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 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE, 
 
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 1 
 
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 BY HENRY KETT, B. D. 
 
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 VOL. I. 
 
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 TO THE 
 
 MOST NOBLE WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH, 
 DUKE OF PORTLAND, 
 
 LORD PRESIDENT OF HIS MAJESTY'S COUNCIL, 
 CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITT OF OXFORD j 
 
 THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD ELDON, 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, 
 HIGH STEWARD OF THE UNIVERSITY} 
 
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 PRESIDENT OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, 
 AND VICE-CHANCELLOR} 
 
 AND TO 
 THE OTHER RIGHT REVEREND AND REVEREND 
 
 THE HEADS AND GOVERNORS OF COLLEGES AND HALLS 
 IN OXFORD, 
 
 THE- FOLLOWING WORK 
 
 IS WITH THEIR PERMISSION RESPECTFULLY 
 INSCRIBED 
 
 BY THEIR OBEDIENT SERVANT, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 , 
 
 014961
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE following Work contains the fubftance of 
 a Courfe of Lectures, which I have occafionally 
 read to my pupils during the laft twerYe years. 
 The fatisfa&ion which they exprefled on hearing 
 them has encouraged me to hope, that they will 
 not prove unacceptable to thofe, for whole ufe 
 they are now made public. 
 
 To afTert a claim to originality in fuch a work 
 as this would perhaps only be equivalent to a con- 
 feffion of its demerit. My pretenfions to public 
 regard muft depend in no fmall degree upon the 
 manner in which I have clothed old ideas in a new 
 drefs, and upon my {kill in compreiiing within a 
 moderate compafs the fubftance of large and volu- 
 minous works. Upon all my fubjecls I have en- 
 deavoured to reflect light from every quarter which 
 my reading would afford. My references, and the 
 books mentioned in my Appendix, will mow the 
 fources from which I have derived my principal 
 information ; but it would be almoft an endlefs, 
 and perhaps a very oftentatious tafk, to enumerate 
 all my literary obligations. 
 
 A 3 There
 
 [ vi ] 
 
 There are a few topics indeed, \v ith refpeft to 
 which I think I may be allowed to aflert fome 
 claims to novelty. For many of my remarks on 
 the Greek Language I am indebted principally to 
 my own obfervations upon its nature and compa- 
 rative merits; the Hiftory of Chivalry, important 
 as the influence of that remarkable inftitution has 
 been upon manners, is a fubjec~l upon which I have 
 not been able to collect much information from 
 Engliih Authors; and the Hijlory of the Revival of 
 Clascal Learning, although a topic of the ftrongeft 
 intereft to every man of letters, has never been fully 
 treated by any writer, with whofe works I am ac- 
 quainted. 
 
 Many of my Quotations are fele&ed from fuch 
 books, as, either from the number of the volumes, 
 their fcarcenefs, or expence, do not frequently 
 come within the reach of young men. If fome of 
 them are borrowed from more obvious and popular 
 works, their peculiar beauty, ftrength, and appo- 
 fitenefs, it is prefumed, will juftify their introduction, 
 But elegant as my quotations may be in point of 
 ftyle, conclufive as to reafoning, or ftriking as tq 
 the irhpreflion they are calculated to make ; they 
 will not completely anfwer the intended purpofe, 
 if, while they raife a high opinion of the merit of 
 their authors, they do not excite an eager curiofity 
 to perufe more of their works. 
 
 If I Ihould be fortunate enough to fucceed in. 
 procuring for eminent writers any additional degree 
 
 of
 
 [ vii ] 
 
 of regard ; if I mould excite a more ardent and 
 more active attention to any branches of ufeful 
 knowledge ; and if the variety of my topics mould 
 contribute to diffufe more widely the light of ge- 
 neral information and ufeful truth ; I mall have 
 the fatisfaction to refleft, that my time has not 
 been facriticed to a frivolous purpofe by thus en- 
 deavouring, in conformity with the occupations of 
 the moil valuable portion of my life, to inftru& the 
 rifmg generation. 
 
 It has been fuggeiied to me by fome of my Ox- 
 ford friends, that this work may prove ufeful to 
 thofe who are qualifying themfelves to pafs the 
 public Examinations for their degrees in this UnU- 
 verfity. It certainly comprifes a furvey of the 
 principal fubjecls, with which the new Statute re- 
 quires them to be acquainted ; and if it does not 
 contain notices and lifts of mod of the books which 
 they muft neceifarily refort to, I mult confefs I 
 know not in what Catalogue they are to be found. 
 I wifh it however to be well underftood, that this 
 is an accidental purpofe to which my work is ap- 
 plicable ; for I repeat my aflertion, that the fub- 
 ftance of it has been read to my pupils in the form 
 of Lectures for a confiderable time paft ; and more 
 than fix years have now elapfed fince the general 
 Table of Contents was printed, and diftributed 
 among my Friends. 
 
 TUNITY COLLEGE, OXFORD, 
 
 May 12, I8O2. 
 
 A 4 ADVER-
 
 ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SECOND EDITION, 
 
 THE very favourable reception which this Work 
 has met with, has encouraged the Author to pub- 
 lifli a Second Edition, and a defire to render his 
 defign more complete has induced him to revife 
 the whole, and to make fome important Additions. 
 As fome of his Friends, on whole judgment he has 
 
 : 
 
 great reliance, have exprefled their approbation of 
 the Work, he feels the lefs helitation in earneftly 
 recommending it to thofe, whofe improvement it 
 is intended to promote. 
 
 The "^Additions" will be publijhed feparatety to 
 form an Appendix to thejirft Edition." 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD, 
 Auguft 1802.
 
 GENERAL TABLE OF CONTEXTS. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 THE Defign of the Work. The various branches of Litera. 
 ture and Science confidered with reference to young Men in 
 the higher clafles of life, as they are, I. CHRISTIANS; II. as 
 STUDENTS, who enjoy the advantages of a liberal Education ; 
 III. as MEMBERS OF THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. The con- 
 fideration of thefe important relations in which they ftand to 
 Society, has fuggefted the choice of the following fubjefts. 
 The purfuit of them, carried to fuch an extent as is compatible 
 'with due attention to profeffional Studin, is calculated to improve 
 the faculties of the mind, to inform the underftanding, ftr^ngthen 
 the judgment, engage the memory in an agreeable exercife, and 
 prepare a young Man for the beft performance of his various 
 duties in life. 
 
 CLASS T. 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGIOX. 
 
 C 
 
 THE reafonablenefs of inftrudKng Children in the princi- 
 ples of Religion at an early age. The fuperior excellence of 
 CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. Six of the leading proofs of the 
 truth of Chfiftianity flared. I. THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE, 
 BOOKS OF THE NE\V TESTAMENT. II. THE CHARACTE;:. OF 
 OUR LORD \XD SAVIOUR. III. THE PROPHECIES of which 
 he was the Subjeft, and thofe which lie pronounced. IV. His 
 MIRACLES. V. His PRECEPTS, or CHRISTIAN ETHICS, 
 
 VI. THE RAPID AND EXTENSIVE PROPAGATION OF THE GoS- 
 
 PEL at its firft preaching, under circumitances the mo ft hoftiie to 
 its fuccefs. P. 17 57. 
 
 CHAP.
 
 CHAP. II. 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 REASONS why the doftrinos and precepts of Chriftianity 
 have been attacked by Infidels of all ages. Their cavils (hewn 
 to be weak, and their arguments proved to be inconclufive. - 
 The Character and Condudl of modern Infidels furntfh addi- 
 tional evidence to the truth of Chriftianity, as they are plainly 
 foretold in Scripture. The Abfurdity of the Opinions of the 
 French Philofophifts and their Folljivers relative to Univerfal Phi- 
 lanthropy expofed. Genuine Chriftianity has produced the 
 happieft effects upon the Opinions, Conduft, and Inftitutions 
 of Mankind. It was darkened by Superftition, and intermixed 
 with Error by the Papifts but was refined and brought back 
 more nearly to the Apoftolical Standard by the REFORMATION 
 particularly by the PROTESTANT ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Summary of the fublime Truths of 
 Chriftianity. // comprehends the loft Revelation of the divine ivill 
 to mankind-* -eftablijhes the certainty of a future ft ate reconciles Man 
 to the Jifpenfations of Providence and qualifies him by a Life of Faith 
 end Obedience for the Rewards of Eternity. P. 58 84, 
 
 CLASS II. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAP. I, 
 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 ADVANTAGES refulting from a Knowledge of various 
 Languages The Theories of Lord Monboddo and Adam 
 Smith relative to their origin examined. All Languages de- 
 rived from one original Source. The moft rational fyftem of 
 the Origin of Speech accords with the Scriptural account of 
 Mofes. Alphabetical Characters are the moft perfeft. Repre-, 
 fentation of ideas their Origin and Progrefs thofe of modern 
 Europe may be traced to one fource. The diftinftions between 
 ancient and modern Languages. Origin of the Italian and French 
 Languages. The rife of the modern Languages forms a curious 
 part of the Hiftory of the dark Ages. P, 85-^-1 10. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 ITS Origin and Progrefs. The Simplicity of its gramma- 
 tical Conftruftion Has been brought more nearly to a regular 
 1 ftandard
 
 [ xi ] 
 
 ftandard by the writings of Biftiop Lowth, Dr. Johnfon, and 
 Mr, Home Tookc Is both copious and energetic, and well 
 adapted to Poetry. Its Imperfections inferior to Greek arid 
 Latin as to the arrangement of words in Compofition. Stric- 
 tures on thofe Writers who have unneceflarily introduced into 
 their works many words of Latin derivation, particularly Sir 
 Thomas Browne, " the Author of the Vulgar Errors," and Dr. 
 Johnfon. The practice of the latter, efpecially in his " Rambler," 
 feems inconfiftent with his remarks in " the Preface to his 
 Dictionary." The ftyle of Gibbon confidered and cenfured. 
 Several of the Scotch popular Writers have deviated from the 
 idiom of our Language. P. i j i 131. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 SOME of the pureft Writers of Engiim recommend.ed. 
 Asc HAM RALEIGH SPEED TAYLOR CLARENDON TEM- 
 PLE ? BARROW LOCKE DRY DEN SWIFT ADD i SON 
 POPE MELMOTH. The excellence of the Engiim Tranflatioa 
 of the Bible.-r-The practice of Writing gives to Converfatioa 
 correftnefs and elegance. The Standard of the Englifh Lan- 
 guage. Difagreement between our Orthography and Pronun- 
 ciation How they ought to be regulated. The excellence of 
 our Language, when confidered as the vehicle of fome of the 
 moft inftruftive and delightful productions of the human mind. 
 The Settlement of the Engiim Colonies in North America and 
 the Eaft- Indies will probably contribute to its perpetuity. 
 
 P. 132143- 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 ITS Utility It was formerly the general Language of all 
 Perfons of Education for conversation as well as writing. Ita 
 Origin Inferior to Greek. Its Beauties and difcriminating 
 Features. The progrefs of its Improvement. Sketch of the 
 pureft Writers TERENCE LUCRETIUS CICFRO NEPOS 
 C<SAR LIVY VIRGIL HORACE OVID -CATULLUS 
 TIBULLUS PH^EDRUS. Points in which Latin are inferior to 
 Greek Writers. A degeneracy of ftyle remarkable in Tacitus 
 Suetonius Pliny Lucan Seneca. Many beauties of the 
 Ciaffics are loft in Tr,wjl itions. The wide extent of the Latin 
 Language before and after the Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 Periods of its Rife, Progrefs, and Decline. The belt Models 
 
 of
 
 [ * 1 
 
 of Imitation for Writers of Latin arc C re FRO and VIRGIL. 
 Rules neceflary to be obferved in this elegant fpecies of Compo- 
 fition. P. 144 169. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 ITS Origin Dialers The Theory of its derivation a* 
 ftated by Lord Mon'ooddo confidered. Its Charafteriftics 
 Harmony and wonderfnl Copioufrcfs. Various Exarr,} !es of 
 the Greek Claflics prove how admirably it was adapted to fub- 
 je\s of Poetry Eloquence Hiftory <md Phiiofophy. The 
 peculiar Beauties of Greek Compofition. The Caufes of the 
 extraordinary duration and/ wide extent of antient Greek as a 
 living Language-. Modern Greek. Comparative View of the 
 Greek, Latin, and Englifh Languages. P. 170 190* 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 / 
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 FINE ercomium on Eloquence by Cicero. Four different 
 heads under which the productions of Eloquence may be con- 
 fidered. I. The Sources of Argument. II. The Nature of 
 Style. III. The Arrangement of the different; parts of a Dif- 
 courfe. IV. Proper Action and Delivery. The Eloquence of 
 ancient and modern times. What Examples to be propofed for 
 the Imitation of a public Speaker DEMOSTHENES CICERO 
 LORD CHATHAM LOUD MANSFIELD BURKE, &c. 
 
 P. 191 214. 
 
 CLASS III. 
 HISTORY. 
 ^ CRAP. I. 
 
 HISTORY IX GENERAL. 
 
 HISTOPvICAL Information is calculated to gratify that 
 euriofity which is common to all periods of life. The methods 
 adopted in the early ages of the World to tranfmit the know- 
 kdee of Events to pofterity The defeds of fuch methods 
 completely icn^died by Hiftory. The Advantages of a know, 
 ledge of Hiftory. Its moft important branches, I. THE HIS- 
 TORY OF THE J/.WS. II. OFGRKKCE. III. OFRQME. IV. OF 
 
 MODKRN EUROPE. V. OF ENGLAND. Statiftics, Biography, 
 and tiie Letters of eminent Perfons, are highly ufeful and 
 plcafii'.g in an hiflorical point of view. CHRONOLOGY and 
 
 GEOGRAPHY
 
 GEOGRAPHY are the lights of Hifiory. Coins, Medals, and 
 Laws, furnifh it with ftrong auxiliary evidences. P. 215 246, 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 COMPARISON between ancient and modern Hiftorians 
 Sketch of a complete Writer of Htftory given as a Standard 
 whereby to afcertain the merits of Hiftorians. P. 247 256, 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 THE Accomplifhment of fome remarkable Prophecies, re- 
 lating both to the affairs of the Jews, and to the Chriftian 
 Revelation, and the evident proofs, that the Jews were fele<fted 
 as the peculiar people of God, render their facred Books highly 
 interefting. I. The remote Antiquity of thefe Books the 
 proofs of their Authenticity the fublime nature of their Con. 
 tent?. II. The inftirotions, manners, and cuftoms, of the an- 
 cient Jews. THE KNOWLEDGE AWD WORSHIP OF THE ONE 
 TRUE GOD DISCRIMINATED THEM FROM ALL OTHER. NA- 
 TIONS IN THE W T ORLT>. III. The Effects of their Opinions 
 and Inftitutions upon their literary Compolitions. The Charac- 
 ters of MOSES DAVID SOLOMON ISAIAH JEH.EMJAH 
 DANIEL. The Accuracy of the Scripture Chronology proved 
 by Sir Ifaac Newton. IV. Advantages to be derived from the 
 Study of the Holy Scriptures in general. Praife of the Englifli 
 TranQation. SIR WILLIAM JONES'S Opinion of the Holy- 
 Bible. P. 257284. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 m 
 
 ORIGIN of the Greeks. The defcriptions of Homer cor- 
 refpond with the moft authentic accounts of their early man- 
 ners and condition. ATHENS and SPARTA the moft eminent 
 of the Grecian States their Religion and Government. The 
 influence of their refpeftive inftitutions upon manners and 
 characters. The moft fplendid Era of .Athenian Greatnefs. 
 Characters of fome illuftrious Perfons during that Period 
 MILTIADES PAUSANIAS CIMON THEMISTOCLES ARIS- 
 TIDES SOCRATES. The fufferings of Patriots and Philofophers 
 under a democratical form of Government. .Degraded ftate of 
 the fair Sex. Hard condition of Slaves. Digreffion on the 
 treatment of Slaves in ancient tifnes, and of thofe conveyed by 
 
 the
 
 [ XIV ] 
 
 the moderns to the Weft Indies. Contraft between the Greeks 
 and Perfians. P. 285 318. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE great influence of Liberty and Emulation upon the 
 elegant Arts and Literature of Greece. The peculiar excellence 
 of Grecian Poets HOMER SAPPHO PINDAR .&SCHYLUS 
 SOPHOCLES EURIPIDES ARISTOPHANES MBNANDER 
 THEOCRITUS. Grecian Orntors PERICLES DEMADES 
 HYPBRIDES .&SCHINES DEMOSTHENES. Hiftorians HE- 
 RODOTUS THUCYDIDES XENOPHON. Philofophers SO- 
 CRATES PLATO ARISTOTLE. Artifts - ZEUXIS PARRHA- 
 sius PHIDIAS ALCAMANES. P. 319 331. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE Caufes and Confequences of the Peloponnefian War. 
 Character of Pericles. The decline of Athenian Power and 
 Fame. EPAMINONDAS and PELOPIDAS iliuftrious Thebans. 
 Character of ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Apelles and Lyfippus. 
 The degeneray of Athenian Manners. Greece fubdued by the 
 Romans by the Turks. Degraded ftate of its prefent Inha. 
 bitants, who retain fome traces of the Character of their An- 
 ceftors. Advantages derived by modern Europe from antient 
 Greece. Concluding remarks fuggefted by fome points of re- 
 femblance between Athens in the time of her glory, and the 
 prefent ftate of Great Britain. P. 332351. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 THE fingular excellence of the Roman Hiftory. The mag. 
 nificence of Rome, and the wide extent of the Empire in the 
 reign of TRAJAN, naturally excite our curiofity to inveftigate 
 the leading caufes of the Greatnefs and Fall of the Roman 
 Power. The Caufes of its Greatnefs were, I. THE PECULIAR 
 CONSTITUTION OF GOVERNMENT. II. THE IMPROVEMENT OF 
 THE ARTS OF WAR. III. THE ATTACHMENT TO THE ESTA- 
 BLISHED RELIGION. IV. THE SPIRIT OF PATRIOTISM. 
 
 P- 352380. 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE Roman Inftitutions and Laws, by forming the man- 
 ners, and directing the conduft of a hardy, a&ive, and courage- 
 ous
 
 ous People, enabled them to eftabltfh their extenfive Empire. 
 The Carthaginians were their moft formidable Rivals. Their 
 Naval Power and extenfive Commerce. Characters of HANNI. 
 BAL and SCIPIO AFRICANUS. The Civil Wars The Charac- 
 ter of AUGUSTUS The flourifhing ftate of Literature and the 
 Arts during the AUGUSTAN AGE. The degeneracy of Manners 
 from that period. Its Caufes; I. LUXURY. II. CORRUPTION. 
 III. NEGLECT OF EDUCATION. IV. THE PREVALENCE OF 
 THE EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Good and bad Emperors. 
 Rome facked by the Goths. Divifion of the Empire. Re- 
 flections. P. 381 404. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. 
 THE Events and Revolutions in this part of Hiftory hare 
 given rife to our prefent eftablifhments, manners, and modes of 
 thinking. A Ihort review of the moft remarkable Events, with 
 their refpeftive Caufes and Effects. I. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 II. THE CRUSADES. III. THE INSTITUTION OF CHIVALRY. 
 
 P. 405446. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE Events in Modern Europe continued. IV. THERE- 
 FORMATION OF RELIGION. V. THE REVIVAL OF CLASSICAL 
 LEARNING. The moft remarkable Difcoveries of modern times, 
 and their beneficial effects. Concluding Obfervations. 
 
 P. 447480. 
 
 VOLUME II. 
 
 CLASS V. 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 IS interefting to mankind In general, and peculiarly fo to 
 Britons. Excellent Remark of Frederic King of Pruffia upon, 
 this fubjeft. The Sources of our Information are numerous and 
 authentic. A Sketch of thofe memorable Reigns during which 
 i'uch Charters were granted, and Laws were palled, as form our 
 
 prefent
 
 [ xvi ] 
 
 prefent Conftitution. ALFRED. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 HENRY II. JOHN. Magna Charta. EDWARD I. EDWARD III. 
 HENRY VII. HENRY VIII. QUEEN ELIZABETH. CHARLES!. 
 CHARLES II. JAMES II. WILLIAM III. THE REVOLUTION. 
 QUEEN ANNE. THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. P. i 34. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE general benefits, which refult to Englifhmen from the 
 Genius of their POLITICAL CONSTITUTION. P. 35 47. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 LOGIC, OR THE RIGHT USE OF REASON. 
 
 ADVANTAGES to be derived from its cultivation Its true 
 Nature not to be mifunderftood Its conftituent Parts are 
 four; I. PERCEPTION, including ideas, words, and definitions. 
 II. JUDGMENT, of which the foundations are three Intuition, 
 or the ground of fcientific knowledge Experience, or the 
 ground of natural knowledge Testimony, or the ground of 
 hiftorical knowledge. III. REASONING its different kinds 
 Syllogifm arguments againft this mode of endeavouring to 
 difcover truth. Lord Bacon's mode of reafoning by INDUC- 
 TION dated nnd recommended. IV. METHOD divided into the 
 analytic and fynthetic. Practice and good examples neceflary 
 to form a correct Reafoner. Examples recommended LORD 
 BACON CHILLING WORTH GROT i us LOCKE CLARKE 
 BISHOP BUTLBR SYNGE PALEY. Practical influence of 
 Logic, or well-regulated Reafon, upon Mankind during the va- 
 rious periods of Life. P. 48 76. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE MATHEMATICS. 
 
 OBJECTIONS againft thefe ftudics anfwered. Utility of 
 Mathematical Knowledge. Opinion of Locke favourable to 
 fcientific pnrfuits their great pcrfpicuity the method of rea- 
 foning purfued in them. Mathematics are .pure and mixed. I. 
 ( Pure, viz. Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Trigonometry. 
 II. Mixed, viz. Mechanics Optics Aftrenomy Pneumatics 
 Hydroftatics. The eilimation in which thefe ftudies were held 
 in ancient times. P. 77 89. 
 
 CHAP.
 
 [ xvii 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE fphere of the Sciences has been greatly enlarged by 
 the difcoveries of the moderns ROGER BACON COPERNICUS 
 GALILEO KEPLER HUYGENS TORICELLI LORD BA- 
 CON BOYLE HERSCHEL. The moft able interpreter of the 
 Laws of Nature was NEWTON Sketch of his difcoveries His 
 Character contrafted with that of DESCARTES. The proper fub- 
 ordination of Science to polite Literature in a general Syftcm 
 of Education. Union of both in the eminent Students of the 
 Uuiverfity of Cambridge. P. 90 107. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 THE WORKS OF NATURE. 
 
 THE furvey of the Works of Nature is" an employment 
 highly ufeful and delightful. The refearches of Naturalifts are 
 directed to, I. ANIMALS; II. VEGETABLES; III. MINERALS. 
 The comparative nature of Man. The inftinct of Animals 
 the admirable care of Nature in their ftructure and prefer vation 
 - Her prolific power in the production of organifed Bodies 
 appears to be boundlefs. The Organs of Animals adapted to 
 their convenience and prefervation illuftrated by the ftrufture 
 of the Eye. Profpect of the dominion of Man over the inferior 
 Animals. Some parts of the Creation apparently inconfiftent 
 with the benevolence of Nature, and yet may be reconciled to 
 her general economy. P. 108 136. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 The connecting links of the chain of Animals and Vege- 
 tables. An inquiry into their Analogy leads to the Science of 
 BOTANY. Its Nature. The fexual Syftem was eftablifhed, 
 rot difcovered by LINNAEUS. The ftructure of Plants Local 
 ufefulnefs of particular Vegetables The profpects of vegetable 
 nature highly gratifying as a fubject of Tafte. MINERALOGY 
 CHEMISTRY. The Works of Nature raife the mind to the 
 confideration of their great Author. CONCLUDING ADDRESS 
 TO THE SUPREME BEING. 137 173. 
 
 a CLASS
 
 f xviii ] 
 CLASS VI. 
 
 POLITE LITERATUKE AND THE FINE ARTS. 
 CHAP. I. 
 TASTE. 
 
 DEFINITION of Tafte Its principles arc implanted in 
 every mind diftinguifhcd by good fenfe, Tafte is capable of 
 high cultivation Its proper Limits and Standard. Indivi- 
 duals, as well as Nations, improve their Tafte, in proportion 
 to the progrefs of Knowledge and Refinement. P. 174 198, 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE Character of a Critic who is a Man of Tafte. Exam- 
 ples Ho R A C E Qu I NT I L I A N V I DA A D D I SO N Sp E N C E 
 
 LOWTH THE WARTONS GRAY REYNOLDS WINKLE- 
 MAN. The chief Provinces of Tafte I. Music. II. PAINT- 
 ING. III. POETRY. The Beauties of the CLASSICS. The 
 pleafures which refult from the exercife of a refined Tafte. 
 
 P. 199 226. 
 
 CLASS VII. 
 
 THE SOURCES OF OUR NATIONAL PROSPERITY, &C. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 HAS been efteemed an object of great importance by dif- 
 tinguimed perfons both in ancient and modern times. Eminent 
 Writers upon the fubjeft Hefiod Xenophon, &c. It has 
 been moft flourifhing in the foil of liberty gradually im- 
 proved as old errors have been exploded, and new experiment* 
 tried, and adopted. The beft method of forming general 
 principles upon this fubject. Population is limited by the means 
 of fubfiftence. The character and relative importance of the 
 HUSBANDMAN. The general advantages of Agriculture Its 
 Superiority to Commerce as a fource of national good, and per- 
 manent power. P. 227 248. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 THE SUBJECT CONTINUED. 
 
 THE ftate of Agriculture in ENGLAND compared with that 
 f FRANCE, IRELAND, and AMERICA, Caufes of the fuperi- 
 
 ority
 
 [ xix ] 
 
 rhy of England. Plans of farther Improvement fuggefted. 
 All other Arts are inferior in pvint of utility to that of caufing tbt 
 etjrtb to bring forth a copinui produce for the fupptrt of Mankind. 
 
 P. 249264, 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 THE extenfive profpecl of Induftry exerted in every part of 
 Great Britain excites our curiofity to inquire into, I. The Ad- 
 vantages. II. The Principles. III. The comparative State of 
 Commerce. The natural advantages of the Ifland of Great 
 Britain as a commercial Country have been gradually improved 
 by great public works. The influence of Commerce upon 
 Agriculture. Character of the ENGLISH MERCHANT. The 
 methods which have been, adopted for the promotion of Com. 
 merce. A Comparifon between the prefent and former State 
 of England proves the beneficial effects of Commerce The 
 obftacles oppofed to its farther improvement may be removed. 
 Great Britain fuperior to moft Countries in the requisite means 
 for a widely -extended Commerce. P. 265 298. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 FOREIGN TRAVEL. 
 
 ITS chief advantages. The qualifications neceflary for a 
 Gentleman who vifits foreign Countries. The natural Beauties, 
 remarkable Places, and principal Curiofities of his own Ifland 
 to be previoufly viewed. Bad effects of going abroad too young. 
 Hafte in paffing through different Countries, and Ignorance of 
 foreign languages cenfured. The objefts of attention vary ac. 
 cording to the education and favourite purfuits of the Travel- 
 ler. Eminent modern Travellers GRAY HOWARD SIR 
 JOSEPH BANKS SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON MOORE 
 YOUNG. The Traveller gratifies his tafte by treading on claflic 
 ground. He vifits places celebrated in the writings, and dif- 
 tinguifhed by the actions of the Antients. He views the an- 
 tient and modern Specimens of the fine Arts Architecture 
 Sculpture Medals Pictures Books. He inveftigates the State 
 of Government, Religion Commerce Agriculture, &c. and 
 remarks their combined effects upon the Manners, Cuftoms, 
 and Profperity of Nations. Cautions againft the adoption of 
 the dangerous opinions^ which prevail abroad upon Subjects of 
 Religion and Government. The general refult of his travels 
 ftiown by their beneficial influence upon his Opinions and Conduct. 
 
 P. 299329. 
 
 CHAP.
 
 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 THE PROFESSIONS. 
 
 CLASSICAL Learning and the Elements of Science and 
 Philofophy are highly beneficial to thofe who do not follow a 
 profeffion, as well as afford the only folid foundation for profef- 
 fional Knowledge. The attainments requifite for, I. THE 
 BARRISTER, II. THE PHYSICIAN. III. THE CLERGYMAN. 
 
 P. 330. 
 
 COXCLUDING CHAPTER. 
 
 FINAL Exhortations to the improvement of the faculties of 
 the mind, and the acquirement of ufeful knowledge, arifing 
 chiefly from the circumftances of the PRESENT TIMES. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 LISTS of USEFUL BOOKS, particularly of feleft editions of 
 the CLASSICS, recommended by Perfons eminent for learning 
 and judgment, which illuftrate more clearly, and explain more 
 fully the preceding Subjects. 
 
 END OF THE GENERAL TABLE OF CONTEXTS. 
 
 THE
 
 ( THZ 
 
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 Levia quidem hcec, $ parci forte ji per fe fpectentur 
 momenti ; fed ex ELEMENTIS soqftant, ex prin- 
 cipiis oriuntur omnla ; 8$ ex judicii confuetudine 
 in rebus minutis adhibita, pendet fospil/ime etiam 
 in maximis vera atque accurata Scientia. 
 
 CLARKE PR^EF. IN ILIAD. 
 
 i 
 
 J. O feparate fome of the moil ufeful and the 
 moft beautiful parts from the great mafs of human 
 knowledge ; to arrange them in fuch regular order, 
 that they may he infpecled with eafe, and varied 
 at pleafure ; and to recommend them to the careful 
 examination of young men who are ftudioufly 
 difpofed, conftitute the defign of the Author of 
 this work. 
 
 The more he reflects upon the PRESENT STATE 
 OF SOCIETY, the VARIOUS FACULTIES of the mind, 
 and the GREAT ADVANTAGES which arife from 
 acquiring an AMPLE FUND OF VALUABLE IDEAS, 
 the more he is convinced of the utility of engaging 
 in the purfuit of general knowledge, as jar as 
 may be conjijtent with profejjional views, and parti- 
 cular Jit nations in life. 
 
 VOL. r. B The
 
 2 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 The cuftom has prevailed of late years, much 
 more than it did formerly, of introducing young 
 men at an early age into the mixed company of 
 perfons older than themfelves. As this is the 
 prevailing mode, they ought to be prepared in 
 fome degree at leaft to blend manly and ferious 
 topics with the fallies of light and gay converfa- 
 tion. And, in order to be qualified for the intro- 
 duction of fuch fubjecls, it feems requilite to unite 
 to the (ludy of the learned languages other attain- 
 ments, which have a reference to the fciences, the 
 works of nature, and the affairs of active life. 
 
 The improvements of the times have turned the 
 attention of the learned to new purfuits, and given 
 their conduct a new direction. The Scholar, no 
 longer confined within the walls of a College, as 
 was formerly the cafe, now mixes in general fociety, 
 and adapts his ftudies to an enlarged fphere of 
 obfervation : he does not limit his reading to the 
 works of the ancients, or to his profeflional re- 
 fearches alone ; but ihows his proficiency in the 
 various parts of literature, which are interefting 
 to the world at large. 
 
 The condition of focial intercourfe among thofe, 
 who have had the advantages of a liberal educa- 
 tion, is at prefent fo happily improved, that a free 
 communication fubfifts between all intelligent and 
 well-informed men. The Divine, the Phyfician, 
 the Barrifter, the Artift, and the Merchant, afib- 
 ciate together without referve, and augment the 
 
 pleafure
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. $ 
 
 pleafure they derive from conversation, in propor- 
 tion as they obtain an infight into each other's 
 purfuits and occupations. The more ideas they 
 acquire in common, the fooner their prejudices 
 are removed, a more perfect congeniality of opi- 
 nion prevails, they rife higher in each other's efti- 
 mation, and the pleafure of fociety is ripened into 
 the fentiments of attachment and friend/hip. In 
 fuch parties, where " the tcaft of reafon and the 
 flow of foul" prevail with the happieft effect, he 
 who unites to knowledge of the world the leading 
 ideas and rational principles, which well-cholen. 
 books can fupply, will render hirnfelf the moft 
 acceptable, and the moft valuable companion. 
 
 Such are now the abundant productions of the 
 prefs, that books written in our own language 
 upon all fubjects whatever are conftantly publifhed, 
 quickly circulate through the whole kingdom, and 
 are eafy of accefs to general readers. This cir- 
 cumftance has leifened that wide and very evident 
 diftinction, which in former times prevailed between 
 the learned and the unlearned clalTes of the com- 
 munity. At prefent, they who have not enjoyed 
 the benefit of a claffical education may reap many 
 of the fruits of learning without the labour of cut- 
 
 O 
 
 tivation, as tranflations furniih them with conve- 
 nient and eafy expedients, which can in forne 
 meafure, although an incomplete one, make amends 
 for their ignorance of the original authors. And 
 upon all fubjects of general Literature, Science, 
 and Tafte, in their actual and moft highly im- 
 
 B 2 proved
 
 4 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 proved ftute, they have the f;ime means of infor- 
 mation in their power with thofe who have been 
 regularly educated in the Univerfities, and the 
 public fchools. 
 
 Thus favourable are the temper and the cir- 
 cumftances of the Times to the dirfufion of know- 
 ledge. And if the moil mature and deliberate 
 decifions of reflection and experience be required 
 to give weight to the opinion, that comprehenfive 
 views of learning and fcience are calculated to 
 produce the beft eftecls upon the mind, reference 
 can be made to both ancient and modern autho- 
 rities to writers of no lefs eminence than Quin- 
 tilian, Milton, and Locke. Their obfervations 
 tend to prove, that clofe attention to a profeftional 
 ftudy is an affair of the firft importance, but that 
 invariable and exclufive application to any one 
 purfuit is the certain mark of a contracted educa- 
 tion. For hence the ftudent is led to form a 
 diflike to occupations diffimilar to his own, and 
 to entertain prejudices againft thofe who exercife 
 them. He is liable to view mankind and their 
 employments through a wrong and a difcoloured 
 medium, and to make imperfect, if not falfe efti- 
 mates of their ufe and value. In order to prevent 
 the growth of fuch contraClednefs of difpofition, 
 and fuch errors of judgment, what method can 
 be more eificacious, than to open fome of the 
 .gates of general knowledge, and difplay its mod 
 beautiful profpefts fully to his view? 
 
 Such
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 5 
 
 Such Profpefts, diftinelly and deliberately fur- 
 veycd, will produce the molt beneficial effects 
 upon his temper and opinions. While they plare 
 before him the- means of incuafing his informa- 
 tion, they will render him a more correct judge 
 of its value, and fecure him from conceit, affe<5la-" 
 tion, and pedantry. They will render him more 
 capable of appreciating the relative importance 
 and comparative merit of different ftudies, when re- 
 ferred to the ule and the ornament of life. He will 
 difcern the natural affinity which fubfifts between, 
 the different branches of polite literature, and how 
 capable they are of increafmg the influence, and 
 improving the beauties of each other. In fliort, 
 various purfuits, fkilfully chofen and afliduoufly 
 followed, can give proper activity to every fatuity 
 of the mind, inafmuch as they engage the judg- 
 ment, the memory, and the imagination, in an 
 agreeable exercife, and are affociated for one bene- 
 ficial purpofe like the genial drops of rain, which 
 defcend from heaven, they unite in one common 
 ftream to ftrengthen and enlarge the current of 
 
 knowledge. 
 
 . 
 
 By ftudies thus diverfified, the mind is fupplierf 
 with copious materials for the ferious reflexions 
 of retirement, or the lively intercourfe of fociety; 
 it is enabled, by the combination of many parti- 
 cular ideas, to form thofe general principles, which 
 it is ever eager to embrace, and which are of emi- 
 nent ufe in the conduct of life, by adding fuch 
 flexibility to thought, and quickuels to judgment, 
 
 B as
 
 $ THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 as in every fituation may prove pleafmg, and 
 highly advantageous. In fhort, fuch a plan is 
 calculated to diil'eminate that knowledge, which 
 is adapted to the pretent improved date of fociety, 
 to dived learning of pedantry, and to afford the 
 fch'olar fome inlight into the refearches of the 
 philofopher, the occupations of the man of bufi- 
 nefs, and the pleafures of the man of tafte. 
 
 And as the Arts and Sciences beftow mutual 
 afiiftance and reflect mutual light upon each other, 
 fo are they highly efficacious and beneficial when 
 combined with profeflional occupations; to fome 
 they are effentially neceflary, to all they are orna- 
 mental. they fupply analogies, which are inftru- 
 mental to their perfedl elucidation, and they afford 
 fupplies, which are conducive to their complete 
 fuccefc. 
 
 . 
 
 Every one mud allow, that all fyftems of Edu- 
 cation, if conftituted upon right principles, mould 
 bp well adapted to the (ituations of thofe, for 
 whofe fervice they are intended. In felecUng the 
 topics of the following work, I have therefore 
 cpnfulered Young Men, with a view to their mod 
 important and mod nfeful relations in life, as 
 CHRISTIANS, as STUDENTS, and as MEMBERS OF 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE, the welfare and profperity. 
 of which depend upon the ufefulnefs of their attain- 
 ments, and the refpeclability of their conduct 
 
 It
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 7 
 
 It is evident from general obfervation, that the 
 principles of religion are congenial with the mind 
 of man : for even among tribes the mofl barba- 
 rous and uncivilized, whether we explore the wilds 
 of Africa, or the (bores of the Pacific Ocean, 
 where the capacities of the inhabitants are narrow 
 and limited, and very few virtues are remarked to 
 expand and flourim ; fpme traces of religion, foine 
 notions of an Omnipotent and Over-ruling Power, 
 darkened as they may be by grofs fuperftition, are 
 ftill found to prevail. And even in the civilized 
 country of France, where the impious abettors of 
 the Revolution proceeded fo far as to infult the 
 reafon of an enlightened people, by compelling 
 them to abjure their faith in their Creator and their 
 Redeemer, how difficult has it been found to pro* 
 duce even external conformity to their decrees ; 
 and with what ardour are the people returning tq 
 the open profetlion of Chriftiauity, now their 
 rulers are fully aware of the expediency of its 
 revival and public exercife ! It appears therefore, 
 that to inculcate thofe principles of religious 
 duty, which the mind naturally invites, and to 
 improve its capacity f r the reception of the moi^ 
 fublime truths, is no more than a juft attention 
 and due obedience to the voice of Nature. 
 
 And as the truth of Chriftianity is founded 
 upon the ftrongeft arguments, and unites in the 
 clofeft union our public and private, our tem- 
 poral and eternal happinefs, it juftly forms the 
 groundwork of Education. The benevolent attri- 
 
 B 4 butes
 
 8 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER." 
 
 butes of the great Creator his power as the 
 Author, and his goodnefs as the Governor of the 
 univerfe the bright image of the Saviour of the 
 world, as reprefented by the holy Evangelifts 
 his actions marked by the pureft benevolence, 
 his precepts tending immediately to the happinefs 
 of man, and his promifes capable of exciting 
 the moft exalted and moft glorious hopes, are 
 peculiarly calculated to ftrike the imagination, 
 and intereft the fenfibility of youth. Such fublime 
 topics, inculcated upon right principles, cannot 
 fail to encourage thofe ardent ientiments of love, 
 gratitude, and veneration, which are natural to 
 fufceptibie and tender minds. Since therefore the 
 fame principles which are congenial with the clif- 
 pofitions of young men are moil conducive to their 
 happinefs; fmce, in mort, the evidences of 
 CHRISTIANITY are miraculous ; fmce it is an 
 exprefs revelation of the will of God, and as 
 fuch we can have no pretence to reject its proofs, 
 and no right to refift its claims to our observance ; 
 it muft be unqueftionably a fubject of tranfcendent 
 importance, and therefore ftands as the frft and 
 leading topic of my work. 
 
 As the knowledge of LANGUAGE is intimately 
 connected with every other kind of information, 
 and as in the Languages of ancient GREECE 
 and ROME are preferved fome of the nobleft pro- 
 ductions of human genius, I aflign to thefe fubjecls 
 the next place. 
 
 In
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHATTER. 9 
 
 In recommendation of ouu OWN LANGUAGE it 
 
 is fuperfluous to have recourfe to arguments. All 
 who arc acquainted with it, foreigners as well as 
 natives, mult be convinced of its excellence, par- 
 ticularly as it is the vehicle of productions emi- 
 nently diftinguilhed by Genius, Taite, Learning, 
 and Science. 
 
 And as Language mould be confidered not 
 merely as a channel to convey our thoughts upon 
 common occasions, but as capable of ornament to 
 plcafe, and of energy to perfuade mankind ; and as 
 fuch improvements are both gratifying and bene- 
 ficial to fociety, proper attention is due to the ftudy 
 of ELOQUENCE. 
 
 The moft celebrated of Roman Orators has re- 
 marked with great propriety of obfervation, that 
 ignorance of the events and tranf.ictions or former 
 times condemns us to a perpetual ftate of child- 
 hood : from this condition of mental daiknefs we 
 are refcued by HISTORY, which fupplies us with its 
 friendly light to view the iultructive events of paft 
 ages, and to. collect wifdom from the conduct of 
 others. And as there are particular countries, from 
 which we have derived the moft important informa- 
 tion in Religion, in Arts, in Sciences, and in Lite- 
 rature, we ought carefully to inlpcct the pages of 
 their iritereftiug records. 
 
 The moft ancient people, of whom we have any 
 authentic accounts, are the JEWS: to them was 
 
 coinmu-
 
 10 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 communicated, and by them was preferred, the 
 knowledge of the true God ; while all other nations 
 were funk in the moft abject fuperftition, and dif- 
 graced by the groileft idolatry. 
 
 The writers of GREECE and ROME have recorded 
 fuch numerous and fuch eminent inftances of the 
 genius, valour, and wifdom of their countrymen, 
 as have been the juft fubjecls of admiration for all 
 fucceeding ages ; for which reafon the accounts of 
 
 THU1IR MEMORABLE TRANSACTIONS Ought tO be 
 
 carefully infpefted before we proceed to furvey the 
 HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE, and OF ou 
 
 ITATIVE COUNTRY. 
 
 As Reafon is the nobleft faculty of the human 
 iriind, it is of the higheft importance to confider 
 its proper conduft and application, more efpecially 
 as upon its right direction in controlling the flights 
 of the imagination, and abating the violence of 
 the paflions, depends the happinefs of life. That 
 fyftem of LOGIC, therefore, which confifts not in 
 abitrufe terms, or argumentative fubtlety, but in 
 the manly exercife of the rational powers, juftly 
 claims an important place in every fyftem of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 The various difcoveries and improvements in 
 SCIENCE and PHILOSOPHY conftitute a peculiar 
 diftinction between ancient and modern times. 
 Problems of fcience, like the arguments of Logic, 
 employ the mind in the moft vigorous exercife of 
 
 its
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 11 
 
 its powers, and confirm the habits of clofe applica- 
 tion, which are effentially neceflfary in the proiecu- 
 tion of every kind of ftucly. Such are the reafons 
 for introducing and recommending due attention 
 to the principles of the MATHEMATICS. 
 
 TJle human mind, not content with fpeculations 
 upon the properties of matter alone, delights to 
 furvey the wonderful works of the GREAT CREATOR, 
 as difplayed in the various parts of the univeife. 
 This employment is a fource of never-failing fatis- 
 faction to perfons of every age. The productions 
 of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms 
 are clofely connected with the well-being, and are 
 conducive to the fubfiftence of man ; fo that 
 NATURAL HISTORY claims his particular atten- 
 tion. 
 
 And as the elegant Arts pofiefs a pleafing influ- 
 ence over the imagination, and furniih a conltant 
 variety of amufement and pleafure, it is highly 
 defirable to examine the principles, and confider 
 the application of a refined and correct taile to the 
 beauties of PAINTING, POETRY, and Music. 
 
 In the welfare and profperity of his native country 
 every Briton is deeply interefted. The two great 
 fources of its fupport, its opulence, and its glory, 
 are AGRICULTURE and COMMERCE; to have a 
 knowledge of their leading principles muft be 
 allowed to be iingularly ufeful to an Engliih gen- 
 tleman. 
 
 Siiice
 
 12 TITE INTRODUCTORT CHAPTER. 
 
 Since it is a prevailing fafhion, particularly among 
 the higher ranks ot'tbciety, to complete the courfe 
 of education by viiiting Foreign countries, it is 
 ufeful to afcertain the advantages, which may be 
 derived from the practice of TRAVELLING. 
 
 As attainments derive their greateft value from 
 being directed to the purpofes of aelive life, the 
 qualifications requifite for a right conduct in the 
 learned profeftions of LAW, PHYSIC, and DIVINITY, 
 are taken into confideration. 
 
 And laftly, to point out the fources, from which 
 the reader may draw more complete information 
 upon all the preceding fubjecls, the work is clofed 
 
 with lifts of THE MOST APPROVED AND INSTRUC- 
 TIVE BOOKS, 
 
 The Order, in which my Claflcs are difpofed, is 
 adapted to the progress of the faculties of the 
 mind, from childhood to riper years. The princi- 
 ples of Religion, of Language, and of Hiftory, as 
 engaging the memory, occupy the firft place ; and 
 the elements of Science, Natural Hi ftory, andTafte, 
 together with the various ftudies, which relate to 
 the active fcenes of life, as chiefly iuterefting the 
 powers of the undcrftanding, clofe the volumes of 
 knowledge. The foundation of the building is 
 deeply laid, and compofed of the molt folid mate- 
 rials ; the fuperftruclure, raifed to a proper eleva- 
 tion, difplays ornament, while it is adapted to con- 
 venience. 
 
 Such
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 13 
 
 Such is the fketch of my defign, in which it is 
 intended to trace the regular progrtfs of application, 
 from puerile to manly ftuclies from elementary 
 knowledge to profeflional duties. It is furficiently 
 finished to (hew, that the fields of inftrucHon are 
 not only fertile, hut the moft various in their pro- 
 ductions. Some fpots bring forth the immortal 
 fruits of Religion, fome the hardy plants of Sci- 
 ence, and fome the delicate flowers of Tafte. Here 
 then the active temper of youth, and their fond nefs 
 for change, may find ample means of gratification, 
 wherever they choofe to wander and expatiate. 
 Light purfuits may divert, after fevere ftudies have 
 fatigued the mind ; and he who has been diligent 
 to perufe the records of hiftory, to folve the pro- 
 blems of fcience, or afcertain the diftinctions of 
 logic, may find an agreeable relaxation in furveying 
 the beauties of nature, charming his ear with the 
 delightful ftrains of mufic, pleaiing his eye with the 
 fair creations of the pencil, or delighting his fancy 
 with the fictions of poetry. 
 
 With refpecl to my choice of books, I wifli it not 
 to efcape the obfervation of the reader, that I have 
 rejected fome works with as much readinefs as I have 
 adopted others. Very few Novels will appear in my 
 lifts, as I am well convinced of their pernicious ten- 
 dency. If we take the moft fuperficial furvey of 
 the Circulating Libraries, we may obferve, that the 
 ingenuity of our own authors is furficiently fertile 
 in thefe flimfy and ihort-lived publications; and 
 yet Germany and France have contributed their 
 
 aid
 
 14 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 aid to fatisty the craving appetite of the British 
 public, with fuch fuccefs, that fome of their pro- 
 ductions are as popular as our own. It is to be 
 lamented, that moft Novels do no ftnall injury to 
 the caufe of found and wholefome literature, as well 
 as to that of morality. They vitiate the tafte of 
 their readers, deftroy their relifh for ufeful books, 
 and make the facts of hittory, and even the de- 
 fcriptions of poetry, appear dull and infipid. It 
 were well if their bad effects terminated at this 
 point : but as they are generally filled with licen- 
 tious defcriptions, improbable incidents, falfe fenti- 
 inents, and fuch fophiftical arguments, as may ferve 
 to juftify the molt improper actions ; they tend to 
 excite a romantic fenfibility, to enflame the paffions, 
 and corrupt the heart. 
 
 Let it likewife be carefully remarked, that I am 
 under very few obligations to the founders of the 
 new fchool of Philofophifra in France. So far 
 indeed from wifliing to direct the attention of my 
 readers to their works, it is my anxious defire to 
 caution them againft the iniidious arts, the flimfy 
 fophiftry, and the exceflive arrogance of the mo- 
 dern French writers, particularly Voltaire, Rnuffeau, 
 jyAlembert, Diderot, Heh-ctius, ami Vvlney ; and 
 their admirers and difciples, Gibbon, Paine, and 
 Godtvin, In direft and decided opposition to their 
 fpurious philofophy, their abufe of the powers of 
 reafon, their profligate and delufive fpeculations 
 upon the momentous fubjeots of. Religion, Morality, 
 and Government, their folly in rejecting whatever 
 
 is 
 8
 
 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 15 
 
 5s old, and their precipitation in embracing whatever 
 is new, I avow my firm conviction, that there is no 
 greater or more fruitful fource of mifchief and 
 inifery, than a wild, unreft rained ardour for inno- 
 vation : I MAINTAIN THE TRUTH AND THE IM- 
 PORTANCE OF THE CHRISTIAN REVELATION, THE 
 VALUE OF ANCIENT LEARNING, THE DIGNITY OF 
 SCIENCE, AND THE EXCELLENCE OF THE BRITISH 
 CONSTITUTION* And in order to provide the moil 
 efficacious antidote againft the poifon of their opi- 
 nions, I recommend an intimate acquaintance with 
 the eminent divines of the Church of England, 
 fuch as CUDWORTH, BARROW, TILLOTSON, STIL- 
 LINGFLEET, CLARKE, and PALEY ; and with our 
 great philofophers and moralifts, BACON, LOCKE, 
 BOYLE, NEWTON, ADDISON, and JOHNSON. Thefe 
 are the authors, whofe underftandings I reverence, 
 to whofe authority I bow, and whofe immortal 
 works I earneftly recommend. Thefe are the 
 writers, whom, in decided preference to all arro- 
 gant fciolifts, and plaufible infidels, I hold up to 
 general attention, as the luminaries of ufeful know- 
 ledge, the teachers of genuine wifdom, and the 
 true friends of mankind. 
 
 
 Such are the inftru6tors, by whofe afliftance the 
 
 ftudent is advifed to extend the fphere of his appli- 
 cation beyond profeflional knowledge, and to cul- 
 tivate fome of the more open fields of ufeful and 
 pleafing inftruclion. 
 
 I confider myfelf as afluming the office of a 
 Guide to the youthful and inexperienced traveller, 
 
 and
 
 16 THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 and as undertaking to point out the interefting 
 profpects of a charming country, without afpiring 
 to the accuracy of a topographer, or the diligence 
 of an antiquarian. I Ihall conduct him, who com- 
 mits himfelf to my directions, from a low and nar- 
 row valley, where his views have been clofely con- 
 fined, to the fuinmit of a lofty mountain : when he 
 has reached the proper point of view, he will fed 
 his faculties expand, he will breathe a purer air, 
 enjoy a wider horizon, and oblerve woods, lakes, 
 mountains, plains, and rivers, fprcading beneath 
 his feet in delightful profpect. From this com- 
 manding eminence, I mall point out fuch places as 
 are molt deferving his researches ; and finally, I 
 fhall recommend him to thofe, who will prove more 
 inftruclive, and more pleating companions, through 
 the remaining part of his journey. 
 
 CLASS
 
 CLASS THE FIRST. 
 RELIGION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Chriftian Religion* 
 
 I HE feeds of religious knowledge are implanted 
 in our minds during the earliefl period of our lives. 
 The notions of a Providence, and the various duties 
 which we owe both to God, and to mankind, are 
 inculcated long before our judgments are fufticiently 
 matured to determine the reafonablenefs, or efti- 
 mate the utility, of moral and religious truth. 
 
 That the conduft of the inftru&ors of children, 
 in thus taking advantage of the curiofity and the 
 pliability of the infant mind, is not the refult of 
 fuperftition and credulity, but of good fenfe, and a 
 proper regard to its beft interefts, and moft valu- 
 able improvement, will appear, when the powers 
 of judgment and difcrimination are fufficiently 
 ftrengthenecl by time to enable a young man to 
 examine thofe principles, which he has been taught 
 from his early years to hold venerable and facred. 
 To inquire on what account Chriflianity claims an 
 afcendency over all other branches of knowledge, 
 
 VOL. i. c and
 
 18 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 and what are the particular grounds upon which he 
 believes it to be a divine Revelation, is a duty 
 which he owes equally to his own reafon, and to 
 the dignity and importance of the fubjeft itfelf. 
 
 " Revelation claims to be the voice of God, and 
 our obligation to attend to his voice is furely moral 
 in all cafes. And as it is infilled that its evidence 
 is conclufive, upon thorough confideration of it ; 
 fo it offers itfelf to us with manifeft obvious appear- 
 ances of having fomething more than human in it, 
 and therefore in all reafon requires to have its 
 claims moil ferioufly examined into*." 
 
 Such an examination, conducted with that de- 
 gree of care and attention, becoming the infinite 
 importance of the fubjecl, will clearly prove that 
 the Chriftian Religion conftitutes beyond compa- 
 rifon the mod ufeful and the moft tranfcendent part 
 of our knowledge. It introduces us to an acquaint- 
 ance with thole fubjecls, which are in the higheft 
 degree dtfirable to be known ; as it opens the 
 cleared profpecr, that man in his prefcnt Ibite can 
 furveVj of that Being, who is the elfence of all per- 
 fection, the centre of infinite excellence, and the 
 fountain of inexhauftible wifdom, goodnefs, and 
 power. The knowledge of created beings is low 
 and trivial when compared to this ; for however 
 admirable they may be in their conftrudion, how- 
 ever ufeful in their nature and properties, and how- 
 
 * Butler's Analogy, p. 401. 
 
 ever
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. J(J 
 
 ever (lupenclous in their frame and magnitude, they 
 are ftill but faint madows and imperfeci images of 
 the glory of their Creator. The inftru6lion, which 
 the Chriftian Religion conveys, is not only of the 
 moil excellent kind, but its acquifition is above all 
 things to be defired, efpecially when \ve coniiderthe 
 Almighty, with refpect to the wonders of his power, 
 and the difpenfation of his Providence when we 
 view him by the clear light of the Chriftian Reve- 
 lation, not only as the Maker and Governor of the 
 univerfe, but as the Father of the Saviour of the 
 world, whom he commiflioned to proclaim his di- 
 vine will, to eftablim the certainty of a future ftate, 
 and to propofe everlafting happinefs to mankind, 
 on condition of faith in a Redeemer, and obedience 
 to his commands. 
 
 To know Chriftianity is therefore both to under- 
 ftand what the Supreme Being has revealed for our 
 greateft good, and to afcertain what conduct we 
 ought to purfue in order to obtain his approbation, 
 and favour. How low therefore muft the acquire- 
 ments of learning and fcience fink in our opinion, 
 when placed in oppofition to religious knowledge! 
 But when it forms the bafis, upon which they are 
 built, they derive additional value as well as liabi- 
 lity from its fupport ; they are confecrated to the 
 beft purpofes, and directed to their moft falutary 
 ends. Much as the knowledge of the fcholar, and 
 the fpeculations of the philofopher may elevate and 
 enlarge the mind, and much as they may improve 
 and adorn it, they extend not our profpecls beyond 
 
 c 2 the
 
 CO THE CHRJSTIAV RELIGION*. 
 
 the world, they bound our views within the narrow 
 limits of human lift-, lint the knowledge of a 
 C'hriitian takes a more exalted and a more certain 
 aim ; it relpecis a degree of felicity, which exceeds 
 our utrnoft powers of conception, and a fituation 
 of pleafure and delight without alloy, and without 
 end It relates to a ftate of exigence, when the 
 fpirits of the juft will be made perfect, and the 
 tranfcenclent blifs of angels will be imparted to glo- 
 rified and immortal man. 
 
 Such being the excellence of Chriftianity, and 
 fudi the -important end, which it propofes, every 
 pcrfon, who deiires to be fully acquainted with 
 divine truth, and to build his happinds upon the 
 moft folid bafis, will take, with the grcateft fatis- 
 facVton, a particular and diftinct view of its nature 
 and evidences. Then will he avoid the imputation 
 of being a Chriftian merely in compliance with the 
 prejudices of his parents, or the cuftoms of his 
 native country ; and he will become one in confe- 
 quence of a rational preference, and a proper exa- 
 mination b . His conviction of its truth will then 
 be folid and clear; he will plainly perceive the 
 
 ftrength 
 
 fc " Befides his particular calling for the fupport of this life, 
 every one ha* a concern in a future life, which he is hound to look 
 after. This engages his thoughts in religion ; and here it mightily 
 lies upon him to underftand, and reafon right. Men therefore 
 cannot be excufed from understanding the word, and framing the 
 general notions relating to Religion right. ' Great advancements 
 might be r.iade in knowledge of all kinds, efpecially in that of the 
 
 greateft 
 
 6
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 21 
 
 flrength of its foundations, and fully underftaml 
 the extent of its advantages : he will be perfuaded 
 that it bears the character and ftamp of divinity, 
 and that it has every claim to the reception of 
 mankind, which a divine Revelation can reafonably 
 be ex peeled to poilefs. 
 
 The proofs of the truth of the Chriftian Revela- 
 tion are numerous, clear, and conclufive. The 
 inoft obvious and ftr iking are thofe which ajrife ; 
 I. From the AUTHENTICITY OF THE BOOKS or 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT. II. THE CHARACTER OF 
 OUR LORD AND SAVIOUR. III. The PROPHECIES 
 of which he was the fubjeft, as well as thofe which 
 he delivered. IV. His MIRACLES. V. THE SUB- 
 LIME MORALITY OF HIS PRECEPTS. And, VI. 
 
 THE RAPID AND EXTENSIVE PROPAGATION OF 
 
 HIS RELIGION under circumftances the moft hoilile 
 to its advancement, 
 
 ' 
 
 I. TJte Authenticity of the Books of the 
 New Teftament. 
 
 The New Teftament is the fource, from which 
 the knowledge of the Chriilian fyftem is derived. 
 That the Gofpels and the Ads of the Apoftles were 
 
 greateft concern and largeft views, if men would make a right ufe 
 of their faculties, and ftudy their own pnderftandings.'* Locke on 
 the Conduct of the Underftanding, p. 398. vol. iii. fol. 
 
 The happy effefts that refult from early religious inftruftion are 
 described with his accuftomed eloquence, by Dr. Parr, in hi* Dif- 
 f ourfe on Education, See p. 1 3, &c. 
 
 c 3 written
 
 22 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGIOW. 
 
 written by St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, and 
 St. John, neither Gentiles nor Jews have ever hern 
 fo hardy as to deny. The fecond Epiftle of St. 
 Peter indeed, the Epiftles of St. James and St. Jude, 
 the two Epiftles of St. John, the Epiftle to the He- 
 brews, and the Revelation of St. John, were not 
 received at firft by all the congregations of Chrit- 
 tians. As foon however as their authenticity was 
 made known, they were admitted into the Canon 
 of Scripture. That the Gofpels are the fame in 
 every article of the finalleft importance, as they 
 were when firft publifhed by their refpecYive authors, 
 there can be no doubt ; as they have been preferved 
 through every fucceflive age with the greateft care. 
 From the time of the Apoftles to the prefent hour, 
 .even thole feels of Chriftians, that have been the 
 moft at variance upon other points, have concurred 
 in guarding them with equal diligence, and have 
 held them in equal veneration. The proofs of their 
 genuinenefs are more numerous than can be adduced 
 in favour of any other ancient writings. Every 
 relation of a fact is marked by an exact particularity 
 of names, perfons, times, and places, that can in 
 any degree throw light upon the fubje6fc, and efta- 
 blim its truth. The hiftory, the manners, and the 
 opinions of the times, as they may be collected 
 from all other accounts, harmonize with the narra- 
 tives of the facred Writers, and corroborate their 
 general veracity, The Evangel ifts were placed in 
 fituations the moft favourable for obtaining com- 
 plete and authentic information. St. Matthew and 
 St, John, two of the difciples of our Lord, heard 
 
 his
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 23 
 
 his divine inftru6lions from his own mouth, beheld 
 his aftonilhing miracles, and attended him during 
 the whole courfe of his miniftry. They drew their 
 accounts from an intimate knowledge of peribns, 
 and a lively recollection of fac~ts. St. Mark and St. 
 Luke are entitled to all the credit of contemporary 
 Biographers, as they were enabled to trace the truth 
 to its fource, in confequence of living in habits of 
 the clofeft intimacy with thofe who had feen and 
 converted with our Lord. Few of thofe hiftorians, 
 whofe works we moft efteem, and M'hofe fidelity we 
 moft refpect, were fo nearly connected with the 
 fubject of their writings, or poflerTed fuch ample 
 means of genuine information. Any one of the 
 Evangelifts was perfectly well qualified to record the 
 Hiftory of Chrift, and to fatisfy us as to its truth 
 upon his own credit only ; and all of them taken 
 together, and combining their accumulated ftrength, 
 form a body of evidence furhcient to remove the 
 icruples of every candid mind, and to eftabliih the 
 truth upon a folid and lafting foundation. 
 
 We may affert with the moft perfect confidence 
 and truth, that fo far from there being any traces 
 extant of a Hiftory of Chrift and his followers, con- 
 tradictory to that of the Evangelifts, there is not a 
 contemporary, or a fubfequent writer, whether 
 Jewifli or Pagan, who adverts to the fubjecl; at all, 
 who does not confirm the leading fads of the Gof- 
 pel Hiftory. 
 
 c4 The
 
 24 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 The New Teftament likewife contains Epiftles 
 written by the holy perlbns, who were engaged in 
 preaching the Gofpel immediately after the afcen- 
 fion of their divine Mailer. Thefe Epiftles refer 
 continually to the original fafts contained in the 
 Gofpels, and confirm their truth. A perfect har- 
 mony of defign is evident both in the one and the 
 other. They prefcribe the fame rule of faith 
 They inculcate the fame articles to be believed, 
 and the fame precepts to be obeyed. They contain 
 many ftriking references to the labours, which St. 
 Paul, the great Apoftle of the Gentiles, underwent; 
 and the peculiar energy and earncftnefs, with which 
 he addrefied his converts, have all the marks of 
 ferioufnefs and fmcerity, which can give to any 
 writings whatever the llamp of originality d . AH 
 thefe Epiftles, when taken together, are not to be 
 considered as competing a iingle evidence only, but 
 as containing diftincl; and independent atteftations 
 of the truth of Chriftianity ; for it is evident from 
 
 * See the animated and affefting description of his fufFerings, 
 4 Cor. xi, &c. 
 
 - The proofs of the genuinenefs of the Epiftles deduced from 
 remarkable coincidences, and clofe though not ftudied connection 
 with the Gofpel Hiftory, as well as from allufions to particular 
 incidents, perfons, times, and places, are ftated by Dr. Paley, with 
 great precifion and clearnefs. See more particularly his Horaa 
 Paulingc, p. n, 14, 34, 169, 216, 312. A new argument in 
 
 J^avour of the Epiftles is drawn from the erroneous fubfcriptions to 
 fix of them, p. 380. He concludes with a fhort view of the ex, 
 ternal Evidence, p. 386, 403. And gives fome ftriking remarks 
 On the Talents, Character, and Conduct of St. Paul, p. 41 1. 
 
 their
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 25 
 
 thvir contents, that they were written by different 
 perfons, at various times, and upon various occa- 
 fions. Even the little c ire urn (lances in which they 
 differ from each other have their ufe, as they tend 
 to prove that there was no plan preconcerted by 
 the writers, with a view to excite wonder, and 
 obtain credit by any fludied uniformity of rcpre- 
 fentation. 
 
 He who perufes the Gofpels and Epiftles with 
 attention, muft be ftruck by a remarkable peculi- 
 arity of narrative and argument, which runs 
 through every part of them. There is no appear- 
 ance of artifice or duplicity in the facred Writers ; 
 no endeavour to raife the reputation of friends, or 
 depreciate the characters of enemies. There is 
 no effort made to reconcile the mind of the reader 
 to what is marvellous in their narrative ; no ftudied 
 attempt to fire his imagination, or roufe his paffions 
 in their caufe. All is fair, temperate, and candid. 
 Vain, it is true, were the fearch for thofe orna- 
 ments which diilinguim the claffical writers : but 
 Hill in their works there is frequently a pleafing 
 fimplicity, and fometimes a fublimity of expreflion, 
 although thefe beauties feem rather to rife natu- 
 rally out of the fubjecl, than to refult from the 
 labour of compofition, or any choice or arrange- 
 ment of words. One circumltance there is, in 
 which the New Teftament rifes to an elevation, 
 which no other book can reach. Here prefides 
 the majefty of pure and unfullied truth, which 
 ihines in unadorned but awful ftate, and never 
 
 turns
 
 26" THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 turns aikle to the blandimments of flatten,-, or 
 li irens to the whifper.s of prejudice, or defama- 
 tion. Mere alone ilie invariably fupports the fame 
 dignified and uniform character, and points with 
 equal impartiality to Peter now profefling his un- 
 alterable ridelity, and now denying his Lord; 
 to the Apoftles at one time deferting Chrift, and 
 at another, hazarding their lives by the bold pro- 
 feflion of his Gofpel. And thefe plain characters 
 of truth afford the cleareft evidence of the infpi- 
 nition of the facred books. The Holy Spirit, 
 whofe afliftance was promifed to his difciples by 
 their heavenly Mafter, guarded them from error in 
 their narratives, in the ftatewent of their precepts,. 
 and the developement of their doclrines. Upon 
 fuch momentous points, as contribute to form an 
 infallible rule and ftandard of faith and practice, 
 they were guided by the divine wifdom, and thus 
 are raifed to a degree of authority and credibility 
 unattainable by all other writers". 
 
 " It doth not appear, that ever it came into 
 the mind of thefe writers, how this or the other 
 action would appear to mankind, or what objec- 
 tions might be raifed upon them. But without 
 at all attending to this, they lay the facts before 
 you, at no pains to think, whether they would 
 appear credible or not. If the reader will not 
 believe their teftimony, there is no help for it; 
 
 See Gibfon's Paftoral Letters in the Enchiridion Theologi, 
 cum, Tol. iv. p. zj5. 
 
 they
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 27 
 
 they tell the truth, and attend to nothing clfe. 
 Surely this looks like fincerity, and that they puh- 
 liihed nothing to the world, but what tlcy be- 
 lieved themfelvesV 
 
 An inquiry into the authenticity of the books 
 of the New Teftament is of great importance. 
 If they are as ancient as they are reputed to be ; 
 if they were certainly written by the perfons to 
 whom they are afcribed, and have all the requifite 
 characters of genuinenefs, we may venture to 
 aflert with confidence, that the facts contained in 
 them are undeniably and fubftantially true. For 
 fuppofing fuch actions as have been attributed to 
 Chrift never to have been performed, fo great mud 
 have been the effrontery, as well as the ingenuity, 
 of the fabricators of this impofture, if they pro- 
 ceeded to publilh as true what they knew to be 
 falfe, as to exceed the bounds of belief: and if] 
 even for the fake of argument only, we fuppofe 
 them to have combined in a confederacy for fuch 
 a purpole, what would have been the confequence? 
 They would only have given the den* red advantage 
 to their acute, active, and implacable enemies, 
 who would quickly have detected the falfehood, 
 facrificed the abettors of it to their juft indignation, 
 and ftigmatized the Chriftian Religion for ever as 
 an impofture and a fable. 
 
 f Duchal, quoted by Paley, rol. ii. p. iSz. 
 
 In
 
 28 THE CURISTIAX RELIGION'. 
 
 In the prefervation of the holy fcriptures, we 
 may obferve a very ftriking inftance of tlie fuper- 
 intendance of divine Providence, ever watchful for 
 the happinefs of mankind. Notwithftandiug the 
 various diflentions which have continued to prevail 
 in the Chriftian Church, ever iince .its firft eftab- 
 limment, the Books containing the principles of 
 the Religion itfelfj, are come down to us who live at 
 the diilance of nearly eighteen Centuries from the 
 time of their Authors, in a pure and unadulterated 
 condition : fo that whenever the Chriftian faith 
 has been corrupted, its deviation from a ftate of 
 purity could always be detected by an appeal to 
 the inoft indifputable authority. Nor has the 
 ftream of time merely conveyed to us this divine 
 treafure, uninjured and fecure; but even in the 
 midft of the mo'ft violent persecutions, and the 
 clarkeft fuperftition, the Chriftian faith has been 
 fo protected by divine care, that it has never been 
 wholly loft to the world. The {park of heavenly 
 fire, although it has been covered by the afhes of 
 Error, has ftill remained alive, and although in the 
 fuperftitious ages, previous to the Reformation, 
 its light could be with difficulty difcerued, yet it 
 was always acceilible to thole, who wifhed to fan 
 jt into a flame. 
 
 II. The Character of our Lord. 
 
 This character, as reprefcnted in the plain and 
 energetic narratives of the Evangel ifts, is marked 
 by qualities the moft extraordinary, and the moft 
 
 tranfcendent.
 
 THE CHRISTIAN* RELIGION . $9 
 
 tranfcendent. Every defcription of every other 
 perfonage, whether embellished by the fancy of 
 the poet, or pourtrayed by the accuracy of the 
 hiftorian, leaves it evidently without an equal, in 
 the annals of mankind 
 
 If the conduct; of thofe who bear a refemblance 
 to Chrift as the founders of religious eftablifhinents 
 be examined, thefe affertious will receive the 
 fulled confirmation. They all accommodated 
 their plans to human policy, and private intereft 
 to exifting tenets of fuperftition, and to prevailing 
 habits of life. The Chriftian Lawgiver, more 
 fublime in his object, and more pure in his motives, 
 aimed at no recommendation of his precepts by 
 courting the prejudices, or flattering the paffions 
 of mankind. The inftitutions of Numa the 
 fecond King of the Romans, of Bra ma the Law- 
 giver of the various tribes of India, and of Con- 
 fucius the great Philofopher of China, were evi- 
 dently adapted to the exifting habits, and pre- 
 vailing inclinations of their people. They feem 
 indeed to have been founded altogether upon 
 them. Mahomet, the great impoftor of Arabia, 
 accommodated the rules of his Koran, and the 
 rewards of his paradife, to the manners and defires 
 of a warlike and a fenfual people. In his cha- 
 racter and conduct he prefented a ftriking contrail 
 to Chrift. Ambition and luft were the reijniino- 
 
 o o 
 
 paffions of his foul. He maintained, that he re- 
 ceived his Koran from heaven : but its frivolous 
 and abfurd contents fufficiently indicate the falfe- 
 
 hood
 
 30 THE CHRISTIAN RELICIOX. 
 
 hood of his pretenfions. With a degree of effron- 
 tery ftill more impious, he pleaded a divine autho- 
 rity for the boundlefs gratification of his paflions : 
 and, unable to appeal to miracles, which give the 
 inoft certain proofs of a teacher fent from God, 
 he propagated his faith by force, and reared his 
 bloody crefcent amid captives, who were the viftims 
 of his paffious, and cities that were defolated by his 
 fword *. 
 
 In 
 
 " Mahometanifm is a borrowed fyftem, made up for the 
 moft part of Judaifm and Chriftiariity, and, if it be confidered 
 in the moft favourable view, might poffibly be accounted a fort 
 of Chriftian Herefy. If the Gofpel had never been preached, it 
 may be queftioned whether Mahometanifm would have exifted. 
 Its author was an ignorant knave and a fanatic, who had neither 
 {kill nor genius to form a religion out of his own head. Jortin's 
 Sermons, vol. vii. p. 369. 
 
 See Paley's Evidences, vol. iii. p. 70. feft. ii. Taylor's 
 Moral Demonftrations, vol. ii. p. 385. and Prideaux's Life of 
 Mahomet. 
 
 The contrail between oar Lord and the Prophet of Arabia is 
 drawn in a ftyle of fuch rich and appropriate eloquence by 
 Sherlock, that I cannot deny myfelf the pleafure of prefenting 
 it to my readers. 
 
 f( Make the appeal to natural religion, or, which is the 
 fame thing, to the rcafon of man. Set before her Mahomet, 
 and his difciples, arrayed in armour and in blood, riding in 
 triumph over the fpoils of thoufands and tens of thoufands, who 
 fell by his victorious fword. Shew her the cities which he fet 
 in flames, the countries which he ravaged and deftroyed, and 
 the miferable diftrefs of all the inhabitants of the earth. When 
 Jhe has viewed him in this fcene, carry her into his retire, 
 ments ; (hew her the prophet's chamber, his wives and con- 
 cubines ; let her fee his adulteries, and hear him alledge reve- 
 i lation
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 31 
 
 In the character of Chrifl we behold the mod 
 complete and prompt refignation to the will of 
 God. So pure and fo perfect was the whole teuour 
 of his conduct, as to defy calumny, although it 
 excited jealoufy, and inflamed malice. His moft 
 bitter and inveterate enemies, even when (bli cited 
 and encouraged by their unjuft and prejudiced 
 governors to indulge the licentioufnefs of falfe 
 accufation, dared not make the flighted attack 
 upon his moral character. He was equally free 
 from the ambition of an impoftor, and the infa- 
 tuation of an enthufiaft ; for when the people 
 fought to place the crown of Ifrael on his head, 
 he conveyed himfelf away by a miracle. When- 
 ever he condefcended to dilcourfe upon any ira- 
 
 lation and his divine commiflion to juftify his luft and oppref. 
 lion. When (he is tired with this fceue, then (hew her the 
 bleffed Jefus, humble and roeek ; doing good to all the fouls of 
 men, patiently inftrufting both the ignorant and perverfe. Let 
 her fee him in his moft retired privacies ; let her follow him 
 to the mount, and hear his devotions and Applications to his 
 God. Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare, and hear 
 his heavenly difcourfe. Let her fee him injured, but not pro- 
 voked. Let her attend him to the tribunal, and confider the 
 patience with which he endured the feoffs and reproaches of his 
 enemies. Lead her to tho crofs, and let her view him in the 
 agonies of death, and hear his laft prayer for his perfecutors ; 
 Father, ft>rgii>e them, for they knew Hot <what they do! When 
 Tiatural religion hath viewed both, afk her, which is the 
 prophet of God ? But her anfwer we have already heard, 
 when me faw part of this .fcene through the eyes of the 
 centurion who attended at the crofs : by him (he fpoke and 
 faid, Truly this ijuas the So?t of God," Sherlock's Ninth 
 Difconrfe, vol. i. 
 
 portant
 
 32 THE CHRtSTlAV 
 
 portant point, or to anftver any objections of his 
 ad\vrfaries, he overcame their oppofition with the 
 irrefiftible power of truth, and his words were the 
 words of unerring wifdom. Upon all occafions he 
 rlil played the foundnefs and moderation of calm 
 judgment, and the fteadinefs of heroic intrepidity. 
 There was no wild enthufiafm in his devotions, no 
 rigid aufterity in his conduct, no frivolous fubtlety 
 or intemperate vehemence in his arguments. Of 
 all the virtues, which adorned his mind, and gave 
 a refiftlcfs grace and lovelinefs to every aft ion of 
 his life, humility, patience, and the mod ardent 
 and univerfal love of mankind, were, upon every 
 occafion, predominant. The perfect benevolence 
 of his character, indeed, is fully evinced by the 
 tendency of his miracles, which, far from being 
 prejudicial and vindictive, were directed to fome 
 beneficial end. His courage was equally remote 
 from often tation and from rafhnefs, and his meek- 
 liefs and condcfcenfion never make him appear 
 abject. Tried by the greateft afflictions of life, 
 aflailed by hunger, expofed to poverty, deferted 
 by his friends, and condemned to fuflfer an igno- 
 minious death, he is never degraded ; the greatnefs 
 of his character is in no refpect diminished he 
 preferves the fame air of mildnefs and dignity, 
 and appears in the fame highly venerable light as 
 the Saviour of the world, who fubmits to an ignoble 
 ftation, and conceals his majefry in an humble 
 garb, for the mod important purpofes. It is thus 
 the glorious profpects of nature are fometimes en- 
 veloped in the mifts of the morning, or the great 
 
 luminary
 
 THt CHRISTIAN RELtGlOlT. 6S 
 
 luminary of day is deprived of his beams and 
 his brightnefs, by the temporary darkneis of an 
 eclipfe. 
 
 And here let us paufe to admire the manner in. 
 which this moft fublime of all characters is intro* 
 duced to us. We are not left to form an idea of ft 
 from vague accounts or loofe panegyric, but from 
 actions and events ; and this circumftance proves 
 undeniably the veracity of the Biographers of our 
 Lord. The qualities of his mind are difplayed by 
 a detail of actions, the more ftriking as they arti 
 more exa. All his aclions are left to recommend 
 themfelves by their own intrinfic merit, to capti- 
 vate by their unaflfe&ed beauty, and to mine by 
 their native luftre. The Evangelifts have nd 
 where profefledly drawn an elaborate or highly 
 fmifiied character of the Saviour of the world* 
 We are not told in a vague and indefinite manner, 
 that he was eminently bountiful, compaffionate, 
 or wife. It is no where expreffed in terms of ge- 
 neral affertion, that he poflefled the greateft virtues 
 that can adorn and dignify the nature of man ; or 
 that he was endued with a power to controul, or 
 to counteract the general laws of nature. But thefe 
 inferences we are fully enabled to draw from regu- 
 lar ftatements of fac~is. We learn from lively and 
 aiFecling anecdotes diftin&ly and circumftantially 
 related, among many other aftoniming inftances of 
 his divine power, that with a portion of food, the 
 moft difproportionate to their wants, he fatisfied 
 the hungry multitudes in the wildemefs, that he 
 
 VOL. i. D cahnsd
 
 34 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 calmed the violence of a ftorm at a word, and 
 tailed the fon of the widow to life h . 
 
 Ignorant and illiterate as the Evangelifts were, 
 they have drawn a character fuperior to any that is 
 clfewhere to be met with in the hiftory of mankind. 
 This character they were no lefs unable than un- 
 willing to invent : the only method of iblving this 
 difficulty is to acknowledge that they wrote from 
 the immediate impreilions of reality. They law, 
 they converted with the Saviour of mankind, and 
 heard from his facred lips the words of eternal life. 
 They felt the power of truth upon their minds, and 
 they exhibited it with proportionable clearnefs and 
 ftrength. To (late well-known facts, and record 
 the lefibns of divine Revelation, was the fole object 
 of their labours. Hence they were confident as 
 well as circumftantial and accurate ; and their .uni- 
 formity of reprefentation is an additional proof of 
 the reality of the pcrfon defcribed, as their divine 
 Mafter. Every particular is introduced in an art- 
 lefs and undefigning manner; and this circumftance 
 itfelf, of not bringing our Lord forward in an often- 
 tatioiis point of view, affords a remarkable evidence 
 to confirm the truth of the Gofpels. To complete 
 the perfection of his character, his condu v ct was the 
 cxa6l counterpart of his uiftructions. lie prefented 
 to the world that lively image of moral perfection, 
 'which had indeed filled and elevated the imagina- 
 tion of Plato and Cicero ; but which the ancient 
 
 Matt. xiv. Mark iv, Luke vii. 
 
 philofophers
 
 THE CHRISTIA.V RELIC 10 Y.' 35 
 
 philofophers in the wideft circ.le of their ohfervation 
 had fought for in vain 1 . The heavenly Teacher 
 not only fpoke as never man fpoke, with refpect to 
 the fublime Ictlbns, which he taught, the lively 
 images, by which he illuftratcd, and the awful and 
 iniprtflive manner, in which he inculcated them ; 
 hut at once to combine the eflkacy of example 
 with the perfe&ion of precept, became the unerring 
 guide to all that was pious, all that was amiable, 
 and all that was truly and intriniically great. 
 
 With refpeft to the nature of his inftnifcion$ 
 and his mode of teaching, how admirably did he 
 adapt himielf to the habits, capacities, and difpofi- 
 tions of his hearers! '" Parable and allegory have 
 ever been thought the moft agreeable means of 
 communicating advice. The ieverity of the pre- 
 cept is loft in the entertainment of the fable. The 
 fenlible image reflects a light upon the moral 
 thought, and the abftract thought gives. an im- 
 portance to the feniible representation. By apt 
 fimili tude therefore, drawn from the furrounding 
 objects, did this great Teacher recommend to his 
 hearers the moft folemn truths and important pre- 
 cepts. The honeft and teachable mind was ttius 
 allured to fearch after divine knowledge, while the 
 proud and' obftinate fcorned the trouble of inquiring 
 into the eafy meaning of the. figures he ufed. Thus 
 did his inftruclions become, what all addreffes to 
 
 1 IT " ' f O C 1. ' /I- -J 
 
 1 tormam quidem ipfam, & tanquam faciem honefti vides ; 
 qua: fi oculis cerneretur, mirabiles amores, ut ait Plato excitaret 
 fapientiae. Ciceronis Officia. 
 
 D 3 fre*
 
 36 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 free and reafoning beings ought, a part of trial and 
 difcipliue; fo that they who were well dilpoicd 
 might receive improvement and advuntai;., and the 
 hard-hearted might hear, and not uudcifiand. 
 
 " With what graceful eafe, and yet folemn com- 
 pofure, does he accommodate himfelf to the con- 
 verfation of all forts of perfons ! Among the wife 
 and learned how does he mine in communicating 
 clear and important truth, confuting their artificial 
 fophifms, and filencing their malicious cavils ! 
 Among the illiterate how does he condefcend to 
 the meannefs of their underftandings, and adapt 
 his inftruclions to their apprehenfion and ufual 
 train of thinking, raifing his reflections from the 
 prefent objects, and improving upon the moil com- 
 mon occafions ! Even women and children are 
 noticed by the wifeft of Teachers : and with reafon, 
 for no well-difpofed human mind is of little con- 
 fequence : whatever it is at prefent, it is in the way 
 to be hereafter great and glorious. The character, 
 in fhort, which the Saviour of the world aflumed, 
 feems to have been equally fublime and amiable k ." 
 
 He who reflects with due attention and reverence 
 upon the dignity, purity, and holinefs of this divine 
 character, will be fenfible of the great difficulty of 
 doing juftice to the fubject, as the Saviour of the 
 world is prefented to our obfervation, in a manner 
 fo peculiarly venerable and awfuL The infpired 
 
 * Burgh'i Dignity cf Human Nature, p. 524. 
 
 Apoilles
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RILIG1OK. 37 
 
 Apoftles and Evangelifts can alone fatisfy our inqui- 
 ries concerning him ; and every other writer, con- 
 fcious or his own incapacity to conceive, and his 
 want of eloquence to defcribe fuch unparalleled 
 excellence, mult point to the lively and expreffive 
 portrait, which they alone, who faw the original, 
 were qualified to draw. 
 
 It is reafonable to expect that fo extraordinary a 
 perfonage, diftinguiilied as he was by every moral 
 and intellectual quality, muft neceffarily make his 
 teftimony concerning himfelf perfectly credible. 
 The pofitive and direct proofs of his divine miffion 
 are equally founded upon the prophecies, which 
 foretold the moft remarkable circumftances of his 
 birth, life, and death, and upon the miracles by 
 which he proved to demonftration, that he was the 
 promifed Mefliah of the Jews, the Mediator of a 
 new covenant between God and man, and a divine 
 Teacher feut to reform and fave a guilty world. 
 
 III. The Prophecies. 
 
 The Old Teftament contains a long feries of pre- 
 dictions, which are expretfed with greater diftinct- 
 nefs, and marked with a more ftriking and appro- 
 priate reference to a particular train of events, in 
 proportion as the Prophets approached more nearly 
 to the time of the Meiliah. As he was the great 
 object of the general expectation of the Jews, fo 
 was he the great end of the Prophecies. Some- 
 times he is pourtrayed as the innocent, patient, and 
 D 3 unrepining
 
 58 THE CHRISTIAN &E ? EIGION T . 
 
 unrepining fufferer, pit-reed with grief, and finding 
 under unmerited calamity for the fake of mankind : 
 
 / 
 
 He was defy] fed and rejected of wen, a man of for- 
 twtt.9, and acquainted icith f/vV/j irfio hath borne our 
 forrows, <ind\cav wounded Jor our traH/greflions 1 ; 
 and fometiines,with all the fervour and vivid colours 
 of Oriental poetry, are defcribed his temporal gran- 
 deur, the tranfcendent attributes of his divine cha- 
 racter, and the glory and eternity of his kingdom. 
 His name is called ll'onderful, Coiuifetlor, the mighty 
 God, the ever laji ing Father, the Prince of Peace m . 
 Thefe furprifing intimations that occur in the Pro- 
 phets of various ages, like rays of light proceeding 
 from different quarters, all meet in the fame point, 
 and illuminate the fame object. Here is none of 
 that latitude of interpretation, or ambiguity of ex- 
 preflion, in which the oracles of the heathens were 
 conveyed. The hiftory of Chrift, as related by the 
 Evangelifts, may bft-confidered as ah enlarged and 
 finished copy of the Prophecies, and the Prophecies 
 themfelves as the original Sketches. The propor- 
 tions and the outlines are uniformly prcferved, and 
 faithfully delineated. The colours indeed are more 
 cliftirrft and glowing, the figures have their juft 
 animation, but ftill their character and expreffion 
 are the fame " Ineffc&ual have been the endea- 
 vours 
 
 1 Tfaiah liii. IkLlh ix. 6. 
 
 * Stillingfleet's Orig. Sacrs, book ii. chap. v. Arc. Paley'$ 
 
 Evidences, vol. ii. p. 67. Grottus de Veritate, lib. v. c. 17, 18. 
 
 Gibfon's Paftoral Letters, vol. iv. p. 52. of the Enchiridion 
 
 Ideologic urn. Jortin's Remarks, vol. i, p. 73, 74. Prideaux'*
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 39 
 
 vours of the Jews to pervert the true meaning of 
 thefe Prophecies ; their literal fenfe is peculiarly ap- 
 plicable to our Lord, and to him alone they mud 
 necelfarily be referred. Without miftaking their 
 object, or perverting their clear and obvious fenfe, 
 they cannot be applied to any other peribn what- 
 ever. Whilit thefe predictions ftrike the mind of 
 an attentive reader of Scripture, with various de- 
 grees of evidence, there are fome of them which 
 cannot fail to imprefs him with the fulleft convic- 
 tion, as they immediately relate to the million, 
 miracles, and character, as well as. the exact time 
 of the coining of Chrilt Ifaiah and Daniel more 
 efpecially feem rather to defcribe the palt as Hiito- 
 rians, than to anticipate the future as Prophets. 
 We know, from the authority of Scripture, that 
 multitudes of Jews, who had diligently ftudied the 
 Prophecies from their youth, and acknowledged 
 their divine authority, felt the force of their appli- 
 cation to our Lord. And, not to appeal to other 
 inftances, we alfo know that the titty-third chapter 
 of Ifaiah, fo circumftantially defcriptive of the fuf- 
 fering Meffiah, effected the converiion of the Eu- 
 nuch of Ethiopia, mentioned in the Acts of the 
 Apoftles, and contributed greatly to produce a con- 
 viction of the truth of Chriftianity in the mind oT 
 the profligate Lord Rochefter . 
 
 The 
 
 Connexions, vol. ii. p. 161. Jofephus de Bello JuJaico, lib. vi. 
 e. 4. fed. 5, 6, 7, 8. compared with the predi&ions that relate 
 to the Temple, as recorded by the Evaagelifts. 
 
 This fad is recorded by Biihop Burr>et. " To him Lord 
 Rochefter laid open with great freedom the tenor of his opinions, 
 
 and
 
 40 
 
 The record^ which contain tlu-fe Prophecies 
 have been mod carefully preierved even by the ene- 
 mies of Christianity. Such are the Jews, whofe 
 religious belief is founded upon an acknowledgment 
 of the divine infpiration bf the Prophets, Hence 
 they are undefignedly the lupporters ot' that faith, 
 to which they are eonfeiledly hoftile. A wide dif- 
 ference of opinion has prevailed among them ia 
 various ages ; for their interpretations of the Pro- 
 phets, before the coming of the AlelTiah, agreed 
 much better with thoie of the Chriftians, than any 
 they have given fince the eilabliihinent of Chrif- 
 tianrty. And it is very much to the purpofe repeat- 
 edly to take notice, that whatever conftructiou they 
 have put upon the words of the Prophecies, they 
 have never raifed any doubt, or brought any argu- 
 ments to invalidate their authenticity. 
 
 As the divine miffion of Chrift received fuch fup- 
 port from the Prophecies, of which he was the fub- 
 je6t ; fo it is very ftrongly confirmed by thofe events, 
 which he forefaw and foretold. He clearly described 
 the manner of his own death, with many particular 
 circutnftances the pkice where it was ordained to 
 happen the treacherous method by which he was 
 
 and the courfe of his life, and from Kim he received fuch convic- 
 tion of the reafonablenefs of moral duty, and the truth of Chrif- 
 tianity, as produced a total change both of his manners and opu 
 nions. The account of thofe falutary conference* i* given by 
 Burnet in a book, intituled, Some Paflages of the Life and Death 
 of John Earl of Rochefter ; which the critic ought to read for its 
 elegance, the philofopher for its arguments, and the faint for its 
 piety/* Johnfon's Life of Rochefter, vol. iv. p. 6. izmo. 
 
 to
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 41 
 
 to be betrayed into the hands of the Jewiih go- 
 vernors, and given up to the Roman power the 
 cruel and unbecoming treatment he was to flitter, 
 and the exact period or' time that ihould elapfe from 
 his death to his refurre&ion. Such was precifely 
 the train of events, as they are related at large by 
 the Evangelifts, and as thofe events were attefted 
 by the full acknowledgment and confefiion of the 
 firft martyrs, who fealed their belief with their 
 
 / ' 
 
 blood. The Saviour of mankind fpeaks of future 
 events without hefitation, not as things merely 
 probable, but abfolutely certain. He does not 
 ihadow them out in vague and ambiguous terms ; 
 but marks them in their rife, progrefs, and effects, 
 in the cleared and moft circumftantial defcriptions* 
 The interval, between the prediction and its accom- 
 pliihment, feems in his view to be annihilated; his 
 penetrating mind pierces the veil of futurity, and 
 the diftant alluiions of the Prophet are converted 
 into the clear profpecl of the fpectator. Even at 
 the time when Judea was in complete fubjeclion to 
 the Roman power, when a ftrong garrifon kept its 
 capital in awe, and rebellion againft their con- 
 querors, who had at that time the empire of the 
 world, appeared as improbable as it was fiuitlefs ; 
 he deplored the fall of the holy city, and pointed 
 out the advance of the Roman ftandard, as the 
 token of dctblation, and the fignal for his followers 
 to fave themfelves, by flight, from captivity and 
 deftruction. At the time too when the temple of 
 Jerufalem was held in the hisrheft veneration by all 
 
 v 
 
 foreigners, as well as Jews, what were the imme- 
 diate
 
 43 THE CHRISTIAN 
 
 diate obfervations of our Lord, when his difciples 
 directed his attention, in terms of wonder and 
 aftonifliment, to the vaft and iblid materials, of 
 which that magnificent edifice was built? He la- 
 mented its approaching fall, and 'declared in expli- 
 cit terms, that fo complete mould be its demolition, 
 that not one jtone jhould be left upon another. 
 At a time likewife when the number of his followers 
 was limited to a few fifliermen of Galilee, and when 
 be feemed deftitute of every means to accomplifh 
 his purpofe, he predicted the wide diifution of the 
 faith, and exprefsly proclaimed, that before the 
 threatened calamities overwhelmed the Jews, and 
 fubverted their empire, his gofpel fhou Id be preached 
 among all nations p . 
 
 The events, which happened about thirty years 
 after the afcenfion of our Lord, completely verified 
 ihefe Prophecies. From the books of the New 
 Tcftament, and particularly from the Acts of the 
 Apofdes, may be collected the fulldt initances of 
 the diligence and zeal, with which the new religion 
 was in a iliort time difleminated. 
 
 But Chriftians can appeal to an independent train 
 of witneffes to Jewiih and to prophane authors, 
 for circumftantial accounts of the fulfilment of our 
 Lord's predictions. The hiftorian Jofephus, dc- 
 fcended from the family, which bore the facrccl 
 
 ' See " Hiftory the Interpreter of Prophecy," for the illuftra- 
 tion of this fubjeft at large ; a work to which I refer with the 
 Icfs refervc, as the public have received it with approbation, 
 
 office
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 4$ 
 
 office of High Prieft, a diftinguimed general in the 
 early part or' the lalt Jewiiii war, has given a par- 
 ticular and exad confirmation of every circum- 
 itance. With fingular care he has avoided to men- 
 tion the name of Chrift, and yet with fingular pre- 
 cifion lie has illuftrated his predictions relative to 
 the deftru6bion of Jerufalem. The important fer- 
 vice he has thus rendered to Chriftianity is wholly 
 unintentional. What he relates is drawn from him 
 by the power of irrefiftible truth, and is a teftimony 
 far itronger, and more unexceptionable, than 
 an explicit mention of the name of Chrift, and a 
 laboured encomium on his words and actions. 
 
 ' JT 
 
 The curious details of .Tofephus, in his Hiftory 
 of the Wars of the Jews, are confirmed by Tacitus, 
 Philoftratus, and Dion Caffius. It is probable they 
 were all of them unacquainted with the works of 
 the Jewifh Hiftorian ; and yet they corroborate his 
 account, and all unite to illuftrate the Prophecies 
 of QUIT Lord. 
 
 IV. The Miracles of our Lord. 
 
 The moft illudrious evidence of the divine origia 
 of Chriftianity, and that evidence to which its great 
 Author moft confidently appealed, when called upon 
 to prove the authority of his million, confifted in 
 the exercife of miraculous powers. The miracles 
 of Chrift were fo frequent, that they could not be 
 the efTec~ls of chance ; fo public, that they could not 
 fce the contrivance of fraud and impofture; fo inftan- 
 
 taneous,
 
 44 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 tuneouit, that they could not refult from any pre- 
 concerted fcheme ; and fo beneficial in their imme- 
 diate confequences, and fo conducive to propagate 
 the falutary truths he taught, that they could not 
 proceed from the agency of evil fpirits. They muft 
 therefore have been effected by the interpofition of 
 that divine power, to M-hich Chrift himfelf attri- 
 buted them. Our Lord did not come according to 
 the expectation of the Jews, as the conqueror of 
 their enemies, to ditplay his policy in council, and 
 his courage in the field : but he was in veiled with 
 powers, that enabled him to triumph over the works 
 of darknefs, and fufpend the laws of nature. The 
 frequent and public exercife of thofe powers was 
 eflential to his character as a teacher fent from God, 
 fo that miracles were the fulleft and mod fatisfaclory 
 credentials of his divine miffion 9 . 
 
 This divine Perfonage, whofe manifeflation to the 
 world was preceded by fuch a regular train of pro- 
 
 < " The evidence of our Saviour's miflion from heaven is fo 
 great, in the multitude of miracles he did, before all forts of 
 people, (which the divine providence and wifdom has fo ordered, 
 that they never were, nor could be denied by any of the enemies 
 and oppofers of Chriftianity) that what he delivered cannot but be 
 received as the oracles of God." Locke. 
 
 " Cnce believe that there is a God, and miracles are not incre- 
 dible." Pafey's View, vol. i. p. 13. vol. iii. p. 236-7, &c. 
 Jortin's Remarks, vol. i. p. 159267. Conybeare on the Na. 
 tore, Poflibility, and Certainty of Miracles, Enchiridion Theolo- 
 gicum, vol. iii. p. 153. 
 
