^ ^ ^ "^ g i .# %13DNV'S0V^ %a3AiNamv* r? -:3 5 i^ %a3AiNn-3WV^ ^tUBRARYQ/r ^, 33 ^OJIIVJJO-^ i? ^llIBRARYQr 1 <*^ ( ^ < m 50 ^«!/OillVJJO^ t o S ;nc uirc '% -r,* r^- CO' -3. %a3AINf)-3\\v .U-J > ^OF CAIIFO/?/!^ ^, C3 ^ ^ £?" ■^^AdVMll'l^ C3 ^\U•UNIVERV^ cxz. < .^ ^\-lOSANCElfj> o " n s. *^- %a3AiNa-3WV^ CO >• -< <, (_:. uj ,~^OF-CAIIFO%, ^UEUNIVERS/A ^CAaVMIl-# ^TiiJONVSOl^"^ %^3AINn3\\V s^ f vr. ^V^OSANCElfx^ CO > <3: ) ^^^t•L!BRARY^^ tr 5 ■%a3AINfl-3^V^ ^.^OJIIVO JO"^ ^vMUBRARY^r >- < .VtOSANr,El£r^ 0.OFCALIFOP4A Or O ..% f\ /O. s .A;OFCA[IF0% > o >- < ^ 3» ;53 -< O u- 55 to .^X\l-1?BRA?>Y6?^ >* ;=3 :^l-UBRARYQc. 30 4r) %0J11V3-J0^ %0:inV3-JO-^ ^ SV '■'■^1% >T1 CSC .^;OF-CAIIFO% (^ ^4 ^ ' ^ ?7 •i^ ^ ^yommn-i'^ . , '' ' O CD %a3AINn-3V\V :^ ^VlOSANCElfj^ C -n ,<— I O d- DO > ^A "^mum-i^^ 3 **j A^^lLIBRARYOc ^ 33 Sri 5^ ^lOSANCElfj-^ -r, O A ,-.■•■" r^ CO 1>- .^OFCAIIFO/?^;. ^OfCAllFOto ii CD ANTHON'S SERIES OF CLASSICAL WORKS FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. From H. Humphrey, D.D., Presi- dent of Amherst College, at Am- herst, Mass. 1 am very happy to see that you have undertaken to furnish uniform editions of the Latin classics for the use of our grammar schools and higher seminaries of learning. Professor Anthon deserves and will receive the thatiks of the public for the labour which he has so judicious- ly and successfully bestowed upon Sal- lust, Cassar, and Cicero. The explan- atory notes or commentaries are more co- pious and comprehensive than those of any other edition I have seen, ayid much 'tetter adapted to the wants of yoang stu- dents. Among the most valuable oj these notes are those which divert atten- tion to the beautiful uses of the moods and tenses, and explain the delicate shades of meaning and peculiar beauties that depend upon them, which our lan- guage often expresses imperfectly and with difficulty, and which young learn- ers rarely regard. The explanations of the force and meaning of the particles are also very useful. The historical, geographical, and oth- er hidexes are also ki'j:hly valuable, fur- nishing the student, as they do, with fe- licitous illustrations of the text, andmuch general information. The text seems to be settled loith much care and ability. The editions adopted as the basis or referred to as authority are those in the highest repute among scholars. The typographical execution is very fine, and this is a high merit. The wretched reprints of foreign editions of the classics, got up in cheap offices, on wretched paper, with incompetent proofreaders and no editors, to which, until within a very few years, our stu- dents have been universally condernned, have, by taking them young, been as successful innuiking them uncertain and inaccurate scholars as if that had been one of the main objects of the publishers. School books of all kinds, instead of be- ing the worst (as they often are), should be the 7nost carefully printed books we have. H. Humphrey. From the Rt. Rev. Bishop M'Il- VAiNE, President of Kenyon Col- lege, at Gambler, Ohio. I anticipate the greatest benefits to our schools and colleges from the admirable edition of the classics ivhich you are now publishing, under the superintendence and illustrated by the copious and learn- ed notes of Professor Anthon. What your accomjtlishcd editor has aimed at in his Horace, Ccesar, and other volumes of the series, few can have been much connected with classical institutions in this country xcilhout lear7dng to be pre- cisely the one needful thing to their stu- dents. The object is most satisfactorily attained. The needed books wc have, so far as your series has yet been pub- lished ; and as to what are yet to come, ive have learned from what we have, if I ■may use the words of one of your authors, qua3-a summa virtute sumnKjque in- genio expectanda sunt, expectare. Wishing you the most abundant encour- agement in your important enterprise, I remain your obedient servant, Ch.\s. p. M'Ilv.\ine. From William A. Duer, LL.D., President of Columbia College, in the City of New-York. From the manner in which this under- taking has been so fur executed, as well as from the established character and reputation of Professor Anthon as a scholar, his experience as an instructer, and the accuracy and judgment previous- ly evinced by him as an editor and com- mentator, I can entertain no doubt of the success of the enterprise, so far as his editorial labours and your own skill and experience as publishers ari concerned ; and I trust that, from the iiicreasing value of classical studies in the estima- tion of the public, this judicious and spir- ited effort to facilitate and promote so im- portant a branch of education will be duly appreciated and liberally rewarded. I remain, gentlemen. Your obedient servant, W. A. Duer. anthon's series op classical works. Letters of Recommendation — continued. From the Rev. B. P. Aydelott, President of the Woodward Col- lege, at Cincinnati, Ohio. From some personal acquaintance, but much more from general reputation, I formed a very high opinion of Professor Anthons abilities to prepare a fall series of Latin and Greek Classics for the use of schools, colleges, <^-c. Accord- ingly, as soon as I could obtain the va- rious authors edited by him, I procured them, and, upon a careful examination, was so impressed with their supjerior character, as to introduce tliem as fast as possible into the different departments of the institution under my charge. The various Delphiii editions are very good,so far as ancient geography, mythol- ogy, usages, 4'C-, are concerned ; but in respect to critical remarks and grammat- ical illustrations they are of little worth ; they were, in gewral, however, the best we had. BvX besides being abundantly full and clear in everything archaeological, Pro- fessor Anthon has done more, in the editions of the classical authors prepared by him, to unfold the grammatical struc- ture, and thus throw light upon the mean- ing and spirit of the original, than any other commeutatur whom I have consult- ed. It is a striking, and, I think, de- cisive, proof of their superiority, that the students show in their recitations that they have read his notes and profit- ed by them, which they never seemed to me to have done when using other edi- tions. Some time ago I commenced a careful collation of the Greek Grnmniar of the same author with those of Butmann, Val- py, kSj-c, making full notes as I went along, with the design of preparing a re- view of it at the request of the editor of an extensively circulated periodical, and such xvas my conviction of its peculiar fitness fur the use of schools, that I have since recommended no other to our pu- pils. J would add that the neatness and taste with which Professor Anthon's classics are got up {though they are far cheaper than the Delphin editions) ought to form no small recomme7idation of them. Our students purchase, study, and preserve them with manifest pleas- ure ; and whatever has these effects upon the pupil, will certainly do much to pro- mote the cause of sound and thorough classical learning, B. P. AVDELOTT. From the Rev. J. S. Tomlinson, ' D.D., President of Augusta Col- lege, Kentucky. / take this opportunity to acknowledge the receipt {some time since) of four vol- umes of the Classical Series of Profes- sor Anthon of New- York ; and, after a careful examination of them, I can truly say that I am more than pleased ; I am delighted with them. The avowed object of the publication, that of furnish- ing accurate and uniform editions of all the classical authors used in colleges and schools, is one that, in myjudgmeyit, has long been a desideratum in literature, and I am gratified to -find is about to be accomplished, especially by one so entire- ly equal to the task as Professor An- thon has shown himself to be. The biographical sketches, commen- taries, and annotations with which the volumes are accompanied, while they re- flect great credit upon the erudition and research of the author, cannot fail to en- hance to the student, in a high degree, the attractions and value of classical reading. As an evidence of the estim ate we place upon the series, we have hither- to used it as far as it was attainable, and shall, with great pleasure, avail ourselves of the opportunity now afforded to adopt the whole of it. Allow vie to add. that the neat, tasteful, and, at the same time, substantial style of the niechanical exe- cution of the work, fully sustains the well-earned reputation, in that respect, of the enterprising establishment wlience it emanates. Respectfully, Your obedient servant, , J. S. TOMLINSOiY. From Alonzo Church, P.D., Pres- ident of the University of Georgia. As far as time and a press of busi- ness would permit, I have examined these volumes, and am much pleased with them. They are, I think, well adapted to the wants of, particularly, young students, and mil, I doubt not, furnish what has long been a desidera- tum in our preparatory schools, viz., cheap, yet correct editions of the common classics, accompanied with judicious English notes. I do not hesitate to say that, U'ere I engaged in giving in- struction to youth from these authors, I should prefer the editions of Professor Anthon to any xvhich 1 have seen. A. Church. anthon's series op classical works. Letters of Recommendation — continued. From Ihe Rev. M. Hopkins, D.D., President of Williams' College, at Williamstown, Mass. Professor Anthon has unquestionably done much service to the cause of clas- sical learning in this country by his edi- tions of the Latin classics, given to the public with unusual accuracy and ele- gance from your press. His Satlust. CcBsar, and Cicero cannot fail to find their way iyito very extensive use, and to render the entrance upon classical studies much more invitirig and profitable. M. Hopkins. From Wilbur Fisk, D.D., Presi- dent of the Wesleyan Umversity, at Middletown, Conn. / ain highly gratified to notice that you have commenced a series of the clas- sics under the editorial supervision of that accomplished scholar, Professor Anthon of Columbia College. No man in our country is better qualified for this office than Professor Anthon. To show m what estimation he is held in. England as a classical scholar, it jieed only be known that an edition of his " Horace'" has been published in London, a?id the publishers informed me that the entire edi- tion had met with a ready sale ; showing that, notwithstanding the numerous edi- tions of this standard work by the first scholars in England, the credit of the work by our Ainerican scholar had car- ledr it successfully through the English market, and that, too, by virtueof its in- trinsic merit. Your cditio7is of his Cae- sar, Cicero, and Sallust are now before me, and show that there is no falVmg off from the reputation of the edition of Hor- ace. The copious notes and commenta- ries cannot fail to shed a flood of light uponthemiiidofthe young student, and will co>itnbute much, I trust, to foster in the rising generation of scholars a taste for the ancient classics. Wilbur Fisk. From Silas Totten, D.D., Presi- dent of Washington College. The volumes which I have examined I entirely approve, and think them better adapted to the purposes of classical in- struction than anij edition of the same authors yet published in this country. The well-known ability of the learned editor admits no doubt of the excellence of the volumes yet to be puhli.shed. S. ToTTEN. From the President and Faculty of Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio. These three volumes, enriched by a copious and valuable apparatus of crit- ical notes, and judiciously arranged his- torical, geographical, archceological, and legal matters, furnished by so ripe a scholar as Dr. Anthon, are specimens well calculated to recommend ihe series of which they are the commencement. They are well adapted to promote thor- ough classical learning, and are entitled to a high grade of popular favour. By order of the Faculty, R. H. Bishop, President. From RuFus Babcock, Jr., D.D., late President of WaterviUe Col- lege, in Maine. / have examined luith considerable care, and with high and unmingled sat- isfaction, your recent edition of Profes- sor Anthon's Latin Classics. The dis- tinguished editor of Horace has rightly judged, that in order to elevate the range and standard of scholarship in this coun- try, it is requisite to facilitate the thor- ough acquisition of those elementary tert-books which are usually first put into the hands of pupils. By the beau- tiful volumes which you have now given to the public from his pen, more has bee-n done to inake the student thoroughly ac- quainted with those three prime authors, Ca:sar, Salkist, and Cicero, than by any other helps within my knowledge. I need not minutely specify the various points of excellence by which these books are distinguished, their practical value will immediately be appreciated by teach- ers and learners. Alloiu me, gentlemen, to tender, through you, my hearty tJianks to Pro- fessor Anthon for the very valuable ser- vice he has performed in aid of the great cause of classical learning. May he continue his labours for the public good. RuFus Babcock, .Ik. UZP Highly complimentary letters have also been received Iroiu Jere- miah Day, I) D., President of Yale College ; from Josiah Quincv, LL.D., President of Cambridge Col- lege ; and from several other distin- guisiied scholars, some of which will be published hereafter. anthon's series of classical works. Commendatory Notices — continued. " The great problem in the art of teaching is, that the teaclier should forget that he knows himself what he is teaching toothers ; should remem- ber that what is clear as day to him is all Cimmerian darkness to his pu- pil. This problem, long since proved, Professor Anthon has, in our opinion, been the first to put in practice ; and, in consequence, his are, we may well believe, the best classbooks ex- tant." — Knickerbocker Magazine. "To relieve the youthful mind from this bootless burden we count no small praise. We hold it, indeed, to be among the noblest ends to which true learning can ever de- vote itself. We are sure it never ap- pears more pleasing than in such con- descension , and, what is still better, we know no labour more useful to the community. This meed of praise, whatever il be, belongs unquestiona- bly to no scholar on this side of the Atlantic, and to few on the other, more truly than to Professor An- thon." — Church Quarterly Review. "In all these points Profes- sor Anthon's schoolbooks— if it be not a sin to caH those schoolbooks which clever men might study to advantage— are surpassmgly excel- lent and able ; while exercising the most painfully critical research, he has not disdained the lucidus ordo ; he has remembered that he was wri- ting for the education of the young unpractised mind, not for the culti- vation of the ripe and ornate intellect ; and hence, while his English notes, whether critical or explanatory, are as copious and comprehensive as the most abstruse commentary, they are, at the same time, so simple and so luminous as to be within the scope of the earliest and feeblest reason. .... We have only to say in conclu- sion, that every school ought at once to adopt this series of works, which may, *n truth, be looked upon as in- troducing a new era into the educa- tion of our country, and as reflecting much honour on the talent of the learned professor by whom they were prepared."— ilmeriC(i?i Monthly Mag- azine. " They go beyond any of the ele- mentary works printed here, which is saying a great deal."' — Boston Ad- vocate. " Mr. Anthon is essentially aid- ing the acquisition of the ancient tongues ; and we trust that he will enjoy all the success which his val- uable labours so justly merit." — Christian Intelligencer. . ..." So correct in text, so elab- orate in commentaries, so vastly su- perior, in clearness, depth, and vari- ety of information, to any which have gone before, that no man, however thoroughly imbued with-classic lore, has any right to consider these admi- rable works beneath his notice, or suited only to the half-formed intel- lect of young beginners." — Christian Advocate and Journal. " Teachers owe an incalculable debt of gratitude to this accomplish- ed and patriotic scholar, for the mas- terly and successful effort that he has made to put them in possession of the means of raising themselves and pupilsto a high standardofschol- arship. He has laid a sure Ibunda- tion, on which, with ordinary labour, they may rear a superstructure that will throw its shadow across the At- lantic waves, and win for America the veneration of those who have hith- erto looked to us as moving sluggish- ly on in the paths of Grecian and Ro- man literature." — Family Magazine. " Professor Anthon deserves the thanks of the country for the zeal with which he has undertaken, and the ability with which he has thus far ex- ecuted, his task." — Rochester Repub- lican. " This is a beautiful edition, with very valuable notes, by a hand every way competent. It forms a most valuable addition to the stock of useful classics published by the Har- pers." — N. Y. Ajnerican. " As a philologist and a classical scholar, Professor Anthon has no su- perior in the United States : and his schoolbooks are deservedly popular, both in England and in this country." — iV. i''. Times. " On this side of the Atlantic at least, and to some extent beyond it, Professor Anthon is equally known as admirably qualified to edit and en- rich a version of the classics for our own times and the higher seminaries of learning now so thickly scattered through our country." — The New- Yorker. anthon's series of classical works. Commendatory Notices — continued. " To all classes— the matures! scholar and the merest tyro, the man of elegant and easy learning and the laborious student — these admirable works will prove a most invaluable acquisition." — Commercial Advertiser. " The profound scholar under whose supervision these excellent works are put forth to the world is as well known on the Continent of Europe as he is on our own shores ; and is, perhaps, theonly son of Amer- ica who has ever attained that de- gree of fame for classical attainments which should constitute him an au- thority second, if second, only to the great names of Knglisli or of German criticism — the Heynes and Bruncks, the Elmsleys and the Porsons, and the Bentleys, who have devoted so much time and labour to minute in- vestigation and clear exposition of the great works of old." — N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. . . . . " The notes are all that notes can be ; copious but not diffuse, learned but not pedantic, luminous, and replete with varied and most en- tertaining knowledge." — N. Y. Even- ing Star. . . . . " The production of a learn- ed philologist, and one of the sound- est classical scholars of the age, and one who, to his learned researches, adds the qualification of a most suc- cessful practical teacher. No stu- dent can listen to him without admi- ration and advantage To this high praise his editions of the clas- sics bear ample testimony ; and, judg- ing from the experience and opinions of educated men in our country, and particularly in Europe, we have no fear that their claims will not be ad- mitted and awarded to him when once clearly and thoroughly under- stood."— 0/ieida Whig. " The series of classical school- books published under the superin- tendence of Professor Anthon has al- ready obtained a celebrity to which our own commendation would add little extension. These works all appear to be collated and edited with unusual care, and they are published in a style of elegance too rarely char- acterizing our schoolbooks, in which it is important that the eye and the taste, as well as the understanding, should be allured." — N. Y. Mirror. " There are few scholars in the civilized world, comparatively speak- ing, possessed of the critical acumen and deep insight into the minutiaj of the Greek language, which alone could enable them to produce the matter with which the pages of these admirable works are stored : there are still fewer who, possessing the requisite degree of knowledge, are at the same time gifted with the tact and skill in the science of education which are so eminently visible in their manner." — N. Y. Express. " The high character of Professor Anthon's scholarship, and the uni- versal favour with which his books of elementary classics have been re- ceived, render any other notice than an announcement of their publica- tion unnecessary. The present vol- ume exhibits the same untiring re- search, and the same accurate learn- ing which have characterized all his labours."- iV. Y. Gazette. " There is a very prevalent and very mistaken idea current, that schoolbooks are, for the most part, mere compilations. Truly good schoolbooks are the most difficult things in the universe to produce, and these are such par excellence." — The Sun. " Professor Anthon is acknowl- edged by the best judges, not only in this country, but m Germany and England, to be one of the ripest clas- sical scholars of the age. And this series of books will be used in all our academies and colleges. The editor and the publishers will by this effort do a good service to American as well as ancient literature." — Common School Assistant. " Professor Anthon's classics are too well known to require any com- mendation. His editions of Sallust, Caesar, Cicero, Horace, Otc, have gained him a reputation for deep eru- dition and correct criticism which has been by no means confined to this country." — Providence (R. I.) Journal. lO" In addition to the above, numer- ous fax^ourahle notices of Anthon'' s series htivc been received from the 7nost respect- able sources, from soine of which the pub- lishers may hereafter present brief ex- tracts. A SYSTEM OF GREEK PROSODY AND METRE, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES; TOGETHER WITH THE CHORAL SCANNING OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS OF ^SCHYLUS, AND THE AJAX AND (EDIPUS TYRANNUS OF SOPHOCLES. TO WHICH ARE APPENDED REMARKS ON INDO - GERMANIC ANALOGIES. BY CHARLES ANT HON, LL.D., JAY PROFESSOR OP THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLOMBIA COLLEOK, NEW-YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. N E W-Y O R K : HARPER &. BROTHERS, 62 CLIFF-STREET. 18 39. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by Charles Anthon, in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. CO o 9 on ATURE AND COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. PREFACE. An accurate acquaintance with the Prosody and Me- tres of the Greek Language is so necessary an accom- paniment of true scholarship, that any attempt to advo- cate its claims to the notice of the student would be en- tirely superfluous. It must be admitted, however, that, while all among us are very ready to acknowledge the importance of this branch of learning, only a small number, comparatively, have been induced to make it a subject of careful study ; and the result is, that, in mat- ters appertaining to Greek Prosody and Metre, many of those who ought to be better acquainted with these topics display oftentimes a very lamentable want of ac- curacy. What renders this the more provoking is, that they who come among us from transatlantic seminaries of learning, where metrical studies are much more care- fully pursued, frequently undertake to sit in judgment upon our violations of the laws of prosody and metre, when they themselves are at best but very poor repre- sentatives of the metrical knowledge which exists in their own countries. One great obstacle to the successful cultivation of VI PREFACE. prosodiacal studies among us has undoubtedly been the want of a proper treatise on the subject, which, without encumbering the student, in the commencement of his career, with any unusual burden, might, nevertheless, lay before him such a view of matters connected with the prosody and metres of the Greek tongue as would en- able him to pursue his investigations in this department with satisfaction and advantage. The present treatise has been prepared with this view. Its object is to give all the necessary information appertaining to Greek prosody in a simple garb, and one which may invite rather than repel. The more intricate questions con- nected with the subject, and on which the ingenuity of European scholars loves to exercise itself, are here pur- posely omitted, and nothing is offered but what may prove immediately and permanently useful. The Choral Scanning is intended to initiate the young scholar into a department of metrical study, which, to the inexperienced, bears a very formidable name ; but is in reality, with the exception of a few knotty points that occasionally present themselves, a very pleasing branch of investigation, and a very inviting field for the inge- nuity of the student. Choral Scanning has hitherto been regarded by many among us as a mere piece of chance-work, with no certain rules to guide or inform us when we are correct. It is hoped that the aids af- forded in the present treatise on this part of the subject will tend to show that there is even here much of cer- tainty, and much that may lead to satisfactory results. PREFACE. Vll The introduction of remarks on Indo-Germanic Anal- ogies into a work on Greek Prosody may require some explanation. The observations in question were intend- ed to accompany a Greek Grammar recently published, but were withheld from the fear of making that work too voluminous and expensive. They are given here, at the end of the Prosody, partly because no other avenue may present itself for years by which they can be brought forward, and partly out of compliment to the 4 distinguished philologist whose name graces the dedi- cation of this volume, and who has done more for com- parative philology than any American scholar. Had he undertaken to write on this subject, the remarks ap- pended to the present work would never have appeared. The Sanscrit Question, as it has been termed, has never obtained a fair hearing among us. On the part of its opponents all is mere idle assertion, and the spe- cious, but most erroneous and unscholarlike, theory of Dugald Stewart appears to them to have laid the con- troversy completely at rest. Many of our half-learned youth, too, have caught the infection ; and believing, of course, that what is delivered on this subject with orac- ular gravity, sometimes even from a professor's chair, must be the result of careful investigation, and in every point of view deserving of being followed, almost regard the term Sanscrit as a species of by-word and mockery. It is hoped that the observations appended to the pres- ent volume will make the matter in controversy more clearly understood, until some abler pen shall present Viii PREFACE. lis with a complete and overpowering view of Tndo- Germanic Analogies. It is mortifying, indeed, to think that any remarks at all should be now needed to prove that the Sanscrit is not a mere piece of patchwork from the Greek. Yet so it is. What in our own country is still regarded as a most ingenious and conclusive theory, would, on the continent of Europe, subject the individual, who might be bold enough to advocate it, to a direct imputation of lunacy. Columbia College, Aug. 20, 1838. iWV\'WV\^'Wi\^'\i^%«'%^^^'V%'WV\ W%/\'WWV«^VA'W«/\X^W^^/V\/V'WWX^^/VX WVXS/Vl^ PART I. PROSODY , x^ ^) followed by a liquid, is much rather left short than lengthened by the Attic poets.^ {(3.) A short vowel before a middle mute (/3, y, 6), fol- 1. The syllable, therefore, always remains long, 1. When the liquid stands before the mute ; as, 6epKu. 2. In compound words, whether the liquid precede or follow ; as, EnTiajiCmvu. 3. When a word ends with one of the two consonants, and the next begins with the other ; as, Iplc; jneyulrj, Myovalv nuvTee;. 4. When the vowel is long by nature ; as, I'Kdd'kov, firjvvrpov. 2. Porscn, ad Eurip. Orest. 64. Erfurdt, ad Soph. Aj. 1109. A2 b RULES FOR SHORT VOWELS. lowed by p, is short in the comic writers, but in tragedy is mostly long, (y.) A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by any liquid except p, is almost always long. In Euripides such syllables are always long ; but in iEschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they are sometimes short.' (d.) The tragic writers occasionally leave a vowel short before the two liquids fiv.^ III. As the epic writers, according to what has just been remarked (2, 1), employ this shortening chiefly when the word cannot in any other manner be adapted to the measure, this circumstance explains why some- times even two mutes, as an, and the double consonant 4', neglect length by position, and leave the preceding vowel short ; as, for example, before ZaKvvdog, ZeJieia, 'LKanavdpoc, OKenapvov, &c.* V. RULES FOR SHORT VOWELS. I. A vowel before another vowel or diphthong is, gener- ally speaking, short. Still, however, there are numerous exceptions to this rule, which will be mentioned in the course of the work. II. Every syllable which has an £ or o is short by nature, unless lengthened by position or crasis ; as, endg. 1. Porson, ad Eurip. Hec. 298. Elmslcy, ad Eurip. Med. 288. 2. This is opposed by some critics, and among tlie rest by Elmsley {ad Eurip. Bacch. 1132), but the rule is successfully defended by Por- son. 3. To remove these shortenings, Knight {Prolog, ad Horn. 79) writes AaKVvOoc, Ai'?i,eia, Kdjiav^pog, &c., and refers, in support of this opin- ion, to the coins of Zancle (Messana) of the seventh century B.C., which give the name of the place in the old form, AANKAH. Thiersch {Gr. Gr. () 146, 8) thinks that this form for the name of Zancle may have arisen from the defective orthography of ancient times. This, how- ever, is very unlikely ; and we may cite, in support of Knight's opinion, the ovxi /iupaydov of Asclepiades {Anthol. Pal. vol. ii , p. 501). LENGTHENING OF SHORT SYLLABLES. 7 Exceptions. The Greek peels, especially the epic, often avail them- selves of the aid of the arsis in lengthening a short syllable. This takes place, I. At the end of M^ords ; II. In the begin- ning of them ; III. In the middle of compounds. I. Lengthening of short syllables at the end of ivords. 1. A short syllable at the end of a vi^ord is often length- ened in this manner, when the next w^ord begins vf'iih. a li- quid ; as, Kara XiTcdpriv {II. 6, 64) ; de [xeXirjv {II. 20, 322) ; vdarl VL^ovreg {II. 7, 425) ; d-rrd piov {II. 14, 154). 2. A short syllable at the end of a word is also sometimes lengthened in a similar manner, when the next word begins with the semivowel a ; as, Kara, GV(peoloiv {Od. 10, 238).' 3. The Attics, in iambic trimeter verse, sometimes lengthen the short syllable before p ; as, Trapd pdOpoiat (Soph. Antig. 704). In the measures which approach nearer to the epic dialect, other syllables also occur length- ened.^ II. Lengthening of short syllables in the heginn'ing of words. Not only at the end, but also at the beginning of words, the epic language lengthens a short or doubtful vowel by the arsis, especially where two or more shorts follow. And here the following cases may be distinguished : 1. It happens least frequently that a pure short is made long; as, Ze(f}vpi7j {Od. 7, 119); enlrovog {Ih. 12, 423) ; oiec {lb. 9, 425). 2. The doubtful vowels a, i, v, are far more frequently 1. Such lengthening is observed the most rarely before mutes, and Mast of all before the aspirates 0, Xi &■ The reason is, that the aspi- rates never admit of being doubled in pronunciation, whereas the liquids easily are. 2. Hermann, ad Soph. Antig. I. c. — Id. El. Doctr. Metr. 45. — Mark- land, ad Eurip. Suppl. 1)4. — Elmsley, ad Eurip. Iph. in Taur. p. 199, Lips. ed. 8 RULES FOR DOUBTFUL VOWELS. made long in the arsis of a tetrasyllable, or longer word ; as, for example, in such forms as dddvarog, dKa^arog, dve(pE?iOg, dndXaftog, dTTOveeoOai, dnodiu)- fiai, (fee. The same usage occurs in many polysylla- bles, with t and v ; as, Aloyevrjg, IlplanLdTjg, 'IraXia, ■&vya~epa, vXaKoiiwpoi, &c. In proper names, as Pri- amides, Italia, &.C., the Latin poets have followed the example of the Greeks. III. Lengthening of short syllables in the middle of verbs. 1 . The epic writers often lengthen by arsis in the middle of compound words ; namely, when the latter part begins with a liquid; as, dtdneXeiori. {Od. 9, 291); Kardvevuv {lb. 490) ; KardpiyrjM {lb. 14, 226).' 2. The tragic writers have occasionally allowed them- selves lengthenings of this kind, especially in proper names ; as, 'iTTnofieduv, UapOevonalog.'^ 3. The lengthening in the middle of the word before other than liquid letters is quite rare, and occurs mostly only in polysyllabic words ; as, Ailrtersog {II. 16, 174) ; Hiocbaveog {Anthol. Pal. 1, 502, Appollonid. 6, 2) ; aTcoepaeie {II. 21, 329). VI. RULES FOR DOUBTFUL VOWELS. I. The chief object of Greek prosody is to reduce to rule the quantity of the doubtful or arbitrary vowels, a, i, v. II. This is done in various ways, among which the po- sition of the accent affords some, though not very extensive aid, as may be seen by what follows. 1. Spitzner recommends, that, in the case of short vowels, the con- sonant which follows be doubled ; as, eTiXadov, uXXjikto^ (Gr. Pros. p. 15). It is better, however, to write the consonant singly, and suppose it to be doubled in pronunciation. 2. Compare Herman!), El. Doctr. Metr. p. 28. 3. In cases of this kind, many critics have recourse to the digamma. {S^tzner, de Vers. Gr. Heroic, p. 86.) RULES FOR DOUBTFUL VOWELS. 9 "Use of accent in determining quantity. I. Every syllable marked with a circumflex is long by nature ; and, therefore, when this accent stands upon a doubtful vowel, it shows this vowel to be long ; as, KkvQi, Trpdyfia. II. In like manner, when the acute accent stands upon the penult of a polysyllabic word, the final syllable is long ; as, ayiog, ayta, dyiov. So, also, Traideid, prjTopetd.^ III. On the other hand, when a doubtful vowel stands at the end of a word, and the penult has the circumflex, the final syllable is short ; as, KXvdt, Trpdynd? IV. The final syllable is also short when the acute is on the antepenult ; as, rixpdrjTL, 'KepKvpd? V. In dissyllabic and polysyllabic words, when the final syllable is short and the penult has the acute accent, the penult also is short ; as, Kpiaig (t), XvoLg {v), noXXaKig (a).* VI. As, however, the lenglh or shortness of a syllable can be obtained only imperfectly from the accent, it is ne- cessary to seek for general rules, which may coincide with the usage of the poets. These we will now proceed to give. Of the doubtful vowels in the end of words. I. Final a is short ; as, rpaTTS^a, 'ivd, Imrord, rervcpd. 1. A long vowel being equal to two short ones, and the accent which stood on the antepenult of ujiOi; being shifted to the penult of dyia, this penult becomes, in fact, the antepenult, beyond which the accent cannot be thrown back ; the final syllable being now equal to two vowels, and compelling, of course, the acute to be transferred to the l. 2. In this case, when we resolve the word, the acute stands over the antepenult, and the circumflex is formed from the union of the acute of the antepenult with the grave of the penult ; as, fidu'Xlov,/j.a?iAov. Now if the last syllable were long here, the acute would fall upon the fourth syllable from the end, which is contrary to one of the laws of the acute accent. 3. This follows from what has been said under note 1. 4. For, if the penult were long in this case, it would require to be marked with the circumflex. 10 EXCEPTIONS. Exceptions. 1. But a pure is long ; as, 'Adfjvad, (j)iXtd, oiKvd, ex- cept verbals in rpia ; as, ipaXrptd, and derivatives from adjectives in rjg ; as, aXridecd ; and also Upetd, Kwdeid, (iaoiXeid {a queen) ; but (iaaiXsLd (a kingdom), and jSa- atXetd (adj. fem. royal). 2. The Doric a for 7] is long ; as, (pdfxd, Alveid ; and also the Doric genitive in a from nominatives ki ag and 7]g ; as, 'Avvi6dg, d ; 'Arpeldrig, d. 3. Words ending in da and 0a have the a long ; as, jSa- oiXivdd, Ai]dd, "LiimiOd, except aKavdd and ifXiBd.^ 4. Words ending in pa not preceded by a diphthong ;^ as, Kapd, Trijpd, x^P^ '■> except dyKvpd, yecpvpd, bXvpd, Kspicvpd, and the perfect middle of verbs in pw ; as, 6ce(f)6opd, TTenopd. 5. Words ending in pa with a consonant preceding ; as, dypd, Trerpd, aKearpd ; except a-^' II. Final av is short ; as, dv, TrdfiTrdv, Aidv, fieXdv, TToif]- odv, ervipdv. Exceptions. 1. Masculines in av are long ; as, Ttrdv, Traidv. 2. The neuter adjective -ndv ; and hence the Attics ap- pear to have taken occasion to lengthen here and there the forms compounded with it ; as, d^ndv, iTxi-ndv, -rrap- d-rrdv. But -ndinrdv and TTporrdv are probably every- where decidedly short.