THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 SURVEYING 
 
 FOR 
 
 BEGINNERS 
 
 J. B. DAVIS 
 
 1895-1909 
 
 ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN 
 
 1909 
 
 5116
 
 The Ann Arbor Press
 
 TA 
 
 LIST OF WORK 
 
 I. Reading Verniers. 
 
 II. Measuring with Steel Tapes. 
 Survey of a triangle. 
 Measuring the same distance eight times. 
 
 III. Handling Instruments. 
 
 Transit. Line Staff. 
 
 Level, 
 
 Leveling Rod. 
 
 IV. Survey of a triangle with a transit. 
 Twenty rod readings on the same B. M. 
 
 V. Reading Angles. Closing the horizon. 
 Peg Levels. Short circuit. 
 
 VI. Traverse Survey. Field with seven sides. 
 Peg Levels. Long circuit. 
 
 VII. Traverse Survey. Computing and platting. 
 Profile Leveling. 
 
 VIII. Profile and Grade Line. 
 Staking out a grade. 
 
 IX. Straight Line. 
 
 Staking out a building.
 
 OUTFIT. NOTICE. 
 
 1. Outfit required. 
 For each person : 
 
 Reprints and pamphlets. 
 
 Direction of a Line. , Recommended. 
 
 Leveling and Earthwork. 
 
 Town, City, and Village Plats. Recommended. 
 
 Transit. Adjustments and Tests. Recommended. 
 
 Traverse Surveying. 
 Field Note Book, like sample. 
 Lead Pencil, Faber, No. 5, red hexagon. 
 Eraser, typewriter, small. 
 Cross rule'd paper, for platting. 
 For each party : 
 
 Wire spikes, 6". 12 
 
 Wire lath nails, 3d fine. *4 lb. 
 
 Boy's axe, sharp. 
 Marking crayon. 
 
 2. Notice. 
 
 Once telling is enough. 
 
 Parties consist of two, or four, persons, ordinarily. 
 
 Time for each duty will be limited. 
 
 Shortcomings to be made up outside of class time, and with- 
 out delay. 
 
 Do the work in the order in which it is listed. 
 
 Every person must "Figure." 
 
 Put all computations in field note book, with notes. 
 
 No loose papers allowed. 
 
 Do not come here with parts of the notes of a piece of work 
 in different books. Every note book must contain them all. 
 
 Present all records, maps, and drawings, and get O.K. or 
 make them over till given O.K. 
 
 Late comers make up all back work within three weeks, or 
 drop out.
 
 6 OUTFIT. XOTICK 
 
 Instruments, apparatus, and tools, are issued on die check 
 system. Each one get five checks from the instructor, for 
 which a charge of fifty cents is made. The money will be 
 returned at the end of the semester upon the return of the 
 checks. A check is left for each article issued. The checks 
 are returned upon the return of the articles in the same 
 condition as when issued. 
 
 No playing with tools, or apparatus. 
 
 Pay for all losses or breakages. 
 
 Report, at once, all losses, breakages, or defects, to have 
 them made good in time for the next work. 
 
 Write up lecture notes with neat diagrams, for same, using 
 water-proof ink. 
 
 When a word, or a sign, is not understood, look it up then 
 and there, in a dictionary, or- text book, or inquire of a 
 teacher at the next opportunity. 
 
 We do not teach what may be read in a book, without aid. 
 
 Learn how to do things by doing them, same as baseball 
 is learned. "Practice makes perfect." 
 
 Recitations are the examination, except a written examina- 
 tion upon the subjects of the field work. 
 
 Review Plane Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 
 
 Surveying is learned by study, by work, and by practice, 
 not by merely staying 'round where surveyors, books, and 
 instruments are. 
 
 "It is better not to know so many things than it is to know 
 so many things that are not so." 
 
 "You can find eighteen men who can tell how to do a thing 
 where you can find one who can do it." 
 
 Josh Billings. 
 
 3. Not so. 
 
 When you "See it," you know it 
 
 Something will prove useful which is written down carefully 
 and specifically, with order, decorum, and diagrams, in a 
 note-book, and then laid aside and forgotten. 
 
 You can "laze" around at the beginning of the semester 
 and make up for it by cramming towards the end.
 
 OUTFIT. NOTICE 7 
 
 One can get along here, or elsewhere, as an engineer, without 
 being able to write plainly, make neat figures, and use 
 with facility, some style of plain lettering. 
 
 A surveyor can "establish" a landmark or a boundary. 
 
 A "true" meridan, a "magnetic" meridan. 
 
 The "declination" of the magnetic needle. 
 
 "Printing" a statement in a book makes it true. 
 
 4. An engineer should be able to 
 
 Measure a distance. 
 
 Measure an angle. 
 
 Keep notes. 
 
 Run a traverse. 
 
 Run a straight line. 
 
 Take levels. 
 
 Make computations. 
 
 Make maps and drawings. 
 
 Write a report. 
 
 Take care of instruments. 
 
 Use a needle compass, some. 
 
 Lay out a curve. 
 
 Oversee equipment. 
 
 5. A survey consists of 
 
 The field work. 
 
 The field notes. 
 
 The calculations. 
 
 The permanent record. 
 
 Unless what each of these items implies is completed in a 
 thorough and workmanlike manner, the survey will be im- 
 perfect, and usually inadequate. Such surveys commonly 
 prove to be both unsatisfactory and expensive. 
 
 6. The Field Work comprises many kinds of operations and 
 
 labor. 
 
 i. Running lines, straight or curved, and marking their lo- 
 cation with stake?, or otherwise.
 
 8 OUTFIT. NOTICE 
 
 2. Measuring distances, with a chain, tape, stadia, or other 
 device. 
 
 3. Finding the direction of a line. 
 
 4. Measuring angles, with a divided circle, a steel tape, or 
 other means. 
 
 v Placing, and constructing, monuments, such as land- 
 marks and station marks. 
 
 6. Getting differences of elevation, or running levels, as it 
 is called. 
 
 7. Making bench marks for the levels. 
 
 8. Digging for old landmarks. 
 
 9. Sounding. 
 
 10. Making borings for showing materials. 
 
 11. Gauging of streams. 
 
 12. Building stations for triangulation. 
 
 13. Making astronomical observations. 
 This list is not exhaustive, only illustrative. 
 
 7. The Field Notes are made in the field. They are a plain, 
 orderly, neat, and complete, record of the field work, and 
 attendant conditions, circumstances, and facts, made ac- 
 cording to the directions below. 
 
 1. Mark name and number of party neatly and plainly, at 
 top right hand side of first outside cover of note-book. 
 
 2. Number leaves of note-book, if not numbered. 
 
 3. Select a brief and comprehensive title. Enter this title 
 at top of every new page to be used for notes. 
 
 4. Enter the date on every page of notes, and at beginning 
 of notes of each day's work. 
 
 5. Note instruments used, and any special tools, or appa- 
 ratus, on each leaf of note book. 
 
 6. Record the place where work is done. 
 
 7. Write an explanation of the object of the work, if not 
 apparent from the title or the notes themselves. 
 
 8. Write the name, position, and duty, of every person who 
 does any part of the field work.
 
 OL'TFIT. XOT1CK 9 
 
 9. Make a plain, full, complete, orderly, and unmistakable, 
 record of every thing done, every fact ascertained, and 
 the evidence and witnesses therefor. Record what is 
 seen, without alteration, computation, or modification. 
 Set down every act, or fact, at once. Trust nothing 
 whatever to memory. 
 
 10. At the bottom of each page of notes place the signature 
 of the recorder, also at the end of the record of each 
 day's work. 
 
 11. When the notes of any work are in different parts of 
 the book, write, at the beginning of the record at every 
 place in the book, a reference to the place where the pre- 
 ceeding notes ended, and at the end of every record a 
 note of the place where the record is continued. The 
 same applies to records contained in different books. 
 
 12. When the note book is filled, enter a title on the outside 
 of the front cover, with the dates of beginning and end- 
 ing the records therein. 
 
 13. Make, and enter, an index in the book, if needed. 
 
 8. The Calculations are generally made in the office, though 
 many minor ones are made in the field, especially in land 
 and railroad surveying and in staking out works. When 
 made in the field they should be spread on the pages of 
 the field note book in an orderly manner, as part of the 
 field notes. In any case, if the calculations are relatively 
 brief, they should be entered in the field note book imme- 
 diately following, or, by cross references, immediately in 
 connection with, the field records and the results made a 
 part of those records. More extensive and elaborate cal- 
 culations require a system adapted to the work, but, in 
 general, the figures and results should be carefully pre- 
 served in a well kept record. What is known in the trade 
 as the Standard Figuring Book may lie useful. The page 
 is 9"xi2" cross ruled in }/\" squares. The calculations 
 must be completed in order to obtain the results and fulfill 
 the purposes for which the survey was made.
 
 10 OUTFIT. NOTICE 
 
 9. The Permanent Record preserves the results of the previ- 
 
 ous labors as well as completes the survey. It may consist 
 of only a field note book, suitably reviewed, indexed and 
 marked ; or there may be elaborate reports accompanied 
 by fine maps, with detailed plans, and estimates. It all 
 depends upon the kind, extent, and purpose of the survey. 
 
 Here should be read Appendix "G" of Johnson's Surveying, 
 this being Professor Raymond's paper on what constitutes 
 a survey. 
 
 10. Maps and Plats should contain 
 
 1. Map, or plat, properly drawn and lettered, not a scrawl, 
 or fragment. 
 
 2. Border. 
 
 3. Title. 
 
 4. Scale. A linear scale, if to be reproduced. 
 
 5. Direction mark. Meridian and azimuth. 
 
 6. Explanations, if needed. 
 
 7. Party who made the survey. 
 
 8. Draftsman's name. 
 
 9. Dates. Of survey. Of map. 
 
 - 10. Designations of stations, land marks, and notable points 
 
 of survey. 
 n. Line of reference. 
 
 12. Dimensions. All in one unit ordinarily. Distances. 
 Depths, Sizes. Elevations. 
 
 13. Angles. Azimuths. Bearings. 
 
 14. Names of objects. Such are, rivers, streets, places, land 
 owners, buildings. 
 
 15. Sketches. Illustrations. 
 
 1 6. Results. Such are, areas, amounts, quantities, volumes. 
 
 17. Authority for making. Often may be part of title. 
 
 18. Location ; including state, or country ; district or county ; 
 township, village, or city ; and name of locality ; any, or 
 all. of these, or similar terms, that may be necessary to 
 designate unmistakably the position of the survey on 
 f 1ve ground. Often may be included in sub title.
 
 OUTFIT. NOTICE 1 I 
 
 19. If on more than one sheet, put on each the whole num- 
 ber of sheets and its own number, thus, .... sheets. 
 Sheet No 
 
 The sheets should be made to be read from the bottom and 
 right hand side. 
 
 A standard size for sheets should be used on any survey of 
 considerable extent wherever it is practicable to employ 
 such. 
 
 Things shown should be given proper relative prominence, 
 not one of them, as the title, or draftsman's name, over- 
 shadowing all the rest. This is the primary requisite of 
 good map making. Consult; good atlases, such as the 
 Century Atlas ; U. S. Charts ; Reports of U. S. Coast and 
 Geodetic Survey ; Maps of U. S. Geological Survey ; pub- 
 lished drawings ; and books for the guidance of drafts- 
 men. Note the breadths of lines used, and measure, and 
 compare, the heights of letters. 
 
 Maps and plats should plainly show: 
 
 1. What they were made for. 
 
 2. What they represent. 
 
 3. Where the things represented are. 
 
 4. When they were made. 
 
 5. Where they were made. 
 
 6. Who they were made by. 
 
 7. What the authority was for making them, if made by 
 the order of some official, under any Act of Congress, 
 statute, ordinance, or order of a court. 
 
 11. Reports should follow the same general lines as the field 
 notes and maps. Consult the reports of notable surveys, 
 such as that of the Deep Water Ways Commission, or the 
 reports of individual engineers of standing relative to pro- 
 posed works, as that of Mr. Joseph Ripley, U. S. Ass't 
 Eng'r on the connection of Birmingham, Ala., with the 
 Black Warrior River, by canal, which may be found in the 
 Reports of the Chief of Engineers U. S. A.
 
 I. READING VERNIERS. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 12. A vernier, in general, is a device for indicating certain frac- 
 
 tional parts of one of the equal spaces, or divisions 
 of a graduated line. The graduated line may be straight, 
 as on a scale, or a leveling rod, or it may be curved, as 
 on the plate of a transit. The vernier itself is a short 
 scale of equal parts, straight or curved to fit the grad- 
 uated line to which it applies. 
 
 See what is the value of a space on the scale, or circle, to 
 which the vernier applies. 
 
 Place the vernier so two marks on it match, or are in exact 
 'line with, two marks on the scale or circle. Count the 
 spaces on the vernier between these two marks. 
 
 Divide the value of a space on the scale, or circle, by this 
 number. 
 
 The quotient will be the least reading of the vernier. 
 
 13. To read a vernier, see where the zero line, or index, of the 
 
 vernier points. If this index, or line, matches a line on 
 the scale, or circle, that line on the scale, or circle, will 
 show the reading of the circle, or scale, at once, without 
 the aid of the vernier. If the index of the vernier does 
 not match a line on the scale, or circle, look along the scale, 
 or circle, in the direction in which the reading is to be 
 taken, and note the reading of the scale, or circle, shown 
 by the line next preceding the index of the vernier. Look 
 along the vernier and find a line on it which matches a 
 line on the scale, or circle. Note the number of divisions 
 of the vernier between this line and its index or zero line. 
 Multiply this number by the least reading of the vernier 
 to get that part of the whole reading which is given by 
 the vernier. This multiplication is commonly done un-
 
 I. RKADINO VKRMICKS 13 
 
 consciously by means of the mechanical aids supplied for 
 reading the vernier. Add, or annex, the vernier reading 
 to the scale, or circle, reading, previously noted, to get the 
 full reading, up to the index of the vernier. 
 
 When looking for the mark on the vernier which matches 
 a mark on the scale, or circle, observe one or two marks 
 on the vernier each way from the one supposed to match 
 with a mark on the scale, or circle. These marks should 
 mismatch the marks on the scale, or circle, equal amounts, 
 in opposite directions, when at equal distances from the 
 mark which is supposed to match precisely. Thus make 
 sure which mark on the vernier it is that really matches 
 precisely with a mark on the scale, or circle. When no 
 mark on the vernier really matches precisely with a mark 
 on the scale, or circle, the actual reading of the vernier 
 may be obtained to one-half, or even one-third, of its 
 least reading, -by observing the marks on the vernier in 
 the manner described. 
 
 Useful ways of applying and reading verniers are to be 
 learned by experience. 
 
 I. READING VERNIERS. 
 
 PRACTICE. 
 
 14. Directions. 
 
 Ascertain and record the least reading of each vernier. 
 
 Take and properly record twenty full readings of each. 
 
 See 50 for samples of vernier readings. 
 
 Total number of all vernier readings is 180. 
 
 Should be taken up in the order in which they are namer?. 
 
 Leveling Rods. 
 
 Boston. New York. Troy. Philadelphia. 
 
 Short rod and long rod, ten readings of each. 
 Railroad Compass, or Transits 1884, or 1885, or the like. 
 Transit 1382, or 1383, or 1384, or the like. 
 
 Plate. Vertical Circle. 
 Transit 4838, or the like. 
 
 Plate. Vertical Circle.
 
 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 15. A steel tape measuring set includes the articles named 
 below : 
 
 A one hundred feet steel tape, with but a few marks on it, 
 and its reel. 
 
 Two handles for the one hundred feet steel tape, split sticks, 
 3" long, will do. 
 
 A fifty feet steel tape, divided to hundredths of a foot, in 
 its case. 
 
 Two brass I Ib. plump bobs, with strings. 
 
 Eleven 6" wire spikes. 
 
 An axe. 
 
 Line staves may be needed for ranging lines. 
 
 Find where the end marks for distance are on both tapes. 
 This must be done before correct measurements can be 
 made. The ends of the 100 ft. tape often do not indicate 
 its length, there being an extra 1/25 to 1/50 of steel rib- 
 bon at each end. The zero of the 50 ft. tape may be found 
 by turning the end of the tape back ; matching the I ft. 
 mark to some other foot mark on the tape ; smoothing out 
 the loose end beside the tape ; and noticing on it, exactly 
 where the next foot mark fits, at, or near, the free end. 
 
 Keep the steel tapes wound up, as much of the time as 
 possible, and get the work done. 
 
 Wind any steel tape so the figures are within the coils, and 
 with the zero at the free end. 
 
 The zero end of a tape goes ahead, when measuring. 
 
 The 100 ft. tape is taken off of its reel and a handle slipped 
 on each end of it when marking a tape length. The han- 
 dle at the forward, or zero, end, should not slip off from 
 the tape of itself. The handle at the rear, or 100 ft., end, 
 should slip off very easily, because it should be taken off 
 when the tape is drawn forward.
 
 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 15 
 
 Jf the 100 ft. tape has been mended, test the spaces between 
 the marks on it by comparison with a standard, or with 
 corresponding spaces marked by small wire nails in stakes 
 driven in the ground till firm, and having their tops all at 
 nearly the same elevation. The spaces between the wire 
 nails may be laid off with the 50 ft. tape. 
 
 Make a table of the correct total distances from the zero of 
 the loo ft. tape to each of the marks on it. Use this table 
 in recording measurements with this 100 ft. tape. 
 
 Two men make the measurements, one at each end of the 
 tape. 
 
 Call the one at the zero end the Leader, as he goes ahead, 
 and the other the Follower. 
 
 The follower is responsible for the correctness of all meas- 
 urements. 
 
 The leader must watch and aid in every way he can to make 
 coirect measurements. Errors are not tolerated. 
 