 " All thefe miracles fpeak more goodncfs than power, and do 
 not fo much furprife the beholders, as touch their hearts." Bof. 
 fact, Univ. Hift. p. 253. 
 
 phecies ;
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 41 
 
 phecies ; who indantaneoufly cured inveterate dif- 
 cafes, and at whofe word even the dead arofe ; whofe 
 mind was adorned with confummate wifdom, and 
 whofe conduct was didinguiihed by every virtue ; 
 defcended from heaven to deliver a perfect rule of 
 faith and practice, and taught thofe important and 
 indifpenfable leflbns of duty, M'hich are eflentially 
 necetfary to the prefent and future happinefs of 
 mankind. 
 
 V. Chriftian Ethics, 
 Or the Precepts of our Lord. 
 
 The precepts of Chriftianity form the mod com-. 
 plete, moft intelligible, and moft ufeful fyftem of 
 Ethics, or moral philosophy. Theftandard of duty, 
 which is fet up in the Golpel, is agreeable to out 
 natural notions of the Supreme Being, and is cal- 
 culated to correct our errors, to exalt our affections, 
 to purify our hearts, and enlighten our undei'ftand- 
 ings. The motives, by which Chrift enforces tin* 
 practice of his laws, are confident with the wifdom 
 of the Almighty, and correfpondent to the expec- 
 tations of rational beings. He who duly weighs 
 the ejfe&s of the Chriftian duties, and remarks how 
 they contribute to reftore man to the original dig- 
 nity of his nature, will be led to conclude, that 
 they form an indifpenfable part of a religion coming 
 from God, becaufe they are in every refpect con- 
 fident with his wifdom, mercy, and goodnefs. 
 
 To view the moral part of the Chridian difpen- 
 fation in a proper light, it ought to be compared 
 
 with
 
 46 THE CHRISTIAN ftELIGIOJT. 
 
 with the principles of ancient Philofophy. The 
 fages of Greece and Rome undoubtedly prcfent us 
 with the rnoft convincing proofs how far um-u- 
 lightened reafon could advance in the examination 
 
 O 
 
 of moral obligation, and the difcovery of the duties 
 of man. But imperfection, if not error, was at- 
 tached to all their fyftems. 
 
 If moral wifdom defcendcd from heaven to dwell 
 with Socrates, the moft enlightened fage of the hea- 
 then world, Ihe quickly caught the contagion of 
 earthly depravity, and forgot her dignity fo far as 
 to bend at the ihrine of fuperftition. Her dictates 
 were not built upon any certain foundations, or 
 digefted into a confident plan. They were dif- 
 graced with falfe notions, intermixed with frivolous 
 refinements, and fcattered among difcordant feels 
 of philofophers. Each feel of philofophers had a 
 different idea of happinefs, and a different mode of 
 investigating truth T . Each of their fchools had its 
 peculiar dogmas ; and the followers of Plato, Zeno, 
 and Ariftotle, exerted the powers of their minds, 
 rather to difplay their ingenuity, than to fatisfy 
 the inquiries of mankind, as to the nature, the 
 principles, and the end of moral obligation. The 
 powerful influence of example, and the ftrong and 
 awakening voice of fome great and divine autho- 
 rity, were requifite to give to their inftruclions the 
 energy of law. But the moft material obftacle to 
 
 ' See Locke's Reafonablenefs of Chriftianity, vol. ii. p. 532. 
 fo!. 
 
 a ready
 
 THE' CHRISTIAN RELIGIOX. 47 
 
 a ready compliance with the dictates of heathen 
 morality, was the want of facliJandioHs as hold the 
 mind in the moil permanent fubjedion, by imme- 
 diately addrelfmg its hopes and tears. 
 
 And here we remark likcwife the higher degree 
 of perfection, which Christianity potteries with re- 
 Jpcrt to its character iftie precepts. To the Gofpd 
 of Chrilt we are indebted for thofe rules of condud, 
 which enjoin the facrifice of felf-intereft, felriih 
 pleafures, and vain-glory. By it alone we are 
 taught in the mod explicit language, and in the 
 moft authoritative manner, to check all violent 
 paflions, and to cultivate the mild and pure affec- 
 tions of the heart, to forgive injuries, to love our 
 enemies, to refill the firft impulfe of evil defires, to 
 praclife true humility and univerfal benevolence, 
 and to prefer the joys of heaven to the pteafures 
 and occupations of the world. Advancing to a 
 degree of improvement far beyond the levTons of 
 
 heathen morality, far beyond what was ever taught 
 
 - ' -o 
 
 under the porches of Athens, or in the groves of 
 the Academy ; we are inftrucled to entertain the 
 inoft awful veneration for the Deity, and to exprefs 
 the nioft lively gratitude for his mercies ; we are 
 fupported by the firmeft reliance on his grace, and 
 we are invited upon all occafions to refort in earned 
 and fervent ^applications to his power, mercy, and 
 goodnefs, for -the fupply of our numerous wants, 
 for the pardon of our lins, for fecurity in the midft 
 of danger, and for fupport at the hour of death. 
 
 5 Having
 
 48 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGIOV. 
 
 Having a perfect model of virtue in the conduct 
 of our blefifed Lord fet before us, and a perfect rule 
 of life propofed in his divine inftructions, we arc 
 taught to expect that our fincere endeavours to 
 conquer the difficulties we have to furmount in our 
 journey through life will be aided by the divine 
 afliftance ; and we are encouraged to hope that by 
 our ftrenuous and unabated exertions, we may 
 make a much nearer approach to that perfection of 
 character, which reaches " the fulnefs of the mea- 
 fure of the ftature of Chrift," than it is pollible for 
 thofe to do, who act not upon Chriftian princi- 
 ples '. 
 
 Confider 
 
 " The end of learning is to repair the ruins of our firft pa. 
 Tents, by regaining to know God aright, and out of that know, 
 ledge to love him, to imitate him, to be like him, as we may 
 the neareft, by poflefling our fouls of true virtue, which being 
 united to the heavenly grace of faith, makes up the higheft per, 
 ft aim." Milton. 
 
 " And is it then poflible that mortal man mould in any fenfe 
 attain unto perfection ? Is it poflible, that we who are born in fin, 
 and conceived in iniquity, who are brought forth in ignorance, 
 2nd grow up in a multiplicity of errors ; whofe underftanding* 
 are dark, our wills biaffed, our paffions ftrong, our affections cor. 
 Tupted, our appetites inordinate, our inclinations irregular ? Is it 
 poflible, that we who are furroundcd with things themfelves ob- 
 Icure, with examples evil, with temptations numberlefs, as the 
 variety of objefts that encompafs us ? Is it polfible, that we 
 fhould make any progrefs towards arriving at perfection ? With 
 men indeed this muft needs Le impoffible ; but with God all 
 things arc poflible. For when we confider on the other fide, that 
 we have a perfect rule, and an unerring inftructor ; an example 
 complete as the divine life, and yet with all the condefcenfions of 
 human infirmity ; motives ilrong and powerful as the rewards of 
 
 2 heaven,
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 49 
 
 Confuler the precepts of Chriflianity not by com- 
 parifon only with other fyftems, but as tin nilhing a 
 rule of life. Were the actions of mankind to be 
 regulated by them, nothing would be wanting to 
 render us happy. Peace and harmony would flou- 
 riih in every part of the globe* There would be no 
 iujultice, no impiety, no fraud, no rapine, no reign 
 of dilbrderly pafiions. Every (me, fatisfied with his 
 lot, refigned to the divine will, and enjoying a full 
 proipect of endlefs happinefs, would pais his days in 
 content and tranquillity, to which neither pain nor 
 furrow, nor even the fear of death, could ever give 
 any long interruption. Man would renovate his 
 primeval condition, and in 1m words and actions 
 exhibit the purity of Paradife. That fuch a ftate, 
 as far as the imperfection of human nature would 
 allow, can exift, we truft that the lives of many 
 Chriftians, not only of the primitive but of fubie- 
 quent times, can attelt. Surely fuch a fyftem muft 
 be tranfcendcnt in excellence, and bears within 
 itfelf the marks of a divine origin : ! 
 
 The 
 
 heaven, and prefling as the neceflity of avoiding eYidlefs deftrudion; 
 affiltances mighty as the grace of God, and effe&ual as the conti- 
 nual guidance of the Spirit of truth ; when we confider this, I fay, 
 we may then perhaps be as apt to wonder on the other hand, that 
 all men are not pcrfeft. And yet with all thefe advantages, the 
 perfection, that the heft men ever arrive to, is bet in a figurative 
 and very imperfeft fcnfe, with great allowances, and much dimi- 
 nution, with frequent defeats, and marry, very many limitations." 
 Clarke, Sermon cxliv. vol. ii. p. 183. fol. edit. 
 
 1 " From the New Teilament may be collected a fyftem cf 
 Ethics/ in which every moral precept founded on reafon is carried 
 to a higher degree of purity and perfe&ion, than in any other of 
 
 YOL, i, E the
 
 50 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGIOK. 
 
 The revealed will of God is the proper fource of 
 moral obligation. It gives life and vigour to the 
 performance of every duty, and without it all fvf- 
 tems of morals are dry, uninterefting, and founded 
 upon no fixed principle of action. How jejune and 
 tedious are the Ethics of Ariftotlo, and the Offices 
 of Cicero, the writings of PufTcndorf and Grotius, 
 of Whitby and Ilutchinfon, when compared with 
 the fhort rules, illuftrated by the molt pleating 
 fimilies, and animated by the mod (Inking exam- 
 ples, with which the Gofpel of Chrift abounds ! 
 His divine leflbns touch the heart by the affecting 
 combination of praftice with theory, and even en- 
 gage the pafiions on the fide of virtue. 
 
 Men who are diftingui/hed by great and extra- 
 ordinary talents are remarked to have ufually a 
 peculiar mode of thinking, and expreflion. Who- 
 ever examines the difcourfes of our Lord with care, 
 will find in them a certain character which dilcri- 
 minates them from the letfbns of all other moralifts. 
 His manner at once original and ftriking, clear and 
 convincing, confifts in deriving topics of inftruc- 
 tion from objects and circumftances familiar to his 
 
 the wifefi philofophers of preceding ages ; every moral precept 
 founded on falfc principles is totally omitted, and many new pre- 
 cepts added peculiarly correfponding with the new object of this 
 religion." Soame Jenyns, p. 9. 
 
 " In morality there are books enough writ both by ancient 
 and modern philofophers ; but the morality of the Gofpel doth fo 
 exceed them ajl, that to give a man a full knowledge of true mo- 
 rality, I fliall fend him to no other book, but the New Tefta. 
 ment." Locke on Reading and Study, vol. ii. p. 407. 
 
 hearers. 
 5
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 51 
 
 hearers. He affects the paffions, and improves the 
 underftanding, through the medium of the fenfes. 
 His public leifons to the people, and his private 
 converfations to his difciples, allude perpetually to 
 the place where he was, to the furrounding objects, 
 the fcajon of the year, or to the occupations and 
 circitm fiances of thofe whom he addrelfcs. When 
 lie exhorted his difciples to truft in Providence for 
 the fupply of their daily wants, he bade them behold 
 the fowls of the air, which were then flying around 
 them, and were fed by divine bounty, although 
 they did not fow, nor reap, nor gather into barns. 
 He defired them to obferve the lilies of the field 
 which were then blooming, and were beautifully 
 clothed by the fame power, and yet toiled not like 
 the hufbandman, whom they then faw at work. 
 When the woman of Samaria was furprized at his 
 afking her for water, he took occafion to reprefent 
 his doctrine under the image of living water which 
 flows from a fpring. When he approached the tem- 
 ple, where mcep were kept in folds to be fold for 
 the facrifices, he fpake in parables of the ihepherd, 
 the meep, and the door of the fheep-fold. At the 
 fight of little children, he repeatedly defcribcd the 
 innocence and fnnplicity of true Chriftians. When 
 he cured the man who was born blind, he imme- 
 diately referred to himfelf, as the light of the world. 
 He often alluded to the occupation of fome of his 
 (Tifciples, whom he conftituted timers of men. 
 Knowing that Lazarus was dead, and mould be 
 raifed again, he difcourfed concerning the awful 
 
 2 truths
 
 5C THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 truths of the general refurrection, and of life 
 eternal u . 
 
 " Many writers upon the fubieft of moral phi- 
 lofophy divide too much the law of nature from 
 tin. precepts of Revelation; which appears to me 
 nuu h the fame deleft, as if a commentator on 
 the laws of England mould content himfelf with 
 ftat ing upon each head the common law of the 
 land, without taking any notice of acls of Par- 
 liament 5 or ihould choofe to give his readers the 
 common law in one book, and the iiatute law in 
 another. When the obligations of morality are 
 taught, (favs Dr. Johnfon in the Preface to the 
 Preceptor) let the fane-lions of Clniftianity never 
 be forgotten ; by which it will be fhewn that they 
 give fhength and luftre to each other; religion 
 will appear to be the voice of reafon ; and mora- 
 lity the will of GodV 
 
 From this view of the fubjert appears the excel- 
 lence of the morality of the Gofpel, and confe- 
 quentiy how unneeeifary it is to refort to any 
 other fcheme of Ethics tor a rule of ad ion. The 
 various plans of duty, which have been formed 
 
 Jortin's Difcourfes, p. 729. Matt. vi. 26, 28. John IT. 
 10. x. i. Mark ix. 37. John ix. 39. Matt. iv. 10. xiii. 
 4.7. John xi. 25. For fame very pleafing remarks on or 
 Lord's manner of teaching, fee Dr. Townfon's Difcourfes, 
 
 P- ?79- 
 
 * Paley's Preface to his Moral and Political Philofophy. 
 
 exclufive
 
 THE CHRISTIAN* HKLIGIOV. 53 
 
 cxclufive of Chriftianity, fee in not to propofe any 
 motives futficiently cogent and permanent, to 
 withhold men from the gratification of vicious 
 deiires, and the indulgence of violent patfions. 
 They mud therefore give place to a more perfect 
 law, which has the btll claims to general recep- 
 tion, becaufe it is founded on the cxprefs Revela- 
 tion of the Will of the Creator, and Governor 
 of the world, to his dependent and accountable 
 creatures. 
 
 VI. The rapid and extenjire propagation of the 
 Gofpel at its frft preaching. 
 
 Of all the proofs, which are adduced to efta- 
 bliili the truth of Chriflianity, there is no one 
 more fplendid, than that which arifes from the 
 rapid and extenfive propagation of th-j Gofpel; 
 and this proof will appear very riVong, if it be 
 confidered as the fulfilment of a long train of Pro- 
 phecies. Far from being intimidated by the oppo- 
 iition, the enmity, or even the moil fevere and 
 bloody perfections of a hoftile world, the ApoUles 
 readily obeyed the commands of their Divine 
 Matter, and declined no hardlhips, and avoided 
 no danger, in order to make profel) tes to the 
 faith. The effect of their labours was in a very 
 iliort time vifible in every country, to whioh they 
 directed their iteps. The rich and the poor, the 
 learned and the illiterate, the poliihed natives of 
 Italy and Greece, as well as the rude inhabitants 
 
 3 of
 
 54 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION*. 
 
 of the mod uncivilized countries, enlifted under 
 the banner of the Crofs. The mod ancient and 
 rnod popular eftablimments of religion, which had 
 ever been known in the world, gradually gave 
 -way to the new faith. The Greek, the Roman, 
 and the Barbarian forfook their temples, conic- 
 crated by the veneration of ages to idolatrous 
 worfliip, and repaired in crowds to the Chriftian 
 churches ; and at the clofe of only three centuries 
 from its origin, the faith of the lowly Jefus of 
 Nazareth was embraced by Condantine, the 
 Sovereign of the Roman world, and throughout 
 the wide compafs of his dominions it was railed to 
 the honours of a triumphant church, and to 
 all the privileges and fecurity of an eftablimed 
 religion. 
 
 For an undeniable proof of thefe facts, we may 
 appeal not only to the animated reprefentations of 
 the Fathers of the church, \vho exprelfed them- 
 felves in terms of great exultation, at the profpect 
 of this wide diffufion of the faith; but to a num- 
 ber of Pagan writers, who were diongly prejudiced 
 againft the Chriftian caufe, and averle to its ad- 
 vancement. The warm declamations of Judin 
 Martyr and Tcrtullian, the energetic narratives of 
 Kufcbius, and the companion drawn by Chryfoitom 
 between the Pagans and the Chridians, all of them 
 eminent writers in the primitive church, derive 
 very conliderable fupport from the exprefs decla- 
 rations of Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny, Lucian, and 
 
 Porphyry,
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 55 
 
 Porphyry, all of whom were Pagans, and lived 
 within three centuries from the time of Chrift. 
 
 If the circumftances of difcouragement and 
 clanger, under which the faith of Chrift made fo 
 extraordinary a progrefs, be more diftinctly enu- 
 merated, we mail more properly eftimate the value 
 of the argument drawn from the rapid propagation 
 of Christianity, when it was firft proclaimed to the 
 world y . 
 
 Moft of the Apoftles were not only perfons of 
 low education, ignoble birth, and deftitute of every 
 diftinction to recommend them to the notice and 
 favour of the world ; but were expofed to the 
 flander and malice of their countrymen, for their 
 attachment to Chrift, and held in dcteftation by 
 the natives of other places, by reafon of their 
 Jewim extraction and manners. They went forth 
 to difcharge their duty, as the miffionaries of their 
 divine M after, at a time when the world was en- 
 lightened by learning and fcience ; when philo- 
 
 y Paley's Evidences, vol, i. p, 30. vol. iii. p. 94. For a 
 concife and accurate account of the progrefs of Chriftianity, and 
 the labours of its firft preachers, fee Paley, vol. i. c. 4, 5. He 
 inftitutes a comparifon between the firft preachers of Chriftianity 
 and the modern miffionaries : from the flow and inconfiderable 
 progrefs made by the latter, in comparifon with the rapid and 
 extenfive fuccefs of the former, he proves the divine origin of 
 their religion, This argument is fully ftated, and urged with 
 peculiar ftrength and perfpicuity, vol. iii. p. 50. fed. 2. 
 
 E 4 fophy
 
 .5<5 THE CHRIST) AX RELIGION'. 
 
 fopliv was cultivated in the fchools of Greece, and 
 general knowledge was diftufed over all thofe parts 
 of the Roman empire, which were the principal 
 feenes of their labours, fuiferings, and triiunphs. 
 The wiles of impofture, and the artifices of fa 1 fe- 
 ll ood, could not long have efcaprd the detection 
 of iuch inquifitive, intelligent, and enlightened 
 people, as flourished in that age. The Apoftles 
 and their converts weie cxpofed to the taunts of 
 derilion, and the cruelties of perfecution ; and 
 they rifked the lofs not only of liberty and cha- 
 racter, of friends and relations, but even of life 
 itfelf, for the profeiiion of their new faith. Priefts, 
 Magiftratcs, and Kings M r ere leagued again ft them, 
 as they were falfcly reprefented to be the abettors 
 of dangerous innovations, and the difturbers of 
 
 o 
 
 public order and tranquillity. They proclaimed a 
 fyilem adverfe no Ids to the eftablifhed religion, 
 than to the deareft hopes of the Jews, as they 
 expected a triumphant Mem" ah from heaven, 
 to deliver them from temporal diftrefs, and reitore 
 the glory of their fallen kingdom. They looked 
 with contempt on the difciples of Chrift, who had 
 fuffercd the punifbment of a common malefactor. 
 When the Apoftlcs preached the Gofpcl to the 
 Gentile world, they propofcd no union of the 
 principles of Chriftianity with the rites of Poly- 
 theifm ; but, on the contrary, boldly afferted the 
 neceflity of overthrowing every altar of every 
 idol, and of eftabliihing the exclufive wodhip of 
 the one true God. Such was the nature of their 
 
 plain
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 57 . 
 
 plain declarations at the particular time, when the 
 people of every country wtre ftrongly attached to 
 their ancient and revered eftablilhments of religion, 
 which charmed the eye with magnificent procef- 
 lions and ceremonies, and gratified the pafiions 
 with licentious feftivals. Thus the power and 
 authority of the great, the intereib of the priefts, 
 the pailions and prejudices of the bulk of man- 
 kind, were all engaged in open hoftility againft 
 the preachers of the new religion, and feemed tor 
 ever likely to exclude the admiffion of Chriftianity. 
 But all thefe obftacles, irrefiftible as they would 
 have been by exertions merely human, gradually 
 yielded to the unexceptionable teftimony, which 
 the firft mifiioiiaries bore to the character, actions, 
 and refurre&ion of their Lord and Mafter, to the 
 evidence of miracles, which they were enabled to 
 perform, and to the power of divine truth. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 58 THE CHRISTIAN REUGIOPT. 
 
 . f , 
 
 - 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 The Subje& continued. 
 
 JL HE Chriftian religion, even attended, as we 
 have feen it was, with the molt finking proofs of 
 its divine origin, was no fooner proclaimed to the 
 world, than it met with thofe who cavilled at its 
 doctrines, and oppofed its progrefs. It was too 
 pure in its nature, and too fublime iri its objects, 
 tofuit the grofs conceptions of fome men ; and its 
 divine Author erected too perfect a ftaudard of 
 duty to fuit the depraved inclinations and unruly 
 paffions of others. We are therefore the lefs fur- 
 prifed to find, that it has from the earlieft ages 
 been aifailed by enemies of every description. As 
 its followers were at firft expofed to the fevereft 
 trials of perfecution ; fo have they, in fuccecding 
 ages, been obliged to defend themfelves againll 
 the attacks of mifapphed learning, and the cavils 
 of ingenious fophiftry. Writers neither deftitute 
 of diligence nor acutenefs have attempted, in 
 various ages, to acquire reputation in this unhappy 
 caufe. The mod prominent and ftriking circuin- 
 ftance which muft be remarked by every candid 
 examiner of their works, from the days of Julian 
 the apoftate to thofe of Gibbon the infidel hiftorian, 
 is; that they have frequently incurred the fame 
 cenfure, which they have beftowcd with an un- 
 
 iparing
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 59 
 
 fparing hand upon others ; for at the fame time, 
 that they have not for u pled to reprobate in the 
 fevereft terms the intemperate zeal of the advocates 
 for the fUith, they have difplayed as. much, or pro- 
 bably more vehemence and pertinacity, in their 
 own caufe. 
 
 Every mode of attack upon Chriftianity has 
 been tried, which the molt fertile invention could 
 dictate ; fometimes it has been afiailed by open 
 arguments, fometimes by difmgenuous infmua- 
 tions ; frequently ha$ metaphyfical fubtlety en- 
 deavoured to undermine it, and frequently the 
 fneer of farcafm, and the effrontery of ridicule, 
 have been directed againft its facred inftitutions, 
 and its moil iincere and ferious profeifors. But 
 much as unbelievers of every defcription may have 
 afferted their claims to fuperiority over ignorant 
 minds, or much as they may have imagined they 
 ibared above vulgar prejudices, they have never 
 remained long unanfwered, or unrefuted. As 
 often as infidelity has waged war againft the faith, 
 and fought with various weapons, fo often has me 
 been defeated and difarmed by able champions of 
 Chriftianity. 
 
 " Whilft the infidel mocks at the fuperftitiou 
 of the vulgar, infults over their credulous fear, 
 their childiili errors and fantaftic rites, it does 
 not occur to him to obferve, that the moft pre- 
 pofterous device, by which the weakeft devotee 
 
 ever
 
 60 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 ever believed he was fecuring the happinefs of a 
 ftiture life, is more rational than unconcern about 
 it. Upon this fubject nothing is fo abfurd as in- 
 tlifterence, no folly fo contemptible as thought- 
 lelsiiels and levity y ." 
 
 Modern unbelievers may have reafon to boaft 
 of the boldnefs of their attacks, but little of the 
 originality of their arguments, iinee the cavils of 
 Voltaire 2 , and his Followers, newly pointed as 
 they may be with wit, or urged as they may be 
 \vith additional vehemence, can be traced to Julian, 
 Porphyry and Celfus, the ancient enemies of the 
 church. Some who diflike the toil of inveftigating 
 truth for themfelves, eagerly take advantage of the 
 labours of others ; and lay great fhds upon the 
 
 y Paley's Moral Philofophy, p. 391. 
 
 * " Voltaire's pen was fertile and very elegant, his obfer- 
 Tations are very acute, yet he often betrnys great ignorance 
 when he treats on fubjefts of antient learning. Madame de 
 Talmond once faid to him, " I think, Sir, that a philofopher fhould 
 never write but to endeavour to render mankind left wicked and 
 unhappy than they arc. Now you do quite the contrary. You 
 are always writing againft that Religion which alone is able to 
 reft'rain wickednefs, and to afford us confblation under misfor- 
 tunes." Voltaire was much ftruck, and excufed hirnfeif by fay- 
 ing, That he only wrote for thofe who were of the fame opinion 
 as himfcif. Tronchin afiured his frieods that Vol<;aire died in 
 great agonies of mind. " I die fqrfaken by Gods and Men," 
 exclaimed he in thofe awful moments, when truth will force its 
 w-ay. " I wifh," added Tronchin, " that thofe who had been per- 
 verted by his writings had been prefent at his death. It was a 
 fight too horrid to f upper t." 
 
 Seward's Anec. V. 5. p. 274. 
 
 example
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. l 
 
 example of thoib eminent men, who have tlif- 
 believed, or rather in fome inftances perhaj)s only 
 affecled to diibelieve, the fundamental truths of 
 Christianity. The Chriftian profdies not to<leny 
 the force of fuch an argument, becaule he i* 
 aware, that the weight of authority is very pow- 
 erful, whether avowed or concealed. It undoubt- 
 edly gives a bias to the mind, which is more com- 
 monly felt than acknowledged ; and it has con- 
 Ikierable influence in determining the judgment 
 in moft of the affairs of life. If however this 
 argument be urged in oppofition to Chriitianity, 
 fair reafoning requires that it fhould be allowed 
 due force in its favour. Afk the infidel, who are 
 the leaders, under whofe banners he has enlifted 
 himfelf, and perhaps he will point to Hume, and 
 to Boiingbroke : but furely, if even we allow the 
 elegance and acutenefs of the one, and the 
 florid declamation of the other, all the praife 
 they deferve, they can never bear a competition 
 with thofe luminaries of fcience, and thofe teachers 
 of true wifdom, who have not only embraced the 
 Chriftian faith, but maintained its truth and divine 
 origin, and directed their conduct by its rules. 
 They can never be weighed in the balance of 
 merit, with the advocates of Chriitianity, fo dif- 
 paffionate, fmcere, ingenuous, and acute, fo di- 
 vefted of all objections, that can be drawn 
 from profefiional bias, or interefted attachments, 
 as Milton, Clarendon, Hale, Boyle, Bacon, 
 
 Locke,
 
 2 THE CHRISTIAN 
 
 Locke, Newton, Addifon, Lyttleton, Weft, and 
 Johnfon '. 
 
 Ought not the tefliniony, which fuch men a* 
 thefe have- given, to be held in the high eft cftima- 
 tionf A teftimony founded not upon any furrender 
 of their judgments to the prevailing opinions of 
 the clay, but upon dole and patient examination 
 of the evidences of Chriftianity, of which their 
 writings give the moft fatisfaftory proofs. Or are 
 fuch men to be undervalued, when brought into 
 comparifon with the vaunting infidels of modern 
 times? Where do we iind periods of fuch profound 
 understandings, and inquifitive minds, as Bacon, 
 Locke, and Newton ; where of fuch a fublime 
 genius as Milton ; where of fuch various and ex- 
 tenfive learning; exhaufting all the literary trea- 
 fures of eailern, as well as weftern literature, as Sir 
 William Jones, who at the clofe of life recorded 
 his conviction of the truth of divine Revelation, 
 and celebrated the excellence of the holy Scrip- 
 tures? To compare the race of modern infidels in 
 
 * The lift of thofe on whom no motive but a love of truth, 
 and a regard for their own falvation, operated to induce them 
 to embrace Chriftianity, may be greatly enlarged ; more parti- 
 cularly by adverting to many characters of the firft eminence, 
 diftinguilhed in other countries. To the illuftrious names of 
 Savile, Hales, Seldon, Hatton, Mead, Steel, Dugdale, Nelfon, 
 Littleton, as well as thofe included in my lift, may be added 
 thofe of Salmafius, Grotius, Montfuucon, Pafcal, PufFendorf, 
 Erafmus, Montefquieu, and Haller. I am fenfiblc of the great 
 imperfections of this detail. 
 
 point
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. hi 
 
 point of genius, learning, icience, judgment, or 
 love of truth ; to compare Voltaire, Hume, Gib- 
 bon, Godwin, and Paine, with i'uch men as thefe, 
 were furely as idle, and as abfurd, as to compare 
 the weaknefs of infancy with the maturity of man- 
 hood; the flutter of a butterfly with the vigorous 
 Ibaring of an eagle; or the twinkling of a liar 
 with the glory of the fun, illuminating the uni- 
 verfe with his meridian brightneis. 
 
 It is well remarked by an elegant and fenfible 
 writer, who could have no profeflional bias to in- 
 fluence his opinions, that, " The clergy are both 
 ready and able to maintain the caufe of Chrilti- 
 anity, as their many excellent writings in defence 
 of it fufficiently demonftrate : but as the generality 
 of mankind is more governed by prejudice than 
 reafon, their writings are not fo univerfally read, 
 or fo candidly received, as they deferve ; hecaufe 
 they are fuppofecl to proceed, not from confcience 
 and conviction, but from interefted views, and the 
 common caufe of their profeflion A iuppofition 
 evidently as partial and injurious as that would be, 
 which mould impute the gallant behaviour of our 
 officers to the mean confideratio.n of their pay, and 
 their hopes of preferment ; exclufive of all the 
 nobler motives of gentlemen ; viz. the fenfe of 
 honour, and the love of their country b ." 
 
 b Weft on tlie Refurreftion. 
 
 Againft
 
 64- THK CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 Againft the authority of fuch infidious writers, 
 as Voltaire and Gibbon, \ve enter our ferious, and 
 we think our equitable proteft ; we exhort every 
 one to beware or' their fophiftry, and to guard 
 again ft their drluiive arts. They have violated the 
 laws of' fair eontroverfy, and fought with the 
 weapons that cannot be allowed on fuch occafions. 
 They employ ridicule inftead of argument, artful 
 infinuation inftead of ferious dieullion, and bold 
 aflcrtion inftead of proof. They write to the 
 paflions and imagination, and not to the judgment 
 of mankind. They artfully involve the queftions 
 relative to the evidences of Chriftianity in per- 
 plexity, and endeavour to throw the blame arifmg 
 from the dirTeniions and ufurpations, the vices and 
 ignorance of fome of the clergy, and the in- 
 croachments, which in dark and fuperftitious times 
 were made upon the liberties of mankind, upon 
 Chriftianity itfelf. They felect thole topics, which 
 can belt be turned to their purpofe, by the arts of 
 mifreprcfentation ; they embelliih them with the 
 flowery ornaments of ftile, and fkilfully adapt 
 them to the paffions and prejudices of their 
 readers. As however their con duel; is thus artful 
 and infidious, fo ought their labours to be vaiu 
 and unfruitful ; for they do not try the cauf'e upon 
 its own merits.: they do not, like candid aud dit- 
 paflionate reafoners, feparate the fubjeft in difputc 
 from all foreign and extraneous ci re urn fiances : 
 they do not agitate queltions, and ftart objections, 
 from a defire of being well informed : th< do not, 
 
 o 
 
 in
 
 THE CHRISTIAN -HELIC1ON. 63 
 
 in the fpirit of true philoibphy, examine the evi- 
 dences of Chriftianity with that becoming feriouf-. 
 nets, which is clue to an affair of fuch infinite im- 
 portance to the prefent welfare, and future happi- 
 nefs of mankind : they do not confider, that the 
 fame unbelief, if applied to the common records 
 of hiftory, or the ordinary affairs of life, would 
 expofe them to the imputation of blind ramnefs, 
 or extreme folly. As their condud is evidently 
 not dictated by a love of truth, their feoffs, their 
 farcafms, and their fophiftry, deferve no attention; 
 and as they not only wantonly rejecl, but indu- 
 trioufly depreciate the belt gift of heaven, they 
 ought to be fhunned, and reprobated, as enemies 
 to the deareft interefts of mankind '. 
 
 And they certainly ought to be fo confidered, 
 whether we obferve the baleful influence of their 
 opinions upon our prefent, or our future ftate. 
 By a ftrange perverfion of reafon and argument, 
 fome of the Philofophifts in France, and Godwin 
 in England, have laboured to fubvert the regular 
 order of nature d . Inftead of reprefenting the ex- 
 
 ercife 
 
 e " I am no advocate for the abjeft proftration of the devotee, 
 or the frantic ecftafies of the fanatic. But there is a fuperftition, 
 fays the immortal Bacon, in fhunning fuperftition ; and he that 
 difdains to follow religion in the open and the trodden path, 
 may chance to lofe his way in the tracklefs wilds of experi- 
 ment, or in the obfcure labyrinths of fpeculation/' Parr OH 
 Education, p. 24. 
 
 * For this train of obfervation I am indebted to " Modern 
 Infidelity confidcred," in a Sermon preached at the Baptflfc 
 
 VOL. i. t Meeting
 
 
 6* rttt eftritSTrxv 
 
 crcife of ttie private affections, as preparatory to 
 that of public virtue, they fet the one in direct 
 oppofition tft the other. They propoffe to build 
 iii-cerfal philanthropy upon the ruins of individual 
 bcnccoteiicc, and tell Us we rnuft love our whole 
 fpmc-s mbre, at the fame time they direct us to 
 love every individual of it left. In puffuit of this 
 chimerical project, which, to the ihume and dif- 
 gi ice of this country, has found advocates in 
 England, as well as in France, gratitude, humi- 
 lity, conjugal, parental, and filial affection, to- 
 gether with all the lovely train of domeftic virtues, 
 are ridiculed and degraded, as too low and vulgar 
 for the attention of enlightened philofophers ; 
 Virtue is confined folcly to a certain vague and 
 enthufiaftic ardour for the general good, and the 
 affections for the focial circle in which we live 
 are violently transferred to dift-mt countries and 
 unknown multitudes. But furely it is natural to 
 inquire, when all the common charities are thus 
 deadened and deftroyed, when the flame that com- 
 municates its genial warmth and brightnefs to focial 
 life is extinguifhed, and all the ties that now bind 
 *nan to man are torn afunder by the hand of the 
 modern Philofophifts furely it is natural to in- 
 quire, from whence is this ardent affection for the 
 general good to fpriug? And when they have 
 completed their work of in&nfibih'ty, or rather of 
 
 Metting at Cambridge, by R. Hall, A.M. Conficferirig th'e 
 found arguments of this writer, recommended by great eloquenft 
 and zeal in the canfe off Chriftianity, I am inclined to exclaim, 
 " ulis cum fit, utinam yro/fer cflc:." Sec p. 57, &c. 
 
 iiifatii-
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 67 
 
 iiiiatuation ; wlien they have taught their difciple 
 to look with perfect indifference upon his neareft 
 connexions ; when he has eftranged himfelf from 
 his friends, iufulted his benefactors, and filenced 
 the voice of gratitude, pity, and charity, will he 
 be better prepared for the love of his fpecies ? Will 
 he become a true philanthropift, in proportion as 
 lie labours to fupprefs the feelings, and neglects 
 the duties of a parent and a friend ? Rather may 
 we not conclude with certainty, that in this 
 attempt to revive a fpecies of Stoicifm, and to 
 banifli all the feelings which foften, humanize, and 
 refine our hearts, that felfiihnefs, morofenefs, and 
 cold and fullen apathy will avTume the empire of 
 the foul, and fink the human character to the 
 lowed ftate of degradation and wretchedoefs ? 
 Rather may we not be certain, that under pretence 
 of advancing the general and univerfal good 
 terms that are fo indefinite as to be almoft unin- 
 telligible, when applied to creatures of limited ca- 
 pacities like man, endued with limited powers, 
 and moving in narrow fpheres of action terms 
 belonging to an object to which imagination may 
 give innumerable fli apes rather may we not be 
 certain that he will be prepared fbr the breach of 
 every duty, and the perpetration of every crime ? 
 But if thofe who indulge in thefe wild fpecula- 
 tions, and thus iport with humanity as well as 
 reafon, were to examine the holy Scriptures, they 
 would perceive that Revelation is in perfect har- 
 mony with the order of nature, which inflructs us 
 
 F 2 by
 
 68 THE CHRISTIAN 1 RELIGION. 
 
 by our own feelings, that univerfal benevolence is 
 the lait and moft perfect fruit of the focial affec- 
 tions. Such is the voice of nature, and fuch 
 the principle of ancient philofophy refined, en- 
 larged, and perfected by Chriftianity. The folid ar- 
 guments of the great Roman Orator, when reafoning 
 upon this fubject, in which he comprifes the 
 wifdom of all former ages, coincide with the 
 precepts of holy Writ. Thus do Keafon and Re- 
 velation unite to confirm the order of Nature, 
 which leads in all things from particulars to ge- 
 nerals, from private to public affections, from the 
 love of parents, brothers, and fifters, to tliofe 
 .more exteniive relations, M'hich, beginning with 
 our native place, extend to our country, and from 
 thence proceeding, comprehend the vaft fociety of 
 the human race. An attempt to reverfe this order 
 is as abfurd as to build without a foundation, 
 to expert a copious and perennial ftream after the 
 fource of a river has been exhaufted, or to think 
 to attain the height of fcience, without acquiring 
 the firfl elements of knowledge. 
 
 From whatever caufes the doubts and cavils of 
 modern Infulcls'arife, whether from a defire to gain 
 the reputation of fuperior fagacity, a love of 
 novelty, an ambition to foar above vulgar notions, 
 a fear of being thought credulous or fuperftitious, 
 or the purfuit of fuch practices as are inconfiftent 
 witli the purity of the Chriftian character ; it is 
 clear, they arc imperfectly acquainted with the 
 real nature of the religion itfclf, and the various 
 
 proofs
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION". 
 
 proofs by which it is fupported. They condemn 
 not fo much what they do not underftand, as what 
 they do not give thornl'dves the trouble to invtfti- 
 gate. Do they carefully examine tfce/o&J which had 
 fuch great influence in attracting the notice of the 
 world to our Saviour? I allude to the miracles of 
 various kinds which he wrought; and do they 
 read the accounts of thefe wonderful operations of 
 divine power and goodnefs, with minds difpofed to 
 yield to the force of hiftorical evidence ? We read 
 in the awful parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus, 
 that the former, when in a ftate of torment, was 
 defirous that a peribn might be lent from the dead 
 for the conversion of his unbelieving Brothers. Is 
 
 O 
 
 there any Infidel who willies for fuch a proof of the 
 truth of Chriftianity ? Suppofe God mould grant his 
 defire, and that in the ftill and iblemn hours of the 
 night, when deepfleep had fallen upon the reft of Man- 
 kind, a Spirit Ihould pafs before him, whofe form 
 he could not diftinftly difcern, but which re- 
 fembled a lately departed Friend. " Fear would 
 come upon him, and trembling, which would 
 caufe all his bones to make." Suppofe there Ihould 
 be profound lilence, and then a voice be heard, 
 faying, I am come, to tell you there is a God a 
 Heaven and a Hell : forfake you)' JIHS, ere it be toe 
 late, and feck Jalvation in the Go/pel of Chrift, or 
 you will perijh for ever. What effect would this 
 vifion producer Probably it would terrify the 
 Jnfidel to death ; or Ihould he furvivc it, and be at 
 
 Job iv. 14, 
 
 F 3 . fkft 
 
 A
 
 firft deeply imprefied with the awful cirCUrhftances, 
 ifc is probable, that the cares and the pleafures of 
 the world would gradually wear out its impreflion. 
 As to his fceptical Friends they would not believe 
 him, they would ftrive to laugh, or to reafon him. 
 out of his alarms, by re>refenting that all h<3 
 related was a dream. He would in time begin to 
 think fo himfelf, and perhaps would fufpeft that 
 he had been impofed upon, and fo would remain 
 obdurate and unconvinced. As fuch evidence of 
 the truth of Revelation would be thus ineffectual, 
 fo is it highly unnecetTary, for no facts recorded in 
 the hiftory of Mankind are more fully attefted 
 than the miracles of our Lord. Did he not repair 
 to the Tomb of Lazarus, the Brother of Martha 
 and Mary, who had been dead four days, and in 
 the prefence of many people cry aloud to him to 
 come forth, and did not the dead Man hear his 
 voice, and live for a long time after 6 ? Our Lord 
 declared repeatedly that he mould himfelf rife from 
 the Tomb. When the appointed hour arrived, 
 was there not a great Earthquake, and did not 
 the Saviour of the World arife? Were not thefe 
 things attefted by Friends, and by enemies, who 
 were all 'eye-witneffes ; and did not the primitive 
 Chriftians endure every hardmip, and fufYer every 
 torment in proof of fuch fafts ? What need there* 
 fore can there be of any additional aflii ranee? If 
 the Infidel will not believe Mofes and the Prophets, 
 Chrift and his Apoftles ; neither will he be 
 fuaded, though one came to him from the dead. 
 
 John ii, 12, See Hurdler's Sermons, xxiv.
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RJELIGIOlf. 71 
 
 A clue attention to ancient hiftory might have a 
 happy effect in removing many of the doubts of 
 Unbelievers, and preparing the way for their con- 
 verfion. Let them inquire into the ignorance and 
 depravity of the world, before the coming of 
 Chrift ; the fuperftition and the cruelty of Pagan 
 wormip, and the infufticiency of philofophy, as a 
 guide to moral excellence : let them confidcr, 
 whether it was not highly probable, that under 
 fuch circumftances an all-wife and an all-merciful 
 Being would impart his will to mankind : let them 
 a/k themfelves ferioufly, whether it is reafonable 
 to conclude, that, after ages of ignorance of his 
 true character, this all-wife and all-merciful Being 
 would at length fix upon falfehood, and that 
 alone, as they pretend Chriftianity to be, for 
 the { effectual method of making himfelf known 
 to his creatures; and that what the honeft and 
 ardent exerciie of reafon by the wifeft men, fuch 
 as Socrates, Plato, and Cicero, was not permitted 
 to accomplish, he mould allow to be effected by 
 fraud, delufion, and impofture. Let them proceed 
 to weigh the leading facts attending the rife of 
 Chriftianity ;---tacls that reft entirely upon inde- 
 pendent proofs to eftablifh their truth ; fuch as the 
 humble birth of our Lord, the fublime nature of 
 his Gofpel, absolutely irre-concilcable with the pre- 
 judices of his countrymen, and extremely unpa- 
 latable to the Gentiles; and more particularly the 
 total want of all human aid to enfure its reception, 
 
 * Hall's Sermon, p. 48, 
 
 F 4 and
 
 72 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION". 
 
 and promote its fuccefs : were they to apply their 
 minds ferioufly to the fubject, would they not, we 
 may confidently afk, find thefe, and many other 
 arguments tending to the fame point? And might 
 not their curiofity then lead them to extend their 
 refearches into all its direct and pofitive evidences? 
 
 " The probability that the Gofpel may be true, 
 Is inferred from the utter improbability that it 
 fhould be falfe. It is like nothing of human con- 
 trivance. The perfection of its morality tranf- 
 cends the bed efforts of human wifdom : the cha- 
 racter of its Founder is far fuperior to that of a 
 mere man : and it will not be faid, that his Apoftles 
 can be compared to any other Miermen, or any 
 other teachers, that ever were heard of. The views 
 difplayed in the Gofpel of the Divine difpenfations, 
 with refpect to the human race, are fuch as before 
 the commencement of our Saviour's miniftry had 
 never entered into the mind of man. To believe 
 all this to be a mere human fable requires a degree 
 of credulity, which, in the ordinary affairs of life, 
 would do a man little credit ; it is like believing, 
 that a firft rate fhip of war might have been the 
 work and the invention of a child'," 
 
 Among other inflances that might be men- 
 tioned, the conduct of the author of " the Freq 
 Inquiry into the Origin of Evil" gives us full 
 authority to anfwer thefe queftions in the affirma- 
 
 ' Ifcattie's Evidence*^ the Chriftian Religion, r. i. p. 86, 
 
 tiv%
 
 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 73 
 
 tive. He has ftated with great candour the pro- 
 grefs of his conviction of the truth of Chriftiauity.; 
 and makes his acknowledgments in its favour in a 
 manner, which mews the ftrength and the tendency 
 of its evidences, when examined with care and at- 
 tention. 
 
 " Having fome leifure, and more curiofity, I 
 employed them both in reiblving a queltion, which 
 ieemed to me of fome importance whether Chrif- 
 tianity was really an impoilure, or whether it is 
 what it pretends to be, a revelation communicated 
 to mankind by the interpofition of fupernatural 
 power? On a candid inquiry, I foon found that the 
 iirfl was an abibkite impoilibility ; and that its pre- 
 tenfions to the latter were founded on the moil 
 folid grounds. In the further purfuit of my exa- 
 mination, I perceived at every ftep new lights 
 anting, and fome of the brighteft from parts of it 
 the moft obfcure, but productive of the cleared 
 proofs, becaufe equally beyond the power of human, 
 artifice to invent, and human reafon to difcover. 
 Thele arguments, which have convinced me of the 
 divine origin of this Religion, I have put together 
 in as clear and concife a manner as I was able, 
 thinking they might have the fame effect upon 
 others ; and being of opinion, that if there were a 
 few more true Chriitians in the world, it would be 
 beneficial to themfelves, and by no means detri- 
 mental to the public g ." 
 
 * Soamc Jenyns's View of the internal Evidence of the Chrif- 
 Religion, p. lyo. 
 
 The
 
 7* THE CHRISTIAN' 1F.MGION'. 
 
 The excellence of Chriftianity appears in nothing 
 more than that in proportion to the care with 
 vhich its facred oracles are examined, the more 
 flrongly does the light of its truth ihine upon the 
 mind. The progrels of Infidelity, and the apoftafy 
 of multitudes, naturally awaken our concern, and 
 make us more than ufually felicitous to caution the 
 riling generation againft the errors of thofe, who 
 wifli to miilead them. But is there any circum> 
 ftance in thefe awful " ilgns of the times/' that 
 fhould fhake our faith, or excite our furprife, as if 
 the prc/ent crijis was peculiarly alarming and unex- 
 pected? The attentive reader of the holy Scriptures 
 may fafely reply in the negative ; fmce the actual 
 condition of the world is precifcly fuch as revela- 
 tion gives us reafoti to expecl. AH the circum- 
 ftances that mark the character and the conduct of 
 Infidels; their turn for ridicule; their folly, and im- 
 patience of reftraint; their licentioufnefs of con- 
 dn<5b, and infatiable appetite for change ; the fnares 
 they lay to catch the unwary ; and their vain pro- 
 feffions to free the world from (lavery, whilft they 
 are themfelves the captives of fin, are drawn by the 
 pencil of Prophecy with fuch clearnefs and accu- 
 racy, that uo one can miftake the refemblance. 
 
 In the Epiftles of St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. Jude, 
 you may read an exact anticipation of that modern 
 Philofophifm, which was ordained to agitate and 
 afflict the world, in thefe u latter" or " laft times." 
 And thus, by examining the Prophetic Word of 
 God, and comparing it with the prefent ftate of the 
 
 world,
 
 THE CHIUSTTAX RELIGION'. 75 
 
 \vorld, you increafc the Evidences of Chriftianity. 
 The Free-thinkers of England, the PhilofophiiU of 
 France, and the Illuminati of Germany, the difci- 
 pies of Bolingbroke, Voltaire, \Veifhaupr. and God- 
 win, confirm the divine origin of the Scriptures, 
 which they reject, and accomplifh in a moft exact 
 und wonderful manner, tlu; predictions which arc 
 the fubjects of their contempt and ridicule. 
 
 I. The Benefits refulting from Chrlflianity. 
 
 Let the fincete inquirer after truth turn with 
 averfion from fuch delufive guides, as the Infidel 
 writers either of ancient or modern times, and con- 
 iider what are the benefits, which the prevalence of 
 Christianity has actually conferred upon the world; 
 and let him carefully eftimate what permanent and 
 fubftantial good, by the influence of its precepts, 
 and the fulfilment of its promifes, it is able at all 
 times to produce. 
 
 Chriftianity has triumphed over thofc practices, 
 cuftoms, and iivftitutions, which in ancient times 
 were a difgrace to the character of man. It has 
 foftened the horrors of war, and alle\ r iated the treat- 
 ment of prifoncrs. It has vindicated the rights of 
 nature, by abolifhing the cruel practice of expofmg 
 infants ; and it has raifed the character and the im- 
 portance of "women in fociety, and given greater 
 dignity, permanency, and honour to the inftitution 
 of marriage. It put a flop to the combats of gla- 
 diators, thp favourite aijd barbarous amufement of 
 
 the 
 2
 
 76* TflF. CHRISTIAN RELIGION'. 
 
 the Romans; it banimed the impure conduct; that 
 difgraced the M'orfhip of the Pagan Deities, as well 
 as totally extinguifhed the worfhip itfelf. It has 
 abridged the labours of the mafs of mankind, and 
 procured for them one happy day in feven for the 
 enjoyment of repofe, and attention to the exercifcs 
 of public devotion. All Chriftian countries, and 
 more efpecially our own, abound with eftablilh- 
 ments for the relief of ficknefs and poverty, and 
 the maintenance of helplefs infancy, and decrepid 
 age. It has triumphed over the flavery, that pre- 
 vailed in every part of the Roman Empire, and pur- 
 fues its glorious progrefs, in the diminution of a 
 fimilar ftate of mifery and oppreflion, which has 
 long difgraced the European character in the Weft 
 Indies. 
 
 Thus has it in its general and combined effects 
 exalted the character of man, by engrafting the 
 pureft affections, and the mod facred duties upon 
 the ftock of his natural defires, and molt powerful 
 inftincts. It has provided the means of eftabliwing 
 a perfect harmony between the fenfibilities of his 
 nature, and the convictions of his reafon, by the 
 Revelation of its divine truths. 
 
 And, not to expatiate upon its mild and falutary 
 effects upon the temper, the paflions, and the general 
 conduct of millions, who, although their names were 
 never recorded in the pages of hiftory, were more 
 worthy and honourable members of fociety, and are 
 infinitely more deferving the approbation of man- 
 kind,
 
 fHE CHRISTIAN RELIGION'. 77 
 
 kind, than all the ancient heroes who have fought 
 renown by war, or all the modern fceptics who have 
 alpired to fame by their oppofition to the faith ; 
 we may enumerate, in addition to its extenfive and 
 various improvements, the refinement it has given 
 to manners, and its beneficial influence upon the 
 public judgment of murals. Mankind, no longer 
 left a prey to ignorance, or to loofe and fluctuating 
 opinions, are furniihed with a guide, to which they 
 can always refort, for principles of religion and 
 rules of conduct Hence the moil illiterate and 
 humble members of the Chriftian Church can form 
 more true and accurate notions of the Deity, his 
 attributes and providence, as well as a more rational 
 notion of moral obligation, of virtue, and vice, and 
 the final deftination of man, than was ever reached 
 by the ancient fages in the brightell days of Hea- 
 then Philofophy. 
 
 Chriftianity, far from being calculated for any 
 political conftitution in particular, is found to prof- 
 per and flourifh under every form of government -j 
 as it is equally incompatible with licentioufnefs on 
 the one hand, or oppreffion on the other. It cor- 
 rects the fpirit of democracy, and foftens the rigour 
 of defpotic power. An enlargement of mind, and 
 fuperior intelligence, diftinguim. in a peculiar man- 
 ner thofe nations that have embraced the faith, 
 from thofe extenfive portions of mankind, who 
 fight under the banners of Mahomet, or adhere to 
 the more pacific Inftitutes of Brama and Confucius. 
 The inhabitants of the Eafl groan under the oppref- 
 
 lions
 
 78 THE CHRISTIAN REMGIOtf 
 
 fions of arbitrary power, and little docs their reli- 
 gion contribute to alleviate the weight of their 
 chains. The Mahometans more especially arc 
 marked by peculiar ignorance ; aud fo far are they 
 from being diftinguilhcd by the light of fcience, or 
 the cultivation of ufdul knowledge, that they 
 adopt with the greatcft reluctance all foreign im- 
 provements, and even fnwther in its birth the fpirit 
 of liberal inquiry aud refearch \ 
 
 To Chriftian nations belong the exclufive culti- 
 vation of learning and fcience, and the mod afiidu- 
 ous advancement of every ufeful and ornamental 
 art. By them every faculty of the foul is called 
 forth into action ; no torpid indolence ft ops the bold 
 career of their genius, or restrains the patient and 
 effeftual operations of their induitry. Since the 
 purity of religion was reftored by the Reformation, 
 every part of Chriftendom has caught the flame of 
 emulation ; general knowledge is widely ditfufed, 
 and the character of a Chriftian, and more parti- 
 .cuiarly that of a Protelfant, is marked by a fupe- 
 rior improvement of' the intellectual powers. 
 
 II. The Church of England. 
 
 
 
 Our Church, which (lands at the head of tl>e 
 Proleftant Eltabliihmenta, was, by the favour of 
 divine Providence, purified from the corruptions of 
 See of &o0>e in the reign of Henry VIII. Her 
 
 k White's Bampton Left. Scrra, ix, 
 
 courageous
 
 ftffi XSltltrSTtAN RELIGION'. 
 
 courageous and enlightened Reformers threw 
 the }'oke of Papal Supremacy and fuperftition, re- 
 vived the lively image of the primitive Eftablifli- 
 ment, and reftored the modes of worfhip, that had 
 prevailed in the pureft times of Chriftianity. This 
 conformity has been celebrated by its own members 
 at home, arid its admirers abroad, as its moil illuf- 
 trious and diftinguifhing charaderiftic. The funda- 
 mental Articles of her Faith are itriftly confident 
 with Scripture; her facred edifices, divefted of the 
 gaudy decorations of Popilh temples, are furnifhed 
 only with thole appendages which give dignity to 
 public worflii p. Her devotional exercifes, not con- 
 fined to a foreign tongue, but intelligible to all, 
 may be fairly pronounced fuperior to all other fkcred 
 compofitions of human origin, for fimplkity of 
 language, fervour of piety, and evangelical tenour 
 of fentiment. The orders of the Priefthood, deriv- 
 ing their origin from the Apoftles themfelves, are 
 confirmed by the earliefc ufage, and are recora- 
 inended by the great utility of clerical fubordina- 
 rion. The Conftitution of the State, in return for 
 the alliance which it has formed with tire Church, 
 derives from the arTociation additional fecurity for 
 the obfervance of the laws, and the prefervation of 
 order. The unmolefted profeffion, and open exer-. 
 cife of their own particular worfhip, are allowed to 
 DnTenters of all denominations. The prudent tole- 
 ration, with which they are indulged, equally avoids 
 the extremes 'of perfecution, which cuts afundcr the 
 ties of charity, and of that unbounded freedom, 
 which may convert religion into an engine of poli- 
 tical
 
 80 THK CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 tical mifchicf. Thus defervedly renowned for her 
 inftitutions, and her modes of worfhip, the Church 
 of* England is as favourable to the cultivation of 
 the mind, as to the advancement of pure Chrifti- 
 anity ; and the zeal of her fons for the promotion of 
 her interefts has never been more confpicuous, than 
 their learning, their talents, and their virtues. 
 
 Condufton. 
 
 To the prevalence of Chriftianity, the ftudy of 
 its records, and the inftitutions and eftablifhments 
 to which it gave rife, modern times are indebted 
 for the preservation of the invaluable remains of 
 Grecian and Roman literature. When the barba- 
 rians of the North, and the Eaft, and the Maho- 
 metans of the South, overfpread the provinces of 
 the Roman Empire, the city of Conftantinople, 
 where we may recollect the Chriitian Religion had 
 been firft fupported by Imperial authority, pre- 
 fcrved its inhabitants from that general ignorance 
 which overfpread the reft of the world. During 
 the dark ages, the light of learning, however feeble, 
 was ftill kept burning in monaftic cells ; the Latin 
 language, into which the Scriptures were tran- 
 ilated, was cultivated ; and the precious remains of 
 clailical genius eicaped the ravages, to which every 
 other fpecies of property was expofed by the fero- 
 city and violence of a barbarous people. From 
 thefe repofitories, happily fecured from deftruction 
 by the fuperftition of the times, they were drawn at 
 the revival of learning; and the iervice which they 
 
 have
 
 THE CMJUSTIAN RELIGION 1 . 81 
 
 have afforded to the human mind has not been 
 confined to its refearches into philofophy, fcience, 
 and literature, but extended to facred criticifm, 
 and the illuftration of the Scriptures. 
 
 As Chriftianity is thus aufpicious to the cultiva- 
 tion of the intellectual powers, as well .as beneficial 
 in its moral effects, it defbrves the firft attention of 
 the ftudious. The duties which it prefcribes indeed 
 are admirably calculated to produce that docile 
 temper and fobernefs of thought, thofe habits of 
 perfeverance and patient inveftigation, which are 
 abfolutely neceffary in the purfuit of general know- 
 ledge. Religion Itamps its juft value upon all 
 other attainments, and confecrates them to the 
 beft and moil noble fervice. It aflerts its own glo- 
 rious and tranfcendent fuperiority, becaufe it con- 
 fines not its refearches to objects of immediate uti- 
 lity only, but elevates our thoughts to heaven, and 
 carries on the mind to the growing improvement 
 of its faculties, throughout the infinite ages of 
 eternity ! . 
 
 Such are the reafons for our urgent importunities 
 to our young readers, to lay the foundations of 
 
 1 To that elevation of mind above the common events of life, 
 whether profperous or adverfe, which Chriftianity is capable of 
 infpiring, may be applied the noble defcription of Claudian : 
 Fortuns fecura nitet, nee fafcibus ullis 
 Erigitur, plaufuve cupit clarefcere vulgi : 
 Nil opis externz cupiens, nil indiga laudis ; 
 Divitiis animofa fuis, immotaque cun&is 
 Cafibus, ex aha mortalia defpicit arce. 
 
 VOL. i. c their
 
 SC TFIL criRrSTIAN 
 
 their lives on the firm ground of Chriftian faith, 
 and build upon it whatever is jurt and good, worthy 
 and noble, till the ftructure be complete in moral 
 beauty. " The world, into which you are enter- 
 ing, lies in wait with a variety of temptations. 
 Unfavourable fen tj merits of religion will foon be 
 fnggefted to you, and all the (hares of luxury, 
 falfe honour, and intereft, fpread in your way, 
 which are too fuccefsful, and to many fatal. Happy 
 the few that in any part of life become fenfible of 
 their errors, and with painful refolution tread back 
 the wrong fteps, which they have taken! But hap- 
 picft of men is he, who by an even courfe of right 
 conduct from the firft, as far as human frailty per- 
 mits, hath at once avoided the miferies of fin, the 
 forrows of repentance, and the difficulties of virtue; 
 who not only can think of his prefent (late with 
 compofure, but reflects on his pafl behaviour with 
 thankful approbation ; and looks forward with un- 
 mixed joy to that important future hour, when he 
 mall appear before God, and humbly offer to him 
 a whole life fpcnt in his ferviceV 
 
 Let me then moft ferioufly exhort you, my 
 young readers, to liften with all earneftnefs to the 
 facred .words of the great Founder of our holy Reli- 
 gion. Attend with mingled fenfations of delight, 
 gratitude, and reverence, to the revelation of the 
 Divine will, which he defcended from heaven to 
 promulgate. The duties, which you owe to your 
 
 k Archbilhop Seeker's Sermons.
 
 THE CItRIStlAN RELIGION. 83 
 
 Maker, to mankind, and to yourfelves, are ftated 
 vith full authority, and explained with the utmofi 
 perfpicuity, in the infpired Writings of his Evange- 
 lifts and Apoftlcs. In them you find that the 
 Saviour of the world has illuftrated his divine pre- 
 cepts by the moft pleafmg and ftriking examples, 
 has enforced them by the moft awful fanctions, and 
 recommended them by the bright perfection of his 
 own conduct. There he has unfolded the wonder- 
 ful myftery of redemption, and communicated the 
 means, by which degenerate and fallen man may 
 recover the favour of his offended Maker. There 
 he gives a clear view of the divine adminiftration of 
 'all human affairs ; and there he reprefents this 
 mortal life, which forms only a part of our exift- 
 ence, as a fliort period of warfare and trial. 
 He points to the folemn fcenes, which open beyond 
 the grave ; the refurrection of the dead, the lafl 
 judgment, and the impartial diftribution of rewards 
 and punifhments. He difplays the completion of 
 the divine mercy and goodnefs in the final efta- 
 blifhment of perfection and happinefs. By making 
 fuch wonderful and interfiling difcoveries, let him 
 excite your zeal, and fix jour determination to 
 adorn the acquirements of learning and fcience 
 M'ith the graces of his holy Religion, and to dedi- 
 cate the clays of health and of youth to his honour 
 and fervice. Amid the retirement of ftudy, or the 
 bufmefs of active life, let it be your firft care, as it 
 is your duty, and your intereft, to recollect, that 
 the great Author and Finiflier of your faith has 
 placed the rewards of virtue beyond the reach of 
 
 G 2 tire
 
 84 THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 
 
 time and death ; and promifed that eternal happ- 
 nefs to the faith and obedience of man, which can 
 alone fill his capacity for enjoyment, and alone 
 fatisfy the ardent defires of his foul. 
 
 CLASS
 
 [ 85 ] ' 
 
 CLASS THE SECOND. 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 Language in general. 
 
 1 HE principles and characteriftics of Language 
 render it a fubjecl; of pleafing and ufeful inquiry. 
 It is the general vehicle of our ideas, and repre- 
 fents by words all the conceptions of the mind. 
 Books and converfation are the offspring of this 
 prolific parent. The fanner introduce us to the 
 treafures of learning and fcience, and make us ac- 
 quainted with the opinions, difcoveries, and tranf- 
 actions of paft ages ; by the latter, the general in- 
 tercourfe of fociety is carried on, and our ideas are 
 conveyed to each other with nearly the fame rapi- 
 dity, with which they arife in the mind. Language, 
 in conjunction with reafon, to which it gives its pro- 
 per activity, ufe, and ornament, raifes man above 
 the lower orders of animals; and, in proportion as 
 it is poliihed and refined, exalts one nation above 
 another in the fcale of civilization and intellectual 
 dignity. 
 
 p 3 Inquiries
 
 86 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 Inquiries into the nature of any particular Lan- 
 guage, if not too abftrufe and metaphyfical, are 
 fubjects of pleafing and ufeful fpeculation. So dole 
 is the connexion between words and ideas, that no 
 learning whatever can be obtained without their aid 
 and interpofition. In proportion as the former are 
 ftudied and examined, the latter become clear and 
 complete; and according as words convey our 
 meaning in a full and adequate manner, we avoid 
 the inconvenience of being mifunderftood, and are 
 fecure from the perplexity of doubt, the errors of 
 mifconception, and the cavils of difpute. It muft 
 always be remembered, that words are merely the 
 arbitrary ligns of ideas, connected with them by 
 cuftom, not allied to them by nature ; and that 
 each idea, like a ray of light, is liable to be tinged 
 by the medium of the word through which it paffes. 
 The volumes of controverfy which fill the libraries 
 of the learned would have been comparatively very 
 fmall, if the difputants who wrote them had given 
 a clear definition of their principal terms. Accu- 
 rate definition is one of the moft ufeful parts of 
 logic ; and we mall find, when we come to the exa- 
 mination of that fubjecl, that it is the only folicj 
 ground upon which reafon can build her argu^ 
 inents, and proceed to juft conclufions. 
 
 In order that the true fenfe of words may be 
 afcertained, and that they may ftrike with their 
 whole force, derivation muft lend its aid to defini- 
 tion. It is this which points out the fource from 
 whence a- word fprings, and the various ftreams of 
 
 fignificatioft
 
 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 87 
 
 fjgnification that flow from it. The ftudent, whilt 
 employed in tracing the origin of Language, and 
 afcertaining its (jollification, will reap great ad- 
 vantage from calling hi/iory to his aiMance ; and 
 he will find that allufions, idioms, and figures of 
 fpeech are illuftrated by particular fats, opinions, 
 and inftitutions. The cuftoms of the Greeks throw 
 light upon the expreflions of their authors ; without 
 fome acquaintance with the Roman laws, many 
 forms of exprefiion in the Orations of Cicero arc 
 unintelligible ; and many descriptions in the Old 
 and New Teftament arc oblcure, unlets they are 
 illuftrated by a knowledge of eaftern manners. 
 Furniihed with fuch aids, the fcholar acquires com- 
 plete not partial information, throws upon Lan- 
 guage all the light that can be reflected from his 
 general ftudies ; and imbibes, as far as a modern 
 can imbibe it, the true and original fpirit of ancient 
 authors. 
 
 As long as any one confines his ftudies folely to 
 his native tongue, he cannot unxlerftand it per- 
 fectly, or afcertain with accuracy its poverty or 
 richnefs, its beauties or defects. He who culti- 
 vates other languages as \vell as his own, gains 
 new inftruments to increafe the {lock of his ideas, 
 and opens new roads to the temple of knowledge. 
 He draws his learning from pure fourc.es, converfes 
 with the natives of other countries without the 
 affiftance of an interpreter, and furveys the con- 
 tents of books without the dim and unfteady light 
 of tranflations. He may unite the fpeculations of 
 
 o 4 a philo-
 
 88 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 
 
 a philofopher with the acquirements of a linguift ; 
 he may compare different tongues, and form jutl 
 conclufions with refpecl to their defeats and beau- 
 ties, and their correfpondence with the temper, 
 genius, and manners of a people. He may truce 
 the progrefs of national refinement, and difcover, 
 by a companion of arts and improvements with 
 their correfpondent terms, that the hiftory of Lan- 
 guage, inafmuch as it developes the efforts of hu- 
 man genius, and the rife and udvanceme.it of its 
 inventions, conftitutes an important part of the 
 hiitory of Man. 
 
 I. Theories of the Origin of Language. 
 
 Various theories have been formed to account 
 for the origin of language, which, however inge- 
 nious, are far from being fatisfactory. The cele- 
 brated author of the Wealth of Nations fuppofes 
 " two favages, who had never been taught to 
 fpeak, and who had been bred up remote from the 
 focieties of men, would naturally begin to form 
 that language, by which they would endeavour to 
 make their fentiments intelligible to each other, 
 by uttering certain founds, whenever they meant 
 to denote objects." Thus they would begin to give 
 names to things, to clafs individual objects under a 
 fpecies, which they denoted by a common name, 
 and proceed gradually to the formation of all the 
 parts of fpeech *. 
 
 " .Cpnfiderations concerning, the firft formation of languages, 
 in Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments, vol. ii. p. 403. 
 
 The
 
 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 89 
 
 The condition of thcfe two favages is wholly 
 imaginary, as it cannot apply to any perfons, M'ho 
 have ever been known to cxift. It may fairly be 
 afked, how they came into fuch a itate? Was it in 
 confequence of their own previous determination? 
 If it was, then they muft have converfed, in order 
 to make fuch an agreement. If it was not the re- 
 lult of fuch a meafure, they muft have been placed 
 there by other rational and talking beings, and 
 muft confequently ; have acquired from them the 
 names, which in their reclufe condition they applied 
 to the furrounding objecls. If they borrowed the 
 terms from others, then of courfe the hypothefis of 
 a language, confidercd as an invention of the 
 favages themfelves, falls at once to the ground. 
 
 
 Some inftances, it may be granted, have been re- 
 ported of perfons, who have been found in a wild 
 ftate, without education or the ufe of fpeech : but 
 no accurate and well-authenticated account is given 
 of the exacl time of life, when they were firft placed 
 in fuch a ftate, or of their manner of living. Upon 
 fuch weak principles, therefore, no argument can be 
 eftablifhed to confirm the truth of the hypothecs. 
 
 The theory of Lord Monboddo, embelliflied as it 
 is by quotations from ancient authors, and fup- 
 ported by plaufible arguments, is liable to fimilar 
 objections b . He fuppofcs, that language was not 
 originally natural to man, and that the political 
 
 b Origin of Language, vol. i. p. 514. 545. 626. vol. ir. 
 J> 5- 
 
 ftate
 
 SO LANGUAGE IX GENERAL. 
 
 ftate of fociety was necefiary for its invention. 
 This principle forms the bafis of his elaborate work 
 on the origin and progrefs of language. He aiTerts 
 that man in his natifral ftate is a wild animal, 
 without language or arts of any kind. To prove 
 this point, he cites the opinions of Lucretius and 
 Horace, who dcfcribe the human race as fiift rifmg 
 from the earth, mute and favage, and living for 
 fome time in a ftate of war, before the invention of 
 arts and the eftabiifhment of laws introduced the 
 improvement of manners. He quotes defcriptions 
 from the works of Diodorus Siculus, Leo Africanus, 
 and other writers. But in the whole detail of his 
 authorities, there is not one ftrong and well attefted 
 facl, that is ftriclly and indifputably to his purpofe. 
 The vague and fanciful defcriptions of poets can- 
 not be admitted as proper evidence' in fuch a cafe. 
 The accounts of Diodorus Siculus, and the other 
 writers whom he preffes into his fervice, are taken 
 from the reports of credulous travellers. Some of 
 them are not to the purpofe ; in many of the others 
 are circumftances highly improbable, or evidently 
 falie. Some of the defcriptions are not furficiently 
 accurate to enable us to afcertain, whether the 
 beings, that were obferved by travellers to live in a 
 wild ftate, were really men, or inferior animals. 
 Lord Monboddo is aware that the arguments of 
 Rouifeau, founded upon the principle that there 
 could be no fociety without language, prefs with 
 great force againft his whole fyftem. To what in- 
 ftances then has he recourfe to extricate himfelf 
 from the difficulty ? Not to an example taken from 
 
 a race
 
 LANGUAGE IX GENEfiAL. pi 
 
 a race of men poirefTmg the faculty of reafoo, and 
 the organ* of fpeech ; but from the beavers of Ca- 
 nada, and the foxes of the river Danailris ! When 
 he ought to adduce initances of men, he produces 
 thofc of inferior animals ; and his defcriptious of 
 them are fo extraordinary, that they are entitled to 
 very little credit. When he fpeaks of fociety, he 
 certainly mutt be underftood to mean only theitate 
 of fuch creatures, as, deftitute of the powers of col- 
 loquial intercourse, herd together merely as they are 
 impelled by the force of inftinct Such a ftate is 
 more properly to be called gregarious, than fociable; 
 becaufe to the latter term is always applied fome idea 
 of a difpolition to converfe, and to communicate 
 thought, which is totally inconliilent with the na- 
 ture of any beings not endowed with the faculty 
 of fpeech. 
 
 How the original focieties of men could have 
 been formed without the aid of language, or lan- 
 guage invented without fociety, are points which 
 the difquifitions of thefe writers, however inge- 
 nious, are far from enabling us to fettle. The only 
 rational and fatisfaclory method of folving the diffi- 
 culty is to refer the origin of fpeech to the great 
 Creator himfelf. Not that it is necetfary to fup- 
 pofe, that he infpired the firft parents of mankind 
 with any particular original or primitive language; 
 but that he made them fully fenfible of the power 
 with which they were endued of forming articulate 
 founds, gave them an impulfe to exert, it, and left 
 the arbitrary impofition^ of words to their own 
 
 choice.
 
 
 92 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 choice. Their ingenuity was left to itfelf to mul- 
 tiply names, as new objects occurred to their ob- 
 fervation ; and thus language was gradually ad- 
 vanced in procefs of time to the different degrees 
 of copioufnefs and refinement, which it has reached 
 among various nations. 
 
 This theory is conformable to the defcription 
 given in the Sacred Writings, and agrees very re- 
 markably with the opinions to be collected from 
 prophane hiftory. Plato maintains that the ori- 
 ginal language of man was of divine formation ; 
 and when he divides words into two dalles, the 
 primitive and the derivative, he attributes the lat- 
 ter to the ingenuity of man, and the former to 
 the immediate communication of the Supreme Be- 
 ing. The Egyptians, from whom this opinion was 
 probably derived, maintained that by Thoth, the 
 god of eloquence, their anceftors were at firft 
 
 taught to articulate c . 
 
 To 
 
 ' Dr. Johnfon talking of the origin of language fajd, " It 
 muft have come by infpiration : a thoufand, nay a million of chil- 
 dren could not invent a language. While the organs are pliable, 
 there is not underftanding enough to form a language ; by the 
 time that there is underltanding enough, the Organs are become 
 fliff. We know that after a certain age we cannot learn to pro- 
 nounce a new language. No foreigner, who comes to England, 
 when advanced in life, ever pronounces Englifti tolerably well ; 
 at leaft fuch inftances are very rare. When I maintain that lan- 
 guage niuft have come by inspiration, I do not mean that infpt- 
 ration is required for rhetoric, and all the beauties of language ; 
 for ijaben once man has language, we can conceive that fee may 
 
 gradually
 
 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 99 
 
 To whatever part of the globe we direct our 
 view, we mall find additional reafons to conclude, 
 that all the languages now fpoken in the world 
 were derived originally from one and the fame 
 fource, notwithftanding their apparent difference 
 and variety. When we remark certain words in 
 Latin, that referable others in Greek, we are not 
 furprifed, confidering the intimate connexion which 
 fubfifled between the two nations, and the evident 
 derivation of the former from the latter. It is 
 natural to fuppofe that the modern tongues were 
 derived from the ancient, which were fpoken in 
 the fame country. Thus all the prefent languages 
 and dialects of Europe, amounting to about twenty- 
 feven, may be traced to the Latin, German, and 
 Sclavonian. But when we obferve that words ufed 
 in one quarter of the globe are like thofe in another 
 which is very remote, and that fuch words have 
 exactly the fame fignification, and were fo ufed long 
 before the prefent inhabitants had any intercourfe 
 wit^i each other, how is this to be accounted for ? 
 Several words in Welch are fimilar, and have a 
 fimilar meaning with Latin and Greek. I am 
 aware that this refemblance may be imputed to 
 their common derivation from the Celtic. But 
 whence arifes the affinity in fome remarkable in- 
 
 gradually form modifications of it. I mean only that infpiration 
 feems to me to be neceflary to give man the faculty of fpeech ; 
 to inform him that he may have fpeech ; which I think he could 
 no more find out without infpiration, than cows or hogs would 
 think of fuch a faculty." Bofwell's Life of Johnfon, vol. iii. 
 p. 460. 
 
 ftances,
 
 5* LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 fiances, between the Greek and Hebrew, Greek 
 and S nfcrit, Greek and Chincfe, Englifh and Ara- 
 bic, Turk if h and Celtic, Welfh an J Arabic, Latin 
 and Otahcitan, Latin and Turkifh, and Engli/h and 
 Perfian ? 
 
 For the anfwers to thefe queftions, I mall confine 
 myfelf principally to fuch words as run through a 
 variety of the languages I have mentioned : and 
 fcveral of ^hefe words certainly have the better 
 claim to being reputed of very high antiquity, if 
 not antediluvian, becaufe it is ib extremely diffi- 
 cult to trace any modern intercourfe, fufficierit at 
 lead to eftabliih imitation, between the nations that 
 ufe them. 
 
 I. The word fack has undergone little variation in lan- 
 guages either ancient or modern. par * Hebrew, ffaxxoy 
 Greck, faccus Latin, fack Teutonic, Gaelic, and Welfh, 
 /acco Italian, Portuguefe, and Spanifh, and fac French. 
 
 II. Carim in Turkish, like earns in I,atin, llgnifies 
 beloved, 1p' Hebrew, pretiofum, carum efTe. Cam in 
 Welfh is to love ; and x<zgo*a, and y^tuftf in Greek, and cor 
 in Latin, are from the fame original root. 
 
 III. Dant in Welfh is a tooth, in Indian dandon, in Latin 
 dent cm, in Greek ocSovra, in Dutch tant, in Turkifh difch t 
 in Saxon JJian, in German zan y in Hebrew \0f. 
 
 IV. Bod is Welfh for a manfion, in Perfia and India the 
 fame notion is exprcfTed by abad t hence the Egyptian, 
 Phrygian, and Macedonian abydps \ in Englifh it is abode, 
 abide, bed, booth, Saxon bidcn. Tlie world itfelf in Welfh 
 is byd. 
 
 V. Mars is derived from the Oriental word Mar a lord, 
 .hence mayor, and major. The Greek Ap-ns, from which 
 
 6 - the
 
 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 95 
 
 the Latin is certainly taken, is from the Celtic Ar, cladcs. 
 It is curious to obferve, that in the Otaheitan, a prince or 
 chieftain is Aree. 
 
 VI. Hen old in Celtic, is the Highland ftan, the Chinefe 
 chan, pronounced Jlian, the Latin fenex, Ipt fenuir. 
 
 VII. Cano in Latin is in Wefh ccuni. In Arabic cainat 
 is a fongitrefs, Heb. nJp canna qua agricohe canere crant 
 foliti. 
 
 VIII. Some Turkifh and Tartarian words are allied to 
 the Celtic. The Turkifli e r, the Tartarian frs, the Latin 
 rir is the Celtic wr, and gur, a man. 
 
 IX. Man as the name for a Being is to be found under 
 fome form in a great variety of languages in the feveral 
 
 branches of the Teutonic, Gothic, Saxon, German, Runic, 
 &c. in the Greek /w,*vr,y fervus, and in the Latin howimis; 
 it exifts in fcewjwa and woman. In Sanfcrit Maan-oofho 
 is a man. 
 
 X. Cam?, a dog, -in Greek xtwv, is in Chinefe keuen. 
 XL Tor is a word extending to many languages, and 
 
 conveying the fame radical idea : it fignifies high rock, or 
 fuminit. Tor Saxon a high pointed rock, or fummit. 
 Pliny fays, that the Tor-etae inhabited the top of Cape 
 Cronea hence TO o/jos, mons, and the land 7j/ra in 
 Egypt. From Tor comes Mam/0/* in Derby/hire, and 
 TVrbay in Devon, and Gibraltar, which is a Moorifli 
 name. ChiArr is a city on a high hill in India ; Taunts 
 is the largeft mountain in Afia ; 7"o/*us a mountain in Sicily 
 near Agrigentum. Greek rvpts and rv^ms circuitus muri 
 turris Latin, rrvo Chaldaic, icdes, palatium ; *no, a moun- 
 tain, tower, English. 
 
 Not only the conftru<5lion and formation of the Englim. 
 and Perfian languages are remarkably fnnilar; but there are 
 many words wholly or nearly alike. Thus fukar is fugar, 
 JJiireen a fyren, bad bad; burden to bear, pceri a fairy, 
 biden to be, bufs a kifs, peer an old man, teer or tear 
 moift, doo two, pahar four, lib a lip, jamin jeflamine, beft 
 beft, the fuperlative of good \ Jemifeer a fcymeter, nam 
 
 a name,
 
 96 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL 
 
 a name, to thou ; oe he, ain or ein the eye, eifar eafy *, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 XII. Words which denote numerals are very fimilar in a 
 variety of languages. Take for examples one and four ; 
 one in Ennjlifh is wins in Latin, Iv Greek, an Saxon, an 
 Gothic, ein German, een Dutch, uno Italian and Spanifli, 
 vn French, aon Iriih and Gaelic, un Welfh, Uynyn 
 Cornifh, Yunan Armoric. 
 
 XIII. Four, in the language of the Gipfies, is Jiaur, 
 Latin quafuor, Greek reevzQsf, French carre and quatre, 
 Englifli fquare, Perflc chuhaur and chaur, Welfh pedwar, 
 Gothic fidwer y and among the Eolians WE-ro^a. 
 
 XIV. There is the fame refemblance with refpedl to the 
 name of the Supreme Being. Deus is otu* in Eo!ic, Thoth 
 among the Egyptians was the name of their god Mercury, 
 and anfwers to Seor. W$lh and guoth in the r l"eutonic is 
 good. Deus in Welfli is Duw, at Mangalor Deu, in 
 Cambaia Maha Deu is magnus Deus. At Mexico Teu y 
 Irifli Did, in Sr. Kilda Tw, in China, TV or Tia. The 
 founds of d and are very much alike, and the letters are 
 frequently changed for each other. 
 
 XV. The term which denotes Death is in many lan- 
 guages of equal or perhaps greater extent. Mars Latin, 
 in Greek i**pos is fate, Hebrew no to die, in Perfian mor 
 is death, murden is Turkish for mod, mir Arabic, at 
 Surat mor is to kill, in Celtic marw to die, in the Ofchian 
 tongue mard is death, and in Ulandic morel fignifies the fame 
 as our word, which is probably of Saxon origin, murder. 
 More remarkable than all is the Otaheitan Moray , which 
 fignifies a fepulchre. 
 
 XVI. Words which exprefs near degrees of relationfhip 
 extend very widely. Father in EnglHh, in Saxon is fader, 
 in German vafer, in Belgic vader, in Iflandic and Danifh 
 
 fader, in Latin pater, and in Greek -ssar-np : in Perfian it is 
 pader, in Sanfcrit peefrc. In like manner may be traced 
 Papa, Abbot> Pope, See. 
 
 d Browne's Sketches, vol. i. . 
 
 XVTL
 
 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 97 
 
 XVII. Mother is in Greek yun-rnp, in Latin mater, In 
 Saxon mother, meder, medder, in German mutter, muoter, 
 winder, in Spanifh and Italian madre, in Danifli moder, 
 Dutch moeter, Perfian mader, and in Sanfcrit matree. Mam, 
 one of the earlieft words pronounced by Englifh children, is 
 Welfh for a woman's breaft, Latin mamma : from giving 
 fuck a nurfe in Welfh is calleth mammaeth ; a mother 
 mam, and mamma ; in Arabia and in Lapland it is am, 
 in Hebrew o. The Hindoos fay mamma Havah, for 
 mother Eve. 
 
 XVIII. Brother, f rater Gothic brothar, Danifli broder, 
 Sclavonian bratr, Perfian buruuder, Galic brathair, in 
 Irifh bra fair, Welfli braied. 
 
 XIX. 1 he moon German tnond, Danifh mone, Greek 
 mene, Belgic mane, Saxon maen, Laponic manna, Arabic 
 tnanah, Perfian mah or maw ; then, by the change of m 
 for /, which is very common, in Latin it is luna, in Scla- 
 vonian luna, in Irifli luan, in Celtic lun, in Greek fe-lcne, 
 in Gaul elane, in Wefh Ihoer, Arnaoric loar, and in Cor- 
 nifh lur, Hebrew nja!?. The white of the moon. 
 
 XX. Arr/g in Greek, a ftar, in Latin Jlella, rsXXw orior 
 Heb. SV'n lucifer; iri' French ejloile or etoile, in Perfic^Zer, 
 hence Efter, Eajlcr \ and the Phenician Ajlarte in India 
 is Jlarra. 
 
 XXI. Water in Welfli is dur, and fo it is in Irifli ; in 
 the Phrygian language it is ydor : what is this but yJwg 
 Greek, wafer Englifh. 
 
 XXII. Wine vin French, vino Ital. Spanifli, and Por- 
 tuguefe ; vinum Latin, otvov Greek, p Hebrew, givin 
 Welfh. 
 
 . 
 I could fliow the coincidence in many more 
 
 points between Greek and Sanfcrit, between the 
 dialed of the Hebrides and the remote language 
 of China : I could perhaps afcertain the exiftence 
 of many Celtic ajid Egyptian words in China, 
 VOL. r. H which
 
 LANGUAGE 13? 
 
 which prove the ancient connexion between the 
 original families of the earth, the immediate 
 defcendants of Japhet and Ham the Sons of Noah: 
 but the limited nature of my plan makes it necef- 
 fary to refer fuch of my readers as are defirous of 
 purfuiiig this curious inveftigation, to the learned 
 works of Sammes, Pezron, Junius, Skinner, and 
 Parkhurd ; to Rowland's Mona, and Williams's 
 Primitive Chridiaiiity. 
 
 This identity or near refemblance of names 
 which denote the fame ideas, and thofe ideas fome 
 of the mod driking and important to mankind in 
 every age of fqciety, feems to point to the fame 
 fource. It feems highly probable therefore, that 
 one original fountain of fpeech, and one only, has 
 produced not only thofe various dreams of diction, 
 fuch as the Celtic, that have been long dried up; 
 but fupplied thofe likewife, fuch as the languages 
 of modern Europe, that dill continue to flow. 
 Hence the hidory recorded by Mofes of the prime- 
 val race of men fpeaking one language, and 
 afterwards being difperfed in confequence of the 
 confufion of tongues which took place at Babel, 
 receives drong confirmation. Thefe are facts which 
 furnifh the bed reafon for the uniformity we have 
 noticed, and they could not, on any other prin- 
 ciple, be accounted for, in a manner fo fatisfaetory 
 to reafon, or fo confident with the tenor of ancient 
 hidory. 
 
 Language
 
 LANGUAGE |N GENERAL. 99 
 
 Language kept pace with the progrefs of inven- 
 tion, and the cultivation of the mind urged man- 
 kind to the increafe and improvement of the 
 founds, by which its dictates were communicated to 
 the ear. From denoting the perceptions of fenfe, 
 they proceeded to reprefent by words the inftru- 
 ments and operations of art, the flights of fancy, 
 the deductions of reafon, and the remits of obfer- 
 vation and experience. Hence may be traced the 
 progrefs of poetry, hiftory, and philofophy. Thus 
 oral expreMion, from being in its early age the 
 child of neceffity, became the parent of ornament; 
 and words, originally the rude and uncouth drefies 
 of ideas, have been improved, as fociety has ad- 
 vanced to higher degrees of refinement, into their 
 moft fplendid and moll beautiful decorations. 
 
 II. Origin and Progrefs of Letters. 
 
 To fix the fleeting founds as foon as they are 
 breathed from the lips, and to reprefent ideas 
 faithfully to the eye as foon as they are formed in 
 the mind, by certain determinate characters, are 
 the wonderful properties of letters. Thofe to 
 whom books have from their childhood been fami- 
 liar, and who view literature only in its prefent 
 advanced ftate of improvement, cannot form a 
 juft eftimate of the difficulties that attended the 
 firft application of fymbols or figns to the expreffion 
 of ideas. The pictures of the Mexicans, and the 
 hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, were without 
 doubt very ingenious devices, and mark the 
 
 H 2 various
 
 100 LANGUAGE Itf OENKttAL. 
 
 various efforts, which human ingenuity can make 
 towards expreffing what paifes in the mind, by 
 objects of fight: but it comes not within the 
 province of the art of painting to reprefent a fuc- 
 ceflion of thoughts ; and its operations are very 
 tedious and circuitous; fo that fuch a mode of 
 information is very ill adapted to the activity and 
 the variety of mental exertions. The great excel- 
 lence of letters confifts in their fimplicity ; by a 
 fmall number of characters, repeated and varioufly 
 combined, all words are exprefled with equal pre- 
 cifion and facility. They pofiefs a decided advan- 
 tage over all other artificial vehicles of thought, 
 by communicating with the utmoft eafe the various 
 conceptions of the mind. By their affiftance in 
 carrying on epiftolary correfpondence, the warm 
 eflfufions of afte6Hon and iriendlhip are conveyed 
 even to the moft remote countries ; and the 
 conftant intercourfe of commerce, fcience, and 
 learning, is maintained in defiance of all the 
 obftacles of diftance". Learning is indebted to 
 
 ' The application of Jitters to fome of the moft important affairs 
 of life is touched upon with great elegance by Palamcdes, a Hero 
 i.i the Trojan war, who claims the invention. 
 To, rc vt Xr9 
 
 lr a iretfofia. irorlia? ivrtp 
 
 
 >.aooa 
 
 K Ux ict 
 
 Euripid. Fragment, Edit. Barnes, p. 487. 
 
 letters
 
 LANGUAGE IN* GEXERAL. 101 
 
 letters for its diffufion and continuance, and to 
 them genius and virtue owe the rewards of lafting 
 fame. Oral tradition is fleeting and uncertain ; 
 it is a dream, which, as it infenlibly flows into the 
 ocean of oblivion, is mixed with the impure foil 
 of error and falfehood. But letters turnifh the 
 unfulliecl memorials of truth, and impart to fuc- 
 ceflive generations the perfecl records of knowledge. 
 They conftitute the light, glory, and ornament 
 of civilized man ; and when the voice of the phi- 
 lofopher, the poet, and the fcholar, and even the 
 facred words of the Redeemer of mankind himfelf, 
 are heard no more, letters record the bright ex- 
 amples of virtue, and teach the ineftimable leifons 
 of fcience, learning, and revelation to every age, 
 and to every people, 
 
 We cannot fail to obferve the great variety in 
 the modes of writing, which prevail in different 
 parts of the world. Some nations, as the Chinefe, 
 place their letters perpendicularly, and write from 
 the top to the bottom of the page. The greateil 
 number have followed the movement of the hand 
 from left to right, which to an European appears 
 moft natural and eafy : accordingly all the weitern 
 nations place their letters in this order. On the 
 contrary, it was the prevailing cuftom of the Eaft, 
 particularly of the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Ara- 
 bians, and Hebrews, to purfue the oppofite practice, 
 and write from right to left. 
 
 Thefe various modes of arrangement may give 
 fome plaufibility to the opinion, that each particular 
 
 H 3 people
 
 102 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 people were the inventors of their own alphabet. 
 A preemption fo favourable to national vanity has 
 accordingly prevailed, as the Egyptians attributed 
 the origin of their letters to Mercury, the Greeks to 
 Cadmus, and the Latins to Saturn. This opinion 
 arofe from the high reputation acquired by thofe 
 who firft introduced, or made improvements in, 
 the graphic art. For it feems highly probable, 
 that all the alphabets now known and ufed were 
 originally derived from one and the fame fource, 
 and were brought, at various periods of time, into 
 different countries. 
 
 Can any two fets of letters appear to the eye 
 more dhTnriilar, than the Hebrew and the Enialijh ? 
 Yet it is highly probable, that, the latter were de- 
 rived from the former. And if we attend to the 
 ingenious arguments of Bp. Wavburton, we may 
 carry the origin of letters higher than to the Jewiih 
 nation, and refer them to the Egyptian hierogly- 
 phics. He ftates, upon the authority of ancient 
 writers, that throughout many of the early ages of 
 the world, there was a regular gradation of improve- 
 ment in the manner of conveying ideas by figns 
 that pictures were firft ufed as the reprefentatives of 
 thoughts, and in procefs of time alphabetical cha- 
 racters were fubftituted, as an eafier and more com- 
 pendious mode of communication, than the vague 
 ufe of arbitrary marks f . Mofes, the great law- 
 giver of the Jews, brought letters with the reft of 
 
 f Divine Legation, v. ii. p. 387, &c. 
 
 his
 
 LANGUAGE IX GEXERAL. 103 
 
 his learning from Egypt ; arjd he Amplified their 
 forms, in order to prevent the abufc- to which they 
 would have been liable, as fymbolical characters, 
 among a people fo much inclined to fuperftition as 
 the Jews. From the Jews this alphabetical mode 
 of writing paflcd to the Syrians and Phoenicians, or 
 perhaps was common to them all at the fame time. 
 The Greek authors maintained that Cadmus and 
 his Phoenician companions introduced the know- 
 ledge of letters into Greece. Herodotus records the 
 curious fact that he faw at Thebes in Boeotia, in the 
 temple of Apollo, three tripods infcribed with Cad- 
 nieian letters, which very much refembled the Ionic. 
 It is too well known to require any detail of proof, 
 that the Romans were taught their letters by the 
 Greeks. Tacitus has remarked the fimilarity of 
 the Roman character to the mod ancient Greek, 
 that is, the Pelafgic ; and the fame obfervation is 
 made by Pliny, and confirmed by the inscription 
 on an ancient tablet of brafs, dedicated to Mi- 
 nerva. By the Romans their alphabet was com- 
 municated to the Goths, and the nations of mo- 
 dern Europe. And if evidence to this detail of 
 external proofs be wanted, the curious may fur- 
 nifli themfelves with very fufficient arguments, in 
 the authentic infcriptions of antiquity which time 
 has fpared, by confidering attentively the order, 
 the names, and the powers of the letters in the 
 feveral alphabets juft mentioned ; and by examining 
 in the learned works of Montfaucon, Shuckford, 
 and Warburton, the characters themfelves, how 
 they have gradually been altered, and have de- 
 
 4
 
 104 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 viated from the firft forms through fuccefiive 
 changes, previous to their afiuming the ihapes and 
 figures under which they at prefent appear'. 
 
 III. Characlerijlic Diftinftions between ancient and 
 modern Languages. 
 
 
 The formation of the modern languages of Eu- 
 
 o o 
 
 rope is intimately connected with the hiflory of 
 the dark ages. The Latin language began to be 
 corrupted in the fifth century, as foon as the Goths 
 and Lombards, both of whom derived their origin 
 from Germany, had gained pofleflion of Italy. 
 From the reign of Theodoric and Athalaric, who 
 laboured to foften the rough manners of the Goths 
 by the refinements of learning, the Italian lan- 
 guage gradually affumed its form and character ; 
 and its deviation from the Latin was particularly 
 marked by the ufe of articles inftead of the varia- 
 tions of cafes, and of auxiliar verbs ,inflead of many 
 changes of tenfes. 
 
 In proportion as {he Goths made more fuccefs- 
 ful and extenfive ravages in the Roman empire, 
 their phrafeology was blended with that of their 
 captives, and the coarfe dialect of Provence and 
 Sicily contributed many ingredients to the compo- 
 
 f Stillingfleer, v. i. c. i. feft. 20. Shuckford's Connexions, 
 v. i. p. 223. Mitford, v. i. p. 88. Herodotus, 1. v. Terpfich. 
 feft. 58, 59. p. 306. edit. Gronov. Taciti Ann. 1. xi. Plinii 
 Nat. Hift. 1. vii. c. Iviii. Goguet's Origin of Laws, v. it 
 
 P. '77- 
 
 fition
 
 LANGUAGE IX GENERAL. 105 
 
 fition of the Italian language ; in the fame manner 
 as the fufion of the precious and bafer metals at 
 the conflagration of Corinth is faid to have pro- 
 duced the valuable mixture, which derives its name 
 from that celebrated city. As in the features of 
 the Italian ladies, the curious traveller may now 
 difcern a ftriking likencfs of the faces engraved on 
 antique gems ; fo in the language of that country, 
 he may difcover a ftrong refemblance to the ori- 
 ginal from which it is derived. If it wants the 
 ftrength and majefty of the Latin, it inherits that 
 delicacy and melodious flow of expreflion, which 
 never fail to charm every reader of tafte, in the 
 works of .Dante, Arioiio, Petrarch, Machiavel, 
 Algarotti, and Metaftafio. It is the fingular glory 
 of Italy, that while the early poets and hiftorians 
 of France and England are become in a great mea- 
 fure obfolete, her writers, who flourished fo early as 
 the fourteenth century, are read with the fafhion- 
 able authors of the prefent times, and ihare their 
 popularity and applaufe. 
 
 In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of 
 Germany, under the command of Pharamond, in- 
 vaded France, and conquered its ancient inha- 
 bitants, the Celts and Romans. By a mixture of 
 the dialect of thefe people the French language 
 was formed, which gradually poliming the rude 
 expreflions and uncouth phrafeology obfervable in 
 its firft writers, has acquired in later times a great 
 degree of precifion, delicacy, and elegance. 
 
 Between
 
 10$ LANGUAGE IN GENERAL. 
 
 Petween the languages of Greece and Rome, 
 and thofe of modern times, a very remarkable 
 difference prevails. The prepofitions of the latter 
 fupply the place of the cafes of the former ; and 
 as thefe prepofitions are of a very abftract and ge- 
 neral nature, they Ihew the progrefs of the 
 jnoderns in metaphyfical reafoning. Auxiliary 
 verbs are ufed inilead of many of the ancient 
 tenfes : thefe forms of exprefiion contribute greatly 
 to fimplify modern languages, in point of rudi- 
 ments and firit principles, and con fequently render 
 them more eafy to be acquired. Still however 
 they are fubje& to faults, which nearly counter- 
 balance their excellence ; for they are weaker in 
 expreflion, lefs harmonious and agreeable to the 
 ear, and, as the confti uctiori of the words neceffa- 
 rily fixes them to particular fituations in a fentence, 
 they are lefs adapted to the ufes of poetry. 
 
