GIFT OF THE TECHNIQUE of PREPARING SOCIAL SCIENCE PAPERS By Emory S. Bogardus Department of Sociology University of Southern California Second Edition, Revised Published by the Southern California Sociological Society University of Southern California Los Angeles, California THE TECHNIQUE of PREPARING SOCIAL SCIENCE PAPERS By Emory S. Bogardus Department of Sociology University of Southern California Second Edition, Revised Published by the Southern California Sociological Society University of Southern California Los Angeles, California First Edition, 1918 Second Edition, Revised, 1921 Copyright, 1921 The Sociological Society The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers Table of Contents Preface I. The Outline, or Analysis. II. The Digest, or Abstract. A. Two Special Problems. III. The Summary. IV. The Book Review. A. Eight steps in preparing a book review. V. The Book Critique. A. The distinction between a critique and a review. VI. The Editorial. A. Its peculiar significance. VII. The Term Paper. A. Four processes 1. Choosing the topic. a. Library topics. b. Field work topics. c. Advanced research topics. 2. Making the term paper outline. 3. Gathering the data. a. A duplex card system. b. The bibliography. c. Case study. d. Sampling. e. The survey. f . The first interview. The schedule. The questionnaire. 4. Determining the form and content. VIII. The Thesis. 4? 1:287 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION The first edition of this booklet was prepared for use in the classes in sociology at the University of Southern California. It was designed to assist students in acquiring standard methods of writing term papers in the social science field. An unexpected interest was manifested in the booklet by many teachers of social science in various parts of the United States. There was a specific response to the effect that students in social science are greatly in need of training in the actual technique and practice of preparing written studies. This revision contains nearly all the material that appeared in the first edition, besides new illustrations of the main points of that treatise. Several types of papers that are often assigned in the social science field, in addi- tion to the term paper, namely, the outline, the digest the summary, the book review, the book critique, the editorial, and the thesis, are discussed in this edition. Emory S. Bogardus. University of Southern California. THE TECHNIQUE OF PREPARING SOCIAL SCIENCE PAPERS One of the chief advantages of a college education is a training in methods. A college course is incomplete that gives the students simply an acquaintance with facts. The other half of a college education is found in the training which a student gains in giving out his ideas and knowledge clearly and effectively to others. A scientific training, or more particularly, a social science training is not more than fifty per cent efficient which is an intaking process only. There are two ways of giving out ideas: (1 ) by public speaking, and (2) by writing. We are here concerned with the second avenue of expression. The college student is entitled to become proficient in writing not only English themes, but also scientific papers. To help him in this regard if he is working in the social science field, "The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers," has been written. I. The Outline, or Analysis. The outline is illustrative of the simplest form of social science papers. The outline is an analysis written out in definite form. An instructor sometimes asks his students to make an outline of a chapter in a specific book. This chapter may deal with a specific subject upon which the instructor is lecturing, or which the class is discussing. The aim of the in- structor, usually, is to invite the attention of his students to a splendid presentation of an important theme, and to give them training in preparing an elemental but valuable type of social science paper. The best method of approach is to read the assigned b The t eclniqiu of Preparing Sociai. Science Papers chapter first with the purpose of finding out the funda- mental ideas which the author has presented. Then, the student seeks the facts and arguments which the author has given in support of each of the main propositions, and arranges them in a logical order. A false tendency is to resort to the use of topical words, because such a procedure is usually a cheap and wasteful way of meeting the requirements of a worthy assignment. If the student will hold himself ordinarily to the use of entire sentences rather than to topical words in preparing an outline, he will be following the better method. The preparation of a satisfactory outline may become an artistic or a routine task, dependent entirely upon the student's attitude. It is sometimes possible to make an analysis of a chapter in such a way that the outline will be superior in arrangement to the author's treat- ment. A meritorious outline is not a scaffolding or a skeleton. It is the inner content of a mental production made visible to the reader by the logical arrangement of incisive sentence-thoughts. It is not a hasty copying of the publisher's key sentences on the side of the page or even of the author's sub-headings. It is the student's interpretation and visualization of an author's thought. It is not merely a reproduction; it is a revelation. The preparation of an outline gives the student a training which he can later use to its full extent in writing original papers or articles. He who can make a correct analysis of the written thought of another person is on the road to analyzing his own thinking on different questions and to the successful projection of his own thought into new mental fields. II. The Digest, or Abstract. A digest, or its equiva- lent, an abstract, is a condensed statement of another The Technique of Preparing Sociai Science Papers 7 person's ideas or treatment of a subject in the words so far as possible of that person. A digest is usually made of articles published in journals. The purpose is to give in a brief compass the gist of the specific article. The difficulties in making a digest are two-fold, (a) An article that is well written already appears in a condensed form. The author presumably has resorted to no circumlocutions; he has not been wordy: he has used as few well-chosen words as possible in correctly expressing his thought. Therefore, how can the maker of a digest, for example, put the author's ideas into one-tenth, or less, of the original number of carefully selected words without doing violence to those ideas. In fact, it is almost impossible to make a satisfactory digest of a carefully written article. However, very few articles are well written, hence, the need of making digests. Of course, even an article in which the author uses terse, condensed sentences usually contains main propositions with explanations, in which case the maker of the digest can give the fundamental statements. (b) Another difficulty in preparing a digest is in- volved in the customary rule of writing it in the lan- guage, as far as possible, of the author of the article. The constant temptation is to resort to one's own words in writing a digest, or worse still, to alternate