 In following a line both should keep the line by referring 
 its range to some object beyond the other. While meas- 
 uring, both should be on the watch for other objects on 
 the range of the line, as usually, owing to the lay of the 
 ground, the same object cannot be used to range by for 
 any considerable distance. Both men should know the 
 exact range of the line at all times, if possible. When 
 starting, the follower puts the leader exactly in line, where- 
 upon the leader selects an object on the range and beyond 
 the place the measurement starts from. As they move 
 forv/ard the follower ordinarily directs the leader on to 
 the line as each tape length is marked, but the leader should 
 carefully observe whether, by his own marks, he is on the 
 line, or not. 
 
 Before beginning a measurement, the follower counts the 
 spikes, and lays one beside the mark from which the meas- 
 urement is to proceed. He hands the others to the leader 
 and says "Ten !" The leader counts them and says "Ten !" 
 In this way they make sure of starting with the right num- 
 ber of spikes, and with ten of them in the hands of the 
 leader..
 
 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 
 
 Draw out the tape the full length with the zero end ahead, 
 and about on line. 
 
 Leader take the zero end in hand, and put on his handle. 
 
 Follower slip his handle on the 100 ft. end, and bring the 
 100 ft. mark about to the mark to be measured from. 
 
 Follower directs leader accurately into line, and shows the 
 leader the mark from which the measurement is to pro- 
 ceed. 
 
 Leader takes the range of the line carefully, and finds some 
 object, if possible, on the range beyond the follower. If 
 such an object cannot be found leave a picket just back of 
 the mark to be measured from, set exactly on the range 
 of the line. A picket may be a stick of suitable length. 
 
 Leader draws up the tape ready to measure. 
 
 Follower holds 100 ft. mark exactly to the mark to be meas- 
 ured from, and directs the leader to hold the zero end of 
 the tape exactly in line. 
 
 Leader pulls 15 or 20 Ibs. on the tape. 
 
 Follower looks once more at the 100 ft. mark on the tape 
 and .sees that it is exactly at the mark to be measured 
 from and that the zero end of the tape is on line. 
 
 When both men are satisfied that the conditions are favor- 
 able for a trustworthy measurement, that is, both are 
 "Ready," the follower says "Ready," "Right," ''All right 
 here." "Mark," or any useful form of words. 
 
 Leader marks the place on the ground even with the zero 
 mark on the tape, being- careful not to release the tension, 
 and to keep exactly in line. The mark may be the center 
 of a spike stuck into the ground so as to stand firm, a 
 scratch with the point of a spike, the point of a spike, 
 carefully placed, or any other suitable mark. 
 
 Leader leave a spike at this mark. 
 
 Test the measurement by one or more trials after the mark 
 at the zero end of the tape is made, until satisfied that uie 
 mark is correct for both distance and line. 
 
 Follower slips off his handle quickly, letting go the rear end 
 of the tape, and picks up the spike at the mark from which 
 ibe measurement proceeds.
 
 11. MEASURING WITH STKlCt, TAPKS 1 7 
 
 Leader draws the tape forward 100 ft. on the line. 
 
 Follower advances to the spike left by the leader where he 
 arrives about the time 90 ft. of the tape have pasesd the 
 spike. He picks up the tape, lets it run through his hands 
 till the 100 ft. end is almost in hand, when he calls "Hold," 
 or "Halt," to the leader, and quickly slips on his handle. 
 
 Leader stops, and the tape is placed about on line. 
 
 Follower holds the 100 ft. mark to the spike and the oper- 
 ations for marking the first tape length are repeated till 
 both are satisfied the work is correct. 
 
 Follower slips off his handle, takes up the spike where he is, 
 and they proceed as before. 
 
 Thus continue until the leader has put down five spikes. 
 While going forward to place the sixth spike the follower 
 counts the spikes he has and calls "Five" to the leader, 
 who counts those he has and answers "Five." They thus 
 verify the count without delay. Leave a mark in place of 
 the fifth spike. 
 
 Unless each has "Five," review the work and correct the 
 errors. 
 
 Continue the measurement as before until the leader has put 
 down his last spike. He calls "Out" to the follower, and 
 stands by the last spike. 
 
 Follower slips off his handle, takes up the spike where he is, 
 and goes forward, counting the spikes he has. He hands 
 them to the leader and says "Ten." 
 
 Leader counts the spikes given him and says "Ten." 
 
 Here the count is verified and any errors found must be 
 corrected. For this purpose the mark left in place of the 
 fifth spike will make it necessary to remeasure but five 
 tape lengths instead of ten, or more. 
 
 The eleventh spike keeps the measurement while the spikes 
 
 change hands, the count is verified, and errors: found and 
 corrected. The measurement proceeds from the eleventh 
 spike and the follower takes it up only after the spike next 
 beyond it is set, the same as he took up the spike at the 
 starting mark. 
 
 "Record flic "Tfllly" of ten tape length?.
 
 1 8 II. MEASURING WITH STZKL, TAPfJS 
 
 So continue until a spike is set less than 50 ft. from the mark 
 the measurement proceeds to. This spike may come before 
 reaching that mark or beyond it. 
 
 Follower slip off his handle, take up the spike where lie- 
 is, count the spikes he then has, and call the number, 
 as "Three," to the leader. 
 
 Leader count the spikes he has and answer with the num- 
 ber, as "Seven." 
 
 Each retain the spikes he has and leave the one last set ii 1 
 the ground. 
 
 The sum of the numbers each has must be ten. If not, re- 
 view the work and correct the errors. 
 
 The spikes the follower has show the number of tape lengths 
 the last spike set is past tally mark, or from the place 
 where the measurement began if less than ten tape lengths 
 away. 
 
 Measure from the spike last set to the mark the measurement 
 proceeds to, using the 50 ft. tape. Leader take the zero 
 end of it and follower read the tape. Wind up this tape. 
 
 Record the total number of tape lengths, or hundreds of 
 feet, as shown by the number of tallies passed and tlv 
 number of spikes the follower has. 
 
 Record the measurement made with the 50 ft. tape. 
 
 Add the latter to the former, or subtract it therefrom, on 
 the page of the note book, and make a record of the dis- 
 tance between the two marks the measurement was made 
 to obtain. 
 
 Follower take up the eleventh spike. 
 
 Follower take all the spikes, count them, place one at the 
 mark measured to, give the others to the leader and say 
 "Ten." 
 
 Both must agree as to the count. 
 
 Proceed with the measurement of the next line as the first 
 was measured. 
 
 Thus continue the work, at will. 
 
 Stand at the side of a steel tape to get distance, to read the 
 tape, or to hold a mark on it even with another mark. 
 
 Stand on, or look along, a line, to give, or get. line.
 
 I!. MKASTKI-Nf. WITH STKKI. TAl'KS 19 
 
 16. All measurements must be level. Hold the two ends of 
 
 the tape at the same elevation. Use the plumb bob to 
 mark the point on the ground even with the mark on the 
 tape. Measure down sloping ground if the descent is more 
 then two per cent, on the best work. If the slope is too 
 steep for the easy use of the whole tape, use it by parts, 
 as directed below. Where there are several slopes along 
 a line, descending in opposite directions, begin at the top 
 of each and let the separate mcaursements meet in the de- 
 pressions, or valleys, between. 
 
 17. In measuring down a slope, draw out the whole tape along 
 
 the line as if on level ground. Leader raise up the tape 
 and, by direction of the follower lay it as nearly as may 
 be exactly on the line. Hold the 100 ft. mark at the mark 
 where the measurement begins, as before directed. Leader 
 pick up the tape at any convenient place, where it will not 
 be difficult to hold that place up at the same elevation as 
 the 100 ft. mark. This place may not be at a mark on 
 the tape, but it is better to use u regular mark on the tape 
 if practicable. 
 
 Leader take his stand beside the tape so the hand and arm 
 used to draw the tape taut will pass across the front of his 
 body, in an easy and comfortable position, steadying him- 
 self by pulling the tape taut, and leaving his other hand 
 and arm free to handle the plumb bob and string. The 
 follower can easily hold against the pull of the leader, a> 
 he will be holding the 100 ft. mark at, or near, the ground. 
 The leader will be out of line when beside the tape. 
 
 Leader hold the bob string at the exact point, or mark, on 
 the tape to be used in this piece measurement. With this 
 place, or mark, held at the proper elevation and on line, 
 let the bob run down nearly to the ground and find where 
 the mark to be made on the ground will come. Clear off 
 the ground. Smooth the surface, if need be. Hold the 
 place on the tape from which the bob string hangs, at dif- 
 ferent heights, and, by trial, find the height at which the 
 piece of tape being used will mark the longest distance
 
 on the ground. Nip the string tightly to the tape to show 
 how much string to use. 
 
 Follower direct the leader to hold the bob exactly on line, 
 the place where the string is being at the proper height, 
 found as above directed. 
 
 When both men are satisfied the conditions are favorable for 
 a trustworthy measurement, the tape being at a suitable 
 tension and the plumb bob hanging steady and almost to 
 the ground, the leader lower his hands slightly, without 
 releasing any of the tension, till the point of the bob 
 touches the ground. Leader says "Right." carefully nip- 
 ping the bob string at the exact place on the tape. Fol- 
 lower let his end of the tape move forward to give the 
 leader some slack. Leader mark the place on the ground 
 where the point of the bob touched. 
 
 Verify this mark by further trials, made with care, until 
 both are satisfied the mark on the ground is. correct for 
 line and distance. 
 
 Follower slip off his handle, pick up the spike, where lie 
 is, and advance to the leader. 
 
 Leader deliver into the hand of the follower the exact place, 
 or mark, on the tape where the bob string is. This may be 
 done by the follower placing his thumb nail from the 100 
 ft. side against the thumb nail of the leader from the zero 
 side, and nipping the tape securely, where no regular 
 mark was used. 
 
 Follower hold this exact place, or mark, to the mark made 
 beneath it on the ground. 
 
 Leader take up any other succeeding convenient part of the 
 tape and measure it off on the ground with the same care, 
 precautions, and tests, as before, for both line and distance. 
 
 Follower advance to leader. 
 
 Leader deliver his place, or mark, to follower. 
 
 Continue these piece measurements on out to the zero of 
 
 the tape. 
 Here leave a spike as usual.
 
 ii. MI-,.\SI:KI.\G \vrni STKKI. T.MT.S 21 
 
 Keep the marks on the ground in any convenient way. J 
 spikes must be used, let the leader take one from the fol- 
 lower for every one he puts down between the 100 ft. and" 
 zero marks of the tape, at the time he delivers to the fol- 
 lower the intermediate places, or marks, he uses. An- 
 other size of nails may be used to mark with between the 
 ends of the tape length. 
 
 Both men count the spikes they have at the end of every 
 tape length where the measuring is difficult and see that 
 each has his proper number, both together having ten. 
 
 Continue the measurement at will. 
 
 By the method above outlined, a tape length is laid off with- 
 out any adding of pieces. The tape does the adding and 
 will make no mistakes. It is better to use marks on the 
 tape, if practicable, to designate the piece measurements, 
 as they are less liable to be lost sight of, and can be easily 
 recovered if such is the case. 
 
 Be especially particular to keep these short parts of the tape 
 on the line. Slight linear deviations give larger errors on 
 short measures than on the whole tape length. It is much 
 more difficult to keep the line on rough ground. 
 
 Ground may be so steep, rough, and covered with obstruc- 
 tions, rocks, logs, rubbish, hillocks, that the measure- 
 ment must be made with a board not over ten feet long, 
 having straight parallel edges and marked with feet and 
 half feet marks. The ground marks must be kept on 
 stakes. The board must be kept level with a carpenter's 
 level, or some similar devise, bubble tubes may be set in 
 the edge of the board itself, and adjusted by reversion on 
 two stakes driven in the ground. The line must be kept 
 by a transit, at, or beyond, the foot of the slope, the meas- 
 uring proceeding towards the transit. The mark on the 
 lower stake may be made by a heavy, 4 or 5 Ibs., plumb 
 bob with a carefully adjusted point, a millwright's bob 
 might do, or an accurate plumb rule used. There must 
 be no wind. The piece measurements must be recorded 
 as made, at their actual value, and added. If stakes must 
 be set at equal intervals they must be placed by adding the 
 proper piece measurements at the right places.
 
 22 II. .MKASUK1NC, \VlTil STKKJ, TAl'KS 
 
 18. Measuring up a slope is similarly done. On the better 
 class of work, avoid it, as it is especially liable to error. 
 Only men of much experience should attempt it. 
 
 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES. 
 
 FIELD WORK. 
 
 19. Measuring set. 
 
 One hundred feet steel tape and reel. 
 
 Handles for same. 
 
 Fifty feet steel tape in its case. 
 
 Plumb bobs, with lines, two. 
 
 Six-inch wire spikes, eleven. 
 
 Axe. Stakes, four. 
 
 Line staves may be needed for ranging lines. 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 
 upon their return. 
 
 20. Inspection of Plumb Bobs. 
 
 Look for the string, 
 the point, 
 the cap, 
 dents, and 
 evidences of abuse. 
 
 21. Inspection of Steel Tapes, 50 ft., or short tapes. 
 
 Unwind the tape. 
 
 See if the tape is wound wrong side in. 
 See if the reel works right. 
 Look for the box, 
 
 tape loose from reel, 
 
 breaks, splits, cracks, or kinks, in tape 
 
 dirt, 
 
 moisture, 
 
 rust,
 
 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 23 
 
 screw holding reel in box, 
 reel handle, 
 knob on reel handle, 
 dents, or bends, in box, and 
 evidences of abuse. 
 
 22. Inspection of Steel Tapes, 100 ft., or long tapes. 
 
 Unwind the tape. 
 
 See if the tape is wound wrong side in. 
 See if the reel works right. 
 Look for the reel, 
 
 breaks, splits, cracks, or kinks, in tape. 
 
 dirt, 
 
 moisture, 
 
 rust, 
 
 numbers on tape. 
 
 tape handles, 
 
 reel handle, 
 
 parts of reel, 
 
 dents, or bends, in reel, and 
 
 evidences of abuse. 
 
 23. Inspection of Line Staves. 
 
 Look for bends, 
 scratches, 
 
 damaged points, and 
 evidences of abuse. 
 
 24. Reminders. 
 
 Tf the 100 ft. tape has been mended, test the spaces marked 
 
 on it. 
 
 Keep the tapes wound up, figures inside. 
 The zero end of a tape goes ahead. 
 Count the spikes as directed . 
 
 Verify the count between the fifth and sixth spikes. 
 The spikes the follower has show the distance past the last 
 
 tallv mark.
 
 24 II. MEASURING WITH STKKf. TAI'T.S 
 
 Verify the count at the last spike set. 
 
 Do not pull up the last spike till the record is made. 
 
 Record the number of even hundreds of feet. 
 
 Record the distance measured with the fifty feet tape. 
 
 25. Survey of a triangle, about 450 by 250 feet. 
 
 Area = ^/ s (^_ a ) ( S b) (sc) 
 
 26.. Instructions. 
 
 On rough ground mark a triangle with small stakes, A, B, 
 C, so that AC is, by estimation, about 450 feet, and B is, 
 by estimation, about 250 feet away from A C. Set D 
 anywhere in A C. Be particular to place D exactly on 
 A C. Use a plumb line to range with. 
 
 Witness A, B, C, and D, following the form below. 
 
 A. A nail in a stake driven flush with the ground, stand- 
 ing on the third prominent ridge N. of the Detroit Ob- 
 servatory, Ann Arbor, Mich., from which a 
 Witnesses. Hickory, 12" in diameter, bears N. about 55 
 E. 72/3 to its center, and a 
 
 B. Walnut 27" bears S. about 35 E., 261/4 to cen. 
 Spike in root of Sycamore 32", S. about 45 \V., 47/I3- 
 
 Spike, E. face of brick wall near S. E. corner of barn, N.W'ly, 
 34/27. 
 
 Measure A B, B C, C D, D A, and B D. Find the value of 
 d from the above equation. Subtract it from B D, meas- 
 ured, and show the error -f- or . Compute the area in 
 square feet. Reduce this to acres. Make a neat plat of 
 the triangle to scale, on the cross ruled page of the field 
 note book. Record all of these matters in the field note 
 book.
 
 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 25 
 
 27. Measure the distance, eight times, between two marks 
 about 1000 feet apart. The cement walk on the cast side 
 of the campus is about 1000 feet long. 
 
 Drive two stakes, by estimation, about 1000 feet apart, on a 
 smooth piece of ground. Tops of stakes flush with sur- 
 face of ground. Drive a nail in each stake. Witness each 
 stake. Set up a line staff about two feet beyond each 
 stake, on the line of the stakes, and standing plumb. 
 
 Measure the distance carefully between the two nails. Re- 
 turn, measuring the distance carefully, with the same per- 
 son for leader. 
 
 Change positions, the person acting as follower taking the 
 lead. 
 
 Repeat the measurement, out and back, with the new leader. 
 
 Change positions. 
 
 Repeat the measurement, out and back. 
 
 Change positio'ns. 
 
 Repeat the measurement, out and back. 
 
 Record the measurements, as they are made, showing in the 
 book who is leader and who is follower for each one. 
 
 Add the eight measurements. Divide by 8. Find the aver- 
 age measurement. 
 
 Subtract each measurement from the average measurement 
 and write the difference, with its sign, opposite each meas- 
 urement, forming a column of "Errors." 
 
 Add the errors. See if the sum equals zero. If not, review 
 the calculations and correct the figures. 
 
 Record all these matters in the field note book.
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 28. Transit. 
 
 Observe with certainty how it is packed in its box, so it can 
 be properly returned to its place. Do not unpack it and 
 take it from its box until sure it can be put back precisely 
 as found. 
 