 Another very remarkable diftinc~lion prevails in 
 poetry. Thofe effufions of fancy which the 
 moderns exprefs jn rhyme, the ancients conveyed 
 in metre. In the claflic authors, the quantity of 
 words is fixed, the various combinations of long 
 and fhort fyllables give a pleating variety to pro- 
 nunciation, both in profe and verfe, and render 
 every word more diftincl and harmonious to the 
 ear. Rhyme was the invention of a dark and 
 taftelefs age, and is generally thought, when it 
 predominates in the poetry of a, language, as it 
 does in the French, to indicate a want of ftrength 
 and fpirit. It is the glory of the Englim language 
 
 to
 
 LANGUAGE JN GZNE&Al,. 107 
 
 to be capable of fupporting blank verfe; which 
 the French, from its want of energy and vigour, 
 cannot admit even in tragic compofition. 
 
 Rhyme is frequently the fource of redundancy 
 and feeblenefs of expreffion ; as even among the 
 mod admired writers inftances frequently occur of 
 the fenfe being fo much expanded, as to be on that 
 account extremely weakened, becaufe the poet is 
 under the neceflity of clofing his couplets with 
 correfponding founds. The tranflation of Homer 
 by Pope, and o Virgil by Dryden, afford ftriking 
 proofs of the truth of this obfervation. The 
 verbofe paflages in many of the fined tragedies of 
 Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, arife from the 
 fame caufe. In rhyme the fenfe is ufually clofed 
 with the firft line, or at lead with the fecond. 
 This produces a tedious uniformity, which is par- 
 ticularly unpleafing to thofe, whofe ears are accuf- 
 tomed to the varied periods of the claffic authors. 
 Rhyme appears not fo well adapted to grand and 
 long, as to gay and ihort compofitions. Its per- 
 petual repetition in the Henriade of Voltaire is 
 tircfome: in the danzas of the Fairy Queen of 
 Spenfer its recurrence, although dated and uni- 
 form, is more tolerable, becaufe the paufes are 
 more varied : but it certainly is of all compofitions 
 "bed fuited to the lively turn of an epigram, and 
 the ludicrous defcriptions of a mock-heroic. As a 
 proof how little rhyme can contribute to the 
 elfential beauties of poetry, thofe perfons are 
 efteemed the bed readers, who pay the lead regard 
 
 to 
 6
 
 108 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL 
 
 to its regular and ftated return, and attend only 
 to ftich paufes, as the fenfe of an author naturally 
 points out. This may be confidered as no (light 
 proof of the comparative excellence of good blank 
 verfe, and the ancient metrical compofitions. 
 
 A wider and more accurate furvey of nature, 
 and a more diligent cultivation of art, by gradually 
 opening new channels of knowledge, have in- 
 creafed the number of words. Hence we find, 
 that the moderns excel the ancients in copioufnefs 
 of language upon many fubjefts, of which abundant 
 iuftances occur in the terms which exprefs certain 
 metals, femimetals, earths, plants, animals, amufe- 
 mcnts, and recreations, various machines, imple- 
 ments, and materials employed in agriculture, 
 navigation, and chemiftry. In feveral branches of 
 fcience, in addition to all that was before afcer- 
 tained, difcoveries have been made, which were 
 entirely unknown in ancient times. 
 
 This greater extent and variety of knowledge 
 refult from the operations of the fpiiit of enter- 
 prize, and the diligent ardour of refearch, which 
 have explored new paths, and improved upon 
 former difcoveries. But it may abate the triumph 
 of the moderns to reflect, that much of their 
 fuperior knowledge may be the natural confequence 
 of living in the later ages of the world. Future 
 generations, if they are aclive and inquifitive, will 
 poiftfs the fame afcendency over the prefent ; and 
 
 the
 
 LANGUAGE I-V GENERAL. 109 
 
 the advancement of language will continue to be 
 proportionate to the progrefs of the aits and 
 
 iciences. 
 
 - 
 
 By tracing the variety of languages and alpha- 
 bets to one fource, we fimpliry fubje&s of curious 
 inquiry ; and we extricate ourfelves from that 
 perplexity, in which we mould be involved, if we 
 rejected an opinion fo conformable to reafon, and 
 which the more accurate is our examination, 
 into ancient hiftory, the more grounds we find to 
 adopt. And it is a pleafmg circumftance to 
 obferve, that while we maintain a fyliem, fup- 
 ported by the mod refpeCtable profane authorities, 
 we flrengthen the arguments in favour of the high 
 antiquity of the Jewifli language, and corroborate, 
 with refpect to its origin, the relations of the holy 
 Scriptures. 
 
 Our remarks likewife on the nature of language, 
 both ancient and modern, and their comparative 
 excellence and defects, may lead to many ufeful 
 inquiries and reflections, as the progrefs of human 
 knowledge is fo clofely connected with the fubjecl;. 
 The art of writing has been the great means of 
 enlightening the understanding, and foftening the 
 manners, and the great inftrument of improving 
 fociai life, and ftrengthening its ties. To conlider 
 the advantages, which the improvement of lan- 
 guages, and of this art, have conferred upon 
 mankind, would open a boundlcfs field of obfer- 
 
 vation.
 
 lid . LANGUAGE I?T GENERAL. 
 
 ration. It belongs only to our prefent plan to 
 direct the attention to thofe particular nations, 
 whofe languages and hiftory form the immediate 
 fubjeds of our inquiries. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 111 ] 
 
 ' 
 
 CHAPTER If. 
 
 The Englijh Language. 
 
 - 
 
 i HE impreffions made by the conquerors who 
 have fettled in any particular nation are hi few 
 refpe&s more clearly to be traced, than by the 
 change they have produced in the language of the 
 natives. This obfervation may be applied with pe- 
 culiar propriety to our own country : for after the 
 Saxons had fubdued the Britons, they introduced 
 into England their own language, which was a 
 dialect of the Teutonic or Gothic. From the frag- 
 ments of the Saxon laws, hiftory, and poetiy ftili 
 extant, we have many proofs .to convince us, that 
 it was capable of expreffing with a great degree of 
 copioufnefs and energy the fentiments of a civi- 
 lized people. For a period of fix hundred years 
 no confiderable variation took place. William the 
 Conqueror promoted another change of language, 
 which had been begun by Edward the Confeffor, 
 arid caufed the Norman French to be ufed, both 
 in his own palace, and in the courts of juftice ; 
 and it became in a fhoft time current among all 
 the higher orders of his fubje&s. The conftant 
 intercourfe, which fubfiftecl between France and 
 England for feveral centuries, introduced a very 
 confiderable addition of terms ; and they were 
 
 adopted
 
 112 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 adopted with very flight deviation from their 
 original, as is evident from the work* of our early 
 writers, particularly Chaucer, Cower, and Wickliffe, 
 and many other authors quoted by Warton in his 
 curious and entertaining Hiflory of Englim Poetry. 
 Such were the grand fources of the Englim tongue; 
 but the ftream has been from time to time aug- 
 mented by the copious influx of the Latin and 
 other languages, with which the purfuits of com- 
 merce, the cultivation of learning, and the pro- 
 grefs of the arts, have made our anceftors and 
 ourfelves acquainted. 
 
 The fame countries, which have fupplied the 
 Englifh with improvements, have furuimed the 
 various terms by which they are denoted. Mufic, 
 Iculpture, and painting, borrowed their expreflions 
 from Italy; the words ufcd in navigation are 
 taken from the inhabitants of Flanders and Holland ; 
 the French have fupplied the expreflions ufed in 
 fortification and military affairs. The terms of 
 mathematics and philofophy are borrowed from 
 Latin and Greek. In the Saxon may be found 
 all words of general ufe, as well as thofc which 
 belong to agriculture, and the common mecha- 
 nical arts. 
 
 But notwithstanding the Englim language can 
 boafl of fo little fimplicity as to its origin, yet in 
 its grammatical conftruction it bears a clofe re- 
 feiublancti to the moil fimple language of anti- 
 quity.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 313 
 
 quity h . Its words depart lefs from the original 
 form, than thofe of any other modern tongues. 
 In the fubftantives there is but one variation of 
 cafe ; and it is only by the different degrees of 
 comparifon, that changes are made in the adjec- 
 tives. There is only one conjugation of the verbs, 
 fome of which indeed are not varied at all, and 
 others have only two or three changes of termi- 
 nation. Almoft all the modifications of time are 
 exprefied by auxiliary verbs ; and the verbs them- 
 felves preferve in many inftances very nearly, and 
 in fome cafes exactly, their radical form in the dif- 
 ferent tenfes. The difcriminating powers of thefe 
 auxiliary verbs are of great ufe in exprefling the 
 different moods. The article poffefies a ftriking 
 peculiarity, differing from that in moft other lan- 
 guages, for it is indeclinable, and common to all 
 genders. This fimplicity of ftructure renders our 
 language much eaiier to a learner than Italian or 
 French, in which the variations of the verbs in 
 particular are very numerous, complex, and dif- 
 ficult to be retained. 
 
 The Englifh language is uniform in its compo- 
 fition, and its irregularities are far from being nu- 
 merous. The diftinclions in the genders of nouns 
 are agreeable to the nature of things, and are not 
 applied with that caprice, which prevails in many 
 
 h This is the remark of Bifhop Lowth, whofe well-known 
 proficiency in Hebrew ftudies qualified him to pafs the beft 
 judgment upon the fubjeft. 
 
 VOL. i. A other
 
 114 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 other languages. The order of conftruction is 
 more eafy and fimple, than that of Latin and 
 Greek ; it has no genders of adjectives, nor any 
 gerunds, fupines, or variety of conjugations. 
 Thefe peculiarities give it a philofophical charac- 
 ter ; and as its terms are (Irong, expreffive, and 
 copious, no language feems better calculated to 
 facilitate the intercourfe of mankind, as a uni- 
 verfal medium of communication. 
 
 Since the Grammars of Lowth and Prieftley, 
 and the Dictionary of Johnfon have been pub- 
 limed, our language has been brought nearer to a 
 fixed flandard. It is now confidered, more than 
 ever, as an object of grammatical rules, and re- 
 gular fyntax. Its idioms are more accurately 
 afcertained by a comparifon of paffages felected 
 from the beft authors. The derivations are traced 
 from their original fources with greater precifion ; 
 and its orthography is now more reduced to fettled 
 rules. To the labours of Johnfon, as a Lexico- 
 grapher, our nation is under great obligations; 
 and if he has in fome inftances failed in diligence 
 of refearch, or extent of plan, we muft at leaft 
 be ready to allow, that he has contributed more 
 than any of his countrymen towards the elucida- 
 tion of his fubject ; he has given his definitions 
 of words with great clearnefs, and confirmed them 
 by a detail of quotations from the beft authors. 
 There is 'perhaps no book, profefiedly written upon, 
 a philological fubject, that can give to foreigners 
 as well as to natives, fo juft and advantageous an 
 
 idea
 
 THfc ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 115 
 
 idea of our language, or of the variety and the 
 excellence of our writers : his preface is a mod ac- 
 curate and juftly admired compofition. 
 
 The derivation of Englifh words, as far as it 
 relates to Latin and Greek, has been frequently 
 and fatisfaftorily traced : but thofe which are of 
 Saxon origin were a long time prevalent without 
 fufficient inveftigation. The Author of the " Di- 
 verfions of Purley 1 ," whofe natural acutenefs and 
 turn for metaphyfical refearch peculiarly qualified 
 him for fuch a tafk, has directed his attention to 
 the fubjed ; and the ingenious theory which he has 
 formed, refpefting the origin of the indeclinable 
 parts of fpeech, was remarkably confirmed by his 
 knowledge of Saxon. He has proved very clearly, 
 that many of our adverbs, conjunctions, and pre- 
 pofitions, which are commonly thought to have no 
 fjgnification, when detached from other words, are 
 derived from obfolete verbs, or nouns, the mean- 
 ing of which they refpe&ively retain ; but which 
 have been Ihortened for general convenience, and 
 corrupted by length of time. Such a difcovery is 
 valuable, not only on account of the light it 
 throws upon thofe parts of our language which 
 have been too llightly regarded by all former gram- 
 marians; but for the affiflance it affords to the 
 fcience of etymology in general. 
 
 Dr. Johnfon, in the Preface to his Dictionary, 
 
 P. 185, &c, 
 
 1 2 ha*
 
 116 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 has declaimed againft tranjlatlons as the bane of 
 language : but Warton the learned and ingenious 
 Author of " the Hiftory of Englim Poetry" ob- 
 ferves on the contrary, that our language derived 
 great benefits from the tranflations of the claflics 
 in the fixteenth century. This difference of opi- 
 nion may probably be reconciled, by fuppofmg 
 that thefe writers advert to the ftate of a language 
 at different periods of time. When it is in its 
 dawn of improvement, the addition of foreign 
 terms may be requiiite to keep pace with the influx 
 of new ideas. In a more advanced period of arts 
 and civilization, fuch an increafe is not only unne- 
 cefiary, but may be injurious ; and the practice 
 feems as needlefs, as the introduction of foreign 
 troops for the defence of a country, when its na- 
 tives alone are fulficient for its protection. 
 
 I. Beauties of the Englijh Language. 
 
 A language, which has been fo much indebted 
 to others, both ancient and modern, mult of courfc 
 be very copious and expreflive. In thefe refpe&s 
 perhaps it may be brought into competition with 
 any now fpoken in the world. No Englifhman 
 has had reafon to complain, fince our tongue 
 has reached its prefent degree of excellence, that 
 his ideas could not be adequately expreffed, or 
 .clothed in a fuitable drefs. No author has been 
 under the neceflity of writing in a foreign lan- 
 guage, on account of its fuperiority to our own. 
 AV'hether we open the volumes of our divines, phi- 
 
 lofophers,
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. U7 
 
 lofophers, hiftorians, or artifts, \ve fhall find that 
 they abound with all the terms neceffary to com- 
 municate their obfei rations and difcoveries, and 
 give to their readers the moft complete views of 
 their refpective fubje&s. Hence it appears, that 
 our language is fumciently capacious for all pur- 
 pofes, and can give proper and adequate expreflion 
 to variety of argument, delicacy of tafte, and fer- 
 vour of genius. And that it has fumcient copi- 
 oufnefs to communicate to mankind every acYion, 
 event, invention, and obfcrvation, in a full, clear, 
 and elegant manner, we can prove by an appeal to 
 the authors, who are at prefcnt moft admired and 
 eftecmcd. 
 
 But its excellence is perhaps in few refpefts dif- 
 played to fuch advantage, as in the productions of 
 our poets. Whoever reads the works of Shake- 
 fpeare, Spenfer, Milton, Dryden, and Pope, will 
 be fenfible that they employ a kind of phrafeology 
 which may be faid to be facred to the Mufes. It 
 is diftinguifhed from profe, not merely by the har- 
 mony of numbers, but by the great variety of its 
 appropriate terms and phrafes. A confiderable de- 
 gree of beauty refults likewife from the different 
 meafures employed in poetry. The Allegro and 
 Penferofo of Milton, Alexander s feaft by Dryden, 
 the Ode to the Pajjions by Collins, and the Bard 
 of Gray, are as complete examples of verification, 
 judicioufly varied according to the nature of the 
 fubjec~ts, as they are fpecitncus of e.\quifite fenti- 
 ment and original genius, 
 
 
 
 1 3 One
 
 118 THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 One of the moft beautiful figures in poetry is 
 the Profopopeia, or perfonification, which afcrihes 
 perfonal qualities and actions to inanimate and 
 fictitious beings. The genius of our language 
 enables the Englifh poet to give the beft efieft to 
 this figure, as the genders of nouns are not arbi- 
 trarily impofed, but may be varied according to 
 the nature of the fubjecl. Thus the poet can efta- 
 blifh the moft ftriking diftinflion between verfe and 
 profe, and communicate to his defcriptions that 
 fpirit and animation, which cannot fail to delight 
 every reader of tafte, in the following paflages. 
 
 Thus Collins in his Ode on Thomfon who was buried at Richmond ; 
 
 " Remembrance oft mall haunt the more 
 When Thames in Cummer wreaths is dreftj 
 And oft Jufpend the daftiing oar, 
 To hid his gentle fpirit reft." 
 
 And Milton perfonifies Wifdom : 
 * ... .. ." Wifdom's felf 
 
 Oiijeekt to fweet jetired folitude, 
 
 Where with her beft nurfe Contemplation, 
 
 $he flumes her feathers, and lets grow her wings, 
 
 That in the various buftle of refort, . 
 
 Were all too ruffled, and fometimes impaired *." 
 
 And Warton defcribes the advance of Evening ; 
 
 " While Evening veil'd in fhadows brown 
 Puts her matron mantle on, 
 And mifts jn fpreading fteams convey 
 More fre(h the fumes of new-mown hay ; 
 Then Goddefs guide my pilgrim feet 
 Contemplation hoar to meet, 
 As flow he 'winds in mufeful mood, 
 Near the rulh'd marge of Cherwell's flood V 
 
 Par, Loft, Warton's Ode on the Approach of Summer. 
 
 But
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 l 
 
 But the fulleft difplay of this figure occurs in 
 the Fairy Queen of Spenfer, which abounds in the 
 continued perfonification of abftrad ideas. 
 
 We muft however acknowledge, that it is chiefly 
 to grave fubjecls to the details of the hiftorian, 
 the arguments of the politician and the divine^ 
 the fpeculations of the philofopher, and the in- 
 vention of the epic and the tragic poet, that 
 our expreffions are bed adapted. Our language 
 has energy and copioufnefs ; but it accords not 
 fo well with the mirth of the gay, or the pathos 
 of the diflrefled, as fame others. In defcribing 
 the pleafantries of the mind, in the effufions of 
 delicate humour, and the trifling levities of focial 
 iutercourfe, the French pofiefs a decided advan- 
 tage. In delineating the tender paiftons, the footh- 
 ing of pity, and the ardour of love, we muft yield 
 the fuperiority to the fofter cadence of Italian fyl- 
 lables. 
 
 II. Defefts of the Englijh Language. 
 
 Although it is natural to indulge a partiality to 
 our native language, as well as to our native foil ; 
 yet this prepofferlion ought not to make usjblind to 
 the defects either of the one or the other. We fhall 
 only advert to the principal imperfections of the 
 language. Mod of the words, except fuch as are 
 of Roman or Grecian origin, are monofyllables 
 terminated by confonants; and this makes our 
 pronunciation rugged and broken, and unlike 
 
 1 4 the
 
 120 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 the regular and eafy flow of clafiic phrafeology. 
 Many of them are harfh and inharmonious ; and 
 there are fome Syllables, which can fcarcely he pro- 
 nounced by an Italian or a Frenchman, whofe 
 organs of fpeech are habituated to fofter expref- 
 fions. " It is to the terminations with confonants 
 that the hadhnefs of our language may be imputed. 
 The melody of a language depends greatly upon 
 its vowel terminations. In Englilh not more than 
 a dozen common words end in a : about two dozen 
 end in o. In y we have no lefs than 4900 words, 
 about an eighth of our language; our words 
 amounting to about 35, 000 n . 
 
 The want of different terminations in verbs, as 
 it introduces the frequent ufe of auxiliary verbs, 
 too frequently obliges us to exprefs our meaning 
 by circumlocutions. There is no diitinclion in the 
 perfons of the plural number of verbs, nor in the 
 tenfes or perfons of the paflive voice. This is often- 
 times the caufe of ambiguity; and foreigners, in the 
 perufal of our books, muft be very much at a lofs, 
 without the clofeft attention to the preceding and 
 fubfequent parts of fentences, to underftand the 
 particular fenfe of many paiTages. Our accents 
 are calculated to give conliderable variety to pro- 
 nunciation ; but the prevailing mode of throwing 
 them back, in fome cafes, to the firft fyllable of a 
 word, in a great degree deftroys their ufe; and 
 gives an indiftincl;, hurried, and almofl unintel- 
 
 * Heron's Letters, p. 247. 
 
 ligible
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1CI 
 
 ligible found to the other fyllables. None of the 
 modern languages of Europe are fo ftrongly 
 marked by accents as our own. Their peculiar 
 advantage is evident in poetry, as we are enabled 
 to fupport the varied numbers of blank verfe ; and 
 this circumftance gives us a decided fiiperiority 
 over the French. Zealous as fome authors have 
 been to eftablifh the excellence of Englim with 
 refped to quantity, and to prove that it is in itfelf 
 harmonious and mufical, we muft, after all their 
 ingenious arguments, be obliged to leave to the 
 Greeks and Latins the regular and uniform diftinc- 
 tions of long and fhort iyllables ; for although 
 there are many of our words, which we can affirm 
 to be long or fhort ; yet a great number of them 
 cannot be laid to be of any determinate quantity. 
 
 The mode of fpdling appears to have been in 
 former times extremely vague and unfettled. It i* 
 not uncommon to find in our old writers the fame 
 word fpelt differently, even in the fame page. 
 Orthography began to be more an object of atten- 
 tion, and was refcued from its great uncertainty, 
 at the beginning of the lad century r . Yet authors 
 of confidcrable eminence have differed much from 
 each other in their modes of fpelling fome parti- 
 cular words, and have adjufted their practice to 
 their own ideas of propriety. This has given a 
 very ftiff and pedantic appearance to their writings. 
 Nor has the influence of their authority had any 
 
 Warton on Pope, Vol. I. p. 305. 
 
 cffed
 
 122 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 effeft upon the prevailing cuftoms, or refcued them 
 from the imputation of fmgularity and affectation. 
 Dr. Lardner was defirous of reviving the old mode 
 of fpelling in fome inftances, as in goodneffe, for- 
 giretteffe, &c. Benfon, a commentator on St. 
 Paul's Epiftles, wrote preface, prasjlv, prc?vail t 
 proccde, perfue, and evplcme, like Lardner. Dr, 
 JVJiddleton, a more elegant writer, attempted 
 fimilar innovations; and Upton, the learned com- 
 mentator on Shakefpeare, tires his readers by the 
 repetitions of the word toft for the fubftantive 
 tafte. 
 
 Our orthography remained in this fluctuating 
 ftate, till at length what was the general wifh, 
 what many had attempted in vain, and what 
 feemed to require the united efforts of- numbers, 
 was accomplished by the diligence and the acute- 
 neft of one man. " Dr. Johnfon publilhed his 
 Dictionary ; and as the weight of truth and reafon 
 is irrefiftible, its authority has nearly fixed the ex- 
 ternal form of our language, and from its decifions 
 few appeals have yet been made. Indeed fo con- 
 venient is it to have one acknowledged iiandard to 
 recur to fo much preferable, in matters of this 
 nature, is a trifling degree of irregularity to a 
 continual change, and fruitlefs purfuit of unat- 
 tainable perfection, that it is carnettly to be hoped, 
 that no author will henceforth on ilight grounds 
 be tempted to innovate. Dr. Johnfon is every, 
 where the declared enemy of unnecellary innova- 
 tion. The principles on which he founds his 
 
 improvements,
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 123 
 
 improvements, are the ftable ones of etymology 
 and analogy : the former fcience will not loon be 
 more completely underftood than it was by him ; 
 and if in the latter, a few iteps may have been 
 made beyond the limits of his obfervation, they 
 have been gained only by the purfuit of minute 
 refearches, inconfiftent with the greatnefi of his 
 undertaking'.'* 
 
 It is the opinion of this learned Lexicographer, 
 that as we received many of our words originally 
 of Latin derivation, through the medium of the 
 French, we ought to follow the latter mode of 
 fpelling in preference to the former. Good as this 
 general rule may be thought, there arc fome ex- 
 ceptions, which in compliance with prevailing cu 
 torn he readily admits himftlf. " The rule re- 
 quired him to write enquire from the French en- 
 querir, not Squire. The termination in our is one 
 of thole which has created much difpute. At pre- 
 fent the practice feems to favour the rejection of it 
 in all words of more than two fyllables. Johnfon 
 fpells author without a final u, but always writes 
 and favowr V 
 
 It may be laid down as a general rule, that 
 the moft judicious attention that can be paid 
 to orthography, muft neceifarily confift in dif- 
 tinguiihing thofe irregularities which are inherent 
 
 * Nares's Orthoepy, p. 269. 
 
 * Narps, p. 276. 
 
 in
 
 124- THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 in the language it (elf, from thofe introduced by 
 the capricious, {\\efajhionable, and the ignorant. 
 
 The preceding obfervations have chiefly related 
 to M'ords confidered by themfelvcs. It may be 
 proper, in the next place, to make fome remarks 
 upon our compofition, or the arrangement and 
 Connexion of words, as they conftitute fentences. 
 In this refpeft all modern languages fall fhort of 
 the ancient, which are diftinguiihed by a peculiar 
 joiindnefs, harmony, and compafs of period. The 
 Greeks and Romans, by having different genders 
 and terminations of their verbs and nouns, gave 
 a precilion to their meaning, which enabled them 
 to cliverfify the order of conftruction, in an infinite 
 variety of modes, without any injury to, the ge- 
 neral fenfe. Of this advantage our language is in. 
 a great degree incapable, by reafon of the fitnpli- 
 city of its ftruclure. It will indeed admit of the 
 tranfpotition of the members of a fentence; but 
 the tranfpofition of words, except in poetry, 
 feems to be contrary to its genius. Our words in 
 general are placed in the natural order of conftruc- 
 tion ; and to this ftandard we endeavour to reduce 
 both our literal and free tranflations of Greek and 
 Latin authors : in the works of our writers we feek 
 in vain for that condenfencfs of ideas, for thofe 
 clofe and connected parts of a fentence, and that 
 judicious petition of the principal idea in the moft 
 advantageous place, which have fo finking aa 
 
 effect in the compofition of the daffies. 
 
 
 
 III. Sir
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 125 
 
 III. Sir T. Browne Dr. JohnfonMr. Gibbon, 
 
 The cultivation of the learned languages, fince the 
 reign of Henry VIII. has introduced many words 
 of Latin origin into the converfation and the 
 writings of the Englifh. The attention paid to 
 Italian literature, particularly in the reign of Eli- 
 zabeth, contributed to increafe their number. In 
 the wwks of Shakefpeare we find many fuch words ; 
 and thofe, which his imperfect knowledge of La- 
 tin and Greek did not afford him the opportunity 
 of taking immediately from the daffies, he proba- 
 bly borrowed from the fame tranflations, which 
 furnifhed many of his plots, fpeeches, and cha- 
 racters r . Yet he feems to have confiderecl the too 
 free admiffion of this ftrange phrafeology as an ob- 
 jeft of occafional cenfure, and has therefore ex- 
 pofed it to ridicule with great effect in the ludicrous 
 characters of Holofernes and Piftol. The dra- 
 matic productions of Ben Johnfon his contempo- 
 rary are much more ftrongly marked by thefe 
 exotic conceits. But of all our writers of thofe 
 times no one feems to have been fo ambitious of 
 the fliff and pompous decorations of a latin ifed 
 (lyle, as Sir Thomas Browne the author of " the 
 Vulgar Errors." His fentences are fo replete with 
 words, which differ only from Latin in their ter- 
 minations, that he is entitled to the firft place in 
 the fchool of pedantry. It is very extraordinary, 
 
 r For a very curious Lift of thefe Tranflations, fee Farmer's 
 Eflay on the learning of Shakefpeare. 
 
 that
 
 125 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 that his own obfervation, which was levelled againft 
 thofe who indulged in this practice, recoils with 
 the greateft force upon himfelf. " If elegancie 
 ftill precedeth, and Englifh pens maintain that 
 ftream we have of late obfervcd to flow from many, 
 we ihall within few years be fain to learne Latine 
 to underftand Englifh, and a work will prove of 
 equal facility in either '. " 
 
 The affected ftruclure of his ftyle is apparent 
 even from the firft fentence of the above mentioned 
 work. " Would truth clifpenfe, we could be con- 
 tent, with Plato, that knowledge were but remem- 
 brance, that intellectual acquifition were but remi- 
 nifcential evocation, &c." That many of his 
 words may be tranilated into Latin with little more 
 than a change in their terminations, the following 
 paflages M'ill mow. " Scintillations are not the 
 accenfion of the air upon the collision of two hard 
 bodies, but rather the inflammable effluences dif- 
 charged from the bodies collided." " Ice w 
 figured in its guttulous defcent from the air, and 
 grows greater or lefler according unto the accretion 
 or pluvious aggelation about the mother and fun- 
 damental atoms thereof*." 
 
 There is fufTicient reafon to fuppofe, that. Dr. 
 Johnfon formed his (lyle upon the model of Sir T. 
 Browne. He has written his life ; has quoted in 
 bis Dictionary many of his words, unfupported by 
 auy other authority ; and perhaps in his works, it 
 
 Preface to the Vulgar Errors. P. 40, 41. 
 
 2 would
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 127 
 
 Would not be difficult to trace fome plain marks of 
 direct imitation. 
 
 Between the opinions and the practice of John- 
 fon there is a ftriking inconfiftency ; for in the Pre- 
 face to his Dictionary, he regrets that our language 
 had been for fome time gradually departing from 
 its ancient Teutonic character; and yet in his 
 works, particularly in the Rambler, he promotes 
 this departure in the moft lludious manner. From 
 the writer of an Englifh dictionary might naturally 
 be expected a clofe adherence to idiom ; and that 
 he would mark the line of diftinction very ftrongly 
 between fuch words and phrafes as were unfup- 
 ported by fufficient authority, and fuch had been 
 fully fanctioned by the ufage of the beft authors. 
 And from a writer, whofe profefiTed purpofe it was 
 to recommend the beauties of moral truth to the 
 different ranks of the public at large, and to render 
 topics of criticifm intelligible and popular, we mould 
 expect few modes of expreffion, which are pedantic 
 or affecled. Whether we confider the nature of his 
 EfTays, or the general ufe for which they were in- 
 tended, it muft be evident, that fuch fubjects call 
 for peculiar perfpicuity of exprellion. Johnfon 
 feems to have judged the ftyle of Addifon 
 more worthy of praife, than proper for his imita- 
 tion *. Our literature indeed dates a new era from 
 
 * " Whoever wifhes to acquire a ftile which is familfer but 
 not coarfe, and elegant but not oftentatious, ipuft give his days 
 and nights to the volumes of Addifon." 
 
 Life of Addifon." 
 
 the
 
 128 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 the publication of his works: many of his words 
 are rarely to be met with in former writers, and 
 fome are purely of his own fabrication n . By en- 
 deavouring to avoid low and familiar expreflions, 
 lie is frequently lofty and turgid ; and to a reader 
 unacquainted with the learned languages muft 
 fometimes be wholly unintelligible. His new modes 
 of expreflion, involution of periods, frequent ufe 
 of the fubftantive inftead of the adjective, and 
 ftated introduction of triads, are peculiarities, if 
 not innovations, which have drawn after him a 
 train of imitators. Some of them indeed are en- 
 titled to praife on account of their poffeiling futfi- 
 cient judgment to keep their ftyle in conftant fub- 
 lerviency to their thoughts ; and others have ex- 
 pofed thernfelves to ridicule by the ludicrous afib- 
 ciation of pompous words with feeble and trite 
 ideas. 
 
 If our fubject required us to weigh the general 
 merits of this celebrated author, as well as to re- 
 mark the peculiarities of his ftyle, we mould readily 
 
 8 Refufcitation, orbity, volant, fatuity, divaricate, ajtnine, narcotic, 
 vulnerary, emfireumatic, obtund, difruption, ftnforj, cremation, hor- 
 ticulture, germination, dectijjatiort , eximitus, &c. If thefe words 
 be not peculiarly Johnfon's, I know not where they are to be 
 found. He who loves to drink only from the pure wells of 
 Englifh undefilcd, may think they ought to be inferred in the 
 JnJex Expurgatoriui of our language. 
 
 Where did T. Warton find fuch words as dociorated, fugacious 
 or Bolingbroke fuch as incumberment, martyrif'd, eucbarifty, con. 
 vexity, platonician , Jloician ; or Shafteibury fuch compounds as felf- 
 tnd, ftlf-pnj/ion, home-dialtfl, and mirrour.'writing ; or Arthur 
 Young his exprcffive term acclimated? 
 
 concur
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 concur in the commendation beftowed upon his 
 tranfcemlent abilities, and acknowledge, that the 
 energv of his language was oftentimes a fufficient 
 apology for its elaborate pomp ; and that our cen- 
 fure muft in fome degree abate its feverity, when 
 we confkler the force and the difcrimination of his 
 terms, the coi reclnefs, variety, and fplendour of 
 his imagery, the power of his underftanding, his 
 love of virtue and religion, and his zeal for their 
 promotion, ib extremely well adapted to the dif- 
 ferent characters he fuitained in the literary world 
 as a moralift, a philologHl, and a critic. 
 
 In the courfe of our remarks upon this fubjecl, 
 the hiftorian of " the Decline and Fall of the Ro- 
 man Empire" claims fome mare of our attention. 
 It is a great misfortune for the public, and parti- 
 cularly for the younger part of his readers, confi- 
 dering the great popularity of his works, that he 
 has concealed the poifon of infidelity under a honied 
 fweetnefs of ftyle. Skilled in all the arts of decla- 
 mation, and ftudious to pleafe and to amufe us at 
 the ex pence of correclnefs of tafte, he has con- 
 founded the diction of a. poet with that of an hifto- 
 rian. And his arrangement of fentences is frequently 
 fo much alike, and they are formed in fo mechanical 
 a manner, that they feem to have been conftru&ed 
 according to one particular rule. Although many 
 of his characters are finely drawn, and many of 
 his defcriptions are lively and beautiful ; yet his 
 verbofenefs frequently fatigues the attention, and 
 his obfcurity perplexes it. He endeavours, and 
 
 VOL. i. K often
 
 T30 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 often with unfuccefsful pains, to give dignity to 
 trifles, and to adorn every luhjcd, whether trivial 
 or important, with the flowery ornaments of de- 
 feription. In various inftanccs he mutt offend the 
 judgment of thole who wilh to fee the different 
 kinds of eompofition confined \vithin their due 
 limits, and more particularly expe6t, that an hifto- 
 rian lliould not depart, either in point of dignity 
 of character, or propriety of expreflion, from the 
 rules of correct eompofition. A careful reader of 
 Gibbon will obferve, that his afteclation oftentimes 
 renders his meaning very obfeure ; that he deviates 
 from the ftandaid of our language by the frequent 
 tranfpofition of the members of his fentences, and 
 by ufing words in new and unauthorifed fenfes ; by 
 borrowing French ornaments of ftyle, and by fomc- 
 times adopting the French idiom. 
 
 It is not eafy to eftimate how much the Scotch 
 writers have contiibuted to the value and the im- 
 portance of literature. In the various departments 
 of Poetry, Critieifm, Hiftory, Philofophy and Sci- 
 ence, they have exerted themfelves with no lefs 
 diligence than talents. We mould defervedly be 
 regarded as too faftidious and rigid, if we were to 
 criticife their mode of expreflion with too much 
 feverity. We may however be allowed to obferve, 
 that their firft publications are often marked by 
 thofe Scotticifms, or national peculiarities, which 
 are in fucceeding editions expunged. Hume, Ro- 
 bertfon, and Blair, by careful revifions have refined 
 and polifhed their works, which have very high 
 
 pretenlions
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 131 
 
 prctenfions to occupy a place next to that of the 
 Englifh claffics. 
 
 We are the more defirous of pointing out the 
 defefts of Johnfon and Gibbon on account of their 
 great reputation. We ought not to be dazzled 
 with the fplendour of their names ; and as we are 
 ready to give due praife to their beauties, it can- 
 not fairly be required that we mould palliate, or 
 conceal their defects. 
 
 If writers will contribute to make our language 
 unneceHarily more parti-coloured and motley than 
 it was before; if they deliberately add to its corrup- 
 tions, and haften its decline, they are juft objects of 
 cenfure : and unlefs their deviations from its idiom 
 be remarked and avoided, how can the diftinclion 
 between a pure and a vitiated ftyle be preferved ? 
 Without attention to fome rules, without a proper 
 difcrimination between bad and good morals, the 
 language will degenerate, and the fterling ore of 
 the Englifh tongue will finally lofe its value, its 
 weight, and its luftre, by being mixed with the 
 drofs of French frivoioufnefs, and the alloy of 
 learned affectation. 
 
 K 2 CHAPTER
 
 [ 132 ] 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The SubjeB continued. 
 
 UR language ought to be confidered not only 
 with a view to its grammatical propriety, but as a 
 fubjeft of tafte. In order to avoid the errors of 
 thofe who have been led aftray by affectation and 
 falfe refinement, and to form a proper opinion of 
 its genuine idiom, it is neceffary to peruie the works 
 of the beft and moft approved writers. 
 
 In the various departments of religion, hiftory, 
 poetry, and general literature, we will endeavour 
 to point out fome writers of the pureft Englifti 
 but without any wifli to detract from the merits of 
 thofe, whom the limited nature of our work, and 
 not an infenfibility or an ignorance of their merit, 
 may make it neceilary for us to omit. 
 
 ' 
 
 Let the reader commence his ftudies with thofe 
 who were moft diftinguiihed in the reign of Eliza- 
 beth, when the language began to be refined from 
 its original roughnefs, afiumed a fuller form, and 
 was marked by more diftincl; features ; and let him 
 purfue his progrefs down to the prefent times. Nor 
 ought he to be deterred from this defign by an 
 apprehenfion, that he will find the old authors 
 clothed in the garb of rude and uncouth antiquity; 
 
 for
 
 THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 133 
 
 for he will make the pleafing difcovery, that the 
 Ian Allaire of his forefathers differs little from his 
 
 :") O 
 
 own, in point of ftru6hire and formation, and the 
 general meaning of words. 
 
 The fubftance of a language remains for ages 
 unaltered, ho\vever the influx of new cuftoms, and 
 the inventions or the improvements of arts, may 
 occafion fome addition to its terms, and fome 
 change in its orthography and pronunciation. 
 Shakefpeare will of courfe attract his early atten- 
 tion ; and he will find in his incomparable dramas 
 fuch an accommodation of ftyle to the grave and 
 the gay, the rough and the polifhed, the heroic 
 and the vulgar characters of his plays, as fhcws 
 that our language was fufficiently ftrong and co- 
 pious to be a proper vehicle for the conceptions of 
 his vaft and wonderful genius. The works of 
 Speed, Afcham, Raleigh, Clarendon, and Tem- 
 ple, are highly to be valued for the vigour and 
 compafs of their di6tion, as well as the difplay of 
 cxtenfive knowledge and eminent abilities. The 
 common tranflation of the Bible, exclusive of the 
 important nature of its contents, deferves great 
 attention. The nature and compafs of its phrafe- 
 ology are fuch, as prove no lefs the powers of the 
 language, than the con-eft judgment of the tran- 
 flators. The words are, for the moft part, elegant 
 and expreffive, and convey the fublime ideas of the 
 original, without coarfenefs or familiarity on the 
 one hand, or pedantry and affectation on the other. 
 The manly and dignified profe, and the rich and 
 
 K 3 fublime
 
 134 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 fublime poetry of Milton, far from being degraded 
 or fettered, are exalted and adorned by their ftyle j 
 and it was bis peculiar glory, to apply with con- 
 fummate tafle and fkill the flowing and unlhackled 
 periods of blank verfe, to the majefty of an epic 
 poem. The increafing tribute of praife has in every 
 age fubfcqucnt to his own been paid to the ftores 
 of his vaft erudition, and the flights of his tran- 
 fcendent genius. 
 
 
 
 In the reign of Charles II. the reader will find 
 no author more worthy of his attention than Bar- 
 row, whofe periods are fo full and exuberant, as to 
 give no inadequate reprefentation of the eloquence 
 of Cicero. He exhaufts every fubject which he 
 undertakes to difcufs, leaving nothing but admira- 
 tion of the boundlefs fertility of his mind, to the 
 writers who follow him upon the fame topics, 
 They difplay to the greateft advantage the energy 
 of his intellectual powers, employed upon the molt 
 important fubjecls of morality and religion. 
 
 . 
 The great Locke, in a plain and fevere ftyle, well 
 
 adapted to the philofophical preciiion of his re- 
 fearchcs, unravelled the intricacies of the moll iti- 
 terefting branch of pliilofophy by tracing ideas to 
 their fource, and developing the faculties of the 
 mind. In the illuftrious reign of Anne, when Bri- 
 tain reached a degree of glory in literature and 
 arts, which might be put in competition with the 
 age of Pericles, or Auguftus; Swift in clear and 
 familiar didion, unaided by flowery ornaments, 
 
 ' exprefied
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 135 
 
 tl>e dictates of a ftrong underftanding, 
 and lively invention. Addifon, the acconipliihed 
 fchohir, the refined critic, and the enlightened 
 moralift, like another Socrates brought moral phi- 
 lofophy from the fchools, arrayed her in the moil 
 engaging drei's, and called the attention of his 
 countrymen to tafte and to virtue, in his elegant 
 and entertaining eflays x . The prefaces of Dry- 
 den are marked by the eafe and the vivacity of 
 genius; and there is a facility in his rhymes, 
 and a peculiar vigour in his poetry, which render 
 him juitly the boaft of our country. Pope com- 
 pofed his prefaces and letters with peculiar grace 
 and beauty of ftyle ; and his poems prefent the 
 fineft fpecimens of exquifite judgment, adorned 
 by the moft harmonious and poliflied verfifica- 
 tion. 
 
 The works of Melmoth, particularly his letters 
 and tranflations of Cicero and Pliny, are remark- 
 able for fmoothnefs and elegance of competition. 
 The late Prefident of the Royal Academy has, in 
 his lectures, illuftrated the principles of his delight- 
 
 * As I have been from early life an enthufiaftic admirer of 
 Addifon, confidered as a moral writer, I cannot charafterife his 
 merits in a manner more correfpondent with my original feelings 
 of refpeft, than by applying to him the fentiments which Erafmus 
 has exprefled of Cicero. " Certe nunquam mihi magis placuit 
 Cicero turn, qiium adamarem ilia ftudia, quam nunc placet feni : 
 non tantum ob divinam quandam orationis felicitatem, verum 
 etiam ob peftoris eruditi fanclimoniam, profefto meum afflavit 
 animum, meque mihi reddidit meliorem." 
 
 K 4 fill
 
 136 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 fill art, in a manner no Icfs creditable to him as a 
 fine writer, than as an eminent painter, and a per- 
 fect connoivTcur. The facred difcourfes of the ami- 
 able Home recommend the duties of that holy reli- 
 gion, of which he was Ib bright an ornament, in a 
 fweet and lively ftyle. The manly vigour of liilhop 
 Watfon diffufes its animation through all his works, 
 whether philofophical, controverlial, or religious. 
 And where can we find competitions, which unite 
 the politenefs of the gentleman with the attain- 
 ments of the fcholar, blended in jufter proportions, 
 than in the Polymetis of Spence, the Athenian 
 Letters, the Dialogues of Lord Littleton and Biihop 
 Kurd, and the papers of the Adventurer, and the 
 Obferver ? 
 
 Thefe are fome of the principal fources, from 
 which may be derived a proper knowledge of the 
 purity, the ftrength, and the copioufnefs of the 
 Englifli language. Such are the examples, by 
 which our ftyle ought to be regulated. In them 
 may be remarked the idiomatic ftructure of fen- 
 tences, and the proper arrangements of their parts. 
 They prefent fpecimens of purity without ftiffnefs, 
 and elegance without affectation ; they are free 
 both from pomp and vulgarity of diftion, and 
 their authors have the happy art of pleafing our 
 tafte, while they improve our underftandings, and 
 confirm our principles of morality and religion. 
 
 In the couife of this perufal it will be found, 
 that in proportion as the great controverfies upon 
 
 religion,
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 137 
 
 religion, politics, and philofophy, began to fubfide 
 iince the time of the Revolution, a greater atten- 
 tion has been paid to the niceties of grammar and 
 criticiim ; and coaife and barbarous phrafeology 
 has been gradually poliihed into propriety and ele- 
 gance.* 
 
 As the practice of writing for public infpecHon 
 has been much improved iince the period above- 
 mentioned, a remarkable change has taken place. 
 The long pareuthelis, which Ib frequently occurs in 
 the older writers, to the great embarrali'mcnt and 
 perplexity of their meaning, has fallen much into 
 diiule. It has been obierved, that it is no where 
 to be found in the writings of Johnfon. Authors 
 have lliortened their leniences, which, in fome of 
 the belt writers of the feventeenth, and the begin, 
 ning of the eighteenth century, were extended to 
 an exceltive length Y ; and they have ftated their 
 fentiments to much more advantage by fepa- 
 rating their ideas from each other, and expref- 
 fing them with greater diitinctnefs : whether this 
 circumltance may not argue a want of fertility of 
 ideas, and a tardinefs of conception, it is not our 
 bufinefs to inquire. The cuftom of writing in 
 
 Tf See the firft fcntence of Clarendon's Hiftory of the Rebellion. 
 The fecond fentence of Milton's " Reformation" in England runs 
 to 29! folio lines, divided into nearly as many members; the 
 firft fentence of his fecond Book againft Prelacy is 1 8| lines folio 
 in length. There is a fentence in Bolingbroke's Philofophy, 
 Eflay i. feel. 2. which is 22 lines oftavo in length; and there is 
 another in Swift's Letter to the Lord Treafurer nearly as long. 
 Dr. Barrow's periods are fometimes as much extended. 
 
 fliort
 
 138 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 mort fentences muft be allowed to detract from 
 roundnefs of period, and dignity of coinpoiition : 
 but it certainly contributes fo materially to pcrfpi- 
 cuity, that it cannot fail to make every reader 
 fatisn'ed with the change. 
 
 I. Cpncerjatian and Pronunciation. 
 
 Our remarks have been generally applied to the 
 Englifh, confidered as a written language : but 
 books have a much more extcnfive ule, than 
 merely to regulate the pra6lice of writers ; for 
 they are calculated to correct the errors of con- 
 verfation, and communicate both accuracy and 
 purity to focial intercourfe. There will always be 
 lefs variation of fpcech prevailing 1 among the 
 natives of different provinces* and lefs vulgarity 
 of dialect, in proportion as well written books are 
 circulated and perufcd. But the ftandard of the 
 language ought always to continue the fame ; it 
 fhould confift in a compliance with general rules, 
 and the practice of the polifhed ranks of fociety. 
 Such regulations at once refcue it from the caprice 
 of individuals, and eftablilh a barrier againft the 
 encroachments of commercial idiom, profeffional 
 phrafeology, vulgarity, ignorance, and pedantry. 
 
 The correct fpeaker rejects local and provincial 
 forms of expreflion, for thofe which are general. 
 He converfes neither in the dialect of Somerfct- 
 ftire, nor of Norfolk ; but in that elegant phrafe- 
 ology which has received the fanclion of the belt 
 
 company.
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 company. He neither countenances by his appro- 
 bation, nor authorifes by his practice, new-fafhioned 
 phrafes, or upftart words, that have only novelty 
 to recommend them ; whether they are introduced 
 by the great or the vulgar, the learned or the 
 ignorant. Upon thefe occafions a good tafte will 
 prove the Cured guide. lie conforms to idiom and 
 analogy ; and at the fame time that he confefles 
 his obligations to learned men for their labours 
 in attempting to reduce his native language to a 
 fixed ftandard, he forgets not, what it is of great 
 importance for an Englishman ever to recollect, 
 that the " pure wells of Englim undented" are 
 Cupplied by a Teutonic fource; and that the genius 
 of the Britim language, like the fpirit of the 
 Britim people, difdains to be encroached upon by 
 arbitrary and foreign innovations*. 
 
 Thofe who write only for the prefent times 
 labour to adorn their ftyle with modifli phrafes. A 
 popular fpeaker, and particularly a member of the 
 Houfe of Commons, enjoys a kind of privilege to 
 coin as many words as he pleafes ; and they no 
 fooner receive the fanction of his authority, than 
 they intrude upon us from every quarter in letters, 
 plays, and periodical publications. But fuch words 
 refemble certain infects that are feen to flutter 
 
 Quintilian defines and fixes the true ftandard of conversation 
 with his accuftomed judgment. " In loquendo non fi quid 
 vitiofe multis infederit, pro regula fermonis accipiendum erit. 
 Ergo confuetudinem fermonis vocabo confenfum eruditorum ; ficut 
 vivendi confenfum bonorum." Lib. i. c. 4. 
 
 for
 
 140 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 for a day, and afterward intircly difappear. The 
 people, ever fickle and fond of novelty, are as 
 prompt to rejeft as they were to adopt them ; and 
 they feldom long furvive the occafion that gave 
 them birth. 
 
 In words, as fafhions, the fame rule will hold, 
 Alike fantaftic, if too new or old. 
 Be not the firft by whom the new are try'd, 
 Nor yet the laft to lay the old afide. 
 
 POPE cm Criticifm. 
 
 \Ve cannot forbear to join in the complaint 
 which foreigners make, that our pronunciation is 
 much at variance with our orthography. The 
 practice of the court and the ftage has multiplied 
 thefe variations, .which huve been too eagerly 
 adopted in the higher ranks of ibciety. Agree- 
 ablenefs of found is often afligned as a reafon for 
 this practice ; but in many words two confonants 
 are pronounced inftead of one, which furely can- 
 not give additional melody to a word*: the irregu- 
 larities in our language are fufficiently numerous, 
 without making this addition to them. Fortu- 
 nately indeed, the people at large are not influenced 
 by the changes of fafhion, but long adhere to 
 eftablifhed and ancient ufages ; and therefore 
 among them we mud look for that uniformity of 
 writing and fpeaking, which perfons in the higher 
 ranks of life too frequently facrifice to caprice, and 
 
 a love of diftinction and novelty. 
 
 - 
 
 As in the modifh pronunciation of nature, fuperidr, educa- 
 tion, infuperable, &c. &c. 
 
 We
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 141 
 
 We here conclude our obfervations on a lan- 
 guage, which by the commerce, the conquefts, 
 and the colonies of the Englifh, is at prefent 
 well known in every quarter of the globe. Its 
 reputation feems to increafe more and more, as it 
 is of late years become the favourite ftudy of all 
 thofe foreigners who wiih to complete a liberal 
 education. And indeed it may be faid, without 
 partiality or exaggeration, to merit their particular 
 attenlion ; fince it contains fome of the choiceft 
 treafures of the human mind, and is the vehicle 
 of fuch intellectual vigour, fuch energy of thought, 
 warmth of imagination, depth of erudition, and 
 refearch of philosophy, as can with difficulty be 
 equalled in any other nation. 
 
 The prevalence and flouriuYmg (late of our lan- 
 guage depend not folely upon the inhabitants of 
 the Britim dominions in Europe. In many of 
 the Hlands of the Well Indies it is cultivated with 
 diligence. Our extenfive and ftiil increafing fettle- 
 ments in the Eaft Indies promife to infure its pre- 
 fervation, and open a fpacious field for its wider 
 diflfufion. The United States of America cannot 
 fail to perpetuate the language of their parent 
 country ; and the fpirit of literary and fcientific in- 
 veftigation, which is rifing among them, will 
 conduce to this end; fince it will encourage the 
 ftudy of thofe celebrated productions, from which 
 the Americans have gained their knowledge of the 
 beft fyftem of legillation, and their moft correct 
 principles of liberty. 
 
 When
 
 J4'J THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 When we confider the uncertainty and the 
 fluctuating nature of all human affairs, and par- 
 ticularly the great mutability of language, wt- 
 cannot help giving way to the melancholy re- 
 flexion, that the time may arrive, when the 
 Englifli, which at prefent appears fo durable and 
 permanent, as the ftandard of converfation and 
 writing, will become obfolete. The caprices of 
 fafhion, the wide extent of our commerce, the 
 general intercourfe with other nations, and more 
 particularly the predominant influence of the 
 French language, may produce great changes ; 
 and Hume and Johnfon, Pope and Goldfmith, 
 may become what Speed and Afcham, Chaucer 
 and Phaer, are at prefent. For the honour, how- 
 ever, both of true tafte and the good fenfe of 
 mankind, we may prefume to ex peel;, that the 
 volumes of Englifli literature and fcience will not 
 fink into oblivion ; that the language, in which 
 they are written, celebrated for the choiceft pro- 
 ductions, and ranked with the claflical tongues of 
 Greece and Rome, will be referved for general im- 
 provement and pleafure, and will convey the works 
 of genius, learning, and philofophy, to the moft 
 diftant ages and generations. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 143 ] 
 
 CHAPTER l\' 
 
 The Latin Language. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE of this language introduces us to 
 many of thole works, which are dcfervedly clarTed 
 among the moll elegant productions of the human 
 mind, and are conlidered as fome of the mod 
 correct; models of literary excellence. If we efti- 
 mate its comparative value and importance, it 
 claims a place immediately alter our own tongue ; 
 as not only the Roman writers have made it the 
 vehicle of their genius, but it has been diitinguimed, 
 fmce the revival of learning, by the productions of 
 many eminent authors. 
 
 The utility of an acquaintance with this lan- 
 guage will be more immediately apparent, if we 
 conlider how much our Own is indebted to it for 
 many of the terms of art and fcience, as well as 
 for moil of our polyfyllables. Without the aid, 
 indeed, of the words which it mpplies, it is not 
 only difficult to underftand our older Authors, but 
 to write or fpeak even a fentence of elegant Englifh ; 
 fo that when a fcholar is engaged in ftudying the 
 Latin, lie is in fact making himfelf a more perfect 
 mafter of his own language. It is equally ufeful, 
 if he wifhes to acquire the French, the Italian, 
 and the Spanilh, as it conflitutes fo material a part 
 of thofe elegant tongues. It is the prolific mother 
 6 of
 
 144 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 of many children ; and whatever difference may 
 prevail among them with refpecl to the various 
 countries, in which they are fettled, or the foreign 
 alliances they have formed, they difcover the 
 parent from which they fprung, by the mod 
 itiiking fimilarity of features. 
 
 Confidered with refpe& to its origin, the Latin 
 language derived many words from the Etrufcans 
 and Sabincs : it is however, for the moft part, a 
 very ancient branch of the Greek, and is chiefly 
 formed from the Doric and Eolic dialects b . A 
 colony of Arcadians under Enotrus arc faid to 
 have introduced it into Italy many centuries before 
 the Trojan war. As it was feparated from the 
 mother tongue at fo very early a period, it was 
 deficient in that melody and fweetnels which the 
 other dialecls acquired, when Greek afterwards 
 reached its greateil perfection. 
 
 . 
 b The Eolic and Doric dialefts may be very clearly traced 
 
 in the Latin language. From the Eolic genitive in <v were 
 formed the feminine plurals in arum. From the Doric a. pro ij 
 are derived the words of the firft declenfion. From the Doric 
 third perfon plural in cm for a<r* was formed the Latin third 
 perfon plural in unt ; from the genitive in 010 was formed the 
 Latin genitive in /. 
 
 " Muretus non dubitavit dicere, eos qui Graeci fermonis iex- 
 pertes fint, ne Latina quidem fcripta penitus percipere pofle." 
 Prolegom. ad Etymologicum Lennep, p. 6. 
 
 " Ipfe vir fummus Hemfterhufius fefe in Latinis intelligendis fie 
 a Grascis adjuvari fentiebat, ut interdum negaret, poetas eos qui 
 fe totos ad Graecorum imitationem contuliffent, nominatim Pro- 
 pertium et Horatium, Graece imperitis valde placere pofle." 
 Prolegom. ad Etymologicum Lennep, p. 6. 
 
 Not
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. ] 45 
 
 Not only innumerable terms, but the ancient 
 forms of the Roman letters, prove the origin of 
 the language to have been Grecian. From the 
 lame fource it derived progreflive improvements. 
 The tirft Latin poets, Pacuvius, Ennius, and 
 Plautus. modelled their works upon the Grecian, 
 plan, as is particularly evident from their frequent 
 life of compound words. As foon as the art of 
 public fpeaking began to be cultivated in Rome, 
 the Greek language, which contained fome of the 
 richeft treafures of eloquence, became a favourite 
 object of purfuit; and Athens was frequented by the 
 Roman youth of fortune and family, as the beft and 
 mod approved feminary of education. The atten- 
 tion which was paid to the productions of Greece 
 by the Romans when advancing towards refine- 
 ment, fufh'ciently marks the high eftimation, in 
 which their literature was held. Cato, the cele- 
 brated Cenfor, at a late period of life learned the 
 elements of that language ; and Pompey, as a 
 mark of diftinguifhed refpect to a Greek philo- 
 fopher, lowered his confular fafces to Poiidonius 
 the fophift, whom he viiited in his fchool at 
 Rhodes. Greece was to Rome, what Egypt had 
 been in more remote times to Greece, the fruitful 
 parent of her literature and arts. 
 
 The Latin yields the fuperiority to the Greek 
 language, not only with regard to melody of 
 found, but compafs of expreffion. It has no 
 dual number, and has only one teni'e to denote the 
 paft perfect, which does not exprefs whether the 
 
 VOL. i. JL action
 
 146" THE LATIN- LANGUAGE* 
 
 action flill continues to be carried on : but tfi 
 Greek can exprds this equally by the preterperfcct, 
 and the aorift. The Latin has not a paft participle 
 active : whereas in Greek there are two, namely, 
 the participle of the aorift, and the preterperfect. 
 It wants likewife a prefent participle pafiive, which 
 reduces writers to great inconvenience, and occa- 
 fions much aukwardnefs and uncertainty of ex- 
 prefiion. It is deficient in a middle voice, and an 
 optative mood, marked by a peculiar termination, 
 to diftinguiih it from the fubjunctive : and what 
 is of much greater importance, it has no article, 
 a mode of expreflion, which the modem languages 
 of Europe polfefs, however inferior they are to the 
 ancient tongues in other refpects. This defect 
 diminimes the dignity and emphafis of names, and 
 produces great ambiguity of fenfe, whenever two 
 nouns are joined together by the verb fubftantive 6 . 
 
 In the different inflections and terminations of 
 words, as well as in the delicate and pleating deno- 
 minations of objects by diminutives, Greek and 
 Latin beap a ftrong. refemblance to each other. 
 The Latin pofTefles the advantage of compound 
 words, but in a degree that will hardly admit of 
 comparifon with the Greek. It is equally happy 
 in denoting by particular verbs the frequent repe- 
 tition or commencement of actions ; and it is more 
 accurate in its power of expreffing certain modifi- 
 cations of time by gerunds and tupines, 
 
 ' Nobilitas fola eft itqoe unica Virtus, &c. 
 
 With
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 147 
 
 With refpecl; to competition, the productions of 
 the Latin claflics sire ranked next in order of excel- 
 lence to thofe of the Greek. The polifhed writers 
 of Rome, difdaining to follow the plain and inar- 
 tificial manner of their older authors, imitated 
 the varied paufes and harmonious flow of Grecian 
 periods. The choice of arrangement allowed them 
 by the happy genius of their language, produced 
 a remarkable difference between the familiar and 
 the formal ftyle. In his Epiftles and Satires, 
 Horace is carelefs and eafy : in his Odes he 
 indulges in more flowing and more complex pe- 
 riods. Cicero in his Letters is loofe and negligent; 
 but in many of his Orations and philofophical 
 works, he is more exact in his conftruction of 
 words, and more ftudioully correct 
 
 In one kind of arrangement, the Romans were 
 inferior to their great matters, as they fo frequently 
 terminated their fentences with verbs. This practice 
 fometimes runs through feveral fentences together, 
 with no fmall degree of tirefome uniformity ; as is 
 evident from many paffages in the hiftory of Livy, 
 the Orations of Cicero, and the Commentaries 
 of Csefar. In defence however of this cuftom it 
 may be remarked, that as the action exprefled by 
 the verb is frequently the moft emphatic idea, it 
 might be thought moil confiftent with the genius 
 of their competition, to place it at the clofe of 
 the period, for the purpofe of more effectually 
 fecuring the attention of the hearer or reader. 
 
 L 2 From
 
 148" THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 From confidering the beauties of competition fa 
 confpicuous in the \vorks of the clafiic authors, we 
 muft be fenfible of the unfavourable light, in 
 which they appear when viewed through the me- 
 dium of translations. They are expofed to the 
 vanity, the negligence, or the ignorance of the 
 tranflator ; and are liable to be injured by his 
 fhftidioufnefs, or his want of tafte. The fenfe of 
 an original work may be debafed by fervile fidelity 
 of verfion, or enervated by unreflrained freedom 
 of expreffion ; it may be dilated into a commentary, 
 or comprefled into an abridgment. 
 
 Sometimes a tranflator flatters himfelf he can 
 improve upon his original, as is attempted in the 
 following inftance. Virgil defcribes Venus after 
 her appearance to .-Eneas as vifiting Paphos : 
 
 " Ubi templum illi, centumque Sabaeo 
 
 Thure calent arae, fertifque recentib ushalant." 
 
 For which a French Tranflator fubftitutes thefe 
 lines : 
 
 " Dans ce Temple ou toujotirs quelque amant irrite, 
 Accnfe dam fes vceux queljue jeune beaute," 
 
 Becaufe he thinks this defcription is more cha- 
 rafteriftic of the Temple of Venus than tliat given 
 by Virgil, which he lays will apply equally well to 
 the Temples of other Deities. Had he underftood 
 the fpirit of the paffage, and known that as blood 
 was never fhed upon the altar of the Paphian 
 godde&, its peculiar ornaments were garlands of 
 
 flowers,
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 149 
 
 flowers, he might have fpared his ingenuity the 
 trouble of endeavouring to improve upon Virgil. 
 Dryden has fometimes taken the liberty of fubftir- 
 tuting one image for another in his Tranflation of 
 Virgil, but with lingular propriety and fpirit. Take 
 for inftance the beautiful apoftrophe to Nifus and 
 Euryalus : 
 
 '< Fortunati ambo, fi quid mea car mma poffint { 
 Nulla dies unquam meraori vos eximet xvo, 
 Dum doinus JEnex Capitoli immobile faxum 
 Accolet, imperiumque Pater Romanus habebit." 
 
 O happy friends ! for if my verfe can give 
 Immortal life, your fame (hall ever live, 
 
 Fix'd as the Capitol's foundation lies, 
 
 And fpread 'where'er the Roman Eagle flies. 
 
 " Dryden faw that clofenefs beft preferred an 
 Author's fenfe, and that freedom beft exhibited 
 "his fpirit, he therefore will deferve the higheft 
 praife, who can give a reprefentation at once faithful 
 and pleating, who can convey the fame thoughts 
 with the fame graces, and who when he tranflates, 
 changes nothing but the language d ." 
 
 But after all, we may apply to Tranflations, the 
 remark made by Philip of Macedon to a perfon 
 who prided himfelf upon imitating the notes of the 
 Nightingale. I prefer the Nightingale herfelf. 
 
 The defects and difficulties of the trail (later are 
 Increafed by the inferiority of his language. The 
 
 a Johnfon's Idler, No. 69. 
 
 L 3 daffies
 
 150 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 claiTics are characterifed by a native elegance and 
 dignity of thought, a peculiar precifion of ftyle, 
 a copious flow of period, and a regular coniiruclion 
 of lentence : in addition to which, their poetical 
 works are adorned with the harmony of numbers, 
 and the various beauties of metrical verfi Meat ion. 
 The' modern languages % poflefs fome of thefe 
 beauties in an inferior degree, and of others they 
 are totally deftitute. If therefore the flowers of 
 eloquence and poetry, which bloom in the fields 
 of Cicero and Virgil, be transplanted into a lefs 
 genial foil, and a colder climate, their vigour 
 declines, and they lofe the brightnefs of their 
 colours, and the richnefs of their fragrance 6 . 
 
 / 
 
 The fragments of the annals of the Pontiffs, 
 and the laws of the Twelve Tables, are furticient 
 to prove the rude and imperfect (late of the Latin 
 language, .during the early times of the republic. 
 Two of the firft hiftorians of Rome compofed their 
 in Greek : and even Brutus, the contempo- 
 
 " My own practice may afford an apt illuft ration of the infe- 
 riority of a tranflation to an original : for I have reprefented in 
 feeble Englifh the juft and beautiful obfervations which Gravina, 
 an eminent Italian writer, has conveyed in ftrong and Ciceronian 
 periods. Opufc. p. 183. 
 
 Ce qu'il y a des plus delicat dans les penfees, et dans les ex- 
 preffions des auteurs, qui ont ecrit avec beaucoup de juftefle, fe 
 perd quand on les veut mettre dans une aatre langue : a-peu-pres 
 comme ces eflences exquifes, dont Je parfum fubtile s'evapore 
 quand on les verfe d'un vafe dans un autre, Bouhours, Penfees 
 Ingeniufes, p. 195. 
 
 rary
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 151 
 
 rary of Cicero, wrote his epiftles in the fame 
 language. That great orator wrote a Greek com- 
 mentary on his own confullhip; and his friend 
 Atticqs produced a fimilar work upon the fame 
 fubject. The Latin was not only for a confiderable 
 time an unpolifhed, but a defective language. 
 Its poverty of expreffion was a fubject of com- 
 plaint, as foon as it began to be regularly ftudied. 
 Cicero and Lucretius were fenfible of the want of 
 terms adapted to philofophical topics. Even the 
 names of phyfics, dialectics, and rhetoric, were 
 unknown before the former of thefe authors in- 
 troduced them into his works; and the latter 
 laments that his native tongue was not calculated 
 to communicate with adequate ftrength and copi- 
 oufnefs of expreffion the wonders and the beauties 
 of Grecian philofophy. Its defects were not fo 
 great, when applied to fubjects more congenial to 
 the manners of the Romans. From their conftant 
 occupations in domeftic and foreign wars for many 
 centuries, their language took a deep and peculiar 
 tincture, and the marks of it were evident from 
 many modes of expreflion. Virtus, for inftance, 
 denotes virtue as well as courage ; Exerdtus y 
 which fignifies an army, conveys likewife in its 
 original import the idea of any kind of corporeal 
 exercife; Imperator, originally appropriated to a 
 general, was afterwards applied to the fupreme 
 civil magiftrate of the empire; and the term 
 Hqftis, which was employed in contradiftinction 
 to a native of Rome, in its primary meaning, 
 
 L 4 denoted
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 denoted a ftranger f . The Roman gentlemen were 
 denominated Equites, which had a reference to 
 the military fervice performed on horfeback by 
 perfons of their quality, in the early ages of the 
 commonwealth, when a foldier and a citizen were 
 $he fame. 
 
 I. Latin Clqffics. 
 
 It might naturally enough be fuppofed, on com- 
 paring the Comedies of Plautus with thofe of 
 Terence, and the Poems of Lucretius with Virgil, 
 that they had lived at the diftance of feveral cen- 
 turies from each other ; and yet they were in reality 
 feparated by no long interval of time. Plautus 
 flourished about thirty years before Terence, and 
 Virgil about fifty after Lucretius, The rapid pro- 
 grefs of the Latin fongue to perfection will appear 
 lefs extraordinary, when we remark the labour 
 beftowed upon its cultivation by perfons as eminent 
 for their tafte and learning, as for their rank and 
 talents. Scipio Africanus was the afliftant of 
 Terence in his comic productions ; and Cicero and 
 Caefar promoted the improvement and refinement 
 pf their language, not only by examples of cor- 
 rectnefs in their inimitable writings, but by com. 
 pofing treat ifes of grammar. 
 
 f Hoftit enim apud majores noftros i dicchatur, qucm nuut 
 perfgrinum dicimus. Indicant 1 2 tabula", aut flatus dies cum 
 hofte, &c. Cicero de Officiis, lib. i. c. 12. 
 
 Virtus is probably derived from vis or vir, as A/>IT is .franj 
 ** Virtute Temper "prxvalet fapientia." Phaedrus. 
 
 All
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 153 
 
 All the Latin authors, who were remarkable for 
 purity and elegance of diftion, flourilhed within 
 the fpace of a century and a half, viz. from the 
 time of Scipio Africanus to the death of Auguftus. 
 During that aulpicious period, it was evident, with 
 what great fuccefs the Roman language could be 
 adapted to every fpecies of compofition. The 
 prole writer expanded his ideas in flowing periods, 
 or, condenfed them into concife fentences. The 
 poet adapted the various kinds of metre to the me- 
 lodious notes of the lyre, or, aided by the fancied 
 jnfpiration of the epic mufe, poured forth the more 
 regular numbers of heroic long. 
 
 The pureft and as it is fometimes called the 
 golden age of Latin compofition commenced with 
 TERENCE, who introduced the characters of his 
 elegant comedies, converfing in terfe and perfpi- 
 cuous language. LUCRETIUS gave to the Epicu- 
 rean philofophy the wild but captivating charms of 
 a vigorous fancy, and nervous expreffion. His 
 verification is fometimes rough and unpolimed, 
 and fometimes rifes into fo much grace and fmooth- 
 nefs as to refemble the hexameters of Virgil *. The 
 
 Mantuan 
 
 * The principal inftances that occur to confirm my affertion are, 
 the beautiful exordium of his poem, (Entadum Genetrix, &c. his 
 defcription of the manfions of the Gods, Apparet dfcum numen 
 fedefque quiete, &c. lib. iii. 1. 1 8. and his highly fanciful account 
 of the origin of mufic from the finging of birds, At liquiJas aiium 
 voces, &c. lib. v. 1. 1377. There is a wild fublimity and ori- 
 ginality in the poem of Lucretius. His piftures of nature are 
 nchanting; but his doctrine of atoms, which adhere to each 
 
 other
 
 154 THZ LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 Mantuan fiiepherds were foon after inftrucled by 
 that molt eminent of Latin poets to converie in 
 refined dialogues. His Georgics received the 
 higheft polilh of diclion, and his Epic Mule afto- 
 nilhed her hearers by corre6tnefs of compoiition, 
 and harmony of fong. Whenever VIRGIL indulges 
 the genuine feelings of nature, and defcribes the 
 effe6ts of the tender pafiions, he is peculiarly deli- 
 cate, captivating, and pathetic ; but he feldom 
 afcends to fublimity of thought, without having 
 the great father of Grecian poetry in view. CI- 
 CERO, the pride of Rome, and a model of true 
 eloquence, adapted his ftyle to every fpecies of 
 profe compoiition : in his letters he was eafy and 
 familiar ; upon fubjects of philofophy and oratory 
 he enriched the diction, while he enlightened the 
 minds of his countrymen ; in the character of a 
 public fpeaker, he gave beauty, pathos, and energy, 
 to his native language ; he adorned it with the 
 brighteft ornaments, and infufed into it the united 
 powers of extenfive learning and eminent talents. 
 His copious and exuberant Ityle refembles the large 
 
 other by chance, is too abfurd to require a ferious refutation. 
 As a genuine poet it was in vain for him to affeft the charaClcr 
 of an Atheift ; he felt the neceffity of fome Sioj airo //.n^*? : he 
 has therefore, with a difplay of the moft elegant imagery, and 
 with a grace and majefty fuitable to the occafion, opened his 
 poem with an addrefs to the Goddefs of Love, afcribed to her 
 the creation of the world, inverted her with the attributes of 
 power and goodnefs, and affigned to her the controul of all human 
 affairs. He felt that there was nothing in the opinions of Epi- 
 curus, or Empedocles, to intereft mankind, without prefenting to 
 them forne difplay of the agency of a Divinity. 
 
 and
 
 155 
 
 flowing garments, that were thrown by the 
 fculptor over the ftatues of the gods, and which, 
 far from preffing and confining their bodies, gave 
 free exercife to their limbs, and fuperior graceful- 
 nefs to their motion h . CORNELIUS NEPOS, the 
 friend of Cicero, has fhewn his congenial tafte by 
 the eafy and unaffected ftyle, in which he has re- 
 corded the lives of eminent perfons of his own 
 country and of Greece. The Commentaries of 
 C^SAR are valuable no lefs for accuracy and liveli- 
 jiefs of narrative, than for the pureft fimplicity of 
 idiclion. HORACE fuited the colours of his com- 
 pofition to the nature of his fubjecls: in his Epiftles 
 and Satires he is humorous without coarfenefs, and 
 cenforious without afperity ; and in his Odes he is 
 fxmcife, fplendid, and majeftic 1 . The eafy and 
 
 licentious 
 
 * Velleius Paterculus, in his encomium on Cicero, defines with 
 plegance and precifion the limits of the golden age of Latinity. 
 f Oratio et vis forenfis perfedumque profas eloquentiae decus ita 
 fub principe operis fui erupit Tullio, ut deleftari ante eum pauciffi, 
 mis ; admirari *vero neminem poffis, itife ab illo fuifum ; aut qui ilium 
 <viderit." Lib. i. c. 17. Gravina caught the fame fpjrit of ele- 
 gant obfervation, when he remarked, " Mirum eflet fi hunc 
 fcriptorem non haberem eximium, quo nemo eft auftior in elo- 
 quentia Latina, et in omni fermonis elegantia locupletior, nemo 
 fplendidior, nemo uberior, nemo in omni eruditione celebrior ; 
 nemo denique de quo cum tot laudes fmt diffiafs, minus tamen pn 
 illiui dignitatejit diftum," p. 1 80. De Lat. Lingua. 
 
 1 In his Odes, Horace feems to unite the eafe of Anacreon to 
 the fublimity of Pindar. He is more perfpicuous, and certainly 
 has much more variety of fubjefts, than the Bard of Thebes. 
 His Paftorcum traheret, &c. his Speeches of Juno and of Regulus, and 
 m /* Melpomene Jime{ &c. ate efFufions of matchlefs beauty. If 
 
 we
 
 156 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 licentious OVID, the terfe CATULLUS, the plaintive 
 TIBULLUS, poured forth their poetical efrufions in 
 a full and clear itream of description. PH/KDRUS, 
 by his neat and expreflive verification of the Fa- 
 bles of YEfop, proved that Iambic meafure was 
 fuited to the genius of the Latin tongue. LIVY 
 gave the moil finished graces to hiitoric compofi- 
 tion ; and it is difficult to determine whether he 
 inoft excels in the clearnefs of his defcriptions, or 
 the appropriate eloquence of his fpeeches. Learning 
 has fuftained an irreparable injury in the lois of 
 the concluding, and of courfe the mod interefting 
 part of his work, which related to a period, that 
 admitted the moft advantageous difplay of his ta- 
 lents for hiftorical painting, his zeal for truth, and 
 his ardour in the caufe of liberty k . During this 
 
 fplendicl 
 
 we obferve his excellent good fenfe, the precifion of his ftyle, the 
 harmony of his numbers, and the verfatility of his genius ; if we 
 recolleft that the fame man has written Odes which may difpute 
 the palm with the Bards of Greece, Satires full of pleafing rail- 
 lery, Epiftles which contain the beft lectures on men and manners, 
 and an Art of Poetry which is the code of criticifm and refined 
 tafte ; it will furely be admitted that he poflefled the moft ample 
 powers to inftruft and to delight mankind. Perhaps there is no 
 claflic, who pleafes us more, or pleafes us fo long. He has charms 
 for perfons of every age : by the young he is read with delight, 
 and by the old he is rarely forgot. See La Harpe's Lectures at 
 the Lyceum, Warton's Effay on Pope, vol. i. p. 397, and the 
 Britifh Critic for January 1794. 
 
 k " Illi Quintilianus lafteam ubertatem tribuit," eumque 
 Herodoto comparatum dicit, " cum in narrando mirae jucundi- 
 tatis, clariffimique candoris ; turn in concionibus fupra quam nar- 
 rari poteft cloqiK-ntem ; ita dicuntur omnia cum rebus turn per- 
 
 fonis
 
 THB LATIN LANGUAGE. 157 
 
 fplcndid period, fo glorious to Rome and to human 
 nature, the affected phraieology of Sallult was an 
 omen of the approaching decline of clafucal pu- 
 rity '. 
 
 The high reputation acquired by thefe writers, 
 whofe praife has been the favourite theme of every 
 poliihed age, refults from combining in their works 
 the genuine beauties of elegant compofition. 
 
 However they may differ in the direction of their 
 talents, the nature of their fubje&s, and the ilyle 
 of their produ6tions, there is ftill a congeniality of 
 taftc confpicuous in all their writings, which are 
 marked by fuch perfpicuity and elegance of lan- 
 guage, and animated by fuch propriety and vigour 
 of thought, as can only be well underftood and 
 
 fonis accommodata : fed affeftus quidera, praecipue eos qui funt 
 (tuitions, ut parciflime dicam, nemo hiftoricorura commendavit 
 magis ; ideoque, lib. ii. c. v. Livium ab adolefcentibus magis, 
 qaam Salluftium legendum effe judicat. Walchii Hid. p. 50. 
 Quint, lib. x. c. i. 
 
 1 " How cometh it to pafs, that Csfar and Cicero's talk is fo 
 natural and plain, and Salluft's writing fo artificial and dark, when 
 all the three lived at one time ? I will freely tell you my fancy- 
 herein. Surely Csefar and Cicero befide a fingular prerogative 
 of natural eloquence given unto them by God ; both two, by 
 ufe of life, were daily orators among the common people, and 
 greateft counfellbrs in the fenate-houfe ; and therefore gave them, 
 felves to ufe fuch fpeeches as the meaneft ftiould well underftand, 
 and the wifeft beft allow : following carefully that good counfcl 
 of Aliftotle, loquendum ut multi, fapiendum ut pauci." 
 
 Afcham's Schoolmafter, p. 339. 
 
 fully
 
 158 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 fully reli/hed by frequent perufal and attentive ob- 
 fervation; and the extreme difficulty of reaching 
 the ftandard of excellence, which they have erected, 
 is fufficiently manifeft from the fmall number Of 
 modern writers, who have imitated them with any 
 confiderable degree of fuccefs *. 
 
 To follow the fteps of Grecian authors was the 
 general practice of the Romans. Each of them 
 found fome predeceflbr, who had led the way to 
 the fields of invention, and was therefore adopted 
 as the inftruclor of his inexperienced genius, and 
 his guide to eminence and fame. The afliftance 
 which Homer, Hefiod, and the tragedians, afforded 
 
 m Striftior Calvus, numerofior Afmius, fplendidior Caefar, ama- 
 rior Caelius, gravior Brutus, vehementior et plenior et valentior 
 Cicero, omnes tamen eandem fanitatem eloquentias ferunt, ut fi 
 Omnium pariter libros in manum fumferis, fcias, quamvis in di- 
 verfis ingeniis, efle quandam judicii et voluntatis fimilitudinero 
 et cognationem. Dialog, de Oratoribus, c. xxv. 
 
 The engaging gracefulnefs of the Sulpicia of Tibullus, apparent 
 in all her aftions, her drefs, and whole demeanour, correfpond* 
 with the native beauty of the claflics, diverfified in fo manj 
 forms, and under every appearance inexpreflibly beautiful and 
 captivating. 
 
 Illam quicquid agit, quoquo veftigia fle&it, 
 
 Coroponit furtim, fubfequiturque decor ; 
 Seu folvit crines ; fufis decet efle capillis ; 
 
 Seu comfit, comtis eft veneranda comis. 
 Urit, feu Tyria voluit procedere palla, 
 
 Urit, feu nivea Candida vefte venit* 
 Talis in zterno felix Vertumnus Olympo, 
 
 Millc habet omatus, mille decenter habet. 
 
 Tibull. lib. iv. carm. z. cd. Heync. 
 
 I tO
 
 THE LATIN" LANGUAGE. 159 
 
 to Virgil, was fimilar to that which in other branches 
 of compofition Pindar, Archilochus, Alcaeus, and 
 Sappho gave to Horace; Menander to Terence; 
 Plato and Demofthenes to Cicero; Polybius to 
 Livy ; and Thucydides to Salluft. As a copy muft 
 from its own nature be inferior to the original, 
 which it imitates, they have all fallen fliort in point 
 of originality and fervour of compofition. The 
 'poets are more particularly remarkable for enriching 
 themfelves with foreign treafures ; and as ib many 
 of their obligations to the Greeks, whofe works arc 
 ftill extant, are difcovered, it is perhaps the lefs 
 unfair for us to conclude, that the Romans were 
 very deeply indebted to thofe, whofe works have 
 not efcaped the ravages of time. The loft come- 
 dies of Menander and Philemon, and the loft books 
 of Polybius, if they could be recovered, would pro- 
 bably make fuch difcoveries as confiderably to abate 
 the praife ufually beftowed upon Terence and Livy. 
 The want of originality was in fome meafure, al- 
 though imperfectly, fupplied by judgment and talte. 
 The rules of criticifm were ftudied when various 
 kinds of literature were cultivated at Rome ; for 
 Horace wrote his Art of Poetry nearly at the fame 
 time Virgil was compofing his Eijeid. A blind 
 attachment to their great matters fettered the 
 minds of the Romans, and rendered them clofe and 
 fervile followers, rather than daring and free adven- 
 turers. If however we conficler the manners of the 
 nation, their dignity of character, their undaunted 
 fpirit, their love of freedom, and the great improve- 
 ments made upon other foreign inventions ; parti- 
 cular!/
 
 160 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 cularly upon the arts of government and war, we 
 may fairly pronounce, that they would have ap- 
 proached much nearer to perfection, and that they 
 would have taken a nobler and a fublimer flight, 
 if they had trufted lefs to the genius of Greece, and 
 more to the enthufialin of nature. 
 
 Inferior as the Romans confefTedly were to the 
 Greeks in delicacy, harmony, and copioufnefs, they 
 may furely rifk a conteft with them for the prize of 
 vigour and majefty of compofition. Would it be 
 too hazardous to reft their pretenfions to thefe qua- 
 lities upon the firit Oration of Cicero againft Cati- 
 line, the fpeech of Casfar in Salluft, many of the 
 fpeeches in Livy and Tacitus, particularly thofe of 
 Hannibal, Scipio Africanus, and Galgacus ? While 
 this competition is propofed, the fpeeches of De- 
 jnofthenes and of Pericles, the dignified and truly 
 heroic reply of Polyxena in the Hecuba of Euri- 
 pides, are not forgotten, and, it is hoped, are not 
 undervalued. The Latin language feems to have 
 been formed for a bold, powerful, and warlike peo- 
 ple, and therefore perfectly well accorded with the 
 lofty fentiments and heroic fpirit of the conqueror* 
 of the world. 
 
 II. Decline of the Language. 
 
 ,- The. decay of tafle, which extended its influence 
 to the productions of the fine arts, prevailed like- 
 wife in works of literature. In the writers who 
 tlourifhed after the Auguftan age, this circumftance 
 
 is
 
 frfE LATIN" LANGUAGE. 16*1 
 
 is remarkable, although we ihould be deficient in 
 juflice not to acknowledge that they potfefs a con- 
 fiderable iJiare of beautiful imagery, lively defcrrp- 
 tion, and juft obfervation, both in poetry and prole. 
 Seneca degraded the disrnitv of his moral treatifes 
 
 C7 v 
 
 by fentences too pointed, and ornaments of rhetoric 
 too numerous and ftudied " ; and Pliny gave too 
 laboured and epigrammatic a turn to his Epiftles. 
 Lucan indulged the extravagance and wildnefsof his 
 genius in puerile flights of fancy ; and Tacitus fet- 
 tered the powers of his judgment, and obfcured the 
 brightnefs of lus imagination, by elaborate brevity, 
 and dark and diftant alluvions . Such affectation was 
 in vain fubftituted for the charms of nature and 
 fimplicity. So fruitlefs is the attempt to fupply> 
 
 a See Quintilian book x. ad finem, for a juft character of 
 Seneca. 
 
 * The character given, by Pliny to Timanthes may be juftly 
 applied to Tacitus : " In omnibus ejus operibus intilligitut plus 
 Temper quam pingitur ; et cum ars fumma fit, ingenium tameft 
 ultra artem eft." Lib. xxxv. e. 10. 
 
 " A man who could join the brilliant of wit, and concife 
 fententioufnefs peculiar to that age, with the truth and gravity of 
 better times, and. the deep reflection, and good fenfe of the beft 
 moderns, cannot choofe but have fomething to ftrike you. Yet 
 what I admire in him above all this, is hi* deteftation of tyranny, 
 and the high fpirit of liberty, that every now and then breaks 
 out, as it were, whether he would or no. I remember a fentence 
 in his Agricola, that (concife as it is) I always admifed, for 
 faying much in a little compafs. He fpeaks of Domitian, who 
 upon feeing the laft will of Agricola, where he had made him 
 coheir with his wife and daughter, ( Satis conftabat Iztatum eum 
 velut honore judicioque ; tam czca et corrupta mens affiduis 
 adulationibus erat, ut nefciret a bono patre non, fcribi hzredem, 
 riifi malum principem." Gray's Letters to Weft. 
 
 VOL. I. M bv
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 by gaudy ornaments of drefs, and artificial beauty 
 of complexion, the want of genuine charms, and 
 the native bloom of youth. 
 
 QUINTILIAX, in an incomparable work, calcu- 
 lated to form the mind, and complete the educa- 
 tion of a Roman orator, and abounding with the 
 pureft principles of judgment, and the choiceft 
 treafures of learning and experience, endeavoured 
 to direct the attention of his countrymen to the 
 ancient models of compofition. But the weeds of 
 a bad tafte were too deeply and too widely fown to 
 be eradicated, even by his diligent and ikilful hand; 
 and this degeneracy in the productions of litera- 
 ture, with a few exceptions, kept a regular pace 
 with the depravity of manners, which prevailed 
 during the fucceeding times of the lower empire. 
 
 It may be obferved of Quintilian and of Sir 
 Jofliua Reynolds, that their refpeclive works are 
 not merely calculated for the improvement of youth 
 in eloquence and painting, but that they contain 
 the principles of true tafte, which are applicable to 
 the fine arts and to literature in general, aided by 
 great force of expreffion, and adorned with great 
 elegance of fancy. The concife review of Greek 
 and Latin authors by Quintilian is perhaps fcarcely 
 to be paralleled for corre6lnefs of judgment *. He 
 enlarges with peculiar pleafure upon the Oration* 
 of Cicero, of whom he was an enthufiaftic admirer; 
 
 * Quint, lib. x. de Copia Vcrborum. 
 
 and
 
 THE LATIN" LANGUAGE; 163 
 
 and wives an admirable chara&er of the Comedies 
 of Menander. His ftriclures upon Seneca prove 
 that in the decline of literature, when the works of 
 that author were moft popular, the tafte of Quinti- 
 lian was neither vitiated by falfe refinement, nor 
 perverted by the prejudices of his contempora- 
 ries. 
 
 " Were we to divide the whole fpace from Au* 
 guftus to Conftantine into two equal periods of 
 time, we could not obferve without furprife the 
 difference in their refpeftive degeneracy and dete- 
 rioration. The writers in the firft divifion rank, it 
 is true, far below their predeceflbrs of the Auguftan 
 fchool : but who will compare Calphurnius and 
 Nemefianus with Lucan and Statins ? Tacitus muft 
 not be degraded by a comparifon with any hifto- 
 rian of the latter interval ; and Suetonius himfelf 
 rifes far above the level of Spartianus, Capitolinus, 
 and Lampridius. 
 
 " St. Ambrofe, St. Auguftin, and Pope Leo the 
 Firft, were undoubtedly men of powerful minds and 
 extenfive learning; but they exhibit ftrong proofs 
 of the corruption of language. Nor can a more 
 favourable judgment be paffed upon the more 
 lineally defcended claflics, the partisans of Homeric 
 deities and pagan mythology. Servius was nothing 
 more than a pains-taking grammarian ; Macrobius, 
 a profefTed fcholar and critic, was unable to ufe his 
 own language, or exemplify his own rules ; and 
 Symmachus, a courtier, and a man of diftinguifhecj 
 
 M 2 ability *5
 
 THE LAjfTV 
 
 Abilities, has not the leaft claim to elegance of dic- 
 tion, or profundity of thought. Claudian himfelf, 
 a foreigner, feems born to refcue the age from 
 general contempt, and in fpirit and harmony ranks 
 high among the Roman poets. As to Aufonius, 
 Sidonius Apollinaris, and the galaxy of tranfalpine 
 fcholars, which ftieds a faint gleam on the lad ftage 
 of Roman literature, they obtain by their num- 
 ber a diftin6tion they could not claim by their 
 merits'." 
 
 The great caufe of the corruption of the Latin 
 language, which gradually took place after the 
 reign of Auguftus, proceeded from the number of 
 Grangers, Goths, Alans, Huns, and Gauls, who 
 reforted to Rome from the provinces of Italy, and 
 other parts of the empire, and intermixed foreign 
 words, and new combinations of fpeech, with the 
 original Latin. It is probable indeed, that as the 
 claflical language of Rome flouriflxed for fo ihort a 
 period, it had never taken deep root in the pro- 
 vinces of Italy, where the inhabitants of Apulia, 
 Tufcany, Umbria, Magna Gracia, Lombardy, and 
 Liguria, were all distinguished by their peculiar dia- 
 lecls. The prevalence of Greek likewife had no 
 inconfiderable influence in Shortening the continu- 
 ance of pure Latin, as the former had long been 
 fafhionable among the polilhed Romans ; and when 
 the feat of empire was removed, it entirely fuper- 
 feded the ufc of the latter in the court of Conftan- 
 tinople. 
 
 ' Introduftion to the Literary Hiftory, &c. p. 20. 
 
 The
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 The accurate obferver of the Latin tongue may 
 trace its progrefs through the fucceilive ftages of 
 infancy, childhood, manhood, and old age. Th 
 infancy marks the time, when Saturn and Janus 
 reigned over the moll ancient inhabitants of Italy, 
 and the Salii pronounced in honour of the gods 
 their wild and unpolimed verfes. The childhood 
 refers to the reign of the kings, and the eftablim- 
 nient of the laws of the twelve tables. Its man- 
 hood denotes the decline of the republic, and the 
 rife of the empire, when poetry was cultivated by 
 Terence, Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace ; eloquence 
 by Hortenfius and Cicero ; and hiftory by Corne- 
 lius Nepos and Livy. Its old age cb&afterifea the 
 reigns of the latter emperors, when falfe refinement 
 banifhed the tafte of the Auguftan age, and the 
 language became debafed and corrupted. 
 
 III. State of the Language In modern times. 
 
 The extenfive conquefts of the Romans, their 
 conftant intercourfe with other nations, and power- 
 ful influence over them, promoted the wide diffu- 
 iion of their language. The general eftablimment 
 of their laws, and the cuftom of pleading in the 
 courts of juftice in no other language, laid the na- 
 tives of many countries under the neceffity of 
 making its ftudy a part of their education. After 
 the fall of the empire, the Germans, as foon as they 
 directed their attention to literature, revived it by 
 the ftudy of the imperial law. Nor did the autho- 
 rity of the Papal See contribute lefs to preferve and 
 
 si 3 dhTeminate
 
 THE LATIX LANGUAGE. 
 
 clifleminate it ; for it was the refined policy of the 
 Conclave to oppofe the learning of Rome as a bar- 
 rier againft the encroachments of the Greek church; 
 fo that the popularity of the Latin tongue bore no 
 inconsiderable proportion to the extent of the pon- 
 tifical power. To tlide caufes may be attributed 
 the prevalence of Latin, as a living language, upon 
 the continent of Europe. It is at prefent fpoken 
 with fluency not only in France and Italy, by thofe 
 who have received a liberal education, but even by 
 the peafants in many parts of Germany, Hungary, 
 and Poland. 
 
 Whilfl the Romans were maflers of the ancient 
 world, and ever fince the revival of learning, no 
 language has had better pretenfions to the title of 
 an univerfal language, than the Latin. So great 
 has been its prevalence, that it has been cultivated 
 by every enlightened nation ; and there is no 
 branch of learning, difcovery of art, or fyftem of 
 fcience, and indeed fcarcely any topic of liberal 
 difcufiion or inquiry, which has not been indebted 
 to it for expreiTion, ornament, and illuftration. 
 This has always been the vehicle of communication 
 
 t/ 
 
 between men of letters, and has enabled them to 
 carry on a correfpondence with each other from the 
 mod diftant places. Many celebrated authors have 
 coniidered their native tongues, as either unpolifhed 
 in their phrafeology, or confined in their circula- 
 tion ; and have therefore had recourfe to the lan- 
 guage of ancient Rome. The rays of fcience and 
 learning, that beam from many valuable produc- 
 tions,
 
 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. J6/ 
 
 tions, have been transmitted to the world through 
 this clear and beautiful medium. This is the lan- 
 guage in which were compofed the invaluable pro- 
 ductions of Eraimus, Grotius, Puffendorff, New-- 
 ton, Boerhaave, Bacon, and Gravina. 
 
 Even in the prefent age, every writer who wifhes 
 his works to defcend to remote pofterity, muft not 
 venture to erecl the monuments of his fame with 
 the periihable materials which modern languages 
 fupply, highly refined and firmly eftabliihed as they 
 may appear. They are in a ftate of conftant fluc- 
 tuation, and are fubje6l to the caprices of famion 
 and novelty : but the Latin is fixed and permanent. 
 The phrafeology of Chaucer and Hollinflied, of 
 Malherbe and Rabelais, has long been obfolete, 
 and in a ftate of old age ; whilft that of Horace 
 and Cicero, tried by the teft of centuries, and con- ' 
 fecrated by the refpect of mankind, flourishes in 
 perpetual youth. The language once fpoken by 
 the conquerors of the world, is ftill ufed to exprefs 
 the dictates of gratitude, honour, and veneration. 
 It is infcribed upon the public edifices ; it diftin- 
 guifhes the monuments and the medals of every 
 country in Europe ; and tranfmits the remembrance 
 of icholars, philofophers, patriots, and heroes, 
 through the fucceeding generations of mankind, 
 in terms, which, with refpe6l both to dignity and 
 precifjon, no modern tongue can equal. 
 
 At the revival of learning, the opinion of fcho- 
 lars was by no means uniform, as to the proper 
 
 31 4 ftandard
 
 1<>6 THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 ftandard of Latin compofition. Longolius, Bembo, 
 Paulus Manutius, and other writers of coniiderable 
 note, were advocates for the exclufive imitation of 
 Cicero, and endeavoured to gain the claffic palm, 
 by prefenting in their works a fervile copy of his 
 ftyle. The impropriety of this predilection was 
 fully proved, and the right of the other daffies to 
 a due fhare of attention was ably maintained by 
 lienry Stephens, Politian, and Erafmus. 'ihis 
 controverfy, carried on with fo much warmth and 
 ingenuity on both fides, has long ceafccl : the great 
 Roman Orator has been allowed to give the law of 
 elegant writing to fucoeeding times ; and this pre^- 
 rogative is founded upon the admirable perfpicuity, 
 copioufnefs, and richuefs of his diction. Virgil 
 reigns with unrivalled fway jn the province of poe- 
 try, and his works have fixed the ftandard of Latin 
 verification. Modern writers have rifen to fame 
 in exact proportion as they have employed their 
 diligence and tafte, in the imitation of thefe great 
 mailers ; but fubjecl, however, to that defect, which 
 neceflarily attends the ftudy of a foreign language, 
 the expreflions generally take a tincture from their 
 native tongue; and in the Roman difguife may 
 frequently be difcovered the features of the French, 
 the German, and the Engliili. Juilice however 
 reftrains us from applying this obfervation with 
 equal force to tjie Italians, as the derivation of 
 their language, and their defcent from a Roman 
 origin, enable them to tread more exactly in the 
 fteps of their illutlrious anceftors. 
 
