LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received *fR ^5 1893 l8g 
 
 ^Accessions No . &1 3 ./ 5L . C/^55 A/b . 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER, 
 
 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
GEamfcrttrge : 
 
 PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. & SON, 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
irtss j»mcs. 
 
 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER, 
 
 AND 
 
 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 TWO LECTURES 
 
 DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE 
 IN THE LENT TERM, 1883, 
 
 BY 
 
 F. W. FARRAR, D.D. 
 
 ARCHDEACON OF WESTMINSTER, 
 
 AND 
 
 . R. B. POOLE, B.D. 
 
 y^"^in Trrt-n^^lS^fcJW OF BEDFORD MODERN SCHOOL. 
 
 UKIVBRSITT] 
 
 ^JFCjCtf (Enmbtfoge 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY ] SS. 
 
 UonDon : C. J. CLAY, M.A. & SON, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE. 
 
 17. PaTULNOSTBI Row. 
 
 1883 
 
 [Ail Right 
 
2-t3 )bl-£ 
 
 F2.4- 
 
 ■51 St 2. 
 
The Lectures contained in this volume are of 
 a similar character to those published by the 
 Cambridge University Press at the beginning of 
 the present year. It is hoped that their appearance 
 in a permanent form may be a welcome contribu- 
 tion to the literature of the Science of Education. 
 
 OSCAR BROWNING. 
 
 Collect, Cambridge, 
 
 May, 1883. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Genual Aims of the Teacher, 
 
 by F. W. Farrar, D.D. 
 
 Form Management, 
 
 hy R. 15. Toole, B.D. 
 
 35 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE 
 TEACHER. 
 
 By CANON FARRAR. 
 
 i i- 
 
'^^ OF THB 
 
 'UIUVBRSIT 
 
 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER 1 . 
 
 If this were meant to be a formal lecture before the Uni- 
 versity, I might well shrink from it, for I have only had a 
 few short fragments of overburdened time to give to it But 
 I assume throughout that I am speaking only — and speak- 
 ing, I might almost say, confidentially — to a small body of 
 young men, who intend to devote their lives to the honour- 
 able labours of the teacher. I have no claim to address you, 
 even thus familiarly and unreservedly, beyond the fact that I 
 was invited to do so. I shall not pretend to speak ex 
 cathedrci, or as though by any work of mine I had earned the 
 smallest right to dogmatize ; but I might almost begin in the 
 words with which Quintilian begins his " Institutio Oratoria," 
 "Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, quae per viginti 
 annos erudiendis juvenibus impenderam." I should, indeed, 
 have to alter the word quietem; for leisure is a thing to which 
 I have bidden a final farewell. But, for twenty years — for 
 twenty years happier than I can hope to see again — I en- 
 joyed the high honour of being first an Assistant-master, and 
 then a Head-master, in great English Public Schools. During 
 that time hundreds of boys have passed under my hands, so 
 
 1 A lecture delivered at Cambridge, March 3, 1883, under the 
 direction of the Teachers' Training Syndicate. 
 
4 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 that I have had a large share in the training of young 
 Englishmen of every age, and of every degree of capacity. 
 When first I left Cambridge, not only before I became a 
 Fellow, but even before the Tripos List was out, I was 
 invited to this work by the offer, from Bishop Cotton, of a 
 Mastership at Marlborough College. I had not been much 
 more than a year at work — sharing the teaching of the Sixth 
 Form with the Head-master — when I was invited to Harrow 
 by Dr Vaughan. There I laboured for fifteen years. At the 
 end of that time I was elected to the Mastership of Marl- 
 borough, and, after nearly six years of ruling a prosperous 
 and happy Public School, I was taken, sorely against my 
 will, to other work, not only of yet deeper anxiety and 
 severer strain, but with none of the sunshine and brightness 
 of the life which, up to that time, God had granted to me. 
 I love, I honour the work of a schoolmaster. I say with 
 Luther, "If God had not sent me to be a preacher of His 
 word, I should choose, before all things, to be a school- 
 master." If, then, you find my advice homely and common- 
 place, as indeed it will be, I will ask you to bear with it as 
 being, at any rate, the fruit of genuine experience. That 
 which is not new may yet, perhaps, acquire a certain novelty 
 and a certain worth, when it represents a fragment of the 
 hard earnings of living experience. In the now distant days 
 when I left Cambridge as a youth, no one ever dreamed of 
 training teachers. The art of teaching was supposed to 
 spring into full-born life, — often, I fear, not until the head 
 of the teacher had been cleft in twain in more ways than 
 one. I do not think that one word had ever been said to 
 me about boys, or the best method of teaching them, or the 
 wisest plans for rendering those methods effective, when, at 
 the age of twenty-two, I first took my seat in the Master's 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 5 
 
 chair. Experietitia docet — "Experience," to repeat the 
 venerable joke of my old Cambridge tutor, "does it." To 
 the teacher, as to all others, experience is the best, if also the 
 sternest, of all instructors ; and no one can supersede the 
 necessity for her often painful lessons. But the pain of 
 sows, at least, of her lessons she does not grudge to remit to 
 those who are humble enough to learn from others, and not 
 to despise the application of truths because they are known 
 to be so very true. 
 
 I. When any of you find yourselves in the position 
 which fell to my lot thirty years ago — the position of being 
 suddenly set down to teach a large form of boys, some of 
 whom are only a few years younger than yourselves ; boys 
 inclined to fun, perhaps even to mischief, perhaps even to 
 turbulence, — almost the first qualification which I should 
 postulate, would be a sense of the importance, the dignity, the 
 sacredness of your task. If a teacher is wholly unimpressed 
 by the sense of this sacredness, — an impression which may 
 remain with him, not as a burden, but as an inspiration even 
 in his lightest hours, — I do not think that he will ever make 
 a perfect teacher. The teacher's hand must always be on 
 the tiller, but, if he would steer aright, his eye must ever be 
 on the directing star. His task is sacred, for two reasons: — 
 one, the transcendent importance of the results which it pro- 
 duces ; the other, the rapidity and intensity of the influences 
 which tend to those results. ' 
 
 i. When the great scholar Muretus was travelling in the 
 disguise of a beggar, he was taken ill at a foreign town. His 
 illness called for some serious operation ; and, talking to 
 each other in Latin, the physicians said, "Fiat experimentum 
 
6 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 in corpore vili." "Vilemne animam appellas" exclaimed 
 the indignant scholar to his startled hearers, "pro qua 
 Christus non est dedignatus mori?" The anecdote tells us 
 why every soul of every child of man is to the Christian 
 sacred, and even of infinite sacredness. But, quite apart 
 from this thought, the vast possibilities which lie in every 
 human soul, should be enough to make the task of its 
 training a solemn and a sacred one. In 1793, when he was 
 expecting every hour to be led off to the guillotine, Dupont 
 de Nemours said, — "Even at this incomprehensible moment, 
 when morality, enlightenment, love of country, all of them 
 only make death at the prison door, or on the scaffold, more 
 certain, — yes, on the fatal tumbril itself, — with nothing free 
 but my voice, I could still cry '■Take care] to a child that 
 should come too near the wheel. Perhaps I may save his 
 life; perhaps he may, one day, save his country." But I 
 think that religious men — men who not only believe in God, 
 but have faith in Him — must feel this more deeply than 
 others, even as religious nations have so felt it. Contrast the 
 neglect of early education and the contempt in which teachers 
 were held among the Greeks and Romans — a neglect and 
 contempt so feelingly portrayed by Juvenal — with the feelings 
 of the Jews, as shown in many passages of the Talmud. In 
 one of these, they tell how once, in a great drought, their 
 greatest Rabbis prayed and wept for rain, and the rain came 
 not. And, at last, a common-looking person got up and 
 prayed to Him who causeth the wind to blow and the rain 
 to descend, and instantly the heavens began to cover them- 
 selves with clouds, and the rain began to fall. "Who art 
 thou," they cried, "whose prayers have alone prevailed?" 
 And he answered, "I am a teacher of little children." Who 
 shall estimate what the world has gained by wise education, 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 7 
 
 and what it has lost by the neglect of it? "Providence," as 
 Victor Hugo says, "entrusts us with a portion of its own 
 functions. God says to man, I confide to thee this child." 
 "All," says Dr Arnold, "who have meditated on the art of 
 governing mankind, have felt that the fate of empires de- 
 pended on the education of youth." "Give me the children," 
 said Cardinal Wiseman, "and in twenty years all England 
 shall be Catholic." "Train a boy well or ill, and of the 
 effects of your training," said Sydney Smith, "you can neither 
 measure the quantity nor perceive the end. It maybe com- 
 municated to children's children; it may last for centuries ; 
 it may be communicated to innumerable individuals." 
 Among the busts of the Roman Emperors at the British 
 Museum, you may see one of a child about six years old. 
 It would be impossible to find a face of more exquisite and 
 winning loveliness. The hair rests in sunny waves about a 
 smooth forehead ; the features are full of mirthful innocence. 
 You wish to see what sort of a man that child became. You 
 anticipate a face full of manly beauty. What you see is a 
 face puffed, bloated, sullen, of which you know not whether 
 it repels you most by its brutal sensuousness, or by its 
 sanguinary ferocity. W T ho had the training of that bright 
 and trustful child? First, a barber and a dancer; then 
 relative! and parents of exceptional infamy. He was the 
 wild beast of the Apocalypse, the Emperor Nero. On the 
 other hand, consider how many have borne testimony to the 
 truth that a child trained in the way wherein he should go, 
 will not depart from it; will not wholly, will not finally de- 
 part from it, — at the worst will not so wholly and so finally 
 depart from it as if he had not been rightly trained. " I 
 Mess God heartily," said Lord Russell on the scaffold, "that 
 1 had the advantage of a religious education; for even when 
 
8 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 I minded it least, it still hung about me and gave me 
 checks." 
 
 2. Then, besides this vast importance of the effects he 
 may produce, no wise and good teacher should ever forget 
 the rapid intense impressions — often, alas ! unconscious, un- 
 intended impressions — which, for good or for evil, he will 
 inevitably produce. Every biography is full of the little 
 things, the apparently infinitesimal trifles, which have guided 
 or moulded human careers. We all know the story of King 
 Alfred and the illuminated missal. Sir W. Jones attributed 
 his learning to his mother's invariable answer to his ques- 
 tions, "Read and you will know." The first impulse which 
 swayed the genius of Vauban, the great engineer of his age, 
 was being shut up in a room which had nothing in it but a 
 clock. "That picture," said Turner, pointing to a mezzotint 
 of Vandervelde, which he had seen as a boy, "made me a 
 painter." Mr Ruskin attributes his art impulses, in no small 
 measure, to his tracing out the patterns of the carpet, when, 
 as a little boy, he had no toys to amuse him. Darwin tells 
 us how the engraving of a tropic scene in one of his books, 
 as a child, ultimately culminated in his accompanying, as a 
 naturalist, the voyage of the Beagle. When we visit Rugby, 
 they show us Arnold's table, with the inscription on it, 
 written by the present Archbishop of Canterbury, "In hac 
 sella Arnoldus literas docebat...Ad virtutis veritatisque 
 amorem, Domini Jesu imitationem, voce, fronte, moribus 
 suos excitabat." I remember, years ago, when Dr Benson, 
 then a Rugby master, showed me the inscription, I told him 
 that the word which struck me most was "fronte" Arnold's 
 very look, the look of a good as well as of a strong and reso- 
 lute man, was an education to his pupils. For this reason 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 9 
 
 I am convinced that no bad man ran ever be a good teacher. 
 Hoys catch the very tones of their Head-masters, and, in 
 examining written answers, you may almost tell what school 
 a Sixth Form boy comes from, if you know his master's 
 handwriting. Teachers have a vaster power in their grasp 
 than any which they can imagine. Humboldt, on the banks 
 of the Orinoco, saw the naked copper-coloured children of 
 the Indians rubbing the shining seeds of the Negretia, and 
 amusing themselves by attracting straws and feathers with 
 them. How little did those Indian children guess, how 
 little did even the wisest ancients know, when they observed 
 the attractive powers of rubbed amber, and called it ijAc*Tpov, 
 that the force which they were eliciting was the same force 
 which crashes in the thunder, and flames in the lightning! 
 and yet that men should soon learn to seize it by its wing of 
 fire, and bid it carry their messages in a moment round the 
 girdled globe; or, with its wild spirit tamed to service of 
 commodity, should make their nightly cities as bright as day! 
 But what is the lightning to the spirit of man? 
 
