
 tion of the California sea-lion, made public in the April num- 
 ber for 1872 of the Overland Monthly, by Capt. C. M. Scammon, 
 in which the distinguishing characters, externally, of this animal 
 are well defined, and by which the difference between the 
 Eumc'toplas of Bering Sea and that of the coast of California 
 can at once be seen ) and also I notice one more point in which 
 the dissimilarity is marked — the northern sea- lion never barks 
 or howls like the animal at the Farralones or Santa Barbara. 
 Young and old, both sexes, from one year and upward, have 
 only a deep hms fjroicl, and prolonged, steady roar ; while at San 
 Francisco sea-lions break out incessantly with a '' honking" 
 bark or howl, and never roar. 
 
 I am not to be understood as saying that all the sea-lions met 
 with on the Californiau coast are different from E. stelleri of 
 Bering Sea. I am well satisfied that stragglers from the north 
 are down on the Farralones, but they are not migrating back 
 and forth every season ; and I am furthermore certain that not 
 11 single animal of the species most common at San Francisco 
 was present among those breeding on the Prvbilov Islands in 
 lS72-'73. 
 
 According to the natives of Saint George, some fifty or sixty 
 years ago the Eumetopias held almost exclusive possession of 
 the island, being there in great numbers, some two or three
 
 ALASKA. 150 
 
 liundied thousand : and that, as the fur-seals were barely per- 
 mitted to land by these animals, and in no ^reat number, the 
 Kussiaus directed them (the natives) to bunt and worry the 
 vsea-lions off from the island, and the result was that as the sea- 
 lions leit, the fur-seals came, so that today they occupy nearly 
 the same ground covered by the Eumetox)kiii alone sixty years 
 ago. This statement is, or seems to be, corroborated by Choris, 
 in liis description of the lies S.-George's et S.-PauFs, visited 
 by him fifty years ago ;* but the account given by Bishop 
 Veuiaminov,t and placed in the Appendix, differs entirely from 
 the above, for by it almost as many fur-seals were taken on. 
 Saint George, during the first years of occupation, as on Saint 
 Paul, and never have been less than one-sixth of the number 
 on die larger island. For this the natives claim to have, on 
 the one hand, proof as to the truth of their statement, and 
 Father Yeniaminov, on the other, publishes upon the credit of 
 reliable lists and manuscripts in his posses.siou at the time of 
 writing. 1 am strongly inclined to believe that the i.slaud of 
 Saint George never was resorted to in any great numbers by 
 the fur-seal, and that the sea-lion was the dominant animal 
 there until disturbed and driven from its breeding-grounds by 
 the people, who sought to encourage the coming of its more 
 valuable relative by so doing, and making room in this way 
 for it. 
 
 The sea-lion has but little value save to the natives, and is 
 more prized on account of its flesh and skin, by the people liv- 
 ing upon the islands and similar positions, than it would be 
 elsewhere. The matter of its preservation and perpetuation 
 should be left entirely to them, and it will be well looked after. 
 It is singular that the fat of the sea-lion should be so different 
 in characters of taste and smell from that of the fur-seal, be- 
 ing free from any taint of disagreeable flavor or odor, while 
 the blubber of the latter, although so closely related, is most 
 repugnant. The flesh of the sea-lion cub is tender, Juicy, light- 
 colored, and slightly like veal; in my o|)iuion, quite good. As 
 the animal grows older, the meat is dry, tough, and without 
 flavor. 
 
 * Voyage Pittorcsque autour du Monde. 
 
 t Zapeeskie ob Ostrovah Oouahlashkeuskaho Otdayla, St. Petersburg, 1540.
 
 IGO ALASKA. 
 
 THE WALRUS OF BERING SEA, (R0S3IARUS ARCTICUS.) 
 
 I write " the M'alrus of Bering Sea,''^ because this animal is 
 quite distiuct from the walrus of the ISTorth Atlantic and 
 Greenland, differing- from it specifically in a very striking man- 
 ner, by its greater size and semi-hairless skin. 
 
 These clumsy beasts are, at the present time, only to be seen 
 on Walrus Island, being so shj^ and timid that they have de- 
 serted the other islands as they were populated by man. In 
 early days, or when the Russians first took possession, a great 
 many walruses were found at Northeast Point and along the 
 south shore of Saiut Paul's Island, but with the landing of the 
 traders and sea-hunters the walrus abruptly took its departure, 
 and Walrus Island alone is now frequented by it, being isolated 
 and seldom visited during the year by the natives. 
 
 It is of small commercial importance; the ivory is of poor 
 quality, mostly porous, pithy, and yellow, while the oil is of a 
 low grade, and the hide is quite valueless. But it is the main 
 support of the Esquimaux far to the north, where it breeds 
 upon the ice, the females never coming dowu to the Prybilov 
 Grou]) : — only males are to be seen on Walrus Island. 
 
 On this little island I have enjoyed a fine opportunity of 
 studying and painting these uncouth animals from life, being 
 able to easily approach to within a slight distance from the 
 flanks of a herd of over five hundred walrus-bulls, which lay 
 closely packed upon a low series of basaltic tables, elevated but 
 little from the surf-wash. I sat upon a small rocky ledge only 
 a few feet above and from four or five heavy bulls, being, how- 
 ever, on the leeward side. 
 
 I was surprised to observe the raw, naked appearance of the 
 hide, n skin covered with a multitude of pustular-looking warts 
 and pimples, without hair or fur, deeply wrinkled with dark 
 red venous lines, showing out in bold contrast through the 
 thick, yellowish-brown cuticle, which seemed to be scaling off 
 in places, as if with leprosy. They struck my eye at first in a 
 most unpleasant manner, for they looked like bloated, mortify- 
 ing, shapeless masses of flesh ; the clusters of swollen, warty 
 pimples, of a yellow parboiled flesh-color, over the shoulders 
 and around the neck suggested unwholesomeness forcibly. 
 
 This walrus is sluggish and clumsy in the water, and is almost
 
 ALASKA. 161 
 
 helpless on the rocks out of it, and can no more move on land, 
 like even the lowest of the seals, P/toca, than can the hippopot- 
 amus ran with the antelope; the immense bulk and weight 
 compared with the size and strength of its limbs renders it 
 (piite impotent for terrestritil movement. Like the seal, it 
 t>wims entirely under water when iraveling, not rising, how- 
 ever, quite so frequently to breathe; then it "blows" not unlike 
 a whale. On a cool, quiet morning iu ^lay, I watched a herd 
 oft" the east coast of the island, tracing its progress by the tiny 
 jets of vapor thrown off" as the animals rose to respire. 
 
 The adult male is about 12 feet in length from nostrils to tip 
 of tail and has 10 or 13 feet of girth, and one bull, shot by the 
 natives on Walrus Island, July 5, 1872, was nearly 13 feet long, 
 with the enormous girth of 11 feet. Tlie immense mass of 
 blubber on the shoulders and around the neck makes the head 
 and posteriors look small in proportion and attenuated. 
 
 The strange flattened appearance of the head will be better 
 understood by reference to the plate, where the nostrils, eyes, 
 and ear-spots seem to be nearly placed on top of the head, the 
 nasal apertures especially so, opening directly over the muzzle, 
 oval, and about an inch in their greatest diameter. 
 
 The tusks, or canines, are set firmly under the nostril-aper- 
 tures, in a deep, massive, bony pocket, giving a broad, square- 
 cat front to the muzzle. They grow down, varying in size 
 aud "weight from 8 or 10 inches in length to over 2 feet, and 
 from five pounds to fifteen, usually bowed out somewhat in the 
 middle, the ends approaching quite closely. The larger tushes 
 have a diameter at the heel of a little more than 2J inches, 
 tapering down to less than half an inch at the tip. 
 
 The upper lips are thick and gristly, fall of short, stubbed, 
 gray-white bristles, from one-half to three inches long. There 
 are a few bristles set, also, on the chin of the lower jaw. 
 
 The eyes are small, but prominent, placed nearly on top of 
 the head, protrndiug from their sockets like those of the lob- 
 ster. They are rolled about iu every direction when the ani- 
 mal is startled. The iris and pupil is less than one-fourth of 
 the exposed surface; the sclerotic coat bulges out from the 
 lids, and is of a dirty, mottled cotfee-yeliow and brown, with 
 an occasional admixture of white ; the iris, light-brown, with 
 dark-brown rays and spots. The animal has the power to roll 
 the eyes when aroused, seldom moving the head more than to 
 elevate it; but the range of sight out of water is not well 
 11 AL
 
 162 ALASKA. 
 
 developed, at least, for, after throwing- small chips of rock 
 down npoii the walrus-bulls near nie, causing only a stupid stare 
 aud low grunts of astonishment, I rose gently and silently to 
 my feet, and stood boldly up before them, not more than ten 
 feet away, but I was not noticed ; had I, however, given them 
 a little noise, or had 1 been standing hundreds of yards away 
 from them, to the windward, they would have taken the alarm 
 instantly, aud tumbled off into the sea like so many hustled 
 wool-sacks, for their sense of smell is keen. 
 
 The ears of the walrus are on the same line at the toj) of the 
 lAsad with the nostrils and eyes, the latter being midway 
 between. The pavilion is a slight fleshy wrinkle, or fold, not 
 at all raised or developed, and from wliat I could see of the 
 meatus externvs, it was very narrow and small, but they are 
 quick and sensitive in hearing. 
 
 The head of the walrus male, full grown, is, on an average, 
 18 inches long between the nostrils and the post-occipital 
 region, and weighs from sixty to eighty pounds. I can only 
 estimate the gross-weight of a mature, well-conditioned bull at 
 two thousand pounds. The skin alone weighs from two hun- 
 dred and fifty to four hundred pounds. It is two and three 
 inches thick on the shoulders and around the neck, aud 
 nowhere less than half an inch deep. 
 
 It feeds exclusively ui)on shell-fish {LameJUhranchiafa, or 
 clams, principally) and the bulbous roots of certain marine 
 grasses and i)lants, which grow in great abundance in the 
 many broad, shallow lagoons aud bays of the mainland coast. 
 I have taken from the paunch of a walrus over a bushel of 
 crushed clams, shells and all, which the animal had but re- 
 cently swallowed, since digestion had scarcely commenced. 
 Many of the clams in the stomach were not even broken ; and 
 it is in digging these shell-fish that the service rendered by the 
 enormous tushes becomes evident. 
 
 In landing and climbing over the low, rocky shelves at " Mor- 
 serovia," this animal is almost as clumsy aud indolent as the 
 sloth ; the^' crowd np from the water, one after the other, in 
 the most ungainly manner, accompanying their movements 
 Avith low grunts and bellow! ngs; the first one up from the sea no 
 sooner gets composed upon the rocks for sleep than the second 
 one comes prodding and poking with its blunted tusks, demand- 
 ing room also, and causing the first to change its position to 
 iinother still farther off from the watery and the second is in
 
 ALASKA. 1G3 
 
 funi treated in the same Avay by tbe tliinl, and so on, until 
 hundreds will be packed together on the shore as thickly as 
 they can lie, frequently pillowing their heads or posteriors 
 upon the bodies of one another, and not at all quarrelsome ; as 
 they pass all the time when on land in sluggish basking or deep 
 sleep, they seem to resort to a very singular method of keeping 
 guard, if I may so term it, for iuthis herd of three or four hun- 
 dred bulls under my eye, though all were sleeping, yet the 
 movement of one would disturb the other, which would raise its 
 head in a stupid manner, grunt once or twice, and before lying 
 down to sleep again, in a few moments, it would strike the 
 slumbering form of its nearest companion with its tusks, caus- 
 ing that animal to rouse up for a few minutes also, grunt and 
 pass the blow on to the next in the same manner, and so on, 
 through the whole herd; this disturbance among themselves 
 always kept some one or two aroused, and consequently more 
 alert than the rest. 
 
 In moving on land they have no power in the hind limbs, 
 which are dragged and twitched up behind ; progression is 
 slowly and tediously made by a succession of short steps forward 
 on the fore feet. How long they remain out from the water at 
 anyone time I am unable to say. Unlike the seals, they breathe 
 heavily and snore. 
 
 The natives told me that the walrus of Bering Sea is 
 monogamous, and that the difference between the sexes in size, 
 color, and shape is inconsiderable ; that the female brings forth 
 her young, a single calf, in June, usually on the ice-floes in the 
 Arctic Ocean, above Bering Straits; that the calf closely 
 resembles the parent in general proportions and color, but 
 that the tusks which give it its most distinguishing expression 
 are not visible until the end of the second year of its life] that 
 the walrus mother is strongly attached to her offspring, and 
 nurses it later in the season in the sea ; that the walrus sleeps 
 profoundly in the water, floating almost vertically, with barely 
 more than the nostrils above water, and can be easily ap- 
 proached, if care is taken, to within easy spearing-distauce ; 
 that the bulls do not fight as savagely as the fur-seal or sea- 
 lion, the blunted tushes of the combatants seldom penetrate 
 the thick hide ; that they can remain under water nearly an 
 hoiTr, or about twice as long as the seals, and that they sink 
 like so many stones immediately after being shot. 
 
 These animals are seldom molested on Walrus Island, the
 
 164 ALASKA. 
 
 natives not making any use oi' their flesb, fat, or bides ; and 
 wbeu tbey are sbot, it is usually- but a wanton undertaking by 
 tbe people ^Ybile visiting tbe island in June and July. For the 
 purpose of getting eggs, tbe natives come from the village on 
 Saint Paul's twice or thrice every j^ear, and only at this season. 
 
 As tbe females never come down to the Prybilov Islands, I 
 have not had an opportunity of observing them, and have ia 
 this way not been able to see this animal as well as I could 
 wish. Tbe reason why this band of males, many of them old 
 ones, should be here by themselves all through the year is not 
 plain to me; the natives assure me that the females, or their 
 young, never have been seen around the shores of these islands. 
 Over in Bristol Bay great numbers of walrus congregate ou 
 the sandy bars and flats, where they are hunted to a consider- 
 able extent for their ivory.* 
 
 Prom descriptions of undoubted authority, the walrus of the 
 iNOrth Atlantic is a much smaller animal than his relative in 
 the Pacific, and not nearly so timid. It is also covered with a 
 coat of short brownish-gray and black hair, while the male adult 
 of Bering Sea is almost entirely naked. The skins and skele- 
 tons of the two animals are now in the Smithsonian collection. 
 
 * No ■walrus are now found south of tbe Aleutian Islands, but not more 
 than tbirty or tbirty-five years ago small numbers of these animals were 
 killed now and then ou islands between Kodiak and Oonemak Pass. Tbe 
 greatest number of them south of the arctic circle will now be found in 
 Bristol Bay and on the north shore of tbe peninsula. 
 
 Tbe finest baidars that I have seen in this country were the skin-boats 
 of tbe Saint Lawrence natives, which were made out of dressed walrus- 
 hides sewed with sinews. The flesh is exceedingly rank in taste and smell 
 when fresh, and, in fact, quite as offensive to tbe civilized palate then as 
 when putrid. Tbe natives clean the small intestine and drj- it, which gives 
 them a piece of light, transparent gut-j)archment, over a hundred feet in 
 length and five to six inches broad, that serves admirably as material for 
 water-j)roof coats and trousers ; tbe flipper-skin makes the toughest soles 
 for their hair-seal boots, while tbe bide itself answers for all styles of cord- 
 afire.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 FISH AND FISHERIES. 
 
 THE FISHERIES OF ALASKA. 
 
 The value of tlie iuterests in the Territory classed under this 
 liead Las beeu greatly overrated by writers, who have created an 
 impression that there are extensive banks upon "which cod may 
 be taken, of the same quality and with the same success that 
 attends the labors of fishermen on the Newfoundland Banks. 
 This is untrue ; but salmon, herring, and halibut are abundant, 
 the salmon being the most valuable fishing interest, and only 
 one of real commercial importance on the whole northwest 
 coast. 
 
 There are not on this coast the variety and excellence of fish 
 that is common to the Atlantic seaboard, and the shad and 
 scup runs of the East are without a parallel in these waters. 
 There are but few species here that have an economic value in 
 regard to the subsistence of the natives, from Bering Straits 
 to Dixon's Sound, viz: the salmon, cod-fish, sculpius or rock- 
 cod, {Sehastes,) and halibut. Of the first, there is, both in 
 quality and quantity, enough to warrant commercial activity 
 and importance ; of the second, the quantity and quality 
 are insufficient, in a business point of view, i^rovided even the 
 demand was always equal to the supply. Halibut might be 
 cured in a small vray; but the rock-cod and sculpius are worth- 
 less, except to the Indians, when unable to procure either 
 salmon or cod ; the famous '' oolichan" is confined to the Nasse 
 River. 
 
 These fish are distributed throughout the Territory as fol- 
 lows ; and first in the order of importance is — 
 
 1. Salmon. — Almost every stream, big or little, that empties 
 into the sea or its bays, throughout the whole Territory, islands, 
 and mainland, is visited at regular periods by one or more spe- 
 cies of this genus, in greater or less numbers, with the widest 
 range of variation in quality ; the runs of this fish in May and 
 June up the large rivers in this Territory being enormous. 
 
 During the last ten or twelve years steps have been taken by 
 competent men on the Frazer River antl the Columbia to util- 
 ize and turn to profit these great runs of the finest fish; but 
 the industry of salting them for exportation failed, and a new
 
 166 ALASKA. 
 
 business — that of canning the fish — ^^is beuig engaged in exten- 
 sively on the Columbia iiiver ; and, it ^vould seem, with a fair 
 profit, capital might be advantageously employed in the prose- 
 cution of salmon-canning at the mouths of all the principal 
 streams in this country, as there is enough of the raw material 
 to employ a large number of men several mouths in the year in 
 its i^reservatiou and i)rofitable disposition ; and I see no reason 
 why this industry should not become one of great importance 
 in the Territory. 
 
 The demand for canned salmon will grow in proportion as it 
 becomes known, for it is a superior article of food, either i)lain 
 as it comes in the can, or pickled quickly after opening. 
 
 2. Cod. — This fish is the most widely distributed of any belong- 
 ing to the waters of Alaska or the North Pacific and Bering Sea. 
 It will be found on soundings, wherever a hook may be dropped 
 in Bering Sea, south of the latitude of Saint Lawrence Island, 
 all around the Aleutian Islands, the Alaskan Peninsular, Ko- 
 diak, and becomes scarce and fails to the eastward as far as 
 Keuai and Copper Eiver, and then from Sitka and Prince of 
 Wales Island to Fort Simpson, where it is only caught for a few 
 weeks in the year, when running in schools, passing usually up 
 toward the north. 
 
 The immense area frequented by this fish will be at once 
 appreciated by glancing at the map and noting the soundings, 
 which show that nearly the whole of Bering Sea bountied or 
 staked out by our islands is a single great bank, and that 
 large areas south of the Aleutian Islands, the Peninsular, and 
 Kodiak, are shoaled off in a similar manner. Nevertheless, the 
 catch and quality of Alaskan cod is much inferior to our east- 
 ern fisheries. 
 
 There is cod enough, however, of fair quality, to supply" the 
 immediate home-consumption of a large i)opulation, should 
 there ever be such in the history of the Territory, but the fish- 
 ing-grounds are not valuable enough to induce capitalists to 
 engage in taking and curing fish for exportation. This matter 
 has been honestly tested by experienced fishermen, who have 
 been trained on the eastern banks, and is therefore beyond 
 doubt. At present, however, in securing the small supply re- 
 quired by local demand, the characteristic impatience of the 
 people of this coast is strikingly shown; for, even could they 
 sell their fish caught in the north at as good a rate as that of 
 the imported stock, they, as a class, would be dissatisfied with 
 the small i>rofits.
 
 ALASKA. 167 
 
 The coast-cod average in this Territory, "from tbe knife," 
 about three to five liouncls, and the deep or outer water cod, of 
 the same species, average about eight or ten, but they are not 
 as plentiful as the smaller. The best banks in the Territory 
 are those south of Unga Island, about the Shumagins and 
 south of Kodiak. The catch is best off Unga. 
 
 3. Halihid. — Found throughout the Territory on soundings 
 south of the sixtieth parallel of north latitude. Halibut are 
 quite abundant and of excellent quality, but the climate is such 
 that the fishermen cannot properly dry or cure them for exporta- 
 tion, even in small cargoes. They are, however, not abun- 
 dant enough for exportation, and must therefore be regarded 
 as only of local importance. 
 
 The other fish — roclc-cod, sculpin, ichite-Jish — peculiar to the 
 rivers, &c., which are found along the coast and in the bays, 
 and estuaries, possess no special merit, and have no commer- 
 cial importance, but they are valuable factors to the natives'^ 
 existence. 
 
 It will be observed that the waters of the Territory of Alaska 
 are well stocked with fish for home use; in the salmon inter- 
 ests, the natural wealth is great, and will doubtless be utilized 
 sooner or later by canning, but that the experiment of salting 
 cod and salting salmon has not been profitable for sale in the 
 Australian, Soutli American, and even in our own market. 
 There are twelve to thirteen small cod-fishing vessels that 
 supply the San Francisco trade, but it is a significant fact 
 that out of this number nine or ten deserted the Alaskan 
 banks last season, and went on nearly two thousand miles 
 farther into the Ochotsk for their catch, where the fish are 
 superior in quality and more plentiful. 
 
 It will not be untrue to assert, from what is now known in 
 regard to the fishing-interests of Alaska, that there is nothing 
 there that can be considered parallel or at all equal to the runs 
 of cod, scup, shad, and mackerel of the Xew England coast, 
 save the periodic visit of salmon, which come in truly magnifi- 
 cent number and condition. 
 
 In the small harbor of Woods's Hole, Mass., Professor Baird 
 caught in his nets, during one summer, over seventy species of 
 food- fishes. That cannot be done in the Xorth Pacific, no matter 
 when or where the naturalist or fisherman may choose to try. 
 The variety and number of piscatorial life in this region is poor 
 indeed when compared with that of the Xorth Atlantic.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OE>^ITHOLOGY OF THE PEYBILOV ISLA^^DS. 
 By Dk. Elliott Coues, U. S. A. 
 
 (Based on Mr. H. W. EUioti's maniiscr'n)(s and coUcctions.*) 
 
 Mr. Elliott's manuscripts and specimens having been sub- 
 mitted to me for elaboration in the present connection, an 
 account of the birds of the islands is lierewitli rendered. His 
 collections furnish the data for most of the technical portions 
 of the memoir, while the biographical notices are, in substance, 
 his own; these are placed between quotation-marks. The 
 nomenclature and sequence of the species are adapted to the 
 present paper from the latest systematic work upon American 
 ornithology, the author's " Key to ISTorth American Birds," in 
 which may be found a diagnosis of each species and variety 
 not herewith described. The numeral prefix of each species is 
 that which it bears in the authors "Check-List of North Amer- 
 ican Birds." 
 
 With the scientific names are given the English, and, in gen- 
 eral, the Eussian equivalents — the latter between quotation- 
 marks. In most cases the synonyms and references of special 
 pertinence are added. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS OX THE BIRDS OF THE ISLANDS. 
 
 "While a few species of water-fowl come to these islands in 
 innumerable numbers for the purpose of breeding, yet the list 
 of birds to be met with here is a small one. It is, however, of 
 exceeding interest to the naturalist, comprising many desiderata 
 scarcely obtainable elsewhere. 
 
 "Over fifteen miles of the bold, high, basaltic, bluff shore- 
 line of Saint George's Island is fairly covered with hundreds of 
 thousands of nesting gulls (Rissa) and arries, {Uria,) while 
 
 *The scientific readers of this report will, I am sure, approve of the refer- 
 ence of my MSS. to Dr. Coues for elaboration, as the revision of synonomy 
 lias become a serious matter in regardto the uomeuclature of natural science, 
 and, already, too many writers have added to existing confusion in this 
 respect by attempting to do that which others th;in theuiselves are much 
 better qualified for. —II. ^Y. E.
 
 ALASKA. 1G9 
 
 down ill the countless chinks and holes over the entire surface 
 of the north side of this island millions of ' chooch-kies' {Simo- 
 ritynchus microceros) breed, filling the air and darkening the 
 light of day with their cries and fluttering forms. On Walrus 
 Island the nests of the great white gull of the north [Lams 
 (jlancns) can be visited and inspected, as well also as those of 
 the sea-parrot or puffin, [Fratercula^] shags or cormorants, 
 {Gmcidus,} and the red-legged kittiwake, {Lanis hveviroHirh.) 
 These are all accessible on every side, affording the observer 
 an unequaled opportunity of noticing these birds through the 
 breeding-season, from its beginning in ]May until the end in 
 September. 
 
 " Not one of the water-birds found on and around the islands 
 is exempted from a place in the native's larder; even the 
 delectable shags, ' oreelie,' are unhesitatingly eaten by the peo- 
 ple, and indeed furnish, during the winter-season especially, 
 an almost certain source of supply for fresh meat. The large, 
 gaily-colored eggs of the ' arrie' {Lomvia arra) are gathered in 
 June and July, without stint, for use, and might be packed 
 away in lime-water by the barrel, so as to keep through the 
 year, if any provident or thoughtful action was taken in the 
 matter. Walrus Island would alone supply the whole demand 
 from year to year. On the occasion of my visit there, July 5, 
 1872, six men loaded a bidarrah, capable of carrying four tons, 
 exclusive of crew, down to the water's edge with eggs, in less 
 than three working-hours. 
 
 "During the winter-months the birds are almost wholly 
 absent. They begin to make their first appearance, in any 
 number, for the season, early in May, and by the middle or end 
 of September the great body of the millions that have bred 
 during this time go to sea, and are not again noted, save a few 
 stragglers now and then, until they re-assemble next May, for 
 the repetition of their reproductive processes. The stress of 
 severe weather in the winter-months, driving snow-storms, and 
 floating ice-floes brought down from the nortb, which shut the 
 islands in, still, cold, and quiet, are cause enough for the dis- 
 appearance of the water-fowl. 
 
 " The position of the islands is such as to lie somewhat out- 
 side of the migratory path pursued by the birds on the mainland, 
 and, owing to this reason, they are only visited by a few strag- 
 glers from that quarter, and also from the Asiatic side. One
 
 170 . ALASKA. 
 
 species, {Strejysilas infcrpyes,) however, comes here every sum- 
 mer, for three or four weeks' staj", iu great uamber, and gets 
 so fat iu feediug upou the hirvte. fouud ou the killiug-grouuds 
 that it often bursts open when it falls, after being shot on the 
 wing. Our robin (T. migraiorius) was seeu by myself, near 
 Saint Paul's Village, one cool morning in October, (the 15th,) 
 and the natives told me that it had been noticed before in this 
 way, never staying more than a few days or a week, and being- 
 brought there, undoubtedly, by some storm or gale of wind 
 taking it up and off from its path over the mainland. In the 
 same mauner hawks, owls, and numerous strange water-fowl 
 visit the islands, but never remain there long. 
 
 " The Ivussiaus tried the experiment of bringing up from Sitka 
 and Ounahishka a number of ravens, with the view of stimu- 
 lating them to live and breed upon these islands, where they 
 would be almost invaluable as scavengers; but the birds inva- 
 riably, sooner or later, and within a short time, took flight for 
 the mainland or the Aleutian Islands. At the time of present 
 writing the Alaska Commercial Company have sent up to the 
 village of Saint Paul's a number of domestic pigeons, and the 
 experiment will be tried with them. 
 
 " The natives have always, and still do, keep a small number 
 of chickens ; and, where poultry is taken into the winter living- 
 rooms of these people, they get return in eggs. But the main- 
 tenance of a hennery, owing to the long season of cold, stormy 
 weather, compelling the chickens to hunt shelter for weeks at 
 a time, is impracticable, regarded with a view of profitable 
 recompense for time and care. 
 
 "Walrus Island is the most favorable spot, in this whole 
 Alaskan country, to observe the nesting and breeding birds of 
 Beriug Sea. It is a low, lava rock, seven miles to the east- 
 ward of Northeast Point, with au area of less than five acres, 
 rugged and bare of all vegetation, save a species of close-grow- 
 ing curly grass. Here the Lomvia arra and many gulls, cor- 
 morants, sea-parrots, and auks come to lay their eggsiu count- 
 less numbers. The face and brow of the low, cliff-like sea-front 
 are occupied almost exclusively by the ' arries,' {Lomvia arra,) 
 which lay a single egg each, on the surface of the bare rock, 
 and stand straddling over it while hatching, only leaving at 
 irregular and short intervals to feed. Hundreds of thousands 
 of these birds alone are thus engaged aljout the 29th of June
 
 ALASKA. 171 
 
 on this little island, stinuling stacked up togetbei- like so many 
 bottles, as thickly as they can be stowed, making all the time 
 a deep, low, hoarse, grunting noise. They quarrel among 
 themselves incessantly, and in this way roll thousands of eggs 
 ott" into the sea, or into crevices and fissures, where they are 
 lost and broken. ^ 
 
 "The 'arrie' lays but one egg. If this is removed or broken, 
 she will soon lay another; but, if undisturbed after depositing 
 the first, she undertakes the hatching at once. The size, shape, 
 and coloration of this egg are exceedingly variable. A largo 
 proportion of the eggs become so dirty, by rolling here and 
 there in the excremeut while the birds tread and quarrel over 
 them, as to be almost unrecognizable. The shell is very tough, 
 and the uatives, when gathering them, fill tubs, baskets, &c.,. 
 on the cliffs, carry them down to the general heap collected 
 near the boats' landing, and pour them out upon the rocks with 
 a single flip of the hand, just as a basket of apples would be 
 emptied ; and, after this, they are again quite as carelessly 
 handled when loaded into the 'bidarrah,' sustaining through it 
 all very little injury. 
 
 ''The small grassy interior of the island, which is sharply 
 margined by the surrounding breeding- belt of'arries'on the 
 shore-line, is the only place, I believe, in this sea where the 
 great white gull {Lams glaucus) breeds. Among the little 
 grassy tussocks here, it builds a nest of dry grass, sea-ferns, 
 «S:c., very nicely laid up and rounded, and in which it lays usu- 
 ally thee eggs, sometimes only a couple ; in exceptional instances 
 I have seen four. These big gulls could not bi-eed on either of 
 the other islands in this manner, for the foxes there would have 
 the upper hand instantly ; and the bird is too large to settle 
 on the narrow shelf-ledges of the cliffs, like the smaller gulls 
 and other water-fowls. 
 
 " The red-legged kittiwake, [Larus hreviyostris,) and its cousin. 
 Lams ti'kJactijhis, build in the most amicable manner together 
 on the faces of the cliffs, associated with cormorants, sea-par- 
 rots, and auks, all together, and, with the exception of the 
 latter, the nests are easy of access. 
 
 "As we land, the ' arries' fly from their eggs off and around 
 for a short distance, and then settle down into the sea in platoons 
 or files, swaying hither and thither with the movement of swell 
 and tide, trailed out over the water like great whip-lashes.
 
 172 ALASKA. 
 
 Watch a boat as it approaches one of these swimming- pha- 
 lanxes and alarms it ; out the birds sprawl, half swimming and 
 half flying, making a noise like a shower of hail-stones falling 
 npon a roof, as the scare spreads from bird to bird, nntil the 
 whole vast flock is beating- the water with a hnndred thousand 
 wings in almost vain endeavor to rise from the calm surface, 
 for these birds in still weather have great difticulty in taking- 
 flight. They, however, succeed well and quickly when heavy 
 swells or little wavelets lift them. A gull, on the contrary, rises 
 gracefnlly and easily from the water, and, indeed, is the most 
 attractive bird on the wing of all water-fowl." 
 
 " I have time after time been struck by the wonderful temer- 
 ity of the foxes, (on Saint George's Island especially,) while 
 secretly watching them as they were climbing up and down 
 the faces of almost inaccessible cliifs, seeking- eggs. They go 
 on a full run or a stealthy tread over the brows of cliftsthat 
 fairly overhang the sea six and nine hundred feet below. They 
 always bring the eggs up in their mouths, and carry them back 
 from the brink of the precipice, where they leisurely suck them, 
 usuallj' biting the shell out at the large end. The ' arrie' suffers 
 the most from these enemies, which are the only natural foes 
 that the bird-kind has to contend with on these solitary isl- 
 ands." 
 
 1. Tiis'dws iBiigratoriHS, Lixx. — Bohh). "Eap-o-loof." 
 
 Casual, aud rarely seen; never resident. (Spec, October, 
 1872.) 
 
 " I was most agreeably surprised, one cool morning- early in 
 October, while walking up on the Village Hill, Saiut Paul's 
 Island, to see a robin, a red-breasted robin, silent and gloomy, 
 hopping and fluttering before me. It had evidently been 
 brought to the island by the gale which blew two days pre- 
 viously, and was even now casting' about for a good chance to 
 leave. In order that I might observe the length of time this old 
 friend of mine would stay with us, I did not shoot him, but 
 strolled out to the locality every morning and evening until the 
 end of the third day, when I missed him. The natives recognized 
 it as a chance visitor, though seen almost every year in this 
 manner. Two weeks later I observed a small flock of JEgioini, 
 (red polls,) which were passing- over the island, alighting- here 
 and there to feed. They are regularly seen migrating to the 
 southward every fall."
 
 ALASKA. 173 
 
 50rt. Aiioi'tliiira frojflodytcs var. alascoiisis, (Bd.) Coues. — 
 AlaxkdH Winter ll'nn. '' Limiiici-sbiii." 
 Troglodytes aJascentiis, Baikd. Trans. C'Licago Acad., i, 315, pi. 30, 
 
 fif?. 3, (1869.) Saint George's Is. 
 Anorthura alascensis, Coues. Key N. A. Birds, 87, (1872.) 
 Jtiorthura troglodytes var. alascensis, Cocks. Ibid., 351. 
 Trofjlodytes Iiycinalis var. alascensis, Dall. Proc, Cala. Acad. 
 
 Sci., (.Feb. 8, 1873.) 
 
 This interesting local form of Anorthura differs from the ordi- 
 nary Xortli American bird in its superior size and darker brown, 
 colors, and in the much greater length and caliber of the bill. 
 In young birds the difference is less strongly marked. The 
 dimensions of an adult in Mr. Elliott's collection are as fol- 
 lows : bill, along cnlmen, .58 ; wing, 1.90 ; tail, 1.30 ; tarsus, .62 ; 
 middle toe and claw, .04. The corresponding dimensions of an 
 average specimen of var. hyemalis are: .30, 1.80, 1.1*0, .02, .58. 
 
 " This brave little bird was first brought into notice by Mr. 
 Dall, who collected a single specimen while on the island in 
 1808, and sent it to the Smithsonian Institution. In his brief 
 note accompanying it he speaks of its being abundant there, 
 while I, in 1873, shot almost every one that I saw, and j-et at the 
 end of the season, August 4, 1 had but seven specimens. It 
 was seldom seen, but then again in 1874: they were quite 
 numerous. 
 
 " It is not a migratory bird, but remains permanently upon 
 the island. Its nest is built in small, deep holes and crevices 
 in the cliffs. I have not myself seen it, but the natives say that 
 it lays from eight to ten eggs, in a nest made of soft, dry grass 
 and feathers, roofed over, with an entrance at the side to the 
 nest-chamber, thus being of elaborate construction. 
 
 " The male is very gay during the period of mating and incu- 
 bation, flying incessantly from plant to plant or rock to rock, 
 singing a rather shrill and very loud song, and making, for a 
 small bird, a great noise. 
 
 "I shot the young, fully fledged, on the 28th of July, differ- 
 ing only from the parent in having a much shorter bill, and in 
 a general darker and more diffuse coloration. 
 
 "Although Saint Paul's Island is but twenty-seven miles to 
 the northwest from Saint George's, not a single specimen of this 
 little wren has been seen there. I made, during the whole sea- 
 son of 1872, unavailing search for it. 
 
 " The native name, ' limmer-shin,' signifies a ' chew of tobacco,'
 
 174 ALASKA. 
 
 and is given on account of the resemblance of this wee biid in 
 size and color to a tobacco-quid." 
 
 Mr. W. H. Dall found this species to be resident and abun- 
 dant on the rocky clitfs of Ainaknak Island, Ouualashka, where, 
 he says. " it is quite familiar and bold. It builds in the crevices 
 of the rocks, but I was not able to find the nest. It has a 
 cheerful and melodious note, and is, to some extent, gregarious, 
 three or four being usually seen together. It was not seen in 
 tbe Shumagins, though it may occur there.'- 
 
 144rt. Leucosticte tepSiiocotss vai. grisciBiuelia, (Bp.dt.) 
 