between the language of the author and one's own words. A special merit in preparing a digest is the discipline which it affords in being objective, that is, in keeping the personal reflections of one's self out of the digest. As in the case of the outline, the digest is strictly ob- jective. To cut down an author's treatment of a subject so as to present the chief propositions clearly and also not to misrepresent or inadequately present the author's 8 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers contentions is an art that is worthy of being achieved. Patient, repeated efforts alone will win. III. The Summary. The summary is similar to the digest except that it is written in the student's words. To summarize well an article or a chapter of a book is a skillful task because it involves stating, condensing, and paraphrasing the ideas of another person in terms of one's own vocabulary. It is profitable to write first a digest and then a summary of the same article in order to gain experience in treating the ideas of another, first in his language and then in one's own language. Both problems include the processes of selection and con- densation, but the latter involves the additional exercise of paraphrasing, which in itself affords a valuable training in making the choice of the right words and which results in the enlargement of one's vocabulary. IV. The Book Review. The reviewing of a book is a complicated process involving many types of mental activity. There are several steps: (1) The careful reading of the book. If the book belongs to the student, he may underscore the outstanding sentences from chapter to chapter. If the book belongs to a library or to a friend, a light pencil mark or cross may be made in the margins of the pages opposite important ideas. These pencilings will be carefully erased before the book is returned to the library or to its private owner. (2) The underscored or marked sentences will then be read and analyzed with reference to specific objects: (a) What are the main propositions of the book? (b) What are the chief subsidiary propositions? (c) What has been the purpose of the author in writing the book? The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 9 (d) How far has the author succeeded in solving the problem or in meeting the task which he set himself? (e) How far does the book fulfill the expectations which its title arouses? (f ) Has the author used chiefly facts or arguments? (g) If the author has used abstract reasoning, how far does his reasoning agree with the re- viewer's experiences and observations? (3) As many important facts as possible should be found out about the author. Who's Who in America may be consulted for information, such as the author's education, his published works, and the positions that he has held. The title page, the preface, and the intro- duction of the book often disclose important facts about the author's purposes. In the preface, particularly, he is likely to reveal some of the phases of his personality, and so give significant explanatory materials. (4 ) A book review will give the full title of the book, together with the subtitle, if there is one. The name of the publisher, the date of publication, and the number of the edition or revision if there has been more than one, may be given. The number of pages, the arrange- ment into parts, the nature of the illustrations or charts, if there are such, are significant data. (5) The reviewer may compare the specific book with other published materials by the same author, if there are such, noting particularly how the book under review relates to the author's general trend of thought and what new tendencies it marks. The reviewer may also compare the specific volume with at least one other book in the same social science field. If he can compare 10 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers the volume with all the leading books on the same subject, he will be performing a useful service. (6) By consulting published reviews of the given book, the reviewer may compare his own reactions to the book with the comments of other reviewers. For his own sake he will make up his own estimate before consulting other reviews. The Book Review Digest will usually give digests of any reviews of the book that have been published. Journals, such as the Survey, the American Journal of Sociology, the Economic Review, the Annals: and publications, such as the Review of Reviews, the Literary Digest, the Boston Transcript, and the New York Tribune may also be consulted for reviews. (7 ) The reviewer needs to determine upon his general estimate of the book. Questions, such as these which follow, will help the reviewer in forming his estimate. What are the book's strongest characteristics? Its weakest characteristics? Wherein does its contribution to knowledge lie? Will it become a standard work? How long will it last? (8) The writing of a book review calls for a definite plan. The order that is followed may be similar to the plan which has been suggested in the aforementioned seven steps. The reviewer needs to protect himself against following the author too slavishly. He will beware of reviewing the book chapter by chapter in an arithmetic routine. He ma}' group the chapters perhaps according to his own judgment, leaving out any report on the contents of several of the chapters. It is his privilege to present the material in an order entirely dif- ferent from that pursued by the author. He will not attempt to present all the valuable ideas; he will be obliged continually to select, sift, and discard. The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 11 If the book is unusually important, then the reviewer will be forced to give samples of the contents. He may state what the author does, what themes he handles, and how well he treats these themes without disclosing all the author's ideas, thus leaving the reader of the review with an urgent desire to read the book himself. If the book is a manual, or encyclopedia, or a volume of source materials, the review may indicate what types of questions the book will answer, without giving even a considerable proportion of the answers. Throughout a book review the student will exercise his own individuality, not falling into the trap of prestige- worshipping nor into the pit of chronic "knocking." His work will be done best if he remains objective to, and master of, the book. Pie will rarely quote more than one or two sentences at a time. In fact, quotations are likely to prove tiresome to the reader. It is better to paraphrase, giving proper credit. In making adverse criticisms, the reviewer must be cautious, because fre- quently he is not as well posted on the topic under criticism as the author of the book. The book reviewer may utilize all the training that he has received in making outlines, digests, and summaries. In preparing a review the student may give the review orally to a group of friends, a class, or a seminar group. In so doing he may prepare the review in the form of notes on cards of convenient size. The beginner will usually find it helpful to rehearse his notes privately before giving the review in the presence of fellow students. It is one thing to reduce a set of ideas to notes, but it is a