HORACE W, CARFENTIER r A^^ A iy/ /A^ ^tv^^^i^0^- AN ESSAT'':;,:??^"^'^'"' ASSYRIOLOGY. GEORGE EVANS, M.A. HIBBERT FELLOW. ^ublidjctJ bo tijc H^tbbtit Cru^tcc^. WILLIAMS AND NORGATE, 14, HENEIETTA STEEET, COVENT GAEDEN, LONDON AND 20, SOUTH FEEDEEICK STEEET, EDINBUEGH. 1883. O*- Lr ;<.7^/ HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO UER MAJESIT, ST. martin's lane, LONDON. CONTENTS, PAGE The Character of the Assyrian Language - - 1 The Place of Assyrian among the Semitic Languages 21 Influence of Assyrian on Hebrew Grammar - - 23 Influence of Assyrian on Hebrew Lexicography - 27 Biblical Geography 37 Biblical History 52 Appendix ....... ^ - qO An Assyrian Tablet . - - . to face jjage 60 Notes - - - - - Gl 618637 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. The CHiVRACTER OF THE ASSYRIAN LaXGUAGE. The Assyrian language is that which was spoken in Mesopotamia, on the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, more than 2,000 years before Christ, by a Semitic people whom we call Assyrians, both on the authority of the Old Testament and of the Inscriptions. It continued to be a living language in this district till after the fall of Babylon (506 B.C.), and even down to the time of the Achsemenian kings in the second century B.C. The Semitic character of this language has been disputed by Renan in his " Les Langues Semitiques," and also by Hitzig and others. Hitzig derives the name Sennacherib not from any Semitic language, but from the Sanskrit, thus: — Sennacherib = o-uv, ' with' + 7ian' (Sanskrit), ' lion ' + haha (Sanskrit), 'daring,' 'shining' But why go to Sanskrit and Greek to explain the name of an Assyrian king ? My readers, I doubt not, Avill agree with me that it is far more probable that the name is to be ex- plained by the language of that people over whom he reigned. It is true that scholars in Assyrian do not thoroughly agree as to the proper explanation of the name : they are all at one as to the explanation of the first two parts of the name, but the difficulty lies with the third part. In the extract at the end of this essay you will find the word Sennacherib written ideographically, and represented by three characters. The first is the name of the moon-god Sin ; the second is the ideograph for ' brotlier,' Avitli the sign of the plural number, and is to be read ahe; and the third is the ideogi-aph >i^yy, in B 2 AN ESSAY ON AS3YRI0L0GY. regard to tlie reading of which the difficidty is. Schrader, in his " Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament," reads irih, from the verb ' rabu,' to be great, or 'to increase;' so that, according to him, the name means, " Sin has increased the brothers." Others think of the word erllm, or some such word, and explain it : " Sin, my brothers are come down, i.e., from above." At any rate, this much is clear, that the key for explaining the name is to be got from the Assyrian. Again, Hitzig compares the well-known name '^!^^^\ the Sumer of the Inscriptions, with the Sanskrit Sinhaladvtpa; and according to the same commentator, Sardanapalus, whose Assyrian name is Assurbanipal = Sardana, ' the heart ' -f pa/a, ' the protector.' Assurbanipal means " the god Assur has begotten a son." And the Assyrian language, from which these proper names are taken, is a Semitic language, and not an Indian language, as would be supposed from the explana- tion of Assyrian names as given by Hitzig. Gesenius in his Grammar {see second English edition, pp. 3, sqq.) sums up the characteristics of the Semitic languages under two heads, dealing (1) with the gi'ammatical structure, and (2) with the lexicography. We shall proceed to apply liis canons to our language, and we shall thus find out how far we are justified in calling Assyrian a Semitic language. A. — Gkammatical Structure. 1. " Among the consonants which in general form the pith and substance of these languages, we find many gutturals of different gradations." In Ass;)Tian the letter Elif \ (cf. Haupt, " Sumerische Famihengesetze," p. 20) is of five kinds. Dr. Haupt gives the following examples in proof of his state- ment : — \^ is the a we find in \ihu, 'father' pi^) ; I2 ^^^^ " "^ aluhi, 'to go' ('n?'^) ■' ^3 ^^^ '^ ^^ alibu, 'sweet milk' C^^H) ; \^ the a in akrdhu, ' scorpion ' (!1'^|!55?) ; \^ in uzalu, ' gazelle ' (a\-J:.\ The student will observe that the initial a in the Assyrian words is represented by five difi'erent gutturals in the two other Semitic languages 1 have quoted, l, or a^ is AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 3 represented by t^ ; a^hy r\; % 1^7 H ; «4 ^'7 i^ ? ^5^7 ^ i.e.., j^2' ^^'^ -'^pii which we find in the Hebrew name of the town Gaza. Gescnius goes on to say that "the vowels proceed all from the three primary sounds (a, i, u), and serve to mark more subordinate distinctions." The three vowel sounds are preserved in their original purity in Assyrian : ef. 1i^ with madu, ' much, many ;' Jci vdih. "^3, ' when.' 2. "Word-stems generally consisting of three consonants." I need hardly prove that this holds true in Assyrian, because the student can find this to be the case by simply glancing through any table of Assyrian words that has as yet been drawn up. (See, e.g.., the Syllabary in Sayce's Grammar.) Of course there are in it quadriliterals, as in the other Semitic languages : cf. a vei'b whose consonants are p.r.s.d., and which means ' to escape.' 3. " In the Verb only two tense forms, each having a peculiarly marked-out usage, and a pervading regularity in the formation of verbals." In Assyrian there are only two tenses, viz., the Imperfect and the Present. The Imperfect has an aorist signification, and the Present an imperfect, thus : iksud, ' he conquered ; ' ikamd, ' he conquers.' The pervading characteristic of the Present is an accented a after the first radical ; in ikasud or ikassud the radicals are k s d, i.e., l'Qi'3, and after the first radical we have the vowel a. In isahal (7pt2J), 'he weighs,' a follows tlj ; so in imddad or imaddad, 'he measures.' In the Imperfect the voAvel is generally u, thus : imdud, ' he measured ; ' iskul, ' he weighed ; ' iksud, ' he conquered ; ' but a in ilmad, ' he learned.' 4. " In the Noun only two genders, Masculine and Feminine." The Assyrian also only knows two genders. Its feminine in Nouns is generally formed by the addition of the syllable tu, thus : kalhu, ' a dog ; ' halhatit, ' a bitch ; ' maliku, ' a prmce ; ' mcdkatu, ' a princess ; ' helu, ' a lord ; ' bel{i)tu, ' a lady,' &c. In Assyrian the neuter gender is impossible, and is not to be found. The Assyrian Noun has thi'ee vowel endings corresponding to the three primary vowels, Aaz., u or urn, i or im, a or ayn. As in Arabic we b2 4 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. liave the niination, so in Assyrian we have mimation. I speak only of the vowel-endings of the Nouns, and not of their cases, because in Assyrian no fixed rule can be given in regard to the vowel-endings of the cases: e.g., 'the house of the father ' may be written either hit dbi, or hUu sa dhi (not hUi dhi, because hlti s cstr. state) : rarely hit sa dhi. The use of the particle sa in these examples to express a genitival relationship corresponds to the use of the ? in Syiiac, "1 in Aramaic, and H in ^thiopic. 5. "In the Pronoun the oblique cases indicated by appended forms {sujjixa)," The Assyrian has both nominal and verhal suffixes, (a) Nominal suffixes, e.g., dhi or dhi-ia, i.e., dhia, 'my father;' dhi-ka, 'thy father;' dhi-su, 'his father;' ziru-ni, ' our race ; ' lihhi-kun (pi.), ' your heart ; ' sarri-sunu, ' their king.' {I)) The verbal suffixes are — Singula}' 1st Person = -anni or -hmi. 2nd „ = -ha, -akka, or -ikka. 3rd „ (masc.) = -sii. 3rd „ (fern.) = -si. Plural 1st Person = -annasi. 2nd ,, = kiuiu, -hunusi. 3rd „ (masc.) = -siin, sunfitu, suniifi, or mniisi. 3rd ,, (fem.) = sin, sind, &c. G. " Scarcely any compounds, either in the Noun (except many proper names) or in the Verb." This canon holds especially true of Assyrian, compounds being largely limited to the proper names, e.g., Tiglatlipileser = Tugulti-apil-esarra ; Esarhaddon = Assur-ahu-iddina ; Nelnichadnezzar = NahiX- hudur7'i-usur. There are cases, undoubtedly, of compound words other than proper names, e.g., asaridu, * the chief ' = asar (construct state of asm, ' a place ') + idii, ' the first,' so that asarklu means ' the first in place or rank.' 7. In proof that Gesenius's 7th canon, " in the syntax a simple succession of clauses without nnicli periodic structure in the sentences," holds in Assyrian, I need only refer the student to any of tlie historical translations in the Assyrian volumes of the " llecords of the Past." AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. B. — The Lexicogrj\phy. In Assyrian, as in other Semitic languages, tliere is a large foreign element, larger perhaps than in the others, chiefly on account of the character of the Assyrian people. In Sj'riac there are a large number of words borrowed from the Greek and Latin ; and in iEthiopic, of words borrowed from the Greek. 1. So in Assyrian we have words borrowed from the non- Semitic Akkadian language, besides other ancient languages, the existence of which admits no longer of any doubt. We are now fully convinced that in the Cuneiform inscriptions of AVestern Asia we have not only the Assyrian, Akkadian, and Sumerian languages, but also some others, about which we can say little at present. AVords borrowed from the Akkadian are the following : ekallii (73^11), ' a palace,' from the Akka- dian e, 'a house' + gal, ' great,' i.e., from egal; kanu, ' a reed,' from gen; agarinnu, 'the mother;' agil, 'crown,' from agd, and many others. 2. There also exist in Assyrian a number of words which are either entirely wanting in the other Semitic languages, or only traces of which can be discovered in them. Examples of these are the prepositions ana and ina, and the verb epmi, ' to make.' A large number of words can have their meanings fixed only from tlie syllabaries, as being synonyms of words whose meaning is already known. A most interest- ing confirmation of this statement can be found in the Rassam Fragment, quoted by Delitzsch in Lotz's " Tiglathpileser," pp. 88 and 89. There, as synonyms of same, ' a king,' are given: ma-al-ku, ma-li-ku, lu-li-mu, pa-rak-kn, e-til-lu; as synonyms of helu, 'a lord,' we have riu and e-nu. In line 11, as synonym of sarratu, 'a queen,' we have ma-al-ka-tu. Cf. further II R, plate 31, No. 3, first five words. 3. The greater number of Assyrian words have a close relationship with the words in Hebrew and xVramaic, ^thiopic and Arabic. For words to be compared with the Hebrew, AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 8ee the part of this Essay which treats of the iiiflueuce of Assyrian on Hebrew Lexicography. Aramaic, mdtu, ' land ' sinuniu, 'the swallow' mtitdim, ' plague ' titurru, ' the bridge ' ahuUu, ' the city-gate ' Syriac. elipim, 'the ship' imeru, ' the ass ' akrahu, ' the scorpion ' sedu, ' the demon ' ^Ethiopio. Msddii, 'the neck' viutu, sdbu, ruMu, sirtu, shnUim Arabic. ' the man ' ' the warrior ' ' firmament ' = ' the female breast ' = 'fate' = «n^ T T T - = ^^j (ef. y-^^-)) rmhtum, ' bee ' = 4.' '.y These proofs seem to me sufficient to establish my asser- tion, that the Assyrian is to be classed among the Semitic languages, as first asserted by the Swede Lowenstern in 1845. Already in the beginning of the seventeenth century travellers informed us of the existence of rare inscriptions which they had seen in the ruins of Pcrscpolis and in other places. As drawings of them Avere brought to Europe, people at once endeavoured to decipher them. But the kind of writing in the copies, Avith the wedge as its fundamental element, was to them perfectly new; and so it happened that AX ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 7 in spite of frequent attempts at decipherment they remained for two hundred years a dead letter, and it appeared as if they must always remain so. However, towards the end of the eighteenth century new copies, easier of access, came to Europe, and happily the attempt at decipherment was soon crowned with success. The elder Niebuhr was the first who published exact copies of the Persian Cuneiform inscriptions, and Tychsen, of Rostock, in 1798, rightly con- jectured that the characters were alphabetical, and were to be read from left to right. In September, 1802, Georg Friedrich Grotefend, from the Gymnasium at Hanover, pub- lished a translation of an old Persian Cuneiform text. He first of all showed that the Cuneiform writing was a writing and not an ornament, as might have been supposed. "What disthiguished it from all other sorts of writing was the utter absence of roundness in the characters, which made it excellently adapted for cutting upon stone. This writing Grotefend set about deciphering. He took in hand two small inscriptions in the Persian Cuneiform character. He had learnt from old authors that the palaces at Persepolis, on whose ruins these two inscriptions "were found, had been built by Achcemenian kings. Miinter had already happily guessed that one word which occurred often in the inscrij)- tions was the word for king, and he was right. This same word happened to occur also in the two inscriptions upon which Grotefend was engaged. These two were almost exactly like one another, the difference consisting only in this, that m the first inscription a group of signs A preceded the word for /.'irt^, in the second inscrij^tion a group of signs B preceded ; and that, further, at the end of the second inscrip- tion, the group of signs A and the word for king occurred, while in the first inscription a gi'oup of signs C, without the word for Mng, was at the end. The inscrij^tions had there- fore these forms : — Group of Grou]) of signs. signs. First inscription A king c — Second inscription . . B king A kin 8 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. Grotefciid concluded that these groups of signs must be proper names which stood in genealogical relationship to one another. A must be the father of B, C the father of A. He saw that A and B were kings, but that C was not, because the title was wanting after his name. He then inferred that A was the founder of a dynasty. He knew the names of the Achasmenian kings, and his task now was to find out the names of the kings corresponding to A, B, C. " Fully convinced," says Grotefend, " that here two kings of the AchEemenian dynasty must be sought for, and finding the history of the Greeks as their contemporaries and narrators of contemporary events the most reliable, I began at once to go