 To
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE. ] 69 
 
 To acquire fuch claflical knowledge, as to be 
 able to write Latin with eafe and elegance, can 
 only be the work of him, who is equally a found 
 fcholar and a man of tafte. He mult be fenfible, 
 that a good ftyle does not confilt in a clofe and 
 fervile imitation of any author in particular; but 
 that it depends upon an intimate acquaintance with 
 all the authors of the Auguftan sera, or who have 
 moft clofely conformed to the ftandard of compo- 
 fition which was then creeled. He muft examine 
 the nature of their works, develope the art, and 
 unravel the texture of their compofitions r . His 
 next care muft be to adapt their expreflions to his 
 own ideas, in a manner fuitable to the nature of 
 his fubjecl, whether it be theological, fcientific, 
 hiftorieal, or poetical; and, when he adorns himfelf 
 with the drefs of the ancients, he mult endeavour 
 to move with grace, and fpeak with eafe and dig- 
 nity. Thus, it is prefumed, may be acquired, by 
 attentive ohfervation and repeated trials, that dic- 
 tion which is pure, but not affected ; learned, but 
 not pedantic; and claffical at the fame time that it 
 is original. Thefe are the fair colours of ftyle, 
 which adorn the elegant, luminous, and flowing 
 periods of G ravin a and Lowth ; and the harmo- 
 nious and polifhed verfes of Milton, Vida, and 
 Sannazarius. 
 
 r See Walchius de Imitatione, c. xiv. p. 691. and c. xv. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 1/0 ]. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Greek Language 
 
 THE aflertion will not perhaps be liable to be con- 
 troverted by thofe, who are beft acquainted with 
 fuch fubjecls, and are beft qualified to make ex- 
 tenfive and juft comparifons, if it be faid that the 
 Greek claims the fuperiority over all other lan- 
 guages. In its numerous modes of exprefiion 
 there is preciiion without obfcurity, and copiouf- 
 nefs without redundance. It owes the former to 
 the various and diverfified inflections of its words, 
 and the latter to the great number of its derivatives. 
 In its general ftructure and formation, a proper re- 
 gard is paid to the ear, as well as to the under- 
 ftanding ; for its energy and ftrength are not more 
 ftriking than its harmony. The ftriclnefs of its 
 rules does not iinpofe too much reftraint upon its 
 exprelfions, and its grammatical fyftem is in every 
 part exact and complete a . 
 
 From a fliort view of its hi/lory and charafter- 
 iftics, it will be evident, that this language de- 
 ferves to be held up as a perfect model of expreffion, 
 and that it fully juftifies the praife of thofe fcholars 
 
 * See Monboddo's Origin of Languages, voJ. iv. p. 25, &c. 
 
 and
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 171 
 
 and critics, who have celebrated its excellence, in 
 proportion as they have enjoyed its beauties, and 
 derived taite, improvement, and pleafure, from 
 the perufal of its incomparable writers. 
 
 The Eaft was the fruitful fource of the literature, 
 as well as of the fcience, and the mythology of the 
 Greeks. Letters were communicated by Cadmus 
 and his Phoenician followers to them ; and they 
 were more indebted to the roving difpofition, or 
 the neceffities of (Irangers, than to their own active 
 eurioiity, for this acquifition. It is probable that, 
 before they received this valuable fpecies of know- 
 ledge, they reprefented their thoughts by delineating 
 the figures of plants and animals, as the Egyptians- 
 did in their hieroglyphics, becaufe the Greek word 
 fignifies both to paint and to write; and 
 or )/, mean as well the images of na- 
 tural objects, as artificial marks, or characters. 
 
 The oral language of ancient Greece, before it 
 rofe from a ftate of barbarifm, was fan pie and un- 
 compounded. It was formed from the primitive 
 dialects of the Hellenians and Pelafgians. So 
 fmall was the original ftock of Grecian eloquence, 
 that all the words are derived from an inconfider- 
 able number of primitives. But the acute and 
 ingenious fpirit of the people gradually dilplayed 
 itfelf in the increafe and improvement of their 
 modes of expreflion, as they advanced in the cul- 
 tivation of other arts, and the progreffive ftages 
 of civilized life. 
 
 The
 
 172 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 The names of the original characters of Phoe- 
 nicia and thole of Greece are funilar; and the re- 
 femblance of their ibrms, and the ancient mode of 
 writing from the right hand to the left, which is 
 common to them both, furnilh a deciiive proof, 
 that they had one and the fame origin. In pro- 
 cefs of time they changed their arrangement in 
 writing, and infcribed iheir characters in alternate 
 order, from the left to the right, and from right to 
 left, as appeared by many authentic monuments of 
 antiquity, particularly the celebrated Sigean in- 
 fer iption, of which a curious reprefentation is 
 given in Shuckford's Connection of facred and pro- 
 fane Hiftory b . Some letters were afterwards added, 
 the powers of others were altered, written vowels 
 were introduced to fupply that deficiency which 
 was common to Greek with all the Oriental dia- 
 lecls ; and the combinations of vowels called diph- 
 thongs were introduced, which are in a great de- 
 gree peculiar to the Greek language. The divi- 
 fions into dialects were gradually formed by the 
 independent and unconnected people, whofe names 
 they bear ; and as they had no common metro- 
 polis, they adapted their modes of fpeech to their 
 own provincial manners and characters. The 
 
 b Vol. i. p. 264, &c. Plato feems to intimate that the Greek 
 language was derived from the Hebrew, whic'i he calls the Ian- 
 guage of the Barbarians. He divides words into two clafles ; the 
 primitive, which he afcribes to God ; and the derivative, which 
 he attributes to human invention. Plato in Cratylo. Mont- 
 faucon Palceographia, p. 115. 121. 553. Voflius de Arte 
 Gramm. lib. i. c. 10. 
 
 Doric,
 
 THE CREEK LANGUAGE. 17 J 
 
 Doric, of which tlie Eolic was a branch, was 
 fpoken in Boeotia, the Peloponnefus, Epirus, Crete, 
 Sicily, and all the Grecian colonies planted upon 
 the coafts of Italy. It was characleriftic of the 
 unpolifhed manners of the Dorians themfelves, 
 and bore fome analogy to that grandeur and fim- 
 plicity of defign, which are vilible in the remain- 
 ing fpecimens of their architecture. The moft 
 perfect examples of this dialect, which the ravages 
 of time have fpared, exift in the Paftorals of Theo- 
 critus, the Odes of Pindar, and the mathematical 
 treatifes of Archimedes. Although the Ionic is 
 the prevailing dialect of Homer, he has diverfified 
 his works with the various forms of expreflion 
 which the others fupplied. The favourable oppor- 
 tunities afforded by his travels into the different 
 parts of Greece and its colonies, furniflied him 
 with this advantage, and gave him a complete 
 command of every kind of provincial phraleology 6 . 
 The progreffive improvements of the lonians were 
 communicated to their dialect, which was fpoken 
 on all the populous coafts of Afia Minor, as well 
 as in the territories of Attica. The witty and in- 
 genious inhabitants of that province advanced it 
 to that ftate of refinement, elegance, and fweet- 
 nefs, which charm the clafiical reader in the Tra- 
 gedies of Sophocles and Euripides, the Comedies 
 of Ariftophanes, the Works of Xenophon, the 
 Dialogues of Plato, the Treatifes of Ariitotle, and 
 
 the Orations of Demofthenes. 
 
 - 
 
 e Inquiry into the Lifs and Writings of Homer, p 282, &c. 
 
 The
 
 17* 
 
 The Athenians were celebrated for the greateft 
 delicacy of tafte. Even the inferior clafles of 
 citizens decided not only upon the fentiinents de- 
 livered by the public fpeakers, but critici&d the 
 purity of their language, and the harmony of their 
 periods. So exquiiite was their judgment, as 
 oftentimes to border upon faftidioufnefs ; and the 
 leaft deviation from the eftablifhed rules of pro- 
 priety offended their ears. As a remarkable in- 
 ftance of their refinement, we are told that Theo- 
 phraitus, the celebrated author of the Characters, 
 a native of Lefbos, and a difciple of Plato, who 
 gave him his name for the fluency and elegance of 
 his di&ion, was difcovered by one of the common 
 people of Athens to be a ffranger, by his too great 
 accuracy of pronunciation d . 
 
 The theory of derivation adopted by the author 
 of "the Origin and Progrefs of Language," ac- 
 cording to which all the words of the Greek lan- 
 guage are derived from duads of vowels, originated 
 with Hemfterhufms, one of the moft eminent feho- 
 lars of his age. Not only the vowels regularly 
 taken from A to T, and terminated with fl, are 
 made the bafis of this plan; but the moft ancient 
 confonants are either prefixed to them, or inlerted 
 between them, fo as to form about a hundred 
 
 4 Ilia Attica anus Theophraftura hominem alioqui difertifii- 
 mum, annotata unius affeftatione verbi hofpitem dixit : nee alio 
 fe id deprehcndifle, interrogata refpondit, quam qu6d nimium 
 Atttit Ipqueretur. Quint, lib. 8. c. i. 
 
 radical
 
 THE GREEK LAXftUACE. 175 
 
 radical verbs. With thefe, other confonants and 
 vowels were mixed, and varioufly combined ; and 
 thus the whole language is fuppofed to have been 
 gradually conftrucled and furnifhed with its abun- 
 dant ftores of derivative words e . 
 
 V| 
 
 We do not hefitate to acknowledge, that this 
 theory is very ingenious, and deferves the exami- 
 nation of thofe, who are fond of inveftigating the 
 origin of languages. The Greek, no doubt, is dif- 
 tinguifhed by very ftrong marks of a methodical 
 ftruchire. But ought it not to be confidered, whe- 
 ther language, like the government of nations, does 
 not arife out of peculiar circumftances and fitua- 
 tions ? Is it not probable that neceflity, the inven- 
 tion of arts, and the exercife of various occupations, 
 are its genuine fources ? After a people have emerged 
 from a favage ftate, in which all their attention has 
 been employed in procuring the means of fubfift- 
 ence, and they- have made fome confiderable ad- 
 vances in refinement, they have then leifure to fix 
 the proper ftandard of their language, to reduce it 
 to order, and complete its artificial form. For its 
 origin, therefore, it can be little indebted to the 
 fyftematic precifion of rules, whatever it may owe 
 to them for its improvement. The ages of barba- 
 rifm may produce warriors and legiflators ; but it 
 required a lefs turbulent and more refined ftate of 
 fociety, for grammarians and philologifts to arife, 
 
 * Origin and Progrefs of Language, vol. ii. p. 540. vol. iv. 
 p. 54. Lennep's Etymologicon Prolegom. p. 27. and vol. ii. 
 
 6 and
 
 176 THE GREEK 
 
 and for works of literature to be compofed, and re- 
 gulated by their laws. 
 
 I. The CharaSeriflks of the Greek Language. 
 
 Among its numerous beauties, it is defervedly 
 celebrated lor fweetnefs, as well as variety of (bunds, 
 to which our pronunciation is far from doing juf- 
 tice, from a want of the fame compafs, and modu- 
 lation of tones. By tranfpoling, altering, and taking 
 away letters, the Greek was ibftened, and made 
 more pleafing to the ear. The diphthongs, as well 
 as the open vowels, Iwell and elevate the tones, in 
 a manner fuperior to modern languages. The de- 
 clenfions of nouns, the conjugations of verbs, the 
 changes of dialecls, and the number of poetical 
 licences, produce the greateft quantity of termina- 
 tions. Many words are clofed with vowels, and 
 Very few with mute conlbnants, as is the cafe in the 
 Oriental, Gothic, and Celtic languages. 
 
 In the works of Homer in particular, the beauty 
 of fingle words, confidered only with refpect to 
 found, is remarkable. With con fum mate (kill and 
 taile, he has made choice of fuch as are rough or 
 fmooth, long or ihort, harmonious or difcordant to 
 the ear, fo as to agree exaclly with the nature of 
 his different fubjecls. The names of perfons, rivers, 
 mountains, and countries, are fometimes foft and 
 flowing, and fometimes grand and fonorous, and 
 
 contribute
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. 177 
 
 Contribute in no final I degree to improve the charms 
 of his defcript ions'. 
 
 The works of the belt Greek authors are much 
 to he admired for the fkilful arrangement of words, 
 and the beauties of fiuilhed compofition. From the 
 accurate diftinctions made by genders and cafes in 
 nouns, and by perfons in verbs, no invariable fitu- 
 ation of words was necevTary ; and confequently 
 fucli as were declinable could be placed in any 
 part of a fentence without injury to its perfpicuity. 
 In this refpect modern languages are very detective; 
 for, as the nouns and verbs in general are inde- 
 clinable, and mult be attached to their refpecltive 
 articles and auxiliary verbs, an uniform and fixed 
 pofition is necevTary, in which no change can be 
 made without detriment to the fenfe, if not total 
 confuiion of it. Greek compofitions, on the con- 
 trary, abound with grand and lofty fentences, con* 
 filling of members of various extent, terminating 
 fometimes with one part of fpeech, and fome- 
 times with another. Hence the ear is con- 
 ftantly gratified by an endlefs variety of paufes, 
 and an harmonious flow of periods ; and an em- 
 phatical word, like the principal figure in a picture, 
 is placed where it will produce the molt ftriking 
 effect. In poetry this arrangement is frill more 
 remarkable, as it is accommodated to every dif- 
 ferent kind of metre. All thtie changes were 
 
 f Homer's Catalogue of the Ships will illuftrate this remark : 
 if taken in a geographical point of view, it may be confidered 
 as an accurate map of antient Greece. Iliad, lib. ii, 1.494, &c. 
 
 VOL. i. N made
 
 1/8 THE GRtLfe LANGUAGE. 
 
 made with fo much fkill and effect, as to futisfy 
 the refined judgment of Homer, and Pindar, Pfctfo, 
 and Demofthenes. Unable as the moderns are to 
 equal thefe beauties, or even to form a complete 
 idea of their nature ; yet the delicacy of tafte and 
 extent of knowledge poffefied by the ancient critics, 
 who lived fome ages after the moft flourishing era 
 of Grecian literature, amply qualified them for this 
 purpofe. Both Dionyfms the Halicarnafiian and 
 Demetrius Phalereus enter into particular and cri- 
 tical difcufiions on the melodious conduction of 
 Greek lentences, in profe as well as verfe, conduct 
 their obfervations upon regular principles, and 
 illuftrate them by the examples of the moft emi- 
 nent authors. 
 
 Other characleriftic properties of the Greek lan- 
 guage will appear by confidering the particles, 
 which are the nice links, which connect fentences 
 and members of fentences with each other. They 
 are, indeed, too often regarded by fupcrficialr 
 readers as redundant, or unmeaning; but when 
 clofely examined, they are found to poflefs parti- 
 cular force, energy, and precifion*. The diminu- 
 tive words give great exactnefs and beauty to ex- 
 prefiion, and are calculated to annex to an object 
 
 a8Tip map* riAaTwn " O /* 
 
 Kett vretf *Of*)fw. " AM.' o-rt h" &C. Aa/xT<x ^i XIH 
 croXXaxtj o (rvteitriAOS tToj* v?wtf " STW i oixcws" E 
 yen TO cviXiffpoi ^Aoi?, <n/rf|pi)<rns xa TO r0e?. Demetrius Pha. 
 
 lereus wip 'Ep^uaj. See Clarke's Homer's Iliad A. I. 56. B. 
 1. 158. E. 858, &c. 
 
 fome
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 1 79 
 
 fome pleafmg idea of tendernefs or familiarity. 
 The dual number accurately diftinguifhes two 
 perfons from one, as well as from an indifcritninate 
 and vague multitude. Different inflections of the 
 fame cafes of nouns are adapted to all the ufes of 
 poetry and profe. The power of the double ne- 
 gative is very fenfibly felt ; and there are infiances, 
 where prohibition or contradiction is guarded even 
 Dy three negatives, which enforce tlie fentiment in 
 the greateft degree. In greek and in greek alone 
 occur the grammatical folecifms of a verb fingular 
 being joined to a neuter plural, and of the union 
 of an article, or adjective mafculine with a fub- 
 flantive feminine. The middle voice has the pe- 
 culiar power of expreffing, that a perfon is the 
 fubject; of his own actions. The tenfes are more 
 numerous and more definite than thofe of any 
 other language. In Greek alone are to be found 
 a pad imperative mood, a participle prefent of the 
 paiTive voice, and a paulo-poft future tenfe. Con- 
 ditional aclion is denoted by the fubjun6tive, and 
 fuch as relates to an object of defire, by the opta- 
 tive mood. The variety and exa&nefs of ideas 
 difplayed in all the modifications of the verb mow 
 a refinement of thought, and a depth of nieta- 
 phyfical reafoning, applied to the divifions of time, 
 which prove the peculiar acutenefs and unrivalled 
 invention of the Greeks h . 
 
 h Artium parens et altrix Grzeca diligentia eft ; 
 Literarura porro curam nulla gens attentius 
 Repperit : polivit ufque finem ad unguis extimum. 
 
 Terentianus Mauxus. 
 
 N 2 The
 
 ISO THE GREEK LANGUA^fc. 
 
 The prolific pmver of their language was not 
 limited by any fixed bounds, or reftrained by any 
 certain rules. Verlw were the fruitful trees, which 
 produced innumerable branches fpringing from 
 each other in the greateft abundance and variety. 
 They are fometimes compounded with each other, 
 and fometimes with fubftantives ; nouns are formed 
 from them, and even from different tenfes and 
 perfons of the fame verb '. But the power of com- 
 pounding them with prepotltions was of a much 
 more extraordinary extent. With any one of the 
 eighteen prepofitions any verb, unlefs its-fignifica- 
 tion made it naturally repugnant to fuch an alli- 
 ance, could be joined. There are numerous in- 
 ftances of fuch combinations, and likewife of 
 double and even treble prepofitions being united 
 with verbs and nouns. As fuch compound words 
 poflefs an unrivalled ftrength, richnefs, and figni- 
 ficant brevity, they Ihow the creative powers of a 
 language, which contains inexhauftible refources. 
 Their effecl; is more particularly felt in poetry, 
 which they fupply with one of its moft finking and 
 beautiful ornaments. To the genius of Homer 
 they ftirnilhed appropriate exprefiion, and enabled 
 
 1 See Clarke's ingenious fyflem of the Greek tenfes, in his note 
 on line 37 of the firft book of the Iliad. 
 
 From Vfflrottyuu, i)<r, UTI, are derived 7rni//a, VO>JCK> VOUJTJK. 
 See Monboddo, v. ii. p. 185. 
 
 There are thirty-four inftances at leaft of the verb being com- 
 pounded with double prepofitions, afltpGalfyu, a&vcif ***)*>, 
 oWpoCaXXw, &c. Inftances of a verB and three prepofitions, 
 fuch as uvL.txir0a.-ffi>, a^e not uncommon in Homer. See Lord 
 Monboddo, and Va.kenaer apud Lennep,* p, 24, 25. 
 
 him
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 181 
 
 him to give, even to an epithet, fuch diftinft and 
 pidurelque ideas, as inferior poets convey with lefs 
 effect in long defcriptions. To this power of* coin- 
 pounding words ib extenfive and unbounded, no 
 refemblance can be traced in the productions of 
 art, except in the indefinite combination of letters 
 to form words, and the multiplication of numbers 
 in arithmetic. 
 
 From fuch powers of language naturally arofe a 
 proportionable copioufnefs. Even as early as the 
 time of Homer, it had affumed a permanent cha- 
 racter ; and his works,, produced in the infancy of 
 arts and civilization, afforded a fatisfactory proofj 
 to what various fubjecls it could be applied. So 
 full and complete indeed is the nature of his ftyle, 
 fo far is it from affording any ground for com- 
 plaints of its weaknefs and deficiency, that all 
 fcholars unite in their admiration of its energy and 
 copioufnefs. What are the thoughts of Virgil, 
 Talfo, or any modern poet, to which the dicliori 
 of Homer, and the other great Grecian poets, could 
 not give adequate expreflion, and even embellifli 
 with additional and fuperior beauties of harmony, 
 richneis, and variety of compofition ? 
 
 Hj 
 
 H. Style of Greek Writers. 
 
 Thus to thefertile and happy invention of 
 
 writers of all defcriptions did the Greek language 
 
 fupply an abundant ftore of the molt fignificant 
 
 terms ; and every conception of the mind, every 
 
 N 3 appear-
 
 188 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 appearance of nature, and preclusion of art, were 
 conveyed by correfpondent and adequate words. 
 The hiftorian, the orator, and the philofupher, 
 exercifed the fame freedom, energy, and beauty of 
 cxpreflion, as the poet himfelf. The effe6t of 
 genius upon the Grecian language was like that of 
 the fun, when it varies the glowing tints of light, 
 and touches the clouds with the richeft and molt 
 beautiful diverfity of colours. Herodotus, the 
 iirft of Grecian hiftorians, adorned his curious and 
 entertaining work with the vocal flow and poetical 
 terminations of the Ionic, and Thucydides dif- 
 tinguifhed his celebrated hiftory of the Peloponne- 
 fian war by the elegance and vigour of the attic 
 dialecl. 
 
 The Greek language aiTumed with eafe the 
 various forms in which Eloquence ftrove to per^ 
 fuade and Philofophy to inftruc"! mankind. Ariitotle 
 was concife, and vigorous ; Plato was dirTuie and 
 poetical, Xenophon was llmple and elegant. The 
 comedies of Ariftophanes and Menander, however 
 unlike in their diameters and fentiments, were 
 both improved by the pure and refined beauties 
 of their native dialed. Theocritus gave the artlefs 
 graces of Doric fimplicity to his paftorals; and 
 Sappho conveyed her tender fentiments of palh'on 
 in the pleafmg cadences of that kind of verifica- 
 tion, which is emphatically diftinguiihed by her 
 name. The Alcaic Ode, the Elegy, and the 
 Epigram are all marked by their own peculiar 
 characters. The eafy flow of Iambics, and the 
 
 irregular
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 183 
 
 irregular combination of choral mcafures, adorned 
 the dramatic productions of .Efchylus, Euripides, 
 and Sophocles. Their language was a perfect 
 image of the boki and versatile genius of the 
 people who fpoke it ; for it embraced the wide 
 extent of human perceptions, was moulded into 
 every form, and produced aftonimment by its 
 force, captivated attention by its beauty, and en- 
 raptured the ear by its varied and delightful 
 melody k . 
 
 While the Greeks conveyed the dictates of plri- 
 iofophy to the underftaneling, held up the mod 
 pleafing pictures to the imagination, or by the 
 impulfe of paffion melted and fubdued the heart, 
 the drefs, in which they clothed their ideas, was 
 at once rich, elegant, and graceful ; and while 
 they rofe to an elevation of genius, courage, and 
 tafte, which has never been equalled, their words 
 were the moft harmonious, nervous, and expreffive, 
 that ever flowed from mortal lips. 
 
 From confidering the excellence of this extra- 
 ordinary language, we may indeed be difpofed to 
 occufe, or more properly fpeaking, to applaud, the 
 exalted (lyle of praife, in wjiich its powers were 
 celebrated, by thofe who were the mod competent 
 judges of its merits. The accents which flowed 
 from the lips of the venerable Neftor were defcribed 
 
 k I confider the principal Greek writers in this place folely 
 with a view to their various kinds of ftyle. The other charac- 
 teriftics of their works will be noticed in the hiftory of Greece. 
 
 N 4 by
 
 184 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 by Homer as exceeding the fweetnefs of honey* 
 It is an obfervation of the great Roman orator, 
 that if Jupiter had communicated his will to man- 
 kind, he would have adopted the language of Plato. 
 When Pericles addrelfed .the Athenian ailemblics, 
 he did not, in the opinion of his contemporaries, 
 merely convince his hearers by his perfuafive argu- 
 ments: but, to ufe the exalted language of his 
 
 ' ' O O 
 
 countrymen, majeitie in voice and afpecl, and 
 irrefiftible in force, as if he commanded the ele- 
 ments of heaven, he overpowered the faculties of 
 his aftonifhed hearers with the thunder and lio'ht- 
 
 o 
 
 ning of his eloquence, 
 
 III. Duration and Extent of the Language. 
 
 In addition to the curious circumftances, which 
 diftinguim the Greek language, it may be re- 
 marked, that it was i'poken and written with purity 
 and elegance for a greater portion of time, than 
 any other ever known in the world '. The long 
 period of twenty-three centuries will fcarcely mea- 
 fure its continuance. We have feen, that as early 
 as the time of Homer its ftandard was fixed, and 
 it continued to be cultivated till Conftantinople 
 \vas taken by the Turks, in the fifteenth century. 
 A iliort time before that event, although it exifted 
 in a degenerate ftate among the common people, 
 it wus fpoken with fuch correftnefs and elegance 
 
 1 cui non certaverit ulla, 
 
 Aut tantum fluere, aut totidem durare per annos. 
 
 Virg. Georg. i. 1. 99. 
 
 by
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 1S5 
 
 by perfons of a liberal education, and particularly 
 by the ladies of rank and high condition, as to 
 give no very imperfect ipechneu of the ft vie of 
 
 i5 / 
 
 Ariftophanes, Euripides, and the philosophers and 
 hiftorians, who flouriihul in the pureft times. 
 Such is the very curious faci related by the learned 
 Phillephus, who vilited the metropolis of the eaiieru 
 empire twelve years only before it was taken by 
 the Turks. The intermediate corruptions can only 
 be marked by fcholars of more than ordinary 
 acutenefs and erudition. By fuch alone can the 
 different colours and ihades of diction be dif- 
 tinsruimed in the works of writers, who lived at 
 
 o 
 
 times fo remote from Xcnophon and Plato, as 
 Euftathius, the commentator on Homer, Anna 
 Comnena, the daughter of the emperor Alexias, 
 Chalcondylas, Procopius, and other writers, in- 
 cluded in the liit of the Byzantine hiftorians. 
 
 The difference between pure Greek and that 
 which was fpoken and written by foreigners wag 
 much more ftrongly marked. The writers of the 
 New Teilament fall much below the claflical 
 ftandard. Hebrew idioms, and words ufed in new 
 (eiifcs, abound in their writings ; and their ftyle, 
 which by modern fcholars is called Helleniftic, to 
 diftinguifh ' it from pure Greek, will not bear the 
 teft of rigid criticifm. Yet it is far from being of 
 an uniform characler, fince we find that St. Luke 
 wrote with more purity of expreflion, St. John with 
 more fimplicity and plainnels, and St. Paul with 
 greater copioufnefs and variety, than the other 
 
 facred
 
 186 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 facred writers. They approached nearer to pure 
 Greek in proportion as they poflefled the advan- 
 tages of education, and were improved by inter- 
 courfe with the higher ranks of focicty. 
 
 As this continued long to be a living language, 
 fo was its circulation very extenfive. Under the 
 fucceflbrs of Alexander it was carried far bevond 
 
 J 
 
 the limits of the Greek provinces, and long before 
 the Chriftian era it was fpoken by Jews, Romans, 
 and Africans. It was cultivated by the learned 
 in Egypt and Syria, as well as in Italy, Gaul, 
 Spain, and Carthage. Jofephus and Philo Judaeus 
 preferred it to their native language ; and the 
 writers of the New Teftament adopted it as the 
 bed means to facilitate the propagation of Chrifti- 
 anity. This was the language of the early Roman 
 hiftorians, and both Lucullus and Cicero ufed it 
 to record the accounts of their public tranfa&ions. 
 Of its general prevalence, the latter fpeaks in ex- 
 plicit terms in his Oration for Archias the poet ; 
 where he informs us, that, at a period when Latin 
 was confined to very few diftricls ; the Greek 
 authors were ftudied, and their language Avas 
 fpoken in moft parts of the world. With refpeft 
 therefore to its wide difTufion, the ancient Greek 
 may be compared to modern French, which at 
 prefent forms fo fafhiouablc and fo general a branch 
 of education. But whatever degree of delicacy 
 the French may poflefs in common with the Greek, 
 it wants many of its moft diftinguiming charac- 
 teriftics, and in particular its grace and har- 
 mony,
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE, J87 
 
 mony, its precifion and copioufneis, its vigour and 
 fublimity. 
 
 There were many caufes for the great extent of 
 the Greek language. Numerous colonies planted 
 in different parts of Europe, Afia, and Africa; 
 the commerce of the Greek merchants; the con- 
 queits of Alexander the Gieat, and the permanent 
 eftablifhments, which he made, by building many 
 large cities, contributed to this end. Uut the 
 caufe, which produced this dhTufion more than 
 all others, was the intrinfic excellence of the 
 language itfelf. It is a remarkable fact, that at 
 the period when the provinces of Greece were 
 reduced to the meaneft vafialage, and the character 
 of the people was funk to the loweft ftate of dif- 
 grace in the opinion of their conquerors, their 
 language ftill continued to retain its high and 
 original reputation, and was ftudied not only by 
 the Romans, but by perfons- of refpectability and 
 diftinclion in all parts of the ancient world. 
 
 The pure Greek, as a living language, finally 
 funk with the power of the eaftern empire under 
 the triumphant arms of the Turks. 
 
 IV. Modern Greek. 
 
 / 
 
 Every fcholar muft naturally be defirous to afcer- 
 tain the prefent ftate of the Greek language. Its 
 deviation from that which was formerly fpoken, 
 both with refpecl; to pronunciation and grammar, 
 
 is
 
 18S THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 is very conficlenible. The. words of the language 
 indeed, like Italian and Latin, are in fubdance 
 the fame as thofe of ancient Greek ; there is, 
 however, an intermixture of Turkiih with that 
 which is fpoken in Alia; of Arabic with that 
 which prevails on the coafts of Africa ; and of 
 Italian with that which is ufed at Benevento, and 
 other parts of Italy. The modern Greeks pay 
 only fo much attention to Grammar, as con fids 
 in forming two cafes by inflection, namely, the 
 genitive and the accufative ; and the perfons 
 and numbers of the verbs : but with refpecl; to 
 declenfions and conjugations they obferve no 
 rules. In their conjugations they imitate the 
 general practice of the moderns, by conftantly 
 making ufe of auxiliary verbs. In their pronun- 
 ciation they ftrictly attend to accent, and hence 
 the quantity of words is not only difregarded, but 
 often moft grotsly violated ; and they have intirely 
 loft that fweet modulation and variety of found, 
 which graced the lips of their anceftors m . Such is 
 their negleft of ancient literature, that the New 
 Teftament, as well as the works of their own 
 clafiics, have been tranflated for their ufe. . The 
 decline of their language has kept pace with the 
 degeneracy of their manners ; for in confequence 
 of a ncglec~t of compofition, and inattention to 
 the ancient models of elegance and purity, they 
 ipeak a barbarous and coarfe dialect. The defcend- 
 
 m Monboddo. Forflcr on Accent and Quantity, p. 207. For 
 an elegant {ketch of the political and literary ftate of Greece 
 daring her good and bad fortune, fee Harris's Philol. Inquiries, 
 c. iii. 
 
 ants
 
 THE cnr.rK LANGUAGE. 159 
 
 ants of Pericles and Demofthenes, opprefled by a 
 defpotic government, and immerfed in bigotry and 
 fuperftition, are ignorant of the pure phrafeology 
 of their illuftrious anccftors ; and it is a remarkable 
 fact, that of the feventy different jargons, which 
 are now fpoken in Greece, that of the Athenians 
 is held to be the moft corrupt and barbarous". 
 The mixture of their language with the dialect of 
 Turkey and other nations bears a ftriking refem- 
 blance to the magnificent ruins of marble temples, 
 remarkable for exquifite architecture, which are 
 feen in the ftreets of Athens to fupport the rude 
 cottages and mean fheds of the Grecian flaves. 
 
 From the whole of this furvey of the Englijh, 
 Latin, and Greek languages, we may form a judg- 
 ment of the origin, progrefs, chara6teriftics, and 
 beauties of each; and we may be enabled to 'de- 
 termine their refpective merits. When we allow 
 to the Greek all its due praife for harmony, copi- 
 oufnefs, and that amazing ductility, by which it 
 could exprefs with eafe, in derivative and com- 
 pound words, new indeed, but perfectly ana- 
 logical, every difcovery in fcience, or invention in 
 the arts ; when we commend the Latin for its 
 majefty, precifion, and vigour; and when we 
 hold up the clafiical writers in each as the beft 
 models of learning and tafte, let us not neglect to 
 form a proper eftimate of our own tongue. The 
 Englifh language, deriving its ftock of words from 
 
 e Pauw, v. i. p. 70, 
 
 fo
 
 THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 fo many different fources, and very imperfc&ly 
 undeiftood without the aid of Greek and Latin, 
 is energetic, rich, and copious. And, perhaps, 
 if we were confined to the knowledge of a fingle 
 modern language to the exclufion of all others, 
 no one could be found better adapted to all the 
 purpofes of focial intercourfe ; more capable of 
 expreifinic the general fentiments of the mind, or 
 more deferring the praife, which we have, it is 
 prefumed on a due confideration of its relative 
 merits, affigned to it *. 
 
 See p. 140. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Eloquence, 
 
 JNOTHING feems to me more excellent, than 
 to be able to engage the affections, convince the 
 unclerftandings, and guide the inclinations of 
 whole aflemblies, and even to direct thofe inclina- 
 tions from their original courfe into a new channel, 
 by the commanding powers of eloquence. This 
 noble faculty has in every free (late, more particu- 
 larly in times of peace and tranquillity, been 
 always held in the higheft efteem, and obtained 
 the greateft influence. And indeed what can be 
 a jufter fubje6t of admiration, than that amidft a 
 vait multitude one man only, or a very fmall 
 number, mould rife fuperior to all others in the 
 exercife of that power, which nature has equally 
 bellowed upon all the human race? Or what is 
 fo pleafing to the ear, or fo gratifying to the 
 under (landing, as a judicious and folid difeourfe 
 delivered in elegant and polifhed language? Or 
 what is fo efficacious, or fo noble, as to influence 
 the people, the judges, and the fen ate, by the 
 charms of oratory ? What is fo great, fo generous, 
 or divine, as to refcue the virtuous from oppreffion, 
 and protect the unfortunate from injuftice? Can 
 any thing be more ufeful than to be always fur- 
 
 nifhed
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 with the arms which eloquence fupplies, to 
 atfrrt your rights, and to repel the attacks of in- 
 jury? And not to confine our obfervations within 
 the limits or' the courts of juftice, or the fenate- 
 lioufe, what is there in the midft of retirement 
 from bulinefs more agreeable and entertaining; 
 what better proof can be given of the refinements 
 of a liberal education, than a flow of elegant and 
 polifhed converfation ? It is indeed the peculiar 
 characleriftic of our nature, which diftinguifhes 
 us from the brute creation, that we can exprefs 
 our thoughts by language, and both enjoy and 
 communicate the pleafures of focial intercourfe. 
 Who therefore, does not hold fuch an endowment 
 in great eftimation ? and who does not think it an 
 
 o 
 
 object of honourable ambition to lurpafs others in 
 the exercife of that faculty, in which rational 
 beings ihew their afcendency over inferior animals ? 
 But not to dwell upon inconfiderable points, let us 
 proceed to the moft material. What other power 
 than that of eloquence could have proved fuffi- 
 ciently efficacious to induce the fcattered indi- 
 viduals of mankind to quit a rude and favage life, 
 in order to form regular communities ? and what 
 other power could have foftened their barbarity by 
 t the refinements of civilized manners, or after 
 dates were founded, what other power, I fay, 
 could have reftrained them by falutary inftitutions, 
 and fecured their profperity and happinefs by 
 forms of government, and eftabliflnnents of law? 
 To dole this fubject, which is indeed almoft inex- 
 hauftible, I lay it down as an indifputable prin- 
 ciple!
 
 , that upon the prudence aird tUknts of am 
 accomplished fj>eaker, not only his own peifonai 
 refpectability, but the welfare of numerous indivi* 
 duals; nay even the fafety of the government 
 depend. I therefore earneftly exhort you, ray 
 young friends, to perfevere in your prefeut comfe, 
 and to cultivate with iucetlant diligence the ftucly 
 of eloquence, for the fake of your own reputation, 
 the advantage of your friends, and the profperit^ 
 and glory of your country p ." 
 
 ' 
 
 Such is an imperfecl representation of "the ani- 
 mated and luminous encomium, which Cicero, 
 in the beginning of his celebrated Dialogue de 
 Oratore, pronounced upon his favourite art. And 
 to teach the beft ufe of this noble faculty of 
 fpeaking, and point out the method by which it 
 can be made to anfwer the in oft important pur- 
 ppfes, is the great end of the art of Rhetoric. It 
 is evident that no ftudy more fully repays tho 
 labour beftowed upon its cultivation, if we reflect 
 upon the rife and progrefs of eloquence in the early 
 ages of the world, and the great improvements 
 
 P Cicero de Oratore, lib. i. feft. 30. Edit. Prouft. And he 
 has comprized the advantages of eloquence in another paflage too 
 beautiful to be omitted. " Jam vero domina rerum eloquend.i vis, 
 quam eft prajclara, quamque divina ! quae primum effecit, ut ea 
 <juse ignoramus, difcere, & ea quae fcimus, alios docere poffirous. 
 Deinde hac cohortamur, hac perfuademus, hac confolamur affiiftos, 
 hac deducimus perterritos a timore hac geftiente* eornprimirrus, 
 hac cupiditates, iracundiafque reftinguimus : h<cc nos juris, 
 legum, urbium focietate devinxit, haec a vil^i iinmani & fera 
 fegregavit." De Natura Deorum, lib. 2. 
 
 VOL. i. Q \vhich
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 which have been made in it both in ancient and 
 modern times. We may recoiled the extraordi- 
 nary degree of perfection, to which it was carried 
 by Demolthenes and Cicero; and their productions 
 which have come down to us give the moil fatis- 
 factory proofs that they were confummate matters 
 of their art, and that they excelled in it, not lefs 
 by the extent and variety of their knowledge, 
 than the brilliancy of their genius. In our own 
 times, we fee the effects produced by rude and un- 
 polifhed eloquence upon the minds of the common 
 people in the harangues of crafty demagogues, 
 and the fermons of itinerant enthufiafts : it is 
 evident, therefore, what a powerful inftrument of 
 perfuafion and utility it may be rendered, when 
 placed in the hands of well-educated perfons, who 
 to all the natural advantages of voice, action, and 
 abilities, which ignorant fpeakers may poflefs, unite 
 the guidance of rules, and an acquaintance with 
 the bed examples. 
 
 Nor will a knowledge of the principles of 
 Rhetoric, upon which the chief beauties of com- 
 pofition depend for their grace and effect, be of 
 inconfiderable ufe to the hearer or reader, as well 
 as the fpeaker. It will enable them to unravel 
 the intricacies of compofition in general, whether 
 in verfe or profe, to unclerftand the principles upon 
 which it is founded, and to form a right judgment 
 of its merits. 
 
 If objections be ever ilarted againft eloquence, 
 
 confidered
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 confidered as a faculty, which may be made the 
 internment of evil as well as of good, it is obvious 
 that fimilar objections may be urged aguinft the 
 exercife of the faculty of reafon, as it is too often 
 employed to lead men into error. But no one 
 would think of bringing a ferious argun.ent from 
 this abufe of the intellectual powers aga'mft the 
 improvement of our underftandings *. Reafon, 
 eloquence, and every art moft eflential to the 
 comfort of life, are liable to be mifapplied, and 
 may prove dangerous in the hands of bad men ; 
 but it would argue an excefs of levity to contend, 
 that upon this account they ought to be neg- 
 lected, and held in no eftimation. While the 
 orator employs his talents, and practices the rules 
 of his profeffion, in the purfuit of that end for which 
 it was originally defigned, the perfuading men 
 to good and virtuous actions, and the diffuading 
 them from every meafure that is difhonourable and 
 vicious ; nothing can be more excellent in itfelf* 
 or more ufeful to fociety. 
 
 Rhetoric is the art of /peaking ffnd writing with 
 elegance and dignity, in order to pleafe, injiruB, 
 andperfuade. Elegance confifts in the purity and 
 perfpicuity of language'. The former may be 
 acquired by ftudying the moft excellent authors, 
 by converting with the beft company, and th 
 frequent practice of composition. The latter 
 
 Quint, lib. ii. c. 17. 
 ' Arid. Rhct. lib. iii. c. z. Quint, lib. viii. c. 2. Sec. 
 
 o 2 confilU
 
 XLOQUESCE. 
 
 confifts in making ufe of the cleareft and moft ia-< 
 telligible expreflion?, in avoiding ambiguous words, 
 aftertal brevity, perplexity of periods, and con- 
 fufion of metaphors. Dignity ariles from fublime 
 thoughts, and noble and elevated tropes and figures, 
 
 It may be thought unreafonable to fetter the 
 mind by fyftems, and rcftrain the flights of elo- 
 quence by rules. But it is evident from experience 
 and obfervation, that rules may greatly alii ft 
 genius, provided they point out the right road, 
 without confining the learner to a fingle track, 
 from which he is told it is unlawful to deviate. 
 They are undoubtedly neceifary before practice 
 gives that eafe, which may enable him to truft to 
 his own well-regulated exertions, and proceed 
 -without a guide. 
 
 To enumerate the rules of Rhetoric would require 
 too rm'nute a detail ; and they will be bed learnt 
 from thofe writers, who both in ancient and 
 modern times have obtained great reputation by 
 their worlds upon the fubjeft. Such are Ariftotle, 
 Cicero, Quintilian, and their faithful follov. 
 Blair, Campbell, and Fenelon. To afcertain the 
 leading principles relating to eloquence in general^ 
 it may be iufticicnt to confidcr its productions, 
 under lour diitiuct heads. 
 
 I. The fources of argument 
 
 II. The nature of ityle, and the ornaments of 
 pompoiitioji,. 
 
 III. The
 
 tit. The arrangement of the different parts of a 
 difcourfe. 
 
 IV. Propriety of action and delivery. 
 
 I. The Sources of Argument. 
 
 I. The hafis of all eloquence is invention. It is 1 
 this prolific faculty, which enables the fpeaker to 
 form and combine fuch ideas, as are neceflary for 
 the ftatemcnt, explanation, and illuftration of his : 
 fubject, with a view to conciliate the minds of his 
 hearers, and engage their judgment and pavlions 
 in his favour. A livclinefs of imagination, and a 
 quicknefs of thought, are great afliilants to inven- 
 tion ; and they who poffefs thefe happy gifts of 
 nature, are found to be rarely at a lofs for reafons 
 to defend their own opinions, and todifprove thofe 
 of their opponents. Of this prime faculty the moft 
 eminent orators and poets were in full pofleffion ; 
 and we find that, fo far from giving us any caufe 
 to complain of barrennefs of invention, they fill our 
 minds with the abundant produce of intellectual 
 fertility. This remark, among other iuftances, is 
 particularly ju (lifted by the examples of Homer, 
 Plato, and Cicero. To collect materials for the 
 employment of genius, muft neceflarily form the 
 great bufmefs of life. Invention, ftrictly fpeaking, 
 implies di/twery, rather than creation, and mull be 
 underftoocf to fi^nifv new combinations of thofe' 
 
 O 
 
 images, which had been previouily ftored in the 
 memory. ' 
 
 o 3 Accurate
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 Accurate learning and extenfive knowledge, the 
 profpects of nature, the difcoveries of art the aids 
 of education and the refults of experience and 
 obfervation upon mankind, are the proper funds to 
 fupply this faculty with its requifite ftores. Hence 
 are furnimed the various topics, whether external 
 or internal, which are applicable to the different 
 kinds of caufes, whether demonf.rat'me, deliberative, 
 or judicial, and which are treated of at large by 
 the Rhetoricians, and particularly by Ariilotle and 
 Cicero *. The judgment inuft ever be active in 
 the right application of the afliftance, which genius 
 and extenfive knowledge can bring to every parti- 
 cular fubject; whatever is trifling or fuperfluous 
 mud be rejected ; and nothing admitted into a 
 competition that is not fully to the purpofe, and 
 calculated to anfwer the end originally propofed. 
 The bright and clear ftream of eloquence, aflifted 
 by every tributary rill that can increafe its fulnefs, 
 ihould flow not in a circuitous and winding courfe, 
 but with a direct and rapid current. 
 
 II. Style, and the Ornaments of Compofition. 
 
 II. Without the requifites of a proper ftyle, and 
 the judicious introduction of the ornaments of com- 
 pofition, a difcourfe will be dry, jejune, and unin- 
 terefting. As from hence eloquence derives its 
 chief excellence, beauty and fplendour ; it is of the 
 
 Cicero de Inventione, lib. i. p. 55. fol. edit. 
 
 greateft
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 gfeateft importance to the orator to be well ac- 
 quainted with the conftituent parts of true orna- 
 ment, and the various kinds of ftyle. 
 
 Of jlyle in general it may be remarked, that 
 every country poffeffes not only a peculiar Ian* 
 guage, but a peculiar mode of expreflion, fuited to 
 the particular temper and genius of its inhabitants. 
 Moft of the Eaftern nations are remarkable for a 
 lofty and majeftic diction, which is full and fono- 
 rous, ftrong and forcible, and animated by bold 
 and expreflive figures. On the contrary, the North- 
 ern languages are more iimple, and generally par- 
 take of the cold influence of their climate. In the 
 former the warmth of imagination predominates ; 
 in the latter there is more of the ftrictnefs and cor- 
 reclnefs of judgment. 
 
 But the principal diftinctions of ftyle arife from, 
 the diverfity of fubjects. The fame mode of expref* 
 (ion* would be as inconfiftent upon different occa- 
 fions, as the fame drefs for perfons of different ranks. 
 Propriety, therefore, requires that expreflion Ihould 
 be adapted to the nature of the fubject Style is 
 divided into three kinds, viz. the low or plain ftyle; 
 the middle or temperate ; and the lofty or fub- 
 lime. 
 
 A plain ftyle is the genuine language of nature ; 
 it may be eafy, inclining to the familiar, and ele- 
 gant, at the fame time that it is inartificial and un- 
 affected. As it is defigned to make things perfectly 
 o 4 intelligible^
 
 $00 ILOQUCVCX. 
 
 and to fet them in a clear light, 
 proper iubjfets of it are epiftles, eflays, narratives 1 , 
 works of fcience -and philofophy, or any other 
 topics that require to be treated without ornament, 
 Dr addretfes to the paflfions. Simplicity and eafe 
 both of thought and pxpreflion are its peculiar 
 beauties ; and the choiceft examples of it are to l>c 
 found iu the works of Xenophon and Csefar, the 
 Sermons of Seeker, and the Tales of Swift. 
 
 The middle ftyle is beft adapted to thofe fubjecls 
 which require gravity, accuracy, and force of ex- 
 prelfion. It accords with fine thoughts, as a low 
 ftyie is beft fmted to thofe which are common, and 
 the fublime is Ijeft adapted to thofe which are great 
 and dignified. A fine thought deferves that cha- 
 racter from pofiefling dignity, beauty, delicacy, and 
 novelty. As the fubjects that belong to the middle 
 ftyle are important, though not of fo exalted a na- 
 ture, as wholly to captivate the mind, and divert it 
 from attending- to tne diction ; fo it admits all the 
 ornaments and beauties of compofition. This is 
 ithe fpbere like wife of the mod highly finifhed and 
 inoft elaborate \vriting. This is the foil favourable 
 v to the growth of the taireft and moft beautiful flowere 
 -of eloquence. Here ftnmg and emphatical words, 
 flowing periods, harmonious numbers, vivid tropes^ 
 and bright and animated figures, find their proper 
 place. The bell examples of this kind are the dia- 
 logues of Plato, the fpeeches of Livy, and the moft 
 -admired orations of Cicero. 
 
 - 
 
 Lofty
 
 Lofty and elevated thoughts fbrrnr the proper 
 bafis of the fitblitnes fty\e. Such thoughts relate 
 v to divine lubjects, to the works "of nature, Of 
 exprc-llions, or actions, as are ettcerned the 
 noblcft and the beft. The true fublime is perlKtly 
 eonfiftcnt with the greateft plainnefs and fimplicity 
 of expretiion. Depending fotely on its native en 
 
 ..Tec* upon the mind, it rather rejects tha^ 
 iblicits the aid of ornament ; for when the foul is 
 elevated to the utmoft of its powers by a noble idea, 
 ic attends not to the niceties of language ; but, from 
 its own vigour and lively conception of things, ex- 
 pretfes them in terms the mod concife and empha- 
 tical, and beft adapted to their nature. Dignity 
 and majefty are the proper qualities of this fpecies 
 oliyle, both as to the thought and expretlion ; as 
 may be beft exemplified by numerous patfkges in 
 the holy Scriptures, the Iliad of Homer, and the 
 Paradife Loft of Milton. 
 
 Under the fublime is properly clafled \\\tpathetlo 
 of competition, wherein the greateft power is exerted 
 over the pailions. Here we are intetefted, agitated, 
 and carried along with the Speaker or Writer, 
 wherever he choofes to conduct us ; our paflions 
 are made to rife in unifon with his; we love, deteir, 
 admire, refent, as he infpires us ; and are prompted 
 to feel with fervour, and to acl: with energy, in 
 obedience to the particular impulfe, which he gives 
 to our minds. Quintilian with great propriety calls 
 this power of moving the paflions, the foul and fpirit 
 
 of 
 5
 
 202 . 
 
 of lib art* : as the proper ufe of the paflions is not 
 to blind or to counteract the exercife of reafon, but 
 to move in conformity to it, if an improper impulfe 
 be fometiraes given to them, it is not the fault of 
 the art, but of the artift. The Pulpit admits this 
 fpecies of eloquence, as is clear from the Sermons 
 of Mafiillon and Bourdaloue : but the debates in 
 popular alfemblies open the moil extenfive field for 
 its difplay. 
 
 The diclion of an orator may include all the cha- 
 racleriftics of thefe three kinds of ftyle. As he 
 fpeaks fometimes to prove and to inftiuft, fome- 
 times to entertain and to delight, and fometimes to 
 roufe, to animate, and to aftonifh, he muft t)e occa- 
 (ionally plain and eafy, manly and energetic, figu- 
 rative and flowery, pathetic and fublime n . All 
 this variety, however, is rarely neceifary upon the 
 fame occafion. Due regard muft be paid to the 
 nature of the fubjecl, the diipofitions of the audi- 
 ence, the time, the place, and all other circum- 
 ftances. Cicfrro refers us to fome orations of his 
 own for examples in each kind. His Oration for 
 Ca;cina is \vritten in the low ftyle, that for the 
 Manilian law in the middle, and that for Rabi- 
 rius in the fublime. His Orations againft Verres 
 are fpecimens of a mixture of all the different 
 kinds. 
 
 1 Quint, lib. vi. c. 2. 
 
 u Quint, lib. xii. c. 10. et it. 
 
 Figures
 
 ELOQUENCE. 203 
 
 Figures of fpeech were firil introduced by necef- 
 fity, deriving their origin from a want of fimple 
 exprefiions. The moft ancient and moft original 
 languages, fuch as the Hebrew, Arabic, American, 
 and Indian, are highly piclurefque and metaphori- 
 cal 1 . That which was at firft the refult of necef- 
 lity, was in time cultivated for the fake of em- 
 bellimment ; like garments, which were originally 
 ufed to protect the perfon from the inclemency 
 of the weather, and were afterwards worn alfo 
 for the fake of ornament y . The imagination and 
 the paffions have a very extenfive influence over 
 every language : their operations are expreffed by 
 words taken from fenfible objects ; and the names 
 of thefe fenfible objects were in all languages the 
 words moft eaiily introduced ; and were by degrees 
 extended to thofe thoughts, of which men had 
 more obfcure conceptions, and to which they found 
 it more difficult to affign diftinct appellations. They 
 borrowed therefore the name of fome fenfible idea, 
 where they found, or fancied they found, fome 
 
 x tt We have planted the tree of Peace, faid an American 
 orator, and we have buried the axe under its roots ; we will 
 henceforth repofe under its fhade ; and we will join to brighten 
 the chain which binds our nations together." If we are required 
 to explain how men could be poets or orators before they were 
 aided by the learning of the fcholar or the critic, we may inquire 
 in our turn, how bodies could fall by their weight, before the 
 laws of gravitation were recorded in books. Mind as well as 
 body has laws, which are exemplified in the practice of men, and 
 which the critic collects only after the example has mown what 
 they are. Fergufon on Civil Society, p. 264. 
 
 .' Cicero de Orat. lib. iii. c. 28. 
 
 2 affinity.
 
 affinity. Hrnce the origin of tropes and figuref t 
 the former of which convey two ideas to thernincl, 
 by means of one word ; the latter throw the fen- 
 tence into a different form from the common man- 
 ner of expreffion. The ufe of tropes and figures 
 opens the wideft field for the invention of an orator, 
 as they allow him to give that range to his imagi- 
 nation, which is highly gratifying to a man of ge- 
 nius. Metaphor, metonymy, fynecdochc, irony^ 
 Jimile, profopopceia, the aiitithejis, and the climax, 
 as they difplay the ingenuity of a fpeaker, and let 
 off his ideas to advantage ; fo are they capable of 
 affording great pleafure to his hearers, whenever 
 they rife naturally from the fubjeft, and are intro- 
 duced with judgment and effect. They fix atten- 
 tion, excite admiration, and infpire delight ; they 
 fpeak the language of the paffions, and rcprefent 
 the different emotions of the mind, by the moft 
 lively images of fancy ; and, provided they are 
 fcattered over a compofition by the hand of taftej 
 they improve every topic by heightening its beauty, 
 and augmenting its ftrength. 
 
 III. The Arrangement of the different Parts 
 of a Difcourfe. 
 
 III. It is neceffary that all parts of a fpeech be 
 placed in their proper order, and united in fuch a 
 manner, as to render the whole clear in itfelf, and 
 cafy to be underftood. A regular arrangement of 
 parts is of the greateft advantage to the fpeaker, 
 as it affifts his memory, and carries him through 
 
 his
 
 05 
 
 his ilifcourfe, w'rthout tautology or confulion. He 
 ought never to forget that pti fpicuity of order is as 
 iieceiVary as perfpicuity of language. 
 
 The parts that compofe a regular fpeecb are 
 divided by the ingenious author of the Lectures on 
 the Belles Lettres into fix, viz. the exordium, or 
 vitrudiiction ; the Jlatement, and the divifion of the 
 i'ubjedt; the narration, 01 explication ; the rtafon- 
 iiig, or arguments ; the pathetic part ; and the 
 concliijiou. Thefe diftincYions are fufficiently clear 
 and intelligible, to preclude the neceffity of com- 
 rnent or explanation. Cicero divided an oration 
 into the fame number of parts, but gave them forne- 
 vhat different names, viz. exordium, narration, pro- 
 pofition, confirmation, confutation, and condufton ; 
 and this is the arrangement ufually adopted in tlie 
 fyftems of Rhetoric. The proportion of Cicero 
 coirefponds with the Jlatement of Blair ; and the 
 pathetic in the fcheme of Cicero forms a part of the 
 conclu/lon. It is as improbable, that thefe artificial 
 diftinctions were ever fcrupuloufly regarded by a 
 fpeaker, as that the works on Poetry by Ariftotle 
 or Horace were ever followed in the compaction of 
 an Epic Poem ; and yet Commentators have not 
 been wanting, who have endeavoured to reduce the 
 molt impaffioned fpeeches in Virgil to the fame re- 
 gular diviiions, as the orations of Cicero. 
 
 There may be many excellent fpeeches, where 
 feveral of thefe parts are wanting, where the fpeaker, 
 for iniiaace, uies no exordium, as is the cafe in the 
 
 fiift
 
 06 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 firft Oration againft Catiline, but begins abruptly. 
 There may be others, which he finds it unneceflary 
 to divide into parts, as in fome orations of Demoft- 
 henes, but enters at once into bis fubject, and is 
 carried on by an uninterrupted flow of argument, 
 till he reaches his conclufton. As however thcfe 
 have always been considered as the conftituent parts 
 of a fpeech, and as in every one fome of them muft 
 ueceffarily be found, they properly obtain a place 
 in all fyftcms of Rhetoric. 
 
 This method is not fo ftrictly obferved, as not 
 occafionally to admit of digreffion, transition, and 
 amplification, which give great beauty, if judicioufly 
 managed, to Poetry and Eloquence. Of digi efiion 
 there are ftriking examples in Cicero's Oration for 
 the poet Archias ; where he leaves the main fubjecl 
 of the vindication of his client, to exprefs his com- 
 mendation of polite literature. The tranfition is 
 abfolutely necefiary, where a difcourfe confifts of 
 many parts : but it is the rapid and abrupt tranfi- 
 tion, which is moft to be admired for its effect in 
 roufmg the attention. 'Of this there are various 
 inftances in the Orations of Cicero. 
 
 Amplification does not merely fignify a method 
 of enlarging an object, but of reprefcnting it in the 
 fulleft and moft comprehenfive view, that it may in 
 the moft lively manner ftrike the mind, and influ- 
 ence the paflions. Of this an inilance is given in 
 the noble encomium on eloquence, which forms the 
 introduction to this chapter. There is another ex- 
 ample
 
 ELOQUENCE. 207 
 
 ample in the Oration of Cicero for the Manilian 
 Law ; when, having fid! lamented the want of good 
 generals at that time among the Romans, he expa- 
 tiates upon the qualities requisite to conftitute a 
 complete commander; and clofes his defcription 
 with proving, that all thefe qualities were united in 
 Pompey. 
 
 The power of eloquence appears in nothing to 
 fuch extent and advantage, as in a copioufnefs of 
 expreflion, or a proper decree of amplification, 
 fuited to the nature of the mbjecl;. A fhort detail 
 or defcription is too often attended with obfcurity, 
 from an omiflion of fome material circumftances. 
 But when the images of things are drawn in their 
 juft proportion, painted in their proper colours, fet 
 in a clear and full light, and reprcfented under dif- 
 ferent points of view, with all the ftrength and 
 beauty of eloquence, they captivate the minds of 
 the audience, and, by an irrefiftible force, move 
 and bend them to the will of the fpeaker. And 
 this is precifely the effecl; intended to be produced 
 by the exertion of that power of eloquence called 
 Et/afyna, or ecidentia, fo much infifted upon, and 
 fo fully defcribed by Ariftotle, Cicero, and Quinti- 
 Jian *. Here the audience are made fpe&ators of 
 the fcene which the fpeaker defcribes : here is no 
 necefiity to call in the aid of figurative language, 
 but only to reprefent in ftrong, energetic, and vivid 
 
 z Quint, lib. vi. c, 2. Ciceronis Acad. iv. 17. Ariftotelis 
 Rbet. Jib, iii, c. n. 
 
 terms,
 
 08 JELOQUENC*, 
 
 terms, what has paffed, and whafr he wifhes to iro- 
 prefs upon the mind. Here every object is vifible, 
 tliftmcl, and affecting ; every being lives, moves, 
 and acts ; and every circumftance is with a happy 
 felection of topics brought forward, that can con- 
 vince the judgment, or overpower the heart. No 
 writers excel more in this fpccies of eloquence than 
 Livy and Tacitus. 
 
 - 
 
 It is the proper end of oratory for the fpeaker to 
 
 expreis himfelf in fuch a manner, as completely to 
 accomplilh his purpofe, whether it be to initruct* 
 to pleafe, or to perfuade ; and he who adapts his 
 language, and his fentiments, with the greateft abi- 
 lity, to thcfe ends, is belt entitle^ to the prize of 
 eloquence. Hence it is evident, that the eflenee 
 of all that deferves the name of eloquence is fax 
 from confifting in vehement action, and wordy de- 
 clamation ; but depends upon good fenfe, and accu- 
 rate knowledge, expreffed in fpirited language, and 
 recommended by a pleafing and correct delivery. 
 To be complete mafter of a lubject is the fuft rcqui- 
 iite ; to he well furnimed with, matter and argu- 
 ment will gi ve to a difcourfe an air of manlinefe 
 *-' 
 
 and dignity, >vhic)i is a powerful iuitrument o^ % 
 perfuafiori. 
 
 . 
 
 A good writer or fpeakcr to purity and perfpicuity 
 of exprcfiion will add ornament; upon which de- 
 pends, if not the ufefulnefs, at leaft the principal 
 beauty of eloquence. This it is which gives to 
 
 competition 
 
 ,
 
 ELOQUEN'CB. 209 
 
 Compofition magnificence, fweetnefs, and elegance; 
 which engages attention, captivates the lie-arts, and 
 excites the applaufes of an audience; which diftin- 
 guiihes the orator from the philofopher and the man 
 of butinciV which raiies his language above the 
 Simplicity of .common profe, tempers the feverity of 
 his arguments, improves the keennefs of his wit, 
 and enlivens the briik lallies of liis fancy. This it 
 is which, properly fpeaking, makes rhetoric an art; 
 all its other, parts may be attained by the mere 
 kindnefs of nature : but without difeipline, without 
 much ft.udy and experience, the perfection of orna- 
 ment, fuch as characterizes the belt fpeakers, can 
 never be attained. 
 
 
 
 He who wimes to produce tile de fired effect in 
 fpeaking, muft be free from all infmcerity. He 
 only can addrefs himfelf effectually to the heart, and 
 the feelings of others, whofe mind glows with the 
 warmth of fenfibility, and whofe arguments refult 
 from conviction. He muft feel the influence of 
 thoie:pailions and emotions, which he wimes to in- 
 i'pire*. An affumed character and an affectation 
 of feeling will not be long concealed under the dif- 
 guife of dinimulation. The greateft orators were 
 <Jiftinguilhed by the virtues which they laboured 
 the moil itrenuoufly to ingulcate. Demofthenes 
 and Cicero were eminent for a patriotic fpirit; 
 and thofe fpeeches, into which they have infufed 
 it, have always attracted moft admiration from the 
 world. 
 
 Quint, lib. vi. c. 2. feet, 3. 
 
 VOL. i. * IV. Pro-
 
 ZLOQUES'CE. 
 
 IV. Propriety of Action and Delivery. 
 
 IV. In the delivery of a fpeech great judgment 
 
 is neceflary ; and there is no part of eloquence, 
 
 which frauds more in need of instructions. The 
 
 orator inuft be careful to avoid the extremes of awk- 
 
 vardncli and affectation ; he muft not be inanimate 
 
 on the one hand, or theatrical on the other. To 
 
 follow a good practitioner in this part of the art 
 
 will be of more advantage to him, than all the Rhe- 
 
 toricians either ancient or modern. It is juftly re- 
 
 marked by Cicero, that every thought and emotion 
 
 of the foul have their appropriate countenance, 
 
 voice, and geflure ; and the whole body, every 
 
 variation of the face, and tone of the voice, like 
 
 the firings of a mufical inftrument, a6l agreeably 
 
 to the impulfe they receive from the mind 5 . The 
 
 correfpondence of emotions with expreflion and 
 
 emphafis muft be attentively obferved, and made 
 
 the guide to practice. The orator muft feel the 
 
 force of his own reafonings, and be alive to the 
 
 beauties of his own defcriptions. It is this ftrength, 
 
 fpirit, and fire, which render him a perfect mafter 
 
 of his art, which excite fympathy in the breafts of 
 
 his hearers, and animate them with his own enthu- 
 
 fiafm. Was it not the impaflioned delivery of 
 
 Demofthcnes, to which his rival JEfchines has left 
 
 fuch a remarkable and fuch an honourable tefti- 
 
 raony, that gave reiiftlefs periuaiion to his fpeeches c ? 
 
 k Cicero de Orat. lib. i. c. v. 
 r e Cicero dc Orat, lib. iii, feft. 213.
 
 ELOQUENCE. 211 
 
 Was it not the indignant countenance, the ani- 
 mated tone, and the judicious aclion of Cicero, 
 which communicated fuch commanding influence 
 and powerful weight to his arguments, when he 
 confounded the audacious Catiline? And was it 
 not the dignified air, and the perfuafive mildnefs 
 of Mailillon, which added to his religious inftruc- 
 tions fo much force, when he drew from the 
 haughty Louis XIV. a confeffion of the power 
 of facred eloquence ? 
 
 He who afpires to the reputation of a good pub- 
 lic fpeaker, muft make judgment the rule of his 
 conduct ; for no attainments can fecure praife or 
 advantage without it. Even correctnefs itfelf muft 
 not be carried to an extreme ; the flights of imagi- 
 nation muft be reftrained by difcretion, and pro- 
 priety muft give laws to every effort. Thus will he 
 take the fureft road to eminence ; he will reach the 
 fublime, without being bombaftic or extravagant j 
 he will be bold, not ram ; ferious, but not fevere ; 
 gay, not licentious ; and copious without redun* 
 dance, An adherence to the proper rules of the 
 art will be the fafeft guide to genius, will improve 
 every natural endowment, and will add the advant- 
 ages of experience to the gifts of nature. 
 
 The eloquence of the moderns has rarely reached 
 the ftandard of excellence, which was attained by 
 the ancients. The character of each is widely dif* 
 ferent. In Greece the public fpeaker was bold, 
 
 p 2 impetuous,
 
 CIS ELOQUDN'CE. 
 
 impetuous, and fublimc. In Rome lie was more 
 declamatory, vcrboic. Howry, and pathetic. Fene^ 
 Ion lias thus ingenioufly difcriminated the eloquence 
 of the two great orators or' Greece and Rome. 
 " After hearing an oration of Tully, * How finely 
 and eloquently has he t'xprcfied himfelf !' faid the 
 Romans. After Demofthenes had fpoke, ' Let us 
 rife and march againil Philip,' faid the Athenians." 
 In England the public fpeaker is temperate and 
 cool, and addrefles himfelf more to the reafon of 
 his audience, than to their pafTions. There is ftill 
 great feope for the difplay of genius in the pulpit, 
 at the bar, and in the houfes of Parliament ; and 
 the path of fame is ftill left open to rifmg orators. 
 The rules laid down by the ancients, as the princi- 
 ples involved in thole rules are of general utility, 
 may be ftudied to great advantage, although much 
 judgment is necclTary for their proper application ; 
 and attention muft be paid to modem taftc and 
 
 modern manners. 
 
 ' 
 
 Many diftinguiilied examples of eloquence may 
 be held up to the obfervation of the young- orator ; 
 but he muft avoid too clofe an imitation, even of 
 the moft eminent. Let him ftudy the molt efleemed 
 works of his predeceflbrs ; let him frequently re- 
 volve, and even commit to memory, their produc- 
 tions, and repeat them M'ith fuitable voice and ac- 
 tion' 1 ; and let him rather in his own compofitions 
 
 endeavour 
 
 ::// T.. 
 
 d I ha ve heard that the Marquis of Wharton formed his Ton, 
 the Duke, to be one of the greateft, and at the fame time one of 
 
 the
 
 KI.OQUEXCE. 213 
 
 endeavour to catch a portion of their fpirit, than 
 tread fervilely in their fteps. Dcmofthcncs was 
 vehement, abrupt, energetic, and fublime. Cicero 
 was dignified, luminous, and copious. Chatham 
 united the energy of the one to the elegance of the 
 other*. Mansfield was perfuafive, delightful, and 
 inftru6tive. Burke was flowery, vivid, and fluent. 
 Let the orator flatly to combine in his compofitions 
 their united excellence. Let him not, to ufe the 
 appofite and beautiful illuftration of Quintilian, rc- 
 
 the readieft fpcakers that ever was in England, by making him 
 get by heart whole Orations of Demofthenes, and repeat them 
 with all the graces of action and pronunciation. Monboddo, 
 vol. iv. p. 244. In drawing up this Chapter, I acknowledge 
 my obligations to the Encyclopedia Britannica, article Oratory. 
 
 * Demofthenes was his great model irufpeaking ; and we are 
 told that he tranllated fome of his Orations by way of exercife 
 feveral times over. 
 
 Many defcriptions are given of the eloquence of Lord Chatham : 
 but of them all, whether written by Mr. Burke, Wilkes, the 
 author of Junius, Frederic of Pruflia, the Abbe Raynal, or Lord 
 Chefterfield, that written by the lajl ftrikes me as the cleareft, 
 and perhaps the moft accurate. " His eloquence was of every 
 kind, and he excelled in the argumentative, as well as the decla- 
 matory way. But his invectives were terrible, and uttered with 
 fuch energy of diclion, and fuch dignity of aiflion and countenance, 
 that he intimidated thofe who were the moft willing and the leaft 
 able to encounter him. Their arms fell out of their hands, and 
 they fhrunk under the afcendant, which his genius gained over 
 theirs." Life of Chatham, vol. iii. p. 378, &c t 
 
 " It is a traditionary tale of his country, that almoft in 
 infancy the great Lord Mansfield was accuftomed to declaim upon 
 his native mountains the moft celebrated fpceches of Cicero and 
 Demofthenes, and his own inimitable Tranflations," Lives of 
 eminent Lawyers, p. 32. 
 
 p 3 femble
 
 ELOQUENCE. 
 
 frmble the ilream, that is carried through a channel 
 formed by art for jts courfe ; but rather let him be 
 like the bold river, which overflows a whole valley ; 
 and where it does not find, can force a paflage, by 
 its own natural impetuofity and ftrength. 
 
 CLASS
 
 [ 215 ] 
 
 CLASS THE THIRD. 
 HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Study of Hiftory in general. 
 
 CURIOSITY is one of the ftrongeft and moft 
 active principles of human nature. Throughout 
 the fucceflive itages of life, it feeks with avidity for 
 thofe gratifications, which are consrenial with the 
 
 O ' O 
 
 different faculties of the mind. The child, as foon 
 as the imagination begins to open, eagerly liftens 
 to the tales of his nurfe : the youth, at a time of 
 life, when the love of what is new and uncommon 
 is quickened by fenfibility, is enchanted by the 
 magic of Romances and Novels : the man, whole 
 mature judgment inclines him to the purfuit of 
 truth, applies to genuine Hiftory, which even in 
 old age continues to be a favourite object of his 
 attention ; fince his defire to be acquainted with 
 the tranfactions of others has nearly an equal power 
 over his mind, with the propenfity to relate what, 
 has happened to himfelf. 
 
 p 4 The
 
 16 HISTORY IN' GENERAL. 
 
 The love of fame, and a dcfire to communicate 
 information, have influenced the ingenious and the 
 ambitious, in nlmoit every age and in every nation, 
 to leave behind them fome memorials of their exilr- 
 ence, actions, and diicoveries. Thus has the curio- 
 fity of mankind feeured, by methods at firft very 
 rude and incomplete, and in fucceeding times by 
 records more improved and futisfactory, its favourite 
 enjoyments. 
 
 The method of conveying accounts of remark- 
 able trar.fuclions in the earlieit ages of the world, 
 by means of oral tradition, was very imperfect and 
 uncertain. Songs were the only memorials of anti- 
 quity among the Germans ; and their M'ar-fong, 
 when ruihing to battle, was always a memorial of 
 fome ancient hero. Poets who fung the praifes of 
 deccafed warriors at the tables of kings, are often 
 mentioned by Homer: the Scandinavians had their 
 fcalds, the Gauls and Germans their bards, and the 
 favages of America preierved fimilar records of the 
 pail in the wild pqctry of their country. To lupply 
 the great defects of i'u,ch oral tradition, and to per- 
 petuate their remembrance, founders of ftates, and 
 leaders of colonies, gave their own names to cities 
 and kingdom:-.. Pillars of itone were railed, devices 
 were iixed upon liiields and banners, and national 
 feftivals and cuitoms were eftabliflied to commemo- 
 rate extraordinary events, From fuch imperfect 
 attempts to re (cue the pail from the ravages of 
 time and oblivion, the progreis to written hiftoiy 
 was made foon after the invention of letters. The 
 
 names
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 217 
 
 names of magiftrates, and the recital of the mod 
 remarkable events, which happened during their 
 tranfaction of public bufinefs, were accurately re- 
 corded, as we learn from the Chronicles of the kings 
 of Ifracl, and the regiitcrs of the Confuls preferved 
 upon the Capitoliue marbles at Rome. Such was 
 the commencement of annals, ancF of a regular 
 feries of chronology. In fucceeding times, when, 
 nations became more civilized, and the various 
 branches of literature were cultivated, private per- 
 ibns employed themfelv.es in recording the actions 
 of their contemporaries, or their auceftors, and hif- 
 tory by degrees affumed its proper form and cha- 
 racter. It was at firit like painting the rude outline 
 of an unfkilful defigner ; but after repeated eflays, 
 the great mafters of the art arofe, and produced 
 the harmonious light and made, the glowing co- 
 lours, and animated groups of a perfect picture. 
 
 With a particular view to the works of eminent 
 hiftorians, both ancient and modern, it may be 
 ufeful to coniider, 
 
 I. The Nature of Hiftory, and the affiftanco 
 which it derives from other itudies. 
 
 II. The Advantages of a knowledge of Hiftory. 
 
 III. The comparative merits of ancient and mo- 
 dern Hiftorians. 
 
 IV. The Qualifications requifite to form an accom- 
 plijhed Hiftorian, in order to eftablim a ftandard, 
 by which to meafure the merits of Hiftorians la. 
 general. 
 
 J. Hiftory,
 
 t!8 HISTORY I* GENERAL. 
 
 I. Hiftory, in the general fenfe of the word, fig- 
 ttifies a true relation of facts and events ; or, confi- 
 dered in a moral point of view, it is that lively 
 philofophy, which, laying afide the formality of 
 miles, fupplies the place of experience, and teaches 
 us to act with propriety and honour according to 
 the examples of others. The province of hiftory is 
 fo extenfive, that it is connected with every branch 
 of knowledge ; and fo various and abundant are its 
 ftores, that all arts, fciences, and profeflions are 
 indebted to it for many of the materials and princi- 
 ples, upon which they depend. It opens the wideft 
 profpect to the eyes of mankind in the fpacious 
 fields of literature, and is one of the moft pleafing 
 and important objects of ftudy, to which the mind 
 
 can be directed. 
 
 . 
 
 To draw the line of proper diftin<5tion between 
 authentic and fabulous hiftory, is the firft object of 
 the difcerning reader. Let him not burthen his 
 memory with events that ought perhaps to pafs for 
 fables ; let him not fatigue his attention with the 
 progrefs of empires, or the fucceffion of kings, 
 which are thrown back into the remoteft ages. He 
 will find that little dependence is to be placed 
 upon the relations of thofe affairs in the Pagan 
 world, which preceded the invention of letters, and 
 were built upon mere oral tradition. Let him leave 
 the dynafties of the Egyptian kings, the expedi- 
 tions of Seibftris, Bacchus, and Jafon, and the ex- 
 ploits of Hercules and Thefeus, for poets to embel- 
 liih, or chronologifts to arrange. The fabulous 
 
 accounts
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 account? of thefe heroes of antiquity may remind 
 him of the fandy deiarts, lofty mountains, and 
 frozen oceans, which are laid down in the maps of 
 the ancient geographers, to conceal their ignorance 
 of remote countries. Let him haften to firm ground, 
 where he may fafely ftand, and behold the linking 
 events, and memorable actions, which the light of 
 authentic records difplays to his view. They alone 
 arc amply futficient to enrich his memory, and to 
 point out to him well-attefted examples of all that 
 is magnanimous, as well as all that is vile ; of all 
 that debafes, and all that ennobles mankind. 
 
 Hiftory, confidered with refpecl to the nature of 
 its fubjecls, may be divided into general and parti- 
 cular ; and with refpecl; to time, into ancient and 
 modern. Ancient hiftory commences with the crea- 
 tion, and extends to the reign of Charlemagne, in 
 the year of our Lord 800. Modern hiftory begin- 
 ning with that period reaches down to the prefent 
 times. General hiftory relates to nations and pub- 
 lic affairs, and may be fubdivided into facred, eccle- 
 fiajtlcalj and profane. Biography, memoirs, and 
 letters, conftitute particular hiftory. Stati/iics refer 
 to the prefent condition of nations. Geography 
 and Chronology are important aids, and give order, 
 regularity, and clearnefs to them all. 
 
 O J * 
 
 For information upon the fubjec~l of facred hif- 
 tory, the ftudent mult refort to the holy Bible, 
 to Jofephus, and to the Annals of Archbifhop 
 Uflicr. 
 
 The
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL.; 
 
 The affairs of the Chriftian Church, compre- 
 hending the lives, characters, and conduct of thofe 
 who have maintained a pure and apoilolical faith, 
 as well as of i'urh ieciarilbs as have deviated from it, 
 are comprifed in Ecclcfuijtical lujloiij. It dcfcribes 
 the nature of religious <;flablimments, and difplays 
 the various opinions of Chriltians upon the mod 
 important of all fubjecls. Here we trace the pro- 
 grefs of Chriftianity from obfcurity and oppreffion, 
 to pomp and dominion ; and, after a long feries of 
 fuperftition and error, we fee it refume its primitive 
 character in the Reformation of the fixteenth cen- 
 tury. This important fubjecl; has exercifed the 
 diligence and difplayed the learning of many emi- 
 nent writers of various ages : but the reader of 
 general hiftory may find futficient gratification 
 for his curiofity in the works of Eufebius, anti 
 Mofheim, 
 
 . 
 
 From the people of the ancient world we firfl 
 felecl; the Jews, as the particular objecls of our at- 
 tention. They were favoured with the knowledge 
 of the one true God. Their hiftory carries us back 
 to the moft remote antiquity ; and its importance 
 is inereafed in the greateft degree by its connexion 
 with the Chriftian Kevelation, 
 
 The next branch of general hiftory is that of 
 Ancient Greece. It prefents a nation of heroes, 
 philofophcrs, poets, orators, hiftorians, and artifts, 
 who fpoke the nobjeft language which ever graced 
 the tongue of man, and who have been the guides 
 
 and
 
 HISTORY Itf GENERAL. 221 
 
 and the inftruclors of all fucceeding nations in 
 arts, fcienres, and philofophy. Greece was the 
 fource of light, that has irradiated a great portion 
 of the globe. 
 
 The Romans in the order of excellence, as well 
 as of time, followed the Grecians : their military 
 talents were difplayed in a long fucceflion of con- 
 quefts and triumphs in every part of the ancient 
 world. The monuments of their genius, which <the 
 ravages of time have fpared, render them next to 
 the Greeks the boaft of hiftory, and the glory of 
 mankind. 
 
 The Hiftory of England has the ftrongeft claims 
 to our attention. It abounds with fuch events and 
 tranfaftions, and difplays fuch characters and 
 actions, as it is our duty and our intereft to ftudy; 
 and we are attracted to a perufal of its eventful 
 records by the ties of patriotifm, and a congeniality 
 of manners. 
 
 From Modern hiftomj in general we felecl thofe 
 parts, which relate to the mod important tranf- 
 aclions and events, particularly adverting to thofe 
 difcoveries and inftitutions, which diftinguifli it 
 from ancient times, and have contributed eflentially 
 to the prefent ftate of opinions and manners. 
 
 There are certain foreign nations, which, by the 
 
 extent of their dominions, their civil polity, or 
 
 3 their
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 their connexion with our own country, may excite 
 our curiofity to learn their former ftate : but it will 
 not anfwer any important purpofe to dwell, for in- 
 ftance, upon the affairs of France under the Mero- 
 vingian, or Carlovinian, families; or upon the ftatc 
 of Germany before the reign of Charles V. Let 
 not the fcholar wafte too much time, which may 
 be more profitably employed in other ftudies, in 
 poring over the works of Thuanus, Mariana, and 
 Freiflart ; or the numerous volumes of the Univerfal 
 Iliftory. 
 
 With refpe6l indeed to foreign nations, the ob- 
 jects of his moil ufeful attention are the actual 
 power, the nature of their prefent governments, 
 the ftate of civilization, fciences, and arts, their 
 natural and artificial advantages, their population, 
 produce, commerce, and relative importance in the 
 ibale of political greatnefs. This conftitutes a branch 
 of ftudy, which has been of late years much culti- 
 vated by the Germans, and is diftinguifhed by the 
 name of Statiftics. Travellers and itatefmen mud 
 jiot claim this ftudy as their own exclufive pro- 
 vince, lince it will be found extremely ufeful to 
 every Englifli. gentleman, and will cmalify him to 
 form a juft cftimate of the relative condition, power, 
 and importance of his own country. 
 
 Biography is a branch of hiftory, which in point 
 of importance and moral utility ranks as high as 
 -any. The biographer by his accurate refearchc-s 
 
 fupplies
 
 HISTORY IN GXNERAIi 223 
 
 fupplies the deficiencies of the hiftorian. What 
 the latter gives us only in outlines and {ketches, 
 the former prefents in more complete and highly 
 finiihed portraits. Their province does not merely 
 extend to thole who have acted upon the great 
 theatre of the world, as fovereigns, ftatefmen, and 
 warriors ; but to all who have improved human life 
 by their ufeful difcoveries, adorned it by their 
 works of genius, and edified mankind by their ex- 
 amples. With what pleaiure do we felect a Bacon^ 
 a Boyle, a Newton, an Addiibn, a Locke, a Rad- 
 cliffe, a Howard, and a Kanway, from the multitudes 
 that furround them, and become acquainted with 
 their particular characters and conduct ! To con- 
 template fuch men, not inflamed by vain ambition, 
 or courting empty popularity, but feeking retire- 
 ment, and giving dignity to the walks of private 
 life by the efforts of genius, and the exertions of 
 philanthropy, is a high gratification to the mind, 
 and infpires it with an admiration and a love of 
 thole virtues, which come within the reach of ge- 
 neral imitation. 
 
 " To find that great lengths have actually been 
 gone in learning and virtue, that high degrees of 
 perfection have actually been attained by men like 
 ourfelves, in tangled among the infirmities, the 
 temptations, the oppofition from wicked men,' and 
 the other various evils 'of life ; how does this mow 
 us to ourfelves as utterly inexcufable, if we do not 
 endeavour to reach the heights we know have been 
 gained by others of our fellow-creatures ? Bio- 
 graphy
 
 224 HISTORY IN GENERAL* 
 
 graphy fets before us the whole character of a per* 
 fon, who lias made himiblf eminent either by his 
 virtues or his vices ; lliews us how he came firlt to 
 take a right or a wrong turn, the profpects which 
 invited him to afpire to higher degrees of glory, or 
 the delations which mifled him from his virtue and 
 his peace ; the circumftances which raifed him to 
 true greatnefs, or the rocks on which he fplit, and 
 funk to infamy. And how can we more efteclually$ 
 x>r in a more entertaining manner, learn the impor* 
 tant leflbn, what we ought to purfue, and what to 
 avoid f ? " 
 , 
 
 No fpecics of writing gives a more perfect in* 
 
 fteht into the minds of men, than their Letters* 
 
 o 
 
 In the letters of perfons of diftinction, we expect 
 the juftncfs of obfervation, which belongs to hif- 
 tory, and the eafe and good humour of elegant 
 converfation. They place us in the fituation of 
 correfpondents, and we feem honoured by the con- 
 fidence of the great and good, the witty and the 
 gay of various ages and countries. We obferve 
 them as they thought in their retired moments, 
 when, withdrawn from the buftle of the world, 
 they gave free fcope to their unreftrained opinions, 
 and poured them without referve into the bofoms 
 
 . 
 
 f Burgh's Dignity of Human Nature, p. 167. Warton's 
 Preface to the Life of Sir T. Pope. Blair's Lectures, v. iii. 
 p. 55, &c. " It is a thing to be wifhed, that every one would 
 ftudy the life of fome great man diftinguifhed by employs, to 
 which himfelf may be deftined by Proridence." Du Frefnoy, 
 torn. i. p. 43. 
 
 Of
 
 HtS.TORY IN GENERAL. 225 
 
 of their friends. We may remark the immediate 
 effects produced by good or bad fortune, and may 
 catch the i'pirit of their virtues immediately from, 
 themfelves. Here wit, humour, and genius, have 
 indulged their natural fallies, and adorned the 
 common occurrences of life in the moft pleafmg 
 drefs. Among the numerous inftances, which 
 might be felected of epiftolary excellence, we dif- 
 tinguiih the letters of Cicero, which difplay the 
 fentiments of a vigorous mind, and give an 
 infight into the eminent characters of his event- 
 ful times. Pliny, in Epiftles remarkable for neat- 
 nefs and precifion of thought, expreffes the 
 dictates of a cultivated and generous mind. If 
 we turn our attention to the epiftolary literature 
 of our own country, we (hall find that the piety 
 and the affection of Lady Ruffel, the quaintnefs 
 and pleafantry of Howel, the manlinefs and poli- 
 tical fagacity of Strafford, the philofophical exact- 
 nefs and cool judgment of Locke, the fimplicity 
 of Rundle, the moralifing vein of Johnfon, and 
 the tafte and elegance of Gray, mark their re- 
 fpective letters with the ftrongeft characters of 
 originality, and give us the moft pleating pictures 
 of their minds. We naturally wiih to know all 
 we can of fuch perfons, and feel an irfcreafmg 
 intereft in their other productions; for we prize 
 thofe writers the moft, who combine the charms 
 of entertainment and pleafure with the leflbns of 
 inftruction. 
 
 Hiftory derives considerable aid from collateral 
 VOL i. Q ftudies,
 
 226 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 ftudies, which contribute to render its profpecls 
 accurate, diftinc~r, and extenfive. The fciences of 
 Geography and Chronology are abfolutely necellary 
 to give it precifion and perfpicuity. 
 
 Geography gives us a defcription of the terraqueous 
 Globe. The land is divided into Continent, Iflands, 
 Peninfulas, Ifthmufes, Capes or Promontories. The 
 Water is diftinguifhed by Oceans, Seas, Gulphs, 
 Lakes and Rivers. It teaches us likewife the artificial 
 divifion of the Globe. The two points on which the 
 Earth is fuppofed to perform her daily motion are 
 the Poles : equally diftant from them both, is the 
 Equator, which divides the globe into two equal 
 parts, and on which are meafured the degrees of 
 longitude. The Ecliptic is the circle drawn acrofs 
 the Equator which defcribes the annual Courfe of 
 the Sun. The lines which interfecl; the Equator 
 at right angles, and meet in the Poles, are called 
 the Meridians, and on them is meafured the 
 latitude of places. Thefe are the great Circles of 
 the Globe, which like all other circles contain 36O 
 degrees, and each degree 6O minutes. A degree on 
 a great circle of the earth is fomething more than 
 68 englilh miles. The Tropics of Cancer and 
 Capricorn, are two imaginary Circles each drawn at 
 the diftance of 23f degrees from the Equator, the 
 former to the north, the latter to the fouth. When 
 the Sun approaches one of thefe boundaries of the 
 Ecliptic he feems to make a Hand for a few days> 
 and then gradually recedes towards the other; 
 
 hence
 
 HISTORY IN* GENERAL. 227 
 
 hence they are called the Summer and the Winter 
 Solftices.- The Polar or Arftic and Antarctic 
 Circles are drawn at the diftance of 23i degrees 
 from either Pole. Within thefe Circles the Sun 
 appears above the horizon, from the fpace of fix 
 months to that of twenty-four hours* 
 
 In the furvey of the four quarters of the World, 
 viz. Europe, Afia, Africa and America, we remark 
 the comparative di mentions and the boundaries of 
 each Kingdom and State, the governments, forms 
 of religion, foils, productions, manners and cuftoms 
 by which the Families of the Earth are diftinguifhed. 
 
 EUROPE, although the fmalleft of thefe divifions 
 in extent of Country, is by far the mod eminent 
 with refpeet to Religion, Laws, Learning, Arts, 
 Arms, and Commerce. 
 
 ASIA is remarkable for the iiumber of Inhabi- 
 tants, fertility of foil, and variety of Climate. 
 Here are the diamonds of Golconda, and the 
 fpices of Malabar. Here the moft ancient Empires 
 were founded, the Will of God was revealed to 
 Man, and Mahomet fpread his Impofture. China 
 is remarkable for its patriarchal ftate of fociety, 
 its language confifting of hieroglyphical cha- 
 racters, and abounding in monofyllables, its wide 
 extent of empire, and the myriads of its crafty 
 and ingenious Inhabitants. We pafs on to 
 Hindooftan, or the Empire of the Great Mogul, 
 well known to us by the flourilhing Britiih Colonies 
 
 Q 2 planted
 
 228 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 planted upon the Coromandel and Malabar Coafts, 
 and exhibiting the curious profpeft of extenfive, 
 populous, and rich Provinces, fituated at the dif- 
 tance of nearly half the globe from the mother 
 Country, and governed by a imall Company of 
 Merchants in London. 
 
 The vaft Peninfula of AFRICA united to the 
 Continent of Alia by the iftlimus of Suez, rich in 
 gold, ivory, gum, and drugs, is, for the moft part, 
 barbarous and uncultivated. Yet on furveying 
 thefe fultry and inhofpitable regions, the mind 
 feels fome fatisfaftion to remark the Britilh Settle- 
 ments of Sierra Leone, and Bulama, eftablifhed for 
 raifing the produclions of the Weft Indies, without 
 the aid of miferable Slaves, and a commerce in 
 human flefh. Egypt, from whence of old beamed 
 the light of Science and Civilization, is renowned 
 for its ftupendous pyramids, the moft ancient mo- 
 numents of human labour extant, the periodical 
 inundations of the Nile, and the predicted degra- 
 dation of its inhabitants, exactly correfponding 
 with the recent obfervations of Travellers. In the 
 interior Provinces of Zamfara, and Makako, 
 and upon the remote banks of the Niger, the 
 people are immerfed in the grofieft ignorance and 
 idolatry. At the extreme point of the Continent 
 the Cape of Good Hope, the tribes of the Caftres 
 with an invincible ferocity, like the lions of their 
 forefts, rejecl civilization, and refolutely perfift in 
 their favage mode of life* 
 
 AMERICA,
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 229 
 
 AMERICA, or the New World, was difcovered by 
 the great Chriitophcr Columbus, in 1491, but 
 ilfrives its name from Americas VeTputius, who 
 afcertained the land to the fouth of the line a few 
 years after. Its north eaft divifion, bounded by 
 the g % reat River MimTippi, includes the coafts 
 peopled by the Colonifts from Great Britain. The 
 Southwell part includes the fertile provinces of 
 Mexico and Louifiana, both fubjecl; to Spain. In 
 South America, Peru, Chili and Paraguay are 
 likewife fubjecl; to that Kingdom. The Brafils, 
 rich in ebony, emeralds, and birds of the moft 
 beautiful plumage, belong to the Portuguefe, and 
 Surinam, planted with the fugar cane, cotton, and 
 indigo, which form the moft delightful profpecls 
 upon the banks of creeks and rivulets, belong to 
 the Dutch. The Patagonians, famed for gigantic 
 ftature and mildnefs of temper, inhabit the moft 
 fouthern extremity, near the ftraits of Magellan. 
 
 In America the works of Creation are formed 
 upon the largeft fcale. There the Rivers of St, 
 Laurence, Oroonoko, and Plata 
 
 to whofe dread expanfe, 
 
 Continuous depth, and wondrous length of courfe 
 Our floods are rills 
 
 roll their mighty waters to the Ocean ; and there 
 the towering Andes, extending 5000 miles in 
 North and South America, rear their fummits, 
 white with perpetual fnow even in the torrid zone, 
 
 Q'S Such
 
 30 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Such is a fuperficial view of the Globe we in- 
 habit, fo large in fize, that even Teneriffe or Mont 
 Blanc are, compared to it, but as grains of 
 duft, upon an artificial fphere. Its diameter is 
 7970 miles, and its furface contains 199,557,259 
 fquare miles. Placed between Orbits of Venus 
 and Mars, it performs its courfe around the Sun at 
 the rate of 6SC43 miles in an hour, and completes 
 its annual revolution in rather more than 365 days. 
 
 From the fandy deferts of Arabia and Egypt, or 
 the ever flouriming favannahs at the Equator, 
 where grow the moft luxurious fruits, and the 
 waters and the fields all teem with life; from 
 thefe glowing climes to the frozen regions of the 
 arctic circle, where vegetation is extinct, and the 
 waters are bound by eternal froft, Man as well as 
 the inferior animals, are powerfully affected by pe- 
 culiarity of fituation. So great is the influence of 
 Climate. ; but if we confider how flow and gradual 
 the variations are from the bjack complexion of 
 the Negroe of Senegal, to the brown of the 
 Otaheitan, and from'him to the fair Natives of the 
 North of Europe, we fliall find reafons to con-, 
 firm rather than to difcredit the account re- 
 corded in the Hiftory of Moles, that the various 
 tribes of Men fprung originally from one family^ 
 as well as converted originally in one language *. 
 
 Without a knowledge of Geography, no reader 
 I See the Chapter on language in general, 
 
 can
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 231 
 
 can have a clear idea of the fcene, where any 
 occurrence takes place ; but is liable to the groiFdi 
 miftakes by confounding one part of the world 
 with another. It is equally applicable to modem 
 as to ancient hiftory, and introduces the pleafmg 
 combination of the old and prefent names of dif- 
 ferent places, and the characters and manners of 
 the different inhabitants. It affifts the memory by 
 the various aifociations of ideas, with which it 
 furnilhes the mind ; and the profpect of a country 
 prefented by a map, or a globe, recals the memo- 
 rable tranfac~tions, which have been performed 
 in it, and revives tUe recollection of its illuftrious 
 men, 
 
 Perfons in various fituations of life are inter* 
 efted in the ftudy of geography, and may reap 
 advantage from its cultivation. While it confti- 
 tutes a branch of knowledge effentially necefiary 
 for the traveller, the merchant, and the failor, it 
 furnimes abundant ftores of investigation to the 
 naturalift and the philofopher. It is not only re- 
 quifite for every reader of hiftory, but for every 
 one who perufes the daily accounts of the events, 
 which are taking pla.ce iri various parts of the 
 world. It has long been confidered as a material 
 part of a polite education : at prefent indeed it is 
 more particularly proper that it mould be fo, as 
 the Britifli commerce and colonies extend our con- 
 nexions to fo many different countries ; and as fo 
 many voyages of difcovery have of late years been 
 made. Theie circumftances muft naturally excite 
 
 Q 4 our
 
 332 
 
 our curiofity, and operate as a (irons: inducement 
 to the cultivation of this very interefting branch 
 of Study. 
 
 Without Chronology, which regulates the /cvcral 
 periods of time, and teaches its artificial divi/ions, 
 we have no ftandard by which the rife and fall of 
 empires, the length of lives, the dates of remark- 
 able occurrences, or the lapfe of. time can be 
 meafured. We are unable without this afii fiance, 
 to underftand the modes of reckoning among dif- 
 ferent nations, fuch as the Olympiads of the Greeks, 
 the foundation of Rome, the Hegira of the Turks, 
 and the Julian and Gregorian Calendars. The firft 
 year of the firft Olympiad coincides with the 776 
 year before Chrift, and the year of the foundation 
 of Rome with 753 before Chrift. The Hegira, or 
 .flight of Mahomet from Mecca, happened in the 
 622 year of the Chriftian Era. The Julian, or 
 old ftile, is fo called from Julius Caefar, who regu- 
 lated the Roman Calendar. He added a day im- 
 mediately after the twenty-fourth of February, 
 called by the Romans the iixth of the calends of 
 March ; as it was thus reckoned ftrice, the year in 
 which it was introduced was called Bi//ej:tile, or 
 Leap Year. Pope Gregory, in 1582, reformed the 
 Julian Computation, as he found that the odd 
 hours and minutes which complete the year, in 
 the Ipace of a century make up nearly a whole 
 flay, and from not being reckoned, the equinoxes 
 and folftices had gone back ten intire days. To 
 remedy this irregularity, he caufed ten days to be 
 
 fupprefied-j
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 233 
 
 ftipprefled, and the eleventh of March to be called 
 the twenty-fuft. Thus the Equinox fell on the 
 fame day of the month as when the Council of 
 Nice was held, in the year 3^.", at the vernal 
 Equinox. The Old Style was ufcd till September 
 1/J'J, when the New was adopted in all the 
 Chnltian countries of Europe. 
 
 Geography and Chronology are with the greateft 
 propriety called the eyes of hittory : becaufe this 
 metaphor exprelles better than any other how 
 effectually they affift us as the proper inftruments 
 to difeern the various actions and revolutions of 
 mankind. 
 