 Examine the tripod. See that no parts are missing. See 
 that all the shoes on the free ends of the legs are tight. 
 See that the wing nuts that clamp the legs to the top cast- 
 ing all have washers, and will clamp the legs firmly to the 
 casting. If a tripod is set up to receive an instrument for 
 use in making observations, the legs will be properly 
 clamped by the wing nuts, in most cases, when they are 
 tight enough so as to just be held in position at the usual 
 slope, without dropping, if the tripod is raised, by its top, 
 off of the ground. In a windy time, they may be clamped 
 tighter to steady the instrument. See that the screw on 
 the neck of the top casting is in good order. The tripod 
 being in order set it up on the floor, or the ground, to re- 
 ceive the transit when unpacked. 
 
 Many common transits are screwed on to a board which 
 slides into the transit box with the transit on it. Lift the 
 transit bv its base, or its plates, not by its standards, transit 
 axis, or telescope. Set the board in a secure place, orr 
 top of the box will often do, but do not let go of the transit 
 in such a place. Release the spindle clamp. Start the 
 screw that connects the transit to the board. Hold the 
 transit with one hand to keep it from falling, and with the 
 other on the leveling screws, unscrew the transit from the 
 board by turning the base to the left. In this manner sep- 
 arate the transit from the board without danger of it re- 
 ceiving a fall. 
 
 In the manner described, or any other method, adapted to 
 the way the transit is packed, take it from its box.
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 27 
 
 Release the spindle clamp. Release the transit axis clamp. 
 See that the plumb bob chain hangs central and free from 
 beneath the base plate. 
 
 Place the transit on its tripod. With one hand hold of the 
 side of the transit to keep it from falling, and with the 
 other hold of the leveling screws so as to turn the base, 
 screw the base on to the tripod. At the last take hold of 
 the base with both hands and make sure the transit is 
 screwed down firmly. If the screw thread in the base 
 plate of the transit does not engage readily with the thread 
 on the tripod, steady the instrument with both hands so 
 the screws bear fair and turn the transit slowly and care- 
 fully to the left till the screws drop together. Turn to the 
 right and screw on the instrument. 
 
 Take o^thfe-cap to the objective of the telescope. Put on 
 the shade. Put the cap in the box where the shade was. 
 
 Take the reading glass. Put it in a pocket, handy to reach 
 " and AY IK: re it cannot get lost. Some good instrument men 
 tie the reading glass about their necks with a strong string, 
 like a watch. 
 
 Take the plumb bob. Tie it on to the chain with a sliding 
 horse knot, tied' with a bow, so the bob can easily, and 
 quickly, be set at any required height. 
 
 Put the board in the box. -Close and fasten it. Set it away 
 . in its place. 
 
 Turn the telescope straight up and clamp slightly. 
 
 Release the spindle clamp if not released. 
 
 Put the plumb bob in a pocket. 
 
 Take hold of the tripod by two of its legs, one in each 
 hand, with the third leg towards -one side of the body. 
 Lift the instrument and draw the legs together with one 
 motion, raising and inclining it to rest, nearly balanced, 
 on the shoulder. Let go of the leg in the hand that is on ' 
 the same side of the body as the shoulder on which the 
 transit rests, holding the instrument securely with the oth- 
 er. Pass the free hand between the two free legs and 
 grasp the one the other hand holds, releasing that hand. 
 P.y so doing the instrument always will be held securely.
 
 28 III. HANOI. IXC, l.NSTKr.MKX IS 
 
 29. Setting up Transit. Making a Pointing. 
 
 Take the instrument to the work. 
 
 To set the transit down, grasp two tripod legs, one in each 
 hand, holding one vertical, and steadying the instrument 
 with the other. 
 
 Set the vertical one in its place on the ground, if the transit 
 is to be set up over a mark, as a nail in a stake. 
 
 Grasp the other two legs, one in each hand, and spread 
 them out to such a position that the base plate, on which 
 the leveling screws stand, appears to be level when these 
 legs also stand on the" ground . The tripod legs should be 
 spread apart far enough so the transit will not only be in 
 no danger of an upset, but so it will stand steady while ob- 
 serving with it. 
 
 Take the plumb bob from the pocket and let it hang beneath 
 the transit. 
 
 If the transit does not stand over the mark on the ground 
 it is to be set up over, lift it by the tripod, bodily, and 
 move it so it will. 
 
 Force the tripod legs into the ground, or spread them apart, 
 or place their feet, so the plumb bob hangs nearly over 
 the mark, and the tripod will stand firm. Instruments are 
 often set up too insecurely to permit of good work being 
 done with them. On a hard surface like rock, or a street 
 pavement, the shoes on the feet of the tripod must be 
 tight or the tripod will wobble on them. Besides they must 
 be set where there is no danger that they will slip. 
 
 Release the wing nuts at the tops of the tripod legs. Tighten 
 them again. 
 
 Release all of the leveling screws, or other device, that per- 
 mits the use of the shifting center. Shift the transit on 
 its base plate, or shifting center, till the point of the plumb 
 bob hangs exactly to the mark over which the transit is 
 being set up. 
 
 Release the clamp to the transit axis. 
 
 Release the clamp to the spindle axis, if not already released. 
 
 Release all the leveling screws, if not released.
 
 111. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 29 
 
 Turn the transit on its spindle, by taking hold of the edge of 
 the plate, or the feet of the standards (not the telescope), 
 so the bubble tubes will stand parallel to opposite leveling 
 screws. 
 
 Operate the leveling screws parallel to the transit axis till 
 the bubble tube they control reads level, leaving the screws 
 loose. 
 
 Operate the other pair of leveling screws till the bubble tube 
 they control reads level, leaving them a little tight. 
 
 Operate the first pair again till the bubble tube they control 
 reads level, leaving them a bit tighter. 
 
 Operate the other pair again as before, leaving them tighter. 
 
 Operate the first pair again as before, leaving them tighter. 
 
 A few touches more and both levels should read level, and 
 the leveling screws be bearing firmly enough so the transit 
 will not turn on the base plate. They must be considerably 
 tighter when there is much wind. 
 
 See if the point of the plumb bob hangs exactly to the mark. 
 If not release the leveling screws, center the transit car,e- 
 fully, and level again. The transit is now "Set up." 
 
 Turn the transit on its spindle by taking hold of the edge of 
 the plates or the feet of the standards, not the telescope, 
 or the tops of the standards. 
 
 To turn the telescope on the transit axis take hold of the eye- 
 piece end of the body tube, not the eyepiece itself. To 
 reverse the telescope turn the eye end down, take hold of 
 the body tube above the transit axis, not the shade, and 
 complete the reversion. 
 
 The leveling screws should always turn with the same re- 
 sistance, and smoothly, if the instrument is leveled as cli- 
 dected. If this is not the case, clean them, and the hollow- 
 screws they work in. When the instrument is leveled the 
 leveling screws should be bearing evenly and firmly, al! 
 alike in every respect. 
 
 Place the tripod on the ground, if practicable, so the instru- 
 ment man will stand between the feet of two of the tripod 
 legs, ordinarily, while at work, and not astride of one of 
 them.
 
 111. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 To direct the telescope towards an object, release the spindle 
 clamp and the transit axis clamp, if both are not released. 
 Turn the transit on the spindle with one hand to the edge 
 of the plate, and turn the telescope with the other hand 
 to the eyepiece end of the body tube, until when looking 
 over, or under, the telescope it appears to be pointed in the 
 right direction. 
 
 To find the cross wires, first release the clamps to the transit 
 axis and spindle. 
 
 Open the peep hole to the eyepiece. 
 
 Direct the telescope to the sky or a light colored object. 
 
 Look through the telescope. 
 
 Operate the device for moving the eyepiece until the cross 
 wires appear clear, distinct, black lines across the field of 
 view. Make them appear as sharp and well defined a. c 
 possible. 
 
 To focus the objective direct the telescope to look at any ob- 
 ject. 
 
 Look through the telescope. 
 
 Bring the object into the field of vifew by some slight move- 
 ments of the transit, if needed. 
 
 Move the focussing ratchet to the objective until the object 
 appears as clear, sharp, and distinct, as it is possible to 
 make it. 
 
 Move the head slightly but still be able to look through the 
 telescope. 
 
 See if the cross wires appear to slip about on the object. 
 If so, change the focus of the objective, and perhaps of 
 the eyepiece also, slightly, till the motion of the head, above- 
 mentioned, causes no change in the relative position of the 
 object and the cross wires. 
 
 When the objective and eyepiece are both properly focussed 
 the cross wires should appear to be painted on the object. 
 and it should not be possible to change their relative posi- 
 tion by any motion of the head. The view of either the 
 object, or cross wires, or both, may not be quite so per- 
 fectly distinct and clear as before these final changes in 
 the setting of the objective, or eyepiece, but should be.
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 31 
 
 After the telescope is in proper focus, clamp the spindle and 
 
 plate. 
 By means of the slow motion screw to the spindle, make the 
 
 vertical cross wire cover, or bisect, the object, or mark, 
 
 sighted to. 
 
 This is "Making a pointing." 
 If the plate must be set at any given reading for a designated 
 
 pointing, do this by the plate clamp and slow motion screw, 
 
 before making the pointing. 
 Make the pointing by means of the spindle clamp and slow 
 
 motion screw, as above. 
 Read the plate verniers. See if the readings are correct. If 
 
 so, the pointing is finished. If not, repeat the work till 
 
 they are. 
 
 30. ^Line Staves. Pickets. Sight Marks, 
 
 Line staves are used in transit work. A common one is 
 made of *^>" wrought iron pipe, one end closed, the other 
 steel pointed, about 7 ft. long, painted white, with the 
 second, fourth, and sixth foot from the top, or closed end, 
 painted red, or black. A line staff should be straight, true, 
 and the point exactly in the axis of the body of the rod. 
 Set the point of the rod on a board. Twirl it in a vertical 
 position. It should revolve true and not wobble. Watch 
 it at the place where the steel point is welded on. This 
 makes a practical staff for general use. On some city and 
 bridge work a ^" solid steel rod, about five feet long, 
 turned true and its point centered in a lathe, painted the 
 same as the pipe, is found to be very satisfactory. 
 
 The line staff is held on a point, or mark, from which line 
 is to be taken, or to which an observation is to be made, 
 and used as a mark to sight to. It is also used to find 
 where any line comes by being set in line by the transit. 
 
 To hold a line staff, stand squarely behind it as viewed from 
 the instrument ; face the instrument ; settle the body firm- 
 ly on the legs with the feet apart, alike on both sides ; let 
 the staff pass centrally along the body from the nose down, 
 the person having a sense that the body is plumb ; and
 
 32 111. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 hold the staff with both hands brought together at the 
 same place on it, the ends of the fingers and thumbs em- 
 bracing it, and with the elbows extended alike on both 
 sides. Practice this in calm weather, and there will be less 
 trouble in holding the staff plumb when the wind blows. 
 Sight as near as possible to the point of a line staff. Never 
 trust the line when only two or three feet of the top can 
 be seen. 
 
 Many other things are used for marks to sight to in transit 
 work. A plumb bob string, a small nail, or the point of a 
 lead pencil, are suitable marks up to 300 ft. or so ; a lead 
 pencil, or one of the 6" spikes from the measuring set, 
 from 100 to 500 or 600 feet. From thence on for a couple 
 of miles the line staff, made of yS pipe is suitable. These 
 distances are subject to modification according to the con- 
 ditions of seeing. The line staff is used within short dis- 
 tances from the transit. The tendency is to use much too 
 large marks to sight to. Neither is there always sufficient 
 '"care bestowed in selecting and placing them so the pointing 
 
 on them will be precise. 
 
 One of the more useful marks in transit work is a p j icJjiiL- 
 Where there is timber, cut a stick i" to 2" thick, about a 
 foot longer than the height of the transit as usually set 
 up. Make a straight blaze along about two feet of its 
 top about 1/4" wide for sights from one to three thousand 
 feet long. Choose the lightest colored wood, as hickory, 
 "or basswood. Cut the top square across the blaze with a 
 slant back from the blaze. Sharpen the bottom end to go 
 in the ground. Before moving the transit turn its telescope 
 on to the mark where the next set up is to be. Stick up 
 this picket with the straight blaze set to look plumb from 
 the forward set up place, so it will stand firm with the 
 blaze close up to the eyepiece. Range the blaze fairly be- 
 hind the telescope. Tf the telescope is inverting, look 
 through it from the objective end. Tf the picket is not too 
 close the blaze may then be set in the middle of the open- 
 ing. If the telescope is erecting sight over it, or beneath 
 it. rtvl on rprh side r>f it. At the new set up set the verti-
 
 ill. HAXDI.INC. INSTRUMENTS 33 
 
 cal cross wire to bisect the blaze on the picket at the place 
 that was at the eyepiece. This picket is better than a 
 line staff held up on the mark and dispenses with one man. 
 Any other kind of a stick may be used, as a piece of board. 
 
 Short sights should be avoided. Sometimes this cannot be 
 done. Then use a lunib boji_siiag, a fine nail, a pencil 
 point, the back of a pocket knife blade, or some similar 
 small object. In sighting to a blumb bob string set the 
 cross wire on it as near the place from which it is sus- 
 pended, as practicable. Often the plumb bob string may 
 be held in the hand grasping a line staff, or long stake, 
 stuck into the ground to one side of the line of vision, and 
 inclined till the point of the bob is exactly to the mark it 
 is desired to sight to. This will steady the hand holding 
 the string. 
 
 A picket. long or short, of suitable thickness may be stuck 
 in the ground back of a mark and inclined over the mark 
 till a plumb bob string held to the center of its top brings 
 the point of the bob to the mark. Sight to the top of a 
 picket set in this way, where the plumb bob string was. 
 
 A very useful mark to sight to, both for short sights and 
 those up to a thousand feet, or more, is made by sticking 
 a nail, fine, or thicker, as may be needed, twice through a 
 piece of white paper so that the paper will form a back 
 ground for the nail when set in line. Fold the paper, or 
 cut it, into a rectangle. Stick the nail exactly central in 
 the paper and parallel to the sides of the rectangle. This 
 mark is often used by first setting the cross wire on the 
 line where it is to be set by reference to a mark on that 
 line by some other means, as a line staff, or a plumb line, 
 and then setting the nail on line with the transit. Drive 
 the nail plumb. After the nail has been set test the steadi- 
 ness of the transit by again sighting to the reference mark. 
 The person with the line staff or plumb line can then be 
 released for other duty, the nail being used for reference. 
 If prepared and set as directed, this mark can be referred 
 to for line, from any place where the paper can be distinctly 
 seen.
 
 34 111. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Jn sighting to a stick, or mark of any kind, set to show a 
 line, use the very spot that was set on the line, not the 
 other part. 
 
 31. Locating a Mark. 
 
 To locate a mark on a designated line, set up the transit at 
 a mark on that line and set the line of sight (vertical cross 
 wire) on another mark on that line, as above directed. 
 
 Turn the telescope on the transit axis to look to the placy 
 where the new mark is required. Set a line staff in line at this 
 place. Drive a stout stake, or plug, where the staff stood 
 till flush with the ground. While the stake, or plug, is 
 being driven, see that the point of the plumb bob is to the 
 mark, that the plate levels read level, and that the vertical 
 cross wire strikes the other mark on the reference line. 
 When the plug is down, and the transit exactly set, and 
 standing so, set the staff precisely in line on top of the 
 plug, the staff being plumb. Look again to the stability 
 of the transit, and, finding it secure, signal "All right." 
 Drive a small wire nail at the mark in the plug made by 
 the point of the staff, leaving the head up a little. There 
 are many other ways of marking points. 
 
 Measure, and record, distances from the nail in the plug to 
 three, or more, of the nearest and most permanent objects, 
 such as trees, foundations, hydrants, lamp posts, or pumps, 
 with their directions from the plug and plain descriptions 
 of them. Also measure and record the distance from the 
 nail in the plug to some other mark on the same line. 
 
 32. Signals. 
 
 Stand squarely behind the transit when giving signals. Make 
 the motions slowly, especially if they are to be read at some 
 distance. It is usual to move too quickly in giving signals. 
 
 To say "Move the line staff to the right," stretch out the 
 right hand and arm level. 
 
 To say "Move the line staff to the left/' stretch out the left 
 hand and arm level. 
 
 Let one down by the side before raising the other.
 
 111. IIANDUNG INSTRUMENTS 35 
 
 To say "All right," raise both hands above the head and 
 
 with the arms fully extended, bring- them slowly down to 
 
 the sides. 
 To say "Hold up the line staff," throw the weight onto one 
 
 foot and extend the opposite hand and arm as high as they 
 
 will reach. 
 
 To say "Plumb the line staff," incline the head in the direc- 
 tion the top of the staff should go. 
 To say "Come here," beckon with the hat, or head covering. 
 
 The transit man should not "move up" until called in this 
 
 way. 
 Many additional special signals will grow up in any party 
 
 working for some time on the same work. 
 The signals with a handkerchief, a flag, or the like, are 
 
 based on those given. 
 To the right, show the flag to the right. 
 To the left, show the flag to the left. 
 All right, wave the flag slowly back and forth, aloft. 
 Hold up staff, stretch up the hand with the flag in it. 
 Plumb the staff, stretch up the hand with the flag in it and 
 
 incline the flag in the direction the top of the staff should 
 
 go- 
 Come here, raise the flag staff with the head cover on its 
 
 top. 
 
 A whistle is very useful for signalling. It is made of tin, 
 ~ with a "barrel" about one inch in diameter. Most tinners 
 
 know how to make one. 
 To the right, one blast. 
 To the left, two blasts. 
 All right, three blasts. 
 Hold up the staff, one long blast. 
 Plumb the staff, one rather long blast followed by one toot 
 
 for top to the right, or two toots for top to the left. 
 Come here, two long blasts. 
 Something in the way, repeated short toots. 
 Come back and clear out the line, short toot, then a blast, 
 
 repeated as the axeman comes back till he is brought to the 
 
 spot. He may get too far back.
 