^ 3. Adverbs in av ; as, Xidv, aydv, irepdv. On the con- trary, ordv and onordv follow the quantity of the sim- ple dv. 4. Accusatives of the first declension, from a long nom- inative ; as, (piAidv, from (ptXid; Alveidv, from Alveid^. But the accusative in av from a short nominative is short ; as, Tvorvidv, from norvid ; rpdne^dv, from rpd- TTS^d. 5. The Doric genitive plural of the first declension in dv, as formed by contraction, is likewise always long ; as, fisXulv, vvjtcpdv, for fxeXioyv, vvjj,(f)(ov. So, also, the Doric forms derived from those in tj, or produced by contraction ; as, TTOLfj-dv, Uooeiddv, 'AXKfidv. III. Final ap is short ; as, ovdp, vstcrdp, ixdicdp. Exceptions. 1, Monosyllables in ap are long ; as, Kdp, xl)dp. 2. The adverb yap is properly short ; but before ol and similar words it very often occurs long in epic lan- guage, through the force of the following breathing.^ 1. For more special rules concerning eia, la, oia, and aia, in Attic Greek, consult Maltby, Lex. Pros. cc. v. and vii. ; of his Prosody, p ix. and Ixv., ed. 2. 2. Blomfield, ad Mich. Pers. 42. Bultmann, Gr. Gr. (^ 62, n. 5. 3. D'Orvillc, Vann. Crit. p. 391, scj. 12 FINAL ag. IV. Final af is long ; as, Alveidg, Trdg, Ifidg, ^iXidg, rv- tpdg, 7indg. Exceptions. 1. Words of the third declension not forming the geni- tive in avrog ; as, i:ie?idg, fieydg, Xa^-rrdg, aeXdg, Kepdg, &c. But rdXdg has the final syllable long. 2. The accusative plural of nouns and participles of the third declension ; as, Ttrdvdg, rv-nrovrag, noLnevag, (ppevac, &c. (but fiaaiXedg, from ftaoiXea). The accu- sative plural of the first declension, on the other hand, is always long. 3. Adverbs in ag are short ; as, iriXag, drpefidg, ajKag. 4. Kg is short in the second person of the difl^erent tenses which terminate therein ; as, erey^dg, rey^eidg, olddg, XeXotirdg, necbvKdg. 5. By a license of the Doric dialect, forms in ag, other- wise long, are occasionally shortened, and that, too, even in accusatives plural of the first declension ; as, Moipdg {Theocrit. 2, 160) ; avrdg {Id. 3, 2) ; vvjicpag (Id. 4, 29). II. Of Final I. I. Final i is short ; as, l^i, otX, fisXi, TvirrovaT, ridrjfii, &c. Exceptions. 1. But the abridged form Kpl (for KpCdrj) is long, together with the names of letters in i ; as, ^l, m, &,c. 2. The paragogic t, added by the Attic comic poets and orators to certain pronouns and adverbs, is likewise long ; as, ovtooI, vvvl, ovtmoI, &,c. So the similar c in the words 66l, ravrl, devpl, &c. 3. Adverbs ending in i, and formed from nouns, have the I either long or short, but more commonly short ; such as d[iox6h d[jLaxr]Tl, Travdrjixi, iravoiuXi, aTTOVTjTi, &c. FINAL SYLLABLES. 13 But those which refer to nations have the l always short; as, 'LKvdiorl, 'ApyoXiarl, Bap6api.OTX, &c.' II. Final cv is short ; as, TvnTOvalv, epXv, irdXlv, ttoXlv, ■nplv, vlv, o(plv. Exceptions. 1. Final lv, making Ivo^ in the genitive, is long ; as, prp/- fj,lv, Iktlv. 2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; as, 6eX({)lv (otherwise deA^if), uktIv, plv, Iv, Xiv. 3. The datives plural rnuv and v[dv, though in several in- stances Sophocles makes rudv and viilv, and the epic dialect has also a^iuv, v[j,iiiv. III. Final ig is short ; as, dig, rplg, -noXlg, rvpavvlg, &c. Exceptions. 1. Monosyllabic nouns, and those which have two ter- minations for the nominative ; as, Ig, Xig, pig, Klg, deX- (j)lg, CLKTlg. 2. Dissyllables which make the penult of the genitive long ; as, dxlg, (3aX6lg, nXrjlg, Kvrjjilg, Kp7)mg, bpvlg^ &c. 3. Polysyllables with two short syllables before the last ; as, Parpaxlg, icaXa}ug, Kavovlg, irXoicaiug, pa(pavlg, &c. (but (iaaiXlg, itcsTlg). 1. Consult Blomfield, ad Msch. Prom. 216. According to this critic, the adverbs in question ought always to be written with a simple vowel in the termination. The MSS. fluctuate between t and ei ; as, afioyr^TC and ajioyT]Tei, uvari and avare'c. On the other hand, Lobeck, ad Soph. Antig. 1213, maintains that the diphthong is admissible into the words derived from adjectives ; but in those from substantives he would make the formation conform strictly to the radical word. Spitzner, Pros. Gr. p. 48. 2. "Opvtf, however, has the last syllable often short in tragedy, though always long in comedy (Porson, ad Eur. Hec. 204). In Homeric Greek the final syllable is long. Spitzner thinks that we must assume a double form, opvir, Idor, Iv, and also opvcoc, Iv. The yet e.xtant plural bpvciq favours this opinion. B 14 FINAL SYLLABLES. 4. Adjectives in ig, compounded from long forms, are likewise long in the final syllable ; as, dXiKprjnlg, (3a- 6vKVT]iilg, &c. III. Of Final V. I. Final v is short ; as, ov, yovv, yXvKv, daKpv^ aarv. Exceptions. 1. The third person singular of the imperfect and second aorist of verbs in vfii ; as, 'idv, ecpv ; also of the sec- ond person imperative in one of its forms ; as, SeLKVv,^ OjJiVV. 2. The names of the letters [j,v, vv ; and fictitious words ; as, V, ypv, &c. II. Final vv is short ; as, oijv, noXvv, (3padijv, ^evyvvv. Exceptions. 1. The accusative of nouns which have vg in the nom- inative ; as, IXvv, l^Ovv, laxvv, d(ppvv, fivv. 2. Nouns that have two terminations for the nominative ; as, ^opKvv (otherwise ^opKvg) ; or vvog in the geni- tive ; as, noaovv. 3. The first person singular imperfect and second aorist of verbs in vfii ; as, ecpvv, edvv, edeiKVvv, e^evyvvv. 4. Nvv, when equivalent to mmc. 'Nvv, the enclitic, though short in Homer (who uses also vv), is often long in tragedy, and always long in comedy.' III. Final vp is long ; as, Trvp, ndprvp. Yet, in the ob- ^ lique cases, these make Trvpog, TTVpL ; fxdprijpoc, fidprvpt.^ V : : 1. The third person imperative, dsiKvvTo, follows the analogy of dtin- vvBl. 2. Monk, ad Eurip. Alcest. 1096. Id. in Mus. Crit vol. i., p. 73. An opposite doctrine is maintained, however, by EUendt, Lex. Soph. vol. ii., p. 183. 3. The Etym. Mag. 506, 20, considers substantives in vp as scarcely Greek, and admits only such as fiuprvp, TJ'iOvp, Sec, but rejects forms like KepKvp, lAAt'o, to which Arcadius, de Ace. 19, 17, adds also Aiyvp. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 15 IV. Final vg is short ; as, (iadvg, Kopvg, niixv^, Trpeofivg, Bapvg,d^vg. Exceptions. 1. Nouns in vg, which have vog in the genitive ; as, dx- Xvg, IXvg, Ix^vg, vrjdvg, ocppvg, TrXrjdvg.^ 2. Nouns vv^hich have two terminations in the nomina- tive ; as, ii.(f>drrjg, AevKdrT]g. But forms of this kind proceeding from short roots have the short vowel ; as, £i^aXiJ.d~rjg, TaXaTTjg, "Lapiidrrig, &c. In those words which, coming from Ionic forms, received long a by Dorism, and passed thence into the Attic and also the common dialect ; as, kadri. In the following words : or?/. anXdrog, 'Ayvidrrjg, 67]fu67TpdTa, dvdrog, TTOtvdrwp, dvdrc, TTpdrog, artj, (ppdTTjp, adrog, (f)pdT(i)p. 12. Before x ^^ '''PO'X'^? ^^^ ^^^ compounds. The forms iax")] and iax^iv have the penult common in Attic, but more frequently long than short.' 1. Ebnsley, ad Eurip. Heracl. 753. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 25 II. Of L in the Penultimate. I. Penultimate i is generally short before a vowel, or diphthong, or a single consonant ; as, irevTa, lov, mdog. II. But penultimate i is long in the following cases ; Before a voioel. 1. In the following Homeric feminines, which, as the two columns indicate, have the penult long in Homer and the epic dialect, but short in Attic* Epic. Attic. depylri^ apyta. advfUTj, advfxla. aTTLCrlri, dntaria. diraidtTf, diraLdla. dTifUTjj drifiia. eoTiT], korla. KaKoepylr], KaKovpyla. opjilr], opfiia. fKjjpCT], fl(j,)pla. 'npoedplrj, TTpoedpla. TravoTrXiT], TxavoTrXla. Tcpodvfilr], TTpodvfila. Tvpavvli], Tvpavvta. aiOplr}^ aldpXa. 1. The true reason for this lengthening among the epic writers is to be found, according to Spitzner, in the easily possible protraction of the doubtful vowel in pronunciation, proofs of which are furnished also by other vowels ; as, Surrjp and Sureipa for SoT^p and Soreipa. The epic poets would the more readily allow this protraction in pronunciation, as it enabled them, without difficulty, to adapt a variety of otherwise use- less forms to the heroic measure. And, on the other hand, it was natu- ral that the Attic poetry should use these forms short for the iambus, which was also, indeed, required for the common pronunciation. If this view of the subject be well founded, it will not be necessary, with Malt- by, to explain forms like aKOfiiaTlri by contraction from uKo/iianeri, for which course no sufficient reason can be discovered in heroic verse. Neither is it of any avail to write eia for la in this kind of words, as it contradicts the derivation, and is, indeed, correct in avai6eL7) and some others, but not in uti/utj and the like. Spitzner, Gr. Pros. p. 118. 2. Long in Solon, not found in Homer. Short in Aristophanes, Plui. 1129, but long in the Nubes, 571. 26 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 2 . 'Avla and KaXla are long in both Homeric and Attic Greek,' the Homeric form being dvCr] and KaXiT]. An- other term Kovia (Hom. kovIt]) has the penult conunon in Homeric Greek, but in the singular more frequently long, in the plural always short. Among the Attic writers, Aristophanes employs it in the lyric passages with a short penult, but in the dialogue with a long one. In the tragic writers it occurs thrice, and each time with the penult short.^ 3. Generally speaking, in alKla, evdlo^, and Xlav, though Xlav also occurs, especially in Attic. 4. In proper names in io)%' which shorten the vowel in the genitive ; as, 'Ajxcplojv, AoXlcov, Ilavdicjv, gen. Jlavdiovog. On the contrary, those remain short which take the long vowel in the genitive ; as, Bovko- Xtcov, 'Retlcov, Olvontojv, gen. Olvomo)vog.^ 5. Comparatives in mv have the i long in Attic, but short elsewhere ; as, 'yXvicT(i)v, KaKLO)v. 6. Verbs in m, not proceeding from roots in ^o), have the I generally long ; as, (pOld), %pi«, nplo), kvXco), e^aXlb), xX'nii, &c. But those which had originally a ^ in the root are short ; as, arlisi, fiaarto), to which add eodlo) and did), though not from such roots.^ 1. Ka2.i.d stands once with the short penult in Pseudo-Phocyllides, V. 79. 2. Malthy, ad verb. — Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 340, in notis. 3. 'Opluv, gen. -luvog, is of variable measure in Homer and the epic poets, but short in the tragedians; as, Eunp. Cycl. 273; Ion. 1153. And also in Callim. H. to Arlem. 254. 4. KrjKiu has the penult short in Homer, long in tragedy. (Od. 5, 455 ; Soph. Philoct. 783.) With regard to the verb jjjjviu, it may be observed, that the penult of the present is common, but that of the future and first aorist long ; thus, /irjvlo) or fiTjviu, future firjvlau, first aorist ifirjvlaa. On the other hand, the second aorist is ijxrjvlov, or, dropping the augment, UTjvXov. In the second book of the Iliad, v. 769, we have fir/vlev, but this appears to be the imperfect. Among the tragic writers, Sophocles employs the verb five times, but determines nothing respecting the quan- tity. In the Rhesus of Euripides, v. 494, we have /iijviuv, and in the Hippolytus, V 1141, fiavLu. It is safer, however, to lengthen it in the tragedians. Maltby, ad verb. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 27 7. Dissyllabic oxytones in cog have for the most part a long penult ; as, Kplog, log, " an arrow," and "poison ;" but log, " one," and lov, " a violet,'" proparoxytones, have the c short. 8. I is also long in the following Ivy^, kI(i)v, TXlOiV, 7TplO)V, Qplov, 'W, 'T-nepluv. Before a consonant. 1. Before /3 in dKpl6rjg, T6tg, arlbr]. But all derivatives from the second aorist of rpldo) and similar verbs are short ; as, rpldog, diarptdrj, nepi- rplbrig. This remark holds good of napaipvp^r} and similar formations.' ipvaWrj, ■&/il6o), Tpl6(i), and compounds. 2. Before y in nvlyog, TTvlyo), and com- pounds. olyr], and derivatives, eppiya,^ Kenplya, plyog. rirplya. 3. Before 6 in i Kvldr], Txlda^, ■&pl6a^,^ X^Xl8u)v, xXl^,'' I,l6a)v, iSog, 'Ida, AISg), cWrj.^ 1. Porson, ad Eurip. Orest. 62. — Draco, de Metr. 74, 9. 2. Compare remarks on verbs, number XIX. 3. It may be regarded as a general rule, that c is naturally long in di- minutives in af ; as, ^plva^, Kli/ia^, afxlXa^, &c. 4. Long in Pseudo-Phocyllides, 200, but elsewhere short, x^^^V- 5. ^l6rj, "a pomegranate," has the penult long. Nicand. Ther. 72, 28 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 4. Before ■& in epWog, Wvg, KpWri, 6. Before k in ■>pl/\.6g, &c. Draco de Metr. 35, 21 ; 101, 3 : 163, 17. 4. Compare page 27, note 3. 6. Most oxytones in [io( have the long penult. Draco de Metr. 63, 10. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 29 In the following words : yvplvog, iplvog. XaXlvog, and compounds, OTTCjplvog, in Homer,' rplva^, ■&pidaKlv7], kXIvj], plVT], plvog, Kafxivo), KVfilvOV, oeXlvov, ttvtIvt], ' Apyvpodlvrjg, ivSlva, XOLpivrj, Alylva, Kafidplva, Kafxlvog, vanLVT], dcJTlVTj Mlvcjg, 'Eplvvg.^ And most words in ivog, ivt], tvov. But adjectives of time in ivog shorten the penult; as, iJ.ear]fj,6piv6g; ex- cept OTTioplvog, mentioned above, and opdplvoq? 9. Before n in ypLirevg, plTrrj, plTTLCjia, eVlTTO), EVlnTJ, Kvlnog, 10. Before p in Nlpevg, 'Evplnog, 'EviTrevg, iTTog, GKln(>}V, piTTig, 7TapdevomTT7]g. 'Jpig, ^Ipvg. 1. Consult the remark that immediately follows, respecting adjectives of time in ivo^. 2. Compare Blomficid, ad jEsch. Prom. v. 53. 3. One example of the long penult in fj.£G?jfj.6piv6c occurs in Callima- chus, L. P. 72. With regard to OTruplvo^, it is to be observed, that fxsTO- TTupXvov occurs in Hesiod, Op. 415, and onuplvov in the same poet, Op. 674, while vnupTvovc is found in a fragment of Euripides, preserved by Athenaeus, p. 465. Maltby gives no great weight to this last exception on account of its being a fragment, and on that account open on every side to corruption. The verses in Hesiod he considers spurious, be- cause in Homer uniformly, and in the Hynin to Mercury, the penult of bnupivog is long ; and even in Hesiod himself, in the same poem, v. 677, the same syllable is lengthened. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 343, in notis. C2 30 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 1 1 Before a in 'Bplaevq, Kvlaa, laog in Homer,' 12. Before r in nouns in itt], irTjg, crig ; as, 'Aippodlrrj, 'Aficptrplrrj, dcofiarlrtg, iroXlrrjg, dnXlTTjg, rroXlrig, &c. Except, however, Kplrrjg and other derivatives from the perfect passive with a short penult.'' In the following words : GtTog, with com- pounds,* Tlrdv, TptTOV, (plrvg.^ oldov, T:i(j)vg, vl(p(,), but vl(pdg. uKovtrov, KXiTvg, Xlrog, dixrjvlrog, ddrjplrog, 13. Before <^ in ypl(pog, i,epl(pog, GTlcpog^ 14. Before % in i%wp and rdplxog. III. Of V in the penultimate, 1. Penultimate v is generally short before a vowel or diph- thong, or a single consonant ; as, vog, kvei, Xvyog. 1. The penult of Zcrof is long with Homer, but short with the trage- dians. The first syllable in laodsoc, however, is long in tragedy, on the same principle that the a is lengthened in uduvaroc, aKufj-aror, drrap- dfivdog, namely, in order to allow of such forms being introduced into the verse. Compare Blomlield, ad ^sch. Pers. 81 ; and Burney, ibid. 2. From E^a?uv6G). Compare Elmsley, ad Eurlp. Heracl. 404. The form k^a7uC,(j would make t^a/uaa^. 3. On the same principle with uptrrjg, verbal adjectives in to^ have the short penult as coming from the third person singular of perfects pas- sive with short penults in iraL or vrat ; thus, dupcTOQ, from d and KEKpt- rat ; ukvTog, from d and T^tXvTai, &c. 4. 'AaiTOQ occurs in an epigram of Diogenes Laertius {Anthol. Pal. 7, 118, 2), but this is a late innovation. 5. So <^l-evu, (fl-vfia. On the contrary, ^vtevu, (pvTsvfia. This dis- tinction was made by Bnmck, ad ApolL Rhod. 4, 807 ; Soph. Antig. 645. The conflictmg passages, as Eurip. Alcest. 306, 1 147 ; 0pp. Cyn. 1, 4, are altered in the latest editions, partly with the consent of MSS. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 31 II. But penultimate v is long in the following cases : Before a vowel. 1. In 'Evvcj, Qvag, iyvvrj, Txvot;. With regard to verbs in vu), the safest rule is to re- gard the penult of the present and imperfect as com- mon.' Some, however, occur more frequently with the long penult ; as, laxvio, daKpvcJ, ^v(t), diuo), XvcJ.^ Others, again, are oftener found with the penult short, of which the following is a list. '& Ppvd), dpv(t), dprvd), dvvo), d(pv(x), detKVVG), KVO), eXKVG), epvG), fiedvo), ttXtjOvO), kXvo). And so, likewise, all others besides kXv(o and decKVvu), which have also vfit in the present. Before a consonant. 1. Before /3 in v[i6g. 1. The question is ably discussed by Spitzner, Gr. Pros. p. 91, seq., and Malthy, Lex. Pros. c. vi., p. Ixiii., 2d ed. 2. Still it must be borne in mind, that derivatives from the perfect passive have the v short ; as, Tivaig, Xvtoq, &c. With regard to the verbs quoted here as having the long penult, it may be observed, that Homer sometimes makes it d-vu, though generally i?()w. In Attic Greek Brunck considers the penult to be always long. Yet all the derivatives have short v except ^v/ia ; as, -QvTr'jp, -dvaia, ■^vuS/ig, d-vaLfxo^. So, again, Tmu sometimes occurs in Homer, but Avoi in Attic. Another verb, not cited above, kuTmu, has the penult long in tragedy, but some- times short in comedy. And yet the future is always Ku'kvau. Sand- ford, Gr. Pros. p. 346, in notis. 32 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 2. Before y in oXoXvyrj, aiiapvjTi,^ Ivyrj, TTvyrj,^ Tpvy(ov, KaracjypvyCi). 3. Before 6 in "A(3vSog, Avdog, fiorpvdov, Tvdevg, £ptKvd7]g, and other com- pounds of Kvdog. 4. Before i? in J3vd6g, [ivdog, ^vdog, TTvdo), " to putrefy ,•" Tcvdu), " corruption ,•" UvOoJv. 5. Before k in j3pvKog,^ jBpVKO), KapVKT], spifivKog, GVKTj, avKov, (pvKig, (f)VKog, epvKOi, and so KaTepvKaKO), ' reOma, &c. 6. Before A in GKvXov, (piiXrj, vjj,og, Kdrrvna, Xv[iif], EyKV[l(j)V, eXvfia. 8. Before v in the present of verbs in vvo) ; as, evdvva, oTpvvcj, ttXvvcj, &c. ; but when they terminate in ew the V is short ; as, TrXvvio), &c. In the following words : rvvTj, ALKTVVa, svdvvog, Kivdvvog^ opKvvog, jSodvvog, ^vvog, ajxvva, KOpVVT],^ ropvvTj, X^Xvvrj, aiaxvvT], p,VV7], Btdvvov. 1. But ^vfia, " draught," "protection." Herm. Orph. Hymn. 10, 22. 2. But 'AkIv6vvoc, as a proper name, is shortened. Anth. Pal. xi., 429. 3. As a general rule, it may be said that trisyllables in vvi] have the long quantity. Yet there are exceptions. Draco himself, who gives the general rule, quotes Kopvvri, rafivvr), and Topvvn as shorten- ed in the epic and lengthened in the Attic writers. Kopvvri, however, already fluctuates in the epic ; thus, short in Homer, B. 7, 143 ; Apoll, 34 DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT, 9. Before tt in Xvttt], ypvnog, ravvirovg, and in the ob- lique cases of yvip, vnog, and ypvijj, vnog. 10. Before p in all verbs in vpo) ; as, 0vpa), ovpoj, ddvpco, Kvpd), [ivpod, &c. ; but when they terminate in ew the V is short ; as, Kvpeo), fiaprvpeu), rropcpvpeui. In the following words : ajKvpa,^ yi^vpa, Kivvpa, ?idcl)vpa, bXvpa, Kep/cvpa.^ KoXXvpa, Gfpvpa,^ Kvpog, ovoyvpoq, Txvpoq, '■'■wheat''' (but TTvpog, from Trvp), rvpng, ^^ cheese" (but Tvpog, " Tj/re"), TTanvpog, yvpog, oii^vpog^ iaxvpog, TTtTVpOV,* XeiTvpov, 7TX7]p,fivpig,^ avpiy^, ovpc^o), Xepi^vpng. 1 1 . Before o it is almost always long ; as, Aiovvoog, Xpi'oog, "Kpxppvaog, Kafidvorjg, &c. Except verbals in vaig ; as, Xvoig, avvaig, Sic. Jthod. 2, 99, 115 ; Thcocril. Id. 7, 9 : 9, 23 ; and long in Theocrit. Id. 25, 63 ; Ntcand. Alex. 409 ; Leomd. Tarent. Epigr. 34, 3. Notwith- etanding, however, that the long quantity in vvtj predominates with the Attics, it is remarkable, as Draco observes, that Eupolis has always shortened ropvvr]. But bdvvi], as sprung from a short root, is always short in the middle syllable, and so its derivatives ; as, i'Kudvvoz, nept- (idwof, &c. Spilzner, Gr. Pros. p. 122. 1. The rule appears lo be, that the proparoxytones in vpa of the fem- inine gender have the v long. On the other hand, paroxytones in vpa are mostly short ; as, nopfvpa {v), Mpa {v), &,c. Except KoXlvpa iy) mentioned above. 2. Most dissyllables, however, in vpa have the penult short ; as, Ivpa, ■&vpa, together with their derivatives ; as, ■dvpaloQ, XvpiKOC, &c. 3. Always long in Homer and the epic writers, but always short among the Attics. Mallby, ad verb. 4. Neuters m vpnv, derived from liquid verbs or other long roots, have the v long ; but those not so derived have the penult short ; as, uxvpov, evtxvpov. 5. We have n/i^/xfivpic in Homer, Od. 9, 486, and so, also, ApoU. Rhod. 4, 1269. But Blomfield (G/oss. ad Choeph. 180) supposes both these passages to stand in need of correction, and Knight actually re- jects the former. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 348. Compare Spitzner, Gr. Pros. p. 123. DOUBTFUL VOWEL IN THE PENULT. 35 12. Before r in derivatives in vrrjp, vrrjg, and VTt^ ; as, [iTjvvTTip, iiTjvvrrjg, 7Tpea6vT'fjg, 7Tpeo6vTig.^ In adjectives in vTog, derived from long verbal roots in vu) ; as, ddaKpvTog, TToXvdaKpvrog, aXirpvrog, arpv- rog, &c. In trisyllables in vrog, which lengthen the preceding syllable ; as, Bi^pvrog, yutpvTog, Kwkvto^, «fec. But names derived from adjectives in vg have the short penult ; as, Kl-nvrog, YiVpyTog. In the following words : pvroip, pvTrj, pvTog, aicvTog, 13. Before in Kv(ji6g,^ KV(pO)V, arvcpog, 14. Before % in verbs in v%w ; as, (3pvx(o, Tpvx(>if and their compounds ; but v in jBpvxtog is short. In the following words : OKvrevg, (3pVT0V, ycopvTog, and sometimes XvTG)p.^ Tvcl)og, TvicpCJ, ovcpap, KeXvcpog. ipvxr], ipvxog, tiiipvxog, Karaipvx(^- But TTapail}vx'>], being derived from a second aorist, has its penult short* 1. Yet ■&VTTJP has the short penult. In like manner, nouns in vtt]^, from adjectives in vf, ela, v, are short ; as, (3pa6vTric, oivrrj^, TaxvTjjg. 2. This long penult in Ivrup is extremely doubtful. The verse quo- ted in support of it from the Anthology {Lcomd. Alex. Ep. 29, 4. — An- thol. Pal. ix., 359) has now ()VTopa, which also stands in the Palatine MS. Hence IvTT/pioc, besides the usual XvrfjpLOC, will also admit of great doubt. SpUzncr, Gr. Pros. p. 161. 3. But upyvipo^, Koaovfog, &c., have the v short. 4. Porson, ad Eurip. Orest. 62. On the same principle we have 6taTpl6^ with the short penult, although the verb is SiaTplSu, because it is derived from the second aorist durpiSov. 36 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. VIII. Of the Doubtful Voioels before the Penultimate. I. Of a before the penultimate. I. A before the penult is generally short ; as, deiKrjg, ddoXog, PdaiXevg. II. But a before the penult is long in the following cases : A privative. A privative, though naturally short, may be lengthened when three short syllables follow ; as, dddvaTog, dKa- fiarog, diroXeiiog, &c.' A before a vowel. 1. In aevaog. laofxai,, depiog, dldaXrig, dtdiog, "Aoveg, 'Idoveg, Xdiog, Sdiog, Xdag, Xdlvog, and other deriv- atives. derog. dddrog,^ aKpdavTog, darog,* (3ovydiog, rindopog. (iLdofiai, ypdoaodrjg, 6dtKT7Jp, eXdlvog, avvaopog, dayr\g,^ dpxdiKog, Trpdvvu. 2. The verb ato) has the a common. On the other hand, diaao) has the a long in Homer, while in Attic Greek 1. Porson, ad Eurip. Med. 139. 2. But a is short in those compounds of liet where the adverb stands complete ; as, ucipvro^, u.Ei'kaAoc;, uEij^ivrjaTO^ . 3. According to Maltby there is no uuaroc with short penult ; but long antepenult, " ■innoxious.'" 4. According to the same eminent scholar, it is aaroc, " noxious ;" but aaror, or, by contraction, arof, " insatiabilis." 5. In Homer, Od. 11, 575, we have aayt'f, but in ApoUonius Rhodius 3, 1251, daygf. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 37 it is generally a dissyllable ; or else, when a trisylla- ble, has the a short.' Before a consonant. 1. Before y in vavdyeiii, vavdyiov, Iddysvrjg, 2. Before 6 in avdddia, as in avddSrjg, pddtog, ddoXeaxfjg, 3. Before ■& in pddvuog. 4. Before k in SidKovog, XdKEi,}^ ■&dK^(t), oldKoarpocpog, (pevdKi^d), cjpdictdo), 5. Before A in dXi^G), (bdXaivT], IdXejiog, e6SofidyETrjg, Evdyopia, Q7]6dyevrjg, Kpdyiri]g. ddoXeoxLa, dddov, from 6atg, iKETddoKog, KapddoKect). ^VpdKOOLOL, l3XdKLKu)g, from j3Xd^, -dicog, rpidKovra, didfcooioi, rpidiioaLot,^ Sic, dKovaiog. dXi6ag, dvdX6(o, avdXioKOi, 1. In Euripides, Hec. 31, we have ataaw where Pierson {ad Mocr. p. 301) would read avainau. But consult Person, ad loc. 2. The participle diaXaKijaaaa lengthens the third syllable in Aris- tophanes, Nub. 409. The subjunctive \aKi]ai)q shortens the first in an- other comedv of the same author. Pax. 381. {Elmsleij, ad Eurip. Med. 147.) " 3. So, also, in the compounds ; as, TpLuKOVTai^vyo^. (Thcocrit. Id. 13, 74.) In the hundreds, the only ones with long a are dtdKoatot and TpiaKoaioi, the others having the syllable short ; as, TeaTapuKoaioi, tcev- TuKomoi, &.C. So, also, TeaGepuKovra. {Horn. II. 2, 524, 534.) The remaining tens have ?; ; as, TrcvTr'iKnvTa, t^r'/Kovra, &c. Later authors, however, said also -puiKovTa, according lo tlie analogy of other numer- als. Jacobs, ad Anth. Pal. 617, 705, 806. — Spiizner, Gr. Pros. p. 67. D n 38 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT, KodXefiog, dXoavvT], 6. Before ft in dfido),^ dfiTjTog, dixrjTdg, 7. Before v in Kpdviov, TLTdvtog, vedviag, Evdv£[j,og, evdvopia, dyopdvojiog, OKtfidXi^()>, 1.Tvii(pdXi6eq. 'Aficoog, 'ATrafXEia^ ^tXovdnaTog. Kardvofiat, Kpedvofiog, Xvoodvcog, ovvdpdvoo), TTaidvtKog, TzaLdvl^Ci). 8. Before n in dpdTrerrjg, vdrreXa, dnvo) 9. Before p in dpdofiai, Homeric,'^ ! dprjrrjp, KdpLCOV, Adpioaa, Kdpa6og, dfidpaKog, 10. Before o in 'Aoionog, ETrapdaifLog, evKpdaia, Kopdat-ov, (pXvdpeo), dpLOTOV, dpiardo), ddpeiKog, ■dedptoi', Xdptvog. Kdadvdpa, "Aaidog,'^ irdoaodat, "possidere, Jldaicpd^]. "4 1. According to Maltby, afiuu, in the active voice, and the nouns derived from this verb, such as u/xrjr/ip, ufXTinjg, and u/j.7jt6c, have the a long in Homer and Hesiod. On the other hand, ufiuojuat. in the middle voice, and the compound forms hivafiijaaTO, Karafif/aaTo, as well as the form diufi7]os in the active, have the a short. In later epic writers it is common. 2. But in Attic updofxac, contr. upcj/iai. 3. So 'AouldTjc, with the long initial vowel. We have also 'AtTiOf, " Asian," with the long vowel, and liffior, " slimy,'" with the a short. The long quantity, however, in the former, and in other words of the kind, cannot be determined with perfect certainty, since the length may be occasioned by the arsis. Hermann, H. H. in Apoll. 250. 4. But ■nuaaadai, " vesci," has the first syllable shoit. Blomfield, Gloss, ad uEsch. Agam. 1380. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 39 11. Before r in Iliadrtdag, ^ideuTtdog, dcSv^droKog, ■ddrepov, And in words compounded of Xdag, " a stone ;" as, Aa- rofiCa, XdTOfioi, Xdrvrcog, Sic. 12. Before in oeipdcpopog. 13. Before % in rpaxovpog, pdxia, aKpa^oXog, pvaxerog, dxsrag, Doric for II. Oft before the Penultimate. I. I before the penult is generally short ; as, Upiafiog, Imeifiivog, iKOfxat, &c. II. But L before the penult is long in the following cases : Before a vowel. In Irini, &c.,* larpog* Idoiiai, 'laixerog. LO)Xm, TTaXloi^ig., X'tovEog, Klddo), Illepog, Xld^o), 1. Maltby, in his remarks on a(j>L7ifii, says that, in Homer, the antepe- nult of this word, and of others ending in h/fii, is doubtful, or, rather, more frequently short. Among the dramatic poets, on the other hand, it is always long. On the word avvc7j/ia he afterward adds that, among the Attics, the participle of the active, ieic, has its penult more frequent- ly short than long, and, moreover, that the compound ^vvirj/it is found three or four times with the l short, and fiedirjfiL once. 2. The fu-st syllable, however, is sometimes short, as in Aristophanes, Ecdes. U.—Sandfurd, Gr. Pros. p. 352. 3. 'Iv^cj has the first syllable always long in Homer ; but in Sophocles, Track. 789, it occurs short. This latter word, however, has been sus- pected by critics. So the form ivy?} has the first short in Sophocles, but long in Nicander. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 352. 4. The first syllabic in the derivatives of iaoiiai is generally long ; but Euripides {Hippol. 295) and Aristophanes {Pint. 406) have it short in iarpog, and the Anthology in iriTT/p. 40 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. UlepLa, niepiog niepideg, ppax'tovog, TTLatVU), <^dlu)Ttg, EvdplovoOai, dvldo),^ A\]^ in the compounds of log, " aji arrow ;" as, lolSoXog, loxsaipa. But those from lov, " a violet" have it short ; as, loecdrjg, loOTEcpavog. Before a consonant. 1. Before /3 in icXl6avog, Kpl6avog, and Kl6(i)T6g. 2. Before y almost always ; as in plyoo), &c. 3. Before 6 in Idio), nldvo), mdvTTjg, TTldrjEig, SiKaoTTjplScov, ocppayldLov. 4. Before ■& in lOvvo), Tldo)v6g, 6ldvpafi6og, opvWeiog, from bpvcg, Wag. 5. Before k in VlKdo), ' - 'LlKeXia, ^OLVlKtOg, [IVptKLVOg, IilKavia, (ppladXeogy (pplKcJdjjg, "iKapog. 6. Before X in iXeog, iXvoetg, iXaSov, iXaaiiog, djxlXadov, ofilXeo), KararlXdo), XlXevco, XIXloi, X'tXtdg, "IXiov, 'iXidg, 'iXioaog, I,lXr]v6g, 1. The verb uvidu generally lengthens the second syllable among the epic writers, as also in Sophocles, Antig. 319. The second syllable in uvLapo^ is shortened by Euripides and Aristophanes, and lengthened by Sophocles, Antig. 316. But the third syllable is everywhere long. Porxon, ail Eurip. Phoen. 1334. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 41 ttIXeo), Ml^TjTog, TriXidiov, iXtyyog, GjilXevna,^ 'iXiovevg. 7 Before fi in |Qptju.aw, /3Atjudi^cj, IflELpO), l^driov. filHio[iat, mfxeXr], — 2 lilnrina. Ttntog, fillj,T]X6g, (f)tjj.o}6i]g, 'Ifiepa, XlixTjpog, dplnvXog, "Lliiaida. 8. Before v in verbs in ive 0), and their derivatives ; as, KLVeO), KLVrjIJ.L,'^ Sic. In the following : ylvofiai, CLKpodlvia, ylvojaKCJ, "nplvidiov, dlVTjOig, KaraplvdcJ, SlvijeLg, ttZvvokg), epiveog, olvojxaL,^ IVLOV, 6e/\.(j)iviog, 'Ivaxog, TplvaKpta, sXivvo)* dnoTU'oiiac. 9. Before tt in 'EvplrrLdi-ig,^ plm^G), 'Plnaiov, ■dplTTolSpuTog, TjvmaiTe,'' ■SplnridsaTog, ITTOO), XlTcapio), 6u7TeT7]g, And in Xlrraprig, "perse vering;" but Xlnapog, '^fat" has the first syllable sho rt.^ 1 Following the quantity of a/xi?LT]. 2. And all other derivatives from ti/xt]. 3. Yet KLvddics(ia in ^schylus, Prom. v. 124. 4. Consult Blomjield, ad From. v. 53. 5. I,cvo/iaL, " Imjnre" but alvoq, '■'injury.'''' Nicand. Ther. 1, 653. — jEsch. Agam. 563. Hence also mvLg, " a robber." Callim. H. ad, Apoll. 95. 6. Following the quantity of Evplnoc. Compare Barnes, Eurip. Vit. 4, and the authorities there cited. 7. Following the quantity of tviTrf/. 8. Compare Markland, ad Eurip. Iph. Aul. 304. Blomfield, ad D3 42 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 10. Before p almost always ; as, l,snlpa[j,ig, «fec. 11. Before a in KovlaaXog, filaeo), ). III. Of V before the penultimate. I. T before the penult is generally short ; as, 'AarvoxTj, apyvpeog, &c. II. But V before the penult is long in the following cases: Before a vowel. In 'EvvdXiog, Kvdveog,^ liveXog^ [ivovpog, JEsch. Prom. v. 529. On the other hand, Tuivog, ^^ fat,''^ though con- sidered as long by some grammarians, is probably always short. 1. The measure 'Llav^o^, formerly in Theognis, v. 522, has been al- tered by Jortin, Dissert, vi., p. 229, and Person, Advers. p. 313. The Modena MS., collated by Bekker, verifies the proposed change. 2. Consult note 1, page 30. 3. Hence, also, iTeivoc, Theocrit. Id. 16, 79. But "Ituv, II. 2, 696, and 'Ircjvi'f, a surname of Minerva, Apoll. Rhod. 1, 551, fluctuate. 4. Consult note 5, page 30. 5. But the first syllable is sometimes short in Attic Greek. Com- pare Blomfield^ ad Aisch. Pers. 83. 6. Long in Homer, short in the tragic writers. jEsch. Agam, 75. — Soph. Track. 783.— Eurip. Hippol. 255. DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 43 [xvodo^og, Ttverir], TT?iaTvd^(i}, vsTog, (Spsvdvonac. Before a consonant. 1. Before (3 in 7)jutv6iov. 2. Before y in fivyaXirj, ■dpvyavdo), Xvyalog, (ppvyavov. 3. Before 6 in fivdaXiog, fivdaivo), and in the compounds and derivatives of kv6oc ; as, KvSdXifiog, Kvdifiog., &c. 4. Before t^ in epvOpido), epvdidu, and irapanvdionai, with other compounds of p.vdog. 5. Before k in epvicaKso), and other compounds of kpvKO). In the following: [ivKdojxai, _ I KapvKOTTOioJ, (pvKLoeig, ' I Kr]pvKevo), And other derivatives from icrjpv^, vKog. 6. Before A in ■&vXaKog^ KoyxvXiov, JlajicpvXLa, OKvXojJbaL, OKvXevd), ovXdo), GvXevG), vXatog, (l)vXomgy livXi,d(ji. 7. Before p, in vperepog, Xvfieuv, Kvpalvo), pvpoG), Xvpalvo), TTsnvviievog, And in compounds and derivatives from -Bvp^og ; as, dvpcJ67]g, -dvpTjprjg, ■&vp6opat, &,c. 1. Long in Homer, short in Attic. Aristoph. Pax. 843. — A)ith. Pal. vii., 166, 3. 2. In Homer, II. 5, 749, fivKov is the second aorist. 3. But ■&vAdKiov seems to have the first syllable sometimes short. Maltby, ad verb. 44 DOUBTFUL VOWEL BEFORE THE PENULT. 8. Before tt in Xvirid), Tpvndui, 9. Before p in yvpocj, KVpOG), (pvpdct), Kvptog, Kvpofiai, aKVpCOTOC, Kivvpofiai, odvpofxai, KapTvpo[j,ai, Tpvnavov, KVTTOO). Iiivvpofxai, (Mvpcog, fj-vptoi, Mvpaiva, TTvpafiig, TTvpiixog, TrXrjiinvpLa, TrXrjiiixvpEOJ, KvprjvT].^ 10. Before g is generally long ; as in (pvado, and some compounds of Avw ; as, Xvomovog, XvGcp^eX'^g, &c. In the following : Xpvacog, rpvaidiog, appvoiaarog, ■daXvoia, rpvodvup, Miiaiog. 11. Before t in arpvToJvr], ^VTd(0, but (pvrsvcj, dvTEO), (pvrdXiog, (pvTaXta, TTvnvalog, TTVTLVT], TpvTdvrj. 12. Before in elXvcpd^o), rvcpooiiat, TV(po[j,avrjg, KtKpvcpaXov, TvcpTjprjg. 13. Before x ^^ j3pv%ao/iai , Gp,vxonai. 1. And yet /nivvpoc, from which it comes, has the v short. In like manner, we have KtvvpofiaL, from KLvvpog. Blomfield, Gloss, ad JSsch. Ag. 15. 2. The first syllable is long in Apollon. Rhod. 1, 500 ; Callim H. ad Dion. 206 ; but short in Callim. H. ad Apoll. 72, 93. In like manner, we have in Nonnus, Dionys. 5, 216, Kvpijvrjg, and, 516, Kvp^j). PART II. M E T E E. ^/ METRE. I. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and, in this sense, it applies not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or any number of verses. II. But a metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet, and sometimes one foot only. III. There are nine principal metres: 1. Iambic. 2. Trochaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic. 6. Antispastic. 7. Ionic k Majore. 8. Ionic k Minore. 9. Paeonic. IV. These names are derived from the feet which pre- vail in them. Each species of verse would seem originally to have been composed of those feet solely from which it derives it name ; and other feet, equal in time, were not ad- mitted until afterward, and then only under certain restric- tions. * V. It must be carefully noted, that two feet make a metre in the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic measures, but that one foot constitutes a metre in all the rest. VI. When a verse consists of one metre, it is called mo- nometer ; when it has two metres, dimeter ; three metres, trimeter; four metres, tetrameter ; five meXxe^, pentameter , six metres, hexameter ; seven metres, heptameter, &c. VII. From what has just been remarked, it follows that, in iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a monometer con- sists of two feet ; a dimeter oi four ; a trimeter of six, &c. ; whereas, in all the other kinds of verse, a monometer con- sists of one foot, a dimeter of two, a trimeter of three, &c. 48 METRE. VIII. Verses are also denominated Acatalectic, Catalec- tic, Brachycatalectic, and Hypercatalectic. IX. An acatalectic verse is one that is complete in all its parts, and comes to a full termination ; as the following, which is iambic trimeter acatalectic :' X. A catalectic^ verse is one that wants a syllable at the end to complete the measure ; as the following, which is iambic trimeter catalectic : XI. A brachycatalectic^ verse is one that wants two syl- lables at the end to complete the measure ; as the follow- ing, which is iambic trimeter brachycatalectic : XII. A hypercatalectic^ verse is one that has a syllable at the end beyond the complete measure ; as the following, which is iambic trimeter hypercatalectic : "■r-'ir-r-ir-r-r XIII. There is also what is called an Acephalous^ verse, when a syllable is wanting at the beginning ; as the fol- lowing, which is acephalous iambic trimeter : XIV. Verses arc also denominated Asynartete (davvdp- TTjrot), when different measures are conjoined into one line 1. Acatalectic, from uKaTaT^TjKTLKoc (i. and KaTa2,r/yu), i. e., not hav- ing an abrupt termination. Compare Hcphcestion, c . 4, p. 24, ed. Gais- ford. 