 There are other afliftances, by which the ftudy 
 of hiftory may be coniiderably promoted, and the 
 events which it records may be very pleafingly 
 illuftrated. Coins and medals h , infcriptions f , gems, 
 and ftatues not only ihew us the progrels of 
 ancient arts, but likewife afcertain many curious 
 particulars refpecting characters, inftruments, build- 
 ings, and ceremonies. Coins and medals indeed 
 are particularly ferviceable. in that rcfpect. The 
 reprefentation of fo many events is delineated 
 upon them, that they illuftrate feveral paflages in 
 ancient writers, and confirm doubtful facts. Some- 
 times they are not only the amftants but the fub* 
 
 h Du Frefnoy, vol. i. p. 241. 
 
 1 The Comparative Ufe of Medals arid Infcriptions by the 
 learned Scipio Maffei may be found in Du Frefnoy 's new Method 
 yf ftudy ing Hiftory, vol. i. p. 323. 
 
 ftitutes
 
 $34 HISTORV IN GENERAL. 
 
 ftitutes of hiftory. Gibbon remarks that if all the 
 hiftorians of that period were loft, medals, in- 
 fcriptions, and other monuments, would be fuffi- 
 cient to record the travels of the emperor Hadrian. 
 Coins are to general hiftory, what miniatures are 
 to hiftorical pictures ; when arranged in exacl 
 order, they anfwer the purpofe of a chronological 
 epitome, and convey fimilar information, with the 
 additional advantage of a more lively and pic- 
 turefque manner of communicating it. 
 
 But the Laws of a country are more intimately 
 connected with its hiftory, and indeed, more accu- 
 rately fpeaking, conftitute an eflfential part of it. 
 They mew the genius of a people, illuftrate their 
 manners, and enable us to trace their progrefs 
 from rude independence to due fubordination and 
 proper government. The hiftorians of antiquity, 
 indeed, taking it for granted that the laws of their 
 refpeclive countries would be as well known t^ 
 others as to themfelves, have not paid fufficient 
 attention to this fuhjeft. From the turbulent 
 fcenes of public affairs, from battles and the 
 conflicts of contending factions, AVC can derive 
 little knowledge of the internal ftate of manners 
 and cuftoms. This information an acquaintance 
 with jurifprudence is calculated to fupply ; and 
 even from the ancient laws, extremely concife as 
 they are, we may infer with a great degree of pro- 
 bability, what the ftate of a country was, in any 
 particular refpeft, when a new law was enacted. 
 The remedy recommended clearly points out the 
 
 nature
 
 HISTORY IN' (JEXERAL. 
 
 nature of the difeafe. For inftance, the encroach- 
 ments of luxury in Rome may be marked l>y the 
 Oppian law, which prohibited the Roman ladies 
 from wearing ornaments to their drefs, which ex- 
 ceeded the value of an ounce of gold ; and by 
 a decree of the Senate obtained by Cornelius, 
 which limited to a particular fum the expence of 
 funerals. 
 
 I. The Advantages of a Kncncledge of Hijtory. 
 
 II. If we confider the knowledge of hift^ry 
 with regard to its application, we mall find that 
 it is eminently ufeful to us in three refpefts, viz. 
 as it appears in a moral, apolitical, and a religious 
 point of view. > 
 
 In a moral point of view, it is beneficial to 
 mankind at large, as the guide of their conduct. 
 In a political as it fuggeits ufeful expedients to 
 thofe who exercife the public oftices of the ftate, 
 whether they are kings, minifters, or magittrates ; 
 or as it enables us to form, by companion with 
 thofe who have gone before them, a juft eftimate 
 of their merits. In a religious as it teaches us 
 to regard the Supreme Being as the governor of 
 the univerfe ? and the fovereign difpofer of all 
 events. 
 
 
 
 The faculties of the foul are improved by exer- 
 pife; and nothing is more proper to enlarge, to 
 quicken, and to refine them, than a furvcy of the 
 
 conduct
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 conduct of mankind. Hiftory fupplies us with a 
 detail of fads, and fubmits them to our exami- 
 nation before wte are called into active life. 
 By obfervation and reflection upon others we begin 
 an early acquaintance with human nature, extend 
 our views of the moral world, and are enabled to 
 acquire fuch a habit of difcernment, and correcl- 
 nefe of judgment, as others obtain only by expe- 
 rience. We thus by anticipation are converfant 
 with the bufy fcenes of the world ; by revolving 
 the lives of fages and heroes, we exercife our 
 virtues in a review, and prepare them for approach- 
 ing action. We learn the motives, the opinions, 
 and the paflions of the men who have lived before 
 us ; and the fruit of that fludy is a more perfect 
 knowledge of ourfelves, and a correction of our 
 failings by their examples. At the fame time we 
 form thofe general principles of conduct, which 
 muft iiecefTarily be true and commendable, becaufe 
 they are founded upon the immutable decrees of 
 right reafon, and are fanctioned by the uniform 
 authority and practice of the wife and good of 
 all ages. 
 
 Our own experience is imperfect, but the ex- 
 amples of ancient times are complete. Actual 
 obfervation gives only a partial knowledge of 
 mankind ; great events and important tranfactions 
 open very llowly upon us; and trie Ihortnefs of 
 human life enables us only to fee 'detached parts 
 of them. We are not placed at a proper diftance 
 to judge rightly of their real nature and magnitude* 
 
 4 Heated
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Heated by our paflions, hurried on by precipita- 
 tion, and mifled by intereft and prejudice, we 
 view the affairs of the prefent times through an 
 obfcure and a partial medium, and frequently form 
 very wrong opinions of them. On the contrary, 
 the examples of hiftory are diftincl and clear, they 
 are prefented to us at full length, and We can 
 contemplate them in their origin, progrefs, and 
 
 termination. We confider them at our leifure, and 
 
 i 
 
 decide upon the actions of thofe, who are removed 
 by time to a great diftance from us, with a cool 
 and difpaflionate judgment. 
 
 Experience and the knowledge of hiftory reflect 
 mutual light, and afford mutual affiftance. Without 
 the former, no one can acl; with addrefs and dexte- 
 rity. Without the latter, no one can add to the 
 natural refources of his own mind a knowledge of 
 
 O 
 
 thole precepts and examples, which have tended to 
 form the character and promote the glory of eminent 
 men. Scipio Afrrcanus employed many of his leifure 
 hours in a diligent perufal of the works of Xeno- 
 phon ; and the Commentaries of Casfar improved 
 the military talents of the illuftrious Eugene k . 
 
 Hiftory 
 
 k And verilie they bee feweft in number, that bee happie or 
 wife by unlearned experience. And looke well upon the former 
 life of thofe fewe, whether your example be old or young, who 
 without learning have gathered, by long experience, a little 
 wifdome and fome happinefs ; and when you doe confider what 
 wifchiefe they have committed, what daungers they have efcaped 
 
 (and
 
 238 HTSTORY IN GENERA t. 
 
 Hiftory contributes to diveil us of many unrea- 
 fonable prejudices, by enlarging our acquaintance 
 with the world. It fets us at liberty from that 
 blind partiality to our native country, which is 
 the fure mark of a contracted mind, when due 
 merit is not allowed to any other. It may be fer- 
 viceable either as the aiiiftant of Foreign Travel, 
 or as its fubftitute, by removing an averfion to 
 nations and inftitutions different from our own. 
 It rectifies our opinions with refpect to ancient and 
 modern times, and thus enables us to form a juft 
 eftimate of mankind in all countries as well as in 
 all ages. 
 
 This ftudy likewife tends to ftrengthen our ab- 
 horrence of vice; and creates a relifh for true 
 greatncfs and folid glory. We fee the hero and 
 the philofopher reprefented in their proper colours; 
 and as magnanimity, honour, integrity, and ge- 
 nerofity, when difplayed in illuftrious inftances, 
 naturally make a favourable impreflion on our 
 minds, our attachment to them is gradually 
 formed. The fire of enthufiafm and of virtuous 
 emulation is lighted, and we long to practife what 
 we have been inftructed to approve. 
 
 Hiftory likewife is the foundation, upon which 
 is built the true fcieuce of government. It is the 
 
 (and twentie for one doe perifh in the adventure) then think 
 well with yourfclfe, whether ye would, that your own forme 
 (hould cum to wifdome and happinefs by the way of fuel) ex/f* 
 rience or no." ASCHAM'S Schoolmafter. 
 
 proper
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 239 
 
 proper fchool for princes, politicians, and Icgif- 
 lators. They need not have recourfe for init ruc- 
 tion to the Republic of Plato, the Utopia of More, 
 or the Oceana of Harrington. In their delibera- 
 tions upon ftate affairs they can form no fafcr 
 plans for the guidance of their conduct, than from 
 the contemplation of fafts. In the records of 
 various dates they may obferve by what means na- 
 tional happincfs has been fuccefsfully purfued, and 
 public liberty has been firmly eftabli.'hed : in what 
 manner laws have anfwered the ends of their in- 
 fritution in the reformation of manners, and the 
 promotion of the general good ; and thence they 
 may draw fuch conclufions as may be molt advan- 
 tageous in the regulation of the affairs of their 
 own country '. 
 
 In the volumes of hiftory likewife we fee the 
 moft deceitful and crafty men dripped of the 
 difguife of artifice and diffimulatibn, their defigns 
 developed, and their dratagems expofed. By the 
 fall of the great and powerful into a ftate of 
 difgrace and indigence, as well as by the revolu- 
 tions of empires, we are not fo liable to be afto- 
 nifhed at the events, which pafs before our own 
 eyes. The reveifes of fortune fo frequently re- 
 corded in the pages of former times convince us 
 
 1 Hoc illud eft praecique in cognitione rerum falubre et fru. 
 gifemm, omnis te exempli doeumenta in illuftri pofita monu- 
 mento intueri ; indc tibi tuzque reipublicz quod imitere, capias ; 
 inde fcedum ir.ceptu, faedum cxitu quod vites. Liv. 
 
 Of
 
 <240 HISTORY IX GENERAL. 
 
 of the mutability of worldly affairs, and the pre- 
 carioufnefs of all human grandeur. 
 
 The portraits, bufts, and ftatues of the hero, 
 the legiflator, the patriot, and the philofopher, 
 form a mod edifying fchool for the ingenuous 
 mind. The Roman youth, accuftomed to view 
 the images of their illuftrious anceftors decorated 
 with the emblems of the higheft offices of the 
 (late, and crowned with the wreaths of victory, 
 were fired with the love of glory, and ftrove to 
 emulate their exploits" 1 . Hiftory in a. fimilar man- 
 ner, by tranfmitting the fpirit of excellence from 
 one mind to another, excites a defire for whatever 
 js fair and good, and engages even the paflions on 
 the fide of the judgment. It fixes the ftrongeft 
 and moft lafting impreffions upon the mind, fanc- 
 tions the arguments of reafon, and gives life to 
 the leflbns of morality. 
 
 How tame and fpiritlefs are the precepts of 
 wifdom, even when taught by a Socrates or a 
 Plato, if compared with the mere animated 
 beauties of virtue, exemplified in the actions of an 
 Ariftides, or a Phocion ! To the former we only 
 
 m Saepe audivi O. Maximum & P. Scipionem civitatis noftee 
 przclaros viros folitos ita diccre, cum majorum imagines intue- 
 rentur, vchementiflime fibi animum ad virtutcm accendi ; fcilicet 
 non cerara ill am neque figtiram tantam vim in .fefe habcre ; fed 
 memoria rerum geftarum earn flammam egregiis viris in pcftore 
 crfccrc, nequc prius fcdari, quam virtus corum famftm atquc. 
 gloriam adzquaverit. Salluft. Bell. Jugurth. 
 
 give
 
 HISTORY IN" ' -L. 241 
 
 give the Cold afient of the judgment ; of the latter 
 \ve exprefs our admiration with rapture ; tlu-y call 
 forth our encomiums, they excite the- fpirit of 
 emulation, and we are eager to ihew by our 
 conduct the great influence which they have 
 gained over our hearts. 
 
 Uut what is this homage, which h paid almoft 
 Involuntarily to fuch great and illuftrious examples? 
 It is undoubtedly the voice of nature, and the 
 fuggeftion of reaibn pure and uncornvpted by the 
 bad practices of the world. It is the decifion of 
 a correct judgment, and the proof of a genuine 
 tafte for true greatnefs and folid glory. In order 
 therefore to form a virtuous character, and to be 
 dtftinguiflied for the moft laudable a6tions, it is an 
 object of the firft concern to be ever attentive to 
 this voice, and to conform to its wife and friendly 
 admonitions. 
 
 While hiftory holds up to the view inftances of 
 eminent virtues and fplendid actions, me calls not 
 the ftiulent to a fertile imitation of her examples ; 
 for thus might he unintentionally be le"d to error 
 and niilconduc"h No two men were ever precifely 
 the fame in moral or intellectual qualities, or in 
 fituations exactly fimilar; and therefore no one 
 can with fat'ety conclude, that the fame conduct 
 could in all refpecls be prudent for him, -which 
 his predeeefibf has followed. Expedients fpringing 
 from our own minds are formed with more clear- 
 nefs, and executed with more fpirit, than thofe 
 
 VOL. i. R which
 
 242 HISTORY IX GENERAL 
 
 which are derived from the imitation of others. 
 While the imitator is revolving the precedents of 
 paft times, and minutely examining them with 
 reference to his own cafe, he may fuffer the favour- 
 able opportunity for action to efcapc him, and 
 may be undone for ever ; or, fuppoiing he takes 
 any particular example for his guide, from a want 
 of accurate discrimination, lie may be betrayed 
 into fome fatal error. The acute and the difcern- 
 ing will not fail to combine originality of plan 
 with the guidance of precedent; they will make 
 every proper allowance for the various d if petitions 
 and manners of the times; they will inftantly 
 perceive where circumftances differ or agree ; and 
 will adopt only fo much of the example, as is 
 exactly proportioned to the exigency of their 
 own affairs. 
 
 Hiftory rifes to the highett degree of import- 
 ance, and attains the full dignity of its character, 
 by fixing our attention upon the conduct of divine 
 Providence in the moral government of the world, 
 It is clear to every one, who takes the moft fuper- 
 ficial view of the paft, that great events have often 
 been effected by trifling means ; that the confe- 
 tjuenccs of actions have been much more ex ten five, 
 more fatal or calamitous, than were originally de- 
 figned by the agents thcmfelves ; that the dcfigns- 
 of Providence have been brought about by the 
 eaprice of human tempers, or the violence of 
 human pailions ; and that force, craft, and cruelty 
 have always met with their juft, though fometimes 
 
 3 delayed
 
 HISTORY IX CETERA!. 243 
 
 delayed punifliment. The refult of actions has 
 been widely different from the end propofed by 
 thofe who planned them; and great revolutions 
 have been effected contrary to the intention of the 
 perfons, who were the chief inftruments of them. 
 Such extraordinary difcoveries draw u$ much 
 nearer, and give us a much better infight into the 
 operations of the Deity, than thofe occurrences, 
 in which the caufes are more equal to the effects ; 
 as is the cafe with the common affairs of life. 
 Thus hiftory becomes the handmaid of religion, 
 and opens to us the moft wonderful profpe6ts of 
 the divine interpofition in the government of the 
 world " 
 
 n I fubjoin the following remarkable inftance from Robcrtfon'a 
 Charles Vth, Book 10, C. 5. " It is a fmgular circumftancej 
 that the Reformation mould be indebted for its fall efhblifhment 
 in Germany, to the fame hand which had formerly brought it 
 to the brink of deftruftion, and that both events (hould be ac- 
 complimed by the fame ayts of diffimulation. The ends, how. 
 ever, which Maurice, the Elector of Saxony, had in view at 
 thefe different jun<flures, feem to have been more attended to, than 
 the means by which he attained them. It is no lefs worthy of 
 obfervation, that the French King, a Monarch zealous for the 
 Catholic Faith, (hould, at the very fame time when he was per- 
 fecuting his own proteftant fubje&s with all the fierceneCs of 
 bigotry, employ his power in order to maintain And proteft the 
 Reformation in the Empire ; and that the league for this purpofe, 
 which proved fo fatal to the Romifh Church, mould be negociated 
 and figned by a Roman Catholic Bimop. So wonderfully doth the 
 wifdom of God fuperintexd and regulate the caprice of human pvf- 
 Jions, and render tbtm fubfervient tvwardi the accompli/bment of kis 
 mv purpofes." In the preface to Sir W. Raleigh's Hiftory of 
 the World, many fimilar examples are taken from the early part 
 of the Hiftorry of England. 
 
 R 2 exclufive
 
 244 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Exclufive .of the general ufes of hiftory, there 
 is a particular application or' it, which every one 
 naturally makes to his own puriuits, his own age, 
 and his own habits of thinking. The politician 
 fearchcs the records of paft ages for the rife and 
 fall of itatcs, the meafures which advanced their 
 greatnefs, and the caufes which precipitated them 
 into ruin. The foldier looks for military achieve- 
 ments, the conduct of generals, and the dil- 
 cipline of armies. Caufe and efYecl engage the 
 attention of the philoibpher ; and the man of 
 iciaice is interettcd by the defcription of the phe- 
 nomena of nature. The antiquarian ftudies the 
 ancient law*, cu ft orris, and drefles, and other 
 peculiarities of nations. The man who is ad- 
 vanced in years, is gratified with remarking in the 
 fame book thofe fentiments arid actions, which he 
 difregarded in his youth; and the habits of think- 
 ing, which he has formed at one particular period 
 of life, induce him to fearch for different fources 
 of entertainment and inftruclion at another. Thus 
 every pcrfon is influenced by his peculiar tafte: 
 when he confults the volumes of hiftory, he clii- 
 covers fomething in them to fuit the complexion 
 of his own mind; and, from a natural partiality 
 to his own purfuits, may be inclined to think, 
 
 that the hiftorian wrote only for his nib and enter- 
 
 
 
 tainment. 
 
 Readers, however, of every age and defcription, 
 nv\y find in hiitory ample materials for improving 
 their judgment, by tracing the due connexion which 
 
 fubfifts
 
 HISTORY IN CiENEKAL. 245. 
 
 fubfills between caufes and effecls. They ought 
 not to be fatisfied with the recital of events alone, , 
 hut endeavour to inveftigate the circumftances 
 which combined either to produce, to haften, or to 
 retard them ; as well as the manner of their opera- 
 tion, and the degree of their influence. 
 
 Hiftorians, indeed, fometimes expofe thcmfelves 
 to cenfurc from too great a refinement of conjec- 
 ture. They affign fo many motives for the conduct 
 of their heroes, that it is highly improbable all of 
 them fliould have operated. Of this there are 
 abundant in (lances in Tackus, Thuanus, and Hume. 
 The reader, however, derives an advantage from 
 the circumftance ; for although it is not reafonablc 
 to conclude, that all fuch motives had the influence 
 attributed to them ; yet he is left at liberty to chooie 
 that which he thinks moft probable to have produced 
 the meafure in queftion. . 
 
 In whatever abftrufenefs tlie fcience of politics 
 may be fuppofed to be involved, it is probable, that 
 the motives which lead to the performance of many 
 remarkable actions do not lie very deep in the hu- 
 man mind. The actions themfelves may indeed 
 dazzle by their fplendour, or furprifc by their no- 
 velty ; but ftill they might probably be the relult 
 of no greater reach of capacity, than that which is 
 exerted in the management of common concerns. 
 There is no ftate of public affairs, to which the 
 operation of the padions, the virtues, the vices, the 
 
 R 3 calls
 
 46* HISTORY IN" GENERAL. 
 
 calls of public or private intereft, and the lovr of 
 glory, will not apply; and into thefe m;iy be fairly 
 refolved the conduft of monarchs, ftatrfmen, and 
 warriors.
 
 [ 847 ] 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The comparative mcrifs of ancient and modern 
 Hiftorians. 
 
 .As there is no fpecies of competition, to which 
 the faculties of the mind have been more ftrenuoufly 
 bent, or more laudably directed in various ages of 
 the world, and from which more ufeful information 
 may be derived, than hiftory ; it is cloubtlefs very 
 interefting to confider, and to determine the com- 
 parative merits of ancient and modern hiftorians. 
 With regard to the nature of their fubjecls, as the 
 purfuits of mankind are now fo much diverfificd, 
 modern writers have great advantages over the an- 
 cient. The prevailing employment of ancient times 
 was war ; the pages of the hiftorians are therefore 
 filled with battles and fieges, which, from the time 
 of Homer to the revival of learning in Europe, 
 weary our attention by uniformity of fubjecl. A 
 more particular regard has in fubfequent ages been 
 paid to laws, cuftoms, commerce, religion, and go- 
 vernment ; and every circumftance relative to the 
 conduct of individuals, tending in any degree to 
 the developement of the genius of a people, is fcru- 
 tinized and difcuvTed. It is not ufual for modern 
 hiftorians to introduce thoib formal harangues of 
 generals in the field, or of ftatefmcn in the fenate, 
 which conftitute fo large a mare of the works of 
 
 R 4 antiquity.
 
 548 HISTORY IN GEN'ERAL. 
 
 antiquity. However acute they may be in point 
 of argument, appropriate as to character, or dra- 
 matic as to effect, they contradict our notions of 
 probability, and only Icrve, by the interpofition of 
 the fuppofed fpeaker, to difplay the eloquence of 
 the author. '1 lie fpeeches of C&'lar in. his Com- 
 mentaries, and thofe which Dion Caffius compofcd 
 for him, are very different in circumftances and 
 arguments. Of all that th^ ancients have left us, 
 iioiif approach fo nearly to nature and probability 
 ns th'ofe of the 1 Old Tcftament and Herodotus. 
 
 -ri " -T t* r i 
 
 Ihe moderns Jir.ve a -wider ranse or. , political 
 
 * 
 
 'views.; and, from their more cxtenlive knowledge 
 
 rf x-arjous countries, they arc better acquainted 
 
 . , , . . , 
 
 witli the nature or gpYeriimept. and the conipara- 
 -. ,, . . i i - 
 
 tncf.ateotm,. 
 
 T. i ' ' ,. i v , r , 
 
 J'.ver (nice the eitabliihment or the regular and 
 general' conveyance of letters by polls, channels of 
 eafy and exj/editious information have been opened ; 
 and the :i;ttrcourfo between one country and ano- 
 ther has' been more frequent, in coiiicqueuce of 
 travelling, being rendered fate, commodious, and 
 expeditious. The wide diflfufion of literature like- 
 wiKe, extending more and more fmcc the revival of 
 learni'ig, has multiplied a.utlic utic documents; 
 valuable papers are often depofited in public libra- 
 ries, where they arc acceiTible to the purious and 
 inquifitive; or, if "preicrvcd by individuals, they 
 are ibon difcovcred by the arrive Ipirit of inquiry, 
 and communicated to the world. 
 
 . 
 
 An
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Aii abundance of materials for Hiflory, however, 
 i> not the only requiihe to inform the mind, or 
 (ecu re the approbation of. the reader. One great 
 fault of the modern hiftorians is prolixity. The 
 volumes of Thuanus, liapin, and Carte, are calcu- 
 lated to fatigue the moft vigilant eye, and opprefs 
 i he powers of the moil retentive memory. Such 
 writers exhauft attention by magnifying trifles into 
 importance, and diffule a coldnefs over their works 
 by a minute detail of uninterefting affairs, or un- 
 important remarks. Hence the reader, unlcfs he 
 willies to.,confult the author upon fome particular 
 fubjecl, turns over many a page with indifference, 
 and finally quits the hiltorian with difguft. 
 
 The con trad with the ancients in this refpect is 
 remarkably ftriking. The ancients draw characters, 
 and defcribe events, with a few mafterly ftrokes, 
 and paint in fuch glowing colours of language, 
 that they feize the attention at once, and captivate 
 the mind. Their concifenefs gives them great ad- 
 vantage, and tends to preferve the intereft excited 
 by their defcriptions. All is animated and forcible; 
 the reprefeutations are taken immediately from re- 
 cent fact ; the portraits of human nature are drawn 
 from the life ; and the biriy fcene of action, the 
 tumults of war, ' and the reverfes of fortune, are 
 placed immediately before our eyes. Tliey write 
 as if they came immediately from the field of battle, 
 or the deliberations of the council. The fituation 
 of many of the ancients was particularly favourable 
 to this lively fpecies of competition ; for Thucy- 
 
 djdes,
 
 250 IITSTORV IV GENERAL. 
 
 elides, Xenophon, Polybius, Csefar, Salluft, and 
 Tacitus, were aftors in many of the important 
 fcenes they pourtray, and write under the influ- 
 ence of the deepeit impreffions of reality and expe- 
 rience '. 
 
 If however we read with a view to our immediate 
 improvement, the modern hiftorian claims our more 
 particular regard. He defcribes actions and events, 
 which have a neceffary connexion with the times 
 in which we live, and which have an immediate 
 influence upon the government and constitution of 
 our country. The ancients may aftonifh us by re- 
 lating thofe fudden revolutions, which transferred 
 empires by a fingle battle : but the moderns ihew 
 us more of the power and progrefs of the mind, 
 dilplay more fully the caufes and confequences of 
 great events, and edify us by examples more con- 
 
 * From various proofs of the truth of this obfervation which 
 occur to my recollection, I feleft the following dcfcription of the 
 approach of the Perfian army to engage that of Cyrus the younger, 
 in which Xenophon himfelf ferved, and probably was a fpeftator 
 of the circumftances he mentions : 
 
 Kai r.an rt r.> (JUVM rutpx;, xa OVTTU xxrapxni<; -nyai ei crtXipiot 1 
 tyiMTo, i^annj xoCTO( u<nrt(> n$aJvri tevn*,, "/jpiu ot ot; 
 vcnrtg /xiAai>ia TK TW tttha ivi tsohv' CTE 
 
 j ty(y&79. Xenoph. Anabafis, p. 70, Edit. Zeanii. 
 Compare this wi;h the defcription of fimilar circumftances in 
 any modern hiftorian, and the difference will immediately appear. 
 One of the ancients I have mentioned might addrefs the moderns 
 in the words of Marius : " Quae illi audire et legere folent, eorum 
 partem vidi egomet, alia geffi; quae illi literis, ego militando 
 didici nunc vos exiftimate facia an dicla pluris fint," 
 
 genial
 
 HISTORY IN GENERAL. 251 
 
 genial with oar peculiar habits ami manners ; and 
 which come more within the reach of our imita- 
 tion. 
 
 I. The Qualifications of an accompliJJied Hiftorian. 
 
 In order to erect a ftandard by which to meafure 
 the merits of hiitorians, let us form to our minds 
 one of the greateft characters which can adorn the 
 literature of a country, and endeavour to point out 
 the qualifications, by which an accompliihed hifto- 
 rian ought to be diltinguiihed. 
 
 Such a writer choofes a fubjecl adapted to his 
 talents and iituation. He is molt fortunate, when 
 his f tores of knowledge are fupplied by experi- 
 ence, and his own obiervation ; as was the cafe 
 with fome of the bell hiftorians of antiquity, 
 Tluicydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Caefar, and Ta- 
 citus ; and in modern times Sully and Clarendon. 
 Or if he has not been himfelf an agent in the 
 translations he records, he has recourfe to the pureft 
 fources of information. Although it is impoilible 
 always to felecl; fuch a fubjecl as admits of ltri& 
 unity of defign ; yet he is convinced that the argu- 
 ment is molt noble and moft interefting, when he 
 can prelerve, without diftracting the attention of 
 the reader by ddultory digrellions, a dole con- 
 nexion of all the parts, and in the detail of which 
 he can proceed by a regular gradation of events to 
 fome important and fublime conclufion. This hif- 
 
 torical
 
 252 HISTORY IV GENERAL. 
 
 toriral unity of t abject may be belt illuftrated by 
 the Retreat of the ten thouiand by Xrnophon, and 
 the Roman Hiftory of Livy. The nction is not 
 from the beginning interrupted by extraneous fub- 
 jects, but all-ends ironi one incident to another, 
 till the principal point is reached. Imprefled with 
 a deep fenfe of his-duty, he pays the molt facred 
 regard to truth ; and his diligence in afccrtaining 
 
 i i.< equal to his accuracy in Hating 1 them. As 
 far as. the infirmities of human nature will allow, 
 he is divefted of the ftubbornuefs of prejudice, the 
 violence of paftion, and the predilection of party. 
 He is convinced that the ornaments and graces of 
 compaction may properly be employed to embelliili 
 truth, but that no embelliihments can compenfate 
 for wilful , mifreprefentation. lie guards againlt 
 the flights arid the dehifions of imagination, and is 
 therefore careful not to convert hiftory into ro- 
 mance, or merely adorn his fubjecl with the argu- 
 ments of philosophical dilfertation, or the pomp of 
 figurative ftyle. He carefully difl'mguimes where 
 he ought to be concife or diffufe, what topics re- 
 quire to be ftatcd in plain language, and what are 
 capable of the ornaments of diclion. His fond n eft 
 for his work infufes vigour into his conceptions, 
 and the delicacy of his tafte gives elegance to his 
 llyle, and purity to his fentiments. He is not 
 fatisned with taking a fuperncial view of affairs, 
 but with deep and acute penetration inveftigates 
 their proximate and remote caufes, feparates them 
 from the difguifes under which they are concealed, 
 
 and
 
 HISTORY IX GENERAL, 
 
 and dcfcends to the true motives of conduct *. 
 He breaks through' the'obftacles that itop the pro- 
 grefs of vulgar intellect ; and produces thfethoughtft 
 and reflexions, in which truth, penetration, and 
 novelty are blended with peculiar fit ill, and itrikc 
 with certain effect. He diitinguilhe.s from the lur- 
 rounding crowd the examples of eminent talents 
 and virtues, and preients their pictures either com- 
 pletely finished, or marked by a lew bold and cx- 
 preflive outlines. He leleds luch circumftances of 
 their domeltic, as well as public conduct, as will 
 give the clearelt inlight into their tempers -and 
 manners. In his developement of character, he 
 regards the .MORAL tendency- of hiltory, which is 
 its nobleft and moft valuable end. He neither 
 blackens his characters with the alpcrfions of ma- 
 levolence, chaftifes them with unjuft fatire, ncr 
 heightens their luttre with the varniih of adulation. 
 If he feels any bias upon his mind, it is that of a 
 true philanthropist ; he is inclined to draw a veil 
 over the failings of human nature, and not expofe 
 
 . 
 
 b It will doubtiefs occur to my readers, that when I mads 
 thefe obfervations, 1 had Gikbon in view. It would lead me 
 into too prolix a detail, if I were to point out how much he 
 has betrayed his truft, and defcrted the province of a good and 
 fair hiftorian. My readers are referred to an excellent pamphlet 
 by Dr. Whisker, in. which tho incorrect language, contradic- 
 tions, digie!!ior.s, obfcurities, abfurdities, and violations of de- 
 cerum by this infidel are ftatcd with great clearnefs. See likewife 
 a very able Letter to Lord Sheffield, 1 796 ; and the Bampton 
 Lectures of i/^o, 2d edition; where I think I have completely 
 expofe 1 one of tb: mcjl iijidians attacks, that were ever made upon 
 the evidences of Chriftianity. 
 
 every
 
 S54 iifSTORr IX GENERAL 
 
 every vice and folly to the public. He diverts Iiim- 
 felf as much as pollible of Ideal prejudices, confident 
 himfelf as a citizen of the world, and weighs all 
 characters of his own or foreign countries in the 
 balance of impartial juftice c . As it is his grand 
 object to teach by example, he either makes his re- 
 marks with brevity, or leaves his reader to form his 
 own judgment from the clear and accurate ftate- 
 jnent of facts, which he prefents to his mind. 
 
 Ufelefs however will prove his labour, and inef- 
 fectual his ikill* in tracing events and actions back 
 to their caufes, or in preferving due order and con- 
 nexion in his work, unlefs he can infpire his 
 writings with animation, and excite the intereft of 
 his readers. For this moft important purpofe he 
 difplays the found nets of his judgment, the bold- 
 nefs of his genius, and the correctnefs of his tafte. 
 He is cautious in his choice of fuch circumftances 
 as will pleafe and ftrike the mind ; and, like a fkilful 
 poet or painter, he ftudies the effect of felection, 
 combination, and contraft. He perceives that by 
 
 e (f Montaigne pretends, but he exaggerates a little, that 
 Guicciardini no where afcribes any one adlion to a virtuous, but 
 every one to a vicious principle. Something like this has been 
 reproached to Tacitus. Read Plutarch's compaiifons, in what 
 language you pleafe ; you will perceive that they were made by a- 
 Greek." 
 
 " If Thucydides bad not told us he was an Athenian, it would 
 be difficult to difcover his country. He fays nothing in com- 
 mendation of his countrymen that their aftions will not juftify ; 
 and mews no marks of refentment againft them for having banifhed 
 him." Bolingbroke, p. iii. &c. 
 
 this
 
 HISTORY IY GENERAL. 255 
 
 this road the ancient hiftorians were led to fame : 
 lie imitates their powers of lively defcription, and, 
 as often as a proper opportunity will admit, paints 
 the fcerie of adion with a rapid pencil dipped in 
 the mofl glowing colours, delineates the lively por- 
 traits of the actors, and charms the imagination, 
 and excites the fympathy of every judicious reader. 
 In fhort, the accomplished hiftorian is awake to 
 the intcrefts of virtue, and is influenced by fenfibt- 
 lity, and warmed by a proper regard for liberty, 
 and the happinefs of mankind. Thefe principles 
 give energy to his conceptions, and perfeverance 
 to his indtiftry. He is beft qualified to write with 
 true dignity, when he has worked up his mind "to a 
 juft elevation, of thought, by reflecting, that it is 
 his glorious and honourable province to addrefs 
 himfclf to all polifhed nations through the fuc- 
 ceeding ages of the world. And he M'ill be kept 
 iteady to the caufe of juftice, when he confider* 
 himfelf as an impartial witnefs, who is bound by 
 his duty to ftand before the tribunal of pofterity, 
 and is there liable to be arraigned for every offence 
 again ft the majefty of truth '. 
 
 % 
 
 Moi) Svren TTJ a^Ssia, tt TJJ Irttav yfsf^ur 101, run Jg 
 
 ti.va.rrut ajxtAirrto* ctvru" x<zi 
 
 
 TO; o-tyypa^ato-*)-. Lucian, v. ii. p. 53. edit. Hemfterhuf. 
 
 Many of the requifites which Lucian in this too much negleded 
 Treatife on the Manner of writing Hiftory, efteems neceflarj to 
 conftitute a good hiftorian, are touched upon with great judg- 
 ment and fpirit. There are foxe judicious remarks on this
 
 56 HISTORY TN C EN El? At* 
 
 By thefe laws, which may be confidered as fome 
 of the principal rules of hiftory, every hiftoriaii 
 may be tried. They furnim an equal ftandard to 
 direct the writer, and determine the judgment of 
 the reader. 
 
 It is the duty of fair criticifm to eftimate the 
 merits of writers at their juft value. If therefore 
 we feek for thofe hiftorians who approach neareft 
 to this ftandard, by excelling in that particular 
 department which each has undertaken, we ought 
 to ieleft from the Greek writers, THUCYDIDKS and 
 POLYBIUS ; from the Latin, 1 LIVY and TACITUS ; 
 and from thofe of Great Britain, CLARENDON, 
 ROBERTSON, and HENRY. Their celebrated pro- 
 ductions are marked by ftrong and lively defcrip- 
 tion, energy of thought, love of virtue, and zeal 
 for truth ; and their refined talents for political 
 fpeculation were exercifed with a view to the wel- 
 fare of their own countries, and the general im- 
 provement of mankind. 
 
 fubjeft by the Marquis d'Argenfon, who frankly confefles the 
 failure of the French in this noble branch of compofition. Choix 
 de Memoires de l'Academie, torn. iii. p. 627. See Hayley's 
 EfTay on Hiftory, and particularly his Notes ; and Cicero de 
 Oratore, lib. ii. fcft. 62, 63. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 257 ] 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Hiftory of the Jexs. 
 
 1 HE Ifraelites, or ancient Jews, were thofe diftin- 
 guilhed people, who were favoured by the imme- 
 diate care of the Almighty, and conducted by his 
 efpecial guidance to Judea, a place of refidence pro- 
 mifed to their remote anceftors. In confequence t of 
 their obftinacy, idolatry, and wickednefs, and more 
 particularly for the rejection of their Meffiah, they 
 Avere fubdued by the Romans, after fuftaining a 
 liege in their metropolis, unparalleled in the annals 
 of hiftory for its diftretfes, calamities, and (laughter* 
 Jerufalem was reduced to ruins, the Jewiili govern- 
 ment was totally fub verted, and the furviving people 
 were difperfed over moil parts of the world. Their 
 defcendants ftill remain unmixed with the reft of 
 mankind, and are marked by their original fea- 
 tures of national peculiarity : they adhere with the 
 moft zealous attachment to the religion of their 
 forefathers, and cherim the hopes of reftoration to 
 their former profperity by means of a glorious and 
 triumphant Deliverer. 
 
 They preferve witlvthe moft watchful care the 
 facred Books of their ancient writers. And afto- 
 nifbing, very ajiom/hing it is to obfcn'e, that in the 
 prophetical parts of thefe facrcd Books are contained 
 
 VOL. i. s all
 
 C58 THE HISTORY OF THE JEW3. 
 
 all the cceiitx before mentioned of their extraordinary 
 h\flory. Their particular conduct, and tlie vicifli- 
 tudes of their national affairs, were predicted by 
 their Prophets, and more efpccially by Mofes, their 
 great lawgiver, in the infancy of the world, at the 
 valt diftance of thirty-three centuries from, the pre- 
 icnt times. The accompliiliment of thefe predic- 
 tions bears the fulleft and molt ftriking evidence to 
 the truth and infpiration of their Prophets, and 
 illultrates the difpenfations of Providence to his 
 chofen people. 
 
 Thefe facred Books contain likewife predictions 
 the moil exact of the character, office, and actions 
 of the Mefiiah of the Jews, the great lawgiver 
 of the Chriftians, the appointed Saviour of the 
 world. 
 
 Such interefting circumftttnces as thefe, in addi- 
 tion to the peculiar nature of the Jcwiih polit}', 
 conlidercd as a divine inftitution, the curious man- 
 ners and cuftoms, and the memorable actions of 
 the defeendanrs of Abraham, viz. of the nioft an- 
 cient people of whom we have any authentic 
 accounts, combine to place thefe Hooks firft in 
 order of importance, as in order of time. 
 
 If we confider, I. The great antiquity of thefe 
 Books ; IT. The proofs which fupport their authen- 
 ticity; III. Their fuhje&s, the characters of the 
 writers, and the place they occupy in the order 
 of general hiftory, particularly as they Hand con- 
 nected
 
 259 
 
 with the Chriftian Revelation, they will be 
 found to deferve our very earndt attention. 
 
 I. The Antiquity of the Scriptures. 
 
 Xo M'ritings of any other nation can be brought 
 into competition in this refpect, with thofe of the 
 Jews. In proof of this aflertion, it may be re- 
 marked, that Moles lived more than a thoufand 
 years before the age of Herodotus, who is reputed 
 the father of Grecian hiftory ; and rather earlier 
 than he flouriihed, Ezra and Nehemiah clofed the 
 records of the Jews e . As another proof of the 
 priority of the Jews to the Greeks, it appears by 
 the confeflion of the Greek writers themfelves, that 
 they received the letters of their alphabet from" the 
 Phenicians ; and there are very fufficient grounds 
 for believing, that the Phenicians derived the art 
 of writing from the Jews. The learned and acute 
 Porphyry, who was an equal enemy both to Jews 
 and Chriftians, and much attached to the learning 
 of Greece, candidly acknowledged, that Mofes, 
 and the Prophets who immediately fucceeded him, 
 flourished nearly a thoufand years before any of the 
 Greek philofophers. 
 
 The Books, which compofe the Canon of the 
 Jewifli Scriptures, have the concurrence of all anti- 
 
 * Mofes - - - - B.C. 1571 years. 
 Herodotus , 445 
 
 The former therefore preceded the latter 1 126 years. 
 NehemSah lived - - B. C. 456 
 
 & 2 quity
 
 THE HISTORT OF THE JEWS. 
 
 quity in favour of their originality. They were 
 delivered to the Hebrews in their own language, 
 with every mark of genuinenefs, by the perfons, 
 whofe names they bear; and thefe perlbns, by re- 
 cording contemporary events, conftantly appealed 
 to well-known proofs of their regard to truth. The 
 prophetical Books in particular contain the evi- 
 dences of their infpiration, as well as of the inte- 
 grity and piety of their authors. The external 
 proofs are clear ami ft rang, as well as the internal ; 
 in confequence of which all thefe Books have 
 always been preferved with the greateft care, and 
 have been held in the higheit veneration. 
 
 It is no lefs curious than important to remark 
 the traditions preferved in the Pagan world, which 
 confirm the truth of the Pentateuch, or the five 
 books written by Mofes. The tenet of Thales, 
 the great philofopher of Miletus, that water was 
 the primogenial element; the doctrine of Pytha- 
 goras, that the univerfe was created from a ill ape- 
 lefs mafs of pailive matter ; the opinions, that the 
 world was formed by an almighty Power, who gave 
 to man the dominion over the inferior animals; 
 and that man in his primeval ftate was blefied with 
 perfect innocence and happinefs, and redded in a 
 delightful and ever blooming paradife, defcended 
 tiom the earlieft times. Many other parts of Gre- 
 cian mythology, as well as the traditions prevalent 
 among the various nations of the earth, and parti- 
 cularly among the inhabitants of the vaft continent 
 of Alia, agree with the Mofaical account of the 
 
 creation.
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 6'i 
 
 creation. The tradition of a deluge is fpread over 
 all parts of the world, and is the epoch from \\hieh 
 is dated the origin of all records'. 
 
 The Chaldeans preferved the hiftory of their 
 Xifurus, who was the Noah of Mofes. The Egyp- 
 tians alferted, that Mercury had engraved his doc- 
 trine upon columns, u-hich had refilled the violence 
 of a deluge. The Chinefe hiltorians record, that 
 Peyrun, a mortal beloved and protected by the 
 Gods, faved himfelf in a velfel from the general 
 inundation. The Hindoos fay -that the waters of 
 the ocean fpread over the furface of the whole 
 earth, except one mountain to the north that 
 one woman with fevcn men faved themfelves on 
 
 r Cicero thus reprefcnts the opinion of Thales. " Aquam eflii 
 initium rerum, Deura autern earn mentem qua; ex aqua cunfta 
 fingeret." Cicero de Nat. Deorum, 1. i. e. xxv. This comes 
 very clofe to the Mofaic account : " The Spirit of God moved 
 upon the face of the waters." Gen. i. 
 
 For the opinion of Pythagoras fee Stillingflect, Orig. Sac. 
 p. 287. 
 
 In the firft book of Ovid's Mttamorphofes may be feen the 
 happy ftate of roan in paradife, or the golden age ; the progrefs 
 of human depravity in the fubfequent ages of the world j the 
 determination of the Supreme Being to deftroy the human race, 
 with the exception of one pair, by a general deluge, &c. If you 
 change only the names of perfons and places, you have the Scrip- 
 tural account giv-en with alraoft minute exadnefs. The effort of 
 the giants to fcale the heavens is evidently a fiction founded upon 
 the attempt to ereft the tower of Babel. Tie flood of Deucalion 
 is a tranfcript of that of Noah. Jove is a plain abbreviation of 
 Jehovah. Noah, the ark, and the dove, are circumftances of tra- 
 dition, or of hiltory, in almoU all countries of the world. 
 
 s 3 this
 
 C6*2 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 this mountain with certain plants and animals. 
 They add, in fpeaking of their (iod Yiflinou, that 
 at the deluge he transformed himtelf into a filh, 
 and conducted the veiTel which preferred the relics 
 of the human race. This velfel is likewife a fubjcct 
 of tradition in the northern parts of the world 8 . 
 
 That the facrifice of animals was neceflarv to 
 
 V 
 
 appcafe the offended gods, was a religious tenet 
 very general and very ancient. The account of 
 the long lives of the Patriarchs is confirmed hy 
 writers of various countries. Their primitive man^ 
 ners, and their mode of performing facrifices, and 
 offering prayers to the great Author of nature on 
 the fummits of mountains, and in the retirements 
 of groves, agree with the defcriptions of Homer, 
 and many other early writers. Zoroafter, the great 
 teacher of the ancient Perfians, derived from the 
 Books of Mofcs the firft principles of his religion, 
 his ceremonial la\vs, his account of the creation, 
 of the firft parents of mankind, of the Patriarchs, 
 and particularly of Abraham, whofe pure religion, 
 lie profelYcd to reftore. 
 
 In the attributes and characters of the Heathen, 
 gods may be found alluvions to th'~ ancient exprek 
 fions-of the Hebrew Scriptures. In the cuftoms, 
 laws, and cerenionies of many other nations may 
 be traced a refemblance to the Mofuirnl inflitulions, 
 Jn the accounts of the deities of the Pagans, uucl 
 
 8 Sec Sulivan's View of Nature, ^x;tter 67,
 
 THE HISTOKY OF THE Jl.WS. 26*3 
 
 the early heroe-i and benefactors of mankind, par- 
 ticularly in thole \vhieh adorn tlie pages of (ireciau 
 hiftory, are rt-preiented many of the Patriarchs and 
 iliuftrious peiluns of Scripture. Many principles of 
 the moft eminent philofophers, many fictions of the 
 inoft celehrated poets, both of Greece and Rome, 
 and many inftitutions of the moft renowned Hea- 
 then lawgivers, cannot fail, by their circumftances 
 of refemblance, to direct our attention to the great 
 Legiilator of the Jews. The molt venerable and 
 ancient traditions of the world feem to contain the 
 parts of one original and uniform iyftem, which 
 was broken by the difperfiou of the primeval fami- 
 lies after the deluge, and corrupted by the revolu- 
 tions of ages. They were the iireams, which llowcd 
 through the various countries of the earth, from 
 the great fource of Ajofaical hiftory h . 
 
 The Jewifli hiftorian Jofephus flourished in the 
 reign of the emperor Vefpafian. He was a perfon, 
 of great learning and eminence, and conducted his 
 inquiries with iingular diligence, induftry, and 
 care. He. corroborates the teftimony of the facred 
 writers, and illuftrates their truth ; as he not only 
 gives a regular detail of the molt remarkable tranl- 
 aciions of the Jews, but introduces confiderablp 
 notices of all thofe people, with whom they fo, 
 alliances, or carried on wars. In his treatiie againft 
 Apion, he expofes the contradictions, which occurred 
 
 h See SriKingfleet, b. iii. c f 5, Bryant's Mythology, Mau- 
 rice's Indian Antiquities, and Raleigh's Hiftory of the World, 
 p. 71. ' 
 
 s 4 in
 
 264 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 in the Egyptian, Chaldean, and Phenician records; 
 vindicates the authority of the Jcwifh Scriptures; 
 defcribes the care, which was taken in their pre- 
 fervation ; and ftates their fuperiorpretenfions, more 
 particularly in point of antiquity, to the reflect and 
 reverence of mankind '. 
 
 II. The Proofs of their authenticity. 
 
 The fupport given by the earlieft Heathen writers 
 to the records of Scripture is very ftrong. The 
 fragments of Sanchoniathon, the moft ancient hit- 
 torian of Phenicia, who is fuppofed to have flou- 
 rimed not long after the death of Mofes, confirm 
 the Scriptural account of the origin of the world, 
 and of many perfons and places mentioned in the 
 Pentateuch. Berofus the Chaldean, and Manetho 
 thp Egyptian, who lived in the reign of Ptolemy 
 Philaclelphus, king of Egypt, reprefented feveral 
 circumftances conformably to the accounts given 
 by Mofes k . They wrote indeed about the time 
 when the Old Teftament was tranfiated into Greek : 
 but even taking it for granted, that they derived 
 their accounts from the verfion of the Septuagint, 
 their evidence is of no fmall importance, as it 
 fliows the honour which was paid by the moft 
 learned perfons of the Eaft to the facred records of 
 the Jews ; and that they looked upon them as 
 
 * Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. i. p, 200. Lardner, vol. vii. 
 p. 30. 259, &c, 
 
 k Berofus and Manetho B. C, 270, Stillingfleet, Orig, Sacra;, 
 vol. i. c. iii. 
 
 the
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 2fi5 
 
 the pureft and the moft authentic fources of 
 hiftocy. 
 
 The tranfaclions and literature of the Jews were 
 too remarkable to efeape the attention of the 
 learned and inquifitivc Pagans, when Judea became 
 a province of the Roman empire. Many particulars 
 relative to the eminent character of Jofeph, as a 
 minifter to Pliaraoh, and as an infpired prophet; 
 to the emigration of the Jews from Egypt, their 
 miraculous pailage through the Red Sea, their fet- 
 tlement in the Holy Land, the inftitutions and 
 ceremonies of the Law, the fplendour of Jerufalem 
 in its moll ilouriihing times, the magnificence of 
 the Temple, and the fupreme, eternal, and immu- 
 table nature of the great object of their worfhip, 
 are related by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny the 
 Elder, Tacitus, and Juftin. Thefe eminent writers, 
 however erroneous in fome particulars, are liiffi- 
 ciently correct in others; and however they may 
 differ in fome circumftances from each other, 
 they agree in the great outlines of hiftory. 
 They mow that the Jewifh records were in their 
 times thought worthy of high credit; and that 
 facts, well known in the world to be true and 
 i nportaat, were faithfully related in thofe re- 
 cords. 
 
 The greateft care was taken of the books of the 
 Old Teltament in every period of the ancient 
 church of the Jews. The original copies were de- 
 pofited in the temple at Jerufalem, to ferve for a 
 
 facred
 
 t66 THE HISTORY OF THE JLWS. 
 
 far red memorial to poftcrity. They were read in 
 all the fyuagogues as long as the Jewifh govern- 
 ment remained ; and the Jews themfelves were fa 
 fcrupuloufly obfervant of the ftriet purity and inte- 
 grity of the facred Text, as to number every letter, 
 and remark how often it occurred. They \vere 
 accurately tranfcribed in every age, <ind tranflations 
 were made into different languages ; fo that, as 
 copies were multiplied, fecurities for the purity of 
 the text increafed ; and forgery and corruption, in 
 any paflage of importance, became in the courfe of 
 time impracticable. The whole religion, and all 
 the civil and facred cftabiiihments of the Jewiih 
 people, were founded upon the books of Mofes iu 
 particular, which were addrclled to his contempo- 
 raries that is to thole, who had fecn his miracles, 
 and heard his laws from his own mouth, and 
 guarded with the moft zealous care the volumes 
 which recorded them. The inftitutions of Moles 
 were incorporated into the commonwealth of the, 
 Jews; the exiftence and fupport of their govern- 
 ment depended upon them ; and their religion and 
 laws were fo interwoven, that they could not be 
 feparated 1 . Their right to the land of Canaan 
 depended upon their confeflion of the ibvereignty 
 of God, who gave it to them ; and on the v truth 
 of the Mofaical hiftory, relative to the divine pro- 
 mifes made to the Patriarchs. The ditfentions, 
 which prevailed among the Jews and Samaritans, 
 were fuch checks upon both parties, as to prefervq 
 
 * Stjllingfleet, book ii. chap, i, 
 
 the
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. C6Y 
 
 the text of the Law in a ftate of purity ; ami the 
 dilputes, which prevailed between the Pliarifi-es and 
 &ulducees, ferved equally to prevent any interpola- 
 tions in the other book.^. 
 
 * 
 
 Mahomet, the founder of a new religion in Ara- 
 bia, the acute and determined enemy both of Jews 
 and Chriilians, who was railed up by Providence 
 to be the fcouri^e of the degenerate Chriftians of 
 
 d* ij 
 
 the fixth century, profeiled his veneration of the 
 Patriarchs and of Mofes, and revered the fanclity 
 of the Jewilh inftitutions m . Senfible of the high 
 efteem, in which thev were held among all the na- 
 
 , ^j 
 
 tions of the Eaft, he has not only intermixed the 
 inoft important facls related in them, with the ab- 
 furd contents of his Law, but has endeavoured, 
 from their expreffions, to draw arguments in favour 
 of his own million". But what is the fanftion of 
 the author of the Koran to that given by the 
 writers of the New Teftament ? The Evangelifts 
 and A potties conftantly refer to thefe facrecl books, 
 and more particularly to the Prophecies. They 
 
 B Sale's Al Koran, p. 6. 16, 497, &c. 
 
 n " They fay, become Jews, or Chriftians, that ye may be 
 direfted. Say nay, we follow the religion of Abraham the 
 orthodox, who was no idolater. Say, we believe in God, and 
 that which hath been fent down unto us, and that which hath 
 been fent down unto Abraham, and Ifhmael, and Ifaac, and 
 Jacob, and the tribes ; and that which was delivered unto Mofes, 
 and Jefus, and that which was delivered unto the Prophets from 
 {heir Lord, &c." Al J$.oran, chap, 2. entitled the Cow.
 
 268 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 apply, illuftrate, explain, and quote abundant texts, 
 not merely as human productions, then popular 
 among their countrymen ; but becaufe they con- 
 tained the commands of God, and were the imme- 
 diate declarations of the divine will. And, to bring 
 
 o 
 
 forward an evidence of the higheft authority in 
 their favour, the Saviour of the world himfelf, even 
 He who came exprefsly from heaven to bear wit- 
 nefs of the truth, exhorted the Jews to fearch the 
 Scriptures for that they tcftified of him. Frequently 
 as he reproved the Jews for their erroneous doctrines 
 and traditions, he never laid to their charge any 
 corruption of their facred books. At once to prove 
 their authenticity and divine infpiration, beginning 
 tit Mofes and all the Prophets, he expounded unto 
 his difciphs in all the Scriptures the things con- 
 cerning himfelf. In his final inftru&ions to them 
 before his afcenfion, he reminded them, (I again 
 quote his own mod facred and mod decifive ex- 
 preflions,) Thefe are the words which I /pake unto 
 you, while I was yet with you ; that all things muji 
 be fulfilled which were written in the Law of Mofes, 
 and in the Prophets, and in the Pfalms, concerning 
 me 9 . Our Lord, by thus adopting the common 
 divifion of the Law, the Prophets, and the Pfalms, 
 which comprehended all the Hebrew Scriptures, 
 ratified the Canon of the Old Teftamcnt ; and by 
 declaring fo exprefsly that thofe books contained 
 prophecies which muft be fulfilled, he eitabliflicd 
 
 Luke xxiv. 44. 
 
 their
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS, 6*9 
 
 their divine infpiration ; fince it is an attribute of 
 the Almighty alone to enable men to forctel future 
 events with certainty p . 
 
 Abundant witnelfes in all fuccceding ages can be 
 brought to confirm the authenticity of thefe holy 
 Scriptures. The Jews, difperfed (ince the deltruc- 
 tion of Jerufulem over all parts of the world, have 
 ever been prepared to fufter any hardfhip, rather 
 than renounce the commands of their great Law- 
 giver, and reject the records of their infpired Pro- 
 phets. They have, in common witli the numerous 
 Chriftian converts, laboured in this pious work of 
 preferving the facred volume unimpaired by the 
 accidents of time, and uncorrupted by artful inter- 
 polation. One generation has tranfmitted a regular 
 teftimony to another, and the chain of evidence 
 has remained unbroken for a feries of ages. But 
 where are the pure and unmixed dcfcendants of 
 the Greeks or Romans, to atteft the genuinenefs of 
 their mod efteemed books ? Where are the fubjecl* 
 of Solon, Lycurgus, or Numa, who at this prefent 
 time conform to the inftitutions, and are governed 
 by the edicls of thefe ancient legiflators ? As no 
 fuch evidences are known to exift, vain is it to re- 
 quire them. 
 
 To the teftimony we derive from the living de- 
 fcendants of the Ifraelitcs, we have nothing fimilar 
 
 ' Bifhop of Lincoln's Ehmcnts of Chriftian Theology, vol. i. 
 c, i, 
 
 in
 
 270 THF. IITSTORV OF THE JEWSf. 
 
 in the world for the fupport of ancient writings ^ 
 bccaufe they not only from age to age have aflerted, 
 and ftill continue to afTert, their authenticity, under 1 
 fuch peculiar circumftances of oppreiTion and fo- 
 reign dominion ; but adhere to the laws contained 
 in the books in qneftion. Their practice is a de- 
 moniirative proof of their belief ; and this double 
 evidence, confiding in their conviction of the ge- 
 luiinencfs of the books, and in the direction of their 
 conduct by tlie rules thofe books contain, afeends 
 higher and higher into antiquity, till patting through 
 fucceflive ages, we reach the precifc times in which 
 Mofes and the Prophets flourilhed. 
 
 Convinced by tlie cleared: arguments of the au- 
 thenticity of the Old Teftament, the great Newton 
 efteemcd it the proper introduction to the know- 
 ledge of profane antiquity. He found that the 
 periods of Judaical generations and defeents, which 
 anfwered to the fabulous ages of Grecian hiftory, 
 were exactly of the fame length with thofe, which 
 have been meafured in later times, fmce hiftory has 
 been confidered as authentic. He afcertained like- 
 wife, that the Hebrew accounts coincided with the 
 revolutions of the heavenly bodies, and the general 
 courfe of nature; and were not like the Grecian and 
 Roman chronology, which is in many cafes founded 
 upon improbable and arbitrary ftippofitions. Fur- 
 n iflied with fuch an important clue to his difcovo 
 ries, this great aftronomer applied the principles of 
 his favourite fcience to the elucidation of. hiftory. 
 % confidering the relation which fubfifted between 
 
 the
 
 THE IirSTORV OF THE JEWS. 271 
 
 the prcccflion of the equinoxes and the lapfe of 
 time, lie reel i lied the whole iVitcin of profane chro- 
 nology *. Thus he dift tiled light over a region of 
 daiknefs, an$ii( ndered the records or' the Greeks 
 and Romans- elear, confiftent, and prohahle, by 
 the application of theie principles: but lb far was 
 he Irom dilturbing the order of events, or contra- 
 dicting the computations of time ftated in tlie facred 
 Books, that their truth and accuracy were inva- 
 riably confirmed by his refearches '. 
 
 Such are fome of the proofs which confirm the 
 authenticity of the Old Teitament ; and from a 
 review of them we are jultified in the conclufion, 
 that in point of ftrength and authority thefe proofs 
 are fuperior to thole that can be adduced to, fupport 
 any other ancient writings. 
 
 III. The Subjects of the Books, and Characters 
 of the J Writers. 
 
 The fubje&s of the Books of. the Old Teftament 
 are truly wonderful and ftriking, and of fuch a 
 nature as to furpafs all monuments of profane 
 learning, equally in importance as in antiquity. 
 
 * The equinoctial points are found by aftronomers to change 
 their places, and go backward or wefhvard, contrary to the 
 order ef the figns of the Zodiac. This is called their pr;-cfflim. 
 Dr. Bradley fuppofes it to be a degree in about feventy years : 
 the calculation of Sir Ifaac Newton does not amount to fo 
 much. 
 
 1 Prieftley's Lectures on Hiftory, p. 89, &c. 
 
 And
 
 272 TUT, msronr or THE JFWS. 
 
 And of all the parts which coir.pofc the fucred ca- 
 non, none arc more curious than Gear/in, the iiift 
 book written by Moles ; oceanic it contains a ikctch 
 of the earlidt liiltory of mankind, ,'ifov.a' iiancl re- 
 corded the creation of the world ant-i us inhabit- 
 ants, the fall of our firft parents from their ftate of 
 innocence and happincfs, and their banifhment 
 from the garden of Kden ; the repeated and iignal 
 promites of a future Ueftorer of the loft biddings of 
 mankind ; the hiftory of the Patriarchs, honoured 
 by the Revelations of Jehovah ; the defcription of 
 the general deluge ; the difperfion of the progeni- 
 tors of the human race over all the earth ; the 
 adoption of a particular family to perpetuate the 
 remembrance, and eftablifli the wormip, of the true 
 God, and their profperous fettlement in Egypt. 
 Inftances indeed are mentioned of early depravity, 
 and the violence of the paiYions, attended with 
 fui table puniihments ; yet fociety appears under 
 its fimpleil form in point of manners, and we dif- 
 ccrn no traces of the luxury and falfe refinement 
 of fubfequent times. 
 
 In the facred books of the Jews is recorded an 
 account of the defcendants of Ifrael ; a race of men 
 felecled from all others, and favoured with fucceflive 
 revelations of the divine will. Here are fliewn the 
 inftances of their fidelity, pcrverfenefs, and difobe- 
 dience ; their glory, and triumphs ; their difgraces f 
 and their fubjec~tion to foreign powers. Here is 
 fcen the fuperintendence of a divine and efpecial 
 Providence watching over innocence, fufpending 
 6 wrath,
 
 THE HISTORY Ofr THfc JE^'S. 2?3 
 
 Wrath, and taking the mod fignal vengeance upon, 
 unrcpentcd offences. Here are developed the fail- 
 ings of the moft virtuous perfons, and the obdurate 
 wickednefs of confirmed finners. Here are difplayed 
 the mixed characters even of the mod excellent 
 men, the eminent examples of faith and piety, of 
 courage and patience, in the conduct of Abraham, 
 Lot, Job, Jofeph, Mofes, David, Hezekiah, Jofiah, 
 and Daniel. And moft interefting is it to obferve, 
 that the knowledge of the one true God was com- 
 municated to this people, and preferved by them 
 alone ; that they had the moft fublime ideas of his 
 nature and attributes ; that a magnificent temple 
 was erected to his honour; a regular fervice was 
 inftituted ; holy ceremonies were performed ; an 
 order of priefts of one particular family was confe- 
 crated ; a pure worfhip was eftablifhed by his exprels 
 command, and regulated by his particular laws' 
 Thus were the Jews enlightened by a knowledge of 
 the true object of divine worfhip ; and thus were the 
 purity and holinefs of their religious ordinances 
 conducted at a time, when all other nations pre- 
 fented a wide fcene of grofs fuperftition and mental 
 darknefs ; when the reft of the human race, and 
 even the moft intelligent and polifhed nations of 
 ^Egypt and Greece, mewed the moft abject degra- 
 dation of their nature, by proftrating themfelves 
 before idols of their own workmanihip ; and abufed 
 the evidence of fenfe, and the faculty of reafon, 
 by imputing to wood and ftone the attributes of 
 Divine power. 
 VOL. i. T We
 
 C74 TTJF IIISTOHY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 
 
 We fee like wife a fucceiVion of Prophets railed up 
 amon<; them, to communicate the divine will, to 
 
 O ' 
 
 warn them of evils, and to announce to them blei- 
 fings to come*. Thefe holy men, ever obedient to 
 the eall of heaven, rofe fuperior to all worldly eon- 
 fiderations ; and with a fpirit of intrepidity and in- 
 dependence, M'hich clearly /hewed that heaven was 
 the fource of their reliance, they executed their 
 facred commiflions, unawed by the threats of kings, 
 or the refentmcnt of the people. They foretold 
 remote events in times moil improbable for them 
 ever to take place, and when no human forefight, 
 and no calculation of chances, could guide them to 
 the difcovery of the particular affairs, which ful- 
 filled their predictions. Mofes, in a long and moft 
 interefting detail of threats and promiles, foretold 
 the exacl manner in which his people were ordained 
 to be happy or miferable, according as they followed 
 or difobeyed the divine laws. At a fubfequent pe- 
 riod, when Jerufalem was laid in ruins, and the 
 Jews were groaning under the forrows of the Baby- 
 lonifli captivity, Ifaiah folemnly addreffed Cyrus by 
 his name, more than a hundred years before li is 
 birth, as the deliverer of Ifrael, and the new founder 
 of the Holy City 1 . When Babylon was mining in 
 the meridian of her glory, and its monarchs ruled 
 oVer all the nations of the Eafl with the moft un- 
 controlled fway, the fame Prophet predicted the 
 
 Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. i. Introduftory Chapter, &c. 
 1 Tfaiah, B. C. 757. Cyrus, B. C. 589. Interpreter of 
 Prophecy, vol. i. p. 130. 
 
 total
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 275 
 
 total fubverfion of their empire, and the complete 
 deiblation of their vaft metropolis. That all thefc 
 and numerous other predictions were exactly veri- 
 fied by the events, are truths confirmed by the 
 evidence of profane, as well as facred hiltory. The 
 fame infpired Prophets had a much more grand 
 and important object in view, than to declare the 
 future difpenfations of Providence to one nation, 
 in particular; for they announced in terms at firft 
 dark and myfterious, but progreftively more clear 
 and circumftantial, the future birth of a Meffiah 
 a glorious King a divine Legiilator, who was to 
 abolilh the facrifices and religious inftitutions of 
 the Jews, and proclaim and eftablim a general 
 Law for the obfervance and happinefs of all man- 
 kind. Here the Evangelifts contribute their aid to 
 illultrate the declarations of the Prophets, and 
 unite the hiftory of the Old with that of the New 
 Teftament, in the moft clofe and indiflbluble bonds 
 of union. 
 
 The hiftorical books of Scripture, confidered 
 from the giving of the Law to Mofes, to the re- 
 formation in the wormip and government by 
 Nehemiah, after the Babylonifh captivity, contain 
 a fummary account of the Jewiih affairs for a 
 period of eleven centuries r . They were evidently 
 not intended to give a complete detail of national 
 tranfactions, as their writers had a more fublime 
 
 * Mofes, E. C. 1571. Nehequah, B. C. 546. Gtay'sKey, 
 p. 124. t 
 
 T 2 and
 
 276" THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 and important end in view. To illuftrate the pro- 
 phecies, by recording circumftances which exiited 
 at the time when they were uttered, and to mow 
 their accomplishment; to record various revelations 
 of the Divine will, and to defcribe the ftate of 
 religion among the Hebrews, and the various dif- 
 peniations of Providence in public, as well as in 
 private occurrences, feem to have been their chief 
 obje&s. Hence it is that the chain of hiftory is 
 fometimes broken into detached parts, and its 
 detail is interrupted by a recital of private tranf- 
 aftions. The books of Scripture occailonally 
 aflame the form, and comprife the beauties of a 
 very interefting kind of biography. Of this nature 
 are the feveral accounts of Job, Ruth, and Efther ; 
 but they are far from being unconnected with the 
 principal defign of the facred writers ; inafmuch 
 as they fliow that the fame divine Providence 
 which prefided over the nation at large, extended 
 its particular care to individuals, and that the ex- 
 amples of private virtue were infeparable from the 
 great interefts of public welfare and happinefs. 
 
 The Ifraelites, for many ages feparated from 
 the reft of mankind by their peculiar inftitutions, 
 were little acquainted with commerce, and made 
 fmaH advances in thofe arts, which with a. 
 refinement, and a diverfity of employments, intro- 
 duce luxury and corruption of manners. They 
 were governed by equal laws, and poflcfled nearly 
 equal property. They admitted no hereditary dif- 
 tinftion of rank, except in favour of the regal 
 
 tribe
 
 THE HISTOEY OF THE JEWS. 2?7 
 
 tribe of Judah, and the facerdotal family of Levi. 
 Their occupations from the earlieft times were of 
 the mod fimple kind, and confifted in pafturage 
 and agriculture. To guide the plough, and tend 
 the tlock, were employments which, recommended 
 by the innocence of primeval manners, and dig- 
 nified by length of time, were exercifed by kings, 
 prophets, and generals. Moles was called from 
 feeding his tlock, to conduct the Ifraelites to the 
 prom i fed land ; Eliiha foribok the plough, to be 
 invelted with the mantle of prophecy ; and Gideon 
 left the threming-floor, to lead the army of his 
 country to battle. 
 
 The country of Judea prefented a fcene diverfi- 
 fied by fruitful vallies, barren rocks, and lofty 
 mountains, and was watered by numerous dreams. 
 It produced the palm-tree, the balfam, the vine, 
 the olive, the fig, and all the fruits which abound 
 in the Eaft. From the labours of the field, and 
 from cultivating the vine, the attention of the 
 Ifraelites was regularly called by religious worth ip, 
 which was intimately blended with the civil con- 
 ftitution of the date. The fplendour of their 
 public fervices, the pomp and magnificence of their 
 rites and ceremonies, the dated recurrence of their 
 various feftivals and facrifices, the fabbath, the 
 paflbver, the celebration of the fabbatical year, 
 and the jubilee ; and more than all, the conftant 
 experience of divine interpofition, filled their 
 minds with the moft awful and grand ideas, and 
 
 T 3 gave
 
 278 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 gave them the deeped imprefiions of the majefty, 
 3>ower, goodnefs, and juftice of God. 
 
 Thefe were the circumftances, which combining 
 
 ' o 
 
 to form their national manners, had the greateft 
 influence upon their writings. The hiftorical ftyle 
 is marked by the pureft limplicity of ideas, occa- 
 iionally raifed to a tone of elevation. In the 
 works of Mofes there is a majefty of thought, 
 which is moft ftrikingly expreficd in plain and 
 energetic language. In the prophetical writings, 
 the greateft fplendour and fublimity of compofition 
 are confpicuous. They are enriched by thofe 
 glowing images, and raifed by that grandeur of 
 diction, which charm the clafticdl reader in the 
 moft admired productions of Greece and Rome. 
 The Iloyal Pfalmift is eloquent, dignified, and 
 pathetic. All the beauties of compofition unite 
 hi Ifaiah fuch is the majefty of his ideas, the pro- 
 priety, beauty, and fertility of his imagery, and 
 the elegance of his language, employed upon the 
 nobleft fuhjects which cquld pofiibry engage our 
 attention. Jeremiah excels in thofe expreflions of 
 tendernefs, which excite with the moft pleafmg 
 cnthufiafm the feelings of companion ". 
 
 * " Quid enim habct univerfa poefis, quid concipere poteft 
 tnens humana grandius, excelfius, ardentius, quid etiam venuf- 
 tius et elegantius, quam quae in facris Hehraeorum vatum fcriptis 
 occurrunt ? qui magnitudincm rcrum fere ineffabilem verborum 
 pondere et carminis majeftate exasquant ; quorum cum nonnulli 
 vel ipfis Grzcorum poetaruoi fabulis funt antiquiores, ita omnes 
 antum eos fublimitate exfuperawt, quantum -uetuftate antiquiflimi 
 antecedunt." Lowth, Prseleft. p. 16. See likewife, p. 7, 8, 21. 
 
 By
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 279 
 
 By fuch peculiar beauties of competition are 
 recommended the moft interefting details of events, 
 and the moft faithful delineations of characters. 
 The great Creator calls all things into existence 
 with his omnipotent word. The firft parents of 
 mankind, innocent and happy, are bleiled with 
 his immediate eonverfe, and enjoy the blooming 
 groves of Paradife. Jofeph, the pious, the chafte, 
 and the wife, after having undergone great afflic- 
 tions, and rifing by his o\vn extraordinary merit 
 to an office of the higheft honour in the court 
 of Pharaoh, difcovers himfelf in a manner the 
 moft pathetic to his repentant brethren, and is 
 reftorcd to his aged and affectionate father, whom 
 lie invites into Kgypt to iliare his profperity. The 
 Children of Ifraei, guided by the divine Power, 
 which veils its giory in a cloud, pats fafely through 
 the Red Sea, in -which the hofts of the impious 
 Pharaoh are overwhelmed. Upon the lofty fummit 
 of Mount Sinai, Moles receives the two tables of 
 the Commandments, amid the thunder, lightning, 
 clouds, and darknefs, which obfcure the great 
 Jehovah from his eyes. The royal Pfalmift lings 
 the wonders of creation, the powers of his God, 
 and his own defeats and triumphs. The peaceful 
 and profperous Solomon, whole renown was ex- 
 tended over all the Eaft, rears the ftmctures of the 
 magnificent Temple ; and amid the multitudes of 
 his adoring fubjecls confeciates it to the iervice 
 of the one true God, in a prayer which equally 
 attefts his wilclom and piety. In the vifions of 
 futurity, Ifuia.li beholds the deliverance of the 
 
 T 4 chofcn,
 
 280 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 chofen People ; the complete dr flruftion of the 
 great empire of Babylon, by whi-h they were en- 
 flaved; and the prpmiffxj ^kTiah, rhe Saviour of 
 mankind, fometimes depreiicd by want and forrow, 
 and fometimes arrayed in the emblems of divine 
 majefty and power. He predicts the final recal 
 of the Jews to their native land, and the wide 
 drffunYa of the Chriftian faith. Jeremiah finks a 
 weeping mourner over the ruins of his native 
 city, deplores its calamities, and confoles his 
 countrymen by exprefsly declaring, that they 
 ihould never ceafc to be a nation to the end of the 
 $rorld. Daniel explains to tfelihazzar the inyftic 
 characters ipfcribed upon the walls of his palace, 
 and views in his wide profpeft of future times, 
 the fates of the four great empires of the world, 
 Cyrus, long before announced by Jfaiah as the 
 great fubverter of the Babylon i(h empire, and the 
 reftorer of the glory of Jerufalem, publishes his 
 decree for the reftoration of the captive Jews ; 
 and the holy City and Temple rife from their ruins 
 with new grandeur and magnificence. The Jews, 
 are fettled and reformed by the pious care of 
 Nehemiah, and the canon of the Scriptures ig 
 clofed by Malachi. This laft of the Prophets 
 enjoins the ftrift obfervance of the Law of Mofes, 
 till the great Precurlbr Jhould appear, in the fpirit 
 of Elias, to announce the approach of the Meiliah, 
 who was to eftabliih a new and an everlafting 
 covenant x . 
 
 * For thefe very impreffive paflage^ of the Holy Bible, fee 
 Gn. i. ii. xliv. xlv. Exod, xiv. xx. The Pfalras. i Kings 
 
 1 Such
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 281 
 
 Such are a few of the interefting circumftances 
 contained in the facred volume of the Old Tefta- 
 ment, which engage our attention, charm our 
 imagination, and gratify our curiofity, while they 
 confirm our belief in the great evidences of Reve- 
 lation. In ail thefe works we may remark the 
 bright truths of religious inftruction mining forth 
 amid the venerable Simplicity of the moil ancient 
 hiftory a hiilory unrivalled for the grandeur of 
 the ideas which it conveys, the liveliness of its 
 deicriptions, and the number of its beautiful and 
 Sublime images. 
 
 In thefe volumes of facred hiftory there is an 
 impartiality of narrative, which is an undoubted 
 characteristic of truth. If we read the Lives of 
 Plutarch, or the Hiftory of Livy, we foon dif- 
 cover that thefe writers compofed their works under 
 the influence of many prejudices in favour of their 
 reipective countries. A veil is thrown over the 
 defects of their heroes, but their virtues are placed 
 in a ftrong light, and painted in vivid colours. 
 In the Scriptures, on the contrary, both of the 
 Old and the New Teftament, the ftri&eft imparti- 
 ality prevails. The vices of David, Solomon, and 
 their fucceflbrs, are neither concealed nor palliated. 
 There is no oftentation of vanity, no parade of 
 panegyric ; virtue charms with her native beauty, 
 
 viii. Ifaiah ii. vi. ix. x. xi. xiv. xxviii. xxxii. xl. xlii. Ix. Ixi. 
 Ixiii. Ixv. and more particularly liii. Lament, i. &c. Daniel 
 T. vii. Ezra vii. Nehera. xiii. Malachi tii. iv. 
 
 and
 
 C&2 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 and vice acquires no clifguife to conceal her de- 
 formity. The characters of perfons are iketched, 
 and the effects of the paflions are reprefented 
 without refcrve or concealment; and the moral 
 to be drawn from each defcription is fo obvious, 
 as to account for the frequent omiflion of remarks 
 and applications. The abjeft condition of the 
 Jews, when prohibited the ufe of weapons of war 
 by the victorious Philiftines; their relapfes into 
 idolatry, their perverfencfs of difpofition, and 
 their various defeats and captivities, with every 
 circurnftance of private as well as public difgrace, 
 are recorded without palliation or referve. Always 
 riling fuperior to the motives which induce other 
 authors to violate the purity, and degrade the 
 xnajefty of truth, thefe writers keep one great and 
 molt important end conftantly in view, and mow 
 the various methods, by which the providence of 
 God effected his gracious defigns ; how he pro- 
 duced good from evil, and employed the fins and 
 follies of mankind as the inftrumcnts of his gra- 
 cious purpofes. 
 
 An acquaintance with the affairs of the Jewifli 
 iiation forms the fhft link in the chain of ancient 
 records. Thus we may obferve the connexion 
 which fuhfifts between the branches of facrcd and 
 profane hifcory. We place the works of pagan 
 writers in their proper fituation, and give them 
 additional value by making them lubfervient to 
 
 the caufe of religion, and initrumental in the illuf- 
 
 ( " 
 
 trattOD of revealed truth. If the {indent is not 
 
 called
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 283 
 
 called upon by profefilonal inducements to drink 
 the facred ftreams at their fource, by reading the 
 Scriptures in the original language, he may reft 
 contented with tranflations ; and it feems to be a 
 well-founded opinion among the learned, that he 
 may rely with confidence upon the general fidelity 
 of our Englifli verfion. 
 
 To perufe the holy Scriptures is one of the firft 
 employments of childhood. We cannot fail to 
 congratulate ourfelves that our time has been thus 
 occupied, when our judgment is fnfriciently mature 
 to form a comparative eltimnte of the various pro- 
 ductions of literature, and we are fully able to 
 determine their ufefulnefs. And it will be found, 
 as life is verging towards its dofewhen every 
 other book begins to be infipid and uninterefting, 
 that the HOLY BFBLE, which includes the inoft 
 ancient records of time, the cleareft evidences of a 
 divine revelation, and the joyful promiles of eternal 
 happinefs, will attract us more and more, as old age 
 advances, and will afford us that divine folace and 
 inexprefiible fatistaftion, which no other writings 
 can give. 
 
 "I durft appeal to the judgmentof acandid reader, 
 that there is no hiftory fo pleafant as the facred. Set 
 afide the majeity of the inditer, none can compare 
 with it for the magnificence and antiquity of the 
 matter, the fweetnefs of compiling, the ftrange 
 variety of memorable occurrences : and if the 
 delight be fuch, what lliall the profit be efteemed 
 2 of
 
 284- THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 of that which was written by God for the falvatiou 
 of Men r I confefs no thoughts did ever more 
 fweetly fteal me, and time away, than thofe which 
 I have employed in this fubject: and I hope none 
 can equally benefit others ; for if the mere relation 
 of thefe holy things be profitable, how much more, 
 when it is reduced to uic y ? " 
 
 In conformity with thefe obfervations as to the 
 excellence of the Scriptures, was the opinion of 
 the late Sir William Jones, a perfon, as much dif- 
 tinguifhed by the fouudnefs of his judgment, as 
 by his exteufive and various learning. In the laft 
 leaf of his Bible thefe words were written 2 : "/ 
 have regularly and attentively read thefe holy Scrip- 
 tures, and am of opinion that this volume, independ- 
 ently of its divine origin, contains more fimplicity 
 and beauty, more pure morality, more important 
 hiftoiy, and Jiner Jlrains of poetry and eloquence, 
 than can be collected from all other books, in what- 
 ever age or language they may have been compofed." 
 
 * Biftiop Hall's Meditations. 
 
 * Scward's Anecdotes, vol. r. p. 176. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Hiftory of Greece. 
 
 1 HE country of Greece prefents a variety of the 
 mod pleafmg profpe&s, as it is well watered by 
 rivers and lakes, divided by lofty mountains and 
 verdant vales, favoured by a happy temperature of 
 climate, and enriched by fertility of foil. The 
 fea, abounding with all kinds of marine produc- 
 tions, and affording the moft favourable opportu- 
 nities for commerce, nearly furrounds its winding 
 limits. Such is the appearance of the country, 
 which, according to the moft authentic records of 
 hiftory, was made in very early times a fettlcment 
 of colonifts from Egypt and Phenicia, who, mix- 
 ing with the natives, built towns, and formed 
 feveral communities independent of each other. 
 Thefe eaftern emigrants brought with them many 
 traditions, which, being afterwards blended with 
 early Grecian hiftory, became the copious fources 
 of mythology. The various inventions and arts, 
 which they introduced among the original inha- 
 bitants of Greece, contributed to augment their 
 comforts, and civilize their manners. And as in 
 the general outlines of their religion, government, 
 and arts, the fimilarity of the political and reli- 
 gious
 
 86 THE HISTORY OP GREECE. 
 
 jrious inflitutions of the Eaft may be 
 Greece furniihes us with an internal evidence of 
 the origin of her colonifts. 
 
 In the early period of this hiftory there is fo 
 great a mixture of Eaftern with Grecian ftories, 
 and fo much confufion of chronology, extending 
 through a long fenes of oral traditions, that an 
 attempt to feparate truth from falfchood is as 
 arduous as it is fruitlds. Fully fenfible of this 
 difficulty, and defirous of remedying it by a pleaf- 
 ing, although an impcrfe6l expedient, Thucydides 
 aiid Strabo, who are both remarkable for their 
 accuracy and judgment, have confidered Homer 
 in the light of an Hiftorian*. That their confi- 
 dence in the truth of the narrative parts of his 
 Poems was not improperly placed, will appear 
 from confidering, that in the rude ages of fcciety 
 the fong; of the Bard was the onlv record of 
 
 o / 
 
 pad events ; and although many of his defcriptions 
 may be fictitious, yet fome regard to truth, fome 
 rcprefentation of events and aclions which really 
 took place, mud have been the ground of the 
 early reputation of the Iliad and Odyfley. The 
 connexion, clearnefs, and conliftency of many 
 anecdotes prefervcd in them, appear very great y 
 when compared with the dark and uncertain tra- 
 ditions of thofe early ages. The .fmiihed picture 
 of primeval inftitutions and manners, in the deline- 
 
 * Thueydides, vol. i. p. 7, 16, 18. Edit. Bipont. Strabo, 
 lib. ii. p. 774. 
 
 ation
 
 THE HISTORY .OF. CEEECE. 87 
 
 ation of which Homer dcfcends to many minute par- 
 ticulars, is no Itfs pleating than fatisfactory. He gives 
 a complete view of the religion, government and 
 arts of his countrymen at the time of the Trojan 
 war, which took place at the very remote period of 
 more than eleven centuries before the Chriftian 
 era". A ftrong argument in favour of his fidelity 
 may be drawn from the accuracy of his geographi- 
 cal defcriptions, which have been verified by the 
 actual obfervation of many intelligent and inqui- 
 fitive travellers. And it may incline us more rea- 
 dily to concur with Thucydides and Strabo in 
 thinking, that he truly records the leading facts, 
 and fairly reprefents the ftate of manners, at the 
 time of the Trojan war, if we recollect, that in 
 the unaffected energy of his defcriptions, and his 
 account of the fimplicity of ancient manners, he 
 .agrees very remarkably with the writers of the Old 
 Teftament, and fuggefrs to us the fimihrity of 
 character, which prevailed between the patriarchs 
 of Canaan and the heroes of Greece. 
 
 Greece was divided into a variety of uncon- 
 nected ftates, diftinguimed by different forms of 
 government, and remarkable for frequent revolu- 
 tions. Yet as the political importance of them all 
 was for the moft part relative, and depended, efpe- 
 cially in the later and more celebrated periods of 
 their hiltory, upon their connexion with Athens 
 and Lacedeaion, thefe diftinguifhed Republics 
 
 * Homer flourifted B. C. 907 years. 
 
 ought
 
 28$ THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 ought to be confidered with a more immediate 
 view to their RELIGION", GOVERNMENT, ARTS, 
 
 MANNERS, and CONQUESTS. 
 
 I. Tlie Religion of Greece. 
 
 From the Egyptians and other nations, to whom 
 the Greeks were indebted for their earlieft laws, 
 they derived their eftablifhed religion. To the 
 worfhip of the twelve principal divinities, the gra- 
 titude of fucceeding ages added the deification of 
 heroes, and legiflators renowned for their important 
 fervices to fodety. Various degrees of adoration 
 were paid to the Gods, and to the fouls of departed 
 heroes. Temples were creeled, feflivals were infti- 
 tuted, games were celebrated, and facrifices were 
 offered, with more or lefs pomp and magnificence, 
 to them all A regular gradation of immortal 
 beings was acknowledged to prefide throughout 
 univerfal nature, from the Naiad, who was adored 
 as the tutelary guardian of a ftream, to Jupiter, 
 the Father of Gods and men, who ruled with fu- 
 preme power over heaven and earth. 
 
 The religion of the people extended little beyond 
 the external honours paid to the Gods of their 
 country, and the attendance upon facrifices and 
 proceflions. The facred ceremonies were magni- 
 ficent and public, except that the votaries of 
 Bacchus and Ceres were indulged in their fecret 
 myfteries. The feftivals were obferved with every 
 circumflance of pomp and fplendour to charm the 
 
 eye,
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 289 
 
 eye, and pleafe the imagination. A facrifice was 
 a feall attended with gaiety, and even licentiouf- 
 iiefs. Every temple was the refort of the idle and 
 the diflblute; and the fhrines of the Cyprian. 
 Venus, and the Athenian Minerva, could atteft 
 that devotion, far from being a pure and exalted 
 exercife of the mind, was only the introduction to 
 difiblutenefs and debauchery. Athens was molt 
 renowned for the number of her ftately edifices, 
 and excelled the reft of the Grecian cities in the 
 frequency and grandeur of her feftivals. 
 
 The northern regions of Greece were particu- 
 larly renowned for temples, from whence oracles 
 were iflued. The temple of Apollo at Delphi, 
 fituated upon a lofty rock near Parnaffus, and that 
 of Jupiter in the groves of Dodona, were cele- 
 brated for the refponfes of the Pythia and the 
 priefts ; they were held in the greateft veneration 
 for many ages ; and their oracles were confulted, 
 even in the moft enlightened times, by phiiofo- 
 phers themfelves, who, in this inftance, as well as 
 many others, conformed to the popular fuper- 
 (litions. 
 
 The fpirit of the religion of ancient Greece was 
 included in thefe principles, that the worfhip of 
 the Gods was of fuperior obligation and import- 
 ance to all other duties, and that they frequently 
 difplayed their power in this world, in the punilh- 
 ment of the bad, and the profperity of the vir- 
 tuous : fuch were the opinions inculcated by the 
 
 VOL. i. u moft
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 moft celebrated philofophers and poets. But 
 common people, more gratified by the fictions of 
 the received mythology^ than by tenets of pure 
 ethics, found in the actions recorded of their gods 
 and goddeffes, a fufficient justification of every 
 fpecies of licentioufuefs. 
 
 With refpect to a Future StoU of exiftence, the 
 philofophers appear to have fluctuated in uncertainty; 
 as may be collected from the fentiments of Socrates 
 himfelf. The poets inculcated a belief in Tartarus 
 and Elyfium. Of the former they have drawn a 
 picture in the moft gloomy and horrific colours, 
 where men, who had been remarkable for impiety 
 to the gods, fuch as Tantalus, Tityus, and Sifyphus, 
 were tortured with a variety of mifery, ingenioufly 
 adapted to their crimes. The profped of Elyfiuin 
 is beautiful and inviting, as defer i bed by Homer, 
 Hefiod, and Pindar. In that delightful region 
 there is no inclement weather, but the loft Zephyrs 
 blow from the ocean to refrelh the inhabitants, 
 who live without care or anxiety; there reign 
 perpetual funfhine and ferenity of fky, and the 
 fertile earth thrice in a year produces delicious 
 fruits for their fuftenance. Thefe enjoyments 
 were, however, not only of a grofs and fenfual 
 nature, but were limited to perfons of rank and 
 diltinciion. Proteus informs Menelaus, that he 
 /hall be conveyed to the iflands of the bleiled, 
 becaufe he is the hufband of Helen, and the fon 
 in law of Jupiter b . No incentives to goodnefs, 
 
 k Odyff. iv. 1. 56. 
 
 from
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 291 
 
 from the confidcration of a future (late, are held 
 out by the older poets to the female fex, or 
 to the ignoble or vulgar, however pure their 
 corn! lift, or exemplary their virtues. In later 
 times we find, that Pindar extends his rewards 
 to good men in general ; but Euripides is 
 fometimes fceptical, and Iphigenia without he- 
 iitation cxprcfles her difbelief of the popular my- 
 thology. 
 
 It is well remarked by the ingenious and learned 
 Jortin, " That it gives us pleafure to trace in 
 Homer the important doctrine of a fupreme God, 
 a providence, a free agency in man, fuppofed to be 
 confiftent with fate or deftiny; a difference between 
 moral good and evil, inferior gods, or angels, fome 
 favourable to men, others malevolent ; and the im- 
 mortality of the foul : but it gives us pain to find 
 thefe notions fo miferably corrupted, that they 
 muft have had a very weak influence to excite men 
 to virtue, and to deter them from vice 6 ." This 
 excellent obfervatiou may be applied to the ftate 
 of opinions even in the moft enlightened times of 
 Greece, when the credulity and ignorance of the 
 vulgar, and the errors and doubts of the greateilphi- 
 lofophers, proved the neceffity and the importance of 
 the Chriftian revelation, with refpe6l both to the 
 duties of man, and the incentives to the difcharge 
 of thofe duties, arifmg from his final deftination. 
 
 The characters of the two great legiflators of 
 
 e Jortin, Diflertation VI. p. 245. 
 
 u 2 Sparta
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Sparta and Athens were evidently very different. 
 Lycurgus was diftinguimed by the vigour and the 
 inflexibility of his difpofition. Solon was mild, 
 circumfpccr, and compliant. The marks of their 
 tempers were vifibly imprefied upon their refpeftive 
 political eftablilhments. 
 
 II. Sparta. 
 
 It is unneceflary to enlarge upon the conftitu- 
 tion of Sparta, previous to the time of LYCURGUS, 
 any farther than to obferve, that there were two 
 hereditary kings, or prefidents, whofe power he 
 controlled by giving an equal authority to twenty- 
 eight fenators d . The kings were commanders of 
 the armies, and high priefts of the temples. Of 
 the ferrators was compofed the executive and legif- 
 lative council of the ftate, and with them all iaws 
 originated. The aflembly of the people was in- 
 verted with the power of electing the fenators ; 
 they could give a iimple negative, or affirmative, 
 to the meafures propofed to them, but had no right 
 to difcirfs their propriety. Lycurgus allotted to 
 every family an equal fhare of land, prohibited 
 the ufe of gold and filver, and made iron money 
 alone current, with a view to check the avarice of 
 
 * B. C. 884 years. Plutarch's Life of Lycurgns. Mitford, 
 vol. i. c. v. " We are told, that Lycurgus being afked why- 
 he, who in other refpefts appeared fo zealous for the equal rights 
 of men, did not make his government democratical rather than 
 oligarchal, " Go you," the legiflator anfwered, (t and try a 
 democracy in jour orwn bonft." Mitford's Greece, vol. i. p. 252. 
 
 his
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 23 
 
 his fubje&s. He forbad foreign travel, left their 
 morals mould be corrupted by an intercourfe with 
 effeminate nations. He instituted public tables, at 
 which even the kings of Sparta were required to 
 lhare the coarfelt viands with their people, and to 
 fet examples of the moft rigid temperance. Tp 
 produce a hardy and vigorous race of men, he 
 caufed the women to be employed in all athletic 
 exercifes. The children were carefully infpected as 
 foon as born ; the well-proportioned and healthy 
 were delivered to the public nurfes ; and thofe 
 who were deformed, or fickly, were expoied to 
 perifli in woods and mountains. Celibacy was 
 held difreputable ; yet the rights of female honoi!r 
 and marriage were not fecured from violation : for 
 provided the child which was born by promifcuou^ 
 intercourie was ftrong and robuft, no inquiry was 
 made to aicertain its father. All the children of 
 the Spartans were confidered as the offspring, or 
 rather the property, of the (late ; and the bufmels 
 of their public education coiilifted in accuftoming 
 them to bear the cravings of hunger and thirft, 
 and endure the fcourge of difcipline, and every 
 degree of pain, with patience, and even exulta- 
 tion. The paffions, of the young Spartan were fo 
 enflamed by patriotic ardour, and his body was 
 fo hardened by conftant exercife, as to make him 
 eager to undertake, and powerful to accomplish, 
 every exploit for the glory of his country. 
 
 As Lycurgus wifhed his people to enjoy the 
 moft complete independence, he provided thp 
 
 v 3 means
 
 294- THE HISTOnV OF GREECE. 
 
 means of fecurity againft foreign attacks by eftab- 
 lifliing the drifted military difcipline. In order, 
 however, to guard againft the defire of conqued, 
 he forbad his fubjcfts to engage too frequently in 
 war with the fame nations. This was the curb, by 
 which he endeavoured to red rain their military 
 ardour : the defire of conqued however was a 
 tlifeafe inherent in the vitals of his fydem, and it 
 frequently broke out in fucceeding times, as often 
 as any temptation occurred of extending their 
 dominions. By inftitutions the mod fevere ever 
 impofed on mankind, Lycurgus formed the habits 
 of his people, and even far furpatfed other legifla- 
 tors, by regulating their conduct in many circum- 
 dances^ which are generally fuppofed not to come 
 within the province of legal redriftions. He prc- 
 fcribed rules of the mod rigid abdemioufnefs, in- 
 culcated refpeft to age, enjoined modefty of beha- 
 viour, and promoted the conftant intercourfe of 
 the old and young. In other governments, many 
 valuable inftitutions arife out of cafual circum- 
 ftances ; the character of the people, and particu- 
 lar fituations of afYiurs, which fometimes direft, 
 and fometimes impel the legiflator in the forma- 
 tion of his fydem : but in Lacedcmoii almoft every 
 rule fcem.3 to have fprung from the comprehcniive 
 mind of Lvcurjnis, and his inditutions were emi- 
 
 */ 
 
 ncntly his own. Before his death he faw every 
 part of his political machine fet in motion. The 
 Spartans exulted in their new ftrength ; and their 
 defire to exert it was fo ardent, that they were foou 
 among the neighbouring dates as a 
 
 warlike
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 95 
 
 warlike and formidable people. For many ages 
 they manifefted a firm adherence to the will of 
 their lawgiver ; and, not to adduce other examples 
 of their ftri6l adherence to their original inftitu- 
 tions, the monument creeled in the ftraits of Ther- 
 mopylie, to record the glorious fall of Leonidas, 
 and his brave aflbciates, exprefled in an infcri[>- 
 tion exactly characteristic of the genius and the 
 fpirit of the nation, that they maintained their poft 
 to the laft extremity, in obedience to the. orders of 
 their country c . 
 
 The reverence of the Spartans for old age, their 
 abftemioufnefs, perfect difcipline, and great bra- 
 very, nui ft not ib far blind our judgment, as to 
 induce us to palliate the imperfections of their 
 laws, and the impropriety of their conduct. The 
 honour in which they held the fuccefsful perpetra- 
 tion of theft, their cruelty to their (laves, their 
 inhumanity to children, the indelicacy of their 
 
 fi |n' 
 
 Ku/AiSflS, TokJ X.HtU 
 
 Herodot. lib. vii. feft. 455. 
 
 The fqitimcnt is the fame which Demaratus exprefled to Xerx 
 in his charafter ef the Spartans. Herod. Polymn. feft. civ. 
 To them more awful than the name of king 
 To Afia's trembling millions, is the law, 
 Whofe facred voice enjoins them to confront 
 Unnumber'd fpes, to vanquifh or to die. 
 
 Gloyer's Leonidaj. 
 
 Herodot. lib. vii. feft. 219. Mitfordj vol. i. p. 407. This 
 writer's relation of the battle is peculiarly diftinft and accurate. 
 See Plutarch's Lives, rol. i. p. 292. 
 