through the list of kings, and to examine which names allied themselves most easily to the characters in the inscrip- tions. They could not be Cyrus and Cambyses, because the two names on the inscriptions did not begin with the same letter ; nor could they be Cyrus and Artaxerxes, because the first name, Cyrus, was too short in proportion to the characters on the inscj'iption, and the name Artaxerxes was too long. There remained then only the names Darius and Xerxes, which suited the characters well." And besides, it is to be noticed that there was another reason for saying it could not be Cyrus, viz., the father and son of Cjrus had the same name, viz., Cambyses, while on the inscriptions B and C were different. Grotefend thus inferred that A was Darius. Beginning with the well-known Greek, Hebrew, and Persian forms of the name, he read : — A. D-a-r-h-w-u-sch. B. Kh-sch-h-a-r-sch-a. C. V-i-sch-t-a-s-p. Subsequent investigations have shown that he had read cor- rectly, except that for h he ought to have read j. In this way a certain number of letters was ascertained, and the word for king could now be read. Grotefend thus laid down the foundation of the decipherment of the Persian Cuneiform inscriptions. There now came a period of about thirty years during which no progress was made in the work which AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 9 Grotefend had begun. In 1836 appeared two works from tlio pens of the Frcncli scholar, Eugene Burnouf, and the Bonn Professor, Christian Lassen, Avhich showed a marked advance on the work of Grotefend. Lassen corrected the results of his predecessors, and made an alphabetical list of some thirty- nine characters. Lassen's work began by acknowledging that Grotefend had given us an alphabet by means of which we had been able to recognize the names Darius, Xerxes, and Hystaspes, and he further acknowledged that by means of it the word which meant 'king,' as well as another meaning ' lands,' had been read. This was, however, all that had been done. He then showed that Grotefend's alphabet was only partly correct. Distinguishing between what was undoubtedly correct and what admitted of doubt, he proceeds to say : " As there was no longer any doubt that the names of the kings had been correctly read, so it was clear that the value of the letters in the names had been correctly fixed." Grotefend failed, however, to advance, in that he assumed that the old Persian and the Awesta dialects were perfectly identical, while, in fact, both were distinct from one another. Lassen saw this mistake, and thus he was able to go further on in the work than Grotefend. With the help of his more perfect alphabet he ventured to read and to explain the old Persian Cuneiform texts. Just at this time a young English officer, now Sir Henry Rawlinson, was engaged on the same work. He brought new materials to light by the discovery of the sculptured tablets of Hamadan (which he copied), and of the long Behistun Inscription. Not far from the tovm of Kermanschah was a steep mountain called Behistun, about 1,700 feet high, into the rock of which was cut an inscription of Darius Hystaspes, consisting of about 400 lines, and which was about 300 feet from the ground. The inscription was a little damaged by the water of a small stream which trickled down the rocky side of the mountain and over the inscription. To get at this was no easy task. The indomitable pluck of the English officer surmounted all difficulties: he not only copied 10 AN ESSAY OX ASSYRIOLOGY. it for the first time, between the years 1835 and 1837, but to the learned officer belongs the honour of having first given a translation of the same in 1846. On the Aehsemenian inscriptions, side by side with the Persian Cuneiform inscriptions, were two others, also in the Cuneiform characters. Grotefend had expressed the opinion that these two were translations of the first (the Persian) into two languages, which at some time had been spoken in Persia. This proved to be a correct conjecture. It is clear that the Persian princes would wish their inscriptions to be read by all their subjects, and hence it was that they appeared in these three languages. The proper names which occurred so frequently in the Persian texts enabled the decipherer to read the inscriptions that stood at their side ; it was found that the large number of wedges which these two new languages contained was due to the fact that here were languages Avhich were not written alphabetically, but syllabically. Each of the characters denoted a syllable, and not a letter. It was conjectured that the third language in the group of Achaemenian inscriptions was that of Baby- lonia and Assyria, and this conjecture was right For just at this time excavations had been begun in Assyria, and inscriptions were brought to light, whose writing corres- ponded exactly with that which was on the old Acha3menian inscriptions as the third. The site of Niniveh was first excavated by Botta, and then by Layard (Sir Henry Austin Layai'd). Here were now brought forth into the light of day inscriptions which had been hidden for centuries — tablets, cylinders, foundations of temples and palaces, obelisks, &c. It was now evident that the deciphering of these would only be a work of time. The Greek translation upon the Rosetta Stone was to the decipherer of the Egyptian text, wliat the old Persian inscriptions were to be to the decipherer of the Babylonian-Assyrian inscriptions. Fortunately there were preserved on the old Persian monuments ninety proper names phonetically written in the Persian character of the trilingual Achsemenian inscriptions, and it was clear that with this AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 11 help success must soon cro^vn the efiforts of scholars to read the third language. It was observed that tlie names of persons, gods, lands, trees, &c., on these newly discovered inscriptions, had a determining sign always prefixed to them. There was a certain sign prefixed to all names of gods (viz., *->{-), and another sign to all names of lands (viz., V")* find so on. Having gained this much. Dr. Hincks saw that this new language Avas not alphabetic in its character. He was the first to discover that it was written syllabically and ideo- graphically. He soon found himself able to read the name t)f Nebuchadnezzar, and the record of his buildings. The untiring labours of Hincks, Oppert, Menant, and others, were successful in overcoming most of the difficulties which the pol^^honic natm-e of the single characters had caused to be in the way of the decipherer. Since the labours of the first decipherers, the path of the Assyrian scholar has been smoother, and now we may say that the foundation of the Avork of deciphering Assyrian inscriptions has been fii-mly laid. (See Appendix, Note 1.) The Assyrian is originally a language in picture-writing, like the Egyptian. This is easily seen by glancing over the first few pages of the 1st volume of the " Cuneiform Inscrip- tions of Western Asia " (to Avhich volumes I shall henceforth refer thus : I R for the 1st volume ; II R for the 2nd ; III R, &c. ; i.e., 1st RaAvlinson, &c.). In the late Assyrian Avriting it is often possible to trace the relationship between certain groups of signs and their original representatives in the picture- writing, e.g., hieratic -^j^ , old Babylonian ^, later Assp'ian >->f-, an ideograph for 'a star;' again, hieratic ^, old Babylonian ^|, later Assyrian j^T, ideogi-aph for 'hand;' hieratic \/> old Babylonian '^^, later Asspian ■^y, ideograph for 'sun.' Sometimes two of these are joined together in order to form a new sign, e.g., i^"^ ' sun, day,' is joined to <«, the sign for the numeral 30, to form the new sign \-^][uf 'to drink.' *-tl^ 'the mouth ' + -^y ' the sun ' = >-^J^ sumu, ' thu'st.' This system of WTiting the Babylonians and Assyrians received from the older inhabitants, the Sumerians and Akkadians. Not only were the old signs retained by the former, but also the meanings attached to these. These meanings were after- Avards used either as borrowed words or as syllabic values : thus : >->f- in Akkadian = ajia, ' the heaven,' which appears in Assyrian as a7i, the syllabic value of this sign. Again, >~< has the value bat in Assyrian, from the Akkadian word hat, ' to open ; ' also the value til, from the Akkadian til, ' to be ready, completed ; ' >f- mas, from the Akkadian word mas, * the -wilderness.' The Assyrians also gave to their signs values which w^ere not borroAved from these older non- Semitic languages, but values which were taken from the Semitic languages. Thus iz^1] means ' a house ; ' so they gave this character the value bit, corresponding to the Hebrew n^5; and to '>=yy^ the value res, coiTesponchng to the Hebrew tTt^h ' head.' The Assyrian writing is in the Cuneiform character, and consists of combinations of wedges and corner-wedges (<[). These wedges are either horizontal, perpendicular, or obHque. Like the other Cuneiform ASTitings, such as the Persian, Median, Armenian and Elamitic, the Assyrian writing reads from left to right. A syllable may consist of a combination of wedges varying from the single wedge up to a compound of even twenty. Thus we have the single wedges >^ "^ y and the corner-wedge ^, and from these are formed com- binations varying in complexity. This will be clear to the student if he will only examine any volume in the Assyrian writing. In regard to the nature of the Assyrian characters, it is to be remarked that they are syllabic and ideographic, iii contradistinction to the old Persian, which are alphabetic (the other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, ^thopic, having consonantal characters). That is to AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 13 eay, the single Cuneiform characters in Assyrian may be read either as syllabk'S, thus: >-«*"| = wa, and .-^J^ = Art ; or as representuig an idea, and therefore to be treated as being equal to a word in value : thus, ^t-^, whose syllabic value is ka, has the ideographic value pit, which means ' mouth,' the Hebrew HQ. There are also in Assyrian both open syllables, such as ka, ki, Icu, and closed syllables, which are really compound syllables, as kar, kiv, kiw, i.e., ka + ar, ki-\-ir, ku-iir. I call them compound, because in writing the closed syllable kar, the Assyrians might use two characters representing two syllables, viz., the characters whose values are respectively ka and ar. A character may also have many phonetic or syllabic values as well as many ideographic values. Thus >--< has the syllabic values he, hat, mit, til, ziz ; and the ideo- graphic values pitu, ' to open ;' katu, ' to be completed ;' fjamru, 'complete;' helu, 'lord;' kahtu, 'heavy;' lahiruy ' old ;' damn, ' blood,' and some others ; >-^I^, whose only syllabic value is ka, has the ideographic values pil, ' the mouth;' appu, 'the face;' sinnu, 'a tooth;' klhitu, 'a com- mand;' amdtu, 'a word;' rigmu, 'a cry;' ragdmu, 'to speak,' &c., &c. In the various tables of signs which we find in the works of modern scholars who write on Assyrian, a clear method of aiTangement is observed. It is clear that the various com- binations of characters fall naturally into certain groups, according to the kind of wedge which stands first on the left side of the character. Thus ^-l^}*- must be placed under the >— group ; "Ij^l, under the V group ; ^';l, under the ^ group ; and Jjy, under the f group. Of course there is an obvious advantage to the beginner in such an arrangement. The order in which these four groups stand in the various tables of signs drawn up by grammarians varies according to the Avill of the author. The order in Sayce's Grammar is very much the same as that adopted by Delitzsch and Haupt ; in some of the French works the student will find other arrange- ments adopted. 14 AX ESSxlY OX ASSYRIOLOGT. In looking over the table, the student observes that a character may have several values, e.g., ^ has the values of ni, zal, sal, Hi. How do we know which of these to take when we are transcribing a passage? As stated above, a word may be A\Titten syllabically, thus na-da-nu, or the word nadanu may be represented by its ideograph ^^J. In a syllabically-written work, our choice of a value may be made with tolerable certainty if we attend to the following rule : — • " The one syllable must end with the same letter tcith ichich the other begins." Of course this does not always lead us to a correct result. To the word na-da-nu we see this rule does not apply at all: the characters for 7ia and n?