 36 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Go ahead, a blast, then a short toot. So bring him to the 
 spot. Then signal him right, cr left, as above, and also 
 
 Up, two toots and a blast. 
 
 Down, a blast and two toots. 
 
 So it is possible to bring his hand to the thing that makes 
 the trouble. When he has the line clear, give him, All 
 right, Go ahead. 
 
 All hands this way, four blasts. 
 
 The above are illustrations which may be greatly extended 
 if occasion requires. 
 
 Right and left must always mean with respect to the direc- 
 tion in which the line is going and not the direction in 
 which the telescope on the transit may chance to be looking. 
 
 33. Putting away Transit. 
 
 Bring in the transit when through work. 
 
 See that it is in good order for immediate use. If not, make 
 
 it so. 
 Put it in its box at once. Do not leave it standing around on 
 
 its tripod. 
 
 The place for an instrument is in its box, when not in use. 
 The place for the box, with the instrument in it, is where the 
 
 temperature is steady and where it will be let alone. 
 Keep in the box with the instrument a fine camel's hair 
 
 brush and a piece of the softest chamois skin for the lenses. 
 
 Keep there another camel's hair brush, such as painters 
 
 use, about an inch wide, for dusting off the instrument ; 
 
 also soft cloths for wiping it. 
 Take off the plumb bob, wind up its string neatly, and put 
 
 it in its place in the transit box. 
 Put the reading glass in its place in the box. 
 Release the spindle and transit axis clamps, if not released. 
 Take off the shade and put it in its place in the box. 
 See if the objective and outside eyepiece lens need dusting 
 
 off. If they do, dust them off with the lens brush. They 
 
 may need slight wiping with the chamois. Be\vare of 
 
 scratching them. 
 Close the cap to the eyepiece.
 
 HI. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 37 
 
 Cover the objective with its cap after seeing that the cap 
 is clean. 
 
 Dust off all parts of the instrument with its brush, if it needs 
 dusting. Wipe it with cloths if required. 
 
 Release the leveling screws. 
 
 Place the transit central on its base plate. 
 
 Tighten the leveling screws rather firmly, making them all 
 even so the plates between which they work will be parallel. 
 
 Unscrew the instrument from its tripod. 
 
 Screw it on to its sliding board, if there is one. 
 
 Clamp the spindle, and release the plate clamp. 
 
 Slide the board into the box carefully with the instrument 
 on it and in its proper position. 
 
 By trial and .examination set the telescope and other parts 
 so as to be as clear of the box as possible. 
 
 Clamp the plate and transit axis but not very hard. 
 
 See that the door of the box shuts freely, no crowding. 
 
 Close the box. Fasten it. Lock it. Put the key away. Set 
 the box in its place. Close and strap the tripod. Put it 
 away in a safe place. 
 
 If there is no sliding board, place the transit in its box in 
 its proper position, so the spindle clamp and transit axis 
 clamp are accessible. When the instruments is securely 
 placed clamp those clamps slightly, also the transit axis 
 clamp. See that the box closes freely. Close and lock it. 
 and set it in its place. 
 
 If an instrument comes in wet wipe it off with soft cloths 
 and brush the moisture off of the outside of the objective 
 and eye lens with the -lens brush, or wipe them with the 
 chamois, or both. 
 
 Unscrew the instrument from its tripod, and set it in a warm 
 (not hot) place to dry, where it will not be touched. 
 
 If there is water between the glasses of the objective, or with- 
 in the eyepiece, or inside of the tubes, or between the 
 plates, let the instrument stand in a warm place for some 
 time (say over night) and it may come out. Do not make 
 haste to be taking things apart to get it out. While wait- 
 ing for the transit to dry, put the reading glass, plumb 
 
 51161
 
 38 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 bob, and shade in their places in the box. Leave the cap 
 off of the objective and the eyepiece cap open till the in- 
 strument is dry. When it is dry, dust and clean it, if it 
 needs it. See that the parts are working freely. Put it 
 away in its box. 
 
 If an instrument has to be transported, have a packing case 
 well upholstered within on all six sides to set the instru- 
 ment box in. It should fit snug. 
 
 For the reading of an angle see 50. 
 
 34. Level. 
 
 For information relating to the following subjects read what 
 is said regarding them under Transit. There should be 
 no difficulty in applying the statements to the handling of 
 a level. 
 
 Packing in its box. 
 
 Tripod. 
 
 Screwing to tripod. 
 
 Cap over objective, and shade. 
 
 Setting box away. 
 
 Carrying on shoulder. 
 
 Setting down. Does not have to be set up over a mark. 
 
 Finding crosswires. 
 
 Focussing objective. 
 
 Lift the level by its base or by the bar upon which the tele- 
 scope is mounted, not by the telescope. 
 
 In leveling this instrument, turn the bar to stand over a 
 pair of leveling screws. 
 
 Operate this pair till the bubble tube reads nearly level, leav- 
 ing the screws loose. 
 
 Turn the bar over the other pair of leveling screws. 
 
 Operate this pair till the bubble tube reads level, leaving 
 them a little tight. 
 
 Turn the bar back over the first pair, do not reverse it. 
 
 Operate this pair again till the bubble reads level, leaving 
 them a bit tighter than the other pair. 
 
 Turn the bar back over the other pair, do not reverse it 
 at any time while leveling this instrument.
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 39 
 
 Operate this pair till the bubble reads level and they are as 
 tight as will be needed. 
 
 Turn the bar back over the first pair. 
 
 Operate them till the bubble reads level, and they are tight 
 enough. 
 
 A few touches more and the bubble should read level in both 
 positions. The bubble tube is much more sensitive than 
 those in the plate levels of a transit and correspondingly 
 more difficult to set to read level. 
 
 The leveling screws should bear evenly, not too tight, and 
 turn by the application of the same force to each. They 
 need be only tight enough to hold the bubble level. When 
 there is no wind at all they may be entirely loose, the level 
 standing upon their bottom ends, with no pressure on the 
 ball and socket joint in the base plate. 
 
 The level is then ready for observing, although may be the 
 bubble will not read level if the bar should be reversed. 
 
 It is now said to be set up. 
 
 35 Leveling Rod. 
 
 There is used with a level, a leveling rod. 
 
 This is an accurately divided wooden rod. The unit of divi- 
 sion may be anything, but the foot and the meter are prob- 
 ably the most used. 
 
 There are target rods and speaking rods, so-called. 
 
 On the target rod is a target, or two in some cases, to which 
 the pointing of the level is made. After the target has 
 been set by direction of the leveler, the rodman reads the 
 distance of the sight line on it from the zero of the divi- 
 sions, or graduations, usually with the aid of a vernier. 
 
 The speaking rod has no target. The leveler reads the rod 
 without assistance from the rodman, by noticing where 
 the horizontal cross wire appears to lie on the graduations. 
 
 The target rods in most common use in the United States 
 are the Boston Rod, the New York Rod, the Philadelphia 
 Rod, and the Troy Rod. There is some choice in the kind 
 and plan of a rod for different kinds of work.
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 The targets in common use are of a pattern which introduces 
 a considerable uncertainty into the rod readings, espec- 
 ially when at some distance from the level. These pat- 
 terns can be easily improved by using central white spaces 
 on the target, of increasing width towards the sides of the 
 target, these spaces to be bisected by the horizontal cross 
 wire, using the wider ones on distant sights. These spaces 
 should be rectangular in form. 
 
 Speaking rod patterns are of a very great variety of forms. 
 Avoid those containing oblique lines, points and sharp an- 
 gles. The pattern should be made up of rectangles, paint- 
 ed alternately white and black. The pattern should be so 
 arranged that the horizontal cross wire will always lie on 
 a white surface, except at the edges of the black rectangles. 
 The rectangles may be one-tenth of a foot high, or a half 
 a tenth of a foot, the hundredth of a foot, where needed, 
 being estimated by the leveler. 
 
 Do not infer because a target rod is read to thousandths of 
 a foot by a vernier, while the hundredths of a foot on a 
 speaking rod are "Guessed at," and the thousandths 
 "Thrown away," that the target rod is either more pre- 
 cise, or more trustworthy. 
 
 Target rods are made in more than two pieces, for obtaining 
 a longer extension, or a shorter length when closed. 
 
 Speaking rods are hinged, or jointed, for compactness. They 
 are also made in the form of a broad tape, to be fastened 
 to a board for use, and rolled up when not in use, the 
 "Flexible" rod. For many uses, take a strip of wood of 
 any suitable length, %" x 2", and tack on to it a piece of 
 a metallic tape measure. Mark off, on the stick, the even 
 feet from the steel tape, and tack on the tape so its foot 
 marks fit these. This rod may be of any length, up to 
 fifteen feet. It is very useful on rough work. 
 
 The leveling rod is used for measuring the vertical distance 
 between the line of sight of the level and any object. The 
 object may be below the line of sight of the level, as is 
 commonly the case in surveys upon the surface of the 
 ground, or above it. as in overhead work, which mav be
 
 III. H.VXm.INr. I \STkr.\IK.\TS 41 
 
 met with in tunnels, mines, selling of steel beams, or in 
 leveling shafting. 
 
 The rod is used by holding it vertical, or waving it slightly, 
 so as to measure the shortest distance from the line of 
 sight of the level to the object upon which the foot of the 
 rod is held. Tn leveling shafting, a large hook is sometimes 
 screwed into the foot of the rod and the rod hung from 
 the shafting by this hook. A hook with a square turn is used, 
 also one with a circular curve of larger radius than the 
 shafting. The latter can be used on shafting of any size 
 smaller than the curve of the hook, while the hook with 
 the square turn sets lower on the smaller shafting and re- 
 quires a correction to the rod reading in addition to that 
 for the size of the shafting when the axis of the whole 
 line, it may be containing different sizes, must be placed 
 at the same, height. 
 
 When using a target rod, the rodman should move the tar- 
 get as directed by the leveler, with an uniform, steady, 
 even, motion, not by jerks, and spurts. 
 
 When using a speaking rod the rodman should be very par- 
 ticular to hold it plumb. Read the suggestions for hold- 
 ing a line staff plumb. 
 
 When using any rod the rodman should stand squarely back 
 of the rod and face the level. 
 
 Signals. 
 
 Target to be moved down, leveler lowers his hand and shows 
 the back of it to the rodman, who keeps the target going 
 down with an even motion until stopped by a signal from 
 the leveler. 
 
 Target to be moved up, leveler raises his hand and shows the 
 inside of it to the rodman, who keeps the target going up 
 with an even motion until stopped by a signal from the 
 leveler. 
 
 As the sight line on the target approaches the horizontal 
 cross wire the leveller quickly throws his hand and arm 
 out to a horizontal position in time to catch the target with 
 its sicrht line on the cross wire. This he will soon learn
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 to come very near doing. The rodman seeing this signal, 
 as quickly stops the target and holds it from slipping. A 
 slight adjustment of the target will bring it exactly to 
 place. 
 
 The leveler extends both arms to say "All right." 
 
 To say ''Plumb the rod," the leveler inclines his head the way 
 the top of the rod should go. 
 
 To say "Wave the rod," the leveler raises his hand above his 
 head and waves it back and forth towards and away from 
 the rod. 
 
 To say "Hold up the rod," the leveler throws his weight on 
 to one foot and raises his opposite hand as high as he can 
 reach. 
 
 To say "Clamp the target" or "Clamp-the rod," the leveler 
 whirls his hand around as if turning a crank. 
 
 In a wind the rodman may not be able to make the leveler 
 hear distinctly his call of the figures in the reading of a 
 target rod. It is quite easy to mistake "five" for "nine." 
 The rodman lays his rod on the ground and stands facing 
 across the levelers line of vision. He extends his arms 
 wide apart vertically and brings the palms of hands to- 
 gether, not too quickly, as many times as there are units 
 in the figure he wishes to communicate, as seven times 
 for figure seven. He makes a short pause. He makes the 
 next figure in the same way, and so on till the leveler sig- 
 nals "All right," that he understands them all. 
 
 To say "Repeat the rod reading," the leveler waves his hand 
 with jerks and mixed movements, signifying confusion. 
 
 A rod is "Read" by repeating the figures of the entire read- 
 ing, speaking the feet (or other units) first, as "Eleven," 
 pausing slightly, and following with the figures in their 
 order in the decimal part of the reading. 
 
 Shouting, noise, and racket, are no part of surveying. Keep 
 as quiet as possible, and give undivided attention to the 
 work. It takes this to avoid errors, mistakes, and blunders. 
 
 "Short rod" means a movement of the target within the 
 length of the foot piece, or bottom piece, of the rod. 
 
 "Long rod'' means a movement of the target beyond the 
 length of the foot piece of the rod.
 
 in. IIAXDI.IXG INSTRUMENTS 43 
 
 For long rod with the "New York" or "Philadelphia," rod 
 set the target exactly to the short rod reading at which the 
 long rod reading begins, as at 6.500, on some New York 
 rods. Be particular about this, or the long rod readings 
 will be wrong. 
 
 For long rod with the "Boston" simply invert the rod and 
 take the reading from the other vernier. 
 
 For long rod with the "Troy" rod, the leveler sights to the 
 upper target and adds the distance, as 6 ft., between 
 the sight lines of the targets, to the reading from the ver- 
 nier. 
 
 37. Taking a Rod Reading. 
 
 Hold the rod vertically with its foot on the object upon 
 
 which a rod reading is to be taken. 
 Direct the telescope to look at the rod. 
 Focus the objective sharply on the rod. 
 vSee if the bubble reads level. If not, start the leveling 
 
 screws that are nearest parallel to the level tube slightly 
 
 and set them so the bubble will real level and stand at that 
 
 reading. 
 By directions from the leveler, the rodman sets the target so 
 
 its sight line precisely matches the horizontal cross wire. 
 Clamp the target. 
 See if the bubble still reads level. If not, repeat the work, 
 
 till it does. 
 Wave the rod slowly back and forth, towards and away from 
 
 the level, past the vertical both ways, if the rod reading is 
 
 over six feet. If there is much wind wave the rod for a 
 
 reading of over four and a half feet. 
 See if the target is set to match its sight line precisely to 
 
 the cross wire once in its path, as it is waved, and passes 
 
 below the wire each way from that one place. 
 See if the bubble reads level. 
 When satisfied, read the rod. 
 Do not wave the rod for a short reading, say up to two or 
 
 three feet, or the reading will be wrong.
 
 44 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Always be sure the bubble reads level fur every rod reading 
 whether the level is in adjustment, or not. 
 
 The above directions provide for a rod reading having all 
 the precision possible, with the instruments used. Such 
 rod readings should be taken on all Bench Marks, Turn- 
 ing Points, or other objects, upon which the transfer, con- 
 tinuation, or preservation, of the levels depend. 
 
 In placing pegs, or other marks, for construction it is custom- 
 ary to read the rod to hundredths of a foot, and not to 
 use quite the extreme care above outlined. 
 
 In taking rod readings on the surface of the ground merely 
 to get its elevation, it is customary to seek to obtain their 
 correct value to the nearest tenth, or half tenth, of a foot, 
 and much less care is needed. 
 
 The above directions for the target rod may be adapted to 
 the use of the speaking rod. 
 
 38. Putting away Level. 
 
 Bring in the level and rod when through work. 
 
 See that the level is in good order for immediate use. If 
 not, make it so. 
 
 Put it in its box at once. Do not leave it standing around 
 on its tripod. 
 
 The place for an instrument is in its box, when not in use. 
 
 The place for the box, with the instrument in it, is where the 
 temperature is steady and where it will be let alone. 
 
 Keep in the box with the instrument a fine camel's hair 
 brush and a piece of the softest chamois skin for the lenses. 
 Keep there another camel's hair brush, such as painters 
 use, about an inch wide, for dusting off the instrument ; 
 also soft cloths for wiping it. 
 
 Take off the shade and put it in its place in the box. 
 
 See if the objective and outside eyepiece lens need dusting off. 
 If they do, dust them off with the lens brush. They may 
 need slight wiping with the chamois. Beware of scratch- 
 ing them. 
 
 Close the cap to the eyepiece.
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 45 
 
 Cover the objective with its cap after seeing that the cap is 
 
 clean. 
 
 Dust off all parts of the level with its brush if it needs dust- 
 ing. Wipe it with cloths if required. 
 Release the leveling screws. 
 Tighten them rather firmly, making them all even so the 
 
 plates between which they work will be parallel. 
 Unscrew r the level from its tripod. 
 Put the level in its box. 
 See that the box closes freely, no crowding. 
 Close the box. Fasten it. Lock it. Put the key away. Set 
 
 the box in its place. 
 
 Close and strap the tripod. Put it away in a secure place. 
 In case a level comes in wet follow the instructions given for 
 
 the transit when wet. 
 If a level has to be transported, have a packing case well 
 
 upholstered within on all six sides to set the instrument 
 
 box in. It should fit snug. 
 
 39. Putting away Leveling Rod. 
 
 See that the leveling rod is in good order for immediate use. 
 
 If not, make it so. 
 Put it away in its place at once. Do not leave it standing 
 
 around. 
 Dirt and damage from use, or abuse, make a rod worthless. 
 
 Clamp screws can be cleaned. Leave no oil when done. 
 
 Clamps can be refitted. 
 
 Metal parts *Sh be fastened better. 
 
 Fixed targets, as on the Boston Rod, can be fastened on 
 more securely. 
 
 Common hard soap will lubricate clean wooden parts. 
 
 If the rod is dim to read from dirt, -wash it with soap and 
 water.
 
 46 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 PRACTICE. 
 
 Setting" up, and putting away instruments. 
 
 40. Transit. 
 
 Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 Axe, stakes, and nails. 
 
 Line staff. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued or be liable for" the defects 
 found upon their return. 
 