 " How swift is the glance of the mind ! 
 Compared with the speed of its flight, 
 The tempest itself lags behind, 
 
 And the swift-speeding arrows of light." 
 
 Understand it, train it, direct it rightly, and you shall send 
 it flashing through the generations, flashing over all the 
 world. 
 
 3. Now, in teaching and training, one of your first 
 requisites will be the power of Discipline. It is a curious 
 gift. You cannot by any means always predict who would, 
 or who would not, be likely to possess it. I have known 
 some teachers, very great and very eminent men, who were 
 
10 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 wholly without it. One of these was my dear friend and 
 teacher, Frederic Denison Maurice. You could not meet a 
 truer man, or look on a nobler face. I had the great advan- 
 tage of being for three years his pupil at King's College. 
 We all knew that he was a great man, an honoured man, a 
 deep thinker, — many of us longed to learn from him ; yet, 
 again and again, his lectures at King's College used to be 
 interrupted by childish and brainless disturbances, which 
 either would not have occurred at all, or could have been 
 instantly suppressed by many a graduate of the most com- 
 monplace attainments. Another great man wholly devoid 
 of powers of discipline, was my dear friend and fellow- 
 undergraduate, James Clerk Maxwell. His lectures, when 
 he did lecture to large promiscuous bodies of youths, were 
 often a mere bear-garden, in which he was helpless — strong 
 and great and good as he was — either to control or to teach. 
 The special gift of disciplinary power — such a gift as that 
 possessed by Pestalozzi, who once reduced to order a turbu- 
 lent throng of boys by simply lifting his finger — is very 
 rare ; the total absence of it is also very rare. It is a sort 
 of knack which may be acquired. When authority is firmly, 
 kindly, justly exercised — when the teacher is calm, and 
 without nervousness, and means both to rule and to teach — 
 when he shows from the first the " comitate condita gravitas," 
 he does not often fail. Most men, after a little preliminary 
 experience, become at least moderate disciplinarians. When 
 I first went to Marlborough as an Assistant-master, in 1854, 
 one so utterly inexperienced, and so exceptionally ignorant 
 of boys, and of Public Schools, and indeed of the common- 
 est facts of life, as I was, might well have thought the task 
 very formidable. The school was in the detumescence of a 
 most ruinous rebellion. The first sight which caught my 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. II 
 
 eye was an inscription on the wall in chalk, in foot-long 
 letters, " Bread or Blood." I was told a curious history of 
 some of my boys : — how the temper of one was absolutely 
 ungovernable ; how another had recently bored a hole into a 
 gas-pipe with a red-hot poker ; how* the windows of the 
 common-room used, not long before, to be broken with 
 stones ; how, in one master's form, the boys used to catch 
 mice and let them loose. Moreover, I was put to teach, as 
 none of you will be, in a huge schoolroom, in which some 
 six other large forms were being simultaneously taught. 
 The circumstances were so distracting that, in one of my 
 first letters to a Cambridge friend, I said, that to be a teacher 
 one needed the voice of a Stentor, the hands of a Briareus, 
 and the eyes of an Argus. But I soon found that, if a 
 teacher have but the most moderate powers, he is effectu- 
 ally supported, not only by the natural and inherent good 
 sense and right feeling of his scholars, but also by the 
 routine, the discipline, and the traditions of a great school. 
 I discovered in later days, that when, in a great English 
 Public School, a Head-master turned his head, it was enough 
 to reduce a noisy room to silence. The other day, the 
 schoolroom of a certain great school, on a wintry morning, 
 was a tempest of contagious coughs. Now, nothing is more 
 difficult than to keep down coughing. The Head-master 
 got disturbed ; he simply said, in the quietest possible voice, 
 " Less noise if you please; repress your coughing," — and lo! 
 not one cough was heard again till prayers were over. At 
 Marlborough, as a very young Assistant-master, I had the 
 quite inestimable blessing of a beautiful example. Sur- 
 rounded by difficulties, in a school just out of rebellion/at 
 that time badly fed, and not long before inadequately 
 officered, so crushed with debt that almost the first thing 
 
12 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Bishop Cotton said to me was, " You know this school may 
 disappear any day in blue smoke," — I saw how, by patience, 
 by humour, by tact, by wisdom, by goodness, by fearless 
 courage, by firm inflexible justice, he became to that school 
 a second founder, and a name and tradition of good for 
 ever. In a moral and intellectual, if not in a physical 
 sense, "lateritiam invenit, marmoream reliquit." It is need- 
 less to say that he was a good disciplinarian. 
 
 If, after a year's experience, a man cannot keep boys in 
 perfect order, he will save himself much misery and much 
 obstructiveness, if, as I have advised many a young graduate 
 to do, — for his own sake, and still more for the sake of 
 others — he will have the courage to choose another career. 
 
 4. But I should give this advice, even more strongly, if 
 a master can indeed keep discipline, but it is only the disci- 
 pline of death ; only a discipline maintained by constant 
 punishments. Who can estimate the evil which has been 
 done by centuries of flogging? I quite admit that many a 
 rough nature, trained upon it, has not been much the worse 
 for it. But, if you want to estimate the harm it has done, 
 read De Quincey's Autobiography. / A s a young boy, I was 
 trained under that system. I was certainly diligent, I was 
 not exceptionally stupid; but yet I was for some time among 
 those 
 
 "Si quos Orbilius ferula scuticaque cecidit." 
 
 For every mistake in the multiplication table — for every 
 slip in an "Arnold's Exercise" — for every bad piece of con- 
 struing, — the formula used to be, "Hold out your hand"; 
 and there followed an excruciating blow across the tender 
 part of the palm. J In my early school days, I have, as an 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 13 
 
 every-day matter, seen backs scored with red and blue 
 weals, which, in these days, would secure, in favour of the 
 most mischievous street Arab, a verdict in any police court. 
 Down to times so recent has the pestilent practice of the 
 plagosus Orbilius reigned suprem^J They still show at 
 Rome the birch of the saintly Gregory. I should like every 
 schoolmaster to read the wise advice and reproof of St 
 Anselm to the Abbot who complained that he never ceased 
 beating the boys at his school day or night, and that they 
 grew up dull and brutal. But the Saint's advice was not 
 remembered. Longchamps, Bishop of Ely, in Richard I.'s 
 time, used to prick his pages with an ox-goad. English 
 literature, from Skelton, who tells us how his back was 
 " scooryd" at school, and Piers Plowman, who says, M You 
 mased the boye so sore with beatyng that he coulde not 
 speake a worde," — down to Pope, who talks of the birch 
 blushing with patrician blood, and Coleridge, who describes 
 the flagellations habitually inflicted by the Rev. J. Bowyer, 
 and 1 )e Quincey, who tells how a brutal flogging drove forth 
 his beautiful brother "Pink" a wanderer in the world, — 
 English literature is full of this gross cruelty. Agnes Paston, 
 in 1457, writes to Greenfield a request that, if her boy at 
 Eton has not done well, " he will truly belash him." She 
 beat her daughter once or twice a week, sometimes twice a 
 day, and broke her head in two or three places. It is said 
 that Lady Russell, daughter of Sir Antony Cook, beat her 
 little son by a former marriage to death, for a blot on his 
 copy-book. Every one knows the pathetic lines of Tus 
 
 "From Paul's I went, to Eton sent, 
 To learn straightways the Latin phrase, 
 Where fifty-three stripes given to me 
 
 At once I had; ., 0J5? 7 ^"T^^*, 
 
 •V of TfIR 
 
 riUVEHSITI 
 
 y » oar ^ v 
 
 J 
 
14 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 For fault but small, or none at all, 
 It came to pass thus beat I was, 
 See Udall ! see the mercy of thee 
 To me poor lad ! " 
 
 Every one knows how Lady Jane Grey describes the 
 treatment which she received from her own parents, unless 
 she did everything " so perfitely as God made the world." 
 " I am so sharply taunted," she says, " so cruellie threatened, 
 yea, presentlie sometimes with pinches, nippes, and bobbes, 
 and other waies which I will not name, — so without measure 
 misordered, that I think myself in hell 1 ." Every one knows 
 how a brutal pedagogue showed off his discipline to Eras- 
 mus, by calling up a boy, and shamefully beating him for 
 nothing at all, and simply "pour encourager les autres." 
 One is reminded by these quotations, of what Plautus wrote 
 not far from two millenniums earlier : — 
 
 "Quum librum legeres, si una peccavisses sullaba, 
 Fieret corium tam maculosum quam'st nutricis pallium." 
 
 It is literally only in this generation that this reign of 
 terror has wholly ceased. Even in Mr Bosworth Smith's 
 Life of Lord Lawrence, we read that, when asked whether he 
 had ever been flogged as a boy, the great Proconsul replied 
 with grim satisfaction and Spartan brevity, "I was flogged 
 every day of my life at school except one, and then I was 
 flogged twice." If the Teachers' Syndicate had existed in 
 old days, one hopes that such a system would long ago 
 have received its death-blow. And here let me give my 
 deliberate testimony, from six year's experience as Head- 
 master of a school of more than 580 boys, that well-trained 
 
 1 For one or two of these references, I am indebted to Mr Furnival's 
 Early Education in England. 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 15 
 
 English boys may be guided by a thread ; and that, in a 
 good English school, corporal punishment may be so much 
 minimized as to be wholly exceptional, and in some of the 
 best schools almost entirely unknown. Dr Busby and 
 Dr Keate may doubtless, in their own way, have been great 
 teachers, but let us hope that the barbarous methods in 
 which they exulted, were vitia temporum, not vitia hominum, 
 and that henceforth they are over for ever. 
 
 5. But I would apply the spirit of the remark much 
 more widely. I would say, that in ordinary teaching, the 
 more you punish in any way, the worse master you are ; that 
 he is the best master who needs to punish least ; and that, 
 if such a thing should exist as a perfect master, it is probable 
 that, so far as mere teaching is concerned, he would never 
 have to punish at all. "Impositions," "lessons to write 
 out," "lines," "abstracts," whatever they are called, are, in 
 the essence of them, confessions of weakness. They are in 
 many respects injurious, and there is very little to be said 
 for them. " Write me out five hundred lines of Homer, with 
 all the accents." I have known masters say that, perhaps in 
 a moment of anger, perhaps for no moral fault ; — but, what 
 a bad punishment ! Scarcely ever will the good master have 
 to resort to such a method. When a form sees that he is in 
 earnest ; that lessons must be learnt; that if they are neg- 
 lected from idleness, they will have to be said again j where 
 the master is endowed with such gifts, that he can encourage, 
 help, sympathise, inspire, — he will either find punishments 
 all but extinct, or he will measure by their frequency his own 
 incapacity, and his own failure. 
 