^ have only these values, so that no doubt can arise here about the values ; and the character for da, viz., ^fl, has only the values da and ta (viz., t^). The student will find that the above rule is a good one to use whenever he is in difficulty. But a constant study of the inscriptions alone, I am convinced, can give one ease in transcribing correctly, i.e., in choosing values coiTectly. In many cases it is not so easy to select the values, as in nadanu, and the best help which the student can have in selecting will be to have as good an acquaintance as possible with the other Semitic languages. A fair acquaintance with these is absolutely necessary to the Assyrian scholar, because words in them will often suggest a correct reading of a sign, and also give a clue to the meaning of the Assyrian word. Having learnt to transcribe well, the student must learn to translate. Transcribing well must first be thoroughly learnt, and to do the work of translating well tlie student will have to work at the other Semitic languages, and at the numerous syllabaries given in the *' Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia." It will be found that these syllabaries are very much broken. An examination of the original tablets in the British Museum Avill show to the reader in what a mutilated condition many of these are. Still, many of them are well preserved, and these have been copied with moderate accuracy into the volumes I have recommended to the student for reading. A syllabary may be defined as a cata- AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 15 logue of iconls fti/llabicalli/ loritten, containing on one side of the character xohose values these words represent, tlie Assyrian equiva- lents, and on the other side, the Akkadian and Siimerian equivalents corresponding to them. For an advanced student of Assyrian^ a careful study of these syllabaries is necessary, but for a beginner I would suggest that the syllabaries in Professor Delitzsch's " Lesestucke," and designated by him S% S^ S°, which are, in fact, collections from the " Cuneiform Inscrip- tions of Western Asia," Avould be an invaluable study. The student really has no complete Assyi-ian dictionary before him (for i\Ir. Norris's, which was prepared at a time wlien the study of Assyrian had not made so much progress as at the present day, can hardly be regarded as altogether reliable) such as the student of the other Semitic languages has, and the only dictionary he may be said to have are these syllabaries: an excellent dictionary indeed to the careful student. These syllabaries are of various kinds. For example, 11 R, plate 3, lines 537-5()6 (which we also have in Delitzsch's " Lesestiicke," under S% column iii, 1-30, with many gaps filled up by the Professor from comparison with other parts of the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia), contains three columns. In the middle column is the character whose con- ventional name is given in the right-hand column, and whose various syllabic values are given in the left-hand one. Thus t:yy][, lines 551-554, has in the right-hand column the name Gu-ru-sd ; in the left-hand column it is seen to have the syllabic values dan, kal, lib or lip and gurus. Further on, in hues 560-564, -^f- has the name geltanu, and the values j^i, me, tal, geltan. To one already acquainted with Assyrian, it will occur that, e.g., tfllf has oftenest the values dan and kal : gurus is in reality its Akkadian value. Again, V, in II R 3, 518-523, has the name kuru, and the values kur, sad or sat, lad or lat, mad or mat, values well known to belong to this character. There is another kind of syllabary, in the middle column of which is the character ; in the right-hand column are the Assyrian words which represent the values of the thoughts 16 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. contained in it ; in the left-hand column are the corresponding Akkadian or Sumerian equivalents. Thus, in II R 1, 172, 173, we have in the middle column the character i:]]^, its Assyrian rendering is akni, 'precious' (cf. "^i"^) ; and etlu, which means ' high, a hero ;' in the left-hand column are the Akkadian words corresponding to these: kala is Akkadian for ah'u, and gurus for etlu. In Delitzsch's '' Lesestiicke" the syllabary S** is of this kind. We have yet one other kind of syllabary exemplified in S'' of Delitzsch's " Lesestiicke." This is a combination of the other two kinds of syllabaries. It has four columns : — In the 2nd column is the character to be explained. In the 3rd column is its conventional name. In the 4tli column is its Assyrian value. In the 1st column is its Akkadian or Sumerian value. Cf. IV R, plates 69 and 70. We shall again take the sign, t:yy^ (IV R 70, 26). The character stands in the 2nd column. In the 3rd column is its name, viz., gu-lru-su']. [The student observes that we have in this plate only the beginning of the name preserved, viz., gu. In II R 3, 551-554, it has the name gu-ru-su. We know, therefore, from this how to fill up the gap in IV R 70, 26, viz., by adding ru-sii, i.e., -^ ^f.] In the 4th column we have the Assyrian renderings of this character, viz., ak-sii, ' mighty ; ' astu, ' mighty ; ' daiinu, 'mighty;' akru, 'precious,' &c. The student will remember that the value akru was also given to it in II R 1, 172. In the 1st column is given the Akkadian rendering, viz., kala, a value it also had in II R 1, 172. Suppose we now take up an inscription to read it. We find that it consists of several detached groups of signs. These may be read either syllabically or ideographically. We learn from the first kind of syllabary what syllabic value to give to each group of signs, and from the other two kinds of syllabaries the ideographic values. In order to make my meaning plain, I shall take up the inscription of Assnrnazirpal. I R, plates 17, sq., and read line 54, where we AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 17 isliall find that, in order to get the true sense of the hne, some of the characters must be read ideograpliically, but most of them syllabically, thus : — Ah-hul a-hur ina isdti asr-iip iStu mat Num-me. The first character I read ah: it has also the value ap ; the next character is hul, which also has the value pul. I accept the values in h, because I know of a verb nahdlii, ' to destroy,' which gives the sense I require in this passage. Next comes a character which has tlie value a ; the next the value hur, and thus we have the word ahir = ahkur, from nakdru, ' to lay waste.' Then comes a character having the values as and rum, but also having the ideographic value ina, the preposition ' in.' This suits the passage, and so we read ina. The next character has the values ne, te, &c. ; but shall we have good sense if we take the syllabic value ? We find that we shall not. And so, as with the former character, we must here also take the ideographic value of the character^ It is known to have the value isdti (cf. '^^, Syriac I^C*]' '^^^^1 the ^thiopic esdt), ' fire.' This value we accept. Then comes a character which is the sign for the plural number. This shows us that the character which preceded this sign of the plural was to be read ideographically, and also that the value given to it must be a noun. We see then that our reading isdti must be correct. The next character, J^, has no syllabic value. We know, however, from the syllabaries that it has the ideographic value sardpii (?)"liD), ' to burn.' This suits the context. The character that follows has the values lib, up, ar. We take this to be a Plionetic Complement, i.e., we accept that value of it which suits as the final syllable of the word sardpu, and we read the two characters thus : dsr-up, i.e., asrup, the Imperfect 1st Person lingular of the verb, and meaning ' I burnt.' The next character has the value ta ; but the student observes that beneath it is given a Variant, i.e., the exact equivalent eltlier syllahically or ideo- graphically of the character given in the text. This may serve as a definition of variant which holds generally good. Some- times a variant only tells the reader how the final vowel of 18 AX ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. a syllable is to be read, thus, to read te aud not ti. The character in the text we are told by the variant to read by its ideographic value, is-tu. We know from the context that the syllabic value would not suit, and the variant decides for us what we shall read. Istit is a preposition, and means ex, ' out of The next character has many syllabic values, but we also know that it has many ideographic values, such as mdtu, ' land,' sadu, ' mountain,' &c. Here our character is a Determinative Prefix, determining for us the character of the two signs which follow. We read the value mat, ' land.' The next two characters we read syllabically, thus, Num-me, the name of the land. The whole line reads as follows : — ab-bul a - kur ina isati asr-up istu mat Num-me, &c. I destroyed, I loasted, injire Ihxirnt: oid of theland Niunmc, ^-c. The student will have observed in the above line the occurrence of what is called a variant, and we cannot, I think, too highly estimate the value of variants. These often prove the correctness of the values which have been given to the various characters. I think we may with advan- tage take the above-mentioned Inscription of Assui'nazirpal, and examine the nature of the variants given on the first page:-- Line 1. >->{- -^^T j^J' Here we have the Determinative Prefix ilu, ' god,' showing that the two characters which follow form the name of a god, viz., Nin-ip. The variant >->^ >^ is equivalent to this. In it we have the Determinative and the character >f-, which, according to IV R, plate 69, is the god Niiiip. Compare line 10 of this plate, where Ave have in the text the ideographic writing, aud in the variant the syllabic. IPy '^yi^' Here the variant reads syllabically har-dii (~|lp) ; and hardu is the ideographic value of the two characters in the text. In Dr. Ilaupt's " Akkadische and tSumerische KeiLschrifttexte," Part I, page 35, and No. ^ib"!, the Assyrian value of this ideograph is given kar-(ra)-du. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 19 Let the reader look at line 32 of our plate (I R 17) ; we read for the same two characters which are in this line the variant hai'-ra-da. This karrada + the following ka = karradaku = karradu anaku, i.e., ' I (am) strong.' Line 2. The text reads ta-kii, and the variant is tiik. This shows that the variant character has not only the value it generally has, viz., tuk, but also tuk (i.e., p). In line 3 the text has tim, and the variant is ti. In line 4 text has u, and the valiant is u. Line 5. As a variant for ^]] e, is given the plural sign y>*^. The character which precedes e means hcla, ' lord.' The variant shows that we have to read the plural of this word in the text, and the syllable e shows that the plural ending is e: plural = i(?fe In the text the repetition of the character shows that the ideograph is to be in the plural. Cf. ^\atli this the usage in Syriac, where repetition denotes diversity or multitude {cf. Noldeke's " Syrisclie Grammatik," p. 137, or Phillips' " Syriac Grammar," p. 140). The advanced student in Assyrian will have remarked that the j)lural of a large class of nouns ends in e. Further on in Hue 5, as a variant of ^ C^^,; )-, is given pa + at}^ ^•^•> P^^ or pat. Line 10. The text reads ca^ha-i ; the variant shows that Ave may read irhit-ta. The former is feminine, the latter masculine. (Cf. Sayce's " Grammar," p. 55.) Both i and /a are Phonetic Complements. Line 18. Text reads a-na (preposition = to). We know that y is a common ideograph for ana. Cf. the first character in this inscription. Line 19. j:^^, the usual ideograph for sarru, 'a king.' As its variant is given ^^. In line 14 this variant has the value nis, its syllabic value, and in line 19 we see that sarru is its ideographic value. In line 32, ^^=sar-ra in the text, viz., the accusative case of sarru. Agam, in this line 19, text reads pt-i>, i.e., j^if', showing that the variant -<4t^ has this value ptV, whatever other values it may be found to have. C2 20 AX ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. Line 20 furnishes us with an interesting variant. Text reads ri-ib, and as variant is given tfl^, thus showing that this character has this value also in addition to kal, dan, &c., which are other values shown to belong to it in another part of this Essay. Line 22. According to IV R 70, column 4, line 22, the single variant J^f has the Assyrian rendering aldhi, ' to go.' For the three underlined characters in the text we have the following syllabic values: 1st character = iV/, it, it; 2nd sign = n, tal, dal; 3rd 8ign=?a {see Table of Values in any Assyrian Grammar). Remembering the useful rule, that the one syllable generally ends with the same letter as that with Avhicli the following begins, we read our text it-tal-la, and to this is to be joined the following character ku. So we have the verb ittallaku, which comparative Semitic Grammar teaches us to be the Ifteal form (reflexive) of the verb aldku (T|7n), ' to go.' This reading shows us that the double S^y in the variant represents the Ifteal form of the verb, which IV R, plate 70, column 4, line "2^2, has shown us to be the value of the single character tS\. Line 24. In the text we have ^ »->^ y>-»-*- ; the variant gives as its equivalent >f- ^^ff. The characters in the text, according to II R, plate 2, No. 346 = -^f tr^- '^^^^ variant reading has in common with this the value of par-su. The variant reads par-si : II R 2, 346=j':)a?'-Si«. Par-si is plm-al of parsu. The text gives us the plural sign, and leaves us then the two first characters to explain as above ; their ideographic value, according to II R 2, 346, is parsu, ' a command,' and here we are taught by the variant that this is the reading. Further on in this line we have as variant for >2^y ^*{-< the character ^. The text reads ka-ti, the genitive case of katu, ' hand,' the ideographic writing for which is represented by the variant. The reader will remember that I referred to this variant as illustrating the hieroglyphic character of Assyrian writing. I have selected the above lines in order to show the gi'eat to* value of the variants, and also to show how they are to be A\ ESSAY OX ASSYRIOLOGY. 21 used. A careful perusal of the page I have used Avill show tlie reader tliat there are also variants of minor inipurtance, which only give a different form of the word to be read from that Avhicli the text suggests. Two examples will exphiin my meaning. The first two characters in line 25, according to the teKt = na-dan ; the variant suggests na-din. Again, line 29, the text reads pa<^ (also ilb^) is the same as the late-Assyrian and late-Babylonian Avord citu, as in the words atua, 'what concerns me ;' atuni, 'what concerns us.' (c.) 7 j^- ,5. The etymology of these prepositions is very obscure. In Arabic we have M, li, Jca (the latter of which is really not a preposition) ; in ^thiopic we have ha, la ; and in Syriac we have he, le ; but the Assyrian has neither of these particles. Corresponding to ^ it has ma, and to 7 ana. It has been supposed that the Assyrian preposition la-pdni, ' before,' was the same as the Hebrew '^^07, but this admits of some doubt. In the Assyrian haSii, 'in him' = 'i^, the ha is the same as ^, and Su is the 3rd personal pronoun suffix. § 3. Adverhs. — The Q-ending in adverbs is explained by the Assyrian. It is, in fact, the Assyrian indefinite pronoun jna. D^riQ ' suddenly '= Assyrian pithna, and also i?ia piihna ; rnuSdma, from rniisu, ' the night ' = properly ' in the night, last night;' sattisd7n and sattimma, from sattu, ' year ' = ' yearly ;' jnkdma, from pi/yi}, ' a moment ' = ' momentarily.' AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 25 § 4. !r/*« F<'r/^. All the Semitic languages know only two tenses. Ewald, in his earlier writings, called them the 1st and 2nd Modns ; later, Perfect and Imperfect. Bottcher calls them Perfect and Fiens. Noldeke, in his Syriac Grammar, adheres to Perfect and Imperfect. We can keep the names Perfect ("^IJ^) and Future (THi^) in so far as we bear in mind (1) that the former expresses what is completed, the latter what is not completed; (2) that the Perfect and Future mark not merely the Absolute Past or Futin-e in reference to the speaker, but also relative Past or Future in reference to another expressed action. The future IHt^h^ in itself, in connection with nothing preceding or coming after \t = amaho ; but in connection with other parts of the sentence, may mean amo, amaham. The Perfect ^J^lil^^ in itself = awiari, but in connection with other parts of the sentence may mean amaveram and amavero. The existence of these two tenses derives support also from Assyrian, which has only the Imper- fect and the Pra^sens (so named by Professor Delitzsch). In order to mark that something happens or will happen, or that one does something or will do something, the pure stems katal, katul, &c., Avere used; and to these were prefixed short pronominal stems, which referred either to the person who acted or the thing wliich happened, thus: ja-hatal, 'he kills;' ta-katal, 'thou killest,' &c. The keeping of the full verbal stem expressed suitably the beiug-about-to-be. On the contrary, the stem was shortened as soon as a distinction had to be drawn between the completed and the incompleted, thus : from jakatal, the form ya/'.