 CoUES. — Gray-eared Finch. '• Pabtosbkie." 
 Linaria griseiniicha, Bijaxdt. " Oru. Eoss., (1842.) " 
 Leueosticte griseinucha, Bp. Consp. At., i, 537, (1850.)— Bp. et 
 
 ScHLEGEL. Mouog. Loxiem 5, pJ. xli, (youug,) (18.50.)— Bd. B. 
 
 N. Amer., 430, (18.56.)— D.\ee et Banx. Trans. Chicago Acad, i, 
 
 282, (1869.)— Coop, B. Cal. i, IGl, (1870.)— Dale, Pr. Cala. 
 
 Acad., (Feb., 1873.) 
 Leueosticte teplirocotis var. griseiunclia, CouES. Key, 130, fig. 77, 
 
 (1872.) 
 Leueosticte griseogemjs, Gould. • P. Z. S., 104, (1843,) aud Yoy. 
 
 Sulpbixr, i, 42, pi. xxii, (1844.) 
 Leueosticte littoratis, Bd. Trans. Cbicago Acad., i, 317, pi. xxviii, 
 
 fig. 1, (1869.)— Coop. B, Cala. i, 103, (1869.)— Ball. Proc. 
 
 Cala. Acad., (Feb., 1873.) 
 Leueosticte teplirocoiis var. VdtoraVis, CouES. Key, 130, (1372.) 
 
 {Cf., ibid, 352.) 
 
 Numerous beautiful specimens of the adults of both sexes in 
 high breeding attire, aud others illustrating the earliest plu- 
 mage of the young, are in the collection. There are no appre- 
 ciable outward distinctions of sex. The bill at tliis season is 
 black, the ash and black of the head are pure aud well defined, 
 the chocolate brown is rich, and the rosy tends to crimson. 
 The very young birds are dark, sooty gray, overlaid with brown ; 
 a lighter aud more rusty shade of the same edges the wing- 
 feathers, and the bill is in part light colored. 
 
 Although this form is much larger than typical tejihrocoiis, 
 and otherwise different in the xnctura of the head, we do not 
 find ourselves enabled to separate it specifically, since numer- 
 ous intermediate specimens attest its intergradation with the 
 former. Xor do we find it necessary to distinguish the slight 
 variety, UttomUs, by name ; we refer it to var. griseinucha, con- 
 sidering both forms as the single arctic representative of tcphro- 
 cotis proper. 
 
 "This agreeable little bird, always cheerful aud self-pos-
 
 ALASKA. 175 
 
 sessod, is a regular and perinaiieiit settler on the islands, which 
 it never leaves. In the dejHh of dismal winter, as well as on a 
 summer's da}', the pahtoshkie greets yon with the same pleasant 
 chirrup, wearing the same neat dress, as if determined to make 
 the best of everything. It is particularly abundant on Saint 
 George's, where its habits may be studied to best advantage. 
 
 "The pahtoshkie nests in a chink or crevice of the clifls, 
 building a warm, snug home for its little ones of dried grasses 
 and moss, very neatly put together, and lined with a few 
 feathers. The eggs vary in number from three to six, being 
 generally four. They are pure white, with a delicate rosy blush 
 when fresh ; and measure .97 by .67 inch. The young break the 
 shell at the expiration of twenty or twenty-two days' incubation, 
 the laborof which is uotsharedby themale,who, however, brings 
 food to his mate, singing the while, as if highly elated by his 
 prospects of paternity. The chicks, at first, are sparsely cov- 
 ered with a sprinkling of dark-gray down, and in two or three 
 weeks gain their feathers, fitting them for flight, although they 
 do not acquire the bright rosy hues and rich brown of the 
 ])arents the first year. Between the old birds there is no out- 
 ward dissimilarity according to sex, the male and female being 
 exactly alike in size, shape, and coloration. 
 
 " They feed upon various seeds and insects, as well as the 
 larvse which swarm on the killing-grounds. They are fearless 
 and confiding, fluttering in the most familiar manner around 
 the village huts. In the summer of 1873, a pair built their 
 nest and reared a brood under the eaves of the old Greek church 
 at Saint George's. 
 
 "The nests, of which I collected fifteen or twenty, are very 
 neatly made np of dry grass and moss, thick, and compactly 
 interwoven, placed on the faces of the basaltic and breccia clifls 
 which rise from the shore-line of the islands. These disinte- 
 grating tufa and breccia bluffs afford a thousand and one little 
 pockets and crannies in which the pahtoshkie builds, secure 
 from molestation by prowling foxes. It has no song, but ntters 
 a low, mellow chirp, alike either when fl:\ing or sitting. It is 
 most abnndaut on Saiut George's, where hundreds may be seen 
 at any time during a short walk along tlie north shore. It con- 
 sorts in pairs throughout the year, never going iu flocks, and 
 seldom flying or feeding alone." 
 
 ]Mr. W. H. Ball remarks upon the abundance of the bird on 
 the Aleutians as well as on the Prybilov Islands. In August,
 
 176 ALASKA. 
 
 he says, it Las uo soug, " except a clear cliirp, sonndiag like 
 'weet-a-w^et-a-wee-weet.' It was on the wing a great part of 
 the time, avoiding alighting on the gronnd, but darting rapidly 
 in a series of ascending and descending curves, now swinging 
 on the broad top of an umbelliferous plant, now alighting on 
 some ledge of the perpendicular cliff, jumping from point to 
 poiut, seemingly delighted in testing its own agility." He 
 found it particularly numerous in Ounalashka, where it is resi- 
 dent. A nest, which he discovered May 24, contained live 
 white eggs, fresh ; it was placed in a crevice of a rocky bauk,. 
 about twelve feet above the beach, and was neatly built of 
 grasses, lined with a few feathers. 
 
 V>2. Pleclropliaiies nivalis, (L.) Meyer. — S)ioiv Hunting. " Sua- 
 guiskie." 
 
 Among Mr. Elliott's many specimens in pure black and 
 white attire are a few, in the earliest plumage of the young, 
 probably never seen in the United States. The general color 
 is gray, overlaid slightly with a light-brown cast, the inter- 
 scapular feathers having a dusky center. The gray fades on 
 the breast into dull whitish, which occupies tbe rest of the 
 under parts. Most of the secondary quills are white, with a 
 dusky touch on the outer webs ; the three inner ones, however, 
 are black, with broad, chestnut-brown edging. Three lateral 
 tail-feathers are mostly white. 
 
 " The snow-bird is another permanent resident of these 
 islands, but one which, unlike the Lcucosticfe, is rather shy and 
 retiring, nesting high on the rocky, broken uplands, and only 
 entering the village during unusually severe or protracted cold 
 weather. 
 
 " The snaguiskie builds an elegant and elaborate nest of 
 soft, dry grass, and lines it warmly with a thick bed of feathers. 
 It is placed on the ground, beneath some lava-slate, or at the 
 foot of a bowlder. Five eggs are usually laid, about the 1st of 
 Junef they are an inch long by two-thirds broad, of a grayish 
 or greenish white, spotted sometimes all over, sometimes at or 
 around the larger end only, with various shades of rich, dark- 
 brown, iiurplish-brown, and paler neutral tints. Sometimes 
 the whole surface is quite closely clouded with diffuse reddish- 
 brown markings. 
 
 " The female assumes the entire labor of the three weeks' 
 incubation required for the maturing of the embryos. During.
 
 ALASKA. 177 
 
 this period the male is assiduous in bringiug food, and, at fre- 
 (jueut iutervals, siugs liis simple but sweet song, rising, as he 
 begins it, bigU up iu the air, as the skylark does when caroling, 
 and, with the end of the stave, drop[)ing suddenly to the 
 ground again. The young are early i)rovided with a gray 
 downy coating, which is speedily replaced by a i)lumage resem- 
 bling that of the adult female, and, in less than four weeks 
 from the day of hatching, the little snaguiskie is as big as its 
 parents, and weighs more. 
 
 " The food of this species consists of the various seeds and 
 insects peculiar to the rough, higher grounds it frequents. It 
 never flies about iu flocks, and at this season cannot be called 
 gregarious, like the Lai)laud longspur, wit'Ii which it is asso- 
 ciated on these islands." 
 
 153. Plecti'oplianes lappoiiiciis, (L.) Selby. — Lapland Longspur^ 
 ■■ Karesch-uavie .suaguiskie."' 
 
 We give a description of the breeding-plumage of the female, 
 probablj' not generally known : Upper parts of the body, 
 wings, and tail almost precisely as in the male. Cervical collar 
 evident, but not sharply defined, nor so rich in color. Black of 
 the crown variegated with pale tips of the feathers ; white of the 
 supra-ocular and post-auricular lines tinged with bufi"; no con- 
 tinuous pure black on the sides of the head, chin, or throat; 
 sides of the head blacki.sh, interrupted with grayish auriculars ;. 
 throat similarly varied, but chin left nearly pure white, the 
 pattern of the black which occurs in the male being thus clearly 
 indicated, but interrupted and obscured ; sides of the breast and 
 belly with disconnected, sparse, sharp, slender, dark-brown 
 streaks, instead of the jiure black, continuous, broad and 
 heavy stripes of the male; other under parts as in the male. Bill 
 obscure yellowish, dusky at tip ; feet dark brown, but not black. 
 Dimensions slightly inferior to those of the male. 
 
 The eggs of the Lapland longspur are extremely variable in 
 coloration — few more so. They range from a nearly uniform 
 dark chocolate-brown, (much like those of a marsh-wren,) 
 through a lighter chocolate in innumerable dots on a grayish- 
 brown ground, to a peculiar browni.sh-white ground, variously" 
 clouded and smirched with chocolate, and having, besides, 
 irregular sharp spots, scratches, and straggling lines of black- 
 ish brown. The general aspect of these eggs is like that of an 
 oriO'e's or blackbird's. They measure .80 to .00 in length by 
 
 12 AL
 
 ] 78 ALASKA 
 
 .55 to .60 in breadth. The labels of various specimens before 
 us from Acetic ximerica record a nest of " hay," lined with deers' 
 hair, or feathers. 
 
 " The longspur, a resident bird, is a delightful" vocalist, sing- 
 ing all through the mouth of June iu the most charming man- 
 ner, rising high in the air, and hovering on Hutteriug wings 
 over its setting mate. The song is only too short, lasting but 
 a few" moments, though continually repeated. The bird is much 
 more shy and reserved than the common snaguiskie, rarely 
 entering the village. It is most abundant on Saint Paul's, 
 where, unlike the snowflake, it seeks the low, grassy grounds, 
 both for food and nesting, being never found among the rough 
 bowlders chosen for a home b^' the other species of Plectro- 
 plianes. 
 
 " Two nests which I found were built in tussocks of grass, on 
 a low 'hummocky ' flat, between the village and the main ridge 
 of Saint George's, sheltered and half concealed beneath a dra- 
 pery of withered grass. In each case the mother-bird did not 
 fly away till I almost stepped on the nest, when she quickly 
 disappeared, in perfect silence. One nest contained four, and 
 the other five eggs, rather smaller than a snowfiake's, and of a 
 rich, gray-brown color, with deep shades of brown running 
 over them in spots and suffused lines. 
 
 "These nests were not discovered until the 7th of July, at which 
 date the eggs in both were perfectly fresh. They were, proba- 
 bly, not laid until about the end of June. The young appear 
 in the same manner as those of P. nivalis. The males do not 
 assume the distinctive coloration of their sex nntil the next 
 season. The natives say that very severe weather sometimes 
 drives these birds away, although the other Plectro2)hanes is 
 never forced to leave." 
 
 226. Corvus corax, L. — Ilanu. " Yar-roue." 
 
 As noted in Mr. Elliott's general rutroduction, the experi- 
 ment of introducing ravens was unsuccessfully tried by the Rus- 
 sians. 
 
 "The natives still claim that if a number of young birds were 
 brought here and raised, they couk> be induced to remain upon 
 the islands during the whole season ; that the failure to keep 
 those ravens brought up from Ounalashka, several years agOj 
 was due to the fact of their being old birds. 
 
 "At Ounalashka there is a Greek Catholic church, with a 
 small cupola, surmounted, as is usual, by a large crucifix. Upon 
 
 i
 
 ALASKA. 179 
 
 this rbese ill-omened, croaking birds perch at all hours of the 
 day, defiling the cross and. tinned dome-roof below them, with- 
 out exciting the slightest sense of the ridiculous or impropriety 
 among the people there, the stranger only being amused."' 
 
 ;541. Faico sacer, YonsT.—Gi/rfalcon. 
 
 Fa'co sacer, Forst. Phil. Traus. Ixxii, 423, (1772.) — Baird. 
 Trans. Chicago Acad, i, 271, (1869.) — Couiis. Key X. A. Birds, 
 2i:'., (1872. 
 
 Finding nothing definite in Mr. Elliott's manu.scripts respect- 
 ing this bird, we conclude that it does not reside on the islands, 
 where, however, its casual presence is attested by a specimen in 
 the collection labeled " Saint Paul's, March, '73." It is a young 
 bird, ap])arently in its second year, whicli had doubtless wan- 
 dered or been forced out of its usual way. 
 
 However we may interpret the relation subsisting between the 
 various forms of Hierqfalco, the name Falco sacer (Forst.) is 
 specially pertinent to the present one, and has priority over the 
 several designations more frequently employed. 
 
 " Hawks, like owls, are occasionally seen on the islands, the 
 latter during the winter, especially. They do not remain long, 
 and never breed, although the natives on Saint George's stoutly 
 assert that a ' small brown owl' breeds there. I made unavail- 
 ing search for it." Very probably the hawk-owl, {Surnia idula.) 
 
 .'J96. Cliaradrius fulvits, Gm.— Golden. Plover. 
 
 Charadrius fulvus, Gm. Syst. Nat., i, 687, (1788.) 
 
 Charadrius 2)htvialis, Horsf. Traus. Liuu. Soc, xii, 187, (1822.) 
 
 Charadrius jcantliochcilits, Wagler. Syst. Av., Charad. sp. 36, 
 
 (1827.) 
 Charadrius taitensis, Less. Mau. Orn. ii, 321, (1828.) 
 Charadrius virginianus, Jard. et Selb. 111. ii, pi. 85, (circ. 1830.) 
 Charadrius glaucopus, FoRST. Descr. Au., ed. Licht., 176, (1844.) 
 Charadrius virginicus, Blyth. Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc, 262, (1849.) 
 Charadrius hin/ipes, Temmixck. 
 
 Charadrius auratus orivnialis, Temm. et Scheeg. Fn. Japouica. 
 Charadrius auratus, Schrenk. Amur Reise, 410, (1860.) 
 Pluvialis fulvus, ScHLEGEL. Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 50, 
 
 (1864.) 
 Fluvialis fulvus, taiieusis, xanthocheilus, longipes, Bp. Compt. 
 
 Rend., 417, (1856.) 
 
 The Single specimen of golden plover preserved by Mr. Elliott 
 is of special interest and importance, since it is conclusively 
 determined to be the true Asiatic fulvus, and not the Xorth 
 American var. virginicus. This discovery represents an addi- 
 tion to ouv Fauna, for C. fulvus has not hitherto been recognized
 
 180 ALASKA. 
 
 as North American. We have made the comparison with 
 numerous examples before us from various Asiatic and Pacific 
 localities, finding the present specimen indistinguishable. 
 Length, about 9.50; wing, QAO; tail,2.G0; tarsus, l.GO; middle" 
 toe and claw, 1.10; culmeu, .95. There is a yellowish sufltusiou 
 about the head, particularly along the superciliary line, which 
 is hardly to be noticed in the ordinary North American bird. 
 The specimen was taken on Saint Paul's, May 2, 1873. "A few 
 stragglers land in April, or early in May, on their way north to 
 breed, but never remain long. They returu in greater number 
 in the latter part of September, and grow fat upon the larvae 
 generated on the killing-grounds, leaving for the south by the 
 end of October." 
 
 406. Sti'epsilas iiiterpres, L. — Turnstone. " Krass-nie Ko-lit-skie." 
 
 The numerous specimens all alike indicate an interesting 
 approach to the peculiar features of var. melanocepJiahis, in the 
 extent and intensity of the black areas on the head, neck, and 
 back. The chestnut, in fact, is reduced mainly to a scapular 
 patch, some edging of the feathers of the interscapular region, 
 and a diffuse area on the wing-coverts. The upper parts of the 
 body are otherwise black, relieved by the broad, i^ure white 
 area of the lower back and rump, and varied with white on the 
 crown and cervix. The front, sides of head and neck, throat, 
 and entire breast are intense black, relieved by loral, gular, 
 auricular, and latero-cervical white areas. 
 
 " The turnstone arrives in flocks of thousands about the third 
 week in July, and takes its departure about the 10th of Sep- 
 tember. It does not breed here. * On its arrival it is quite poor 
 in flesh, but, feeding upon the larvre and maggots of the killing- 
 grounds, it rapidly gains, and at length becomes extraordinarily 
 fat — so fat that frequently it bursts open as it falls to the ground 
 when shot on wing. 
 
 " It is a very handsome bird when in full plumage, with its 
 bright-red legs, snowy, black-banded breast, and back tinged 
 with brown and green reflections. Its well-known curious 
 actions, in pursuit of its ordinary food, have given it its name. 
 1 met with it at sea, eight hundred miles from the nearest land, 
 flying northAvest toward the Aleutian Islands." 
 
 410. LiObipos liyperboi'Ctis, (L.,) Cvv.—Xoi-ihem PhaJaropc. 
 
 The egg of this species, not yet generally well known, pre- 
 sents the following characters, taken from the unparalleled
 
 ALASKA. 181 
 
 series iu the Siuitbsoniau Institution, collected at various points 
 in the Yukon and Anderson River region : The ground varies 
 from dark greenish olive, or brownish olive, through various 
 lighter drab tints, nearly to a b-.iti'y brown, occasionally to a 
 light gray. The markings are usually heavy and bold, consist- 
 ing of large spots, and still larger blotches or splashes result- 
 ing from their confluence, mingled with dots and scratches in 
 interminable confusion. In general pretty evenly distributed, 
 they often tend to aggregate about the larger end, in rarer in- 
 stances forming a perfect wreath. In a few instances all the 
 markings are mere dots. As a rule, the size and heaviness of 
 the markings bear some proportion to intensity of the ground 
 color ; the markings are dark bister-brown, chocolate, and some- 
 times still lighter brown. The longest and narrowest egg of 
 several dozen measures 1.30 by only .75 ; a short, thick egg 
 gives only 1.10 by .82 ; the average is about 1.20 by .80. The 
 eggs are three or four in number, ofteuest the latter, and are 
 generally laid in June, oftenestin the latter half of the month. 
 They are deposited in a slight depression of the ground, vari- 
 ously lined with a little withered vegetation. 
 
 "A few stray couples breed upon the islands, nesting- around 
 the margins of the lakelets. The egg I was unable to find, but 
 I secured several newly-hatched young ones which were very 
 pretty and interesting. They are only two or three inches long, 
 with a bill about a third of an inch in length, and no thicker 
 than an ordinary dressing-pin. The down of the head, neck, 
 and upper parts is rich brownish yellow, variegated with 
 brownish black, the crown being of this color mixed with yel- 
 low, and a long stripe extends down the back, flanked with one 
 over each hip, another across the rump, and a shoulder-spot on 
 each side. The under parts are grayish silvery white. This 
 bird, when startled, or solicitous for the safety of its young, 
 utters a succession of sonorous ^ticccf sounds, quickly' repeated, 
 with long intervals of silence." 
 
 411. Phalaropiis fiilicariiis, i,L.,) Bos.— lied Phalarope. 
 
 The nidification of this species is similar iu all respects to 
 that of L. hyperhoreiis, and the egg cannot be distinguished 
 with certainty in any given instance. They average, however, 
 somewhat larger — about 1.2.5 by .85. The largest specimen 
 measured 1.30 by .90 ; the shortest, 1.15 by .90. Numerous 
 specimens, in the Smithsonian collection, were taken early in 
 July, at Frankliu Bay, on the arctic coast, by Mr. R. Macfar- 
 lane.
 
 182 ALASKA. 
 
 '' Tbougb miicb more abnndautthan the preceding, at certain 
 times, I am satisfied that the red pbalarope does uot breed here. 
 It is foimd, like the other, by the marshy margins of the lake- 
 lets, solitary or paired, but never in flocks. The earliest arrivals 
 occur in June, but the birds re-appear in greatest number about 
 the loth of August. They all leave by the 5th of October." 
 
 42G his. Triiig'a crassirosti'is, Temji. et Schlegel. — Thick-hilled Sand- 
 piper. " Ko-lits-kie." 
 Trincja crassirostris, Temm. et Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, 107, 
 pi. 64, (1846.) (?)— Call. Amer. Naturalist, \u, 635, (Oct., 
 1873.)— COUES. Check-List, 85, No. 426 his, (1873.) 
 
 The most interesting result, in some respects, of Mr. Elliott's 
 ornithological researches is the determination of the occur- 
 rence of this species in abundance on the Prybilov Islands^ 
 where it breeds. This discovery adds a species, previously un- 
 recognized as Xorth American, to our Fauna. The announce- 
 ment was lately made by Mr. W. H. Dall, as above, upon the 
 strength of one of Mr. Elliott's earlier specimens from Saint 
 Paul's. This example was identified by 3Ir. J. E. Harting,* of 
 London, well known for the extent and accuracy of his investi- 
 gations of the Limicoline groups, to whom it was transmitted 
 for the purpose by the Smithsonian Institution. Mr. Elliott's 
 later collections contain numerous specimens, among them sev- 
 eral newly-hatched young, hitherto probably unknown. No 
 description of the species having been published in this country^ 
 we subjoin the following : 
 
 Adult, in hreedingplumagc. (Xo. 04240, :\Ius. S. I.— 676, Coll. 
 H. W. E.— July 22, 1873. Saint. George's.)— With somewhat 
 the general appearance of a Tringa aljnna, but the black area on 
 the under parts pectoral, not abdominal. Bill about as long as^ 
 the head, straight to the end,t compressed, stout, and high at 
 
 * Deferring to this excellent authority' ou Limicoline birds, and without 
 a cop}' of the work in which Tringa crassirostris was originally described, 
 at hand, we have presented it under the same name. But almost cer- 
 tainly it is )tot the bird described by Schlegel as Tringa crassirostris in the 
 Museum des Pay.s-Bas. The characters there given are those of a different 
 bird altogether. By no latitude of interpretation can they be rendered 
 applicable to the present species. In case our bird, here described in de- 
 tail, be found uot the saijie as the true Tringa crassirostris, it may appro- 
 priately be named T. ptilooicmis, in allusion to the feathered tibiie. We 
 consider it most nearly allied to Tringa maritima, next to which it may 
 take its place in the system. 
 
 tin other specimens, and usually, the bill isc onsiderably longer, exceed- 
 ing the head, and dccidedlv decurved at the end.
 
 ALASKA. 183 
 
 the base, with very long uasal fossce, reaching to witbiii J iiicli 
 of the tip, and deep at the base; the groove of the under man- 
 dible co-extensive in length, but linear throughout. Feathers 
 on side of under mandible extending beyond those on the 
 upper; the iuterramal feathers proje(;ting still a little ways 
 farther. Legs very short, (much as iu Tringa maritima;) tibial 
 feathers reaching nearly or quite to the suffrago; tarsus shorter 
 thau the bill, or tliau the middle toe and claw. Wings and 
 tail as usual throughout the genus. 
 
 A coronal area, the upper back, interscapular region and 
 scapulars black, completely variegated with rich chestnut- 
 brown, paler ochery brown and whitish, the body of each 
 feather being black, vrith one or another or all of these various 
 edgings; the coronal separated from the interscapular mark- 
 ings by a grayish-white, dusky-streaked cervical interval. 
 Lower back and rump and upper tail-coverts blackish brown 
 or gravish black, onlv varied with an occasional chestnut edged 
 feather. ^Yiug-coverts grayish brown, with narrow white edg- 
 ing, the greater with broad, definite white tips. Secondaries 
 nearly all pure white, a few of the outermost, and innermost 
 also, with grayish-brown touches near the end. Primaries 
 grayish brown with white shafts, except at tip, and fading to 
 white on the inner webs toward the base ; several of the inner- 
 most, also, largely white on the outer web, and with definite 
 white tipping. Central tail-feathers brownish black; next pair 
 abruptly paler, grayish; the rest white, or nearly so, with a 
 faint gray tint. Front and sides of head, superciliary line, 
 the tufts of flank-feathers, and entire under parts, white, inter- 
 rupted on the breast with a large but. not perfectly continuous 
 nor well-defined blackish area, and marked on the upper breast 
 and sides with a few narrow, sharp, blackish shaft-lines, a 
 dusky auricular patch. Legs and bill dark. Length, appar- 
 ently about 9.50 inches ; wing, about 5; tail, 2..50; bill, 1.10 
 to 1.40 ; tarsus, .90 to 1.00 : middle toe and claw, 1.05 to 1.20. 
 • The sexes are not distinguishable by any outward mark. We 
 have before us no specimen in complete fall-plumage ; but one 
 taken June 9, still retaining at that date the past season's 
 plumage, for the most part, enables us to predicate the 
 autumnal and winter vesture. The difference is entirely anal- 
 ogous to that seen in various other sandpipers. It consists in 
 the great development and intensity of the chestnut edgings of 
 the feathers of the upper part, to the restriction of their black 
 fields, and to the exclusion, nearly complete, of the pale ochery
 
 184 ALASKA. 
 
 and whitish edgiugs which make up the characteristic variega- 
 tiou of the breediug-pluinage, in the absence of any dividing 
 cervical interval between the coloration of the crown and that 
 of the back, and especially in the strong, complete suffusion of 
 the sides of the head and the whole throat with tawny brown. 
 The pectoral area is only indicated by scattered blackish feath- 
 ers, being in the fall probably still more obscure, or rather re- 
 l^laced merely by a few dusky streaks or spots. 
 
 Xc ic J y -hatched young, (taken early in July.) — These interesting 
 little creatures, two or three inches long, are very i^rettily 
 marked. The down of the under parts is silvery white; that 
 of the upper is rich reddish brown, varied with black, and 
 with curiously sharp, whitish dots of definitely rounded 
 contour, appearing like spots of mildew. Each such spot is 
 about as large as a pin's head, and, examined with a lens, is 
 seen to be the enlarged, circumscribed, brushy end of a downy 
 plume, whence several tiny bristles project. Each such plume 
 is white basally, then black for a distance, ending in the whit- 
 ish tuft. The areas thus dottetl correspond, consequently, to 
 the areas of black variegatioR; but there is, also, a black, un- 
 <lotted loral spot, frontal line, and a few other markings. The 
 bill is mostly black, very short and slender; the legs are com- 
 l)aratively long and stout, and appear to have been light- 
 colored. 
 
 Xearly-Jledgecl, not quite (jrou-n, young, (taken late in July.) — 
 Several specimens retaining down, or traces of it, about the 
 head and neck, otherwise completely feathered. The upper 
 parts are much as in the adults in the breeding-season, as to 
 the colors of the variegation, but the markings are in simple 
 curved lines rather than sharj) V-shaped patterns, and the 
 edgings are much narrower. The edgings of the wing-coverts 
 have an ochery cast. The interior tail-feathers have rust3' 
 edgings. The throat and breast are more or less suffused with 
 j)ale rusty ; there is no black pectoral area, but the jugulum, 
 breast, and sides have an indefinite number of suffused, dusky 
 markings.* 
 
 " lu Mr. Hartiug's letter upon the sal>ject, handed us by Professor Baird, to 
 whom it was addressed, the following occurs, iu substauce : T. crassirofitris, 
 T. &, S., SCH., M. P. B., Salop., 1864, 2S; Blak., Ibis, 186-2, 315-330.— Hab., 
 China, Japan, Java, Borneo. — Svx., Schccniclas magnus, Gould, P. Z. S., 1648, 
 39; B. Aust., vi, pi. 33; Tringa magna, Bp., C. E., 185G; Trhiga ienuirosiris, 
 Gould, Hdbk. B. Aust., ii, 1865, 260, (nee HoRSr., Liun. Trans., siii, 1820, 
 192, qtue Totanus stagnatUis, L.) " Temmick & Schiegel say, (?. c.) ' This
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 18.5 
 
 The foUowiug measurements of a uuinber of adult specimens 
 will illustrate the size and shape, and, to a great extent, the 
 normal variations in dimension of the species: 
 
 Measurements. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Saint George's Island 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 C3 
 
 o 
 
 Hi 
 
 July 22 
 July 22 
 July 4 
 July 7 
 July 7 
 Juno 19 
 July 
 July 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 
 July 
 July 
 July 
 July 
 
 C4249 
 04250 
 (;425l 
 f.42."y2 
 (i4253 
 (14254 
 C4255 
 64256 
 64257 
 64'J58 
 64259 
 G4260 
 64265 
 64236 
 64267 
 64268 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 Tar.sus 
 front. 
 
 676 
 
 5 
 
 5.10 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.12 
 
 0.90 
 
 677 
 
 2 
 
 5.20 
 
 2.60 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.00 
 
 590 
 
 g 
 
 5.10 
 
 2.30 
 
 1.10 
 
 0.94 
 
 597 
 
 V 
 
 5.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.9:; 
 
 600 
 
 9 
 
 5.10 
 
 2.80 
 
 1.45 
 
 1.00 
 
 462 
 
 ¥ 
 
 5.15 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.40 
 
 0.98 
 
 602 
 
 5^ 
 
 5.10 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.30 
 
 0.97 1 
 
 601 
 
 y 
 
 5.18 
 
 2.70 
 
 1.41 
 
 0. 9r, 1 
 
 596 
 
 
 4.80 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.25 
 
 0.90 
 
 585 
 
 5 
 
 5.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.30 
 
 0.96 
 
 587 
 
 s 
 
 5.05 
 
 2.40 
 
 1.25 
 
 0.97 
 
 675 
 
 cT 
 
 5.25 
 
 2.80 
 
 1.42 
 
 0.95 
 
 574 
 
 
 5.35 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.40 
 
 l.CO 
 
 .■588 
 
 9 
 
 5.30 
 
 2.70 
 
 1.45 
 
 0.98 
 
 .■598 
 
 9 
 
 4.90 
 
 2. .50 
 
 1.20 
 
 0.90 
 
 599 
 
 
 4.90 
 
 2.30 
 
 l.bO 
 
 0.91 
 
 a 
 
 1.08 
 1.10 
 1.10 
 1.00 
 1. l.l 
 1. C8 
 1. 12 
 1.13 
 1. 12 
 1.15 
 1.07 
 1.20 
 1.10 
 1.20 
 1.14 
 1.10 
 
 "This is the only wader that breeds upon the Prybilov 
 Islands, with the marked exception of a stray couple now and 
 then of Phalaropus hyperboreus. It makes its appearance early 
 in Maj', and repairs to the dry uplands and mossy hummocks, 
 where it breeds. The nest is formed by the bird's selection of 
 a particular mos.sy bunch, and there setting*. It lays four 
 darkly-blotched pyriform eggs, and hatches within twenty days. 
 The young come from the shell in a thick yellowi.sh down, with 
 dark-brown markings on the head and back, getting the plum- 
 age of their parents and taking to wing as early as the lOth of 
 August; and at this season old and young flock together for 
 the first time, and confine themselves to the sand-beaches and 
 surf-margins about the islands for a few weeks, when they take 
 
 species belongs to the same type as the Knot, (T. canittus,) but is much more 
 robust in size, the bill is longer, the tarsi are longer, and the toes more ro- 
 bust,' (this is a mistake;) 'finally, it differs in the very diflerent coloratiou 
 of the plumage, notably in the breeding-season.'" * * * "It seems to 
 me that the bird is in every respect a large dunlin, (T. cincliis.) which it re- 
 sembles much more nearly than it does canntus, not only in regard to the 
 structure of the bill and feet, but in the character of the breeding-plumage," 
 &c. Now, our T. ptihcnemis bears a wonderful superficial reseuiblance to 
 an overgrown dunlin, but its affinities, as shown by the feathered tibiw, and 
 tarsus shorter than the, middle toe, are entirely with T. jnaritimus, as already 
 said, and some plumages very closely resemble the extensively-whitened 
 winter-dress of the latter.
 
 186 ALASKA. 
 
 flig'lit b\^ tbe 1st or otb of September, and disappear until tbe 
 opening of tbe new season. 
 
 ^'It is a most devoted and fearless parent, and will flatter in 
 feigned distress around by tbe bour, uttering a low piping- note 
 sbould one approacb its nest. It also makes a sound exactly like 
 our tree-frogs, and until I bad traced tbe matter to tbis source, 
 I searcbed several weeks unavailingl}- for tlie presence of tbese 
 reptiles, misled by tbe call of tbis bird." 
 
 A set of four eggs of tbis species, tbe full complement, taken 
 by Mr. Elliott,* June 19, 1873, on Saint George's, are perbaps 
 tbe first specimens wbicb bave reacbed naturalists ; certainly 
 tbe first we bave bad in tbis country. Tbey appear to bave 
 been nearly or quite fresb at tbe date mentioned. Tbe egg is 
 ratber a peculiar one ; of all tbe sandpiper's eggs before us, it 
 most resembles tbat of Tringa mariiima. Tbe sbape is regu- 
 larly pyriform, as usual in tbis family. Measurements of tbe 
 four examples are: 1.55 x I.O85 1.52 x 1.05; 1.50 x 1.08; 1.48 x 
 1.05. Tbe ground is nearly clay-color, but witb an appreciable 
 olivaceous sbade; tbe markings are large, bold, and numerous, 
 of ricb, burnt-umber brown, of varying depth, according to tbe 
 quantity of tbe pigment. Tbese surfiice-markings occur all 
 over tbe sbell, except tbe extreme point, and are solidly massed 
 by confluence on tbe larger balf of tbe egg] all tbe markiugs are 
 strong, as if laid on freely witb a beavily-cbarged brusb. Witb 
 tbese surface-spots occur numerous sbellmarkings of tbe same 
 character, but, of course, obscure, presenting a stone-gray or 
 purplish gray sbade ; some of them look as if tbe color of the 
 surface-spots bad " run "and soaked into tbe olivaceous drab of 
 the general surface. 
 
 * Tbe eggs were first discovered by Mr. George li. Adams, agent of the Alaska 
 Commercial Company, Saint George's Island. He, in order that they should 
 be identified, notified Mr. Elliott of their position, who imnit^diately shot the 
 parent and secured the eggs. Mr. Elliott has had frequent occasion to ac- 
 knowledge the courtesy and facilities for natural-history work furnished by 
 the agents of the Alaska Commercial Company on both islands, Dr. H. H. 
 Mclntyre and Mr. Adams, above mentioned. To tlie last-named gentleman 
 he is especially indebted for many desiderata. Mr. Samuel Falconer, assist- 
 ant agent, and Drs. Otto Cramer and Meany, physicians on the two islands, 
 are also among the few to whom Mr. Elliott's grateful obligations are due. 
 From Dr. Cramer we h.ave reason to anticipate a very valuable and interest- 
 ing paper upon the stomach and intestinal parasites of the fur-seal, which he 
 was engaged upon when Ma Elliott took his departure from the islands, 
 August 10, 1873.
 
 ALASKA. 187 
 
 4:!G. L.ailfiO!^a MS'opyf?a;j8as, Govi.v.— Jyhile-rumpedGodwit. 
 
 Limosa uropnyiaUs, Gori.D.— Bi). Trans. Chicago Acad., i, 320, pi, 
 3-2, (18G9.)— D.VLL aud Banx, Ibhl, 293.— CoUES. Key X. A., 
 Birds 258, (1872.) 
 
 This well-knowu Old World species, lately added to our 
 fauua, a.*^ above, is readily distinguisbed by the black aud 
 white barring of the upper tail-coverts. la winter the upper 
 parts are pale gray, with dusky .shaft-lines, and the under i^arts 
 are nearly white — a condition never shown by our other species. 
 In full plumage, the white of the rump and upper tail-coverts is 
 ujore or less tinged with rusty, and the upper parts are brown- 
 ish black, everywhere variegated with rusty. Bills of different 
 specimens before us range in length from 3 J to 4i inches; those 
 of the adults are mostly dark, but in the young fully the basal 
 half is light-colored — dull whitish in the dried state. 
 