 V conduct
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 .conduct to women, and the infenfibility and maf- 
 culine energy of chara6ter, with which they en- 
 deavoured to infpire them, all unite to mark a fero- 
 cious and a barbarous people. The improvement 
 of the mind, and the pureft feelings of nature, 
 were facrificed to fevere difcipline, and martial 
 occupations. They extended the fame rigour to 
 their allies, which they exercifed at home; and 
 ihus became the obje6ts of hoftility and averfion. 
 By a flrange inconfifteney in their laws, they were 
 trained to arms, but flopped in the career of con- 
 quefl; they were made a nation of warriors, yet 
 forbidden to purfue a flying enemy, or to enrich 
 themfelves with his fpoils. 
 
 Eminent as they were in the field of battle, 
 both kings and generals were incapable of compof- 
 ing the hiiiorics of their campaigns, and no book 
 has ever been tranfmitted to modern times, written 
 by a genuine Spartan of the Doric race. They 
 preferred the exercife of aims to the cultivation of 
 letters, and left their exploits to be haaded down 
 to pofterity by their enemies. 
 
 During the reign of fourteen fuccefiive kings, 
 through the long period of five hundred years, 
 their power and influence were relt throughout 
 Greece ; and for a confiderable part of that period, 
 the glory of Sparta eclipfed the other ftates-. But in 
 procefs of time the auftcre manners of her war- 
 riors were relaxed by victory and luxury. The 
 uniyerfal applaufe with which they welcomed, 
 % . and
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 297 
 
 and the rapacity with which they divided, the 
 fpoils of Athens, when that city was taken by 
 Lyfander, were ftrong indications of their degene- 
 racy. Of this gradual departure from the inftitu- 
 tions of their great legiflator, their fubfequent ve- 
 nality, luxury, and avarice, were iiirficicnt proofs f . 
 
 III. Athens. 
 
 A fairer order of civil polity is difplayed in the 
 confutation of Athens ; a conltitution, which fur- 
 n iflied not only a model for the laws of Home, but 
 for moil of the nations of modern Europe. It was 
 a regular fyftem of jurifprudence, extending to 
 every clafs of citizens. The molt judicious writers 
 agree, that thole improvements, which formed the 
 peculiar merit of Athens, were introduced by 
 Solon, about two centuries and a half after the 
 reign of Lycurgus. 
 
 The fituation of Attica naturally directed the 
 attention of its inhabitants to commerce, and 
 naval affairs. They polfeffed a country which 
 although fruitful in vines and olives, was not ade- 
 quate to the fupport of its inhabitants, without a 
 fupply of foreign produce. This deficiency natu- 
 rally pointed out the fea to them as the proper 
 fphere for their exertions, and in procefs of time 
 they rofe to the highefl eminence, as a commercial 
 ftate ; their great intercourfe with ftrangers gave a 
 
 f Polybius, lib. vj. p. 685. torn. i. 
 
 particular
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 particular direction to their lavs, and promoted 
 that urbanity of mariners, by which they were fo 
 eminently diftinguifhed*. 
 
 SOLON veiled the fovereign power in the general 
 aflembly of the people, which was compofed of free 
 men, whofe age exceeded thirty years h . In order to 
 obviate the evils, which a pure and unmixed clemo-p 
 cracy muft unavoidably have produced, when veiled 
 with an abfolute and uncontrouled authority, he efta- 
 bliflied a balance of power in the council of five hun- 
 dred. The members of this council were appointed 
 every year by lot, were poiTefled of certain legal qua- 
 lifications, and more particularly were obliged to 
 ftand the teft of a fevere fcrutiny into their moral 
 character, before they were inverted with their 
 high office. They had the direction of all poli- 
 tical concerns, and prepared bufmefs for the 
 afiembly of the people, to whom no meafure was 
 propofed without their previous fanction. Solon 
 likewife reftored the court of Areopagus, fo much 
 celebrated for the pure adminiftration of juftice, 
 and the unfullied character of its members, M'ho 
 exercifed a judicial power, and tried criminals for 
 
 * See the beautiful piftore of Attica, drawn by Sophocles, in 
 the firft Chorus of the (Edipus Coloness. He celebrates the praifes 
 of his native country, the various productions of the foil, and 
 the matchlefs fkill of the Athenians in horfcmanfhip and naval 
 affairs. It abounds with images fo truly poetical, that the Old 
 Scholiaft might well call it TO y*f wpc xan uSmot ^tXof. 
 
 Johnfon's Soph. Tom. ii. p, 22$. 
 * B. C. 594. Plutarch's Life of Solo*, Mitford, vol. i. chap. 6. 
 
 capital
 
 THE HISTOHY OF GREECE. <)9 
 
 capital offences. It was their duty to infpeft the 
 general behaviour of the citizens, fuperintend the 
 conduct of youth, and take care they were edu- 
 cated in a manner fuitable to their rank. But 
 their greateft privileges confided in a power of re- 
 verfing the decrees of the popular affembly, in 
 refcuing the condemned from their fentence, and 
 condemning the acquitted. Of the jtiftice, impar- 
 tiality, and wifilom of the Areopagus, in the exer- 
 cife of their fupreme authority, no higher idea can 
 be given than by the lofty panegyric of the great 
 Roman orator, who affirmed, that this council 
 was as effential to the profperity of Athens, as the 
 providence of the Gods to the government of the 
 world. By the eftablifhment of thefe two aiTem- 
 blies, a large mixture of ariftocracy was infufed 
 into the commonwealth, and the adminiftration of 
 public affairs was fecured again ft much of the dan- 
 ger of popular tumult and violence. 
 
 In addition to the general affembly of the people, 
 the Areopagus, and the council of five hundred, 
 there were no lefs than ten courts of judicature ; 
 four for criminal, and fix for civil caufes. Over 
 thefe prefided nine archons, who were inverted 
 with great authority, and the magiftrate who for 
 the fake of pre-eminence, was ftiled " the Archon," 
 exercifed a religious, as well as a civil jurifdi&ion. 
 But the merits of the caufes, and the validity of 
 
 */ 
 
 the evidence which were fubmitted to their con- 
 federation, were decided by a certain number of 
 juen, fdec"lec] from the citizens at large. Tim 
 
 Athenian
 
 300 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Athenian eftablilliment may bring to our minds 
 one of the moft celebrated inftitutions in the legal 
 polity ot % Great Britain; and the experience of 
 Englitimien, from the days of the immortal Alfred 
 to the prefent times, can give the fulleft tdtimony 
 to the general impartiality, ftcady juftice, and lin- 
 gular excellence of our Trial by Jury. 
 
 Although the number of inhabitants both in 
 Sparta and Athens was confidtrable, yet the num- 
 ber of thofe who had a mare in the government 
 was finall in proportion to the reft. Solon clafied 
 his citizens in four divifions ; the rich according to 
 their property were enrolled in the firft, fecond, 
 and third ; and to the fourth, which included the 
 moft indigent, was denied the participation of any 
 employments in the ftate. The number of Haves 
 when compared to citizens was very large. From 
 a computation made in the time of Demetrius 
 Phalerius, it appears, that there were more than 
 twenty thoufand Athenians qualified to vote in the 
 public aflembly ; at the fame time, the flaves in 
 actual bondage amounted to twenty times that 
 number 1 . Plutarch has enabled us to afceitain the 
 numbers of tire Lacedemonians at one particular 
 period, as he ftates, that by the divifion of their 
 lands, a competent fubfiftence was procured for 
 thirty-nine thoufand families. Their flaves appear 
 not to have been fewer in proportion than thofe of 
 Athens, even after the cruel nuuTacres to leflen 
 
 ' B.C. 317. 
 
 their
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 301 
 
 their number. It was not merely by the effects of 
 conqueft, that fo many were reduced to a fervile 
 ftate, as was the cafe of the unfortunate Helots ; 
 but many of the citizens of Athens were driven 
 by extreme indigence to fell themfelves to the 
 wealthy. 
 
 Fully convinced how much fuch employments 
 would contribute to the welfare of his country, 
 Solon gave the greateft encouragement to agricul- 
 ture and commerce ; and thus pointed out to his 
 countrymen the true and permanent fources of 
 comfort and opulence. Such was the liberal fpirit 
 of his laws, that the rich, while they exerted power, 
 could not oppreis the poor, who were allowed the 
 enjoyment of confiderable privileges. The tyrant 
 Pifiilratus and his fucceflbrs infringed this fair and 
 equitable plan of government k , and the ftruggles 
 of the Athenians for their rights in fucceeding 
 times, confpired, with other caufes, to involve 
 them in wars with the Perfians. Greater conceflions, 
 made to the populace at various times, contributed 
 ftill more to undermine the inftitutions of Solon ; 
 and before the age of Demofthenes, the ancient 
 fpirit of the conftitution was extinguished, and the 
 whole direction of the ftate was abandoned to the 
 arts of factious and venal demagogues. 
 
 The different laws of Sparta and Athens produced, 
 in the courfe of time, a correfponding difference in 
 
 k B, C. 560. 
 
 their
 
 30* THE HISTORY OF GREECE* 
 
 their manners. The performances of the theatre, tlie 
 popular afiemblies, and the faerecl fefttvals, employed 
 the inhabitants of Athens, while the Spartans, indulg- 
 ing in no amufement or relaxation, were inceflantly 
 buficd in the exereifes of war. The ftreets of Athens 
 refounded with the lively notes of mufic, and their 
 longs were dictated by the tender paflfions of pity 
 and love : the poets of Sparta rehearfed only the 
 ftern virtues of departed heroes, or roufed her fons 
 to martial exploits by the defer iption of battles, 
 victory, and death. In Athens the fportive fallies 
 of wit, and the gay images of fancy, gave a peculiar 
 vivacity to focial intercourfe : the ferioufnefs of a 
 Spartan was manifefted in his cautious refer ve, his 
 grave deportment, and the peculiar concifenefs of 
 his iharp and pointed repartee : the virtues of a 
 Spartan were gloomy and auftere ; the diflipation of 
 an Athenian was engaging and agreeable. The one 
 was an illiterate foldier, whofe character was formed 
 by martial difcipline alone ; the other was a man of 
 genius, of tafte, and of letters, who enjoyed the 
 advantages of refinement and knowledge '. The 
 
 1 This contraft of character is finely touched by Pericles in hi 
 celebrated Oration on the Athenians (lain in the Peloponnefian war. 
 
 Kai fjir.t xi -run irooui TrXitj-a; avaTratiXa; tr, y/xij fwopiff'aftefiae, otyvffl 
 (Ait yt r.eu Ouc-iais SkiWioK 0j,i^o>1i?, t^iaij Ji zxlotffKtvdti; toirptTta-u ut 
 *a9* i/xEf 17 TipJ/K TO AtTrjjpo* iKirhwrffH. t-jretfftf^ran Si hat peyftoot 
 Tt( TrsTicw; tx irctffXf yf^ TU irxHa.' xeti ^vuCaifit r/xir pr^w oix 
 Tn aTroAcxvj-Et T avla ayaC'* yiytcfjuto, xaf ffa-8(, ri x* To Tat 
 aiOfi-TTao. A.ta<pf{ou.in 01 xat Tat; tut irofapmut /x.iXi7atK T*> I 
 TOK^V. TT TI yo.% ro^ xonn nrapt^ofxtr, xa> an ir o 
 airn^yof^t TUB q /xaQ^aeroj ^ Gfaparref, &C. Thucyd. Lib. 2. p57 
 
 Tom. 2. Ed. Bipont. 
 
 5 morofeneis
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 803 
 
 fnorofenefs of the Spartan was increafed by holding 
 no iiitercourfc with other nations ; whereas by the 
 laws of Solon, ftrangers were invited to Athcn--, 
 and were admitted to all the privileges of citizens. 
 In Athens, liberty of action was ihewn in every 
 indulgence of focial pleafure ; in Laccdemon, the 
 fpirit of fociety, divefted of its charms to amufe 
 and to enliven, was made fubfervient to the affairs 
 of the ftate. The temper of Lacedemon was de- 
 prefl'ed by exceflive fubjection, while that of her 
 rival, rendered arrogant and vain by licentioufnefs, 
 was remarkable for a reftlcis activity, and a capri- 
 cious ficklenefs. Impatient both of freedom and 
 flavery, thefe great republics had few principles in 
 common except glory and ambition ; and they con- 
 tinually embarrafied each other in the execution of 
 their refpeclive projects to obtain the fovereignty of 
 Greece. The fpirit of independence, however, was 
 for the mod part predominant in the other ftates ; 
 and the yoke either of Sparta or Athens was re- 
 garded as heavy and intolerable. Difcordant as 
 their refpeclive interefts were, a train of events fuc- 
 eeeded, which caufed them to fufpend their animo- 
 ilties, to unite in a general alliance, and to equip 
 their fleets, and lead forth their armies, not only to 
 repel a formidable invafion, but to avert the ftorm 
 which threatened the deftruciion of their political 
 exiitence. 
 
 Among the colonies of Greece, fettled upon the 
 coafts of Alia Minor, the lonians occupied the moft 
 pleafant and fertile territories. In order. to refift 
 
 the
 
 304 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 the force of the Perfian power, which was exerted 
 to crufli their infurreCtion, they folicited the aid of 
 Athens, their mother country. Reinforced by her 
 afiiftance, they burnt the ancient city of Sardis ; 
 and although they were defeated after the accom- 
 pliflunent of this daring enterprife, the refentment 
 of the Perfian monarch was roufed to inflict ven- 
 geance on the Athenians for their interference" 1 . 
 
 O 
 
 Such was the immediate caufe of thofe memorable 
 wars, which contributed to mature the martial ge- 
 nius of the Greeks ; and the inte'refting accounts 
 of which gave fplendour, dignity, and glory, to the 
 
 moft authentic pages of their hiilory. 
 
 / 
 
 The train of events, to which this dhTention led, 
 involved like wife the moft important interefts of 
 the Perfians ; for the wars, begun upon flight 
 grounds with the Greeks, terminated at lait in the 
 iubverfion of their empire. 
 
 IV. Hie moft glorious Age of Greece. 
 
 Of all the expeditions recorded in ancient hif- 
 tory, that which was carried on againft Greece by 
 the Perfians is mentioned as the moft formidable, 
 whether the great forces which were brought into 
 the field, or the obitacles which they furmounted 
 previous to their engagement with their enemies, be 
 confidered. The minute and exact relation given 
 
 Herodot. lib. vii, feft. 38*. edit. Weffeling. Mitford, 
 vol. i. p. 315. 
 
 by
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE* 305 
 
 by Herodotus n of the vaft preparations made by 
 Xerxes, and the ardour with which he 'purfued his 
 romantic cnterprize, contribute to raife the reputa- 
 tion and glory of his countrymen to the higheft 
 pitch, when we confider the apparently inadequate 
 means of their defence and refinance. Yet what 
 was the fuccefs of the vain defpot of innumerable 
 hordes of undifciplined barbarians, when oppofed to 
 the determined valour and confirmed difcipline of 
 regular armies, commanded by generals of con film- 
 mate talents and approved experience? The great 
 Hiftorian above mentioned will give us the molt 
 fatisfa&ory anfwer to this queftion. 
 
 The fignal victory obtained in the plains of Ma- 
 rathon over the Perfians, was effected by the faga- 
 city, experience, and valour of Miltiades . The 
 fall of Leonidas and his illuftrious Spartans in the 
 ftraits of Thermopylae, taught Xerxes to refpecl; 
 their unexampled prowefs, and to regret a victory 
 obtained over a fmall band of heroes, by the lofs of 
 the choiceft foldiers of his army p . The Athenians, 
 abandoning their native city, trufted their fortune 
 to the fea, and under the conduct of Themiftocles, 
 engaged the fleet of Xerxes near the ifland of Sala- 
 mis \ From a lofty throne on Mount Egialos, the 
 
 Perfian 
 
 " Herodot. lib. vii. feft. 391, &c. 
 
 B. C. 490. Herodot. lib. vi. feft. 109. Mitford, vol. i. 
 c. 9. f B. C. 480. 
 
 * B. C. 480. Mitford's Greece, vol. i. p. 389, &c. Hero- 
 dotus, lib. viii. feft. 485. Plutarch, vol. i. p. 280. 303. 
 
 11 Salamis was called by Euripides a land rich in bees, and 
 fertile in olives ; and the predilection he difcovers for this, place, 
 
 VOL. I. " x juftifies
 
 306 TE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Pcrfian monarch obferved the fatal action, and wit- 
 netted the total deilruclion of his vaft navy r . The 
 battle of Platzea eftablifhed the renown of Paufanias, 
 and his victory was rewarded with the coitly fpoils 
 of. the Peifian camp. On the fame day, the Greeks 
 were equally fuccefsful at the promontory of Mycale 
 in Ionia, where they devoted the rich camp and 
 powerful fleet of the enemy to the tlames. Thefe 
 lignal events reftored liberty to the faireft portion 
 of Afia, where the Greek colonies were planted, and 
 completely fruftrated the defigns of Xerxes to en- 
 flave the nations of Europe. At a later period, the 
 aftonifliing retreat of the ten thoufand, who had 
 efpoufed the caufe of the younger Cyrus againft 
 his brother Artaxerxes, under the command of the 
 youthful Xenophon s , through a long track of 
 Iroitile country, kept alive the fpirit of fuperiority, 
 and taught Alexander the Great that the con- 
 
 O 
 
 queft of the Eaft might be achieved by Grecian 
 troops. 
 
 For half a century after the repulfe of the armies 
 of Darius and Xerxes, Athens maintained, without 
 rontroul, the pre-eminence of her power. The 
 farther progrefs of the Athenians, in extending their 
 
 juftifics the opinion that he was born there. Thus it could at 
 once boaft of having given birth to the chief of tragic poets, as 
 vrell as to Solon, the moft illuftrious of legiflators ; and this glory 
 f ircly cqaalled that of a naval triumph, now fo little interesting ; 
 while the Iphigenia in Tauris, and the legillation of Solon, are 
 objects of universal admiration." De Pauw, vol. i. p. 56. 
 ' 2Efchyli Perfa^, 1. 463, &c. B.C. 354. 
 
 2 dominions,
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 307 
 
 dominions, was affirled by colonization and com- 
 merce. Their navies rode the feas in triumph, and 
 their merchants exchanged the fuperfluous produc- 
 tions of Attica for the choiceft fruits of diftant 
 countries. The large and fertile ifland of Euboea 
 was numbered among their territories ; their domi- 
 nion extended over the Afiatic coaft for the fpace 
 of a thoufand miles, from Cyprus to the Thracian. 
 Bofphorus, and over forty intermediate iflands. 
 They planted colonies on the winding mores of 
 Macedon and Thrace, and commanded the coafts 
 of the Euxine Sea from Pontus to Crim Tartary. 
 Thefe trophies of naval power were creeled, not 
 over ignorant barbarians, but over men, who had 
 the fame language and laws, the fame arts and 
 lineage, who had every thing common with the 
 victors, except ikill in navigation, prudence in 
 council, and prowefs in the field. 
 
 And here we paufe, to contemplate the flriking 
 qualities of thofe chiefs, who diltinguiilied thein- 
 felves fo much in the fervice of liberty and Greece, 
 when the Perfians were driven from her mores. 
 The illuftrious perfons, who moft contributed to 
 raife Athens to its higheft pitch of martial glory 
 were Miltiades, Themiftocles, Cimon, and Ariftides. 
 Miltiades united the moft acute penetration into 
 the defigns of the enemy, to a perfect acquaintance 
 with his own army ; and when it was neceflary to 
 hazard an engagement, he always difplayed his ta- 
 lents in chooiing fuch a field of battle as gave him 
 a decided advantage. Themiftocles acquired the 
 
 x 2 greatefl
 
 SOS THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 grcateft renown by directing the whole attention of 
 his countrymen to naval a Hairs, and fecuring the 
 command of the ocean. Ariftides, equally illui- 
 trious for his integrity, (tcadinefs, and moderation, 
 lhared the glory of Miltiades in the plains of Ma- 
 rathon, and was eminently ditunguifhed by his 
 military talents both at Salamis and Platiea. By 
 his judieious conduct he ftrengthened the Grecian 
 confederacy, and provided ample fupplies for the 
 continuance of the war. Cimon, equal in courage 
 to Themiftoeles and Miltiades, and iuperior in 
 integrity of conducl, the liberal and diiintereited 
 benefactor of his indigent countrymen, brought 
 the navy of Athens to iuch a ftate of perfection, 
 and encountered the enemy with fuch fuccefs, 
 that Perfia, degraded and beaten both by fea 
 and land, was confined to the limits of her own 
 empire. 
 
 It is however melancholy, after viewing thefe 
 illuftrious perfons in the meridian of their fame, to 
 remark the ftorms of misfortune which obfcured 
 and haravTed fome parts of their lives. Miltiades, 
 perfecnted by a relentlefs fadion, died in prifon of 
 the wounds he had received in the fervice of his 
 country l . Ariftides, Themiftoeles, and Cimon were 
 condemned to exile ; and Phocion, the deipiler of 
 the gold of Alexander, and the fuccefsful oppofer 
 of the Macedonians, fuffered death by a decree of 
 the people. Such were the rewards beftowed upon 
 
 * Mitford, vol. i. p. 351. Vol. ii. p. 33. 85, &c. 
 
 perfous. 
 4
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 309 
 
 perfons the moil eminent for military talents and 
 public fervices umler'a democratical government ! 
 Theh-itrcd even of that honourable ambition which 
 was excited by the praiu' of the people themfelves, 
 and encouraged by their iu,<!l diftinguified favours; 
 the mod trifling appWO&nfiori of an invafion of 
 their liberty, the jealoufy of afpiring talents, and a 
 temper capricious and volatile, hurried the popular 
 aflemblies of Athens into arts of cruelty, ingrati- 
 tude, and oppreflion, again ft their nioft deferving 
 patriots, and their greateft benefactors. 
 
 Nor was lefs feverity in many inftances exercifed 
 againft artifts and phitofophers. Phidias, the moft 
 excellent of fculptors, was falfely accided of em- 
 bezzling part of the gold he had received for deco- 
 rating the ftatue of Minerva, and clofed his life hi 
 prifon ". Anaxagoras, who founded the principles 
 of a pure philofophy, upon an inveftigation of the 
 works of nature, Avas profecuted for a charge of 
 impiety, and driven into exile. Even Socrates, 
 liis amiable and unoffending difciple, the reformer 
 of the corrupt manners of youth, and the teacher 
 of the moft rational and fublime morality that ever 
 was inculcated by a heathen fage, became the 
 victim of party cabal and popular ridicule, and 
 was condemned to fuifer death 1 . 
 
 
 
 We have already obferved, that thefe were not 
 the only % fufferers tinder a democratical form of 
 
 B. C. 432. * B. C. 400. 
 
 x 3 government.
 
 310 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 government. The mod numerous clafs of the in* 
 habitants of Greece confided of flaves a defer ip- 
 tion of perfons, who without apy regard to their 
 pofielling the fame powers and faculties, both of 
 body and mind, as their matters, were wholly aban- 
 doned to the mercy of their defpotic will. They 
 were employed in the moft degrading occupations, 
 and, without enjoying the privilege of appealing 
 fpr redrefs to the civil magiftrate, or fpeaking in. 
 tjieir own defence in a court of juftice, were, upon 
 the moft trivial pretences, chaftifed with blows and 
 fcourging, and condemned to the rack. No hopes 
 of future good alleviated their hard condition ; for 
 although with a degree of refined policy their in- 
 creafe was encouraged, they had nothing to be- 
 queath to their offspring, but an inheritance of 
 mifery, and a condition of degraded humanity 
 worfe than that of the brute creation y , 
 
 In Athens, it muft be confeffed, they Were treated 
 with lefs cruelty, allowed more freedom of conduct, 
 anil were in many cafes permitted to claim the 
 protection of the laws. Their courage in war was 
 ibmetimes recompenfed by the gift of liberty : yet 
 even in a (late which boaftcd to be the nurfe of 
 freedom, and the miftrcfs of refinement, there was 
 
 * Mitford, vol. i. p. 210. 254. 270. Plutarch's Lives, 
 vol. i. p. 139. Potter'j Antiquit. vol. i. p. 55. ^Elian fays 
 exprelklvj that it was the common opinion of all Greece, that a 
 terrible earthquake, \vhich happened four hundred and $}>ty-feven 
 years before Chrift, was a judgment frtfrn heaven upon the Spar- 
 tans, for treating their >laves with cruelty. Hift. Var. lib. iii.
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 311 
 
 a public (lave market. The Spartans difdained the 
 occupations of agriculture and trade, and committed 
 every low and mechanical employment lo the 
 M retched descendants of the inhabitants of Helos, 
 whole city they had rafed for refufmg to pay them 
 tribute. In return for their faithful fervices, thefe 
 unfortunate men were treated in the mod rigid and 
 barbarous manner, and the dexterity with which 
 their inhuman mafters could furprife and deftroy 
 an enemy by ambufcade, was frequently pra&ifed 
 upon their wretched domeftics, while labouring in 
 large parties in the fields. 
 
 The conduct of the Greeks to their flaves feems 
 to prove, that they efteemecl liberty and its Wettings 
 their own excluh've privilege. It is indeed a 1m- 
 gular inconfiltency in their character, that at the 
 time-when they were exercifing defpotic fway over 
 their wretched domeftics, the orators were employed 
 in the molt fevere invectives againit arbitrary 
 power, and all Greece was roufed to oppofe the ty- 
 rants of Perfia and Macedon. Home alfo, even in 
 the periods of her hiltory moft remarkable for the 
 extent of knowledge, refinement, and civilization, 
 boaltcd of the multitude of her Haves. Their wrongs 
 and their afflictions fixed a ftain upon the nation 
 equally indelible with that of Greece. In modern 
 times, the fame nefarious inftitution has been con- 
 tinued, but attended with circumftances of cruelty 
 refpccting the modes, by which Haves are procured, 
 which would put a Roman, or a Greek, to the 
 bluih. The innocent and wild natives of the forefts 
 x 4 and
 
 312 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 and cleferts are (hatched from their beloved mores, 
 torn from every tender connexion, and condemned 
 to imprifonment and chains, during a tedious and 
 painful voyage, which is only a prelude to greater 
 afflictions. The lamentations of Africa, for the 
 lofs of her unoffending natives, are heard from 
 Guinea to the Cape of Good Hope. The eternal 
 Jaws of juftice, the tears of humanity, and the mild 
 and merciful principles of Chriftianity, call for an 
 abolition of this infamous traffic in human flem. 
 But the greedy Europeans, even thole who difgrace 
 the names of Proteftants and of Englishmen, Jiften 
 only to the voice of avarice and rapacity : the in- 
 jured futferers are ftill condemned to drag the gall- 
 ing chains of bondage, and many of their rigid 
 mailers are ftill regardlefs of their entreaties, their 
 fuflferings, and even of their defpair. 
 
 V. Grecian Women. 
 
 The Grecian women continued to be kept in fe- 
 clufion and retirement, even in the moft refined 
 times, from a refpecfc to ancient cuftoms. Their, 
 refidence was limited to a remote part of the houfe, 
 which took its name from its particular deftination 
 to their ufe ; they were vifited by no perfons but 
 their neareft relations, and when they went from 
 home, they were obliged by law to be attended by 
 a flave, carrying a lighted torch. Their time was 
 engaged by the employments of the diftaff and the 
 fhuttle, and by the care of bringing up their chil- 
 dren. Such a mode of life was not only calculated
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 313 
 
 to infpire them with modefty and diffidence, which 
 is natural to perfons unaccuftomed to promifcuous 
 conversation, and public life, but to cherilh the 
 growth of all domeftic virtues. One of the grcateft 
 orators of Athens gives a lively idea of this reclufe 
 itate, by averting, that it was the higheft honour 
 to a woman not to be the object either of public 
 praife or cenfure. Amid the turbulent concerns of 
 ciemocratical government, and the activity of mili- 
 tary expeditions, no leifure was found for the fexes 
 to improve the arts of converfation, enlarge the 
 fphere of their knowledge, and polifh their manners. 
 The female chara6ter was degraded, the paffiou of 
 love was coarfe and indelicate, and the women were 
 looked upon rather as the flaves tlian the equals of 
 men. Their education was totally neglected, and 
 little value was fet upon thofe female accomplifli- 
 ments, which, combined with the charms of beauty, 
 and native elegance of mind, have fo much influ- 
 ence in improving the manners of the moderns z . 
 
 It feems probable that this may be relied upon 
 as a juft picture of the mocteft women of Athens. 
 During the period we are confidering, courtefans, 
 (killed in all the arts of reduction, were numerous 
 throughout Greece, and their profeffion was coun- 
 tenanced by men of the firft eminence *. The beau- 
 tiful Afpafia, born at Miletus, the chief city of 
 Ionia, was the firft who introduced Afiatic elegance 
 
 z Mitford, vol. ii. p. 119, Anacharfis, vol. i. p. 438, 
 Millar's Origin of Ranks, p, 113, B. C. 440. 
 
 into
 
 S14- THR HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 into Europe. She had the gratification to add 
 Pericles to the lilt of her admirers, and gained fo 
 complete an afcendency over him, that he was 
 accufed of engaging his country in wars to avenge 
 her quarrels. Under his fanclion, me formed a 
 fociety of courtefans, whofe arts were employed to 
 attach the young Athenians to her intereft. Such 
 were the charms of her converfation, that Socrates 
 himfelf, his accomplished pupil Alcibiades, the men 
 of letters, and the moft celebrated artifts, frequently 
 repaired to her houfe. This circumftance may fur- 
 niih a proof of the low ftate of mental accomplim- 
 ments in the virtuous part of the fex, even during 
 the moft refined period of Grecian hiftory. 
 
 The fplendid train of fuccefs, which rewarded the 
 valour of Athens in the fifth century before Chrift, 
 forms the moft glorious era in her annals. In the 
 early parts of this hiftory, it is neceflary to have 
 recourie to very obfcure and uncertain accounts to 
 fatisfy our inquiries : fometimes we muft be content 
 with the defcriptions of poets, and the fables of 
 tradition, and we muft acquiefce in conjecture, 
 where authentic memorials are not to be obtained. 
 But with refpeCt to this illuitnous period, the diffi- 
 culty confifts rather in the {'election, than in the 
 difcovery of materials. The treafures of informa- 
 tion are rich and various, as thefe topics of ancient 
 glory have been recorded by the diligence of hiito- 
 rians, adorned by the eloquence of orators, and 
 heightened by the invention of poets. The light 
 of genius difTufes its moft fplendid radiance over 
 
 objects,
 
 THE HISTORY OP GREECE. 315 
 
 obje&s, which were not only endeared to all the 
 writers of Greece by the attachment of patrioiifrn, 
 but fupplied the beft foundations for their literary 
 fame. The triumphs obtained over the Perfians 
 are confecrated to endlefs renown by the works of 
 /Efchylus, Lyfias, Ifocrates, Demofthenes, Herodo- 
 tus, Thucydides, and Xenophon ". 
 
 Our furprife, when we remark the fmall number 
 of thofe Greeks, who on fuch diitinguimed occa- 
 fions vanquished very fuperior numbers of Perfians, 
 will be diminished, when we confider the compara- 
 tive (late of military education and difcipline. The 
 Greeks acquired by their gymnaftic exercifes a 
 robuft confutation, and agility of limbs. The fuc- 
 cefsful competitor for the crown of victory, by 
 running the race, hurling the fpear, or driving the 
 chariot, obtained no lefs renown for himfelf than 
 he reflected on his family and his country ; and he 
 was exalted in the opinion of the applauding mul- 
 titudes to the fummit of human felicity. The poft 
 of honour in battle was the reward of his courage, 
 alacrity, and fkill in the Olympic contefts. Their 
 frequent exercife in war enured the Greeks to hard- 
 fhips and fatigue, and accuftomed them to thofe 
 rapid movements in the field, which frequently de- 
 cided the fa,te of armies. Thofe who fignalifed 
 
 J? .fltfchylus flourished B.C. 485. Herodotus 445. Thucy- 
 dides 426. Lyfias -j. 1 2. Xenophon 400. Ifocrates 377. De- 
 jnofthenes 350. 
 
 them-
 
 316 THE HISTORY OF GEEECE. 
 
 themfelves in the battles of Marathon, Salamis, and 
 Plataea, had before obtained rewards at the public 
 games. There the flame of emulation was kindled, 
 which afterwards burned with inextinguifhable ar- 
 dour, whenever they ftimulated each other by the 
 moil powerful confiderations, to fight for the tem- 
 ples of their gods, the tombs of their anceftors, and 
 the fafety of their wives and children c . 
 
 Their clofe and firm phalanx, formed of the moft 
 robuft and hardy youth in the front ranks, and the 
 moft fteady veterans in the rear, was fcarcely to be 
 refifted by any fuperiority of undifciplined numbers. 
 Upon their heads they wore helmets of iron, their 
 bodies were covered with coats of mail, and -pro- 
 tected by maflfy bucklers, their legs were fenced 
 with brazen greaves, and their oftenfive M r eapons 
 were two-edged fwords, and long fpears. The Per- 
 fians on the contrary, in companion with the troops 
 of Greece, formed only an irregular crowd, com- 
 pofed of various nations d . Their weapons of attack 
 
 were 
 
 e Such was the exhortation which refounded through the leading 
 fquadron of their fleet at the battle of Salamis : 
 - SI irar?i 
 
 ;, Ssi TE <arnrfcvt to , 
 TS vcpoyosui. JEfchyli Perfz, I. 400. 
 
 * Travels of Anacharfis, vol. ii. p. 134. 167. Mitford's 
 Greece, vol. i. p. 366. There is a full and poetical enumeration 
 of the troops that followed Xerxes, in the beginning of the Perfat 
 of ./Efchylus. He defcribes what he faw, for he fought at Mara, 
 
 thon,
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 317 
 
 were darts, bows and arrows, their left hands fup- 
 ported light targets of ofier, upon their heads they 
 wore filken turbans, and their bodies were covered 
 with plates of thin metal. But their inferiority, 
 when compared with their enemies, was in no re- 
 fpecl; fo manifeft, as in the want of emulation and 
 public fpirit. Their minds were enervated by the 
 enjoyment of wealth and luxury, and fettered by 
 the bondage of tyranny. They were infenfible to 
 that love of glory, and to that pure and difmterefted 
 fpirit of enterprize, which fired the breaft of every 
 Grecian foldier, and prompted him to feek the field 
 of battle, as the nobleft fphere for the exercife of 
 his talents. 
 
 " While the army of Xerxes was recommencing 
 their march from Thermopylae, fome Arcadians 
 were tempted by the fame of the great king's 
 riches and liberality, tojoffer their fervices to him. 
 Herodotus feems to relate their (lory, not more for 
 the purpofes of eulogy, than of admonition to his 
 country. They were introduced, he fays, to the 
 prefence of Xerxes, and being afked what was 
 doing in Greece, they anfwered with great fimpli- 
 city, that it was the feafon of the Olympian games, 
 and that consequently, the Greeks were amufmg 
 themfelves with feeing athletic exercifes, and horfe- 
 races. Being again afked what was the reward of 
 
 thon, Salamis, and Platza. He reprefents the Perfian army as 
 chiefly confifting of cavalry, and armed in the manner I have 
 njentioned. 
 
 the
 
 318 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 the conquerors in thofe games, they anfwered, an 
 olive garland. Upon which, Tritantaschmcs, a 
 prince of the blood-royal of Perfia, exclaimed 
 O Mardonius, what a people have you brought us 
 to fight againft, who contend among thcmfdves - 
 not for riches, but for virtue' 1 ." 
 
 e Mitford's Greece, vol. L p. 594. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 4 
 
 [ 319 ] 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Hij'iory of Greece continued 
 
 Arts and Literature. 
 
 1 HE fame fpirit of competition which roufed the 
 Grecian cities to contend for victory and renown, 
 excited them to a rivalry of talents. As foon as 
 the apprehenfions of danger from the inroads of 
 barbarians were removed, they began to cultivate 
 the arts of elegance ; and the defeat of the Perfian 
 power, and the death of Alexander the Great, con- 
 taining an intermediate fpace of 180 years, dif- 
 played the genius of Greece mining with its brighteft 
 fplendour. The name of the painter and the fculp- 
 tor was celebrated in feflivals ; their works were 
 exhibited at the public games, and they were re- 
 puted to confer, by every fpecimen of their art, 
 diftinguifhed honour upon their country. The 
 monuments of their talents reflected luftre upon 
 their character, and gave it the higheft refpe&atri- 
 lity ; as it was their noble province to exprefs the 
 likenefs of heroes, and to embody the perfections 
 
 of
 
 320 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 of the gods*. To he publicly cliftinguiflied with 
 higher honours than his competitors, was, the great 
 object of the art id, and his unremitting and ardent 
 efforts to excel them, gave to his works that grace, 
 beauty, and fpirit, that exquifite expreiTion of paf- 
 fions, and appropriate dignity of character, which 
 mark the Venus de Medici, the Apollo Iklvidere, 
 and the Laocoon. And if the opinion of fonie 
 modern connoiileurs be well founded, that thefe 
 admirable ftatues are the productions of later 
 artifts, what muft we conclude the originals of fuch 
 mailerly copies to have been ? Certainly fuch as to 
 raife our ideas to the higheft pitch of attainable 
 
 perfc&ion. 
 
 * 
 
 The arts called forth by the moft lively images 
 the great events and characters of hiftory. Every 
 public edifice in Athens was filled with the ftatues 
 of warriors, magiftrates, legillators, philofophers 
 
 For the caufes of the fuperiority of the Greek artifts, fee 
 Winkelmann's elegant and pleafing work, torn. ii. p. I, &c. 
 A beautiful chapter on the Origin, Progrefs, and Decline of Arts 
 in Greece, may be found in torn. i. p. 37. torn. ii. c. i. For a 
 beautiful defcription of the Venus de Medici fee Spence's Poly, 
 metis, p. 66. Winkelmann, torn. ii. p. 7^. the Apollo Belvi- 
 dere, Spence, p. 83. Winkelmann, torn. iii. p. 195. the Lao- 
 coon, torn. i. p. 68. 
 
 " The moft famous apogrnphum or copy of our day is the Venus 
 de Medici. The attitude of this ftatue, like the works of Poly- 
 cletus, proves it to be a copy of the Venus of Gnidus, and the 
 infcription it bears is regarded by Mr. Marietti as another for-. 
 gery.'* Pauw, vol. ii. p. 70. 
 
 and
 
 THE HtSTOttY OF GREECE. 521 
 
 and orators. In one place flood Miltiacles, frowning 
 deftruCtion on Perfin; in another, the placid So- 
 crates, the thoughtful Solon, and the empaflioned 
 Deinofthenes. Every ftreet prefented an Athenian, 
 with fome Iti iking example of valour, wifdom, or 
 patriotifni. Wherever he turned his eyes, he faw 
 fome monument railed to perpetuate the renown of 
 his anceftors ; and the precious tribute of the arts, 
 fo liberally paid to all perfons of genius, courage, 
 and virtue, gave the keeneft incitement to the dif- 
 play of every fpecies of excellence b . 
 
 Thus is difplayed to our view a profpecT; moft de- 
 lightful to every cultivated mind ; for we behold 
 Greece in her moft flouriming ftaie, adorned by 
 literature, arts, and fciences. The nature of the 
 country was congenial with the temper of its inha- 
 
 * Winkelmann diftinguifhes the ftyles of ancient art. One 
 fpecies he calls the highfyle, for which the works of Phidias, 
 Potycletus, and Myron were celebrated. Their principal objecl 
 was to combine beauty with fublimity. Their figures difcovered 
 a certain hardnefs of execution, when compared with the flowing 
 contour, and elegant forms of their fuccefTors. A fpecimen of this 
 high ft vie is the Pallas of the Villa Albani, and the Niobe and 
 her daughters of the Villa de Medici. Another fpecies is the 
 fine Jijle y diftinguifhed from the former by grace. It commenced 
 with Praxiteles, and gained its height under Lyfippus and Apclles, 
 in 'the reign of Alexander the Great. Of this fpecies are the^ 
 Zephyr, expreflive of tranquil joy, in the aft of gently waving 
 his wings : the Leucothoe of the Capitol, and the heads upon the 
 medals of the ifle of Naxos. Other examples are, a Mufe larger 
 than life, in the Barberini Palace, and another Mufe in the Pope's 
 Gardens on the Quirinal Hill. Winkelmann, Art. d'Antiquit. 
 torn. ii. p. znj. 
 
 VOL. j. Y bitants,
 
 THE HISTORY OP GREECE. 
 
 bitants, apd their eyes were familiarifal to rapid 
 fi reams, craggy mountains, venerable forefts, and 
 fertile vales. Romantic objects, prefented to them 
 on all Tides, waked theenthufiafm of the mind, and 
 charmed the imagination. Clreece indeed, exhi- 
 bited a molt extraordinary fceue ; for at a period, 
 wlien all Unrounding nations were obfeured by in- 
 tellectual darknefs, and were barbarous and unpo- 
 li(hed, her fons unfolded the full powers of their 
 tranfeendent genius. Their arrive intellect, not 
 enervated by the luxuries of refinement, not dif- 
 traded by a multiplicity of objects, exerted itfelf 
 with ardour, followed up many of its inventions 
 with perfeverauee, aud foared to the moft aftouilh- 
 ing heights of the beautiful, and the fublime. To 
 other countries they were doubtleis indebted for 
 fome rude and imperfect elfays of art, fcience, and 
 philofophy ; but it was their peculiar glory to iluipc 
 them into beauty, and methodife them into iyftem. 
 
 HOMER, the great Father of Epic fong, firft in- 
 voked the mufes, charmed the ear with the match- 
 lets harmony of his numbers, and prefented in his 
 incomparable works the mod ftriking pictures of 
 ancient manners, the niceft difcriminations of cha- 
 racter, and the moft beautiful profpects of nature'. 
 To the invention of a poet, he unites the feelings 
 of a philanthropilt. He celebrates the arts which 
 iuliuin and adorn human life, and breathes the molt 
 
 e B. C. 907. For a glowing paflage on the genius of Homer, 
 the fource of the beauties of the tragedy, painting, eloquence, and 
 fcuipture of Greece, fee Anacharfis, vol. i. p. 105. 
 
 5 lively
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 lively fentiments of piety, patriotifm, anil focial 
 aflfeclion. As he clefcribes thofe miferies of man 
 which ipring from dishonour, difconl, and war, 
 there is an air of deep folemnity diflfufed over his 
 poems ; and in this refpect, as well as in his pic- 
 ture of primeval manners, there is a clofe affinity 
 to the books of the Old Teftament. His genius, 
 like the Jupiter he defcribes, is fupreme in majefty, 
 when compared with that of all other poets, and is 
 never exerted in a manner which harmonifes fo 
 perfectly with its potters, as when he {bars to the 
 fublime. Among the numerous circumftances which 
 may be related to his praife, it is furely not the 
 lead extraordinary, that the beauty and contrivance 
 of his fables, the harmony of his numbers, and the 
 various exertions of his genius, elevated at once 
 by one mighty effort the dignity of epic poetry to 
 fuch a pitch of perfection, that almoft all the merit 
 of fucceeding poets has confifted in following, 
 without bein able to overtake him. 
 
 
 The tragic mufe gradually improved her charms, 
 gained the full dignity of her character, and fpoke 
 the genuine language of the paffions. She ani- 
 mated the Greeks with that original fpirit of dra- 
 matic excellence, which the Romans, however fond 
 of theatrical exhibitions, found to be unattainable. 
 
 She firft enlivened the fcenes of ^SCHYLUS with 
 wild fublimity d , gave beauty and grace to the 
 polifhed and energetic SOPHOCLES, and taught 
 u RIP IDES to breathe his pathetic and moral 
 
 * B.C. 485. 
 
 Y 2 {trains.
 
 3C4 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 {trains *. Comedy amnfed the Athenians in its 
 ruder (late with the/coarfe licentioufneis and broad 
 humour of ARISTOPHANES, and, in its more pleating 
 and elegant garb, charmed them with the chatte 
 frntiment and divcriiiicd characters of MKNAN DtK f . 
 To this admired writer, the greateft ornament of the 
 new comedy, are aferibcd no lets than 105 plays. 
 Onlv the titles of 73, and tome Ihort fragments, have 
 
 O 
 
 etcaped the ravages of lime. The itile of thefe pre- 
 cious relicks is pure and elegant, and the turn of 
 thought is ferious and fevere. Of the vivacity of his 
 comic powers, the artifice of his plots, or the excel- 
 lence of his characters, we can form no jufter idea 
 than from the imitations of Terence. Such was the 
 high eftimation in \\hich Quintilian held his pro- 
 ductions, as to ail'ert, that he efteemed them furri- 
 cient to form the character of an orator, and that 
 Menander had eclipfed all other comic writers by the 
 dazzling fplendour of his genius g . 
 
 B.C. 433. f B.C. 320. 
 
 * Quint, lib. x. cr. I. No compliment has ever been paid to 
 the memory of Menander more poetical than that which is con- 
 tained in the following beautiful lines by Tanaquil Faber : 
 
 Sacrum Mcnandri peftus 
 
 Aura jam reliquerat, 
 
 Vagulaque animula 
 
 Elyfias penetrarat oras; 
 
 Turn dolore percitx 
 
 Virgineafque : 
 
 SufFufae lachrymis genas, 
 Hue & illuc curfitarunt 
 
 Perque lutos, perque montes 
 
 Perque vallium finus 
 
 Curfitarunt Gratix, 
 
 Querentes fibi 
 
 Queis nova fedibus 
 
 Templa poncre polTmt.
 
 THE BISTORT OF GREECE. 325 
 
 Of the fublime flights of PINDAR, the celebrated 
 "bard of Thebes, we can only judge by his few re- 
 maining Odes, which are laid to be far inferior to 
 his Hymns unfortunately loit. lie celebrates the 
 victors in the facred games of Greece, particularly 
 Hiero of Syracufe, andTheron of Agrigentum, and 
 rehearfes the praifes of the cities from \vhence they 
 fpiang. His diftion is ftrong, his images bold, 
 various, and vivid, his tranfitions rapid, and his 
 numbers irregular. Modern imitations of his man- 
 ner, except a few by Horace, Dryden, and (i ray, 
 are tame and fpiritlefs ; and are no more to be 
 compared to his grandeur of thought, and truly 
 poetical fire, than pictures of the eruption of^Etna, 
 which is a favourite iubjeft of his defcription, are 
 to the real appearance of that mountain. 
 
 " Forth from whofe nitrous caverns ifluing rife 
 Pure liquid fountains of tempeftuous fire, 
 And veil in ruddy mifts the noon-day fkies ; 
 While wrapt in fmoke the eddying flames afpire, 
 Or gleaming through the night with hideous roar, 
 Far o'er the reddening main huge rocky fragments pour h ." 
 
 At a much later period, THEOCRITUS defcribed 
 the rural manners, and romantic fcenes, of Sicily, 
 
 h Weft's Pindar. 
 
 Tar ipft-yailiai pin a?rAa- 
 
 T tfftj' ayoV1at 
 
 Ex p.v)(ui tpa.ya.1' orc?afAO 
 
 A a/xi<xi0-;> fj.it tBV6jcij?i 00 x?r>w 
 
 if s- 
 
 ft, $(H ro>i r^xa cry* arotlctytp. 
 
 Pind. nffla <i Heync, p. iig. 
 
 Y3 in
 
 326 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 in his Paftorals, which, like the rofcs gUflering 
 with the dew chops of the morning, are frdli from 
 the hand of nature, and ever attract us with the 
 charms of originality. 
 
 Among the various branches of compofition, an 
 early attention was paid to hiftory. HERODOTUS 
 recorded the affairs of the ancient world, as well as 
 fome of the moil glorious proofs of Grecian valour, 
 in an eafy and unaffected narrative 1 ; and a model 
 of authentic and accurate detail was given to man- 
 kind by the grave and impartial THUCYDIDES. 
 Through his obfcurity a certain brightnefs fome- 
 times appears, which, like the flames of lightning 
 in a dark night, breaks forth, and dazzles his readers. 
 The divine Socrates allured his countrymen to vir- 
 
 1 For a general account of the Greek hiftorians, fee, Roilin's 
 Arts and Sciences, vol. iii. p. 30. 
 
 Monboddo, in vol. iv. b. ii. c. 10. of his Origin and Progrefs 
 of Language, has given a very excellent account of the ftyle, 
 hiftory, and character of Herodotus. See likewife Warton on 
 Pope, vol. ii. p. 385. and Athenian Letters, vol. i. p. 151. 
 Herodotus feems at prefent to be again rifing into credit, and 
 rocorering from the charge brought againft him by Richardfon, 
 Sir W. Jones, and Hnme. The truth of many of his defcriptions 
 is confirmed by recent obfervations. When Volney treats of the 
 pyramids, which, including the three large ones, 1 amount to thirty 
 or forty, at the ditfance of only four leagues from Cairo, the 
 dimensions of not one of which have been accurately taken, though 
 the ftruftures are now 2647 years old, he eftablifhes the opinion 
 of their having been fcpulchral monuments ; and vindicates the 
 teftimony of Herodotus againft the fcepticifm of the moderns, 
 who try every thing by the tafte and ideas of their contempora, 
 
 
 
 I1C6. 
 
 tue
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 327 
 
 tue by the charms of familiar converfation, and 
 brought the moil ufeful kind of knowledge from 
 the fcliools of philofophy to reform the manners of 
 his countrymen. His labours to turn their atten- 
 tion from abftrufe and frivolous fpeculations to the 
 amendment of their conduct, form a curious epoch 
 in the hiftory of the human mind k . To two of 
 his moft enlightened difciples we are indebted tor 
 the interefting detail of his con verfat ions, fenti- 
 ments, and actions. Their reipective defences 
 or apologies, fupport the dignity of their injured 
 mailer's character, are ftrongly marked by the pecu- 
 liar difpofition of the writers, and coincide in the 
 principal topics of vindication. PLATO, who united 
 the fancy of the poet with the wifdom of the mo- 
 ralift and the fubtlety of the metaphyiician, adorned 
 the leffons of philofophy with the luxuriant flowers 
 of fancy, and applied his ardent and deep fpecula- 
 tions to trace the great author of the univerfe 
 through the difplay of his works, and to prove the 
 immortal nature of the foul 1 . XEXOPHON the 
 fcholar, the warrior, and the fage, among other 
 excellent productions, recorded the retreat of him-' 
 felf and his brave countrymen, through hofts of 
 barbarous foes, in a circumftantial and animated 
 narrative ; and, combining the beauties of fiction 
 with the traditions of hiftory, portrayed in the elder 
 
 k For an excellent account of the philofophy of Socrates, fee 
 Stillingfleet's Origines Sacra?, part ii. p. 46. Gillies, vol. i, 
 p. 476. and vol. ii. p. 94. l . C. 400. 
 
 Y 4 C)tfUS
 
 328 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Cyrus the character of an accomplished monarch. 
 All his works are interfperfed with the mod en- 
 gaging fentiments of* morality, and charm with the 
 inatchlefs grace of genuine fimplicity m . ARIS- 
 TOTLE, the moft eminent fcholar of Plato, did not 
 embrace the fublime opinions of his great matter 
 upon divine fubje&s, nor copy his florid ftyle of 
 writing". His various works are remarkable for 
 a fimplicity and a feverity of compofjtion. Autho- 
 ritative and profound in all his opinions, he carried 
 his indefatigable refearches not only into natural, 
 political, and moral fubje&s, but inveftigated the 
 principles of elegant literature, and applied his 
 judgment to the critical examination of the various 
 branches of poetry and eloquence. As a logician 
 he reigaed with deipotic f\vay over the fchools of 
 Europe for many ages, but by a revolution, com- 
 mon to human opinions, many of his works, in 
 the prcfent times, are more admired than ftuclied 
 
 The liberty of Greece gave free fcope to the 
 efforts of public fpeakers. Ths Athenians were 
 gratified with liilening to the fpeeches of the artful 
 Lyfias, the bold Demades, the polite and cmpaltioned 
 Hvperides, the fcvere Lycurgus, and the dirVufe and 
 
 " The pattern of perfeft fimplicity ; every where fmooth, har- 
 monious, and pure ; declining the figurative, the marvellous, and 
 the myftic ; afcending but rarely into the fublime ; nor then fo 
 much trufting to the colours of ftyle, as to the intrinfic dignity of 
 t&e fentiment itfelf. Harris's Her. p. 423. 
 
 f AriftoUe, B. C. 34.5. 
 
 learned
 
 TUB HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 karned /Efchincs. Dut the palm of eloquence, thus 
 contended for by his countrymen, is juftly aiiigned 
 to the celebrated author of the Philippics. Severe 
 and majdtic energy is the characteriftK; of the fen- 
 timents and language of DEMOSTHENES*, lie \vas 
 too ferious and too dignified to aim at the orna- 
 ments of ityle, except fuch as were manly and 
 appropriate ; he was too ardent to be dirrufe, and 
 too eager for action to wafte his time upon the cir- 
 cuitous arts of mild perfuafion. It was his great 
 object to aftoui/h by unexpected flames of thought, 
 to terrify by lively images of danger, and to con- 
 vince by the molt imprelTive, and moft conclufive 
 arguments. While he roufed his flothful and pro- 
 craftinating countrymen to check the advances, 
 and revenge the aggreilions, of Philip of Macedon, 
 who was both a crafty and powerful enemy ; his 
 orations equally proved the degeneracy of their 
 manners, and the 1'ublimity of his own genius. 
 And what mult have been the commanding power 
 of his delivery, to which even JEfchines, his great 
 and able rival, according to his own candid ac- 
 
 '- O 
 
 knowledgment, could not do juftice ! The energy 
 of his manner, the modulation of his voice, and dig- 
 nity of his action, correfponded with the force and 
 the compafs of his rcafoning, and combined to form 
 the orator, to whom is defcrvedly affigned the fore- 
 moft place in the records of eloquence p . 
 
 To 
 
 c Demofthenes, B. C. 339. 
 
 ' " The Roman orator is too florid and rhetorical, his figures 
 are too ftriking and palpable, the divifions of his difcourfe are 
 drawn chiefly from the rules of the fchools. The manner of 
 
 Dcmollhcnes
 
 3SO THE HISTORY OF GREECE, 
 
 To the Greeks we owe the improvement, if not 
 the invention of grammar, logic, criticifm, meta- 
 phyfics, inn (ic, geometry, medicine, and aftronomy; 
 and many of the terms peculiar to each of theie 
 arts and fciences, clearly point out the country from 
 which we have derived them. The refined inven- 
 tion of builders embellished their cities with thofe 
 regular, well-proportioned, and elegant fpecimens 
 of architecture, which difplaved the various forms 
 of the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian orders. 
 Athens was filled with temples, theatres, porticos, and 
 veftibules, of matchlefs fymmetry and grandeur; 
 and the pencils of Zeuxis, Parrhafius, and Polyg- 
 notus, and the chifels of Alcamenes. Phideas, and 
 Polycletus, decorated them with the moil beautiful 
 pictures, bufts, and ftatues. The religion of the 
 Greeks was peculiarly favourable to the exertions 
 of artifts, and their facrifices, affemblies, and pro- 
 ceilions, were equally well adapted to painting, 
 bas-relief, and fculpture. Thefe artifts animated 
 the Parian marble, and gave life and paflion to the 
 
 Dcmcflhenes is more chafte than that of Ciceso. Could it bs 
 copied, its fuccefs would be infallible over a modern afleoibly. 
 It is rapid harmony exaftly adjufted to the fenfe : it is vehement 
 reafoning, without any appearance of art : it is difdain, bold- 
 nefs, anger, and freedom, involved in a continued ftream of argu. 
 ment : and of all human productions, the orations of Demofthenes 
 prcfent to us the models, which approach the nearell to perfec- 
 tion." Hume's Efiays, vol. i. p. 109. Travels of Anacharfis, 
 vol. ii. p. 116. The character of his genius, vol. v. p. 184. 
 Leland's Preface to his Translation of Demofthenes, ift, .id, 
 3d, and 4th, Philippic, and ift, zd, and 3d, Olynthiac Ora- 
 tions. 
 
 glowing
 
 THE HISTORY OF GEEECE. 331 
 
 glowing canvafs. The continual view of the human 
 body in the baths, and at the public games, fami- 
 liarifed the artiits to the contemplation of forms 
 the moft elegant, and attitudes the molt graceful. 
 They copied the faireli appearances of nature, and 
 by combining the fcattercd beauties of various per- 
 fons in one fubject, gave no very inadequate rcpre- 
 fentation of that ideal excellence which filled their 
 glowing imaginations. Theirs likewife was that 
 exquifite judgment, the companion of genius, which 
 intiantly felccting from art or nature whatever was 
 excellent, gave to their works an irrefiftible charm. 
 Such indeed was the diftufion of tafte, that even 
 the common people, by conftantly furveying the 
 fineft fpecimens of painting and feulpture, and 
 hearing the moft fmiihed compofitions recited in 
 the theatres, and public atfemblies, became quali- 
 fied to appreciate, with correcl; judgment, the vari- 
 ous productions of their countrymen. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 333 ] 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Subjeft continued. 
 
 AFTER fuch a digreffion as the foregoing, which, 
 it may be prefumccl, can require no apology, as the 
 arts and literature of the Greeks, in their meridian 
 glory, are the fubjefts of it ; we unite the broken 
 thread of hiitory by remarking, that the memorable 
 war of Peloponnefus derived its origin from the 
 ambition of the Athenians, who M'ere defirous of 
 humbling the pride of Sparta, and making their 
 own city the centre of Grecian dominion *. As 
 the Athenians pofifefTed only a territory of 86 fquare 
 leagues, while that of the Spartans confifted of 250, 
 they were compelled to make the moft vigorous 
 exertions to counterbalance, by every means, the 
 fuperior refources of their rivals. To the difgrace 
 of a people fo refined and civilized, this war was 
 carried on with all the ferocity of Barbarians, and 
 prefented a wide fcene of calamity and diftrefs, of 
 cabal and civil difcord, of mifcondu6l and cruelty. 
 Athens was defolated by a peftilential fever, far 
 more definitive than the fword of the enemy, yet 
 it tended not to fix the volatile temper of her citi- 
 zens upon any meafures of peace b . The capricious 
 
 Alcibiades 
 B.C. 43 i. 
 
 b De Pauw, vol. i. p. 115. Thucydides, lib. ii. chap. 47, 48, 
 
 Jcc. Edit. Eipont. torn. ii. p. 71. 
 
 " This
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 333 
 
 AlctUiades held forth the poffeflion of Sicily as a 
 defirable object of conqucft. To achieve this enter* 
 prife, the moft fplcndid and powerful fleet that ever 
 left the harbour of Athens, failed for the bay of 
 Syracufe under his command e . Becoming a prey 
 to the intrigues of faction, he abandoned the expe- 
 dition, and by flight fhunned the fate to which he 
 was fentenced. 13y his advice, the Spartans rein- 
 forced the Syracufans, and the ftorm of their united 
 vengeance fell upon the Athenians ; not a (ingle 
 fliip returned home, and a few only of the great 
 numbers, who compofed their army and navy, 
 efcaped death or captivity. For a ftriking detail 
 of thefe events, \ve are indebted to Thucydides, 
 who, holding the rank of a commander in the 
 early part of the war, was himfelf an eye-witnefs of 
 many of the tranfactions which he has related. 
 To his nervous description of facts, he has added 
 
 <f This difeafe afflifted the Athenians during the heat of fum- 
 mer. It is confidered by Mailer, and other modern phyficians, 
 as nothing more than a contagious fever. To feek in Ethiopia 
 the origin of a diforder, fo evidently arifing from multitudes of 
 men heaped and prefled together, would be abfurd ; efpecially as 
 its influence did not extend beyond the walls of Athens, and was 
 totally unknown in every other part of Greece." De Pauw, 
 vol. i. p. 121. 
 
 The poets have (hewn their approbation of this affefting 
 accounuof the plague of Athens, by adopting many of its images 
 into fimilar defcriptions. Lucretius, book vi. ver. 1136, Sec. 
 Virgil in the third Georgic, ver. 478. and JEne'id iii. ver. 13-. 
 and Ovid and Statius have all followed Thucydides. This is 
 the fubftance of the remark of Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. lib. ii. 
 chap. 25. 
 
 e Thucydides, lib.vi. chap. 19, 20, 22, &c. 
 
 proofs
 
 534- THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 proofs of the fplendid abilities which the great ora- 
 tors of this period difplayed, and has given us 
 fame examples of the fervid eloquence of Pericles ; 
 and more efpecially when he pronounced a fune- 
 ral oration upon the foldiers who had fallen in the 
 fcTvicc of their country d . 
 
 The irrefiftible force of thunder, and the vivid 
 flailies of lightning, were the figurative allufions 
 ufed to convey ideas of the eloquence of Pericles. 
 His talents raifed him to the fole admin iftration of 
 puhlic affairs, and he guided at his fovereign dif- 
 pofai a capricious populace for fifteen years*. To 
 the people he looked for diftin6tions and honours, 
 and to them he facrificed the principles of the an- 
 cient conftitution. The engine of his popularity 
 was corruption. With the public money, originally 
 deftmcd for the defence of Attica in cafe of inva- 
 fion, he rewarded his countrymen for attending the 
 public ailemblics, and enabled every one of them, 
 by the fanclion of an exprefs lnw, to receive a gra- 
 tuity for reforting to their favourite diverfions of 
 the theatre. His fame would reft upon a very weak 
 foundation, if it was only fupported by the fuccefs 
 of his admiuiftration, in bending the inclinations of 
 his citizens to his own political plans, and facrificing 
 their independence to his ambition. 
 
 But fortunately for his reputation he has the tef- 
 timony of the molt uubiafled men in his favour; 
 
 * Thucydides, lib. i. c. 22. lib. ii. c. 35. 
 
 * B. C. 430. 
 
 for,
 
 THE HISTOHY OF GREECE. 335 
 
 -for, from the high encomium of Socrates, the anec- 
 dotes of Plutarch, and the candid and honourable 
 teftimony of Thucydides, who was baniihed at his 
 inftigation, we may juftly conclude that he was the 
 patron of the arts ; that as a public fpeaker he was 
 moll eloquent; that as a ftatefman, his abilities 
 were con Turn mate; and that in the midft of the 
 cruelty and venality of his countrymen, lie difdained 
 the acquifition of wealth, and abhorred the practice 
 of revenge. 
 
 Twenty-feven years put a period to the war of 
 Peloponnefus, and extinguimed the glory of the 
 Athenians. The burning of their fleet, and the 
 demolition of thofe walls of the city, the expence 
 of which had been defrayed by the fpoils and trea- 
 fures of the Perfians, attefted the triumph of Ly- 
 fander, the ambitious, but uncorrupt general of the 
 Spartans. Thrafybulus, with a fmall band of friends, 
 effected the expulfion of the thirty tyrants, and 
 received an olive crown as the fole reward of this 
 heroic action. Cimon vindicated the honour of his 
 difgraced country, and, after a fignal defeat of the 
 Lacedemonian navy, re-eftablifhed its ancient go- 
 vernment. While Athens was again riling to glory 
 and dittinclion, the Thebans, under the conduct of 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas, whofe focial virtues 
 and military talents did equal honour to their illuf- 
 trious characters, checked the power of Sparta ; 
 and the battle of Leuclra rewarded their valour 
 with complete fuccefs. But the fun of Theban 
 greatue> fet at the battle of Mantinea, where Epa- 
 minondas
 
 336" TITE HTSTOUT OF GREECT. 
 
 minondas expired in the arms of victory f . Nor 
 did Athens Ions; enjoy the revival of her power; 
 for Philip of Macedon, equally diftingurfJied l>y the 
 profligacy of his conduct, and the greatneis of hi* 
 ambition, obtained the Sovereignty of Greece, no 
 Jels by intrigues and corruption, than by his prowefs 
 in the field. The victory of Chxronea extinguished 
 the independence of the Grecian ftates, and the 
 fucceeding events laid the foundation of a new 
 empire K . 
 
 The mod remarkable changes by flow degrees 
 took place in the manners of the Athenians, and 
 prepared the way for the introduction of the Mace- 
 donian, and afterwards of the Roman po\rer. When; 
 as Xenophon remarked, it was cuftomary to adorn 
 the feafts of Attica with the coftly viands of Sicily 
 and Alia Minor, the luxury of repaits became fatal 
 to the manners of the people. Private extravagance 
 kept pace with public profuiion ; inftead of the 
 bread, herbs, and fimple fare, recommended by the 
 laws of Solon, the Athenians availed themfelves of 
 their exteniive commerce to import the dainties of 
 diftant coafts, which were ferved up with all the 
 refinements of culinary art. In iu miner, the deli- 
 cious wines of Cyprus were tooled with fnow ; and 
 in winter, garlands of flowers, procured at great 
 
 ( A fine fketch of the charafter of Epaminonclas is given in the 
 Travels of Anacharfis, v. ii. p. 80. And one not lefs appropriate 
 occurs in Sir Walter Raleigh's Hiftory of the World, b. iii. p. 12J. 
 Cicero preferred him to all the Grecian heroes " Epaminondas 
 princcps meo judicio Grsecia;." E. C, 338. 
 
 expeuce,
 
 TtfE HISTORY OF GREECE; 337 
 
 expence, adorned the tables, and encircled the 
 heads of this luxuriant people. The martial fongs 
 of their anceftors became unfafhionable; and pa- 
 rafites, dancers, and buffoons, crowded their 
 fumptuous feafts. An exceflive fondnefs for horfes, 
 and the purfuits of the chace exhaufted the finances 
 of the youths, who were vitiated by their inter- 
 courfe with harlots, or corrupted by the licentious 
 philofophy of fophifts* Difdaining to cultivate 
 the virtues of their progenitors, and blind to the 
 encroachments of politic and enterprifing enemies* 
 they gave a loofe to luxury, and licentioufnefs. 
 The public revenues, which had been formerly 
 expended in the equipment of fleets and armies, 
 were lavifhed upon theatrical exhibitions, games, 
 and feftivals. Frivilous curiofity and tame irrefo- 
 lution became the character iftics of a people, whom 
 no fenfe of danger or mame could roufe to martial 
 exertions, even when their enemies were ftripping 
 them of their moft valuable territories, and ad- 
 vancing with rapid fteps to Athens itfelf. 
 
 The death of Philip h induced the Athenians to 
 throw off the Macedonian yoke. The alacrity of 
 his renowned fucceflbr was foon difplayed in fub* 
 duing, and his clemency in pardoning, their de- 
 fe6tion. The exploits of ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 
 who undertook his expedition againft Darius with 
 a view to avenge the wrongs of Greece, form an 
 interesting portion of this period of hiflory. 
 
 k B. C. 335. 
 - VOL. i. z Although
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Although the Greeks were deprived during his 
 reign of their independence, yet they \rere left at 
 full liberty to follow the dictates of their own in- 
 clinations, with refpect to the cultivation of the 
 arts, and even in martial affairs they fliared the 
 triumphs of the Conqueror of the Eaft. 
 
 This great and accomplifhed Hero was himfelf 
 diftinguiflied by a love of the arts and of litera- 
 ture: he patronized Lyfippus the moft eminent fta- 
 tuary, and Apelles the greateft painter of his age ; 
 and he preferred as his moft invaluable treafure, a 
 copy of his favourite Homer, in a rich caiket 
 found among the fpoils of Darius. To the moft 
 extraordinary talents he united an ardent and un- 
 controulable temper, headftrong patfions, and an 
 unquenchable thirft for dominion. Although his 
 conduct was tarniihed with fome atrocious fallies 
 of rage and cruelty, yet enlightened by the 
 precepts of Ariftotle, to whofe judicious care his 
 father Philip entrufted him, after paying that 
 eminent philofopher the moft diftinguiihing com- 
 pliment a tutor ever received, he improved his ex- 
 tenfive conquefts to the general benefit of mankind. 
 He built many cities in the moft convenient Situ- 
 ations, and introduced the civilization of Greece 
 into barbarous countries. His life exhibited many 
 fplendid examples of clemency, humanity, and 
 generality, even amid the fervour of youth, and 
 the impetuofity of victory. His race of glory was 
 indeed Ihort ; but he outftripped all his competitors 
 in his enterprifes, as well as in his fuccefs. Even 
 6 after
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 339 
 
 after making full allowances for the fictions and 
 exaggerations of his flattering bjilorians, the nioft 
 authentic accounts of his life are fufiicient to 
 prove, if we recollect the brilliancy of his wit, his 
 perfonal ftrength and courage, his talents for war, 
 the vaft elevation of his mind, and the extent of 
 his rapid conquefts, that he was one of the moft 
 extraordinary perfonages, whofe hiftory ftands re- 
 corded in the annals of the world 1 . 
 
 Some time after his death the Athenians folicited 
 the protection of the Romans to melter them from 
 the opprefiion of Philip, the fecond of that name, 
 King of Macedon k . Governed in appearance by 
 their own laws and magiftrates, they were obliged 
 to iliow the nioft obfequions attention to their 
 protectors, in order to avoid being confidered as 
 the ungrateful abettors of rebellion and tumult. 
 The decifions for war or peace, the exactions 
 of taxes, and all political regulations, were no 
 longer left to their determination, but depended 
 upon the decrees of the Roman fenate. The fpirit 
 of the people however was bent to obedience ; and 
 that fubmiflion to foreign command, which in the 
 days of Miltiades, or a Cimon, would have been 
 regarded a3 worfe than death, \vas confidered by 
 the contemporaries of Poly bi us as an eafy, and 
 even a gratifying homage* Greece could however 
 ftill claim the glorious fuperiority of being the 
 
 1 For a fine charafter of Alexander the Great, which com 
 firms the propriety of my ftatement, fee Montefquieu, liv. x. 
 c. 14. k B. C. 190. 
 
 2 a Miftrefc
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Miltrcfs of the arts, and of teaching them to the 
 uripolifhed conquerors of the world. The Romans 
 were gradually refined by the people they had fub- 
 dued ; and the captive CJreek introduced tafte, 
 elegance, and literature among the rough war- 
 riors of Latium '. 
 
 In the time of the civil wars of Rome, the 
 Athenians, actuated by their ancient love of 
 liberty, efpoufed the caufe of Pompey, and after- 
 wards of Brutus and Cafiius ; and they creeled 
 ftatucs of thefe illuftrious patriots near thofe of 
 Ilarmodius and Ariftogiton, who had (lain the 
 tyrant Ilipparchus. Unfortunate upon both occa- 
 fions in the part they took, they experienced the 
 clemency both of Julius and of Auguftus Co?far. 
 Athens was long celebrated as the abode of philofo- 
 phy, and the feat of learning. Here Horace completed 
 his education, and to this place the great Roman 
 Orator fent his fon to be inftructed by Cratippus ; 
 and here likewife Pomponius, his accomplished 
 and virtuous friend, from his refidence in the 
 country, and his proficiency in its literature, ob- 
 tained the honourable appellation of Atticus. 
 
 That this place continued to be the feat of phi- 
 lofophy at a fubfequent period, we learn from the 
 eloquent addrefs of St. Paul, fo well adapted to 
 the favourite purfuits and opinions of its inhabi- 
 
 1 Grscia capta ferum viftorem cepit, & artes 
 
 Intulit agrcili Latio Herat. Epifl. 2, 
 
 n B. C. 50. 
 
 3 tants
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE, 3U 
 
 tants". And that their fuperftitious difpofitiou 
 Hill remained, was evident from their dedication of 
 an altar to the " Unknown God." They Mere in- 
 fluenced by the fame eager purfuit of novelty, 
 which had marked their character in the time of 
 Demoithenes ; and their tafte for the works of the 
 poets was Hill flourishing and correct. Under the 
 mild empire of Trajan , they retained their fond- 
 nefs for the precious monuments of fculpture, as 
 Pliny mentions, that in his time Athens was adorned 
 with no lefs than three thoufand ftatues. They 
 found in Adrian a generous benefactor ; he bellowed 
 upon them new privileges ; and the city under his 
 aufpicious influence reflected a faint ray of her 
 former glory. It long continued to be the fa- 
 vourite abode of philofophers ; and when Synefius 
 of Alexandria, an elegant writer of the fifth cen- 
 tury, vifited it, he remarked, that the celebrated 
 colonade or porch, from which the Stoic philofo- 
 phers had taken their name, had been ftripped of 
 its elegant pictures, and was deferted by the fol- 
 lowers of Zeno, 
 
 Alaric, the favage plunderer of Italy, extended 
 his conquefts to Greece, and marked his fteps by 
 ruin and devaftation p . lie patted the ftraight of 
 Thermopylae, from which the Greeks, unmindful, 
 or perhaps ignorant of the diiafter of Xerxes, and 
 the glory of Lconidas, retired as he advanced. 
 
 " Ads xviii. Dcmofthenis Philip, i. 
 .A. C, 114. P A. C. 410, 
 
 e 3 As
 
 342 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 As foon as the voice of his herald was heard at 
 Athens, the dcfcendants of thofe heroes, who had 
 conquered at Marathon and Salamis, opened their 
 gates. What other proof need be mentioned of 
 the degeneracy of the times? In the fourteenth 
 century, Greece yielded to the victorious arms of 
 Mahomet the fecond, and continues in the pof- 
 feffion of the Turks to this day. 
 
 I. The prefent State of Greece. 
 
 The ravages of fuccefiive conquerors have affifted 
 the ilow but certain hand of time in haftening the 
 deftruction. of ancient Athens. Ever fince the 
 Turks have had the country in their poiTeffion, 
 they have exerted a wanton induilry, and mown 
 the natural hoftility of ignorance to tafte, by mu- 
 tilating ftatues, demolishing temples, and defacing 
 the elegant forms of fculpture. The curious tra- 
 veller, however, has flill Sufficient fcope for. the 
 indulgence of his pleafmg melancholy, and for 
 giving way to thofe mixed fenfations of forrow and 
 delight, for which no language can fupply an 
 adequate name. Such are his feelings when his 
 imagination prefents to him the Genius of ancient 
 Greece, bound in the iron fetters of clcfpotifm, 
 reclining his head amidfi; broken walls and 
 proftrate columns, while liberty, the mufes, and 
 the arts, are fpeeding their flight from thefe un- 
 happy regions. On an ac~lual furvey of the ruins, 
 of Athens, the traveller may be furprifed that the 
 fight of fuch objects did not open the eyes of the 
 
 barbarian
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 343 
 
 barbarian conquerors to admire the enchanting 
 beauties of architecture. Every colonnade, portico, 
 and pillar he beholds, nay, every ftep he takes, 
 cannot fail to carry back his fancy, without any 
 violent effort, to diftant periods, and lead him to 
 combine remote events with prefent appearances. 
 On the abrupt and craggy rock of the Acropolis 
 was creeled the magnificent temple of Minerva, 
 famed for the golden ftatue, which was one of the 
 choicer! productions of Phidias. It is now imper- 
 fectly reprefented only by huge mafTes of marble. 
 From this fpot may be diftinctly feen, when the 
 fun gilds the horizon with his evening rays, the 
 white column erected to Thefeus after the battle of 
 Salamis. The renowned port of Athens, to which 
 his triumphant fleet returned loaded with the fpoils 
 of the Perfians, is now diftinguiflicd only by the 
 traces of a fmall theatre, and a monaftery of mean 
 architecture. The ruins of temples and theatres, 
 intermixed with flat- roofed cottages, and marble 
 tablets infcribed with characters, which neither 
 the ignorant Turks nor the modern Greeks can 
 decipher, are melancholy memorials of a more 
 noble and a more refined people. The marble 
 fragments found amona: the ruins of the fchools 
 
 O J 
 
 atteft the diligence of the ancient philofophers, who 
 infcribed upon them the names of their fcholars. 
 The odeum of Pericles, which once refoundcd with 
 the notes of the lyre, and the fublime ftrains of 
 the choral fong, can at prefent be traced only by 
 jts lofty and broken wall, and is deformed by the 
 
 ' 4
 
 341 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Tucle outwork of a Turkiih cattle \ The mores of 
 Atticu arc vrafte and defolate ; few villages are to 
 be feen from FJeufis to the promontory of Suniuin, 
 and thence even to the plains of Marathon. The 
 eye of the inquilitive traveller difcerns nothing 
 but fcattered ruins along a coafr. of eighty miles 
 in extent. Nature hcrfelf fccms, in fome refpccfes, 
 to fympathize with the gloomy defolation pf the 
 place ; for the once full and flowing Ilifl'us, oil 
 whofe margin Socrates reclined to converfe with 
 his difciple Phedrus, is now almoft dried up, and 
 its banks, once maded with lofty and waving 
 planes, are now bare and unfruitful. 
 
 Every man of claflical tafte feels a mclan<- 
 choly pleafure in forming this contraft, which 
 he is enabled to make in confequence of the dili- 
 gent refearches of Wheeler, Spon, and Chandler. 
 But he may receive a more lively fatisfaction from 
 the refearches of Stuart, who from fragments of 
 buildings and broken pillars has traced fuch plans 
 and elevations of the original buildings, and ex-, 
 plained them fo clearly, as to give a very ex- 
 preffive reprcfentation of the city in its ancient ftate 
 of elegance and grandeur. 
 
 However the inhabitants of Athens are de- 
 prefied by their haughty tyrants, they ftill retain 
 marks of their original character. They poffefs 
 much of that quicknefs of appreheufion, vivacity 
 
 * Chandler's Trayels, p. 78, 85, &c-
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE, 545 
 
 of temper, and urbanity of manners, which dif- 
 tinguilhcd their ahceilors r . The native character of 
 the people long continues like the peculiarity of 
 the foil, which is the fame as it was of old ; Attica 
 is ftill famed for olives, grapes, and figs ; and the 
 neighbouring flopes of Hymettus ftill abound M'ith 
 . which produce moft delicious honey. But a 
 long ftate of fervitude and fuperilition has de- 
 graded the native powers of their minds ; and the 
 recollection or the fear of blows and indignities, 
 
 T Eton's Survey, p. 334, &c. Chandler, p, 117, 120. 
 Stuart's Athens. " Us ont une politeffe d'efprit naturelle, et 
 beaucoup d'adrefle dans toutes les affaires qu'ils entreprennenu" 
 Spon, vol. ii. p. 76, 92. Wheler, p. 356. 
 
 For an animated vindication of the character of his country- 
 jnen from the charge of ftupidity and want of fpirit, fee the elo- 
 quent addrefs of the learned Dr. Coray in the Difcours Prelimi- 
 naire to his Tranflation of Hippocrates. The conclufion of it is 
 fo animated, and written fo much in the fpirit of a countryman 
 of Homer, that I cannot withhold from my Reader the pleafure 
 pf perufing it. 
 
 " Des defpotes tranfplantes de 1'ancienne Rome, apres avoir 
 par une adminiftration auffi ftupide que tyrannique relache tous 
 les reflbrts de la fociete, entrave 1'influence du plus beau des 
 climats, fouille, ebranle leur trone par les crimes les plus affreux, 
 ont fini par vous livrer a des tyrans, encore plus ftupides et plus 
 feroces, Ce font eux qui ont forge des chaines que vous portez, 
 riation malheureufe, mais refpeftable dans votre malheur ! Ce fera 
 vous qui les briferez. En attendant cet heureux moment, qui 
 fans doute n'eft pas eloigne, vous pouvez avec confiance adrefler 
 a vos tyrans ce qu'un de nos poetes fait dire a la vigne rongeepar 
 iin animal dcvaftateur, 
 
 erti p^>, c/xwj ITJ xot;9ro^of>!<rfc % , 
 
 iOfcir^" P. 180. 
 
 top
 
 346* THE IIISTORV OF GREECE. 
 
 too often inflicted by their tyrants, makes them 
 ftoop to the artifices of cunning and clifiimulation. 
 The Albanians, a hardy and courageous race, who 
 keep flocks upon the purple declivities of Hymettus 
 and Citheron, or gather olives on the green banks 
 of the Cephiffus, are defcended from the Spartans. 
 Their patience of fatigue, and their defperate 
 braverj r , which has been fometimes roufed by ex- 
 treme oppreffion, prove the juftnefs of their pre- 
 tenfions to fuch an origin. When we obferve 
 that the fpaiks of original genius and courage are 
 Hill extant among this people, it muft excite a 
 wifh, that captives fo undeferving and unfortu- 
 nate could be aflifted to break their chains. Far 
 from being admitted to any privileges whatever, 
 which can bring them upon an equality with their 
 matters, they are kept in the moft abje6l fervitude, 
 and continue in the fame miferable ftate as when 
 they were firft conquered. They retain the fame 
 rights they ever had to make off the Turkifh yoke, 
 and to affert their claims to independence. The 
 frequent wars between the Ruffians and the Turks 
 might afford them the glorious opportunity of 
 emancipation ; and no enterprife could be more 
 worthy of the Emperor who now fills the throne 
 of Ruifia, than to aflifl their courageous efforts in 
 a manner more vigorous and effectual, than was 
 done in the late war between Catherine the 
 great and the Turks. The fate of the brave 
 inhabitants of Poland extinguiihes the hope of 
 rcftoration to complete independence from that 
 
 quarter <
 
 THE HISTORY OF CREEC 347 
 
 quarter : but the government of Peterfburgh would 
 doubtlcfs be more tolerable than that of the Porte, 
 if we conlider the different fpirit of its religious 
 creed, and its more advanced Hate of civilization. 
 If the modern Greeks could be placed in to ad- 
 vantageous a fituation, the prediction of Peter the 
 Great might be verified ; and the arts, which have 
 civilized northern Europe, might return, after 
 having taken an extend ve circuit, to enlighten and 
 adorn the country of their birth. 
 
 " I cannot better compare the tranfmigration. 
 of fcience than to the circulation of blood in. 
 the human body ; and I forefee that they will one 
 time or other forfake England, France, and Ger- 
 many, and fettle among us for many ages, to 
 return again into Greece, their firft abode*." 
 
 V/hen we recal the days of Grecian glory, 
 during which the arts of peace and war rofe to the 
 greateft height, when patriots, flatefmen, philo- 
 fophers, poets, and artilts, were fo eminently dif- 
 trnguimed for virtue, wifdom, and elegance, we 
 cannot help indulging a wiih, that the inhabitants 
 of the fame delightful and interefting regions 
 could be allowed to give full fcope to their original 
 genius, and that the defcendants of an Ariftides, 
 an Agefilaus, a Socrates, and a Leonidas, could 
 
 * From the Speech of the Czar Peter, Memoirs of Litera, 
 pl, i. p. 3 6l > 
 
 not
 
 548 THE HISTORY OF GREECE, 
 
 not only be permitted to enjoy the inheritance of 
 their illuftrious anceftors, without extortion and 
 without flavery, but be encouraged to emulate 
 their fame. 
 
 For the affiftance of the memory in chronolo- 
 gical arrangements, we may diftinguifh the re- 
 markable periods of Grecian hiftory by four me- 
 piorable epochs. The firft is the age of Solon, or 
 the eftablifhment of the laws, B. C. .594-; the 
 fecond is the age of Arl/tides, or of martial glory, 
 J3. C. 4SO ; the third of Pericles, or of luxury and 
 the arts, B. C. 430; and the fourth that of 
 Mahomet II. or complete degradation, A. C. 1453. 
 
 Enough may be collected from the foregoing 
 detail to afcertain " that the commonwealths of 
 Greece, while they maintained their liberty, were 
 the moil heroic confederacy that ever exifted. 
 They were the politeft, the bravcft, and the wifeft 
 of men. In the fhort fpace of a little more than 
 a century, they became fuch ftatefmen, warriors, 
 orators, hiftorians, phyficians, poets, critics, painters, 
 fculptors, architects, and lail of all philofophers, 
 that one can hardly help confidering that golden 
 period as a providential event in honour of human 
 nature, to mow to what perfection the fpecies 
 niight afcendy 
 
 looking back to thofe times, when the Greeks. 
 
 1 Harris's Hermes, 
 
 carried
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 carried their various inventions and improvements 
 to fuch perfection, we cannot fail to acknowledge 
 the obligations, which ancient Rome and modern 
 Europe have been under to them. Greece has 
 been the inftruftrefs of the civilized world. To 
 her indeed all polimed nations are deeply indebted 
 for holding out the light of genius, philofophy, 
 amltafte, to guide their fteps in the cultivation 
 of the moral and intellectual powers of the mind. 
 
 Emulation was the great incentive to exertion 
 in every branch of art, and every fcene of action. 
 All attempts were carried to the utmofl pitch of 
 attainable perfection. The trophies of Miltiades 
 did not fufrer Themiftocles to deep ; and the ap- 
 plaufe beftowed upon Herodotus at the Olympic 
 games ftimulated Thucydides to compofe his im- 
 mortal work. The efforts of genius are not con- 
 fined to fervile imitation, for genius may ftrike 
 into innumerable paths. The Greeks have mown 
 us that excellence even of the higheft order is at- 
 tainable ; and it remains for us, if we pofiefs any 
 capacity, if we are animated by ambition, and 
 impelled by a fpirit of enterprife like theirs, to 
 make repeated and unremitting exertions, until 
 our endeavours terminate as theirs have done, in 
 new and ufeful difcoveries, and improvements in 
 the various branches of art, fcience, and literature. 
 
 The hiftory we have been confidering cannot 
 fail to fuggeft to an Englim reader various points 
 of refemblance to the ftate and eircumftanges of 
 
 his
 
 TIIE HISTORY OF GRKECE* 
 
 Jiis own country. The ftruggles for power, and 
 the intrigues of parties and popular leaders, the 
 ardent love of liberty, and high pretentious to do- 
 mination, oceafionally finking into fubferviency, 
 and then again riling from tame acquiescence 
 to new claims, new jealoufies, the mod active 
 exertions of power, and the in oft ftrenuous vindi- 
 cation of rights ; the tendencies of the ftate to 
 great acceilion of empire, and the obftacles to a 
 continuance of diilant and widely fpread domi- 
 nion ; the gradual incrcafe of power and opulence 
 from fources of commerce; the confequent fpirit 
 of ditiipation, and prevalence of luxury, tending 
 to diifolve the very ftrength and prof])erity they 
 gave birth to thefe circumftances, connected 
 with the political career of a free government, 
 and the civil concerns of a commercial and 
 maritime country, are no where more fully dif- 
 played than in the hiftory of the republic of 
 Athens. 
 
 The clofer and more exact refctnblance between 
 Attica and Great Britain is difcernible in our dili- 
 gent cultivation of the arts and fciences, in the 
 eloquence of our public fpcakers, the bravery of 
 our failors, and the (kill and valour of our admirals 
 and generals. While we are .eager to eftablim this 
 refemblance, fo flattering to our national pride; 
 and whilft our Ifland reflects the image of the 
 literature, arehite6ture, iculpture, and tafte, which 
 ib eminently diitinguifhed the Greeks; and we 
 iurpafs them in navigation, commerce, fcience, 
 
 and
 
 THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 351 
 
 and philofophy ; let us be extremely careful, that 
 our characters and manners have no mixture of 
 the factious fpirit, levity, corruption, and degene- 
 racy, which marked the decline of their glory ; 
 but that we emulate the virtue, valour, patriotifm, 
 and refinement of their GREATEST MEN, and 
 
 PUREST TIMES. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Hijlory of Rome. 
 
 W ITH refpecl to the eminent character and the 
 political importance of the Romans, their hiftory 
 is more fplendid than that of any other country. 
 Like the fculptured column of Trajan, it is a mo- 
 nument of triumphs. It is more uniform than 
 that of Greece, difplays greater viciflitudes of 
 affairs, and records the lives of an equal, if not 
 a greater number of illuftrious warriors and ftatef- 
 men. The Romans eftablifhed their empire not fo 
 much by the fmiles of fortune, as by the perfe- 
 vering efforts of wifdorn and valour. They were 
 extraordinary both in the noblenefs and in the 
 debafement of their character ; for in their progrefs 
 to dominion, they exercifed virtues which far ex- 
 ceeded, and in the decline of their empire, they 
 were difgraced with vices, which fell much below 
 the common ftandard of human nature. 
 
 The profpe& of Rome, at the period of its 
 greateft power, cannot fail to imprefs our minds 
 with aftonifhment. At the time when the vir- 
 tuous and warlike TRAJAN filled the imperial 
 throne, the Romans had reached the fummit of 
 dominion and magnificence. The metropolis of 
 
 the
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. S53 
 
 the empire and its fuburbs< extending beyond the 
 feven celebrated hills, were bounded by a circum- 
 ference of fifty miles. More populous than Baby- 
 lon, Nineveh, or Thebes, or any capital of modern 
 Europe, die number of its inhabitants amounted 
 to twelve hundred thoufand". It abounded with 
 manlions remarkable for height and ipacioufnefs ; 
 it was interfperfed with gardens and groves,: and 
 was decorated with every edifice, which could con- 
 tribute either to the ufe or ornament of indivi- 
 duals, or of the public. Fountains, baths, aque- 
 du6ts, bridges, markets, obeliiks, fquares, courts 
 of juftice, porticos, palaces, amphitheatres, and 
 temples, filled the auguft profpect. The temple 
 of Ops was enriched with the gold of fubdued 
 inonarchs; the r oft ra were decked with the naval 
 fpoils of a long fucceffion of ages ; and upon the 
 lofty arches were defcribed, in the inoft exquifite 
 fculpture, the various victories and fplendid 
 triumphs of the conquerors of the world. Among 
 the public buildings were more particularly ob- 
 ferved by the aftoniflied fpe&ator, the elegant 
 forum of Trajan, the ample theatres of Mar- 
 cellus and Pompey, the temple of Neptune, the 
 
 u Upon the fubjcdl of the extent and the population of Rome 
 there is a very excellent note in Brotier's Tacitus, vol. ii. 
 p. 373. 410. edit. He ftates at large the data, upon which his 
 calculation of the inhabitants proceeds. There is a curious 
 diflertation upon this fubjeft in the Memoires de Academic 
 des Infcriptions, torn. xxx. p. 191. by D'Anville. The only 
 capital in the known world more populous than ancient Rome 
 is Pekin in China, which Du Halde reckons at three millions. 
 
 VOL. i. A a wide
 
 564 1MB HISTORY OF RO5T& 
 
 wide circumference of the Circus Maximus, the 
 Capitol rearing its majeftic ftruclures above the 
 Tarpeian Rock; the imperial Palace, from the 
 magnificent portico of which the Emperor could 
 overlook the whole city ; the temple of Apollo, 
 diftinguimed by the coioflal ftatue of that deity, 
 erected upon the Palatine Hill in the centre of the 
 city; and the dome of the fublime Pantheon, 
 eminent for its incomparable fymmetry, and re- 
 gular proportions. All thefe buildings prefented 
 the folid ftyle of the Tufcan, or the more elegant 
 orders of Grecian architecture, and were adorned 
 with the moft beautiful productions of painting and 
 flatuary. Above thefe ftately edifices arofe a lofty 
 pillar of white marble, exhibiting, in the moft 
 lively images of fculpture, the Dacian victories of 
 Trajan, whofe coioflal figure crowned the fummit. 
 The extent, the variety, and the grandeur of thefe 
 buildings proved, that this city was the refidence 
 of the matters of the world, as the ingenuity, the 
 proelu&ions, the arts, and the riches of all countries 
 confpired to aggrandize and embelliih it. 
 
 Twenty thoufand felecl troops, either diftin- 
 guifhed as regular patroles, or praetorian cohorts, 
 watched both night and day over the fecurity of 
 this populous and fpacious city. To this feat of 
 fupreme power ambaffadors were font from the 
 moft remote regions, to lay the diadems of Kings 
 at the feet of the Emperor. From hence marched 
 the proconfuls, lieutenants, and praetors, fur- 
 rounded by numerous trains of attendants, and 
 
 efcorted
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 355 
 
 dcorted by cohorts of foot and fquadrons of horfe, 
 to take the command of their refpe&ive provinces. 
 They travelled over ftraight and fpacious roads, 
 which interfered the empire in even 7 direction, 
 and which were fo folid and durable, as to remain 
 in many places unimpaired by tbe ravages of time, 
 after the lapfe of more than feventeen centuries*. 
 The ready communication between one province 
 and another was equally fecured by fea and by 
 land ; and the fleets, which anchored in the port 
 of Oftia, were prepared to carry the imperial arms 
 to the mod diftant coafts. Upon the banks of 
 great rivers, fuch as the Rhine, the Danube, and 
 the Po, in the vicinity of populous cities, or on 
 the frontiers of hoftile nations, were ftationed the 
 camps of the legions. At the firft alarm of in- 
 furredion they were ready to take the field ; no 
 plot of the enemy could efcape their vigilance, 
 and no force was fufficient to repel their formidable 
 onfet. Many of the temperate and fertile countries, 
 which now compofe the mod powerful kingdoms 
 of Europe, were enrolled in the regifter of tribu- 
 tary dates. The imperial eagle flretched her 
 wings over the faired portions of the ancient 
 world. The empire was extended more than two 
 thoufand miles in breadth, from the wall of Anto- 
 ninus in Britain, and the northern limits of Dacia, 
 to Mount Atlas in the weft of Africa, and readied 
 in length more than three thoufand miles, from 
 
 * Campbell's Political Surver, vol. ii. p. 250. Gibbon, 
 Tol. i. p. 51. LumifUen, p. 86. Horfley's Britannia Romana, 
 p. 520, 
 
 A a 2 the
 
 356 THE HISTORY OF HOME. 
 
 the Weftern Ocean to the Euphrates. It was 
 pofed to contain above fixteen hundred thoufanct 
 fquare miles, for the mod part of fertile and well- 
 cultivated land. It included Spain and Portugal, 
 Gaul and Britain, Italy, Germany, Hungary, 
 Tranfylvania, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, the 
 provinces of Afia Minor, Pontus, Bithynia, 
 Cilicia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Paleftine, Egypt, 
 Mauritania, and Dacia. Moft of thefe countries 
 abounded with large and opulent cities, every one 
 of which attefted the progrefs and influence of th<ft 
 arts, as well as the dominion of the Romans, l>y 
 the grandeur and variety of its public works. The 
 population of the empire Avas equal to its extent, 
 as it was reputed to contain not lefs than one hun- 
 dred and twenty millions of fubjects, a number far 
 greater than was ever, ither before or after that 
 period, united under one European government. 
 
 
 
 If we confider the Modern World .with reference 
 to the Roman empire, even the dominions of the 
 great Mogul, or the more extenfive territories of 
 the Grand Signior, far as they are fpread in Europe, 
 Afia, and Africa, fink in companion with it. 
 Ruffia in point of comparative population is a 
 defert; and China, with its myriads of inhabi- 
 tants, with refpec~l to martial energy, is a nation 
 of effeminate flaves. 
 i 
 
 Such is the fublime profpecl of the metropolis, 
 the naval and military force, and the extenfive and 
 formidable fovercignty of ancient Rome iu the 
 
 8 l A meridian
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 357 
 
 meridian of her glory. A furvey fo remarkable 
 for the variety and the fplendour of its objects, is 
 the mod diftinguifhed, which hiftory has prefented 
 to the contemplation of man. It will appear the 
 more extraordinary, if we contraft the empire fo 
 extenfive and flouriming under Trajan, with its 
 parent ftate, confifting of a fmall colony of mep- 
 herds and adventurers, originally planted by Ro- 
 mulus upon the banks of the Tiber, and forming 
 one of forty-feven independent cantons, which 
 altogether occupied a fpace of only fifty miles y . 
 
 - By comparing the moft exalted ftate of Rome 
 with its origin, we are naturally led to inquire into 
 the caufes of its grandeur. From coniklering its 
 fall from fuch an elevation of power, when the 
 Imperial city was taken by the Goths, we ace na- 
 turally led to inveftigate the caufes of its decline. 
 Thefe inquiries will form the iubjects of this and 
 the following, chapter. i<y\*i 
 
 The leading caufes of the grcatnefs of the Roman 
 power may be reiblved, 
 
 I. Into the peculiar conftitution of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 II. The rigid cultivation of the arts of war. 
 