superior process for the student to nave the notes so well in mind that he can give the review clearly, directly, and without hesitation to his listeners. In using 12 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers notes, the student should have them so well in mind and should be so full of his subject that he is free to talk to his listeners rather than be obliged to read the notes or seem to talk to the notes. Such an oral exercise gives the reviewer a sense of proportion and of values regarding the materials under review that can be secured in no other way. The reviewer is not a cataloguer. His work is an art involving a careful analysis and a comparative synthesis of ideas. V. The Book Critique. As the name implies, the critique is devoted to a series of favorable and unfavorable judgments. A critique includes all that a review does, except that the summary of the main and subsidiary propositions which holds a major place in a review is subordinated in a critique. The summary is presupposed but expressed only in an incidental way. The critical ability of the student is brought to bear upon the specific book from beginning to end. The writer of the book critique usualty interposes a number of his own ideas upon the subject with which the book deals. The ideas of the critique writer stand out in comparison or contrast with the ideas of the author of the book. A genuine critique is possible only on the part of those who have considerable knowledge of at least a few subjects and who have a certain trust- worthiness of judgment. It is a high type of mental exercise which can be attained to a worth-while degree through persistence. VI. The Editorial. The editorial on social science subjects was never more needed than under present national and world conditions. It constitutes a special and little considered type of social science paper. Al- though in recent decades editorial writing has fallen into Tbe Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 13 the shadow, it is nevertheless of intrinsic worth. The editorial lacks the influence that it once possessed because editors, as a class, have changed from the status of newspaper owner to that of the hired servant of a wealthy corporation which sells advertising primarily, and dis- tributes news secondarily. There are still, fortunately, many editorial writers who are exceptions to the general rule. However, it now requires a capital of three or more million dollars to operate a metropolitan newspaper and a large amount of advertising in order to guarantee profits. As a result of these and related factors, the editorial writer is often greatly limited in freedom of thought. The editorial, however, plays a leading role in many weekly publications. Editorial writing is an art which needs to be revived. There is urgent need that public opinion be moulded by short, crisp, unbiased editorials upon public questions. No one who has once appreciated the work of a Horace Greeley or a Charles A. Dana can easily turn his back upon editorial writing. No student in social science should consider his college training complete who is unable to express his ideas on current problems in editorial form. An editorial usually deals with a single idea, principle, or proposition. It opens with the attitude of mind or mental position that the average reader may be expected to hold. It then states the new facts, ideas, or arguments that the writer wishes to convey to his readers. It concludes by summarizing crisply the position to which the writer desires to direct his readers. Its style is direct, simple, forceful. It is open, moving, and con- vincing. It is a miniature essay on one idea. It is a perfected mental invention. As a rule it should not exceed 500 words in length. It ordinarily deals with 14 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers problems with which the public finds it necessary to come to a decision. The best editorial writer is one who has established a reputation of unbiased judgment, not of a person who is the votary of a special class or interest. He occupies a moral plane. Indirectly if not directly he improves the quality of the public conscience. He is a moral creator, calling his readers to contribute by their decisions to the social conscience of their nation and age. VII. The Term Paper. The term paper, or semester paper, or year paper is assigned, not as freshmen or sophomores sometimes declare, to make the student work, to give him an unpleasant task to do, or for con- ventional reasons, but to afford the student an oppor- tunity to develop his thinking ability, to express his individuality, to manifest his originality. A second and equally important aim is to help the student to acquire standard methods in preparing social science papers. The term paper offers a student a wide variety of opportunities. He can utilize all the training that he may have received in writing outlines, abstracts, reviews, critiques, summaries, editorials, and in addition, do a more or less original piece of investigation. The term paper may even prove to be a forerunner of a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts. At any rate, the prepara- tion of it gives a training that will be used in countless and unexpected ways in later life. (1) Choosing the Topic. The topic is the first im- portant consideration. A topic well chosen is a term paper at least one-third written. An unsuitable topic is a cause of endless annoyance, futile efforts, and serious disappointments. In response to the frequently recurrent request: "You The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 15 suggest a topic for me to write on," the instructor ordi- narily will postpone bis answer. A student who is approaching maturity even though he has had only an introduction of a few weeks to social science must have given a little thought from time to time to a few, at least, of the pressing social issues of the day. If the instructor chooses a topic for a student with whom he holds only a brief or general acquaintance, he may choose one outside the student's range of interests. If the student makes the choice, carefully guarding himself against seJecting a topic that appeals merely to his passing fancy, he will have a problem for investigation that lies within the boundaries of his past thinking, and hence one upon which he will be able, probably, to do his best thinking. Furthermore, he will have relied upon and exercised his own mental processes rather than have leaned upon the aid of another person. The best topic as a rule is one upon which the student already possesses a thorough background, and which he can investigate at close range. The student, hence, should search his own mind for appropriate topics, with the aid of such hints as he may gather for himself from the class discussions, the lectures in the specific course of study, and the text book and collateral books in the field in which the term paper has been assigned. By this exercise many problems will be suggested to the student. These will challenge his at- tention, intellectual curiosity, and fundamental inter- ests. If three or more of these questions are accurately worded and written out in topical form, the student will have mastered the first step in attaining skill