 6. And I would still further apply the remark to abuse, 
 
1 6 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 taunts, sarcasm. I have known masters who habitually shout 
 at their boys, "little fool," "little idiot," " little ass," and so 
 on. A master is very ill-advised to use such language ; he 
 cannot do it without great and serious loss of dignity. I 
 have known a master upbraid a boy with stupidity. Now 
 there is a moral anaisthesia — a dementation preceding doom 
 — which may sometimes deserve such an epithet ; although 
 "hebetes et indociles pauci admodum; in pueris elucetspes 
 plurimorum." But, if a boy be really and congenitally dull 
 — dull, that is, in certain subjects, for a boy dull in all sub- 
 jects is very rare — " falsa enim est querela paucissimis homi- 
 nibus vim percipiendi quae tradantur esse concessam," — it is 
 as shameful and useless a cruelty to taunt him with being 
 stupid, as to taunt him, as Lord Byron's mother used her 
 son, with a personal defect. A clever and quick master, 
 worried by a heavy, obstinate boy, may be tempted to keen 
 sarcasm. I hold that, except to suppress insolent vice — in 
 which case sarcasm may be used as keen as a razor's edge — 
 such sarcasm is an inexcusable tyranny. I once knew a 
 boy, now in an important position, and an honoured and 
 useful member of society, who somehow seemed to invite 
 ridicule, partly by his absence of humour, partly by his pecu- 
 liarities. Now Bishop Cotton had a singular fund of dry 
 but inimitable humour, and one day he made the whole 
 class laugh by his satirical criticisms of this boy. When 
 the lesson was over, the boy waited, went up to the master, 
 and said with quiet dignity, — "Sir, I am not clever; I dare 
 say my work is very poor ; but it is not my fault. I do my 
 best, and I do not think it just that you should make me 
 your laughing-stock." Cotton listened to him with kind 
 sympathy, and — such is the characteristic mark of a good 
 man — he was never once known to use his powers of sar- 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 17 
 
 casm in the same way again. I think it may help a master 
 to feel in how very deep a sense it is true, that " maxima 
 debetur pueris reverentia," if he will always steadily bear in 
 mind two thoughts — one, that every event of those days will 
 live for years in the vivid photograph of his pupils' memories; 
 the other, that, a year or two hence, he will meet those 
 pupils as bearded men, whom, if he has been unjust to 
 them or unkind, he will be unable to meet without a pang. 
 
 7. Then I would say, Trust your boys. Take their 
 word whenever it is possible; I would almost say, sometimes 
 when it seems impossible to do so. You will think that, if 
 I have not yet reached my dotage, I must be near it, being 
 in my anecdotage ; but, as it is my sole and very humble 
 desire to be of use, I will tell you two incidents which 
 impressed me with the value of this lesson. 
 
 A few days after I went to Marlborough, I was in 
 charge, after dark, of a very large schoolroom full of boys, 
 of whom many belonged to the old regime. To keep order 
 among them all, quite unaided, was very far from an easy 
 task. Boys often liked to get out into the court. A boy 
 came up to me with his handkerchief at his nose, and said, 
 "Please, sir, may I go out? — my nose is bleeding." I am 
 sorry to say that I took away his hand. His nose was 
 bleeding, and, having had no special reason to suspect the 
 lad, I saw at once how wrongly I had done, and frankly 
 begged his pardon. Some years afterwards, at Harrow, two 
 boys brought me Latin exercises, marked at intervals by the 
 same grotesque mistakes. It seemed certain that those 
 exercises could not have been done independently. I ques- 
 tioned the boys. Both assured me that there had been no 
 copying. One, whom I had always considered to be a boy 
 
 L. T. 2 
 
1 8 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 of high morale, assured me of this again and again with pas- 
 sionate earnestness. I said to him, — " If I were to send up 
 these two exercises to Dr Vaughan, if I were to show them 
 to any jury in England, they would say that these resem- 
 blances could scarcely be accidental, except by something 
 almost like a miracle. But you both tell me, and assure 
 me, that you have not copied. I cannot believe you would 
 lie to me; I must suppose that there has been some most 
 extraordinary accident, of what nature I cannot tell. I shall 
 say no more." Years after, one dark night as I returned 
 from chapel, — it was so dark that I could not see the boy's 
 face, but only recognise his voice, — that boy, who was then 
 a monitor, and near the top of the school, said to me, " Sir, 
 do you remember that exercise in the fourth form?" "Yes," 
 I said, " I remember it well." "Well, sir, I told you a lie. 
 It was copied. You believed me, and the remembrance of 
 that lie has remained with me, and pained me ever since." 
 That boy is now an able and distinguished man of letters. 
 I am inclined to think that he was more effectually taught, 
 and more effectually punished, than if I had refused to accept 
 his protests, and had " sent him up for bad." But, while I 
 am on this subject, I will add my conviction that, during 
 twenty years, I was very seldom told a falsehood. One 
 reason for this was, not only that I made it a general rule to 
 believe a boy's word, but still more that I took extreme 
 pains to avoid ever surprising a boy into a denial, or an 
 equivocation. I believe that many falsehoods are — to quote 
 Cardan's expression — manslaughters upon truth, not mur- 
 ders. They spring from the instinct of self-protection always 
 shown by the timid animal. By a blundering method in 
 this matter, it is fatally easy to entrap a boy — even a boy 
 naturally truthful — not only into one lie, but into a series of 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 19 
 
 linked lies, such as shall injure his character, and rest like a 
 chain of fire upon his conscience, for many a long day — 
 nay, more, such as may involve a long course of self-decep- 
 tion, and fatally undermine his moral strength. If he 
 have been suddenly surprised, by being taken off his guard, 
 into one lie, the very shame of so unwonted an offence will 
 lead him into another, and yet another, that he may buttress 
 up the first. Trust your boys ; teach them to trust you ; 
 rely on their sense of your sympathy and kindness, and not 
 on fear ; do not take them off their guard ; say a few kind 
 words to a boy ; give him time to think ; arm him against 
 his own weakness ; and you will rarely be told anything 
 which is not true. 
 
 8. Once more, I would say, " Do not be too niggardly 
 of praise and encouragement." I say this very earnestly. 
 When I came up to Trinity College, although I had won 
 scholarships and prizes elsewhere, I was, in many respects, 
 very ill-prepared, and I think that at least a score of men, 
 even in my own College, would very easily have beaten me. 
 It was, in a worldly point of view, very important to me to 
 do well in the Tripos. Great personal diffidence, added to 
 a temperament which was a very anxious one, weighed 
 heavily upon me. In my last Long Vacation, when time 
 was more than ever important, I caught what used to be 
 called the Cambridge fever. You know that praise and 
 encouragement have never been prominent parts in our 
 Cambridge system of teaching. For most men, perhaps, 
 they are not needed, but for some men they are ; at any 
 rate, I am quite sure that, if any one had ever said to me, 
 "You need not be anxious, or distress yourself; you may 
 look forward with reasonable certainty to a first-class," he 
 
 2 — 2 
 
20 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 would have lifted from my mind a load of heavy care. I 
 do not think that, when we have passed these ordeals, we 
 ever adequately recall the pressure which results to many 
 young minds from the ever-extending system of competition. 
 I recall how one man, now of the highest rank, once left 
 Cambridge suddenly in an agony of disappointment, after 
 failing to win a scholarship. I recollect the case of another, 
 who, though he became a Fellow, yet took to drinking as 
 the result of a comparative failure in the Tripos, and now 
 lies in a nameless grave. I think of a Marlborough boy, a 
 bright young lad, who went to Oxford, and on the very eve 
 of an examination was found dead, with a gun beside him, in 
 his own rooms. This mandarinat, as a French writer calls 
 it,— this Chinese system of competitive examinations, which 
 results in part from the high pressure of difficulties in an 
 over-crowded country, — has its dark and evil side; and I 
 think that teachers may diminish its evils. By a little 
 judicious praise and encouragement, they may often dissipate 
 needless anxiety. They may always, in their general train- 
 ing, put competition on its right basis ; they may show boys 
 that it is not everything ; that it does not always, or often, 
 test the highest gifts and qualities ; that failure in it need 
 not be nearly so fatal to their prospects as they suppose. I 
 remember how Henry Martyn, in his Life, . tells us how 
 much he was calmed and strengthened, on the eve of the 
 examination which left him a Senior Wrangler, by a Uni- 
 versity sermon on "Seekest thou great things for thyself? 
 Seek them not, saith the Lord." We may always teach our 
 boys to look first and most to that competition in which no 
 good man can fail. We can, with Mr Ruskin, say to them, 
 " I want you to compete, not for the praise of what you 
 know, but of what you become, and to compete only in that 
 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 21 
 
 great school where Death is the Examiner and God the 
 Judge." And our encouragement may, most of all, be 
 needed by those who do not excel at all in the studies with 
 which we are most directly concerned. "He took me," 
 said Jeremy Bentham of the late Lord Lansdowne, "out of 
 the bottomless pit of humiliation, he made me feel that I 
 was something." I once had a pupil who did not succeed 
 at all, or only very moderately, in the ordinary curriculum 
 of schools. He is now a man of high political and literary 
 distinction. I know no pupil of mine, however brilliant, 
 who is so likely to climb to the highest things; and he 
 always says that the self-reliance which has helped him 
 forward could never have sprung up, but for the early and 
 cordial recognition of power which found no play in the 
 school routine. And, as illustrating what I have said about 
 the encouraging recognition of merits which lie outside our 
 ordinary school routine, I think that you will all be interested 
 to hear a letter which I once had the honour to receive 
 from Charles Darwin. Knowing him slightly, I sent him a 
 lecture of mine, delivered sixteen years ago before the 
 Royal Institution, on "Some Defects of Public Education." 
 H I am very much obliged," he wrote, "for your kind present 
 of your lecture. We have read it aloud with the greatest 
 interest, and I agree to every word. If I had been a great 
 classical scholar, I would never have been able to have 
 judged fairly on the subject. As it is, I am one of the root- 
 and-branch men, and would leave Classics to be learnt by 
 those alone who have sufficient zeal, or the high taste 
 requisite for their appreciation." Then, after very kind 
 words to me, which I omit, he adds — "I was at school at 
 Shrewsbury, under a great scholar, Dr Butler. I learnt 
 absolutely nothing, except by amusing myself by reading 
 
22 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 and experimenting in chemistry. Dr Butler somehow found 
 this out, and publicly sneered at me, before the whole 
 school, for such gross waste of time ; I remember he called 
 me a 'Poco Curante,' which, not understanding, I thought 
 was a dreadful name." This letter of a great man is, I 
 think, instructive in many ways. It illustrates our vivid 
 memories, even to old age, of words spoken to us in early 
 boyhood. It illustrates how undesirable it is to sneer. It 
 shows how minds of the grandest capacity may not even be 
 touched by an exclusively classical curriculum. It shows 
 how much we should try to have wide appreciation of 
 differing gifts and to be many-sided in our teaching. 
 
 II. Hitherto I have been speaking mainly of those 
 fundamental aims and considerations which must underlie 
 the teacher's work. I will now venture to make some 
 general remarks on matters intellectual and practical. 
 
 i. I would say first, "Make a rule of regularity and 
 faithfulness in routine duties." I would not have this 
 rule treated with morbid and pharisaic rigidity. I would 
 not see a teacher sink into the slave of routine. It is much 
 more important that he should remain vigorous, fresh, in 
 good spirits, and constantly equipped with new stores of 
 knowledge, than that he should invariably pay tithes of 
 mint, anise, and cummin in minor duties. Take the correc- 
 tion of Verses. I groan and grieve to think over the number 
 of hours, and days of hours, in my life, which have been 
 irrevocably wasted, and worse than wasted, in the execrably 
 bad system — killing to the master and worthless to the boy 
 — of turning boys' bad exercises into "fair copies," and 
 transforming the crippled and hobbling lines of boys into a 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 23 
 
 wooden semblance of soundness. I hold it to be one 
 valuable service in life that I gave one of the first, and one 
 of the strongest, blows to the practice of teaching Latin 
 Verses to all boys alike, which entailed no small part of this 
 senseless and useless drudgery. I must not, however, digress 
 into that topic, but will say that, given a human and sensible 
 system of written exercises, they ought, as a rule, to be 
 faithfully looked through and marked. A great man, indeed, 
 may do without this rule. The late Bishop of Manchester, 
 1 )r Prince Lee, did not follow it. I have heard one of his 
 illustrious pupils describe in old days, how he would some- 
 times have a whole drawerful of uncorrected exercises, and 
 then, summoning up a boy, would take one of the exercises, 
 almost at random, and correct it or criticise it in such a 
 way as the boy never forgot. With such a man as Prince 
 Lee such a system will work well ; but, if an ordinary man 
 does not make a rule of noticing his boys' written work, 
 they will assuredly cease to take pains with it. A Head- 
 master once told me that he had never quite got over the 
 pain he felt because his old Head-master never so much as 
 looked at a particular exercise with which he had taken ex- 
 traordinary pains, and which he considered to be the best 
 he had ever written. 
 