'AKardTiriKTa Kalelrai /XETpa, baa tov re'XevTaiov Tzoda oXoKXripov eX^i- 2. Heph(Bstion, I.e. Kara'XTjKriKa 6e, ocra fie/ietunevov exec tov t€- TievTolov n66a. The term is derived from naTaTJjyu, and denotes verses that stop before they reach their full ending. 3. Hcphastion, 1. c. BpaxvKara?,TiKTu Se KaT^Elrat,, oca and Sltto- diar enl teaov( oAu noSt fjit/iEiurai. 4. HephcBstion, 1. c. 'TTicpKaraXTiKTa de, ocra npbc riji Te'^eio) irpo- cekade [j.fpor TrotJo^-. Some call it Hyperacatalectic, VTzepanaTaTlriKTOC, i. e., going beyond acatalectic. 5. Acephalous, from a and Ks^aTirj, i. e., wanting a head. OF FEET. 49 at the pleasure of the poet ; and they are so called because the union between the two measures is comparatively slight, the hiatus and doubtful syllable being admitted ; as in Horace, Epode 13. Fervidiora mero* | arcana promorat loco. Levare duris pectora* | sollicitudinibus. OF FEET. I. A foot in metre is composed of two or more syllables, and is either simple or compound. II. Of the simple feet, four are of two, and eight of three syllables. The compound feet are sixteen in number, each of four syllables. Simple Feet. Pyrrhichius ^..^ ^-^ iSedf. SpondfEus — — -,pvxr}. Iambus ^ — i9ed. Trochaeus — . -..^ crWjita. Tribrachys ^-^ v_y N--* TToAefzof. Molossus £V'\;wA^. Dactylus — -— ^ ao)[iaTa. Anapaestus V^ W j3aaiXevg. Bacchius •^ dvdaaei. Antibacchius n.^ fidvrevfia. Amphibrachys ^ _ ^ ■ddXaaaa. Amphimacer, or Cretic — --^ — Compound Feet. deonoTTj^. Choriambus _^^_ aoicppoavvrj. Antispastus v^ ^,^ dfj,dpT7][j,a. lonicus a majore V^ w KoanrjTopa. lonicus a minore . \^ • ■nXeovEfCTTjg. P?Eon primus — s.^ ^.^ >— ' darpoXoyog. " secundus ^^ — . -^ s^ dvd^iog. E 50 OF ISOCHRONOUS FEET. Paeon tertius " quartus Epitritus primus " secundus " tertius " quartus Proceleusmaticus Dispondaeus Diiambus Ditrochaeus ■Bsoyevrig. dv6po(p6vTr]g. Evpvadevriq. Xo)j3'r]T7jpa. TToXefiLog. ovvdovXevao). ^ — •~- — emaraTrjg. — -^ 6vaTvx'>][J'Ci'. III. To these add the Dochmius, which consists of an antispast and a long syllable ("-" """"); so that a simple dochmiac is the same as an antispastic monometer hyper- catalectic : ■dscbv fj i^eav.' IV. The conjunction of two feet is termed a dipodia or syzygy. Most usually, however, the combination of two dissyllabic feet is called a dipodia, and that of two trisylla- bic, or a dissyllabic and trisyllabic, a syzygy. The con- junction of two feet is often likewise termed a base. OF ISOCHRONOUS FEET. I. By isochronous feet are meant those which are inter- changeable in metre. II. In order to ascertain what feet are thus interchange- able, recourse must be had to the arsis and thesis. III. That part "of a foot which receives the Ictus, the stress of the voice, or beat of the time, is called arsis or el- evation. The rest of the foot is termed thesis, or depres- sion. IV. The natural place of the arsis is the long syllable of the foot, and hence, in the iambus, it falls on the second syllable, in the trochee on the first, while the spondee and tribrach leave its place alike uncertain. 1. Etym. Mag. p. 285, 25, s. v. Aox/aaKoc. Scidler, de Vers. Dochm. p. 402, seq. ISOCHRONOUS FEET. 51 V. The fundamental foot of a verse, however, determines the arsis for the other feet ; and hence the spondee, in iam- bic and anapaestic verse, has the arsis on the second sylla- ble, but in trochaic and dactylic on the first. VI. So, again, the tribrach, when it stands for the iam- bus, is to be pronounced ^ ^ — , when it stands for the tro- chee -^ -- -. VII. Now the ancients considered those feet only as iso- chronous which were capable of being divided into parts that were equal in time ; so that a long syllable should have either a correspondent long syllable, or two short ones.' VIII. The following scheme will exemplify this more clearly, the place of the arsis being denoted as above (VI.) by the acute accent. Iambus Tribrach Dactyl Spondee Trochee — Tribrach - "" Anapaest -" '-' Spondee ~~ IX. By this we perceive that the iambus and trochee are each interchangeable with the tribrach ; and that the dac- tyl, spondee, and anapaest are interchangeable with each other. X. In like manner it will appear that the iambus and trochee are not interchangeable, and that an iambus never admits a trochee into iambic verse, nor a trochee an iam- bus into trochaic verse. Thus, Iambus "^ Trochee — The long syllable of the iambus has neither a corre- spondent long syllable in the trochee, nor two short ones. And the case is the same with the long syllable of the tro- chee. Hence the two feet are not interchangeable or iso- chronous.'^ 1. Dawes, Miscellanea Critica, p. 62. — p. 103, ed. Kidd. 2. For this reason the schoUast on He haestion (p. 76, ed Gaisf.) calls 52 IAMBIC VERSE. XI. Again, it may be shown, in the same Avay, that the spondee and amphibrach are also not interchangeable. Thus, Spondee Amphibrach ^ - Here, in whatsoever way the amphibrach be divided, each division contains either more or less than the corre- spondent part of the spondee. Hence the two feet are not isochronous. And, for the same reason, the amphibrach is not isochronous with the dactyl or anapaest.' OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. I. Of Iambic Verse. I. Iambic verse derives its name from the foot which prevails in it, namely, the iambus. II. At first the iambus was the only foot allowed to enter into this measure ; but, by degrees, an intermixture of other feet was permitted, under certain restrictions. III. When a verse consists entirely of iambi, it is called a pure iambic verse ; when other feet are introduced and intermingled with the iambus, it is denominated a mixed iambic. IV. The reason why other feet besides the iambus were allowed to enter appears to have been, not only to lessen the iambic and trochaic measures uvTiTradovvra /lerpa, and Tricha {de Metris, p. 9, ed. Hcrm.) remarks, uvTiTradijc xal oiov vnEvavrio^ tu) ld/i6(f} 6 Tpoxa^oc. Compare the language of Dawes (Misc. Crit. p. 103, cd. Kidd.) " Mihi pcrsuasum est illos duniaxat pedes a veteribus tan- quam laoxpovovg haberi solUos, qui in singulas ilidcm partes temporihus tzquales seeari possent, ita scilicet ut singulis longis vcl singula: itidem longcB, vcl certe bincB breves responderent .... Percipis jam ra- tionem decantati illius, 6 rpojarof uvrnvadsl rw IdfiGu, sive ob quam in versu trochaico iambus, in iambico vicissim trochcEus nusquam locum habeat." 1. Compare Dawes, 1. c. " Hinc etiam ratio elucescit, cur amphibra- chym spondcEO, adeoqve dactylo et anapcEslo, pariter dvTLiradElv videre sit ; sive cur pes iste in versa neque anapcestico, neque trochaico, nee dc- niquc iambico conspiciatur." • IAMBIC VERSE. 53 the difficulty of composing, but in order to remove the mo- notonous and unpleasing effect of a succession of iambi : and also, as in the case of the tragic trimeter, to impart more dignity and elevation to the style.' V. Iambic measure admits of being constructed in all varieties of length, from the monometer acatalectic to the tetrameter hypercatalectic. The scales accompanying each metre will show the isochronous feet allowed to enter, and the places to which they are severally restricted. 1. Monometer Acatalectic, or Base. Scale. 1 2 1)1)1 ) ) 1 ) ) ) 1 ) In this measure the iambus is allowed to enter, of course, into both places ; but the tribrach, spondee, dactyl, and an- apaest only into the first. The following are examples of this species of verse ; iG) j rdXag. flOfl(f)dV I £%WV. enea' e | neaev, 2. Monometer Hypercatalectic. ' ' * 58 IAMBIC TRIMETER.^ a ycj ducatcov ju?) nap' dyysXcov, reicva, ? , /. « aXXcov aKoveiv, avrbg cjd' sXrjXvda. ) ' ' ' V. Sometimes, however, one verse, with its final vowel elided, passes by scansion into the next, but only when a long syllable precedes ;' as, Gol (paalv avTov eg Xoyovg iXOslv fMoXovr' alreiv, aTte?^.6elv r' dacpaXojg rrjg devp' bdov. (CEd. Col. 1164, 5.) VI. The admissibility of the tribrach into an iambic line arises from the circumstance of its being an isochronous foot ; its exclusion from the last place in the trimeter turns upon a principle of rhythm ; since a tragic trimeter, with such a concluding cadence, would be anything else but grave and dignified. VII. The introduction of the spondee into an iambic line was owing to the wish of imparting to the verse a greater degree of weight and dignity,"^ as well as of interrupting the monotonous cadence which a succession of iambi would have produced. VIII. The admission of the spondee opened the door, of course, for the other feet that were isochronous with it, and in this way the dactyl and anapaest were each allowed to come in. IX. The reason why the iambus was retained in the even places appears to have been this : that, by placing the spondee first and making the iambus to follow, greater em- phasis was given to the corresponding syllable of each metre'' on which the ictus and pause took place, than 1. Porson, ad, Med. 510. — Hermann, Ekm. Doctr. Metr. p. 23, seq. — Tate, Introd. p. 3. 2. Hvrat. Ep. ad Pis. 255. 3. By inclrc is here meant a dipodia or conjunction of two feet, of which there are three in the trimeter. In reciting iambic verses it was usual to make a slight pause at the termination of every second foot, with an emphasis on its final syllable. Thus, Terentianus Maurus {dc Mdr. 2193, seg., p. 101, cd Lennep.), speaking of the trimeter, says, " Sed ler fcritur : hinc trimctrus dicilur, Scandeyido hinos quod pedes conjungimus." IAMBIC TRIMETER 59 would have been the case had two long syllables stood to- gether. X. With regard to the use of the tribrach in the tragic trimeter, the following particulars must be noted : 1. That, though admissible into all places of the verse except the last, yet it is very rarely found in the fifth place. 2. That the second syllable of a tribrach (as of a dactyl) must not be a monosyllable incapable of beginning a verse, or the last syllable of a word. 3. That the preposition eg must not form the second syllable of a tribrach.' XI. On the use of the dactyl in this same measure the following must be noted : 1. The dactyl, though admissible into both the first and third places, is more common in the third than the first place of the verse. 2. A dactyl is whol- ly inadmissible into the fifth place. ^ 3. The first syllable of a dactyl in the third place should be either the last of a word, or a monosyllable, except in the case of proper names.'' 4. The second syllable of a dactyl in either place should not be either a monosyllable incapable of be- ginning a verse (as dv, yap, 6e, nev, re, &c.), or the last syllable of a word."* 5. The preposition kg must not be the second syllable of a dactyl in either place. XII. On the use of the initial anapasst in the tragic trim- eter, observe as follows : The anapaest admissible into And again, v. 251, scq. " Secundo iamhum nos vccessc est reddere, Qui sedis hujus jura semper ohtinet, Scandendo et dlic ponere assuetam moram, Quam pollicis sonure, vcl plausu pedis, Discriminarc, qui docent arlem, solent.''' The cJESural pause, however, in the tragic trimeter, was the control- ling melody, and the marking of the metres was always made in sub- servience to this. Compare the remarks of Dawes, Misc. Crit. p. 361, ed. Kidd. 1. Sandford's Greek Prosody, p. 280, seq. 2. Porson, Praf. ad Her.. 3. Dunbar, Gr. Pros. p. 51. 4. This canon is occasionally violated by the tragic poets, especially in the tirst place of the verbe. Elmsley, ad Eurip. Bacch. 285. 60 IAMBIC TRIMETER. the first place is generally included in the same word. The only exceptions are where the line begins either with an article, or with a preposition followed immediately by its case ; as in Philoct. 754, Tbv iaov xpovov. Eur. Orest. 888, 'ETTt ~(l)de S'l-jyopevov. Iph. A. 502, Hap' ifioi.^ XII. The anapaest in proper names is allowed, in order to bring into the tragic trimeter certain names of persons that would otherwise be unable to enter.^ And, in order to soften down this license, it is probable that proper names so introduced were pronounced with a hurried utterance, so as to carry only --' — to the ear.' XIV. A few instances occur where the proper name be- gins with an anapaest ; as, MeveAaof, Upidnov, Sic. Elm- sley considers all such cases as corrupt, but Porson's judg- ment seems to lean the other way.'' XV. With regard to the use of resolved or trisyllabic feet, it is to be observed, 1. That more than two should not be admitted into the same verse.* 2. That trisyllabic feet should not concur.*' XVI. Enclitics, when so used, and other words incapa- ble of beginning a sentence, are incapable of beginning a senarian.' XVII. The verb earl or earlv is very rarely found in the beginning of a senarian, except it is the beginning of a 1. Monk, ad Soph. Electr. 4. {Mus. Crit. vol. i., p. 63.) 2. Elmshy, in Ed. Rev., Nov., 1811. 3. Tate, In/rod., p. 36, seg. Dr. Clarke is entitled to the merit of having discovered this principle. Long proper names are, from their very nature, liable to be rapidly spoken, and thus 'AvTiyov?}, NovtvtS- 2,Efj.oc, '[((iLybVEia, &c., might bo easily slurred into something like Avt'- jovrj, NovTrr'/LEiUOf, \'yEVEia, &c. The ear, of course, would find no cause of oifence, and the eye take no cognizance of the matter. ( Clarke, ad 11. 2, 811.— Ta/c, 1. c.) 4. Elmsley, m Ed. Rev. 1. c. — Porson, Suppl. Prczf. ad Hec. 5. Cla.ts. Journ. No. 64, p. 309. 6. This rule is sometimes violated by the tragic poets. Consult Sand- ford, Gr. Pros. p. 282, seq. in nolis. 7. Elmsley, ad Soph. Aj. 985. {Mus. Crit. vol. i., p. 367.) Id. ad Soj>k. (Ed. T. 1084. IAMBIC TRIMETER. 61 sentence also, or some pause, at least, in the sense has preceded.' XVIII. Some Doric forms are retained in the tragic dia- lect ; thus, always, 'Addva, dapog, eKart, Kvvayog, -noda- yog, Ao%ay6c, ^evayog, OTradog. To these, mentioned by Porson,* may be added the following, as given by Monk :* apape, -daKog, and compounds, yd-rrovog, yaTreTTjg, ydnedov, ydjxopog, ydnorog, ydrofiog, Kdpavov, and its compounds. XIX. Forms of Ionic (epic) Greek are also found in the tragic dialect ; as, ^elvog, [Movvog, nelvog, Tco?^?i6g* &c. XX. The augment is never omitted by the tragic writers except in the case of XP^'^ for e%p?/v. As to avoyya, this preterit has no augment in Attic, although the pluperfect has. {CEd. Col. 1598.) In like manner, the tragic writers do not prefix the augment to KaO£^6iJ,7]v, Kadrji-iTjv, tcadevdov, though the comic writers sometimes give it. A double augment is occasionally allowed in tragedy, as in 7]veax6- [XTjv {avto%6\i,'qv being likewise found)." Of the C(BSura in the Tragic Trimeter.^ I. One of the greatest beauties in a tragic trimeter is the cEEsura. II. The tragic trimeter has two principal caesuras, one on the penthemimeris, or fifth half foot ; as, Ktvdvvog e(7%e | dope TTEoelv 'F,XX7]vi,k,(I), and the other on the hephthemimeris, or seventh half foot ; as, IIo/lAcov Adycjv evprmaO' \ uots jur) ■&avelv. III. A line is esteemed deficient in harmony, and not perfect, which is without the ceesura. Many lines have 1. Elmslcy, ad Eurip. Heracl. 386. 2. For son, ad Eunp. Or est. 26. 3. Ad Eur. HtppoL 1093. 4. Sajidford, Gr. Pros. p. 286, seq. f). Porson, Snppl. ad Prtrf. ad Hcc. p. ;vvi. G. Porson, Suppl. ad Prcef. ad Hcc. p. xxiv. 62 IAMBIC TRIMETER. both; but the penthemimeral is more frequent than the hephthemimeral in the proportion of four to one. IV. The caesura is allowed to fall on a monosyllable, ei- ther with or without the elision, as well as on the last syl- lable of a word. Thus, Kai vvv Ti tovt' av | (paal Travdy/jUOJ ttoXsl. Kal rev^erai. rovS' | ovd' a6(JJp7]Tog (ptXcjv. 'A/l/L' ov TToXig OTvyel, ov | rqir^aeig Td(pu>. "Orav yap ev (ppovfjg, rod' [ ■i]yi]aeL av vu)v. V. A verse, however, is not faulty which has what Por- son terms the quasi-cxBsura ; that is, when after the third foot there is an elision of a short vowel, either in the same word or in such a word as 6s, p,£, oe, ye, re, attached to it ;' thus, KevTSiTE, fj,i] (j)eideo6\ [ tyto 'tekov Jldpiv. TvvaL^l irapdevoig r' \ drTodXeTTTog [lera. VI. A verse sometimes occurs without either cassura or quasi-caesura ; but the third and fourth feet are never com- prehended in the same word.^ VII. There are two minor divisions of the verse, name- ly, one which divides the second, and one which divides the fifth foot ; thus, 1. Elmsley ingeniously defends verses of this formation by a hypoth- esis that the vowel causing the elision might be treated as appertaining to the preceding word, and be so pronounced as to produce a kind of hephthemimeral caesura. Elms, ad Aj. 1100. {Mus. Crit. vol. i., p. 477.) Tale, In/rod. p. 6. 2. If..the third and fourth feet were comprehended in one and the same word, a most inelegant and inharmonious division of the line into three equal parts would unnecessarily be the result. As in the following : y Kupf up' av I TiapeanoTCELg \ xpV^IJ-^^v sfiuv. Compare the remark of Viclorinus (p. 2525), " pcssimus autem versus, qui singula verba in dipodiis habet, " Prasentium | divinitas | c ov, and o) sl. VI. The tragic writers make the genitive singular and plural of the third declension in eug, ewv either monosyl- labic or dissyllabic, as suits the verse. Of Hiatus in the Iambic Trimeter^ &ic. I. Hiatus of any kind is not admitted by the tragic wri- ters into their iambic and trochaic measures. But observe that, II. When a vowel in the end of a word, after another vowel or diphthong, is elided, a collision takes place be- tween the preceding vowel or diphthong and the vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the next word ; thus, JlaaCiv dvaidet' e.v d' k-roirjoag fJoXoJv, TeKp-ripi.' dvdpMTTOLGLV (^naaag oacf)?]. III. The hiatus after ti and oti is admitted in comedy ; as, Tt av, Arist. Thesm. 852 ; ti dv, Plut. 464 ; otl dx- deasTaiy Av. 84 ; oti ov, Ach. 516, &;c. IV. In exclamations c^nd the use of interjections, the 1. Dawes, Misc. Crit. p. 481, eel. Kidd. — Matthice G. G. () 54. The lonians and Dorians, on the contrary, contracted u'vr/p, ruvdpd^, &c. 2. Sand/ord's Gr. Pros. p. 308. 68 IAMBIC TRIMETER. tragic writers sometimes allow a long vowel or diphthong to stand before a vowel ; thus, 'OroTOt, AvKEi' "AtzoXIov ol eyo), eyw.' {^sch. Ag. 1228.) 'fl ovTog Klag, devrepov oe TrpooKoXCJ. {Soph. Aj. 89.) V. Interjections, such as (ptv,(pev, &c., often occur extra metrum, and sometimes other words, especially in passages of emotion ; thus, TdXaLva- ovk eariv dXXrj- (patSpa y' ovv air' oniidriiiv? VI. The diphthongs ai and oi are occasionally shorten- ed by the Attic poets before a vowel in the middle of a word;^ as, JlaXalov re 'dTjoavptOfia Aiovvaov rods. {Eurip. Electr. 500.) Kafi' (iv rotavrxi %eipt riiiopelv MXoi. {(Ed. T. 140.) Of the Comic and Satyric Trimeter} I. The comic iambic trimeter admits an anapaest into the first five places of the verse ; as, Kdrdtd \ Kdrd6d |1 Kdrdbd \ Karddd | ndrdd/i \ aofxai. || {Vcsp. 979.) II. It also admits a dactyl into the fifth place ; thus, IlvdoLU 1 £61' dv I! Tov XPV^I^ 1 ov 7] II ^MV otI I vod. II (Plut. 55.) III. It allows of lines without caesura ; and, though some- what rarely, such also as divide the line by the dipodia of scansion ; thus, 1 Compare the language of Blomfield, ad loc. " Notanda est ultima syllaha tov h/i) in hiatu porrecta. Hoc ut reclc fiat, hiatus in ictum ca- dere debet." ^, ,-,^r,c 2. (Ed. Col. 318. Compare Track. 1037.— Electr. 1159, &c. 3. Compare page 4, note 3. 4. Gaisford, ad Hcpluzst. p. 242.— Taie, Introd. p. 9.— Hermann, Ekm. DocLr. Melr. p. 80, ed. Glasg. " IAMBIC TRIMETER. 69 'AttoAw tov dvdpcoTTOv KaKiara tovtovl. (Plut. 68.) ^novddg (pipetg \ rwv djXTreXGiv | rsT[xr]jjL^VG)v ; (^Ach. 183.) IV. It violates the rule respecting the Porsonian pause , thus, AovXgv yeveoOai 7rapa(ppovovvrog \ deanoTOV. (Plut. 2.) Ka/cwf enpaTTov Kai rtivrj^ i]v \ Oldd roi. (lb. 29.) Aexov TOV avdpa Kat tov opvLV \ tov '&eov. {lb. 63.) V. It permits also the concurrence of resolved feet, yet not so that an ana^oeest should come after a dactyl or tribrach. VI. The iambic trimeter of the satyric drama appears, in its structure, to occupy a middle place between the" nicety of the tragic laws and the extreme license of comedy ; as far, indeed, as we are able to form any opinion concerning it from the scanty remains that have come down to oui times.' VII. The anapsest is found, as in the case of the comic trimeter, in the first five places of the verse ; the pause is in like manner neglected, and trisyllabic or resolved feet are of frequent occurrence.^ We will now return to the most important of the remain- ing iambic measures. 8. Trimeter Catalectic. SX^^ I ^/^' ^'^ II "^^ vava I (TTo/'-tTT II ov avp [ av. || 9. Trimeter Brackycatalectic. ^vyevT I d nalS \\ onol \ 6v a \\ dovdv. [ || 10. Season, or Choliambus. ibg at I fiev a \\ yei Bov | TraAw || KaTfj | poJVTd. || 1 . The only satyric drama that has reached us is the Cyclops of Eu- ripides. 2. Gaisford {ad Hephczst. p. 242) inclines to exclude the anapsest from the third place in the satyric trimeter, but without sufficient authority. On the occurrence of trisyllabic feet, consult Casaubon,de Sat. Foes. p. 222. 70 IAMBIC TETRAMETER. I. This measure is nothing more than the iambic trimeter acatalectic, Avith a spondee instead of an iambus for the sixth foot. Hence its name of scazon {oiid^G)v, " limping") or choliambus (^^coXLafidog, " lame iambus"). II. The fifth foot is generally an iambus, since the line would otherwise be too heavy if both the fifth and sixth feet were spondees ; though instances of this kind occur even in Theocritus ; as, 6 i^ov I Gonoi II bg ev | 6dd' 'Itttt || ibvd^ | Kelrat || eI fisv I TTOvrj II pog [irj \ -noTepx \\ ^v tw | rviibcx). || III. This species of verse is also called the Hipponactic trimeter, from the virulent poet Hipponax, who invented it, and after whose example it was employed for purposes of railing and sarcasm. The writers who used it construct- ed it generally in the neatest and most exact manner, rare- ly employing resolutions, and entirely avoiding the anapaest, except that Babrius has sometimes taken it into the first place. The tragic writers abstained altogether from this measure, nor did the comic poets use it, unless, perhaps, with allusion to the iambic writers, as Eupolis in the Baptse {ap. Priscian, p. 1328).^ 11. Tetrameter Catalectic. el fioi I yevoZ || ro nap | Oevog || KaXfj \ re nal || repel \ va. || I. This measure was much used by the comic poets, but not at all by the tragic writers. It may be considered as two dimeters, the first complete, the second wanting one syllable.^ 1. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Metr. p. 94, ed. Glasg. 2. The iambic tetrameter catalectic is used also in English ; as in the song called "Miss Bailey," viz., "A captain bold from Halifax," &c. It forms also the prevalent measure of the modern Greek ])oetry, or, in other words, it is their heroic verse, (Consult FavricI, Chants popu- laires de la Grcce Modcrnc,\o\. i.,p. cxix., Disc. Prelim.) The follow- ing lines will illustrate this, the pronunciation being regulated entirely by accent : IAMBIC TETRAMETER. 71 II. This measure is the most harmonious of iambic verses, and those lines are the most pleasing Avhich have the caesura at the end of the fourth foot or second metre ; as, el fiOL yevoLTO irapdevog, \ KaXr] re Kal repeiva. But the comic writers often neglect this caesura. III. The following is the metrical scale : 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 -- w_ -- " — _„^ - - — Proper Name. IV. This scale is based upon the remarks of Person and Elmsley,' and the authority of the latter has been followed in admitting the anapaest into the fourth place, a license which Person restricts to the case of a proper name. The only license of the kind Avill occur, then, in the seventh foot. V. In the resolved or trisyllabic feet one restriction ob- tains ; that the concurrence of the feet — -^ ^ or ^ — -- and ^ -^ — in that order never takes place ; a rule which, even in the freer construction of the trimeter, is always strictly observed from its essential necessity. VI. All the trisyllabic feet which are admissible into the comic iambics are employed with much greater moderation in the catalectic tetrameters than in the common trimeters.'-^ V^II. The comic poets admit anapaests more willingly and frequently into the first, third, and fifth places, than into the second, fourth, and sixth of the tetrameter.'' JlovluKi, KOvOev IpxeaaL ; ■kovXI (lov, ttov irTj-yaivEic ; TlOV?MKl, Vf-f /Zaf TLTTOTE, KUVEV Ka'AoV jiaVTUTOV. 1. Person, Su.p'pl. ad Prtrf. ad Hcc. p. xxxix. — Elmsley, Edinh. Rev. No. 37. Elmsley is for the admission (though very rarely) of an aria- pa;st of a common word in tho fourth place, which opinion we have fol- lowed in the scale. 2. Elmsley, Ed. Rev. No. 37. 3. Ibid. 72 IAMBIC TETRAMETER. IX. We have remarked above, that the most pleasing caesura in this species of verse falls after the fourth foot. Sometimes the verse is even so constructed as to give a succession of iambic dipodias, separately heard ; as the fol- lowing from Aristophanes, Plutus, 253, scq} ^i2 -noXXa 6rj j tw deairorxi \\ ravrbv dv[iov \ (fjayovreg, "Avdpeg (ptXot | Kai Srjjxorat || Kal rov tiovelv | epaarai. 12. Tetrameter Acatahctic. T. This measure, called also Boiscius, from its inventor Boiscus, is not used by the Greek tragic and comic wri- ters. Hepha^stion gives an example from Alcaeus, as fol- lows :^ Ae^al \ [IS kG> II ixd^ovr | a 6e^ j| at Xiao j oiial || ae Xiao | oiial. II II. The Roman comic and tragic poets, however, made much use of this species of verse. The Latins called it octonarius. III. This measure allows of one of two caesuras. Plau- tus commonly divides it in the fourth arsis, and therefore intended it to be asynartete ; which is indicated by the hiatus and short syllable ; as in the Amphitr. 3, 4, 5, and Bacch. 4, 9, 9. Ills nd I vim sal || vum nun | ciat || — aiit i | rati ad || ventum | senis. || O Trol I a 6 pdtrl \\ a u Perg \ dmum, || — 6 Prm | me pe- rt II isti I senix. \\ In Terence, on the other hand, this kind of verse is not asynartete, because he usually makes the caesura in the the- sis which follows the fourth arsis ; as, Nunc A7n \ phitrm || n^m volt | dtUi || di-meiis j pater \\ fdxo I prohe. || 1. Tate, Introd. p. 10. 2. Hermann, Doctr. Elem. Metr. p. 102, ed. Glasg. TROCHAIC VERSE. - 73 II. Of Trochaic Verse. I. Trocliaic verse derives its name from the foot which prevails in it, namely, the trochee. II. The trochee, however, as in the case of the iambus, is convertible into a tribrach, and the spondee and anapaest are also admitted, but not the dactyl, except in a proper name.' There is this difference, however, between iambic and trochaic measure, that the latter admits the spondee and anapaest into the even places, the former into the uneven. III. The following are the principal trochaic metres : 1. Manometer Acatalectic, or Base. dare | vaKTog. \\ Tiflixdr' I OLKcbv. II Trochaic monometers are usually found in systems, which, as in most other numbers, so in the trochaic also, it is the custom, especially of the comic writers, to form into dime- ters. These systems are continued in one unbroken tenour, concluded by a catalectic verse. On this account there is no place for hiatus at the end of each verse, nor is it held necessary to conclude a verse with an entire word ; but the whole system is as one verse. Thus in Aristophanes (^Pac. 339, seq.) we have the following: Kal fiodre, Kal yeXdr'- •// — 6r] yap e^eorac rod' vjxlv ttXeIv, fievELV, Ktvelv, KadevSeiv, eg TTavTjyvpeig decjpelv, eOTidadai, KOTradl^eiv, ov6apL^eiv, iov iov KEKpayevaL. 1. Compare remarks under trochaic tetrameter catalectic. G 74 TROCHAIC VERSE. 2. Manometer Hypercatalectic. ttovtI I (bv GdX II wv Mam I 6dg tok || ov BdpOdp I w |3o II a. 3. Dimeter Acatalectic. Scale. 1 2 3 4 [ — — _ ^ _ w. "^ v_- ^^ ^ ^~ Examples. TTol rpdn I w/iat || not nop | £i;0(o ; || el 6e I Tig vnep || OTrra | x^P^^'^- II ar(Jo^ I ore Molp' \\ dvvnev | aio^ || dXvpog I dxopog II avdns | 07/i'e. || 4. Dimeter Catalectic.^ fj Xoy I w TTop II £!;£ I rdi — || Kdi Kdr I d yvo) || jU?)v Id | pi^-. — || TO (fiepov I fiK i9£ II oii KaA | w^-. — || Kad^og | ejioXe || ravfJe | yav. — 1| 5. Dimeter Brachycatalectic^ Etol I delv yly \\ dvrt \ || dXvpov j a/z^r II fiovodv. | || Ac6eTe | ^epere \\ ne[j,ner'. | || 1. Called also Euripidean. 2. Called also Ithyphallic. Compare Terentianus Maurus, v. 1845, and Alilius Fortunatas, p. 2698, as cited by Gaisford, ad Hephast. p. 265. TROCHAIC VERSE. 75 6. Dimeter Hypercatalectic.^ dg e I yiifj,' 6 || ro^o \ rag Udp || Ig. Tovg fiev I Ev orddfi. || ololv | ittttl \\ Kolg. 7. Trimeter Catalectic.^ epxe I Tai rl \\ iid yv | valKei \\ o) yev [ el. — || riders. \ firj ijjocp || elre | 117)6' ear || 6J /CTi;7r | og. — [| 8. Trimeter Brachycatalectic. 61 61 1 Tzpog -dpov II ovg ea | w juo || Xovreg. j || Tov 6'e I juov TTorfi || 6v a6dKp \ vrov || ov6elg. j || 9. Trimeter Hypercatalectic. TjXdov I et^ (JojU II ovg Iv ] ai}0' e || Kdord \ ool Xey | w. TCJ jwev I o orpdr || T^-^a | rd^* Trdr || ?}p e/cA | 7/i^r || 0. 10. Tetrameter Catalectic. Scale. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 -- — ^ — - — - — - — w --- --- -^ w _ w^ — -- ;::_ Proper Name. o) Trdrp I (if 0?7 || {ii]g ev | otKOi, || Xevoaer' \ 0161 \\ rrovg 6 I 6e og rd I KXelv' al || vlyfidr' \ {]67j, || /cat /rpdr | lorog \\ fiv dv I fip. I. This measure is commonly called the tragic tetrame- ter ; and it has with the tragic writers the caesura almost 1. Called also Bachillidean, from the poet Bachillides. 2. The trochaic trimeter acatalectic is found neither in tragedy nor comedy, as rightly stated by Bentley {ad Cu.. Tiisc. 3, 12). If any ap- pear to be found, as those which Gaisford (ad Hephczst. p. 265) adduces from Sophocles {(Ed. Col. 1081, 1092) they belong to epitrites. Her- mann, Elcm. Doctr. Mctr. p. 52, ed. Glasg. 76 TROCHAIC VERSE. always at the end of the fourth foot ; as in the lines juat given.' 0) TTarpag Q'/]6i]g tvoLKOi, | Xevaosr', 0l6i,TT0vg ode, 8g rd kXelv' aivtyiiar'' ydr], | Kal Kpariarog r]v dvqp. This caesura, however, is often neglected by the comic poets. II. The fourth foot of a tragic tetrameter should always end with some word that allows a pause in the sense ; not with a preposition, for instance, or an article belonging in syntax to what comes after. ^ III. If the first dipodia of the verse is contained in entire words (and so as to be followed at least by a slight break of the sense), the second foot is a trochee, or may be a tri- brach ;^ as, w<: arifiog, \\ olKrpd 7rd(7;)^wv, e^eXavvofiat x^ovog. Kad' 6 Bpofiiog, || d)g 'ifioiys ^aiveraL, do^av Xeyu). fxrjTepog de |1 [xrjd' 'idotjU [xvrjfia- TToXe^ia yap tjv. IV. In every place except the fourth and seventh, a dac- tyl of proper names is admitted. This dactyl is chiefly al- lowed to enter where its two short syllables are enclosed between two longs in the same word ; very rarely when the word begins with them ; under other circumstances, never ;* as, 1. This caesura is found neglected in ^-Eschylus, Pcrs. 164, where Porson corrects the verse by removing Siiryif/ to the end of the line ; an emendation of which Hermann speaks rather slightingly. {Porson, Suppl. ad Prczf. p. xliii. — Hermann, Elcrn. DocLr. Melr. p. 52, ed. Glasg.) Blomfield follows Porson. 2. Porson, Suppl. ad Praf. p. xliii. 3. This nicety of structure in the long trochaic of tragedy was first dis- covered by Porson. Consult Tracts and Misc. Criticisms of Porson, ed. Kidd, p. 197. — Class. Jnurn. No. 45, p. 166, seq. — Maltby, Lex. Pros, p, Ixvii. Tate, in his Introduction, p. 12, examines and explains (from his paper in the Class. Journ. 1. c.) the different lines that appear to militate against this canon of Porson's. 4. The principle on which this rule is probably based has already been alluded to in a previous note, page 60. TROCHAIC VERSE. 77 ecg dp j I(j)lye || veldv \ EAet'Ty^ || voarog j fjV ne \\ -npwiiev I Of. iravreg | ''E.XXfiv || e^- arpdr | 05- de || M.vpiu6o \ vcjv ov || Gol nap I ^v. ^vyyov I ov r' e |] /i^v Ili'/la | dfiv re || rov ra | Se ^vv || dpibvrd I ^iof. V. As to scansion, one limitation only obtains ; that or ^- ^ — in the sixth place, never precedes ^ -- - in the seventh. Even in comedy, a verse like the following is exceedingly rare : ovre yap vavayog, av fj,rj yrjg XdOrjraL j (pepofievog. VI. If the verse is concluded bv one word forming the cretic termination (— -^ — ), or by more words than are to that amount united in meaning, so that after the sixth foot that portion of sense and sound is separately perceived, then the sixth foot is — -^ or — ^ ^ ; that is, it may not be or -^ — — . Thus, i^eXavvoj^ieada narpLdog, Kal yap rjXdeg | k^eXdv. eXTTidsg 6' ovttoj KaOevdova' , alg irsTTotda \ avv -^eolg. VII. If from the beginning of a trochaic tetrameter you take away a cretic (—--'—), or a first paeon (— ^ -^ ^), or fourth pffion f-- — ^ — ), a regular iambic trimeter will be formed. Thus, ■ddaaov T] n' ) sxpriv Trpodatveiv lic6[j,rjv 61' dareog. ovxi MSve I Xecj rpo-rroiOL ^p^fJ-^d' oIgteov rdde. Idlov fj I Kotvbv TToXiratg enccpipcov eyKXrjjxa re ; Vin. The senarius thus formed, however, must always have apenthemimeral caesura, in order that the proper pause may take place at the end of the fourth trochaic foot.' 1. It admits, too, a dactyl, although very rarely, into the fifth place. Porson, Suppl. ad Prmf. p. xliii. G2 78 ANAP^STIC VERSE. Comic Tetrameter Catalectic. I. The scansion agrees with that of the tragic, except only that the spondee in the sixth sometimes, though very rarely, precedes the tribrach in the seventh ; as in the fol- lowing line from Philemon : ovre yap vavaydg, dv fiij yrig Xd6r]raL ^epofievog. II. The comic, like the tragic tetrameter, admits the dac- tyl only in the case of a proper name, and not otherwise. III. As regards structure, it must be remarked, that the comic poets freely neglect the nice points of tragic verse. They pay little attention to the pause at the end of the fourth foot, and to the rules respecting those divisions which sometimes take place after the first dipodia or before the final cretic. Lines like the following occur in great abun- dance :' TTpcora fxev xo-Lpeiv 'Adrjvat | oLot Kat rolg ^v^fidxotg. arr' dv vjj,eLg \ e^afidpTrjr' , eni ro (BeXnov Tpsneiv. nXelara yap ■&eCov dndvrojv (hcpeXovaaig | t7]v txoXiv. III. Of Anapmstic Verse. I. Anapaestic verse admits its proper foot, the anapasst (^ ^ _) with the dactyl, which is said to be admitted Kar' dvTiTTddeiav. It admits also the spondee, and sometimes, though very rarely, the proceleusmaticus (- -- ^ ^ ). II. Systems of anapaestic verse are scanned by the dipo- dia. They are generally dimeter acatalectic. III. These, however, like other dimeters, have not the last syllable common. A sr/napheia [ovvdcpeia) or principle of continuous scansion prevails throughout them, so that they run on, from beginning to end, as if they all formed but one verse. IV. The end of an anapaestic system is marked by a dimeter acatalectic, or, as it is more commoidy termed, a 1. Tate, Introd. p. 13.' ANAP^STIC VERSE. 79 paroemiac line, and the last syllable in this line is the only one in this system which is excepted from the law of syna- pheia, and which may be long or short indifferently. V. The principal anapaestic measures are as follows : 1. Monometer Acatalectic^ or Base. 1 2 ■»--' s-/ — V-* N.X r^~ Examples. pedog alax | vvet || TToAAwv I ned' o-nXC)v || XsKrp' Aya | nsfivojv. \\ 2. Monometer Hypercatalectic. 6opl dfj [ dope nep \\ adv. 3. Dimeter Acatalectic. oarXg dv [ eIttoI |i norepov j (pdljievfjv || TToAAw I pevfidrl || Trpoavlaa \ o^isvovg || Zsvg yap | jtieydA?/^ || yXCyaafjg | Kdjmovg. || I. The anapaestic dimeter of tragedy is so named from the striking predominance of the anapaestic foot, though it frequently admits the dactyl and spondee. II. The proceleusmaticus (— ^ — —), as f3ddvK0iid, is not admitted by the tragic writers into a legitimate anapaestic system. Even in comedy its admission is very rare.' III. As has already been remarked, a regular system con- sists of dimeters acatalectic, with a monometer acatalectic sometimes interposed, generally as the last verse but one of the system, and is concluded by a dimeter catalectic, otherwise called a parcemiac.^ 1. Hermann, Elem. Doctr. Metr. p. 239, ed. Glasg. 2. The parcemiac took its name from the circumstance of proverbs {■KapoLjiLai.) being frequently composed in this measure. Compare He- phcEstion, p. 46, ed. Gainford. 80 ANAP^STIC VERSE. IV. The anapaestic dimeter admits indiscriminately the dactyl and spondee for the anapaest. The scale is as fol- lows : 1 2 3 4 zr- ^_^ v.