in writing a social science term paper. The simple process of 16 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers formulating in words and on paper of such topics in- variably results in progress. With the student's list of carefully framed topics before him, the work of the instructor begins. The teacher will point out which of the suggested problems will be the best for the student to work on, or he may advise changes in the phraseology of some one of the themes which will make it practicable. There are three main classes of topics for term papers: (a) library topics, (b) field topics, and (c) research topics. These do not represent different types, but different stages on an ascending scale of difficulty and importance, (a) For a beginner the library topic is the most logical. The material is near at hand and easy to obtain. The best data are to be found in a few books and magazines. The time of the student is conserved because the library contains the necessary equipment. Inasmuch as the student must first acquaint himself with the published studies on any field work or advanced research problem, with the backgrounds of such problems, and with the technique for undertaking first hand in- vestigations, it often turns out that the library topic is simply the preliminary phase of a field work or advanced research topic. (b) Field work topics call for a certain maturity of judgment and poise in meeting persons of experience. Employers and employees, landlords and tenants, natives and aliens must be met and disarmed of suspicion, and given favorable impressions, or the inquiry will fail. A large range of secondary but vital issues must often be met with despatch. The persons who are under examination are often offended by a single naive question or remark by the well-intentioned but unsophisticated Tbe Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 17 inquirer; as a result, the investigation comes to naught and an unwholesome impression is given of. social science. Field topics should be chosen only by persons who are versatile in methods, who have plenty of time, and who have willing friends who are or have been employed in the proposed field of study, or who themselves have been or are so employed. The student should not contemplate field work as a rule until his senior year in college, although juniors often do satisfactorily. Field work requires the exercise of a balanced judgment, and long and patient seeking for and verification of data. By such methods new facts may be discovered, and new theories proved or disproved. (c) The analyses of advanced research topics in social science require a thorough preparation in the study of the direct and foundational literature, an ac- quaintance with the technique of field work and of in- vestigational procedure, scientific knowledge of personal and institutional life, and a sympathetic understanding of the thoughts, feelings, and volitions of ordinary human beings. Such studies are usually postgraduate in char- acter. Only minds with training and fertile character- istics should enter here. The findings occasionally may lead to improvements in social organization or the social processes. This type of investigation often produces results that are worthy of publication in one of the social science journals. The amateur, then, will be wise if he chooses a library topic. In so doing, however, he is likely to select one of too general and too complex a nature. Consequently, the materials will be illimitable and bewildering; the student will be swamped. He will become discouraged, lose himself in the mass of details, or merely skim the 18 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers surface and produce a superficial term paper. "Child Welfare" is a theme which is too extensive. "Child Welfare in the United States" is likewise too far-reaching. These and similar comprehensive subjects need to be modified and narrowed in scope. Among illustrations of practicable topics for term papers the following themes will be satisfactory: 1. The Effects of Child Labor. 2. The Causes of Juvenile Delinquency. 3. The George Junior Republic Idea. 4. The Social Advantages of Rural Life. Later, when the student has had more training, he may seek, for example, to determine the causes of de- linquency among 100 boys who have appeared in the local juvenile court (field topic), or still later, he may work out an educational theory for decreasing juvenile delinquency (theoretical topic). (2) Making the Term Paper Outline. The "outline" which was discussed in the first pages of this booklet referred to the process of analyzing the written ideas of another person. That process is an essential part, in a modified way, of making a term paper outline. In the latter connection the outline refers to the process of analyzing one's own thoughts on a specific theme that has not yet been reduced to writing. This process as a rule is more difficult than outlining the printed thought of some other individual. The student finds the process difficult because the outline usually must be made of a subject through which he has not yet thought and upon which he has inadequate information. The outline for a term paper is important because it indicates the plan of work. "I always write my paper first and the outline last," said a college student, with The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 19 an evident degree of pride. Such a method or lack of method, however, is not to be encouraged. It indicates, perhaps, the work of a genius; or more likely, that of an unharnessed, slatternly mind. After tne topic has been determined upon, the pupil should force himself at first, it will be a distinct effort to inventory his own mind upon the topic which he has chosen. If the topic is one in which he has been inter- ested for some time, the number of ideas that he has un- consciously, inchoately accumulated upon the ques- tion, will upon examination, often prove to be amazing. These miscellaneous thoughts need to be arranged in some kind of logical order. The resultant outline will be preliminary, unsatisfactory, and subject to change, but it will serve the useful purpose of being a working hypothesis. It will be a tentative plan by which to classify facts. It will protect the student from becoming haphazard in his thinking upon the topic. The process of making a proper outline is so significant that tne wise student will perfect himself through practice in this technique. He will write out many outlines on various topics in which he is interested. If an outline is weak, the term paper will likely be of little merit. The next step is to read and to ask questions on the chosen topic. Then, when the outline is revised, changes and improvements will follow. It is surprising how the mere mechanical copying of an outline, if it is done thoughtfully, will materialize in valuable improvements in it. No term paper outline is ever more than tentative. When it is drawn up finally and the paper is written according to its plan, it will prove, even then, inadequate. The outline for a term paper is an instrument of relative 20 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers value moving presumably from improvement to im- provement. It serves the purposes of