 2. Then I will say, — Always, even for the lowest form, 
 prepare your work, or at least look at it beforehand. A 
 Scripture lesson, a History lesson, even a construing lesson 
 of ten or twenty lines, will be better and fresher by far, if 
 you have at least glanced it over ; much more if you have 
 considered beforehand how best you can bring it out. 
 Perhaps you will tell me that Dr Arnold by no means always 
 prepared his lessons. "Any hard word in the Aristophanes?" 
 
24 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 so one of his pupils tells me he used sometimes to say before 
 a lesson; "if so, I shall be floored." But this, perhaps, 
 was the reason why Dr Arnold fell into little scholarship- 
 traps, which some of his best pupils were sometimes 
 audacious enough to lay for him. He never pretended to 
 know what he did not know, and would always pause to 
 look out a word in his lexicon in mid-lesson before his form. 
 But Arnold was Arnold j and a dwarf is ill-advised when he 
 tries to array himself in the garments of a Colossus. 
 
 3. If you prepare your lessons, you will better fulfil 
 another requisite of the teacher, which is to make your 
 lessons interesting. It is a very old principle, but a very 
 wise one. If the draught must often be unpleasant, there 
 is no harm in tinging the rim of the cup with honey. I do 
 not only mean that the teacher's 7nan?ier should be free 
 from the preternatural dulness, which makes of a lesson a 
 veritable imprisonment to a lively boy. A story used to be 
 told of my dear old college tutor, E. M. Cope, how, on one 
 occasion, without changing one muscle of his face, or one 
 intonation of his voice, he interpolated into his lecture the 
 remark, "What I am now telling you is, I believe, entirely 
 new and most important. It has cost me very long and 
 toilsome research to discover it. And, exactly at this point, 
 I observe that not a single person in the room is paying me 
 the smallest attention." He then continued as before. 
 But I will undertake to say that, had his manner been less 
 despondent and more vivacious, every one would have been 
 listening. 
 
 1 ' Ridentem dicere verum 
 Quid vetat? ut pueris olim dant crustula blandi 
 Doctores, elementa velint ut discere prima." 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 25 
 
 But, if it is important that the teacher's manner should not 
 be dry and dull, it is much more so that he should enlist on 
 his side the intellect, the reason, the imagination, the fancy. 
 Is it not deplorable to think, for instance, that, in old days, 
 we used to struggle through the sandy wilderness of number- 
 less inflexions, without so much as a gleam of light being 
 shed on us as to what an inflexion is ! Even a young child 
 will go through the frightful ordeal of learning the 1200 
 forms of a full Greek conjugation, if he has once mastered 
 the conception that not one of these inflexions is arbitrary, 
 Of accidental, and that — for instance— such a form as ctcti- 
 jxtjvto consists of six parts, and contains the elements of at 
 least five words. I undertake to say that a few hours wisely 
 spent in teaching a boy the nature of words, the difference 
 between loose prefixes and close suffixes, and the simplest 
 elements of philology, would spare him endless labour and 
 make his labour more interesting. Is it not deplorable to 
 think that we used to regard the aorist as a sort of unknown 
 Greek monster, with no one to tell us that our own 
 language, strictly speaking, and apart from auxiliaries, 
 possessed no tenses at all except aorists ? and that the 
 >| the Greek and Latin sentence were drummed into 
 us without so much as a hint that the optative and subjunc- 
 tive exist in Latin and English as well as in Greek, and are 
 governed by much the same laws? Rational teaching is 
 always more interesting than irrational ; and, when one 
 only thinks of the dreary and futile toil spent by hundreds 
 of English lads for years together, with the result of not 
 acquiring a single Greek verb, it is at least a duty to make 
 the teaching as human as we can. On the interest of the 
 lessons depends very much of their effect, and very much of 
 real as apart from dead and mechanical discipline. When 
 
26 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 I was a master, if my form was restless, or if boys yawned, 
 I always primarily blamed, not them, but myself. 
 
 4. But, if you make your lessons interesting, if you 
 succeed in inspiring your boys with any love for knowledge, 
 you may often greatly help them forward by the influence 
 which will enable you, without difficulty, to induce them to 
 do private work. A boy, by no means clever, whom I 
 wished to get on in Greek Iambics, once did for me, in his 
 holidays, I cannot tell how many hundred verses from the 
 beginning of Beatson's Iambics, as the result of a request 
 so incidental that, when he told me that he had done them, 
 I had forgotten all about it. A boy who has since become 
 a very able Cabinet Minister, and is the heir of an old and 
 wealthy family, once said the whole of the Agamemnon 
 through, choruses and all, to Dr Butler, as part of his 
 voluntary work in the holidays. Those who have read 
 such biographies as that of Dr Young, or Mill's account 
 of his education in his Autobiography, or the list of 
 books got through in a country parsonage by the late 
 brilliant Professor Henry Smith, ought at least to be aware 
 how much may be done — done without pressure, done 
 thoroughly, and done delightfully — by an able boy under 
 wise guidance. If exceptional boys are rare, so are 
 exceptional teachers; but very much more may be accom- 
 plished, even by ordinary boys and by moderate teachers, 
 than is commonly supposed. I feel a strong* conviction 
 that, in spite of all our vaunted nineteenth-century wisdom 
 and enlightenment, we are still, in matters of education, in a 
 very rudimentary stage; that we follow many mistaken 
 aims by many cumbrous and ineffectual methods ; and that, 
 except in the one matter of kindness, we are, both in theory 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 27 
 
 and practice, far behind many teachers who lived in ages 
 which we affect to despise, — ages when athletics were not so 
 exclusively idolised ; when ladies could write and speak in 
 Greek and Latin, as well as several modern languages; when 
 Erasmus read by moonlight, because he could not afford a 
 penny to buy a torch, and the boy Milton had made such 
 striking advance by the age of ten. 
 
 5. In the same direction would be my advice to make 
 all the use you can of illustration. I employ the term in its 
 widest sense. To illustrate a subject means to throw light 
 upon it, and men had discovered, thousands of years ago, 
 that the memory becomes more impressible through the 
 eye than through the ear. If you are dealing with some 
 historical scene or character, no way of impressing facts 
 upon the memory is comparable to that of putting your 
 pupils into immediate contact with the person or event, by 
 letting him see or handle something which visibly recalls it. 
 A coin, a medal, a bust, a picture, an inscription, a relic, 
 actually examined and handled, will do more to awaken the 
 interest and to impress the memory than almost anything 
 which you can say. The coins, the photographs, the casts, 
 which can now be obtained on such easy and favourable 
 terms from the authorities of the British Museum, are 
 invaluable for this purpose; and I can imagine a Public 
 School-master, at the cost of a few pounds, getting together 
 for his own use a sort of little museum, which would con- 
 stantly add life, vividness, and interest to his lessons. A 
 boy who has seen the Elgin marbles, and has been taught to 
 see them intelligently, will be far better able to understand 
 Greek. A boy who has seen a good selection of fine Roman 
 coins, will be better able to understand the era of the 
 
28 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Republic and of the Emperors. A boy who has actually- 
 handled a phylactery, and seen the difference, maintained 
 to this day, between an ordinary phylactery and the broader 
 phylacteries of the modern representatives of the Pharisees, 
 has the germs of considerable insight into Judaism. A boy 
 who has read, on the fragments of the arch which once 
 spanned the main street of Thessalonica, and which are 
 now in the British Museum, the unique word -Kokirapya^ 
 which St Luke, with his memorable accuracy, applies to the 
 magistrates of Thessalonica, may be led to trace the many 
 strong external arguments for the minute faithfulness of the 
 Evangelists. 
 
 6. It is needless to multiply instances; but I would 
 strongly urge illustrations of quite a different character — 
 illustrations from historical parallels, illustrations from 
 modern literature, modern poetry, modern languages. I 
 think that, in teaching an Epistle of St Paul, a boy will 
 better understand the touching messages in the last chapter 
 of the Epistle to the Romans, who has had read to him the 
 exactly analogous dying messages of " the Apostle of the 
 High Alps," Felix Neff. He will better feel the pathos of 
 St Paul's request for his books and parchments and cloak, 
 if his attention be called to the minute but wholly uncon- 
 scious parallel, supplied by Tyndale's touching letter from 
 his chill and melancholy prison. The letter to Philemon 
 will shine in brighter colours, when it is compared with 
 Pliny's letter to Sabinianus. The serene cheerfulness of St 
 Paul, in his Roman imprisonment, will appear still more 
 beautiful when contrasted with the way in which exile, and 
 trials far less intense than St Paul's, affected the minds and 
 writings of Cicero, of Seneca, and even of Dante. When I 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 29 
 
 was a schoolmaster, I never used to read with my form a 
 Greek play, without the constant endeavour to compare it 
 with modern tragedies on the same subject, and to brighten 
 it by all the modern parallels which I could find. I think, 
 too, that the teacher may often be helped, by calling atten- 
 tion to brilliant translations and imitations of classical 
 authors by men of genius. Few translations surpass those 
 of Conington, in their curiosa felicitas. What could be a 
 happier rendering of 
 
 "Veniam petimusque damusque vicissim," 
 than — 
 
 "He who needs excuse must needs excuse"? 
 
 What could bring out the spirit of 
 
 " H7j8i /3o/)/3dpou <purrbs 81ktjv 
 Xa/ictiTreWs fioaixa Trpo<7x<^ y V s ^/*°V 
 
 better than the grand paraphrase of Symmonds— 
 
 "Ope not the mouth to me, nor cry amain, 
 As at the footstool of a man of the East 
 Prone on the ground : so stoop not thou to me " ? 
 
 May not Thomson's 
 
 •Where the big torrent foams its madness off, 
 
 suggest the force of ^schylus's — 
 
 "&»0<3t xora/tos £ic<j>wr<f. yu^voj"? 
 
 and may not a boy be interested to find half-a-dozen 
 English parallels to 7roLKi\ttnu>v vv£ or Trovritov KVfidrtov avrf- 
 ptOjjiov yikaafxa} In reading Homer, may he not, with 
 small and most fruitful expenditure of time, be relieved for 
 I moment from the agonies of parsing, by some spirit- 
 stirring rendering from Chapman ; or may he not learn a 
 
30 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 lesson in taste and poetic criticism, if you show him the dif- 
 ference between Homer and the "Anti-homeric Miltonism" 
 of Cowper, and the chasm which exists between the artificial 
 mannerism of Pope and the true perception of Nature, in 
 the famous simile of the sky and stars? 
 
 7. I would say, in conclusion, Try to be many-sided. 
 Bear in mind that, while our present system of classical 
 education continues, a boy who leaves in a low form has, in 
 literal fact, spent the greater part of his time in not acquiring 
 the merest rudiments of Greek accidence and Latin con- 
 struction. He may learn much from his companions, much 
 from contact with other minds, much from the general 
 routine and training of the school ; he may have many inci- 
 dental chances of knowledge : but I must say, quite delibe- 
 rately, and as the result of induction from wide experience 
 and very many testimonies, that, so far as mere intellectual 
 equipment is concerned, a non-classical boy, an ordinary boy, 
 who leaves in the low form of a public school at the age of 
 sixteen or seventeen, has received the worst of all possible 
 educations. It may be the best that is to be had for him, 
 but, as Talleyrand said, it is "execrable." We are told of 
 some Scotch official, who, visiting a school and making a 
 little speech, called it "this excellent cemetery of education." 
 The other day, a lady wrote to a Head-master, asking him 
 to "inter" a boy in a certain public school; and he, entering 
 into the unconscious jest, wrote back that he would "under- 
 take" it. Many a truth has been spoken in jest or by 
 mistake, and I fear that boys not a few have been intellec- 
 tually "interred" in our various "cemeteries" of education. 
 Things are, however, far better in this respect than they 
 were thirty, or even twenty, or even ten years ago. Still, I 
 
YERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 3 1 
 
 cannot but think that a little brightness, a little variety, a 
 little imagination, might save much of our classical teaching 
 from being needlessly infructuous. Take Mythology. Could 
 •ny lesson be more suggestive, than a proof of the extent to 
 which Mythology is, on the one hand a disease of language, 
 on the other a poetic and imaginative conception of natural 
 phenomenal and yet that it reflects the deepest experiences, 
 and gives expression to the strongest moral instincts of 
 mankind? A dozen sentences from Bacon, or from Ruskin, 
 about Heracles, about Ixion, about Atalanta, about the 
 Harpies, about the Nemean lion, might give a boy lessons 
 full of poetry, imagination, and moral wisdom which he 
 would never forget. Horace is very commonly read in all 
 schools. I can imagine no lessons which can be made 
 brighter, more suggestive, more instructive, even for ordinary 
 boys, than good lessons in the Odes of Horace; and yet 
 remember how even a boy so exceptional as Lord Byron 
 l, — 
 
 "It is a curse 
 To understand, not feel, thy lyric flow, 
 To comprehend yet never love thy verse, 
 Although no better moralist rehearse 
 Our little life, or bard prescribe his art, 
 Or livelier satirist the conscience pierce, 
 Awakening without wounding the touched heart." 
 