^aZ was used, and from takatal, the form taktal, &c. We find in the Imperfect sometimes the voAvel u, some- times i, sometimes a. The Assyrian also has preserved this old way of forming the Imperfect, for in it we have imperfects with each of these vowels : most commonly ii, less commonly i, least commonly a. In place of jokatal, with its characteristic vowel a, the shorter form jaMid (7b|T) came gradually into use. The form of the Imperfect with a, which had become superfluous, was then used in Hebrew to form the Passive ; 26 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. but that the passive formation depends not on the vowel a, the Assyrian shows clearly. Cf. Assyrian ju-kattal, ' he kills many ; ' jukattil, ' he killed many ; ' on the contrary, in Arabic and Hebrew, jukattil, ' he kills many ; ' jukattal, ' they were killed in large numbers.' The old Semitic and the Assyrian have the power of expressing a circumstance as continuing, by joining the personal pronoun to the noun which expresses the action or quality. Thus, from sarru, ' a king,' we have a form, sarrahi, ' I am a king ' = sarru, ' king ' + anakd, ' I ;' sarrata, ' thou art a king ^ = sarrti + atta, 'thou;' gasraku, 'I am brave '^^as'r?/, ' brave ' + anaku ; gasrdni, ' we are brave ^^=gasru + ani. For these combinations compare I R, plate 17, line 32, where we read sarraku; helaku, 'I am lord;' naidaku, 'lam exalted;' gasraku, &c. Exactly in this way was the simple verbal-stem katal treated. Thus : lahis, ' he was or is clothed ;' 3rd sing, fem. = lahsat ; 2nd sing. masc. = lahsdta ; 2nd sing. fem. = lahsdti; 1st sing. com. = /aZ'S«^(7/); 3rd plur. masc. = labs a (iii); 3rd plur. fem. = labsd{ni) ; 2nd plur, masc. = labsatunu ; 2nd plur. fem. = labsatina ; 1st plur. com. = labsdni. The Imperative is ketol; with gutturals "^^^ and "l^f?, in verbs Intransitive or with medial signification, as ^5^ with final a. In Assjaian both syllables in the Imperative have the same vowel. Thus from kasddu, ' to conquer,' we have kiisud; so also pikid and sabat. This Imperative, Avith the same vowel in both syllables, is, I believe, the original Semitic form. nn3 has as its ground-form kutub. Verba Mediw Geminatoi and Media; Vav or Yod, 1. Verba Media? Geminata'. — These are in Assyrian always treated as strong verbs, and it is only in a few cases that we find additions for the purpose of assimilating the two last con- sonants. Thus saldlu is conjugated islul, taslul, taslul, tasluli, aslul, &c. This is probably the oldest mode of treating these verbs, traces of which mode are to be found in the Hebrew. For examples, see Gesenius' Grammar, § 07, Remark 10. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 2.7 The other mode of treating these verbs is by assimilating the two last consonants, and is of later origin. Thus the 3rd person Perfect can retain the two last like radicals, as e.g., ^bn and"^1D; more freqnently they are assimilated, as in pi and "^7?. The Imperfect of the Niphal in one case has exactly the same form as that which strong verbs always have, \az. ^5^"!, which is of the same fomi as ^'^j^'^. (Job, xi, 12). 2. Verba Media' Vav and Yod. — The roots of these verbs are generally treated as consisting of three radicals, but it is better to suppose with Noldeke and August Miiller (Z. D. M. G., xxiii, 698 sq.) that the roots consist of only two radicals, which are joined together by a vowel originally short, but made long thi'ough the law of three-consonantal roots. Thus, as the root of Dip we take Df^ . Assyiian favours and supports this mode of treating these verbs ; * he killed ' = w/(?^- ; 'he stood up ' = {-Mm ; ' I turned back' = a-tur; ' I subjugated ' = a-ntr. In the Imperative ' kill ' = duk ; * set fast ' = shn. It is only on the supposition of two-con- sonantal radicals that we can explain the participle active D)^, and such forms as I^C^p, ,P^^p_ ,''^Pp. The middle letter vav ow^es its origin to the Imperfect form, where we have Clp^, and this ^ in the Imperfect is of the same origin as the u in ^^p^. (original form jahtul) (Gesenius' Grammar, trans- lated by Davies, page 109). II.— On Hebrew Lexicography. It will not be uninteresting to the reader, I think, if I begin this part of my essay by bringing together Assyrian words with their Hebrew parallels: — pH, 'the mouth' = HQ. 'ahu ' the pot or vessel ' = n^^ or T\)A^ and by no means from Vin'^ derivable. .28 AX ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. idtl, ddmu sdsii, dddu, 'isu, isdtu, amtu, bintu, daltu, kastu, saptu, ^ahu, \fhd, unvnu, W71U, sikaru, agalu, libbu, sdru, rem, sansu, irsitu, lubultu ' the hand ' = T"' T ' blood ' = Dl ' the moth ' = DD T 'the beloved' = 1^1 ' wood ' = Y^i? 'fire'=t2?N (Syr. = lA^] 'fever,' ^th. ^f^^) cstr. am-at, 'the maid' = "^^^ (A*^"!"" ancilla) cstr. binat, ' the daughter ' = H^ = ^^'^ pi. daldti, 'the door' = Tv?! pi. hasdti, 'the bow'= nU})7 pi. sapdti, ' the lip ' = HDto ' the father ' = n« ' the brother ' = n« ' the mother ' = D^^. Root DD^^. Cf. the Ethiopia. 'the day' = Dl'' (Aramaic ^^^V, Arabic ^^[) ' wine ' = '\'2\d 'calf = hy:;/, « the heart ' = 17 ' the storm, tempest ' = rTl^^tl? ' head ' = tT^h cstr. samas, ' the sun ' = t2?^tp > ' the earth = Y"^i-, i.e., ^ITTT + ^T""' '^'^^ ^^"^t of these is the general ideogi-aph for 'house,' and has the syllabic values hit (ri"'.5), pit, e; <^ is a value borrowed from the Akkadian word for ' house,' viz., e, or with its consonantal ending es (I refer the reader to Dr. Haupt's "Akkadische und Sumerische Keilschrifttexte," page 17, No. 266, where in the Akkadian we have es, and in Assyrian bi-i-tu, i.e., bitic). The character ^y>- is the ideograph for ralnl, ' great,' the equivalent of which in Akkadian is gal. The ideograph for palace then = Z'Z^« + rrtZ'(2 = house + gi"eat ; the Akkadian is e + gal. In Jeremiah 1, 21, the enemies of Babylon are commanded to go up against DTllQ Vli^n and against the inhabitants of "TipD- The first name D"'r\"1?2 is explained in Gesenius thus : " Double obstinacy, or repeated rebellion, a symbolic name for Babylon." Ewald, in his last edition of " Die Proj^heteu," translates it, " das land Doppeltroz," and then he properly adds "Aram-Naharaim, the land of the double-river, Mesopo- tamia." It is taken for granted by Ewald and the latest edition of Gesenius' Lexicon, that D^'il'^0 is the right punctuation. The Assyrian shows that it is not. We loiow from the inscriptions of a land described as mat marratim. Now marrdtu means 'the sea,' so that ''mat marratim,' means ' the land of seas,' i.e., South Babylonia. The Avord marrdtu occiu's in the Inscription of Tiglathpileser II, II R 67, line 3. {^See Appendix, Note 2.) Again, Tip? Ewald explains as 'punishment,' the city Punishment, i.e., Babylon. And this is also the explanation in Gesenius. But TipQ is no other than the famous warhke nomadic tribe Pukndu (amelu Pukadu, in I R 37, 45). 30 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. In Ezeldel xxiii, 23, ^Ip and i?1U? liave pnzzled commenta- tors, i^lp is thus explained in the last edition of Gesenins. '• According to the Hebrew commentators, Vulgate and others = Prince, Noble, properly stallion, breeding camel (which must be of noble breed), according to a transposition frequent in Arabic." yX^ is rendered by heatus. Ewald, however, hits the mark when he says, " It is quite clear that the words yS\T\ i^lU^T "lipS cannot be anything else than proper names of smaller Chaldee peoples." We know now from the Inscriptions that Su and Ku were nomadic tribes in North and South Mesopotamia. I find in a Fragment marked M 55, in the British Museum Collection, which I copied at the beginning of last year, the following hues, viz., 12 and 13, Column 4 : — -,£!! ^]]] r, -^^^ -m -w This part of the Tablet relates how the people on the sea-coast were at enmity with the people by the sea-coast — Subarta with Subarta, Ass^nrians with Assyrians, Elamites with Elamites, the Kassii with the Kassii, the Sutu with the Sutu, the Kutu with the Kutu, Lulubu with Lulubu, &c. ; thus there was division among these peoples themselves. I quote this passage for the sake of the two names Sutu and Kutu, abbreviations of which were Su and Ku. Professor Delitzsch has, I tliink, clearly shown that these two peoples are the same as the J^iUJ and y^p of Ezekiel. The student observes that the Hebrew has tL\ while the Assyrian has D- Further on, under the head of Biblical Geography, he will find that it often happens that the Assyrian D corresponds to the Hebrew tlj. The land Su, with the Determinative Suffix li, for ' land,' is also mentioned in II R 23, 21(/, Q'3d. ■^riUJi^ is found in union with *^^^i^, to denote ' eleven.' The student will find a note upon this Avord in the English edition of Gesenins' Grammar, p. 222. The explanation given by the translator in this note, viz., that '^I^^V is a coniiption of in^, is too far fetched. The only tenable explanation is AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 31 tliat g;ivcn by the Assyrian. One in Assyrian = isten, wliich word itself is borrowed fi'om the non-Semitic Akkadian as-tdn, which means ' one in number ; ' ta-a-an, i.e., tan, not tain, means 'measure, number.' ]in, in Assyrian harnhiu, means " the road along which traders pass, and on which they carry on their trade." It may be called the trade-road: it particularly refers to a point in the road where several persons meet to carry on their trade. The Akkadian word from Avhich harrdmi is deiived is gar ran. p7 or "y^, ' to spend the night in a place,' is derived from y\2 ' the night.' In Asspian Idnu = ' the court, fore- court of a house,' and the denominative verb Idnu ■— " to bring into this court ; to spend the night in the court under shelter of the house." I connect therefore the Hebrew with the Assyrian word Idnu. D'^Iip occurs only in plural (Job xi, 3, Deut. ii, 34); it is constantly translated by Dillmann in his edition of Job (" Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch zura Alten Testa- ment '), ' die leute,' In -^^thiopic we have this same word in singular, met pi amtdt, ' maritus, vir.' In Assyrian the Avord for maritus is mutu, the ideograph for which is "J^^f, which character is also the ideograph for assatu, ' wife.' 7n^ and Y5"3, in Psalm xxiii, 2, are synonyms like na'dlu and rabasu in Assyrian. In the simple Kal form these verbs mean 'to rest, to lie.' In the eighth edition of Gesenius there are brought together under "JpTlJ, the roots ^^'^2, ' to flow ; ' 7(1^, 'brook, valley;" J..ij, 'to diink for the first time, to chink to satiety (of the camel).' Then the steps are given by which the meaning 'to lead' is arrived at. Simpler far than this is the explanation by Delitzsch in Lotz's "Tiglathpileser I," p. 123, where he says, " 7n3, ' to rest, encamp : ' Piel = cause to rest, cause to encamp, give rest." In the Psalm, VlT?. is parallel to '^^I3,")n, just as in Assjaian na'dlu is a synonym of rabasu; cf. 2 Chr., xxviii, 15, and xxxii, 12; 32 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 1 Chr., xxii, 18, where the rendering, ' to lead,' does not suit the passages, while that of ' to lie, to rest, to settle down,' gives a good sense. niD7!J. This word has been pointed (and is pointed in our Hebrew Bibles) r\'\jy?'^, and translated, ' shadow of death,' from T"!? and nyi2. There can be no doubt that both this punctuation and translation are wrong. The verb saldmu in Assyrian means ' to be dark,' and our noun is connected with this verb. We punctuate it Jl^D?!^, and translate ' darkness,' from a root uyi ' to be dark.' Worthy of notice are the remarks of Professor Franz Delitzsch, who says, "originally is m^7!J no compound, but from a root u?'^, *.iir? Gppmmere, ohtenehrare, and means 'deep-darkness.'" (This I quote from the lectures which I heard.) It is further to be observed that Jll^T'li in the Book of Job is constantly used among a number of words, all of which mean 'darkness,' but of various grades. Thus in Job x, 21, 22, we have four words meaning 'darkness,' viz., "^ti^H ,n^Q7'^ ^i^?^^ and 7Q^^. Cf. further Job xii, 22, where ' darkness' suits the passage best. No competent critic now disputes this m-eaning. vlDin and T'il^rit^, 'yesterday;' in Assjaian the words corresponding to these are timdli and itnutli, itimdll and ittimdli. V\7(^ occurs in Jonah and Ezekiel, and came late into use among the Hebrews. It is generally derived from n^^, 'salt,' but this derivation is wrong. The Asspian word for sailor is malahu, which is a word borrowed from the non- Semitic malag, i.e., ma, ' the ship ' -|- /«;), ' to set in motion.' Hence malahu is ' the one who sets the shijD in motion.' In Akkadian malay =■ ma + lalj ; ma = the Assyrian elipjni, ' a ship,' and /rt^ = Assyrian saldlu, in the sense oi aldhu, 'to go.' ID /'iV, 'everlasting, eternity, age;' generally derived from u7V, ' to veil, hide.' With this root it has nothing to do. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOQY. 33 Ewald is right when he says that it is a form like Q'^i*^, and that originally it was an adverb. In Assyrian ' everlasting ' = idu. Cf. the phrases istii ula, 'from everlasting;' ki ul-tu ul-la, i.e., sd ultu ula, in the Babylonian text, referring to the temple of Istar at Arbela. (See " Babylonian Texts," published by Mr. Pinches, page 17, line 2.) The student observes that if the root had a O we should expect an m in the Assyrian word. Again, we have the phrase um tllCiH, ' the day of eternity;' and also consider well the form idii-ma, 'evei'last- ing.' I would refer the reader to my remark on the ^-ending in adverbs, under the head " Hebrew Grammar," for an explanation of the ending ma in ul-lu-ma. (I R 59, col. 1. 