 Mr. Elliott did not take the eggs of this species, but two 
 examples were secured by Mr. IJall, June IS, 18GS, at Kutlik, 
 Alaska. These differ as much from each other as eggs of this 
 species do from those of other species. The ground of one is 
 quite greenish olive ; of the other, pale olive-gray. In the 
 former, the markings are all subdued neutral tints, apparently 
 in the shell ; in the latter, the markings are nearly all on the 
 surface, and quite bright chocolate-brown. In both cases the 
 markings are numerous and of indeterminate shape, mostly 
 small, and generally distributed, though tending to aggregate 
 at the butt, where alone they lose their distinctness in coalesc- 
 ing to form a splashed area. Size, 2.20 x 1.45 ; 2,25 x 1.50. 
 
 " Migratory only, never breeding here. Comes in a strag- 
 gling manner early in May, passing northward with little de- 
 lay, and re-appears toward the end of August in flocks of a 
 dozen to fifty." 
 
 440. HeterosceUis aiicaiuis, (Gm.) Coues.— rraH^eWH.7 TaUler. 
 
 Scolopax incana, Gmel. Syst. Nat., i, 658, (1788.)— Lath. Ind. 
 
 Oni., ii, 724, (1790.) 
 Totaniis hicanus, Yieill. Diet. Deterv., vi, 400, (1816.) 
 Heieroscdus incanus, Coles. Kej N, A. Birds, 261, (1872.) 
 Triiuja fihtnola, Pall. Zoog. Rosso-As., ii, 194, pi. 60, (1811.) 
 Totanus hrevipes, A^ieill. Diet. Deterv., vi, 400, (1816.)-Cass. 
 
 Pr. A. N. S., viii, 40, (18.36.) 
 Heterosceh'.s bnvipes, Baii:d. B. X. A., 734, pi. 88, (1858.)— Dall. 
 
 Tr. Chic. Acad., i, 293, (18B9.) 
 Totanus fuUtjhwstis, Gould. Voy. Beagle; Biixls, 130, (1841.)— 
 
 Gi:av. G. of B., iii, pi. 154. 
 Scolopax undulata, Foitsr. Descr. Auiin., ed. Licht., 173, (1844.)
 
 188 ALASKA. 
 
 Tofantisjndverulentus, Mull. YerliaiuL, 153, (1844.)— Sciilegel, 
 
 Fauna Japan, pi. 65. 
 Totanus oceanicus, Less. Corap. Buff., 244, (1847.) 
 Tofanus pohjnesia, Peale. ^'oy. Vine, and Peac. ; Birds, 237, 
 
 (1848.) 
 Totanus gnseopygius, Gould. B. Aust., vi, pi. 38. 
 Gamhetia hrevijyts, fidiginosa, jiulverulenia, oceanica, griseopygia, 
 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 Two specimens are contained in Mr. Elliott's collections. 
 
 Migratory regularly, but does not breed here. It comes every 
 year early in June, and subsequently re-appears toward the 
 end of July, when it may be obtained on the rocky beaches. 
 It never visits the uplands, and is a very shy and quiet bird. 
 
 443. IVunieilius borealis, (Forst.) 'LxTn.— Esquimaux Curlew. 
 
 This curlew onlv visits the Prybilov Islands in the same man- 
 ner as the Limosa. It breeds, apparently in great numbers, in 
 the Anderson Eiver region, to judge from the numerous sets of 
 €ggs in the Smith.souian forwarded by Mr. E. Macfarlane. The 
 usual nest-complement is four, made up usually the third week 
 in June. The nest is i)laced on a barren plain, and made of 
 decayed leaves placed under the eggs in a depression of the 
 ground. The eggs vary to the great extent usual among 
 waders. The ground is olive-drab, either tending more .to 
 green, to gray, or to brown in different instances. The mark- 
 ings are always numerous and bold, of the dark chocolate, 
 bister, and sepia browns of different depths, together with the 
 usual stone-gray shell-markings. These always tend to aggre- 
 gation at the larger end, or, at least, are more numerous on the 
 major half of the egg, though the distribution is sometimes 
 nearly uniform, and in no instance is the small end entirely free 
 from spots. In one set the large end is almost completely occu- 
 pied b.y a dense confluence of very dark markings. The smallest, 
 and at the same time shortest, egg measures ouly 1.90 x 1.40 ; 
 the longest and narrowest, 2.12 x 1.33; an average egg is 
 2.00 X 1.45. 
 
 We may refer, in this connection, to a species of curlew lately 
 ascertained to inhabit Alaska, as one which may be esi^ected 
 to occur also on the Prybilov Islands. This iuterestiug addi- 
 tion to our fauna is the Xumcnius femoralis of Peale — a species 
 about as large as N. Imdsonicus, and somewhat resembling it, 
 but readily distinguished by the curious long bristly filaments 
 which tip the abdominal feathers, and otber characters. ^ A
 
 ALASKA. 189 
 
 male speciraeu was takeu bj* F. Bischofl' at Fort Kenai, Alaska, 
 May 18, 18G9, and is now iu the Smitlisouiau. (See Vigors, 
 Zool. Journ., iv, 356; and Zool. Voy. Blossom, 28.) 
 
 A single specimen only of the Esquimaux curlew was taken 
 by Mr. Elliott on Saint Paul's Island, June, 1872. None other 
 than this one was seen by him. 
 
 4'^2. Plaiiacte eaiiagica, (Sevast.) B\ys.—Em2)eior Goose. Fainted 
 
 Gooae. 
 Jmis canagica, Si: vast. Nov. Act. Acad. St. Peters., xiii, 346, pi. 
 
 10, (l.-'OO.) 
 Anser canagicns, Brandt. Bull. Sc, St. Peters., i, 37, (1836.) 
 
 Brandt. Descr. et Ic. An. Eosso-As., 7, pi. 1, (183G.) 
 Cldoephacja canagica, BoNAP. Comiites Rendns, (1856.) — Baird. 
 
 B. X. A., 766, (1858.)— Dall and Bann. Trans. Chic. Acad., 
 
 i, 296, (1869.)— Dai.l. Proc. Cala. Acad., (Feb., 1873.) 
 Philacie canagica, Bann. Proc. Phila. Acad., 131, (1870.)— 
 
 COUES. Key, 283, (1872.) 
 
 A set of five eggs, taken by Mr. Dall in Knselvak Slough, 
 June 20, 18G8 are much elongated and nearly equal at either 
 end. The color is white, but with fine pale-brown dotting, giv- 
 ing a general light dirty-brown aspect. Specimens measure 
 3.33 X 3.10 5 3.40 X 2.90, &c. 
 
 ( " Visits the islands only as a straggler, sometimes landing 
 so exhausted that the natives capture a whole flock iu open 
 chase over the grass, the birds being unable to use their wings 
 for flight. I found the flesh of this bird, contrary to report, free 
 from any unpleasant flavor, and, in fact, very good. The objec- 
 tionable quality is only skiu-deep, and may be got rid of by due 
 care in the preparation of the bird for the table." 
 
 Mr. Ball's interesting note may be appended, iu further illus- 
 tration of the history of this species : 
 
 " This magnificent bird abounds in profusion iu the Kuselvak 
 Slough, or mouth of the Yukon, to the exclusion of all other 
 species. My endeavors to reach that poiut being unavailing, 
 I was obliged to do my best to obtain specimens elsewhere. It 
 is quite scarce around the Kwichpak Slough and on the sea- 
 coast. By oflering a large reward, I obtained four fine speci- 
 mens from the marshes around Kutlik. It is the largest of the 
 geese of the country, and the delicate colors of the body, with 
 the head and nape snow-white, tipped with rich amber-yellow, 
 are a beautiful sight. The eye is dark-brown ; feet, flesh-color. 
 The eggs are larger and longer than those of A. f/ambcJl, and 
 rather brown fulvous, the color being iu minute dots. It lays
 
 190 ALASKA. 
 
 ou tbe ground, like tl)e otlier geese. The Eskimo name is 
 I\c(choicth'lul-. Tbe raw flesh and skin have an intolerable odor 
 of garlic, which renders it a very disagreeable task to skin 
 them, but when cooked this entirely passes away, and the flesh 
 is tender and good eating. 
 
 "This goose arrives about June 1, or earlier, according to the 
 season. As soon as the eggs are hatched the birds begiu to 
 molt. I saw half-molted specimens at Pastolik, July 29, 
 18G7. It remains longer than any other goose, lingering until 
 the whole sea-coast is fringed with ice, feeding on Mytllus cdu- 
 lis and. other shell-fish, and has been seen as late as Kovember 
 1 by the Eussians. It usually goes in pairs, or four or five 
 together, rather than in large flocks. Its note is shriller and 
 clearer than that of A. gamheli or B. Inifckinsi, and it is shyer 
 than the other geese, except the black brant." 
 
 According to Mr. Dall, the emperor-goose does not occur in 
 the Aleutiau Islands from Ounalashka eastward. 
 
 485a. Bi'aiita canadensis, var. Iciicopareia, (Bi!i>t.) Coues. — 
 
 White-collared goose. " CLoruie Goose." 
 Anser canadensis, Pallas, «ecai<cf. Zoog. Eosso-As.,ii, 230, (1811.) 
 Anscr lencopareius, Brandt. Bull. Ac. Acad. St. Petersb., i, 37, 
 
 (1836.) Brandt. De.scr. et Ic. Auim. Eosso-As., 13, pi. 2, (1836.) 
 Bernida leucopareia, Cassin. 111. 272,. pi. 45, (1855.)— Bd. B. N. 
 
 A., 764, (1858.)— Dall. Trans. Chic. Acad., i, 295, (1869.) / 
 Branta leucopareia, Gray. Hand-list, iii, 76, No. 10580, (1871.) 
 Braiita canadensis var. leucopareia, Coues. Key 284, Fig. 185 h, 
 
 (1872.) V 
 
 There is no reasonable question that this is anything more than 
 a race of the common B. canadensis. The supposed specific char- 
 acters, not very tangible at best, are not entirely constant. 
 
 According to Mr. Dall, this goose is abundant on the coast 
 about the mouth of the Yukon, where it breeds, but it is rare 
 at Nulato or farther inland. The eggs were obtained at Pasto- 
 lik. 
 
 " Occasionally straggles to the islands in small squads of ten 
 to thirty, evidently driven by high winds from their customary 
 line of migration along the mainland. Though not breeding 
 here, it spends, occasionally, weeks at a time ou the lakelets 
 and uplands, before taking flight either north or south, as the 
 season may be." 
 
 488. Anas boscljas, {l^.)— Mallard. 
 
 "A pair bred during the season of 1872, on Polavina Lakelet, 
 Saint Paul's Island, and several were observed later in the
 
 ALASKA. rj 1 
 
 fall. Tbe mallard was also uoted on Saint George's Island, but 
 it is certainly not a regular visitor of either island." 
 
 492. Mai'cca pejsolope, (L.) Bp. — If'klgeou. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that the widgeon which visits the 
 Trybilov Islands is not 21. ainericana, which would have been 
 anticipated, but the true M. penclope., as Mr. Elliott's specimens 
 attest. 
 
 "It is seldom seen, never in pairs, does not breed on the 
 islands, and apparently the few individuals noted during two 
 years' observation were wind-bound or astray. 
 
 00;:^. Karolda glacJalis, (L.) 'Lv.xcn.— Long-tailed Duck. " Saafku." 
 
 "Common and resident. It breeds on the lakelets and sloughs 
 of Saint Paul's, in limited numbers. 
 
 "This is a very noisy bird, particularly in the spring, when, 
 with the breaking up of the ice, it comes into the open reaches 
 of water with its peculiar, sonorous, and reiterated cry of ah- 
 naah-nadhyah, which rings cheerfully upon the ear after the 
 silence and desolation of an ice-bound arctic winter." 
 
 The eggs of this species, according to the sets before me, are 
 six or seven in number, of the usual shape and smooth texture 
 of shell ; one set is more decidedly pale greenish than the other, 
 which is lighter, and rather gray, slightly inclining to creami- 
 ness. They measure 2.20x1.50, down to 1.90x1.40. One set 
 was taken June 22, the other July 5. 
 
 510. Histrionicus torqiiattis (L.) Bp.— Harlequin Duck. 
 
 "Common on and around the island shores, idly floating 
 amid the surf in flocks of fifty or sixty, or basking and preen- 
 ing on the beaches and outlying rocks. It may be seen all the 
 year round, excepting only when forced away by the ice-floes. 
 Its neat, however, eluded my search ; and, although I am quite 
 confident that it breeds on either the rocky beaches or the high 
 ridges inland, the natives themselves were equally ignorant of 
 its eggs. 
 
 "My experience of this bird, it will be observed, differs from 
 Mr. Ball's, who states that it 'is an essentially solitary species, 
 found, alone or in pairs, only in the most retired spots, on the 
 small rivers flowing into the Yukon, where it breeds.' {Trans. 
 Chicago Acad., i, 208.) I did not find it particularly wild or 
 shy, and numbers are killed by the natives every fall or spring. 
 It is a remarkably silent bird ; I heard from it no cry what-
 
 192 ALASKA. 
 
 ever during the whole year. It is a most gregarious duck ; sol- 
 itary pairs never stray away from the flock. The females seem 
 to outnumber the males, two to one." 
 
 511. Soinateria stellei'i, (Pall.) Nkwt.— S«e?Z«-'s iUfVZe?-. 
 Anas sieUeri, Pall. Spic. Zool.,vi. 35, pi. 5, (1769.) 
 Clangida stelleri, BoiB. Isis, 5G4, (1822.) 
 FidUjula steUeri, Bp. Syn. B. U. S. 394, (1828.) 
 Macropus stelleri, Nutt. Mau., ii, 451, (1834.) 
 Folysticta stelleri, Eyton. Hist. Brit. B., 79, (1836.)-Bd. B. N. 
 
 A., 801, (1858.) 
 Eniconetta slellevi, Gray. List Geu. of B., 95, (1840.) 
 Earelda stelleri, Keys, et Bias. Wirb. Europ., 230, (1840.) 
 Eeniconetta stelleri, Agass. Ind. Uuiv., 178, (1846.) 
 Soinateria stelleri, Newt. P. Z. S., 400, (1861.)— CouES. Key, 291, 
 
 (1872.) 
 Anas dispar, Sparrm. Mus. Carls., pi. vii, viii, (1786.) 
 Fuligula dispar, Stepii. Shaw's Geu. Zool., xii, 206, (1824.) 
 SteUeria dispar, Bp. Comp. List B. Eur. and X. A., 57, (1838.) 
 Anas occidua, Bonn, et Vieill. Ency. Met., i, 130, (1823.) 
 
 "A few of these ducks were observed, but not secured, on 
 Saint Paul's, in tne spring of 1872. Two were shot at the East 
 Point, Saint George's, the same year. It is only a straggler." 
 
 As several experienced ornithologists have stated, Steller's 
 duck is a true eider in all essential respects. Various views of 
 its systematic position which have been entertained are indi- 
 cated by the foregoing synonymy. 
 
 An egg of Steller's duck, in the Smithsonian, from the Peters- 
 burg Museum, through H. E. Dresser, esq., collected in 
 Kamtschatka, measures 2.20 x 1.60, and is like that of the com- 
 mon eider in shape, color, and texture of shell. 
 
 .534. Oraciiliis bicristatus, (Pall.) Gray. Fed-faced Cormorant. 
 
 " Oreel." 
 ? Fed-faced Cormonmt or Sluig, Pexnaxt & Latham. (Arct. Zool., 
 
 11, 584 ; Gen. Syn. vi, 601. Kamtschatka.) 
 ? Felecanus urile, G:m. Syst. Nat., 1, 575, (1788.)— Lath. Ind. 
 
 Orn. ii, 888, (1790.) 
 Flialacrocorax bicristatus. Pall. Zoog. Rosso-As., ii,301, pi. 75, 
 
 f. 2, (1811.) 
 Graculus UcrisfaUis, Gray. Gen. of Birds. Haud-list, ill, 128, 
 
 No. 11129.— Bd. Tr. Chic. Acad., 1 , 321, pi. 33, (1869.)— Call. 
 
 & Baxx. Ibid., 302.— Coues. Key, 304, (1872.) 
 Urile bicristatus, Bp.,partim. Conip. A\'., 11, 175, (1851.) 
 " Phalacrocorax 2)ela(jicns, FxiJ.:' Zoog. Ecsso-As., ii, 303, pi. 
 
 76, (1811.) 
 
 The cormorant, which swarms on the Prybilov Islands, ap- 
 I)ears to be unquestionably the bird of Pallas, which is most
 
 ALASKA. 103 
 
 probably the red-faced cormorant, P. iirile, of earlier autbors. 
 lu adult plumage it is readily recoguized by the uaked red 
 skiu which eutirely surrouuds the base of the bill, somewhat 
 earuuculate, aud the blue base of the uuder maudible, as well 
 as by the other points noticed in the later treatises above 
 quoted. In the gieat confusion subsisting among authors re- 
 specting the North Pacific cormorants, we do not venture to 
 cite several names more or less probably synonymous. 
 
 Several eggs of this cormorant, brought in by Mr. Elliott, are 
 covered with the white, chalky incrustation, in a maximum 
 amount of depth and irregularity, the shell being very pale 
 bluish beneath. They measure about 2J inches long by li wide, 
 being thus narrowly elongate, though little more pointed at 
 one end than at the other. They are all much soiled v/ith the 
 filth of the nest. 
 
 "This cormorant, the only one of its tribe visiting the Seal 
 Islands, is a common bird, and is found the whole year round. 
 The terrible storms in February and March are unable to drive 
 the "shag" away from the sheltered cliffs of the island, while 
 all other sjiecies, even the big northern gull, depart for the open 
 water south. 
 
 " It comes on to the cliffs to make its nest and lay, the earliest 
 of the birds in this sea. Two eggs were taken from a nest on 
 the reef. Saint PauFs Island, June 1, 1872, which is over three 
 weeks in advance of the other water-fowl, almost without ex- 
 ception. The nest is large, carefully rounded up, and built upon 
 some jutting point or narrow shelf along the face of a cliff or 
 bluff; in its construction sea-ferns, {Scrtulariclcv,) grass, «&«., 
 are used, together with a cement made largely of their excre- 
 ment. 
 
 " The eggs are usually three in number, sometimes four, and, 
 compared with the size of the bird, are very small. They are 
 oval, of a dirty, whitish gray, green, and blue color, but soon 
 become soiled ; for although the bird's plumage is sleek and 
 bright, yet it is exceedingly slovenly and filthy about the nest. 
 The young come from the shell at the expiration of three 
 weeks' incubation, without feathers, and almost bare even of 
 down. They grow rapidly, being fed by the old birds, who 
 eject the contents of their stomachs, such as small fish, crabs, 
 and shrimps all over aud around the nest. In about six weeks 
 the young cormorant can take to its wings, bein g then fully as 
 large and heavy as the parents; but it is not until the beginning 
 of its second year that it has the bright plumage and metallic 
 13 AL
 
 194 ALASKA. 
 
 gloss of the adult, wearing', during the lirst year, a dull drab- 
 browu coat, with the biilliaut colors of the base of the bill and 
 gular sac subdued. 
 
 " This shag is a bold and very inquisitive bird, and utters no 
 sound whatever except when flying over and around a boat or 
 ship, which apparently has a magnetic power of attraction for 
 them. When they are hovering and circling around in this 
 way, I have heard alow, droning croak come from them. 
 
 " The cormorant cannot be called a bird of graceful action at 
 any place, either on the wing or en shore. Its flight is a quick 
 beating of the wings, (which are usually more or less ragged,) 
 with the neck and head stretched out horizontally to the full 
 length. It is exceedingly inquisitive, flying around again 
 and again to satisfy its curiosity, but never alighting on a boat 
 or ship, though coming close enough sometimes to be almost 
 touched by hand. It is very dirty on the rocks, and does not 
 keep its nest in tidy trim like the gulls ; but in regard to 
 its plumage, it cannot be surpassed, or even equaled, by 
 any bird of Bering Sea for brilliant gloss and glittering- 
 sheen. It fairly shimmers, when in the sunlight, with deep 
 bronze and purple reflections, as though clothed in steel armor. 
 
 " In their stomachs I have found almost invariably the re- 
 mains of small fish and a coil of worms, {Xematoda.) 
 
 " As this bird is found during the whole winter, in spite of 
 severe weather, perched on the sheltered bluffs, the natives re- 
 gard it with a species of affection, for it furnishes the only sup- 
 lily that they can draw upon for fresh meat, soups, and stews, 
 always wanted by the sick ; and were the shags sought after 
 throughout the year, as they are during the short spell of 
 intensely -bitter weather that occurs in severe winters, driving 
 the other waterfowl away, they would certainly be speedily ex- 
 terminated. They are seldom shot, however, when anything 
 else can be obtained.'' 
 
 Diomedca ba'acSsyura, Ti:M:si.—Shori-taikd Jlhaiross. 
 
 " Twenty or thirty years ago, when whaling- vessels were 
 reaping their rich harvests in Bering and the Arctic Seas, the 
 albatross was often seen about the islands, feeding upon the 
 whale-carrion which might drift on shore. But with the decrease 
 of the whale-fishery the birds have almost disappeared. Only 
 a single individual was noted during my two years' residence. 
 This was taken by Dr. Meany, on the north shore of Saint 
 George's.
 
 ALASKxV. 105 
 
 " It is comiiiou arouud OunalasUka Island, where I saw a 
 large number, on my way to San Francisco, in August, 1S73." 
 
 5S2a. FuJKiaE'MS glacsiilfis var. rodgcs'SJ, (Cass.) Covr^.—nodgers's 
 
 Fulmar. " Lnpus." 
 Iu(hnarii8 rodgcrsii, Cass. Proc.Pbila. Acad., 290, (18G-2.)— CouES. 
 
 op. cif., 29, (18G6.)—Baird. Ti-. Chicago Acad., i, 323, pi. 34, 
 
 fig. 1, (1869.)— Dall et Baxx. Ibid., 303. 
 Fidmarns (jlacUdis var. rodgcrsl, CouES. — Kev N. A. Birds, 327, 
 
 (1872.) 
 
 Distinguislied from the ordinary fulmar by the restriction of 
 tlie darker slate-gray mantle, mostof the wing-coverts and some 
 of the secondaries being white. 
 
 An egg of this fulmar, procured by Mr. Elliott, is much more 
 elongate than the only specimen of F. glaciaUs before me, and 
 the shell is even rougher than in the latter, with innumerable 
 raised points and minute fosste. It measures 2.90 in length by 
 1.90 in breadth, and is scarcely more pointed at one end than 
 at the other. The color is white, much soiled, in this instance, 
 with adventitious yellow discoloration. The description applies 
 to the whole of a large series examined. 
 
 " This is the only representative of the Frocellarhuc I have 
 seen on or about the Prybilov Islands. It repairs to the cliffs, 
 especially on the south and east shores of Saint George's, 
 comes very early in the season, and selecting some rocky 
 shelf, secure from all enemies save man, where, making no nest 
 whatever, it lays a single large, white, oblong-oval egg, and 
 immediately commences the duty of incubating. It is one of 
 the most devoted of all water-fowl to its charge, for it will not 
 be scared from the egg by any demonstration that may be 
 made in the way of throwing rocks or yelling, and will even 
 die as it sets rather than take to flight, as I have frequently 
 witnessed. 
 
 "The fulmar lays by 1st to oth of June. The egg is very 
 palatable, fully equal to that of our domestic duck— even 
 better. The natives lower themselves over the clifts, and 
 gather a large number of eggs every season on Saint George's 
 Island.* 
 
 * But it is hazardous -R-ork, aud these people on St. George seldom gather 
 more than they want at the time of taking. The sensation experience<l by 
 the writer, who has dangled over these precipices on a slight thong of 
 raw-bide, with the surf boiling three or four hundred feet below, and loose 
 rocks rattling down from above, anyone of which was liable to destroy life, 
 is one not to be expressed by language, and which, I think, quite sutlicient 
 excuse for the natives to be content with just as few eggs as possible. — H. \N . E.
 
 19G ALASKA. 
 
 " The Lupus uever flies in flocks ; it pairs early, ami is then 
 exceedingly quiet. I have never heard it utter a sound save a 
 low, droning croak, wheu disgorging food for its young. 
 
 " The chick comes out a perfect puff-ball of white down, 
 gaining its first plumage in about six weeks. It is a dull gray, 
 black at first, but by the end of the season it becomes like the 
 parents in coloration, only mucli darker on the back and scap- 
 ularies. i 
 
 " They are the least edible of all the birds about the islands. 
 Like others of the family, they vomit up the putrid contents 
 of their stomachs upon the slightest provocation." 
 
 540. Stei'corariiss poinatorhinus, Vieill.— Pomanne JflV/er. "Eaz- 
 
 boi-uik.'' 
 Larus parasiticus, Mey. et Wolf. Tascli. Dcutsch., 11,490, (1810.) 
 Larus crqndatus, Gm. L.N., 1,602,(1788.) {Qu. tes Sterc. striatus 
 
 Bpjss.) 
 Lestris striatus, Eyton. Br. Birds, 53. 
 Stercorarius pomariDus, Vieill. Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat., xxxii, 
 
 158, (1819.)— CouES. Proc.Pbil. Acad., 129, (1863.) 
 Stercorarius pomatorMnus, Coues. Key, 309, (1872.) 
 Cataractes potnarinus, Steph. Gen. Zool., xiii, 216, pi. 24, (1825.) 
 Cojirotheres pomarinus, Reich, Syst. Av., 52, (1.580.) 
 Cataracies parasita var. camtscliaiica, Pallas'. Zoog. Rosso-As., 
 
 ii, 312,(1811.) 
 
 ''A rare visitor. The specimen secured was the only one 
 seen on the islands. It was found on the high, mossy uplands, 
 perched in a listless attitude on a tussock of grass." 
 
 541. stercorarius parasificus, (Brunn.) Gray. — Parasitic Jagcr. 
 
 Catharacta parasitica, Brunn. Orn. Bor., 37, (1764.) 
 Larus parasiticus, LiNX. Syst. Nat., i, 226, (176j.) 
 Cataractes parasiia, Pall. Zoog. R. A., ii, 310, (1811.) 
 Lestris parasita, Illiger. Prod., 273, (1811.) 
 Lestris parasitica, Keys et Blas. Wirb. Eur., 1, 240, (1840.) 
 Stercorarius parasiticus, Gray. Gen. of B., 10, 6,52, (1849.) — Lawr. 
 B. N. A., 839, (1858.)— Coues. Pr. Phila. Acad., 133, (1863.)— 
 Ball et Baxn. Tr. Chicago Acad., i, 303, (1869.) 
 Lestris richardsoni, Sw. F. B. A., 11, 433, pi. 73, (1831.) 
 Stercorarius richardsoni, Coues. Proc. Phila. Acad., 135, (1863.) 
 Cataractes richardsoni, Macgillivray. Man. Orn., ii, 257, (1842.) 
 Catharacta coprotheres, Bruxx, Orn. Bor., 38, (1764.) 
 Lestris coprotheres, DesMurs. Traitd Ool., 551, (1860.) 
 Stercorarius crepidatus, Vieill. Nouv. Diet., xxxii, 155, (1819.) 
 
 (Not of Gmelin.) 
 Lestris crepidata, Deglaxd. Mem. Soc. Roy. Lille, 108, (1838.) 
 Stercorarius cepphus, Sw. F. B. A., ii, 432, (1831.) 
 Lestris hardyi et spinicauda, Bp. Cousp. Av., ii, 210, (185G.)
 
 ALASKA. 197 
 
 "I have seen but four or five examples of this species, wliicli 
 may be rated as au infrequent visitor. It may be found upon 
 the grassy uplands, where it will alight and stand dozing in an 
 indolent attitude for hours. No one of the three species of 
 Stercorarhis was observed to breed here.'' 
 
 Numerous eggs of this species from the barren grounds of 
 the Anderson River region, and the arctic coast to the east- 
 ward, offer the following characters : The ground color is as 
 various, and of the same shades, as that already mentioned 
 under head of Numcnius horealis, and in fact the whole aspect 
 of the egg, markings included, is quite similar. But although 
 pointed, they have not the peculiar pyriform shape usual among 
 Limicokv, I find no specimens heavily marked at the butt, 
 though the tendency is to a wreath by confluence around 
 the larger end. In some specimens the markings are all small 
 and scratchy, and distributed with "uniform irregularity "over 
 the whole surface. A certain proportion of stone-gray shell- 
 markings always appears to accompanj- the various chocolate 
 and other browns of the surface. Specimens range from 2.40 
 X 1.70 to 2.00 X 1.50, averaging nearer the former dimension. 
 
 The eggs of the next species cannot be distinguished from 
 those of the present with certainty, since, though they average 
 less in size, the larger specimens overlap the measurements of 
 >even average parasiticus. A fair specimen is 2.10 x I.-jO ; the 
 smallest examined measured only 1.90 x 1.10. 
 
 542. Stercorarius biiflToiii, (Boie.) Covv:s.—Lo)i[/-faUed Jciger. 
 ? Catlmracta ce2)j)luis, Bi:rxx. Oru. Bor., 36, (17(54.) 
 Lesbis cepphtts, Keys et .Blas. Wirb. Eur., i, 240, (1840.) 
 Stercorarius apphus, Gkay. Geu. of B., iii, 652, (1849.) — L.vwi:. 
 
 B.N. 
 A., 840, (1858.)— CoUES. Proc. Pbila. Acad., 243, (1861.) 
 ? Hams parasiticus, Lath. Ind. Oru., ii, 819, (1790.) 
 Lestris parasiticus, Temm. Man. Oru., iv, 501, (1840.)— Sw. & 
 
 Rich. F. B. A., ii, 430, (1831.) 
 Stercorarius lomjicandatus, Bkissox. — Yieill. Xouv. Diet., 
 
 xxxii, 157, (1819.) 
 Lestris loufjicaudatns, Tiiomp. Nat. Hist. Ireland, iii, 399, (1851.) 
 Cataractis hngicauilatus, Macoill. Man. Oru., ii, 258, (1842.) 
 Lestris iuffoni, Boie. Isis, 502-576, (1822.) 
 Stercorarius buffoni. Coves. Proc. Pliila. Acad., 136, (1883,)— 
 
 Dall et Banx. Traus. Chic. Acad., i, 304, (1869.)— CoUES. Key 
 
 N. A. Birds, 310, 1872. 
 Lestris lessoiii, Degland. Mem. Soc. Roy. Lille, C1838.) 
 Lestris crepidata, Bkehm. Niiturg. Eur. Yog., 747, (1823.) 
 
 ■"Seldom seen. The specimen in my collection is one of
 
 198 ALASKA. 
 
 the ouly two I ever observed ou the islands. Wheu I came 
 iipou them, July 29, 1872, they were appareutly feediug- upon 
 insects, and upon a small black berry which ripens ou the 
 highlands,"' (the fruit of the Empetrum nigrum.) 
 
 54". L.ai'ilsg'SailCKS, Bp.uxn. — Glaucous Gull, Bur(jomaster. "Chikie." 
 
 " This large, handsome bird is restricted by reason to Walrus 
 Island alone, although it comes sailing over and around all the 
 islands, in easj', graceful flight, every hour of the day, and fre- 
 quently, late in the fall, will settle down by hundreds upon 
 the carcasses ou the killing-grounds. But upon Walrus Island 
 this bird is at home, and there lays its eggs in neat nests, built 
 of sea-ferns and dry grass, placed among the grass^^ tussocks 
 on the center of the island : — there are no foxes here. 
 
 " It remains by the islands during the whole season. Though 
 it is sometimes driven by the ice to the open water fifty to a 
 hundred miles south, it returns immediately after the floe dis- 
 appears. 
 
 " The ' chikie ' lays as early as the 1st to 4th of June, depos- 
 iting three eggs usually within a week or ten days. These 
 eggs are large, spherically oval, having a dark grayish-brown 
 ground, with irregular patches of darker brown-black. They 
 vary somewhat in size, but the shape and pattern of coloring is 
 quite constant. 
 
 " The young hurfjomastcr comes from the shell at the expira- 
 tion of three weeks" incubation, in a pure-white, thick coat of 
 down, which is speedily supplanted by a brownish-black and 
 gray plumage, with which the bird takes flight, having nearly 
 the size of the i^areut. This dark coat changes within the 
 next three months to one nearly white, with the lavender-gray 
 back of the adult; the legs change from a pale-grayish tone to 
 the rich yellow of the mature condition, and the bill also passes 
 from a dull-brown color to a bright yellow with a red spot ou 
 the lower mandible. 
 
 " It has a loud, shrill cry, becoming soon very monotonous 
 by its constant repetition, and also utters a low, chattering 
 croak while coasting. 
 
 "It is a very neat bird about its nest, and keeps its plum- 
 age in a condition of snowy purity. It is not very numerous; 
 I do not think that there were more than five or six hundred 
 nests on Walrus Island at the time of my visit, in 1S72."
 
 ALA.SKA. 109 
 
 552. Lai'Eis iB'IdacityllEBS var. kotKebui, (Bp.) Covks.— Pacific EiUi- 
 wake. " Choniie-nausbkio goverooskie." 
 liissa kotzehtd, Bp. Cou.sp. Av., 11, 22(3, (1850.)— Coi;i:s. Pr. 
 Pbila. Acad., 305, (iy62.)— CouES. Pr. Pbila. Acad., 207, (18(iy.) 
 Lams tridactyhis, Dall & Baxx. Tr. Chic. Acad., 1, 305, (IbG'J.) 
 Lants trklacUjlm var. lcot:chui, CouES, Key, 314, (1872.) 
 
 We have called attention, in our publicatiou.s above quoted, 
 to the fact that the Xoitli Pacific kittiwake has the hind toe 
 better formed than that of the Atlantic bird; and thi.s is the 
 sole basis of the supposed species. 
 
 Although thus so similar to the true Larus tridactyhis that it 
 cannot be specifically distinguished, and also totality distinct 
 from the next species, there has been a strange confusion regard- 
 ing it. I do not venture now to add to the foregoing synon- 
 ymy several names more or less doubtfully here applicable. i>o- 
 naparte quotes as synonymous, Ji/.s.sa «/it« of Bruch, J. f O., 
 1855, 285 ; and also queries B. hrachyrhyncha of Bruch, ibkJ.y 
 1853, 103. Xo one of the four species of Eissa described by 
 Mr. Lawrence, in 1858, in Baird's work, pp. 854, Skiij, belongs 
 here. 
 
 " This kittiwake breeds here by tens of thousands, in com- 
 pany with E. hrevirostriSj coming at the same time, but laying 
 a week or ten days earlier ; in all other respects it corresponds 
 in habit, and is in just about the same number. It is a remark- 
 ably constant bird in coloration, when adult, for I have failed 
 to observe the slightest variation in plumage among the great 
 numbers here under my notice. 
 
 " In building its nest it uses more grass and less mud-cement 
 than the hrevirostris does. The eggs are more pointed at the 
 small end and lighter in the ground-color, with numerous spots 
 and blotches of dark brown. The chick is difficult to distin- 
 guish with certainty from the brevirostris, and it is not until two 
 or three weeks have passed that any difl'erence can be noted in 
 the length of bill and color of feet. 
 
 "Like Bissa hrevirostris, the male treads the femnle on the 
 nest, and nowhere else, making a loud, shrill, screaming sound 
 during the ceremonj'." 
 
 553. LaviBS brevii'osta'is, (Bn\yDT.)—Sliori-'biUc(l or Bed-lcggcd Kidi- 
 
 icake. •' Goverooskie."' 
 Eissa hrevirostris, Brandt. — Lawr. B. N. A., 855, (1858.)— Daix 
 
 & Baxx. Tr. Chicago Acad., i, 305, (1869.) 
 Larus brcvirostris, CouES. Key N. A. Birds, 315, (1872.)
 
 200 ALASKA. 
 
 Lams hracliijrliijncltHS, Gould. P. Z. S., (July 25, 1843.)— Gould. 
 
 Voy. Snli)hur, 50, pi. 34, ( .) Not of Richahl.sox. 
 
 Hissa hrculiyrhyitdia, Bp. Coiisp. Av., ii, 228, (18C6.) — CouES. 
 
 Proc. Pbila. Acad., 306, (16(32.) 
 Ehsa mrca,L,x\yi{. B. X. A., S55, (1858.) (Excl.Syu. 'Sot Lams 
 
 nirciis, Pall.) 
 