 41. Inspection of Transits. 
 
 Try all clamps and slow motion screws. 
 Try all rotary motions. 
 Spindle axis. 
 Plate. 
 Verniers. 
 
 Transit, or telescope axis. 
 Try focussing motions. 
 Objective slide. 
 Eye piece. 
 Try leveling screws. 
 
 If not on center of base plate with leveling screws even 
 
 and firm, return to user. 
 Look for cross wires, 
 
 plumb bob chain, 
 
 reading glass, 
 
 plumb bob, 
 
 shade, 
 
 cap over objective, 
 
 screw driver, 
 
 adjusting- pins.
 
 III. IIAXDUXG 1. \STKL-.M1CNTS 47 
 
 camel's hair brushes, 
 damage to box, 
 
 broken, or cracked, bubble tubes, 
 scratches on- the objective, 
 cap on eyepiece, and 
 evidences of blows, upsets, or abuse. 
 Examine all circles and their verniers for scratches, 
 dents, and injuries of any kind. 
 
 42. Inspection of Tripods. 
 
 Look for shoes, 
 
 loose shoes, 
 
 wing nuts, 
 
 bolts, 
 
 breaks, or splits, in legs, 
 
 damage to top screw, 
 
 cover cap, 
 
 dents, or bends, in top casting, and 
 
 evidences of misuse or abuse. 
 
 43. Reminders. 
 
 Observe narrowly how the transit is packed in its box. 
 
 See that the shoes on the tripod are tight, and the screw on 
 
 it in good order. 
 Lift the transit by its plates, or base, not by the transit axis 
 
 or standards. 
 Put the cap in the box. 
 Put on the shade. 
 
 Take the plumb bob and reading glass. 
 Put the box away. 
 Release all the leveling screws before beginning to level the 
 
 transit. 
 
 Focus the telescope carefully. 
 
 Make pointings with precision. Bisect the mark accurately. 
 Sight to the bottom of the line staff, if practicable. 
 Use good stakes, no splinters. 
 l'se good plugs. 4" or more, across the top, driven flush 
 
 with the ground, not stakes. These for instrument points.
 
 48 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 Make good notes. They cannot be too good. 
 
 Watch all the stuff all the time, or some of it will get lost. 
 
 Each person be responsible for certain articles. 
 
 Before moving away from a work" place, find all of the out- 
 fit and account for every article. 
 
 When through work, put every thing away, in order for im- 
 mediate use, and in its place. 
 
 44. Take a transit out of doors. Set it up properly over a 
 
 nail in a stake, or plug. Learn and operate the different 
 motions and parts. Find the cross wires. Set the line of 
 sight on a mark. Locate a new mark, as a nail in a plug, 
 on the line to the mark sighted to. Take down the transit, 
 repack it in its box properly, and put it away. 
 
 45. Level. 
 
 Outfit. 
 
 Level. 
 
 Leveling Rod. 
 
 Axe, and stakes. 
 Examine the articles as issued or be liable for the defects 
 
 found upon their return. 
 
 46. Inspection of Levels. 
 
 Try clamp and slow motion screw. 
 Try rotary motions. 
 Spindle axis. 
 Telescope in wyes. 
 Try focussing motions. 
 Objective slide. 
 Eyepiece. 
 Try leveling screws. 
 
 If not even and firm, return to user. 
 Look for cross wires, 
 shade, 
 
 cap over objective, 
 screw driver, 
 adjusting pins,
 
 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 49 
 
 camel's hair brushes, 
 
 damage to box, 
 
 broken, or cracked, bubble tubes, 
 
 scratches on objective, 
 
 cap on eyepiece, and 
 
 evidences of blows, upsets, or abuse. 
 
 47. Inspection of Leveling Rods. 
 
 Try the clamps. 
 
 Try the slide. 
 
 Look for clamp screws, bent, broken, or lost, 
 
 loose target, on Boston, or Troy, Rods, 
 
 scratched, or bent, target, dirt, 
 
 scratches on scales, or face of rod, dirt, 
 
 damaged, or lost, verniers, 
 
 splits,. or breaks, in tongue and groove, and 
 
 evidences of blows, falls, or abuse. 
 
 48. Reminders. 
 
 See how 7 the level is packed in its box. 
 
 Examine the tripod. 
 
 Lift the level by its base or bar. 
 
 Put the cap in the box. 
 
 Put on the shade. 
 
 Put the box away. 
 
 Release all the leveling screws before beginning to level the 
 instrument. 
 
 Focus the telescope carefully. 
 
 Set the target accurately. 
 
 See that the bubble reads level for every rod reading. 
 
 Hold the rod plumb. 
 
 Watch all the stuff all the time, or some of it will get lost. 
 
 Each person be responsible for certain articles. 
 
 Do not set a leveling rod where it is liable to fall down and 
 be broken. This is too common. Lay it on the ground. 
 
 When through work, put every thing away, in order for im- 
 mediate use, and in its place.
 
 50 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 
 
 49. Take out of doors, a level and rod. Set up the level. 
 Learn and operate the different motions and parts. Hav- 
 ing set it up firmly and leveled it carefully, take a roc! 
 reading on a B. M. Find H. I. Take other rod readings 
 on various places and find their elevations. Take down 
 the level, repack it properly in its box, and put it away. 
 Put the rod away. 
 Jjearn to use both the target rod and the speaking rod
 
 IV. SURVEY OF A TRIANGLE. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 50. Reading an Angle. 
 
 Set up the transit over the mark at the vertex of the angle. 
 Clamp the plate. Set the line of sight on the object which 
 marks the left hand side of the angle, using the spindle 
 clamp and slow motion screw. See that the plate levels 
 read level. 
 
 Read the plate. Record the readings. 
 
 See that the line of sight still strikes the object on which 
 it was set. 
 
 By repeated examinations make sure the transit is stable, 
 level, the line of sight on the object, and the plate reading^ 
 recorded correctly. 
 
 Release the plate clamp. 
 
 Set the line of sight on the object which marks the right 
 hand side of the angle, using the plate clamp and slow 
 motion screw. 
 
 See if the plate levels read level. If much out, repeat all the 
 previous work and adjust these levels if necessary. So 
 make sure of the setting of the transit for the second ob- 
 ject. 
 
 Read the plate. Record the readings. 
 
 See that the line of sight still strikes the object upon which 
 it was last set. 
 
 Release the plate clamp. 
 
 Set the line of sight again on the left hand object, using the 
 plate clamp and slow motion screw. 
 
 See that the plate levels read level. 
 
 Read the plate. Record the readings. 
 
 See that the line of sight still strikes the left hand object.
 
 52 IV. SURVEY OF A TRIANGLE 
 
 See if the first and last readings are alike, or nearly so. If 
 
 not, repeat the work till they are. 
 Follow the form herewith. 
 Reduce the value of the angle by one of the methods shown.
 
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 jR *scuelt**s* tlU A>*J&4 { 
 
 
 
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 5. 5 J
 
 IV. SURVEY OF A TRIANGLE. 
 
 F1EU3WORK. 
 
 51. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 Measuring set. 
 Axe, stakes, and nails. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 52. Stake out a triangle with sides about 500 ft. long. Esti- 
 
 mate their length. 
 
 Designate the stakes by A, B, C. 
 
 Record a description of each stake, and its general location, 
 under its letter, in the note book. Take four, or more, 
 witnesses to each stake. Record these witnesses with the 
 description of the stake. 
 
 A. Is a nail in a stake i" x 2" driven flush with the 
 ground in the S.W. corner of the second field N.W. of 
 John Smith's house on the N.E. side of the South Ypsi- 
 lanti Road about itf. miles S.E'ly from State St. in Ann 
 Arbor, Mich., from which a 
 
 Witnesses. Swamp Oak 14" in diameter, bears N. about 
 50 W. 8' .45 to its center, and a 
 Pear tree 6" bears N. about 25 E. i84'-7 to cen - 
 Spike in root of Soft Maple 20" S. 86? E. 42'. 19. 
 4'. 3 W'ly to range of E'ly corner of barn about 10 rods 
 S'ly, and the peak of the N.E'ly gable of the next dwelling 
 S.E'ly from said barn on S.W'ly side of highway, above 
 named. 
 
 Similarly for B and C. 
 
 Read, record, and reduce, the angles of this triangle, follow- 
 ing the instructions and form, given above. 
 
 Use small marks to sight to, a nail, a spike, or a pencil. 
 
 Measure the sides of this triangle, with the steel tapes. 
 
 Record these measurements. 
 
 Verify the work by adding the angles, and by the sine equa- 
 tion, fr sin A = a sin B, &c. Record the discrepancies.
 
 54 IV. TWENTY ROD READINGS 
 
 IV. TWENTY ROD READINGS 
 
 On the Same B. M. 
 
 53. Outfit. 
 
 Level. 
 
 Leveling Rod, target rod. 
 Axe, and a stake. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 54. Directions. 
 
 Set up the level firmly and level it carefully. 
 
 Drive the stake 350 or 400 ft., estimated, away from the 
 
 level, about flush with the ground. 
 Rodman take leveler's note book. 
 Rodman hold up the rod on top of the stake. 
 Set the target as precisely as possible. Be sure the bubble 
 
 reads level. 
 Rodman record the reading of the rod in the leveler's book 
 
 according to the form below, without calling off the same. 
 Leveler start the leveling screws sufficiently to throw the 
 
 bubble away from its level reading. Do not disturb the 
 
 level otherwise. 
 
 Level the instrument again carefully. 
 Take a second rod reading as precisely as possible. 
 Rodman record the reading as before. 
 Start the leveling screws again. 
 Repeat these operations, using the utmost care, until there 
 
 are twenty rod readings recorded in the leveler's book. 
 Change places, and do the same work again. 
 Add the twenty rod readings. 
 Divide the sum by 20. 
 Subtract each rod reading from the quotient, or average 
 
 reading. 
 
 Record the discrepancies, each with its proper sign. 
 Add them. See if their total sum is zero. 
 This is a device sometimes used to check the average result. 
 
 It is not a very safe check, as it does not verify the various 
 
 steps in the process.
 
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 T" MJ^^t^f 
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 V 
 
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 V. READING ANGLES. CLOSING THE HORIZON. 
 
 FIELD WORK. 
 
 55. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 Axe, and a stake and nail. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 56. Directions. 
 
 Take the .transit to a place commanding' a view around the 
 horizon. 
 
 Drive the stake flush with the ground and drive the nail in 
 its top. 
 
 Set up the transit firmly. Level it carefully. 
 
 Select five, or more, objects at distances away of from half a 
 mile to two miles, so as to divide the space around the 
 horizon into five, or more, angles. 
 
 Read, and record, each of these angles separately.. 
 
 Each person read each angle independently. 
 
 Do not set the plates to read zero. 
 
 For the nearer objects use a joint in the brick work of a 
 chimney, a sash bar in a window, or some similar small 
 object to sight to. At a greater distance the corner board 
 on a house, the post on a porch, the finial on a cupola, or 
 some similar somewhat larger object that can be bisected 
 precisely, make suitable marks to sight to. 
 
 Reduce the angles. 
 
 Add them. See if the sum equals 360. 
 
 Record the discrepancy.
 
 56 V. PEG IvEVELS. SHORT CIRCUIT 
 
 V. PEG LEVELS. SHORT CIRCUIT. 
 
 57. Outfit. 
 
 Level. 
 
 Leveling Rod. 
 
 Axe. Pegs. Piece of chalk. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or he liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 58. Directions. 
 
 To find the difference in elevation between two objects not 
 far apart. Involves three or four settings of the level. 
 Done to learn the process. Follow the form, given below. 
 for the record. 
 
 Set up the level firmly, not over 350 ft. away from the place 
 from which the leveling is to proceed, and where it will 
 be convenient to continue towards the place the levels are 
 to run to. Level the instrument carefully. 
 
 Take a rod reading with precision on B. M. 
 
 Record it in the -f- S column. 
 
 Rodman find a suitable place for a turning point not over 
 350 ft. from the level and where it will be convenient for 
 continuing the leveling. Such places are tops of stones 
 fast in the ground, tops of curbs, cement, or stone, walks. 
 cross walks, or tops of hydrants. On a large surface like 
 a curb or cross walk mark the place the rod is held up on 
 with chalk, or otherwise, so it cannot be mistaken, and 
 can be found again. If no such place is found, drive a peg 
 in the ground till it stands firm and is nearly flush with tin- 
 surface. Use the top of this peg for a turning point. 
 
 Take a rod reading with precision on T. P. (turning point V 
 
 Record it in the S column on the next line below the last 
 rod reading in the -f- S column. 
 
 Take up the level, after the record is made, not too quickly. 
 
 Set it up not over 350 ft. beyond the T. P. on the way tin- 
 levels are to go.
 
 * * 
 
 JL>O L, 
 
 fy 
 
 ~ 6 
 
 -f S -S P*^ U PJM. + S 
 
 .391 
 
 D. 
 
 \.[ik 9-. 9 15 -l.Z'11 + *J.f3j 1.153 1.73 t 
 
 11.311 0,5l t -1-0.5*?? - 0.fc00 1./36 J/.313 
 
 j^.^tfJ . L <*! l l 1-lO.Llf -lO.Cfl 0,
 
 . uL 
 
 o+<. -3. w. 
 
 . T.
 
 V. 1'1'V, l.KVKI.S. SHORT CIRCUIT 57 
 
 Take a rod reading with precision on the T. P. 
 
 Record it in the -f- S column on the same line as the last 
 
 rod reading in the S column. 
 Rodman, find, or make, the next T. P. 
 Take a rod reading on it, as before. 
 Record this in the S column on the next line below the 
 
 last rod reading in the -(- S column. 
 Move the level, as before. 
 Continue the work in this manner until a rod reading is 
 
 taken on the place to which the levels run and is recorded 
 
 in the S column. 
 Let the level stand. 
 
 Continue the' record as above outlined, and as per form. 
 Leveler take the rod. Rodman take the level. 
 Repeat the rod reading on the place the levels were run to, 
 
 preparatory to returning on the same pegs. 
 Record this in the second -f- S column on the same line as 
 
 the previous rod reading on the same place in the first S 
 
 column. 
 
 Repeat the rod reading on the last T. P. 
 Record this in the second S column on the next line above 
 
 the last rod reading in the second -(- S column. 
 Move the level. 
 Continue the work back to the starting place, until a rod 
 
 reading is taken on the B. M. where the levels began. 
 Record the successive rod readings in the second -(- S and 
 
 S columns, proceeding up the page as in the form. 
 Add the rod readings in each -j- S column. 
 Add the rod readings in each S column. 
 Add, with their signs, each pair of these sums, that is, find 
 
 the algebraic sum of the rod readings taken on the way 
 
 out, and of those taken on the way back. 
 See if these results have opposite signs and are nearly equal. 
 
 If not, repeat the work and correct the errors. There is 
 
 no way of finding an error in such work except by repeat- 
 ing the work. A plus result shows the place at the end 
 
 of the run to be higher, and a minus result, lower, than the 
 
 starting place.
 
 58 v. PEG i.i;\ i;i,s. SHORT CIRCUIT 
 
 Add the rod readings, with their signs, in pairs, that were 
 taken at each setting of the level, as -f 6.381 and 11.592, 
 giving 5.211 as the distance the first T. P. is below the 
 B. M. Enter these sums, with their signs, in columns, be- 
 side the rod readings that gave them, both going and re- 
 turning. For convenient comparison the figures may be 
 arranged as in the form. There may be found greater 
 discrepancies in the figures showing the difference in ele- 
 vation between the same two T. P's going, and returning, 
 than appears for the entire circuit. In the form, the dis- 
 crepancy for the circuit is 1.764 1.760 = 0.004, while 
 between the first and second T. P.s the discrepancy is 
 7.835 7.829 = 0.006. It may also be noticed that these 
 discrepancies arc in opposite directions. Such compari- 
 sons show the so-called "Closing error" of a leveled cir- 
 cuit to have only a general value, and that discrepancies in 
 such work are compensating. 
 
 If it is impracticable to use the same T. P.s, going and re- 
 turning, the two lines of levels will have no connection 
 except at their ends and the above comparisons cannot be 
 ' made.
 
 VI. TRAVERSING. 
 
 59. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 Measuring set. 
 Two line staves. 
 Axe, stakes, and nails. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 60. Directions. 
 
 A field with s"even sides, and one reentrant angle. No side 
 less than 500 feet. To enclose from 30 to 40 acres. 
 
 61. Stake out the field. 
 
 Designate the stakes by A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. 
 
 Record a description of each stake, and its general location, 
 under its letter, in the note book. Take four, or more, 
 witnesses to each stake. Record these witnesses with de- 
 scription of stake. 
 
 62. Forms of record. 
 
 Field of seven sides situated between Packard street and the 
 Ann Arbor railroad south of Hill street, and north of the 
 E. W. Y 4 line of Section 32, T. 2 S. R. 6 E. Mer. of 
 Mich. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, designate the vertices of the 
 angles in the boundaries of this field. 
 
 A. Is a nail in a stake driven flush with the ground, stand- 
 ing on the third prominent ridge N. of the Detroit Obser- 
 vatory, Ann Arbor, Mich., from which a 
 
 Witnesses. Hickory, 12" in diameter, bears N. about 55 E., 
 72'. 3 to its center, and a 
 
 P.. Walnut 27" hoars S. about 35 E. 26i'.4 to cen.
 
 6o VI. TRAVERSING 
 
 Spike in root of Sycamore 32", S. about 45 W. 47'. 13. 
 Spike E. face of brick wall near S.E. corner of barn, N.W'ly 
 
 Field notes of traverse to read from bottom of page 
 upward. 
 
 63. Measure the sides. 
 Measure down hill. 
 
 As each measurement is made enter it in the sixth column 
 of the record on. the line with the note in the third column, 
 showing in which direction the measurement proceeded. 
 See form of record following. 
 