^ VW Vw./ rrc "^^ s-' V. With regard to the arrangement of the feet, the fol- lowing rules are to be observed : 1. The anapaest and spondee are combined without any restriction, as will appear from the following : depxdfid' I olal<; || alKl \ alolv || dldnval I ofievog || rov fiv | pieTrj || Xpovov ddX j evgG). II - 2. In the dactylic syzygies the dactyl usually precedes its own spondee, as in the following verses : ^K6J ] doXixf}^ II repjid KtA j evOov \\ dldixelip I dp,svdg || Trpoq ae lipo j fiiiOev II rov TTTepvy j ojkj] \\ rovS' ol \ (bvov. \\ 3. Sometimes the dactyl is paired with itself; thus,' w [leyd \ Xd Qe[ii \\ kol ttotvV j Apreju \\ 0) -ndrep [ w -noXlg |1 d)v dire \ vdaOrjv. \\ 4. Very rarely does an anapaest or a spondee precede a dactyl in the same syzygy, especially in the last syzygy of the verse. Of the two following instances the first presents the more objectionable form ; the second, suc- ceeded by a dactyl and spondee, can hardly be said to offend at all.^ 1. " Daclyli sapissime substituuntur anapcestis, nee iantum unus ali- quis, sed scepe eliam plures continvi. Quinque coniinuavit JEschylus in Agam. 1.561, scq. Scptem Euripides in Hippolyt. 1361, sej." Her- mann, Elcm. Ductr. Meir. p. 240, cd. Glasg. 2. Elmslcy, ad Eurip. Med. 1050, note g. — Id. ad Soph., (Ed. Col. 1766.— Tate's IrUrod. p. 15.— Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 314. ANAP^STIC VERSE. 81 6aljX(bv I ode. rig \\ XevKfiv [ aWspa \\ Trdpd[j,£v I djj,evdg. \\ . .' i^v^Twv I d' dX,6i6g \\ elg reXog | ovSelg. || ^ 5. An anapaest ought not to be preceded by a dactyl, to avoid too many short syllables occurring together. On this subject, which is one of great awkwardness and difficulty to metrical scholars, the following rules may be laid down.' (a.) The concurrence of dactyl with anapaest, in that order, is never found within the same syzygy. And hence the following line of Euripides [Alcest. 80), as given in the common editions, dOTLg dv evenol \\ TTorepov (jidijievrj, is well corrected by Monk, who reads stiTOt for ev- ilTOL. (/3.) The concurrence of dactyl with anapeest, in that order, is not very often found between one dimeter and another, as in Euripides (Electr. 1320, seq.) : ^vyyove (plXrdTe did yap \ ^evyvva' 7)jmg Trarpiojv. (y.) The combination is very rare where one syzygy closes with a dactyl and the next begins with an anapaest, as in the following {Electr. 1317) : Sdpaei UdXXddog \\ oaldv '/j^eig. IV. Thus far of the anapeestic dimeter, when the first syzygy, as most usually it does, ends with a word. This, however, is not always the case ; and of such A'erses as want that division, those are the most frequent, and the most pleasing also, which have the first syzygy after an anapaest 1. Eurip. Androm. 1228 (1204). 2. U. Iph. A. 161 (159). 3. Tate, Introd. p. 15. — Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 314. 82 ANAP^STIC VERSE. (sometimes after a spondee) overflowing into the second, with, the movement anapasstic throughout.' Thus, Txrepvyodv kperiiol [ glv kpeaao^evoL. Kal ^vyxaipov | acv duocoTTperrelg. Here the last syllables of eperiiolotv and ^vyxaipovaiv overflovi^ into the second syzygy, the first syzygy ending after the penultimate syllables of each of these words. V. In this species of verse one hiatus alone is permitted, in the case of a final diphthong or long vowel so placed as to form a short syllable. The following instances may serve :^ Kat eXeLobdrai vaCov epsrai. {Pers. 39.) TTodeovaaL i6e.lv dpri^vytav. [lb. 548.) oixsrai, dv6pu)v. (^Ib. 60.) Tcj Qrjaeida 6', ocfw 'Adrjvcov. (^Hecub. 123.) VI. The synapheia {avvd(l)eta), that property of the an- apaestic system which Bentley first demonstrated,' is nei- ther more nor less than continuous scansion, that is, scan- sion continued with strict exactness from the first syllable to the very last, but not including the last itself, as that syllable, and only that in the whole system, may be long or short indifferently. Thus, sir dpdfxdv Efiol Kat (piXorrjra GTrevdo)v GirevdovTi ttoO' ri^ec. (Prom. v. 199, seq.) Here the last syllable of verse 199 becomes long, from the short vowel a in (pLXorrira being united with the consonants GTt at the beginning of verse 200. Had a single consonant, or any pair of consonants like Kp, ttA, &c., followed in verse 200, the last syllable of verse 199 would have been short in violation of the metre. Again, w fieydXa Qejil, Kal norvt.' "ApTefxt, XevGoed' a ndaxo) {Med. 161.) 1. Tate, p. 16. 2. Hermann, Elrm. Doelr. Mctr. p. 237, ed. Glass- 3. Dissertation on the Epistles of Fkalaris, p. 150, seq., ed. Land. 1816. ANAP^STIC VERSE. 83 If, after verse 161, ending with a sliort vowel, any vowel whatever had followed in verse 162, that would have vio- lated the law of hiatus observed in these verses. And if a double consonant, or any pair of consonants like kt, an, 6jj,, jxv, Sic, had followed in verse 162, the word "Aprsfu, necessarily combined with those consonants, would have formed a cretic or amphimacer (—-'—), and not the dac- tyl required. But XevaaeO' follows, with the initial A, and all is correct.' VII. The law of synapheia, however, is occasionally vi- olated ; namely, sometimes in a change of speaker, as Eurip. Med. 1368; Electr. 1333; Soph. CEd. Col. 139, 143, 170, 173, 1757 ; Antig. 931. It is violated sometimes, also, at the end of a sentence, and likewise in exclamations, as in jEsch. Agam. 1544.*^ VIII. The parcemiac verse has its scale as follows : 1 2 3 4 zr- --" "~^ ""^ Examples. ^ Klyev I Trap' efiol || (JeJokt^ [ adt — || Tzav fiol I (poCepov \\ to Trpoaep-n [ 6v. || IX- In the parcemiac one limitation as to the concurring feet obtains, namely, that a dactyl in the first never pre- cedes an anapcEst in the second place. X. In this same species of verse, also, the foot before the catalectic syllable must be an anapaest ; as, [ieydXG)v \ Kooficjv \\ Kredrelp | a. XL There are, however, some few verses, in which the foot preceding the parosmiac is found to be a spondee ; thus, 1. Tate, Introd. p. 17. 2. Hermann cites also Soph. (Ed. Col. 188, to prove that the syna- pheia is sometimes neglected likewise in the case of addresses. But the readmg on which he founds this exception has been long conected. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 319. 84 ANAPiESTIC VERSE. iTrncjv t' eXarrjp libadd | V7]g. (Pers. 32.) (3sXog TjXidLov aKfiipei | ev. [Agam. 374.) iprj(f)(i> TToXecdg yvibadli \ aai. {Suppl. 8.) Other examples may be found in the Sept. ad Theh. 832, and Suppl. 983, but these arise, most probably, from some corruption in the text." XII. In the anapaestic dimeter, as has already been re- marked, the first syzygy usually ends with a word ; but in the paroemiac this is very seldom the case, and hence a very common shape of this latter species of verse is found in the following line : exOpolg erdxapr [ d mmovda. XIII. The parcsmiac sometimes, though rarely, begins with a dactyl ; thus, ovK diTonovadv to yvvalKcbv. But it comes most agreeably to the ear when it presents the last three feet of a dactylic hexameter with an initial syllable ;^ thus, Tcdv I fiol (l)o6spdv TO Txpoaepfrdv e I x^polg enlxdpTd Trindvdd. Or with two initial syllables, when an anapaest begins ; as, (plXog I IotI PedaloTepog aol. XIV. With regard to position, the Attics observe the same laws, as to a vowel before a mute and liquid, &;c., in the anapaestic dimeter which prevail in the iambic trimeter.'' XV. The question whether the augment may be occa- sionally rejected in regular anapaistics still remains unde- cided.'' It is safer not to exercise this license in modem versification. 1. Hermann, Elcm. Doc.tr. Mctr. p. 240, ed. Glasg. 2. Tate, Introd. p. 18. — Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 316. 3. Some instances, however, may be fo\md in the anapasstic dimeter, where a short vowel at the end of a word is lengthened before Tvp, tt/I, &c., in the beginning of the next. Consult Erfurdt, ad Soph. Aj. 1120. —Blomf. ad JEsch. Sept. c. Theh. lO.'Sa. 4. Elmsley {ad Eurip. Med. 1380) is in favour of the occasional re- ANAPiESTIC VERSE. 85 XVI. In systems of anapaests the tragic writers neither always employ nor always discard the Doric dialect, at least those peculiarities of it which are usual in the choral parts or admitted into the senarius. 4. Tetrameter Catalectic. I. This metre, called Aristophanic, from the frequent use of it by Aristophanes, consists of two dimeters, the last of which is catalectic. Its scale is as follows : 1 2 I 3 I 4 5 6 7 8 Examples. akV f\ I 6f\ xpr\v || rt "klyuv \ vfidg \\ g6(I)6v Co | vIkt] jj OSTS TJjv I 61 ibnTG)v I ydarspd || rolg ovy | yevealv || Kar' ovk | eox^jv Jf afie^fj I Gag. II. In the first three places, as will appear from the scale, besides the anapaest and spondee, a dactyl may be used ; but it must be observed that a dactyl is admitted much more sparingly into the second than into the first place of the syzygy.' III. A dactyl is also admitted into the fifth place, but is always excluded from the fourth and sixth places. IV. The two feet — — ^, ^ ^ — , in that order, nowhere occur in the anapaestic tetrameter. The catalectic syllable is never preceded by a spondee in the seventh place, which should always be an anapaest. The proceleusmaticus is ex- cluded from the verse. V. The caesura always occurs after the fourth foot, which must never end with an article or a preposition. Besides jection of the augment, but Blomfield (ad ^sch. Pers. 912) controverts this opinion. Sandford, Gr. Pros. p. 320. 1. In the twelve hundred (or more) tetrameter anapaestics of Aristoph- anes, only nineteen examples occur of a dactyl in the second place, the only second place of a syzygy which it can occupy. Tate, Introd. p. 19. H 86 DACTYLIC VERSE, this main division, moreover, there should be likewise an- other one after the first syzygy, which always gives an agreeable finish to a verse. Thus, aXX ijS?] XP^F I "^^ At'y£iv v[i,dg \\ Go --^) into the first place, and a molos- sus ( ) into an even place of a trimeter whole or cata- lectic. II. Resolutions of the long syllables are allowed in all possible varieties. 1. Manometer Hyper catalectic. TTTOXJGOval p,v ] %wv. {Hec. 1048.) 2. Dimeter Br achy catalectic. xXu)palg vno \ PTJaaalg. {(Ed. Col. 673.) Kal G(b(ppdvd I 7TU)Xolg. [Phcen. 182.) 3. Dimeter Catalectic. fi TidXXddog \ ev ttoXeI. {Hec. 465.) 6 ■QlGfiodE I rfjg og dv. {Arist. Eccles. 289.) 1. These two measures have already been touched upon at page 104. They will again be considered separately at page 117. IONIC A MAJORE VERSE. 109 4. Dimeter Acatalectic. Ti rol TTore \ rag dnXdaTOV Kolrdg epog \ w [xdrald GTTevoel ddvd | rov reXevrdv {Med. 152.) 5. Dimeter Hyper catalectic. vvv d' ovTog dv \ elral arvye j pw. {Aj. 1232.) 6. Trimeter Brachycatalectic. Ikov rd Kpdr \ lord ydg Itx \ avXd. {(Ed. Col. 669.) 7. Trimeter Acatalectic. ■&vdro)V f3cd \ tw TrdfiTcoXv y' | SKTog drag. {Ant. 614.) Tdv ovd' vTTVog I alpel Tzod' o | -navroyripcog. {A7it. 60G.) III. The most noted kind of Ionic verses a majore is the Sotadic (so called from Sotades, a poet of Alexandria, who frequently employed it in his writings), or tetrameter brachy- catalectic. IV. The tetrameter brachycatalectic was constructed for recitation only, not for song.' In its pure state it consists of three Ionics and a trochee. Two trochees are found in any place, but for the most part in the third. V. The most usual form of the verse is as follows : avTog ydp e \ (bv iravToye | VTig o ndvrd \ yevvCbv. VI. It is seldom that all the feet are either Ionics ; as, dv xP^^o(pop I fjg rovTO rv \ XV? ^(^'^^'^ ^"^ I dpiid, or trochees ; as, C)g -nevfig dlX \ (bv sx^lv koI \ -nXovolog irXe \ dv Gx^lv. VII. The following are examples of resolutions : Ivd' ol fisv in' I dKpalai irvp \ alg veKveg e \ keIvto yfig ItcI ^e \ vfig opcpdvd \ relx^d npoXln | ovreg 1. Aristides QuintUianus, p. 32. K 110 IONIC A MINORE VERSE. 'EXXddog lep \ ffg kuI [ivxov | ioTiiig tto, \ TpQirig TjBrjv T* epd | Trjv Kal KdXov ] rjAlov npoa | cjTrov. VIII. If the three remaining paeons, or the second paeon in any place but the first, or if an iambic syzygy or an epi- Irite be found in the same verse with an Ionic foot, the verse is then termed Epionic. VIII. Of Ionic a Minor e Verse. I. An Ionic verse a minore admits an iambic syzygy pro- miscuously with its proper foot [^ -^ ). It begins some- times with the third psson (--'-- — v-), sometimes with a molossus, which is admitted into the odd places. Resolu- tions of the long syllable are also allowed. II. An epionic verse a minore is constituted by intermix- ing with the Ionic foot a trochaic syzyg}% an epitrite, a sec- ond or fourth pteon, or the third in any place but the first. 1. Monometer Hypercatalectic. [j,eXedg [id | rpog. (^Hec. 185.) 2. Dimeter Brachycatalectic. em rdvS' laa \ vdelg. (lb. 1065.) 3. Dimeter Catalectic. eXdrdg dKp ] OKOfiolg. (Phcen. 1540.) ^ABdiidvTlSog \ ''EXXfjg. {Pers. 71.) ^eddev yap | Kdrd ixolp'. {lb. 102.) III. Timocreon is said to have composed an entire poem in this measure. ^iKeXbg KOjxipdg dvrjp TTOTt rdv fxarep' ecpa, k. t. X. 4. Dimeter Acatalectic. TrdpdKXlvova' \ erreKpavtv. (Agam. 721.) P^C)V dp \ lore ypd(f)e I ^(I)ypd(j)U)v dp | lore. (28, 1, seq.) X. When, in this species of Anacreontics, the anacrusis consists of one syllable, that syllable must necessarily be long, as arising from the contraction of two short ones. In- stances of this, however, are not frequent. Thus, Kw I fiov fiSTelGi I x^^P(^'^- (6, 16.) TTij I yrj peovad \ ireWovg. (22, 6.) 1. We have given Barnes's emendation, based on that of Scaliger. The common reading is orav 6 Bukxoc eaeWri. ANACREONTIC VERSE. 115 XL Sometimes the first long syllable is found resolved. Thus, Gv 6s I (fiXio^ el ye \ wpywv. (43, 8.) XJKe jttof;;^;^ 1| XdXov "Amdt orofia, Trapd 6' avrbv XexpiOi; ordg || eXixp^rjaaro OToXrjV, TTpo(l)av(og Tovro dtddoiiuv \\ aTrodvorj iSiorrjV oaov ovTTdi- 6tb Kal ol \\ Taxe('>g ^Xde jJ-opog, dsKaKig TTEvr' f-irl rpiaoalg \\ eaidovri -nXeiddag. XIII. Of Glyconic Verse. I. The first, and, at the same time, most simple and ele- gant form of Glyconics is a base followed by a logacedic order, consisting of a dactyl and trochee, and terminating with an arsis. Thus, II. This kind of verses form systems, for the most part, which are customarily concluded by the catalectic verse called Pherecratic. Thus, a6' k j yw x^P^*^ alfxdT \ fj pdg (3p6 I x^^^^ KSKXeliiev | a TTEfiTro I fial Kara yal \ dg. {Androm. 502, seq.) III. The logacedic order was subsequently changed into a choriambus and iambus, by which the last syllable but one was made doubtful ; as, •'••'■I I"- Thus we have in Euripides, HippoL 741, the following: rdg 7] I XEKTpo(j)deLg | avydg, IV. The logacedic order having been divided into a cho- riambus and iambus, it was thought fit to vary the numbers by transposition, so that the iambus, being placed before the choriambus, was changed into a spondee or trochee, be- cause an arsis ought to follow the base. Thus, •'••■• I - - I - - - - Kal Txevr ) ijiidvd' | ov^Wldg. 118 GLYCONIC VERSE. V. And again, another transposition also was made, though not of frequent occurrence, the choriarabus taking the first place, and the base and trochee being changed into an iambic syzygy. As, VI. The Pherecratic verse, in which the choriambus is not followed by an iambus that may be transposed, admits only two forms : Of which the last is uncommon, and used, for the most part, only in some compound verses. VII. The primitive species of Glyconics, which ends in an iambus, receives among dramatic poets, at least in the later tragedy, even a spondee in the end, so that in anti- strophics a spondee may answer to an iambus. Thus, in Sophocles, Philoct. 1128, 1151, we have w ro^ov (f)LXoV, 0) (pilXibV. rdv npoadev jSeAewv aXKdv. VIII. A pyrrhic is excluded from the base among the dramatic poets and in the graver lyric poetry. The rest of the dissyllabic feet are used promiscuously by the dramatic writers, so that any one may answer to any one. The tri- brach is most used by the later tragedy, as in Euripides, Ph(£n. 210. Tvplov I olSnd XTnovg^ | eddv. The tragedians of the same age sometimes allowed them- selves an anapaest also ; as in Sophocles, Philoct. 1098 : Ti 7t6t av I fxol TO Kdr' fj \ fidp. or a dactyj ; as in Iph. Taur. 1144 : ' TTdpdevog \ evSoKincbv | ydnQ>v. GLYCONIC VERSE. 119 IX. The choriambus is not imfrequently resolved, espe- cially in the later tragedy. Thus, the first syllable in Soph. (Ed. Col. 186, 205 : rerpofpev [ dcblXov dTvo I arvyelv. rig (x)v I TToXvTzovog dyfj | rlv' dv. And in a Pherecratic ; as, Eurip. Hel. 1502, 1519 : tiuTTer I o^ievog Idux \ £i podld I TToXid 'ddXdaa | dg. So also in the last syllable ; as, Hel. 1505 ; Here. Fur. 781 : /3dT£ I IlXeidddg vno | {.leadg. lofifjv' I u) ori(f)dv6(pdp | Idv. X. In this other form of Glyconics, •'••'■ I 33-1---- the order which follows the base may have both a resolu- tion of the arsis and the last syllable doubtful. Whence, in- stead of a trochee, sometimes a spondee is put, sometimes a tribrach, and these very often ; sometimes, but more sel- dom, an anapzest also, as in Orest. 812, and Iph. Aul. 1041 : oiKTpo I rdrd ■&olv \ dfrnrd Koi. Uis I plSeg ev | datTC deojv. XT. Sometimes both the long syllables of the choriambus are resolved ; as in Eurip. Bacch. 410, 427 : eKela' [ dye [le, | BpojxiS Bponls. GO(l)dv I d' dne^s \ rrpdrndd (ppsvd re. XII. As dochmiac verses have other numbers, resem- bling them or parts of them, both intermingled and coupled with them, so with Glyconics, also, a vast multitude of verses are found joined which are either like them or con- sist of Glyconics themselves, with some part taken away or added. These verses have usually this in common, that they contain a choriambus joined with a different foot. 120 GLYCONIC VERSE. XIII. The forms which are about the most in use are these : First, the shortest, _ s^ v^ — j 3 — and •'. .'. j —-'•-' — Thus, in Soph. CEd. Col. 128, 160, and Eurip. Suppl 960, 968: dg Tp£jUOjtiev | Xeyelv. peviidrl avv | Tp^^eL dvaal \ Qtv 6' o (iloq. ovt' ev I Tolg (j)di[Mevolg. XIV. Next, with an anacrusis put instead of a base, as in Soph. CEd. T. 467 : (J I pa vlv dtXX I ddu)V LIT I TTibv odevapu) I rlpov (f)v I yd TTodd vG) | fidv. XV. There are other forms longer than a Glyconic. Of these the first is that of the hypercatalectic Glyconic. Thus, .'. .'. I - w w _ [ ^ r 3 and .'..'. I - 3 I _ s^ .- - I 3 The following examples are from Soph. CEd. Col. 133, 165, and Eurip. Hel. 1317 : livT I eg rdds vvv [ rtv fjnelv. KXveig I cj TToXviioxd' \ dXdrd. opet I a TTOT I £ 6p6ndSl | kcjAw. XVI. Another kind often joined with Glyconics is the following : — ^wi* >— ' I S.-- N«/ — s_^ EKTomog j ovdelg o Trdvrcjv. (CEd. Col. 119.) XVII. Another kind is this : GLYCONIC VERSE. 121 KaX^ioT j a>v on6p | dv Alodev | arepeloal. (Electr. 736. KTeiveig \ KXeZvoJv I avyyeverelp' | dSiXcpoJv. (76. 741.) XVIII. The longest of the verses allied to the Glyconic is the Phalaecian hendecasyllabic. Thus, at T£ I valsTs KdXX \ IttojXov idp | dv. The more usual, but less correct way of scanning this meas- ure, is as follows : al re | valers j KdXXl | ttcjAov | eSpdv. XIX. Glyconics are sometimes augmented in the begin- ning. Hence we have the following forms : 3_3|_^^_|3_and--3|-3|_^^_ Te-yyel 6' vtt | ocppval ndy \ KXavrolg. (Antig. 831.) syKXfipov I oiiTE I vvjxcpldlog. {lb. 814.) XX. Another kind has a trochee inserted between the base and the other parts of the Glyconic. Thus, e[j,7Tal^ I ovad j XelfidKog ij \ dovalc;. {Bacch. 865.) TTddTJ I jtiot yew | alibv [ fiev ndrepojv. {Cycl. 41.) XXI. Another kind consists of a Pherecratic verse, with a molossus or cretic. Thus, TTEvdog I yap fieydXp(b \\ ttoSI Kpal-nv \ oavrov H 4. -ddKov j TTpoXiTTOvo' , II aWepd | ■&' dyvov \\ 5. TTOpOV 01 I 0)V(bV, I! O/Cptd I £(T(7^ |1 6. x^ovX Trjd I e ueAw' ll rovg oovg j dg novovg || 7. %p^C<^ I dmTTavT li 6g dKova ] c(. (ParcBmiac.) 8. TjKU) I ddXixfjg il repiid ksX j £v9oy || 9. dldfielil) I dfxivdg H upof <7£, ITpu// | ^0£v, || 10. TOV TXTEpvy I WK?/ i| T0I'(5' Ot | ibVOV |j 11. yvwiii] j arofUMV \\ drep ev | dvvojv || 12. rai^- aai^- | dg Tvj^at^, || ladl, ovv | dAyoi- || 13. TO, re yap | [le, 6oK(b, \\ ^vyysveg | ovribg \\ 14. eodvdyK \ d^el, \\ %wpic ] re yevovg \\ 15. ov/c fiCT I Iv dro) \\ iiel^ovd | fiolpdv \\ 16. velixalfi,', \ rj aol. \\ 17. yvGioel | de Ta(5' wa || ervfi', ovS | £ fidrriv |I 18. x^plro I yXCjooelv H £Vt iitor | 0£p£ yap || 19. OTJualv', I 0, rl XP^ II <^oi ^^^|t* | "updoaelv || 20. oi) yap | ttot' £p£t^, || ibg '9. | Kidvov \\ 21. ^tAo^" tiar I l (3e6al || orepog \ aol. (Paroemiac.) Vss. 405-413 (Leipsic ed. 397-405). Strophe 6\ 1. l,Tev(o oe rag | ovXofilvdg 2. rvxdg, Upoi^fj | 0£i}, ddKpval- 3. GTdKTOV 6' an' oaa | wv pddlvibv 4. peof, Tcapel | av vorlolg 5. erey^e ndy \ alg- afxeydp- 6. rd ydp rdde | Z£vf ISlolg 7. vofiolg Kpdrvv | cjv, vnepf]- OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 133 8. ^avov ■dSolg \ rolol Trdpog 9. delKvvotv alXfJ'dv. | 1. Gly conic polyschematistic. 2. The same measure. 3. The same measure. 4. The same measure. 5. The same measure. 6. The same measure. 7. The same measure. 8. The same measure. 9. Dochmiac monometer. Vss. 414-422 (Leipsic ed. 406-414). Antistrophe 6\ corresponding line for line with Strophe 6'. 1. UpoTTdad d' rj \ 6rj orovdiv 2. AeAdKe ;\;wp | a, iieydXo- 3. axiil^ovd r' dpx \ al6TTps.-nfi^ 4. orevovol rdv | adv ^vvofial- 5. fxovcJv re rlfi | dv, ottoooZ t' " 6. sTrotKov dyv \ dg "Aaldg 7. eSog vsfiovT j al, fieydXo- 8. OTovolai oolg | 7T7jjxdoi ovy- 9. Kd[x.voval ■&vrjrol. | Vss. 423-427 (Leipsic ed. 415-419). Strophe e. 1. KoXxid 1 og re \\ ydg ev | oTkoI \\ 2. TrdpdSv I ol fidx ^ dg d \ rpearoi || 3. Kttt iKvd I rjg oil 1| iXof | ol ydg || 4. eaxdrov rot: \ dv dficj)t Mal- 5. CiTLV exova | I Xliivdv. 1. Choriambic dimeter. M 134 CHORAL SCANNING 1. Trochaic dimeter acatalectic. 2. Tlie same measure. 3. The same measure. 4. Antispastic dimeter. 5. Choriambic dimeter catalectic. Vss. 428-432 (Leipsic ed. 420-424). Antistrophe £, corresponding Hne for line with Strophe e. 1. "Apadl I dg t' dp | elov | dvdog, || 2. vipl I Kpfjfjivdv II 1?' ol TToX I land || 3. KavKda | ov TveX \ dg vejj. | ovrai, || 4. ddlog arpdr | 6f, o^vnpojp 5. of(76 Ppifiibv I £V alxfi'alg- Vss. 433-444 (Leipsic ed. 425-435). Antispastic System. 1. Movov 6?] npoad \ iv dXXov sv | ttovoIoTv 6d^- 2. evr' aKdfi \ dvrdde \ rolg 3. Tlrdvd Xv/ialg \ eloldo^dv -d^ecbv, 4. "ArXdvO', 6g al \ ev vTrepocpov 5. adevog Kpdralov | 6. OVpdvl I ov T£ TTO/l I ov 7. vCiTololv V7T0 I fSdard^el. 8. jQoa de TTOVT | log iiXvdo)v \ ^vfi- 9. TTl-nrdiV, orevel \ fivdog, KeXalv \ og d' 10. dldog VTTO \ Pptjiel fivxog \ ydg, 11. TTdyal ■&' dyvopp \ vrdyv Trora/idJv [ arev- 12. ovolv I dXyog || olKrpov. | 1. Antispastic trimeter. 2. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 3. Docftmiac dimeter. 4. Antispastic dimeter. OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 135 5. Doclimiac monometer. 6. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 7. Antispastic dimeter catalectic. 8. Antispastic dimeter hj^ercatalectic 9. The same measure. 10. The same measure. 11. The same measure. 12. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic. Vss. 535-546 (Leipsic ed. 527-535). Strophe $-'. 1. MfjSdfi' I TTdvrd vifi \ djv 2. -delr' ifi I a yvd- \ 3. \ia Kpdrog \ dvrlna \ Xov Ztvg, 4. [iTid' £ I Xlvvv- II 5. aaliii i?£ | ovg oal \ alg ■&olv- 6. alg TTOTi I vloaons. \ vd 7. (iov(pov I olg, -nap' || 8. QKedv I old rrdrp \ og 9. dablGTOv rropov, 10. fiTid' dXir I olid Aoy [ olg- 11. a/lAa I [lol rod' || ejtijwsv | ol, kol || 12. iirjTTor' I g/cra/c || e«]. 1. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 2. Trochaic monometer. 3. Dactylic trimeter. 4. Trochaic monometer. 5. Dactylic trimeter. 6. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 7. Trochaic monometer. 8. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 9. Doclimiac monometer. 10. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 136 CHORAL SCANNING 11. Trochaic dimeter. 12. Trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic. Vss. 547-558 (Leipsic ed. 536-548.) Antistrophe g-% corresponding line for line with Strophe f'. 1. Hdv rl I ddpadXe \ alg 2. rov jiaKp | ov teIv- || 3. elv j3cdv \ eXtxXgl, | (pdval^ 4. ■&V110V I dXdalv- || 5. ovadv EV I evcppoavv [ aif • (pploo- 6. Q 6e G£ \ depKOfiEv | j) 7. iivpl I olq fioxd- II 8. oig did I Kvalofiev | ov. 9 * * * * * * I 10. Z^va yap | ov Tpop^e \ u>v, 11. sv 161 \ a y vwjti H ^ oed \ el ■&vdT- \\ 12. ovg ay | av, Upon \\ fjdev. \ Vss. 559-567 (Leipsic ed. 546-553). Strophe ^'. 1. $ep' OTTw^- I d^dplg || %apv nepcjv \ Kvvfjyerel, 9. nXdvd re vrjar \ Iv dvd rdv ixdpd \ Xldv ipafii^ov, 10. V7T0 6s KfiporrXdcr | 6g orodel 6ovd$ 11. dx^Tdg I 12. vTTvddordv voixov. J 13. Id) i(o, I nol Txol, Txd ttcj, 14. ttG) TTcJ -nfi fj.' dy \ ovolv rTjXe \ irXdyKTol ixXdvol. 15. rl TTore jit', w | Kpovle rral, 16. rl TTore ralod' ev \ e^sv^dg evpCov 17. diidprovodv \ ev irrjiidvalalv 18. e "e. 19. olorpfiXdrib 61 \ 6el\idTl 6elXaldv 20. -ndpdico'nov u)6e ; | relpslg nvpl (pXe^ov, 21. rj x^ovl icdXvipov, \ rj ttovtIoIgIv 22. 6dKeol 6dg Pop \ dv, iirj6e [lol 23. (t)6ovTiofig evy \ iidrCJv dvd^. 24. d6fjv jLte iroXv \ TtXdyicTOL -nXdvai 25. yeyvfivdud \ alv, ov6' £%cj 26. ftd0£tv OTTTJ 7T7J j fiovd^- dXv^Q. 1. Extra metrum. 2. Dochmiac dimeter. 3. Antispastic tetrameter catalectic. 4. Antispastic trimeter catalectic. OF THE PROMETHEUS VINCTUS. 139 5. Dochmiac dimeter. 6. Antispastic trimeter catalectic. 7. Choriambic dimeter catalectic. 8. Dochmiac and antispastic. 9. Antispastic trimeter. 10. Dochmiac dimeter. 1 1 . Cretic monometer. 12. Antispastic monometer. 13. Antispastic dimeter. 14. Antispastic trimeter. 15. Cretic dimeter. 16. Antispastic and dochmiac 17. The same measure. 18. Extra metrum. 19. Dochmiac dimeter. 20. The same measure. 21. The same measure. 22. Antispastic dimeter. 23. The same measure. 24. The same measure. 25. The same measure. 26. Dochmiac dimeter. Vss. 613-629 (Leipsic ed. 594-609). Antispastic System. 1. Uodev eiiov av rrd \ Tpog ovojj, dirvelg 2. etTO fxol I 3. TO, iioyepa, rig wv, ] rig apd \i\ (o rdXdg, 4. rdv rdXal \ TTCJpov Cod' 5. ervfid 'iTpdodopelg \ 6. -SedoavTov \ 6S voaov ajvofidadg 7. a ixdpalv \ el |U£ XP'- 1 ^^^"' '^^^' 8. Tpolg (polrdXeololv . \ . fe- f. 140 CHORAL SCANNING 10. OKjpT7Jfj,aTu)V 6e | VTJoriaLv alKial^ 11. XdSpoaovTog rjX ] dov smtcorol \ aiv [iridtolv } ddiielod 12. dvodalfiovcov | 6e rlveg, ol, e e, ot' 13. eyu) [xoyov | alv aAAa fiol '■ 14. Topwf rtK\if\p6v, I b rl \i ETid\i\itvu 15. nddelv rX nrj XPV' I '''^ (pdpfidKOV 16. voaov, del^ov, el \ irep oladd -Bpoel, 17. ^pd^e rd j dv^TTrAavcJ | rrdpOevu). 1. Dochmiac dimeter. 2. Cretic monometer. 3. Doclimiac dimeter. 4. Cretic dimeter. 5. Dochmiac monometer. 6. Antispastic and dochmiac. 7. Cretic trimeter. 8. Dochmiac monometer. 9. Extra metrum. 10. Dochmiac dimeter. 11. Antispastic tetrameter catalectic. 12. Antispastic and dochmiac. 13. Antispastic dimeter. 14. Dochmiac dimeter. 15. Dochmiac and antispastic. 16. The same measure. 17. Cretic trimeter. Vss. 706-718 (Leipsic ed. 688-694). Antispastic System. 1. "Ea ea. 2. direxS ']v, 11 jw^de rror' | elnrjO' \\ 35. w^ Zei;f | i}jUtt5" || elg dirpo \ onrov \\ 36. nijfi' ela | eOdXev \\ iif] St^t', | avral 6' || 37. {^jua^- I avrdg- \\ eldvl | at yap, || 38. Koy/c e^ | al(l)vfjg, \\ ov6e Xddp | alcjg, \\ 39. et^" aTrep | dvTOV || dlicrvov | ar/y^- || 40. efiTrXixd \ fjoiad' \\ vn' dvol | dg. (Paroemiac.) 41. Kal fifjv I epyw || kovk em | iJbvdu) \\ 42. %0wv oeadX | evrar || 43. (ipvxld I d' ?/;\;aJ || Txdpdiiv \ ndral || 44. j3pdvrf]g, | eXiKeg II d' eKXdf^n | ovai |j 45. OTepoTTrjg, | ^drTvpol, || OTpojj,6oi | de kovIv || 46. elXlaa | ovar || GKlprd \ 6' dveficov | 47. Ttvevfidrd \ ndvrojv, || etc: oA/L | ^Aa || 48. ordatv dv | tIttvovv \\ dnoSeiK | vvfievd- || 49. ^vrsrd | pdfcral \\ 6' aWfjp | Tzovrih. || 50. Toldd' I err' fjwot || pt-rr^ j Alodev || 51. Tev;^;©*;^ [ a (l>6bdv || <7T£t;;t;et | (fydvepuig || 52. w jLtTJ I rpof ejti^^ H oeddg, w | irdvTdv || 53. ai^jjp I Kolvov \\ (f)dog elX | laaibv, || 54. eaopdg \ ju' wf e/c || dt/ca rraa;^ | d». (Paroemiac.) N CHORAL SCANNING OP THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. Vss. 134-171. Anap^stic Measure. 1. TeXdfxCiv I le nal, || Trig dfuf) [ Ipvrov || 2. 'LdXafuv | 6g e-i^wv |1 jSdOpov dyx \ ^dXov, \\ 3. Ge fiev Ev \ npdaadvr' || Imxcup | w. (Paroemiac.) 4. 2e d' orav | TrXfjyfj \] Awg rj \ ^dp,evf]g \\ 5. Xdyog eK \ Advdcov || Kdwodpovg | em6fj, || 6. p,iydv OKV | 6v £;^;63, || Kai Tte(()66 | 7j|Wai, || 7. TTrfivfji; I wf OjUjU. || a TreAst | d(;. (Parcemiac.) 8. ~^g Koi I T^f vi}v |1 (pdljxevfjg ( vvurog \\ 9. ixeydXol | ■&opv6ol \\ Kdrixovo' \ fjfidg \\ 10. £7Tt (JvCT I K.Xeld, il (Te TOV tTTTT | Ojt-tav^ II 11. XeIhv' I ETTi^dvr', II oXeoal | Advdcbv \\ 12. jQdra Kal | Aemv, || 13. ■^Trep I 66plXr]7: || rof er' ^v | Xolmj, || 14. ktsIvovt' I ald(bv || i atd^p | w. (Paroemiac.) 15. ToZ'oC'crd | t Aoyovf || ipWvpovg \ TrXdaaQv \\ 16. fitf wr I d (pSpel \\ irdolv "06 | vGoevg \\ 17. «ai acpodpd | neldel- \\ ntpl ydp | croi' vi;v |1 18. EVTxeloT I d Atyei, || kol Trdg | o kXvcjv \\ 19. roi) /Lef | dvrog \\ X^^P^^ \ P'dXXov || 20. rolg aolg \ dx^olv || KdOv6pl^ \ G)v. (Paroemiac.) 21. Twv yap \ fieydXcbv \\ iljvxd)v \ Islg \\ 22. oiin dv apt, | dpror || Kdrd 6' dv j rcg £jUou || CHORAL SCANNING OF THE AJAX FLAQELLIFER. 147 23. TolavT I a Xeycov, \\ ovtc dv \ tteWoI- 11 24. Trpo^- yap \ rov ix^vd' \\ 5 ({)ddvog | spirel' 11 25. Kalrol \ ofilKpol \\ ^eydXibv \ xCyplg \\ 26. G(pdXepdv | rcvpyov |1 pvad TreA | ovral- \\ 27. juera yap \ fieydXibv \ (ialoq a \ plar' dv, 11 28. Kal [ilydi; \ opdoW \\ vtto luap \ oripibv- \\ 29. dXX' ov I dvvdrov \\ rovg dvo \ fJTOvg \\ 30. TOVToJv I yvwiidg \\ npodlddoK \ stv. (Parcemiac.) 31. "Ttto roc I ovTibv \\ dvdpcov | d6pv6el H 32. x' W^^? I ovdev \\ adsvojxev \\ -npog ravr' \\ 33. drrdXe^ \ daOal \ aov %(op | Ig dvd^. \\ 34. dXX' ore | yap di] \\ ro aov ofjifi' \ dTzeSpdv, \\ 35. -ndrdyova \ Iv, are \\ Trrfivibv \ dyeXal- \\ 36. fieydv al \ yvmov 6' \\ v-noSsla j dvrs.g H 37. rdx' av ef | alcpvfjg, \] el ov (pdv \ eZ7]g 11 38. aly^ \ -nrri^el H dv dcpQv | ol. (Parocmiac.) Vss. 172-181 (Leipsic ed. 172-182). Strophe a. 1. "H. pa oe \ TavpoTTO \ Xd Alog | "Aprep^, 2. u) iieydX \ d (pdrlg | w 3. i^drep aloxvv | dg efidg 4. wp j iidae -rravda \ fiovg em \ jSovg dye | Xaldg 5. rj I TTOv rlvog vl | Kdg dicdpno) \ rov %aptv 6. fj pd kXv I ru)V evd \ pQ)V 7. ipevad I elad dCitpolg \ elr' eXd | 4>^fi6Xt \ alg • 8. •^ I x^^'^^^'^P"'^ I ^^ '''^^ ^"^ 1 '^"'^'' I ^^ 9. fioiid) I dv £%wv f iiv I ov ddpug \ evvvx^ \ olg 10. [idxdvalg £ | rladro \ XQibdv. 1. Dactylic tetrameter. 2. Dactylic trimeter catalectic. 3. Epitritic and cretic raonometers 148 CHORAL SCANNING 4. lambelegus hypercatalectic' 5. Epitritic dimeter with anacrusis, and cretic. 6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic. 7. lambelegus. 8. The same measure. 9. The same measure. 10. Epitritic monometer and Adonic.^ Vss. 182-191 (Leipsic ed. 183-193). Antistrophe a. 1. Ov TTore I yap (ppevo \ 6ev y' er:' d \ plarepd, 2. TTal TeXd | fiojvd^ e6 \ dg 3. roaoov, tv ttoTixv | alg ttltvcov 4. ^ j Kol ydp dv i9ei | d voaog- | dX.^ dnip | vKol 5. Kal I Zevg KdKdv Koi \ ^olbog 'Apyel | wv (pdrlv 6. el 6' VTTO I (idXXofie | vol 7. kXettt I oval [ivdovg \ ol jieyd | Xol fidalX \ fig 8. ^ I rdg doibrov | I^lavcpl | 6dv ysve | dg, 9. jtt^, I fifj fi', dvd^, ed', I 0)6' e^f 9. wv ydp e | juot jueA [ el ^op \ svaal 10. ) iKdpToJv 6' VTTsp I TTeAdyewv fioXibv | avd^ | "AttoAX 11.) dv 12. 6 I AdXtog ev \ yvdOTog 13. e/iot 1 ^vvel \ rjg \ 6t \ d navr | of ev \\ (pp(iiv. 1. Called also a Pherecratic verse. OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 159 1. Iambic trimeter. 2. Dochmiac monometer.' 3. Glyconic. 4. The same measure. 5. The same measure.^ 6. Glyconic, increased by a syllable before the base.' 7. The same measure. 8. Phalaecian hendecasyllabic. 9. LogaoBdic. 10, 11. Doclimiac dimeter and iambic monom. hyperc. 12. Glyconic. 13. Two iambic monometers hypercatalectic, the second with anacrusis. Vss. 687-699 (Leipsic ed. 706-718). Antistrophe i. 1. eXva I ev alv |1 6v a%df | ott' ohh H aribv \ "^ApTjg || 2. Icj, IQ- vvv av, | 3. vvv, 0) I TiEv Txapa XevK | 6v ev- 4. diiep { ov neXdaal \ Kovdsv dvavdrjrdv \ (pdrl^alp,' dv ev \ re y' e|' | 1 1 . 3 • deXTTT II wv 12. Af I a?- fierdveyv \ (boOfj 13. -Bvnov I r' "ArpsicJ II aif | jwey | aAwvjj revet | /cewv. 1. Consult Seidler, de Vers. Dochm. p. 35. The second vowel in the verse is shortened before the one that succeeds. 2. In this and the three following verses Hermann gives a different arrangement. The mode adopted above, however, is sanctioned by Seid- ler {ep. ad Loheck). 3. Consult Hermann, Elem. Metr. Doclr. p. 358, sej., ed. Glasg. 160 CHORAL SCANNING Verse 847. TTOVOg I TTOV(i> 11 TTOVOV \ (pEpsl. \\ 848. 7Ta, TTa, \ 849. TTO, yap | ovK £& \\ dv ey \ oj 850. Kov6Elg \ Irdar \\ drat \ jxe ovun || ddElv \ Tonog || 851. idov I 852. dovTTOV I av kXv |i w Tiv ] a 853. ?/j(idJv I y£ vd Ij 05- /cotv | ottXovv \\ OfuX \ lav. 854. rl ovv dfj | 855. rrdv ear | I6^t H at TrAevp j ov ean \\ epov | veuv jj 856. e^eii" ovv | 857. TTOVOV I ye ixXfid 1| of «ov(5 | Iv slg \\ oiplv \ nXeov [ 858. dXX' ov6' \ ifiol \\ 67] t7\v \ dcji' tjX \\ lov | j3oAa>v 1! 859. KeXevd | 6v a || v^p ovd | djiov \\ dfiXol \ (pdvelg. II 847. Iambic dimeter. 848. Spondee (as part of an iambic line).' 849. Trochaic dimeter catalectic. 850. Iambic trimeter. 851. Iambic monometer brachycatalectic. 852. Trochaic dimeter catalectic. 853. Iambic trimeter. 854. Bacchic monometer. 855. Iambic trimeter. 856. Bacchic monometer. 857. Iambic trimeter. 858. The same measure. 859. The same measure. Vss. 860-868 (Leipsic ed. 879-890). Strophe cd. 1. Tig dv 67]rd fiol, \ rig dv (plXdirovodv 2. dXldddv i^ I ^'^ dvTxvovg dypdg 1. Or, in other words, iambic monometer brachycatalectic. OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 161 3= 7] Tig 6 I Xvumd \ 6CSv \ ■&e(jv 7] pvTCJv 4. Bdandpt j (ov izordiiibv tdplg 5. Tov Q I [iddu II nov I el 7x661 \ TrXd^o^evov Xevaaojv 6. dnvol I oxf^rXld ydp 7. ejj,e ye rov paKptov \ dXdrdv 7tovu)V 8. ovplG) I pfj TreXdaal dpopu) 9. dX?<.' djj,evfjvdv dvdp \ d prj \ Xevoelv \\ ottov. \ 1. Dochmiac dimeter.* 2. Antispastic and doclimiac monometers. 3. Dactylic dimeter hypercat. and dochmiac monom.^ 4. Dactylic and dochmiac monometers. 5. lambico-dactylic and dochmiac monometers. 6. Cretic dimeter. 7. Dochmiac dimeter. 8. Cretic and dochmiac monometers.^ 9. Dochmiac monometer and Ischiorrhogic iambic.'' Verse 869. ICO fiol uol I 871. IC) rXfjfiibv I 875. Ti 6' eOTLv | 878. 0) p,oX ep,6jv voardv | 879. 0) I pol Kdrs j Trecpvev dv \ d^ 880. rovde avvv | avrdv w rdXdg 881. d) rdXal \ (pp(oi> yvvai | 886. cJ pol epdg drag \ olog dp' acpdxdfjg 887. d(ppdicrdg (plXdv \ 888. ey \ C) 8' 6 Trdvrd \ Kdxpog 6 | -ndvr' dlSp | Iq 889. Kdrfj I peXi) \\ ad ird \ tto, 1. Seidlcr, de Vers. Dochm. p. 13. 2. Id. p. 145. 3. Id. p. 123, 127. 4. " Versus 874 (859) iambico finitur ex eo genere, quod apte ischior- rkogiami appellari posse in elcmentis doctrines metrica dixi." {Herm., ad loc.) 02 162 CHORAL SCANNING 890. KtlraX 6 ] dvarpdne | Xog 891. 6va I oJvvfiog | Aldg. 869. Antispastic monometer. 871. The same measure. 875. Bacchic monometer. 878. Dochmiac monometer.' 879. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, with anacrusis. 880. Cretic and dochmiac monometer. 881. Cretic dimeter. 886. Dochmiac dimeter.^ 887. Dochmiac monometer. 888. lambelegus.'' 889. Iambic dimeter catalectic. 890. Dactylic trimeter catalectic. 891. Adonic, with anacrusis. Vss. 902-910 (Leipsic ed. 925-936). Antistrophe td. 1. efxeXXeg rdXdg \ ii^eXXeg %p6va) 2. GTspeo(ppC)V dp' I e^dvvoelv KdKdv 3. [xolpdv d I TTelpeat | u)V | ttovcov rold fiol 4. Trdvvv^d \ Kal (pdsddvr' * *' 5. dvsar \ evdi^ \\ eg \ ib^ocppov' | exdodon' ArpelSalq 6. ovXiC) I Gvv nddel 7. fieydg dp' riv sKelv \ 6g dpxoiv ^povog 1. " Monuit Seidlerus hunc versum conjungi posse cum seguenti in unum hexamclrum heroicum. At recte me moniiit Hermannus, non so- lere tragicos versum ilium ita nude ejusmodi numeris adjungerc, quotes sunt qui atiteccdunt et sequunlur ," {Wunder, ad too.) 2. In the common text, verse 883 (Lcips. 905) reads as follows, tlvoq ■Kof dp' inpa^E jetpi dvdfiopoc, and is an iambic trimeter. Hermann, however, gives sp^e for lirpa^e, and makes the line consist of an iambic monometer hypercatalectic and iambic dimeter brachycatalectic. 3. Consult page 148, note ]. 4. Two syllables wanting to complete the line. Hermann reads upa. Elmsley prefers ava^. OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 163 9. * * * * oTxXuiv I ekelt' I dyu)V | nepl. | ' Verse 911. fw [lol fiol I 913. l(b fiol fjiol I 917. ^vvav6G) | 920. o) /[iO(, dvaXyfijibv | 821. dta I crwv e0po | fiodg dv | cvdov 922. epyov 'Arp | stda^' rC)6' dx^l 923. dAA' dnslpy \ ol ■&edg 928. ■^ pa KeXalvibTTdv | ■dvnov e(pv6pl^ecg 929. 