 III. The ftrong attachment to religion. 
 
 IV. The active fpirit of patriotifm. 
 
 Thcfe caufes operating upon the opinions and 
 ' B. C. 753. Fergufon's Roman Republic, c. i. 
 
 A a 3 dster->
 
 358 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 determining the conduct of a hardy, active, and 
 courageous people, confpired to raile them to the 
 fummit of empire. 
 
 I. If the Romans had fubmiUed without reluc- 
 tance to the tyranny of Tarquin ins Superbus, and 
 the outrages committed by his family, their fpirit 
 would have been completely broken, and their 
 city would probably have remained without diftino 
 tion among the fmall ftates of Italy. The fenate 
 fufFered Tarquin to aflume the royal authority, 
 without the ceremonies of a legal election, or the 
 ufual approbation of the people. Repeated fuffer- 
 ings, however, opened their eyes to the horrors 
 of defpotifm ; they drove the tyrant from his 
 throne, and adopted a confular form of govern- 
 ment. From the moment that Brutus raifed the 
 dagger, ftrearning with the blood of Lucretia, and 
 vowed the expulfion of Tarquin, the Romans were 
 
 deftined to be the conquerors of the world *. 
 
 ? 
 
 We need not, therefore, trace the government 
 to a more remote period, than to the abolition of 
 
 "regal power. From that era the real character of 
 the people began to be developed, and a new 
 fpring was given to their general exertions. They 
 felt the necefiity of governors, laws, and difci- 
 pline, but of fuch governors, laws, and difciplfne, 
 as were favourable to the growth of their darling 
 pafTions the love of freedom, independence, and 
 
 " dominion. 
 
 * B, C. 509. Liv. lib. i. feft. 59, 
 
 The
 
 TH HISTORY OF ROMS. 359 
 
 The executive and legiflative branches of their 
 Conftitution confided of the confute, the fenatc, 
 and the alfembly of the people. The Confute were 
 at once the prime minifters of the republic, and 
 the generals of the armies. They prefided over 
 the fenate, and convened and difmiHed it at plea- 
 fure. The Senate was a deliberative council of 
 (late, varying in numbers at different periods of 
 time. This auguft and venerable body was com- 
 pofed of men of fortune, whofe characters were 
 exemplary, and their extraction noble. To obtain 
 the dignity of a fenator it was neceflary to pafs 
 through a regular gradation of important offices. 
 They were the guardians of religion, they appointed 
 the proconfuls to the command of provinces, had 
 Jthe difpofal of the public treasures, and in times of 
 alarm and danger could appoint dictators, and 
 iuveft the confuls with abfolute power. 
 
 To the Comitia, or general aflembly of the Roman 
 citizens belonged the exclulive privilege of making 
 laws, the election of magiftrates, and the declara- 
 tion of war or peace. In criminal cafes, they ex- 
 erciied the right of pardon, or acquittal. The 
 Tribunes of the people were invefted with very high 
 authority ; and although originally intended only 
 to mediate between the Plebeians and Patricians, 
 they could annul the decrees <5f the fenate by their 
 negative, and, under pretence of meafures inju- 
 rious to the ftate, could arreft even the confuls 
 themfelves '. As foine balance to thefe rights of the 
 
 * Liv. lib. iv, feft. 26, &c. 
 
 A a 4 people,
 
 36*0 THE HISTORY OF ROMI. 
 
 people, their afiemblies paid great refpeft to the 
 decrees of the fenate, and to the fcntiments of 
 perfbns illuflrious for their rank, and reipeftable 
 for the offices they held, in the ftate. Still, how- 
 ever, the branches of the conftitution flood much 
 in need of a common principle of union ; and as 
 their privileges were fo.exteniive, and their power 
 was ib independent, they were. frequently involved 
 in contention and difcord. But the great pcrfonal 
 liberty enjoyed by every individual, added to an 
 enthufiaftic patriotifm, frequently united them ; 
 and even their contexts for fuperiority ferved ulti- 
 mately to eftablifh a firm and equal balance of 
 power. 
 
 The fpirit of ariftocracy, infufed into the go- 
 vernment by Servius Tullius b , was preferved after- 
 wards in the commonwealth ; and this gave rife 
 to perpetual contefts between the Patricians and 
 Plebeians. The former, favoured by the fenate, 
 recommended by dignity of character and illuf- 
 ti ious birth, as they were deicended from the fena- 
 tors of the firft age of Rome, for fome time had 
 fufficient influence to confine to themielves the 
 great offices or' the ftate. When the latter, after 
 repeated ftruggles, had obtained new privileges, 
 the republic enjoyed more internal tranquillity, and 
 her battles were fought with greater ardour ; but 
 by the opprefiion and cruelty which frequently 
 followed, it proved dangerous to invtft an ignoble 
 
 ' * c * 3' jr 
 
 * B. C. 550. i-iv. lib, i. c. 4*. 
 .* JlrJxi JT *
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 of) f 
 
 and indigent citizen M'ith" the fovereign authority, 
 as was fatally experienced during the bloody pro- 
 fcriptions of Marius and Sylla. Sometimes many 
 evils refulted from the prevalence of the popular 
 government, and fometimes the Plebeians exer- 
 cifed their rights \vith moderation ; and when they 
 had acquired the privilege of choofing the magif- 
 trates, they frequently*' mowed a magnanimous 
 contempt of power. However fierce and bold, 
 and however irritated by oppofition, they were frill 
 fubmiffive to the eftabliihed laws and public autho- 
 rity. Their dificntions gave a keener edge to 
 their temper, and greater activity to their conduct. 
 They encouraged the growth of all thofe virtues, 
 which were calculated to conciliate the affections 
 of friends, ftrike terror into enemies, and incrcafe 
 the neceflity of perfonal merit Thus did they 
 form their hardy youth for the different filiations 
 of war and peace, as candidates for public offices 
 at home, or competitors for fame abroad. 
 
 The clofe and infeparable connexion, which fub- 
 fifted between the civil and military departments- 
 fufh'ciently marks the character of the Roman 
 people. In the enrolment of the cenfus, a ple- 
 beian was reckoned as a foot foldier. a kniarht as a 
 
 7 O 
 
 horfeman, and a legion as a detachment of the 
 whole community. The firft officers of the ftate were 
 underftood to comtnand the armies of the republic 
 by virtue of their civil magiftracy. No citizen 
 could afpire to any high offices, before he had per- 
 formed military fervice for a certain term of years; 
 
 and 
 
 j ..->.
 
 S6"2 THE HISTORY OF ROML. 
 
 and even in the extraordinary commifiions, which 
 were occafionaily given, civil and military rank 
 were never disjoined. The education of a foldier 
 was the firft ftcp to all the honours of the ftate ; and 
 the fame peribnal qualities, which were necefiary 
 for the general, were necefiary for the pretor or 
 the conful. However difficult it may appear to 
 blend in due proportions the characters of the 
 foldier and the citizen ; yet it is evident, that in 
 Rome the union was really effected, and became 
 productive of the boldeft determinations in the 
 fenate, and the moft invincible fpirit in the 
 field c . 
 
 In the tranfactions of affairs with foreign ftates, 
 the policy of the Romans was as refined, as their 
 conduct in the field was heroic. That this policy 
 was the refult of regular and fyflematic principles, 
 and did not proceed from accident or particular 
 contingencies, appears from the purfuit of the 
 fame meafures in the early, as well as in the ad- 
 vanced ftate of the republic. Whenever occupied 
 by an important war, the Romans diifembled in- 
 juries received from other ftates, till a convenient 
 time of retaliation. As they did not always make 
 peace with fmcerity, their treaties were fometimes 
 no more than ihort fufpenfions of hoftilities; and 
 they took care to introduce into them fuch condi- 
 tions as ultimately proved detrimental, and even 
 deftru&ive to their enemies' 1 . When they had 
 
 e Fergufon, vol. i. c. 3, 
 4 Montefquieu, Grandeur des Remains, c.'vl. 
 
 conquered
 
 363 
 
 conquered a po\verful prince, they infifted upon 
 his not making war upon his neighbours, under 
 pretence of their alliance with thcmfelves ; and, 
 by this prohibition, they in effect deprived him of 
 the exercife of his military power. Whenever two 
 nations M'ere at war, although not authorized by 
 any alliance to interfere, they always efpoufed the 
 caufe of the weaker party. They never com- 
 menced hoftilities in a diftant country, without 
 procuring fome ally near the enemy, whom they 
 intended to attack. The title of ally, indeed, was 
 no more than a fplendid and fpecious name, under 
 which they avail themfelves of the ftrength and 
 the refources of other nations. So firm was their 
 adherence to their fundamental maxim, to fpare 
 the fubmiifive, and to humble the proud, that they 
 were not to be moved by any reverfes of fortune, 
 however difaftrous, to folicit peace. They looked 
 with calmnefs upon the advances even of a victo- 
 rious enemy; and, after a defeat, dlfplayed the 
 fedate dignity and unfhaken firmnefs of their ge- 
 nuine character. Their conduct to fubdued coun- 
 tries (bowed the refinement of confummate politi- 
 cians. They were cautious not to impofe their 
 laws and cuftoms upon the nations they had fub- 
 dued, as fuch conduct muft unavoidably have pro- 
 duced the moft formidable confederacies and in- 
 furreclions : on the contrary, actuated by a fpirit 
 of mild and liberal toleration, they left them in 
 the undiilurbed exercife of their religion and laws; 
 and only enforced fuch general principles of fub- 
 prdination, as corrected natural ferocity of dtfpo- 
 
 4 tion,
 
 THTM1T8TOTIY OVfcOME. 
 
 tion, inclined them to adopt the arts and cuftom 
 of their conquerors, and induced them to regard 
 the Romans, rather as their benefa&ors, than their 
 matters". 
 
 v In the vaft compafs of their dominions, from 
 the Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the 
 
 Danube to the deTerts of Libya, was felt the in> 
 llticnce ot' their laws. Colonies were planted, 
 municipal V iwns were honoured with the puvile^e'- 
 or Roman citizens, federal ftates enjoying tlu-.i 
 own eivttoms and laws were civilized, and the moft 
 ufeful public edifices, fuch as bridges, aqXiedufts, 
 and temples, adorned the different provinces. Thfc 
 - which had deiblated neighbouring countries 
 inceflant .fury, were terminated by their fuptf- 
 rior influence; and their tributaries, united like 
 the branches of one family, enjoyed degree of 
 intercourfe and peace, to which the World before 
 that aufpicious period had been a ftranger. Their 
 political conduct, although fometimes verfatile, 
 and accommodated to circumftances, was fre- 
 quently directed by juftice, generofjty, honour, 
 
 e Tacitus has informed as of the methods adopted by the po- 
 litic Agricoh, to foftcn the rugged manners of the Britons, and 
 make them patient of the Roman yoke. " Jam vero princi- 
 pum filios liberalibus artibus erudire inde etiam habitus noftri 
 honor, et frequcns toga : paulatimque difccflura ad delinimenta 
 vitiorum, porticos et'balnea, ct conviviorum elegantiam : idque 
 apud imperitos httmemitai v"oeabatur,' earn pars Jh*i'itufis'kffet." 
 Tacin -Vita Agric. p. 426^ Ed. Grzv. The laft part of the 
 fcntcncq difclofts 10 us the. refined policy of theHoraaos. 
 
 and
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 and moderation ; and thde virtues, Supported by 
 the great extent of their dominion, ;uul the u rror 
 of their arms, dili'ufed a blaze of glory round 
 the Roman name, which dazzled the eyes of* all 
 nations f . 
 
 >mfli37og uiU/taoo orfj Vi nritnuh tinAfffT 
 The deftination of the Romans to war was the 
 firft principle of their original inilitutions ; it was 
 cultivated by their kings, and invariably purfued 
 throughout every age of the commonwealth. It 
 arofe indeed primarily from the nature of their 
 lituation. The fubjeets of Romulus were compoied 
 of a mixed banditti, who made themfelves ob- 
 noxious to the neighbouring flares by the fre>- 
 quency of their predatory excursions. As fuch 
 lawlefs conduct fubjec^ed them not only to juit re- 
 taliation, but to the fevered infliction of revenge, 
 the wars, which the Romans at firft began for the 
 fake of plunder, were foon continued upon prin- 
 ciples of felf-prcfervation : they became the objects 
 of fear or of envy to all the- far rounding people; 
 and king after king, and ftate after ftate, came 
 forth to cmfh their afpiiing power. Alba looked 
 with a' jealous- eye upon the'profperity of her co- 
 lony, - and attempted its overthrow. The Volici, 
 !oo tfH'. 
 
 f For the hiftory of the rife and progrefs of the Roman laws, 
 fee Duck de Au&oritate Juris Civilis, Eden's Elements of'the 
 Civil Law. For the origin of the laws' of -the Twelve Tables, 
 and their divifion into their various parts, fa; Livy, lib. ilk 
 c. 32, 34. Dionyfius Halicarnafl'. b. x. Hdok's Roman Hif- 
 tory, vol. i. b. ii, c. 27. -Livy, lib. vi. c. 41. Graviua, lib. u". 
 C. 28. Polybius, b. 6. 
 
 Sab i nes,
 
 566 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Sabines, Samnites, Latins, and Etrurians fucceeded ; 
 and the Gauls attacked them with fuch numerous 
 armies, as often in the early ages of the republic 
 threatened their deftru&ion. 
 
 The fliort duration of the confular government, 
 although liable to fome inconveniencies, was to men 
 of courage and talents a ftrong incentive to martial 
 exploits*. Various caufes ufually operate to fet 
 bounds to the ambition of monarchs. In the courfe 
 of a long reign, many paffions, and even indolence 
 itfelf, fucceflively rule their minds. But as the 
 office of the chief magiftrates of the republic was 
 confined to a fingle yar, they were impatient to 
 fignalize their iliort command by great and glo- 
 rious achievements. The moment propitious to 
 emulation and a love of glory was not to be loft. 
 They were powerfully flimulated to put a quick 
 period to any war, in which they were engaged, by 
 fome rapid and decifive meafures ; left the harveft 
 of victory and fame mould be reaped by their fuc- 
 ceffors. For the indulgence of this fpirit of enter- 
 prife, the moft extenfive fcope was afforded, by a 
 long feries of campaigns, battles, and fieges ; as the 
 temple of Janus was Ihut only three times during 
 the long period of 700 years, and only once whilft 
 
 1 Livy ftates particularly the inconvenicncics with regard to 
 military operations, which arofe from the Ihort period of the 
 confular power. I have endeavoured to reconcile that hiftorian 
 with Montefqaieu, with whom he is at iffue upon this fubjeft. 
 Compare Montefquieu, Grandeur, c. i. with Livy > lib. xli. c. 15. 
 lib. xxiv. c. 8. lib. ix, c. 18. 
 
 Home
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 367 
 
 Rome was fubject to a confular government, at the 
 clofe of the firit Punic war k . 
 
 II. This martial fpirit, of which fuch plain vef- 
 tigcs may be traced in the early manners of the 
 people, was matured by the ftri&eft attention to 
 difdpline, by every encouragement to bear the 
 labours of war, and by the invention and perfection 
 of every expedient which could improve the arts 
 of attack and defence -*. 
 
 Their difcipline was the refult of innumerable 
 dangers, and of painful and long experience. Their 
 attachment to it was equally politic and firm ; for 
 they were too acute not to difcern that it was the 
 moft effectual fupport of their power. The military 
 oath was adminiftered under peculiar circumftances 
 of folemnity. The legionary foklier fwore with 
 alacrity never to defert the golden eagle, which was 
 difplayed in the front of his cohort or fquadron. 
 To this he looked up as to a tutelary god, under 
 whofe wings he fought with confidence, and by 
 whofe guidance he was aflured he mould be led to 
 victory *. 
 
 h A. U. C. 5 17. in the confulfhip of Atilius Eulbus, and Man- 
 lius Tor qua tiii. 
 
 1 Polybius, book vi. Gibbon, vol. i. c. i. and his notes and 
 authorities. Of the Roman difcipline, caftrametation, arms, 
 marches, and martial law, there is a very curious and diftinct 
 account in Jofephus dc Bell. Jud. lib. iii. c. 5-. 
 
 * Tacicas exprefsly calls the ftandards " Propria legionum 
 nomina," and " bellorum deos." Tertullian well remarks 
 " Religio Romanorum tota caftrenfis, figna veneratur, figna jurat, 
 et omnibus difs prsrponit." Murphy's Tacitus. 
 
 In
 
 SG8 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Iii the fpacious field of Mars, which was plea'- 
 fantly iituatecl upon the banks of the Tiber, the 
 aril fiit youth were exercited in feats of manly acti- 
 vity: liere the charioteers contended in the rapid 
 race, .and the youthful recruits were trained to hurl 
 the fpear, and manage the horie. The veterans 
 here performed their various evolutions in toilfome 
 review. Nothing was wanting to give this bufy 
 fcene the complete appearance of a field of battle, 
 but the effufion of blood. The foldiers were ani- 
 mated not only by the prefence, but the example, 
 of their leaders. Even in the decline of life, Marius 
 continued his accuftomed exercifes in this place, 
 and here Pompey diiplayed his unrivalled ikill in 
 horfemanihip. 
 
 When the army, previouily trained to every 
 martial exercife, had taken the field,, the Roman 
 general found that the fureft expedient to efface 
 the diihouour of a defeat, was to increafe the labours 
 of the campaign, rather than to diminiili the vigour 
 of his troops by any relaxation of duty. Sylla 
 compelled his foldiers, -after they had fled before 
 Mithridates, to labour with fuch inceflant affiduity, 
 that they called for another battle, as a refpite 
 from their fatigues. Their toil not only inured 
 them to hardfhips, but preferred their conftitutions 
 vigorous and healthy, as they avoided thofe fuclden 
 changes from extreme exertion to extreme eafe, 
 which are fo injurious to modern armies. 
 
 Their native courage had every afiiftance, which 
 it could in any degree derive from coiiftant prac- 
 tice,
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 tice, and habitual (kill. Their arms were heavier 
 than thofe of other nations, and their dexterity in 
 ufing them was the refult of confirmed habit. By 
 the management of all kinds of weapons, and by 
 the practice of every movement, which could give 
 additional ftrength and activity to the body, they 
 M'cre gradually trained to real action. 
 
 During the fhort intervals of peace, they were 
 engaged in the hardy occupation of agriculture, 
 the only pacific employment which was thought 
 worthy of a Roman citizen. To turn the ftubborn. 
 foil, to be expofed to all the changes of weather, to 
 fubfift upon a frugal diet, and undergo every rural 
 labour, were the beft preparatives for war. In the 
 early ages of the commonwealth, this employment 
 was ennobled by the practice of confuls and dicta- 
 tors, who tilled their paternal fields with their own 
 hands ; and Cincinnatus, Fabius, and Fabricius, 
 were called from the plough to fill the greateft 
 offices of ftate, and lead their countrymen to 
 battle. 
 
 The Romans looked with attention upon the 
 warlike appointments and arms of other nations, 
 and ihowed their profound judgment in quickly 
 adopting expedients to fupply their own defects. 
 They copied the form of the Sabine fhield, and 
 armed their troops with the Spaniili f \vord. Horfes 
 for their cavalry were procured from Numidia; 
 and the wreck of a Carthaginian velfel, fortunately 
 thrown upon their coaft, was the model of their 
 
 VOL. i. * b firft
 
 ".70 THL 1I1MORY OF UO.M>. 
 
 lirft fhip of war. At the beginning of the contefr 
 with Carthage, they had not a f ingle vellel of this 
 description ; but at its clofe they were matters of 
 the fea. The genius of fuch a people, fo veifatile. 
 and alive to improvement, feemed to form them 
 for exteniive empire ; and henee it is the lets extra- 
 ordinary, that the ready adoption of foreign arm* 
 and inventions proved destructive to the nations 
 which originally ufed them '. 
 
 But the peculiar glory of Roman tactics arofft 
 from the formation and discipline of the legion. 
 Agreeable to the genius of the people, it was better 
 calculated for attack than defence. With refpe6t 
 to activity, it had great advantages over the Gre- 
 cian and Macedonian phalanx, \vhich was only fo 
 conftruclcd, as to force its way by the depth and 
 iblidity of its* compact and cloftly- wedged ranks. 
 The open order, which the legionary troops pre- 
 ferved, gave to every Ibldier the free exercife of hi.v 
 arms, and afforded fpace for reinforcements to ad- 
 vance to the relief of thofe, whofe ftrength AVUS 
 exhaufted. The fpaces likewife gave room for the 
 iirll line to fall back into the fecond, and with them 
 to make a new attack ; and if theft, two ranks when 
 united were overpowered, they retired to the rear 
 rank, with whole affiftance they renewed the charge 
 with threefold impctuofity. Thj regular manner, 
 in which this advance or retreat was conducted, 
 
 1 Montcfquieu, c. i. ii. Kennet, p. 239. Gibbon, vol. i. p. n. 
 yetf, tt xa TWJ iTEfoi fxiT*Xan i^n, xai ^<ra TO CiXTo, 
 . Potybius, lib. vi, fed. 20, ^^ ) 24. rdit. Gronov. 
 
 COnftitut'd
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 371 
 
 conftituted the perfection of the Roman difcipli* 
 The fuccefs, which it imift finally fecure, was cer- 
 tain, when we confidcr the legions oppofed to irre- 
 gular barbarians; who, if once routed, never re- 
 turned to a fecond attack. In many battles, the 
 Romans were at firft repulfed by the number or 
 impetuoufity of the hoitile troops : but by their 
 judicious arrangements and evolutions, the event 
 was ultimately favourable ; the enemy was checked 
 in the midft of his fuccefsful career, and th 
 laurel of victory was fuddenly fnatched from his 
 hands ". 
 
 The firft model of a Roman camp feems to have 
 been firft fuggefted by the rude intrenchments, which 
 Romulus caufed to be thrown up to defend his 
 rifing city. This plan was in fucceeding times greatly 
 improved; and the camp of the Romans was remark- 
 able for the perfect regularity of its quadrangular 
 form : it was divided by parallel lines, compoling 
 fpacious ftreets, for the accommodation, in feparate 
 
 m Gibbon, vol. i. c. i. Fergufon, c. 3. and the cited paf- 
 fages. Livy contrails the phalanx with the legion, and points 
 out the fuperior excellence of the latter, when comparing the 
 forces of Alexander with the Romans" Statarius uterque miles, 
 ordines fcrvans : fed ilia phalanx immobilis et unius generis: 
 Romana acies diftindior, ex pluribus partibus conftans : facilij 
 partienti, quacunquc opus eflet, facilis jungcnti." Liv. lib. viii. 
 c. 8. ct lib. ix. 
 
 " Yet was this phalanx never or very feldom able to ftand 
 againft the Roman armies, which were embauelled in fo excellent 
 a forme, as I know not whether any nation befides them have 
 ufed, cither before or firice." Sir W. Rakigh, p. 26"$. 
 
 B b 2 detach-
 
 372 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 iKtachmcnts, of cavalry, infantry, and auxiliaries ; 
 ivds (ecu red by the breadth and depth of its ditch, 
 and the loltincfs of its ramparts, aimed with a line 
 of ftrong and clofc palifades. The profpect of this 
 admirable arrangement, Co well calculated for lecu- 
 rity and defence, drew from Pyrrhus of Epirus, 
 and Philip the fccond of Macedon, when at war 
 
 * 
 
 with the Romans, a candid acknowledgment of its 
 excellence : and when we trace the remaining vcC- 
 tiges of their encampments, we can in Come degree 
 realize the descriptions which the ancients have 
 given us, and fairly infer the greatnefs of their 
 ftrength from their long duration. Many camps 
 in this ifland, and upon the continent, fuch as that 
 near Kyneton, upon, the borders of Herefordihire 
 .the camp near Dorchcfter in DorfetuYire; at Cafter, 
 or Veuta Icenorum, near Norwich ; Cacfar's camp 
 upon the Rhine, and that which overtops the white 
 cliffs of Dieppe, may be fuppofed, from their prefent 
 frclh and unbroken appearance, to have been formed 
 only a few centuries ago. 
 
 But it was found, that the perfection of their 
 movements in the field, and the fecurity of their 
 pofition in camps, would not complete the military 
 art, without impofing the ftricteft restraints upon 
 the conduct of a foldier, and holding out the mott 
 lucrative and glorious recompence for his valour. 
 Such was the inflexible rigour of martial law, that 
 cowardice and diibbediencc led to inevitable death, 
 ' in fl lifted by the (words and darts of his comrades; 
 whilft, on the other hand, every exploit was attended 
 
 *
 
 THE HIS/OUT OF ROME. 373 
 
 %> 
 
 by its appropriate honour. The rich trappings of 
 horfes, the golden chain, the civic, the mural, and 
 the roftral crowns, awaited the return of the vete- 
 ran from the field of battle ; and penfions ariiing 
 from the fale of the conquered lands, or fettlcments 
 upon fertile fpots of ground, were granted for the 
 fupport of his declining age, and as the rewards of 
 his long and faithful fervices. 
 
 The Triumph, which derived its origin from the 
 earlieft age of the republic, when Romulus returned 
 home laden with fpoils of his vanquiihed enemies, 
 tended in a much greater degree to cherilh this 
 martial fpirit". This ceremony, repugnant as it 
 was to the feelings of companion for the diftreffed, 
 and calculated to encourage arrogance and often- 
 tation, in point of fplendour and pomp, was fupe- 
 rior to the honour ever paid to victorious chiefs and 
 armies in any other country. It was attended by 
 an innumerable concourfe of applauding fpeclators, 
 collected from every part of the empire. Such was 
 the glory afligned to Paulus ^Emilius, the great 
 conqueror of Macedon, after he had brought Per- 
 feus, king of that country, and his family, prisoners 
 to Rome . The proceflion patted through fpacious 
 and lofty arches, ornamented with pictures and fta- 
 tues, to the fplendid temple of the lofty capitol. 
 At firft appeared bands of trumpeters, and other 
 martial muficians, M'ho, to prepare the fpeclators 
 
 * Livy, lib. i. c. 9. Floras, lib. i. c. 18. 
 
 B. C. 168. Liv. lib. xlv. c. 39 et 40. 
 
 b 3 for
 
 THE HISTORY 6? ROME. 
 
 for military fcenes, founded the loud and animating 
 charge of battle. The priefts, clothed in long 
 vobe$, and crowned with chaplets, walked by the 
 fide of the white oxen of Clitumnus devoted to 
 Sacrifice. The fculptured figures, painted banners, 
 and various fymbols of the fubdued cities and pro- 
 vinces, were diftinclly difplayed. The gold and 
 filver coin depoflted in capacious vafes, were car- 
 ried upon the fhoulders of the nioft robuft foldiers. 
 The burnifhed coats of mail, waving crefts, glitter- 
 ing fpears, and the golden goblets and rich plate 
 which had adorned the royal banquets of Antigonus 
 and Seleucur,, beft difpofed for the view of the peo- 
 ple, were conveyed in long trains of carriages. 
 The chariot of the captive king next appeared, 
 containing his diadem and his armour. Then 
 walked Perfeus clad in mourning, with flow and 
 melancholy fteps, attended by his children and 
 friends. The golden crowns, lent by the numerous 
 ftates in alliance with the republic, as tokens of 
 congratulation on her recent conqueft, carried in 
 the hands of their refpeclive ambaffadors, announced 
 the approach of the conqueror himfelf. Paulus 
 Emilius appeared {landing erect, in a magnificent 
 chariot, that was drawn by four milk-white horfes ; 
 he was clothed in a purple robe, his head encircled 
 with a refulgent diadem, and waving in his hand a 
 branch of laurel. The proceflion was clofcd by the 
 whole army bearing the Imperial eagles at the front 
 of their cohorts and fquadrons, and intermixing 
 with the fong of triumph the praifes of their 
 general. 
 
 8 Thofe
 
 THE HISTORY OF KOMF.. S7-* 
 
 Thofe who inftituted the triumph as a national 
 celebrity, perfectly underltood the genius of a peo- 
 ple difpofed to catch the flame of emulation from 
 every incident, which gave dignity to the character 
 of a foldier. This honour was indeed rarely granted 
 to any officer of inferior rank to a praetor, conful, 
 or dictator: but as each of them lhared it in com- 
 mon M'ith every tribune, centurion, and even le- 
 gionary of his army, it failed not to infpire them 
 all with ardouf for military lei vice P. The fame 
 diftin&ion, therefore, which was the reward of 
 one viclory, frequently proved the fburce of ano- 
 ther. 
 
 III. Rome at an early period called for the aid 
 of religion, to give greater efficacy to her civil 
 laws and military institutions. Nit ma lulled the 
 infant kingdom into a fhort repoie, in order to 
 ftrengthen it by his facred eftabli/hments q . The 
 attention paid to augury, which was at once the 
 refource and the delufion of the Romans, arofe to 
 
 . 9 The honour of a triumph was refufed to L. Cornelius Lentu- 
 lus, becaufe he had borne none of thefo offices : " Res triumpko 
 dignas efle cenfebat fcnatus : fed cxcmplum a majoribus non 
 accepifle, ut qui, neque dictator, nequc conful, neque prztor res 
 geffiflet, triumpharct." Liv. Hiit. lib. xxxi. c. 20. But tMs 
 honour was granted to Pompcy, when only' a knight. See his 
 Life by Plutarch, vol. ii. p. 299. Plutarch, a Greek, and 
 Jofephus, a Jew, have given circumftantial defcriptions of the 
 Roman triumph. It is only from foreigners, or thofe who wrhff 
 for foreigners, that we can expect particular accounts of manners, 
 cuftoms, and ceremonies, which are familiar to natives, 
 i B. C. 713. Liv,. lib. i. c. 19, &c. 
 
 B b 4 the
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROMZ. 
 
 the higheft degree of fuperftition. Not only the 
 departed heroes, who had been raifed to the rank 
 of divinity by the elegant fi&ions of Greece, as 
 well as the gods of other nations, were naturalized; 
 but every virtue and vice, every art and profefiion, 
 the deities of every grove and dream, derived a 
 peculiar character from their refpeclive votaries; 
 were reprefented by images, ornamented with pecu- 
 liar fymbols, and worshipped with appropriate rites. 
 The excefiive credulity of the populace, ever eager 
 for the account of prodigies and fables, was at all 
 times flattered by the magiftrates, and refpecled by 
 the philofophers, who, however they might fmile in 
 fecret at the prevailing fuperftition, dill afiumed in 
 public the inafk of external reverence for the my- 
 thology of their country. The ceremonies of poly- 
 theifm were in general of the moft cheerful ten- 
 dency ; proceflions to the temples, except in cafes 
 of public calamity, were focial meetings of feftivity ; 
 and facrifices to the gods were little more than the 
 fcafts of their worfhippers. 
 
 . A fcrupulous attention to religion was the pecu- 
 liar boaft and pride of the Romans : and Cicero 
 hefitates not to afiert, that to their piety, and their 
 firm belief in the over-ruling providence of the 
 gods, they were indebted for their afcendancy over 
 all other nations r . The citablilhment of pontiffs, 
 
 ' ' " Sed piet^to ac religion?, atque bac vna fapicntia, quod 
 dcorum inr.mortalium nuraine omnia rcgi gubernarique perfpexi- 
 mus, omnes gentes nationefque fupcravimift." Cicero de Harufp. 
 Rcfponfu. 
 
 flamens,
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 377 
 
 flamens, augurs, and veftals, was fupported by con- 
 fecrated lan<ls ; and as the civil and military de* 
 partments were not deemed incompatible with the 
 religious, even emperors, confuls, and genera!* 
 afpired to, and exercifed, the offices of the priefl- 
 hood. The union of religion indeed with the civil 
 government is a ftriking feature in the Roman 
 policy. Auguftus was fenfible of its grrat import- 
 ance ; and he, as well as fucceeding emperors, 
 fought to raife himfelf above the attacks of his 
 enemies, and exalt the refpeclability of his cha- 
 racter to the greateft elevation, by afiuming the 
 venerable title and inviolable dignity of the Pontifex 
 Maximus. 
 
 IV. The fpirit of patriotifm was never fo gene- 
 rally diffufed, nor fo long preferved, as in ancient 
 Rome. So ardent were the fentiments which it 
 infpired, and fo daring the actions which it excited, 
 that it was rather a pailion than a habit of the irjnd. 
 It was the fource of numherlefs virtues ; it foftered 
 patience, and alleviated toil ; it extinguifhed the 
 fire of ambition^ and even filenced the voice of 
 nature ; and taught the Romans to defpife all pri- 
 vate intereft, and to fubmit to the fevereft pain for 
 the benefit of the (late. Hence Junius Brutus 
 condemned his traitorous fons to an ignominious 
 death, Regulus, unmoved by the fupplications of 
 his weeping relations and friends, and undifmayed 
 by the profpeft of certain torture, returned to Car- 
 thage; and the inflexible ManliusTorquatus, check- 
 ing
 
 378 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 ing the ftrongeft feelings of the heart, devoted his 
 victorious fon to the ftvord of the executioner. 
 
 K The republic was frequently agitated by the moft 
 violent convulfions of party. The debates of the 
 fenate were interrupted by the clamorous demands 
 of the tribunes, jealous to fecure the rights of the 
 people. The Forum was often a fcene of war, and 
 the peaceful gown was ftained with blood. Both 
 Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, the intemperate ad- 
 vocates for the revival of the Agrarian law, niifled 
 fcy injudicious zeal for the privileges of the ple- 
 beians, fell a facrifice to the vengeance of arifto- 
 tratic power ; and in a fubfequent period, the wants 
 of the profligate, and the ambition of the noble,, 
 produced a deep and formidable confpiracy, which 
 was detected by the vigilance of Cicero, and hurrkd 
 Catiline to open rebellion and death. 
 
 Still we find that internal difcord was often 
 filenced, when intelligence was brought to the city 
 of hoftile defigns and movements. Such an alarm 
 was futricient to abate the animofity of contending 
 factions, and to unite every order in the iirmeft 
 union for the public fervice. The arrival of Han- 
 nibal in Italy put an immediate Hop to all civil 
 diffenfions. The ftorm, which had raged at home, 
 ftuldenly increafed its violence, but changed its 
 direction, and fell with redoubled fury upon the 
 common enemy. 
 
 From
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 879 
 
 From the love of their country immediately re- 
 fulted, in the purcft times of the commonwealth, 
 the facrifice of every private intcreft to the public 
 Welfare. The Romans tbrcfaw that opulence, by 
 the introduction of luxury, would difqualify tiiem 
 for the toils of war, and deitroy that juit equality, 
 which limits ambition to the Ible defire of acting 
 for the general good. They therefore efteemed 
 poverty a virtue ; and this, which in the iirft inha- 
 bitants of Rome was the effect of neceility, became 
 among their defendants, for fome ages, an object 
 of choice. They coniidered it as the fure guardian 
 of liberty, and oppofed it to the encroachments of 
 corruption. A Roman, during the purcft times of 
 the commonwealth, thought that frugality formed 
 a part of his glory ; and at the fame time that he 
 expofed his life to every danger, in order to fill the 
 public treafury, he performed military fcrvice with- 
 out ftipencl or gratuity. Every one thought himfelf 
 fufficiently opulent in the riches of the ftate, and 
 would have efteerncd it unworthy of his character 
 to require any emolument from the offices with 
 which his country had inveftcd him, and which 
 he held only to contribute to her aggrandizement. 
 The generals, animated by the fame noble contempt 
 of wealth as the common foldiers, depended only, 
 for their fubfiftence on their fmall inheritance of 
 land, which they tilled with their own hands. 
 Regulus requefled permillion of the Senate to re- 
 turn from the command of the army, to the culti- 
 vation of his little farm '. And Paulus JEmilius, 
 
 B.C. 256. 
 
 who
 
 380 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 who filled his native city with the rich fpoils of the 
 kings of Macedon, died without futficient money 
 to defray the expences of his funeral. 
 
 This virtuous and patriotic difpofition may be 
 illuftrated by the fumptuary laws, which were 
 enacted at different periods, and which, without 
 any exception in favour of high birth, fortune, or 
 rank, regulated the expences of every citizen. 
 No articles of luxury efcaped the attention of thefe 
 rigid and fagacious legiilators, who faw the necefiity 
 of eftabli/hing public opulence upon private eco- 
 nomy. By the Oppian law, the Roman ladies were 
 prohibited from wearing robes of various colours, 
 from having ornaments which exceeded the value 
 of half an ounce of gold, and from being drawn in 
 a chariot by two horfes, unlefs to attend fome pub- 
 lic folemnity. Orchius limited the number of guefts 
 to be invited to entertainments ; Fannius regulated 
 the expence of public feftivals; and Cornelius con- 
 fined that of funerals to a very moderate fum. 
 And as a proof that in thefe pure times any relaxa- 
 tion of fuch laws was highly difapprovcd, even by 
 thofe who were moft the objecis of their fe verity, 
 Duronius was expelled the Senate, becaufe, when 
 he ferved the office of tribune, he had abrogated the 
 law which limited the expence of feafts. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 381. ] 
 
 L J 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The Subject continued. 
 
 JL HE caufes ftatccl in the preceding chapter had 
 the grcateft influence upon the fentiments and the 
 conduct of the Romans, both at home and abroad, 
 eftablifhed their military character, and raifed them 
 by flow degrees to the fummit of dominion. 
 
 Vain were the efforts of the people of Italy to 
 refift them ; and the fuccefiive attacks of the fove- 
 rcigns of Macedon, Syria, and Egypt, were equally 
 fruitlcfs. The difgraceful capitulation of the legions 
 in the flraights of Caudium, the near approach of 
 Coriolanus to Rome at the head of the Volfci, 
 were productive of no permanent advantage to die 
 conquerors. The armies of the republic were often 
 compelled to fly, or to furrender, and were fome- 
 times reduced to the moit humiliating diltrefs. But 
 the fevereft repulfes tended only to give a new 
 fpring to their exertions. The impetuous fury of 
 the Gauls, and the alacrity of Pyrrhus, made indeed 
 a temporary impreftion ; but they could not finally 
 prevail. At one time Varro, at another Cneius 
 Scipio was cut off, their forces were routed, and 
 the braved of their troops were (lain; but the cou- 
 rage of the fenate and the people was ftill firm and 
 undaunted ; the fpirit of their inftitutions cherifhed 
 
 it,
 
 382 THE HISTORY Ol* ROME. 
 
 it, and their exertions were too much the refult of 
 calm intrepidity, and confirmed habit, to be dif- 
 concerted by the fall of a general, the overthrow of 
 an army, or the fufpenfion of a triumph. Viclory 
 was ibmetimes capricious in the diftribution of her 
 favours ; ihe flew to give tranfient fuccefs to other 
 nations, and fwelled their minds with delufive hopes 
 of conqucff. But molt propitious to difcipline, 
 valour, and perfeverance, fhe failed not finally to 
 encircle M'ith her unfading laurel the brov/s of her 
 darling Romans. 
 
 In the Carthaginians we behold their moft for- 
 midable enemies. They were the only people, who, 
 by their opulence, territories, fpirit, and refources, 
 Teemed capable of contending with them for empire, 
 with any profpect of fuccefs *. Their tranfaclions 
 
 and 
 
 a For an accurate account of the conftitmion, laws, commerce, 
 and dominions of Carthage, fee Fergufon's Roman Republic, 
 vol. i. p. 88. Into one chapter of moderate length he has com. 
 preffcd the memorable tranfaclions of the fecond Punic war, p. 106. 
 The aocount of the battle of Cannae is detailed with Kngular pre- 
 cifion and perfpicuity. 
 
 Polybius has drawn a concifc but ftriking (fontraft between the 
 fiourilhing condition of Rome, and the declining ftate of Carthage, 
 at the commencement of the firft Punic war. Lib. vi. fed. 49, 
 Sec. See Ariftot. de Republica, lib. ii. cap. 9. Polybius fup- 
 plied Livy with much information relative to the Punic wars. 
 Livv has not only adopted, in manj inftances, his ftatcmcnt of 
 fads, but even has literally tranflated his expreflions. As an 
 acknowledgment for fuch obligations, he has merely mentioned 
 Polybius in fuch terms as thefe : " haudquaquam fpernendus 
 auftor," and " non incertum auftorera." Liv. lib. xxx. c. 4. 
 
 and
 
 THE HISTOUY OF ROME. 383 
 
 and wars form one of the moft intcrcfting portion* 
 of the hiftory we are now confidering. But untbr- 
 tunately for their fame, and the willies of pofterity, 
 the chief accounts recorded of them are received 
 from the writings of their prejudiced rivals. The 
 Roman hiftorians take delight in placing all their, 
 tr&n factions in the moft unfavourable light, and 
 afperfe their national character with the odious im- 
 putation of fyftematic cruelty and perfidy. Nor 
 are the Greek writers totally free from an unfa- 
 vourable bias, and the influence of limilar preju- 
 dices. The moft impartial and full detail of their 
 government, laws, arts, manners, and inftitutions,- 
 would have been peculiarly interefting to Britain, 
 as they role to their height of dominion and opu- 
 lence by the power of their navy, and the extent; 
 of their colonies and commerce. During the 
 fecond Punic war, the full energy of both nations 
 was drawn forth into aclion 6 . Hannibal combined 
 in his character ail the qualifications of a great 
 ftatefman, and a coni'ummate general ; and when 
 the magnitude and the number of the obftacles he-' 
 furmounted in his invafion of Italy be considered, 
 the extenfive and difficult track of country which 
 he traverfed, the factious parties of Carthage, which 
 attempted to difconcert all his meaiures, the dif- 
 cordunt interelts of the allied forces which he re- 
 conciled, and the powerful armies and ikilful gene- 
 
 and lib. xxxiii. c. ic. I am inclined however to admit the rea-. 
 fons brought by Drakenborch, torn. iv. p. 506. for fuppofing that 
 thefe expreflions were intended to convey proper fentiments of 
 refpetf. * B. C. 220. 
 
 .rate
 
 584 THE HISTORY OF ROME* 
 
 t 
 
 jals he oppofed, he may furely be ranked, where 
 Scipio Atricanus, his great rival in arms, did not 
 hefitate to place him, among the greateft heroes of 
 antiquity. 
 
 Even after the fucceflive defeats of the Romans 
 itTlirafimcne, atTrehia, and the complete deftruc- 
 tion of their choiccft army at Cann*, when they 
 urere bafely deferted by many of their allies, the 
 fenate did not relax, even for a moment, the firm- 
 nefs of ancient inilitutions, and difdaiued to nego- 
 ciate with the enemy, while he continued within 
 the territories of the republic. And at that criti- 
 cal conjuncture, far from being difmayed at his 
 approach, they fold by public auction the ground 
 upon which his army was encamped ; and it was 
 purchafed at the price it would have reached during 
 a period of the utmoil tranquillity. At the fame 
 time that a body of troops advanced from the city 
 to give battle to Hannibal, another detachment 
 inarched out at an oppofite gate to reinforce the 
 army in Spain . 
 
 The victorious Hannibal, inftead of making an 
 additional effort of courage in compliance with the 
 advice of his moft experienced officers, and march- 
 ing with rapidity to Rome, immediately after the 
 battle of Cann<, before his enemies could recover 
 from their confternation, was imprudent enough 
 to allow his foldiers to indulge in the enervating 
 
 * Livy, lib. xxvi. c. xi. 
 
 luxuries
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 385 
 
 luxuries of Capua. This was the fubject of his 
 vain lamentation, as he was reluctantly failing back 
 to his native country, and beheld for the laft time 
 the Idlening mores of Italy, that had been fo fre- 
 quently the fcenes of his glory d . Such is the iute- 
 retting account of Livy. But it leems probable 
 that a want of thofe fupplies, which lie requefted 
 immediately after the battle of Canna*, was the 
 true caufe of the decline of his profperity, and the 
 ruin of Carthage ; as he continued to infeft Italy 
 for the con He of fourteen years after his (lay at 
 Capua, during that time gained feveral victories, 
 and kept his enemies in a (late of conftant alarm 
 for the fafety of the empire. 
 
 The fteady ardour of Scipio Africanus turned the 
 tide of fuccefs, and the fortune of Hannibal and of 
 Carthage funk under his triumphant arms 6 . The 
 battle of Zama gave to the Romans the dominion 
 of the world. The event of the fecond Punic war 
 was particularly advantageous, by affording them 
 the means of carrying their conquefts into the moft 
 diftant countries : for after the defeat of the Car- 
 thaginians, there Were no maritime forces fufrici- 
 ently powerful to contend with them for the com- 
 mand of the ocean. As their plan of operations 
 was conducted upon regular principles, their fuccefs 
 was not unftable and tranfitory, like that of Alex- 
 ander the Great, but continued through the long 
 
 d Liv. lib. xxxiii. cap. 18, &c. lib. xxx. cap. 20. 
 * B. C. 202. Liv. lib. xxx. cap. 35. 
 
 VOL. i.v c c period^
 
 316 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 period of nine centuries to accumulate power, anil 
 gradually add kingdom to kingdom. 
 
 After Rome had fubdued the fairefr countries of 
 the ancient world, the arms of her ambitious gtne- 
 rals were directed againft each other. To the bloody 
 profcviptions of Marius and Sylla fucceeded the 
 ftratagems and triumphs of the politic and accom- 
 plifhed Julius Csefar. Elated with his conquefts in 
 Gaul, and fired with die moft ardent ambition, he 
 pafled. the Rubicon, the prefcribed boundary of his 
 province, to plunge his fword into the bolbms of 
 his countrymen f . The ftern virtue of Cato, and 
 the prowefs of the amiable Pompey, were ineffec- 
 tually oppofed to the haughty dictator. At length, 
 pierced by the daggers of thofe friends whofe lives 
 he had fpared, he expired in the fenate-houfe be- 
 neath the ftatue of his unhappy rival. The de- 
 bauched and profligate Antony forged new chains 
 for his countrymen ; and Brutus and Caflius, who 
 for a long time oppofed only mild remonftrances to 
 his enormities and his ufurpation, at length had 
 recourfe to unavailing arms ; and the fields of Phi- 
 Jippi were ftained with their patriotic blood *. The 
 eloquence of Cicero, which had been fuccefsfully 
 dire&ed agaiult the rapacity of Verres, and the 
 confpiracy of Catiline, was the caufe of his own, 
 lamentable end. With the boldnefs of truth, and 
 the warmth of indifcretion, he provoked the rage 
 
 ' B-. C. 50. Fergufon, vol. ti. book iii. chap, i, &c 
 * Fcrgufon, vol. ii, chap. 4. 
 
 Of
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 387 
 
 of an implacable tyrant by the enumeration of his 
 private vices. The match let's power of his talents, 
 the uniullied integrity of his character, and a long 
 life devoted to the iervlce of his friends and the 
 public, pleaded for him in vain. The vindictive 
 Antony fixed his guiltlets head upon that loftrtim, 
 from which he had ib frequently delighted and iu- 
 ftructed his countrymen h . 
 
 This period of hiftory, from the time of Marius 
 to the accenion of Auguftus, p relents the moft cala- 
 mitous profpect, filled with recitals of ianguinary 
 proferiptions, and crowded with images of martial 
 horror. It abounds with examples of fuccefefui 
 villainy, and unavailing virtue. But after the 
 naval victory of Aclium had 'given the empire to 
 Aiigullus, the fcene brightened into the fair views 
 of order and happinefs, the ftorms of civil difcord 
 were humed into peace, and philofophy, literature, 
 and the arts, derived the greateft and moft honour* 
 able encouragement from his patronage. 
 ' 
 
 To the Tufcans Rome was firft indebted for its 
 works of architecture, fculpture, and painting. The 
 qualities, which particularly characterized the pro- 
 ductions of that ingenious people, were boldnefs, 
 folidity, and grandeur, as appear from the founda- 
 tions of the Capitol, the remains of the Cloaca 
 Maxima, and many other fpecimens which are ftill 
 extant. But the fuperior elegance of Grecian exe- 
 
 h B. c. 50. 
 c c3 cution
 
 388 THE HISTORY OF HOME. 
 
 cution attracted the whole attention of the Romans, 
 as foon as their conquefts gave them an opportu- 
 nity of becoming converfant with Grecian works 
 of art. 
 
 From the indiscriminate collodion of the fpeci- 
 mens of the tine arts, arole by flow degrees the ge- 
 nuine tafte of the Romans. When Marcellus took 
 Syracufe, he conveyed all the pictures and itatues 
 of that elegant city to Rome. The remonftrauces 
 of Fabius Maximus againft his conduct M'ere uttered 
 without effect; and in vain did he repreient, that 
 as fuch trifles formed the occupation and the amufe- 
 ment of an idle and an effeminate people, they were 
 beneath the notice of his countrymen, diftinaruiflied 
 
 f O 
 
 as they were for the daring energy of their minds, 
 and the manly rouglmeis of their character. The 
 love of the arts, which commenced at this period, 
 was fucceflively gratified by the conquetl of thole 
 Grecian cities moft eminent as the repofitories of 
 their productions. The triumph of ^milius was 
 graced with fome of the choiceft monuments of 
 fciilpture ; and Mummius, the taftelefs conqueror 
 of Achaia, completely {tripped Corinth of heritatues 
 and pictures, to enrich his native city. Sometime* 
 the vanity, and fometimes the avarice of generals 
 and governors of provinces, contributed to make 
 Rome a magazine of the faireft fpoils of Greece ; 
 and the cuftom of adorning the theatres with them 
 by the public authority of the magiflrates, contri- 
 buted to diffufe a refinement of tafte. And even 
 during the bloody conflicts of the civil wars, the 
 
 4 publie
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 389 
 
 public and private repoiitories were confiderably 
 enriched ; for Sylla brought home the plunder of 
 Athens, and Julius Ciefar formed a valuable collec- 
 tion of ancient gems. 
 
 An sera of the higheft refinement commenced 
 with the reign of Auguftus ', whole palace was 
 adorned with the rich vafes of Corinth. Grecian 
 artilts were invited to Rome, and the mafterly exe- 
 cution of the medals of that period, prove their 
 fuperiority to thole of former times. The capital 
 of the world, which Auguftus found dilgraced by 
 buildings of the rudeft forms and materials, dif- 
 played under his aufpices and thofe of his fon-in-law 
 Agrippa, in its marble palaces, temples, and thea- 
 tres, all the elegance and majefty of Grecian archi- 
 tecture. The public edifices were not only furnimed 
 with the choice!! ornaments of the fame country, 
 but the ftreets and fquares exhibited the exquifite 
 images of all the Pagan deities k . 
 
 The 
 
 1 B. C. 27. 
 
 k The admirer of ancient fculpture may fee fome fine fpecimene 
 of the art in the Pomfret collection in Oxford. He will however 
 be forry to find them crowded together in a gloomy room. The 
 Pembroke colle&ion at Wilton is remarkable for the number of 
 bulls : when I faw them fome years ago, I thought few of them 
 equal to the fame of the collection. Perhaps Lord Carlifle, at 
 Caftle Howard, in Yorkfhire, has as many, if not more, genuine 
 antiques. At Mr. Buncombe's, at Buncombe Park, may be 
 fecn the admirable Grecian dog, formerly in the poffcffion of 
 Mr. Lock, and the Difcobolus, fo finifhed and fo eafy in atti- 
 tude, that it is worthy of the chifel of a Phidias, or a Praxitelw. 
 But the beft fchool of obfervatjon which this country can afford 
 
 c c 3 \ 9
 
 590 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 The fame obligations, which the Romans owed 
 to Greece for infpiring them with a love of the 
 arts, were extended to philofophy and polite litera- 
 ture, with this remarkable difference, that in the 
 former tiny were only admirers, in the latter they 
 ventured to be competitors with their great mafters. 
 A fbndnefs for fculpture and painting, and the cul- 
 tivation qf eloquence and poetry, kept nearly an 
 equal pace ; and the fame age faw them arife, and 
 flouriili together. Writers, whofe works are the 
 glory of ancient Italy, and the fubject of encomium 
 for every generation, adorned this golden period, 
 and reached that ftandard of excellence, from which 
 the unpolifhed ftyle of their predecefibrs, and the 
 degenerate affectation of their followers, feem equally 
 remote. Horace and Virgil, Tibullus and Proper- 
 tius, flourimed in the court of Auguftus. The two 
 firft, indeed, through the noble patronage and 
 friendship of Maecenas, enjoyed the fmiles of the 
 Emperor, who was himfelf difiinguiilied by the 
 elegance of his compofitions, and the purity of his 
 tafte. The Lyric as well as the Epic mufe were 
 grateful for his protection and liberality ; and Ho- 
 race and Virgil, indulging the vanity of the Julian 
 
 to any one who is defirous of improving his tafte, may be found 
 at Mr. Townley's, in Dartmouth-ftreet, Weftminfter. The ftatue 
 of IJit t or Cybtlty crowned with the lotus, is majeftic ; the fleep- 
 ing AJot. is is very elegant ; but the Tftfllia, or Paftoral Mufe, is 
 fo inimitable for delicate proportions, and tranfparent drapery, 
 which adorns without concealing any part of the figure, that it 
 exceeds all praife. For an entertaining account of fculpture, 
 anfl of Englifh collections in particular, fee Mr. Dallaway^j 
 Anecdotes of the Arts, p. 163, &c. 
 
 family.
 
 THE HISTORT OF ROME. 30,1 
 
 family, who claimed a divine origin, have raifed 
 the betrayer of Cicero, and the colleague of the 
 profligate Antony, to the rank of a deity, and 
 immortalized his fame in their incomparable 
 works. 
 
 : 
 
 Auguftus having always prefented to his mind 
 the image of the murdered Julius, ftudied to avoid 
 his fate by avoiding his conduct. Verfed in the 
 deepeft arts of difiimulation, he purfued with afto- 
 nifhing fuccefs his ambitious career. Yet the equity 
 of his laws, and the prudent administration of his 
 government, during forty years of glory and peace, 
 made no inconsiderable recompence to his country 
 for the evils which he had before inflicted, or coun- 
 tenanced. Rome itfelf rofe to unknown fplendour ; 
 and his munificence, moderation, and paternal care, 
 were bounded only by the confines of his vaft em- 
 pire. He prefented to the world a moil extraordi- 
 nary character, fmce he proved that the fmiles of 
 fortune, far from increafmg the feverity of his 
 temper, and giving a keener edge to his refent* 
 ment, could foften a timid and fanguinary tyrant 
 into a mild and generous prince *. 
 
 Perhaps the character, which the judicious hiflo- 
 rian of the Roman republic has given of him, may 
 afford the beft clue to his conduct. " He does 
 not appear to have had from nature, in any high 
 
 1 " Reftitit aliquandiu collegis, ne qua fieret profcriptio, fed 
 
 incfptam utroque actrbiut exercuit." Suetonius* 
 
 * 
 
 c c 4 degree,
 
 392 THE HISTORY Of ROME. 
 
 degree, ttofe difpofitions to malice or benevolence, 
 which are the great diftinguiming principles of 
 virtue *nd vice. He feems to have been indif- 
 ferent to mankind, but defirous of conficleratioa 
 and power, as objects of intereft to himfelf. His 
 ruling paffion was a defire to reign. In his way to 
 this end, he committed many crimes : but having 
 onee effected his purpofe, he had no other criminal 
 difpofition to gratify: or after he was fovereign, 
 ftanding in awe of a free fpirit, which he durft 
 not infult, he either from inclination or policy, 
 and probably in part from both, preferred, as it is 
 furprifing every one elfe does not prefer, the proper 
 ufe of his power to the abufe of it m . " 
 
 But notwithstanding the external magnificence 
 of Rome, and her prosperity during his reign and 
 that of his immediate fuccefibrs, the manners of 
 the people gradually underwent a great change ; 
 the (late contained in her bofom the caufes of her 
 own decay, and the poifon of diflblution preyed 
 upon her vitals. She became as abject and de- 
 graded, as ihe had ever been great and powerful. 
 The emprefs of the world funk into the moft humi- 
 liating condition ; and her downfal may be attri- 
 buted, I. to the extinction of patriotifm ; II. the 
 introduction of luxury ; III. the neglect of the 
 ancient modes of education ". 
 
 The 
 
 " Fergufon, vol, iii. c. 5, &c. 
 
 In a train of beautiful allegory Sir W. Raleigh thus alludes 
 
 to the preceding and fubfequent parts of this hiftory. " We 
 
 i kave
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 393 
 
 The imlifcriminate admiflion of all the fubjecls 
 of the empire to the freedom of the city, although 
 a conciliating, was a moli impolitic meafure. In- 
 ftead of railing the natives of the provinces to the 
 dignity of Romans, this privilege produced the 
 oppofite effect, and funk the latter to a level 
 with the former. It extinguiflied thofe high fen- 
 timents of patriotifm, and that pride of compa- 
 rifon, upon which the old republicans had valued 
 themfelves, as it destroyed an exclulive intereft 
 in the profperity of the empire, and degraded the 
 dignity of the Roman character. The right of 
 citizenmip was rendered of no value, by being fo 
 widely diffufed ; and the enthufiafm, which had 
 fired a Brutus, a Codes, and a Manlius, to fight 
 for the tombs of their fathers, and the altars of 
 their gods, was extinguimed. The people were 
 no longer actuated by the fame love of independ- 
 ence, or the fame deteftation of fervility. They 
 
 > j 
 
 looked no more with a jealous eye upon the power 
 of the fenate, or the prerogatives of the patricians ; 
 and undiftinguimed in the crowds of new compe- 
 titors for the fame privileges, they gradually funk 
 into infignificance. The bond of union and lub- 
 
 left the empire of Rome, the laft of the four great mo. 
 lies of the world, floariming in the middle of the field, 
 
 have 
 narchies 
 
 having rooted up, or cut down, all that kept it from the eyes 
 and admiration of the world. But after fome continuance, it 
 fliall begin to lofe the beauty it had ; the ftorrns of ambition (hall 
 beat her great boughs and branches one agauift another, her leaves 
 fhall fall off, her limbs wither, and a rabble of barbarous nations 
 enter the field, and cut her down." Hiftory of the World, 
 p, 668. 
 
 oidina-
 
 3<)4 THE HISTORY fa ROME. 
 
 ordination was broken, and the city was torn by 
 innumerable faftions of flrangers, as foon as every 
 province was allowed to form cabals and alfocia- 
 tions, and to fhelter its inhabitants under the pa- 
 tronage of fome powerful nobleman . 
 
 The profufion and extravagance of the rich were 
 difplayecl in the celebration of the public games. 
 The combats of gladiators, and the races of cha- 
 rioteers, were exhibited to the diffolute crowds, 
 who, indulging only the impulfe of a childifh cu- 
 riofity, fpent whole days in the Circus. The 
 licentious productions of the ftage, often repre- 
 fented with all the attractions of fplendid decora- 
 tions and crowded proceffions, vitiated the general 
 tafte, inflamed the pafiions of youth, and encou- 
 raged diflipation and immorality of conduct in 
 perfons of every clafs. 
 
 II. From the definition of Carthage may be 
 traced the gradual progrefs of Luxury. Profufion 
 and extravagance began to prevail as foon as the 
 precious metals were introduced in abundance. 
 Voluptuoufnefs ufurped the place of temperance, 
 indolence fucceeded to activity ; felf-intereft, fen-* 
 fuality, and avarice, totally extinguished that 
 ardour, which in ancient times had glowed in 
 every breaft for the general good. The ftreams of 
 wealth, that flowed into Rome at the decline of 
 commonwealth, were fuch as almofl exceed 
 
 Montefquieu, cap. ix, 
 
 6 belief
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 3^5 
 
 belief*. The corruption that prevailed at this 
 time forms the ftrongeft contrail imaginable to the 
 pure times of the republic, when Polybius wrote 
 his hiftory. He contrails the inflexible honour of 
 the manly Romans with the perfidious character of 
 the effeminate Greeks. The luxury of the Roman, 
 feafts, the number of their retinue, and the variety 
 of their places of refidence, fometimes kept pace 
 with, and fometimes even exceeded their great reve- 
 nues. Apicius, the celebrated epicure, committed 
 fuicide, becaufe his fortune, inadequate to the enor- 
 mous demands of his depraved appetite, did not ex- 
 ceed the ium of eighty thoufand pounds. Seneca 
 mentions (ingle fuppers, which confumed the whole 
 eilate of a Roman knight. No fewer than eighteea 
 elegant villas, fituated in the mod delightful parts 
 pf Italy, were pofleffed by Cicero : and, as if the 
 land was not fufficient to fatisfy the caprice of a 
 Roman of fafhion, the lakes and the fea were occu- 
 pied by houfes, which extended a confiderable dif- 
 tance from the mores. To every nobleman be- 
 longed fuch numerous parties of flaves, that they 
 were claffed according to their nations, and fta- 
 tioned in feparate diviiions of his palace. 
 
 The republic, which had long withilood the 
 iliocks of external violence, fell gradually a prey 
 
 f . fasvior arm is 
 
 Luxuria incubuit, viftumque ulcifcitur orbem. 
 
 Juven. Sat. vi. 
 
 Fergufon, vol. iii. p. 436. Polybiuj/ lib. vi. feft. 54. See 
 the excellent note of Brotier de Luxu Romanorum. Tacitus, 
 fpro. i. p. 402. 410. ed. 
 
 tQ
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME* 
 
 to profperily. Her gallant chiefs had viewed with 
 undaunted eye the approach of Hannibal, and de- 
 fied the armies of Pyrrhus : but their degenerate 
 descendants, even the pofterity of Fabius and of 
 Scipio, enriched with the fpoils of Greece, and 
 forfeited with the luxuries of Afia, leaving their 
 battles to be fought by barbarian mercenaries, 
 funk fupine on beds of floth, and heard the trumpet 
 of battle with difmay. 
 
 Such indeed was the rapid change of manners, 
 that the genius and character of the people appear 
 to have undergone a total alteration in the fpace 
 of a century, and a general depravity was vifibie 
 in all orders of the ftate. The confuls, after 
 having obtained their elevated rank by intrigues- 
 and bribery, undertook their campaigns either to 
 enrich themfclves with the fpoils of conquered 
 nations, or to plunder the provinces of the allies 
 under the mafk of protectors and defenders. From 
 (uch impure fources were derived the immenfe 
 treafures of Craflus, Lucullus, and Csefar. And 
 as the means of corruption increafed, fo likewife 
 in equal proportion did the difpofition to be cor- 
 nipted. The populace of the empire were tempted 
 to the city by the diftribution of corn, and the 
 frequency of public games ; obfequious, indigent, 
 and enervated by idlenefs, they were ready to 
 follow every ambitious candidate, who was rich 
 enough to purchafe their votes. The laws were 
 filent in the midft of thefe abufes, or they were 
 liftcned to without refpecl or obedience. The ma 
 
 giftrate*
 
 THE HISTOUY OF ROME, 397 
 
 giftrates beheld .with approbation, or with indif- 
 ference, the diforders of the people. The admi- 
 niitration of government under the emperors, in- 
 fluenced by the caprice of their tempers, was 
 fometimes rigid, and fometimes relaxed : the tide 
 of degeneracy flowed with the greateft rapidity, 
 and fwept away all ranks in its current. 
 
 III. To add to this train of denructive evils, 
 the mode of Education underwent a complete 
 change, and prepared the minds of the noble youth 
 for dependence and fervility. Cornelia had, in 
 the purer ages of the common wealth, brought up 
 the Gracchi, and Julius and Auguftus Casfar were 
 reared by Aurelia and Accia : their minds were 
 formed upon principles of honour and virtue, and 
 were directed to the moft noble purfuits ; and they 
 were taught by their illuftrious mothers to imbibe 
 the fpirit, and emulate the exploits of their ancc 
 tors. In fucceeding times, the youths were en- 
 trufted to ignorant domeftics, who initiated them 
 into the various arts of luxury and extravagance. 
 Tutors and rhetoricians, who difgraced the name 
 of Greeks, repaired to Rome, and by their infinu- 
 ating manners, verfatile difpofitions, and frivolous 
 attainments, gained a complete afcendancy in the 
 nobleft families. A fondneis was formed in early 
 iife for expeniive diverfions, and trifling acquire- 
 ments ; and no time was given to the cultivation 
 of the liberal arts, or the fludy of Roman or 
 Grecian hiftory. 
 
 Nor
 
 398 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Nor was the mode of thinking lefs vitiated hi 
 early years by the progrefs of a fpecious and de- 
 itructive philofophy. Uhc principles of Epicurus 
 had been for fome time famionable in Rome ; and 
 his difciples advancing far beyond the modeft 
 fcepticifm of the Academic fchool, boldly denied 
 the providence of a fupremc Ruler of the univerfe, 
 and openly maintained, that death was the extinc- 
 tion of all exiilence. Thefc tenets gave a fatal 
 blow to the eftablifhed religion, and were calcu- 
 lated to undermine the great fan&ions of moral 
 obligation. The noble youths, who reforted to 
 Athens, and other feats of learning, were thus 
 taught to defpife the ceremonies, and deride the 
 maxims of their national belief, a firm adherence 
 to which had been the glory of their anceftors, and 
 had not only operated powerfully upon their mar- 
 tial efforts, but was clofely connected with the 
 civil conftitution of the republic. This philofophy 
 had the recommendation of great and attracting 
 examples to make it popular ; for it was adorned 
 with the poetical graces of Lucretius, and honoured 
 by the commendation of Virgil ; it was favoured 
 by the fcepticifm of Cicero, and was embraced by 
 the fagacious Caefar, and the learned and accom- 
 plimed Attic us. 
 
 The various caufes of her decline prepared Rome 
 for her molt abandoned emperors. The tame fer- 
 vility of the fenate, and the turbulent fpirit of the 
 praetorian bands, fometimes raifed to the imperial 
 purple the meaneft and moll uudeferving of the 
 
 foldiers.
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 399 
 
 fokliers. Yet the corruption of principles was not 
 fo general, as not to make a Nero, a Tiberius, a 
 Caligula furveyed with horror and deteftation by 
 their contemporaries, as well as by pofterity. They 
 were alike in famous for a profufiun, which was un- 
 bounded ; for a fenfuality, which was a di (grace to 
 nature ; and for a vindictive rage, which was the 
 avowed foe to liberty and virtue. From the pic- 
 tures of their depravity and wanton cruelty we 
 retire with difguft, and relieve our minds by con* 
 templating the pure characters and glorious con- 
 duct of Titus, Nerva, Trajan, the Antonini, and 
 Aurelius q . Such illuftrious peribns afforded fome 
 fupport to the declining ftate, but were not capable 
 of giving permanency to their own wife and 
 prudent inititutions ; fince thofe who followed, as 
 well as thofe who preceded them, were equally 
 diftinguifhed by a want of political talents, and 
 for the moft flagrant abufe of power. The faint 
 and tranfient beams of funfhine ferved only to 
 deepen the gloom which overfpread a ftormy atmof- 
 phere. Their juftice and humanity fufpended that 
 downfall of the empire, which they could not 
 prevent; but the fparks of ancient virtue were fo 
 nearly extinguiftied, that the efforts of a few indi- 
 viduals, eminent as they were in ftation, and armed 
 with fovereign authority, could not fan them into 
 a flame. 
 
 As the profperity of Rome had been attended 
 with the flourifhing ftate of the arts, literature, 
 
 * A. C. 80160. 
 
 and
 
 400 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 and fcience, they gradually declined with her; 
 and the fame change, which was vifible in the 
 extinction of liberty and martial fpirit, appeared 
 equally in its effects on the intellectual powers: 
 ignorance was the companion of corruption and 
 fervility. 
 
 The Goths, the Vandals, and the Huns iiftiiirg 
 from the north of Europe and Afia at length poured 
 forth vaft armies, to ravage every country more 
 cultivated than their own, and to potlefs themfeives 
 of the feat of government. They were drawn from 
 their remote forefts and cold alx)des, either by a 
 fpirit of reftlefs activity, and a fenfe of injury ; or 
 they were lured by the report of the luxuries of 
 Italv. and the delicious fruits, which abounded in, 
 
 V ' 
 
 that mild and genial climate. 
 
 As oft have iffucd hoft impelling hoft, 
 The blue eyed myriads from the Baltic coaft, 
 The proftratc fouth to the dcftroyer yields 
 Her boafted titles, and her golden fields ; 
 With grim delight the brood of winter view 
 A brighter day, and heavens of azure hue, 
 Scent the new fragrance of the breathing rofe, 
 And quaff the pendant vintage, as it grows r . 
 
 Thefe hardy barbarians rumed forth like the 
 mighty waters of an impetuous torrent, and 
 fwept away every obftacle : their progrefs was 
 marked by blood and fire, by deftruction to 
 the arts, and implacable hoftility to civilized 
 man. For nearly two centuries they continued 
 
 1 Gray, * Robertfon, Charles V. vol, i. p. 6. 10, &c. 
 
 the
 
 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 4(11 
 
 -tlie moft defolating ravages; and the hiftorians of 
 that wretcheil period are at a lofs for deferiptkna 
 futficiently ftrong, or images futficiently horrid, to 
 reprefent its diftrefs and calamity. 
 
 The condition in which the rapacious and war- 
 like Alaric found the imperial city, iutricientty' 
 nianifeftcd the degeneracy of its inhabitants*. 
 It had long been the refort of all nations, and the 
 receptacle of thofe, whofe follies and vices proved 
 the different countries of their birth. To the in- 
 capacity of a weak government, the general of 
 (he Goths oppoied intrepidity and military {kill. 
 liis army indeed reflected the image of the ancient 
 Romans at that momentous period of their hiftory, 
 when the fruitlefs attempt of Hannibal to conquer 
 his enemies ferved only to draw forth the full 
 energy of their character. A fierce, hardy, and 
 well-difciplined army, had to contend, if conteft 
 it might be called, with a luxurious and pu- 
 fillanimous race of nobles, and a populace, vile, 
 indigent, and wretched. The conqueror found 
 the city unprepared for his attacks ; he entered it 
 amid the iilence of the night, and directed his 
 march by the conflagration of palaces. The 
 ilaughter was dreadful, the fpoils immenfe, and 
 the holy faith of Chrift alone checked the avarice 
 and luft of the plunderers. To complete the de- 
 gradation of the imperial city, the fons and 
 daughters of confuls and patricians attended at 
 
 A. C. 410. 
 VOL. i. D d the r
 
 I 
 
 402 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 the feftive board, and were doomed to drag the 
 chains of the haughty Goths, who difplayed their 
 triumphant banner waving over the proftrate eagle 
 of Rome. 
 
 The rife, aggrandizement, decline, and fall of 
 the Roman power, are included within the compafs 
 of twelve centuries 1 . The mighty empire, like 
 the majeltic temples that adorned her capital, was 
 broken into fragments, and divided among nu- 
 merous nations. At the end of that period, by 
 the incuriions of foreign armies, the firft founda- 
 tions of thofe kingdoms were laid, which are now 
 the moft diitiuguimed in the hiftory of the weftern 
 world. The Saxons contended fuccefsfully 'with 
 the natives for the poiTeiTion of Britain. Gaul and 
 Spain were divided between the Franks, Vifigoths, 
 Suevi, and Burgundians ; Africa was expofed to 
 the Vandals and Moors ; and Italy was rilled by 
 an army of barbarians". Conftantinople, which 
 continued for fome centuries after the reign of its 
 celebrated founder to give an imperfect repi denta- 
 tion of imperial fplendour, was finally taken by the 
 Turks with its dependent territories. The Roman 
 
 * Rome was founded B. C. 755. Taken by Alaric A. C. 
 410. Duration of the Empire 1163. Gibbon, vol. iii. 
 p. 235, &c. 
 
 For a general view of Europe at the diflblution of the 
 Roman empire, fee the Preface to Mallet's Northern Antiqui- 
 ties ; Warton's firft Differtation on Englifh Poetry ; Robertfon's 
 Hiftory of Charles V. vol. i. chap. i. Machiavel's Hiftory of 
 Florence, book i. and Dalrymple's Effay on Feudal Property. 
 
 empire
 
 THE HISTORY OF KOMK.T 405v 
 
 empire refembled the l)anul>o, which, after pouring 
 a grand and impetuous flood, and receiving the 
 fupply of large rivers, is divided into various 
 ftreams. before it mixes with the ocean. 
 
 The Romans, illuftrious as they were for the" 
 dignity of their character, their martial prowefs, 
 and the extent of their empire, hold forth a' 
 fplendid light for the guidance of mankind. Their 
 virtues in the prosperity of the commonwealth, 
 and their vices in its decline, furnilh examples and 
 cautions to perfous of all fucceeding times, fn 
 thofe kings and emperors, who were remarkable 
 for purity of character, monarchs may find ex- 
 amples worthy of their imitation ; and common- 
 wealths may be taught, from the diforders of their 
 factions, what limits to preferibe to the ambition 
 of the wealthy, and what curb to impofe upon the 
 licentioufnefs of the populace. To be converfant 
 with this important hiliory, is to view mankind 
 engaged in the fulleft exercife of patriotifm, 
 courage, and talents; or to contemplate them 
 enervated by luxury, debafed by corruption, and 
 funk into the molt abject difgrace. 
 
 O Luxury 
 
 Bane of elated life, of affluent ftates, 
 What dreary change, what ruin is not thine ? 
 How doth thy bowl intoxicate the mind, 
 To the foft entrance of thy rofy bow'r 
 How doft thou lure the fortunate and great ! 
 Dreadful attraction! while behind thee gapes 
 Th' unfathomable gulph, where Afhur lies 
 O'erwhelm'd, forgotten, and high-boafting Cham, 
 
 d 2 And
 
 404 THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 And Elara's haughty pomp, and beauteous Greece, 
 And the great Queen of Earth, imperial Rome x . 
 
 In what manner the Romans declined from 
 their greateft excellence of character, and how 
 in their degeneracy of manners they involved the 
 decay of genius, our imperfect fkctch of their 
 hiltory has fhown. Let the natives of Britain, 
 peruiing the inftruc~Hve leflbns here prevented to 
 them, drop the tear of companion upon the 
 weakness of human nature; and let them at the 
 lame time collect, from fuch edifying examples, 
 new incitements to energy and perfeyerance in 
 every public and private virtue. 
 
 DYER'S Fleece. 
 
 CHAPTER
 
 [ 405 ] 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Eijlory of Modern Europe. 
 
 Government and Law* are rendered more con* 
 ducive to general happinefs in modern, than they 
 ever were in ancient times ; as the Manners of 
 fociety have experienced a very great improvement 
 in proportion to the wide diffufion of knowledge, 
 and the facility of communication ; as Navigation 
 has enlarged the intercourfe of mankind by the 
 difcovery of a new world ; and as, moreover, the 
 light of reformed Chriftianity has difpelled much 
 of the tlarknefs of fuperftition in fome nations, 
 and beamed with fplendour upon others,' it muft 
 furely be a fubje6i of pleating inquiry, to inveiti- 
 gate the leading caufes, which have produced 
 fuch extraordinary, fuch extenfive, and fuch bene- 
 ficial effects. 
 
 And when we examine more clofely the nature 
 of thefe eftefts, and confidcr, that they have an 
 immediate reference to our own fituations in the 
 world ; that they relate to the arts which now 
 adorn, and the cuftoms which now regulate, 
 fociety ; to the iuftitutions, which direcl; our con- 
 duel, model our manners, and influence our 
 opinions, iu all religious, as well as civil affairs ; 
 D d 3 the
 
 406 MODERN EUROPF. 
 
 the fubjeft will rife to a much higher degree of 
 importance; we (hall fee our intereftmore ftrongly 
 involved in it; we ihall profecute our refearches 
 with a degree of ardour -proportioned to its import- 
 ance, and (hall fet its juft value upon the hiftory 
 of modern Europe. 
 
 The moft ftrikin'g objects, which this hiftory 
 prefents to us, are, 
 
 I. The eftablifliment and abolition of the Feudal 
 .Syftem. II. The hiftory of the Crufades. III. 
 The inftitution of Chivalry. IV. The Reforma- 
 tion. V. The revival of Claflical Learning. 
 
 To trace the hiftorical outlines of thofe inftitu- 
 tions, inventions, and difcoveries, which difcrimi- 
 natc the hiftory of modern from that of ancient 
 Europe, is our prefent delign. To thofe eminent 
 writers, who have difcufled the refpeclive fubjecls 
 at large, we muft refer for more complete infor- 
 mation. 
 
 I. The Feudal Syflem. 
 
 The inhabitants of the north of Europe and 
 Alia, who iilueil in great multitudes from tluii 
 native forefts, during the fourth and fifth centu- 
 ries of the Chriftian tura, and who overturned the 
 Roman empire, introduced a new ipecies of govern- 
 ment into the conquered countries, which is known 
 by the name of the Feudal Syftem. It is very re- 
 markable,
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 407 
 
 markable, that although the Barbarians, who framed 
 it, fettled in their newly-acquired territories at va- 
 rious times, were commanded by different leaders, 
 and fpoke different languages ; yet the fyftem was 
 eftablilhed, with little variation, in every country 
 in Europe. This great uniformity is peculiarly 
 ftriking, and has furniihed fome writers with an 
 argument, that all thefe people fprung originally 
 from the fame ftock. But the fact may perhaps 
 with more probability be attributed to the iimiiar 
 ftate of their manners, and the fimilar iituation in 
 which they all found themfelves, ou taking poffel- 
 fioa of their new domains. 
 
 The plan of the feudal conftitution was this : 
 Every freeman, or foldier, for the terms were at 
 that period fynonymous, upon receiving an allot- 
 ment of conquered lands, bound himfelf to appear 
 in arms again ft the common enemy, whenever he 
 mould be called upon by his commander. This 
 military fervice was the condition upon which 
 every one received, and the tenure by which he 
 continued to potfefs, his lands ; and this obligation 
 was efteemed both eafy and honourable. The fame 
 fervice, which a foldier owed to his officer, was due 
 from an officer to his king. The king obliged 
 thofe, among whom . he diftributed the conquered 
 lands, to repair to his ftandard, with a number of 
 followers, in proportion to the extent of their re- 
 fpetive eftates, and to aflift him in all his expedi- 
 tions. Thus a feudal kingdom conveys rather the 
 idea of a military than a civil eftabliihment. The 
 D d 4 viclorious
 
 408 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 vk&orious army, taking their polls in different dif- 
 tri6ts of a country, continued to be arranged under 
 its proper officers, and to be fubject to martial 
 law**. 
 
 The principle of policy, upon which this fmgulajr 
 eftabli /foment was founded, was felf defence. The 
 new fettlers in a country wilhed to protect them- 
 (elves, not only againit the attacks of the inha- 
 bitants, whom they had expelled from their pof- 
 fefljons, but againit the more formidable inroads of 
 frcib invaders. But, unfortunately, for the happi- 
 nefs of mankind, and the tranquillity of foeiety, it 
 was replete with many evils. The powerful vaflals 
 ef the crown loon acquired that land as unalienable 
 property, which was originally a grant during plea- 
 fure, and appropriated to themfelves titles of ho- 
 nour, as well as places of truft. In procefs of time 
 they obtained the power of fovereign jurifdidion, 
 both civil and criminal, within their own domains ; 
 they exercifed the privilege of coining money, and 
 carried on wars againft their private enemies. Ba- 
 rons pofleifed of fuch enormous power difdained to 
 eonfider themfelves as fubjecb ; and the confequence 
 was, tliat a kingdom was broken into as many fepa- 
 
 * 
 * See Henry's Hiftory of England, vol. i. p. 30. Spelman's 
 
 Concilia, vol. i. p. 101. Wilfon's Concilia, p. 171. Du 
 Cange's GlofTary, Article Allodium. Robertfon's Charles V 
 vol. i. notes ; and Dalrymple's Eflay on Feudal Property, 
 book i. chap. z. The (ketch, which Tacitus has given of the 
 civil inftitutions and jolity of the antient Germans, contains the 
 
 outlines of the feudal ellabliihmcnt. De Movibus Gernaanorum, 
 ... 
 
 C. XI. Xll. Xlll. 
 
 rate
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 409 
 
 rate principalities, as it contained powerful nobles. 
 Innumerable caufes of jealoufy and difcord fubfiftetl 
 Between them, and gave rile to conliant wars. 
 Every country in Europe, either wafted or kept in 
 continual alarm during thefe feuds, was filled with 
 caftles and places of itrength, erected for the fecu- 
 rity of the defpotic chieftain, not againft foreign 
 iovafion, but domeftic hoftilities. In the reign of 
 Stephen of England, when the feudal fyftem was in 
 its height, not lefs than a thoufand caftles, with 
 thjeir dependent territories, are faid to have covered 
 thje fouthern part of this ifland. Among fierce and 
 haughty chieftains, the laws enacted by princes and 
 magiltrates commanded no degree of refpect ; and 
 the right of retaliation and revenge was confidered 
 as an inherent privilege of their order. The eftats 
 of every baron was an independent territory ; his 
 caftle was a ftrong and well-gan ifoned fortrefs, and 
 hje always confidered himleif as living in a ftate of 
 war. When provoked by injury, he met his adver- 
 fary at the head of his vallals in hoftile array, and 
 trufted to his fword for the decifion of the conteft. 
 Every man was the avenger ot his own wrongs, and 
 fought the redrefs of his grievances in fingle com- 
 bat, the regulation and ceremonies of which were 
 formed into a fyftem of jurifprudence. The com- 
 mon people, the moft ufeful as well as the molt nu- 
 merous part of the community, were reduced to the 
 mileries of flavery. The peafant was confidered as 
 the mere produce of the foil, and was transferred 
 from one lord to another, with the utenfils and 
 cattle of his farm. The king, jtripped of almoft 
 
 every
 
 410 THL KfcVrML SVSTEAf. 
 
 every prerogative, and pofleffing little more than 
 the empty title of ibvereign, had neither power to 
 protect the innocent, nor to punifh the guilty. A 
 general anarchy, deftructive of all the comforts 
 which men expect to derive from a ftate of fociety, 
 prevailed. To complete and confirm thefe evils, 
 the progrefs of time gradually fixed and rendered 
 venerable an eftablilhment, which originated in 
 violence, and was continued with every fpccies of 
 defpotifm and injustice a fyllem which was as 
 hoitile to the intellectual as to the moral improve- 
 ment of the mind ; which banifhcd fcience and the 
 arts, funk mankind in grofs ignorance, obfcured 
 the facrcd light of Chriftianity in the thickeft dark- 
 nefs of fuperltition, and was favourable only to the 
 growth of thofe ftern virtues, which are characle- 
 riftic of uncivilized nations. The rigour of tyranny 
 hardened the minds of the nobles, the yoke of 
 vaffalage debafed the fpirit of the people, the gene- 
 rous fentiments infpired by a ienfe of equality were 
 extinguished, and there was no check to ferocity 
 and violence. Accordingly a greater number of 
 thole atrocious aclions, which fill the mind with 
 aftoniihment and horror, occur in the hiftory of 
 the feudal times, than in that of any period of the 
 fame extent in the annals of Europe. 
 
 Such was the deplorable ftate of fociety from the 
 feventh to the eleventh century. From that a3ra 
 may be dated the return of government, laws, and 
 manners, in a contrary dire6lion. We fhall here- 
 after notice the favourable effec~ls of the Crufades and 
 
 of
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 411 
 
 of Chivalry upon the feudal fyftem. In fucceeding 
 times a variety of caufes begun to operate, which 
 checked the lieentioufnefs of the barons, ibftened 
 the ferocity of their manners, and finally put a period 
 to their domination. The eftabliihment of ftanding 
 armies in the fifteen th century, gave more effectual 
 authority to kings ; and from that time they no 
 longer regarded their nobles as their equals, or 
 found it necelfary to have recourfe to timid counfels, 
 or feeble efforts, to control their power. They 
 began not only to wield the fceptre, but to brand iik 
 the fword ; and either checked the deiigns of their 
 barons by intimidation, or puniihed their rebellion 
 by force. 
 
 Charles the feventh of France, urged by his defi re 
 of expelling the Englifli from France in the year 
 144-5, was the firft who adopted this meafure; but 
 as it was fo repugnant to the genius of the feudal 
 lyftem, and required the greateft boldnefs to carry 
 it into execution, he retained a large body offerees 
 in his fervice, and appointed funds for their regular 
 payment. The principal nobility foon reforted to 
 his ftandard, and looked up to him as the judge, 
 and the rewarder of merit. The feudal militia, 
 compofed of men of rank and military talents, who 
 were only occafionally called out, were in time 
 regarded with contempt, by foldiers accuftomed to 
 the operations of regular fervice. This example of 
 breaking the independent power of the barons was 
 followed by the politic Henry VII. of England. 
 He" undennmed that edifice, which it was not pru- 
 dent
 
 412 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 dent to attack with open force. By judicious laws 
 he permitted his nobles to break the entail of their 
 eftates, and to expofe them to fale. lie prohibited 
 them from keeping numerous bauds of retainers, 
 which had rendered them formidable to his prede- 
 ceffors. By encouraging agriculture and commerce, 
 and all the arts of peace during a long reign, and 
 by enforcing a vigorous and impartial execution of 
 the laws, he not only removed many immediate 
 evils refulting from the feudal fyilem, but provided 
 againll their future return. The influence of his 
 falutary plans was gradually felt, and they contri- 
 buted more and more, in procefs of time, to the 
 good order, prolperity, and general welfare of his 
 fubje&s. 
 
 II. Hie Crufades. 
 
 Few expeditions are more extraordinary than 
 thofe which were undertaken by the crufadcfs, for 
 the recovery of the Holy Land out of the power 'of 
 the Turks. If we confuler the great numbers of 
 Europeans, who were engaged in them, or their 
 long and obftinate perfeverance in the fame defign, 
 notwithftanding an almoft uninterrupted feries of 
 harclfhips, lofies, and defeats; and if we reflect upon 
 the important confequences, with which thefe events 
 were attended, both to themfelves and their dcfcend- 
 ants ; the hiftory of the crufades, including a period 
 of one hundred and feventy-five years, from A. D. 
 1095 to 12/0, will be found to merit very particular 
 regard, and to follow in proper order our furvey of 
 feudal fyftem. 
 
 9 From
 
 THE CRUSADES. 413 
 
 From the cera of the crufades may be traced the 
 diffiifion of ieveral kinds of knowledge, and the 
 various improvements of ibciety in manners, com- 
 merce, and arts. And from the communication of 
 the weftern with the eaftern nations, arofe a fuc- 
 cerTion of caufes, which with different degrees of 
 influence, and with more or Ids rapidity, contri- 
 buted to abolilh anarchy and confufion, and to in- 
 troduce order and improvement into ibciety. 
 
 Judea, or the Holy Land, was the higheft object 
 of veneration to the Chriftians of the middle ages. 
 There had lived the Son of God ; there he had 
 performed the moft aflonifhing miracles ; and there 
 he had fuffered death for the fins of the world. 
 His holy fepulchre was preferved at Jerufalem ; 
 and as a degree of veneration was annexed to this 
 confecrated place, nearly approaching to idolatry, 
 a vifit to it was regarded as the moft meritorious 
 ft'rvice, which could be paid to heaven ; and it was 
 eagerly frequented by crowds of pilgrims from 
 every part of Europe. If it be natural to the human 
 mind to furvey thofe fpots, which have been the 
 abodes of illuftrious perfons, or the fcenes of great 
 tranfactions, with delight and veneration, M-hat muft 
 have been the ardour with which the Chriftians of* 
 thofe times, the ruling paffion of whofe mind was 
 religious enthufiafm, regarded a country, which the 
 
 O J ' 
 
 Almighty had felecled as the refidence of his chofen 
 people, and the place M'here his Son had med his 
 precious blood, to expiate the fins, and accomplish, 
 the redemption of mankind? The zealous travellers 
 
 to
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 to Paleftine were long expofecl to the infults, ex- 
 tortions, and cruelty of the ferocious and hoftile 
 Infidels: but at length their complaints routed the 
 Europeans to attempt their cxpulfion. Peter, fur- 
 named the Hermit, a native of Amiens in Pieardy, 
 was the tirft mover of this great project k . Armed 
 with the authority of Pope Urban II. he traveled 
 the countries of Europe, and with rude but pathe- 
 tic eloquence defcribed the injuries he had received 
 in his pilgrimage to the holy fepulchre. He quickly 
 kindled the ardour of perfon-s of all ranks. The 
 firft converts to this aclive miflionary became the 
 uravmcft advocates for the expedition. Great num- 
 bers, chiefly coniifting of peafants, ill-provided with 
 necdfaries, and whole ignorance magnified the hope* 
 and diminifhed the dangers of tlje undertaking, pe- 
 riihed in the forcfts of Hungary, or the plains of 
 Aiia. A pyramid of bones, erected by Solyman, 
 the emperor of the Turks, near the city of Nice, 
 informed their followers of the place of their defeat. 
 Of the firft crufaders three hundred thoufand are 
 fiiid to have fallen a facriticc to their fanaticifm,, 
 before a fingle city was refcued from the Infidels. 
 IMore ftrongly ftimulated, rather than deterred by 
 this cataftrophe, Baldwin, earl of Flanders ; God- 
 frey of Bouillon ; Hugh, count of Vermamlois, 
 brother to the King of France ; Raymond, count 
 
 . 
 
 fc A. D. 1095; to 1099. Gibbon, vol. vi. cap. 58, &c. 
 Robertfon's Charles V. vol. i. p. 292, Sec. Hiftory of Modern 
 Europe, vol. i. letter 24, &c. Introduftion to the Literary 
 Hiftory of the fourteenth and fifteenth Centuries. Rapin, vol. i. 
 p. 244, &c. 
 
 ft Of
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 of Thouloufe; Robert, duke of Normamty, the 
 eldeft fon of William the Conqueror ; Uohcinoiui 
 and Tancred, who were likewife princes of the 
 Norman race, let forth upon this enterprile : all 
 were chiefs of high renown, famed for their prowefs 
 in arms, and ftimulated by the fame intrepid and 
 fanatical fpirit. They were followed by thtir nume- 
 rous adherents and vatfals, whofe iervices were 
 either prompted by zeal and attachment to their 
 reflective lords, or purchafed with rewards and 
 promifes c . 
 
 Conftantinople was at that time the largeft as 
 veil as the molt beautiful city in Europe. It alone 
 retained the image of ancient elegance, in manners 
 and in arts. It was the place where manufactures 
 of the moft curious fabric were wrought. It was 
 the mart of Europe for all the commodities of the 
 Eaft, and the feat of empire, elegance, and magni- 
 ficence. Such was the place appointed as a general 
 rendezvous for all the crufaders. Several contem- 
 
 e " The crufaders wore a crofs moft commonly on their 
 ftioulders in gold, or filk, or cloth, fev/ed on their garments. 
 In the firft crufade, all were red ; in the third, the French alone 
 preferved that colour, while green crofles were adopted by the 
 Flemings, and white by the Englifh." Gibbon, vol. vi. p. 8. 
 " The crofs was infcribed by fome zealots on their (kin ; an hot 
 iron, or indelible liquor, was applied to perpetuate the murk." 
 Idem. p. 17. 
 
 " Armorial bearings were invented to reward merit, and dif- 
 tinguidi families ; and the fcience of heraldry may be traced back 
 to Paleftine." Introd. to the Hift. of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 Centuries. 
 
 porary
 
 416 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 porary writers were witneffes to this iihgiilar afierm 
 bly of different nations; and they give a lively 
 picture of the characters and manners of each peo- 
 ple. When the polite natives of the metropolis of 
 the Eaft fpeuk of the northern warriors, they de- 
 fcribe them as barbarous, illiterate, fierce, and 
 favage ; and they fometimes inveigh againft them 
 with great violence, and relate inftances of their 
 ferocity and devaluation in terms not unlike thofe, 
 which preceding hiftorians had employed in de- 
 fcribing the incurfions of the Goths and Vandals, 
 when they overturned the Roman empire. But on 
 the other hand, the crufaders, while they defpifcd 
 the effeminate manners and unwarlike character of 
 the Greeks, were furprifed at the wealth and mag- 
 nificence of their metropolis. 
 
 After fuffering various hardihips and lofies, the 
 crufaders at length reached the walls of Jerufalem. 
 Forty days were employed in the fiege of the holy 
 city : at the expiration of which, they took it by 
 afiault ; and forgetful of the leffons of mercy taught 
 by their great mafter, whofe enfign they bore, they 
 indulged in the rage of promifcuous daughter, and 
 put all Jews and Turks, of every age, and of either 
 fex, to the fword. The events, which happened 
 during this romantic expedition, and the heroic 
 exploits performed by the champions of the Crofs, 
 and their Mahometan foes, furnillied the fubjeft of 
 the celebrated Poem of Taffo, the moft pleafing 
 memorial which is left to us of this enterprife. 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, the moft worthy ;of the heroes 
 
 of
 
 THE CRUSADES* 417 
 
 of Chriftendom, was proclaimed King of Jeru&lem. 
 In imitation of his Saviour, he was crowned with 
 thorns ; he rejefted the appendages of royalty, and 
 contented himfelf with the modeft title of Defender, 
 and Baron of the holy fepulchre d . His companions,- 
 with the exception only of the gallant Tancred and 
 his adherents, returned to Europe : after whofe de- 
 parture the Turks infulted the garrifon of Jerufa- 
 lem : and the fhort reign of Godfrey, which conti- 
 nued only for one year, did not give him time to 
 fecure the (lability of his new kingdom. In vain 
 did the knights of the hofpital of St. John, and of 
 the temple of Solomon, \vlio in their aifociations 
 blended the difcipline of a monaftic with the hard- 
 ihips of a military life, endeavour to fupport the 
 tottering throne of Baldwin, his fucceflbr. Sur- 
 rounded by the exafperated and reftlefs Mahome- 
 tans, he was compelled to folicit a reinforcement 
 from the kingdoms of Europe for the fupport of 
 his declining power. 
 
 m 
 
 The fruits reaped 'in this firft crufade ill repaid 
 its great lofs and ex pence, and were comprifed 
 within the little territory of Jerufalem, the domi- 
 nion of which was bounded by the term of four- 
 fcore years.. The holy war, however, continued to 
 be recommended in the letters of the Pope, and 
 the fermons of the Clerarv, with unabated ardour 
 
 Ot' ' 
 
 and zeal. It was itill reprefented to the people as 
 the caufe of God and of Chrift, in which death 
 
 a A, D. 1099. 
 VOL. I. EC would
 
 418 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 would confer the merit of martyrdom, and paradifc 
 vould be equally the reward of defeat, or of vic- 
 tory. 
 
 St. Bernard, famed for his eloquence and entlm- 
 fiaftic piety, and the great influence, which he 
 obtained amongft the people, tlourimcd at the 
 beginning of the twelfth century. Armed with 
 the authority of PopdflEugene III. he rekindled the 
 expiring flame of military fanaticifm. With a 
 voice, that was in every place obeyed without de- 
 lay, he called the nations to the protection of tire 
 holy fepulchre. The fame of his pretended mira- 
 cles and predictions, removed every doubt of fuc- 
 cefs from the minds of his credulous hearers ; 
 infomuch, that all -who were able to bear arms were 
 eager to participate the glory of the pious M'arfare. 
 Bernard was invited to become a leader in 'the ex- 
 pedition, which he fo zealoufly recommended ; but 
 he prudently declined an appointment, which would 
 eventually have expofed him to the ridicule, and 
 probably to the rcfentment, of his followers. Ke 
 was more fortunate in advancing the interefts of 
 the Church, than in the fuccefs of his projects, or 
 the fulfilment of his predictions. The court of 
 Rome profited by his labours, and canonized his 
 memory. Conrad III. emperor of Germany, and 
 Louis VII. king of France, were the principal agents 
 in the fecond crufade". From the hands of Ber- 
 nard they' received the crofs, with afiurances, that 
 
 * A,D. 1147. 
 
 he
 
 THE CRUSADES. 419 
 
 he had authority from heaven to promife them 
 victory. Their cavalry was compofecl of one hun- 
 dred and forty thoufand knights, and their imme- 
 diate attendants; and if even the light-arrrfed troops, 
 the women and children, the priefts and monks, be 
 excluded from the computation of their effective 
 forces, their number will arife to four hundred 
 thoufand fouls. The fatal errors of their prede- 
 cefibrs fuggefted the fafer expedient of a voyage, 
 in preference to a march into Paleftine ; and the 
 fea-ports of Genoa, Pifa, and Venice, were from 
 this time frequented by the crufaders for that pur- 
 pofe. In the Italian ftates they found more culti- 
 vated manners, and greater knowledge, than their 
 own countries could boaft ; fo that in them, as well 
 as in the metropolis of the Eaft, the mofl ftriking 
 examples of civilization and refinement were fur- 
 nifhed to thefe rude adventurers. 
 
 The event of this enterprife proved ftill more 
 difaftrous to the caufe of the crufaders than their 
 firft expedition. Manuel, the emperor of the 
 Greeks, is accufed by his own fubjecls of giving 
 intelligence of their plans to the Turkifh Sultan, 
 and of providing them with treacherous guides. 
 The conduct of the Chriftian leaders was dictated 
 by no found policy, or vigorous co-operation. In- 
 llead of crufliing the common foe by a preconcerted 
 attack at the lame time on different lides of his 
 territories, Louis of France had fcarcely palfed the 
 Bofphorus, when he was met by the returning 
 Emperor, who had loft the greateft part of his army 
 
 E e 2 in
 
 40 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 in a battle on the banks of the Meander. The 
 king of France advanced through the fame country 
 to a fimilar fate ; and was glad to ihelter the relics 
 of his army in the fea-port of Satalia. At Jerufalem 
 thefe unfortunate monarchs met to lament their fad 
 reverfes of fortune. Their martial trains, the {lender 
 remnants of mighty armies, were joined to the 
 Chriftian powers of Syria ; and a fruitlefs liege 
 of Dairrafcus was the iiual effort of the fecond 
 crufadc. 
 
 The third, undertaken by Frederic Barbarofia, 
 emperor of Germany, and the kings of England 
 and France, was moil remarkable for the victories 
 of Saladin, the temperate, brave, and generous chief 
 of the Saracens. His pretentious to commendation 
 and renown were much better founded than thofc 
 of Philip of France, and Richard Coeur de Lion. 
 His life exhibited a feries of acYions, which his 
 rivals in arms would have done well to have imi- 
 tated, and which, far from diigracing, would have 
 reflected honour upon the proferTion of a Chriftian. 
 He appears not to have been deficient either in 
 literature or fcience ; and, in the progrefs of his 
 c )nquefts, be refpecled the arts. When he retook 
 Jerufalem, he treated his captives not only with 
 clemency, but even with kindncfs. We muft not, 
 however, deprive Richard of England of his due 
 praife for military prowefs, as lie dilplayed, upon 
 all occaiions of danger and cnterpriie, the moil 
 heroic courage. lie took the city of Acre, a place, 
 which has in our own times been the fcene of the 
 
 undaunted
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 undaunted valour and fteady perfevcrance of the 
 natives of Britain ; and among other fj>oils, efteemed 
 of inetiimable value in an age of grofs fuperftition, 
 he recovered fome of the wood, \vhich was laid to 
 belong to the croi's of Chrilr. The bravery of 
 Richard continued for many years to be proverbial 
 in the Eaft ; his terrific name was uied by the Syrian 
 mother to filence the refractory child, and by the 
 rider to check the ftarting horle. The perfidious 
 conduct of Philip of France, in taking advantage 
 of the abfence of Richard to invade his territories 
 in Normandy, in direct violation of his folemn 
 oath, obliged him to conclude a truce with Saladin, 
 who was allowed to retain pofieflion of Jerufalem, 
 on condition, that the holy fcpulchre fliould be 
 open to the vifits of Chriltian pilgrims without 
 moleftation or tribute. When the treaty was con- 
 cluded, the Englifh monarch informed Saladin, 
 that he might depend upon his return to try once 
 more to recover the Holy Land. The Sultan, with 
 a politenefs which would have done honour to the 
 moft refined age, replied, that if it muft be his mis- 
 fortune to loie that part of his dominions, he had 
 rather it mould be to the king of England, than to 
 any other monarch in the world f . The gallant 
 Richard embarked for Europe to endure a long 
 captivity, and find an early grave ; and the fpacc 
 of a few months after his departure from the Holy 
 Land terminated the life of Saladin. 
 
 ' Rapin, vol. i. p. 252. fol. 
 
 e 3 Hiftorians
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 Hiftorians have recorded the details of no lefs 
 than j'tven different crufadcs, including a period of 
 an hundred and fcventy-five years ; in which time 
 numerous armies were led to difgrace the Chriftian 
 name in the Eafh The two laft crufades were 
 undertaken by Louis the ninth, king of France, 
 whofe fleet conveyed a well-appointed and numerous 
 army to the coafts of Egypt g ; and there, after an 
 ineffectual difplay of valour, he was made prifoner, 
 with the greateft part of his nobles. All who could 
 not redeem their lives at an excelfive ranfom, were 
 rnaffacred by the barbarous Mahometans, and the 
 walls of Cairo were covered with Chriftian heads. 
 The king of France was loaded with chains ; but 
 his deliverance, with that of many of his foldiers, 
 was obtained by the reftitution of Damietta, and 
 the payment of an immenfe fum of gold. After 
 fixteen years of repofe, this enterprifmg and bigotted 
 monarch again embarked from France, and under- 
 took the wild prqjecVof baptizing the king of Tu- 
 nis h . On the barren fands of Africa, his arm}-, 
 exhaufted by fatigue, and finking under the influ- 
 ence of a burning climate, M'as quickly reduced to 
 inconfiderable numbers. Louis expired in his tent ; 
 and at the moment of his death, his fon and iuc- 
 ceffor gave the fignal for retreat. 
 
 After the lofs of Jerufalem, the city of Acre, 
 from which it is diftant about 70 miles, became the 
 metropolis of the Latin Chriftians. There the dif- 
 
 A. D. 1248. fc A. D. 1270. 
 
 ferent
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 ferent powers of Europe, and the Mailers of the 
 Hofpital, the Temple, and the Teutonic order, 
 atlumed an independent command over u promif- 
 cuous multitude of pilgrims and fugitives. To 
 avenge the plunder of tome Mahometan villages, 
 and the murder of ibme Syrian merchants, the 
 iultan Khalil beiieged and (Ipnned it, and 60,000 
 Chriltians were doomed to death or captivity. The 
 lois of Acre was in fact the lofs of the Holy Land ; 
 and the memorable year 1291 terminated the folly, 
 fanaticifm, and unprofitable valour of the Chriftians 
 in the crulades. 
 
 That tliefe wars were upon the whole difaftrous 
 and unfortunate, can be no fubjecfc of furprife, 
 when we confider the manners and the difpoiitions 
 of thofe who engaged in them, and the difficulties, 
 with -which they were obliged to contend. Actu- 
 ated by romantic fervour, and confident of victory, 
 their plans were always uniform ; and, in their fub- 
 fequent expeditions, they rarely profited by the 
 mifcarriage of thole that preceded. Jealous and 
 vindictive, they agreed only in wearing- the badge 
 of the Crofs, and were torn by inteftme diviiions 
 and feuds : they therefore never co-operated with 
 perfect cordiality, when they reached the field of 
 aclion. Depredation and bloodflied marked their 
 fteps in the countries through which they paflfed ; 
 and they roufed the vengeance, inftead of conci- 
 liating the affections, of the Chriitian Greeks, as 
 well as of the Mahometan Syrians. 
 
 e 4 The
 
 454 TH CRUSADES. 
 
 The remotenefs of Paleftine from Europe, and 
 the nature of the climate, ought likewife not to be 
 difregarded. The crufoders, whether they marched 
 by way of Conftantinople, or embarked from the 
 ports of Italy, if we confider their total inexperience 
 in remote expeditions, mud have been greatly dimi- 
 nifhed in numbers, and weakened by fatigue, before 
 they reached the field of action. The burning heat 
 of Syria, the want of provifions, the fcarcity of 
 water, and the confequent difeafes, muft have de- 
 prived them of much of that energy and vigour, 
 fo etfentially necefiary to their fuccefs. They were 
 oppofed by intrepid and active foes, as enthufiaftic 
 in the caufe of their Prophet, as thediriftians were 
 in behalf of their Redeemer : acting in concert, 
 fuperior in the various arts of war, fighting in their 
 own country, and able to avail themfelves of all its 
 advantages and refources. 
 
 O 
 
 Thefe wars difplay in the ftrongeft light the in- 
 fluence of the Papal power. The pontiffs fummoned 
 the princes of Europe to arms, fent them to con- 
 quer new kingdoms, in order to enlarge the domi- 
 nions of the holy fee, regulated even beyond the 
 boundaries of the ocean the conduct of kings and 
 emperors, and thus exercifed a fupreme and uni- 
 verfal fovereignty, 
 
 If we endeavour to trace the various caufcs, 
 which led to the crufades, we ihall find, that the 
 opinions, manners, and prejudices of the Europeans 
 
 of
 
 THE' CRUSADES. 425 
 
 of the middle ages, all confpired to precipitate them 
 into thefe enterprizes, without any confuleration qf 
 the injuftice, inhumanity, or impolicy of their 
 conduct. 
 
 Vain would it have been for any enlightened 
 
 */ 
 
 Chriftian at that time to have urged, in order to 
 quench the flame of fanaticifm, and fpare the effii- 
 fioii of blood, that the crufaders had no right to 
 wreft Judea from the hands of its pofieflbrs ; and 
 that their zeal for the recovery of Bethlehem, or 
 Calvary, the places where the Son of God was born 
 and had died, could not juftify their violation of 
 the moral precepts of his Gofpcl. To fuch argu- 
 ments as thefe the fuperftitious would not have 
 liftened ; the caufe was too deeply implicated with 
 their darling paflions and prejudices, to be decided 
 by an appeal to fober reafon, or the genuine dic- 
 tates of Chriftian ity. 
 
 Their religious enthufiafm was greatly augmented 
 by their pailion for war. Commerce, manufactures, 
 and arts, were at that time, if coniidered as general 
 and national, occupations in a ftate of infancy, and 
 the mafs of the people M'ere deftitute of regular 
 employment. They caught with eagernefs at any 
 occafion, which relieved them from a ftate of inac- 
 tivity, and afforded room for the indulgence of their 
 
 f ' O 
 
 favourite inclinations. In the time of the crufades, 
 chivalry began to flourim ; and thofe knights, who 
 were infphed with a romantic defire to travel in 
 queft of adventures, turned their eyes with eager- 
 
 iiefs
 
 42<> THE CRUSADES. 
 
 ncfs to Afia, which promifed to open fuch new 
 fcenes of enterprize and glory, as could not be 
 found in Europe. Perfons of inferior rank flattered 
 thnnfelves with the mod fanguine expectations of 
 conqueft, were confident that victory would attend 
 their Heps, and that they fhould return home 
 loaded with the fpoils of the Eaft. 
 
 Such was the origin of this fpirit of enterprize. 
 The great privileges and immunities granted to the 
 cruiuders, may ferve to account for its long conti- 
 nuance in Europe. The Popes proclaimed a com- 
 plete indulgence and pardon for crimes to every 
 one who would take up arms in the cau.fe. Of this 
 facrifice to licentioufnefs and immorality, the pro- 
 fligate and vicious took advantage, and eagerly 
 embraced a profeflion, which placed war, plunder, 
 and conqudt, in the lift of duties. If they fuc- 
 ceeded in this undertaking, thev were allured that 
 
 O* v 
 
 abundant riches would enable them to live happily 
 on earth; and if they fell vidinis to, a fervjce fo 
 meritorious, they were perfuaded that the gates of 
 heaven would be open to them, and that, without 
 requiring any other proof of their obedience to the 
 laws of Chriftianity, they fliould obtain the crown 
 of martyrdom. 
 
 There was another motive, which operated as a 
 ftrong inducement to the multitudes who aifumed 
 the badge of the Crofs. At the clofe of the tenth, 
 and the beginning of the eleventh century, it was 
 the prevailing opinion, that the world would mortly 
 
 8 come
 
 THE CRUSADES. 427 
 
 come to an end, and that the Saviour of mankind 
 would make his fecond appearance on mount Cal- t 
 vary. This was the iubject of ex ten five alarm and 
 anxious expectation; and the pilgrims to the I Inly 
 Land fet out from Europe, with a determination to 
 die there, or to wait the advent of their Lord. 
 
 When we confider thefe various caufes as gra- 
 dually operating, for a confiderable fpace of time, 
 upon the minds of the credulous, the fuperllitious, 
 and the adventurous, we fhall be lefs furprifed at 
 the vail multitudes who reforted to the ftandard of 
 the Crofs, creeled in the firft crufade by Urban the 
 fecond, or who, in fucceeding expeditions, regard- 
 lefs of the defeats and lottes of their predeceifors, 
 trod in their fteps to meet the fame late. 
 
 The conftant demand of recruits to fupply the 
 armies deftined for the Holy Land, was very hurt- 
 ful to the population of Europe ; and the evils re- 
 fulting from this drain of its inhabitants continued 
 to be felt for a confiderable time. Few difad van- 
 tages, however, could arife from getting rid of a 
 multitude of perfons. whofe chief delight confided 
 in rapine and plunder ; or who, foi want of the 
 employments furriifhed by manufactures, trade, and 
 commerce, lived in idienefs and poverty. 
 
 Rude and ignorant as the crufuders were, they 
 could not travel through and continue in fo many 
 intereiiiug countries with indifference ; or behold 
 their various cuftoms and inftituiions, without; 
 
 acquiring
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 acquiring information and improvement, 
 the Greeks they furveyed the productions of the 
 fine arts, and the precious remains of antiquity, 
 the magnificence of the eaftern court, and the 
 models of extenfive and curious manufactories. In 
 Afia they beheld the traces of the knowledge and 
 arts, which the patronage of the Caliphs had diffufed 
 through their empire. Every object which ftruck 
 their attention pointed out a far higher ftate of 
 improvement than their own countries had reached; 
 every object, therefore, while it excited the wonder 
 of them all, could not fail to excite a fpirit of imi- 
 tation among thofe who were active and ingenious. 
 As thefe new fcenes prefented themfelves, their eyes 
 were gradually opened to a move extenfive profpect 
 of the world, and they acquired new modes of 
 thinking, felt a fenfe of new wants, and a tafte 
 for new gratifications. 
 
 Various advantages, many of which were neither 
 forefeen nor expected by the projectors of thefe en- 
 terprifes, were derived from the holy wars. It is a 
 remark juftified by the experience of ages, that the 
 inhabitants of the weftern world are diftinguifhed 
 by a peculiar acutenefs of obfervation, an active 
 and imitative fpirit, and a great energy of character. 
 In the courfe of their expedition, they acquired a 
 tafte for the arts and fciences ; and the example of 
 the Arabian and Syrian merchants taught them the 
 value of trade, and the ufe of feveral manufactures. 
 In the faperior refinements of Cairo and Conftan- 
 tinople, they difcovered various commodities worth 
 
 importing
 
 THE CRUSADES. 42$ 
 
 importing into Europe. From this period is dated 
 the introduction of filk and fugar, which were con- 
 veyed into Italy from Greece and Egypt ; and the 
 advantages which refulted from a more enlarged 
 and adventurous traffic to the Pifans, the Genoefe, 
 and the Venetians, who laid the foundation of the 
 modern commercial fyftem. The ciufaders began 
 that intercourfe with the Eaft, which under the 
 pacific forms of commerce has continued with little 
 interruption ever fince. On their return to Europe, 
 they introduced a new tafte in buildings, a more 
 iuperb difplay of magnificence on public occafions, 
 the rich manufactures of Afia, together with a more 
 romantic fpirit of enterprize, and the mil improve- 
 ments in learning and icience. 
 
 The moft beneficial effects of the crufades were 
 vifible in the alteration, which they occafioned in 
 the flate of property, by the emancipation of vaflals 
 from the tyranny of their lords, and by increafing 
 the growing independence of the feudal tenants. 
 Many of the great barons, unable to fupport the 
 expcnces incurred by their expeditions to Paleftine, 
 fold their hereditary pofleflions. The monarchs of 
 different countries took advantage of thefe oppor- 
 tunities of annexing confiderable territories to their 
 dominions, and purchafed them at a fmall expence. 
 The fiefs likewile of thofe barons who died in the 
 holy wars without heirs, reverted to their refpective 
 fovereigns ; and by thefe poifeffions being taken 
 from one fcale, and thrown into the other, the 
 regal power increased iu proportion as that of the 
 
 nobility
 
 430 THE CRUSADE*. 
 
 nobility decline d. Tlie great cities of Italy, which 
 had begun to turn their attention towards com- 
 merce, were impatient to Ihuke oft' the yoke of their 
 infolent lords, and to eilabliih fuch a government, 
 as would make property fecure, and the exercile of 
 induftry late and eaiy. They pnrchaied or extorted 
 large immunities and grants from the emperors of 
 Germany; and other countries, particularly France, 
 followed their example. The great barons were 
 eager to lay hold of this new expedient for raifmg 
 money by the fales of charters of independence and 
 enfranchifement to the towns within their domains; 
 and, in order to procure immediate relief for their 
 exigencies, they difregarded the confequences which 
 might reful t from the eftablimment, and the afcend- 
 ancy of municipal power. Thus commenced the 
 privileges granted to corporations, and the rights 
 acquired by communities of citizens. The benefits, 
 which accrued to the public at large by thefe con- 
 ceflions, were of the higheft importance, as they 
 were favourable to regularity and good order, to 
 the extenfion of freedom, and the exertions of 
 diligence, the more exact and uniform adminiflra- 
 tion of juitice, and the comfort and happinefs of 
 the inferior claifes of fociety. Thus we may ob- 
 ferve the beneficial effects of the crufades, in pro- 
 ducing a new order of things, and erecting the firft 
 ftrong and durable barrier againft the licentioulhefs, 
 rapine, difcord, and tyranny of that martial ariito- 
 cracy, commonly known by the name of the Feudal 
 Syftem, which had fo long violated the rights of 
 juftice and humanity, and enilaved the nations of 
 Europe. 
 
 III.
 
 III. ThelnflitutionofCliivalry. 
 
 Although the extravagancies of knight-errantry, 
 and the marvellous and incredible llories related in 
 the old romances of the Seven Champions of Chrif- 
 tendom, Sir Launcelor, Amadis de Gaul, King Ar- 
 thur, and the noble Knights of the Round Table, 
 who went forth in fearch of adventures into all 
 parts of the \vorld, have been made the entertaining 
 fubjecls of burlefque defcription, particularly in the 
 well-known works of Cervantes, Rabelais, and But- 
 ler; yet we muft not miftake imaginary for real 
 chivalry ! . The former exifted only in the old ro- 
 mances, and as fuch was the object at which thefe 
 celebrated writers aimed their fuccefsful ridicule 
 andfatire: but we mall find, on examining the 
 origin and progrefs of the latter, that it was a noble 
 and a beneficial inftitution, the refult of an enlight- 
 ened policy, confidering the times in which it was 
 eftablifhed ; that it incrcafed the glory of the nations 
 in which it flourished ; it enabled the nobility and 
 gentry of Europe to refill the military enthufiafm 
 of the Saracens and Turks ; and had a very power- 
 ful effect in alleviating the evils of the feudal fyftem, 
 and refining the manners of the higher ranks of 
 fociety. In times when robbery, oppreffion, bar- 
 
 * (f The Duke d'Alva faid that Don Quixote would ruin 
 Spain ; though in truth the ridicub of that ingenious book is 
 not pointed againft the fpirit of chivalry, but againft the abfurd 
 reprefentation of it in the Spanifa romances." 
 
 Lord Lyttehon's Henry IT. vol. iii. p. 54* 
 
 baritv, 
 
 V *
 
 CHIVALRY. 
 
 barity, and liccntioufnefs, prevailed in moft of the 
 countries of Europe, it fupplied in many inftances, 
 Although imperfedly, the place of law ; and in the 
 bands of valour, was the inftrument of humanity 
 and juftice. 
 
 If chivalry be confidcred only as a fimple cere- 
 mony, by which the noble youths who were deftined 
 for war received their firft arms, the cuftom was 
 known among the ancient Germans, and was eita- 
 blifhed in France in the reign of Charlemagne, at 
 the commencement of the ninth century. That 
 emperor fent to Aquitain for his fon Louis, and 
 preiented him with a fword, and all the equipage 
 of a warrior. William of Malmefbury mentions 
 that about the fame time, king Alfred prefented his 
 grandfon Athelftan with a fword, and a rich belt 
 with a crimfon robe, as the enfigns of knighthood. 
 But if we look upon chivalry as a dignity, which 
 gave the firft military rank, and which was con- 
 ferred by a particular kind of inveftiture, attended 
 with appropriate ceremonies, and ratified by a 
 folemn oath, it would be difficult to trace it to a 
 more remote period than the eleventh century k . 
 
 France claims the honour of giving this inftitu- 
 tion its fpccific character at the time when that 
 
 k Memoires fur 1'ancienne Chevalerie par de la Carr.e dc St. 
 Palaye. Academ. des Infcriptions, torn. xx. p. 597, &c. The 
 ingenious dialogue " on Chivalry and Romance," by the Bifhop 
 of Worccfter, led me to this copious fource of information, from 
 which 1 have derived the greateft part of my ftatement. See 
 Warton on, Spenfer and Lyttelton's Henry II, vol. ii. p. 232. 
 
 kingdom
 
 CHIVALRY.- 435 
 
 kingdom was recovering from the difdfdcrs, which 
 followed the extinction of the fecond race of its 
 monarchs. The royal authority began again to 
 be refpectcd, laws were enacted, corporations were 
 founded, and the numerous iiefs held by the great 
 barons under the crown, were governed witli 
 greater regularity. It was in this thite of affairs, 
 
 C? C7 v 
 
 that the ibvereigns and the great lords were de- 
 lirous of ^lengthening the feudal ties by adding 
 to the ceremony of doing homage, that of giving 
 arms to their young vaiilils, previous to their fir ft 
 military expeditions. It is highly probable; that 
 by conferring the fame honourable diftinCtion upon 
 other perforis, who did not hold any lands under 
 them, but who offered their lervices from motives 
 of eftecm, or the defire of military renown, thu 
 ibvereiinis and o-reat barons availed themfelves of 
 
 o *-> 
 
 this expedient to fecnre the co-operation of new 
 warriors, who were ready to follow their ftandarcl 
 upon all oceafions, when they could only rely 
 upon their own dependants to ierve them in certain, 
 diliricls for a limited time. They received with 
 joy theft' brave volunteers, who, by increafing 
 their forces, gave additional ftrength to their 
 power; and as every knight had the privilege of 
 creating other knights, the ibvereign exercifcd, 
 without exciting jealonly, a privilege, which he 
 pollelfed in common with others; Every gentleman 
 who was defigned for the profeflion of arms, was 
 trained by a long preparatory conrfe of difcipline 
 and frrvice in fome noble family, and was during 
 his youth the companion of fome warrior of 
 vut. J. if renown.-
 
 434 CHIVALRY. 
 
 renown. The ceremonies which attended his 
 knighthood were- folemn and impreflive. They 
 combined the rights of religion with the forms of 
 feudal duty; and vefembled the mode of admitting 
 a profelyte into tlie church, as well as that of a 
 vaflal doing homage for a fief. The candidate for 
 this diftinclion, accompanied by his fponfors and 
 his prieft, palled the night previous to his initiation 
 in watching his arms, and in the duties of prayer. 
 The next morning he repaired to the bath, the 
 water of which was intended to ferve as an emblem 
 of the purity of his profefilon. He then walked 
 to the neareit church, clothed in white garments, 
 and prefe-ated his fword to the minifter officiating 
 at the altar, who returned it to him with his bene- 
 diction. After taking the accuftomed oaths to his 
 
 ^j 
 
 fovereign, or feudal chief, he was inverted by the 
 attendant knights and ladies with certain parts of 
 his armour. He was firft prefented with gilt 
 fpurs 1 , a coat of mail, and gauntlets; and laftly 
 lie was begirt with a fword. The fovereign then, 
 riling from his throne, conferred upon him, whilft 
 kneeling, the honour of knighthood, by giving 
 him three irrokes with the flat part of a drawn 
 fworu upon his moulders or neck. He then faluted 
 the young warrior, and pronounced thefe word* : 
 " In the name of God, of St. Michael, and St. 
 George, I make thee a knight: be brave, bold, 
 
 1 " Efquircs were not allowed to wear any gold in their drefs, 
 although knights were from hence, as well as from wearing gilt 
 fpurs, diftinguifhed by the name of Eqtutes Aurati." 
 
 Lord Lyttclton, Hen. n. v. 2. p. 236. 
 
 and
 
 CHIVALRY. 435 
 
 and loyal.'' His horle and the remaining part of 
 his armour were afterwards prefented to him, and 
 the ceremony was concluded with a coitly banquet" 1 . 
 
 Important and numerous were the privileges 
 attached to this profellion of arms, and its duties 
 were at once arduous and indiipcnfable. To 
 protect the ladies was an elTential part of them. 
 Incapable of taking arms for the prefervation of 
 their property, and deftitute of the means to prova 
 the purity of their characters, if attacked by ma- 
 levolence or (lander, they would frequently in thole 
 uncivilized times, when law and juftice were 
 filenced bv violence and force, have feen their 
 
 / 
 
 lands become a prey to fotne tyrannical neighbour, 
 or have had their reputation blafted by the breath 
 of calumny, if Ibme knight had not come forward 
 in their defence. To the fuccour of the diitrcfled, 
 the protection of orphans, the emancipation of 
 captives, and the chaftilement of opprellion, he 
 likewife dedicated his fword and his life. If he 
 failed in a fcrupulous attention to thefe benevolent 
 offices, he was looked upon as deferring the moft 
 folemn obligations, and was degraded from his 
 rank with public marks of dilgrace. If he per- 
 formed them with activity and fpirit, he was re- 
 garded as an honour to his profelTion, and his 
 renown was ipread over every part of Europe. 
 
 In the character of a true knight during the 
 
 m Palayc, p. 666, &c. 
 
 i f 2 sroldeu
 
 436 CHIVALRY 1 . 
 
 golden age of chivalry, we behold an aliemblage 
 of virtues, which command our efteem and admi- 
 ration, and confer the molt honourable diitinftiou 
 upon human nature. His air was noble, his de- 
 portment manly, and his manners condciccnding 
 and gracious to all. His promife was inviolable 
 and facred ; and he chaftifed that faliehood iu 
 others, which was the peculiar object of his ab- 
 horrence. His love of arms was ibftened by the 
 refinements of courtefy, the fair offspring of that 
 high-born and noble fociety, which he enjoyed in 
 the cailles of the great. His profeflions of at- 
 tachment and fcrvice were invariably fin cere; and 
 all his aclions \vere dictated by courage, and guided 
 by honour. He was as ambitious to render his 
 name illuftrious by affability, probity, generality, 
 and benevolence, as by the extent and number of 
 his expeditions, trophies, and victories. By fuch 
 conduct were thole knights iignalized, whom their 
 contemporaries celebrated as the faireft ornaments 
 of chivalr} r , and whole renown has been tranf- 
 initted through all fucceeding ages. Such were 
 Edward the black prince, the Chevalier Bayard, 
 and Sir Philip Sidney. 
 
 Edward the black Prince was accomplished, va- 
 liant, and amiable. One anecdote of his behaviour 
 will be fuflicient to prove, that he was as moderate 
 in the ufe of victory, as he was great in obtaining 
 it. " Soon after the glorious battle of Poicticrs, 
 in 1356, lie landed at Southwark, and was met by 
 a great concourfe of people of all ranks and 
 
 ftations.
 
 CHIVALRY. 
 
 ftations. Ills nrifoner, John King of France, 
 dad in royal apparel, and mounted on a white 
 freed, diftinguiflud by its lize and beauty, and bv 
 the richncfs of its furniture. The conqueror rode 
 by bis fide in meaner attire, and carried by a black 
 palfrey. In this fituation, more glorious than all 
 the infolent parade of a Roman triumph, he patted 
 through the ftreets of London, and prefented the 
 King of France to his father, who received him 
 with the fame courtefy, as if he had been a 
 neighbouring potentate that had voluntarily come 
 to pay him a friendly vifif. It is imporTible, on 
 reflecting on this noble conduct, not to perceive 
 the advantages which refill ted from the other wife 
 whimfical principles of Chivalry, and which gave, 
 even in thole rude times, fome fuperiority even 
 over people of a more cultivated age and nation"." 
 
 The Cftecatter "Bayard, the valourous and clif- 
 tinguifhed companion of Charles the 8th, Louis 
 the 15th, and Francis the lit, in their wars, 
 flourilhcd at the beginning of the 10'th century. 
 After taking the city of Brefle, he received a large 
 fum from his hoft, for faving his houfe from being- 
 plundered. Of this money he generoully made a, 
 j)refent to his two daughters who brought it. In 
 the following winter he was quartered at Grenoble, 
 near a young lady of good family, but of indigent 
 circumltanees : her beauty inflamed his love, and 
 her fituation gave him hopes of being able to gra- 
 
 a Hume, vol. 5. p. 460. 
 r f 3
 
 4 SS CHIVALRY. 
 
 tify it. Her mother, urged by poverty, accepted 
 his proposals, and compelled her reluctant daughter 
 to vifit him. As loon as {lie was introduced into 
 his presence, flic threw hcrlelf at his feet, and with 
 it i earning e}-es befought him not to dimonour an 
 unfortunate damlbl, whom it was more confiftent 
 with a perfon of his virtuous character to protect. 
 " Kife," exclaimed the Chevalier, " you mall quit 
 this place as innocent as you entered it, but more 
 fortunate." He inftantly conducted her home, 
 reproved her mother, and gave the daughter a 
 marriage portion of 600 piftoles. This eonqncft 
 he gained over himfelf at the age of twenty-fix, 
 when in the fituation of the great Scipio African us, 
 he was moft expofed to temptation, as " juvenis, & 
 ccelebs, Sc victor." At the battle of Marignan 
 againft the Swifs, in 1515, he fought by the fide 
 of Francis the 1ft, and fo imprefTed was that 
 monarch with the high opinion of his prowefs, 
 that he received from his hand the honour of 
 knighthood. Being once aftcd what poiieiuons a 
 nobleman had beft leave to his fon, he replied, 
 " fuch as are leaft expofed to the power of time 
 or human force JVifdom and Virtue." At the 
 retreat of the French at Rebec,, lie received a 
 mortal wound, and with his laft breath rcqucftcd 
 his Efquire to inform the King, " that the only 
 regret he felt on leaving the world, was that he 
 could ferve him no longer/' He then requefted to 
 he placed under a tree facing the enemy, and 
 and then expired. He was called the " Knight 
 
 without
 
 CHIVALKV. 
 
 without fear and without reproach," and no one 
 could have a better claim to fo excellent a character. 
 
 9 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney, dcfcended from Johu Dudley, 
 t)uke of Nortiiumberland by the mother's fide, 
 M'as born at Penlhurt, in Kent, iu 15o4-, and died 
 at the age of 32. During his education at 
 Shrewsbury, and at Chrift Church in Oxford, he 
 made an ailonidiing proficiency in all branches 
 of learning. His conduct was upon all occalions 
 fuch as to do honour to a true Knight. He could 
 not brook the leaft affront, even from perfons of 
 the higheft rank, as he proved by his fpirilcd be 
 haviour to the haughty Earl of Oxford, a nobleman 
 very high in the favour of Queen Elizabeth. 
 This quarrel occafioned his retirement from court, 
 during which he wrote his Romance caHed Arcadia, 
 which he dedicated to his filter, the Countefs of 
 Pembroke. At the grand tournament held in 
 3581, for the entertainment of Anjou, when he 
 came to London to Iblicit the Queen in marriage, 
 Sir Philip went through his feats of arms with 
 great ability, and gained iingular commendation. 
 Such was his fame for relieving all who were in 
 diftrefs, that when the Spaniards had feized the 
 kingdom of Portugal, Don Antonio, the chief 
 competitor for the crown, applied to him for his 
 aililtance. He was appointed Governor of Flufhing, 
 one of the towns delivered by the Dutch to the 
 Queen, and in feveral actions with the enenn, 
 behaved with extraordinary courage, and with 
 fuch mature judgment, as would have done credit 
 i f 4 to
 
 4.40 CHIVALRY. 
 
 to the moft experienced contmaihfers. His high 
 renown and great dderts were fa veil known 
 throughout Europe, that he was put in nomina- 
 tion tor the crown of Poland upon the death of 
 Stephen Batori, but the Queen refilled to further 
 liis promotion. On the 22d of September, 1 
 being lent out to intercept a convoy that was 
 advancing to Zntphen, he fell into an ambufcade, 
 and received a fatal \vonnd in the thigh. In his 
 fad progvefs from the field of battle, pafiing by 
 the reft of the army, where his uncle, Robert 
 Earl of Leiccftcr was, and being thirfty \vith ex- 
 ccfiive lofs of blood, he called for drink, which 
 M-as foon brought him : but as he was putting the 
 Lottie to his mouth, he law a poor foidicr carried 
 along, who had been wounded at the fame time, 
 eagerly fixing his eyes upon it. As foon as Sir 
 Philip perceived his inclination, lie delivered the 
 bottle to him with thcfe words " Thy necefiity is 
 greater than mine." This action difcovered a 
 difpofition fo tender, a mind fo fortified againft 
 pain, a heart fo overflowing with gcnerofity to 
 relieve diflrefs in oppofition to the moft urgent 
 call of his own ncccfTitks, that none can read a 
 detail of it without the highcft admiration. 1'indiug 
 liimfelf paft all hope of recovery, he prepared for 
 death with the greateft composure, and affembled 
 the clergymen of divers nations, before whom he 
 made a full confeflion of his Chriftian faith. The 
 Hofing feenc of his life, was the parting with his 
 brother, Sir Robert Sidney, of whom he took leave 
 jn thefe words, " Love my memory, cherifh my 
 
 friends :
 
 CHIVALTIV. 44! 
 
 fi -lends ; their faith to me may afiurc you they are 
 finccrc : but above all, govern your will and jiftec- 
 tions by the will and word of your Creator, in me 
 ix-holding the end of the world, with all her va- 
 nities." As he had been during his life beloved, 
 admired, and almoft idolized by all ranks of men, 
 lo was his death moft deeply lamented. He M r as 
 the faii'eft flower of Chivalry, the bright jewel of 
 an illuftrious court, and a pattern of fuperior ex- 
 cellence, even in an age of heroes . 
 
 A knight was always known by a device on his 
 fhield, and the peculiarities of his blazonry, which 
 were alluiive to fome of his martial exploits. 
 Great honours were paid to him after his deceafe, 
 particularly if he was (lain in battle. His funeral 
 \vas moft folemn, and very fully attended. His 
 fword, helmet, fpuis, gauntlets, and armorial 
 cnfigns, were fufpended over the hallowed fpot of 
 his interment, or liis cenotaph. His fplendid 
 tomb, graced with his effigy, and marked with a 
 fuitable infcription, was confidered as a tribute of 
 the jufteft refpe6l to his virtues, and as a powerful 
 incentive to inflame the youthful warrior to tread 
 the fame path of valour and renown. 
 
 Chivalry was much indebted to religion, for the 
 ardour with which its votaries were animated. 
 Such was the fuperftition of the times, that no 
 
 Lord Lyttelton's Life of Hen. n. v. 3. p v 54 Biogra. 
 phia Brit. Article Sidney, &c, 
 
 jnftitu-
 
 44:3 CHIY'Ainv. 
 
 inftitution of a public nature could have obtained 
 reputation in the world, which M'as not confecrated 
 by the church, and clofely interwoven with the 
 religious opinions or' the times. To the incentives 
 of zeal, were added the fpirit of gallantry, and a 
 lomantic attachment to the fair fex. The youthful 
 knight, previous to his going forth upon any 
 warlike expedition, devoted himfelf to the fervicc 
 of fome lady, who was nfually the objecfc of his 
 ardent love. It was his mod lively hope that her 
 fmiles and her hand would reward his valour : he 
 bore her device upon his arms; to her he confe- 
 crated his trophies ; and to gain her favour and 
 approbation, lie was ready upon all occafions to 
 meet danger, and to fhed his blood. This pafiion 
 was the keeneft incitement, that was given to his 
 heroic actions, and fired his mind with unabating 
 enthufiafm. Amid foreign invafion or domeftic 
 feuds, where the oppofing barons and their vafl'als 
 encountered each other in the hottcit engage- 
 jne*nts; the faithful knight, as he couched his 
 lance, and rufhed to meet the foe, invoked the 
 miftrcfs of his heart, and gloried by his achieve- 
 ments to render himfelf worthy of her regard. 
 "When peace brought a ihort interval of repofe, 
 and rival knights contended in the jnfts and tour- 
 naments, the applauding lady often adjudged the 
 prizes to the viclorious champions, and rewarded 
 the valour which he had infpired. In the lofty 
 hall decked with banners and trophies of Avar, 
 when the banquet was given to the jocund train 
 of nobles, and their gallant companions in aims ; 
 
 the
 
 CHIVALRY. 44S 
 
 the harp and the fongs of the minftrel refoundcd 
 the praites ot % the fair; uud every pageant and 
 celebrity concurred to keep the mind iu the fame 
 Direction to its beloved object. 
 
 The ambition of pleating a favourite lady, and 
 of being worthy to be conlidcred as her champion, 
 in the field of battle, as well as in the tournaments, 
 \va.s a motive which itiinulated a knight to the 
 moil heroic actions, and animated him with the 
 molt determined valour. Many inftances are re- 
 corded in the hiftory of the middle ages, of the 
 height to which this romantic gallantry arofe p . 
 It was not unuiual for a knight in the midft of a 
 battle 01 a fiege, to challenge his enemy to finglc 
 combat, and refer to the decifion of arms the 
 tranfcendent excellence of their ladies. 
 
 We have before taken occafion to obferve, that 
 the treatment of women in Greece and Rome was 
 harili and degrading. They were confined to a 
 ftate of feclufion from the world, had few atten- 
 tions paid to them, and were allowed to take little 
 fhare in the general intercourfe of life. The 
 northern nations, on the contrary, paid a kind of 
 devotion to the female lex, confidered them as en- 
 dowed with fuperior and even divine qualities, 
 gave them a feat in their public councils, and fol- 
 lowed their ftandard to battle. Thefe fierce barba- 
 rians in the courfe of their ravages in the Romau 
 
 P Palaye, p. 653. 
 
 empire,
 
 4U rim-Ann'. 
 
 rmpirc, when they involved the monuments of 
 ancient art in deftruftion, and purfued their ene- 
 mres in arms with the moft bloody feverity, always 
 forbore to offer violence to women, They introt 
 cluced into the weft of Europe the refpeclful gal- 
 lantry of the north ; and this benevolence of fen- 
 liment was chcrimed and matured by the inftitu- 
 tion of chivalry'. Women, inftead of having; 
 only a retired place in fociety, was brought forward 
 jnto the moft confpicuous point of view ; /lie be- 
 came the umpire of valour, the arbitrefs of victory, 
 ami at once the incentive and the reward of cou- 
 ingeous actions. Naturally elated at beholding 
 the power of her charms, me became worthy of 
 iTie heroifm which ihe infpired, improved in the 
 digrrity of her character, and formed her fenti- 
 inents upon the pure principles of honour. The 
 liftinguimed prowefs of the knight was counter- 
 balanced by the ftricl; and fpdtlels chnftity of the 
 lady, and thefe virtues long continued to counte- 
 nance and to reward each other : they were encou- 
 tagect by the modes, the habits, and the circum- 
 itances of the times, and found ample room for 
 growth and expanfion in the baronial ftates. 
 
 Thus it appears, that in the inftitution of chivalry 
 vere blended valour, humanity, juftice, honour, 
 courtefy, and gallantry. Their combined efiPecls 
 were foon vifible upon the manners of a martial 
 age. The horrors of war were ibftened, \vhen 
 
 * Robertfon's Charley V. yol, i. p. 8?, Arc. Modern Europe, 
 yoK ij. p. 208, Sac. 
 
 humanity
 
 CHIVALRY. 443 
 
 kit inanity began to be eitecmed the ornament of 
 knighthood. More condefcenuon and more affa- 
 bility were introduced, when courtdy was recom- 
 mended as the moft amiable of knightly virtues, 
 A rigid adherence to truth, with the moil religious 
 attention to every engagement, became the dif- 
 tinguilhing charaetcriluc of every gentleman, be- 
 cauie chivalry was regarded as the fchooi -of 
 honour. It is the remark of the excellent hifto- 
 dan, to whole works I confers mylelf under fingfl- 
 lar obligations in purfuing tills and iimilar inqui- 
 ries, " that, perhaps, the humanity which accom- 
 panies all the operations of war, the refiuemcute of 
 gallantry, and the point of honour, the three ckidf 
 circumttances, which diftingniih modern from 
 ancient manners, may be attributed in a great 
 ineafure to this wbimfical inftitutionV 
 
 The clafiical reader cannot fail to be ftruck with 
 the coincidence in the political ftate of ancient 
 Greece, as defcribed by Homer, and the condition 
 of the feudal times. The military ardour of the 
 heroes is timilar to that of the barons. What aie 
 the Grecian Bacchus, Hercules, and Jalbn, wan- 
 dering over various parts of the world in fearch of 
 adventures, conquering giants and moufters, but 
 knights-errant, and the exact counterparts of Sir 
 I.aunceJot, and Amadis de Gaul, and the Sevea 
 Champions? Generofity, Courteiy, and Hofpita- 
 lity, were the virtues common to them ali. 
 
 ' Robcnfon's Charles V. vol. i. p. Sj. 
 
 Thr
 
 446 CHIVALRY. 
 
 The difpofitions and fentiments, which it pro- 
 duced, were fo deeply rooted, that they continued 
 to predominate, long after the fpirit of chivalry 
 itfelf had evaporated, and the inltitution began to 
 decline and degenerate. The love of action, the 
 fpirit of benevolence, and a more correct mode of 
 thinking the virtues, which had either given it 
 birth, or been atfociated with it, when once di- 
 rected to objects that fired ambition, and interested 
 the affections, were not likely to be Ihort in their 
 duration, or partial in their effects. The refined 
 afiiduitics of men naturally directed the attention 
 of women to themfelves, as well as to their ad- 
 mirers. The acknowledgment of the importance 
 of the female character produced a coniiderablc 
 improvement in female education. Thus gradu- 
 ally was the merit of the fexes raifed, and they 
 were better entitled to the eftimation of each other. 
 The men, quitting the inlipidity of artificial com- 
 pliment, and the hyperbolical ftyle of pafiion, 
 which had marked the intercomfe of the feudal 
 times, became more attentive to fimplicity and 
 truth, more engaging in their addrefs, and ibftcr iu 
 their manners. The women became fenfible of the 
 importance of fupportinga dignity of behaviour, of 
 improving their talents for converfation, and of 
 adorning the charms of nature with elegant uc- 
 compliflmients, and the graces of affability and 
 complail'ance. 
 
 Thus has a great change of manners been 
 effected, by following up a leading principle of the 
 inltitution of chivalry, and giving a confpicuous 
 
 place
 
 THE REFORMATION'. 
 
 place to the female fex in the ranks of foctety. The 
 ;y.ifiion oHove, purified by delicacy, has becft height- 
 ened by the pleafures of ientiment and imagination ; 
 thefphere of ronverfation has been enlarged and me- 
 liorated ; it has gained more propriety, more viva- 
 city, more wit, and more variety ; foeial inter- 
 courfe has been di veiled of formality, and is regu- 
 lated by the laws of true politeneis. It has opened 
 ucw fuurces of fatis faction to the underftanding, 
 and afforded new delights to the heart. The clia- 
 
 O 
 
 rafters both of men and women have been marked 
 by more amiable qualities, and the liock of refined 
 pleafures and focial happmefs has been iu the 
 greateft degree increalcd. 
 
 IV. TJtc Reformation of Religion, 
 
 There is perhaps no occurrence recorded in the 
 annals of mankind, fince the firft publication of 
 Chriftianity, which has had fo confiderable an influ- 
 ence in vindicating the rights of confcience, in libe- 
 rating the powers of the mind from the tyranny of 
 fuperltition, and in the promotion of general know- 
 ledge, as the reformation of religion in the fixteentii 
 century. Previous to this aufpicious event, all 
 Europe bowed beneath the yoke of the Church of 
 Rome, and trembled at the name of her fovereigns. 
 The laws, which were iflued from the Vatican, 
 held emperors, kings, and all their fubje&s, in the 
 chains of obedience, or rather of flavery ; and to 
 refift their authority, or to examine their reafon- 
 ablcnefs. required a vigour of undeiftanding, and 
 
 an
 
 44S THE REFORMATION, 
 
 an energy of character, of which for many ages 
 few examples were to be found. Walcius in the 
 twelfth century. \Vickliif in the fourteenth, and 
 Hufs in the fifteenth, had inveighed agaiuii the 
 errors of Popery with great boklnefs, and expoied 
 them with great ingenuity : but their attempts to 
 inftrucl the minds of the ignorant and illiterate 
 were premature and ineffectual. Such feeble 
 lights, incapable of difpeiling the thick darkncls, 
 which enveloped the Church, were foon cxtin- 
 guiihed : at length, however, it was the gracious 
 act of Providence to raife up MARTIN LUTHEU, us 
 the chofe.n initrument of its aulpicious defigns '. 
 
 This great Reformer was born of poor parents 
 at Eiileben in Saxony u . He received a learned 
 education, and in his youth clifcovered great 
 acutenefs and vigour of undcrftanding. He-fivft 
 devoted himfelf to a monaftic life in a convent of 
 Auguftinian friars, and afterward was appointed 
 by Frederic, elector of Saxony, profeflbr of philo- 
 fophy and theology in the new univerfity of Wit- 
 temberg. Having found a copy of the Bible, 
 which had long been neglefted, in the library of 
 his convent, he abandoned all other purfuits, and 
 devoted himfelf to the ttudy of the Scriptures. 
 The light of truth beamed upon his mind he faw 
 that Chriftianity was not to be learned from the 
 writings of the ichoolmcu, or the decrees of gc- 
 
 * See Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. ii. p. 41. 4th cd. 
 " Born 1483. His opinions widely diffufcd in 1518. Died 
 1546, aged 63 years. 
 
 ncrat
 
 .THE REFORMATION. "449 
 
 -neral councils, but from the authority of the facred 
 Writings alone. An opportunity was Coon afforded 
 him of mowing his zeal for truth, and his ardour 
 for its propagation. The Dominican monks were 
 at that time employed by pope Leo X. to fell in- 
 dulgences for all offences and crimes, for the pur- 
 pofe of recruiting his exhaufted treafury. Luther, 
 with great boldnefs of manner, and itrength of 
 argument, preached againftthe irregularity of their 
 lives, and the vicious tendency of their doctrines ; 
 and he reprefented to the people the extreme 
 danger of relying for falvation on any other means 
 than thofe appointed by the word of God. The 
 more he examined the claims of the Church of 
 Rome to its empire over the reafon and confcience 
 of mankind, the more he afcertained their weak- 
 nefs. The difcovery of one error naturally led 
 him to the detection of others ; and from refuting 
 the extravagant tenets concerning indulgences, he 
 proceeded to expofe fiich as were maintained re- 
 fpecling pilgrimages and penances, the interceffion 
 and the worlhip of faints, the abufes of auricular 
 confevTion, the exiftence of purgatory, and many 
 other doctrines of the fame kind, which have no 
 foundation in Scripture. His arguments made a 
 deep^impreflion upon his hearers, and his fame was 
 foon fpread not only through Germany, but va- 
 rious other parts of Europe. 
 
 At the fame time that by his fermons he was 
 diffufing the principles of the reformation, and his 
 writings contributed materially to the fame purpofe, 
 
 VOL. i. G g nothing
 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 nothing proved more fatal to the interefts of the 
 Church of Rome, or more iubverfive of its opi- 
 nions, than his tranflation of the Bible into the 
 German language. The copies of it were rapidly 
 difperfed, and perufed with the greateil avidity by 
 perfons of all ranks. They were aftonifhed at dif- 
 covering how contrary the precepts of the great 
 Author of their religion were to the comments and 
 the inventions of thofc, who had fo long pretended 
 to be the faithful interpreters of his Word. Having 
 now in their own hands the genuine rule ef faith, 
 they thought themfelves qualified to judge of the 
 eftablifhed opinions, and to pronounce whether 
 they were conformable to the ftandard of Scripture, 
 or deviated from it. The great advantages, which 
 rcfulted from this celebrated tranflation of the 
 Bible, encouraged the advocates for the reforma- 
 tion in other countries to follow this example; 
 and by publishing verfious in their reipeclive lan- 
 guages, they materially promoted the general 
 cause *. 
 
 Luther has been accufed by the catholic writers 
 of exceflive love of wine, and of the amufe- 
 ments of the field. He indeed much mocked 
 their prejudices by marrying a nun. His followers, 
 however, inform us that he was a man of the 
 ftricleft temperance, that he drank nothing but 
 water, and that he would occafionally faft two or 
 
 x Robertfon's Charles V. vol. ii. p. 113, &c. Hiftory of 
 Modern Europe, vol. ii. p. 194, &c. Gilpin's Lives of the 
 Reformers, Burnet's Hiftory of the Reformation. 
 
 three
 
 THE REFORMATION. 451 
 
 three days together, and then eat a herring and 
 ibme hread r . 
 
 He had the fatisfaction to receive the mod im- 
 portant affiilance from men or' learning and abi- 
 lities. Melan&hon, famed for his genius, learn- 
 ing, moderation, and piety, was tiie author of 
 the confeffion of Auglburg, pi-dented by the 
 Proteftants to the emperor Charles V. at the diet 
 held in that place. Bucer introduced the dodtrines 
 of Luther into the imperial cities upon the Rhine; 
 and Glaus dHfeminated them with equal zeal in 
 Sweden, his native country. Zuinglius and 
 Calvin, men not inferior to the great Reformer 
 himfelf in zeal and intrepidity, were active in 
 Switzerland. However they difagreed in their 
 doflrines, and whatever errors marked fome of 
 their opinions, they co-operated with the moll 
 perfeft harmony in the promotion of this great 
 and perilous defign. The oppofition made by the 
 fee of Rome to the divorce of Henrv VIII. from 
 
 V 
 
 his queen Catherine, haftened the introduction of 
 the reformed opinions into England. The acute 
 and learned Erafmus was far from being an incon- 
 fiderable coadjutor to Luther. His numerous works 
 prepared the way for the reception of the new doc- 
 trines. He confuted many of the Romifh errors 
 with great weight of argument and force of elo- 
 quence. In his fatirical writings, likewife, he 
 
 y Seward's Anecdotes, v. i. p. 82, &c. See other anecdotes 
 of him by the fame pleafing colledlor, vol. 3. p. 112. 
 
 G g 2 helJ
 
 452 THE REFORMATION, 
 
 held up to derifion the frauds practifed by the 
 monks to impofe upon the credulity of the people ; 
 and there was fcarcely any error, which Luther 
 endeavoured to reform, which had not been treated 
 by Erafmus, either with cenlure or raillery*. 
 
 The character of Luther was fuch as exactly 
 qualified him for a reformer, at the particular 
 period when he flood forth as the champion of the 
 Proteftant faith. His abilities were of the firft 
 order, ftrong by nature, and improved by ftudy. 
 liis fanctity of life was conformable to the pure 
 doctrines which he taught. His diligence in de- 
 tecting the errors of his opponents, and in propa- 
 gating his own opinions, was ever active and inde- 
 fatigable. He had an ardour of temper, which 
 "fometimes broke out into vehemence and impetu- 
 ofity ; the effect of his courage and zeal in the 
 caufe of truth. Erafmus laid of Luther that God 
 had beftowed upon mankind fo violent a phyfician, 
 in confequence of the magnitude of their difeafes. 
 From every inflance of oppofition his undaunted 
 fpirit derived frem energy : he readily obeyed the 
 fummons of the fovereign Pontiff, and flood un- 
 i 
 
 * Quid ego potuiflem opitulari Luthero, fi me periculi co- 
 mitem feciffem, nifi ut pro uno perirent duo? Quod fi omnia 
 pie fcripfiffct, non tamen erat animus ob veritatem capite peric- 
 Utari. Non omnes ad martyrium fatis habent roboris. Vereor, 
 ne fi quid inciderit tumultus, Petrum fim imitaturus." Erafmi 
 Epift. 583. See an excellent account of this accomplifhed 
 fcholar and refined fatirift, in Warton on the Genius of Pope, 
 vol. i. p. 187. 
 
 moved
 
 THE REFORMATION. 453 
 
 moved before his legate, prepared as he was, not 
 to retraft, but to juftify his opinions. He after- 
 wards in the prefence of numerous fpe&ators burnt 
 the bull of excommunication, which had been 
 iffued againft him. Confcious of the re&itude of 
 his motives, he was bold to affert and prompt to 
 excute his defigns. In his controverfics he was 
 regardlefs of the rank or quality of his opponents, 
 and treated Henry VIII. with the fame oppro- 
 brious language, which he ufed to Tetzel, or 
 Eccius, the ignoble advocates for the fee of Rome. 
 Had he been lefs harm and fevere in his cenfures, 
 and lefe vehement in his invectives, he would not 
 have fuited the rude manners of the times. Had 
 lie addrefled his countrymen in a voice of lefs au- 
 thority and boldnefs, he would not have awakened 
 them from the lethargy of fuperftition, in which 
 they were entranced : and if he had been lefs con- 
 fident in his own talents, and the goodnefs of his 
 caufe, he M-ould not have fpread his opinions with 
 fuch rapidity, and carried them to fuch an extent. 
 Unaided by power, and unaffifted by force of anus, 
 he fhook the throne of the Popes, and fubverted a 
 great part of the vaft fabric of their ecclefiaftical 
 dominion, which had been raifed with confummate 
 art, and whofe foundations were deeply laid. 
 This difficult taik he accomplished by turning the 
 current of public opinion againft it. He imparted 
 to mankind the light of reafon and revelation, and 
 enabled them to difcern the errors, the frauds, and 
 the ufurpations of the fee of Rome; and he 
 taught them to vindicate the rights of reafon, 
 G g 3 con-
 
 454- THE REFORMATION. 
 
 conference, and the Gofpel. He had the fatisfac- 
 tion to live to fee whole provinces and king- 
 doms adopt his opinions with the his* heft refprct, 
 and fubfcribe to his decifions with the moil implicit 
 deference. He was liftened to with that fixed and 
 fteady attention, which' truth, when accompanied 
 by novelty, is always fure to command. And by an 
 extraordinary inftance of divine favour, particu- 
 larly fignal, if we confider the ferocious manners 
 of his contemporaries, and the intolerant fpirit of 
 his enemies, he had the happinefs to end his life 
 with compofure and peace, in his native city, in 
 the midft of his own family. For the invaluable 
 benefits, conferred by the great Reformer upon his 
 own age, and upon all pofterity, he ftands diftin- 
 gui/hed among the benefactors of the human race, 
 and is entitled to the praife, gratitude, and vene- 
 ration of mankind. 
 
 The opposition, which was raifed againft the 
 opinions of the reformers, contributed to produce 
 the effecl, which it was the defign of their enemies 
 to prevent. Their fevere edicts, and even their 
 bloody pei fecutions, made perhaps as many pro- 
 felytes to the Proteftant faith, as the bold invec- 
 tives of Luther, the wit and learning of Erafmus, 
 the vehemence of Calvin, and the perfuafive mild- 
 iiefs of Melanclhon. In vain did Henry VIII. of 
 England difplay his polemical (kill, and obtain the 
 title of Defender of the Faith from the Pope, as a 
 reward for his attack on Luther. In vain were 
 repeated diets affembled for the condemnation of his 
 
 opinions.
 
 THE REFORMATION". 
 
 opinions. In vain did the crafty Charles V. of 
 Germany enter into an alliance with pope Paul III. 
 for the exprefs purpofe of extirpating what they 
 ftigmatized with the name of herefy. It was to 
 no purpoie that the Proteftants were forbidden under 
 the mod heavy penalties to teach any doctrine 
 contrary to the decrees of the council of Trent. 
 Kvjii the matfacre of St. Bartholomew, perpetrated 
 by the fanguinary Charles IX. of France, pro* 
 duced no permanent injury to the Proteftant 
 cauie. And with as little effect did Mary, in a 
 fpirit of bigotry equally cruel and infuriate, com- 
 mit the holy martyrs of England to the flames. 
 The fame confequences enfued, which had ori- 
 ginally taken place at the firft publication of 
 Chriftianity. The rage of perfccution tended only 
 to ftimulate the curiofity and excite the compaflion 
 of mankind ; and their inquiries led to the multi- 
 plication of converts, wherever the blood of the 
 martyrs was fhed. 
 
 Many caufes led to the fuccefs and popularity 
 of the reformed opinions. The fchifms in the 
 Church of Rome, the profligate characters of the 
 Popes, and the diffolute lives and intolerant dif- 
 pofitions of the Clergy, had made the people 
 difgufted with an eftabl.ilhment, which under the 
 mafk of religion not only encouraged immorality, 
 but granted indulgences for great and flagrant 
 crimes. The recent invention of printing gave a 
 rapid circulation to the writings of the reformers, 
 and particularly to the various verfions of the 
 G g 4 Bible.
 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 Bible. And the revival of learning conduced to 
 open the minds of men to free inquiry, and critical 
 refearches. Thus did the peculiar circumftances of 
 the times, and the favourable conjuncture of various 
 events, unite to crown the labours of Luther with 
 fuccefs. Nor muft we ever lofe fight of that great 
 cau/e, into which all the reft may be refolved, 
 the fupreme direction of divine Providence, which 
 at this aufpicious period mecl the radiant beams 
 of its goodnefs and truth upon a long-benighted 
 world. 
 
 The Reformation not only narrowed the domi- 
 nions of the fovereign Pontiffs, but obliged them 
 to adopt a different mode of conduct, and to rule 
 by new maxims of policy. Their behaviour was 
 bent to the urgency of the times : from having 
 been long tyrannical and imperious, they became 
 condefcending, gracious, and mild. Ever fince 
 the Reformation, they have continued to govern 
 rather by addrefs and management, than by def- 
 potic authority; and fuch has been the great 
 decline of their power, that from wielding the 
 fceptre of Europe, and being the arbiters of all its 
 affairs, they have nearly been reduced to a level 
 with the petty princes of Italy and Germany. 
 
 One great advantage confequent upon the Re- 
 formation has been the improvement not only of 
 its advocates, but even of its enemies, in fcience, 
 learning, and arts. It *.was found expedient thus 
 to combat the reformers with their own weapons, 
 
 and
 
 THE REFORMATION. 457 
 
 and to efface the ai'perfions, which they threw upon 
 the ignorance and licentionfnefs of the Papifts. 
 Hence the attention of the Romifh Clergy has 
 been directed to the cultivation of ufeful and ele- 
 gant learning, to a degree unknown in former 
 ages ; and hence they have become as enlightened 
 and well informed as they were before remarkable 
 for their ignorance. 
 
 Similar was the change in their morals : they 
 found it was necefiary to iilence the clamour of 
 their enemies by a fuperior propriety of conduct. 
 They endeavoured to reach the itandard, which 
 the reformers, eminent for the purity and even the 
 aufterity of their manners, had let up. This ame- 
 lioration extended to all the Papal countries ; to 
 France, to the ice of Rome, and to the fovereign 
 Pontiffs themlelves. Their love of learning, their 
 moderate ufe of power, and their other virtues, 
 have made ibme atonement to the world for the 
 follies and crimes of their predecellbrs. 
 
 Such have been the beneficial confequences of 
 an event, which, in a political as well as in a re- 
 ligious point of view, is a diftinguifhed object of 
 regard and admiration. The Reformation has vin- 
 dicated the rights of reafon and confcience ; it 
 has taught the duty, and diffufed the bleffings of 
 Toleration ; and while it has held forth the Scrip- 
 tures themfelves, as the proper and exclufive 
 ftandard of religious opinions, it has difleminatcd 
 the genuine principles of Chriltianity, purified the 
 
 faith,
 
 458 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 faith, improved the manners, and increafed the 
 virtue of mankind. 
 
 V. The revival of Clafftcal Learning. 
 
 , 
 Alfred ' the Great of England, and Charlemagne 
 
 Emperor of Germany, flourimed in the ninth 
 century. Thefe earlieft luminaries of the modern 
 world, ihed a ftrong and vivid luftre over the age 
 in which they lived. They encouraged learning 
 both by their example and patronage ; but their 
 endeavours were not fufficiently effectual to over- 
 come the grofs ignorance of their times 6 . The 
 fchools, which they erected, were confined to 
 churches and monafteries ; and the contracted 
 notions of the monks, who preiided over them, 
 partly aiifing from their reclufe modes of life, and 
 partly from their religious prejudices, rendered 
 them wholly inadequate to the talk of diffufing 
 knowledge in any extenfive circle. The reign of 
 barbartfm and ignorance continued, with little in- 
 termifiion, till the learning, which the Arabians had 
 introduced into Spain, began to fpread through 
 
 Sec the firft Chapter of the Hiftory of England. 
 h " Charlemagne rcmpliflbit le monde de fon nom ; c'etoit 
 1'homme de la plus grande taille, & le plus fort de fon terns. On 
 le voyoit pafler rapidement des Pyrenees en Allemagne, & 
 d'Alemagne en Italic, Tout cela reffemble aflez aux heros de la 
 fable; mais ce qui ne leor reflemble pas, c'eft qu'il peafoit que 
 la force ne fert qu'a vaincre, & qu'il faut des loix pour gouvcrner. 
 Jl aima, cnltiva, & profegca les lettrcs & les arts, car la veri- 
 table grandeur. ne va jnmais fans cela." 
 
 Abregc de Henault, Tom, i. p. 3. 
 
 the
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 459 
 
 the reft of Europe. This learning confrfted in. 
 arithmetic, geometry, aftrouomy, chemiftry, and 
 medicine, and the philofophy of Ariiiotle, in its 
 fulleft extent c . Several enlightened fchojars, who 
 had ftudied under the Arabians, undertook, at the 
 beginning of the eleventh century, the education 
 of youth, particularly in the cities of Italy, and 
 afterwards in thofe of France, England, and Ger- 
 many. To the prevalence and permanency of 
 thefe branches of knowledge, the eftabiiiliment of 
 the univerfities of Europe, fo general in the 
 thirteenth century, was eminently conducive. 
 Sonic indeed were founded rather earlier; and 
 Paris and Oxford carry their pretentious to anti- 
 quity fo high as the reigns of Charlemagne and 
 Alfred : but the real claims of Paris are dated from 
 the time of Philip Auguftus, who flourimcd in the 
 twelfth century. And it would be too heavy a 
 taik, even inclined as I may be to fupport the high 
 antiquity of my own Univerficy, if I were required 
 to trace any literary inftitution for the regular 
 maintenance of (Indents upon a collegiate plan, to 
 a remoter period than the reign of Edward the 
 firft. Mcrton college was then founded by Walter 
 de Merton, Lord Chancellor of England, and 
 Biihop of Rochefter, in the year 1264- d . Upon a 
 
 c See Warton on Pope, vol. i. p. 184. 
 
 * " Merton College ought to be the firft, and the firft now 
 1 have put it, becaufe it is the moft ancient endowed houfe in 
 Oxford, (fome fay in all the learned world) and the moft famous 
 fdr the education of learned men." 
 
 Wood's Hiftory and Antiquities of Oxford, p. z. 
 
 careful
 
 460 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 careful examination of the pretenfions of the firft 
 great feminaries of education, the honoured title 
 of Mother of the unrverfities of Europe ieems to 
 be due to Bologna. It was within her walls, 
 during the tumults and diforders of the eleventh 
 century, that learning firft attempted to raife her 
 head. In the fueceeding age, the almoft incre- 
 dible number of 10,000 ftudents were aiTembled 
 there, and each country in Europe had its refident 
 regents and profelfors. The ftudies of the civil 
 and canon law conftituted the favourite and almoft 
 the exclufive objects of application. Paris directed 
 the attention of her fchotars to theology, and 
 nearly with an equal degree of reputation. Oxford 
 began at this time to acquire celebrity, and to 
 rival, or rather to furpafs the foreign universities, in 
 the ability of its profeflbrs, and the concourfe of 
 jrs members ; for in the year 1340 they amounted, 
 according to the account of the hiftorian Speed, 
 to- not Ids than 30,000. Many other univerfities 
 were not long after founded, particularly in Italy 
 and France, and were all modelled upon the fame 
 plan as Bologna, Paris, and Oxford, with refpect 
 to their inftitutions and ftudies. 
 
 In thefe feminaries of learning, logic and fcho- 
 laitic divinity were for ages the reigning fubjects 
 of puvfuit. The works of Ariftotle were pcrufed 
 with the grcateft avidity ; and the difquifitions of 
 the commentators upon his Dialectics were fo 
 favourably received, that their authors almoft to- 
 
 V 
 
 tally eclipfed the fame of their great matter himfelf. 
 
 The
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LIARKING. 46*1 
 
 The (yllogifttc mode of reafoning was applied to 
 every topic, without difcrimination, as the beft 
 inftrument in the hands of a fubtle difputant to 
 frame the moft fpecious arguments, and to perplex 
 the plained truths. 
 
 The public fchools in the Univerfities were the 
 theatres, in which the ftudents acquired anddifplayed 
 their attainments, as they were filled with a great 
 concourfe of auditors, who daily aflfembled to lifteu 
 to the clamorous debates of the feveral difputants. 
 
 Upon the logic of Ariftotle was founded the cul- 
 tivation of fcholaftic theology and cafuiftry. To 
 make nice and metaphyfical diftindlions between 
 one word and another, to ieparate fubje&s by iu- 
 iinite divilions, not as the real nature of things, 
 but as fancy fuggeftecl, and to draw conclufions 
 which had no moral end whatever, were the in- 
 celfant purfuits of the fchoolmen. The /kill, 
 induftry, and productions of the fpider may ferve 
 to illuftrate the texture and the flimfinefs of their 
 literary labours. They have likewife been more 
 ingcnioufly compared to thofe Indians, who, by 
 the curious arrangement of a few feathers, which 
 form their only ftock, compofe a thoufand varieties 
 of figure, and a perpetual change of picture. The 
 names of Lan franc, Abclard, Petrus Lombard us, 
 Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus, are the moft 
 eminent among thefe celebrated difputants. And 
 while an attachment to the ceremonial and ritual 
 obfervances of the Church of Rome, and the moft 
 
 implicit
 
 462 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 implicit fubfervicncy to its edicts, and the decrees 
 of its councils, ufurpcd the place of obedience to 
 pure and practical Chriiiianity ; the bulky volumes 
 of theie fchoolmen filled every library, and cxcr- 
 cifed the understanding of every ftudcnt. And 
 thefe were the fpeculations, which, however dry 
 in point of fryle, and unitnproving in ])oint of 
 matter, as they were patronized by the digni- 
 taries of the church, and purfucd by men of 
 iirong and vigorous minds, engroflcd for centuries 
 the whole attention of univerfities, intcrcftcd 
 courts, and were celebrated in every part of 
 Europe. 
 
 In the mean time claffical learning was entirely 
 neglected ; it was confidered as dangerous to true 
 piety, and calculated only to corrupt the pure 
 theology of the Gofpel. The poets and orators of 
 Greece and Rome were regarded as the blind 
 guides of erring reafon, and as feduccrs to the 
 paths of lin and deftru&ion. Virgil and Horace 
 were looked upon merely as the advocates for a 
 profane and idolatrous mythology ; and Cicero was 
 regarded as a vain declaimer, impiouily elated 
 with the talent of Pagan eloquence. Whenever 
 the minds of the monks were $fiercifed in any lite- 
 rary competitions, to record the marvellous exploits 
 of Hunts and martyrs, to compofe unedifying 
 homilies, and to make frivolous commentaries on 
 Scripture, were the chief and favourite objecls of 
 their attention ; and that fuch were their occupa- 
 tions, the voluminous manufcripts, which form the 
 5 original
 
 tHE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 463 
 
 original parts of mod of the oldelt libraries in 
 Europe, can abundantly teftify. 
 
 We difcover the firft dawnings of modern lite- 
 rature in the cultivation of the language of 
 Provence, and the rude productions of the Trou- 
 badours. The firft of this order, whofe name 
 ftands recorded, was William Count of Poitou, a 
 nobleman, who drftinguilhed himfelf by his prowefe 
 in the crufades. Many of the men of rank, who 
 embarked in the firit expedition to the Holy Land, 
 were of that number. Their Romances, com- 
 pofed upon the (inking fubjecls of gallantry, war, 
 fatire, and hiftory, fiift awakened Europe from 
 its ignorance and lethargy, amufed the minds of 
 men with grotefque and lively images and defcrip- 
 tions, and firft taught them to think, reflect, and 
 judge upon fubjeels of imagination. The Trouba- 
 dours occupied the middle place between Gothic 
 ignorance and Italian excellence; and after this 
 period, literature is indebted to them for raifmg 
 the earlieft fruits of European genius, and infpiring 
 the moderns with a love of poetry. Their repu- 
 tation and their language extended far and wide ; 
 and every country upon the continent of Europe 
 could boaft its itinerant bards. In the courts of 
 kings, and the caftles of barons, they were always 
 hailed as the moft welcome guefts ; and their exer- 
 tions to pleafe and to initruclt were repaid by 
 fplendid rewards. The commencement of the 
 crufades, and the clofe of the fourteenth century, 
 mark the limits of their celebrity. The Romance, 
 
 which
 
 464 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 which had its rife in the manners of chivalry, fell 
 into difrepute as foon as that inftitution began to 
 decline. 
 
 In the fourteenth century men of genius arofe 
 in Italy, who refolved to cultivate their native 
 tongue, and to combine with its elegance the 
 charms of imagination, and the acquirements of 
 clallical learning. The poetry of the Tufcan, 
 fchool burft forth with a fplendour and luihe, 
 which have ever been furveyed with delight and 
 admiration; and the works of Dante, Aiiofto, 
 Bocaccio, and Petrarch, although the productions 
 of an age fo unpoliihed, have never yet been 
 excelled by four fucceeding centuries of the beft 
 efforts of genius and learning. 
 
 After the philofophy of Ariftotle and the com- 
 mentaries of the fchoolmen had contributed for 
 a confiderable period to give a wrong direction to 
 the faculties of the mind, and to occupy the time 
 and attention of fcholars ; a feries of events occurred 
 in the fifteenth century, which turned the minds. 
 of ingenious men to new refearches, opened the 
 way to the revival of clafiical learning, and the 
 improvement of all the arts and fciences connected 
 with its cultivation. 
 
 The fubverfion of the Roman Empire in the 
 Eaft, and the difcovcry of the art of printing, hap- 
 pened nearly at the fame period of time. Learned 
 men had long trembled at the approach, and at 
 
 length
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 46*J 
 
 length fled before the fierce afpec~l of Mahomet 
 the iecoiul. After Conftantinople was taken by 
 the Turks in the year 1453, Chryfoloras, Deme- 
 trius Chalcondyles, Johannes Andronicus, Calliftus 
 Conftantius, Johannes Lafcaris, Gaza of Thdfulo- 
 nica, and many other learned Greeks, whofe names 
 imift ever be recorded with honour in the annals 
 of literature, fled into Italy for fhelter and protec- 
 tion c . That country, in confequence of having* 
 always preferved a greater degree of refinement 
 and knowledge than the reft of Europe, was 
 happily calculated for their favourable reception. 
 They found in particular at Florence feveral Greek 
 profefibrs, who had been induced, by the liberality 
 of Cofmo de Medici, a great patron of learning, 
 to fettle in that city. Into Italy they conveyed, 
 and there they interpreted, the ineftimable works 
 of their ancient writers, which had been preferved 
 in the metropolis of the Eaft. They were eagerly 
 followed by the beft Italian fcholars, who quickly 
 imbibed a tafte for the graces of genuine poetry, 
 eloquence, and hiftory. A more ufeful and 
 fublime philofophy was foon adopted; and the 
 fcholaftic fubtleties of logic, and the empty fpe- 
 
 * For an able vindication of thefe eminent fcholars from va- 
 rious mifreprcfcntations, fee Forfter's Eflay on Accent and Quan- 
 tity, p. 2i. For an account of their lives, fee Hodius de 
 Gratis Illuftribus, and Boernerus de doctis Hominibus Grsecis. 
 There is fcarcely a greater defideratum in the learned world, 
 than a complete Hiftorj cf toe Revival of Learning; but where is 
 the Gibbon, or the Robertfon, who is equal to fo arduous, fo 
 noble a talk ? and where is the Maecenas, who will patronife it ? 
 Exortare alijuis ! 
 
 i. H h culations
 
 46*6 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 dilations of metaphyfics, were gradually fuper- 
 feded by the ufeful principles of moral philofophy, 
 the maxims of found criticifm, and the acquifitions 
 of elegant learning. 
 
 The patronage of the Popes gave fplcndour 
 and importance to this new kind of erudition. 
 Confidering its encouragement as an excellent 
 expedient to eftablifh their Authority, fuch was 
 their liberality to fcholars, that the court of Rome 
 on a fudden changed its auftere character, and 
 became the feat of elegance and urbanity. 
 Nicholas the fifth, about the year 1440, offered 
 public rewards at Rome for compofitions in 
 the learned languages, appointed profeffors in the 
 Belles Lettres, and employed intelligent perfons to 
 traverfe all parts of Europe in fearch of the claflic 
 manufcripts, which were concealed in the libraries 
 of monaileries. 
 
 But fee each Mufe in Leo's golden days 
 Starts from her trance, and trims her withered bays 
 Rome's ancient Genius, o'er its ruins fpread, 
 Shakes off the duft, and rears his reverend head f . 
 
 Leo the tenth was confpicuous for his ardour 
 and munificence in the caufe of literature: It is 
 very remarkable, that while he was pouring the 
 thunder of his anathemas againft the new doc- 
 trines of Luther, he publiihed a bull of excom- 
 munication againft all thofe who fliould dare to 
 
 f Pope's Eflay on Cridcifm, 
 
 cenfure
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 467 
 
 cenfure the poems of Ariofto. And it was during 
 his pontificate, that a perpetual indulgence was 
 granted for rebuilding the church of a monaftery, 
 becaufe it pofiHTed a manufcript of Tacitus. In 
 the exercife of thefe new ftudies, the Italian eccle* 
 fiaftics were the firft and the mod numerous. 
 Countenanced by the authority of the fovereign 
 pontiff, they abandoned the intricacies of a dry 
 and barbarous theology, and ftudied the pureft 
 models of antiquity. 
 
 No fooner had Italy, under thefe aufpices, ba- 
 nished the Gothic ftyle in eloquence and poetry, 
 than painting, fculpture, and architecture arrived 
 at maturity, and Ihone in all their original fplen- 
 dour. The beautiful and fublime ideas, which the 
 Italian artifts had conceived from the contempla- 
 tion of ancient ftatues and temples, were invigo- 
 rated by the defcriptions of Homer and Sophocles. 
 Petrarch was crowned at Rome in the capitol, 
 and Raphael was promoted to the dignity of a 
 cardinal. 
 
 Thefe improvements were foon received in other 
 countries, and fpread their influence over France, 
 England, Spain, and Hungary. The Greek tongue 
 was introduced into England by William Grocyn : 
 he was a fellow of New College, Oxford, and died 
 about the year 1520. To Germany muft be 
 allowed a very large and diftinguiilied ihare in the 
 reftitution of letters. And the mechanical genius 
 of Holland added, at an aufpicious moment to all 
 H h 2 the
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 t-hr fortunate event-, in favour of fciencc, an ad- 
 mirable invention; for to that country the world 
 \yas indebted for the difcovery of the art of 
 PHIXTIXO. The honour of having given rife 
 to this art has been claimed by the cities of 
 IJaerlein, JVlentz, and Strafburg. To each of 
 thefe it may be attributed in a qualified fenfe, 
 as within a ilioit fpaee of time they refpcftively 
 contributed to its advancement. But the ori- 
 ginal inventor was Laurentiua John Cofter of 
 Haerlem, who made his firft elTay with wooden 
 types about the year 1430. The art was commu- 
 nicated by his fervant to John Fauft and John 
 Guttemburg of l\Ientz. It was carried to perfec- 
 tion by Peter Schoeflfer, the fon-in-law of Fauftus, 
 who invented the modes of calling metal types, 
 and was probably the firft who ufed them in print- 
 ing 8 . The moft popular of thofe very ingenious 
 mechanics was Fault, who is reported to have 
 
 . 8 Trithemius, in his Chronicle, written A. D. 1514, fay-; 
 he had' it from the mouth of Peter Schoeffer, that the firft book 
 they printed with moveable types was the Bible, about the year 
 1-450, in which the expences . were fo enormous as to have coft 
 4000 florins before they had printed i z fheets. The author of 
 a MS. Chronicle of Cologne, compiled in 1499, a ^ ^ a )' s > ^ iat 
 ; told by Ulric Zell of Cologne, (who himfelf introduced' 
 printing there in 1466} that the Latin Bible was firft begun to 
 he printed in the year of Jubilee 1450, and that it was in large 
 character. Scriptura graudiori fttali hodie miffalia foltnt impvimi. 
 IVIr. Edwards of Pall Mall poflefled a copy of this curious Bible, 
 3 vol. bound in Morocco. In his catalogue it was valued at 
 i'z61. There is a beautiful copy of this work, 2 vol. fol. in 
 the Bodleian library. 
 
 carried
 
 THE REVIVAL Ol LE/CRXt3O. 46*9 
 
 earned a number of his Bibles to Paris ; and \vhefl 
 lie offered them -to fale as manutcripts, the French j 
 confidcring the number of the book::, and their 
 exact refem bianco to each other, without the vari<b 
 tion even of a letter or a Hop, and .that the belt 
 tranfcribers could riot poiTibiy be ib exact in their 
 molt accurate copies, concluded he muit have de- 
 rived alliftance from fome fupernatural agent. 
 Either by actually profecuting him as a .magician, or 
 threatening to (jo fo, they extorted from him the 
 curious .fecret of his new invention; and it is pro- 
 bable, that from <this circumftance arxjfethe marvel- 
 lous ftories which are related of Dr. Fanftus. 
 
 
 
 The art of printing was foon fpread throughout 
 a great part of Europe. It pafled to Rome in 1466, 
 and the Roman type was in a ihor.t time brought 
 to great perfection. Thomas Bouehier, Archbifhop 
 of Canterbury, in the reign of Henry 1. fent Cax- 
 toh, a perfon remarkable in that age for cultivating 
 learning amid the occupations of commerce, to 
 Haerlem, to gain a knowledge of this invention; 
 and " the fir ft book which Caxton printed was a^ 
 Englifh tranflation of Recuyel, or the Hiflory of 
 Troy, in 147^, in Flanders. The firft book kno\\n 
 to have been printed in England by him was a tran- 
 flation from the French of the Game of Chefs, J 474,- 
 with fufil metal types. For though Frederick Cor- 
 felli, a Dutchman or German, is laid to have printed 
 at Oxford in 146'8, Sancii Hieronymi Expojitio in 
 Xymlolum Apoftoloriim, it has been doubted whe- 
 ther there ever was a printer qf that name in Ener- 
 
 i 11 
 
 H h 3 land ;
 
 470 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 land ; and if there was, his book was printed with 
 feparate wooden types k . " At the clofe of the fix- 
 teenth century, various editions of books in Syriac, 
 Arabic, Perfian, Armenian, and Coptic characters, 
 vere publiilied. This admirable difcovery was made 
 Ht a period the mod favourable to its reception and 
 improvement. Not only a. tafte for polite learning 
 began, as we have before remarked, to be faihion- 
 able in the fifteenth century, but many perfons of 
 the firft rank in feveral parts of Europe, and parti- 
 cularly in Italy, diftinguifhed themfelves by their 
 love of letters, and their patronage of eminent 
 fcholars. Many public libraries were about this 
 time erected in the great cities of Europe, and 
 were furnifhed with manufcriptsof ancient authors, 
 purchafed at a great expence ; but from the care, 
 with which they were guarded, their perufal was 
 Confined to a fmall number of readers. No inven- 
 tion therefore could be more fortunate, or more 
 likely to gratify the general curiofity, than that by 
 trhicl> copies of the fame work were eafily and expe- 
 ditioufly multiplied, fold at a reafonable.rate, and 
 circulated throughout every part of the civilized 
 world. 
 
 Tliis art would have been comparatively of fmall 
 value a century or two before, when the grofieft 
 ignorance prevailed, and even perfons of high birth 
 and diftinclion were extremely illiterate, and of 
 courfe not difpofed to give encouragement to the 
 revival of learning. On the contrary, the people 
 
 h See the Norfolk Toar, p. i ZQ. 
 
 of
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 471 
 
 of the fifteenth century were highly gratified by 
 the difcovery of an art fo congenial to their taftc, 
 and therefore Simulated the ingenuity of its in- 
 ventors to carry it to a high degree of perfection. 
 Of this encouragement and improvement fum'cient 
 proofs are now extant ; for many of the books, 
 which Avere printed at this early period, may be 
 compared, with refpecl to the blacknefs of the ink, 
 the eiegance of the type, and the excellence of the 
 paper, to moil of the copies, which are at this time 
 the boaft of the Englifh or foreign preffes. 
 
 Thus, as books were multiplied, a tafte for read* 
 ing became more general. And it is very remark- 
 able, that the reformation of religion, and tlie re- 
 vival of clailical learning, were reciprocally advan- 
 tageous ; they reflected mutual light, and afforded 
 mutual affiftance. -The ecclefiaftics, when book* 
 were placed within the common reach, could no 
 longer confine the languages or the Vriters of 
 antiquity to theinfelves ; and men were eager 
 to acquire that knowledge, which had been fo 
 long concealed. They imagined the mines of 
 antiquity to be very rich ; and they were not difap- 
 pointed ; for as foon as tliey were enabled to explore 
 their treafures, they found them anfwer their moft 
 fanguine expectations '. 
 
 As the dawn of the Reformation in England was 
 obfcured by the bigotry of the fanguinary Mary, 
 
 1 Warton's Englifh Poetry, vol. iii. p. 491. vol. ii. p. 54* 
 &c. 
 
 H h 4 fo
 
 476 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 
 
 fo were there few circumftances in her fanatical 
 reign, propitious to the growth of polite mulition. 
 It is however a pleafing circumftance to be able to 
 feled an event from the calamitous hiftory of her 
 times, which happily concurred with ibinc pre- 
 ceding eltabliibments to difTufe cladical knowledge, 
 and which does honour to the founder of a Society, 
 which among the ftatefmen, poets, and fcholars, en- 
 rolled in its lifts, records the names of COMERS, 
 CHATHAM, MKRRICK, WARTON, BENWELL, and 
 BOWLES. . In the year 1554, Trinity College in Ox*- 
 ford was founded by Sir Thomas Pope k : who in the 
 conititution of this Society principally inculcates the 
 ufe and neceffity of .claflfical literature ; aud recom* 
 mends it as the moft important and leading obje6t in 
 his lyftcm of academical ftudy. " He eftabliihes in 
 this feminary a teacher of humanity, whole bufmefs 
 is defcrilnd with a particularity not ufual in the con- 
 fiptutionsgiven to collegiate bodies of this kind ; and 
 "he is directed to exert his utmoft diligence in tinc- 
 tuiinghis auditors with a juft reliih for thegTaces and 
 purity of the Latin language, and to explain criti- 
 cally the Offices, de Oratore, and Rhetorical Trea- 
 ties of Cicero, the Inuitutes of Quintilian, Aulus 
 Gellius, Plautus, Terence, Virgil, Horace, Livy, 
 &c. In his prefatory ftatute, where he defcribes 
 the nature and defign of his foundation, he declares, 
 
 k Alme Parens falveto ! tuum efl veftigia vulgi 
 Quod fug' a n : tu das inopis crudelia vita; 
 Tacdia folari, affliftis fpes unica rebus ! 
 Et finis Aonidum viridantes ire per hortos. 
 
 Warton in Saceilum Coll. Trin. Oxon. 
 
 'that
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 4?8 
 
 that he deftines the younger part of his eftablifh- 
 ment not only to dialectics and philolbphy, but to 
 the more polite literature. The llatutes of this col- 
 lege were fubmitted to the infpeclion of Cardinal 
 Pole, one of the chief protectors of the revival of 
 polite letters in England, as appears from a curious 
 palfasre in a letter written bv the founder now re- 
 
 C? / 
 
 maining, which not only difplays the Cardinal's 
 ideas of the new erudition, but fhews the itate of 
 the Greek language at this period." ." Queen 
 Mary was herfelf eminently learned : at the dciire 
 of Queen Catharine Parr, ihe tranflated in her 
 youth Erafmus's Paraphrafe on St. John ; the pre- 
 face is written by Udall, matter of Eton fcliool : 
 in which he much extols her diftinguiihed profi- 
 cience in literature. It would have been fortunate, 
 if Mary's attention to this work had foftened her 
 temper, and enlightened her underftanding. She 
 frequently fpoke in public with propriety, and 
 always with prudence and dignity*." 
 
 In the fubfequent reign of Elizabeth, an accurate 
 acquaintance with the phrafes, and all the pecu- 
 liarities of the ancient poets, hiftorians, and orators, 
 was made an indifpenfable and almolt the principal 
 object in the education, not only of a gentleman, 
 but even of a lady. Among the females of high 
 diftin&ion, who afpired to the reputation of claflical 
 fcholars, the Queen herfelf, and the beautiful and 
 unfortunate Lady Jane Grey, were the moft con- 
 fpicuous. Roger Afcham, their learned preceptor, 
 
 * Warton's Englifti Poetry, vol. iii. 
 
 fpeaks
 
 47* THE REVIVAL OF 
 
 Fpeaks in raptures of the progrefs, which they both 
 made in the Greek and Latin authors, and relates 
 Come pleating anecdotes of their application to this 
 ftudy '. This pedantic famion appeared in many 
 ludicrous extravagancies. It was confpicuous in 
 various publications, in the /hows and pageants 
 exhibited during the progrefs of the Queen through 
 different parts of her dominions, and in the enter- 
 tainments held in her honour, wherein emblems 
 atlufive to claffical mythology were conftantly in- 
 troduced. 
 
 But the pedantry, which gave fo deep a tinge to 
 the fa/hion of thofe times, had little effect upon the 
 productions of Shakefpeare. llaifed by the power of 
 original and daring genius, he bent the information 
 of former ages to his own purpofes. His works, 
 like thofe of Milton, were for a time neglected : but 
 {knee the clofe of the feventeenth century, tliey 
 have been held in the higheft eftitnation, and have 
 contributed, perhaps more than any others of our 
 national compositions, to diflfufe a reUlh for books. 
 That relifh was fir ft excited by the numerous tran- 
 ilitions of the Greek and Roman authors, and of 
 Italian tales into Euglidi, in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 The works of die writers, who flourished in the 
 time of Queen Anne, particularly Addifon, Swift, 
 and Dryden, divefted learning of its ftiftnete, re- 
 vived a juft tafte for the daffies, and had great in- 
 fluence in making the perufal of books a popular 
 
 1 Afcham. Epift. lib. i. p, 18. Edit. 1581, &c. Warton's Life 
 of Pope, p. 95, &x\ 
 
 amufement.
 
 THE REVIVAL OF LEARXIXO. 473 
 
 amufement. Since that period, we may fairly be 
 called a nation of readers. Books of all kinds have 
 been produced, and the Prefs has (applied the 
 means of multiplying them to a degree, which 
 exceeds trie power of calculation. We well 
 know, and lament, that it is fuhjeft to great 
 abufe, and is too, frequently made the inftrument 
 for the propagation of infignificant, licentious, 
 and pernicious works, deftrucTive to morals, and 
 hoftile to religion. It has perhaps done more 
 mifchief by the difTufion of the principles of 
 anarchy and atheifm in the prefent age, than the 
 fword or the cannon : but, happily tor mankind, 
 the antidote grows in the fame foil, where the poi- 
 fon fprings up in fuch luxuriance. Let us confider 
 what the prefs has effected, and what it may ftiH 
 produce for the advantage, the inftruclion, and 
 delight of mankind. Its benefits are as extenfive 
 as they are various ; it is of the higheft importance 
 to us, as we are Englishmen, and as we are 
 Chriftians. It is the fafeguard of liberty, when 
 ufcd to protect our excellent Conftitution againft 
 the cabals of party, and the attacks of democratic 
 rage. It is the ally of religion, when it fupplies 
 the world with the productions of the learned and 
 the pious ; who labour to difleminate the precepts 
 of genuine Chnftianity. It furniihes the means of 
 rational improvement, and amufement in the hours 
 of ficknefs and leifure, communicates inftruc- 
 tion to the young, and entertainment to the old, 
 and fpreads thefe enjoyments far and wide, before 
 every people of the globe. We have therefore 
 
 fuiricient
 
 THE KLV1VAL Of 
 
 futficicnt reafon to congratulate ourfelves, on being 
 boil) at a tinif, in which we arc reicued from the 
 grofs ignorance which enveloped our ancHlors; 
 uheiv the light of pure religion and ufefiil know- 
 ledge is difYufed around us; and when, provided 
 that our moral' improvements keep paee, in a due 
 degree, with our intellectual proficiency, we may be 
 virtuous, as well as enlightened and intelligent, be- 
 youd the example of former ages. 
 
 Conditfion. 
 
 Such are fome of the moil finking points, upon 
 which the ftudent will fix his eye, in ills vide ani} 
 pleafing furvey of modern hiftnry. Theve arc many 
 others which are entitled to his observation ; and 
 he cannot fail to notice with particular regard' the 
 sera marked by the invention of the mariner's 
 compafs, and all tivc conlrqucnt iuipvovements in 
 navigation. Trony. that period, the -tailor became 
 more contiik-nt and, more adventurous : he fcorned 
 to coaft along tli - ihore, and boldly itcerecj 
 his veiiel into th,c wiilc-aiul open ocean. . He dit- 
 covercd new iilands, aivd even new continents, 
 cfiablimed a free intcrcouife witli the n^oft remote 
 quarters of the globe, imparted to diftant nations 
 the advantages of commerce, and pointed out to 
 the Europeans a boundless fcope for the plantation 
 of colonies in Afia, AiViea, and America. 
 
 In tracing the progress of navigation, from the 
 confined limits of the Mediterranean and the Baltic 
 
 . iliores,
 
 Mt> Pi: itxi KW^P E. 477 
 
 ihores, to its preient extent in the northern and 
 fouthmi hnnifpheres, we obferve upon the map of 
 the globe the tracks of thole renowned navigators, 
 ChriftophiT Columbus, Vafco de Gaina, and Sebaf- 
 tian Cabot; and we follow with a more lively 
 curiofhy, and national pride, the courfcs of Drake, 
 Raleigh, Aulbn, 1/yron, Outcret, and Cooke. 
 
 The difcovcry of gunpowder is remarkable, as 
 its introduction into the military art has changed 
 the mode of waging war, and leiVened its deftructive 
 ravages. The invention of the telefeope was am 
 important acquisition to fcience, as it has ferved 
 to verify the theories, and eftablifli the reafonings 
 of modern aftronomers, and thus gives them a 
 decided advantage over thofe, who in ancient 
 times cultivated the fume fcience. The inventioa 
 likcwifc of the air-pump by Boyle, the difcovery 
 of the circulation of the blood by Harvey, the efta- 
 bliihment of the Copcrnican fyftem, the experiment 
 of Torricelli, by which he a'certained the weight of 
 the atmofphere, and the numerous improvements 
 in various arts and fciences, contribute to do ho- 
 nour to modern times. They compofe fuch an 
 aflemblage of luminous obje6ts, as cannot fail to 
 attract for all ages the curiofity and admiration of 
 mankind. 
 
 iicfc pleating branches of ftudy may lead us to 
 ti/nn a jult cftimate of political affairs, and of tiie 
 fiibjerts which tend to the moral improvement of the 
 mind. Modem hiitory afford^ many examples of 
 
 the
 
 478 Mflctusr EUROPE. 
 
 the prowrfs of conquerors, who have defolated the 
 world, and of hypocrites, who have deceived it. 
 And yet we may fairly afk, of what benefit to 
 fociety were the impofturfs of Mahomet, the victo- 
 ries of Clovis, Charlemagne, Gengis Khan, and 
 Tamerlane ; the invafion of William the Conqueror, 
 the political cunning of Charles the fifth, the am- 
 bition of Philip the feconcl, and the intriguing 
 fpirit of Richelieu and Mazarine? Their empires, 
 triumphs, conqueftt, and projects, have left little 
 impreiiion behind them, notwithftanding the atten- 
 tion they once attracted, and the violent convul- 
 fions, which they once made in the world. The 
 mind is refreflied, and turns with delight to more 
 pacific fcenes, to trace the difcoveries of Columbus 
 and Vafco cle Gama, and the beneficial change in 
 religious opinions, which Luther and Calvin pro- 
 duced. We confider with more fatisfa6tion than 
 the recital of battles and fieges can afford, the mild 
 and benevolent fpirit of colonization, which actu- 
 ated the exertions of William Penn; the fublime 
 philofophy of Bacon, Newton, and Locke ; and 
 the matchlefs poetry of Shakefpeare, Milton, and 
 Taflb. Thele have a more beneficial influence in 
 enlarging our knowledge, and fatistying our curio- 
 fity, than the moft intimate acquaintance with the 
 conquefts of the ambitious, and the machinations 
 of the politic. The works of war and heroifin are 
 too often deftrucYive in their operations, and dif- 
 aftrous in their confequences ; and the clofer they 
 are examined, the more the"y wound our feelings, 
 by the calamities they have produced. They may 
 
 furniih
 
 MTOUERV EUROPE. 479" 
 
 furnim indeed very inftruftive leflbns of caution, 
 if the rulers of mankind imitate the conduct of 
 prudent mariners, who remark the Situation of 
 rocks and fhoals, only from a defign to avoid them. 
 How much fairer and more inviting is the profpect 
 of the works of genius, fcience, arts, and com- 
 merce ! They charm our attention the longer they 
 are furveyed ; and the more intimately we are 
 acquainted with them, the greater is our pleafure, 
 .is well as our improvement. 
 
 Thus have we feen that the arts and fciences 
 have kept pace with the progrefs of manners and 
 religion, in adorning and exalting the human 
 mind; and thus has their united light difpelled 
 the /hades of ignorance and barbarifm. The intel- 
 lectual powers, after ages of depreffion, have fur- 
 mounted all obftacles, and operated through every 
 channel of knowledge ; and perhaps it is not 
 arrogating too much fuperiority to afiert, that the 
 glory even of ancient Greece and Rome has been 
 equalled, if not furpafled, by the talents and dili- 
 gence of modern Europeans, in the cultivation of 
 whatever can inftruct and improve fociety. 
 
 This interefting part of hiftory difplays to us a 
 variety of difcoveries, events, improvements, and 
 inftitutions, which have contributed, in their aggre- 
 gate effects, to raife the Chara&er of Man above its 
 former level, to encourage induftry, and diverfify 
 its purfuits ; to call fortli the powers of the mind 
 to everv laudable e.rertion t to cheriih, all the Virtues 
 2 Of
 
 480 JIODLEIIN EUROPK. 
 
 of the heart, and make human exiftence wore 
 able, by IXCHEAMXG THK C.LXERAL STOCK or 
 
 MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL IMPROVEMEXT, AN 1> 
 PROMOTING SOCIAL ORDER, COMFORT, AND HAP- 
 1'IN! 
 
 i:\D OF VOLUME I. 
 
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