 I think that every teacher would be better for trying to 
 follow the wise old orator's advice : — " Ipse aliquid, immo 
 multa, quotidie dicat, quae secum audita referant." 
 
 It is more than time to conclude these slight hints. Let 
 their slightness and their feebleness be pardoned, and let me 
 only say, that the teacher who has been so blessed as to 
 begin his high work with pure and lofty aims, and to carry 
 
32 GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 it on with intelligent and fruitful methods, has not lived in 
 vain. Some, at least, of his pupils will love him, and 
 honour him, and be grateful to him. Some whom he will 
 never see again, will yet say of him, — 
 
 "Still may he find, as slopes life's downward tide, 
 Each wish, each joy our thoughtlessness denied, 
 Each passing hour a happier influence shed, 
 And age steal softly on his honoured head." 
 
 Yes, it may be that some tears will be shed by those who 
 stand beside his grave. 
 
 Gentlemen, my work as a schoolmaster is over ; but you, 
 too, in your turn, are going forth to your work and to your 
 labour until the evening. When Lord Dalhousie was resign- 
 ing to Lord Canning the government of 196,000,000 people, 
 and was standing on the steps of Government House at 
 Calcutta to receive his successor, Sir John Lawrence asked 
 him what were his feelings at that moment. " He had been 
 standing back, with a wearied look; but, immediately I put 
 the question," said Sir John Lawrence, "he drew himself up, 
 and, with great fire, replied, 'I wish that I were Canning, 
 and Canning I, and then wouldn't I govern India!' Then, 
 of a sudden, the fire died away, and he said, ' No, I don't 1 
 I would not wish my greatest enemy, much less my friend 
 Canning, to be the poor, miserable, broken-down, dying 
 man that I am.'" Gentlemen, I, too, feel inclined to say, — 
 I wish that I were now in your place, and then wouldn't 
 I teach! But, no, — "Morituri vos salutamus." Thirteen 
 years afterwards, the very same question, "What are your 
 feelings at this moment?" was put to Lord Lawrence — Iron 
 John — when he, too, stood on the same spot, and under 
 
GENERAL AIMS OF THE TEACHER. S3 
 
 the same circumstances, awaiting his successor, Lord Mayo; 
 and he answered, "It was a proud moment to me when I 
 walked up the steps of this house. But it will be a happier 
 moment when I walk down the steps with the feeling that I 
 have tried to do my duty 1 ." What better wish can an old 
 teacher offer to you, than that each of you, when you step 
 for the last time from the Master's chair, may feel that you, 
 too, have "tried to do your duty"? 
 
 1 For this deeply instructive anecdote see the admirable life of 
 Lord Lawrence by my friend Mr Bosworth Smith. 
 
 L. T. 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 By R. B. POOLE, B.D. 
 
 HEAD MASTER OF BEDFORD MODERN SCHOOL. 
 
 3~ * 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 I must at the commencement of my Lecture attempt 
 to some extent to disarm criticism by apologizing for the 
 commonplace and practical nature of the remarks I am 
 about to offer. I have never, I regret to say, given much 
 attention to the Theory of Education, partly because it 
 was not so much thought of and discussed at the time when I 
 first became a schoolmaster as it is now, and partly because 
 I have never known what it was to have much leisure time : 
 and so, as has been no doubt the case with many others, 
 
 "The art and practic part of life 
 Must be the mistress to this theoric." 
 
 I venture, however, to take courage from the fact that it 
 was suggested that the subject should be a practical one, 
 and also from seeing that many of those who have lectured 
 before me have contented themselves with adopting a 
 similar line, and that most, if not all of them, have been 
 schoolmasters themselves. And I must also apologize if I 
 should be found here and there to tread somewhat too 
 closely in the steps of my predecessors. If I have done so 
 it is quite unwittingly, for I only received a copy of the 
 Lectures, which have been previously given under the 
 auspices of this Syndicate, yesterday morning, and so have 
 
3 8 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 not had an opportunity of rinding out the exact lines which 
 they follow. If I have erred in this respect it must be attri- 
 buted to the fact that there are many things which naturally 
 come into the minds of practical schoolmasters when speak- 
 ing on subjects connected with Education. 
 
 And perhaps I may be here allowed to observe that it 
 seems to me a most excellent thought on the part of the 
 promoters of these lectures to give men who are likely to 
 adopt teaching as a profession an opportunity of gathering 
 something from the experience of those who have gone 
 before them. It would be hard if, after a score of years of 
 work with boys, one had not something to say about their 
 management, and it would be curious if Teaching were the 
 only profession into which a man could enter with success 
 without any previous training, especially considering the 
 various and delicate subjects with which masters have to 
 deal. And yet I am afraid that it is a profession which 
 many enter because they do not see their way to anything 
 else, and because as a rule a degree is an immediate pass- 
 port to it. 
 
 I propose to speak to you to-day principally on the 
 subject of Form Management, although it may be necessary 
 from time to time to allude also to the management of Sets. 
 The distinction between the two is probably familiar to 
 all of you, but, in case it should not be so, I will briefly ex- 
 plain it. There is in all schools with which I am acquainted 
 some staple subject, or subjects, upon which the reputation 
 of the school principally depends and which determines the 
 position of each boy. Where there are separate departments, 
 or sides, as at Marlborough, Cheltenham, Clifton and other 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 39 
 
 places, there are practically so many separate schools, as 
 far as classification is concerned. The Classical Side will be 
 arranged according to the boys' classical attainments; the 
 Modern according to their Historical, Mathematical, and 
 Scientific abilities, or their proficiency in modern languages ; 
 the Military generally will depend mainly upon its mathe- 
 matics. As many subjects as possible will be taught ac- 
 cording to this classification, but there will always be some, 
 of less weight on the particular side in question, for the 
 teaching of which a different classification will be necessary. 
 These are generally spoken of as "Sets", while the arrange- 
 ment upon which a boy's status in the school and his pro- 
 motion depends is called his "Form". It is with the 
 management of the latter that I am principally concerned 
 on the present occasion. 
 
 The duties of a Form Master are far more varied and in 
 some ways more responsible than those of a Set Master, 
 and his influence is more decidedly felt. He naturally sees 
 more of each individual boy under him, has more oppor- 
 tunity of studying his character, and of judging of his 
 capabilities and tastes as a whole. He ought, if he under- 
 stands his work well, to be able to suggest the best ways of 
 managing a boy, and of developing his character and powers. 
 A Set master only sees each class for some three or four 
 hours in the week, and most likely in only one subject, 
 which may be that subject in which a given boy is weakest 
 or which he dislikes, or on the contrary that in which he 
 illy excels. Thus it is, I think, desirable that a Set 
 master should consult the Form master before inflicting any 
 severe punishment on a boy, in order that he may be in- 
 formed whether the conduct with which he has to find fault, 
 or the idleness which he thinks he sees in him, pervades all 
 
40 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 his work, or whether it is exceptional. I have known 
 instances in which a Set master has entirely misunderstood a 
 boy, and has perhaps by some punishment wholly demoralized 
 one whose general career is far above the average. This is, 
 I need scarcely say, a result very much to be deplored, and 
 one which might have been altogether obviated by a con- 
 sultation with the master who knew him best. In fact the 
 Form master ought to look upon himself, and be looked 
 upon by others, as a sort of family doctor, who thoroughly 
 understands the constitution of his patients, and feels a 
 certain amount of jealousy if his general treatment is inter- 
 fered with by some one who is, as it were, only called in 
 occasionally. 
 
 I am disposed to think that it is a good thing as far 
 as possible to confine the teaching of a Form to one man. 
 This can easily be done in lower Forms, but cannot well 
 be managed higher up in a school, as it would be nearly 
 impossible to find a man of such varied attainments as to be 
 able to take a high Form in everything, or nearly every- 
 thing. And it is more important that it should be so with 
 smaller than with bigger boys. For the former, as a rule, 
 take less interest in their work, and cannot be so easily 
 appealed to as the latter ; and they have less appreciation 
 of the value of the knowledge they are gaining, or of the 
 teaching they are receiving. I have known instances of 
 men of high attainments who seemed quite incapable of 
 keeping little boys in order, but who were listened to with 
 the greatest respect and interest by those who were capable 
 of understanding the value of the scholarship and know- 
 ledge which was quite wasted on the others. 
 
 One more remark I must make about Set masters, before 
 turning entirely to the question of Form Management, and 
 
FORM MANAGEMF.XT. 4* 
 
 that is that their difficulties are very great, and that a man 
 who is successful in this post would almost invariably and 
 a fortiori make an excellent Form master. For a large 
 number of boys are constantly passing through a Set 
 master's hands over whom it is not easy to get much per- 
 sonal influence. He goes from one Set to another, hour 
 after hour, and thus has much less chance of impressing his 
 individuality upon them. In my opinion his best plan, if he 
 wishes to be a success, is to see as much as he possibly can 
 of the boys out of school, to join in games, or some school 
 institutions such as the Debating or Scientific Societies, 
 or the Rifle Corps, and as occasion serves to invite boys 
 to his house or rooms, and to get to know something of 
 them. In all probability, if he has a speciality, as most 
 Set masters are likely to have, he will thus acquire the 
 respect and friendship of a sufficient number of boys to 
 leaven the classes he has to teach, and by degrees it will 
 become known throughout the school that he is deserving 
 of that affection which boys very seldom withhold from those 
 who take a real interest in them. 
 
 I now revert to a Form master's work, or Form Manage- 
 ment, which is the subject of this Lecture. And I propose 
 to touch somewhat briefly, but perhaps a little discursively, 
 upon five aspects of the life of a Form : (1) its Tone, (2) its 
 Work, (3) Marking, (4) Discipline, and (5) Games. 
 