 64. Instrument work. 
 
 Set up the transit at any station, as A. 
 
 Backsight to G by means of either clamp and slow motion 
 
 screw, the other clamp being clamped. 
 Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the two 
 
 left hand columns of the field notes at the bottom of the 
 
 page, with a note in the third column that the pointing is 
 
 from A to G, all as shown in the form of notes. 
 Take another look at the verniers and backsight, to make 
 
 sure the pointing is exact and the vernier readings cor- 
 
 rectly recorded. . 
 Release the plate clamp. 
 Set the line of sight on the mark at B by means of the plate 
 
 clamp and slow motion screw. 
 Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the 
 
 fourth and fifth columns of the notes on the next line above 
 
 the last entry, with a note in the third column that the 
 
 pointing is from A to B. 
 Release the plate clamp. Set the line of sight again on A G 
 
 by means of the plate clamp and slow motion screw. 
 Read both plate verniers. See if these readings agree sufficient- 
 
 ly well with those when the first pointing A to G was made. 
 . If not, repeat the work till they will. Record these read-
 
 ' / 
 
 7 
 
 TT tj'ztBo zz'zt'tt 
 
 , 
 D $ If'd t***** 
 
 \kfsj 
 
 3 to C
 
 7L 
 
 ' y > 
 
 C. 
 
 
 . s.
 
 / 
 
 
 i II
 
 -. 71
 
 VI. TUAVKUSING 6 1 
 
 ings in the two left hand columns of the notes on the line 
 next above the last entry, with a note, in the third column 
 that the pointing is from A to G. 
 
 Again direct the telescope to B, and set up a picket behind 
 the eyepiece, facing B, if pickets are used. 
 
 Move the transit and set it up at B. 
 
 Set the plate verniers at the same readings they had when 
 the pointing was from A to B, each vernier at its orig- 
 inal reading, do not exchange them. 
 
 Set the line of sight on A, by means of the spindle clamp 
 and slow motion screw. 
 
 Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the first 
 and second columns of the notes, with a note in the third 
 column showing the pointing to be from B to A. 
 
 Leave one space blank between these and the last previous 
 entries. 
 
 Compare these entries in the first and second columns with 
 the last previous ones in the fourth and fifth columns. If 
 they are not the same, or as nearly so as can be, repeat 
 the setting of the plate verniers and the pointing from B 
 to A, till these records agree. 
 
 Look once more at the verniers, and be sure they read cor- 
 rectly. Also notice the pointing and make sure it is exact. 
 
 Release the plate clamp. 
 
 Set the line of sight on C, by means of the plate clamp and 
 slow motion screw. 
 
 Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the 
 fourth and fifth columns of the notes on the next line above 
 the last entries, with a note in the third column showing 
 the pointing to be from B to C. 
 
 Release the plate clamp. Set the line of sight again on B A 
 by means of the plate clamp and slow motion screw. 
 
 Read both plate verniers. See if these readings agree suffi- 
 ciently well with those when the first pointing B to A was 
 made. If not, repeat the work till they will. Record 
 these readings in the two left hand columns' of the notes 
 on the line next above the last entry, with a note in the 
 third column that the pointing is from B to A.
 
 VI. REG I,EVJ$IvS. U>NG CIRCUIT 
 
 Again direct the telescope to C, and set up a picket behind 
 the eyepiece, facing C, if pickets are used. 
 
 Move the transit and set it up at C. 
 
 Repeat the same operations there, using first the plate read- 
 ings obtained when sighting from B to C. Proceed in this 
 way around the field until the transit is set up at G. When 
 the plate readings for the pointing G to A are recorded, 
 they should be the same as the plate readings when the 
 pointing A to G was taken, with the readings exchanged 
 between the verniers. If this is not the case review the 
 work and correct the errors. 
 
 In a field with an even number of sides the readings will not 
 be exchanged between the verniers. 
 
 VI. PEG LEVELS. LONG CIRCUIT. 
 
 FIEU)WORK. 
 
 65. Outfit. 
 
 Level. 
 
 Leveling rod. 
 
 Axe. Pegs. Piece of chalk. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 66. Directions. 
 
 Run peg levels from the U. S. eGol. Stir. B. M. El. 874.976, 
 in the south door of the Mechanical Laboratory and 
 find the elevation of some other B. M. a mile, or so, away, 
 and involving from 18 to 30 settings of the level, due to 
 the distance, or difference in elevation. Make the record 
 show the closing error, and the discrepancies peg by peg, 
 if practicable. Follow the instructions for peg levels given 
 under V.
 
 VII. COMPUTING AND PLATTING TRAVERSE. 
 
 OFFICE WORK. 
 
 67. Outfit. 
 
 Field notes of traverse survey. 
 
 68. Traverse Angles. 
 
 Beginning in the central part of the notes, check off either 
 vernier reading for the traverse angle of the side along 
 which the forward pointing was made, that is, in those 
 columns marked "Foresights." Proceeding each way from 
 this traverse angle check off vernier readings, alternately 
 in "Ver. A',' column and "Ver. B" column, for the for- 
 ward pointings along the several lines, till a traverse angle 
 is marked for each side of the survey. 
 
 69. Prepare book. 
 
 Make eight columns, about an inch and a quarter wide, across 
 the open field note book, using the following headings: 
 Trav. Ang. Dist. -\- s j-f^ c-x y 
 
 70 Enter notes in above form. 
 
 Enter in the first column the traverse angles checked off in 
 the field notes, and in the second column on the same line 
 with each traverse angle, the length of the side to which 
 it belongs. Leave a blank above each entry. 
 
 71. Compute the traverses, s and c. 
 
 A - traverse angle of any side. 
 d = length of the side A belongs to, always plus. 
 
 Signs of sin. A and cos. A are according to the quadrant in 
 which A ends. 
 
 Compute s=ds'm. A. 
 and c = d cos. A.
 
 64 VII. COMPILING AND PLATTING TRAVERSE 
 
 Sample computation. 
 
 s c 
 
 2.528274 337.50 2.528274 
 
 9.820774 41 26' 30" 9-874847 
 
 2.349048 2.403121 
 
 +223.38 +253.00 
 
 Take. out the results to the second decimal place, only. 
 Knter these values of ^ and c in their proper columns against 
 
 the values of d from which they came. 
 Find 2 s and 2, c. Both should equal zero. 
 
 72. Errors. 
 
 In case the difference from zero of 2, s and 2, c is large. 
 
 review all the figures from the checking off of the vernier 
 
 readings, and correct all errors found. 
 If the difference from zero is still large, review, and verify, 
 
 the work in the field. 
 When the errors are found and corrected 2 s and 5 r will 
 
 nearly equal zero. 
 
 73. Balancing traverses. 
 
 Find and correct all errors that can be found, and bring 2 s 
 and 2 c as nearly to zero as practicable before applying 
 any corrections. 
 
 Compute the corrections for any traverse by the following 
 equations : 
 
 For the sine traverses, 
 
 For the cosine traverses, 
 
 Use the different values of d in succession to obtain the cor- 
 rections for the traverses of the various sides. Subtract 
 these corrections from the traverses to which they apply, 
 observing all signs.
 
 Ay O 
 ' 
 
 / ' 
 
 * 
 
 C ( 
 
 . oo 
 
 3JSJ& Ml*} 
 
 
 f ft* 491. 9* 
 
 of = 
 
 -s 
 
 *l SO. 
 
 3*3. t 
 
 49 H. I 
 
 + 0.37 =
 
 / 
 
 lit..** 
 
 
 
 -a3$, 40 S 
 
 /^9. ^ r 
 
 000. 00 O OO.OO 
 
 I 
 
 -0.13. 
 
 7?. .
 
 ^^ATxi^/^t^x/^y 0*1 xcoxt3^xt 
 
 / J S 
 
 -(0 -30 
 
 C 
 
 ) 
 
 ICojSjlcro 
 
 12101 6. 
 
 / I I57AI1 7
 
 ' / / 
 
 -/. 
 
 60 16 3 7.010? 
 
 12223 M-.t3

 
 VII. COM1MUXG AND PLATTING TRAVERSE 65 
 
 Enter the corrected values of the traverses in the blank 
 spaces above the traverses as first computed. Draw neat 
 pencil marks through the former values. 
 
 Find 2. J and 2 c anew, using the corrected traverses. They 
 may still not quite equal zero. In this case apply any 
 small remaining errors to the traverses of one or more of 
 those sides the field data for which is most open to sus- 
 picion of being erroneous. In case there are no such sides 
 apply the final corrections to the traverses of the longest 
 side, or sides. 
 
 By repeating the first corrections a second or even a third 
 time, in the case of some very poor work, and by distrib- 
 uting the small remaining errors as above directed, finally 
 bring 2 5 and 2 c, both to actual zero. 
 
 . Computing coordinates, x and y. 
 
 .\- = 2 s y = 2 c. 
 
 Observe all signs carefully. 
 
 Find the sum of the sine traverses to the end of each side of 
 the field in succession, for the values of x. Similarly, sum 
 the cosine traverses for the values of y. The last x and 
 the last y must be zero. 
 
 75. Prepare book. 
 
 Make four columns about two inches wide, two on each 
 page of the open field note book, using the following 
 headings : 
 
 + D.A. D.A. +D.A. ---D.A. 
 D. A. means double area. 
 
 i. Compute D. A. 
 
 D.A. =2 Ofe (Cn + Cn + l) 
 
 = S + #n (*n + *n + l) 
 = I C n (X n - 1 H- Xn) 
 = S + Sn (Vn - 1 + 1/n) 
 = ^ Xn (t/n + 1 t/n - l) 
 = S -f 1/n (* + 1 - X n _ ,)
 
 66 VII. COMPILING AND PLATTING TRAV1CRSK 
 
 ( )bscrve all signs carefully. 
 
 Use two of these forms. 
 
 Enter the results obtained by the two different forms, on 
 the two different pages, the -\- results in the -\-D.A. col- 
 umns and the results in the D. A. columns. 
 
 Do not use logarithms in these computations of D.A., but 
 natural numbers. Take both decimals in all the values 
 of s, c, x, and y, thus giving four decimals in each product. 
 
 Sum the products on each page for the double area of the 
 field. These sums must be identical out to the last right 
 hand figure. 
 
 Divide the double area by 2 to get the area of the field. Re- 
 duce the area to acres. 
 
 77. Directions. Platting. 
 
 Each person make a plat of the traversed field, on cross ruled 
 
 paper. See Sec. 10. 
 
 Select the origin and axes of coordinates. Assume a scale.- 
 Count off the coordinates of A, B, C, &c., and mark them on 
 
 the paper. 
 Measure A to* B., B to C, &c., to scale on the paper. See if 
 
 these measures agree with those made on the ground. Tf 
 
 not, correct the platting. 
 Join A and B, B and C, &c., by plain black lines, not too 
 
 broad. 
 
 Complete the plat according to the instructions in Sec. 10. 
 Fasten the plat in the field note book to the stub of a cut 
 
 out leaf. 
 The axis of Y is the reference line and the -f- direction is o 
 
 for the traverse angles. If the plate readings that were 
 
 not checked had been taken as the traverse angles the o 
 
 would have been in the opposite direction.
 
 
 
 COMPUTATIONS RELATI 
 
 
 SYMBOLIC 
 
 
 TRAV 
 ANGLE 
 
 DI5T. 
 
 TRAVERSES 
 
 COOP DIN A TES 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 s d sin A 
 
 c- d co-s A 
 
 x- r s 
 
 Y' E c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 s -d sin A 
 
 c -d cos A 
 
 X - S 
 
 V - C 
 
 
 ' i 
 
 t i i 
 
 ii i 
 
 I I 
 
 ^ / / 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 s -.d sin A 
 
 c -d cos A 
 
 X - X * S 
 
 V . VfC 
 
 
 
 2 4 2 
 
 2 ? 2 
 
 27 S 
 
 z ' i 2 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 S . d $mA 
 
 c --d cos A 
 
 X -X + S 
 
 v= v + c 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 33 3 
 
 33 3 
 
 323 
 
 ^3 J 2 J 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 s - d sin A 
 
 c d cos A 
 
 X - X + S 
 
 V- V +C 
 
 
 
 
 44- 4- 
 
 
 
 etc 
 
 etc 
 
 etc 
 
 etc 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 A 
 
 d 
 
 S = d sinA 
 
 c *d cos A 
 
 X .X-+S 
 
 V- V + & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 When co 
 
 rrec/ed 
 
 IfX a 
 
 rfv - b\ 
 
 
 
 r s~ o 
 
 r c = o 
 
 m 
 X = Ct'Z S 
 
 'm 
 V b'H\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Observe oil signs 
 
 Plat is made 
 
 
 
 
 
 bv coordinates \ 
 
 
 
 

 
 G TO A CLOSED SURVEV 
 
 L 7'ABLE 
 
 tUBLE 
 TEA 
 
 DOUBLE 
 AREA 
 
 DOUBLE 
 AREA 
 
 DOUBLE 
 AREA 
 
 DOUBLE 
 AREA 
 
 DOUBLE 
 AREA 
 
 (c+C \ 
 
 V (S +S \ 
 
 -C& - X) 
 
 s(v + v J 
 
 -X (V - V J 
 
 yfx -X 
 
 \ n my 
 
 'h(n kfj 
 
 n(n i n> 
 
 
 n " n ' J 
 
 ~n\ n.i n-i) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 re +c 
 
 V fs + s i 
 
 -c pr ^x 1 
 
 s(v * v ) 
 
 --X (V -V i 
 
 Y (*,- x n) } 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (c +c } 
 
 V (S *.> ) 
 
 - C (X +X } 
 
 s (v + v ) 
 
 -x fv _v ) 
 
 V fX - X \ 
 
 2 3 / 
 
 " 2 \ 2 3 J 
 
 
 2l"/ J $>J 
 
 2k 3 ' l J 
 
 *f\ a TJ 
 
 fc -f-c } 
 
 y fs-r s } 
 
 -c '/X t-jf } 
 
 s /v -t- y } 
 
 -x fv -y ) 
 
 v fx x ) 
 
 1 3 4-J 
 
 s 3( 3 4j 
 
 3( 2 3/ 
 
 3 ("2 <>3j 
 
 3(" 4- J 2' 
 
 J 3 ( * & 
 
 (CfC } 
 
 V (S + S } 
 
 -C (Jf +X ) 
 
 s (v +y \ 
 
 -x v-y ) 
 
 V (X -X } 
 
 1(4 Sj 
 
 " 4\ 4 5J 
 
 W 3 4J 
 
 4 (" 3 ^ 4j 
 
 4- "5 ^3j 
 
 "4\ S 3J 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc 
 
 etc 
 
 etc 
 
 etc 
 
 etc. 
 
 (o 
 
 lo 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 'c + c } 
 
 V fS-f S \ 
 
 - c fx -* x 
 
 s (v -f y ) 
 
 -x /v-v \ 
 
 V fX-X } 
 
 m 7/ 
 
 "7fi^ m i J 
 
 m( rn-j m 
 
 my'm-i rnj 
 
 m\" ) J m-ij 
 
 "m i fn-jj 
 
 Sum of entries in any double area column 
 
 equals doub/e area of piece Use two columns. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 VII. PROF1LF, UCVKUNG 67 
 
 VII. PROFILE LEVELING. 
 
 FIELD WORK. PARTY OF FOUR PERSONS. 
 
 78. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 Measuring set. 
 
 Two line staves. 
 
 Axe. 30 or 35 stakes. 3 or 4 plugs. Nails. Marking 
 
 chalk. 
 Levels, 2. 
 Leveling rods, 2. 
 Axe. Pegs, about 50. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 79. Directions. 
 
 On rough ground select a place where a straight line about 
 
 3000 ft. long can be laid out, and either end of it seen from 
 
 the other. 
 Drive a plug with nail in same, to mark the end of the line 
 
 where the measuring is to begin, or zero end. 
 Witness this plug. Record full information about it. 
 Mark a stake with the line mark and the numeral o. 
 Drive this stake about a foot to the right of the plug, as the 
 
 line will run, with the marks facing away from the other 
 
 end of the line. 
 
 Set up the transit over the nail in this plug. 
 Drive another plug with nail to mark the line near its other 
 
 end. 
 
 Witness this plug. Record full information about it. 
 Hold up a line staff on the nail in this plug. 
 Set the line of sight of the transit on the line staff. 
 Take away the line staff. 
 Set a picket in line beyond the distant plug, or any suitable 
 
 mark to keep the line by, or find some object in exact 
 
 line to be used to sight to for line.
 
 68 VII. PROl-ILE LEVELING 
 
 Hold up the line staff again, on the nail in the distant plug. 
 
 See if the cross wire bisects it exactly. If not, review the 
 work and correct the errors, till sure the distant mark is 
 in exact line 
 
 Call back the line staff. 
 
 Watch the transit while laying out the line ; by frequent ref- 
 erences to the distant mark for line; by looking at the 
 plate levels to see that the bubbles read level, especially the 
 one parallel to the transit axis ; and occasionally examin- 
 ing the plumb bob to see if it keeps exactly over the nail 
 in the plug. 
 
 Measure 100 ft. from the nail under the transit in the direc- 
 tion the line is to go. 
 
 Get line at the end of the 100 ft. with the line staff. 
 
 Mark a stake with the line mark and the numeral i. 
 
 Drive this stake at the end of the 100 ft. on the line, and 
 with the marks facing the plug where the transit stands. 
 
 Drive the stake so it stands plumb and is firmly set. 
 
 Test it for line and distance. Correct it for either, or both, 
 by pounding the ground close beside the stake, but leave 
 it plumb and firm. Move it if necessary. 
 
 Measure again and mark 100 ft. on top of the. stake. 
 
 Get line on the stake at the end of the 100 ft. 
 