an organized survey at each step of the student's thinking on the problem in mind; it represents at each stage in its develop- ment the best plan of attack. The interactions between the outline for a term paper and one's materials on a question are continual and progressive. To make or reconstruct the outline suggests new ideas for the text of the paper; and to write sections of the text gives rise to novel and improved changes in the outline. It is this interstimulation between outline and content that spells progress. The outline is never completed. It is never an end in itself. It is always "in process," a means, a tool for stimulating organization and invention, and an instrument for making progress in writing. In its final form, from which the term paper is written, the outline may well serve as a table of contents. For a paper of 2,500 words, the table of contents need not cover more than two hand written pages. It may state the main headings and two or more sub-headings under each of the major points. The outline in the form of a table of contents is illustrated herewith; variations from this form, of course, will be made freely. Table of contents for a paper on "The Social Advantages of Rural Life": I. Introduction 1. Reasons for choosing the topic. 2. Scope of the topic. II. Advantages of Outdoor Living. 1. Physical health conserved. 2. Nerves remain un jaded. The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 21 III. Advantages of Rural Family Life. 1. Unified home life. 2. Sane training for children. IV. Influences and Development of Personality. 1. Freedom from social conventions. 2. Opportunities for leadership. V. Conclusions. (3) Gathering the Data. In preparing a term paper on a library topic the student should gather the data, not in a hit-and-miss fashion, but according to a system. Many students simply use a notebook, writing down notes without any preconceived plan. Hence, they waste time, energy, and paper. Others find that cards or slips of paper 4x6 inches in size, to be the simplest technique. These, however, are larger than necessary for making separate bibliographic notes, and are too small for the final draft of the paper. (a) A Duplex Card System. The present writer, after experimenting in several directions, has found that a duplex system for gathering materials is often the most satisfactory. This system includes cards, preferably 3x5 inches in size, and a loose-leaf notebook carrying paper of letter size, i.e., 8x11 inches. When the student undertakes an extensive piece of work, slips of paper are superior to cards, because they are less bulky, less heavy, less costly, and at the same time, they are suffi- ciently durable. Cards of one color are used for col- lecting bibliographic references; cards of another color are useful in writing down ideas and suggestions that come to the student in the course of his reading or mis- cellaneously, and which require only small space. The 3x5 cards upon which the main data, "as distinguished from the bibliographic data, are noted, may best be ar- 22 Tbe Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers ranged according to the leading headings of the outline. In this way related materials will be kept together in an orderly way. In conjunction with the cards, paper of letter size, or of somewhat smaller size, and kept in a loose-leaf notebook, will serve for making extensive digests, for copying long excerpts, for keeping clippings in pasted form, and for use in writing the various drafts of the paper, section by section. At the same time it is uniform in size with the paper upon which the term paper should finally be written or typewritten. (b) The Bibliography. Cards are advisable in mak- ing bibliographies. They are convenient in size. They can be handled with ease; they can be kept according to an alphabetical arrangement. They are too small, however, for use in copying voluminous data. Similarly, letter size paper is too large, and hence wasteful, when single bibliographic notes are being made or when isolated facts are being noted. In the long run the duplex system is likely to be the more satisfactory than either the cards or the paper alone. Indexes (hand made) for both the cards and the letter size paper will be useful in keeping the bibliographic data and the main body of data classified according to the leading headings of the outline. The bibliographic references should be kept in uniform style. The references to books and documents may be made in the following order : Author's name, his initials, title of book underscored, publisher's name, place and date of publication, chapters or pages of the related materials. If the reference is to an article, the order may be the following: Author's name, his initials, title of article in quotation marks, name of magazine abbre- viated and underscored, volume of magazine and pages The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 23 of the article. If the issue of the magazine to which reference is made is current and hence unbound, the bibliographic citation may be given by date and pages. The titles of pamphlets and bulletins may be treated as articles rather than as books, that is, set off by quotation marks rather than underscored. The student cannot be too careful in regard to securing accuracy and uniformity in punctuation. The student's attitude toward such minor matters as commas is often indicative of the quality of all his work. " Attention to details" is a necessary slogan for any student in preparing a social science paper. The following samples of biblio- graphic references will serve as guides. Blackmar, F. W., "Leadership in Social Reform," Amer. Jour, of Sociology, XVI: 626-33. Butler, F. C., '"Community Organization," Bui., 1919, No. 76, Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Ely, R. T., Outlines of Economics, Macmillan, New York, 1917, Chs. Ill, IV, (or pp. 33-60). Howard, G. E., "Alcohol and Crime: A Study of Social Causation," Amer. Jour, of Sociology, July, 1918, pp. 61-80. By keeping the cards in alphabetical order the final bibliography can be made with a minimum of effort. The final bibliography, like the cards, should be arranged alphabetically. The bibliography bears on its face the tell-tale degree to which the student has been thorough, or careless. A successfully-made bibliography requires patient, skillful effort. It is a worth-while achievement to bring together the leading references to everything of value that has appeared in print on the specific topic. 