 1. I need scarcely say that the 'tone' of a Form is of 
 the greatest possible importance both to the moral and 
 intellectual condition of the boys who com; and it 
 
 must be borne in mind that the tone of the school depends 
 upon the condition of the different Forms which make up 
 
4 2 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the whole. When this is bad in any given Form it is 
 principally the fault of the master, for it is not likely that 
 there should be a large proportion of intractable or vicious 
 boys out of some 25 or 30, although there will most likely 
 always be a few. The great point is to get the majority 
 into the right way of thinking about things, and then the 
 few black sheep will not be able to exercise much influence. 
 The first step in the right direction is for the master to gain 
 the confidence of the boys, and to make them feel that he 
 is working for them and with them, and has no object except 
 their advantage and benefit. I have known some masters 
 who enter their class-rooms with the evident feeling that they 
 Will find the boys antagonistic to them, and seem to be on 
 the look out for something with which they may find fault. 
 Such as these appear to fear that, if they unbend at all, it 
 will be to the loss of their own dignity, and thus they repel 
 confidence and keep their pupils at arms' length. This is 
 generally the result of want of confidence and consciousness 
 of power ; sometimes of nervous sensitiveness j sometimes 
 of merely an unsympathetic nature. In any of these cases 
 a man is not likely to make a good schoolmaster from the 
 highest point of view, though he may possibly be able to 
 teach well. It is quite true that a master should always be 
 able to resume his dignity, even if he has seemed to forget 
 it for a while, but his general attitude should be that of the 
 friend deeply interested in the welfare of those about him, 
 and forgetful of himself in his thought for them. It is not 
 easy to get to this position in the class-room only. By far 
 the best way, as has been hinted before, is for a master to 
 ask boys occasionally to his rooms, to drop his official 
 position as far as would be consistent, to draw out the boys' 
 inner selves, to learn something of their homes and be- 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 43 
 
 longings, of their ideas on general matters, of their future 
 career, and of what they think about school affairs. If he 
 is unable to do this, as- may sometimes be the case, he 
 should take opportunities of walking and talking with them 
 out of school, and in this way show the interest he takes in 
 them. It is nearly impossible for this sort of treatment to 
 be thrown away. Boys are naturally affectionate and sym- 
 pathetic, and they will keenly feel a reproof from one who, 
 they know, likes them and cares for them; they will hesitate 
 to deceive him in any way, and will certainly cease to look 
 upon him as their natural enemy, even if they have been 
 inclined to do so before. 
 
 This leads me to one way in which a Form master may 
 largely assist the general condition of a school. He should 
 strongly impress his boys with the feeling that he is as much 
 a part of the form as they are, and that therefore, if they 
 disgrace themselves in any way, they bring disgrace upon 
 the Form and upon him. If this idea be firmly established 
 it will be of the greatest possible assistance to Set masters, 
 who, as has been noticed, are somewhat handicapped, in 
 keeping good discipline, as compared with Form masters. 
 And this feeling will be carried even beyond the bounds of 
 the school itself, and will affect the general demeanour of 
 the boys under almost all circumstances. I may illustrate 
 this by saying that I have known cases of parallel Forms 
 being remarkable for their totally different behaviour with 
 the same Set master. In this case the fault must have lain 
 with the Form master, for the boys were of about the same 
 age, the same attainments, and not sorted into forms from 
 their being troublesome or the reverse. 
 
 Another point of extreme importance is to have a very 
 high standard with reference to fair dealing pi*, the part Off 
 
 * ."• ■• . :- 
 IVBRSIT7' 
 
44 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the boys. My own experience goes to show that there are 
 few things more difficult to insist on than this, and there are 
 many reasons why it should be so. In the first place it is 
 very difficult to make boys see that small dishonesties are so 
 reprehensible as they are. Most will understand that copying 
 in examination, or looking at books during lessons, or copying 
 an exercise from another are wrong, but they do not regard 
 the use of translations, or asking questions from others so as 
 to save themselves trouble, or doing an exercise with a boy 
 much cleverer than themselves, or writing the English of 
 words down in their books, in the same light. This is due 
 I think to two causes — one, that there is a considerable 
 laxity in public opinion on these points — the other, that a 
 boy does not see much harm in doing something not strictly 
 straightforward, if it is merely done to save himself, though 
 he would not do it if he thought he would really injure the 
 chances of another boy. There are a large number of 
 people of what I may call the " old school," who often tell 
 with considerable gusto how they successfully hoodwinked 
 their masters in their schoolboy days : and I am afraid too 
 that in many of the public examinations of the present day 
 there is considerable laxness in the view taken of what is fair 
 and honourable. 
 
 It is to me very strange to hear, as one sometimes does, 
 people drawing a strong distinction between the amount of 
 fairness which ought to be observed in a pass as compared 
 with a competitive examination, as though a man was perfectly 
 justified in carrying about with him a certificate for pro- 
 ficiency which he does not deserve, and which enables him 
 to sail under false' colours, though he would not be justified 
 in obtaining a place in competition with others by the same 
 means. No doubt in some senses, viewed as to its conse- 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 45 
 
 quences, the latter is the worse case, but both are equally 
 dishonest. Hence it seems to me that Form masters will 
 do a great work if they check even the smallest kinds of 
 unfairness in early life, and by that means establish a habit 
 which will hold its own through a man's whole subsequent 
 career. I have always found that, with older boys, the best 
 way is to explain to them that any work shown up which is 
 not absolutely their own is a species of theft, inasmuch as 
 they are claiming that as theirs which in reality belongs to 
 someone else, and that moreover a place gained in this way 
 over another may affect his future life to an extent which 
 they would scarcely realize, and of which it never entered 
 their heads to dream. That it does so sometimes there can 
 be no doubt. It may happen that a boy just fails to get 
 removed to a higher form, and in consequence his career at 
 school is cut short ; or he may not be allowed to go to the 
 University, as he was intended to do. Now if this place 
 has been taken from him by a boy who has been guilty of 
 unfair dealing even of the most trivial character, he has in- 
 flicted just as much injury upon him as he would have done 
 had he taken a place above him by the same means in a 
 competitive examination. Again, I need scarcely say that 
 a master should never have any favourites, at any rate, not 
 visible favourites. It may not be possible to care for all 
 boys alike, but it is certainly possible not to show any 
 individual partiality. The effect of doing so is to shake the 
 general confidence in the master's fairness, to dishearten some 
 boys, and to make others lazy, from a feeling that their faults, 
 or want of preparation, will be viewed in an indulgent light. 
 Great care should be taken to distinguish between moral 
 faults and mere silliness. Sometimes masters seem to view 
 these all alike, and to treat them in the same way. The 
 
4^ FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 former should be treated with the utmost seriousness, and 
 generally with severity ; while a stop may generally be put 
 to the latter by "chaff." But this must be successful 
 "chaff, 5 ' and must be of such a character as to make the 
 rest of the form laugh at, not with the offender, otherwise 
 I need not say it will entirely fail in its object. Idleness or 
 ignorance may be treated in the same way, but with more 
 circumspection, as sometimes apparent neglect may be only 
 due to want of ability. This "chaff" should always be 
 good-natured, not too sarcastic and cutting, for while de- 
 siring to correct the fault a master should always be careful 
 not to hurt the feelings. I have known boys imbibe a perfect 
 hatred for a master on account of the bitter things which 
 have been said to them, and thus his whole object has been 
 defeated. 
 
 We will now proceed to consider the example which 
 should be set by the master himself in his own work and 
 conduct so as to raise and improve the tone of his Form in 
 some other respects. In the first place, then, he should 
 give his whole attention to the work in which he is engaged, 
 and never allow himself to do anything during school time 
 either in the way of private work or reading. Of course 
 sometimes it may be necessary to attend to some urgent 
 matter, but I am speaking of the general rule and not of its 
 exceptions. I have known masters who were in the habit 
 of reading newspapers, or books unconnected with their 
 work, or writing letters in school. These things have a bad 
 effect in at least two ways, for they obviously distract the 
 master's attention, and so prevent his noticing what may be 
 going on in his Form, and they also shake the confidence of 
 the boys in their teacher when they see that his thoughts are 
 taken up with other things. He can scarcely expect that 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 47 
 
 they will give their whole energy to what they are doing if 
 he does not do so himself, and hence the Form will become 
 slack and indifferent. Such a state of things too fosters the 
 practice of unfair dealing, for it renders the chance of de- 
 tection much more doubtful. 
 
 The last special point I will mention in reference to the 
 general tone of a Form is one which may seem trivial in 
 character, but of which the importance may, I think, be 
 underrated. And that is insisting upon the external ap- 
 pearance of the boys being suitable to their school and 
 to their position as school-boys. And in this matter it 
 is necessary to guard against both excess and defect. On 
 the one hand boys should be taught to be neat and clean in 
 their dress and appearance, so that proper self-respect for 
 their outward man may be duly inculcated, and on the 
 other great care should be taken to repress any love of 
 flashy dressing, and the wearing of flashy jewellery. One 
 of the great fears of the present day is that boys should 
 think themselves men before their time, not in manly 
 sports, or, in a word, in true manliness, but rather in 
 that precociousness which, in its inexperience, apes the 
 worst qualities of grown-up people, and mistakes a swagger- 
 ing demeanour for moral courage, and a proper feeling of 
 independence and self-reliance. To show how a master may 
 exercise influence in this respect, I may mention how 
 deeply a little incident of this sort was in my early days 
 at Rugby impressed upon my mind. I remember that once 
 when the newlj -elected Archbishop of Canterbury was 
 giving out a copy of verses, he happened to see a boy with 
 I ring on his finger, which he was looking at in an admiring 
 manner. He was promptly told to take it off, and never 
 appeal at school with it again. I recollect well thinking 
 
4$ FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 how foolish the boy looked when he had to take off his 
 treasure, and deposit it in his pocket, and I do not think 
 the little lesson was altogether lost on all of us. At any rate 
 it produced so vivid an impression on my mind that I have 
 never forgotten it from that day to this. 
 
 To sum up our considerations then on this head, we 
 may observe what a great power a Form master may be 
 in moulding the character of the boys under him, by creating 
 a manly, straightforward and honourable tone among them, 
 and how much he may contribute to the general tone 
 and feeling of the school in which he is a master. No 
 doubt a high character and great conscientiousness is 
 required to carry all these things out, but the more we 
 reflect upon the great responsibilities of our position as 
 trainers of the young the more shall we feel the great 
 necessity for these qualities, as well as others, if we wish to 
 do our duty thoroughly, and to raise the character of all 
 branches of our profession. If these things had been more 
 thought of in times gone by, there would never have been 
 that slight stigma attached in the public mind to our avoca- 
 tion, which arose in generations long since gone in conse- 
 quence, partly at any rate, of a want of that high standard 
 which is I believe now generally proposed to themselves by 
 those who join our ranks. 
 
 2. I now pass on to the second head of my subject, 
 that is to say, Form work. And here I wish to be especially 
 practical, but trust that in being so I shall not seem to 
 descend too much into detail. Most of those points which 
 I am about to mention have to be impressed upon young 
 masters, and though in consequence of the advantages 
 which the labours of this Syndicate offer, they may be less 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 49 
 
 needed than formerly, yet still they will perhaps bear to be 
 briefly laid before those who think of making teaching their 
 profession. 
 
 And first I cannot impress too strongly upon you that 
 all lessons should be prepared by the master before he goes 
 into school. The amount of preparation may be great or 
 little, according to the subject taught and the Form taken, 
 but I do not think that there is any exception to this rule. 
 Those lessons which partake of the nature of lectures, 
 or which actually pre lectures, of course need the greatest 
 care, and often a good deal of reading. History, Geography 
 and Literature perhaps need the most : Science comes next, 
 and then Languages and Mathematics — but all need some. 
 Even with a low Classical Form it is well to look over a 
 lesson of Latin or Greek, if it be only in order to see 
 what special constructions therein contained it will be best 
 to impress upon the boys' minds, and how the best use may 
 be made of the hour or period allotted to the lesson. In 
 History especially, a master will meet with ample reward in 
 the interest he will create, if he is able to illustrate copiously 
 and readily the period he is reading from other sources than 
 the text-books which the boys are using. It may be argued 
 that most well educated men who are competent to teach 
 the subject will naturally be able and ready to do this 
 from their own stock of knowledge. No doubt they may be 
 so, but I am quite sure that they will greatly gain in clear- 
 ness and lucidity of argument if they have made up their 
 minds what they are going to say, and have arranged it 
 methodically in their own minds. In giving lessons of this 
 kind, as is usual in most things, the extremes should be 
 avoided, and the mean observed. A master should not be 
 too professorial, that is to say he should not do all the 
 1. r. 4 
 
50 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 talking himself, and omit to question the boys in the subject 
 they are doing, nor on the other hand should he merely 
 make sure that they have prepared the lesson, and do 
 no more than see that they have mastered what their 
 text-book teaches them. In the former case, boys soon get 
 to know that they do not gain anything as far as marks are 
 concerned, by preparing their work, in the latter they have 
 no new lights thrown upon the subject and so lose interest, 
 and gain no more &y saying the lesson to the master than 
 they may have already done by preparing it carefully them- 
 selves. Yet we must remember that this careful preparation 
 on the part of the boys must always be exacted. If it is 
 not, the subject will not be fully grasped at the time, 
 nor will it remain firmly fixed in the memory. 
 