 Drive a small nail in the top of the stake to mark station i 
 at just 100 ft. from station o, the nail under the transit, 
 and in line. 
 
 Measure on 100 ft. beyond i and set and mark 2 with the 
 same care and precautions used at i. 
 
 Continue setting stakes in this manner until the whole line 
 is marked or some place is reached where it becomes nec- 
 essary to move up the transit in order to see to give line 
 for the stakes. 
 
 Choose a place for a new transit plug from which the distant 
 line mark can be seen and also the succeeding stakes to be 
 set. 
 
 Look over the transit and see that it is over the nail, is level, 
 and the line of sight is on the distant mark. 
 
 dive line for the new ping.
 
 vii. PROFILE; LEVEUNG 69 
 
 While the plug is being driven look the transit over again 
 for position, level, and line, and be ready to give line at 
 once. 
 
 Get line on the plug with the line staff. 
 
 Mark the place. 
 
 Take away the line staff. 
 
 See that the line of sight strikes the distant mark. 
 
 If not, review the work and correct the errors until it will. 
 
 Signal "All right." 
 
 Drive a nail, not quite down, at the mark on the plug. 
 
 Call up the transit. 
 
 While the transit is coming, measure the plus from the pre- 
 ceding stake and record this plus and any other informa- 
 tion about this plug. 
 
 Mark a stake .with the line mark and station number and 
 plus for this plug, and drive it about a foot to the right 
 of the plug. 
 
 Set up the transit over the nail in the new plug. 
 
 Set its line of sight on the distant mark. 
 
 Measure 100 ft. from the last regular station set, not the 
 transit plug, if at a plus, and continue setting stakes, as 
 before. 
 
 Continue marking the- line somewhat beyond the last dis- 
 tinctive depression, or rise, on the line, even if it is a few 
 hundred feet more than 3000 ft. long. 
 
 This is the manner of marking what is called a "Located 
 line" in Leveling and Earthwork. 
 
 Divide into parties of two persons. 
 
 Find, or make, a B. M. at each end of the line. 
 
 Record full descriptions of these benches. 
 
 Find, by peg levels, the elevation of one of them, say the 
 one at the zero end of the line, or assume an elevation 
 for it. 
 
 With one of the levels begin leveling from the B. M. at the 
 zero end of the line, following the instructions given in 
 Leveling and Earthwork in sections I to 13. Section 10 
 gives special instructions about Location Levels, such as 
 should be.
 
 jo VII. PROFILE LEVELING 
 
 With the other level begin leveling from the B. M. at the 
 other end of the line following the same instructions ex- 
 cept omitting all elevations. 
 
 \Yhen the two levelers meet, the leveler from the far end 
 of the line take a precise rod reading on some T. P. or 
 B. M. whose elevation has been found by the party that 
 began at the zero end of the line. 
 
 Party No. 2 work out all of their elevations. 
 
 Both parties continue leveling till each has covered the whole 
 line and all the benches. 
 
 Both parties run "Check Levels" between all the benches, 
 see section 13 of Leveling and Earthwork. 
 
 Taking the B. M. at the zero end of the line to be correct, 
 both parties reduce the corrected elevations for all the 
 benches. 
 
 Take the half sum of these elevations of bench marks found 
 by each party as their corrected elevations. 
 
 Correct all the elevations of stations, plusses, and turning 
 points, between benches to conform to the corrected eleva- 
 tions of the benches. 
 
 Agree upon the corrected elevations of every place where a 
 rod reading was taken. . If unable to agree at first, both 
 repeat enough of the work on the ground to reach an 
 agreement. 
 
 The result will be the corrected levels for this line from 
 which the profile is to be made.
 
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 VIII. PROFILE AND GRADE LINE. 
 
 OFFICE WORK. 
 
 Each person prepare a profile of the 3000 ft. line of levels. 
 With advice of teachers, each person fix upon a grade line 
 
 on profile and work out all elevations of grade, including 
 
 vertical curves. 
 Follow the instructions in sections 14 to 22 of Leveling and 
 
 Earthwork. ' 
 
 VIII. STAKING OUT A GRADE. 
 
 80. Information. 
 
 If the last mentioned survey, profile, and grade line, were 
 for a railway, highway, or similar consturction, follow 
 Leveling and Earthwork, from section 23 on. 
 
 For a canal the work of staking out is similar to that for a 
 railway but the cross sections may be more extended, es- 
 pecially where the canal is enclosed by banks, or where the 
 spoil banks are staked out. However no additional prin- 
 ciples are involved more than are given in Leveling and 
 Earthwork. 
 
 In making surveys for any excavation over a considerable 
 area, as for a large building, an artificial pond, or for 
 grading, follow the instructions for Borrow Pits given in 
 sections 41 and 45 in Leveling and Earthwork. For filling 
 a piece of ground the work is similar. Stakes, or poles, 
 should be set over the area to be filled, as needed, with 
 tops sufficiently above the finished grade to allow for set- 
 tlement, see Sec. 57 in Leveling and Earthwork.
 
 VIII. PROF1UC AND GRADlv LINE 
 
 A survey for a dam, or similar structure, involves a contour 
 map of the site, as well as a survey similar to that for a 
 railway for a short distance, namely, along the dam itself. 
 If an earth, or rock fill, dam, is to be built the slope on 
 the upstream side may be as flat as i on 3, while the slope 
 on the face may be i on 2. The whole site for the dam should 
 be covered by borings close enough and carried deep enough, 
 not only to reveal suitable materials for supporting the 
 dam and that will hold back the water from beneath it, 
 but also to reveal any pockets there may be of materials 
 that may prove dangerous. The borings may need to be 
 extended much beyond the site of the dam itself. Fre- 
 quently, not enough borings are made. This is true for 
 any heavy structure. Such should not be undertaken until 
 the knowledge of the materials below ground is as com- 
 plete, and as trustworthy, as the knowledge of those on 
 the surface. The borings may have to be as close as 5 ft. 
 by 5 ft., in extreme cases. Borings should be surveyed 
 and mapped. Then profiles of any materials below the 
 surface can be made out and grades, or sub-grades, fixed 
 upon. In the case of the dam, the contour survey and map 
 may be extended up stream as far as the pond will reach 
 to give the pondage. 
 
 For a heavy building, the remarks about borings apply. 
 
 The same is true for chimneys, towers, bridge abutments or 
 piers, and any similar structure. 
 
 Men do not always remember that the load on any structure, 
 as well as the weight of the structure itself, must at last 
 rest on the ground, and that the ground will not in all in- 
 stances carry "anything." Still more frequently is it for- 
 gotten, or disregarded, that the load on each square foot 
 of the materials beneath a structure should be proportioned 
 to the carrying capacity of those materials, if uniform set- 
 tlement is to be expected. Especially is this true in build- 
 ings where footings beneath posts and piers are made too 
 large for those tinder the walls. The walls settle more 
 than the piers, floors go out of level, and machines and 
 shafting arc thrown out of level. .All this may require the
 
 VIII. PROFILE AND GRADE LINK 73 
 
 various materials upon which a structure of considerable- 
 extent is to rest to be uncovered so as to be examined by 
 the engineer and perhaps tests made by applying actual 
 loads to ascertain the amounts and rates of settlement. 
 
 In staking out a grade, set the stakes where they will be con- 
 venient for reference by the workmen, where they will not 
 be dug up or covered, where they will stand firm, and be 
 secure from disturbance. The same stakes can sometimes 
 be used for both line and grade, as the "Track centers" on 
 a railway, or those set for a ditch or pipe trench. 
 
 On any kind of a ditch, or pipe trench, decide upon which 
 side of it the. excavated materials shall be placed, so as to 
 leave the other side clear, for access of men, for materials, 
 and for any work that may be required. Fix upon a berm, 
 or the width of the space, between the excavated materials 
 and the side of the ditch, or trench. The berm will depend 
 upon the nature of the materials to be moved, the depth 
 of the digging, the side slope of the work, the weather to 
 be expected, and whether curbing is to be used, or not. 
 Set the grade stakes within this berm, near its outer edge, 
 if practicable. If the same stakes are used for both line 
 and grade the transit work and leveling must go on to- 
 gether. Decide upon a distance between the center line; 
 of the work as marked on the ground, and a line parallel 
 thereto where stakes are to be set by the transit with nails 
 in their tops to mark this parallel line for the use 'of the 
 workmen. Make this distance even feet, or some simple 
 number, whenever practicable. Give the workmen sticks 
 cut to this distance. This distance may have to be differ- 
 ent on different parts of the work.
 
 VIII. STAKING OUT A GRADE 
 
 VIII. STAKING OUT A GRADE. 
 
 FIELD WORK. PARTY OF FOUR. 
 
 81. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 Measuring set. 
 
 Line staff. 
 
 Axe. 2" x 2" stakes. J/s" x 2" stakes. Nails. Marking 
 
 chalk. 
 Level. 
 
 Leveling rod. 
 Axe. Pegs. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 82. Directions. 
 
 A tile drain, a pipe trench, a ditch, or a walk. 
 
 Stakes to be set for both line and grade. 
 
 Square out a line with the transit from the center line at 
 some station, or transit plug, on it. 
 
 Drive a 2" x 2" stake on this squared out line at the distance 
 of the parallel line from the center line. 
 
 Drive this stake till it stands plumb and firm. 
 
 Drive a small nail in the top of the stake at exact line and 
 distance. 
 
 Mark this stake with the number of the transit point, or mark 
 another //s" x 2" stake with this number and drive it about 
 a foot to the right of the first. 
 
 Set another 2" x 2" stake, measured, lined, and marked, in 
 the same way from some other station or transit plug on 
 the center line. 
 
 Run, measure, and mark, with 2" x 2" stakes and nails, giv- 
 ing the stakes the same numbers as the stations on the cen- 
 ter line opposite which they stand, a line parallel to the 
 center line, based on the two stakes and nails first set.
 
 VIII. STAKING OUT \ GRADE 75 
 
 Check the measurement from one of these stakes first set, 
 by measuring the closing distance to the other. If the 
 measurement is not near enough correct, review the work 
 and correct the errors. 
 
 Set up the level. Find H. I. by taking a rod reading on a 
 B. M. 
 
 Decide how high above grade the top of any 2" x 2" stake 
 on the line parallel to the center line shall be. 
 
 Add this height to the elevation of grade at that place. 
 
 Subtract this sum from H. I. for rod reading on the 2" x 2" 
 stake. 
 
 Drive the 2" x 2" stake till the rod gives this reading when 
 held up on it. The target may be set at once at the read- 
 ing, if a target rod is used. 
 
 Use the same distance above grade for as long a run as prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 Use numbers that will reduce to simple terms in feet and 
 inches. 
 
 Reduce the decimal of the rod reading to inches. 
 
 Mark the height in feet and inches of the top of the 2" x 2" 
 stake above grade, on that stake, or on the witness stake 
 beside it. 
 
 Do the same for each 2" x 2" stake at the time it is being 
 set by the transient party. 
 
 Sometimes on a marsh all the grade stakes for a ditch can 
 be set at the same height above grade. Do this where 
 practicable, and give the workmen sticks cut to this height. 
 
 VIII. STAKING OUT A GRADE. 
 
 83. Information. 
 
 In grading, or paving, a street, stakes must be set as needed 
 and not too many set at one time. Enough of them must 
 be set to define the cross section of the street plainly for 
 the workmen. This may mean as many as seven lines of 
 grade stakes to be carried along the street.
 
 76 VIII. STAKING OUT A GRADE 
 
 In some street gutters four or five lines of grade stake:- may 
 be needed on a seemingly narrow strip of ground. 
 
 Grade stakes for curbs, either on streets or elsewhere, are 
 troublesome to keep in place because they must be set close 
 to the curb trench, and be used for line also. Drive two 
 long stakes a little back from the trench, if practicable, 
 and securely nail to them a strip of wood pointing cross 
 wise of the curb and extending to its work edge, face, or 
 corner. Make the end of the stick line and the bottom of 
 it grade. Some times pieces of iron pipe 4 ft. long, or 
 more, can be used for curb grades. Set the top to grade 
 and the outer side parallel to line of curb. 
 
 Sidewalk grades in a built up district in a city oftentimes may 
 be marked on watertables, stone steps, window sills, or by 
 spikes or nails in the joints of brick work. 
 
 Grade stakes for concrete floors may be small and left in the 
 concrete. They should be set as needed, with their tops 
 to grade. 
 
 For grades for buildings, see IX.
 
 IX. STRAIGHT LINE. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 84. Rem. A straight line may be run by fore sights or by back 
 
 and fore sights. By fore sights marks are set in line with 
 the instrument point and another before it. By back and 
 fore sights marks are set in line with the instrument point 
 and another back of it. This last is much the better way 
 and is the one commonly used. 
 
 The plate must be level. Keep sharp watch of the plate level 
 parallel to the transit axis. 
 
 85. By Fore Sights. Set up the transit over a mark on the 
 
 line. Set the line of sight on a mark on the line in the di- 
 rection in which the line is to go. Give line for a mark, 
 as a nail in a plug, beyond the sight mark where it can 
 be seen from the sight mark. While the plug is being 
 driven see if the point of the plumb bob hangs to the mark 
 beneath the transit, see if the plate levels read level, and 
 see if the line of sight strikes the sight mark. Correct the 
 setting of the transit in any, or all, of these particulars, 
 and be ready to give line as soon as the plug is driven. 
 With one more look at the plate level parallel to the transit 
 axis and to see that the line of sight strikes the sight mark, 
 give line for a mark on the plug. See if the line of sight 
 strikes the sight mark. If not, repeat these operations 
 until it will. Give the signal "All right." Release the 
 spindle clamp. Reverse the transit on its spindle. Level 
 it if needed. Set the line of sight upon the sight mark. 
 Locate a second mark beside the first with the same tests. 
 Drive a small nail equidistant from the two marks located. 
 The nail will be on the line. 
 
 Set up the transit over the sight mark. Use the new mark 
 as a sight mark, and continue the line- as before.
 
 78 IX. STRAIGHT LINE 
 
 86. By Back and Fore Sights. Set up the transit over a mark 
 on the line. Set the line of sight on a mark on the line in 
 the direction opposite to that in which the line is to go. 
 Reverse the telescope on the transit axis and give line for 
 a mark in advance, as a nail in a plug. While the plug 
 is being driven, see that the point of the plumb bob hangs 
 to the mark under the transit, see if the plate levels read 
 level, and reverse the telescope on the transit axis and see 
 if the line of sight strikes the back sight mark. Correct 
 the setting of the transit in any, or all, of these particulars, 
 and be ready to give line as soon as the plug is driven. 
 With one more look at the plate level parallel to the transit 
 axis and to see that the line of sight strikes the back sight 
 mark, reverse the telescope on the transit axis and give 
 line for a mark on the plug. Reverse the telescope on the 
 transit axis. See if the line of sight strikes the back sight 
 mark. If not, repeat these operations until it will. Give 
 the signal "All right." Release the spindle clamp. Re- 
 verse the transit on its spindle. Level it if needed. Re- 
 verse the telescope on the transit axis. Set the line of 
 sight on the back sight mark. Reverse the telescope on 
 the transit axis and locate a second mark beside the first, 
 with the same tests. Drive a small nail equidistant from 
 the two marks located. The nail will be on the line. 
 
 Set up the transit at the new mark. Use the one where it 
 stood for a back sight mark and continue the line as be- 
 fore. 
 
 If the two marks located by either of these methods, as above 
 directed are not at the same distance from the transit, the 
 nail must be driven midway between them. By doing this 
 the first two marks may be at some distance apart along 
 the line, and in case the second mark comes off of the plug 
 set to receive them, a stake may be driven to receive it far 
 enough back, .or forward, of the plug, to admit another 
 plug between, without disturbing either, and the nail be 
 driven therein. This will sometimes save considerable 
 time.
 
 ix. STRAIGHT UM; 79 
 
 If the transit is considerably out of adjustment it may take 
 a wide plug to receive both of the first marks. 
 
 If the second of the first two marks comes off of the plug 
 but so close to it that the nail will come on the plug, shove 
 a stout peg into the ground beside the plug, to receive the 
 second mark. This saves time. 
 
 Rem. In running a straight line use pickets, or sight marks 
 of some kind, for back sighting to. This is better than a 
 line staff, held by a "Back flag man" and may save the ser- 
 vices of such a person. 
 
 Where a short sight cannot be avoided use a nail, point of a 
 plumb bob, a pencil point, or some similar small thing to 
 sight to, either forward or backward. The nail and paper 
 mark is a goo'd one, only use a small nail. 
 
 When sights must be short and obstructions in the way use 
 a plumb line, of suitable length and fineness to sight to. 
 It may be held steady by sticking the line staff, or a long 
 stake, in the ground obliquely, and grasping it high enough 
 up with the hand holding the plumb line. By changing 
 the inclination of the staff the bob may be held over a 
 mark, or brought into line from the transit. 
 
 When running a straight line, set one pair of opposite leveling 
 screws on the line. The other pair will then stand across 
 the line, and in the best position for keeping the plate level 
 tube parallel to the transit axis reading level. This level 
 tube is the more important of the two, in this work. It 
 should be closely watched and kept reading level. After 
 using the leveling screws for this purpose the reference 
 sight must be repeated. 
 
 IX. STRAIGHT .LINE. 
 
 FIELD WORK. 
 88. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 Line staff. 
 
 Axe. 6 plugs. 5 pickets. Nails.
 
 80 IX. STRAIGHT LINE 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 89. Directions. 
 
 Select a place open to the sky, where a straight line can be 
 
 run for from a half a mile to a mile, and all the pickets be 
 
 seen from the last plug, as across a valley. 
 Set five or six plugs, not less than 500 ft. apart. 
 Use the Back and Fore Sight method. 
 If possible refer the line to some distant mark, or object, 
 
 in the rear. 
 Set up the transit where it is proposed to place the first plug. 
 