 This excellent species will instantly be distinguished from the 
 preceding by its short bill, and especially by its rich coral, ver- 
 milion, or lake-red legs, (drying straw-yello\A\) There is no 
 possibility of confounding the t\To, although their synonymy 
 has become involved to such an extent that the ta.sk of disen- 
 tangling it is almost hopeless. The names above quoted are of 
 unquestionable pertinence here ; several others that might be 
 quoted are preferably left untouched. 
 
 "This beautiful gull, one of the most elegant of birds on the 
 wing, seems to favor these islands with its presence to the ex- 
 clusion of other land, coming here by tens of thousands to breed. 
 It is especially abundant on Saint George's Island. It is cer- 
 tainly by far the most attractive of all the gulls ; its short, sym- 
 metrical bill, large hazel eye, with crim.sou lid.s, and bright-red 
 feet, contrasting richly with the snowy-white plumage of the 
 head, neck, and under parts. 
 
 "Like Lams glaucus, this bird remains about the islands 
 during the whole season, coming on the cliffs for the purpose of 
 nest-building, breeding by the 9th of May, and deserting the 
 bluffs when the young are fully fledged and ready for flight, 
 early in October. 
 
 "It is much more cautious and prudent than the 'arrie,' for 
 its nests are placed on almost inaccessible shelves and points, 
 so that seldom can a nest be reached unless a person is lowered 
 down to it by a rope passed over the cliff. 
 
 "Xest-building is commenced by this bird early in May, and 
 completed, usually, not much before the first of July. It uses 
 dry grass and moss, cemented with mud, which it gathers at 
 the margin of the small fresh- water sloughs and ponds scattered 
 over the islands. The nest is solidly and neatly put up, the 
 parent birds working in the most diligent and amiable miriuuer. 
 
 "Two eggs are the usual number, although occasionally three 
 will be found in the nest. If these eggs are removed, the female 
 will renew them, like the 'arrie,' in the course of another week 
 or ten days. They are of the size and shape of the common 
 hen's egg, but colored with a dark-gray ground, spotted and 
 blotched with sepia-brown patches and dots. Once in a w^hile
 
 ALASKA. 201 
 
 an egg will have ou its smaller eud a large number of suffused 
 blood-red spots. 
 
 "Both parents assist iu tbe labor of incubation, wliich lasts 
 from twenty-four to twenty-six days. The cbick comes out with 
 a pure-white downy coat, and pale whitish-gray bill and feet, 
 resting helplessly iu the nest while its feathers grow. During 
 this period it is a comical-looking object. The natives capture 
 them now and pet them, having a number every year scattered 
 through the village, where they become very tame, and it is not 
 until fall, when cold weather sets in and makes them restless, 
 that they leave their captors and fly away to sea. 
 
 '• This bird is very constant in its specific characters. Among 
 thousands of them I have never observed any variation in the 
 coloration of the bills, feet, or plumage of the mature birds, with 
 one exception. There is a variety, seldom seen, iu which the 
 feet are nearly yellow, or rather yellow than red, and the edge 
 of the eyelid is black instead of scarlet ; there is also a dark 
 patch back of each eye. The color of the feet is probably an 
 accidental individual peculiarity; the dark eye-patch and 
 absence of bright color from the eyelids may depend upon 
 seasoii.'' 
 
 606. Colyinbns avcVicvis, (h.)— Black-throated Direr. 
 
 It is interesting to observe that this bird is the true C. arcticus, 
 and not var. pacijicus, which might have been expected to occur. 
 This is sutficientlj' attested by the measurements of a line adult 
 specimen, No. 498 of Mr. Elliott's collection. Length, about 31 
 inches; wing, 12; bill, along culmen, 2f|; along gape, 4; its 
 depth at base, .80 ; tarsus, 3i ; middle toe and claw, 4. The 
 bill is quite stout, with the culmen convex throughout, showing 
 nothing of the slender, straight, or almost recurved shape char- 
 acteristic of var. pacijicus. 
 
 We find nothing respecting this species iu Mr. Elliott's MSS. 
 It was the only one seen by him. It was found dead, cast upon 
 the sand-beach at Zapadnie, Saint George's Island, and brought 
 to Mr. E. by the natives, who ditfered among themselves as to 
 whether they had ever noticed it before about the islauds. At 
 all events, it is seldom seen there. 
 
 610. Podiceps g'riseig'Ciia, (Bodd.) — Bed-neclccd Grche. 
 
 As in the case of the last species, the present is of the typical 
 form rather than of the Xorth American variety. The diflference, 
 as stated in our synopsis, (Pr. Phila. Acad., 1862, 232,) lies iu
 
 202 ALASKA. 
 
 the size and coloration of the bill. In true grisclfjcna the bill is 
 little, if any, over 1.50 inches along the culmen, or 2.00 along 
 the gape, and the yellow is either entirely restricted to the base, 
 or only extends thence a little on the edge of the under man- 
 dible. In var. liolbolU the above-mentioned measurements of 
 the bill are respectively 1.90 and 2.40, and much or most of the 
 under mandible, with the cutting-edges of the upper, are yellow. 
 In the present specimen, the culuien measures 1. GO; the gape, 
 2.15, and there is little yellow, excepting at the base of the 
 bill. 
 
 Eggs of the xVmerican red-necked grebe, from the Ynlion 
 and other interior arctic localities, are rough, white, either 
 inclining to pale-greenish or with buffy discoloration, aiid of 
 the usual narrowly-elongate shape common in the family-. They 
 measure from 2.10 to 2.35 in length by 1.25 to 1.45 in breadth^ 
 the longer eggs not always being proportionally wide. 
 
 "It is the only specimen seen during my residence upon the 
 islands. It has been observed before by the natives, who, how- 
 ever, affirm that it is uncommon." 
 
 CIT. FratercHia coruiculata, (Nau.m.) Bkaxdt.— flbrwef? Puffin. 
 
 "Epatka." 
 (J)Alca arciica, var. B., Lath. lud. Orii., ii, 792, (1790.) 
 Lnnda arctica, Pall, imrtim., Zoog. E. A., ii, 365, (1811.) 
 Mormon corniculatiim, Naum. Isis, 782, pi. 7, f. 3, 4, (1821.) — 
 
 KiTTL. Kupf. Naturg. Vog. pi. i, fig. 1. — Dall & Bann. 
 
 Trans. Chic. Acad., i, 308, (1869.) 
 Mormon {FratercuJa) corniculata, Bp. Comptes Reudus, 774, 
 
 (1856.) -Cass., in Bd. B. N. A., 902, (1858.) 
 FratercuJa {Ceratohlepliarum) corniculata, Brandt. Bull. Sc. 
 
 Acad. St. Petersb., ii, 348, (1837.) 
 Fratercula corniculata, Gray. Gen. B., iii, 637, pi. 174, (1849.) — 
 
 COUES. Pr. Phila. Acad., 1808.— CouES. Key, 340, (1872.) 
 Lnnda corniculata, Schlegel. M. P. B., ix, Xerin., 28, (1867.) 
 Lunda {Ccratohlepharum) corniculata, Brandt. Bull. Sc. Acad., 
 
 St. Petersb,, vii,242, (1869.) 
 Alormon (jlacialis, Gould, nee. Leach. B. Eur., v, pi. 404, 
 
 (1837.)— AUD. Oru. Biog., iii, 549, pi. 29.1, (1835.)— Id. B. 
 
 Amer., vii, 23G, pi. 463. 
 
 An egg before me is noticeably more elongate than that of 
 F. arctica or of J'', cirrhata, though not more pointed. The shell 
 is rather rough, and dead-white. We may anticipate that in 
 some instances a few obscure obsolete spots may appear, as 
 they occasionally do in the eggs of jP. arctica, and, doubtless, 
 also show the usual discolorations in many cases. The pres- 
 ent specimen measures 2.75 by 1.75.
 
 ALASKA. 203 
 
 " The eye never fails to be arrested by this odd-looking bird, 
 with its great shovel-like, lemou-yellow aud red bill, as it sits 
 squatted in glnm silence on the rocky cliff-perches, regarding 
 approach with an air of stolid wonder. It seems to have been 
 fashioned with especial regard to the fantastic and comical. 
 
 " This mormon, in common with one other species, M. cirrhata, 
 comes up from the sea, from the south, to the cliffs of the 
 islands about the 10th of May, always iu pairs, never coming 
 or going in flocks. It makes a nest of dried sea-feins, grass, 
 moss, &c., far back or down in some deep, rocky crevice, where 
 the egg when laid is generally inaccessible — nothing but bhist- 
 ing-powder would reach it. 
 
 " It lays but a single egg, large, oblong-oval, pure white, 
 and, contrary to the custom of the gnlls, arries, choochkies, «S:c., 
 when the egg is removed the sea-parrot does not renew it, but 
 deserts the nest, perhaps locating elsewhere. The young chick I 
 have not been able to get — not until it comes out fledged and 
 ready for flight iu August, wheu it does not difter materially 
 from its parent. The species leaves the islands about the 10th 
 September. 
 
 "This bird is very quiet aud unobtrusive; it does not come 
 in large numbers to the islands, for it breeds everywhere else 
 in Bering Sea. Its flight is performed with quick and rapid 
 wing-beats, iu a straight and steady course. There is no ditter- 
 ence between the sexes as to size, shape, or plumage.'' 
 
 619. Fi-atercHla ciirliata, {Vaj.i..) STEPU—Tx/ted Puffin. " Tawpaw- 
 
 kie." 
 Jlca chrhaia, Pall. Spic. Zool., 7, pi. 1, ii, fij?. 1, '->, 3, (1769.) 
 Landa cirrhata, Pall. Zoog. E. A., ii. 363, p. 82, (1811.)— 
 
 SciiLEG. Mus. Pays-Bas, TriH. 27, (1867.)— Coues. Pr. Phila. 
 
 Acad., (1868.) 
 Lunda {Gijmnohlqyliariim) cirrhata, Brandt. Bull. Sc. St. Petersb., 
 
 vii., 244,(1867.) 
 Fratercula cirrhata, Stepii. Shaw's Gen. Zool., xiii, 40, (1825.) 
 Fratcrcula {Ginnnoblejjharum) cirrhata, Bi:andt. Bull. Sc. St. 
 
 Peteisb.,ii, 349, (1837.) 
 Mormon cirrhata, y\VM. Isis, 7Si, pi. 7, f. 1, (1821.)— Cass. B. 
 
 N. A., 902, (1858.)— Dall &. Banx. Traus. Chicago Acad., i, 
 
 308, (1869.) 
 Fratercula carinata, Yigors. Zool. Journ., iv, 358. 
 Saomaiorhiua lathami, Bp. P. Z. S., 202, pi. 44, (1851.)— CouES. 
 
 Pr. Phila. Acad., (1868.) 
 Sagmatnrhina labradoria, Cass. B. X. A., 904, (1658.)— Dall &, 
 
 Baxn. Trans. Chic. Acad., i, 309, (18G9.)
 
 204 ALASKA. 
 
 As Professor Brandt sboweil, shortly after the publication of 
 our Monograph, the Sagniatorhina lathami of Bonaparte (^-^S*. 
 labmdoria, Cass.) is merely the young of this species, at an age 
 before the bill has attained its final shape and coloring. Of 
 this fact we became ourselves aware about the same time, from 
 examination of various si^ecimens in the Smithsonian. 
 
 The genus, of course, falls, as well as the species. In our 
 Monograph we were so far wrong as to assign to it a second 
 supposed species, the Ccrorhina sucldciji of Oassiu, which is the 
 young of Ceratorhina monocerata. 
 
 "Comes to the islands at the same time as F. eorniculata, 
 and resembles the Epatkie in its habits generally. It lays a 
 single large white egg, of a rounded-oval shape. I was never 
 able to see a newly-hatched chick, owing to tlie retired and in- 
 accessible nature of the breeding-places. Could Walrus Island 
 be visited frequently during the season, interesting observations 
 might be made there, for the nests are more easy of access. 
 The young tawpawkie, six weeks old, resembles the parents 
 exactly, only the bill is lighter colored, and the plumes on the 
 head are incipient. This is the only place where the birds can 
 be daily seen and watched with satisfactory results. I took 
 eggs from over thirty nests in July. The natives say it is very 
 quarrelsome when mating, its cries sounding like the growling 
 of a bear as they issue from far down under the rocks that 
 cover its nest." 
 
 The egg is much thicker and more capacious than that of 
 F. corniculata, though no longer. The shell is rough, dead- 
 white, and, besides the frequent discolorations, shows in several 
 specimens very pale, obsolete shell-markings of purplish gray. 
 {Several specimens measure as follows: 2.85 x 1.95; 2.80 x 
 1.92; 2.75 x 2.00; 2.G5 x 1.95. 
 
 ■C21. Plialeris pslftacnla, (Escii.) TE-sni.—rcoToquei Jul: " Baillie 
 
 Brusbkie." 
 Alca psittacida, Pall. Spic. Zool., fasc. \, l:>, pi. 2, pi. 5, f. 4, 5, G, 
 
 (17G0.) 
 Lunda psittacuJa, Pall. Zoog. Rosso-As., ii, .36G, pi. 84, (li^ll.) 
 Phaleris psUtaculu, Temm. Mau. Oru., i, \\'2, (1>20.)— Coues. Key 
 
 N. A. Birds, 342, fig. 222, (1872.) 
 Omhria jysittacHla, Escilsch. Zool. Atlas, iv, 3, pi. 17, (1831.)— 
 
 Brandt. Bull. Sc. Acad. St. Petersb., ii, 348, (1837.)— In. Ibid., vii, 
 
 237, (18G9.)— Cass. B. X. A., 410, (1858.)-Elliot. B. X. A., pt. i, 
 
 pi. 70. 
 Simorhyncliits jisiitaciihis, SciiLEG. Mns. Pays-Bas, ix, 24, (1867.) — 
 
 CouES. Proc. Phila. Acad., (18Gd.)
 
 ALASKA. 205 
 
 Xot only on account of tbe form of the bill, whicb, tliougli 
 singular among- AlcUhc, is not more different from that of some 
 others than these are among themselves, but also in conse- 
 «]uence of a different mode of life, to which the shape of the bill 
 fits it, as attested by various observers, we now place the bird 
 in a separate genus from Simorhynchus, under which we formerly 
 included it. The species is said to live chiefly upon bivalve 
 mollusks, such as ^fytilus, &c., for opening which its bill is 
 adapted; and Professor Brandt notes the curious analogy 
 afforded, in this respect, with K(vmato])iis, as compared with 
 allied Charadrine genera. 
 
 Mr. Gray adduces a reference to the unexpected occurrence 
 of this species in Sweden. 
 
 "This quaintly-beaked bird is quite common on the Prybilov 
 Group, and can be obtained at Saint George's in considerable 
 numbers. It comes here early in ^Vlay, and locates in a deep 
 chink or crevice of some inaccessible cliff, where it lays a single 
 egg and rears its young. It is very quiet and undemonstrative 
 during the pairing-season, its only note being a low, sonorous, 
 vibrating whistle. Like Simorhynchus cristatellus, it will breed 
 in company with the ' choochkie,' but will not follow that lively 
 relative back upon the uplands, the'baillie brushkie' being 
 always found on the shore-line, and there only. 
 
 " The egg, which is laid upon the bare earth or rock, is pure 
 white, oblong-ovate, measuring 2h by 1^ inches. It is exceed- 
 ingly difdcult to obtain, owing to the birds' great caution in 
 hiding, and care in selecting some deep and winding crevice in 
 the face of the cliff'. At the entrance to this nesting-cavern the 
 parents will sometimes squat down, and sit silently for hours at 
 a time, if undisturbed. 
 
 " It does not fly about the islands in flocks, and seems to lead 
 a quiet, independent life by itself, caring nothing for the society 
 of its kind. The young, when first hatched, I have not seen, 
 but by the 10th to the loth of August they may be observed 
 coming out for the first time from their secure retreats, and 
 taking to wing as fully fledged and as large as their parents. 
 
 " They take their departure from the 20th of August to the 
 1st of September, and go out upon the North Pacific for the 
 winter, where they find their food, which consists oi ampUpoda 
 and fish-fry. I have never seen one among the thousands that 
 were around nie when on the islands ' opening ' the bivalve- 
 shells, such as mussels, &c., as stated by Professor Brandt. It
 
 206 ALASKA. 
 
 feeds at sea, flying* out every morning, returning in the after- 
 noon to its nest and mate." 
 
 The egg of Phalcris psittacida is about as large as a small 
 hen's egg, which it resembles, although averaging more elon- 
 gate. The shape, however, is extremely variable; thus, one 
 measures 2.25 by 1.50, and another 2.35 by only 1.45, the latter 
 being remarkably narrow, elongate, and pointed. The shell is 
 minutely granular, and rough to the touch. It is white, un- 
 marked, but often found variously soiled and discolored, some- 
 times by mechanical effect, and sometimes by fluids of the 
 oviduct or cloaca. ]Mr. Elliott says, " So efiectually do these 
 birds secrete their eggs in the deep recesses of cliff crevices and 
 chinks that I was unable to obtain more than four perfect speci- 
 mens, although several hundred ' baillie brushkies ' were breed- 
 ing on the cliffs, each pair marked by myself, (in daily observa- 
 tion,) close by the village, at Saint George's Island, during the 
 summer of 1873. Xothing, save blasting-powder, or similar 
 agency, can open the basaltic crevices in which the bird hides, 
 and, of course, resort to this action would also destroy the egg.^^ 
 
 622. SaznorSiyBicSaias ci-istatelliis, (Pall.) Meur.— CrestoZ Auk. 
 
 " Cauooskie." 
 AJca cristatcUa, Pall. Spic. Zool. fasc, v, 20, pi. 3, pi. 5, figs. 7, 
 
 8,9, (1769.) 
 Uria crisfatdia, Pall. Zoog. Eosso.-As., ii, 370, (1811.) (Escl. 
 
 syn. Alca camtschatica, Lepech.) 
 Simorhi/nchiist cr'isaMhis, Merrem. — Schl. M. P. B., ix, 25, 
 
 (1867.)— CouES. Proc. Pbila. Acad., (1863.)— COUES. Key N. 
 
 A. Birds, 342, figs. 223, 224, (1872.) 
 Simorhi/vchus {Tylorltamplius) crisiatellus, Braxdt. Bull. Sc. 
 
 Acad. St. Petersb., vii, 223, (1869.) 
 TijJorhamplms cristateUits, Braxdt. Oj;. c'lt., ii, 348, (1337.) 
 Phaleris cristatellus, Steph. Shaw's Gen. Zool., xiii, 47, pi. 5, 
 
 (1825.) (Nee Temm.) — Schrexck. Eeise Ainur-Laud, i, yt. 
 
 ii, 500, pi. 16, figs. 4, 5. 
 riialeris (SimorJujnchns) cristateUus, Cass. B.N. A., 906, (1858.) 
 Uria duhia, Pall. Zoog. E. A., ii, 371, (1811.) — {Avis ptil. hyem. 
 
 vestifa, sec. Braxdt.) 
 Phaleris diihia, Brandt. Bull. Sc. Acad. St. Petersb., ii, 347, 
 
 (1837.) 
 Tylorliamplius clnhius, BoNAP. Comptes Eendus, xlii,774, (1856.) 
 Simorhynchtis duhitis, CouES. Proc. Pliila. Acad., (1868.) 
 Alca tetracHla,FA-LL. Spic. Zool. fasc, v, 23, jil. 4,(1769,) (Junior.) 
 Uria tetracula, Pall. Zoog. E. A.,ii, 371, (1811.) 
 Phaleris tetracula, Step. GeuH. Zool., xiii, 46, (1825.)— Brandt. 
 
 Bull. Sc. Acad. St. Petersb., ii, 347, (1837.)
 
 ALASKA. 207 
 
 Tylorhamphus idracuhis, Boxap. Comptes Ecudus, xlii, 774, 
 
 (1856.) 
 I'haJeris {Tylorhanqyhii-s) ieiracula, Cass. B.N. A., 907, (IS.J8.) 
 Shnorliyncus tetraciilus, CouES. Proc. Pbila. Acad., {l>i(Ji.) — 
 
 CouES. Key N. A. B., 34-2, (1872. ) 
 riialeris jisittactda, Temm. Man. d'Oruitb., i, p. cxii, (18:20.) 
 riialeris supcrciliata, A\:d. Oiu. Biog., iv, pi. 402, (1839.) (Xcc 
 
 LiciiT. ; uec Bp.) 
 
 " This fantastic-looking bird, conspicuous by reason of its curl- 
 ing crest and bright crimson bill, breeds in company uitli the 
 *S. microceroSy but in no number whatever compared with the 
 'choochkie' — a few thousand pairs only at Saiut Paul's, and 
 relatively more on Saint George's, of course. 
 
 " It makes its appearance iu early May, and repairs to chinks 
 and holes in the rocky clifits, or deep down under large bowlders 
 and rough basaltic shingle, to lay, making no nest whatever, 
 depositing the egg upon the bare earth or rock. But so well 
 do these birds succeed in secreting it that, although I was con- 
 stantly upon the ground where several thousand pairs were 
 laying, I was unable to successfully overturn the rocks (under 
 which they hide) and get more than four eggs, the result of 
 over a hundred attempts. 
 
 •'The note of the 'canooskie' while mating is a loud, clanging, 
 houMike sound ; at all other seasons they are silent. 
 
 " The Simorhynchus cristatellus lays but one egg, and the 
 parents take turns, I am inclined to believe, in the labor of 
 incubation and in feeding their young. The egg is rough, pure 
 white, but with frequent discolorations, and, compared with 
 size and weight of the parent, very large. It is an elongated 
 oblong-oval, the smaller end being quite pointed. Length, 
 2.10; width, 1.40. 
 
 " I have not seen a chick, nor could I get any notes upon its 
 appearance from the natives, but I have shot the young as 
 they came out for the first time from their dark, secure hiding- 
 places, fully fledged, with exception of crest, being by this 
 time, the 10th to 15th August, as large as the old birds, and of 
 the same color and feathering. 
 
 "The 'canooskie,' like its cousin, the 'choochkie,' has no sex- 
 ual variation in size or plumage. 3Iales and females are, to all 
 external view, precisely alike. 
 
 " The bright crimson bill, however, varies considerably, not 
 in color, but in its relative strength and curve, the slenderer 
 bill not being confined, as far as I could see, to the yonng
 
 208 ALASKA. 
 
 birds, some old ones having the light and more pointed 
 beak." 
 
 We do not hesitate now to follow Professors Schlegel and 
 Brandt in uniting the duhla and tetracula with the cristatclla of 
 Pallas. We were never satisfied of the distinction of the 
 former, and in our Monograph expressed the strongest doubts 
 of its validity as a species. The other, however, we fully be- 
 lieved, until recently, to be a good species. 
 
 624. Siniorliyiicliiis peisilliis, (Pall.) Coues. — Least, or Knob-UUedf 
 
 Auk. " Chooch-kie." 
 ? ? Alca pygnma, Gmelix. Syst. Nat., i, SJiS, {V7QQ.)—{Nonne 
 
 potius =. Alca camtschatica, Lepecii., jiw.; h. e. = S. cassini, 
 
 Nob. ?) 
 FhaJeris pygmcm, Braxdt. Bull. Sc. Acad. St. Petersb., ii, 347, 
 
 (1837.) (Escl. syn. A. pygmwa, Gm.) 
 Tylorhampltus pygnuea, Bp. Comtes Eeudns, xlii, 774, (1806.) 
 
 (^Uria pHsUla, Pall.) 
 Symorliynchus pygma'us, ScnL. Miis. Pays-Bas, ix, 23, (1887.) 
 Uria pu8illa, Pall. Zoog. R. A., ii, 373, pi. 70,(1811.) (ExcL 
 
 syn.) 
 Phaleris pusilla, Cass. Proc. Pbila. Acail., 324, (1862.) 
 Phaleris (Ciceronia) pusilla, Cass. B. N. A., 909, (1858.) 
 Simorhynchus pusillns, CouES. Pr. Phila. Acad., (1868.) — Brandt. 
 
 Bull. Sc. Acad. St. Petersb., vii, 230, (1869.)— CoUES. Key N. 
 
 A. B., 343, figs. 227,228, (1872.) 
 
 Phaleris corniculata, Eschsch. Zool. Atl., 4, pi. 16, ( .) 
 
 Phaleris microceros, Brandt. Bull. Sc. Acad. St. Petersb., ii, 
 
 346, (1837.) 
 Phaleris (Ciceronia) microceros, Cass. B. N. A., 908, (1858.) 
 Ciceronia microceros, Reiciiexbach. 
 
 Simorhyncliits microceros, Coues. Proc. Phila. Acad., (1868.) 
 Phaleris nodirostra, Bp. Corap. & Geog. List, 66, (1838.) 
 Ciceronia nodirostris, Bp. Couiptes Reudus, xlii, 774, (1856.) 
 
 There is now no reasonable doubt of the identity of the 
 names above quoted, excepting Alca injgmcm, which remains 
 unidentified. It may have been this species, but most probably 
 it was the young of 8. cayntschaiicus, in the same state as the 
 young bird we recently called S. cassini. The strong doubt we 
 expressed in our Monograph respecting the distinction between 
 the microceros or nodirostris of authors and the piisiUa of Pallas, 
 has been confirmed. 
 
 " This little bird is the most characteristic of the water-fowl 
 frequenting the Prybilov Islands, to which it repairs every 
 summer by millions to breed, with its allies, S. cristatella, (ca- 
 nooskie,) and the Phaleris psittacula. 
 
 " It is comically indifferent to the pioximity of man, and can
 
 ALASKA. 209 
 
 be approached almost within an arm's length before taking 
 tlight, sitting upright and eyeing one with an air of great wis- 
 dom, combin(Hl with profound astonishment. 
 
 "Usually about the 1st or 1th of May, every year, the 
 choochkie makes its first appearance around the islands for the 
 season, in small flocks of a few hundreds or thousands, hover- 
 ing over and now and then alighting upon the water, sporting 
 one with another, in apparent high glee, and making an inces- 
 sant low chattering sound. By the 1st to the Gth June they 
 have arrived in greatest number, and they then commence to 
 lay. They frequent the loose stony reefs and bowlder-bars on 
 Saint Paul's, together with the cliflfs on both islands, and an 
 area of over five square miles of basaltic shingle on Saint 
 George's. To the last island they come in greatest number. 
 There are millions of them. They make no nests, but lay a 
 single Qgg each, far down below among loose rocks, or they 
 deposit it deep within the crevices or chinks in the faces of the 
 bluffs. 
 
 "Although, owing to their immense numbers, they seem to 
 be in a state of great confusion, yet they pair off and conduct 
 all of their billing and cooing down under the rocks, upon the 
 spot chosen for incubation, making during this interesting 
 period a singular grunting or croaking sound, more like a 
 'devil's fiddle' than anything I have ever heard outside of 
 city limits. 
 
 "A walk over their breeding-grounds at this season is exceed- 
 ingly interesting and amusing, as the noise of hundreds of 
 these little birds directly under foot gives rise to an endless 
 variation of sound, as it comes up from the stony holes and 
 caverns below, while the birds come and go, in and out, with 
 bewildering rapidity, comically blinking and fluttering. 
 
 " The male birds, and many of the females, regularly leave 
 the breeding-grounds in the morning and go off to sea, where 
 they feed on small water-shrimps and sea-fleas, {Aviphipoda,) 
 returning to their nests and sitting partners in the evening. 
 
 "The choochkie lays a snigle pure-white egg, exceedingly 
 variable in size and shape, usually oblong-oval, with the smaller 
 end somewhat pointed. I have several specimens almost si)her- 
 ical, and others drawn out into an elongated ellipse; but the 
 oblong-oval, with the pointed smaller end, is the prevailing 
 type. The egg is verj' large, compared with the size and weight 
 of the little parent. Average length, 1.5a ; width, 1.12. The 
 14 AL
 
 210 ALASKA. 
 
 general aspect is mucli like that of a pigeon's egg, excepting 
 the roughness of the shell. 
 
 " The chick is covered with a thick, nniform, dark-grayish- 
 black down, which is speedily succeeded by feathers, all darker 
 than those of the parent, when it takes flight from the islands 
 for the year six weeks after. The parents feed their young by 
 disgorging, and when the young birds leave, they are as large 
 and heavy as the old ones. I am strongly inclined to think 
 that the male bird feeds the female while incubating, but have 
 not been able to verify this supposition by observation, as the 
 birds are alwavs hidden from sight at the time." 
 
 '&' 
 
 634. Lonivm troile var. califoi'iiica, (Bry.) Coves.-:— Murre Guille- 
 
 mof. 
 Ceppluts lomvia, Pall. Zoog. R. A., ii, 345, (1811.) 
 Uria troile, Newb. Pac. R. R. Rep., vi, pt. iv, 110, (1857.) 
 Caiaractes californicus, Bryaxt. Proc. Bost. Soc. ll,*fig. 3, 5, (1861.) 
 Lomvia calif ornica, CouES. Proc. Pbila. Acad., fig. 16, (1868.) 
 Lomvia troile var. californica, Coues. Key N. A. Birds, 346. (1£C2.) 
 
 All the Murres of the troile type we have seen from the North 
 Pacific agree in possessing a particular shape of the bill, readily 
 distinguishable from that presented by the Atlantic birds. 
 While we would by no means insist upon, or even admit, that 
 this is a specific character, especially since we have no doubt 
 that some of the circumpolar colonies of these birds will show 
 an intermediate style, we think it as well to recognize the char- 
 acter by a varietal name. The shape is diflicult to describe in 
 words: the gonydeal angle is stronger, pointed, and more pro- 
 tuberant, the gonys straighter and more decidedly ascending, 
 the culmen less deflected at the tip, and the commissure conse- 
 quently straighter than are these several points in true troile. 
 It is, in short, some approach to the configuration of the bill in 
 L. scarbag, {hriinnichii of authors.) 
 
 " Limited numbers of the Californian guillemot are found 
 occasionally perched on the clitfs with the '«>Tie;' t^ey can 
 only be distinguished at a slight distance by a practiced eye, 
 for they resemble their allies so closely and conform so strictly 
 to their habits, that it will be but repeating the description of 
 the L. arra, given here, should I attempt it. The largest gath- 
 ering of these birds I have ever seen at any one place on the 
 islands was a squad of about fifty, at the high blufts on Saint 
 George's, last summer; but they are generally scattered by 
 ones, twos, and threes, among thousands and teus of thousands 
 of the arra."
 
 ALASKA. 211 
 
 635. L.omvia arra, (Pall.) Covus.—Thklc-hiUed GuiUemot. "Anie." 
 Cepphus arra, Pall. Zoog. R.-A., ii, 347, (1811.) 
 Uria arra, Cass. Pioc. Pbila. Acad., 324, (1862.) 
 (Also, TJria hriinniclni, &c., of authors refeniug to tbe North Pacific 
 thick-billed bird.) 
 
 It is au iDterestiug fact that these specimeus, luiqnestionably 
 of tbe "thick-billed" guillemot, do uot exhibit the extreme 
 shortness and stoutness of bill showii by those of the North 
 Atlantic, the bill being almost exactly intermediate. With the 
 chord of culmen about 1| inches long, the depth of the bill 
 opposite the nostrils is hardly, or not. -§ of an inch, and thus 
 much less than half as long, instead of about half as long. 
 The gape is about 3 inches. While the bill shows the dilated 
 and denuded basal portion of the maxillary tomium, character- 
 istic of the species, this raised, naked border is uot yellowish, 
 but of a peculiar glaucous bluish-gray color. The tip of the 
 bill is less hooked than in true '■'■hrilnnichii,^^ though more so 
 than in troile. The modification of the bill appears somewhat 
 singularly analogous to that which takes place in var. ealifor- 
 nica as compared with true iro'ile. 
 
 This bird is, of course, the true arra of Pallas, (a name ap- 
 parently derived from the Eussian vernacular,) whatever be its 
 relationship to the Atlantic bird. We should not be surprised 
 if some of the circumpolar forms were to connect the extremes 
 of hrilnnichii and iroile by insensible gradations. 
 
 "The great egg-bird of the North Pacific, frequenting these 
 islands by millions. This Uria aud one other, the var. califor- 
 nica, are the only birds of the genus found here, but the latter 
 is in comparatively no number whatever, not one being seen 
 where a thousand of the former are visible at once. 
 
 " They appear very early in the season, but do not begin to 
 lay until the 18th or 25th of June, and the natives tell me that 
 in open, mild winters these birds are seen in straggling flocks 
 all around the islands. I feel quite well assured that all the 
 individuals do not migrate from this sea and the vicinitv of the 
 Aleutian Islands. 
 
 " They lay their eggs upon the points and narrow .shelves on 
 the faces of the cliff- fronts to the islands, standing over the 
 eggs, side by side, as thickly as they can crowd, making no 
 nests. They quarrel desperately, aud so earnestly, that all along 
 under the high bluffs on the north shore of Saint George's hun- 
 dreds of dead birds are lying, having fallen and dashed them-
 
 212 ALASKA. 
 
 selves to death upon the rocks ^Yliile cliucbed in eombat with 
 rivals in midair. 
 
 " They lay but a single egg, upon the bare rock. The egg is 
 large and very fancifully colored, a bluish-green ground with 
 dark-brown mottliugs and patches, but exceedingly variable in 
 size and coloring. The outline of the egg is pyriform, some- 
 times more acute. It is the most palatable of all the varieties 
 found on the islands, having no disagreeable flavor, and, when 
 perfectly fresh, being fully as good as a hen's egg. 
 
 " Incubation lasts nearly twenty-eight days, and the young 
 come out with a dark thick coat of dowu, which is speedily sup- 
 planted by the plumage and color of the old birds within six 
 weeks of hatching. They are fed by the disgorging parents, 
 apparently without intermission, uttering all the while a harsh 
 rough croak, lugubrious enough. 
 
 '' The males and females have no sexual distinction as to size, 
 shape, or plumage. On Saint George's Island, while the 
 females begin to set, along toward the end of June and first of 
 July, the males go flying around the island in great files and 
 platoons, always circling against, or quartering on, the wind, 
 at regular hours in the morning and the evening, mahing a dark 
 girdle of birds more than a quarter of a mile hroad andtliirty 
 miles long, icliirling round and round the island, and forcing upon 
 the most casual observer a lasting impression. The flight of 
 the 'arrie' is straight, steady, and rapid, the wings beating 
 quickly and jjowerfully ; it makes no noise nor utters any cry, 
 save a low, hoarse, grunting croak, and then only when quar- 
 reling or mating. 
 
 '•This 'arrie' is a valuable bird to the inhabitants of the 
 Seal Islands, and, indeed, for that matter, is the only one that 
 has much economic worth to man in Bering Sea."
 
 APPENDIX.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 SAINT MATTHEWS ISLAND, BERING'S SEA. 
 
 This island lies about 2C0 miles north-Dorthwest from Saint 
 Paul's, and is not large, being some 22 miles in length and ex- 
 cessively narrow in proportion. Hall's, a small island, lies west 
 from it, separated by a strait less than 3 miles in width, and a 
 sharp jagged rock stands out some 1,200 feet abruptly from the 
 sea, 5 miles south of Sugarloaf Cone. 
 
 Our first landing, early in the morning of August o,was at the 
 slope of Cub Hill, near Cape Upright, the easternmost point of 
 the island ; theair coming in from the northwest was cold and 
 chilly^ and snow and ice were on the hill-sides and in the 
 gullies. The hillsides and summits were of a grayish-russet 
 tinge, with rich green swale-slopes running down into the low- 
 lands, which are more intensely green and warm in tone there. 
 
 The island everywhere presents the appearance of a long 
 straggling reach of bluffs and headlands connected with bars 
 and lowland spits, at a small distance resembling half a dozen 
 distinct islands, when seen from the ship. 
 
 The pebble-bar formed by the sea between Cape Upright and 
 Waterfall Heads is covered with a deep stratum of glacial drift 
 carried down from the slopes of Polar and Cub Hills, and ex- 
 tending over two miles of this water-front to the westward, 
 where it is met by a similar washing from that quarter. Back 
 and in the center of this neck are several small fresh lakes and 
 lagoons without fish, but emptying into them are a number of 
 clear, lively brooks in which are brook-trout of large size and 
 fine quality. A luxuriant growth of deep moss and grass inter- 
 spersed exists on the lowest ground, and occasionally strange 
 dome-like piles of peat lifted lour or five feet above the marshy 
 swale appear like abandoned huts, with a great variety of pretty 
 flowers, growing thickly everywhere on these places. 
 