7ToXvT?idg dvrjp | 930. ye | Aa de roiffi | [lalvoiie. \ volg dx^ \ olv 931. TToXvv I yeXo)T || a 0ev | 0ev 932. ^vv Tfi dnrA | ol (3doiX | ^5* 933. kXv I ovref "Arp ( eldai. The scanning of these verses, from 911 to 933, corre- sponds, line for line, to that of verses 869-891. Vss. 1136-1140 (Leipsic ed. 1162-1167). Anap^stic Measure. 1. saral | fieydXrig || eptdog | rig dyOiv || 2. dXX^ u)g I dvvdaal 1| TevKps rdx \ vvdg || 3. anevadv | KolXrjv \\ Kdnerov | rlv' Idelv \\ 4. Twd' evd I a (iporolg || rov dei | jj-vfjordv \\ 5. rdcpov ev \ poJevr \\ a Kdde^ \ el. (Paroemiac.) 1. Four syllables wanting at the beginning of the line. Brunck re- ceives into the text the supplement given by Triclinius, namely, 'A^t^- Muc ; but Musgrave, with more probability, suggests •KpvcodiTuv, which is approved of by Hermann. 164 CHORAL SCANNING Vss, 1158-1164 (Leipsic ed. 1185-1191). Strophe i/3'. 1. Tig dpd I vedrog || eg Txore \ Xi]- 2. ^el TToXvnXdyKT | djv ereibv | dpldfiog 3. Tav d I TTavCTov || atev e//ot 4. (J op I vaaovTcbv | noxOiov^ 5. a I rav endyiov | ava 6. rav I evpdySf] \ Tpoldv 7. Svg I rdvov oveZd I or EAAavwv. 1. Iambic dimeter catalectic. 2. Choriambic dimeter catalectic. 3. Trochaic and choriambic monometers. 4. Glyconic. 5. The same measure. 6. The same measure. 7. The same measure. Vss. 1165-1170 (Leipsic ed. 1192-1198). Antistrofhe tj3'. 1. 6(pe.Xl \ npoTepov || aWepd \ Svv- 2. at fieydv fj | rov TrdXvKolv | ov dddv 3. Kelvog | dvrjp \\ og arvyepdv 4. £ I del^ev onXuv | "EAAa- 6. GL I Kolvov "Apy'iv | icj 6. 7T0V I oi TrpoyovoZ | novibv 7. Kfeti' I Of yap t-rrepa | sv dvdpconovg. 1. A molossus here takes the place of the choriambus, and so also in verse 6. Compare Hermann, Elcm. Doclr. Mctr. p. 360, ed. Glasg. OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 165 Vss. 1171-1182 (Leipsic ed. 1199-1210). Strophe ty'. 1. eicelv I og ov 11 re arecpdvibv 2. ovre (iddel j dv kvXIkcov 3. veliiev eiiol | repiptv ofilX | £t 4. ov j re yXvKvv avX | tji' oroSov 5. dvanopog ovr' ( cf vi';^iav 6. repiptv lav | eiv 7. epwTwv I 8. £pwr I wv 6' dnenav | trev w juot 9. Keijti I ai 6' dutplnv | o^- ovrwf 10. d I £i TTVKLvaig | dpooolg 11. reyyo^evog | KOfidg 12. Xvypdg | fivrjfidrd Tpol \ dg. 1. Iambic monometer and choriambus. 2. Choriambic dimeter. 3. Choriambic dimeter hypercatalectic. 4. Choriambic dimeter, with anacrusis. 6. Choriambic dimeter. 6. Choriambic monometer hypercatalectic. 7. Bacchic monometer. 8. Glyconic hypercatalectic, with base. 9. The same measure, with anacrusis. 10. The same measure. 11. Choriambic monometer and iambus. 12. Pherecratic. Vss. 1183-1194 (Leipsic ed. 1211-1222). Antistrophe cy\ 1. Kal TTplv I uev ovv \\ evvvxiov 3. deliidrdg Tp | juot irpoOoXd 166 CHORAL SCANNING OF THE AJAX FLAGELLIFER. 3. Koi l3eXeu)v | ^ovplog AT | dg 4. vvv I 6' ovrog dvelr | al arvyep(b 5. dalfiovc rig j fiol rig ir' ovv 6. rep-ipig e-ntOT | al 7. yivoljidv | 8. tV -yA I aev eirear | t ttovtov 9. TTpo I pXrjfi' dXluXvar | ov dKpdv 10. ■L'TT j TvXdKd liOVV | iOV 11. TCf itpcf I OTTW^ 12. ■npoaelTT | ot/itv "A^a ] valg. Vss. 1374-1392 (Leipsic ed. 1402-1420). Anapaestic Measure. 1. dXtg fi I 6fj yap |1 izoXvg Ik \ rerdral 2. xpo'i^og dXX' I ol jiev \\ KolXrjv \ Kdnerov \\ 3. %£p(7i rd^ I vvETs 11 TOt d' i;i/> | I6drdv \\ 4. rptTTod' diJ,(p I CTTvpov \\ Xovrpdv | 6aiu)V \\ 5. ■&ead' enl | Kalpov ll juta 6' sk | aXlaldg || 6. dvdpcjv I i/l^ II Tov ■yTratr | mdlov Ij 7. KOGflOV I (pepsTd) II 8. Trai av (5s | ndrpog \\ y' oaov lax \ velg || 9. (ptXoriir [ t i^iyoJv, || nXsvpdg | <7i;v e/iot || 10. Tdad' enl | Kov(pl^'- \\ erl yap | ■depfxal \\ 1 1 . Gvplyy \ eg dvo) || ^vocoa \ I fieXdv || 12. [xevog dXX' | dye Trdf, || (plXog da | rtf dv^p || 13. (prjal Trap | elval, \\ aovadu) \ j3dTU) || 14. T(x>v dvdp I I TTovcJv II TW Trdvr' \ dyddil) \\ 15. Kovdevl I TTW Ao) ll ovi ■&vfir \ ibv. (Paroemiac.) 16. Aidv I rog or' fjv \\ rore (pdv | w. (Paroemiac.) 17. fi TToXX I d PpoTolg 11 ecrriv id | ovalv || 18. yvajvat | nplv idelv \\ 6' ovdelg \ jiavTlg || 19. rG)v [xeXX | ovtcov, \\ 6 rl irpd^ | £i. (Parosmiac.) CHORAL SCANNING OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. I. Vss. 151-158. Strophe a. 1. "i2 Mog I dSve \ nfjg (pdrl, | rig Trore J rag ttoXv | Xpvaov 2. Ilvdcjv I og dyX \ dag \ eddg || 3. Qfi6dg ; | lK.re.Td \ nal (p66ep \ dv (ppevd, \ delfjidTl | TrdXXcJv, 4. I \ rjls I AdXle | Haldv, 5. dfi(f)l aol 1 d^ofie | vog rl fiol \ rj veov, 6. 7] nepl I rsXXofie \ valg d | palg ivdXlv 7. e^dvv I oelg XP^^^- 8. sine fiol, | w %pv(7£ J af reKVov \ 'lEXTcidog, | dudpore | 1. Dactylic hexameter. 2. Iambic dimeter acatalectic. 3. Dactylic hexameter. 4. Dactylic trimeter, with anacrusis. 5. Dactylic tetrameter. 6. The same measure. 7. Dactylic dimeter. 8. Dactylic hexameter. 168 CHORAL SCANNING I. Vss. 159-166. Antistrophe a. 1. Ilpwra oe \ KeKXd[j,e \ vog ■dvyd | rip AZog | an^por"^ "A I ddvd, 2. yala \ oxov || t' a(Jf A0 | edv || 3. 'KpTEidv I a kvkXo | evr' ayo | paf -dpovov | ev/c- Aea I -^doasl 4. Koi I $ot6ov e | Kd6oXov, | tw 5. rplaaol a \ Xe^tfiop | ol '7Tp6(l)d j v^rt jttor, 6. el TTore | /cat upors \ pdg a \ rdg vnep- 7. opvvfie j vdg ttoXu 8. Tjvvodr' j iKTonl | cv (pXoya \ Tzrmdrog, | eAQere | /cat wv. II. Vss. 167-175. Strophe j3'. 1. "S2 TTOTTOi, I dvapldp. II a yap [ 0ep(D || 2. 7TrjiJ,drd- | I'ocrei || de juoi | Trpondg || OToXog, ov6' j ert j] 3. (ppovTidog I ey^o^-, 4. w Ttf a I Xe^sTol, I ovre yap | iKjovd 5. kAv *| rag- x^^vog \ av^erai, \ ovre to j koIoIv 6. t^ I t II (i)v Kdfxd I tG)v dve | ^ovat yv | valKeg 7. a/LAov I <5' av dXX \\ w ixpoald j oif, OTrep | evnTepov I opvlv, 8. Kpelaaov a \ j-ialfiaKe j tov nvpog \ opfievov 9. dKTdv J Trpof earr || epov | T^eov.' 1. Iambic dimeter acatalectic. 2. Verse resembling an iambic trimeter.^ 1. We must pronounce i?Eoi5 as one syllable, by synseresis, in order that the verse may correspond with the last line of the antistrophe. Com- pare Person, ad Orcst. 393 : " Veteres Atlici hanc vocem (i?eof) libenter in sermone contraxisse videntur ; nomina enim a i?eof incipientia pro- nunciarunt, QovyEvidTj^, OovKvSidric," &c. 2. Compare Hermann, ad loc. : " Versiim efficiunl similcm trimetro iambico, nisi quod qumtus pes anaptXdv \ nfinoT' ev alTtd 7. ovv d(l)dvel XoyCJ \ dTljj,dv fidXelv 1. Cretic tetrameter, with anacrusis. 2. Iambic dimeter. 3. Cretic tetrameter, with anacrusis. P2 174 CHORAL SCANNING 4. Iambic monometer. 5. Iambic trimeter. 6. Dochmiac dimeter. 7. Dochmiac dimeter. VII. Vss. 639-645 (Leipsic ed. 660-668). Strophe ^'. 1. ov rov I TTavrCiV | i^ewv | -deov Trpo/iov dXlov 2. ETvel dOlog, dcpiXoq, \ 6 rl Trvfidrdv 3. oXoliidv (ppovT] I civ el rdvd' s^^ 4. dXXd ji' a I 6va[j.dp(bg^ 5. yd (pdlvovad rpvx \ et 6. Koi rdd' \ el ndK |1 olt; Kdic | d 7. TTpoad-ipel rolg \ -ndXal | rd upog \\ 0(j)U)V. 1. Ischiorrhogic iambi, with dochmius. 2. A dochmiac and cretic monometer.^ 3. Dochmiac dimeter. 4. Cretic dimeter. 5. Dochmiac monometer hypercatalectic. 6. Trochaic dimeter catalectic. 7. Antispast and iambic monometer hypercatalectic. VI, Vss. 655-661 (Leipsic ed. 678-686). Antistrophe g-'. 1 . yv I val rl [ilXX | elg ko[iI^ \ elv Soficjv | tov6' eao) 2. fiddov \ od y' 7] \\ rig fj \ rvxri- II 3. 66k I fialg dyv | wg Xoycjv | fjXde, ddnr | el 6e Kal 4. TO nfi 'v I dliiov II 1. We have adopted Hermann's emendation, fi' u ^vafiopug, in place of the common reading, fioi. Sva/iSpc.), and have rejected ipv^uv, which the common text gives in the succeeding line. 2. The dochmius is here resolved into eight shctrt syllables {Seidier, de Vers. Dochm. p. 6.3, scq.), and the cretic into five. OF THE (EDIPUS TYRANNUS. 175 5. aju0otv I utt' avT \\ olv val \ %i koX 11 rig fiv \ Xoyo^ U 6. aXl^ Eiioly' dXlg \ ydg -npo-novovulvdg 7. (palveral, evd' eXtj^ \ Iv avrov fievelv. VII. Vss. 664-670 (Leipsic ed. 689-697). Antistrophe ^\ 1. w 'vd^ I elnov \ fiev ovx \ a-ad^ fiovov ladl 6e 2. TTdpdfppovtf^ov, dnopov j em (ppovifid 3. 7T£(pdvdal n' dv el \ oe vda(()l^oi.ial 4. ogr' £[idv | ydv (plXdv 5. ev TTOvolg dXv | ov- 6. odv Kdr' \ opOov \\ ovpla \ dg 7. rdvvv t' evTTOinr \ 6g el \ dvval || o. VIII. Vss. 836-845 (Leipsic ed. 863-872). Strophe 77. 1. et HOC I ^vvel || ?/ ^sp | ovrt || 2. jLiotpa rav ei) | oeTrrov dyveZ \ dv Xoydv 3. 'ipy I cJv T£ -ndv-cjv, | wv v6|[i | ol npo \\ Kelvral \ 4. vil}iTTddeg, \ ovpdvl | dv SV 5. aWepd \ reKvcb 11 divr \ eg ojv \ "OXyfin 11 og 6. Trar | ^p jtiovof ov | (5e vlv 7. i9va I ra (pvolg dv | IpcJi' 8. erlKT \ ev ov \\ de 9. jU?jv TroT£ Aa [ 6d Kdrdnolii \ dael 10. [leydg ev -ov \ rolg '&e6g \ ovde \ yfipdOK \ si. 1. Iambic dimeter and trochaic dimeter. 2. Epitritic dimeter and cretic monometer. 3. Epitritic monometer, with anacrusis, and trochaic dimeter brachycatalectic. 4. First paeon, dactyl and trochee. 5. Two iambic monometers hypercatalectic. 176 CHORAL SCANNING 6. Gly conic. 7. The same measure. 8. Iambic monometer hypercatalectic. 9. Choriambic dimeter, with a spondee. 10, Ionic a minora and logacsdic, with spondaic ending. VIII. Vss. 846-855 (Leipsic ed. 873-882). Antistrofhe i]. 1. vj3plg [ (pvTBv I! el rv \ pdvvov 2. v(3pLg el ttoAA | ibv vnepTrXfjad \ f] fidrav 3. a \ fi^ 'mKalpd \ nrjde | GvfKpep | ovrd 4. dKpordrov | eladvad | do' eg 5. dnoTO I fxov (b \\ pov | oiv elg | avdya || dv 6. evd' I ov TTodl XPV I ^?it^<^ 7. ;^;p77 I ral- to KaXOig \ 6' e^ov 8. TToXel I TvdXalafi \\ a 9. jU^TTore Av | aai i^eov ai | TOVfxal 10. T9edv oii A^l | w ttotI | Trpoard \ rdv lax I <^^* IX. Vss. 856-868 (Leipsic ed. 883-896). Strophe ■&'. 1. el 6e \ Tig vnep || OTrra | x^P^^'^ II 2. ■^ Xoy I <5 TTop II eveT \ al 3. di/c I dg doi6£, ( col de | ravr' dp \ ear' el | rj. '' > Epitritic monometer and dactylic tetrameter. 1. Choriambic monometer and trochaic monometer. 2. 3. 4. Epitritic monometer and cretic. 5. Iambic monometer and epitrite. 6. Dactylic tetrameter. 7. Epitritic dimeter. 8. The same measure. 9. Dactylic dimeter hypercatalectic. 10. Iambic dimeter catalectic. 11. Logaoedic, with anacrusis and catalectic syllable. X. Vss. 1068-1078 (Leipsic ed. 1098-1109). Antistrophe c. 1. Tig oe, TEKvov, I rig a' e \ tIkte || 2. Twv fidKpaloJv I (bv dpd \ } 3. Ilavd^ op I eaalbd \ rd ttov > 4. TTpdamXdadua*, | rj ae ye OF THE OEDIPUS TYRANNUS. 179 6. rig ■&vydT7]p, | Ad$tov ; tw' 6. yap TrAa/cef | dypovo | nol^-nda | at (plXal 7. eld' Kv/lAa | vat; dvdaaojv 8. eW BdKxsl | of ■^eog val- 9. wv £77 dKp I a)v ope | wv 10. evpfifi I a de^ || ar' e/c | rov 11. Nv//0 I dv "EAt I /cwv?(J I (jv alg \ irXuard \ av^- TToi^ I ei. XI. Vss. 1155-1165 (Leipsic ed. 1186-1195). Strophe id. 1. 'I I w ysveal \ jSporoiv 2. (jjg V \ ndg lad Kal \ to [xrj- 3. dev ^u) \ adq Ivdpldp, j w 4. Ttf I ydp, rig dvfip \ irXeov 5. rag ev \ dalnovldg | (j)spei 6. 7/ TOCr j OVTOV OGOV I doKslv 7. Kal 66^ I dvr' dnoKXl \ val 8. TO aov I TOi ■ndpddelyii' | e^cjv 9. Tov (Tov I dalfiovd, rov | cov d> 10. rXdiiOV I OidtTTodd, | jSporuv 11. ov I (Jevd ixdKdpl^ | a). 1. Glyconic. 2. Glyconic, with a spondee in the base. 3. Pherecratic. 4. Glyconic. 5. Glyconic, with a spondee in the base. 6. Glyconic, with a trochee in the base. 7. Pherecratic. 8. Glyconic, with an iambus in the base. 1 . The choriambus in this line answers to the iambic syzygy in the corresponding verse of the chorus. Compare Hermann, Elem. Doclr. Metr. p. 160, ed. Lips.— Id. Epic. p. 160. 180 CHORAL SCANNING 9. Glyconic, with a spondee in the base. 10. Glyconic, with a trochee in the base. 11. Pherecratic' XI. Vss. 1166-1176 (Leipsic ed. 1196-1203). Antistrophe id. 1. 0(7 [ Ttg Kad' vTvep \ 66Xdv 2. ro^ev | odg sKparrj | odg rov 3. TTavr' ev | dalfiovog 6X6 | ov 4. w I Zev, Kara [lev | (pdlodg 5. TCbV yafj.ijj \ (bvvxd ndpO | evog 6. XPV^!^^ I ^ov ■ddvdrC)v | 6' ifid 7. X^P9' I "^^pyog dveor | ag 8. £^ oy I Kal ddalXevg \ KaXel 9. tiibg, I /cat ra neylar' | eri- 10. p-ddrjg, I ratf fisydXala | Tv ev 11. 6^ I balalv dvdoa | wv. XII. Vss, 1177-1187 (Leipsic ed. 1204-1212). Strophe i/3'. 1. rdvvv I (5' a/coi) || tlv, | rlf d0A | IG) |1 rspo^" [ 2. Tif ev [ TTOvola 11 tv, | xif a | ralg dyp \ lalg 3. ^vvol 1 KOf aA/l 11 dyd | jSioi; | 4. tw KXelvov I Ot(Jt I 7T0V /cap || d 6. (0 pey I df Xlfi \\ ^v 6. avTO^" I ripKEG H ev 7. "naWl I /cat udrp 1| I 8. ■&dXd^fi I TToAw 11 Treaeiv 9. TTtJf TTore, ] TToJg ttoO' | at ndrp | wat a' j 10. dXoKeg \ (pepelv, \\ rdXdg \ 11. oly' edyvdoQi] \ odv eg \ roaov || 8s. 1. The first syllable of the choriambus is resolved into two short. OF THE CEDIPUS TYRANNUS. 181 1. Iambic monometer hypercat. and dimeter bracli, 2. Iambic monom. hypercat. and ischiorrbogic iambi. 3. Iambic dimeter. 4. Antispastic monom. and trochaic monom. hypercat. 5. Trochaic monometer hypercatalectic. 6. The same measure. 7. The same measure. 8. Iambic dimeter brachycatalectic. 9. Logaoedic. 10. Iambic dimeter brachycatalectic. 11. Antispastic monom. and iambic monom. hypercat. XII. Vss. 1188-1198 (Leipsic ed. 1213-1222). Antistrophe ij3\ 1. e(f)evp \ e g' a \\ Kovd' | o ndvd' | opuv \\ xpovog \ 2. Mko, I diKd^W el \ ydiiov a \ ycjuov || TrdXaZ j ' 3. TEKVovvr I a nal || tekvov \ fievov. || 4. Id Adl I elov \ tekvov \\ * 5. elds I o\ elds \ * 6. ju^TTor' I e16o || juav 7. dvpofi I al yap || ojr 8. iTEpldXX I IdKX li l(^v I 9. EK arofid | rwv to \ 6' opdov | eItteIv | 10. dvETTvev I ad t' Ik || asdiv | ] 1 . Kal KdTEKolfMTja I d rov | fiov o^fi \ a. XIII. Vss. 1272-1282 (Leipsic ed. 1297-1306). Anaplastics. 1. d> 6eIv I 6v tdelv || ndOog dv | dpCJnolg || 2. (D 6eIv I OTdrdv || Travrwv | do' SyCJ || 3. -npooEKvpa' | v/tJ/J- || rtf a\ u | rXd^ibv \\ 1. We have adopted Hermann's reading in this and the conesponding line of the strophe. Q 182 CHORAL SCANNING 4. 7Tpoae6fj \ fidvid ; || rig o ttt] \ Sfjadg \\ 5. iieli^ovd I 6aLH. | irol ydg || 3. (pepoixal \ rXd^ibv ; \\ ird fiol \ (pdoyyd || 4. dldTTlrl I ral rdg \\ did) | (I)6pdd7iv V 5. Id) 6al[idv 1 tv' E^fiXXov. ; 2 XV. Vss. 1290-1293 (Leipsic ed. 1313-1316). Strophe ly'. \. Id) \ GKOTOV IP 2. ve(()dg l[iov d-noTpoTTOV \ EmirXofievov dcpdrov* 3. dddfxdrov re nal | dvoovplarov ov 4. oijuoi. I ' 1. Iambic monometer 2. Dochmiac dimeter. 1. A proceleusmaticus in the first place. On the admissibihty of this foot into anapsestic measure, consult Hermann, Eiem. Doctr. Mctr. p. 243, ei. Glasg. , 2. We have adopted Hermann's arrangement. " Ex mea descnptione versus uUimus constat duobus dochrmacts, quo genere versuum sape clau- duntur systemala, usque prcemisso procclcusmalico." Herm. ad loc. 3. With regard to the iambic monometer preceding the dochmiac measure, consult Seidler, dc Vers. Dochm. p. 116, seq. 4. Respecting the resolution of the dochmius into eight short sylla- bles, consult Seidler, de V. D p. 63. 5. Regarded by some as a semantus trochee. OP THE CEDIPUS TYRANNUS. 183 3. The same measure. 4. Extra metrum. XV. Vss. 1297-1300 (Leipsic ed. 1321-1324). Antistrophe vy' ' 1. tcj j ({)iXdg II 2. av iiev iiiog emnoXog | erl fidvifiog erX yap 3. VTTOnevelg fie rov | rvcpXdv Kfjdevcov 4. 0e{) (f)ev. I XVI. Vss. 1305-1310 (Leipsic ed. 1329-1334). Strophe t6\ 1. "Atto/I/Lwv Tad' rjv \ "AttoA/L | u)v, w | (ptiAoi \ 2. KdXd I rdd' sfid \ reXoJv | KaKd rdd' ifid Traded \ 3. enala \ e 6' av || rox£ip \ vlv ov || rig dXX | eycj rXdnCiv I 4. Tt yap edel fi' opdv | 5. OT(x) I y' opwv II TL firj \ dsv rjv || Tdelv j yAv/cv. || 6. ^v ravO', \ onQg \\ nep Kal \ av (j)fjg. \\ 1. Dochmiac monometer and ischiorrhogic iambi. 2. Ischiorrhogic iambi and dochmiac monometer. 3. Iambic trimeter and semantus trochee. 4. Dochmiac monometer. 5. Iambic trimeter. 6. Iambic dimeter. XVII. Vss. 1311-1317 (Leipsic ed. 1337-1343). Strophe le. 1. Tt I drJT' EfJiol I pXertrov rj | 2. arepicrov \ rj npoa || Tjyop | ov 3. et' ear' \ dKov 11 elv \ tjSov j a ' CJv | avrog ecbvv rdXdg 1. Seidler, rfe Fcr^iiu* Dochmiacis, p. 144. 2. 7A2^»^<*^^*> »» »>»'#'^^^<^^^^^i*W^^^*^^*>»^^^»i^^^^^^<^» PART IV. INDO-GERMANIC ANALOGIES. ^^^^^■^^^rf^^^^^'*^ <»#'^^^^^>»^»^*»«»«<^»<*' rf *^^ ^ #<»^*»^^^»^'**rf^»'**»'^'>^*^*^*^^^*'^» i^^r ^^ ■»^^^ l^ Nr*^^^ INDO-GERMANIC ANALOGIES. I. OF LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. I. The farther comparative philology carries back its researches into the earlier periods of the history of language, the more convinced do we become that all the spoken idioms of the globe have originated from one common source, and, consequently, that all the members of our race may trace their descent from one common parentage. II. The idea of a primitive language for our species, though often made a subject of ridicule by the superficial and half-learned inquirer, rests on too firm a basis to be shaken, and connects itself too closely with the earliest traditions of our race, as recorded in the sacred writings, to leave any doubt of its truth on the mind of the philologist. III. What this primitive language may have been is, of course, all un- certainty, and each investigator is here left to the conclusions of his own judgment. It would seem, however, that a very large portion of this early vocabulary consisted of terms which sought to imitate, by their sounds, the various movements of the natural world, such as the noise of thunder, the roaring of the tempest, the gentle or rapid flow of waters, and the different cries of the animal creation. IV. The simple narrative of Scripture, which represents the Deity as bringing into the presence of our first parent the numerous creatures that peopled his new domains, in order that the progenitor of our race might give each its appropriate name, is only another way of stating that the germe of language is a faculty inherent in the soul, and that the ap- pellations given by Adam to the various members of the animal kingdom consisted simply of imitations of their peculiar cries, or of attempts to express, in strong though inartificial terms, some striking peculiarity of structure. V. Following up this idea, we will come naturally to the conclusion that, in the ir/ancy of our species, a close sympathy, founded on immu- table laws, must have united the visible to the intellectual world, and that the result of this sympathy manifested itself in a variety of simple but expressive sounds, which, by gradual combinations and progressive improvement, formed eventually the splendid fabric of language. 190 OF LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. VI. The earliest spoken idiom of our race was necessarily analogous to the sensations which gave it birth. Melodious sounds were employed to e.xpress soft and gentle emotions ; sounds of a rough or harsh nature served to indicate what was painful or unpleasing ; beauty, activity, and strength were each depicted, as it were, by different intonations, and thus each syllable became a kind of musical note, the peculiar force of which we are still, in many cases, able to perceive, though so many ages have intervened.' VII. To pretend to analyze, however, at the present day, all these accordances of the soul of man with external nature ; to endeavour to shjw how each rapid perception of form, of movement, and of colour, affected in different ways the internal sense, and was then enunciated by some particular sound, is a task which presents insuperable difficul- ties, and bids defiance to the most ingenious hypotheses. VIII. The utmost that we can ascertain respecting the earlier move- ments of language is simply this : that primitive words must have been comparatively few in number, and all of them monosyllabic ; that each element of these syllables, designating as it did some principal object, was soon applied, in various combinations, to a series of other objects analogous to the first, which last served in their turn as types for new analogies ; and that thus, by a progressive march, the same sounds be- came applied to a multitude of things, always more and more removed from each other, and the affiliation of which, though real, became con- tinually less apparent. IX. Guided by that instinct of comparison or assimilation so inherent in the human mind, thought, though infinite in its essence, submitted, nevertheless, to the restrictive forms of language, and yielded itself to general laws, which arranged in the same class all things that were susceptible of partial approximation. Hence we see, in the most ancient languages, and those that are nearest the infancy of our species, the ideas of height and depth, of hollowness and convexity, of light and heat, of cold and gloom, expressed by one and the same sound, as being of one and the same origin. X. The rapid increase of the human family, and the corresponding in- crease of their relations and wants ; the modification of material objects by the inventive spirit of man, and his subjugation of the domain of na- ture, in order to adapt it more immediately to his use, all tended to the gradual but sure development of what had at first been little better than the union of a few simple sounds ; and language, departing in this way more and more from its monosyllabic, changed at last into what may be called a polysyllabic, character. 1. Eichoff, Parallile des Langues, summit Turkish 'op-&, tub-e, tepp-e English top Swedish . J opp > German kehl-e'^ ^ Latin . g7d-a. French gueul-e Armenian Georgian koul ghel-i > throat. Arabic Velq Mongul khol-di Old German khel-e > German zahn ' Dutch land Swedish Latin . tand dens > tooth. French dent Hebrew chen German kopf \ Dutch hoofd English head Swedish hufved >head. Danish hoved German haupt Samoiede ngaib-a. ., The interchange of T and D, and of P and B, is very common in German. That of F and H is frequent in Spanish. Thus, from the Latin facer e, the Spanish forms haccr ; iwmfilius, hijo ; homformosus, hermoso. 1. Compare the English g'aft/e. 2. Compare the English hollow OF ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT. 197 The interchange of F and Kh exists in the difTerent dialects of Japan. Thus, the inhabitants of the isle of Sikokf say Khirando for Firando, the name of a city. khana khassi khehi khisa khonc khourou fana, fassi, fch, fisa, fone, fuurou, the nose, a bean, a snake, the knees, a bone, to shake. The interphange of S, H, or Kk, is also very frequent. For example, German, salz, salt, Latin, . sal, " Slavonic, serdtse, heart, Slavonic, zim-a., winter, Breton, hal-on. Old German, hall.^ German, hertz. Greek, x^'H-^t Latin, hiems. Changes also take place between the sibilants and gutturals. Thus, Armenian Hebrew Greek Slavonic Afghan Arintse (Siberia) sar \ har op-oc [ gor-a. ghar kar J mountain.^ There is also an affinity between K and Sk. Thus, many Sanscrit roots which commence with Sh begin in Latin and Greek with C or K ; as, Sanscrit, sAoun'-a, a dog, Latin, can-is, Greek, kvuv " sham-a, . softness, . u com-is. " shad-a., to fall. tc cad-ere. " shach-a, . to kill,- (( oc-cis-us, cas-us. Third Series. The letters M, B, P, are employed for one another in the Turkish di- alects. Thus, for bouz, boinuz, . Bahhmout, michik, they say mouz, ice. moinuz, a horn. Mahmoud (a name.) pichik, a cat. 1. Hence the name of the city of Halle, derived from the neighbouring salt-mines. 2. This interchnnge is very frequent in Greek and Latin; as, cp-niii, serpo; i\,sej:; &^i, snl, &.C. 3. Compare the German hmid and the English hound. R3 198 OF THE AFFILIATION OP LANGUAGES. The root of the Latin fdba, " a bean," is found in the Slavonic hob and in the French feve. So also numerous instances might be cited where F is put for B and B for V. Fourth Sekiks. In all languages there is a mutual and very frequent change between L and R. Thus, Greek ■KVp, fire, Russian, pyl. (1 pvc, prawa.^ kapdla. KE^aT^rj, caput, haubith, houpit. tvam (Nom.), TV, tu. thu. du. tarn (Ace), TOV, is- turn, thana. den. tray as (N. pi M..), Tpelg, ires, thrcis. drl. antara, ^TSpOC, alter, anthar, andar. danta-m (Ace), b66vT-a, dentcm. thuntu-s. zand. dvau ( N. du), 6vo, duo. tvai. zuene. dakshind, ds^ia, dextra. taihsvo, z'esawa. uda, liSup, unda. valb, wazar. duliilr, ■Qvyarijp, dauhtar, tohtar. dvdr, ■&vpa, fores, daur, tor. madku. fiidv, meto.* 1. GriJtun, Deutsche Grammatik, p. 534.— Bop;), Vergleickende Grammatik, p 79, seg. 2. " Parent.9." 3. The English " brow" closely resembles the Sanscrit. 4 Compare English " mead," a drink. S2 210 SANSCRIT AND TEUTONIC. shouna, KVUV, canis. hunths, hund. hridaya, Kapdia, cor, cord-is. hairto, h'erza. aksa, OKOC, oculus. augo, ouga. asm, duKpv, lacrima. tagr, zahar. pasu, pecus. faihu, vihu. svasura, iKvpoc, socer, svaihra. suehur. dasan, 6kKa, decern, taihun. z'ehan. gnd, yvufii, gnosco, kan. chan. gdti,^ yivog, genus. kuni. chuni. gdnu, yovv, genu. kniu, chniu. mahat, fieyaTiog, magnus, mikils. mihil. hansa, XVV, anser, gans. kans. Jiyas, xek, heri, gistra, k'estar. lih, T^eixu, lingo, largo. lekbm. III. The Lithuanian language has allowed the consonants to retain their ancient places, almost without any change. The only alteration that occurs is the substitution of the tenues for the Sanscrit aspirated tenues, and of the medicz for the aspirated mcdicB. Thus, Lithuanian. Sanscrit. rata-s ("awheel"). ratha-s (" a wagon"). lusu ("I will be"), bhavishydmi. ka-s (" who"). ka-s. dumi (" I give"). daddmi. pats (" a master"), pati-s. penki (" five"). panchan. trys (" three"). trayas (N. pi. M.). keturi (" four"), chatvaras (N. pi. M.), ketwirtas (" the fourth"), chaturtha-s. szaka (" a bough"), sdkhd. IV. The following table shows a striking similarity between the Zend and the Gothic, in certain letters admitting an aspirate before them, and thus departing from the tenuis of the root. In Zend this remark applies principally to semivowels, and so also in Gothic. Thus, Gothic. Zend. Sanscrit. thri ("three," the root). thri. , tri. thus (" to thee"), thwoi. tve. fra (insep. prep.), fra. pra. 1. From the root gan, " to beget." SANSCRIT AND GREEK. 211 •prinami. ap (root). frijo (" I love"), dfrindmi,^ ahva? (" river"), dfs, V. Frequently, however, we have flections, or grammatical additions, which do not obey the laws regulating the interchange of consonants, but remain true to the primitive sound. Thus, the old High-German re- tains the original t in the third person singular and plural ; as, for ex- ample, hapet, "he has," and hapent, " they have ;" with which compare the Latin habet and habcnt. The Gothic, on the other hand, has hahaith and Jiaband. So, also, in the participle present, and in that of the pas- sive voice, the old High-German adheres to the t, as hapenter, hapeter, whereas the Gothic, under the influence of the n that precedes, brings in the d ; as, halands, gen. habandins ; habaith, gen. habaidis. SANSCRIT AND GREEK.^ 1. Vowel-changes. I. The short vowels a, 1, u, in Sanscrit, generally correspond to the Greek a, i, v. The Greek language has seldom substituted these three vowels one for another ; but its two short vowels, e and o, have each their share of the province which in Sanscrit is left to the a solely. The fol- lowing examples may serve to tluow some light upon tlus subject. I. Sanscrit a corresponding to a in Greek. 1. In roots. Sanscrit. labh (" to take"), das (" to bite"), dam (" to tame"), tan ("to extend"), han (" to kill"), apa (" oflf," " from"), asm (" a tear"), sata (" a hundred"), a (negative prefix), a-. 2. In terminations, suffixes, &c. as, the termination of the accusative case of the plural number of masculine words, the crude forms of wh'ch end in a consonant, corre- sponding to the Greek af in Xiovr-ar, &c. 1. " I ble.ss," from the Sanscrit root pri, " to love," with the preposition a prefixed. 2. The Zend afs and Sanscrit ap denote " water," and the Gothic form is explained by the frequent change of p into k, (or which tlie law that regulates the inlercliange of consonants requires h. Compare the Latin aqua. 3. Pott, Elymol. Forsch. p. \80.— Journal of Education,'No. 20, f.Zi2,seq.,vi\ieto an able abstract is given by Rosen of part of the German work. Grkek. AAB, ?.a/i6dv(j. AAK, duKvu. AAM, Sa/iu(o. TAN, -avvu. GAN, idavov, i^avarof. UTTO. SuKpv. EKarov 212 SANSCRIT AND GREEK. man is in Sanscrit the termination of a number of substantives, de- rived from verbal roots, and generally denoting the result of the action implied by the verb ; as, ganman (nom. ganma), " birth," from the root gan, " to beget," " to produce ;" karman (nom. karma), " an action," " a deed," whether good or evil, from the root krl, " to do." To this termination corresponds the Greek suf- fix -/la, gen. -fia-oc ; as in opa/ia, " a spectacle," " anything seen," from opuu, " to see ;" d?//xa and 6^fia, " a tie," from 6eu, " to bind," " to tie," &c. an is in Sanscrit the termination of the crude form of the numer- als for five, seven, -eight, nine, and ten, panchan, saptan, ashtan, navan, dasan. The corresponding Greek numerals have dropped the final 7i, and three of them, iTrrd, kvvea, and de/ca, have re- tained the a, while irevTc and o/crw' have kept it only when placed in composition before other parts of speech ; as, 6/craeT7?f, okto.- fj-Tjvog, TtevTaiTTjg, TrevTumjxvCt <5lC. II. Sanscrit a corresponding to £ in Greek. 1. In roots. Sanscrit. Greek. pat (" to fall"), po.ck (" to cook"), ad (" to eat"), tap (" to be hot"), taksh (" to build"), abhi (" near"), pari (" around"), aham (" I "), kyas ("yesterday"), 2. In terminations, &c. a, the augment of several forms of the preterit tense in Sanscrit, has in Greek become e. as in Sanscrit is the termination of the nominative case in the plural number of substantives, the crude form of which ends in a consonant, corresponding to the Greek -eg in Movr-sg, &c. III. Sanscrit a correspondmg to the Greek o. 1. In roots, &c. Sanscrit. Greek. sad (" to go"), OA, 66-6g. pad (" to go"), nOA, TTOvg, '!To6-6g. nET, ■KETU. HEn, TTETTTU. EA, Uu. TE*, TsAOr, ONTX, DUG, VORAC, EDAC, LEG, &c. The d seldom appears in Sanscrit ground-forms ; the t, on the contrary, is of very frequent occur- rence. The Greek, besides r, shows also 6 and ■&. We must be care- ful, however, not to regard such words as K0PT9 and OPNI0 in the light of simple roots. In the former of these the G is part of the root GH or GE, and the term denotes originally something placed on ihe head. In the latter case we trace the etymology to the Sanscrit arani, in Ben- galee orojii, " a forest," whence the Greek opvi, which, with G added from -deu, " to run" or " move swiftly," indicates a creature that flies swiftly through the woods, no unapt designation, certainly, of a bird. XV. Ground-forms ending with a labial, the nasal m being included in this class, appear in Sanscrit only in the case of naked roots, as the last member of a compound, and even here not very often. We have, however, as an isolated root, the term ap, " water," whence the Latin aqua, the p being changed into qu, as in quinque, from the Sanscrit pan- can, " five," and a vowel being added. From this same ap comes the Latin am-nis, " a river," like somnus for sopnus, and aefivoQ for aeBvog. XVI. Of the Sanscrit sibilants, the '5 and sh appear only at the end of radicals, and therefore but seldom. The s, on the contrary, becomes a closing letter for a very usual suffix in the forming of words ; as, for example, in as, which is employed in the formation of neuter nouns. The Greek apparently is without any root in 2 ; but, the truth is, this sibilant in Greek is commonly rejected between two vowels, especially in the last syllable, and therefore neuters like fxevog and yevo^ (from MENE2 and PENES, the e being changed to 0) form the genitive /nsv- £0f and yiveog, for fihscog and yivEaog. II. Individual Cases. I. The Sanscrit cases, as has already been mentioned, are eight in number, namely, the nominative, vocative, dative, accusative, ablative, locative, instrumental, and genitive. II. The locative refers not only to place, as its name imports, but also NOMINATIVE. 219 to the point of time conceived as space, and to the state, condition, or circumstances made up of time and place. III. The instrumental case indicates the instrument or means by which anything is done, and, under the general idea expressed by this latter term " means," are included the individual ideas of the accompanying person, the member or part affected, and the quantity or amount effected. IV. The genitive is placed last, as it is a case per se, standing in the same relation to the noun as the other cases do to the verb, and, although a single case, imbodying all their different usages and acceptations. Hence the wide range given to the genitive in the Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, and German ; and hence, also, this same case has been styled the adnominal, since it is properly used with the noun, while the other cases have been termed adverbial, from their relation to the verb. Nomi7ialive. I. The suffix of the nominative singular in Sanscrit masculine and feminine stems that terminate in a vowel is s, and the origin of this may be traced to the pronominal stem sa, " he," " this one." Thus we have, among masculines, vrika-s (stem vrika), " a wolf." pati-s (stem pali), " a lord" or " husband." kawi-s (stem kawi), " a poet." And among feminines the following : priti-s (stem prili), " love." tanu-s (stem tanu), " a body." ndu-s (stem naw), "a ship." II. In Zend, this s, if preceded by a, changes into u, and then the a and u are blended into 6. The same happens in Sanscrit, but only be- fore sonant letters. Thus, in Zend we have vehrko (from vekrka-u, stem vchrka), " a wolf," and ko, " this," for ka-u (stem ka). So in San- scrit, sulo mama, "my son," from suta-u ; but sula-s lava, "thy son." III. This nominative sufRx s appears also in Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and Gothic. Thus, Xviio-c, ■Koai-g, ttItv-c, oTT-g, eko-c ; lupus, hosti-s, pccu-s, voc-s, opus ; Lithuanian, wilkas, pati-s, sunus ; Gothic, vulf's, gasfs, sunus, &c. IV. The Gothic, however, suppresses a and i before the s, except in monosyllabic words, where such suppression would be impracticable. Thus, it says hvas, " who ;" is, " he ;" but vulfs, gast's, for vulfas, gastis} MascuUne stems in ja must be excepted from this rule, since 1. The term gasti-s means " a stranger," whence the English " guesl." With the Gothic we may compare the Latin hnsti.a, in its original acceptation, which, according to Cicero, wasj also " a stranger." Thus, he remarks, " Hoslis enim apud majores 220 NOMINATIVE. they retain the vowel at the end*only softening it to i ; as, harji-s, " an army." If, however, what is frequently the case, a long vowel or more than one syllable precede the final syllable, then ji changes to ei; as, andei-s, " the end ;" raginci-s, " advice." V. In others of the Teutonic dialects the nominative-ending s has passed into r ; as. Old German, i-r, " he ;" de-r, " this ;'' hue-r, " who ;" plmte-r, " blind." Old Norse, ulf-r, " a wolf ;" son-r, " a son ;" blind-r, " blind." German, er, der, wer, hlinde-r. Swedish and Danish, blind-r. In the rest of the Teutonic dialects the nominative-characteristic is lost. VI. If the ground-form in Sanscrit end in a consonant, the s is omit- ted in masculines and feminines ; and when two consonants close the ground-form, the latter of the two is rejected by the same law of euphony. Hence we have bibhrat for bibhrat-s, " he that bears ;" tudan for tu- dant-s, " he that afflicts." The Zend, Greek, and Latin, on the other hand, preserve the s, and therefore stand, in this respect, on earlier ground than the Sanscrit. Thus we have, in Zend, df-s (for ap-s), " water ;" kerefs, " a body." The Greek and Latin, when the final consonant of the stem will not unite with the s, prefer giving up a part of the stem it- self, and hence we have X'^P'-i for A'"P''''"f> comes for comit-s. Moreover, the Latin, JEolic Greek, and Lithuanian agree in a surjirising manner with the Zend, in that nt, when uniting with s, gives the form ns. Thus we have amans ; ridevg ; Lithuanian, sukans ; Zend, sravayans, "he that speaks." VII. A final n after a short vowel is no favourite in Sanscrit. Hence we have the n rejected from a stem in the first part of a compound ; as, rdga-putra, " the king's son," for ragan-putra. It is rejected also from the nominative, in which rejection a preceding short vowel is made long if the stem be of the masculine gender. Thus, rdgd, " a king," from ragan, masculine, and ndmd, " a name," from riamart, neuter. The Zend agrees in this with the Sanscrit, except as regards the length- ening of the vowel ; as, ashavd, " the pure," from ashavan, masculine ; cashma, " the eye," from cashman, neuter. VIII. The Latin follows the Stoscrit and Zend in suppressing n in the nominative of masculines and feminines, but not in neuters ; as, sermo, sermon-is ; actio, action-is ; but nomen, not nome or nomo. The root can at the end of compounds does not, however, reject the n, in order, very probably, to prevent any further weakening of so feeble a syllable. Hence we have tubi-ccn, fidi-ccn, os-ccn, &c. The term lien is a mutilation from lieni-s. Pecten appears to be an isolated case. IX. If the theme in Sanscrit end in r, the r is omitted ; neither does nostras is dicebatvr, quern nunc jierrgrinum dicimus" (De Off". 