 The next point I will touch upon is that of Exercises or 
 written work, whether done in school or out. These should 
 always be marked, and the mistakes underlined by the 
 master himself, and that for many reasons. By some people 
 the plan is adopted of allowing the boys to exchange 
 exercises one with another, especially when they are of such 
 a kind that the right answer cannot vary, and then allowing 
 each boy to correct his neighbour's paper, while the master 
 gives the right answer. It seems to me that this plan 
 throws great temptations into the way of the boys of 
 committing some sort of unfairness. A small boy may 
 be easily compelled by a bigger one to pass over some 
 of his mistakes, or another may do the same thing for 
 the sake of his friend. Besides this an inexperienced eye 
 often fails to detect mistakes, and thus the marking may be 
 incorrect. I am aware that there is some advantage in the 
 plan, especially that it causes boys to look carefully to 
 see what is right and what is wrong, and that thus they may 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 5 1 
 
 learn a good deal. It may also be urged that if a master 
 collects the exercises or papers afterwards, and looks over a 
 certain number so that the boys may think it likely that any 
 unfairness will be detected, they will in all probability 
 be careful to mark the mistakes as correctly as they can. 
 But even then when a paper has been a good deal marked 
 and corrected it is often difficult to see what the original 
 was. Hence on the whole this system should be discouraged. 
 Generally speaking, where it is carried on to any great 
 extent, it arises, I think, from the desire of the master 
 i e himself trouble. There is another thing to be said 
 too in favour of all exercises being looked over by the 
 master, and that is that in doing so he gets to be well 
 Acquainted with the mistakes peculiar to certain boys, and 
 also with those prevalent in his Form, and hence he will be 
 able to correct individual errors better and to supply 
 the deficiencies in the knowledge of given boys, and also 
 to perceive where his own teaching has been at fault, and to 
 discover those points which it will be well for him to 
 emphasize. 
 
 While on this subject it will be well to notice that 
 written work should be looked over as soon as possible after 
 it has been done, and returned to the boys as soon as possible; 
 otherwise less interest will be taken in it and the line of 
 reasoning (if any) which produced a mistake will have faded 
 from the mind. I recollect sometimes at school not getting 
 my copies back till as much as a month after they had been 
 done, and having forgotten nearly all about them. Besides 
 a mist ike once made is likely to be repeated until it has 
 been corrected, so that the sooner it is explained the 
 better. 
 
 As to the amount of written work which is given in 
 
 4—2 
 
52 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 a Form there will be a considerable variety of opinion, and 
 there probably ought to be a good deal of difference between 
 different Forms according to their position in the school. I 
 am not in favour of giving much of it to younger boys. No 
 doubt it fosters accuracy and discourages guessing by tying 
 them down to one distinct statement. But this may be 
 dearly purchased by the loss of interest and keenness which 
 is promoted by viva voce teaching, and also by the fact that 
 a great deal is learnt from the answers of others, which is 
 not the case when the answers to questions are all written 
 down. Of course I am not now speaking of examinations, 
 the purpose of which is not so much to impart fresh know- 
 ledge, as to find out what has been already acquired. With 
 older boys the case is somewhat different, as it is more 
 necessary for them to be getting into the way of answering 
 questions on paper, with a view to competitive and other 
 examinations, and also because they do not need quite so 
 much the stimulus which viva voce work gives, or at any rate 
 ought not to need it. Probably the best plan, when there is 
 time to carry it out, will be to spend some portion of the 
 time allotted to the lesson in viva voce and the rest in 
 giving a few questions to be answered on paper. This 
 could not be applied to all lessons, and will hold good 
 most in History, Literature and kindred subjects. 
 
 I will notice only one other point under this head, and 
 that is that in lower Forms masters should be constantly 
 going about among the boys while they are writing, to see 
 how they are getting on and what they are doing. In 
 teaching Arithmetic, and the elements of Latin Prose, 
 I think this plan is particularly useful. In the former 
 especially if a master goes from boy to boy, correcting his 
 mistakes, and marking as he goes, he will not only prevent 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 53 
 
 his getting stranded over some difficulty, but he will stimu- 
 late him to exertion and prevent playing or idleness. 
 In the hitter too he will prevent the recurrence of the 
 same mistake, which may otherwise have vitiated the whole 
 exercise for want of explanation at the outset. It will save 
 him time also in the end, for he can mark each sum or 
 sentence as it is done. All this requires a good deal 
 of exertion, and makes a lesson no easy task. Indeed I do 
 not say that it can always be expected, but I am merely 
 endeavouring to point out what seem to me to be the most 
 efficient methods. 
 
 3. These remarks naturally lead me to my third head — 
 Marking. This is a subject which I am aware has already 
 been most ably handled in this place, and I shall therefore 
 only speak of it in a general way, in order to the complete- 
 ness of my general subject of "Form Management." 
 
 There are those who are of opinion that it would be 
 better if teaching could be carried on without any marks, 
 considering that the eagerness to get them, which is so often 
 found in boys, fosters a mercenary spirit, and tempts them 
 to dishonest work. They would argue that knowledge ought 
 to be sought for its own sake, and that if a master can infuse 
 a proper amount of stimulus into his teaching boys may be 
 made to work just as well without marks as with them. I 
 do not say that there is not a good deal in this idea, but I 
 am sure that it is too Utopian. Independently of the diffi- 
 culty which would arise in promoting from one Form or Set 
 to another, and the opening which would thus be given to 
 accusations of favouritism on the part of masters, I feel quite 
 sure that the average schoolboy has not arrived at that 
 mental condition in which he would do his work to the best 
 
54 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 of his ability for its own sake. In fact I have no doubt that 
 the attempt to carry out this theory would be attended with 
 a complete collapse of the work of a school, if not im- 
 mediately, at any rate in a short time. Granting then that 
 marking is necessary, I would observe in the first place that 
 in every school there should be a careful and even elaborate 
 system according to which marks are to be awarded. The 
 maxima for each subject should be fixed according to its 
 importance, or what practically comes to the same thing, 
 according to the number of hours given to it. I am myself 
 strongly in favour of having the marks of the highest boy in 
 each Form raised to the maximum each week in each subject, 
 in order that the due proportion between each branch of 
 study may be maintained. For it may and often does 
 happen, that out of a given number of marks one master is 
 inclined to give more than another for a particular standard 
 of excellence, and that thus the amount gained out of a 
 given maximum in one subject, may be permanently in 
 excess of that gained out of the same maximum in another 
 subject. Hence the principle on which the marks have been 
 originally assigned will be practically abrogated, and of two 
 subjects which are considered of equal value one will always 
 count more than the other. When this plan is adopted, the 
 marks of the whole Form or Set should be raised in the same 
 proportion as those of the highest boy in the subject. There 
 is a certain amount of labour involved in this plan, but is 
 amply compensated for by the accuracy and fairness of the 
 result obtained. I first became familiar with this plan at 
 Clifton College, and have since always carried it out, and 
 have found the results perfectly satisfactory. 
 
 In the second place, it is impossible that a master can be 
 too careful in apportioning his marks. If he is not they fail 
 
FOKM MANAGEMENT* 55 
 
 of their object, for let a boy once fancy that he is not treated 
 fairly in this respect, and he will lose that stimulus to ex- 
 ertion which, as I pointed out before, is the great advantage 
 of having marks at all. Besides, the master himself will get 
 a character for unfairness, whether deserved or not, and he 
 will thus lose a great deal of influence over his Form. 
 
 It is desirable, I think, that boys should be allowed to 
 see their marks if they wish to do so, for two reasons; the 
 first, that they may have perfect confidence in the impartiality 
 of their master; and the second, that they may have an 
 opportunity of discovering in what points they have failed, 
 in order that they may give special attention to them for 
 the future. 
 
 There are, speaking roughly, two ways in which a Form 
 may be marked, one by taking places and counting down, 
 the other by giving a certain mark for each answer. This is 
 of course independent of marks given for written work. 
 Of these two systems the former is I think the better for 
 lower Forms, the latter for higher. Place-taking certainly 
 serves to keep the boys alive and on the alert, it makes 
 them pay attention to what others are saying, and seems 
 a more tangible reward at the time. Besides this, if pro- 
 perly carried out, it tends to make a boy work at subjects 
 which he does not like as well as at those which he does 
 like. This remark is based upon the supposition that each 
 boy takes at the next lesson, whatever it may be, the place 
 he has occupied at that which has immediately preceded it. 
 For instance, let us suppose that a Latin lesson has been 
 said, ami that a certain boy has got to the top of the Form 
 who dislikes History, which is the first lesson the next day. 
 Although the subject is not congenial to him he will make a 
 point of working hard at the History in order that lie may 
 
56 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 keep his place, a thing which otherwise he would most 
 probably not have done. Thus there is a very considerable 
 amount of stimulus about this plan, for there are very few 
 boys who are not pretty good in some one subject, in which 
 they may hope to get up, and the very fact of their having 
 once taken a good place re-acts upon the whole of their 
 work, and makes them try as hard as they can to keep in 
 other lessons the position they have gained in their favourite 
 subject. But if the plan of placing boys at each lesson ac- 
 cording to their last place in the same subject be adopted, 
 not only will the general stimulus to their work be with- 
 drawn, but finding, as they will, that the subjects in which 
 they are weak drag them down to a low place in their week's 
 total, they will be inclined to give up the whole thing as 
 hopeless, and to cease to work even at those lessons for 
 which they have a natural liking and in which otherwise 
 they might excel. It has sometimes been advanced against 
 "place-taking" that it is a rough and ready method, and often 
 unfair. A ready method it certainly is, but as far as my 
 experience goes, neither rough or unfair. If the promotions 
 into a higher Form were settled by one day's work only under 
 this system, I will grant that it might easily happen that the 
 best boy might not come out first, but in the long run I feel 
 sure that it is quite as fair, if not more so, than any other 
 plan, and that it has in addition all the advantages which I 
 have endeavoured to lay before you. Of course like any 
 other system it requires to be carefully administered, and 
 may be easily spoiled. Questions, for instance, should be 
 asked in rotation. If a place is taken the next should be 
 put to the boy next below him who has just gone up — in 
 order that the same boy may not lose more than one place 
 at a time, unless indeed in an exceptional case, when there 
 
FOKM MANAGEMENT. 57 
 
 is reason to think that there has been culpable neglect in 
 the preparation of the lesson. 
 
 I cannot help tearing that I shall weary you with these 
 apparently trivial matters, but the fact is that our work 
 consists largely of these details, and it often happens that a 
 man is successful or not as a schoolmaster according to 
 the amount of attention he bestows upon them. 
 
 There is not much to be said upon the general aspect of 
 the other system — that of marking according to the answers 
 given. It is undoubtedly the best plan in higher Forms. 
 The stimulus of place-taking ought not to be necessary when 
 boys get towards the top of a school, as they will have other 
 reasons for exerting themselves, in the shape of a real desire 
 for knowledge, and the consciousness of impending exa- 
 minations. Besides, in higher Forms it will be necessary 
 for boys to be constantly taking notes, and therefore it 
 would be extremely inconvenient for them to be repeatedly 
 changing places, even if it were desirable on other grounds. 
 