24 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers It gives the student a dependable camping ground from which to climb to new regions of thought. The first place in which to search for bibliographic data is in the card catalogues of the libraries college, city, special; these will give access to books and docu- ments. The second storehouse that is available to the student in any field is the series of volumes known as the Reader's Guide. For articles that were published several years ago, Poole's Index will give the exact refer- ences. A library assistant will explain to the uninitiated the use of these convenient reference series. Often the inquirer will find himself swamped by the large number of references to articles in the Reader's Guide upon his topic; but he can soon acquire facility in detecting the metal-laden ores. He should center atten- tion upon those articles which have been printed in the standard social science journals, such as the American Journal of Sociology, the Economic Journal, the American Historical Review, the Political Science Quarterly, the International Journal of Ethics, Religious Education, and so forth. The student can obtain the rating of a journal by inquiring of his instructor; and his own experience in the use of journals will develop his ability to judge of values. The student of elementary applied sociology and of social work will find the Survey to be his most useful mine of current information. Judicious use may be made of that class of magazines which is semi-scientific and semi-popular, such as: the North American Review, the World's Work, the Outlook, the Independent, the New Republic. Articles of one or two pages in length only, articles of any length in the newspapers and the popular weeklies, unsigned articles and editorials should be treated with caution and scrutiny. Occasionally, The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 25 however, a brief, unsigned article or editorial of a page in length will contain a new idea of first magnitude; length is not necessarily a criterion of quality. As the student proceeds in making reading acquaint- ances, he will note and examine articles by the standard authorities in the various social science fields. For example, in sociology proper, articles bearing the signa- ture of Giddings, Small, Ross, Howard, Blackmar, Cooley, Dealey, Ellwood, Gillette, Hayes, or others of similar high standing, will instantly command attention. Other names will come to signify peculiar biases or un- reliability. The student, through experience, learns to evaluate articles, even of authorities. He will learn not to accept new ideas uncritically. (c) Case Study. In gathering data for a field work topic, as distinguished from a library topic, the student may use either the case study method, the sampling method, or the survey method. Under any one of these methods, he will begin by reading everything that has been printed on the field work topic and by keeping systematically arranged notes on this reading. He will wish to know what has already been done by other investigators in his specific field of study. By so doing, he can plan his own undertaking wisely. Case study is the method of examining specifically, and in detail, all the individuals, families, or social units that are included under the topic. This is the most thorough method known to social science. It can be used where the number of units is small or where there is a large number of trained investigators working together. (d) Sampling. Sampling is often used when the number of cases, or social units, under study is large and 26 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers where the number of investigators is small. Every tenth item, for example, may be sampled, that is, all the facts are secured for every tenth case on the assumption that the results obtained in this way will represent, with a reasonable degree of accuracy, the entire class or total number. Another form of sampling is to number in a consecutive way all the cases, to put the numbers on separate slips of paper, and shaking them up together, to draw out ten per cent, for example, of the slips, and to study the cases so drawn. (e) The Survey. The social survey attempts to cover an entire field of study by using a large number of workers, as well as the schedule or questionnaire for standardizing the data. The procedure is an intensifi- cation of the census method. Although the social survey is the best way to gather facts in a wholesale man- ner about a mass of human phenomena, its statistical nature gives the results a certain formal character which is unsatisfactory. The chances of inadequate or false interpretation of the data are manifold. Errors often cannot be avoided; they may be so numerous that the results are invalidated. The student will do well to familiarize himself with the simpler points of statistical science. He will learn to distinguish between types or averages, modes, and mediums. He will familiarize himself with frequency tables, index numbers, skewness, coefficient of correlation. An authoritative book on statistics, such as W. I. King's Elements of Statistical Method, will answer the student's questions satisfactorily. Moreover, the student will be amply repaid for giving careful attention to the published results of social surveys, such as the Springfield Survey, the findings of which were printed in a series of pamphlets. Tbf Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 27 The list of published surveys is steadily growing longer and furnishes a great variety of useful suggestions to the ambitious student. (f) The First Interview. In ordinary field work investigation, the first interview is all-important. By it the student succeeds or fails. If he commands the confidence and good will of the person who is interviewed, he will have little difficulty in succeeding. If he fails to make a favorable impression, he remains a stranger, and can scarcely hope to obtain reliable data. No in- dividual or representative of an institution wishes to tell his private affairs or the affairs o f an institution to a stranger or to a self-conscious, bold, or awkward novice. An appeal must be made which will be genuine in the eyes of the one who is interviewed. Often, a letter of introduction will open the way, but even then the interviewer mVist make a favorable impression if he would be successful. The more nearly the inter- viewer can put himself in the position of the interviewed the greater will be his chances of success. (g) The Schedule. The schedule is an important instrument of field work investigation. Whether the number of cases that are being studied is five, or ten thousand, the schedule is essential for obtaining the best results. In no other way can the study be stand- ardized. In no other way can it be objectified, that is, freed from the student's personal opinions. The schedule contains a list of terms which stand for questions to which the student wishes to secure answers. The terms are arranged upon a light-weight cardboard of convenient size for carrying in the notebook, with spaces in which the student can write his observations. As a rule, the schedule should not be produced during 28 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers an interview. Such a procedure will usually prejudice the person who is being interviewed. Because of lack of space, an illustration of only the simplest kind of schedule will be given here. Schedules on Immigrants in Night Schools Sex Race Age Occupation.... Education in home country Why migrate to United States Years in U. S Years in Los Angeles First papers Second papers Political party Why like U. S Why disappointed in U. S Idea of democracy How attracted to night school Why attending night school How may others be interested in night school? How may night school be improved? (h) The Questionnaire. The questionnaire is a useful tool in obtaining information from a distance. It differs from the schedule in that it is filled