41.) IttJS!, as in Num. xxi, 15, D''7'7r'^? "^^""^I? does not mean, as in the authorised version, ' the stream of the brooks,' but ' the bed of the streams.' The word is not to be referred to the S}aiac ^], 'fundere,' but it is best to compare it with the word isdu in Assyrian, which means 'foundation, base.' n2!l7, 'brick,' identical -^ath the Assyiian lihittu = Uhintu. Tu is the feminine ending in Assyrian, as ri_ is in Hebrew. The verb lahdnu means ' to make bricks.' '"'O??' plural nirrQ. Schrader is right in regarding the word as Semitic, and it is undoubtedly not of Sanskrit origin {see Gesenius, last edition). The Assyrian word corres- ponding to it is pahdtu or pihdtu, which means ' satrapy,' as well as ' satrap : ' ' province ' in general, as well as ' governor of a province.' fc^D3, ' a throne,' corresponds to the Assyiian kussu, which is a Avord borrowed from the non-Semitic guca. The g in Sumerian changes to k in Assyrian, as in engar, Avhich becomes ikkaru, ' the foundation.' So guza becomes hissu. 7^3, 'the camel,' generally derived from 1^::^, 'tobe beautiful, complete ;' so that the camel, according to this derivation, is ' the beautiful, complete animal.' Better seems to me to be the derivation accepted by AssjTiologists. In D 3-4 AN ESSAY OX ASSYRIOIiOGY. Assyrian it is named ganimalu, a non-Semitic word = gam + nial. Gam means ' a hump,' and mal ' to carry.' Hence the camel is the 'hump-beariug animal.' ■jijllii) occurs in Isaiah xx, 2 Kings, xviii, 17; lightly explained in the last edition of Gesenius as the title of a high Assyrian officer. The Assyrian name is tu?'-tan-7in, and it is represented by two characters, ?:^ (whose syllabic value is tur, and ideographic value mciru, ' son ') and t^yj^f (whose Syllabic value is tan or dan, and ideographic value dannu, ' mighty '), so that the Assyrian name means literally ' the mighty son,' i.e., ' the officer in high position.' On the Canon of Eponyms marked C^ in Delitzsch's " Lesestucke," the title of the officer mentioned in page 94, line 28, isamehi tur-ta-nu. Nebo-bel-usur was turtan of the city of Arpad. The title occurs several times m this same canon, viz., page 92, 9 ; page 93, 3 8, 4 8; page 94, i s. "^pDt^, Jeremiah li, 27, a word of Assyrian origin. The Assyrian word is dupsarru, ' the tablet writer,' represented in Assyrian by the characters ^ ^ ^^TTTT tlldf 5 ^^^ ^^'^^ character is a determinative meaning 'man,' i.e., amelu; the second character has the syllabic value dup, and the ideo- graphic value duppu, ' a tablet ; ' the third character has the syllabic value sar or ^ar, and the ideographic value sataru (1I3U?), 'to write.' The three characters then mean 'the tablet writer.' In the Akkadian language dup means tablet, and sar is the Akkadian equivalent of sataru, ' to write.' n!?|^, 'reed,' generally derived from I^^)^, 'to stand upright ;' so the last German edition of Gesenius. In Assyrian ' the reed' = kanu, the root of which is gin or gan in Akkadian, 'to bend;' the Akkadian for reed is gi-en, to be spoken ^^n. Hence the reed is called H!?)^, because it bends, and not because it stands upright. D^D. The equivalent in Assyrian is sisa, which is the proper word for ' horse,' and not imirni^ki, as has been long supposed. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 35 I^^P, 'very,' oiiginally means 'fulness, strength.' Pro- fessor Fleischer derives it from l^t^, 'to oppress,' so that it means 'tlie burden.' In Assyrian we have the verb 7nadu, ' to be many,' and the noun ma da, ' fulness, strength, multi- tude.' It seems to me best to connect the Hebrew word with the Assyrian. 13, in Isaiah xxx, 23 ; Ps. xxxvii, 20, Qb, 14, means * meadow, park, plantation.' The Assyrian word is kirn, represented by i^ t^Idf 5 ^1^® ^^'^^ character is the deter- minative for isu (Y^^), 'wood,' and the second has the ideographic value arku (P")^), 'green:' so that the two characters together mean ' the green wood or park.' "^^5"), generally explained as a word taken from the Egyptian, inasmuch as it is always used fur the Nile. I think, however, that it is a pm-e Semitic word. The poetic word for 'liver, canal,' in Assjaian is ja-xi-ri ; and so ^"jlt^^ means ' a river ' in general. (IV R, plate 44, line 21.) ri"l5i^, explained in Gesenius as a Persian word, may be compared with the Assyrian egirtu or u/irtu, the general word for ' a letter.' nirrp. in II R 17, 11 6, the fii-st word in this Hue is ka-dis-tu, which corresponds to the Hebrew word. The tu is the feminine ending, corresponding to the Hebrew n t; iu Hebrew, as in Assyrian, the consonants are the same, namely, Ujlp. It is interesting that in the very next line we should meet with the reading is-ta-nt, correspondmg to rnPiQi^ , i.e., Astarte. In the hymn to the goddess Istar (K. 4, 931), obverse, line 12, we read, um-uiu ilu is-ta-ri-tu, i.e., 'the mother of the goddess Astarte.' In the Sumerian hymn published by Haupt in his third part of the "Akkadische- Sumerische Keilschiifttexte," page 126, line 19, we read, is-ta-ri-tu ul ana-ku-u, i.e., Astarte, not I. If we continue, we read in the same line, in the Assyrian, mar-tu ka-dup-tu ilu, lJ-c. Is not kaduptu equal to kadistu ? In this very line d2 SG AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. occurs (the first word) istaritu, and from the fact that they occur together, we must, I thmk, read in this line hadistu, and not haduptu. I express no opinion in regard to these words, but simply point out that they occur in these Inscrip- tions close to one another. ■Jin^^, Ps. c\ai, 30, translated 'sea-coast,' and by the old translators, ' haven, harbour ; ' in Assyrian mahdzu is the usual word for ' place, village.' rfiTiT^I, in Assyrian rcdj-saJc, and represented by the characters ^^^ ^--^ "S^yy^, i.e., amelu, rabu, hahkadu, i.e., 'man,' ' great,' ' head.' Hence the Rabshakeh was literally ' the chief of the great men.' In Land's " S^aiaca Anecdota," Vol. Ill, page 259, line 8, we read of ]oa ^j who was sent from «09mJ.£D. The word in Syriac means ' the lord of the legs or tribes.' "in^, adverb and substantive = 'to-morrow.' Olshausen (" Grammar," § 38c) makes it = ini^D ; generally derived from "^rii"^, ' to be behind, remain behind.' The root "^HQ in Assjiian means 'to be in front, at the top, to be opposite.' So "^n^ is in Assyrian iimu pdnu and Hmu mahri, ' the day in front.' AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 37 BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. In this part of my Essay I propose to show wliat li^lit Assyriok~)i^y has been able to tlirow upon the Geography of the Bible. It will no doubt be interesting to students of Hebrew, to know how the names of places mentioned in the Bible are written in the Cuneiform Inscriptions, and to the student of history, to know on the Inscriptions of which kings of Assyria the places are mentioned. For a fuller account of some of the places than I shall give, I refer the reader to Delitzsch's work called " Wo lag das Paradies?" In the following pages I shall adopt the method of transcription now common among Avi-iters on Semitic subjects: — s = D; « = U^; ? = '^', b == ^ l i = D; ? = I0; "n"?.^? Gen. X, 10, is the Babylonian Arhi or Urbt., now the famous ruins of Warka, on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, between longitude 31° and 32° and latitude 43° and 44°. The Akkadian name of the place is Uruk (tJ-ru-uk), and is represented by the characters t^^] ^], i.e., Si-par. Its Sumerian name is Zimbir. Sippar is the present ruins of Aboo-habba, about 16 miles S.W. of Baghdad. n^5''!l = Niniveh, the chief town of Asspia, the present Nebi-Junus and Kouyunjik. Its name on the Inscriptions is Nina or Ninua, of which Nina is the older name. The names occur too often on the Inscriptions to require special citation of passages where they occur. We find its name written thus, 5^ <^^^^ It ^Isji ^•^•■> ^ii-nu-a, ^nth the Determinative ki. Meaning of »t doubtful : 7iu-a = Assyr. rahasn, ' to encamp.' n^t^, Gen. xi, 28-31; Nehemiah ix, 7, has D^^toS "^^t^. Ewald sought this place in Armenia ; but I think we shall not be wrong in sajnng that it is the famous Babylonian town Uru, now the ruins ]\Iughcir, on the right bank of the Euphrates, south of Babylon. In II R 50, lines 44-47^>, Ave liave the name U-ri, Avhich is our town Ur. The god of this town was the moon-god Sin. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 39 ")D^^^, Gen. xiv, 1, 9, is the l^abyloniaii to-wn Lai'sa. See II R 50, 48-491), where we read the name La-ar-sa. Its oldest name was Ararzii. It is now the famous niins of Scnkcreh, south-east of Warka. It is represented by the clia- racters -^y (Samas, ' the sun-god '), ^<3<<"y (suhtu, 'dwelhiig'), <^Ig[ (the determinative affix for ' town '), so tliat by these characters the town is designated as that in which the sun- god has his dwelhng. (See V R 3, 107.) r\^3, 2 Kings xvii, 40, and njn^S, 2 Kings, xvii, 24, a to\vn east of Babyh^n, whose Babyhjnian name is Kutu, and Sumerian name GudCia. It is represented by the characters »-C:|y »^C^ ^^ Iy ^W\^ ^'•^•' ''^^^ place of prayer' (see 11 R 53, 4a). Kuthah often occurs on the Inscriptions in conjunction with Babylon and Sippar. The god of the town was Nergal (II R 60, 12a, h), with which agrees 2 Kings, xvii, 30. 713, = Babylon ; written in Assyrian sometimes syllabi- cally thus : ha-In-Iu, and sometimes ideographically thus : t:^} ->f (^^yy -V or ^t\] ^*^, i-e., al ilu A-sur, i.e., 'city of the god Asur;' and the name of the land thus : V --Hf- fy *^ or V^ ^*'^, i.e., mat ilu A-sur. In the Sumerian texts the name of the land is written y^ |p fcil:^ ^I§f' which is to be read A-usar, according to S^ 146. This usar = si-id-tum (see S'', 146) = rilt?, ' meadow ; ' and f]^ is the well-known ideograph for mu, 'water.' Hence, A-iisar has been explained as ' the watered meadows.' ^P."1'7 = Tigris ; in Assjaian Diglat and Idiglat, i.e., I-di-ig-lat ; represented by the characters y][ )3 Hh *C^ ^^ • The first two characters are the usual ideograph for ndru, 'a stream or river ;' and the remaining three, according to S^, 373, have the Assyrian value su-pu-ii, which, together Avith ndru, is explained by Delitzsch as ' the stream which bursts forth, which rushes wildly on.' The Akkadian name is I-di-ig-na. For the Assyrian name, (/. II R 50, 7c, d. rr^G = Euphrates; represented in Asspian by the charac- ters iVq: ^y t^^ Hffflf <;^, and = Pu-rat-tu. (See II R 50, 8c, d.) The two first characters = ndru. and the student will remember that the last four characters represent the town Sippar, Hence the Euphrates is designated by these characters as the River of Sippar or Sepharvaim. The Euphrates is also represented by the characters y][ J^ y][ ""tl*"? i.e., ' the river of canals, the river from which the canals are fed.' The Akkadian name is Puranunu, (V R 22^ Reverse 31.) AN ESSAY OX ASSYRIOLOGY. 41 '\1*\^, 2 Kings xviii, 11; Isaiah xxxvii, 12. It is tlio neighbourhood into ^vhich tlic Israehtish exiles were taken. The river "ll^n is expressly named the Gozan in 2 Kings xviii, 11. The Assyrian name of the river is IJdbih% and it is known by the same name up to the present day. In the Inscription of Assurnazirpal, I R, plate 18, line 77, " By help of Assur and Rinnnon, the gi*eat gods Avho aggrandize my royalty, chariots and an army I collected : the banks of the Hii-bur I took." According to this inscription, the Cliabor pours itself into the Euphrates not far from Carchemish. Gozan has the name Gu-za-na (II R 53, 54, and often). On the Canon History of Assyria, Rammanu-nirari is said to have invaded Gu-za-na. It is the district watered by the Habia*. "I^^r mh"). Gen. x, 11. By "1^3^ Niuiveh is to be under- stood: and the two words together form the name of the north-eastern part of Niniveh. In the Cuneiform Inscriptions it bears the name of Ribit Nina, i.e., ' The broad squares of Niniveh.' (I R 45, col. 1, hue 53, " ina ri-bit Nina kC) FIT'S, in pausa n7JD, Gen. x, 11, is the name of the southern part of Niniveh, and has in the Inscriptions the name Kalhu. It is the present ruins of Nimroud, and is situated at the junction of the Upper Zab with the Tigris. It was built by Shalmaneser I, 1300 B.C., and raised into a residential town by Assurnazirpal (895-838 B.C.). The name is found in the Inscription of Assurnazirpal, I R, 17, line 9, where we read, a-sib alu Kal-hi hell rah-i heli-a Assur-nazir-pal sarru dannu, ^-c, " Dwelling in the city Kalhu, a great lord, my lord, Assurnazirpal, mighty king, etc." fj^il, Isaiah xxxvii, 12; Cuneiform name = Rasappa (II R 53, 37, where we read Ra-sa-ap-pa) ; present name = Rusafa, a ruin in the Euphrates Valley. Resefand the other towns mentioned on this plate are towns in IMesopotamia. YjV ^^'^, Isaiah xxxNoi, 12, Avhere it is mentioned along with Resef, Haran, and Gozan ; in Ezekiel xxvii, 23, along with Kalneh, Haran, and Assur. The 'pV '^2'2, we are told 42 AX ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. . in Isaiah, dwelt in lto(fc^)T'r>, whicli was the name of the district between Edessa and Euphrates. This tribe bears the name Bit-Adini in the Inscriptions, i.e., the tribe of which Adini was the founder. It was located between Haran and Ktesiphon. Mentioned in Assurnazirpal Inscription, column 1, line 76, where we read, "Ahiababa, son of Lamamana, whom they brought out of Bit-A-di-ni ; " also in column 3, line 51. The tribe dwelt in the district of to-day which lies between Aintab and Urfa, on the left bank of the Euphrates. *^to(i^)7li1 = Tul-Asurri, i.e., Asurr's Hill, mentioned in the Esarhaddon Inscription, I R 45, column 2, 23, where Ave read, mat Tul- A-siir-ri. CS'^y, the land of the nomadic Aramseans, includes a part of Mesopotamia and that portion of land which stretches south-east towards the Persian Gulf. Cuneiform name is Ardmu, Arimiu, or Artmu. Cf. the Nebi-Junus Inscription, I R 43, column 1, line 7, where we read, amelu A-ra-mi, ' the people of Aramu ;' and III R, plate 8, hue 38, where we read, sar mat A-ru-mu. In the Tablet of Tiglathpileser II, II R, plate 67, line 74, we have it written mat A-ri-me. nn, Gen. X, 15; that Sjaiau land which borders on its west side on ]\Iesopotamia, and is separated from it by the Euphrates. Its Cuneiform name Haiti occurs frequently in the Inscriptions. Particularly interesting is the tablet in I R, plate 48, where are mentioned the twenty-two kings of Hat-ti (^ *"*^<) who were bound to pay tribute to the king of Assyria. The chief towns of Hatti are : — t2?'