 4. I now come to the fourth head which I laid down 
 for consideration — Form Discipline. It is scarcely necessary 
 for me to say that this is of the greatest importance, in fact, 
 the want of it will paralyse the whole of a Master's work, 
 and will make the efforts of the best teacher and the most 
 able scholar comparatively useless. Those boys who are 
 really anxious to learn may make fair progress, but not 
 nearly so much as they would if the discipline were good, 
 but the great hulk of the Form will learn next to nothing. 
 1 1 is well nigh impossible to lay down rules for the pre- 
 servation of discipline Everything depends upon the 
 character, the strong will ami determination of the Master. 
 There are some men whom boys would never think of 
 
58 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 "humbugging" as they call it — others with whom they 
 would "try it on" at once. On these points boys are 
 excellent judges. The great thing is to begin well, to show, 
 to put it plainly, that you don't intend " to stand any non- 
 sense," and when that fact has once been established, to 
 win them over by kindness, and by taking interest in their 
 work and games alike. A master who is successful in this 
 respect will feel, and let the boys feel, that he is, and intends 
 to remain, master of the situation, but that he is actuated in all 
 he does by the sincere desire for the highest welfare of those 
 committed to his charge. This, coupled with the knowledge 
 that there is a reserve force behind, will make him both 
 popular and respected. Very great difference has to be 
 made between the treatment of older and younger boys. It 
 is simply impossible to manage them in the same way. In 
 the case of the former their reason and self-respect, and 
 to some extent their rising feelings of independence and 
 self-reliance, must be appealed to. There are few greater 
 mistakes a schoolmaster can make than to bully or brow- 
 beat a boy who is approaching manhood. If he is treated 
 in this way he will probably become defiant, and when 
 matters have reached this pitch the situation is one of 
 extreme tension and danger, and the only alternative may 
 be a boy's removal from the school. It must be remem- 
 bered that confidence cannot be reposed in a boy without 
 encouraging him to express himself in a more unreserved 
 manner, and this sometimes bears the appearance of 
 "uppishness," if I may be allowed to use the word, to those 
 who do not understand the character with which they are 
 dealing", and who fail to make allowance for the "amour 
 propre " which is beginning to spring up in a boy's mind. I 
 know of few things which call for a greater display of tact 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 59 
 
 than the management of a class or set of boys at the top of 
 a large school. Sympathy with them seems to me the first 
 requirement, coupled with a high moral tone and firmness 
 when ne< essary. It must be remembered too that they are 
 at the "awkward age" between boyhood and manhood, and 
 that therefore allowance must be made for the follies which 
 belong to the earlier period, and are not yet altogether put 
 away, while they are gradually being trained for the respon- 
 sibilities which come with maturer years. 
 
 With younger boys the case is not nearly so complex. 
 Although no doubt with them too the qualities mentioned 
 above will be wanted, viz. a high moral tone, sympathy and 
 firmness — yet it will not be necessary to appeal so much to 
 their reason, but rather to insist on unquestioning obedience. 
 Discipline with them should be of rather a stricter type, 
 though not less kindly and considerate. 
 
 With this question of Discipline there is necessarily 
 connected the means which should be used to enforce it, 
 and to get the proper amount of work out of the boys. 
 With those in the upper part of the school, as I have 
 previously hinted, a great deal may be done by making idle 
 or troublesome boys ridiculous in the eyes of their school- 
 fellows, by what lor want of a better term I must call good- 
 humoured " chaff." I was for some time in the Form and 
 house of one of the greatest schoolmasters of the present 
 day (the Dean of Westminster) and, except for being late 
 in the morning, for which a fixed amount of English Repeti- 
 tion had to be learnt, I do not recollect his ever setting an 
 imposition ; and I am quite sure that there was no master 
 at Rugby in his day for whom boys worked harder, from 
 whom they learnt more, or whose Form was in a better 
 condition. Those who have been under him will well 
 
6o FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 remember the fear they had of making careless blunders, or 
 coming up with an unprepared lesson; knowing how ex- 
 tremely foolish they would be made to look, and how 
 ashamed of themselves they would probably feel. No 
 doubt behind all this there must be a reserve of punishment 
 if necessary, but it will not often be required. 
 
 In the case of lower Forms, where this kind of treatment 
 will not be so effective, punishments of various sorts must 
 be employed. These should, as far as possible, be in ac- 
 cordance with the nature of the offence. For neglect of 
 work I feel sure that the best plan is to keep a boy in till 
 he has done it properly. In the first place there are few 
 things which he dislikes more than finding himself still in 
 school while all the others are out and enjoying themselves 
 in various ways. Moreover it makes him see the folly of 
 neglecting to prepare his work at the proper time, if he finds 
 that he has to do it all the same in the end. Thirdly, it is 
 good for the general standard of the work of the Form, as it 
 keeps all the members of it more or less up to the mark ; 
 and lastly, it shows that the master is in earnest, and means 
 to have the work done, and that he is willing to sacrifice 
 himself, provided that by so doing he can really benefit the 
 boys. Merely setting an imposition does not have this 
 effect, as it can be done whenever it suits the boy's con- 
 venience, and involves no self-sacrifice on the part of the 
 master. It is easy enough to set so many lines to be 
 written, and hence is often done merely to save trouble, 
 and without regard to the real welfare of the offender. 
 I may as well mention here what may seem a matter of 
 course, but which for all that is not always done, viz. that if 
 boys are to be kept in the master should be careful not to 
 forget to come ; and that if he sets an imposition, he should 
 
FOA'.V MANAGEME* 61 
 
 always remember to exact it. I should not have drawn 
 your attention to this had I not known of instances in which 
 boys were in the habit of "forgetting" to come to detention 
 and "forgetting" to do their impositions, on the off chance 
 that they would never hear anything more about it. This 
 is obviously bad for the boys, and detrimental to the influ- 
 ence of the master. For constant playfulness or inattention 
 or other trivial faults, either detention for a short time, or 
 sonic imposition, which when done will have been of some 
 use, will be the best. If lines are set (and this should be as 
 seldom as possible) the amount should not be excessive, but 
 good writing ought always to be insisted upon. To tie half 
 a dozen pens together, and with that weapon to write " Irim 
 de caelo misit Saturnia Juno" (which I believe has fewer letters 
 in it than any other whole line in Vergil) five or six hundred 
 times, is not likely to be of much good to anybody, and is 
 very likely to spoil, or help to spoil, a boy's handwriting. 
 
 There is another form of punishment sometimes adopted 
 which is, I think, very objectionable, and that is taking away 
 marks for any other offence than neglect of work. It is no 
 doubt a very easy method, but it is not punishment in kind. 
 It is not desirable that a clever boy should be kept back 
 because he is talkative or playful, and this taking away of 
 marks may prevent his promotion, or it may make him idle 
 as well as otherwise troublesome, if he loses his reward for 
 what he really does well. This should be specially borne in 
 mind in place-taking Forms, where it is most common. For 
 it is a very easy and ready method of punishment to tell a 
 boy to go down three or four places, or even to send him to 
 the bottom ; and though the effect may now and then be 
 good, I believe that on the whole it is demoralizing and 
 therefore dangerous. 
 
62 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 It remains to say a few words upon corporal punishment 
 in connection with discipline. We hear a good deal said 
 from time to time in favour of doing away with this alto- 
 gether, and there are some schools, and one very large and 
 important one, University College School, where the disci- 
 pline is effectually maintained without it. But I cannot say 
 that personally I am in favour of its abolition. It has the 
 merit of being short, sharp, and decisive: it often brings a 
 boy to his senses who would sulk under a long series of 
 impositions or detentions, and to whose reason or affections 
 it may be comparatively useless to appeal : it does not de- 
 prive a boy of that exercise which is so needful to his bodily 
 health, and which is one of the great disadvantages of pro- 
 longed indoor work, and moreover there are some cases, such 
 as bullying, in which its infliction is extremely appropriate. 
 It ought, however, in my opinion, to be subject to careful 
 restrictions, and to be made use of as seldom as possible. 
 Where Form masters are allowed the use of the cane, it 
 should be kept as much as possible in the background, and 
 only brought out when it is going to be used, and that in a 
 solemn and judicial manner. Few things are more objection- 
 able than to see a master giving a lesson with a cane in his 
 hand, or beside him, of which he makes use on every con- 
 venient occasion. There can be no doubt that the weaker 
 a master is, and the smaller the amount of the influence 
 which he has over his boys, the more frequent will be his 
 use of the cane. In my opinion the amount of punishment 
 of this kind which may be inflicted by an assistant master 
 ought to be limited, as if the matter is Sufficiently serious to 
 need a very severe caning, it is also sufficiently serious to be 
 brought before the notice of the Head-master. In cases of 
 bullying, as I said just now, corporal punishment seems to 
 
FOKM MANAGEMENT* 63 
 
 mc most appropriate. Not only does he who wantonly 
 inflicts pain on his schoolfellow deserve to suffer it himself, 
 but as a bully is generally a coward, he particularly dreads 
 it. For serious moral offences also, such as lying, cheating, 
 Of rases of petty theft, it is, I think, necessary to have pun- 
 ishments of this kind to which resort may be had. If it is 
 not so, nothing remains except expulsion, and a boy may 
 thus have his prospects spoiled for life, who might have been 
 in laimed without recourse having been had to such an 
 extreme measure. I cannot help thinking that there is a 
 great deal of unnecessary sentimentalism involved in the 
 matter. All I can say is that, after twenty years' experience, 
 I am strongly in favour of the retention of corporal punish- 
 ment, although the more I see of its effects and dangers, the 
 more necessary I feel it to be that careful restrictions should 
 be put upon it to guard against its abuse, and that if possible- 
 it should be altogether avoided in the case of older boys. 
 There is one word I should like to add by way of warning to 
 those who intend to follow the profession of teachers, and 
 who will be very likely to have to begin with a Form of 
 young boys, and that is to guard against losing their temper, 
 and striking boys on the ears, or head, or indeed anywhere, 
 ID a momentary impulse of anger. Real physical harm may 
 be done in this way, the indignation of parents may be most 
 disagreeably and yet justly aroused, and at any rate no good 
 whatever is likely to come of it. 
 
 5. I now pass on to my last head, and will offer a few 
 remarks on the subject of games in connection with Form 
 Management On this point I will not detain you long, 
 but it is perhaps desirable to mention it, as some of those 
 who undertake sehool work seem to think that their re 
 
64 FORM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 sponsibility altogether ends when the school hours are over, 
 although I am glad to say that the number of such people is 
 constantly diminishing. 
 
 A master then should take an interest in the games of 
 the school, and in those of his own Form in particular. 
 He should urge boys to play, and if he can do so, he should 
 play himself. I will content myself with two reasons : the 
 first, which has been alluded to before, that he will increase 
 enormously his influence over the boys with whom he has 
 to do ; the second, that playing thoroughly at school games 
 is a most desirable — I had well nigh said necessary — thing 
 for a boy's physique and health, and perhaps the very best 
 way of keeping him from falling into vicious habits, which 
 some day may prove his ruin both in body and soul. The 
 whole subject with which this is connected has been most 
 ably treated by the present Head master of Clifton College, 
 in a paper read by him some short time ago before the 
 Education Society, and since published in the form of a 
 pamphlet. I can most strongly recommend it to the careful 
 perusal of those who are thinking of entering the scholastic 
 profession. 
 
 The time has now come for this lecture to close, and I 
 must once more apologize to my audience for the extremely 
 commonplace nature of my remarks, and for what may 
 seem the trivial details into which I have entered. All that 
 I have said will be quite familiar to those who have them- 
 selves had any experience in school work, but I have acted 
 on the supposition — whether right or wrong — that the object 
 of these lectures is to impart practical information to those 
 who have not as yet had this experience, and I have been 
 guided by my own recollection of those things which have 
 
FORM MANAGEMENT. 65 
 
 generally to be explained to those who come fresh from 
 College to take their places as Form masters in a large 
 school. It is of great importance that these details should 
 be understood, and carried out in practice in order to the 
 efficient and easy working of the school machine. 
 
 I hope I shall not be considered impertinent if I con- 
 clude by expressing a hope that those who intend to go in 
 for school work will bear in mind the immense responsi- 
 bilities of the duties they propose to undertake, and the 
 great influence for good which they can obtain over others, 
 and that too at a time of life when the seed sown is likely to 
 bear lasting fruit. The profession is doubtless an arduous 
 one, but most honourable, and of absorbing interest, and 
 one in which, more than in most, the results of hard and 
 conscientious labour will make themselves manifest, and will 
 cheer and reward those who endeavour honestly to do their 
 duty. 
 
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