 As these lowlands rise on to the flanks of the hills th-e vegeta- 
 tion changes rapidly to a simple coat of cryptogamic gray and 
 light russet, with a slippery slide for the foot wherever ascent
 
 216 ALASKA. 
 
 of a steep pluce is made, ^vater oozing aud trickling almost 
 everywhere underneath. The swales frequently rise high, aud 
 cross the hill-suiumits aud ridges without auy iuterruptiou in 
 their wet swampy character from valley to valley. 
 
 Here, ou the highest summits, where uo moss ever grows and 
 nothing but a flue porphyritic shingle slides and rattles under 
 tread, are bear-roads leading from nest to nest, or lairs, which 
 they have scooped out ou the liill-sides and where the she-bears 
 undoubtedly bring forth their young, but it is not plain where 
 these bears, which are all around us by hundreds, spend their 
 winters. I am inclined to believe that they do not stay on the 
 island ; but as soon as the floes come down from the north, driv- 
 ing off the seal and walrus, they leave the island and take to 
 this ice, keeping by the vrater's edge, where their prey will be 
 found, and returning as soon as the season opens. Xow 
 as we see them they are all eating grass and roots, digging or 
 browsing, or else heavily sleeping on the hill-sides. Their man- 
 ner of browsing is very similar to the action of a hog engaged 
 in grazing. 
 
 The action of ice in rounding down aud grinding hills, carry- 
 iug the soil and debris off into depressions and valle.ys, is most 
 beautifully exhibited here. The hills at the northern foot of 
 Sugarloaf Cone are bare and literally polished by ice-sheets aud 
 slides of melting snow; the rocks and soil from the summits and 
 slopes are carried down and dumped, as it were, in numberless 
 little heaps at the base. ISTowhere can the work of ice be seen 
 to better advantage than here, especially so with regard to the 
 chiseling power of frost on the faces of the porphyry cliffs. 
 The flora here is more extensive than on the Seal Islands, 201) 
 miles to the southward, but the species of grass are not near 
 so varied ; indeed, there is very little grass-land here. Wher- 
 ever there is soil it seems to be converted by the abundant 
 moisture into a swale or swamp, over which we traveled as on 
 a quaking water-bed ; but on the rounded hill-tops and ridge- 
 summits the smooth shingle makes good walking. The high 
 land everywhere here is paved with this flue shiugle, that has 
 been created by the disintegrating power of frost, which evi- 
 dently has an annual iron grip ou the island. 
 
 The west end of the island differs materially from the east; 
 the fantastic weathering of the rocks at Cathedral Point, Hall's 
 Island, strikes the eye of the most casual observer as the shii) 
 enters the straits going south. This eastern wall of the point
 
 ALASKA. 217 
 
 looms up from the water like a row of vast cedar-truiiks: the 
 scaling off of the basaltic porphyry aud growth of yellowish- 
 greeu aud red mossy lichens made the effect most real, while 
 a deuse bank of fog lying just overhead seemed to shut out 
 from our vision the foliage and branches that belonged above. 
 The north cape of Hall's Island changes like a chameleon when 
 approached, presenting with every mile's distance a new and 
 characteristic feature. 
 
 At our anchorage in the straits (20 fathoms) we caught a good 
 supply of cod and halibut of fair quality. Great flocks of 
 murres (L. arra) came off from the cliffs, where they were breed- 
 ing, and settled in the water around the ship, as we had 
 anchored on a feeding-ground. Many walrus appeared around 
 the " Eeliance," amusing us greatly by the stupid alertness dis- 
 played when they rose head aud shoulders out of the water and 
 discovered us; a short look and a snort, then, stern foremost, 
 they dropped into the sea out of sight, as though a trapdoor 
 had been suddenly sprung beneath them. 
 
 The grass on Hall's Island, like Saint Matthew's, is confined 
 mostly to' the swale, which runs from the valleys up to the very 
 highest ridges; patches of deep, rich green contrasting quite 
 pleasantly with the dull russet and ocher which covers every- 
 thing else. 
 
 Our visit at the west end of this island of Saint Matthew's was 
 most interesting ; the rich, elegant coloring of the rocks and 
 fantastic arrangement of the basalt and porphyry at Statue 
 Point caused an old sailor in our boat to cry out, " That reminds 
 me of Coustiintinople, a regular Turk's house!" aud it certainly 
 did resemble Ottoman architecture. 
 
 AYe found the ruius of the huts built by a party of five Eas- 
 sians aud seven Aleuts who passed the winter of ISIO- 11 on 
 the island, but were stricken down with scurvy, so that all the 
 Russians died save one; the rest recovered and left the follow- 
 ing year. 
 
 The result of a careful examination of this island shows con- 
 clusively that the character of the gravel spits and necks is 
 such as not to be fit for the reception of breeding-seals, as it 
 would be speedily converted by a rookery into a sheet of mud 
 and slime, and there is no other landing afforded save at the 
 base of cliffs rising abruptly from the sea. Seals also, if landing 
 here, would, independent of bear warfare, find a climatic disad- 
 vantage, for snow and ice do nOc leave the landings until late
 
 218 ALASKA, 
 
 in June ; this was evident, althou;^li we bad an exceptionally 
 mild winter, for on Augnst 12, patches of ice and snow were 
 on the beaches, and a considerable quantity on the hill-slopes, 
 without any regard to the sun's position. 
 
 Vegetation on the island is varied and abundant where it is 
 able to grow, but the greater part of the country is either a 
 fine porphyry shingle or cold wet swale, so that grasses do not 
 thrive as they do on the Seal Islands; the small annuals and 
 perennials, however, are scattered in great variety, and where 
 the sand has been cast up at the barrabkie beach, west end, 
 it has mixed in with the drift-soil, and warmed it so that the 
 wild wheat {Elyjuus) was growing thick, with ears which gave 
 promise of ripening. Mosses and lichens are especially abun- 
 dant, the " tripe de roche^- covering the high rounded summits 
 with its dark-brown tinge. The only berries, Empetrum nigrum 
 and liuhus cJiamamorns, were very common. The high summit 
 slopes of Glacial Head, 1,670 feet, were fairly spangled with 
 beantiful flowers, blue, red, white, and yellow. Three varieties 
 of the creeping willow [Salix) grow here in great profusion, 
 large masses of the leaves being collected in hollows, upon 
 which bears have made very comfortable beds; several of the 
 higher hills, contrary to the general rule, are well covered with 
 grass and flowering plants, such as the south slope of Upright 
 Eidge, 1,560 feet, all of Camp Hill, north slope of Pyramid 
 Eidge, &c. 
 
 ; I^owhere on the island can a well-defined crater-summit or cra- 
 ter be found, unless the smoking cleft in the ridge of Pinnacled 
 Eock will answer to that description ; but this island is inaccessi- 
 ble, rising sheer and abrupt from the sea to a height of at least 
 1,200 feet. Its greatest width is not over 500 feet, and it ap- 
 pears to be made of reddish lava. Its sharply-serrated ridge 
 looms up from the southeast like a great brick cathedral in the 
 hazy glow of the morning sun ; upon its steep sides myriads of 
 water-fowl breed, principally murres, {L. arra.) From the sum- 
 mit of Sugarloaf Cone, 1,520 feet, we can look upon its great- 
 est latitude, and view what appears to be a blackened crater 
 or smoky fissure between the two walls ; one or two small rocks 
 convoy it, but the water is bold all around, as well as at Saint 
 Matthew's, which can be approached with great safety from all 
 sides ; thene is, however, no harbor, but the roadsteads are 
 good. 
 
 Polar bears breed here, and live chiefly during the summer
 
 ALASKA. 219 
 
 npou roots, grasses, &c., eggs, birds, aucl an occasional walrus 
 or bair-seal. Ou Hall's Island a small walrus was discovered 
 where the bears bad eaten out the entire animal, leaving the 
 skin intact, tough and thick, untouched from the head down to 
 the posteriors, where it was broken in to get at the flesh; it 
 lay just like a bag, bones and all taken out, even to the head^ 
 and polished. 
 
 Xo less than sixteen of these big beasts were seen at once 
 (tea upon the beach together) as the ship's boat approached 
 the water-fall ou Hall's Island. Of course, it is impossible to 
 say how mauj^ " medvaidie" there are on Saint Matthew's, 
 but it is safe to assert that there cannot be less than a hundred 
 and fifty to two hundred; but they must go off on the ice during 
 winter and early spring. 
 
 I do not think a full-grown polar bear, powerful as it is, can 
 successfully capture a mature walrus; the thick skull and hide, 
 immensely tough, of the latter would resist any sudden attack 
 from the former, and, the alarm once given to the walrus, the 
 bear could not prevent the clumsy but strong animal from 
 floundering into the water and safety. The bears, however, 
 can and do swim in between a young walrus and the water and 
 secure it. 
 
 We shot some fifteen or twenty bears, all that we could use 
 or care for, relishing the meat very much, it being fully as good 
 and tender as the generality of beef. The bears were easily 
 killed, never showing fight in any instance. They were in most 
 excellent condition, fat and sleek. If caught napping or asleep, 
 they were easily approached, as the hunter could get within a 
 few yards before alarming them ; but if they got wind of us, 
 they would turn and shamble off with considerable speed, 
 taking to the hills at once. 
 
 When surprised, the bear would arise and face us for a few 
 moments, and sniff' and snort, making no other sound ; but in 
 its death-agonies after shooting it was silent. 
 
 I searched everywhere for its bones, skulls, &:c., which should 
 be found, it seemed to me, bleaching on the hill-sides and in 
 the valleys, but, with the exception of one very old, battered 
 head, and a small one, nothing was seen ou the island of this 
 character. At this season (August 9) the she-bears and their 
 cubs were by themselves, (they usually have two cubs,) and the 
 young he-bears going about in squads of twos, threes, and 
 fours, the old males sleeping and feeding apart.
 
 220 ALASKA. 
 
 The^- sleep soundly, but litfnlly, rolling their heavy arms and 
 legs about ; for naps they prefer little grassy depressions on the 
 bill-sides and along the numerous small water-courses; and the 
 paths they made were broad and well-beaten all over the island. 
 
 These bears, when full grown, are exceedingly muscular and 
 very strong. One shot by Lieutenant Maynard measured eight 
 feet from tip of nose to tail, and could not have weighed less 
 than a thousand or twelve hundred pounds; it had a girth of 
 24 inches around the muscles of the fore-arm, when the skin 
 was removed, just back of the carpal joint, corresponding to 
 our wrist ; it was fat, and had scars upon its head, which were 
 evidently received in fighting with its kind, yo worms were 
 found in the intestines or stomach; the liver was speckled 
 with light grayish-green dots and patches. 
 
 Note. — Lieutenant Maynard ami myself surveyed this island, and made 
 a careful chart of it ; Captain Baker gave us soundings, which accompany 
 the map. The only existing chart is a Russian one, and very inaccurate. — 
 H. W. L. 
 
 SAIXT LAWEEXCE ISLAXD. 
 
 This is the largest island in Bering Sea, and lies directly 
 south from Bering's Straits about 180 miles; it is about SO to 
 ■85 miles in length, with an average width of 15 to 20. The sea 
 has built on to it most extensively, in the same manner as on 
 the island of Saint Paul, but it is quite dissimilar in form and 
 climate. 
 
 We made our first landing on this island early in the morning 
 of August 18, near Kagallegak, or opposite Poonook Islets, 
 and a baidar with a number of the natives, Mahlemute Eskimo, 
 came off to us as soon as we dropped our anchor. 
 
 We found the island, at this landing, to be made up of coarse 
 feldspathic red granite flats and hills, with extensive lagoons 
 and lakes. The skeleton of the island seems to be of these low 
 granitic hill-ranges, and between them stretch long, low, even 
 reaches of sand-beach for miles and miles. At Kagallegak the 
 eye sweeps over extensive, level plains to the northward, upon 
 which the green Eriophorum anousUfolium principally grows, 
 the ground, or "tundra,'" being wet and boggy; while, on the 
 sand-beach reaches, the "wild wheat" [Elymiis moJlis) grows 
 abundantly, short and stunted.
 
 ALASKA. 221 
 
 These great level, low areas, so peculiar to this island, are 
 made up of tine grauitic drift, lined at the sea-margin with saud j 
 the hills and hill-ranges are rich in color, with deep blue-black 
 patches caused by protrusions of trap; but no shrubbery what- 
 ever grows on those at the east end and north end of the island, 
 save the creeping salix, dwarfed and stunted — cryptogamic 
 plants chiefly. The main body of the range is composed of 
 reddish, coarse and fine grained feldspathic granite, with abun- 
 dant trap protrusions, which weather out and fiill down upon 
 the flanks of the ridges in dark patches and streaks, contrast- 
 ing, at a distance of eight or ten miles, very sharply with the 
 main ground of pinkish rock, moss-grown, and colored here and 
 there with the greenish-russet tinge peculiar to such vegeta- 
 tion; this dark marking of the trap, at a little distance, appears 
 like low-growing shrubbery. Snow and ice lay in the gullies 
 and on the hill-sides. 
 
 The low plains have the russet yellowish green peculiar to 
 the tundra of the north; the sand is a bright light brown. 
 Small streatjis flow down from the hills and empty int9 the sea 
 and lakes, in which we found a few^^rnv- or young salmon; the 
 lakes and lagoons are fairly stocked with a white-fish — nothing 
 else of this kind. ( 
 
 The entire expanse of the lowlands over which we traveled 
 was like a great sponge filled and overrunning with water, the 
 chief vegetation upon it being the beautiful tufted or plumed 
 grass, [Efiophorum,) bearing exquisite tassels of white, silken 
 floss; this grass, in conjunction with several cryptogams, a few 
 scattered Buhus cliamcemonis and Empetrum, make up the rich 
 russet-green, flecked with gray-green spots, which mark these 
 great marshy tracts in the Alaskan country. There are many 
 places where this vegetation, during ages past,' has decayed and 
 formed bog-holes or pools, into which the pedestrian will mire 
 down to his waist at a single step. 
 
 A small succinea, or land-snail, was very abundant on these 
 flats, near our lauding at Northeast Point, and all along the 
 shore-line we saw an abundance of driftwood, logs, and pieces, 
 most of it pine or spruce, a few poplar sticks, and a number of 
 unrecognizable twisted knots. 
 
 Very little algce, or sea-weed, or any marine life whatever, was 
 evident from the surf-castings; only a few mussels and small 
 conch-shells, {Fusus.) The beach is made up, in some places
 
 222 ALASKA. 
 
 for lonj;- distances, of granite pebbles and bowlders, scattered 
 with some trap. 
 
 At Northeast Poiut the natives have quite a wood-ciittiug 
 camp, hewiug- and carving, and the chips are scattered all aloug 
 the beach-levels for miles ; there are places here where the ice, 
 in some unusual season, has carried large logs and pieces of 
 drift-wood back full half a mile from the sea ; and there they 
 lie to-day deeply imbedded in the swale, settling and decay- 
 ing. The ice-jams which have taken place to effect this must 
 have been very severe. 
 
 The southwest point of Saint Lawrence is largely made up of 
 trap and porphyry, slate, &c. ; the water very bold and deep. 
 
 The natives on the island cannot be much over three or four 
 hundred in number, and are living in five settlements, about 
 equidistant, around the coast. They are well formed and 
 hearty, genial and good-natured. They are of Mongolian cast 
 and build, strongly resembling Chinamen, only that nearly all 
 the men shave the occipital portion of the head instead of the 
 frontal, as practiced by the Celestials ; the women, however, do 
 not shave their heads, and do their hair up in two braids hang- 
 ing down behind, tied up with beads, &c. 
 
 They met us in an unaffected, free manner, showing no fear 
 or hesitation, and, coming upon deck, commenced a vociferous 
 cry for tobacco, and that alone; yet they were civil and curious; 
 three or four women usually came in each baidar with them, 
 paddling like the men ; the boats, about 14 feet long with 4 feet 
 of beam, consisted of a frame, very neatly lashed together, of 
 pine, with whalebone fastenings, over which walras-hide was 
 stretched; they propelled it with paddles and oars, which were 
 also well made. 
 
 They live in summer-houses made of walrus-hides, weighted 
 down by logs and stones so as not to be blown away ; and close 
 by are the winter-houses, which are under ground, with a tun- 
 nel entrance. 
 
 The food of these people is whales' blubber, cut in large 
 chunks, of the strongest, rancid odor; mullets from the fresh- 
 water lakes, and caught in nets of walrus-thongs; murres. small 
 waders, walrus and hair-seal meat, varied by geese and ducks. 
 They had no iron cooking-utensils; all wood, and made by them- 
 selves, using hot stones for boiling waiter. Seal and whale oil 
 they had cached both above and under grouud ; they preserve 
 all fish and bird offal and devour it raw, saving the skins of the
 
 ALASKA. 223 
 
 latter, which they make up into " parkies" or sacks for clothing ; 
 this is, however, a poor garment when made of bird-skins; it 
 is always giving way at the seams, feathers flying, &:e. ; the 
 skin is usually turned outside and the feathers worn next to the 
 body. Furs are nearly all worn in this way; and the garments 
 worn were principally made of reindeer-skins, procured from 
 the Asiatics in exchange for wood and ivory and tanned hair- 
 seal. 
 
 They were poor, and had nothing for trade but clothing 
 made from the intestines of the walrus, walrus-teeth, and some 
 whalebone; but they had an ample supply of food, such as it 
 was, and their desire that we should taste of it was almost equal 
 to our determination not to do so. 
 
 They were exceedingly anxious to trade, and I noticed that 
 the women seemed to have equal rank with the men, doing 
 more than half the talking, and barter solicitation ; they seemed 
 to be warmly attached to one another. The females all had their 
 fiices curiously tattooed iu pale-blue lines on the cheeks and 
 chin, and the arms. 
 
 They had a few dogs, very large, with long, shaggy hair, 
 pointed ears, and short, bear-like tails ; they were of a mild 
 and inoffensive disposition, and were highly valued by their 
 owners. 
 
 They took us to a place where they had six polar-bear skulls 
 placed on the sand, side by side, with a post at the head, which 
 they gave us to understand we could not touch ; for I wanted 
 to carry off one of the bear-skulls, which was 17 inches long 
 and measured 10 across the zygomatic arch ; it was undoubt- 
 edly a grave where some one of their number had perished by 
 the agency indicated by the skulls. Bears, however, rarely 
 visit this island, and foxes are the only land-animals. 
 
 The natives were supplied with coarse, smooth-bore muskets, 
 which, I thought, they seldom used. All the birds, such as 
 murres and geese or ducks, are caught in large nets stretched 
 over the brows of cliffs, or across the lagoons. These nets are 
 very neatly made of walrus-hide. 
 
 No animals were seen by us in the water about the island 
 save an occasional hair-seal thrusting its head out from the 
 sea. A few cod-fish were caught, aud when the natives came 
 aboard, on the 18th, the cods' heads and intestines lying in 
 the ship's scuppers, where the cook had been cleaning the
 
 224 ALASKA. 
 
 fish, were eagerly picked up and carried off by the Eskimo iu 
 great glee, as if regarded as a prize. 
 
 Bird-life was not so extensive as at Saint Matthew's, the 
 murres {Lomvia ami) predominating on the sea-front, while in 
 the lagoons were several large flocks of the emperor- goose (C. 
 canagica.) Tringa crassirostis, so common on the Seal Islands 
 and on Saint Matthew's, was not seen here. A stone-chat {S. 
 cenanthe) was observed, as also Budytes flava. The small Asiatic 
 tern, in large numbers, hovered over the lagoons. The turn- 
 stones here [8. interpres) have a much blacker, duller tone than 
 the variety on the Seal Islands. 
 
 Our observations here would make Saint Lawrence of the 
 same formation as the mainland on either side of the straits, 
 and just as old, but the islands of Saint Matthew's and the 
 Prybilov group, as much more recent, and belonging to a differ- 
 ent epoch. Saint Lawrence is ice-bound and snow-covered too 
 large a portion of the year ever to become a fit place for the 
 fur-seal to breed ; and it may be safely said that no land of 
 ours in the north is adapted to the wants of that animal ex- 
 cept that of Saint Paul and Saint George.
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 225 
 
 STATISTICS AS TO THE NATIVES. 
 
 List of natives living on the Aleutian Islands in 1833-'34, taken from Bishop 
 
 Veniaminov's " Zapieska, etc." 
 
 
 Xarae of eettleraent. 
 
 Kiimber of 
 natives. 
 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 !« 
 
 o 
 6 
 "A 
 
 27 
 2 
 5 
 3 
 6 
 8 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 Is 
 
 i 
 
 15 
 2 
 4 
 3 
 
 5 
 9 
 10 
 2 
 6 
 
 from 
 1 settle- 
 Jista. 
 
 Island. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 B 
 
 Distance 
 mcnt, v( 
 
 OuDalasbka 
 
 Gjivanslioi ,... 
 
 90 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 18 
 20 
 C 
 21 
 
 106 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 20 
 23 
 24 
 
 8 
 20 
 
 196 
 15 
 37 
 15 
 35 
 41 
 44 
 14 
 41 
 
 
 0Natt^ekeDskoi 
 
 12 
 
 
 Pa ystraA'skoi 
 
 20 
 
 
 <j) VaVsaylovskoi 
 
 40 
 
 
 Makoosbenskoi 
 
 90 
 
 
 Kosbe^enskoi 
 
 140 
 
 
 Cberuovskoi 
 
 170 
 
 
 <f)Kablechtenskoi 
 
 20 
 
 
 <|)Bobrovskoi 
 
 12 40 
 
 
 Total 9 settlements 
 
 
 
 214 
 
 256 
 
 470 
 
 65 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 Eycliesnoi 
 
 
 OoTiinalc . ... 
 
 38 
 11 
 
 45 
 15 
 
 83 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 6 
 
 300 
 
 
 Tooleekskoi 
 
 200 
 
 
 Total 2 settlements 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 60 
 
 109 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Arta ylnovskoi 
 
 
 
 16 
 19 
 
 T 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 9 
 
 32 
 37 
 16 
 
 7 
 5 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 120 
 
 
 <|)Ra vchevsnoi 
 
 100 
 
 
 0!SavraidiieLi3koi 
 
 150 
 
 
 Total 3 settlements 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 43 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 Saydankooskoi 
 
 
 
 17 
 10 
 24 
 6 
 38 
 38 
 
 27 
 13 
 25 
 7 
 59 
 53 
 
 44 
 23 
 49 
 13 
 91 
 91 
 
 6 
 3 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 7 
 4 
 9 
 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 
 0Oonalgenskol 
 
 25 
 
 
 Avatanakskoi 
 
 150 
 
 A kootau 
 
 Akootanskoi 
 
 90 
 
 Tecalila 
 
 Tccfiraldenskoi 
 
 375 
 
 (Jnemak - . 
 
 (^Sheeshaldenskoi 
 
 375 
 
 
 Total 6 settlements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0Morzai\'skoi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peninsula Alaska, 
 
 16 
 49 
 28 
 
 29 
 53 
 31 
 
 45 
 
 102 
 
 59 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 460 
 
 
 Bellkovskoi 
 
 525 
 
 
 
 585 
 
 
 Total 3 settlements 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 113 
 
 206 
 
 25 
 13 
 
 31 
 15 
 
 
 
 Ooncenskoi 
 
 Saint Paul and Saint George 
 
 
 Oonira 
 
 52 
 
 88 
 10 
 
 64 
 94 
 18 
 
 116 
 
 183 
 38 
 
 650 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Making a ffrand total of 26 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 078 
 
 806 
 
 1,484 
 
 157 
 
 182 
 
 
 
 
 
 XOTE. — Tbe mark <^ is prefixed to all stations not existing at the present writing, Sep- 
 tember, 1874. 
 
 15 AL
 
 226' 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 Shiefinekov^s record y Septemb 
 
 tr 2, 187^ 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Place, 
 
 Creoles. 
 
 Aleuts. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Men. 
 
 "VTomen. 
 
 Oniinl;islikjl - ............. ................ 
 
 
 
 
 
 *23 
 
 Do 
 
 71 
 11 
 
 73 
 13 
 
 130 
 9 
 
 31 
 32 
 52 
 52 
 51 
 19 
 21 
 62 
 92 
 5 
 51 
 
 105 
 16 
 43 
 . 35 
 60 
 58 
 42 
 22 
 23 
 .52 
 
 106 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 402 
 
 "Mfilcooshiu . ................................. 
 
 49 
 
 
 74 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 70 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 119 
 
 
 110 
 
 \k()ot.'iii . ............... ...... 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 Aviit.'iiiolv . . ..................... 1 ..... . 
 
 41 
 
 1'c(*'^'"ul(l;i . . ....... ...1- . 
 
 
 44 
 
 Protrilisavftkoi .--. 
 
 14 
 17 
 4 
 24 
 16 
 
 12 
 33 
 
 5 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 140 
 
 Bolllcovskie 
 
 243 
 
 VoziKieshenskoi 
 
 22 
 
 1G2 
 
 
 25 
 
 Atka, 1872: 
 
 ^'ofUolict'skcji ............ 
 
 48 
 39 
 71 
 
 48 
 39 
 59 
 
 96 
 
 Is'uzmi . ............. 
 
 22 
 15 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 131 
 
 
 tlOo 
 
 
 
 * Cliurdi--ivorkers, «S:c. 
 
 t Tbirty-ljve souls iiidepondcut of this number went to Copper Island in 167 
 three came to Ouualashka also. 
 
 twenty- 
 
 " 111 1848 there were some 1,400 souls on the Alentiau Islands 
 west of the Peninsula ; the smallpox then broke out, and over 
 500 died that season, leaving some 900, about which number 
 still remain. In those days these people were very poor com- 
 pared with their i)resent condition ; they had but little money, 
 very little tea, bread, and sugar, and very few clothes." — Father 
 IShiesnclov, OunaJasJtla, September 2, 1874.* 
 
 The following table shows the population of Eussian America 
 in 1834, as given by Bishop Veniaminov : + 
 
 * This priest, who is a very intelligent and unassuming man, gave Lieu- 
 tenant Mnynard and myself a long and exceedingly interesting account of 
 the manner in which the Aleuuts were living under Russian rule, in order 
 that we might have a basis for comparison of the present, as we .saw it, with 
 that of the past. The testimony of this gentleman I regard as of the great- 
 est value, for he knows more of the subject than any other man living who 
 can be found, as his whole life has been passed in this country, and his char- 
 acter as a prelate and a gentleman is highly respected by all who know him. 
 
 t Veniaminov appears to have been the only Russian who, dniing the whole 
 occupation of Alaska by that people, has given to the world anything like a 
 history of the country or a sketch of its inhabitant.s, that has ability or 
 the merit of truth. He is at present living, and ranks second to the Em- 
 peror in the Russian Empire, being the primate of the national church. Ho 
 must have been a man of lino personal bearing, judging from the descrip- 
 tion given of him by Sir Gcoi'ge Simpson, who met him at Sitka in IS^^ : 
 '' His appearance, to which I have already alluded, impresses a stranger with 
 something of awe, while, on further intercourse, the gentleness which char- 
 acterizes his every word and deed insensibly molds reverence into love; and
 
 ALASKA. 227 
 
 Kolcsliiiois 5, 000 
 
 Copper liiver ^ 300 
 
 Clioogach ic 471 
 
 Peninsula 1 , 000 
 
 Kodials — 1, 508 
 
 KosKoqnim 7, 000 
 
 Yukon liiver not known 
 
 Kussiaus , 70G 
 
 Oogahlensic, (Mount Saint Elias, near) 150 
 
 Kolchans, (interior) not known 
 
 Kcnai - 1, G2S 
 
 Aglahmutes 402 
 
 Ou)ialashl-a Aleuts 1, 497 
 
 Atlca Aleuts 750 
 
 Mahlenmtes, &c . . , not known 
 
 Creoles 1, 295 
 
 Total actually known 22, 800 
 
 Estimate of the rest' 17, 000 
 
 Making- a total, for the Territory, of some 40, 000 
 
 Tlie following is a list of the different tribes of Indians living 
 between Prince of Wales Island and Yalikutat, or Bering's 
 Bay, Alaska, in 1837-'3S, (from Veniaminov, part III :) 
 
 " The numbers of these people (Indians) living in Eussian 
 . America between Prince of "Wales and Bering's Bay in 1835 
 was 10,000, but now (1838) not much over 6,000. The settle- 
 ments, and people in them, number as follows: 
 
 Souls. 
 
 Yahkutatskie, (Bering's Bay) 150 
 
 Abkvaystkie, (Lituya Bay) 200 
 
 Laydanoprodevskie - -50 
 
 Chelkatskie (Chilcats) , ^ 200 
 
 Ahkootskie v 100 
 
 Seethenskie, (iSitka) 750 
 
 Kootsuovskie, (Hootsino) ^^^0 
 
 Kaykovskie, (Cakes) -00 
 
 Koonjeskie ^ «>0 
 
 Gaynoovskie 300 
 
 at the same time his taleuts and attainments are such as to bo worthy of 
 his exalted station. With all this, the bishop is sullieiently a man of the 
 world to disdain anything like cant. His conversation, on the contrary, 
 teems with amusement and instruction, and his company is much prized by 
 all who have the honor of his acquaiutauce."
 
 228 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 Souls. 
 
 Stobenskie, (Stickeen) 1, 500 
 
 Taugasskie, (ToDgass) 150 
 
 Kahcganskie, (PriDce of Wales Island) 1, 200 
 
 Chasenskie . , 150 
 
 Soanabiiskie 100 
 
 Total 5, 850 
 
 "A cciint equal to this may he made ou tbe Xasse, Skeeiia, 
 &c., a country now under tbe control of the Euglisb, including 
 Queen Charlotte's Island at 8,000, makes tbe number of all the 
 Koloshes (Indians) living in this country at this time (1838) 
 25,000, and not less than 20,000." 
 
 Table shoniiig the entire numher of Christians* in the Territori/ of Alaska in 1863, 
 
 ( Techmainov, p. 264.) 
 
 !Xame of people. 
 
 Eusi«ians 
 
 Creoles 
 
 Aleuts, (Ouiialashka, Kodiak, and Atka) 
 
 Kenai 
 
 Choogach 
 
 Ooplamutes 
 
 Copper Ki ver 
 
 Magmutes 
 
 Aglemutes 
 
 Aziagmiites 
 
 Koskoqnims 
 
 K vichp^ks 
 
 Agloomutes 
 
 Inmleeks 
 
 Kolchana , 
 
 Koloshes 
 
 Koorilsov 
 
 Tongass . 
 
 Males. 
 
 Total 
 
 576 
 
 853 
 
 2,206 
 
 430 
 
 226 
 
 73 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 105 
 
 755 
 
 226 
 
 19 
 
 263 
 
 97 
 
 221 
 
 63 
 
 1 
 
 6,314 
 
 Females. 
 
 20& 
 
 823 
 
 2,185 
 
 507 
 
 230 
 
 75 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 101 
 
 C40 
 
 153 
 
 20 
 
 213 
 
 93 
 
 226 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 5,714 
 
 Total. • 
 
 784 
 
 1,676 
 
 4, 392 
 
 937 
 
 456 
 
 148 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 39 
 
 206 
 
 1,395 
 
 379 
 
 39 
 
 476 
 
 190 
 
 447 
 
 111 
 
 2 
 
 12, 018 
 
 * The term "Christian" here simply indicates the baptism of the Indians, with the 
 marked exception of the Aleuts. . For Instance, the 1,395 Koskoquims who permitted the 
 priests to baptize them, had then no more idea of the principles or practice of Christianity 
 than they have now; they received some trifling reward at the time, of tobacco, cloth, 
 &c., for submitting to the ceremony.
 
 ALASKA. 229 
 
 LETTER FItOM MK. DALL. 
 
 "\Yliile iu the Territory last season, I had the .satisfactiou 
 of nieetiug this geiitleiiiau, an employe of the United States 
 Coast Survey, aud we Lad occasion to excbauge views iu 
 regard to the condition of the people. The opinions of Mr. 
 Dall were, in some instances, so different from mine that I 
 asiied him to embody his conclusions in the form of a letter 
 in order that I might publish them, to show the contrast. This 
 he has done, aud I take pleasure in maliing known tbe views 
 of Mr. Dall, aud in appending a criticism based upon my 
 knowledge aud judgment. I may say at the outset tbat, while 
 I concede for the sake of argument that Mr. Dall " has seen 
 more of the country than any other individual," I am not willing 
 to grant the plain inference that he has studied that which he 
 has seen more intelligently or patiently than others, who may 
 have seen less, but still enough to form a correct opinion.* 
 
 OUNALASIIKA, ALASKA TERRITORY, 
 
 U. S. Coast Survey Schooner Yukon, 
 
 Awjnst 31, 1874. 
 
 Gentlemen : At the instance of Mr. Elliott, I have addressed 
 to you the present letter, intended to embody the conclusions 
 to which I have been led during a long residence iu this Terri- 
 tory, bearing on the subject of your inquiry. 
 
 For nearly ten years I have been constantly engaged either 
 in the study of the subject or in active investigation iu this re- 
 gion. Three winters and more than seven years of this period 
 I have been actually resident in the Territory, and the duties 
 assigned to me have carried me to nearly every point iu it 
 which is of any importance. I have consequently seen more of 
 the country than anj' other individual, and never having been 
 connected iu any way with any trading company, it may be 
 
 * In making my comments upon this letter, I do not -wish to appear in the 
 light of 'laying down the law' iu every case, for it is a qnestion well open 
 to argument as to the ettect of any attempt to educate these peojilc. A long 
 interview with General Eatou, Commissioner of Education, upon this sub- 
 ject pleased me very much, for I found that he had a (piite ditierent idea 
 from the plan now followed of schools on our Indian reservations; indeed, 
 it was almost identical with the views of the Russian bishop iu San Fran- 
 cisco, who has charge of the Greek Catliolic church in this Territory. Tbe 
 system of General Eatou will nudoubtedly be found in his report for this 
 year. " II. W. E.
 
 230 ^ ALASKA. 
 
 reasonably assumed tbat I have been in the position of an ini- 
 l)artial observer, and tbat my views on tlie subject are not 
 without a certain weight. 
 
 I will endeavor to state as succinctly as practicable the 
 present condition of the Aleutian people and its relation to 
 their past condition, the position which they hold in regard to 
 the traders, and what action seems to me desirable on the part 
 of the Government to protect its honor and their rights frjom 
 invasion. 
 
 Briefly, the past may be summed up in the statement that 
 the Aleuts were found by the early Eussian explorers a race 
 possessed of much intelligence, not without spirit, yet far less 
 warlike and aggressive than the Eskimo of Kodiak and else- 
 where, (who are usually confounded with the Aleuts,) and an 
 entirely different i)eople in character and disposition from the 
 Indians of the coast or the interior. They were reduced by 
 the most barbarous and inhuman treatment to less than 10 per 
 cent, of their original numbers, and were regarded as the slaves 
 of the traders. 
 
 The first reaction against this system took place in 1794, and 
 then and afterward in 1799, 1805, and especially 1818, the 
 Eussian government, recognizing its duty, interposed between 
 the Aleuts and the trading companies regulations intended to 
 curb the exactions of the latter and improve the condition of 
 the former. 
 
 In 1824, Father Inuocentius Yeniaminoff, a noble and 
 devoted missionary, now primate of the Greek Church, began 
 his labors among the Aleuts, and to him is due directly most 
 of their improvement, mental and moral, since the time men- 
 tioned. In 18G1 and 18G2 the report of Imperial Commissioner 
 Golovin was prepared and submitted, and the result showing 
 that the regulations of the government had been more or 
 less unsuccessful in checking the rapacity of the traders, their 
 charter was not renewed. (1) 
 
 In the Eussian plan, the Aleuts were in a condition of serf- 
 dom to the company which controlled the colonies. Yet the 
 coaipauy had its own obligations to fulfill toward them, and 
 when these were enforced, no Eussian, except the commander 
 of a trading-post, could strike a native ; the Aleuts were in- 
 sured a subsistence : the making of quass, a fermented liquor, 
 of which the basis is meal and sugar or molasses, was forbid- 
 den under heavy penalties, and intoxicating spirits were only
 
 ALASKA. 231 
 
 fiiruished to the natives when actually engaged in heavy 
 manual labor for the company, and then in very limited quan- 
 tities. Schools were obliged to be maintained by the company, 
 in which the priests were usually the teachers, and though 
 these were of rather a poor character, yet the children who 
 manifested more than usual abilitv were able to enter a higher 
 seminary at Sitka, and to obtain in this manner a tolerable 
 education, for which in return they were bound to the com- 
 ]»any's service at stated wages for a term of years. A number 
 of individualsthuseducated(2) participated with creditto them- 
 selves in the exploration of the Territory, and commanded ves- 
 sels belonging to the company, or otherwise hekl positigns of 
 responsibility. The entire race became christianized, their re- 
 ligion being of a low type it is true, but unmistakably earnest 
 and devoted. 
 