^P5"\55 Isaiah x, 9, generally identified with KipKijaiov, i.e., Circesium, a fortified town at the junction of the Habor and Euphrates, on the right bank of the Euphrates, opposite Tulbarsip (whose present name is Biredjik, and whose CuneifoiTO name Tul-hur-si-ip occurs in the IMonolith Inscrip- tions of Shahnaneser II, column 2, 14, III R, 7). Gargamis is its name in Assurnazirpal, column 3, lines 69 and 70; it is Avritten Gar (Vf) - ga (tlff^) - ""'« (^III) ; l^ut in the Inscription AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 43 of Tiglatlipilcser I, column 5, line 49, its name is written Kar-ga-inis. Carcliemisli is represented to-day by tlie ruins of Girbas, on the right bank of the Euphrates. "7Q*)bi>, 2 Kings xviii, 34; Isaiah x, 9; Jeremiah xlix, 23, situated not far from Hamath; its Cuneiform name is Aifadda ; it is situated on the present uninhabited ruins Tel-Erfad, about twelve miles north of Aleppo, Vulnii-ari went up against the land Arpadda, 800 B.C. The name is also given in the Canon History, II R 52, 166, 30h, and often. (See further, Kiepert in Z. D. M. G., Vol. XXV, p. 655.) n^n. Num. xiii, 21 ; xxxiv, 8, a large Spian royal city on the River Orontes ; since the time of the Seleucidas called Epiphania ; named in Amos vi, 2 H^l r^^D. Cuneiform name = Hamattu (II R 53, 37). pir?3"l, Damascus, a royal town on the River Chiysoras, named in the Inscriptions Dimaska (II R 53, fragment 4, line 56 ; and in fragment 3, line 68, and often). The second radical 12 is never doubled in Assyrian. It has also another name, which marks it as the town of asses, viz., sa imerisu : imeru means * an ass.' In Arabic its name is Dimasku. ]3^^5 includes in the Old Testament both Phoenicia and Palestine ; this district in the Inscriptions, particularly the pai-t bordering on the coast, bears the name mat Aharrn, i.e., the West Land. Canaan has the name Gan-a-na or Kan- a-na. Its chief towns are : — ]'iT^, Gen. x, 15; here spoken of as the first-bom son of Canaan. The Cuneiform name of the town is Sidanu ; and in the Inscriptions Ave read of a great and small Sidon (Prism Inscription of Sennacherib, I R 37-42, column 2, line 38, where we read, alu Si-dn-u7i-7m ra/'-u alu Si-dxi-un-nu sihru, i.e., Sidon the great, Sidon the less). Cf. n|l"^ I^T!?, in .loshua xi, 8 ; also in I R 35, line 12, we read of a land Si-du-nu. Its present name is Sa'ida. 44 AN ESSAY ON ASSIRIOLOGY. riQ"^!^, 1 Kings xvii, 9, 10; Obadiali, 20 = Sarepta; Cunei- form name is Sa-ri-ijy-tri (Sariptu), a Phoenician town lying between Tyre and Sidon (Piisni Inscription of Sennacherib, ir, 39). From this inscription we gather that the Assyrian monarch began his famous march in the north and went southAvards. Sariptu can then be no other than Sarepta, Zarpath (see Kiepert's Map of Palestine), which lies on the coast between Tyre and Sidon. It is the little village of the present day called Sarfend. "Ti!?, Tyre ; in the Inscriptions Sur-ni (see Shalmaneser II, Inscription in III R, plate 5, No. 6), where the people of Tyre are called Sur-ra-a-a, i.e., Surra. The name Surru occurs in the Inscription No. 1 of plate 35m I R, line 12. Cf. also I R 48, Inscription of Esarhaddon, an inscription which is very important geographically, line 2, where we read, mat ySwr-n, i.e., the land of Surru (Tyre). Arabic name = ^. 13^, now ^Akka ; Cuneiform name = ^ Mm. (Prism Inscrip- tion of Sennacherib, colnmn 2, line 40, where we read Ak-ku-u). Arabic name = \^ . ilDn, Joshua xix, 29 ; in Assyrian U-M-i'i, i.e., Usu. (Prism Inscription of Sennacherib, II, 40.) It is a town in the tribe of Asher, and according to its position in the list of places mentioned in this inscription, must lie north of Achzib and south of Sarepta. ^■^pt;^, Joshua xix, 29, is Achcib, a town lying between Tyre and Akko. Written in the Prism Inscription, 2, 40, alu Ah-zi-hi. Present name is Ecdippa. '^P^^.i Gen. X, 17, has been generally identified with Ai-heh, at the north-west foot of Lebanon, between Tripolis and Antaradus, one parasang from the sea (see the " Com- mentary of Kaliscli," p. 272). It lies fifteen miles nortli of Tripolis, and is known to-day by the name of Irka. Its Cuneiform name is Arkd (mentioned in the Fragmentary Inscription of Tiglathpileser II, in III RIO, No. 2, line 2). AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 45 '^'yy^, Gen. X, 18 ; about twenty-four miles south-east of Antaradus, near the river Eleutherus, and known by the name Shnp^a. Its Cuneiform name is Simula (mentioned in the same Kne as Arkii, III R 10, No. 2, line 2 ; and also in Fragment 3 on the same page, line 35). Palestine. (a). The Kingdom of Israel has the Cuneiform name Bit-IJiuiiria, or Btt-f/innn, i.e., 'the house of Omri;' also 1/uU I/ianri, ' the land of Omri. In III R 10, No. 2, line 6, we read, mat bit Hu-um-ri-a. In the inscription from the palace of Btirku-nirari, I R 35, we read, line 12, mat Hu-um-ri-i. The other Cuneiform name of Israel is Sir''al, Avhich occurs on the Monolith Inscription of Shalmaneser II, in III R (plates 7 and 8), plate 8, column 2, line 92, where the hue begins, mat Sir--la-a-a, i.e., mat Sir Id, 'the land of the Israelites.' Its chief towns are : — P"^p\t', in LXX '^a/jLapeia, once Aviitten '^e/xTjpcov (1 Kings xvi, 24). Its Cuneiform name is Samerina (II R 53, No. 4, line 1) ; and in Tiglathpileser II Inscription (II R 9, line 50) we read, " the city of the Sa-me-H-na-a-a," i.e., of the people of Samerina, i.e., Samaria. Also the name Samsimuruna, not Usimuruna. (See Prism Inscription of Sennacherib, column 2, 47, where we read, ' the city of the Sam-si-mu-ru-7ia-a-a.') pDb^ , 1 Samuel xxix, 1 ; Cuneiform name = Ajikic (II R 53, 39a) ; it is the Aphek which lies north-west from Jezreel. "11i?P , also I i"^^p = Megiddo ; in the south-west part of the plain of Esdraelon, and lying south-west of Aphek, the present ruins of Le^4''^n (Legis). Its Cuneiform names are (1) Magadu (II R 53, Fragment 3, hne 5G, viz., Ma-ga-du-u), and (2) Magidu (II R 53, Fragment 4, line 58. viz., Ma-gi-du-u). (b). The Kingdom of Judah, rTllH^, has tlie Cuneiform name mat Ja-u-di. (See Nebi-Junus Inscription, I R 43, column 1, line 15; and often in the Inscriptions after the younger Tiglathpileser.) Its chief towns are : — 4G AN ESSAY OX ASSYRIOLOGY. 071^^"^^, K^ri pei'petuum for DT'llJ^l'^. Cuneiform name IS Ur-sa-li-im-mit, i.e., Ursalhnmu (P*rism Inscription of Sennacherib, column 3, line 8). We have the same consonants in the Hebrew as in the Assyrian, except that UJ takes the place of D. This occurs often, and I mention it in order that the reader may gather for himself the examples which occur. The present name of Jerusalem is El-Kuds. iD^ or ^^"13^, Ezra iii, 7; Jonah i, 3. Cuneiform name is Ja-ap-pvr-u, i.e., Jappu (Prism Inscription, column 2, line GO). Observe the long u at the end, correspondmg to the Hebrew Kholem; present name = Jafa. I^i"! tVIl., Joshua XV, 51 = Beth-Dagon. Cuneiform name = Bit- Dag ana (Prism Inscription, column 2, line 65). Lies south-east of Jafa, i.e., Joppa. This is not the Beth-Dagon mentioned in Joshua xix, 27, situated near Accho, in the tribe of Asher, but the town in Philistasa, situated on the road leading from Joppa to Jerusalem. This is evident from its place in the list of towns mentioned in the inscription. The reader observes that the meaning of the name of the place is " the house of the god Dagon." Observe, then, how the name of the god is given by the Assyrian scribe, thus, Dagdna. Present name is Bet-Dedjan. p"ll ^2l!l, Joshua xix, 45 = Bene-berak, in the tribe of Dan, south-east of Joppa. Cuneiform name = Ba-na-a-a- Bai'-ka, i.e., Band-Barka (Prism Inscription, column 2, line 06). Present name = Ibn-Ibrak. t2J''^7, 2 Kings xviii, 14 = Lachish. Cuneiform name = Jjakisu. Probably it is the present Umm-el-Lakis, on the border of Philista3a, in the south-west corner of Judah, on the road from Gaza to Jerusalem. Cf. I R, plate 7, No. J. npn^i^l and «p.^^«, Joshua xix, 44, xxi, 23; Cuneiform name = Al-ta-kii (Prism Inscription, II, lino 76). It is a town which lay between Ekrou and Timnah. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 47 I'lIiH, Joshua XV, 23 = IJazor; not the town in Naphtali nor in Bonjamin, but one of the two in the tribe of Judah, and it must be sought for in the neighbourhood of Joppa. Assyrian name = A-su-7'u (Prism Inscription, column 2, line G6). ntlJ7S, {.g., PhiHstaea, Gen. x, 14; Isaiah xiv, 29. Cunei- form name = Falastu or Filistu. {See Hue 12 in I R 85, which I have before quoted, wliere we read at the end, mat Pa-la-as-tu.) We read in this hne of the lands of Surru (Tyre), SuhXiui (Sidon), TJumrt (Omri), Uddmu (Edom), and Falastu (Philistaia). Also montioned in 11 R 52. Observe hue 40, where we read, sa at Kal-ha a-na mat Fi-lis-tu. Its chief towns are : — pipy, Ela-on, the most northerly of the Pliilistine towns. In the LXX it is 'AicKapdiv. Cuneiform name = Am-kar-oni-na (Prism Inscription, column 3, line 1 ; cf. also I R plate 48, line 5, where we read, Itdsu sar Am-Kar-ru-na). The Assyrian form of the name, Amkarnina = Ahkarr una, \^ to be compared with the Greek form. Present name = ' Akir.' "rntpi^, Ashdod; Cuneifonn name = ^sff^lf/w (Piism In- scription, column 2, line 51, where we read of the people As-du-da-a-a) ; also in line 7 of I R 48, we read of a king Nu-milku, of the city As-du-di. Present name = Esdud. (Hebrew has t!J and Assyrian D-) n^^ri, Judges xiv, 19 = Timnah. Cuneiform names = Tamnd (Prism Inscription, column 2, line 83) and Tamand. Lies south-east of Ekron and east of Aslidod. Present name = Tibne. ]i7pll?i^«l, Ascalon; Cuneiform name = Is-ka-al-lu-iia, i.e., Iskaluna (Prism Inscription, column 2, lines 58 and G3). Also mentioned in I R 48, line 4, where we read of Mitinti, king of the city Is-ka-lu-na. On II R (37, line Gl (Inscription of Tiglathpileser II), the name is written As-ka-lu-na. nty, Gaza; Cuneiform names = //a^i^it (Prism Insciip- tion, column 3, line 20, we read alu Ila-zi-ti), Hazzutu 48 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. (Tiglathpileser II Inscription in III R 10, No. 2, line 9, where we read Ha-az-zu-tu), and Ilazzutu. In I R 48, line 4, its name is Ha-zi-tu {flaziti is genitive case). The Ayin in Hebrew is, as is well known, of two kinds, one corresponding to the Arabic c ('Ain), the other corresponding to A (Gain). The ^ in IlTi^ corresponds to the Arabic A. This is here represented by the Assyrian h, i.e., !!• Before going on to the geography of Egypt, I shall add a promiscuous list of a few important places. 1. '0^1^ and db;^; in line 12, I R 35, the reader remem- bers the name mat U-du-mu; in the Prism Inscription, column 2, line 54, we read of a king Arammu, king of the land of the U-dunum-ma-a-a, i.e., of the people of Udianu. TI'^S! = Arvad; Cuneiform name = A-ru-da (Piism Inscrip- tion, column 2, line 49). The inscription does not help us to decide where Arvad was situated. (See Delitzsch's " Paradies," p. 281.) pTS;^ , or more frequently ]^'Q^ ''?.5. Cuneiform name = Bit-Ammdnu (Prism Inscription, column 2, line 52, has BH- Am-ma-na-a-a, where Ammana denotes the people of the tribe of which Amnion was the founder). In V R, column 7, line 110, we read of a city Blt-Am-ma-ni, where Ammani is genitive case after Bit, li^'i?2, Moab; Cuneiform names = 7l/a'Z»7/, Malm, and Miidhu. Prism Inscription has mat Ma-ha-a-a, i.e., the land of the people of Ma'bu. In V R, column 7, hue 112, its name is Mu-d-ba. It is to be observed that in Assyrian as in Hebrew the middle radical is a guttural. Eg^jpt. The Semitic name of Eg}q:)t is 0)^1!^^, ^9.^So. Nowhere in the Egyptian monuments docs this name occur. As to the various ways of explaining this word, I refer the reader to Gesenius's Dictionary, or any other large Hebrew lexicon. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOOV. 49 lu the narrower sense of the word D'l'^^P is Lower Egypt. In the Inscriptions the corresponding name is Mu-sur (nee V It, Annals of Assurl)anipal, cohinm 1, Hne 59, and often). In the two-lined inscription No. 4, in I R 48, we read as follows : — 7ndt A ssur-ah-iddlna Sar kismti mr mat AsSur md-ti Mu-sur inati Ku-si i.e., land of Esarhaddon, king of multitudes, king of Assyria, of the land ]Musur, of the land Kusu. The name also occurs in No. 5, line 4, at the end. Musur is the name given to Lower Egypt. Its later Cuneiform name is Misii". Arabic name is Misr. DinnS, Isaiah xi, 11; Jeremiah xhv, 15, is the name for Upper Egypt. In Isaiah xi, 11, we have the tlii'ee names Misraim, Pathros, and Kush together. Pathros in old Egyptian is pe-to-res, i.e., the land of the South (so Professor Franz Dehtzsch in liis "Commentary"). In I R 48, No. 5, lines 4 and 5, we read, sarrdni mdt Mu-sur mat Pa-tu-\_rii\-si mat Ku-si, i.e., "kings of the land Musur, of the land of Paturusu (Pathros), of the land of Kusu" (U^'l^). Here the Assyrian and the Hebrew have D in the name of Pathros. tri3, Ethiopia. Musur is in the north, south of it is Pathros, and south of Pathros is Kush. Cuneiform name = Kusu (see on D'i"^riS; also in V R, column 1, line 67, and often). The Babylonians name it Kusu, i.e., the dark-coloured race, from kusa, the Assp'ian for ' black.' The chief towns of Egypt are : — ]J^i?, Num. xiii, 22; Isaiah xix, 11; Ps. Ixxviii, 12, 43 = Tanis. It has two names in the Cuneiform Inscriptions. (1) Stnu (a guttural as middle radical), see Assurbanipal, V R, column 1, line 91. (2) Sa'nu (ditto, column 1, 9()). It Hes between the Ostium Sehennyticum and the Ostium. Pelusiacum of the Nile. "lit^. Gen. xli, 50, the well-known city of the Sun, with the Greek name Heliopolis ; the city On, situated a few miles north of Memphis, called by Assurbanipal Unu. E 50 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. f]"b, Hosea ix, 6; in Isaiah xix, 3; Jeremiali iii, 6, P]!!! = ?]i?2 = Memphis ; on the western bank of the Nile, south of Cairo. Present name among the Copts is Menfi. Cuneiform name = Menipi (Assurbanipal, V R, cohimn 1, hues 60, i'O, and often), i.e., Me-im-pi or Mi-im-pi. Arab. = ^^_sj^. t^il, Ezekiel xxx, 14, 16, and ]i^i:^ i^i, Nahum iii, 8, is the okl town of Teben or Thebes. Cuneiform name = Niu (Assurbanipal, V R I, 88, line 109, and often). In this inscrip- tion we are told that the king Tirhakah, who was in ]\Iemphis, heard of the defeat of his army, abandoned the city, and fled into Thebes {Ni-). The first character = ni, and the second character is the usual one for a guttural. tO^Qi third son of Ham ; his descendants are named along with Kush and Misraim in Nahum iii, 9. The Egyptologists identify Piit with Punt : according to Ebers, Arabic nomadic tribes tributary to Egypt. On the Darius Inscription of Nakshi Rustam, along ^^dth Kus is mentioned a people Pu-u-ta, i.e.f Puta, and probably the same as Put in Nahum. There still remain a few names to which I wish to draw the reader's attention. They are the following : — uT^V = Elam = Susiaua, and in Gen. x, 22, mentioned as the first son of Sliem. Its Cuneiform name is Elamtu, mostly written ideographically, and sometimes syllabically (thus, e-laiiL-tii). It is generally represented by the characters ^^1 ^I ^IeJ» aiitl from these it is clear that the name means hlijliland. The first character is the ideograph for elamu, ' high ;' and the third for irsita {\')^ ), ' land ;' the second has the syllabic value ma. Its Akkadian name is Elama. Its chief town is ]tp^t2?, Nehemiah, i, 1, Daniel, viii, 2 ; Cuneiform name = Susan. (See Assurbanipal, V R, column 7, line 1.) T^7, mentioned as the fourth son of Shem = the Lydians. Cuneiform name Luddu, In V R, column 2, line 95, we read of Gyges, king of the land of Lu-ud-di. t^i^, Job, i, 1, lies north-cast of Edom, in North Arabia, perhaps in the wilderness of Arabia, east of Palestine. Its Cuneiform name = ifzzu. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 51 t2T^^*, a proviucG of Araiema (2 Kings xix, 37), ideutified with Hara-haraithi, ' the mountain of mountains.' In the Babylonian Inscriptions its oldest name is Urastu; among the Assyrians it was called Urartu (see V R, x, 40, where the line reads, ' Saduri, king of the land Ur-ar-ti,' i.e., Ararat). On the Bronze Gates of Shalmaneser 11, discovered by j\Ir. llassam at Balawat, colunni 3, line 3, we read of the land U-ra-ar-ti. (See the paper by Mr. Pinches in the " Transactions of the Society of Bibhcal Archseology," Vol. VII, Part 1, 1880.) D15 = Persia, Persians; Cuneiform name = Parsu. In the account of the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, obverse, column 2, line 15, we read of Cyrus, king of the land Par-su. In I R, 35, a plate I have often referred to in this geography, Hue 8, we read the names of several lands, viz., ]\Iu-un-na, Par-stt-a, Al-lab-ri-a, Ab-da-da-na. The word Parsua is here in accusative case^ governed by a verb meaning 'to conquer, to take possession of.' Parsu-a = Persia. Arabic = ,j^j. ■^3^, Jeremiah, li, 27, a pro\ance of Armenia; Cuneiform name = Maunu. In the Historical Canon, II R, 53, we read, ana mat Man-na-a-a, "to the land of the Mannu people;" as also in the same canon, ana Mad-a-a, "to the Medes." The pointing of ^"7Q in Hebrew is '^I'p ; may not "^^7:2 have been pointed at some time or other in the same way ? Here I close the list, and the reader desirous of further information, I would refer to the works of Schrader, " Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament," 2nd edition, 1883, a translation of which into English is now in course of preparation ; and Delitzsch, " AVo lag das Paradies ?" 52 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. BIBLICAL HISTORY. References to the Kings of Israel and Judali in the Inscriptions : — 1^^. — Kings of Israel, (a). Omri, whose Assyrian name is Iliimrt (Hebrew = ■"ipV), is mentioned in the Inscription of Shalmaneser II (858-823 B.C.), in his account of liis victory over Hazael (Assyrian name= Ha-za--ilu, and Hebrew = 71SJ|n, 2 Kings viii, 15) of Damascus. See HI R 5, No. 6, where we read at the close of this little inscription, the first discovery of the late George Smith, maddtu sa mat Sur-ra-a-a mat Si-du-na-a-a m y Ja-u-a apil Hu-um-ri-i am-har, i.e., " the tribute of the land of the Tyrians, of the land of the Sidonians, of Jehu son of Omri, I received." The reader will also remember that Israel is called by the Assyrians mCit Humr% ' the land of Omri.' {See Geography.) Observe that the Hebrew J^ is represented in Assyrian by A in Omri's name. (J)). Ahab: Hebrew li^H^, i-c, 'brother of the father;' Cuneiform name is Ahabbu, mentioned in the Inscription of Shalmaneser II, HI R, plate 8, column 2, line 91, where avo read as follows: Sa imeri-su 700 narhahdti 700 hit-hal-lu 10,000 sdhi sa Jr-hu-li-e ni mat A-mat-a-a 2,000 narkahdti 10,000 sdhi sa A-hd-ab-bn, i.e., " of Damascus ; 700 chariots, 700 magazines, 10,000 men of ( = belonging to) Irchulen of Ilamath, 2,000 chariots, 10,000 men of ( = belonging to) Ahab." Ahab is here named in connection with the battle of Karkara (854 B.C.), Avliere there were tAvelve Syro-Phoeniciaii kings engaged against Shalmaneser, one of wlmm was Ahab. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 53 ^ Jehu = t^^n."] ; Ciiucifonu naniG = Jd-n-a ; mentioned along with Hazael of Damascus in the passage cited about Omri. The inscription relates liow Shalmaneser, in the eighteenth year of his reign, 840 B.C., crossed the Euphrates, defeated Hazael, captured 10,000 warriors, together with their weapons, took 1,221 war-chariots, shut Hazael up in Damascus, destroyed his parks, marched as far as the mountains of the land of Haurrui, and laid waste cities without number. And last of all he speaks of the tribute which the people of Tyre and Sidon and Jehu paid him. (d). Menahem = DniQ, 2 Kings xv, 17-23; Cuneiform name is Menihimmu ; mentioned in the 3rd fragment of Tiglathpilescr H (III R 9, line 50), where we read his name thus: Mc-ni-hi-{im)-mc al Sa-me-ri-na-a-a, i.e., ''Menahem of the city of the people of Samerina," i.e., Samaria. Mr. RodwelFs translation in the "Records of the Past," Vol. V, page 48, line 2, does not help the reader to see that 'Samirinai' is Samaria. The a-a at the end of the proper nouns always denotes the j^^ojile of the city to whose name these letters are added. Menahem is also mentioned on the famous Prism Inscription of Sennacherib, column 2, line 47, as Me-in-M-im-me Sam-si-mu-ra-na-a-a, i.e., " Menhimme of Samaria." He here appears as a vassal of Sennacherib. (f ^ili^^^M^z^i^liliil^iBlJllill^'^^^^- ilu Aj" 5- ilu 6. ->f ilu the god \ 4- f>^ iiumu the I 9- ->f Uu sil - la - sa taba the ( ^'^^' i7C»0f/ ^J>ro^(?c'fton iiu r sa - iia - an f illl< I -Vh^tt]]->^^ 1 - th g - ru -u- su ig- - ra - an - ni hostile to him was hostile to me. 16. iw^m^^M }] fJ>^ ilu the 5 9. ^>f ilu the ( 10. >->f- mii -Tin -^T V ^^^m sil - la - sa taba her good iJrotection ilu \ sa - 11a - an the (w'^'-t compare ul si -ma- ti i - si -[mu] Me destinies fixed 12. <:^^ t^TT ^^rr t? -^ ^ ki 1111 si - ra - a - ti ... lik^eme paths u in - ti si - di - ru - u . . . ' of op2?osition, ordering . . . 14. ^yyii? ¥^^^^^^^^ iiu Nabu dup - sar giiu - ri ah - zi iii -me- Id - su sa i - ram mu the god Neho, the scribe of all, he who possesses his wisdom, which he loves Uu Is - tar a - si - bat aiu Arba - ili ka - bit - ti ilani rabiiti sil - la - sa taba the qoiUless Isiar, dicelling in the city of Arhela, the mightij one of the fjreat gods, her good protection ,0. ^>f i^]] ^Tif ^Ti; iff -+ T- -^ii ^i iin KT I T? <]^ ^-^ v^M^n nt^H-^i ina(?) Silt Niigia a- sav la in tli^ Hades, a place not 1 8. ^"^^ - ^tB ^ ->^< -II -^< I lib - bi ka - bat - ti bclu - ti - su the heart honour (?) of his dominion 19- ^^^>^::^::; f s.yyyy n -w <^w^ ul-tu iiiu E -a u -pat[ti-rii] from [the tim^ins, the god Ea has set free TABLET OF ASSURBANIPAI — Cmthuu-.l. 3 ,7. ^ ^ ^+ ^r I T? -m -< ^ CTT ET [^ryy it ^tr^r(?)?M^^^ ta - lit 4 - nin t/te hviiKjer^ 27. ^ ^irr;. /r^ --ri j^i^M^s itia u - zi - 2u - turn (?) ... a.s /c^* 28. ^^ <^y^ T- m H^^^i^ bu - ul me - hi - ti the hea^t 0} of men 29. fff 1 - sa - ap they .... ^•v^•\/sV\V^.^■^-/'■^y^.>•■^^■\/'■s.N•^/^^■^/^^■^y■^\■v/N^■*^^ 32. IdJ ^ fei^^^^^^iii^i^^^ ip - sit the 33- "^ l"" *"'^-^i>v^k4k4fk4?:<'>s^;?kf4'>y^^^ ilia me - t ?'u the ( i^■^<^^■'^•.5^^^ passage . . . -Hyyy ->f- = ilu, ' god.' Cf. T'b^ . >^>^ ^ is the god Assur (an ideograph), and by these characters as his ideograph the god is represented as ilu tabu {'2^1D), 'the kind, good god.' ]} is an ideograph for ajyhi or mdru, ' a son ; ' ^ is an ideograph for banu, ' to beget.' Hence from these ideographs we get the name Assur- bani-pal, which means ' the god Assur has begotten a son.' sar; cstr. state of sarni, 'a king.' Cf. the Hebrew "^tt?. The character in line 1 is a frequent ideograph for sarru. Another ideograph is ^^. Sumerian = siir. 2. sit, -^y >^y, is an ideograph for asd, 'to go out.' Cf. Hebrew b^2J"'. See S^ 84, where we find that this character = a-su-u, i.e., asi'}. From this verb we have the noun sitti, cstr. sit, which means ' offspring.' libbu = heart. Cf. 1^, or better, the form 11^. This phrase is common on the tablets. The Assyrians speak of the offspring of the heart, whereas we speak of the offspring of the body : ' sprung from the body of.' Cf for this phrase the Inscription of Assurbanipal, 5 II, column 2, lines 70, 78, &c. With the use of the verb asu, or the noun derived fi'om it, in this sense, cf. the Hebrew phrase in Gen. xvii, 6, 1«JJ.":. ^TSp. With «^^ in Hebrew we find T)!^}? and ]^5P, as in Assyiian we have libbtt (^7). F >v>»>^'rt-*' AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 61 NOTES 1. anakd = lat personal pronoun. Cf. the Hebrew form. The final u is long : in proof of this see the Sumerian hymn in Haupt's "Akkadische nnd Jveilschrift-texte," line 15 .W-'-r-- {a-na-ku-u), and lines 17 and 19 (ana-ku-u). Assurbanipal. f is the determinative prefix before the names of persons. >->f- = iln, ' god.' Cf. T'i^ . >->f- ^ is the god Assur (an ideograph), and by these characters as his ideograph the god is represented as ilu tabu (2"itO), 'the kind, good god.' ]} is an ideograph for ajylu or md7'u, ' a son ; ' J^ is an ideograph for banii, ' to beget.' Hence from these ideographs we get the name Assiir- bani-pal, which means ' the god Assur has begotten a son.' sar; cstr. state of sarru, 'a king.' Cf. the Hebrew "^fc'. The character in line 1 is a frequent ideograph for sarru. Another ideograph is ^^. Sumerian — • ser. 2. sit, -^1 «5y, is an ideograph for asu, 'to go out.' Cf. Hebrew k^iJ''. See S'' 84, where we find that this character = a-su-u, i.e., asil. From this verb we have the noun situ, cstr. sit, which means ' offspring.' libbu = heart. Cf. ^7, or better, the fonn i^^. This phrase is common on the tablets. The Assyrians speak of the offspring of the heart, whereas we speak of the offspring of the body : ' sprung from the body of.' Cf. for this phrase the Inscription of Assurbanipal, 5 R, column 2, lines 70, 78, &c. With the use of the verb asu, or the noun derived from it, in this sense, cf. the Hebrew phrase in Gen. xvii, 6, ^^^Ji."). "^j^Sn. With «^^ in Hebrew we find "JH!!^ and "|t|?5^, as in Assyiian Ave have libbu (^7). F 62 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. Assur-ahu-iddina = Esarliaddon. Cf. ]"^"^n"1pt^ an abbre- viation for iddina, which is from naddnu, ' to give.' The meaning of his name is, ' the god Assur has given a brother.' mdtu = hind. Cf. S** 302 ; in Akkadian mdtu = bir. Cf. the Chaldee word ^^'^. Its plural = matdti. 3. lihhalhal must mean * offspring' also. Observe the redupli- cation in the word. The word lihUhbu, also having a reduplication, has the same meaning, viz., ' oiFspiing.' (aS^^ Inscription of Tiglathpileser I, column 7, hne 55.) The word lihhalhal is one that often occurs in the Inscriptions. See particularly plate 2 of III R. Tablet I of Sargon, sixth year, reads in line 3, lih-hal-hal. And so often on this plate. Sin-ahe-irha {?) = Sennacherib (I'^'^H-Pj. The fii-st two characters stand for the moon-god Sin ; A^ ^^dtli the sign of the plural number, viz., !»-»-►-, we read 'ahe, 'brothers.' Assyriologists are not agreed as to how to read the last character, "snz., *^fy. It has been hitherto held that we are to read irha, from rahu, ' to increase,' for which word this character is an ideograph. Others consider that some such word as erihu is to be sought for here. What the word is for Avhich S7i is ideograph has yet to be found; and until the meaning of su has been determined, the explanation of the name Sennacherib must be con- sidered as undetermined. 4. Tlie first two characters = the god Assur ; the following three represent the name of the god Belu, i.e., Bel. Bel is the exalted one, the father of the gods. Cf. the Hebrew name 73, in Isaiah xlvi, 1. The plural of Hit = ihini. Cf. 7« in lk'l)rew. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 63 iSdic = foundation. Identical with this is the llebrew Itp^^. Jsdi (or isid) kussi occurs often; see, e.g., the passage referred to by Lotz. viz., II R 38, 32a, where we read, isdi kussi abisu. In this passage it is represented by its ideograph t^^f. Sec the remarks on Hebrew Lexicogi-aphy in regard to the word kussu = t^D3 . 5. Bi'lit; wife of Bel, and mother of the gods. wnmxi = i]iQ Hebrew D^^, 'mother.' The Avord is un- doubtedly from a root Ut^i^. It is here represented by its ideograph. The Akkadian for timmu is a-nia. Cstr. = urn. rahd, plural rahad = great. With this may be compared the Hebrew l"! in the compound word nj/lTn,!. 3"li, in pausa 2"^ = many, much, great. In the text it is repre- sented by its ideograph. See II R 1, No. 123. lima= 'like,' as corresponding to the Hebrew 3. G. Sin is the moon-god, the national god of the old town of Ur. The character <« is also the representative of the numeral 30. Hence the god Sin, according to this ideograph, is the god of 30 (days), or a month : the month-god. /Somas is the Hebrew tTTpip, 'sun,' the sun-god; -^f is also an ideograph for umu (DV)» ' day.' Thus Samas is the god of dar/, i.e., the sun. Worshipped in Sippar. anni-sunu = their grace ; annu = HebreAv pH? i-^-, the root of the Assyrian word is ppT; the a is I3 ; sunn is 3rd plural masc. suffix. Jci-e-ni, i.e., heni, is an adjective agreeing in case with anni ; its root is p3, and connected with this it must mean 'faithful, constant.' Nebo is the kenv ahlu of Merodach. 7. apkcdlu, or apgallu, is most lilcely from the Akkadian, meaning, ' great father.' See an interesting note on this word by Mr. Pinches in the '• Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch.," Vol. Vli, Part 2, 1881, in his article entitled "A new Fragment of the History of Nebuchadnezzar III." f2 64 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. Marduh = the god Merodach, in Hebrew "^l^^. See this name of the god in the compoimd name Merodach- Baladan. This god is the lierald of the gods, the apkallu, and the first-born son of the god Ea. sa- su = hterahy ' which his,' i.e., whose. Of the Hebrew custom of joining the relative pronoun to the suffix of the following noun, see Gesenius's Grammar, § 123. Mhit, for hihit, and this from Khtu, ' order, or command ;' hihit is the form of the woi'd used before suffixes. Kibtu, from a verb kahu, Cf. the Aramaic verb J^Hp. 7ittakl'aru, from the verb nakciru, ' to change,' H, 2 (i.e., Iftaal), present ; nakdru means ' to tear down, to change :' whence nakru, ' an enemy.' The root "^32 means ' to be strange, hostile.' Cf. the Hebrew ; also the yEthiopic nakara in II, j = peregri?m7n invenit, and adjective naJcw = alienus. la is the adverb of negation. Cf. Hebrew ^^7; also the Syriac Id, and Chaldee ^57. simat is construct state of stmtu, ' fate or destiny.' The root is D''tp, ' to fix, to appoint.' Smtum = the Arab, al^j^ . 8. A\tbi1 is god Nebo, the originator of the art of writing, and hence called in our text dupsar gimri. Cf. 1^11. dupsar, cstr. of diipsarru. See Hebrew Lexicography on this word. gimru, totality (Gesanimtheit) ; from a root "yoX 'to be complete.' Cf. the ^thiopic gamara and the Syriac gemur, '■perfectum et integrum esse.' Construct state of gimru is gimir. ahzi ; root is tPlb^, 'to seize, possess.' Here in the constnict state before nhneki, ' wisdom.' Bel ntmcki, i.e., ' the lord of wisdom unfiitliomable,' is a title of the god Ea. In tlie great Nebuchadnezzar Inscription published in I R, plates 59-64, we read in column I, line 7, a-hi-iz ni-me-ki, ' the possessor of wisdom.' AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 65 nhnu, ' to love ;' root is Qt^gl, i.e., thu Arubiu *^J; here Kul, 3rd person singular. The plural is iramu. 9. Jstar, i.e., Astarte. In the Inscriptions we read of Islar sa Ninua, and Islar sa Arba'-ili, i.e., 'Istar of Niniveh, and Istar of Arbela ;' and on an inscription of Esarhaddon (marked No. 15, and found 19th July, 1880), line 5, in column 1, we read, '->f- ^\y ^ '-t]] J:»|!I^--H[-, ^-^'-j -^*^<^^ sa Bdhili, ' Istar of Bab^don.' asibat, cstr. state of the word asibutu, fern. part, of the masc. asibu, which is Kal of the verb asdbu, 'to dwell.' Cf. with this verb the Hebrew lU?^. Arba-ilu = Arbela ; the two characters mean four, god. We know from our text and from other inscriptions that Ista?' was worshipped there. Kabittu; fem. of kabtu; 'heavy, honourable, mighty.' Cf. in?. silla; accusat. of sillu, ' shadow, protection ;' Cf. 7!?; sa is here the third feminine singular suffix. ^''^bu = good. Cf y):^. 10. dandannu, a reduplicated form from dannu, 'mighty.' In this text we have had one other such form, viz., libbalbal. Zikrutu; abstract noun from -ikaru, 'manly, male,' as opposed to female. The Hebrew adjective is mt; female = zinnistu. dwinu, ' strength ;' undoubtedly connected with dandnu, ' to be strong, powerful.' emuku, ' might, forces.' Root p^^^^. Schrader correctly compares Avith this word the Hebrew pO^, 'to be deep;' emaku is originally ' the deep.' la sanan ; a common phrase m the Inscriptions. aS^*; Delitzsch, in Lotz's " Tiglathpileser," on the phrase, page 102. 6lj xiN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. Nergal is described iii this line as the strong one of the gods, whose manly strength is ^vithout compare, iiee Delitzsch, in his edition of Smith's " Chaldean Genesis,"' pp. 274-276, on the name of tliis god. 11. ?t/fM='out of;' a preposition common in Assj-rian. sihirii = ' youth ;' from the adjective sihru, ' small, young.' To it is added the 1st singular suffix ia or a. Root is "^nS. schne, ' heaven.' Cf. Q'^f^tp. The e is here phonetic com- plement ; >->f- is ideograph for ihi as well as sdmu. irsitu, ' earth.' Cf. Y"^.^ > ^"'* oi" ^*" ^s phonetic complement. isimu; Kal, 3rd plur. masc. sdmu, ' to fix.' Cf. Hebrew D'^UJ. 12. abu, 'father' = li;^ ; j;^y is ideograph for abii ; here in genitive. ba-iii-e, i.e., bane; genitive case {cf. sdinc, Avhich is also genitive, like irsiti), from band = 'begetter.' The verb banu = ' to build, create, beget.' With the verb cf. ^22. urabbu-inni ; from rabu, ' to be great,' the Piel form, which is causative of Kal, and means 'to make great;' here in 3rd plur. masc. with hud, the 1st singular suffix. firddi ; plural fem. of sh-v, ' exalted, supreme.' • The form is jAi. CaSc^ Haupt's "Sumerische Familien-Gesetze," page 5, note 3.) alkakdti. I translate tliis word paths. It occm'S in IV R, plate 15, line 60, where we have al-ka-ka-a-ti si-bit-ti- su-nu. 13. ulanuiiL'du-inni ; T07, ' to learn ;' here the 3rd plur. masc. with 1st personal suffix. ejjis ; verb prima; gutturalis, from eplsti, 'to make.' Participle = episu ; Present = eppus ; Imperfect = epics, habii and tahazi are here ideographs. See for kabli, S^ 88, or II R, 1, 87 ; and fur tahazi, see 11 R, 2, 291, where Ave have ta-ha-[zu'\. Construct of kiiblii is ka-bal. dikdiii : abstract noun; from dakd,'' to gather;" dikut \i> in cou.^lruct state. The root is "^^l. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 67 anantu; a synonym ottukwitu, II R, 29, 53; and IV R, 26, 13, where we have dikd (not t/wtt) anantum. (Commiuiicated to nie by Mr. Pinches.) sidirii ; ' to order, arrange.' Cf. Chaldee "Tip = Hebrew "^"IV' ' ^" ^^^ ^^ ^ row.' Sidru= ' arrangement.' 14. tiscu-bu ; from 7'o^>», ' to be great ;' here it is the Schaphel, or causative form, imperfect 3rd phu*. masc, 'to cause to be great, make great.' kakkia; the plural oikakku, with the 1st person pronominal suffix ia or a. Kakku means ' a weapon ; ' t^ isu is a determinative prefix ; f:y JgJ is the usual ideograph for this word. ell ; preposition, ' against.' Cf. with it the prepositions in Hebrew and Arabic, viz., ^V and A^ . nakrii, Avith the determinative prefix amehc, ' man ' = ' enemy ;' nakrla = ' mine enemies.' Cf. in line 7 the verb nakdi'U, ' to be hostile.' sa ; the Assyi'ian relative pronoun ; adi = Latin cum. rahu; this is here the exact contrary of sihiria, and must mean matiunty. "SHI = 'small, young;' and so rahu = ' great, mature.' 15. denu, or dhm, 'judgment, council;' in om- text syllabically written. Its ideograph is ^f^. Cf. the Contract Tablets in III R, plate 46, lines 18, &c., where demc is a word of frequent occurrence. Cf. further with this word the Hebrew "j^l, judgment. So also in the Chaldee, in Syriac ; in ^thiopic daiti = daiimatio, judicium, &c. idinu ; verb medice Vav, imperfect Kal, 3rd plur. masc, from ddnu, 'to judge;' here used with a cognate accusative. ltd; a preposition, 'Tvith' = ri^^ in Hebrew. Urtaki; also mentioned m the Annals of Assurbanipal, VR, column 3, line 44, where we read of "Ummanigas, son of Urtaki. king of Elam.*' 68 AX ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. agvu ; a verb from gdru, ' to be hostile ; ' related to the Hebrew root "^^ ; m is 3rd person verbal suffix, and anni is 1st pronominal suffix. 16. kemua must mean something like 'by my means;' a is probably the 1st person pronominal suffix. abihtu, ' overthrow ;' the above two characters are its usual ideograph. Along with iskun, thus, iskun abikta-su, it is a common phrase in the historical inscriptions. See Lotz's " Tiglathpileser," page 114. iskunu; frora sakdmc, 'to cause, make;' imperfect Kal, 3rd plur. masc. Schrader compares p3 and Haupt p^. imhasa ; imperfect I, 3rd plur., from mahdsu, 'to fight, smite.' Cf. ^D^. Its Ifteal, amdahhis, occiu'S often. panassu = panat-su. Cf. IV R 53, 15, where we read, i-na pa-na-at nisi; pandtu is 'the front, the face;' su or sti is 3rd pronominal suffix singular. idrudu-su; 3rd plur. masc, imperfect Kal, from a root darddu; may be connected with the root T^ID, whose root-meaning is ' drive, force.' If this be so, then idruda = itmdu. Smith translates it, " they drove him to [the border of his country]." 17. sattu; the above three characters, nm, an, 7m, are its ideo- graph ; sattu = santu, ' year.' Cf. the Hebrew HiU? . suatu; demonstrative pronoun sing. =: 'that.' Plural is suatunu. >->-< = nahii (li R 7, 37r/, h), or we may take >— as the preposition ina, >-< (with which every omen in the portent-tablets begins), as meaning omen. The characters however are much too closely written in the original to allow of their being separated. limnu; adjective = ' evil, wicked;' its feminine is Ihnuttu ■=■ limuntu. Status cstr. = Ihnun. nliaUil'H ; Piel, impiu-fect 3rd plur., from haldkii, * to destroy.' napsatsii. Cf. tL^??5, 'soul;' napistu, cstr. napSat, is Assyrian word. Su is lird masc. suffix. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 69 ijikidii. With this word I compare TpO, ' to decree haud over, punish.' Cf. further the Syriac ^asi jussit^ imperavit. Nugia, i.e., Hades, is explained as irsit la tarat, ' the land Avhence is no return.' Cf. with this the well-known "Descent of Istar to Hades," line 1, where we read, a-na mat Nu-gi-a, i.e., " to the land, &c." Nu is the Akkadian negative particle ; ^]^^ has the ideographic value tdru, ' to return,' so that Nugia means ' non- return.' asar; cstr. state of asm, 'place.' Cf. Aramaic "^rib^, the Syiiac liZ], the Arabic j], and the ^Ethiopic AftC ' vestigium^ 18. hmh; from nahii, 'to rest, be quiet.' Verb Medioi Vav, Kal imperfect 3rd sing. masc. Cf. TV\^ in Hebrew. ipsah ; from pasdhu, ' to be happy, be quiet.' Cf. ^Ethiopic (f.^(\\, and Syiiac j^^, ^hilaris, beatus fuiV ezuzu, ' to strengthen ; ' connected, I imagine, with izzu, ' strong.' The root is ttV • kabattu vndij vnQdiii 'honour,' or perhaps like \\{\S^ (kebad)^ amplitudo. h^lutu, ' dominion, kingdom ; ' formed fi-om belu, 'lord.' 19. sarrussii = sarrut-su = sarruti-su = sa7'ruti-sic = ' his king- dom ; ' formed from sarru, ' king.' iskipu, for ishipu ; from sahdpu, ' to overthrow.* palisu, ' his reign or dynasty ;' •-i^y■i^ is the usual ideogi'am for palu, ' reign.' Probably of Akkadian origin. ekimu, 'to take away.' Cf. IV R, column 3, line 116, where we read, a-tia e-kim ma-ha-zi su-bat ildni rabuti, "in order to take away the towns, the seats of the great gods.^' Here it is Kal 3rd plur. masc. usalku ; Schaphel, from the root Hj^^, ' to take," imperfect 3rd plur. masc. 70 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. sa-[_ua7n-)na]. If the last character in the Hne be nam, the word may be sa-nam-[rna], i.e., 'to another.' Nominative, sanumma ; genitive, sanimma ; accusative, sanainma ; is the usual indefinite pronoun for ' another,' ir^gend ein andrer. 20. Uinmanigas. Cf. V R 3, 44, in the Inscription of Assurbanipal. Ummanappa is not mentioned in V R. Tamniaritu (V R 3, 48), called aha-su sal-sa-a-a, i.e., ' the brother, third in rank.' (So Delitzsch.) Our text seems to favom* the translation made by Smith, ' the third brother.' Tammaritu ascended the throne of Elam after Ummanigas (V R 4, 3-4). 21. In V R 4, 110-113, we are told that "in his seventh expedition, Assurbanipal directed his march against Ummanaldas, king of the land Elam." alik, from aldku, 'to go.' Cf. Hebrew ^2T\. Participle = aJiku. Together ^v\ih. pani {cf. Q''^S), it means 'to go before, precede.' 22. zeru = i^lt, ' seed, offspring.' Its ideograph is >-C6. See Sayce's Grammar on the mode of reckoning cui-rent among the Assyrians. ina la meni; literally 'in not number,' i.e., without number. Cf. the Hebrew phrase, "IQD^ J^^ IV, Job ix, 10; ina la = the Hebrew ^y'2.. See further, Ewald's Syntax, § 286^. sdhdni; plural of sahu, whose ideograph is ^J, = 'men, warriors.' Cf. with this word the yEthiopic sdbai, ' hellator, bellicosus.' The plural is sdhdni, not sdhl. (Lotz, " Tiglathpileser I," 101.) Msti. Cf. riipj7, 'bow;' sahdni kasti = ' men of the bow,' i.e., archers. Kastu, cstr. kasat, plur. kasdti = ' bow.' bani-e ; the e is phonetic complement, showing us that we are to read hane, not hanl; from the root ha)n\, 'to beget, build.' AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 7i Reverse Side. 23. la-pa-an; preposition = before. Cf. "^^P?. daku, 'to kill.' A verb medioi Vav of the root '^^'^. Here it is a nomen actionis. Tentnman; also mentioned in Annals of Assurbanipal, V R, column 3. His brother Urtaki, who preceded him on the throne of Elam, committed suicide. Teumman had always been a bitter enemy of Assyria, and " the leader in every action against her interests." On this portion of Assyrian history I would refer the reader to the short history of Assyria by the late George Smith, pp. 155-160. cdnsumi; h- om cd>u, 'father;' with 3rd plural pronominal suffix. Cf. the Hebrew ISt. innahtimimma = innabtuni + ma ; from abdtu, ' to flee ;' Niphal 3rd plural (full form) masc. (See Haupt, "Sumerische Familien-Gesetze," page 10); via is the conjunction and. ishatu; from sabdtu, 'to seize, lay hold of ;' imperfect Kal, 3rd phn-. masc. Last edition of Gesenius gives J132 in Chaldee, perhaps ' seize with the hand.' This is undoubtedly the meaning of the root in Assyrian. septl, 'foot.' The ff on the right-hand side of the character is a dual sign. The laying hold of the feet was a token of submission. 24. nsibil; a verbprmw Vav (itL^I), imperfect Kal, 3rd plural, from asdbn, ' to sit, dwell.' Here it means " they (the gods) set me." This can only be the 3rd plural ; 3rd singular and 1st singular = nsib. Bammdnu (^>f ^<^^y ^f *^) is the god Rimmon. The root is DQl, 'to strike.' Cf. the hymn to Rimmon in IV R 28, 18, where we read, ana sdgimisu, ana ramimisu. He is the Thunder-god. As the root is Q^"l, I prefer the view that Rimmon is the hurler of the thunderbolt. 72 AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. If we take the root to be DT^, Rimmon is the 'high and exalted god.' {See Delitzsch, iu "Chaldaische Genesis," page 269.) zunnu, 'rain;' hterallj 'water of heaven.' y][ is ideograph for water, and >->^ fov sdinii, 'heaven;' so that fJ'-Hf- = o^ain, i.e., water + heaven, water from heaven. umassira; Piel, imperfect, from masdru, 'to let loose.' upatltirit]; thus I complete the word; also Piel, imperfect, tvom patdru, 'to set free.' Root is '^tOD (J^)^ 'to spHt, cause to burst forth.' 25. kistdti; plural of kistu, 'grove;' in the text is the ideograph with plural sign. hard {see on Hebrew Lexicography) ; plural of kanvi, ' a reed.' >-'\'\-^ is its ideograph. suse, ' plains ;' plural of susii. Cf. Haupt's " A. S. K.," p. 33, No. 771, with II R, 8, SOc, d. ustelipu; Schaphel, imperfect 3rd plur. masc, from the root ?]7n, 'to pierce;' in text = ' cause to sprout forth. Cf. II R 36, 66-68, where we have e-li-jm ; e-li-pu sa isu ; ul-lu-pu; elipu sa isu = ' to sprout forth, of wood.' nirihu, ' passage ;' a noun, with preformative Nun, from erehu, ' to enter.' The root of the verb is '^'^ . 26. talitti = talidti; from alddu, 'to bear, bring forth' = 'the bvinger forth ; German, Gahdrerin.^ A noun, with pre- formative Tail, from a verb primoi Yod. nesi, 'lions.' Jjy is the ideograph for kalbic (^^^), 'a dog;' *"^II ^® ^^ ideograph for rabu, 'great.' The two characters together form ideograph for neM, ' lion ;' i.e., 'lion' = great + dog, i.e., 'the great dog.' Cf. with this word the Arabic ij^^ ; ' lioness ' = nestum. Cf. ijL^- Mrih-sln ; kirib is a preposition, ' in the midst of, within ' (3,'1)2), and sin is 3rd plur. fern, suffix. isir, for asdru, 'to direct.' Yevh primw Vav imperfect Kal. Cf Hebrew Itt?;;. AN ESSAY ON ASSYRIOLOGY. 73 27. w^»/._ Ohastel (Eev. E.) Christianity in the Nine- teenth Century. Translated by the Eev. Dr. Beard. 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