1, 12). The Indian origin o( lioslts, iberefore, is fully apparent. NOMINATIVE. 221 any nominative suffix s appear. The preceding vowel also is length- ened. Thus we have blirdtd, from bhrdtdr, "a brother;" data, from ddtdr, "a giver ;" mdld, from md/dr, " a mother; pitd, from pilar, "a father." The lengthening of the vowel appears to supply the place of the rejected r. X. The Zend and Lithuanian follow the analogy of the Sanscrit, and reject the r, while, on the other hand, the Teutonic dialects, together with the Crreek and Latin, retain it. Thus we have, in Gothic, brothar, svistar, daughtar ; in the old High-German, pruodar, suestar, tohla.r ; in Greek, iraTfjp, (irirrip, -dvydri^p, dai'ip ; in Latin, paler, mater, /rater, soror, &c. The question here presents itself, whether these forms in r be the earlier ones, or whether the rejection of this same letter be not more ancient. A careful examination of the point will result in favour of the latter opinion. In the first place, we have the testimony of the Sanscrit, Zend, and Lithuanian for the early origin of the rejection of r ; and, in the second place, such Greek forms as Trarrjp, f^tjTijp, &c., show in their declension something peculiar and strange, since, as p and c are unwilling to coalesce, they prefer giving up the case-sign and retaining the stem-consonant, a process directly the reverse of what takes place in the more regular forms, such as iraic and Tiovc, for Trald-g and -rroS-g. XL Masculine and feminine ground-forms in Sanscrit that end in as lengthen the vowel a in the nominative singular. They are mostly com- pounds, and have for the last member in this composition a neuter sub- stantive in as. Thus, dur-manas, " bad-spirited," from dies (which be- comes dur before the sonant letters) and the neuter noun mands, " spirit" (the root, probably, of the Latin animus, but certainly the source whence come mens and jievog). We have, therefore, in the masculine and fem- inine, durmands, but in the neuter durmands. The analogy between this and the Greek 6, •/;, 6vuiiEv{]r, neuter to 6v(t/u.£vec, is very stxiking. The Sanscrit genitive, again, is dusmanas-as, with which we may compare the old Greek form SvajxEvca-oc, whence, according to a previous para- graph, comes the received form dvajiEve-og. The f at the end of the nominative is to be regarded either as a stem-consonant, or a case-sign before which the stem-consonant f has fallen away. The former of these opinions is the more probable one, and derives support from the analogy of the Latin, where those masculine and feminine forms of the nomina- tive which correspond to the Sanscrit stems in as arc, in like manner, without a case-sign. Thus, the Sanscrit comparative suffix -iyas be- comes in Latin -ior, with the usual change of s into r, and the nomina- tive is without the case-sign in both the masculine and feminine ; but in the neuter we have us, corresponding to the Sanscrit as, the u being T2 222 LOCATIVE. friendly to a final s, and protecting it from being changed into r. Hence gravius answers to the Sanscrit gariyas. XII. Feminine ground-forms in d lose the s ; as, dshiwd, " a tongue," kd, " which." The same takes place in Zend ; as, hizwa, "a tongue," kci, " which ;" and so in Lithuanian, rankd, " a hand ;" with all which may be compared the Greek and Latin forms ;i'wpa, fiovaa, terra, musa, &c. We find, also, in Zend, feminine nominatives in e ; as, pereni, " full,'' kaine, " a maiden ;" and these nominatives resemble very closely in appearance Greek nouns in //. The Zend form in c, however, appears to be merely euphonic, and the e has been changed from an a through the influence of a suppressed y (com.pare the Sanscrit form kanyd, where this y appears). Hence it is not unreasonable to suppose that the e of the Latin fifth declension, as in almost every instance an i precedes it, has been changed from an a by the influence of this i. This may serve to explain why we have occasionally two forms for the nominative, one of the fifth and the other of the first declension ; as, for example, mate- ries and materia, the latter of which follows the analogy of the Greek, and allows a to remain unaltered before i, as in GO(^ia. The Ionic form, on the other hand, follows the Zend, as aoflr]. Vocative. I. The vocative in Sanscrit has no peculiar case-sign of its own. It is often identical with the nominative, and where it differs from that case it coincides very nearly with the naked theme or ground-form. II. In monosyllables the vocative is the same as the nominative. Thus we have, nom. bhi-s, "fear," voc. bhi-s, "oh fear," like /cj-j- and other monosyllables in Greek. III. In other kinds of words an a at the end of the stem remains un- altered in Sanscrit and Zend, but in Lithuanian is weakened into e. The Greek and Latin, like the Lithuanian, change o and u into a short e in the corresponding declension, as Xiike, lupc. We must not, how- ever, regard this e as a species of case-ending either in the Greek or the Latin. The forms Ivke and Iwpe bear the same relation to the Sanscrit vrika that rcevTe and quinque do to pancan ; that is, the old a, which in 2.VK0( appears as o, and in Ivpus as u, has assumed the form of a short e. IV. Sanscrit stems in i and u are increased by guna ;' neuters have also the pure vowel. Thus we have in Sanscrit pati, vocative oi pali-s, "a lord" or "husband;" sunb, vocative of sunu-s, "a son;" nama, vocative of nanian, " a name," neuter. V. The guna-form in 6 (from a-J-w) agrees in a remarkable manner ^F 1. Guna, in Paiuscrit, means the insertion of a short a before i and u, and in then Ui.iking a+i coalesce into e, and a-{-u into <5. DATIVE. 223 with the Gothic and Lithuanian. Thus we have, in the two latter, su- nau, sunaii, and in Sanscrit su7id (from sunaii). VI. The Gothic and Latin, where the stem ends in n, suppress this letter in the vocative as in the nominative, whereas the Sanscrit and Zend restore to the vocative the nasal letter taken from the nominative. Thus we have in Sanscrit dtman, in Zend asman, but m Gothic ahma', with which compare the Latin sermo in the vocative. VIL The Greek, in numerous instances, takes its vocative pure from the nominative. In others, it gives this case the naked stem, or else the stem only so far altered as euphony or assimilation requires. Thus we have Tu7.av as the vocative of ruAa^, ;);apt'ev (for x'^P'-^vt) as the vocative of ;^;api£if, and rval (for Tvald) as the vocative of Tra^f. The Latin carries out still more fully the example of degeneration set for it by the Greek in the case of the vocative, and, with the single exception of the second declension, makes the vocative the same as the nominative. Dative. I. The dative in Sanscrit ends properly in e, which termination de- rives its origin, in all probability, from the demonstrative pronominal stem e. The Zend has a similar ending. Thus we have in Sanscrit bhrdlr-e, " to the brother ;" duhitr-e, " to the daughter ;" and in Zend, hratkr-e and dughdher-e. II. Feminine stems in a, i, u, and occasionally those in t and u, lengthen out, in Sanscrit, this termination e into di. Stems in a have, moreover, an i inserted ; as, givdi-di, " to the tongue" (stem givd). while those in I and u take the guna before e ; as, sunav-e, " to a son" (stem sunu). In Zend, feminine stems in d and i have also the ending of the dative in di, as in Sanscrit. III. Sanscrit stems in a add another a to the case-sign e, and then, • since e is here equivalent to a-\-i, there results from this union the form aya. Hence we have vrikaya, " to the wolf" (stem vrikd). The Zend makes merely di ; as wehrkdi. IV. The Sanscrit forms the dative-ending of pronouns in smdi, from the particle «wa with an i appended ; as, tasmdi, " to this," kasmdi, " to whom." In Zend, this sma changes to hma; as, kahmdi, "to whom." In Pracrit and Pali, also, wc have the « converted info an h, but the h and m at the same time are ])laccd in an inverted order, whence we find mho, used for hma. In Pracrit, therefore, wc have amhe, "we," with which compare the Greek ufifZEg ; and from mka we come to the Gothic nsa, in u-nsa-ra and ti-nsi-s. V. In Lithuanian the dative ends in i ; as, wilku-i, "to the wolf;" 224 ACCUSATIVE. ■paii-m (lord) jmti-m sunu-m (son) pasu-m ddna-m (gift) date-m tanu-m (body) lanu-m hosLc-m pecu-m donu-m socru-vi pati-n sunii-n ***** ***** gast'' sunu daur'' handu. sunu-i, "to the son." In adjectives and pronouns it ends in m; as, tam, " to him ;" gcram, " to the good." VI. The usual Greek and Latin dative are taken from the original lo- O cative, to which the student is liere referred. Accusative. I. The characteristic of the accusative in Sanscrit, Zend, and Latin^ is the letter m ; in Greek, v is substituted on grounds of euphony. In Lithuanian the old m is still farther weakened into a species of nasal n, which m Sanscrit is termed anusvara. The Germanic lanffuacres have lost the accusative-sign in substantives, and this loss shows itself as early as the Gothic. In masculine adjectives and pronouns, however, a ter- mination appears, and this termination in Gothic is na, but in the old High-German more correctly n. II. The following tabular view will make this subject more apparent : Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Latin. Lith. Gothic. vrika-m (wolf) loehrke-m ?t,vKo-v lupu-m wilka-n vulf TTUCL-V 6upo-v ttItv-v III. Monosyllabic words, in Sanscrit, ending in i,u, and du, make the termination of the accusative am in place of the simple m, and this ap- pears to be done in order to give them somewhat of a polysyllabic ap- pearance. Thus, hhi, " fear," and nau, " a ship," do not make in the accusative bliim and ndum, as we might be led to expect from the anal- ogy of the Greek vavv, but bhiy-avi, ndc-am. With this agree the Greek stems in ev, since they make, in the accusative, e-a, from cF-a, instead of Ev-v ; as, j3aaLM{F)a for (3aai?^€v-v. IV. It is erroneous, however, to regard, as many do, the Latin m in the termination of the accusative as originating from an earlier ending em ; and to make, for example, lupu-m come from lupo-em ; horam from hora- em ; fruclum from fructic-em, and diem from die-em. That a mere nasal letter is amply sufficient to indicate the accusative, appears from the his- tory of not only the whole class of Germanic tonges, but also the Sans- crit, Zend, Greek, and Lithuanian. V. The Latin cm in the accusative of the third declension is of twofold origin. At one time the e belongs to the stem, and stands for i; as, e-m in ign-cm (Sanscrit agni-m), which corresponds to i-m in Sanscrit, i-m in Zend, l-v in Greek, i-n in Lithuanian, and i-na in Gothic : at other times, when the stem terminates in a consonant, the e of em answers to the Sanscrit a, to which it also corresponds in numerous other instances. ACCUSATIVE. 225 VI. Sanscrit and Zend neuter stems in a, and those related to them in Greek and Latin, take an m for the termination of both the accusa- tive and nominative ; as, SMjana-m, " a guard," in Sanscrit ; sayane-m in Zend. So in Latin and Greek, donu-m, dupo-v. All other stems of the neuter gender remain, with a few exceptions in Latin, unaccompa- nied by any case-sign in the nominative and accusative, and present merely the naked stem, which, however, in Latin, changes a final i into e ; as, mare for mari, in Sanscrit wdri, " water." The Greek, however, like the Sanscrit and Zend, leaves the i unaltered ; as, Upi-c, ISpi, as in Sanscrit, sucis, suc-i. Examples of neuter w-stems, which supply the place of both nominative and accusative, are, in Sanscrit, madh-u, " honey," " wine ;" asr-u, " tears ;" sicad-u, " sweet ;" in Zend, woh-it, " wealth ;" in Greek, /xei^-v, 6dKp-v, rjd-v ; in Latin, ■pec-u, gen-u. VII. The 2 in Greek neuters, such as yivog, fj.evog, evyevec, has al- ready been explained as belonging to the stem. The case is the same with respect to the Latin s in such neuters as genus, corpus, &c. ; it is, in fact, the earlier form of the r of the oblique cases, as in gener-is, cor- for-is, for genes-is, corpos-is, with the latter of which we may easily compare the Sanscrit vapus, also signifying " a body," genitive vapus-as. The 2, also, of neuter stems in T, for example, rervcpog and repaf, is not to be regarded as a case-sign, but as having been changed from T, which latter is never tolerated at the end of a word, but is cither thrown away entirely, as in the case o{ fiDu and Trpuyfia, or is exchanged for the cognate 2, just as wpog is formed from the Sanscrit prali, through the intermediate ^'Eolo-Dbric form Trpori. VIII. Gothic neuters and masculines want the case-sign m. In Lith- uanian the neuter entirely disappears in the case of substantives, and has only left a trace behind in pronouns and adjectives. IX. Pronominal stems in a have in Sanscrit t, in Zend t, as the flec- tion-sign of the nominative and accusative neuter. The origin of the neuter case-sign / is to be found in the pronominal stem ta, " he," " this one," Greek TO, Gothic THA, &c. The Lithuanian (ai, " that," used as a nominative and accusative, corresponds to the Sanscrit ta-t, the Zend ta-t, the Greek to, &c. The final i appears to have some affinity to the demonstrative t in such forms as ovtocl, eKeivoai, and both the Lithuanian and Greek terminations may be traced to the old Sanscrit form it, occurring in the Vcdas, and which, on account of its antiquity, appears to have lost all regard for the particular gender of its termina- tion, since, though neuter in form, it attaches itself also to masculine pronouns of the third person. This same it appears to be the sister-form of the Latin id and the Gothic i-la. 226 ABLATIVE. Ahlalive. I. The abladve in Sanscrit has t for its characteristic, the origin of which is to be traced, in all probability, to the demonstrative pronoun ta, " this." II. This case-letter, however, only appears with stems in a, which vowel is lengthened before it ; as vrikdt, " from the wolf." III. In Zend, the ablative, in like manner, ends in t; as, wehrhdt, " from the wolf ;" but stems in i have 6i-t ; as, dfritoi-t, " benedictione ;" radshbi-t, " institutione." IV. The old Latin agrees in this respect with the Sanscrit and Zend to a very remarkable degree. Thus we have on the Columna Rosirata, and in the decree of the senate " De Bacchanalibus,^' such forms of the ablative as prcesented dictaiorcd, prcedad, m allod marid, senatud, &c. The Oscan also formed the ablative in d, as appears from the Bantian inscription, where we find dolud, mallud, cum prcivatud, toutad, prcE- senlid, &c. We may remark, in passing, that the old Latin and Oscan forms of the third person of the imperative, namely, es-tod and es-tud (for es-to), correspond surprisingly to the Veda-form obtained from Panini, giva-tat, which signifies as well " vivat" as " vive," and which may it- self be compared with " vivito" of both the third and second person. V. In classical Latin we meet with a kind of ablative form in the in- separable pronoun met, which, from having originally belonged only to the first person, as far as we can hazard a conjecture (supposing it to be cognate with the Sanscrit ablative mat, " from me"), passed subse- quently over to all the persons. The conjunction scd, too, appears to have been nothing more, originally, than the ablative of the reflexive pro- noun sc. In the decree of the senate " De BaccltanaUhus," scd occurs twice as a pronoun governed by inter, whence we may infer either that inter was construed, in early Latin, with the ablative, or that the accu- sative had then, in some instances, the same force as the ablative. In favour of the latter opinion we may cite the accusative use of med and ted in Plautus, and the employment of ead for ea (accusative plural neu- ter) in the decree just referred to. Wc find, in this same decree, the preposition extra appearing under the form of extrad. This will serve to strengthen the opinion that the Latin prepositions in a were all origi- nally ablative cases, and even pro would seem to have been at first writ- ten prod, as an ablative, since we find traces of this early form in prod-es, prod-eram, &c., whereas, in prosum, the d has disappeared from before s by a law of euphony. VI. The ablative in Sanscrit expresses removal from a place, answer- ing to the question " whence V and this is its true and original meaning, LOCATIVE. 227 which the Latin has preserved only in the names of places. From the idea of " whence," the ablative passes over to the relation of cause, since that, on account of which anything takes place, may be regarded as the spot or place from which the action goes forth. In this way the do- mains of the ablative and instrumental cases touch each other. When used adverbially, the ablative embraces a still wider range, and express- es, in the case of some words, certain relations that are otherwise quite foreign to it. In Greek, adverbs in uf may be regarded as sister-forms of the Sanscrit ablative ; so that u-g, from a stem in o, bears relation to the Sanscrit d-t, from a stem in a, just as dlduat does to dadd-ti. Hence 6jiu-c is related to the Sanscrit samd-l, " similarly," both in its ending and its stem. Now, in the Greek language, the change from T to 2 at the end of a word was absolutely necessary, in order to prevent the total suppression of the former letter ; and, therefore, we may safely conclude that such adverbs as o/zu-f, ovtu-c, oi-f, came originally from S/xu-T, ovTU-T, u-r, &c. We have a similar analogy in the Latin ad- verbial forms guomodo, raro, vero, perpetuo, &c. Locaiive. I. This case has, in Sanscrit and Zend, an i for its characteristic letter. II. In Greek and Latin the locative has united itself under one form with the dative, but still without losing its own peculiar reference to place. Hence wo have Aci6ui'i, MapadCtvi, I,a/iafiLVi, iiypu, ockoi, xo-- fiai. So also we find this same case retaining its reference to a point of time conceived of as space ; as, ry avry r/fzepa, ry avry vvkt'l, and in Sanscrit divasd, " in the day," nisi, " in the night." III. When the stem ends in a, the case-sign i passes into e in both Sanscrit and Zend, except that, in the latter language, bi also stands for e, which circumstance produces a singular analogy between Zend lo- catives in oi and such Greek datives as oIkoi, fioi, ao'i. IV. In Lithuanian, the stems in a agree surprisingly in the locative with the Sanscrit and Zend, since they convert this a, together with the old iocativc-sign i, which nowhere, any more appears pure in this tongue, into the vowel e, saying diewe, " in God," stem diewa, with which we may compare the Sanscrit dtve and the Zend da&ve. V. Masculine stems in Sanscrit that end in i and m, and occasionally also feminine ones, have a locative ending in an. ; as, taiiau, " in the body." The Zend gives to stems in u the genitive ending o, while to express a genitive meaning the form eu-s is more usually employed. VI. In Zend and Sanscrit we discover in several instances a species of alhance between the genitive and locative, and the one appearing for 228 INSTRUMENTAL. the other. The same remark holds good with reference to the Latin ; and as in this language the genitive of the first and second declension only appears with a locative meaning, for example, RomcB, Corinthi, hu- mi, not in the third declension nor in the plural, the opinion has been advanced that the Latin genitive of the first two declensions is derived from an ancient locative. It would seem, therefore, that when the first declension lost its genitive in d-s, the dative (in its origin a locative) was compelled also to supply the place of a genitive. In the second de- clension, the form in o-i, which belongs properly to the locative, corre- sponding to the Greek o and ot, and of which examples still remain, as popoloi Romanoi, underwent a twofold change. It lost in the one case the vowel that marked the ending, as domino ; while, in the other, it dropped the stem-vowel and retained the ending, as domini ; the for- mer of these settled down into a dative, the latter into a genitive. VII. This view of the Latin cases frees that language from a gross absurdity of syntax invented by the grammarians. According to them, the name of a town is put in the genitive when the question is " where V provided that name be of the first declension ; but if it be of the third declension or of the plural number, the name is put in the ablative ! The truth is, what the grammarians mistake for a genitive in the one case, and for an ablative in the other, is in both instances the same, namely, a locative, and the error has arisen from confounding similar forms. Instrumental. I. The instrumental case has d for its characteristic letter in Sanscrit, and this termination appears to be nothing more than a lengthening of the pronominal stem a, and identical with the inseparable preposition a, "on," "along," " to," which comes from the same stem. II. In Sanscrit, masculine and feminine stems ending in a short vowel take a euphonic n. If the vowel at the end be a it is changed into e. Hence we have vrike-n-a, "by the wolf;" sunu-n-a, " by the son." III. The Vedas show likewise the remains of a formation without n ; as, swapnay-d, "by sleep," for swapnS-n-a, theme swapna; and the or- dinary language exhibits two forms analogous to this in may-d, " through me ;" and tway-d, " through thee," from ma and tiva. IV. In Zend the instrumental case is marked, as in Sanscrit, by a, but more commonly short than long. Thus we have zaosh-a, " through design ;" wchrk-d, " by the wolf" Monosyllabic stems, however, in a, always lengthen the case-ending ; as, kha, " proprio." V. In Lithuanian, this case ends in u, a, and mi. Stems in a form their instrumental in ti ; as, diew-u, " Deo ;" feminine stems in a retain this vowel as a case-ending ; as, ranka, " by the hand ;" while all other GENITIVE. 229 etems take mi as the tennination of the instrumental ; as, sunu-mi, "by the son." VI. In Latin, the ablative is generally employed to denote the instru- ment or means. Traces, however, of an independent instrumental case still appear in such adverbs of manner as dure, " hardly ;" bene, " well," &c. VII. In Gothic, the instrumental, usually called the dative, ends in a; as, gast-a, " by the guest." In the other Germanic tongues it remains in certain pronominal adverbs of manner ; as, in old High-German, diu, swa, wio 1 in Anglo-Saxon, thus, swa, hu ? in Enghsh, thus, so, how 1 Genitive. I. The terminations of this important case, in Sanscrit, are s, sya, as, and as, whereof the first three are common to the three genders, while the last is confined to the feminine. II. In Sanscrit, the vowels i and u take the guna, and this is also the case in Zend ; as, pate-s, " of a husband ;" suno-s, " of a son ;" in Zend, patbi-s, " of a husband ;" tancu-s, " of a body." The Lithuanian and Gothic, on the other hand, take the guna in the case of these same vow- els in a more limited degree. All zi-stems in these two languages in- sert an a before their final vowel, and thus the Lithuanian sunan-s and the Gothic sunau-s correspond to the Sanscrit suno-s, from sunau-s. The guna, however, limits itself, in Gothic, in the case of t-stems, to feminines merely; as, anstai-s, "of favour." III. The Sanscrit genitive-ending as passes over, in Greek, intoof in the case of t and v stems, as also where the stem ends in a diphthong the last vowel of which is v. Thus we have -nopri-og, Ixdv-oc, {iaatM-og. In these no guna appears, such as iropTSi-g, lx6ev-g, forms utterly un- known in Greek as genitives ; but, on the contrary, the true forms cor- respond, like no6-6(, to the Sanscrit genitive of consonant-stems, pad-as, "pedis ;" vac-as, " vocis," &c. The Latin, on the other hand, agrees more closely with the sister tongues, though not so far as to have the guna, and hence hosti-s resembles the Gothic gasti-s. In the case of Latin M-stems (4th declension) the lengthening of the u may take the place of the guna ; or perhaps, more correctly speaking, this class of words follow the Greek or consonant-principle, and the vowel which has fallen away from before s is compensated by the lengthening of m. IV. Stems in a, and also the pronouns of the third person, of which, however, only one, namely, amu, ends with any other vowel but a, have in Sanscrit the fuller genitive-sign sya; as, vrika-sya, "of the wolf;" ta-sya, "hujus," &c. ; amu-S7ja, " illius." In Zend, this ending takes the form oihe; as, vehrkahe, "of the wolf;" ka-he, "of whom." U 230 GENITIVE. V. The Greek and Latin show manifest traces of this genitive ending in sya. Thus, since Sanscrit stems in a answer to Greek ones in o, and since a towards the end of Greek words, when placed between two vow- els, generally disappears, there can be but little, if any, doubt that the old epic genitive-endmg in to is a mutilation from aio, and that, for ex- ample, in Tolo (compare the Sanscrit ta-sya), the first o belongs to the stem, and lo to the case-ending. As regards the dropping of iv is the earlier form of the two, we may easily hazard the conjecture that it arose from fic, just as we trace /xev from /zff in the first person plural of verbs ; which ending in /xeg, moreover, corresponds to the Sanscrit mas and the Latin mus. 'n accordance with this idea, the old Greek form (pig will answer to the Sanscrit bhis, and to the Latin bis in 7iobis and vubis. It is highly prob- able, too, that originally a diilierence existed between ^t and (piv, and that the former belonged to the singular, the latter to the plural, having the same analogy between them as bi and bis in the Latin forms ti-bi and vo-bis, and mi and mis m the Lithuanian aki-mi, " by the eye," and aki- mis, " by the eyes." VIII. That the endings (pc and (piv belong especially to the dative is well known. The locative and instrumental use of the same termina- tions in such forms as avToipi, ■&vprj(pL, (3l7^(j)tv, is easily explained on the principle that the common dative itself has assumed a locative and in- strumental relation. That (j>i and fiv, however, have at any time a strong genitive meaning may very safely be denied ; since when prepo- sitions, that are otherwise construed in Greek with a genitive, appear also with cases ending in (pc or (piv, there is no need whatever for us to re- gard these last as genitives, or as supplying the place of a genitive. All prepositions that are construed in Greek with a genitive would be much better joined with an ablative or locative, if such cases existed in Greek. Even the suffix -Qev, which is commonly regarded as supplying the place of the genitive ending, is, strictly speaking, of genuine ablative significa- tion, expressing as it does the departing from a place. IX. The Greek dual-ending in lv appears to be a curtailing of the Sanscrit form bhydm, by throwing out the initial labial, as, in the latter language, vrikais is formed from vrikdbis, and then by contracting yam into IV, just as, in Sanscrit again, ista is said for yasta, from yag, " to offer," and in Zend im, " haec," is formed from ryam. The third de- clension in Greek might, by its dual termination, as in 6aiu6v-OLv, give rise to the suspicion that otv, and not iv, was the true endijig. The latter, however, appears in both the first and second declensions, where IV, and not oiv, attaches itself to the final vowel of the stem ; as, MoiJaa- IV, ?^6yo-iv, &c. Hence, in the third declension, we are to regard the o before iv merely in the light of a connecting vowel between the stem and case-ending. X. On the principle that the dual-ending in tv is contracted from My- U2 234 NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PLURAL. dm, we discover also the origin of the iv appended to the dative plural of certain pronouns, namely, r/n-lv, vu-iv, a^-iv. This latter iv appears to have been of very early origin, since we find that the Sanscrit has bhyam for the ending of the dative plural of the pronouns of the first and second person, but in all other words blnjas. From this bhyam we come as easily to iv, as from the dual termination bhyam. The accusative use of this same ending, in such forms as j-dv and vlv, may be explained in two ways : either by supposing that the original dative force of the termina- tion had become forgotten, or that the analogy of the accusative ending in V was followed, |Ut-i', vi-v. Genitive and. Locative. I. These two cases have in Sanscrit the common ending bs, which may possibly be connected with the genitive ending of the singular. Thus we have vrikay-bs, paty-os, tanu-os. II. In Zend, this ending seems to have disappeared, and its place to have been supplied by the plural. So also in Lithuanian, where, for ex- ample, awj-u is both the dual and the plural genitive. Plural. Nominative and Vocative. I. Masculines and feminines in Sanscrit have the nominative plural ending in as, with which case, as in the sister tongues, the vocative is identical in all the declensions. This plural termination in as appears to be nothing more than an enlargement of the s which forms the case- sign of the nominative singular, in order that by such enlargement the idea of plurality might be symbohcally, as it were, expressed. II. The neuter, as in the singular and dual, so also in the plural, wants the letter s, which would seem, therefore, to have too much of a personal reference to harmonize with this gender. III. In Zend, as becomes 6, but before the particles ca and cit it changes merely to as\ In Greek it appears under the form ff, though with some limitations ; in Latin it maizes Is ; in Lithuanian, when the stem ends in r, the termination of the nominative plural is es, otherwise merely s. Hence we have in Sanscrit duhitar-as ; in Zend, dughdhar- as^-ca ; in Greek, ■dvyaTEp-eq ; in Lithuanian, dukter-es ; with all which we may compare the Latin m,atr-es. IV. The masculine pronominal stems in Sanscrit, Zend, and Gothic that end in a do not take the full nominative sign, but, in place of this, they lengthen the stern by the addition of an i, which vowel, on being blended with the a of the stem, becomes in Sanscrit e, and in Zend e or Cii. Hence we have in Sanscrit te, in Zend le, and in Gothic thai, all ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 235 signifying " these," whereas the feminine forms of the same case and number are tds, tdo, and thos, corresponding to the masculine forms just mentioned in the Greek toi (Doric for ol). In Greek, and Latin, however, this i, which is added to the stem in Sanscrit, Zend, and Goth- ic only in masculine pronominal themes, takes a much wider range, and is to be found connected with all other stems of both the first and sec- ond declensions. Hence we have X'^P'^h ^vkoi, for ;^;6Jpa-ef, XvKO-eg ; and lupi (from lupoi), terra (from lerrai), for lupo-es, terra-es. V. Stems in i and u have in Sanscrit the guna, and hence we find patay-as and sunav-as for paty-as and sunv-as. This guna has been preserved in the Gothic, though in its weakened form i, which before the vowel u changes into a j. Hence in Gothic we have sunj-us, " sons," for suni-us, from stinau-s. In the Gothic i-stems the guna-i blends with the i of the stem and becomes long i (written ei) ; as, gastei-s, from gasli. VI. Neuters in Zend, as in the sister languages of Europe, have a short a for the ending, the remains, in all probability, of the fuller form as, after the s had been thrown away as having too much of personal ref- erence to harmonize with the neuter. This a remains also in the accu- sative, since masculines and feminines most commonly have as for the termination of this case. VII. Corresponding to these Zend-European neuters in a the Sanscrit has neuters in i, which latter vowel is evidently a weakening merely of an earlier a. The end-vowel, moreover, of the stem is lengthened, and between this and the case-endmg a euphonic n is inserted ; whence we have ddnd-n-i, varl-n-i, madhu-n-i. Stems ending in a consonant, n and r excepted, place before the same a nasal, and lengthen the preceding vowel ; as, vacdn-si. With this insertion of i we may compare the very isolated neuter-forms which appear in the Latin qua {guai) and h(tc Qiaic). But the analogy is most striking between qua and the Sanscrit he, formed from ka-\-i, which appears as a dual, but was originally also a plural form. Accusative. I. Stems ending with a short vowel in Sanscrit affix an n and lengthen the final vowel of the stem ; hence we have vrikd-n, pati-n, sunii-n. This n in the accusative plural is a curtailment of the full form ns, which has remained fully in the Gothic ; as, rulfa-ns, gasti-ns, sunu-ns. The Greek, on the other hand, has retained the sibilant, but converted the v into a i^ ; as, Mkovc. The form ?.vKovg, therefore, bears the same anal- ocry to TiVKOvg that rvirrovaL does to Tvnrovai (formed from tvtttovti.) II. For w6ai-ag, IxGv-ac, and the like, however, we cannot expect that 236 ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. any such old forms as TrSai-vg, ixSv-vg ever existed. In the case of their I and V stems, the Greeks constantly follow the same rule as in stems ending with a consonant, namely, by appending ag, as in Sanscrit, where we have padas corresponding to the Greek -rrodag. III. This as for ns may be compared with the Ionic arat, oto, for vrai, VTO, a form which has extended itself from cases where the vocali- zing of n was absolutely necessary ; as, 7rE7r€i.6arai, T£Tpu(j)araL, for itenEidvTai, rerpiKpprai, even to those where v could very properly have been allowed to remain ; as, TrEiravaraL, nEK'^laTaL, for iriTravvTai, kek- TlLVTaL. IV. Feminine stems ending in a vowel follow in Sanscrit the analogy of consonant stems, with the suppression, however, of the a, and they have therefore s for as or ns. Feminines ending in a short vowel length- en this, in order to compensate, very probably, for the suppression of the a ; hence we have prUi-s from priiy-as, and tanu-s from tanu-as. Something like an analogy with this may be found in the Greek forms of the accusative plural ending in tf and vg, but these are not limited to feminines, and the same terminations occur in the nominative also for i-Eg and v-sg. V. The Zend follows, like the Greek, in its i and u stems, the analo- gy of consonant stems ; while in feminine stems in i and u we sometimes find a form corresponding to the Sanscrit in i-s, u-s ; as, for example, gairi-s, " mountains ;" perelu-s, " bridges." Masculine stems ending in a have in the accusative art ; as, im-an, " hos ;" mazislan, " maximos." VI. In modern Persian, animate objects form the plural in an, and in- animate in ha; as, merd, "a man," plural, mcrd-an, "men ;" murg, "a bird," murg-an, "birds;" ruz, "a day," ruz-ha, "days ;" kluican, "a table," khiican-ha, " tables." VII. A peculiar neuter suffix in the singular number of Sanscrit nouns is found, as has already been remarked, in as. This occurs still more frequently m Zend, and forms, in this latter language, its plural in Jia. The modern Persian Aa, with its vowel lengthened, stands in close analogy with this. So also in the modern German many striking resem- blances to the modern Persian may easily be found. That the German worter (" words'"), however, shows an analogy in termination with the Persian hd, can only be discovered through the medium of the Sanscrit and Zend. And this discovery is readily made when we call to mind that the old High-German, in its earliest periods, almost continually changed s into r, and as frequently converted a into i, which became at a later period e. PLURAL CASES. 