 Back sight to the distant mark. 
 Reverse the telescope on the transit axis and see if the line 
 
 of sight ranges along the ground where it is proposed to 
 
 lay out the line. 
 
 If not, shift the transit until it fits this range. 
 Drive the first plug and nail in it accordingly. Leave a 
 
 picket there. 
 
 Set up the transit over this first nail. 
 Back sight to the distant mark, ur place one 500 ft. or more, 
 
 to the rear for this purpose. 
 Set the second plug and nail not less than 500 ft. ahead on 
 
 line by the back and fore sight method. Leave a picket 
 
 there. 
 
 Set up the picket behind the eyepiece, so it will stand firm. 
 Put the plumb bob in a pocket, and draw away the transit 
 
 without disturbing the picket. 
 Set up the transit over the second nail. 
 Back sight to the picket at the first plug, and set a third 
 
 plug and nail not less than 500 ft. ahead on line, as before. 
 
 Leave a picket there. 
 Set up the picket at the second plug behind the eyepiece and 
 
 move the transit to the third nail. 
 Set up the transit over the third nail. 
 Continue the line as before until five or six plugs and nails 
 
 have been set in the manner indicated, always backsight- 
 ing to the last picket even if all the others can be seen.
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 8 1 
 
 Set up the transit over the last nail. 
 
 Back sight to the most distant picket, or mark. 
 
 See how near, by estimation, the vertical cross wire comes 
 to bisecting each picket in the order of their numbers, i, 2, 
 3, 4, &c. Focus the objective sharply on each picket. 
 
 Record the distance, as estimated, that the line of sight strikes 
 away from the line at each picket, showing whether it is 
 to the right (R.) or left (L.) as the line was run. 
 
 See if the line of sight still strikes the most distant mark. 
 
 If not, repeat the observations till it will and correct the rec- 
 ord to conform to the final result. 
 
 Release the spindle clamp. 
 
 Reverse the transit on its spindle. 
 
 Level the transit, if needed. 
 
 Set the line of sight on the most distant mark, and repeat 
 the observations, as before. 
 
 Record the results of these observations beside those first ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Calling deviations to the R. -f, and those to the L. , add 
 with their signs the results of both observations at each 
 picket, to get the actual deviation of the line of sight at 
 each picket. 
 
 Record these final results, showing which is R. and which L.. 
 beside the other records for each picket. 
 
 This gives a demonstration of the trustworthiness of the 
 method and the precision with which the whole work has 
 been done. 
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 90. Rem. A building of any considerable size, or of an irreg- 
 ular plan, can be more accurately, and cheaply, staked out 
 with a transit and measuring set and a level and leveling 
 rod, than in any other way. Besides the work will be more 
 
 trustworthy.
 
 82 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 
 
 Kxamine the plans critically for errors in dimensions, all 
 of the plans, not merely the foundation plan. See that the 
 sum of the interior dimensions plus the thickness of walls 
 equals the exterior dimensions, every where, and in every 
 way, across every part of the building. Record, in full, the 
 results of this examination in the note book, whether er- 
 rors and omissions are found, or not. If errors, or omis- 
 sions, are found report them and refuse to begin staking 
 out until the errors are corrected, and all omissions supplied 
 so all the dimensions can be fully verified. 
 
 Examine the elevations and sections for the location of all 
 grades, such as sub foundations, footings, watertables, 
 ground surfaces, or any other thing whose height must 
 be known. See if the figures agree. Record, in full, the 
 results of this examination. Report all defects, deficiencies, 
 errors, or discrepancies, and refuse to begin staking out 
 until they are all properly taken care of. 
 
 Ask for all needed explanations. On any important building 
 all corrections, changes, additions, or explanations, should 
 be given in writing, or be made on the plans. If this is 
 not done, enter in the note book, at once, all such verbal in- 
 formation, with the date, and source, or authority. 
 
 Be particular not to begin staking out until all the plans, and 
 such parts of the specifications as relate to the location, 
 levels for, and dimensions of, the building are fully and 
 completely understood. The specifications and plans 
 should agree, or be made to agree, upon these matters. 
 
 Too frequently not enough care is taken to make certain re- 
 garding the matters above referred to. 
 
 Too frequently the engineer is asked to stake out a building 
 in a "Rush." This he should refuse to do, unless he 
 knows the plans and specifications thoroughly before hand, 
 or is relieved of all responsibility for the results of his work 
 by a written and signed release. An engineer should never 
 forget that the word "Rush'' stands for mistakes, blunders, 
 trouble, and dissatisfaction, and act accordingly. 
 
 Some line on the building should be designated as the one 
 to be staked out. In a masonry building this may be the
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 83 
 
 brick line, the face of the water table, the face of the foun- 
 dation wall above ground, or any similar one. In a wooden 
 building if may be the face of the foundation wall, the out- 
 side of the frame, or a similar one. There should be room 
 enough on the line boards for laying off spaces for lines 
 for every thing outside of the line staked out. Such are 
 watertable, foundation walls, and footings. The same 
 should be true on the inside of the building. There should 
 be room for the thicknesses of walls, for footings and the 
 like. 
 
 Some line on the building should be designated as the one 
 for which the leveler will give the elevation. In a frame 
 building this is commonly the top of the foundation wall. 
 In a masonry building the top of the first floor joists is 
 used, also the top of the water table, the top of the finished 
 foundation wall, or some similar line. The builder can be 
 accommodated in making this selection but there should 
 be a record to show unmistakably what line was used, and 
 its relation to other lines on the building. 
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING. 
 
 FIEI<D WORK. 
 
 91. Outfit. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 x Measuring set. 
 Line staff. 
 Axe. Short stakes. Nails, 36, 8d, icxl, and 2od. Mason's 
 
 line. 
 2"x4" scantling. %"x6" or 8" boards, surfaced and 
 
 with one edge of each straight. 
 
 Carpenter's level. Hand saw. Sledge, maul, or stone ham- 
 mer. 
 
 Shovel or spade. Pick axe. or grub hoe, surveyor's style. 
 Level.
 
 84 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 
 
 Leveling rod. 
 Axe. Pegs. Spikes. 
 
 Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
 upon their return. 
 
 92. Directions. 
 
 Mark all of the corners of the building by nails in short 
 stakes driven in the ground till firm. Verify the measure- 
 ments and angles till no more can be done to make sure 
 all of the nails are correctly set. 
 
 Stretch a mason's line from nail to nail, taking a turn around 
 each. 
 
 See if anything wrong can be found. If so, correct it. Re- 
 peat the work till no fault can be discovered. 
 
 Set 2." x 4" scantling, as stakes, in the ground, high enough, 
 where practicable, to reach up to, or a little above, the ele- 
 vation to be given with the level. They should be far 
 enough back from the excavation so as to be in no danger 
 from caving, but at about the same distance from the 
 building. They should stand firm. Drive them with a 
 sledge, or stone hammer. In some ground holes may have 
 to be dug for them. There must be at least two, and may 
 be three, or more, in a group. About a convex corner 
 three or more stakes are set so that boards nailed to them 
 will be about parallel to the faces of the walls meeting 
 there. Similarly for a reentrant corner. No stakes should 
 be set within the limits of the excavation, as a rule. Stakes 
 may be set to hold a board about at right angles with a 
 wall to receive the line for that wall on its projection be- 
 yond the stakes. 
 
 Nail boards diagonally from near the top of one stake to 
 where another goes in the ground. Tie the stakes together 
 securely, in this manner. 
 
 With the level and rod mark, on at least one stake in a group, 
 the elevation of the reference line for the 'levels for the 
 building, as the top of the foundation wall, the top of the 
 water table, or the top of the first floor joists, or whatever 
 lino is used. Chock thoso levels fullv.
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A BUIIJDING 85 
 
 Find, or make, a good B. M. to which the levels for the 
 building are referred. Have this B. M. entirely outside of 
 the work where by no possibility it can be disturbed. Con- 
 nect this B. M. with another B. M. entirely away from the 
 locality. Record all of these matters. 
 
 Nail the straight edge of a board to the level mark on a 
 stake, straight edge up, and set this edge level with the 
 carpenter's level. Nail the board to another stake, and 
 complete the nailing with four nails in a stake. Thus do 
 every where. Saw off the tops of the stakes even with the 
 tops of the boards. 
 
 Transfer the lines of the building with the transit from the 
 nails in the short stakes in the ground to the top edges of 
 these boards. 
 
 Make a slight cut with the saw across the top of the boards 
 at the line marks, only just deep enough to take a mason's 
 line. 
 
 While transferring the lines to the boards, extend one, or 
 more, of these lines each way of the building to distant 
 marks that cannot be disturbed, for future reference. 
 Measure carefully from the nails in the stakes first set on 
 any line, each way to these reference marks on that line. 
 Witnesses for the corner marks of the building, accurately 
 measured, may also be used. Record all these matters 
 fully, so the position of the building on the ground, or any 
 line of it, can be quickly replaced. 
 
 With a rule draw out a witness mark from each saw cut on 
 the surfaced side of the line boards and plainly write there- 
 on a brief designation of what line of the building the 
 saw cut is on, as "Brick Line." 
 
 Look over the tops of all the line boards and see if they 
 ^re all in the same plane. 
 
 Stretch a mason's line if! the saw cuts for every line of the 
 building they mark. 
 
 Look over these lines with the utmost care for any mistakes, 
 or faults, of any kind. They should all lie in the same 
 plane. Measurements anywhere between them should 
 agree with the plans.
 
 86 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 
 
 Having done evedything that can be thought of to insim; 
 the correctness and security of the work, including good 
 records of everything whatever, the building must be left 
 for others. If the sills of a wooden building go on the 
 .finished foundation walls and fit, or the first course of 
 cut stone work in a masonry building goes on and fits, 
 the anxiety of the engineer should leave him. 
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A BUILDING. 
 
 INFORMATION. 
 
 93. Rem. On small buildings, projections which are rectangu- 
 lar, polygonal, or circular, and of no great size may be 
 conveniently laid out by templates, it being necessary only 
 to mark the points where the templates join the main struc- 
 ture. 
 
 Circular, or polygonal, forms of considerable size may be 
 sometimes laid out by marking their centers within the lim- 
 its of the excavation and marking the points where they 
 join the rest of the structure. Such centers should be 
 marked in a most substantial manner. An old boiler flue, 
 or piece of 2" or 3" iron pipe, may be driven plumb, the 
 top to the proper elevation, and a plug put in the top on 
 which the center may be marked, and closely witnessed by 
 measurements to other marks as references. Even this 
 may not answer in some cases. 
 
 Large, and especially irregular buildings may be laid out 
 by coordinates. This is a satisfactory way because of the 
 numerous checks it furnishes, and they are needed. Select 
 convenient axes of reference." These may be lines of the 
 building itself, or frequently one of them may. In place 
 of axes of coordinates the building may be surrounded by 
 a rectangle that can be laid out on the ground, and points 
 on the plan referred to the sides of this rectangle, really 
 coordinates. Number all the points on the plan that are to
 
 IX. STAKING OUT A UL'Il.Ol NG 87 
 
 be marked on the ground. Select the principal axis of 
 reference, anywhere across the building in any convenient 
 direction, or entirely without it, and also the origin of co- 
 ordinates, or measurements, on this line. Record thesr 
 facts. From the plans compute and fully verify, beyond a 
 question, the coordinates of every point thereon which j- 
 to be laid out. Record the numbers of all of these points 
 with their coordinate's against those numbers. Lay out th: 
 principal axis of reference on the ground and mark tl> 
 origin of measurement. Measure off on this line the ci-- 
 ordinate along that line of each point of the plan and mark 
 the measurement by a nail in a stake in succession, and 
 lay out a line at right angles with the principal axis. Oi 
 this line measure the other coordinate of the designated 
 point and mark that point by a small nail in a stake num- 
 bered for it. Measure between these nails along the lines of 
 the building. Record the results, and compare them with 
 corresponding dimensions on the plan. They should agre 
 with the plan. This gives one, or more, checks on even 
 line. This method can be used with success to keep ^ 
 building on a lot barely large enough to receive it, withou> 
 staking out much, if any, of it. 
 
 In the simpler structures the work may be verified as follows 
 Lay out the controlling angle, or angles, with the transit 
 Locate the various marks by measurement. Use the transit- 
 to test the angles thus obtained. Or, lay out various line* 
 with the transit and locate marks thereon by measure 
 ments. Verify the work by measuring closing distance 1 * 
 between the marks set in this manner, the same as if the 
 points had been laid out by coordinates, as above outlined
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 Gillespie's Surveying, 1851 to date. Revised by Cady Staley. 
 
 1887. 
 Published by D. Appleton & Co. New York, N. Y. 
 
 Surveying. Daniel Carhart, C.E. Western University of Penn- 
 
 \ sylvania. 1887. 
 Published by Ginn & Co. Boston, Mass. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Surveying. J. B. Johnson, C. E. Wash- 
 ington University, St. Louis, Mo. 1886 to date. Chap 
 ter on Geodesy. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Plane Surveying. Wm. G. Raymond, C.E. 1896. 
 Published by American Book Co. 
 
 Field Engineering. \Vm. H. Searles, C.E. Railroads. Pocke* 
 
 book. Excellent tables. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Topographic Surveying. Herbert M. Wilson, C.E. 1900 to date 
 
 Part V, Geodesy. Chapter XLJ, Camera Surveying. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Plane Surveying. P. C. Nugent, C.E. Syracuse University, 1902 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Surveying. Breed & Hosmer. 1907. 
 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Advanced Surveying. Breed & Hosmer. 1908. 
 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Plane Surveying. J. C. Tracy, C.E. 1908. Pocket Manual. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y.
 
 KKI-KKKNCKS 89 
 
 Manual of Land Surveying. F. Hodgman. Pocket book. Legal 
 
 subjects. 
 Published by the author. Climax, Mich. 
 
 Manual of U. S. Land Survey. Instructions for original surveys. 
 Published by General Land Office. Washington, D. C. 
 
 Photographic Surveying. E. Deville, Surveyor General of Can- 
 ada, 1889 to date. 
 
 To be obtained of the Superintendent of Stationery, Depart- 
 ment of Public Printing and Stationery, Ottawa, Canada. 
 
 Phototopographic Instruments and Methods. J. A. Flemer. 1906. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y. 
 
 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction. John Cassan 
 
 Wait. Very useful to surveyors and engineers. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. ^
 
 DO ANY OF THESE THINGS FIT YOU? 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Going out to work without a note book and pencil. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Going out to work without all the information to be had. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Taking instruments out to work without first knowing their 
 condition. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Taking instruments out to work without all necessary acces- 
 sories, as tripod, plumb bob, reading glass, shade, or 
 adjusting pin. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Sighting at the top of a line staff, or station pole. 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Plumbing up with a line staff. Use a plumb bob and line. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Using splinters, and twigs, to mark stations with. Use stakes, 
 or plugs. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Using stakes for plugs. Use plugs, four inches, or more, 
 across, driven flush with the ground. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Pulling up plugs till through with them.
 
 DO ANY OF THESE THINGS FIT YOU? 91 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Leaving any stakes, plugs, or other marks, temporarily in 
 use while making a survey, to be mistaken for the real 
 marks the survey was made to obtain, or perpetuate. 
 Knock out every thing else, but not till done with them. 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Removing land marks, to plant others, except in the presence 
 of witnesses, and with a complete record of every one 
 present, and every thing found, done, and planted. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Being so particular to read the leveling rod to thousandths 
 where it is not needed, while misreading the tenths and 
 feet. The thousandths do not really amount to so very 
 much when the feet, or tenths, or both, are read wrong. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Making hasty jots and calling it a record. Make a record to 
 be read, understood, and. not mistaken, by a stranger. 
 Do it when the work recorded is done,- not leave it to 
 be guessed at afterwards. 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Making scattered, confused, or mixed up notes. Use a form, 
 or write in full. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Using an instrument the instant any of its parts work hard. 
 Find out what the matter is and fix it, or have it fixed. 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Leaving things around on the work, and forgetting them. 
 This delays not only the careless person who forgets, but 
 others, perhaps stopping the whole work.
 
 92 DO ANY OF THESE THINGS FIT YOU? 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Leaving things around at all, to be picked up afterwards. 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Putting things away in any kind of disorder. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Putting instruments, or tools, of any kind, away, unfit for 
 immediate use. 
 
 Stop ! 
 
 Depending on others to make good any careless practices. 
 Strive to do things as well as they can be done. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Doing things "Good enough/' Do them so no man can bet- 
 ter them. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Trying to work without judgment, endeavoring to mechan- 
 ically follow a process. Strive to become able to make 
 such things as processes. Processes, methods, learning, 
 attainments, are properly tools, or servants, not mas- 
 ters. 
 
 Stop! 
 
 Being satisfied with the atainments acquired in any direction. 
 What has been accomplished is but a step stone to some- 
 thing more, or better.
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Outfit. 
 
 To write with ink. 
 
 Triangles. ' . 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Pencil dividers. 
 
 Pencil eraser. 
 
 Pencil, No. 3. 
 
 Write all of the subjects for examination, with their num- 
 bers, on the first leaf of the blue book. 
 
 Write with ink. Write plain, or print. 
 
 Use well drawn diagrams. 
 
 No reports of examinations given out.
 
 CONDITIONED STUDENTS. 
 
 To continue their work until able to write correctly on all 
 of the subjects in the following list : 
 
 Measuring with steel tapes. 
 
 Reading an angle. 
 
 Traversing. 
 
 Setting up a transit and a level. 
 
 Peg levels. 
 
 Verniers. 
 
 Least reading. 
 Reading a vernier. 
 
 Profile leveling. 
 Running a straight line. 
 
 8 1'
 
 Hit!! 
 
 AA 001270146 2 
 
 BRARY 
 UNTV, ORNIA