 So much for the past. Under this system of tutelage the 
 Aleuts lost almost entirely tlie feeling of Independence or the 
 capacity for independent action and self-guidance. 
 
 In describing their present condition, I mast premise that no 
 one who lias studied them at all has ever placed them in a light 
 which would class them with our wild and unruly Indian tribes, 
 and that the care and endeavors wasted on some of these should 
 not be taken as factors in forming a judgment of what is desir- 
 able or practicable to be done for the Aleuts. The latter are a 
 mild, intelligent, and docile people, always ready to submit to 
 authority, even if groundless or self-constituted. 
 
 1 have visited personally all the principal settlements in the 
 Pribiloff and Aleutian Islands, and with Ouualashka am especi- 
 ally familiar, having wintered here and been brought into tol' 
 erably close relations with the people during the last three 
 years. 
 
 The settlements can be assigned to four principal groups, ex- 
 cluding that of Attn, which I am informed is about to be aban- 
 doned. These are Atka, Ouualashka, Belkoffsky, and the Shu- 
 magiu Islands. There are a number of very small outlying set- 
 tlements, but all of them are closely contiguous to one or the 
 other of these principal places. 
 
 The people of Atka are more enterprising and intelligent in 
 hunting, and have been less demoralized by contact with 
 traders ; the converse is true of Belkoftsky and the Shuinagins ; 
 otherwise the uniformity of character and condition through- 
 out the Aleutian chain is remarkable. The people of the Pribi-
 
 232 ALASKA. 
 
 loff group have been under exceptional conditions for several 
 years. They have had schools, (after a fashion,) steady and 
 renumerative enii)loynient, a resident physician, and are able 
 to purchase provisions and other necessaries at a reasonable 
 price ; hence they cannot be compared with the others who 
 have had none of these advantages. That the former show the 
 good effects of their situation, it is hardly necessary to state. 
 
 The relations between these people and the traders, or, more 
 strictly, with the one trading company which has at present an 
 overwhelming predominance throughout the xVleutian region, 
 are peculiar, and require a word of explanation. 
 
 The Aleuts, except on the Pribilofl' Islands, gain a livelihood 
 by hunting the sea-otter and by fishing. None of the islands 
 afford any subsistence except that drawn from the sea. 
 
 To hunt or fish, in fact to live, the Aleut is totally depend- 
 ent on his skin-canoe. To make this canoe he must have hair- 
 seal or sea-lion skins. From various causes the sea-lions are 
 not now to be found, as formerly, within reach of the large set- 
 tlements, except on the Pribilofif Islands. This made no differ- 
 ence under the Eussian rule, as the sea-lion skins were taken 
 under the company's direction at the Pribiloff Islands, and were 
 then distributed to the various points wliere they were needed, 
 and were given to the Aleuts gratis. Xow, on the contrary, 
 they are obliged to buy them, and to buy them of the company, 
 who hold the lease of the Pribiloff Islands, except in very rare 
 cases. As the company's agents, in the natural course of busi- 
 ness, will sell these materials only to those natives who are 
 known to bring all their furs to the company's store for sale, it 
 follows that the lease of the fur-seal islands carries with it a 
 practical monopoly of all the fur-trade of the Aleutian nation, 
 that is to say, the sea-otter as well as the seal trade. (3) 
 
 Though questions may arise in the minds of those less famil- 
 iar with the subject than myself as to the necessity of this mo- 
 nopoly, it is suflicient to say that it is a fact, and, joined with 
 the very great profits of the seal-trade, gives such a weight to 
 a company possessing these advantages as to enable them to 
 kill out all opposition traders, or to reduce their business and 
 influence to a nullity. In point of fact, then, except in Belkoff- 
 sky and the Shumagins, where sea-lion are yet obtainable by 
 the natives without the intervention of the company, the latter 
 is in the possession of absolute and unchecked power over the 
 whole Aleut nation.
 
 ALASKA. 233 
 
 Before proceeding to discuss how this power Las been exer- 
 cised, it is necessary to call attention to certain characteristics 
 of the natives which your own observation will doubtless con- 
 firm. Like all races of a low degree of civilization, the attrac- 
 tion which intoxicating liquors, fermented or distilled, exercises 
 over them is not equaled by any other influence to whicli they 
 are subjected. The manufacture of quass, whicb they derived 
 from the Eussians, although prohibited by the regulations of 
 the Eussiau company, has become a universal practice, and, 
 joined to the absence of any elevating influences, such as 
 schools, or the supervision of agents deriving their authority 
 from the Government, is rapidly and surely degrading the 
 character and increasing the mortality of the Aleuts. NA'here- 
 ever opposition traders meet, they both connive at this 
 infamy, and in such places the deterioration of the 
 people is more marked and rapid. There are no grounds for 
 stating, nor is it my opinion, that the present company has 
 abused its positiou more than any other would do in the same 
 case ; this, however, is not the question at issue, but whether 
 it is consistent with the honor of the Government and with its 
 duty toward a people who occupy the position of wards of the 
 United States to leave them in a condition where the grossest 
 tyranny is possible, and where gradual degradation and re- 
 lapse into barbarism is certain. Let us examine for a moment 
 the condition of the Territory. There is absolutely no law, no 
 means of protection, no redress for injury for any citizen of the 
 United States even, to say nothing of natives.(4) A number of 
 murders among the whites have occurred during the past few 
 years. Only one man was ever apprehended, and I am in- 
 formed that he was discharged by the courts of Washington 
 Territory for want of jurisdiction. That acts of injustice and 
 oppression have occurred between the traders and the com- 
 pany I have abundant evidence, though such things are not 
 likely to occur in the presence of a United States ofticer. Sup- 
 pose some act of gross injustice should occur, in what way would 
 the unfortunate Aleut make his troubles known, if his long ex- 
 perience under the Russians, and disappointed hopes under the 
 various visits of United States officials, had not taught him 
 that the best way was to bear it in silence ? 
 
 If he desired to communicate with civilization, the only 
 mails are by the company's vessels, and I have positive evi- 
 dence that they do not always respect even the sanctity of offi-
 
 23'4 ALASKA. 
 
 cial communicatioDS intrusted to their agect for transinis- 
 siou.(5) 
 
 Does be desire to communicate with the cutter during her 
 annual visit, (if he is fortunate enough to live in Ounalashka 
 when she does come,) he knows that a year must elapse before 
 any result can be attained, and meanwhile he will be subjected 
 to ill-treatment from the agent of whom he has complained, 
 intensified by the knowledge that complaint has been niade.(O) 
 
 In old times each village had a tyone or chief elected by 
 suffrage, whose duty it was to be present at all trade, and arbi- 
 trate between the traders and the natives, and jirevent any 
 cheating of the latter by the former. I;?ow, the tyone is the 
 creature of the company, paid by them ; if there are opposition 
 traders there are two tyones, and it is evident how impartial 
 must be their arbitration, and what is the character of the pro- 
 tection they afford. 
 
 The Kussians left these people with their self-reliance en- 
 feebled, but their intelligence and morals elevated to some 
 extent above their original condition. We have done nothing- 
 to sustain them in this position, nor to cultivate their self-reli- 
 ance. 
 
 I think I may say that inquiries on your part in relation to 
 specific acts of oppression would be quite fruitless. Those na- 
 tives who may have suffered have long since learned by experi- 
 ence that complaints result in nothing unless in an aggravation 
 of the original difficulty, and the tyone paid by the company 
 can always bring forward evidence such as his employers may 
 desire. I must again repeat, that it is not a question of punish- 
 ing actual offenses, but of providing against the perpetration 
 of them ; and to await outrages so gross as to force their way 
 to our ears, before extending protection, is to wait till the stable 
 is empty before locking the door. 
 
 I do not blame the traders for doing little or nothing to ele- 
 vate or improve the natives.(7) It is not their business ; and, 
 even if they were willing to work against their own pecuniary 
 interest in this way, it still should not be left to them. 
 
 The description of men who gain their livelihood as fur- 
 traders are, with rare exceptions, unfit to be trusted with abso- 
 lute power over unresisting natives, notwithstanding the pos- 
 sible high character of the distant heads of the company who 
 employ them.
 
 ALASKA. 235 
 
 What tliou sLould be douo to regulate tbe actiou of the two 
 parties ? 
 
 It is with some hesitation that I ofit'er my opiuion on so grave 
 a question. One thiug I feel certain of: the manufacture of 
 quass should be put down, and no intoxicating liquor should 
 be allowed to enter the country on any pretext whatever. 
 
 I think it tbe duty of the Government to provide schools for 
 the younger people, who are growing up in ignorance, while 
 many of their parents can read and write in the EusSian lan- 
 guage. These schools should teach the rudiments of English 
 education, and should be free from any religious bias, as other- 
 wise they would tail. Attendance should be made comi)ulsory. 
 
 But it may be said that this would require many otlicials and 
 great expense to get at the separated communities. I think I 
 can show that this need not necessarily be the case. Suppose 
 that the laws governing the Indian reservations were extended 
 over the Aleutian region. A beginning could be made at the 
 four principal places I have named, or at one or more of them ; 
 and extended, or the plan modified, as experience would show 
 desirable. The few outlying smaller settlements could be 
 reached from these, if not at once, at least eventually. Let the 
 settlement be declared a reservation, and the resident oflicial 
 invested with the powers of an Indian agent, and supplemented 
 by a schoolmaster. Then the first would be in a position to 
 arbitrate between the natives and traders in disputed cases, 
 and to enforce justice on both sides.(S) 
 
 I have not arrived at that point where I should believe that 
 
 the Government habitually employs dishonest agents, though 
 
 long experience in Alaska might shake auj man's optimism. 
 
 At all events, it seems to me to be the duty of the Government 
 to act in the matter, if only to save its own honor. I think 
 
 there is a duty involved aside from economical considerations. 
 The citizens, if not the wards of the United States, are entitled 
 to the protection of the law, and it should be extended to them. 
 Whether the method which I have suggested is the best or not 
 is a question to be decided by others, but I cannot see how 
 there can be two opinions about the duty of extending the pro- 
 tection of the laws and an oi)portunity for education to these 
 and other civilized inhabitants of this Territory. 
 
 That these are now wanting no honest or sane man can deny. 
 
 It would be very desirable, also, that the headquarters of au- 
 thority in the Territory be transferred to Ounalashka. It is
 
 236 ALASKA. 
 
 the most important and central point; Out even Kodiak would 
 be better than Sitka, which has now no importance and hardly 
 any business.(9) 
 
 Apologizing for having trespassed on your attention with so 
 lengthy a communication, I will now close this letter with one 
 remark, which has no special connection with the foregoing, but 
 which I believe of some importance. This is, that it would be 
 very desirable that the officers of the United States em^jloyed 
 on the Pribiloft* Islands should be prohibited from receiving 
 pay from, or rendering services for pay to, the company whom 
 practically they are placed there to watch. That this has oc- 
 curred in several instances I am aware, and probably in some 
 cases without any improper intent on either side ; but it is ev- 
 ident at once that it oiDens a wide door for scandal, if not for 
 fraud.(lO) 
 
 I remain, with great respect, yours, very truly, 
 
 \YM. H. DixL, 
 Acting Assistant United States Coast-Survey, 
 
 In charge Hi/drographic Reconnaissance of Alaska. 
 Messrs. H. W. Elliott and 
 Washburn Maynaed, C. S. N., 
 
 United States Commissioners. 
 
 COMMENTS UPON THE FOREGOING LETTER. 
 
 (1) The fact the Russian American Company, at the close of its 
 third term of twenty years, in 18C2, was over two millions of sil- 
 ver rubles in debt may have had a great deal to do with the 
 failure in getting a renewal of its charter. A losing business is 
 not often persisted in a great while by either corporations or in- 
 dividuals. The extravagance and shiftlessness in the manage- 
 ment of affairs in Alaska by the officers of the Russian Ameri- 
 can Company, during the last twenty or thirty years of its exist- 
 ence, may alone have tended to the result. 
 
 (2) Here Mr. Dall, not directly perhaps, but plainly, gives us 
 to understand that a number of natives, Aleuts, were educated 
 in Russian schools, and ''participated with great credit to them- 
 selves in the exploration of the Territory, and commanded ves- 
 sels belonging to the company, or otherwise held positions of 
 responsibility.''' This is a mistake ; for these people, serving with 
 suchcredit, educated by the company in question, were not Aleuts, 
 hut Creoles, or half-breeds, and octoroons. There is no record of 
 Any service rendered the Russian company by the Aleuts, other
 
 ALASKA. 237 
 
 thau that of good, honest manual hibor, with the exception of 
 a certain Aleut named Oostigov, who at Sitka "was considered 
 a fair navigator." These people made good ordinary carpenters, 
 blacksmiths, coopers, locksmiths, and sailors^good enough for 
 the IJassian service — but such a grade of labor will not satisfy 
 our traders or captains; and there is, therefore, no demand for 
 such upon these i)eople, and there never will be, as long as the 
 country is under American control. AYe have in San Francisco 
 to-day too many idle workmen of all grades better thau the Aleuts 
 could be made, and when such labor is wanted in Alaska, these 
 men will be employed there. Eemoving the Eussian Company 
 from the country leaves no future employment whatever for the 
 Aleuts, in the capacity above mentioned, no matter what may be- 
 their educational advantages. 
 
 (3) That Mr. Dall can advance such an argument in regard 
 to the monopoly of the fur- trade of the Aleutian Islandsby the 
 control of the sea-lion skins of the Pry bilov Islands is very strange, 
 for the fact is, that any trader to-day who may deem the fur- 
 trade of that section worth the outlay necessary to fit up a small 
 schooner or sloop, and send it out every other season equipped 
 for sea lion hunting among the Aleutian Islands, ou the north side 
 of the Peninsula and those islands south of it, can secure skins 
 enough for the entire use of the whole Aleutian population ! An 
 annual outlay of only $2,500 is all that is necessary for an oppo- 
 sition trader at Ounalashka to place himself on the same foot- 
 ing, in this respect, with his present rival there. Whether the 
 fur-trade of that district is worth enough to warrant this small 
 expenditure or not is a matter for the traders themselves to 
 settle, not us, but the fact speaks for itself. Even if there were 
 no sea-lions except on the Prybilov Islands, (which is not true,) 
 the traders who take any interest in this section are perfectly in- 
 dependent of the Alaska Commercial Company, for there are 
 thousands upon thousands of walrus not four hundred miles 
 from Ounalashka, the skins of which can be made, with a little 
 morelabor, quite as valuable for covering the bidarkies or canoes 
 of the sea-otter hunters 5 if anything, they are more durable, 
 and these walrus can be obtained as easily as so many hogs or 
 
 sheep. 
 
 (4) In this paragraph I concur ; it is true. 
 
 (5) This is a case in which I think, or rather know, that Mr. 
 Dall casts an unworthy reflection upon the Alaska Commercial 
 Company without just ground. The facts are as follows : lu
 
 238 ALASKA. 
 
 tlie spring- of 1872 llie Alaska Commercial Company sent a man 
 from San Francisco, on trial, to serve as assistant agent at 
 Ounalaslika : be was found wanting, and in less tbau six mouths 
 from the time of his engagement he was. dismissed from its 
 service as unfit and incompetent. Mr. Dall had given a letter 
 to the j)erson in question, while that person was acting for the 
 company as assistant trader at Ounalashka, for transmission to 
 the i)ostmaster at San Francisco. This letter contained a small 
 sum of money, (a twenty-dollar greenback, I believe,) and never 
 reached its destination. I am, of course, not prepared to say 
 whether the man robbed the letter or not ; but I should acquit 
 the company of collusion in so contemptible a matter, even if 
 this man did do so. Then, again, 'Mv. Dall writes this letter with 
 the ship of an opposition trader laying over ten days at anchor 
 in the same harbor with us — no other vessels than those of the 
 company to carry the mails ! 
 
 (0) This is one of the reasons why 1 ask for a steam revenue- 
 vessel in this Territory: it is impossible for a sailingcutier to go 
 about from place to place, as she ought to do. 
 
 (7) In this case I think I have shown, in a foregoing chap- 
 ter, that, contrary to Mr. DalFs statement, it is to the direct 
 interest of traders to do all i)i their power to improve and elevate 
 the natives, and that the natives are to-day living, at Ounalashka 
 and elsewhere in the Aleutian district, in better condition than 
 they have ever lived before. 
 
 The traders, however, differ in their appreciation of this truth ; 
 but two very successful traders in the Territory, Capt. E. Hen- 
 nig and M. Mercier, have given me good reason for making 
 this statement — so emphatic : a trader who does the best by the 
 natives will be the better served by them. Father Shiesnekov 
 makes a deliberate statement which I print in this appendix 
 (page 226) that conflicts with Mr. Dall's decidedly-, and as this' 
 priest has spent over tweutj'-five mature years of active intelli- 
 g,eut labor among these people, his judgment is worth some- 
 thing, inasmuch as he " has seen more of the country than any 
 other individual," and no one can controvert the fact. 
 
 (8) This policy of Mr. Ball's, of declaring- four or five Indian 
 reservations in the Aleutian district, with an Indian agent and 
 schoolmaster in each, would, in my best judgment, amount to 
 nothing- but discord and mischief. What security can the Gov- 
 ernment have for the disinterestedness and honesty of its Indian 
 agents ? Arc such agents to tell the traders in the country
 
 ALASKA. 239 
 
 how much tbey shall pay the natives, or to advise the natives 
 how to meet the traders "! I iiterf'erence thus b^' the Govorninent 
 with the relationship of the traders to the natives will surely 
 he bad; i.e., if the natives are fleeced now, they will, with 
 an Indian agent arbitrating, be doubly fleeced. The poor 
 Aleuts are the gainers by having only one power, the traders, 
 to deal with, as at present, or they could not live as they do. 
 There is no middle ground here. If Alaska is an Indian reser- 
 vation, then there can be no white people there ; if not, then 
 Government cannot interfere with legitimate trade. 
 
 With regard to the schoolmasters, were the Government able 
 to select and send the most zealous and excellent of their class, 
 they would find in this Territory a barren field. Let the Greek 
 Catholic Church continue its work ; it is the only power that 
 can accomplish any good in the mental future of the Aleut. 
 
 (9) I think myself that Ounalashka is the best place, but 
 Kodiak is more central. 
 
 (10) I happened to be talking about this matter, in tiie 
 spring of 1872, with one of the persons, perhaps, of whom Mr. 
 Dall complains. It is, however, a very clear case, and the oidy 
 one that has occurred since the granting of the lease, and in no 
 way improper ; but " as it opens a wide door for scandal, if not 
 for fraud," I was assured by the company that the thing should 
 never again occur. The facts are these : During the sojourn of 
 one of the Government agents, stationed on the islands, this 
 gentleman took a deep interest in the language of the Aleuts, 
 being himself a linguist of fine accomplishment ; the agent of 
 the company conceived the idea of getting him to teach the 
 school, on account of his knowledge of the Russian, which the 
 schoolmaster employed did not possess, in the hope that the 
 school would be more attractive to the native children. During 
 the winter, therefore, the Government officer voluntarily taught 
 school, although the attendance was small, for reasons which I 
 have given in the body of my report. The oidy other instance 
 where anything of this kind had occurred was in the case of 
 this same gentleman, who had with great labor and pains com- 
 piled an English and Aleutian vocabulary, which was deemed 
 by the Alaska Commercial Company to be of value for the use 
 of their traders, and they purchased it for some 8100, 1 believe, 
 soon after the connection of this gentleman with the Seal 
 Islands was dissolved. But long before the date of Mr. Dall's 
 letter the company's agent informed me of this action on their
 
 240 ALASKA. 
 
 part, and, at the same time, auiioiinced tlieir determinatiou to 
 do so no more, in consequence of its liability to iiiisrepiesenta- 
 tiou. This Government as'ent left the Seal Islands in 1872, at 
 liis own request, on account of the isolation and distance from 
 his family, and has been in Washington, employed in the Treas- 
 ury Department, ever since. ]\Iost likely, in this matter Mr. 
 Dall refers to transactions that took place on the islands before 
 the granting of the lease, and of which I have no knowledge 
 other than that of hearsay ; but as to what has transpired on 
 these islands since the inauguration of the present state of 
 affairs, I am fully cognizant ; that which took place previous 
 to this is now of no importance. It was a disorderly medley 
 of civil and military authority, and, as near as I can learn, 
 reflects no special credit upon any of the officers concerned on 
 the part of the Government.
 
 ALASKA. 241 
 
 THE PlilBYLOV ISLANDS* 
 
 " Under the name of the Pryhilov Islands are known two small 
 islands lying in Bering Sea, between 50^ and 57° north lati- 
 tude and 168° and 170° west longitude. 
 
 " These islands were not known before the year 178G; mater 
 G. FrybUov, then in the service of a swan-hunting company, 
 first, in the Kussian name, found them, but at the same time he 
 was not the first discoverer, because, as before said, (Part I, 
 chap. 1,) on one of them (southwest side of Saint Paul) signs, 
 such as a pipe, brass knife handle, and traces of fire were 
 found, indicating that people had been there before, but not 
 long, as places were observed where the grass had been burned 
 and scorched. But if we can believe the Aleuts in what they 
 relate, the islands were known to them long before they were 
 visited by the Russians. They knew and called them '■ Ateeli'' 
 after having heard about them. 
 
 " Eegad-dah geek, a sou of an Oonimak chief by the name of 
 Ah-kak-nee-kak, was taken out to sea in a bidarkie by a storm, 
 the "wind blowing strong from the south. He could not get back 
 to the beach, nor could he make any other landing, and was 
 obliged to run before the wind three or four days, when he 
 brought up on Saint Paul's Island, north from the land which 
 he had been compelled to leave. Here he remained until autumn, 
 and became acquainted with the hunting of different animals. 
 Elegant weather one day setting in, lie saw the peaks of Ooni- 
 mak. He then resolved to put to sea, and return to receive the 
 thanks of his people there ; and, after three or four days of trav- 
 eling, he arrived at Oonimak, with many otter tails and snouts.t 
 
 " The islands were both at first without vegetation, with ex- 
 ception of Saint Paul's, where there was a small talneek creep- 
 ing along on the ground ; and on Saint George, if we believe 
 
 * Translated by the writer from Bishop luuoceut Veniaminov's work 
 " Zapieska ob Octrovali Ooualilasbkenskalio Otdayla. St. Petersburg, 1840. 
 (The only Enssiau treatise upon the subject found. The selections most per- 
 tinent to the subject are introduced alone in this translation.) H. W. E. 
 
 t Here Veniaminov says that he does feel inclined to believe this story, as 
 the peaks of Oonimak can be seen occasionally f"om Saint Paul's ! I have no 
 hesitation in saying that they were never observed by any mortal eye from 
 the Prybilov Group. The wide expanse of water between these points, and 
 the thick, foggy air of Bering Sea, especially so at the season mentioned iu 
 this story above, will always make the mountains of Oonimak invisible to. 
 the eye from Saint Paul's Island. A mirage is almost an impossibility; it 
 may have been much more probable if the date was a winter one.— II. W. E. 
 
 IG AL
 
 242 ALASKA. 
 
 the accounts of tbe lirst ones there to see, nothing grew, even 
 grass, except on the places where the carcasses of dead animals 
 rotted. In the course of time both islands were covered with 
 grass, a great part of it being of the sedge kind. On them are 
 two varieties of berries, &c., &c. 
 
 " The Aleuts serving the company here sustained the follow- 
 ing relations between themselves a"nd it, to wit : Each of them 
 worked without solicitation and at whatever was found, and to 
 which they were directed, or that which they understood; Pay- 
 ment for their toil was not established by the day or by the 
 year, but in general for each thing taken by them or standing 
 or put to their credit by the company ; for instance, especially, 
 the skins of animals, the teeth of walrus, barrels of oil, &c. 
 These sums, whatever they might be, were placed by the com- 
 pany to their credit, for all general hunting and working was 
 established or fixed for the whole year fairly. The Aleuts in 
 general received no specific wages, though they were not all 
 alike or equal, there being usually' three or four classes. 
 
 " In these classes, to the last or least, the sick and old work- 
 men were counted in, although they were only burdens, and 
 therefore they received the smaller shares, about 150 rubles, 
 and the other and better classes received from 220 to 250 rubles 
 a year. Those who were zealous were rewarded bv the com- 
 pany with 50 to 100 rubles. The wives of the Aleuts, who 
 worked only at the seal-hunting, received from 25 to 35 rubles.* 
 
 ^'Animals on the Frybilov Islands. — Foxes and mice. Some- 
 times the ice brings bears and red foxes. The bears were never 
 allowed to live since they could not be made useful ; and also 
 the red foxes, as they would only spoil the breed already exist- 
 ing, with regard to color of the fur. 
 
 "Fur-seals, sea-lions, hair-seals, and a few walrus are the only 
 animals that may be said to belong to the Prybilov Islands. 
 
 '• Birds. — The gulUemonts, (or arries ;) gulls ; pufiQns; crested, 
 horned, and white-breasted auks; snow-finches; geese, (two 
 kinds ;) a few kinds of Tringa ; sea-ducks, black and gray. Most 
 of these birds come here to lay, and with them jagers, hawks, 
 owls, and '• chikees,'' {higLaurus glaucus,)i\iid the albatross is fre- 
 quently to be seen around the beaches." 
 
 ^^Seaotfers became scarce generally in 1811, and in the next 
 thirty years extinct. 
 
 * Compare this annual payment made by the Russians with the cash set- 
 tlement made every year by the Alaska Commercial Company, the present 
 lessee of these islands, as presented in the chapter on the condition of affairs 
 on the seal islands. — H. W. E.
 
 ALASKA. 243 
 
 " The fur-seals ('sea-cats') astonish us by their great num- 
 bers, as they gradually come up on to their breeding-places, 
 notwithstanding harsh and foolish treatment of them, continued 
 almost half a century (until 1824) without mercy. 
 
 " In the first years, on Saint Paul's Island, from 50,000 to 
 00,000 were taken annually, and on Saint George from 40,000 
 to 50,000 every year. Such horrible killing was neither neces- 
 sary nor demanded. The skins were frequently taken without 
 any list or count. In 1803, 800,000 seal-skins had accumulated, 
 and it was impossible to make advantageous sale of so many 
 skins; for in this great number so many were spoiled that it 
 •became necessary to cut or throw into the sea 700,000 pelts! 
 If G. Eezanov (our minister to Japan) had not given this his 
 attention, and put himself between the animals and this foolish 
 management of them, it appears plainly to me that these crea- 
 tures would have long ago changed for the worse. 
 
 " Of the number of skius taken up to 1817, 1 have no knowl- 
 edge to rely upon, but from that time, and up to the present 
 writing, I have true aud reliable accounts, which I put in the 
 appendix to this volume. From these lists it will be seen that 
 still in 1820, on both islands, there were killed more than 50,000 
 seals, viz, on Saint Paul's, 39,700; and on Saint George, 10,250. 
 There were eye-witnesses to the reason for this diminution of 
 the seals, and it is only wonderful besides that they are still 
 existing, as they have been treated almost without mercy so 
 many years. The cows produce only one pup each every year. 
 They have known deadly enemies, aud also are still ex[)osed to 
 man^-foes unknown. From this killing of the seals they steadily 
 grew less, except on one occasion, which was on Saint George's 
 Island, where an opportunity was given suddenly to kill a large 
 number ; but the circumstances do not seem to be important. 
 On one occasion a drive was made of 15,000 male and female 
 seals, but the night was dark, and it was not practicable to 
 separate the cows from the males ; and they were, therefore, 
 allowed to stand over until daylight should come. The men 
 put in charge of the herding of the drove were careless, and 
 the seals took advantage of this negligence, and made an 
 attempt to escai)e by throwing themselves from the bluffs over 
 the beach near by into the sea ; but, as this bluff was steep, 
 high, rough, and slippery, they fell over and were all injured. 
 Xow, for the first time, great numbers of seals were missed, 
 aud why, it was not significant or apparent ; but 9n the follow- 
 ing year, instead of the appearance and catch of 40,000 or
 
 244 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 50,000, less tbau 30,000 were killed and taken, and then, too, 
 the numbers of seals were known to diminish, and in the same 
 way, only greater, on the other island. For instance, in the first 
 years, on the island of Saint George, the seals were only five or 
 six times less than on Saint Paul, but in 1817 they were only 
 less than one-fourth ; but in 1S2G they were almost one-sixth 
 again. 
 
 "The diminution of seals there (Saint Paul's) and on the 
 other island, from 1817 to 1835, was very gradual and visible 
 every year, but not always equal. 
 
 " The killing of seals in 1S34, instead of being 80,000 or 
 GO.OOO, was only 15,751 from both islands, (Saint Paul, 12,700; 
 Saint George's, 3,051)." 
 
 In the first thirty years, accordingtoVeniaminov's best under- 
 standing, there were taken 'hnorethan tico and a half millions of 
 sealsliins ;^^ then, in the next twenty-one years, up to 1838, they 
 took 578,924. During this last taking, from 1817 to 1838, the 
 skins were worth on an average " no more than 30 rubles each," 
 ($0 apiece.) 
 
 "A great many sea-otters {Eiihydra marina) were found oa 
 Saint Paul's Island at first, and as many as 50,000 were taken 
 from the island, but years have passed since one has been seen 
 in the vicinity, even, of the islands." 
 
 TuhJe I, Part II, Bishop Veniaminor^s ZapicsM, c^-c, sliowin/] llie seal-catch dur- 
 ing the period of gradual diminution of life on the islands from 1S17 down to 
 1836, the year of scarcity, and from wliich date Ihei/ have as gradually increased 
 np to the present number, their maximum limit in a state of nature, at which the 
 seal-life has stood during the past twenty years ; the killing has also been grad- 
 nally increased up to the present figure, 100,000 annually. « 
 
 Taken from — 
 
 1817. 
 
 1818. 
 
 1819. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1822. 
 
 1823. 
 
 Saint Panl'H IslaTul 
 
 47, 8G0 
 12, 328 
 
 45, 932 
 13, 924 
 
 40, 300 
 11, 924 
 
 39, 700 
 10, 520 
 
 35, 750 
 9,245 
 
 28, 150 
 8,319 
 
 24 100 
 
 Saiut George's Island 
 
 5,773 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 60, 188 
 
 59, 856 
 
 52, 225 
 
 50, 220 
 
 44, 995 
 
 36, 469 
 
 29, 873 
 
 ■ Taken from— 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 18, 450 
 
 4,773 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 Saint Panl'.s Island 
 
 19, 850 
 5,550 
 
 25, 400 
 
 24, 600 
 5, 5U0 
 
 23, 250 
 
 17, 750 
 '1,950 
 
 17, 150 
 3,661 
 
 1.% £00 
 
 Saint George's Island 
 
 2, 834 
 
 Total 
 
 30, 100 
 
 23, 250 
 
 19, 700 
 
 23, 228 
 
 20,811 
 
 . 18,034 
 
 
 Taken from — 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 Saint Panl's Island 
 
 Saiut George's Island 
 
 12, 950 
 3,084 
 
 13, 150 
 3,296 
 
 13, 200 
 3, 212 
 
 12, 700 
 3,051 
 
 4, 052 
 
 2, 528 
 
 4,040 
 2,550 
 
 4, 220 
 
 2, 582 
 
 
 Total 
 
 16, 034 
 
 16, 446 
 
 16, 412 
 
 15, 751 
 
 6,580 
 
 6,590 
 
 6, 802 
 
 
 
 * Left to breed. 
 
 Grand total for S:iiiit Paul's Island 
 
 Grand total for Saint George's Island 
 
 464, 2.59 
 114, 065 
 
 Total catcli during nineteen years of diminution 578, 924
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 245 
 
 Meteorological abstract for the months from September, IH72, to April IS72, in- 
 clusive, made bi) Chas. r. Fish. Ciiited Slates Si!))ial-Sereice,at the office of the 
 Chief Si(itial-Officer, United States Army, division of reports and telegrams for 
 the island of Saint I'aul, Berinfs Sea, for the benefit of commerce and a<jri~ 
 Ml I tare. 
 
 Month of record. 
 
 Mean of t.iTonieter, corrected 
 
 Maxinimu of l]arou)eter, corrected 
 
 Miiiinimu of barometer, corrected 
 
 Monthly range of baronietei', corrected.. 
 
 Oreate.st daily range of barometer, cor- 
 rected 
 
 Least daily range of barometer, corrected 
 
 Mean daily range of barometer, corrected 
 
 Mean of e.xpo.sed thermome.ter 
 
 Ma.\innun of expo.sed thermometer 
 
 Miniiiiuin ol e.^posed thermometer 
 
 iSlouthly range of exposed thermometer. 
 
 Greatest .daily range of exposed ther- 
 mometer 
 
 Least daily range of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean of maxima of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean of minima of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean daily range of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean relative humidity 
 
 ]SIaxinuim relative humidity 
 
 Minimum relative humidity 
 
 Prevailing wind 
 
 Number of miles traveled by wind 
 
 Mean daily velocity of wind 
 
 Mean hourly velocity of wind 
 
 Maximum hourly velocit3- of wind 
 
 Proportion of cloudiness. 
 
 Amount of rainfall, in inches , 
 
 Greatest daily amount of rain-fall , 
 
 Amount of melted hail and snow, (in- 
 cluded in rain-tall) 
 
 Number of days on which precipitation 
 occurred 
 
 Number of days on which hail or snow 
 
 fell 
 
 September. 
 
 29. 773 
 30.41; 
 
 2S.)S7 
 1.59 
 
 .97 
 .(03 
 .25!) 
 4'1'=. 2 
 
 33= 
 10= 
 
 11= 
 
 1= 
 
 4C=. 8 
 
 41°. S 
 
 5°.0 
 85. G 
 100 
 5G 
 
 N. 
 9,138 
 304.6 
 l-->. 7 
 33 
 92 
 ■2.89 
 .85 
 
 30 
 4 
 
 October. 
 
 November, i December. 
 
 29. 512 
 
 30.04 
 
 28. 51 
 
 1.53 
 
 .97 
 
 .04 
 
 .293 
 30=. 
 4,-p 
 22= 
 23= 
 
 11 = 
 
 1= 
 
 3S=. 7 
 
 33=. 3 
 
 5=. 4 
 83.9 
 
 no 
 
 N. 
 
 11, 872 
 ,383 
 10 • 
 42 
 84 
 3.08 
 .56 
 
 .91 
 
 29 
 15 
 
 29. 438 
 
 30.23 
 
 28. 02 
 
 1.01 
 
 .87 
 
 .00 
 
 .339 
 340.3 
 41= 
 23= 
 18= 
 
 12= 
 
 1'= 
 
 3C=.2 
 
 31=. 5 
 
 4=. 7 
 86.6 
 100 
 CO 
 
 S. 
 14, 539 
 484.6 
 20.2 
 74 
 
 78.9 
 2.38 
 .31 
 
 .82 
 
 17 
 
 29. 488 
 
 30. 04 
 28. 05 
 
 1.99 
 
 .80 
 .03 
 .249 
 
 26=. 
 
 37= 
 4= 
 
 33= 
 
 11= 
 1= 
 
 29=. I 
 
 24= 
 
 5'=.! 
 87.8 
 100 
 70 
 N. 
 10,fi44 
 530.5 
 22.1 
 53 
 84 
 
 2.99 
 .42 
 
 2.33 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 
 Month of record. 
 
 January. February. ' March. 
 
 ^lean of barometer, corrected 
 
 ilaximuiu of barometer, corrected 
 
 Minimum of barometer, corrected 
 
 Monthly range of barorjeter, corrected.. 
 
 Greatest daily range of barometer, cor- 
 rected 
 
 Least daily range of barometer, corrected . 
 
 Mean daily range of barometer, corrected. 
 
 Mean of expo.sed thermometer 
 
 Maximum of exposed thermometer 
 
 Minimum of exposed thermometer 
 
 Monthly range of exposed thermometer . 
 
 Greatest daily range of exposed ther- 
 mometer 
 
 Least daily range of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean of maxima of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean of minima of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean daily range of exposed thermom- 
 eter 
 
 Mean relative luimidity 
 
 29. 953 
 
 30. .iO 
 29. 32 
 
 1.18 
 
 .58 
 .03 
 .194 
 
 15=. 7 
 
 34= 
 -11 = 
 
 45= 
 
 0= 
 
 18=. 9 
 
 11-. 9 
 
 7=.0 
 85.7 
 
 29. .i07 
 
 30.51 
 
 28. 26 
 
 2. 25 
 
 .95 
 .06 
 .421 
 
 18=. 6 
 
 34 = 
 -12= 
 
 40= 
 
 28° 
 
 3° 
 
 22=. 6 
 
 15=. 1 
 
 7= 5 
 80.2 
 
 29. 768 
 
 30.31 
 
 29. 05 
 
 1.20 
 
 .66 
 .05 
 .219 
 
 12=. 
 
 35'= 
 — 7= 
 
 42= 
 
 20= 
 
 3= 
 17M 
 
 70.4 
 
 90.7 
 
 81.8 
 
 April. 
 
 29. 709 
 
 30. 35 
 29. 00 
 
 1.35 
 
 .73 
 .03 
 
 23'=r9' 
 35= 
 3= 
 32° 
 
 24 = 
 
 3= 
 
 27=. 9 
 
 19=. 4 
 
 8°. 5 
 84.29
 
 24G 
 
 ALASKA. 
 Meieoroloc/ical abstract, ij-c. — Coutinnetl. 
 
 Month of record. 
 
 Maximnm relative hnmidity 
 
 iliuimuni relative humidity 
 
 Prevailing wind 
 
 Xumber of miles traveled bysvind 
 
 Jilean daily velocity of wind 
 
 jdean hourly velocity of wind 
 
 Maximum hourly velocity of wind 
 
 Proportion of cloudiness 
 
 Amount of rain-fall, in inches 
 
 Greatest daily amount of rain-fall 
 
 Amount of melted hail and suow, (in- 
 cluded in rain-fall) 
 
 Xumber of days on which precipitation 
 occurred 
 
 Xuraber of days on which hail or snow 
 fell 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 53 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 63 
 
 E. X E. 
 
 N. 
 
 jr. 
 
 X. 
 
 17, 903 
 
 16, 646 
 
 14,512 
 
 18, C07 
 
 577.5 
 
 594.3 
 
 468.1 
 
 620.2 
 
 24.1 
 
 24.8 
 
 19.5 
 
 2.^ 84 
 
 43 
 
 82 
 
 88 
 
 53 
 
 Pi 8 
 
 74.9 
 
 68 
 
 73.6 
 
 0.96 
 
 5.78 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.77 
 
 .39 
 
 1.07 
 
 .33 
 
 .50 
 
 .83 
 
 4.87 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.77 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 !N"OTE. — It will be noticed that I have not spelled the name Behring in accordance with 
 the usual custom observed by English writers, who have thus given the phonetic value of 
 the Sclavonic characters used by the Ewssians in writing the name of this celebrated navi- 
 gator ; but hy reference to the following statement made by Professor Gill, of the Con. 
 gressional Library, it will be seen that the name in f|uestiou may properly be spelled 
 "Bering." Professor Gill says : " The name of the navigator which has been conferred on 
 the strait separating America and Asia, is unquestionably spelled Beiuxg and not Behrixg. 
 I submit, in explanation, my reasons : 1st. The navigator himself was born in Jutland, and 
 a scion of a Danish family, whose members bore the name of Bering, and two represent- 
 atives of which had the same Christian name, viz, (1) Titus Tiering, born 1617, died 1075, 
 some time professor of poetry at Copenhagen, and (2) Vitus Bering, born 1682, died 1753, a 
 l>ri'est of Ollerup and Kirkeby. The form Behring, so far as I can ascertain, is unknown 
 in Denmark, (see Nyerup's Dansk-Norsk Litteratur-lexicon, v. i, pp. 56, 57, 1818.) 2d. The 
 form Bering is almost (but not quite) universally adopted in all non-English works ; for 
 example, Biographic Universelle, (Michaud,) v. 4, p. 261, 1811, also, nouv. ed., v. 4, p. 28, 1854 ; 
 Ifouvelle Biographic Gcnerale, (Hoefer,) v. 5, p. 527, 1855 ; Allgemeine Encyclopadie der 
 "Wissenscbaften und Kiinste, (Ersch und Gruber,) v. 9, p. 136, ls22 ; Xeues Konversations- 
 Lexicon, (Meyers.) v. 3, p. 238, 1862; Deutseh-Amerikanisches Conversations-Lexicon, 
 (Schem.) v. 2, p. 296, 1869, and numerous others. The exceptional cases, e. g. Pierer's TJni- 
 ver.sal Lexicon, Grande Dictionnaire Universelle du six. siecle, &c. In English dictionaries, 
 the true form Bering is adopted in the Brief Biographical Dictionarj', by Holes, 1865, and 
 the Dictionary of Biographical Eeference, by Phillips, 1671, and is gradually superseding 
 the more familiar English form. An explanation of the reason of the origin of the name 
 Behring is found in the fact that it was originally derived from the Kussian, without a 
 knowledge of its primitive source, and was the nearest English phonetic expression of the 
 Eus-sian characters. Inasmuch, however, (1) as the original form of a name, without re- 
 gard to its pronunciation, is universally adopted in our biographies and bibliographies, and 
 (2) as the original form of the navigator's name was Bering, such is the correct one, and 
 that which must ultimately supersede the other. It need only be added that Bering him- 
 self, and the Russians universally, (?) adopt that form when writing in English characters, 
 and that the Russian letter ('e') in his name, represented by 'eh,' is especially ordained by 
 the Russians to be rendered by the Latin character ' e,' in accordance with the pronuncia- 
 tion of the Latin and continental races generallv."
 
 ALASKA. 247 
 
 SKETCHES OF TEE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 [Taken from Veuiamiuov, Zapieska, part 1, p. 134.] 
 ISLANDS OF THE FOUR 3I0UNTAINS— " CIIEETIERY SOPOCHNIE." 
 
 Kaygamilyak is the longest ; Las a number of smoking 
 hills, sometimes burning. On the southeast side of the island 
 are the remains of what once must have been large settlements. 
 On these islands are arries {Lomvia cirra) and a tundra goose, 
 which latter comes here to shed feathers and rear its young, and 
 on the rocks around the coast are sea-lions and hair-seals.* 
 
 Taiinak is the largest of the group. On this island are red 
 foxes, with very coarse fur, and a few sea-fowl. In 17G4, 100 
 Aleuts lived here or hereabouts. At this time (1834) the men 
 have nearly all been destroyed by the hand of Stepan Glottov, 
 and the women nearly all perished of hunger. What remains- 
 of the Aleuts is on the island of Oomnak. This is the highest 
 one of the group under discussion. Hot springs are to b& 
 found on the east side, and on the southeast side are the ruius^ 
 of old dwellings. Sea-otters are found about this place. A 
 small island lies to the west; it is round and full of bold hills, 
 steep. On the southeast side, in 1834, was a small settlement, 
 which the Aleuts say was occupied by a most savage and war- 
 like people. They were destroyed by Glottov. A few sea-lions 
 are found here. Near this is another small island, round and 
 full of high hills. There are remains of two settlements on it ; 
 signs of sea-otter ; nooue there, now; (1834;) sea-fowls, sea-lions, 
 and hair-seal. 
 
 U^'ASKA is quite large ; high hills, elites, &c. On the east 
 side is a volcano, which began in 1825 to burn ; no hot springs 
 there ; no people there, though the relics of two old settlement* 
 are seen. Birds breed on the cliffs ; on the beach sea-lions, and, 
 at times, sea-otters. 
 
 AiioOTOYOX is another small island, round, bluffy, and moun- 
 
 "Last Sej)tember, (1874,) Captain Hennig, while cruising with a party 
 of sea-otter hunters, discovered a warm cave on the northeast side of this 
 island, in which be found eleven mummies well embalmed. A full and 
 interesting history of the matter was given to hira by the natives, but 
 it is too long for insertion here. Those uuuumies are now in the Smithsoniiiu 
 Institution, presented by the Alaska Commercial Company. These bodies 
 were put into this cave, according to the people, in 1724 or 1725. — H. W. E.
 
 248 ALASKA. 
 
 tainous — the least important of tbis group ; no bays, no streams, 
 nothing but arries, sea-lions, and, at times, sea-otters. Be- 
 tween this island and Unaska is a rock where a great manj^ 
 sea-fowl breed, and sea-lions. 
 
 OoMXAK is the largest of the Aleutians. It has three high 
 mountains; is very hilly, with a number of large lakes and 
 streams. In 1805 the people were able to take 2,000 salmon 
 every year, but now (183-4) they cannot get more than 200 to 
 400; in the winter from 50 to 100. On the northeast side of 
 the island, in the mountains, is a lake, on the blufiy beaches 
 of whicli amber is found. Everything grows on the island 
 that is peculiar to Oaualashka, save the willow. In the year 
 some 50 black foxes are killed, 80 cross, and about 40 red. On 
 the north shore and under Tuleeskoi Sopka is a large number 
 of sea-lions, hair-seal, and sea-otters, from 10 to 40 annually 
 liilled. In older times the Aleuts used to get porphyry from 
 the north-northwest side of Tuleeskoi for their weapons. There 
 is less snow here than on Ounalashka. A great many hot springs 
 here ; one on the north side is so hot that meat can be cooked 
 in it. Under most of these springs is a subterranean noise. 
 
 Before the coming of the Eussians on Oomnak there were 
 twenty settlements, some of them quite large, like the one at 
 Tuleeskoi, where there were so many people that they were able 
 to take at one time all the meat and blubber of a large whale. 
 At the present time (1834) there are only two villages, Raychesnoi 
 and Tuleeslcoi, altogether 109 souls. The former lies on the 
 southwest side of the island, and a wooden church was built 
 here in 182G; 13 huts and 3 bath-houses, under the supervision 
 of Krukov, a creole, were built in 1834 ; 38 males and 45 females; 
 they had plenty of hens and raised at times potatoes ; fish quite 
 scarce; crabs and sea-urchins abundant. They have plenty of 
 poots, but at times are without oil, and cannot then cook or use 
 the roots, and they frequently go a year without getting a 
 whale. In the winter they go to Samalga and kill from 3 to 10 
 sea-otters. Tuleeskoi, on the east side, in 1834, had 11 men and 
 15 women. In 1830 there were 3 settlements on this island, on 
 the south side, and on the island Yeagorslde. At Samalga in 
 <»>'.den times (1794) there was a large settlement, 400 souls, but 
 all are scattered and gone now. On the south side is a beach 
 out upon which sea-ofters used to come during the prevalence 
 of furious gales of wind from that quarter. 
 
 BoGA Slov Island made its appearance first in 179G,(May,)
 
 ALASKA. 240 
 
 and was tiiiisbed iu 1823; is oval-sbaped ; no fresh water; sea- 
 lions breed there. 
 
 OUNALASHKA. — MalcoosMn is the liighest mountain on tiie 
 ishmd ; 5,475 feet; volcano. IS"o one remembers of its having- 
 disturbed the settlement near it. In 1818 it made the earth 
 tremble and a loud noise, but nothing more ensued. It can be 
 ascended in August and September, when there is least snow 
 and the winds do not blow so hard. A great many creeks and 
 streams on the island, running down from the high hills to the 
 sea; many pretty water-falls. There are twenty streams in which 
 fish run up from the sea, independent of the trout found in all of 
 them ; salmon, salmon-trout, " keezoog," hump-backed salmon, 
 and " hie-eks/' Lakes on the island are nearly as numerous as 
 the streams, and are frequently found high up in the mountains; 
 many of them are very deep ; one of them more than ten versts 
 iu circumference, and in this one no bottom was found. 
 
 Gulfs and bays on all sides of this island, especially on the 
 north side, and more good ones than on any other island of the 
 whole Aleutian chain ; three are on the eastern side, Beaver, 
 Captain\s, and MaJxOoshiii. The first ship entered Captain's Har- 
 bor in 1709, Captain Layvashava. xVt Oobiennah Bay a squad of 
 Aleuts destroyed a Eussian ship. Matreskenskayah Bay, a great 
 place for hump-backed salmon, and Paystrokovskie, two small 
 bays distinguished by the coming of a great many whales; and 
 from these bays to the west, about eight versts, are some small 
 lakes, but very deep ; all these bays are good places for ships 
 to stand at anchor. 
 
 In Starry Gnvan the first Eussian ship entered in 1701. 
 Angliefikie Bay is where Captain Cook anchored. Chernovskie 
 is the finest harbor on the island, in the straits between Oom- 
 nak, and a dozen others, but of less importance. Kahleeta 
 Point received its name because iu a little bay under it a great 
 many whales used to resort; this point is the land-mark for the 
 harbor of Ounalashka. Cheerful or Jolly Point, so called by the 
 sailors who usually make it in a fog. It is made up of some 
 thirty difit'erently colored strata or layers, horizontal, distin- 
 guishing it from all other capes or points ; from its very summit 
 down to the water's edge, on one side, is a vivid green slope. 
 
 At Morkrovskie Point, to the southward iu the hills, are the 
 remains of a fossil elephant, and a little farther, trending from 
 the southeast to the northwest, behold an elephant of the true 
 kind, lying quite horizontally, over 14 feet wide, and about 10
 
 250 ALASKA. 
 
 above the water. At AspeetsTiie Point tlie Russians found a 
 stone slate which belonged to one of the first chiefs. The Rus- 
 sians also called the people living near this place ^^ Aspect.''^ 
 
 The points on the southern side of Ounalashka are not well 
 known ; they are not safe to approach, on account of reefs and 
 submerged rocks, which extend out to sea a long way, and the 
 water breaks very heavily on them and on the cliffs. 
 
 Vegetation on Ounalashka is found everywhere, except on the 
 summits of the highest mountains and the faces of steep cliffs. 
 On the east side of the island, in Captain's Bay and part of 
 Beaver Baj', the small willow grows best, berries, mushrooms, 
 &c. 
 
 Animals. — Foxes, mice, (brought by the Russians,) cows, and 
 rats; the latter came only in 1828, brought in the ship "Fin- 
 land," and in less than two years they increased so that they 
 got over to Mal:ooshin settlement, a distance of over fifty 
 versts, in spite of high, snowy ridges and high streams between, 
 and attacks by foxes. The foxes on this island yield to the 
 hunters about oOO annually ; of these 100 are black, 250 cross, 
 and 150 red. Of the water-animals, in early times there were 
 great numbers of hair-seal, fur-seal, sea otter, and sea-lions, 
 but nowadays they come in such small numbers that from 
 them all hardly more than a hundred skins are taken per 
 annum. Sea-otters are found only on the southern side near 
 the beach, and in very small numbers, as they come from the 
 sea ; sea-lions in less number and only in one place, on the 
 southern side, not far from Omfs'kie Bay, on a rock separated 
 from the beach by a narrow canal. Fur-seals used to come 
 into the bays here until the discovery of the Prybilov Islands, 
 and since then hardly a single one. 
 
 The island was not known earlier than 17G0. In 17G2 the 
 Russians, who first discovered this place, were unhappily nearly 
 exterminated, and in revenge for this the natives were nearly 
 all destroyed in 1763 by Solovayiat, and the rest in the follow- 
 ing year. 
 
 There are only two hot springs on the island ; one on the 
 point near Makooshin settlement has a little run of water and 
 is not very hot; the other near a small lake back from Indian 
 Bay, five versts from Illoulook, has a temperature of about 
 570 to 60°. 
 
 From a lake known to and spoken of by the Aleuts, near 
 MaJcrovslcoi Gulf, high up in the mountains, under the cliffs on
 
 ALASKA. 251 
 
 the easteru beacb, is tbiuid the finest amhcr ; hair-seals go up 
 into the hike. 
 
 Near Malcooshiii Gulf, between a long tufa or breccia place 
 or edge and Tarahsovshoijan Bay, in the mountains, is a lake on 
 the beach of which is found native copper ; and above this, in 
 the mountains of the third range, also, is a lake, on the beach 
 of which is found hollow stones which rattle when shaken, and 
 in the cleft of a cliff or cave is seen the gleam of light, like 
 water. On the south side of the island, near Oinnomaden Bay, 
 are two lakes also in the mountains, in one of which hair-seals 
 go, and on the beach under the cliffs are found shining stones. 
 In the mountains near Captain's Harbor is a lake on the beach 
 of which ^^ hite pearls were reported found, but in 1812 men 
 were sent, in August, to look for them and found only ice. 
 
 In Beaver Bay, on the left side, near Agamycclc Bay, is a water- 
 fall tumbling down from high cliffs, the water of which the 
 Aleuts dare not drink for fear of death, and near this place 
 stands a stone which is honored as a petrified devil. 
 
 There is a stream under Makooshiu Mountain, on the north 
 side, by the banks of which are iron bogs, and above tliem it is 
 said native copper is found; back from Makooshin Gulf, in the 
 mountains of the third range, mica ("slnda") is found. 
 
 Before the Eussiaus came, in 17G2, there were on this island 
 twenty-four settlements, and altogether a great many people. 
 Even as late as 1805, there were fifteen counted settlements, 
 and in them 800 souls; but at present (1834) there are only ten, 
 and in them only 470 ; and sill of them placed, with one excep- 
 tion, on the west and northwest shores. 
 
 lllou-looli is the head settlement. Solovayiah is said to 
 have lived here. Built here (1834) is a wooden church, with 
 bells; five houses, three magazines or warehouses; five "bar- 
 rabkies,'' or huts, and one barn— all the property of the com- 
 pany. The head office for the whole Aleutian district is here, 
 nnder a chief trader and three store-keepers. Twenty-seven 
 yourts, or huts, belong to the Creoles and Aleuts, 275 souls in 
 number. (Male Aleuts, 90 ; females, 100 ; over them Russians 
 and Creoles, 75.) Here, with the exception of the Baissian 
 American Company's office at Sitka, was the first school. It 
 was opened the 12th March, 1835 ; started in 1834 by 22 males, 
 Creoles and Aleuts. In this school no more than twelve boys 
 could be brought together in 1835. There was a hospital with 
 eight sick men attended by a surgeon, and a home for orphan
 
 252 ALASKA. 
 
 girls, with twelve of them in it. Some of the compauy's serv- 
 ants raised pigs, chickens, and ducks, and nearly all the house- 
 keepers had a garden, where they raised turnips and potatoes. 
 {In 1838, one hundred and twenty kegs were raised by the 
 whole settlement.) The ground for the first church was pre- 
 I)ared in 1825; church built in 182G; provided with bells, and 
 pictures in gilt frames ; built by the Aleuts. 
 
 The profits of this country, or settlement, in especial: from 
 ten to forty fur-seals are taken every year as they come down 
 from the north ; the yield from the fish is uot important; the 
 river which comes down from the mountains in Natil-ensloi 
 Baij is the best place, and sometimes the dog-salmon are there 
 in such numbers that it is difficult to get through the water. 
 It is said that the river which is by this settlement used to be 
 the best for fish; it is now spoiled. 
 
 Cod-fish are caught a long way out, as far as twenty to eighty 
 "sajeus,"* and in late years in small numbers. A willow grows 
 near the settlement, quite large, and, though the company 
 have annually repaired and built with it some sixty baidars 
 and over one hundred and twenty boxes, it is still abundant. 
 For cattle this place is uot very profitable, because, around this 
 settlement, though grass grows earlier than elsewhere in the 
 district, snow falls and lies from five to seven months, and the 
 mowing has to be done in bad or hard places, and, on account 
 of the rare occurrence of sunlight and the frequency of rains, 
 hay-making is exceedingly difficult. Potatoes and turnips do 
 uot thrive in a noteworthy manner. 
 
 Ii^atielcoiislcoi settlement lies on the west side of Captain's 
 Harbor. It has two yourts and 15 souls, (G males, 9 females.) 
 
 Faistralilovslde is on the left side of Captain's Harbor ; five 
 yourts; 37 souls, (IG males, 21 females.) The mountain above 
 it has a bowl-shaped crater, and in it is a lake. 
 
 Vaysai/locslde lies on the left side of the point of the same 
 name; 15 souls, (7 males, 8 women.) 
 
 Mal-oosJicnskoi lies on the north side of Makooshin Gulf; 
 built here, a yourt, barrabkie, store-house, and bath-house 
 belonging to the company, and a trader stationed here. The 
 Aleuts possess six yourts and six barrabkies; 35 souls, (15 
 males, 20 females.) Not fixr from the settlement, back from the 
 mountains near the sea, pumice-stone is found. There were 
 five settlements near this place in ancient times, excepting 
 
 ■Sajeu," equivalent to .seven feet.
 
 ALASKA. 253 
 
 Starrie-cJiovs'kaho, which existed up to 1805. They get from 80 
 to 150 foxes here, with varjiug grades of fur. 
 
 Koshcgensl-oi lies inside of Koshegeuskaho Gulf, on the left 
 side, on a very even place, near the debouchure of a stream. 
 The company has erected here a yourt, store-house, bath-house, 
 and a barn belonging to it, which has a trader here, who attends 
 to the business of all the southern part of the island. The 
 Aleuts have eight yourts, and are 41 souls in number, (18 men^ 
 23 women.) There are not many fish here •, in the best days 
 of salmon-running not over 300. Sometimes sea-lions lie on 
 the south side. A small number of hair-seals are killed on the 
 rocks. Eoots in abundance. In 1833 the company introduced 
 cattle here. 
 
 Chernovslde, on the northwest side of the island, has four 
 yourts and 44 souls, (20 males, 24 females.) The harbor is 
 elegant, but not always without danger to sailing-vessels ; for, 
 if caught outside in the straits, without wind, they may be 
 carried against the cliffs of Oomnak Straits. 
 
 On the south side of Chernovskie stands a citadel, and to the 
 north, a distance of 20 versts, near an old settlement, was- 
 found a copper chain, four links. This settlement is the poorest 
 on the island. The principal subsistence is mussels. There is 
 only one fish-stream, and that falls near the settlement. 
 
 Umagensloi is in Captain's Harbor, 8 versts northeast from 
 Illoulook, on a little bay of the same name ; 32 souls (15 males,. 
 17 females) live here in four yourts. 
 
 KaMccMcnsl-oL—Thvee yourts; 14 souls. A small stream 
 here, where a great many fisb are taken. Sometimes more than 
 2,000 salmon are secured. The natives frequently get whales 
 here. 
 
 Bohrovslde.— Forty-one souls, (21 males, 20 females,) four 
 yourts, and a few gardens; they get a small number of salmon- 
 trout and dog-salmon in three small streams. 
 
 Borl-a or Spirlcln lies on the south side of the island, dividpd 
 from the mainland by a wide strait. This island stands out 
 bold and abrupt, high from the sea. On the north shore are a 
 few small bays; above one of them is the settlement, of six 
 yourts, 44 souls, (17 males, 27 females.) They have a few gar- 
 dens. Principal subsistence, sea-fish and mussels. On this 
 island is found a green stone, irony, or blackish, shiny red, 
 which the Aleuts require in pai nting their ^'Jcamlaykas.''* 
 
 * Skiu shirts.
 
 254 ALASKA. 
 
 On Amak^'AK Island were three settlements before the com- 
 ing of the liussiaus in 1702, but now there are none ; hogs run 
 from April to October ; on the little island to the west, Ooliia- 
 dale, was a small settlement. 
 
 TheKRAMEETSA Islands are seven in number, lyingbetween 
 Ouualashka andOonemak, viz: Oonalga, Alcooian, Alwon, Goloi, 
 Avatanak, Tecr/alda, and Oogomal:. Akootan is the largest and 
 most mountainous ; the smallest and lowest is Oonalga, and all 
 of them have inhabitants save Goloi and Oogomak; all have 
 foxes save Goloi ; the catch is from 180 to 2.j0 yearly. 
 
 Oonalga has a small lake and three small streams, into which 
 only salmon-tront run. The berries are " sheksa," {Empetrum 
 nigrum,) salmon-berry, and "nioroshkie," {litibus chamcemoriis.) 
 Snow does not lie long here. The settlement is ou the south 
 side, on the clifts ; 3 yourts, 23 souls, (10 males, 13 females.) The 
 little, bold rocky islands to the northeast of Oonalga are fre- 
 quented by hair-seals ; on only one of them is a spring of water. 
 Ships can go all around these islands without danger: they are 
 free from rocks or shoals. 
 
 Akootan, a rough, rocky island, with a high volcano near the 
 middle ; the beaches are few and far between, and but little land 
 fit for vegetation. Two lakes on it, with five streams; one bay 
 on the south side; a few fish come into the streams. Berries 
 of all kinds grow here, peculiar to this country ; (from 40 to CO 
 foxes are killed here every year, the greater number red.) On 
 the northeast side, in a small bay, are hot springs, coming from 
 the mountains, with so high a temperature, that meat and fish 
 can be cooked in them. On the very summit of the volcano are 
 found small, but deep, lakes, and the place where the volcano 
 breaks out strongly resembles the spout-hole of a huge whale, 
 the ridge of the mountain resembling the back and head of this 
 animal. 
 
 In old times there were 7 settlements, with COO people ; in 
 1810 there was but one, and in the present time (1831) but one, 
 and this is on the north side, where a small stream runs down, 
 surrounded by high and rugged mountains. This is the small- 
 est settlement iu this district, 13 souls, living on fish, which 
 come into the streams and along the beach. 
 
 Akoon lies near Akootan ; it is smaller, and the mountains 
 not so high ; one mountain, on the south side, always smokes, 
 but the smoke is never noteworthy. The beach is mostly blufifs, 
 rugged. The berries "moroshkie" and " zemlianeeka" are
 
 ALASKA. 255 
 
 found. Plenty of lakes, four large ones and five streams, into 
 two of which fisli run in small numbers. From SO to 120 foxes 
 are annually' killed. In 1830 the people here cai)turcd two 
 wolves ; they must have been of only one sex, or they would 
 have increased ; these animals are very disagreeable, for they 
 kill the foxes and spoil the traps. There were, long ago, eight 
 settlements on this island, with more than 500 people, but now 
 (1834) there are only three, with 85 souls, viz : Artelnoval^ie, 
 southwest side of the island, on a high bluff, with two yourts, 
 two barrabkies, and a bath-house, and a trader belonging to the 
 company ; the Aleuts have seven yourts, 32 souls, (10 males, 10 
 females.) The trader and a few Aleuts have a small garden. 
 They sometimes capture a whale. Eaycliesnoi is on the north 
 side, near a stream ; five yourts built here and a few barrabkies, 
 37 souls, (19 males, 18 females.) Seeraidensloi is inside of a 
 bay of that name, looking out on Avatauak; two yourts and 
 IG souls. The people in both of these settlements live by the 
 beach, depending upon it and a few hair-seals that may come 
 around. 
 
 AvATANAK IsLA^'D has ouits Southeast side a hot spring, only 
 open to view at low water. This is the only island where the 
 Aleuts find red chalk. Above this island, near Akootau, are 
 two remarkable rocks, " Ooshenadskie." On them in early times 
 sea-lions were found, and one of them from all sides resembles 
 a bell. This island lies between Goloi and Teegalda. From 
 two lakes rises quite a stream on the north side, and which in 
 old times was a great fish-place, and since the extermination of 
 the Aleuts there by Salovayiah's comrade, Natoorbin, not a 
 fish has come since. On the south side of the island sea-otters 
 come, and on the island foxes of different colors, of which 
 twenty to thirty are taken per annum. In early times three, 
 not large settlements, were here ; now there is but one, on the 
 north side, and consists of five excellent yourts, and distin- 
 guished by their being all clean and free from blackness ; 49 
 souls, (24 males and 25 females.) Vegetation here is not good. 
 When during my last visit to this place, in 1833, 1 saw the signs 
 or ruins of the j'ourt where Salovayiah and Xatoorbin lived, 
 and a woman was living then who had been a witness to their 
 cruelty. A small island lies near Avatanak which a few hair- 
 seal repair to, and on the east side of it is found red chalk. 
 
 Teegalda lies east of xVvatanak. It is next in size to Akoo- 
 tau. There are 3 lakes here from 300 to 1,000 sajens around,
 
 256 ALASKA. 
 
 and a small stream flows, from wliicli about 1,000 fish are taken. 
 All berries are found here except the huckleberry. From 50 to 
 70 foxes are killed here every year. The greatest number of 
 them are black and black-haired. In the autumn and winter are 
 plenty of '' beach-geese," and in the spring " toondra geese." 
 On the southwest side of this island is found stone-coal, and in 
 the lake near the settlement is a red or golden ocher. In ancient 
 times there were five settlements, in them over 500 people, but 
 now there is only one, which lies on the north side, with a pop- 
 ulation of 92 souls, (39 males, 53 females.) They have a fine 
 " kozarmie," (barrack,) well built and always kept clean ; five 
 yourts, a bath-house, and a few barrabkies. The number given 
 above of these people includes those who were brought over 
 from Oogamak in 182G. In this place are the ruins of an old 
 yourt, 30 sajens (210 feet) long. Opposite the town, on the 
 north side of the island, near Oogamak, is a number of steep, 
 high rocks (28) or islets. On them the big burgomaster-guli 
 breeds, and over 500 eggs are taken every year. On them are 
 three green j)laces only, and on many of these islands lie hair- 
 seals, acd on one of the northern ones are sea-lions. This is the 
 chief supplying place for all these people here for winter-food. 
 On them are no lakes or streams. On the north side is a green- 
 ish red used by the Aleuts for painting their hats. 
 
 Oogamak.^ — No water save a small spring ; a small number 
 of foxes (7) killed annually. On the island comes a larger num- 
 ber of hair-seals than are found on all the others. On the cliffs, 
 sea-parrots breed, and over 500 are annually shot ; on the 
 low rocks sea-lions previously came in considerable numbers, 
 one of which traveled over and back from the south to the 
 north side of the island ; a good many stay all winter. In early 
 times on the island there were many people, but they have been 
 growing less and less, so that now there are only 18. 
 
 00NE3IAK. — This island was in old times the most densely 
 populated of all these islands ; there were 12 settlements. In 
 1831 the ruins of a " koznrmie" or barracks exhibited a length 
 of over GOO sajens, (4,200 feet.) and yourts were from 12 to 30, 
 and even 50 sajens. At the jiresent time (1834) only one set- 
 tlement, Sheshaldimlcie, with 7 L souls, (30 males, 41 females,) who 
 are poorest of all the Aleuts. They have but 2 yourts and 4 
 bidarkies, and the company has a trader here and two work- 
 men; theyhaveayourt,abarrabkie, and "banio," (or bath-house.) 
 
 Animals. — Mice or lemmings, minks, Parry's marmot, rabbits^
 
 ALASKA. 257 
 
 wolves, bears, deer, land-otter, and red foxes, bair-?eals on all 
 sides; sea-lions in small uumbers ; on the south and northwesfc 
 sides, where there are some lagoons, walrus are sometimes 
 found ; on the beaches of this island sea-otters came twice, 
 lirst on the north beach, and second on the west. About the 
 north shore is a considerable number of whales. From 80 to 150 
 foxes were killed per annum, 1 to 3 wolves, and a few minks 
 and land-otters constitute the real hunting. Bears are plenty, 
 but they are coarse and mostly red, (cinnamon.) The most 
 valuable thing is the whalebone ; but little, however, of this 
 is found. 
 
 KOIES UPON THE ANIMALS OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 
 [Translated from Veniaminov's Zapieska, 1840.] 
 
 (Part 1, chap, xii, p. GS.) " The numbers of several kinds of 
 animals are growing very much less in the present as compared 
 with past time. For instance, the company here (Ounalashka) 
 regularly killed more than a thousand sea-otters, (annually ;) 
 now (1840) from 70 to 150, (in 1832-1833 there were 175 to 
 200, and a long time previous to this such a number was not 
 obtained ;) and there was a time (1820) when the whole returns 
 from the hunters of this Ounalashkan district were only 15 
 skins." " The company on the island of Saint Paul killed from 
 00,000 to 80,000 fur-seals per annum, and in the last season, 
 (1836,) with all possible care in getting, they obtanied only 
 about 1,200. On the island of Saint George, instead of 40,000 
 or 35,000, only 33,000 (1,300?) were killed." 
 
 (Part 3, p. 529.) " The kind of deer here I have had a glimpse 
 at, and I know that the large males do not weigh more than 
 three poods, * (108 pounds.) They go to several islands of the 
 Shumagin group, Oonemak, and all over the peninsula, 
 (Alaska.) 
 
 ^'Bear. — .Here all have patched and harsh fur, and are found on 
 Oonemak and the peninsula : they are also very quiet and sel- 
 dom go for man. The hunters are only afraid of those which 
 hiwe torn c<(rs. They eat meat, fish, and roots. At the time of 
 salmon running in the rivers,bears generally go there and capture 
 fish. The bears go into the water above their knees, stand up 
 opposite the stream, and watch a fitopi)ortunity when they can 
 
 * This is au error obviously; they will weigh from 21G to 324 pounds. — H. 
 W. E. 
 
 17 AL
 
 258 ALASKA. 
 
 grab cr snatch tLe tlsb, \vbicb, wLeii they see it uear, they in- 
 stantly strike at it with their paws and most always hit; then 
 they either throw or carry their prey to the beach and return 
 to continue their work until they have as many as they want. 
 AYith the last fish they go to the bank and begin to eat. After 
 killing the fishes the bears eat only the heads, because this is 
 the fattest part. 
 
 " Bears in the winter sleep in dens, auj'where under cliffs, in 
 holes, or caves; but I have heard that they have been some- 
 times seeu walking about in the winter. 
 
 " Foxes may be divided into hlaclcy cross, and red, the greater 
 part red. They are caught in two ways, /. e., guns and traps; 
 the latter is the best method, and by it the most are secured. 
 Hunting season is in the fall and winter, when they are in new 
 and full fur. Trapping season begins about 5th October and 
 continues as long as the snow lasts. 
 
 " Blue foxes are confined to the Prybilov Islands, on Saint 
 George especially, where they annually kill about 1,500. It is 
 said that when these islands were first discovered there was 
 naught but blue foxes there, of most excellent quality : but a 
 few winters afterward came white foxes, which breed very 
 rapidly, and in a great measure spoiled the fur ; that now the 
 fur which once was called hlne is called smol:y. 
 
 "iSeao^^ers are distinguished above everything on account of 
 their great value and small numbers. There was a time when 
 they were killed in thousands, now only by hundreds. There 
 are plenty of places where before there were great numbers of 
 .sea-otters ; now not one is to be seen or found. The reason for 
 this is most evident : every year hunted without rest, they have 
 fled to places unknown and without danger. 
 
 " Land-otters are found only on the Shumagins, Oonemak, and 
 the peninsula in this Aleutian district. They do not live in 
 the sea, but are found in the lakes and go close to the sea ; 
 they have longer feet or limbs, and can run on hind better than 
 any of the other animals (amphibious) cf their class. Of the 
 number taken in this district there is no true record, but in the 
 best years they do not get over 100. They are hunted, like 
 foxes, with guns and traps, but they are very strong and full of 
 life."
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 259 
 
 india:n taeiff. 
 
 The following table shows the prices paid by the Russian- 
 Americau Company in the Alaskan Territory, where it had no 
 competition. (The quotations are in paper rables=:to 20 cents 
 each, (100 kopecks make a ruble;) a silver 'ruble is equal to 
 about 75 cents.) 
 
 I 
 
 Seaotter, piinio 
 
 line year old 
 
 six lUdiiths old 
 
 Tur-seals, five to tlnee years. 
 
 two to one year 
 
 Martens, very best 
 
 Beavers, best 
 
 Land-otter, best 
 
 Bears, big black 
 
 L> nx 
 
 Mink, best 
 
 Foxes, extra black . 
 
 blue 
 
 silver, extra 
 red, extra 
 
 Wolves, extra 
 
 "Wolverines, extra.. 
 
 1804. 
 
 H. kop. 
 
 10 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 GO 
 
 SO 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 1 20 
 
 1 CO 
 
 2 00 
 (^0 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 1 00 
 
 75 
 
 1 00 
 60 
 
 182 
 
 li. kop. 
 
 20 ( 
 
 10 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 f.O 
 
 2 50 
 
 3 2:) 
 
 4 CO 
 3 00 
 30 
 
 1 00 
 
 3 00 
 
 1 50 
 
 1 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 1836. 
 
 1850. 
 
 R. kop. 
 
 30 CO 
 
 15 00 
 
 3 00 
 75 
 50 
 50 
 
 4 00 
 4 CO 
 4 00 
 3 00 
 25 
 
 9 00 
 
 CO 
 00 
 00 
 
 2 00 
 2 00 
 
 I?, kop. 
 
 r>o 00 
 
 25 00 
 
 3 00 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 00 
 
 5 00 
 
 50 
 
 10 00 
 
 50 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 00 
 'J 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 Now (1874) the natives 
 receive — 
 
 140 oaeh. 
 
 i^lO eaeh. 
 
 S2.,")0 each. 
 
 40 cents to |3 each. 
 
 Do. 
 From .*1.50 to S3 each. 
 From 50 cents to — each. 
 From $i to 82.50 each. 
 From $:i to §5 each. 
 From 61 to .$2.50 each. 
 From 50 cents to $1 50 
 
 each. 
 From .$40 to §100 each. 
 40 cents each. 
 From $3 to SIO each. 
 From $1 to §I..50 each. 
 From §2 to §5 each. 
 Do. 
 
 Where this company had competition, however, the prices 
 ranged quite high, to wit : At Sitka, for sea-otter, 140 to 150 
 silver rubles ; beaver, from 2 to 18 rubles ; laud-otters, 2 to 
 18 ; mainland-foxes, black, 2 to 3G rubles ; silver foxes, 3 to 
 18; red, 2 rubles to 50 kopecks; martens, 50 kopecks to 3 
 rubles ; lynx, from 3 to 9 rubles ; bears, 1 to 18 rubles ; wolver- 
 ines, 2i to 18 rubles ; (these quotations are all in silver rubles.) 
 
 The value of staple furs of Alaska iu the Chinese market 
 during 1799 was — 
 
 Sea-otter, prime, 875 to 8100 each. 
 
 Fur-seal, prime, $3.50 to $3.75 each. 
 
 This is interesting, as the value of a dollar has not changed 
 since that time in that country, and sea otter sells to- day at 
 about the same rate as given. 
 
 Few fur-seals are sold in this market now, but the great bulk 
 of the sea-otter catch of the Kuriles goes into China. They do 
 not possess the art of dressing the former well, and were in the 
 habit of wearing them simply tanned. The Chinese for all uu-
 
 2G0 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 dressed furs, like marten, beaver, &c., offer oue of the best 
 cash markets in the world ; indeed, all the early trade of Alaska 
 went into China, both from Eussian, French, and English 
 traders. 
 
 The following table shows the number of sea-otters and fur- 
 seals secured off the coasts of California and Oregon by the 
 Eussians during Ihe period of their occupation of Eoss, or 
 Bodega, in California, from 1824 to 1834 inclusive : 
 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834; 
 
 Sea-otters 
 
 475 
 
 500 
 
 287 
 
 i:i 
 
 290 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 "sio" 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 287 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 112 
 
 1 
 
 187 
 34 
 54 
 
 5220 
 
 
 35 
 
 !Fur-seals 
 
 1,050 
 
 455 
 
 205 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 
 During the last forty years there have been no sea-otters to 
 speak of taken on the Californian coast ; and in 1835 the last 
 fur-seals, fifty-four in number, were taken on the Farallones, two 
 small rocky islets off the mouth of San Francisco Harbor. 
 Hunters along the coast of Oregon still continue, however, to 
 shoot a few annually, but at restricted localities, as on the 
 small reach of coast at Gray's Harbor, where nearly all that are 
 now obtained from the whole district are found.
 
 ALASIvA. 2Cti 
 
 THE FUR-SEAL ROOKEPJES OF THE SOUTH AT- 
 LANTIC. 
 
 While the CaJIorhuius is found iu such great munbers in the 
 Korth I'acitic, there is notliinji'of its genus found in tlie waters 
 of the North Atlantic, and none to speak of in the South Pacific, 
 and to-day the whole number found elsewhere than Alaska is 
 quite small, though iu early days, some hundred years ago, 
 when the fur-seal was first discovered on the South Shetland 
 Islands, they were so abundant and so nirinerous that hundreds 
 of thousands were annually taken — taken without the slightest 
 regard to sex or condition, although the skins were not of great 
 A'alue then. So numerous were these animals that for over fifty 
 j'ears au immense number, several hundred thousand skins, 
 were yearly secured in this reckless, ruinous fashion, and it was 
 not until the beginning of the last decade that the supply grew 
 so small that scarcely a vessel of the former fleets remained on 
 the ground ; and last season, the winter of 1873-74, less than 
 15,000 were gathered from the ground upon which Djany mil- 
 lions of fur-seals were found forty years ago resting and 
 breeding. 
 
 The government of Buenos Ay res has from the first protected 
 and cared for a small rookery of fur-seals under the blufts at 
 Cabo Corrientes, on its coast, Avhere sOrae 5,000 to 8,000 are an- 
 nually taken, but the seals here have no hauling-grounds like 
 those on Saint Paul ; they are taken with much labor under the 
 high cliffs of this portion of the coast. This is the only govern- 
 ment aid and care that the seals have ever received outside of 
 Bering Sea. The following extract shows the way iu which the 
 fur-seals of the south came into notice : 
 
 " Soon after Captain Cook's voyage iu the Resolution, per- 
 formed in 1771, he presented an official report concerning New 
 Georgia, in which he gave an account of the great number of 
 elephant-seals and fur-seals which he had found on the shores 
 of that island. This induced several enterprising merchants to 
 fit out vessels to take them ; the former for their oil, the latter 
 for their skins. Captain Weddell states that he had been cred- 
 ibly informed that during a period of about fifty years not less 
 than 20,000 tons of oil were procured annually from this spot 
 alone for the London market, which, at a moderate ])rice, would 
 yield about £1.000,000 a year.
 
 262 ALASKA. 
 
 " Sealskins are very mncli nsed iu their raw state as articles 
 of apparel by the natives of the polar zones : when tanned, 
 they are used extensively iu making- shoes ; and the Eskimo 
 have a process by which they make them water-proof, (f) so 
 that, according to Scoresby, the jackets and trousers made of 
 them by these people are in great request among the whale- 
 Ushers for ijreserving them from oil and wet. But the skins 
 are not onlv used in this raw and tanned state as leather: on 
 account of their silky and downy covering, they constitute still 
 more important articles connected with the fur-trade. Thus 
 considered, sealskins are of two kinds, which may be distin- 
 guished as hair-skins and /jtr-skins ; the former are used as 
 clothing and ornament by the Russians, Chinese, and other 
 nations, and the latter yield a fur which we believe exceeds in 
 value all others which have been brought into the market. 
 Many seals supply nothing but hair, while others in different 
 proportions produce both the hair, and underneath it soft and 
 downy fur. The majority, we believe, are to be considered 
 merely as hair-skins, similar to the bear or sable, and of these 
 some are excellent of their kind and much j)rized.'' — HamiUon^s 
 Ampliihions Mammalia, Edinburgh, 1839. 
 
 "With j^egard to the manner iu which the business was carried 
 on down here we find in the Encyclopfedia Britannica the fol- 
 lowing facts: "From about the vear 180G till 1823 an extensive 
 trade was carried on in the South Seas in procuring seal-skins ; 
 these were obtained in vast abundance by the first traders and 
 yielded a very large profit. The time was when cargoes of 
 those skins yielded five or six dollars apiece in China, and the 
 present price in the English market averages from 50 to 50 
 shillings per skin. The number of skins brought off from 
 Georgia cannot be estimated at fewer than 1,200,000 ; the 
 island of Desolation has been equally productive, and, in addi- 
 tion to the vast sums of monej- which these creatures have 
 yielded, it is calculated that several thousand tons of shipping 
 have annually been employed iu the traffic." 
 
 An English writer in 1839 calls attentiou to the deplorable 
 and ruinous management of at^^'airs on the great rookeries of 
 the South Pacific iu the following strong terms : 
 
 " It may be considered superfluous to read a lecture to the 
 trader upon a matter so nearly touching his own interest ; and 
 yet there is one point, at the same time, which forms so essen- 
 tial a part of my subject, that we cannot withhold a word or
 
 ALASKA. 2G3 
 
 two. These valuable creatures (fur-seals) have often beeit 
 found frequenting- some sterile islands in innumerable multi- 
 tudes. By way of illustration, I shall refer only to the fur-seal 
 as occurring in South Shetland. On this barren spot their 
 numbers were such that it has been estimated that it could 
 have continued permanently to furnish a return of 100,000 furs 
 a year; which, to say nothing- of the public benefit, would have 
 yielded annually a very handsome sum to the adventurers. 
 But what do these men do ? In two short years, 1821 and 1822, so 
 great is the rush that they destroy 320,000. They killed all, and 
 spared none. The moment an animal landed, though big with 
 young, it was destroyed. Those on shore were likewise imme- 
 diately dispatched, though the cubs were but a day old. These^ 
 of course, all died, their number, at the lowest calculation, ex- 
 ceeding- 100,000. No wonder, then, at the end of the second 
 year the animals in this locality were nearly extinct. So is it in 
 other localities, and so with other seals, and so with the oil-seals,, 
 and so with the whale itself, every addition only making bad 
 worse. All this might easily be prevented by a little less bar- 
 barous and revolting cruelty, and by a little more enlightened 
 selfishness. 
 
 " With regard to this seal-fishery of the south, the English 
 and Americans have exclusively divided it between them, and 
 with very great profits. It has lately been stated (1839) that 
 they together emploj' not fewer than sixty vessels in the trade, 
 of from 2o0 to 300 tons burden. These vessels are strongly built, 
 and have each six boats, like those of the whalers, together 
 with a small vessel of 40 tons, which is put in requisition when 
 they reach the scene of their operations. The crew consists of 
 about twenty-four hands ; their object being to select a fixed 
 locality from which to make their various batteaus. Thus it is 
 very common for the ship to be moored in some secure bny and 
 be partially unrigged, while at the same time the furnaces, 
 try-pots, &c., required for making the oil are placed on shore. 
 The little cutter is then rigged and manned with about half 
 the crew, who sail about the neighboring islands and send a 
 few men here and there, on shore where they may see seals or 
 wish to watch for them. The campaign frequently lasts for 
 three years, and in the midst of unheard-of privations and dan- 
 gers. Some of the crew are sometimes left on distant barren 
 spots, the others being driven off by storms. They are left to
 
 264 ALASKA. 
 
 perish or drag out for years a most precarious and wrotclied 
 existence.''* 
 
 This gives a very fair idea of the manner in which the busi- 
 ness was conducted in the South Pacific. How long would our 
 sealing interests in Bering Sea withstand the attacks of such a 
 fleet of sixty vessels, carrying from twenty to thirty men eacli? 
 Not over two years. The fact that these great southern rook- 
 eries withstood and paid for attacks of this extensive character 
 during a period of over twenty years speaks eloquently of the 
 millions upon millions that must have existed in the waters now 
 almost deserted by them. 
 
 * Eobert Hainiltou, Amphibious Mamrualia, Edinburgh, 1839.
 
 ALASKA. "205 
 
 TDOUGUTS UPON POSSIBLE MOVEMENTS OF THE 
 EUR SEALS IN THE FUTUiJE. 
 
 As tliese animals live and breed upon tbe Prybilov Lslauds, 
 certain natural conditions of landing-ground and climate ap- 
 pear from my study of tbem to be necessary to tbeir existence 
 and perpetuation. From my surveys made upon tbe islands to 
 the uortb. Saint Matthew's and Saint Lawrence, and the authen- 
 tic corroborating testimony of those who have visited all of the 
 mainland-coast on our side as well as the islands adjacent, in- 
 cluding the Peninsula and the Aleutian Archipelago, 1 have 
 no hesitation in stating that the fur-seal cannot breed on any 
 other land than that now resorted to within our boundary-Hues; 
 the natural obstacles are insuperable. Therefore, so far as our 
 possessions extend, we have in the Prybilov group the only eli- 
 gible land on which the fur-seal can repair for breeding, and on 
 Saint Paul alone there' is still room enough vacant for the 
 accommodation of ten times as many as we find there now. 
 
 But we know that to the westward, and within the jurisdic- 
 tion of Russia, are two islands — one ver^' large — on which the 
 i'ur-seal regularly breeds also, and though, from the meager 
 testimony in our possession, we are told that it is in small num- 
 bers only, still, if the land be as suitable for the reception of 
 the rookeries as is that of Saint Paul, then what guarantee have 
 we that at some future time the seal-life on Copper and Be- 
 ring Islands may not be greatly augmented by a correspond- 
 ing diminution of our own with no other than natural causes 
 operating? Certainly, if the ground on either Copper or Be- 
 ring Island is as weli suited for the wants of the breeding fur- 
 seal as is that on Saint Paul, then I say that we may at any 
 time note a diminution here and find a corresponding augmen- 
 tation there, for I have clearly shown, in my chapter on the hab- 
 its of these animals, that they are not particularly attached to 
 the respective places of their birth, but that they land with 
 an instinctive appreciation of its fitness as a whole. The want 
 of definite knowledge in regard to the character of the Rus- 
 sian islands is a serious drawback to any correct generalization 
 as to the limit of migration, and they ought to be examined in- 
 telligently with this view, for if these Russian islands do not 
 present any considerable area of eligible breeding-ground as on 
 Saint Paul, then we know that they will never be resorted to
 
 266 ALASKA. 
 
 by auy great uuuibers of tbe fur-seal, not at least vrhile sa 
 much good rookery- ground on the American side is vacant as 
 is the case now. 
 
 If we, however, possess virtually all the best-situated ground, 
 then we can count upon retaining the s:eal-life as we now have 
 it, and in no other way; for it is not unlikely that some season 
 may occur when an immense number of the fur-seals which 
 have lived during the last four or five years on the Prybilov 
 Islands should be deflected from their usual feeding-range by 
 the shifting of schools of fish, &c., so as to biiug them around 
 quite close to the Asiatic seal-grounds in the spring, and the 
 scent from those rookeries would act as a powerful stimulant 
 for them to land there, where conditions for their breeding may 
 be as favorable as desired by them. Such being the case, this 
 diminution which we would notice on the Prybilov group Avould 
 be the great increase observed here, and not due to any mis- 
 management on the part of the men in charge of these inter- 
 ests. Thus it appears to me necessary that definite knowledge 
 concerning the Commander Islands and the Kuriles should 
 be possessed ; without it, I should not hesitate to say that any 
 report made by an agent of the Department as to a visible dim- 
 inution of the seal-life on the Prybilovs, due, in his opiniou, 
 to the effect of killing, as it is conducted, was without good 
 foundation ; that this diminution would have been noticed just 
 the same in all likelihood had there been no taking of seals at 
 all on the islands, and that the missing seals are more than 
 probably on the Kussian grounds. 
 
 If we find, however, that the character of this Eussian seal- 
 land is restricted to narrow beach-margins under bluffs, as at 
 Saint George, then we know that a great body of seals will never 
 attempt to land there when they could not do so without suffer- 
 ing, and therefore, with this correct understanding to start on, 
 we can then feel alarmed with good reason should we observe 
 a diminution to any noteworthy degree on Saint Paul. 
 
 T do not think, however, that we will be called upon to look 
 into this question for an indefinite time to come, though it may 
 come soon ; but the seals undoubtedly feed in systematic rou- 
 tine of travel from the time they leave the Prybilov Islands un- 
 til their return, and therefore, in all probability, unless the fish 
 ni3on which they feed suddenly become scarce in our waters on 
 soundings, they (the seals) will not change their base as mat-
 
 ALASKA. 267 
 
 tors now progress, but it cannot be considered superdnous to 
 call up this question for discussion and future thouglit. 
 
 In the mean time tbe movements of the seals upon the sev- 
 eral breeding-grounds of Saint Paul and Saint George should 
 be faithfully- noted and recorded every year, and the question of 
 their increase or diminution will be soon settled beyond all 
 theory or cavil. This action on the part of the Government 
 agent up there is of the first importance. The counting of the 
 skins is done alike twice over, by the company in the presence 
 of the natives, and then again in San Francisco by the custom- 
 house ofticials there, and henvy bonds and self-interest would 
 prevent any attempt at transgression of law, even if an ap- 
 parent chance was offered ; but the company is not bound to 
 submit a report every year to the Treasury Department upon 
 the condition of the seal-life there, and althongh it does take iu- 
 teUigent cognizance of this matter, still no weight could be at- 
 tached to any statement that it might make, for the simple rea- 
 son of the cry that would be raised of interested machination 
 if so done. 
 
 AN ACT to prevent the extermiuutiou of fiu-beariug animals in Alaska. 
 
 Be it enacted hi/ the Senate and House of Rcpresentatii'es of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be 
 unlawful to kill any fur-seal upon the islands of Saint Paul's 
 and Saint George's, or in the waters adjacent thereto, except 
 during the months of June, July, September, and October, iu 
 each year ; and it shall be unlawful to kill such seals at any 
 time by the use of- fire-arms, or use other means tending ta 
 drive the seals away from said islands : Provided, That the 
 natives of said islands shall have the privilege of killing such 
 young seals as may be necessary for their own food and cloth- 
 ing during other months, and also such old seals as may be 
 required for their own clothing and for the manufacture of boats 
 for their own use, wbich killing shall be limited and controlled 
 by such regulations as shall be prescribed by the Secretary of 
 the Treasury. 
 
 Sec. 2. And he it further enacted, That it shall be unlawful to 
 kill anv female seal, or anv seal less than one year old, at any 
 season of the year, except as above provided ; and it shall also 
 be unlawful to kill any seal in the waters adjacent to said 
 islands, or on the beaches, clilts, or rocks where they haul up 
 from the sta to renmin ; and any person who shall violate
 
 268 ALASKA. 
 
 either of the provisions of this or the first section of this act, 
 shall be punished on conviction thereof, for each ofiense, by a 
 fine of not less than two hundred dollars nor more than one 
 thousand dollars, or by imprisouiuent not exceeding six months, 
 or by both such fine and imprisonment at the discretion of the 
 court having jurisdiction and taking cognizance of the offense ; 
 and all vessels, their tackle, apparel, and furniture, whose 
 crew shall be found engaged in the violation of any of the pro- 
 visions of this act, shall be forfeited to the United States. 
 
 Sec. 3. And he it further enacted, That for the period of 
 twenty years from and after the passage of this act the number 
 of fur-seals which maybe killed for their skins upon the island 
 of Saint Paul's is hereby limited and restricted to seventy-five 
 thousand per annum ; and the number of fur-seals which may 
 be killed for their skins upon the island of Saint George's is 
 hereby limited and restricted to twenty-five thousand per an- 
 num : Provided, That the Secretary of the Treasury may restrict 
 and limit the right of killing, if it shall become necessary for the 
 l)reservation of such seals, with such proportionate reduction 
 of the rents reserved to the Government as shall be right and 
 proper ; and if any person shall knowingly violate either of the 
 provisions of this section, he shall, upon due conviction thereof, 
 be punished in the same way as is provided herein for a viola- 
 tion of the provisions of the first and second sections of this 
 act. 
 
 Sec. 4. And be it further enacted, That immediately after the 
 passage of this act the Secretary of the Treasury shall lease, for 
 the rental mentioned in section 6 of this act, to proper and 
 responsible i^arties, to the best advantage of the United States, 
 having due regard to the interests of the Government, the 
 native inhabitants, the parties heretofore engaged in the trade, 
 and the protection of the seal-fis'heries, for a term of twenty 
 years from the 1st day of May, 1870, the right to engage in the 
 business of taking fur-seals on the islands of Saint Paul's and 
 Saint George's, and to send a vessel or vessels to said islands 
 for the skins of such seals, giving to the lessee or lessees of said 
 islands a lease duly executed, in duplicate, not transferable, 
 and taking from the lessee or lessees of said islands a bond, 
 with sufficient sureties, in a sum not less than 8500,000, condi- 
 tional for the faithful observance of all the laws and re<iuirements 
 of Congress and of the regulations of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury touching the subjecjt-matter of taking fur-seals and 
 disposing of the same, and for the payment of all taxes and
 
 ALASKA. 2G9 
 
 dues accruing to tbe Uuited States connected therewith. And 
 in making said lease the Secretary of the Treasury shall have 
 due regard to the preservation of the seal-fur trade of said 
 islands, and the comfort, maintenance, and education of the 
 natives thereof. The said lessees shall furnish to the several 
 masters of vessels employed by them certified copies of the 
 lease held by them, respectively, which shall be presented to 
 the Government revenue- officer for the time being who may be 
 in cliarge at the said islands, as the authority of the party for 
 landing and taking skins. 
 
 Sec. 5. And be it further enacted, That at the expiration of 
 said term of twenty years, or on surrender or forfeiture of any 
 lease, other leases may be made in manner as aforesaid for 
 other terms of twenty years ; but no persons other than Ameri- 
 can citizens shall bo permitted, by lease or otherwise, to occupy 
 said islands, or either of them, for the purpose of taking the 
 skins of fur-seals therefrom, nor shall any foreign vessel be en- 
 gaged in taking such skins ; and the Secretary of the Treasury 
 shall vacate and declare any lease forfeited if the same be held 
 or operated for the use, benefit, or advantage, directly or indi- 
 rectly, of any person or persons other than American citizens. 
 Every lease shall contain a covenant on the part of the lessee 
 that he will not keep, sell, furnish, give, or dispose of any dis- 
 tilled spirits or spirituous liquors on either of said islands to 
 any of the patives thereof, such person not being a physician 
 and furnishing the same for use as medicine ; and any person 
 who shall kill any fur-seal on either of said islands, or in the 
 waters adjacent thereto, (excepting natives as provided b}' this 
 act,) without authority of the lessees thereof, and any person 
 ■who shall molest, disturb, or interfere with said lessees, or 
 either of them, or their agents or employes in the lawful i)rose- 
 cution of their business, under the provisions of this act, shall 
 be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall for each offense^ 
 on conviction thereof, be punished in the same way and by like 
 penalties as prescribed in the second section of this act ; and all 
 vessels, their tackle, apparel, appurtenances, and cargo, whose 
 crews shall be found engaged in any violation of either of the 
 provisions of this section, shall be forfeited to the United 
 States : and if any person or company, under any lease herein 
 authorized, shall knowingly kill, or permit to be killed, any 
 number of seals exceeding the number for each island in this 
 act prescribed, such person or company shall, in addition to 
 the penalties and forfeitures aforesaid, also forfeit the whole
 
 270 ALASKA. 
 
 number of tbe skiDS of seals killed in that year, or, in case 
 the same have been disposed of, then said person or company 
 shall forfeit tbe value of tbe same. And it sball be tbe 
 duty of any revenue-officer, officially acting as such on either of 
 said islands, to seize and destroy any distilled spirits or spiritu- 
 ous liquors found thereon : Provided, That such officer shall 
 make detailed report of bis doings to tbe collector of tbe port. 
 
 Sec. G. And be it further enacted, That tbe annual rental to 
 be reserved by said lease sball be not less than §50,000 per 
 annum, to be secured by deposit of United States bonds to that 
 amount, and in addition hereto a revenue tax or duty of two 
 dollars is hereby laid upon each fur-seal skin taken and shipped 
 from said islands during tbe continuance of such lease, to bo 
 paid into the Treasury of tbe United States ; and tbe Secretary 
 of tbe Treasury is hereby empowered and authorized to make 
 all needful rules and regulations for tbe collection and payment 
 of the same, for the comfort, maintenance, education, and pro- 
 tection of tbe natives of said islands, and also for carrying into 
 full effect all the provisions of this act : Provided furtker. That 
 the Secretary of tbe Treasury may terminate any lease given to 
 any person, company, or coiporatiou, on full and satisfactory 
 proof of the violation of any of the provisions of this act or tbe 
 rules and regulations established by him : Provided further, 
 That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized to 
 deliver to the owners the fur-seal skins now stored on the 
 islands, on tbe payment of one dollar for each of said skins 
 taken and shipped away by said owners. 
 
 Sec. 7. And he it further enacted, That the provisions of tbe 
 seventh and eighth sections of an act entitled "An act to ex- 
 tend tbe laws of tbe United States relating to customs, com- 
 merce, and navigation over the territory ceded to tbe United 
 States by Rnssia, to establish a collection district therein, and 
 for other i^urposes," approved July 27, 1808, shall be deemed 
 to apply to this act ; and all prosecutions for off'enses com- 
 mitted against the provisions of this act, and all other pro- 
 ceedings bad because of tbe violations of the provisions of 
 this act, and which are authorized by said act above men- 
 tioned, shall be in accordance with tbe provisions thereof; and 
 all acts and i>nrts of acts inconsistent with the i)rovisions of 
 this act are hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 8. And he it further enacted, That tbe Congress may 
 at any time hereafter alter, amend, or repeal this act. 
 
 Ai)proved, July 1, 1870.
 
 ALASKA. 271 
 
 BY-LAWS OF THE ALASKA COMMERCIAL COMPAQ V, 
 SxVN Fit A^' CISCO, CALIFOltXIA. 
 
 I. The corporate name of tbis company is the Alaska Com- 
 mercial Company, and its aflairs are under the control of live 
 trustees, who shall hereafter be chosen by the stockholders 
 of the company on the second Wednesday of June in each year, 
 and who shall hold office until their successors are elected. 
 The annual meetings of the stockholders shall be held at the 
 office of the company. At all elections of trustees by the stock- 
 holders each stockholder shall be entitled to one vote for every 
 share of stock held by him on the books of the company. 
 Stockholders may vote by proxy. All proxies shall be signed 
 by the party owning the stock represented. 
 
 II. The principal place of business of the company is San 
 Francisco, California. 
 
 III. The regular meetings of the board of trustees will be 
 lieid at the office of the company on the first Weduesday in 
 each month, at 12 o'clock m., and no notice of such meeting to 
 any of the trustees shall be requisite. Other meetiugs of the 
 board of trustees may be held upon the call of the president, 
 by notice, signed by him, of the time and place of meeting, 
 personally served on each trustee residing within this State, or 
 published in a newspaper of general circulation in San Fran- 
 cisco for ten days successively next preceding the day of such 
 meeting. Special meetings may be held upon notice, signed 
 by three trustees, stating the time and place of meeting, and 
 the purpose for which the meeting is called, having been duly 
 served on each trustee, or published in a newspaper of general 
 circulation in San Francisco for ten days successively next pre- 
 ceding the day of meeting, and no business other than that 
 specified in the notice shall be transacted at such special meet- 
 ing. At all meetings of the board any three of the trustees 
 being present shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of 
 the business of the company. Adjourned meetings may be 
 held in pursuance of a resolution of the board adopted at any 
 regular or general meeting of the board. Any three trustees 
 elected at any annual meeting of the stockholders of the com- 
 panj', and being present at the close of such stoi^kliolders' meet- 
 ing, may, on the same day, without notice to any of the trustees, 
 meet and organize the board by the election of officers, and
 
 272 ALASKA. 
 
 may transact such other hiisiuessas may come before the board 
 at such meeting. 
 
 IV. The officers of the company shall consist of a president^ 
 a vice-president, and a secretary, who shall be chosen by the 
 board of trustees at their first meeting after the annual elec- 
 tion of trustees ; such officers to hold office one year, or until 
 their successors are elected. 
 
 V. The president, or in his absence the vice-president, shall 
 preside at the meetings of the board. In case neither are pres- 
 ent, the board may appoint a president j^ro tempore. 
 
 VI. All vacancies in the board may be filled by the board at 
 the next meeting after the existence of such vacancy, and it 
 shall require the affirmative vote of three trustees to elect. In 
 case of any vacancy occurring among the officers or agents of 
 the company, the same may be filled at any meeting of the 
 board. 
 
 VII. All certifi(:ates of the capital stock of the company 
 shall be signed by the president and secretary, attested by 
 the corporate seal of the comiiauy, and can be issued to the 
 parties entitled thereto or their authorized agent. All trans- 
 fers of stock shall be made on the books of the company b^' 
 the secretary, upon surrender of the original certificate or cer- 
 tificates, properly indorsed by the party in whose favor the 
 same was issued. No stock shall be transferred to an^- person 
 not a stockholder of the company at the time of such transfer, 
 unless the same shall have been offered for sale to the com- 
 pany, or stockholders of the company, and the purchase at the 
 fair cash or market value refused, except by authority of a 
 resolution of the board of trustees permitting such transfer. 
 
 VIII. The corporate seal of the company consists of a die of 
 the following words : "xUaska Commercial Company, San 
 Francisco, California." 
 
 IX. The corporate seal, and all property, securities, inter- 
 ests, and business of the company, shall be under the control 
 and general management of the president, subject to the di- 
 rection of the board of trustees. The funds of the company 
 shall be deposited (from time to time, as they are received) to 
 the credit of the company, with a bank doing business in San 
 Francisco, to be designated by the president, and the said funds 
 can be drawn from such bank only by proper checks or drafts, 
 signed by the president or vice-president of the company. The 
 books of the company shall be kept by the secretary, who shall
 
 ALASKA. 273 
 
 also keep a correct record of all the i)rocecdiiigsof the board 
 of trustees had at their meetings, aud perforin such other 
 duties as the board of trustees may require. 
 
 X. The pay and salaries of all officers of the company shall 
 be determined, from time to time, by the board of trustees. 
 
 XI. The president of the company shall have power to ap- 
 point and employ such general business agents, factors, attor- 
 neys, clerks, and other employes as he may deem proper and 
 requisite for conducting- the business and affairs of the com- 
 pany ; and he shall fix the pay, commissions, or salaries of all 
 such agents, factors, attorneys, clerks, and other employes, 
 from time to time, as circumstances shall require. 
 
 XII. All transfers of the capital stock of this company made 
 to persons not citizens of the United States, or made for the 
 use or benefit of any citizen or citizens of any foreign govern- 
 ment, are absolutely void. 
 
 XIII. Dividends from the net profits of the company may 
 be declared and paid by order of the board of trustees, in ac- 
 cordance with law. 
 
 XIV. These by-laws may be altered or amended by the 
 board of trustees in the manner prescribed by law. 
 
 18 AL
 
 274 ALASKA. 
 
 KEGULATIONS. 
 
 Office Alaska Commercial Company, 
 
 San Francisco, January, 1872 
 The following regulations are prescribed for the guidance of 
 all concerned : 
 
 1. The general management of the company's affairs on the 
 islands of Saint Paul's and Saint George's is intrusted to one 
 general agent, whose lawful orders and directions must be im- 
 l)licitly obeyed by all subordinate agents and employes. 
 
 2. Seals can only be taken on the islands during the months 
 of June, July, September, and October in each year, except 
 those killed by the native inhabitants, for food and clothing, 
 under regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Female seals and seals less than one year old will not be 
 killed at any time, and the killing of seals in the waters sur- 
 rounding the islands, or on or about the rookeries, beaches, 
 cliffs, or rocks, where they haul up from the sea to remain, or 
 by the use of firearms, or any other means tending to drive 
 the seals away from the islands, is expressly forbidden. 
 
 3. The use of fire-arms on the islands, during the period from 
 the first arrival of ^eals in the spring-season until they dis- 
 appear from the islands in autumn, is prohibited. 
 
 4. No dogs will be permitted on the islands. 
 
 5. No person will be permitted to kill seals for their skins 
 on the islands, except under the supervision and authority of 
 the agents of the company. 
 
 G. No vessels other than those employed by the company, w 
 A'essels of the United States, will be permitted to touch at the 
 islands, or to land any persons or merchandise thereon, except 
 in cases of shipwreck or vessels in distress. 
 
 7. The number of seals which may be annually killed for 
 their skins on Saint Paul's Island is limited to seventy-five 
 thousand, and the number which may be so killed on Saint 
 George's Island is limited to twenty-five thousand. 
 
 8. No persons other than American citizens, or the Aleutian 
 inhabitants of said islands, will be employed by the company 
 on the islands in any capacity.
 
 ALASKA. 275 
 
 9. The Aleutian people living on the islands will be em- 
 ployed by the company in taking seals for their skins, and 
 
 they will be paid for the labor of taking each skin and deliver- 
 ing the same at the salt-house forty cents, coin, until otherwise 
 
 ordered by the Secretary of the Treasury. For other labor per- 
 formed for the company, proper and remunerative wages will be 
 paid, the amount to be agreed upon between the agents of the 
 company and the persons employed. The working-parties will 
 be under the immediate control of their own chiefs, and no 
 compulsory means will ever be used to induce the people to 
 labor. All shall be free to labor or not, as they may choose. 
 The agents of the company will make selection of the seals to 
 be killed, and are authorized to use all proper means to pre- 
 vent the cutting of skins. 
 
 10. All provisions and merchandise required by the inhabit- 
 ants for legitimate use will be furnished them from the com- 
 pany's stores, at prices not higher than ordinary retail prices 
 at San Francisco, and in no case at prices above 25 per cent, 
 advance on wholesale or invoice prices in San Francisco. 
 
 11. The necessary supplies of fuel, oil, and salmon will be 
 furnished the people gratis. 
 
 12. All widows and orphan children on the islands will be 
 supported by the company. 
 
 13. The landing or manufacture on the islands of spirituous 
 or intoxicating liquors or wines will under no circumstances be 
 permitted by the company, and the preparation and use of fer- 
 mented liquors by the inhabitants must be discouraged in every 
 legitimate manner. 
 
 14. Free transportation and subsistence on the company's 
 vessels will be furnished all people, who at any time desire to 
 remove from the islands to any place in the Aleutian group of 
 islands. 
 
 15. Free schools will be maintained by the company eight 
 months in each year, four hours per day, Sundays and holidays 
 excepted, and agents and teachers will endeavor to secure the 
 attendance of all. The company will furnish the necessary 
 books, stationery, and other appliances for the use of the schools 
 without cost to the people. 
 
 16. The physicians of the company are required to faithfully 
 attend upon the sick, and both medical attendance and medi- 
 cines shall be free to all persons on the islands ; and the ac-
 
 276 ALASKA. 
 
 ceptance of gratuities from the people for such services is for- 
 bidden. 
 
 17. The dwelling-houses now being erected by the company, 
 will be occupied by the Aleutian families, free of rent or other 
 charges. 
 
 18. No interference on the part of agents or emj)loy^s of the 
 company, in the local government of the people on the islands, 
 or in their social or domestic relations, or in their religious rites 
 or ceremonies, will be countenanced or tolerated. 
 
 19. It is strictly enjoined upon all agents and employes of 
 the company to at all times treat the inhabitants of the islands 
 with the utmost kindness, and endeavor to preserve amicable 
 relations with them. Force is never to be used against them, 
 except in defense of life, or to prevent the wanton destruction 
 of valuable property. The agents and employes of the com- 
 pany are expected to instruct the native people in household 
 economy, and, by precept and example, illustrate to them the 
 principles and benefits of a higher civilization. 
 
 20. Faithful and strict compliance with all the provisions and 
 obligations contained in the act of Congress entitled "An act 
 to prevent the extermination of fur-bearing animals in Alaska," 
 approved July 1, 1870, and the obligations contained in the 
 lease to the company executed in pursuance of said act, and 
 the regulations of the Secretary of the Treasury, i)rescribed 
 under authority of said act, is especially enjoined upon all 
 agents and employes of the company. The authority of the 
 special agents of the Treasury appointed to reside upon the 
 islands must be respected, whenever lawfully exercised. The 
 interest of the company in the management of the seal-fisher- 
 ies being identical in character with that of the United States, 
 there can be no conflict between the agents of the company 
 and the agents of the Government, if all concerned faithfully 
 perform their several duties and comply with the laws and reg- 
 ulations. 
 
 21. The general agent of the company will cause to be kept 
 books of record on each island, in which shall be recorded the 
 names and ages of all the inhabitants of the islands, and, from 
 time to time, all births, marriages, and deaths which may occur 
 on the islands, stating, in cases of death, the causes of the 
 same. A full transcript of these records will be annually for- 
 warded to the home office at San Francisco. 
 
 22. Copies of these regulations will be kept constantly posted
 
 ALASKA. 277 
 
 in conspicuous places ou both islands, and any willful violation 
 of the same by the agents or employes of the company will be 
 followed by the summary removal of the offending party. 
 
 JOHN F. MILLER, 
 President Alaslca Commercial Company. 
 
 Note. — Sections 2 and 7 of the above regulations were based upon the 
 law of July 1, 1870; but since then Congress has given the Secretary of the 
 Treasury the power to fix the ratio for each island upon a more intelligent 
 understanding of the subject — and also to extend the time for taking from 
 the 1st of June up to the 15th of August. — H. W. E.
 
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