237 Instrumental. The Instrumental plural has already been referred to under the head of the instrumental dual. In Sanscrit it ends in bkis ; in Zend, in Ms ; in Lithuanian, in mis ; in Gothic, in m ; in Greek, in 04 or <^lv ; in Latin, in bis, &c. Dative and Ablative. I. The suffixes of both these cases have already been referred to. In the Latin, all that remains of the termination bus in the first and second declensions is merely the letter s ; as, pcnm-s, terri-s, lupi-s, dmnini-s ; except forms in a-bus, presently to be mentioned. II. The vowel i in terris, lupis, &c., belongs to the stem, not to the case-sign. Lupi-s, in fact, is for lupo-bus, according to the analogy of amho-bus, duo-bus. From o-bus, the language passed over to i-bus, for the purpose of lightening the end-vowel of the stem, just as in the be- ginning of some compounds we find multi-plcx for muUu-plex or multo- plex. III. The form i-bus remained in the vulgar dialect of the lower orders, and hence we have in Gruter (2, 9, 24 : 6, 46, 9 : 5, 618, 3 : &c.) such forms as dibus, diibus, filibus, parvibus, &c. (Compare also En- nius, ap. Charis., p. 4.) IV. In the first declension the form a-bus has remained in several in- stances as a convenient mode of distinguishing between feminines and masculines. No traces of i-bus are found in this declension. Still, how- ever, we can hardly suppose that the language passed at once from a-bus to i-s. It is far more probable that a-bus weakened the stem- vowel a, into I, and that this t was subsequently lengthened as a compensation for the removal of bu. Hence terri-s arose from terri-bus, for terra-bus; just as the verb mdlo arose from mdvolo. V. The Erse language makes aibh the termination of the dative plural, and this striking analogy connects that language at once with the case- system of the other European tongues. Thus we have, in Erse, ghri- anai-bh, " to" or " with suns ;" fearai-bh, " to" or " with men." Genitive. I. The Genitive plural in Sanscrit, in the case of substantives and ad- jectives, ends in dm ; in Zend, in anm. The Greek ov connects itself at once with the primitive am, just as, in verbs, kdld-uv answers to the Sanscrit adad-dm. The Latin has preserved the final m unaltered, but has shortened, through the influence of this letter, the preceding vowel ; 238 PLURAL CASES. and hence we have, in this latter language, ped-um, whereas the corre- sponding form in Sanscrit is pad-am. II. The Liihuanian terminates the genitive plural in u, rejecting the m, and in this rejection of m the German agrees with it. In Gothic, the m in like manner disappears, and the vowel that remains assumes the form either of an e or an o. The o appears in feminine o and n stems. III. Stems ending in a vowel, with the exception, generally speaking, of those that are monosyllabic, insert, in Sanscrit, a euphonic n between the case-ending and the stem ; and when this is done, the end-vowel of the stem, if short, is lengthened. This insertion of n appears to be of very early date, since the Zend participates in the same, though in a more limited degree ; namely, in stems that end in a and a ; as, vehrka- n-anm, gihoa-n-anm. Analogous, in a striking degree, to this is the genitive of the corresponding class of words in old High-German, in old Saxon, and in Anglo-Saxon, which genitive ends in b-n-b or e-n-a. Thus we have, in old High-German, kipb-n-b ; in old Saxon, g'ebb-n-b ; in Anglo-Saxon, gife-n-a. IV. Pronouns of the third person have in Sanscrit the genitive plural ending in sdm instead of dm. It is probable that this sdrn was the earlier form of the two, and that dm is merely the ending of this ending. The High-German has here, as in many other instances, changed the sibilant to an r. The Latin docs the same, as in istorum, istarum, &c. V. This rum, in the termination of the genitive plural, has passed over, in Latin, from the pronominal inflection to the first, second, and fifth declensions. And this was the more easily effected, since these pronouns of the third person are all in the genitive plural of either the second or first declension. Forms, however, occasionally present them- selves, especially in earlier Latin, which show that the language was not always equally favourable towards the reception of this ending in rum, and hence we have such genitives plural as the following, socium, deum amphorum, drachmum, agricolum, &c. VI. The Latin rum and Sanscrit sdm would lead us to expect auv in Greek. Such, however, is not the case. But still the forms that do occur in u-uv and e-cjv, such as avru-uv, avre-uv, uyopu-uv, ayope-uv, point very plainly to a consonant that has fallen out. It remains a ques- tion, therefore, whether a a has been dropped in every instance or only a cr in pronouns, and in other words a v, as in /isi^u, from p.e[^ova. If this latter view be correct, ?ivkuv will be for 7mko-v-uv, x^^pduv loixup- a-v-uv ; but tQv for toouv, and rduv for Taouv. PLURAL CASES. 239 Locative. I. The characteristic of the locative plural in Sanscrit is su, which is converted also, on some occasions, into shu. For this in Zend we have shu and hu. The primitive form in Sanscrit, however, was swa, from which comes shwa in Zend, which is more usually employed for shu and hu. II. The primitive ending swa. is identical with the reflex possessive stem swa. And as in Latin si-hi points to an earlier form su-hi, which we would be led to expect from su-i ; and ti-hi to an earlier form tu-hi, which we may compare with the Sanscrit tu-hhyam, so the Greek dative locative ending in oi (or aiv) points at once to the Sanscrit su. III. Stems in a append to this vowel, as in many other instances, an i, and from the blending of a-j-i arises e, to which the Greek oi corre- sponds, as in T^vKOL-ai., Sanscrit vrike-shu. The l in Greek passes over from these stems to others in d and rj, and either appears in its full force or as a subscript l. Hence we have THaraMaLV, 'OXv/iniaai, 'A'&rjv- rjai, &c. IV. In Lithuanian, the endings of the locative plural are for the mas- culine se, for the feminine sa. This sa appears to have arisen from swa, by rejecting the w. 240 NUMERALS. o o a> a a o u 03 •T3 a c3 J3 > oj o CO W 1-3 1—1 P f4 (U t^ v2 '3- K5 !u ^w ~-i to to (, ja, fi -3 a ii -to 'O O to 2- ^ S 3 a 3 O 3 s c> ^ 3 fci s s ■^ o >.' o. *J P (1) o o u cr w 73 o C ^3 c 'So c P M P u -c -^ Oh _ _ ^ CO -a p o a» ^ j3 'a j= o '53 C 13 CD .H 0) c« 13 O cd (DSgw)^^ ^ *J {111 cficnO!>'^T3 "^ 1-1 -*-? c '3 p p p us ._r „ fee bx) C p 'X3 '^3 (UrP-^-pO) P ^ ? P ° CS si a d ■*-> o a ca rt: -C -p eS t^ to CA Cd C -t-3 p •-0 a CS Xi o &. CO .A (D p a) .2 ^ p T3 ^ - 3 5 & > ^ C5 ,c' C C P cS tu 13 P g CO J3 CO bn cO CO bD cfl ^ c« cS a (Tl 0.-C X c ^ x: j= n CO m tn O ■^3 '-0 ♦3 o o & !/J CO CO CO P 'T3 p- -*■> r^ C^ « in to t- 00 05 © o © o es o NUMERALS. 241 Remarks. I. A very slight inspection of the preceding table will show that nearly all the words contained in them are derived by each language from some of its cognates, or by all from a common source. • II. Certain consonants, or certain classes of consonants, in one lan- guage, are almost uniformly substitutes for certain others in a different lancuacre. And one of the most striking facts that appears on compa- ring these lists of numerals is, that in some of the languages of Western E\irope guttural or hard palatine consonants abound, and take the place of the sibilants, soft palatines, and dentals, and even of the labial con- sonants which are found in the more eastern and in some northern lan- guages. III. The following examples will prove the truth of this remark. Numeral 4. chatur, chetyre, chehar, rsTTapeg, TTtavpeg, pedwar, petor, fidwor, fiuuar, pancha, penj, irevTE, TTE/nre, pump, fimf, shash, shesh, se.x, saihs, saptan, septem, saith, ashtan, hesht, wyth, Sanscrit, Russian, Persian, Greek, Welsh, Oscan, Gothic, Teutonic, ch > become < Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, (( Welsh, Gothic, Sanscrit, Persian, Latin, Gothic, Sanscrit, Latin, Welsh, Sanscrit, Persian, Welsh, \ K \< Numeral 5. p and ch ^ p and j q, quatuor, in Latin, k, keathair, in Erse. 7r and r TT and TT p and p f and f ) >become q and q, quinque, Latin, k and g, kuig, Erse. Numeral 6 sh and sh sh and sh [ , S s and X s and s s and pt s and pt >become ch and ch ) chwech, guttural, J Welsh. ( (') and f, b^, Greek. } Numeral 7. > become s and th ) ( (') and ttt, Numeral 8. ( s and cht, : < h and ft, Erse. Persian. Greek. sht sht th ocht, OKTCO, oclo, ahtan, Erse. Greek. Latin. Gothic. 1 . Prichard, Eastern Origin of the Celtic NatioTis, p. 40, seq . 242 dashan, Sanscrit, sh vinshali, Sanscrit, sh trinshat, Sanscrit, sh satam, sad, Sanscrit, Persian, NUMERALS Numeral 10 becomes < f '^' c, ch g. h, I h. 6EKa, decern, , deich, deg, tehan, taihun, Greek. Latin. Erse. Welsh. Teutonic. Gothic. Numeral 20 becomes < g> Ich, viginti, ugain, ehofft, fichid, Latin. Welsh. Greek. Erse. Numeral 30 becomes < > TplUKOVTa, triginta, Greek. Latin. Numeral IOC 1. becomes < c, c, Ik, u, eicarov, centum, cant, kett, hunt. Greek. Latin. Welsh. Erse. Gothic. From the data here afforded the following inferences have been de- duced. • L The Sanscrit, and some other languages holding a near relation to it in the form of words, abound in sibilants and soft palatine consonants. They have these letters in several instances in which cognate words in other languages have in the place of them gutturals, or hard palatines, or dentals. n. The Greek substitutes for the sibilants and soft palatines of the Sanscrit chiefly the lenues of the hard palatine or guttural class and of the dental, namely, k and r. In several instances the Greek, particular- ly the ^olic, has n in the place of the Sanscrit soft palatine, or eh ; as in TTEfiire for pancha, ireavpa (neTvpa 1 ) for ehatur. III. The Welsh makes nearly the same substitutions as the .^olic Greek. It puts p for the soft palatine ch in the instances before men- tioned. It substitutes more generally hard palatines or gutturals (either c, i. e., k, or ch) for the soft palatines and sibilants of the Sanscrit. It has the aspirate guttural ch instead of the aspirate sibilant sh. It has th in the place of ct and pt. IV. The Erse substitutes for the sibilants and soft palatines of the Sanscrit, gutturals, as the hard c or k, as also in some instances the gut- tural aspirate ch. 1. Pricbard, I. e. NUMERALS. 243 V. The Latin displays nearly the same phenomena as the Erse. It puts c or q, equivalent to k, in the place of the letters above mentioned. Neither the Erse nor the Latin adopts the p of the Welsh and ^-Eolic Greek, but they have c or j instead of it, as in other instances where the Sanscrit has ch. VL The Gothic and other Teutonic dialects resemble the Welsh and the ^■Eolic Greek, except in the circumstance that they prefer aspirate consonants, as finfc for tte/xtte or pump ; fidwor for pcdwar or nirvp ; thri for tri. They hkewise substitute the simple h in the place of palatines and sibilants in other languages, as may be seen in a variety of instances, as in the numerals, 6, 8, 9, 10, 100. The Persic and the Greek lan- guages use the aspirate in some instances in a similar manner. More Specio.l Analogies in the Cardinal Numbers. 1. I. In designating the number one a great diversity prevails among the Indo-Germanic tongues, owing to the circumstance of pronouns of the third person being employed to express it, and the wide scope thus af- forded by the early richness of their forms. II. The Sanscrit eka, the comparative of which we have reappearing in Greek in the form SKuTspog, appears to have arisen from the joining of the demonstrative stem e with the interrogative ka ; which same ka unites likewise with api, " also," forming kopi, " any one," " whosoever." III. The Gothic ain's, from the theme aina, the same as the Ger- man ciner, connects itself in origin with the Sanscrit defective pronoun ena, " this one." To this same pronominal stem we may trace the old Latin form oinos, the accusative of which, oinom, appears in the inscrip- tion found in the tomb of the Scipios. From this oinos comes the later unus, by the common change of the old o into u, with a lengthening of the vowel at the same time, in order to compensate for the i which is thrown out. IV. Besides the analogy pointed out in the preceding paragraph, the Latin unus also shows a surprising resemblance to the Sanscrit una-s, which properly signifies " less" (compare the German wen-ig, " little ;" wen-iger, " less"), and is placed before higher numbers in order to ex- press diminution by unity ; as, una-vinsati, " nineteen," in Latin unde- viginti ; una-lrinsat, " twenty-nine," in Latin undctrigintd, &c. V. The Greek ev connects itself very probably with this same Sanscrit ena, and has lost its final vowel, like the Gothic aina, in the nominative masculine, namely, ain's. The Greek olo^, " alone," in Latin unicus, comes in all likelihood from an old form oti^of, analogous to the old Latin oinus. 244 NUMERALS. 2. I. The theme in Sanscrit is dwa, which is naturally inflected with the dual endings. The Gothic has in place of this tica, and as it dispenses with a dual, it inflects this theme like a plural, Nom. twai, twos, twa ; Dat. twaim ; Accus. twans, thwos, twa. With twai the form bai, " both," connects itself from the root ha. Dat. laim; Accus. hans. Tliis ba is supposed to come from the Sanscrit ubha, stem oho. II. In Greek and Latin, dvcj, dm, and duo, have changed the old w into M, but have not parted with the end-vowel of the stem ; 6vu agrees with the masculine dwa, found in the Vedas. In Sanscrit, the a of dioa becomes weakened into i at the beginning of compounds ; as, divimdtri, " having two mothers." The Greek, where such a form as dFi is im- possible, employs 61 ; as, difiiircjp. The Zend and Latin agree very re- markably in altering this dwi, since they throw away the d, and change w into 6 by a hardening pronunciation. Hence we have in Zend bipaitis- tana, and in Latin biceps, bidcns, &lc. III. In old Norse we find swar, which appears in tkriswar, "three times," and with which is connected the syllable ce, in the English tivice, thrice, &c. This swar may be traced to var, which corresponds to the Sanscrit vara, and this latter indicates " time." Thus we have ekavdra, "once," and vdramvdram, "repeatedly." Now from vara comes the Persian bar, also referring to time; as, bar-i, "once;" and from this same source, in all probability, is derived the Latin termination her, ap- pended to the names of months ; as, Septem-ber, &c., meaning literally the seventh time-portion of the year ; Octo-hcr, the eighth ; Novem-ber, the ninth, &c. 3. I. The theme in Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and Slavonic is tri, for which we have in Zend and Gothic thri. II. The declension of this theme is in most of these languages quite regular, except that in Gothic, on account of the word being a mono- syllable, the i before the vowel-ending does not disappear, but becomes ij, and hence we have the genitive thrij-e, and nominative neuter thrij-a. III. The Sanscrit and Zend, however, have, the former tri, the lat- ter thri, only as a designation for the masculine and neuter. In the feminine they employ the Sanscrit tisras for tisaras, from the root iisar, and the Zend tisaro. 4. I. The Sanscrit feminine theme is chatasar, which follows the analogy of tisar mentioned in the preceding paragraph, and the resemblance be- NUMERALS. 245 tween the two is so striking as to lead rs at once to the supposition that chatasar is formed from tisar (itself a weakening of lasar) by the addi- tion of the particle cha, "and." Viewing tasar as identical with the demonstrative stem in Sanscrit, we may obtain a glimpse of the earliest and most natural mode of counting ; namely, it, this, that, and-this, &c. II. The Gothic fidcor connects itself with the Sanscrit cAa/r«r by the ordinary change of consonants. This form chatvdr is the stronger, and chalur the weaker, one in Sanscrit. The Lithuanian keturi may also be compared with the same ; but still more clearly the Latin quatuor (i. e., chaivor). The Greek TerTap-e^ (riaoap-eg) connects itself with the Sans- crit chatvdr-as, the nominative masculine of chatvdr. In Pali the form is cha/ldr-6, and both this and the Greek TETTapeg gain the second t by assimilation. III. The Zend converts the softer form chalur into chathru at the beginning of compounds, which agrees in a very striking manner with the Latin qitadru in quadrupes, quadruplcx, &c. IV. The adverbial s, by which are formed in Sanscrit dwis, " twice," tris, "thrice," is dropped in chatur, "four times," for chaturs. The Latin drops the s in both three and four ; as, ter, quater. 5. I. The Sanscrit-Zend panchan is the theme, and the genders were not distinguished in this and the following numerals. Moreover, we have the nominative, accusative, and vocative always in the singular neuter form, whereas the other cases show plural endings ; as, genitive panchdndm, in Zend panchananm. This irregularity in inflection pre- pares us for a total want of it in the Greek nevre and Latin quinque. II. It is also worthy of remark, that the final nasal in panchan appears in none of the sister European tongues, whereas the n of saptan, 7tavan, and dasan is found also m Lithuanian and Gothic. The final n in the Sanscrit and Zend numerals was properly a later addition, and the origi- nal termination would seem to have been cha, " and," which occurred as a prefix in the case of the number four in Sanscrit. Analogous to this are both the Latin quinque, ending with qzie, " atid ;" and the Greek nevTE, ending with the enclitic re. In pan-cha, therefore, the root pan will be euphonic for pam, and the final m.will be the neuter case-sign, while pa, as a pronoun, will be identical with ka, to which we have re- ferred in our remarks on the numeral one. This interchange of p and k has already been alluded to, and we niay compare the old Latin form pidpid for quidqnid, as well as iroloQ for Kolog, &c. III. From what has been premised, it would appear that the numeral five, when traced to its origin, meant, " and one," indicating the one, X2 246 NUMERALS. namely, which, on being added to four, made up the number five. We may, however, derive fanchan at once from the Sanscrit jiani, " the hand," and malce the term refer to the number of the fingers on the hand, just as the v/otd finger is to be traced, through the Gothic _^^ots (i. e., fingrs) to the numeral filnf, i. c.,fimf, " five." 6. I. For the Sanscrit shasJt, the Zend has cswas, and it is highly probable, inasmuch as sh does not properly commence a syllable in Sanscrit, but requires a A to precede it, that the original form in this latter language was kshash. II. In Latin, Greek, and German the guttural appears to have been inverted, and hence we have in Latin sex, evidently inverted from xes. 7. I. The Zend has haptan, which closely resembles the Greek form ; the Lithuanian, on the other hand, has septyni, and the Slavonic sedmi. The m in seplem and sedmi appears to have come in from the ordinal number, which in Sanscrit is saptama, nom. masc. saptama-s, and in Slavonic scdmyi. The same remark will apply to osmi, " eight," and to the Latin novem and decern, in Sanscrit navama-s, dasama-s, " ninth" and " tenth." II. It is not probable that the final n of the Sanscrit cardinal forms changes to m in seplem, &c. The change of m to n is very frequent, especially at the end of words, in which case it becomes in Greek a ne- cessary alteration. But the change from w to m is hardly ever met with. 8. The termination au in asht-au reminds us very strongly of the av in the Latin octav-us, of the oY in the Greek uy6oY-o^, for oydoog, and of the ow in the Teutonic dative ahlow-en. I. The Lithuanian has dewyni, the Slavonic devyati. Both of these appear, at first view, altogether different from the forms that occur in the other sister tongues. On a closer inspection, however, we will find that they all agree, the nasal letter being converted in the Lithuanian and Slavonic numerals into the medial, just as we have dpofog in Greek from the same source with the Sanscrit mrita-s, with which compare the Latin mort-uus. II. Etymologists deduce the Sanscrit navan from nava, " new," as indicating a new number after eight ; and they refer, in support of this etymology, to the Latin secundus, " second," from sequor. NUMERALS. 247 10. The Gothic tailmn involves two peculiarities of that language. In the first place, the letters h and r never allow a pure i or u to precede them in Gothic, but always call in the aid of the guna, converting, there- fore, i into ai, and \i into au. In the next place, the old a does not every- where remain unaltered in Gothic, but is frequently, through the influ- ence of a liquid that follows after, converted into u, not only in the radical syllables, but also in endings. 20—100. I. The increase by tens is expressed in Sanscrit by sati, sat, or ti, and in Zend by said, sata, or ti. The words to which these terminations are appended are substantives with singular endings. II. The analogy is very striking in Greek and Latin as regards the termination ti, for which we have tl, ra, ti, la. Thus, Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Latin. 20. vingsuti, visaiti, elKaTL,'^ viginti. 30. Iringsat, thrisata. TpiuKOvra, tngmta. 40. chatvaringsat. chalJavaresata, TeaaapuKovra, quadraginta. 50. panchasat, ■panchasata. ITCVTT/KOVTa, quinquaginta. 60. shashti, csvasti. k^TjKOVTa, sexagvnta. 70. saptati. haptaili, ifnhfir'/KOVTa, septuaginta. 80. asiti. * * * bySorjKOVTa, octoginta. • 90. navati, navaili, evF.vr/K0VTa, nonaginta. 100. sata-m, sate-m. E-naro-v, ccnlu-m. III. The terminations sati, sat, sata, and ti, are shortened from dasati, dasat, and dasqta, which are themselves derivatives from dasan, " ten." To the same dasan are we to trace sata, the theme of sata-m, " a hun- dred," and with this sata-m the Greek Karbv connects itself, for e-Karov is literally " one hundred." So the Latin ccntiL-m points to the same source, and is, moreover, the connecting link for the Gothic hund and old High-German hunt, the k or hard c of centum being expressed by the aspirate. 1. Old form for £i'xoo-i. 248 PRONOUNS. Tabular View of the Ordinal Numbers. Feminine Gender.^ 1st Sanscrit. Zend. Greek (Dor) Latm. Gothic. Lithuanian. prathama I'rathema TTpuTu prima fruma pirma 2d dwitiya. bitya Sevrepd secunda anthara antra 3d tritiya thritya TpiTu tertia thridjo' trecia 4th chaturtha tuirya reTclpTu quarta (fidvord6')2 kelwirta 5lh panchama piigdha nEflTTTU quinta fimfto' penkta 6 th shashtha cstwa acTu sexta saihsto' szeszta Tthlsaptama haptatha tdSofia. septima (sibundo') sekma 8th ashtaina astema oydud octava ahtudo') aszma 9ih navama nauma evvuTd nona niundo' devvinta lOlh da.sain&. dasema ScKUTU decima taihundo' deszimta llth ekadasa aevandasa h 6 EKur a undecima (ainlifio') wienolikta 20th vinsatitama visaititema elKoard |vicesima ***** dwideszimta I. The Latin prima appears to come at once from the Sanscrit prath- ama, by changing a to i and dropping the middle syllable. The pra of prathama points directly to the ^olic ■jrpat for npo, and to the Latin pj-ce. IL The Gothic fruma shows nearly the same analogy to prathama as the Latin prima and the Lithuanian pirma. PRONOUNS. Tabular View of the Personal Pronouns I and Thou. Sinsiilar. Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Lithuanian. Slavonic. g ( aham J \ tuam ^ ( mam, ma ^ ( twam, twa azem hyuv ego ik asz az tum TOW tu thu tu ty manm, ma jXE me mik manen mja thwanm, thwa TE te thuk tavven tja J \ may a ^ ( twaya manimi mnoj u tawimi toboju ('mahyam kjiiv mihi mis man mnje, mi ^ Img me, moi flOl p ] tubhyam TELV tibi thus taw Ithwe, te thwoi, tg, toi TOI /'mat me(d) ^ J mattas -< \ twat EflsdEV thwat te(d) Vtwattas geOev f mama mana fioi mei mema manens mene me, moi ^ 1 tawa tawa TEV tui theina tawens tebe Vtwe, te thwoi, t6, toi u ( mayi 1-3 \ twayi met manije mnje thwahmi tui tawije tebje 1. The feminine gender is selected as showing the different analogies more clearly than the nnascuhne. 2. Supposed Gothic forms, constructed according to the analogy of the old H.-Ger PRONOUNS. 249 Dual. Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Latin. Gothic. LithuaniaD. Slavooic. 1 g I avam 3 \ yuvam rkvkm 6 J nau ^ ^ yuvam Warn vit muddu judu m. va : f. vje ugkjs mudu m. va : f. vje vuc igqwis judu vao a <5 I yusman Vvas *j ( asmabhis ^ ( yushmabhis f asmabhyam ^ j nas p j yushmabhyam Vvas _; ( asmat ^ \ yushmat C asm&kam c J nas ^ I yusmakara Vvas d ( asmisu (3 ( yushmasu Zend. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Lithuanian. Slav. vaem veis u/x/isg nos veis mes my yuschem yus vfifxeg vos yus jus vy afi/xs unsis mus ny no nos vfifie izvis JUS vy vo vos nobis mumis nami vobis jumls vami afifii (v) unsis mumus nam no nobis nam yusmaeibya Vfl/Il (v) vobis nobis IZVIS jumus vam vam yusmat vobis ahmakem u/i/xiuv unsara musu nas no nostri yusmakem vnjieuv izvara jusu vas v6 vestri mususe jususe nas vas 1 250 PRONOUNS. Remarks. I. The Indo- Germanic tongues all agree, after a remarkable manner, in forming the nominative singular of the pronoun of the first person from a theme altogether unlike that whence the oblique cases are deduced. The am in aham is only a termmation, as in twain, and in the European languages, with the exception of the Greek and Latin, all traces of this ending disappear. In ^Eolic Greek we have lyuv, which comes nearer the Sanscrit than the later form syu. In the pronoun of the second per- son, all the European tongues, including the regular Greek and the Latin, drop the ending am. It occurs, however, in dialective varieties, such as the Boeotian romi, and the Doric and Laconic tvvt] and tow?}, where traces of the ain are very apparent. II. The oblique cases have in Sanscrit ma for the theme of the pro- noun of the first person, and twa for that of the second. These themes in some cases coalesce with an i, and become me and twe. With the stem ma the Greek stem MO connects itself, and forms the basis of the genitive iiou and dative jnoi. The £ in EMO arises from the strong ten- dency in Greek to prefix a vowel to stems beginning with a consonant ; as, for example, in ovofia, oSovCt ofpvg, tvlajiV) where in Sanscrit we have nama, danta-s, bhru-s, laghu-s. In MO or 'EMO, the o interchanges with e, and hence we have kfielo, k/nedsv, for kfioio, tfio-dev (compare TTodev, uXXo-Oev, and the like), as also ijiio for kiioo, and hjiEv, fieij, for e/iov, /lov. In the jEolo-Doric forms £/z£(}f, ifiovc, the a is a later ad- dition (as in Tei'C, Tcovg) and was brought in as a characteristic of the genitive, after the old genitive sign s, which in the o-declension stood not at the end, but in the middle (compare toIo for tooio), had complete- ly disappeared. III. The theme of the pronoun of the second person, namely, twa, as- sumes in Greek two forms, according as the a or w is dropped. In the former case we have 2T, in the latter 20, and the o is interchanged with e in aeio, aidev, and the like. IV. The Gothic weakens the a in ma to an i, and contracts the va ot tva to M, whence arise the two themes MI and THU. The Latin, like the Gothic, shows the a of ma weakened to i, and hence wc have mi-hi in the dative, where in Sanscrit we find 7na-hyam. The accusative me is for mem, as hoste-m, from the theme Jiosti, and the ablative me is for med, like the Sanscrit mat. The genitive mci is connected with the locative may-i (euphonic for mi-i) in Sanscrit. From the form mei we would expect, by analogy, some such a form for the genitive of tu as tvei, from the Sanscrit tvay-i, but euphony changes the v after a con- sonant into u, and at the same time rejects the vowel that follows, aud PRONOUNS. 251 hence we have tui. The analogy between ti-bi and the Sanscrit tu-bhyam is too striking to need any comment. V. In almost all the Indo- Germanic tongues the nominative plural of the pronoun of the first person comes from a stem altogether unlike that of the singular, for the idea expressed by the personal pronoun I is not susceptible, strictly speaking, of plurality, since there is but one I, where- as the term we indicates merely one's self along imth others. In the Vedas we find the form asnie as a nominative plural, instead of the more usual Sanscrit vayam. This asme comes from a theme asma, out of which last all the oblique cases in ordinary Sanscrit are formed ; and with tlie theme asma the JEo\\c ufifieg, by assimilation for m/ieg, closely connects itself, just as we have kfin'c, by assimilation for EG/xi, connecting itself with the Sanscrit asmi, " I am." The forms vfieic, vftsk, on the other hand, presuppose such themes as v/ii, vfii, where the weak i takes the place of the Sanscrit final a. From stems in i are also to be deduced the genitives a/i/is-uv, vfi^e-uv, for ufifii-uv, vfi/il-uv, and the datives i/fiiv, v/ilv, for rjfj.i-i.v, v/ii-iv. The accusative ?i/iuc, vfiag, become in ^olic uftfiE, vfi/x£, which later forms connect themselves at once with the San- scrit, asmdn, ynshmdn (for asma-ns, yushma-ns), by a rejection of the case-suffix. i VI. It will be seen by an examination of the table, that in Sanscrit nas and vas appear in the accusative, dative, and genitive. This cir- cumstance shows conclusively that the s cannot be a case-sign, and hence, reasoning from the analogy afforded by the Zend, we may regard nas and vas in the accusative as abbreviated from nasmdn and vasmdn, and in the dative and genitive from nasmabhyam, nasmakam ; vasmabhy- am, vasmakam. After removing the residue of each of these forms, we have na and va remaining as the chief element in either case of person- al designation, and from these latter come the dual forms ndu and vdm (for vS.u). VII. The principle on which nas and vas were sought to be explained in the preceding paragraph may also be extended to the Latin. The stems na and va would lead us to expect in this language such themes as nu and vu (no and to), as also ni and vi for plural nominatives, and nos and vos for accusatives. But we find nos and vos already appearing m the nominative, and the final s maintaining its ground even in the pos- sessives nos-ter, ves-ter (for vos-ter). Hence the os in nos and vos can- not well be explained in the same way as the os, for example, in Ivpos, and we must therefore regard these two words, like the Sanscrit nas and vas, in the light of abbreviations or curtailments from some more extend- ed form, in which, very probably, the pronoun sma appeared. It is very singular that we actually find traces of such a form in the syllable met 252 PRONOUNS. appended to various pronouns, as egmnet, memet, tumet, nosmet, vosmet, &,c., and this met connects itself readily with sinat the ablative, from which we pass at once to the Sanscrit ablative plural, a-smat, yu-shmat. Now, as this last-mentioned case is employed also by the Sanscrit gram- marians as a species of ground-form for all cases and numbers, we may easily account for the free employment of met in the Latin tongue. VIII. The Greek dual has N£2 and Si2 as themes for the pronouns of the first and second person, and from these conic vui. and cr^ut. The peculiar form of vC)i and a(fC)i, as duals, has led to the supposition that the i is a weakening of the a which originally formed the dual-ending of the masculine and feminine, and which a, in the ordinary declension, was changed to e. Tabular View of the Pronoun of the Third Person. Singular. Pramt. Zend. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Lithuanian. Slavonic. Ace. ff9£, f. se, sik, sawen, sja. Inst. Dat. se, hfi, hoi, ol, sibi. sis, sawimi, saw. soboju. sebje, si. Gen. sd, he, hoi, ov, sui, sema. sawens. sebe. Loc. sawije. sebje. Reinarks. I. The Sanscrit wants a substantive pronoun of the third person. That it originally possessed one, however, appears evident from the tes- timony of its European sister tongues, and especially from the circum- stance that in Zend he and hoi, and in Pracrit se, were employed as the genitive and dative of the third person for all genders. The theme of this • pronoun in Sanscrit must have been sva, lengthened afterward to sve, like me from ma, and tve from tva. II. The existing form sva has the force of a possessive, and is used not only in the meaning of " his," but also of " mine" and " thine." With this sva-s the Doric (T(;/)6f connects itself, while cr^etf, vei-7ia, svl-s, svi-k. The Lithuanian and Slavonic follow in PRONOUNS. 253 this pronoun the analogy of the second person, and distinguish it from the latter by the initial s for t. They also, like the Latin, Greek, and German, dispense with the nominative, since they use the pronoun re- flexively ; and they employ the singular instead of the plural. Remarks on the Demonstrative Pronouns. I. The stem ta (feminine td) signifies in Sanscrit " he," " this one," " that one." The Zend-form is identical, except that the middle mutes often take the place of the tcnues ; as, for example, in the accusative singular masculine, where for ttm we have dcm, or, more frequently, dim. In Greek and German this pronoun has supplied the place of an article, a part of speech that is wanting in Sanscrit and Zend, as in Latin, Lith- uanian, and Slavonic. n. The stems to, Gothic tha ; feminine rd, ti], Gothic tho, correspond to the Sanscrit-Zend ta and td, with which the Lithuanian demonstrative stem ta, in the nominative masculine tas, feminine ta, is completely identical. The Latin has no demonstrative pronoun from a similar stem which it employs by itself, if we except certain adverbial accusative- forms, as turn, tunc (like hunc), tarn, tan-dem, tam-en, and certain deriv- atives from such a pronominal source ; as, for example, talis, tantus, tot, totidem, toties, totus, &c. A demonstrative, however, of the form here referred to appears in the compound iste, and is declined with it, the first part of the compound, namely, is, being an old unchangeable nominative masculine, the case-sign of which, as if unconscious of its origin, remains also in the oblique cases ; as, istius for ejustius, &c. in. In the nominative singular masculine and feminine the Sanscrit and, in surprising accordance with it, the Gothic, substitute an s for the t, which in Zend becomes an h, and in Greek the rough breathing. Thus we have in Sanscrit sa, sd, tat ; in Gothic, sa, so, thata ; in Zend, ho, hd, tat, and in Greek, 6, 'a, to (the Doric a for ri). The early Latin em- ployed a form in the accusative closely connected with the primitive stem ; namely, sum for cum, and sam for earn, and used also sapsa as a nomi- native for sa-ipsa. There are remains of the old s-form also in the G^eek adverbs ct'ijiEpov and arJTec, though here, since these compounds express an accusative, not a nominative meaning, the Attic rii/iepov, -ijTEg are more in unison with the Sanscrit usage, ta being the general theme, and sa only that of the nominative. It is an anomaly in Greek when the as- pirate takes the place of the ^sound in the nominative plutal also, as ol, a'l. The Doric form is much more accurate, toI, tci, and harmonizes with the usage of the sister tongues. Y 254 PRONOUNS. General Observations on the other Pronouns,. I. The change from a tenuis to a middle mute has already been re- ferred to, and must again be mentioned as playing a very important part in comparative philology. Thus, for example, 66e is not compounded of 6 and dt', as is generally supposed, but the latter part of the word is evidently to be traced to the demonstrative stem to, the vowel changing from o to e, as in the vocative of the o-stem, and also in such accusatives as [li, as, e, &c. In the word ode, therefore, both parts of the compound are of similar origin, and we are reminded of the doubling of the pronoun in Sanscrit, Latin, and other tongues ; as, yd yas, " quicunque ;" yan yam, " quemcunque ;" and in Latin, quisquis, quidquid, sese, &c. n. The principle alluded to in the preceding paragraph is farther il- lustrated by the Sanscrit neuter forms i-dam, " this," and a-das, " that," where the d takes the place of t, just as in the Latin i-dem, qui-dam, &c., the syllables dam, das, &.c., being all traceable to the demonstrative. Examples of a similar kind occur in the Latin dum, dcni-urn, don-ec, den-ique, &c. The adjective totus, on the other hand, retains the t un- altered, and its primitive meaning evidently is, "this and this," i. e., this and the other half, or the " whole." III. The pronominal i-stem, consisting merely of a simple vowel, ex- presses in Greek and Latin the meaning " he," but in Sanscrit and Zend " this one." In the two latter languages it has no declension of its own, but has only left behind certain adverbs, such as, ilas, " from here," " from there ;" itha, " so" (compare the Latin ita), &c. We have also from the same pronominal root i the derivatives itara-s, " the other" (whose accusative ilera-m reminds us at once of the Latin iterum), id,- risa, " such," &c. The Latin is enlarges its theme in many cases by means of a w or an o, in feminines by an a ; the i also is converted into an e, especially before vowels ; hence, as from the verbal root i come eo and eunt, in opposition to is, it, imus, itis. Ham, &c., so from our pro- nominal root come cum, eo, eorum, eos, and the feminines ea, ecs, earn, earitvi. To the primitive i-type there belong merely is, id, the old forms im, ibus, the genitive and dative e-jus and e-i, and the locative ibi. IV. The stem of the relative pronoun in Sanscrit and Zend is ya, fem- inine yd. The Greek 6f, TJ, 6, converts the initial y into an aspirate, a change that often occurs ; as in vfid^, for yushme ; a^u, from yag, " to revere," &c.* V. The interrogative stem in Sanscrit, Zend, and Lithuanian is KA, from which came the Greek interrogative stem KO. This latter was preserved by the Ionic dialect, but was converted in the others, from the ease with which gutturals and labials are interchanged, into IIO. PRONOUNS. 255 The actual declension, however, of this KO or IIO was superseded by rtf, and we have therefore remaining of it only certain adverbs and de- rivatives ; as, KOTE, TTore ; Kug, Trwf ; Korepov, noTepov (compare the Sanscrit kataras, " which of the two") ; Koaog, noaog ; koioc, Tiolog ; all which point clearly enough to the existence, at one period, of such a form as KOf, ki), k6. This interrogative stem afibrds a basis, also, for those cases of the Latin interrogative and relative which belong to the second declension, namely, quod (compare the Zend kat), quo, and, in the plural, qui, quorum, quos. The neuter plural qucs deviates from an- alogy, and ought to be qua. It is possible, however, that this qucE may be the remains of an old dual, subsequently received as a plural, since it agrees precisely with the Sanscrit ke. The Latin feminine has, in its different cases, a Sanscrit-Zend feminine stem for its basis, namely, kd, and hence we compare quam with the Sanscrit kdm ; quarum with kd- sdm ; quas with kds. VL The Gothic changes the k of the interrogative stem to an h, and as the gutturals are fond of uniting in this language with a v, it places this last-mentioned letter after the h, making thus HVA out of KA, and HVO out of kd. The Latin, like the Gothic, loves to place a euphonic V after the gutturals, and hence the Latin QVO corresponds to HVA, iu its departure from the Sanscrit KA ; and so also aqVa agrees with the Gothic ahva, " a river," just as angVis is related to the Sanscrit ahi-s, " a snake," and the Greek e_;^;^f. VIL The interrogative stem ki also occurs in Sanscrit, from which there appear to have been formed, in this same language, kit, and, before the vocal letters, kid. This reminds us at once of the Latin forms quis and quid. That there existed at one time, in Sanscrit, a masculine nominative kis, analogous to the Latin quis, is proved conclusively by the compound forms mdkis and nakis, which appear in the Vedas, and with the latter of which we may compare the Latin nequis. Vin. The Latin hic appears, notwithstanding its difference of mean- ing, to be derived from the same parent-source as quis and qui. It has the same peculiarity of declension, hu-jus like cu-jus, huic like cui, and, besides, the nominative plural neuter shows a strong analogy to the cor- responding part in quis and qui, namely, qua. The final c in hic appears to be shortened from cc, which remains in hicce (more correctly hice), and is analogous to que, pe, quam, and piam, in quis-que, quip-pe, quiS' quam, quis-piam, all which terminations are nothing more than different forms of the Latin quce. And as these terminations, on being appended as suffixes to the interrogative stem, change its meaning and part with the interrogation, the same thing operates in hic. The earlier form ap- pears to have been cic, cccc, coc, and traces of the initial c still remain in 256 PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. ci-s, ci-tra, just as in ul-tra we have the remains of the opposite pronoun ilk (oUe), deprived of its last syllable. Pronominal Adverbs. I. Locative adverbs are formed in Sanscrit by the suffix tra, which connects itself immediately with the theme ; as, a-ira, " here ;" ta-tra, " there ;" ku-lra, " where 1" &c. To this same source are the Latin ad- verbs ci-tra, ul-tra, to be assigned. Locative pronominal adverbs are formed also in Zend by the suffix dha, which reminds us at once of the Greek termination i?a, in tv&a, ivTav-&a, &c. IL In Sanscrit, by means of the suffix tas, adverbs are formed not only from pronominal stems, but also from substantives and adjectives, and these adverbs denote the removal from one place to another ; sometimes, also, they take the place of the ablative. Analogous to this, in some re- spect, is the Latin termination tus in cccli-tus, " from heaven ;" divini- tus, fundi- tus, &c. The final s appears to have changed to r in igi-tur, and the first part of the word connecting itself with the Sanscrit iha, " here," we have for the primitive meaning of igitur, " from here," i. e., " on these grounds," or " therefore." IIL In Sanscrit the termination tas is sometimes converted into dhas, from which last come the Greek -Qev and the Slavonic du. Thus, Sanscrit. Greek. Slavonic. ku-dhas, ■k6--&ev, ot-kii-du. ta-dhas, To-i?ev, ot-tu-du. ya-dhas, b-'&EV, ju-du-sche. W . The locative adverbs Mc, illic, istic, were originally datives, of whose primitive form we have a trace remaining in ruri. The enclitic c being added to hi (changed from hui), illi, and isti, converted them into adverbs, and at the same time distinguished them from datives. V". Adverbs of time are formed in Sanscrit by the suffix da ; as, kadd, " when ;" tadd, " then ;" ya-dd, " at which time," &c. The Greek ter- mination re, in similar adverbs, appears to be analogous to this ; as, TTore, TOTE, oTE, &.C., and we may also find a trace of the Sanscrit termi- nation in the Latin quan-do. Verb. I. One system of personal terminations belongs to all Sanscrit verbs, and the diflTerences of conjugation which are distinguished by gramma- rians consists in the changes which the verbal roots undergo. The fol- lowing is an example displaying the terminations of the present tense, as they are subjoined to the verbal root tud, " to strike," in Latin tundo. 1. PricharcVs Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 94, seq. VERB. 257 1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person Sing. Tudami, Tudasi, Tudati. Dual. Tudavas, Tudathas, Tudatas. Plur. Tudamas, Tudatha, Tudanti. II. This verb belongs to those classes of roots which insert a vowel a between the theme and the personal endings. Others subjoin these end- ings immediately. The personal endings alone are as follows : 1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person. Sing. -mi, -si, -ti. Dual. -vas, -thas, -tas. Plur. -mas, -tlia, -anti. III. The same terminations belong to the future tenses as to the pres- ent ; but those tenses which have the augment prefixed to the verb have the personal endings, as in Greek, in a more contracted form. The fol- lowing is the first preterit of the verb tudami, corresponding closely to the Greek imperfect : 1*; Person. 2d Person. 3d Person. Sing. Atiidam, Atudas, Atudat. Dual. Atudava, Atudatam, Atudatam. Plur. Atudiima, Atudata, Atiidan. IV. There is another form of the indicative tenses in the active voice, namely, that of the reduplicated preterit, formed by rules nearly the same as those of the perfect in Greek verbs. The reduplicated preterit of the verb tud or tudami is as follows, and will remind us at once of the Latin tutudi. \st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person. Sing. Tutoda, Tutoditha, Tutoda. Dual. Tutudlva, Tutudalhus, Tutudatus. Plur. Tutudima, Tutiida, Tutudus. v. The following examples are from another verb, lagdmi, "to say," with the corresponding forms of the Greek verb }.ejcj following immedi- ately after. Present. 1st Person. 2d Person. 3d Person. Sing. Lagfimi, ) Lagasi, ) Lagati, ) keytJ, ) Xeysic, J /ieyei. ^ Dual. ' Lagavas, ) Lagathas, ) T.agatas, > ) Ih/ETov, S TiiyeTov. > Plur. Lagamas, ) Lagalha, ) Laganti, ^ MyojiEV, 5 Myere, ) leyovri, ^ Doric. ) Y2 258 VERB. Augmented Preterit. 1st Person. 2d Person. Sing. Dual. Plur. Sing. Dual. Plur. Alagam, eXeyov, ', Alagava, Alagama, E?iEyOfJ.€V :\ Alagas, > sXeyec, J Alagatam, ) i?.ByETOV, ) Alagata, ) tXiyere, J Reduplicated Preterit. 1st Person. 2d Person. Lalagitha, 'Ke^.exO'TOv Lalaga, "keXEXO-TE, \\ Sing. Plur. Sing. 2d Per. Laga UyE, Lalaga, ) Lalagiva, ) Lalaglma, \ "kEMxafiEV, \ Potential Mood, Present, \st Person. 2d Person. Lageam, ) Lage, ) MyoLfj-L, \ XiyoLQ, \ Lagema, ) Lagete, ) MyoiiiEv, ) TieyoLTE, \ Imperative. 3i Per. 2d Per. Lagatu, \ Plur. Lagata, ) TieyETE, ) 5d Person. Alagat, ) E?lEyE. ) Alagatam, ) iXeyeTTjv. > Alagan, ) sXsyov. ) 3d Person. Lalaga, ) Lalagltus, Lalagus, > ^.E^Exaoi. 5 3d Person. Laget, TiEyoL. Lageyuh TiEyouv. ) Lagatu, ) 5 Tt^Eyiru. J Zd Per. Lagantu, \ 7\-EyovTuv, > Attic, &c. J VL The Sanscrit infinitive is preserved in the first supine of the Latin verb ; as, falitum, " alitum ;" sanitum, " cinciwm" (old form " cingi- tum"). Vn. The present participle of the masculine gender is closely analo- gous to that of the Greek and Latin ; as, Sing. Plur. Nom. Lagan Aeyuv legens l\ Gen. Lagatah, j MyovTog, > legentis, Bat. Lagate TiEyOVTL legenti Ace. Lagantam, T^eyovra, legentem, N. and A. Lagantas, TieyovTEr^ legentes, 1 Gen. Lagatam, ?iiy6vTo)v legentium im, J Lagadbiah, ^ ■uv, > Tieyovai,, > ium, J legentibus, J VERB. 259 VIII. The present participle of the middle and passive voices is also nearly the same in Sanscrit and Greek ; as, Lagamanas, > Lagamanah, ) Lagamanam, ) 7i.Ey6iJ.Evog, \ lEyofiivr], 5 lEybjievov . ) And the Sanscrit past participle has been preserved in Latin ; as, Lagatas, ) Lagatah, ) Lagatam, > legaius, ^ Icgata, ^ kgatum. ) Verb AsMi, " I am," and its cognates. Present. 1. In Sanscrit. 1st Per. 2d Per. 3d Per. Sing. asmi, asi, asti. Plur. smah or ) stha, smus, 5 santi. 2. In Greek (old forms). Sing. Efific, kaal, iari. Plur. ElfiEC, EGTE, 3. In Latin. ivTi. Sing. esum or ) es, sum, J est. Plur. sumus, estis, 4. Li Persian. sunt. Sing. am, iy, est. Plur. im, id, 5. In Slavonian. end. Sing. yesm', yesi, yest. Plur. yesmi, ycste, sut' for jesut' \ 6. In Lithuanian. Sing. esmi, essi. esti. Plur. esme, este, 7. In Gothic. esti. Sing. 'im, is, ist. Plur. siyum, siyuth, Remarks.^ sind. I. It is at once evident that all these are slight modiiications of tho same element, conjugated by means of the same suffi.xes. The variation 1. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 164. 260 VERB. between the different languages does not exceed such as exists between proximate dialects of the same speech. II. The imperfect tense is not to be traced with so much regularity. It is in Sanscrit as follows : Sing. asam, asis, asit. Plur. asma, asta, asan. In Latin, esam was probably the old form of eram, since s was often changed into r, and esam would regularly form esscm in the subjunctive, which is actually found. Thus, Sing. esam, esas, esat. Plur. esamus, esatis, esant. III. The second form of the verb, in the arrangement adopted by the Sanscrit grammarians, is the potential. The potential form of the verb asmi bears a strong analogy to the old potential stem in Latin, and also to the Gothic potential. Thus we have, Singular. Sanscrit. syam, syas, syat. Latin. siem, sies. siet. Gothic. siyan,! siyais, Plural. siyat. Sanscrit. syama, syata, syus. Latin. siemus, sietis, sient. Gothic. siyaima, siyaith, siyaii IV. It may be observed that all these words have lost the initial vowel a or e, and that, if it were restored, the preceding forms would bear a near analogy to eoaL/ii, which, though not extant, would be a regular de- rivative from eao/iai. V. The Sanscrit verb asmi has no future, but it has been conjectured, with great probability, that syami, the adjunct by which a future tense is formed in attributive verbs, is, in fact, only the obsolete future of the verb asmi. A fact strongly favouring this hypothesis is, that a tense of this verb exists in Sanscrit, and is recognised as such, which is only used in forming the preterperfect tense of certain verbs. 'Asa, dsitha, dsa, is termed the third preterit or aorist of asmi. It is joined with karaydm, from the verb karomi, " facio," " creo," and forms kdraydmdsa, " fecit," " creavit." VI. There is only one other tense of the verb asmi, which is the im- perative. It is as follows : I. Erroneously considered by Hickes a future tense. VERB. 261 Sing. asani, aidhi, astu, Plur. asanya, sta, santu. Compare astu with laru, esto ; sta with €Ote, cstc, and santu with simto. The second person aidhi bears a strong analogy to some of the modifi- cations of the verb substantive in Celtic. VII. There is also in Sanscrit the verb bhavami, from the root bhu, allied to the old Latin verb fuo, and in the sense of oriri, nasci. With this may be compared the Greek (bvu, and the verb lo be in English, to- gether with the Celtic bydh, the Russian budu, and the Persian budemi. The Sanscrit has preserved the whole of bhavami, whereas the cognate verbs are defective in most other tongues. Remarks on the Endings of Verbs. First Person. I. The characteristic of the first person, in its original shape, is m in Sanscrit as well for the plural as the singular. In the first person dual, however, this m changes to a v. II. The full expression of the ending of the first person singular, in the active voice, is mi, and this is found in all Sanscrit verbs without distinction. In Greek, however, the number of verbs in fu is compara- tively small, being only about 200. The rest of the Greek verbs have entirely suppressed this ending, and their final w, as well as the Latin o of all conjugations, answers to the Sanscrit a, which a, in such forms as bodh-d-mi, tud-d-mi, &c., belongs neither to the root nor the personal ending, but characterizes merely the class to which the verb belongs. When this consists of a short a, or of a syllable ending in a, this a is length- ened before m and v ii a. vowel follow, and hence we have bodh-d-mi, bodh-d-vas, bodh-d-mas, but bodh-d-si, bodh-d-ti, bod-d-nli, &c. III. The Greek takes no part in this lengthening of the vowel, but gives TEpir-o-jisv as corresponding to the Sanscrit tarp-d-mas. In the singular, however, the form Tip-n-u-fu, answering to tarp-d-mi, may per- haps have existed ; and, if so, it is very probable that the w became short- ened in the passive and middle voices by reason of the greater stress that was laid on the ending of the verb. IV. The passive and middle ending in fiat clearly shows that all verbs in Greek had originally fit as the termination of the first person active, iox fiai arises from [ii, just as aai, rat, vrat, do from ai, tl, vtc, and no TepTTo/xai. could ever have come into the language except from a repKufic or TEpnojj.1. V. We have, in what has just been said, a remarkable conlinuation of the fact that the different members of the great family of languages mu- 262 VERB. tually illustrate and complete each other, since the richest of them have not reached us in a perfect state. While the ending fiai still remains firm in the modern Greek passive, the corresponding Sanscrit form lay already in ruins at the early period when the Vedas were composed ; while, on the other hand, Homer employs but seldom the form in /xc, out of which have arisen his numerous present and future forms in fiai, although it is universal in Sanscrit, and is even employed at the present day in many Lithuanian verbs ; such as esmi, " I am ;" dumi, " I give ;" eimi, " I go ;" demi, " I place," &c. VI. It has been already remarked, that those tenses of the Sanscrit which have the augment prefixed to the verb have the personal endmgs, as in Greek, in a more contracted form. With these the ending mi be- comes merely m, and this curtailed termination changes in Greek, by the laws of euphony, to v. Thus we may compare the Sanscrit atarp-a-m with the Greek IrepTz-o-v ; adadd-m with kdidu-v ; and add-m with klu-v. So, again, dad-yam is analogous to 6l6o-t,7}v, and de-yam to So-ltjv. In the first aorist active the Greek has lost entirely the characteristic of the person ; as, edei^a, whereas in Sanscrit we have adiksam. The earlier form 'idei^av, of the first person, appears to have come from a still older one, eSei^afi, as is indicated by the first aorist middle, kSei^u/i-riv. VII. The Latin, on the other hand, shows a strong attachment to the ending in m; as, amabam, amem, amarem, dtc, all which point to the existence, at one period of the language, of verbs in mi. Traces of the m termination in the present tense are still found in sum and inquam, the original forms of *hich were, undoubtedly, sumi and hiquami. VIII. As regards the origin of the ending for the first person, it may be remarked that mi is, in all probability, weakened from ma, which lat- ter form is, in Sanscrit and Zend, the theme of the oblique cases of the personal pronoun. Hence the syllable ml, in dadd-mi, bears the same analogy to ma that the i in cin, in the termination of the Latin tubi-cin, does to the a in the true form of the root, can, from ca7io. The change from mi to m is a still farther weakening, and would seem to have been occasioned by the stress of the voice, laid, in pronouncing, upon the aug- ment or initial syllable. IX. The Sanscrit ending mas, in the first person plural, connects itself at once with the Latin mus ; as, ama-mus, amaba-mus, &c., and also with the old Greek termination /zsf, for ^ev ; as, (jiepo-fiec, dido-fxe^, lara- ueg, for (pipo-/iev, 6i6o-/j.ev ; lara-fiev. This plural ending in mas is equivalent to m-as, where m indicates the pronominal stem, and as the plural ending. X. In the dual the Sanscrit vas becomes va in the augmented tenses, in analogy with the plural endings mas and ma. This v, in the dual, is VERB. 263 a softening from m, and the change must have taken place at an early period, since the same peculiarity in the dual ending may be traced in the Gothic, Slavonic, and Lithuanian. Second Person. I. The Sanscrit pronominal stem tva or tve assumes different forms in Its combination with verbal themes. The t either remains unaltered, or else becomes th or dh ; or, like the Greek av, is converted into an s. The V, moreover, either remains or is dropped ; while the a is retained unaltered, or is weakened to i, or else entirely disappears. The pronom- inal form appears fullest in the middle voice, since this part of the verb loves the weightier endings, and therefore avoids, more than any other, the curtailing of the pronouns. II. The full ending of the second person present of the dual is tlias, and in the plural iha. But there are strong reasons for believing that the second person plural originally ended in thus, and that from this arose the dual ending thds ; and, farther, that in the course of time thas of the plural dropped its *, and thds of the dual its long vowel. On the suppo- sition that the second person plural ended originally in thds, we can readily see the analogy of the Latin tis, as well as the correctness of Thiersch's remark in relation to the hiatus, namely, that for the ending T£ in Homer, in the second person plural, we ought to read reg, from the analogy of /leg for fiev in the first person. III. The Lithuanian has preserved the ending si of the second person singular, in common with the Greek, only in the substantive verb, where es-si and the Doric kc-ai show clearly their common lineage. In the case of other verbs, however, the two languages part company, the Lithuanian everywheie retaining the i but parting with the s, the Greek pursuing a directly opposite course. The Latin and Gothic agi-ee with the Greek. Hence we may compare the Lithuanian dud'-i with the Sanscrit dadd-si, the Slavonic da-si, the Greek 6l6u-c, the Latin da-s, the Gothic vigi-s. With regard to Greek verbs in w, it would seem that the t of cc, after having been dropped, has gone back and united itself to the preceding syllable ; and as, for example, yeviretpa comes from ycvETipia, and jie- ?Miva from ixe?Mvia, fiei^uv from fxe^iuv, x^'P'^'^ from x^P'^'^v, u/ieivuv from afiEviuv, so also TspTv-ei-g is formed from rep-rt-e-ai, corresponding to the Sanscrit tarp-d-si. IV. We find also in Sanscrit two other endings of the second person, dhi and tha, the former appearing in the imperative, the latter in the re- duplicated preterit. The first of these, namely, dhi, reminds us of the termination i9t in Greek imperatives ; as, la--&c, KEKpax-'&i, uvo>x-'&i; (j>d--&i, &.C. The second presents, at first view, a striking analogy to 264 VERB. the Greek terii».ination -Sa, but it is in reality a deceptive one, since ■& on other occasions corresponds to the Sanscrit dh, and arises from the influ- ence of the preceding a, just as, in the passive and middle, all the active personal endings in r become ■& by the influence of the g preceding. V. The Sanscrit tha will remind us then of the Greek i?a, although these two terminations are not in fact identical, since the Greek ■&a comes from dha, and the d has been converted into a i^ by the influence of a preceding c, just as the r of the active personal endings is converted into ■& in the passive and middle by the insertion of a. The a of the active voice, however, belongs to the root, and hence we must divide as follows : Tjc-^a, ola-'&a (for oid-d-a). VI. In Latin the termination sli corresponds to the Sanscrit ending tha, the a being weakened to an i, and an * being inserted before the t, the aspirate also disappearing. Thus we may compare the following : Latin. Sanscrit. dedi-sti, dadi-lha. steti-sti, tasthi-tha. momord-isti, mamard-i-lha. tiitud-isti, tutod-i-tha. Third Person. I. The pronominal stem ta has, after the analogy of the first and sec- ond persons, weakened its vowel to an i in the unaugmented tenses, and in the augmented ones has laid it aside entirely. The t, however, in Sanscrit and Zend, undergoes, the termination us excepted, no change whatever, whereas the t of the second person becomes, as we have just seen, t, th, dh, or s. The Greek, on the contrary, retains the t of the third person only in the substantive verb tort, Sanscrit asti, and on other occasions either has at, as in diduai, or el, as in ripTiei. II. The form 6i6uaL resembles more the Sanscrit second person dadd- si than the third person daddti, and it is only distinguished from its own second person diSug by the latter dropping the i. That originally, how- ever, even in the w conjugation, the third person singular ended in ri, is proved by the middle and passive ending rai, since TspnErat bears the same relation to TepTr-e-ri that dichrai. does to dlduri. The form rep- Tret, in fact, arises from the rejection of r, just as ridei comes from rt- deri, 6i6oi from dlSodi, Kepa from niparL, oIkol from oIkoOl, &c. III. In the augmented tenses, on the other hand, the Greek lays aside entirely the T sound, and agrees in this with the Pracrit, the Gothic, and Slavonic ; whereas the Latin retains the t throughout the verb, and in this, as in many other instances, displays far more of an Indian character than the Greek. VERB. 265 IV. For the purpose of making the plural, an n is inserted before the pronominal characteristic. After this n the Gothic places the middle mute d, where other languages have the tenuis t. Hence we may com- pare the Gothic siml with the Sanscrit santi, the Zend hend, the Latin sunt, and the old Greek form (a) evt'l. V. The Sanscrit always inserts an a before an n, miless an a already exist there, from the verbal class or radical syllable. Hence we have tarp-a-nti, like TEpiv-o-vrc ; tisht-a-iiti, like laT-a-VTi., &c. The Greek aai, from avTL, in such forms as dEiKvv-aaL, i-aau, Tids-aai, 6L66-aci, &c., finds here a remarkable support, since it is hardly possible to suppose that these were merely accidental anomalies. For, even if such forms as TiQeavTi, 6i66avTC, lavri, SEiKvvavTt, remain at the present day in none of the Greek dialects, still there can be no doubt but that the a is lengthened in order to supply the place of the rejected v, and that ci is put for n, as everywhere in the third person. VI. Some Sanscrit verbs, on account of the weight^of the reduplication which they receive in vv'hat are called the special tenses, endeavour to lighten their ending, and therefore throw out n from the third person plural, shortening, at the same time, a long a in the root. Hence we have dadd-ti, " they give ;" gahdli, " they leave." There can be no doubt but that, in the earlier state of the language, these forms were dada-nti, ga- ha-nti, and that, therefore, the Doric 6i66-VTi., Tide-vri, &c., give us the primitive forms of the Greek tongue. VII. The Sanscrit verbs, moreover, not merely those of the reduplicated class, but those also of the second conjugation, corresponding to the Greek verbs in /ic, throw away, in the middle voice, the n from the third person plural, in order to give more stress to the personal ending. Thus we have cim-ate for cim-ante. This change has very much the appearance of having taken place after the separation of the different tribes of the hu- man family from their common home. The Greek, for e.xample, preserves the old form, and retains the nasal letter as a badge of the plural, with still more firmness in the middle and passive than in the active, giving not only TipTT-o-vrac for the Sanscrit tarp-a-nte, but also did-o-vrai, tWs- vrai, for the Sanscrit dadalc, gahate, &c. The Greek, however, has found, by another process, the means of lightening the too great weight of the middle ending, by employing merely vrai where we would natu- rally look for avrai ; saying, for example, SeUvv-vrai, and not 6eikvv- avrai, although ihiKvi-aa would lead us to expect this latter form. Vni. The rejection of a from such a form as 6EiKvv-{a)vTai,, is like the dropping of r] from the optative, where, on account of the weight of the personal ending, the passive and middle voices form from Sidoijiv of the active, not didoirjfJiTjv, but didoi/xTjv. The Ionic dialect, however, Aa 266 VERB. has in the third person plural sacrificed the v to the a, and in this respect harmonizes closely with the Sanscrit. Hence we have arai in Ionic, formed from avrai., as in Sanscrit ale from a7ite. IX. The Slavonic changes the nasal in many of its verbs to a short u, and this u, coalescing with a preceding vowel, forms ou or u, so that ve- zut), from vezontj, is surprisingly like the Greek e;(foi;(7<, from exovai for iXovTL. The Bohemian wezau, on the other hand, has preserved the old a of the Sanscrit vah-a-nli and Gothic vig-a-nd, which in the Latin vehunt becomes a u, through the influence of the nasal, in opposition to the i of the other persons {vchis, vehit, &c.). X. In the augmented tenses the final vowel in nfi or ayiti disappears, just as it does from ti, si, mi of the singular ; and with this vowel the person- al characteristic t also disappears, in accordance with a law of euphony, which forbids the union of two consonants at the end of a word. The Greek, which cannot endure a final r, goes on a step farther than the Sanscrit, and removes the t from the thu'd person singular also. Hence we have IrepTV-e answering to atarp-a-t, and, where the resemblance is still more clearly shown, Irepn-o-v agreeing with atarp-a-n (for atarp-a-nt). The Greek aorists, however, which make av in the third person plural, agree better with the Sanscrit form, since the sibilant has preserved the a from being converted into o. Thus we have i6ei^-av, corresponding to the Sanscrit adikshan. XI. In the unaugmented tenses the Sanscrit terminates the dual in tas; in the augmented ones, in tdm. The former of these corresponds to the Greek tov ; as, repn-e-Tov, Sanscrit tarp-a-tas. The other ending, tdm, has divided itself in Greek into the two terminations ttjv and tuv, of which the first is the more prevalent one, while the latter is confined to the imperative. Hence we have ETepn-E-Tijv, corresponding to atarp-a- tam ; edeiK-Ga-Tijv to adik-sha-tdm ; but Tepir-i-Tuv to iarp-a-tam. Hence it follows that the distinction between tov on the one hand, and rrjv, Tuv on the other, in the dual number, is of very early origin, and is not, as Buttmann Supposes, a later formation of the prose language. Four places occur in Homer, it is true, where tov takes the place of ttjv, but in three of these it is occasioned by the metre, and the fourth is, therefore, only a solitary instance. The same remark will apply to the augment, which is not to be viewed merely as a later addition because it is sometimes suppressed in Homer, since it is common, in fact, to both the Greek and the Sanscrit. VERB. 267 Remarks on the Passive and Middle Endings. I. The passive and middle endings distinguish themselves from those of the active by a greater degree of fulness, though the mode of forming them is not the same in all the sister tongues. II. The Sanscrit, Zend, and Greek agree in lengthening out a final {, in the unaugmented tenses, by the insertion of an a, and form, therefore, [lat out of /z£, aai out of crt, rat out of Ti, and in the plural vrai out of VTi. In the Sanscrit and Zend the vowels a and i then coalesce into an e, which answers to the Greek at. III. The Gothic parts with the i out of the diphthong ai, and has, therefore, in the third person, da for dai ; in the second, za (euphonic for so) for zai ; and in the third person plural, 7tda for ndai. The first person singular and the iirst and second persons plural are lost, and were supplied by the third. IV. The Sanscrit and Zend, in both the unaugmented and the aug- mented tenses, parted with the pronominal consonant of the first person singular, and along with it have also lost the a of the verb-class in words of the first conjugation. Hence we find budc for bod-d-me. Compare the followins : Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Gothic. ]. S. hhar-e, bair-e, ^tp-o-fiai, ****»_ 2. S. bhar-a-se, bar-a-he, (pep-e-aai {(ptp- El) bair-a-za. 3. S. bhar-a-le, bar-ai-te, ^sp-e-rai, bair-a-da. 4. P. bhar-a-nte, bar-ai-nte, ^Ep-o-vrai, bair-a-nda V. In the augmented tenses the concluding diphthong ai loses, in Sanscrit and Zend, the vowel i, like the Gothic in the unaugmented ones, and the a which remains appears in Greek as an o. Hence we have £(j)sp-E-To answering to abhar-a-ta in Sanscrit and bar-a-ta in Zend ; and in the plural (:(j>£p-o-vTo answering to abhar-a-nta in Sanscrit and bar-a- nta in Zend. VI. In the second person singular of the augmented tenses, the San- scrit has this where we would expect to find sa ; as, abhod-a-thds. That there was, however, an ending in sa also, is proved by the Greek l6c6o-ao, as opposed to 'tSl6o-To, and likewise by ha in Zend, which ap- pears in places where we would expect sa in Sanscrit, the h in Zend being here substituted for s. VII. The ending thds, of which we have spoken in the preceding par- agraph, affords a curious theme for discussion. It connects itself very evidently with the active ending tha, of which mention has already been made, and is, no doubt, derived from it by lengthening the vowel and appending the sibilant, which would seem to have been added for the 268 VERB. purpose of indicating the second person. Now, if this be so, either the first or the second of the personal nidications irnbodied in iha-s must have been used to designate the individual on whom the action is exerted or for whose advantage it is performed, a meaning inseparably connected with the middle voice. Hence, in the Sanscrit adat-tlid-s, " thou gavest to thyself" (i. e., thou didst take), either th(i stands for " thou," and s indicates " to thyself," or vice versa. If we allow this, and if in the Greek first person the v of the ending iirjv (Doric nuv) be organic, that is, not a later unmeaning appendage, but an expressive element bequeathed by the earliest periods of the language, then hdi^ou-qv properly signifies, " I gave to myself," whether it be that the subjective relation is expressed by iirj (ud) or by the v. To complete the analogy, we may take for the third person the ending ta-t found in the Vedas, and where the person is doubly expressed. Regarding this remarkable ending as a middle one, we have the same resemblance between it and the Greek ending to as in the case of repw-i-Tu and iarp-a-tat, edldu and adaddt, &c. ; and, to make the case still stronger, we may call in the aid of the Bantian inscription, ■where the old Oscan imperatives end in a d, as licicu-d for liceto, estu-d foi csto ; all which would tend to show that the primitive form of the Greek ending to was tot, and that the final r was rejected for euphony. The Sanscrit- Veda ending idt will express the action of the third person upon himself, like the other endings in the case of the first and second persons. VIII. The first person plural in Sanscrit ends in make, but in Zend it terminates in maidhe, from which latter comes evidently the Greek ending /isda, which drops the i like the Gothic forms. IX. The second person dual ends, in the unaugmented tenses, in dike, the third in ate. In the augmented tenses, on the other hand, the second person ends in dthdm, the third in dtdin. There is every reason to sup- pose, however, that these endings were originally tdthe and tdic, tdtliam and tdldm. The initial syllable ta became a in Greek, and the follow- ing t was converted into an aspirate through the influence of the a. Hence arose in this latter language such forms as diSo-a-6ov, tSich-tj-Oov, &c. X. In the Latin verb, the final r of the passive voice would appear to owe its origin to the reflexive pronoun, and to have been changed from s by a favourite principle of conversion. In those persons which end with a consonant, a connecting vowel was necessary, and the u was brought in, probably through the influence of the liquid ; as in amatur, amantur. The imperative forms amalo- r and amanto-r require no connecting vowel. In amamur the s of amamus disappears before the reflexive, and the more readily as it does not express any persona! indication. In amer, on the other hand, the personal characteristic itself is given up, since amemr could not stand, and amcmur was required in the plural for ame- VERB. 269 musr. In amaris, ameris, &.C., we have either a metathesis for amasir, &c., or else the personal characteristic s could not withstand the strong inclination to become an r between two vowels ; and this having taken place, the reriexive preserved unaltered its original s. In the imperative amare the reflexive has preserved its own vowel, and if we change r back again to s, we have in sc the accusative of the simple pronoun. So, also, the old infinitive amarier is nothing more than amarc-cr by metathesis for amarc-re. (i. e., amare-se). XL The form amamini deviates from all analogy, as will readily be perceived, and presents no small degree of difficulty. It is probable that amamini is the nominative plural masculine of a passive participle, and was joined to estis, so that amamini stood originally for amamini estis, as in Greek we have rervfi/XEVOi, elai. The Latin suffix is -minus, and corresponds to the Greek -uevoq and the Sanscrit -mana-s. Now when this participle, forced, as it were, out of its ordinary path, changed to amamini from amaminvs, this amamini, so employed in the second per- son plural, appears to have remained in that person as a kind of unalter- able form, and to have been regarded, in the ordinary usage of the Latin tongue, as having a verbal termination. The consequence was, that the substantive verb was dropped, and amamini became employed for both genders. In support of the opinion that amamcnus was originally a pas- sive participle, we Inay cite the forms alumnus and Vcrtmnnus, w'hich are both evidently of participial origin. So, also, terminus, "what is stepped over ;" femina, " she that bears" (middle participle), the root being fe, whence we have fetus, felura, and fecundus ; and, finally, gcm- ini for genimi, " they who are bom at the same time." XII. But how are we to explain the imperative amaminorl Is the r identical with that in amor, amalor, aman/or 1 The answer must be in the negative, since to express the passive or reflexive meaning here by appending a pronoun would be unnecessary, as the participial suffix has this employment. The best way is to seek for a plural case-ending in amaminor, as we did in amamini. Now it happens, luckily enough, that the Eugubian inscriptions supply us with what we want, for we there find subator for subacli, scrchilor for scripti. This plural ending in or agrees very well with the Sanscrit as {a-\-as) and Gothic vs, where- as the Latin i has forced its way in from the pronominal declension. Still farther, the nominative singular of the second declension masculine, in the Umbrian dialect, ended in o, and we still find orlo for orlus, and subalii for subalus. Now it is very remarkable that we find, in the re- mains of early Latinity, imperatives singular ending in mino ; as, /amino in Festus, and prafamino in Cato. We have also fruimino in an in- scription given by Gruter, "is cum agrum nei habeto nei J'ruimmo." Y2 270 VERB. Here fruhnino indicates the third person, a circumstance which tends very clearly to prove it a participle that may be applied to either person. We have now reached the limit which we had proposed to ourselves in the prosecution of the present inquiry, and cannot but entertain the hope that the result will prove satisfactory to every one who will bestow upon the subject his candid attention. The analogies existing through- out the Indo-Germanic chain of languages are not the mere results of accident. To assert this would be the height of absurdity. 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