out by the person who is being questioned, while the schedule is filled out by the investigator. Hence, the questionnaire is usually simple and more clearly worded than the schedule. The questions must be phrased so as to be subject to only one interpretation each. As a rule, the questions are few in number. Otherwise, the person who is questioned will be tempted to postpone or to neglect entirely the answering of the questions. If possible, the questions should be framed so as to call for either affirmative or negative answers. The questions should not be too inquisitive and should not require The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 29 subjective answers. It is well to enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope with each questionnaire. Whatever can be done to make the task of the ques- tionee as easy as possible should not be neglected, because one of the difficulties is to secure a large percentage of replies. To the extent that no replies are received the total results are invalidated. Questionnaire on the Teaching of Social Problems Courses in High Schools 1. Is a course in social problems, or closely related sub- ject, given in your high school? 2. If so, what text is used? 3. In what year of the high school course is such subject taught? 4. Is it required or elective? 5. Has it been a success? 6. Are you favorable to such subjects in the high school curriculum? (4) Determining the Form and Content. In writing the final draft of the term paper the student will decide upon the length before he begins, and will see that a proper proportion is maintained between the different sections of the paper. He will use a natural, progressive, straight-forward style. A variety in the choice of words is highly desirable. On the other hand, flowery language and mixed metaphors will be avoided. Hackneyed or trite phrases will be eliminated. Slang will be shunned, because as a rule it is indicative of a small vocabulary and lack of culture. A long word will not be used when a short one will suffice. For every idea there is a best, a most appropriate word or term. It is worth while to consult the dictionary 30 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers frequently as a means of making the correct choice of words. A sense of pride may be taken in acquiring a clear, effective style, in keeping the tenses of the verbs uniform, in introducing new words, similes, and other figures of speech, providing the variations are natural and fitting. No hesitation need be shown in rewriting particularly difficult paragraphs several times, because improvements will probably accompany each revision. Sometimes the student's best ideas will arise only when he is engaged in actual writing. It is also worth while to study the style of writers of good English. The practice of writing verse will often increase one's vocabu- lary and give a more musical style. It is even valuable to spend some time in reading good poetry aloud, because the ear often catches what the eye fails to perceive, and because a trained ear is invaluable for the best writing. Above all things else, the student will leave no traces of carelessness in style. The term paper when submitted to the instructor may be either hand written or typewritten. It is not necessary that the paper be typed; legible hand writing in ink, done neatly, with uniformity, and without hurry, will meet ordinary requirements. It is preferable that the final draft for the instructor be written on paper of letter size, 8x11 inches. A margin of at least one and one-quarter inches at the top and on the left-hand side, and of one-half inch at the bottom of the page is necessary. A substantial quality of writing paper is a minimum requirement. Typewritten material should be double-spaced, unless several lines of material are quoted when single spacing becomes the rule. Tbe Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 31 The general sequence in the paper will ordinarily be as follows: 1. Title page. 2. Table of contents. 3. Text of the paper. 4. Bibliography. The title page gives the title, capitalized, of the paper, the name and number of the course of study for which the paper is written, the name of the college or university, and the date of finishing the work. A well balanced form is pleasing. (Title Page) THE CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY By John Jones Written for Sociology 134, Educational Sociology University of Southern California Instructor, E. J. Lickley December 10, 1920 The introductory paragraphs are best when brief. The trained writer does not allow himself to ramble on at length; he states precisely in brisk sentences, the points that are necessary for an understanding of the materials which follow. Nothing bores or prejudices a reader like a drawn-out introduction. The main text of the paper should build fact upon fact in as logical an order as possible. The truth must never be strained for sake of effect. In general, a climactic order should be established. At least those climaxes will be built up that are inherent in the natural sequence of facts. Whenever the student is reasonably sure of his ground he may criticise his materials, favorably and unfavorably. At every turn he masters his data. 32 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers The closing paragraphs may include a brief summary of the territory that has been covered. The final inter- pretations are exceedingly important. The drawing of concluding principles calls for the student's best efforts. At this point the average student fails. He may gather an immense amount of data, and present it logically well. Then, he may conclude his paper with a few meaningless generalizations or insipid observations. He needs to reserve his mental effort for the final stretch. If he fails here, his earlier good work will be greatly discounted. He needs plenty of time to work over and over the final interpretations and conclusions. Here, there occurs the student's supreme opportunity for manifesting his ability. To throw a group of facts together or to compile ideas from other people's minds is a very simple piece of mental work. Real brain power, patience, long and hard work are required in order to make a worthy conclusion. At least a few tables of facts add greatly to the value of a term paper. They often constitute the prima facie evidence of the paper's worth. Everything that the student may say will often be rated by the presence or absence of facts, arranged in tabular form. A table should be clearly labeled and presented in a balanced fashion. Tables are often made interesting by the use of graphs or charts. The graph or chart is a visualization of a table of facts. It is worth while to train one's self in making graphs and charts. The technique of this process is explained in books, such as King's Elements of Sta- tistical Method. Another work of reference in this con- nection is Brinton's Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts. In writing the paper, each leading section should be introduced by its proper heading, coinciding with the The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 33 headings in the outline or table of contents. The be- ginning of each leading section may be separated by an inch of space from the conclusion of the preceding main section. A special effort should be made to give credit to the authorities that are quoted or cited. Whenever the conclusions of some authority are quoted or facts from some special piece of research are used, a small Arabic numeral should be placed at the end of the quotation or citation, slightly elevated, and repeated .at the foot of the page. The footnote itself may be set off from the text above it, either by an extra space or by a heavy line. The footnote numerals may begin with an Arabic numeral one on each page or they may begin at one with the first footnote reference and run consecutively to the end of the paper without any breaks in the num- bering. Oftentimes, the latter method is preferable. As a rule, the footnote explanation gives the name of the authority who is quoted or cited, the title of the book, underscored (or of the article, and of the maga- zine, abbreviated and underscored; together with the date of the magazine 1 ), and the pages. 2 If the name of the authority is mentioned in the context of the paper, such as the name, for example, of C. H. Cooley 3 it need not be repeated in the footnote. If a re- ference is made a second or third time to a particular book or article in immediate succession, the ab- breviation, ibid., underscored, together with the pages of the new reference should appear; it] is not necessary to repeat the whole reference in the foot- note. 4 If the second or third reference to a specific book or article is not made immediately but two or three pages later, then, the abbreviation, op. cit., with the 34 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers necessary page reference should be given. 5 Explanations and rules such as those given in the foregoing lines are worthy of being mastered. The footnote forms that are used in standard works, such as Ely's Outlines of Economics, or Blackmar and Gillin's Outlines of Sociology may be studied with care. The student may obtain further assistance by consulting frequently a guide book, such as A Manual for Writers. 6 The use of footnotes in this paragraph will illustrate the points that the paragraph has covered. 1. (For example) C. A. Ellwood, "Education for Citizenship in a Democracy," Amer. Jour, of Sociology, July, 1920, p. 75. 2. (For example) E. A. Ross, Principles of Sociology, p. 96. 3. (For example) "Reflections upon the Sociology of Herbert Spencer/' Amer. four, of Sociology, Sept. 1920, p. 130. 4. (For example) Ibid., p. 133. 5. (For example) Op. Cit., p. 138. 6. Manly and Powell, University of Chicago Press, 1917. The student should aim constantly at accuracy in punctuation, in spelling, in syllabication, and in para- graphing, as well as in choosing the right words. No pains should be spared to settle all doubtful points by consulting a dictionary or such a book as A Manual for Writers. Special care should be given to the bibliography, which appears last in the paper, in order that no errors appear in it, either with reference to spelling, punctuation, or the arrangement of the surnames of the authors in alphabetical order. If more than one book by a specific author is listed, it is not necessary to repeat the name of the author; it is better to use a dash in the following fashion : E. A. Ross, Principles of Sociology, Century, 1920. Social Psychology, Macmillan, 1908. The manuscript, when completed, should be inserted and fastened in an appropriate cardboard cover, bearing The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers 35 the name of the student, the title of the course of study, and the title of the paper. In writing the final draft of the paper, the student will be wise if he chooses a quiet place in which to work- where no one will interrupt. The mind cannot do its best and most original work beset by the constant hum of conversation, or by the disturbing activities of others. The brain produces its best intellectual work when least likely to be disturbed. Before the final writing is begun, the student will have the work in such a shape that he can lay it aside and practically forget it for at least two or three weeks. When it is taken up after the interim, the mind will bring to it a surprising degree of fresh criticism; the presence of unsuspected errors will be detected and new ideas will occur to the earnest student. Further, this precaution protects the student against growing "stale" on his subject. In writing the final draft, the student should be at his mental best, and overflowing with his theme. A high degree of satisfaction comes from doing original work. The student is not called to be an imitator, a copyist, a cataloguer. He is a potential inventor. It is not necessary for him continually to bemoan the fate that he is not a born genius. He is not obliged to live in other people's minds. Originality, invention, creation are possible goals for him. The student should never be satisfied with doing merely good work; nothing less than his best should satisfy him, and that only tem- porarily, for what is his best work today may be his second best tomorrow. His possibilities in the direction of originality he may never have surmised. VIII. The Thesis. The word, thesis, is properly 36 The Technique of Preparing Social Science Papers used only in connection with the original study that is required for the degree of Master of Arts, or a piece of investigation of equivalent caliber. The undergraduate student is usually unable to write a paper worthy to be called a thesis. An undergraduate student, however, who gives himself a training in writing papers such as the preceding pages of this booklet presuppose, will ordinarily have no special difficulty in writing a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts. Hence, it will not be necessary to give more than a brief mention here to the requirements for writing a thesis. The topic for a master's thesis is usually very specific and limited in scope. The student is expected to master all the literature that has been written on his thesis subject, and, as a rule, make a special study of his own in the given field. The rules for collecting data, digesting and interpreting the results, and for writing the thesis have nearly all been covered in the foregoing paragraphs on the term paper. A social science thesis subject usually requires an aca- demic year in preparation. Even then the topic will need to be in a field with which the student is quite familiar and where the student has fully developed back- grounds. The time element is another essential in pre- paring a master's thesis. The length of a social science master's thesis varies according to the topic and the method of treatment. As a rule, 10,000 to 20,000 words mark the limits, although quality rather than quantity is the main consideration. The preparation of a master's thesis is a stimulating mental undertaking. It is a superior piece of work, merit- ing publication. It represents the student's mental pro- cesses at their best, trained, analytic, synthetic, creative. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ,-Fi OCT 30 1947 . 29 FEB171956LU LD 21-100m-12,'46(A2012sl6)4120 Makers Syracuse, X. Y: PAT. JAN. 21 ,1908 YC 15126 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY