iiiipi;»i 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 ANDREW 
 
 SMITH 
 
 HALLIDIC: 
 
 1868^ 1901 
 
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 Roscoe^l''4Jitgs of Brit^ hJU^^f?^ 1 vol. 6s. 
 
 Lives of Britisinjramatists, by Dunham, &c 3 vols. 12s. 
 
 Lives of Early British Writer^, by Dunham 1 vol. 6s. 
 
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 ThemosteminentFrenchA;6thors,byMrs.Shelley, &c. 2 vols. 12s. 
 Lives of Spanish, Italian, ^ Portujjuese Authors, by do. 3 vols. 18s. 
 
 ■The abo^e works are comprised in 
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ESSAY 
 
 ELEMENTS OF BRITISH INDUSTRY; 
 
 COMPRISING REMARKS ON THE 
 
 CAUSE OF OUR PRESENT DEPRESSED STATE, 
 ^grttttltttraX, CnmmerctaX, Sp ^anufacturtnig:, 
 
 ENGLTSH, SCOTCH, AND IRISH: 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS REMOVAL. 
 
 W. BURNESS, 
 
 LATE LAND STEWARD TO HIS GRACE THE DTIKE OF MANCHEITER. 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, 
 
 PATERNOSTER-ROW. 
 1848. 
 
wc 
 
 'U^" 
 
 London : 
 
 SroTTiswpoDE and Shaw, 
 
 New-street- Square. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following Essay is intended to present a 
 brief outline of the present depressed state of 
 British Industry, and the necessary steps which 
 must be taken, in order to effect an improvement. 
 The object which the author has in view in 
 laying it before the public is, to turn atten- 
 tion into the proper channel, especially the 
 attention of that class of the community for 
 whose benefit his pen is more particularly en- 
 gaged, viz. Farmers^ sons. Reference is made 
 in the concluding paragraph to a larger work 
 which now occupies his attention, where the 
 requisite information on the different subjects 
 which the present small one embraces will be 
 given in detail. 
 
 W. BURNESS. 
 
 41. Upper Albany Street, Regent's Park. 
 London, August 18. 1848. 
 
 107301 
 
RSITY 
 
 ESSAY 
 
 ELEMENTS of BEITISH INDUSTRY, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Britain, on the arrival of the first emigrants 
 from the Continent, exhibited no evi(^ence of 
 human art — all was wild and solitary. She 
 presents a very different appearance in 1848. 
 The value of property, added to her soil by 
 the industry of her people, is great. For the 
 first period of her history, the principal, if not 
 the only, branches of industry pursued by our 
 ancestors were, the tending their flocks and 
 herds, hunting, and the manufacture of warlike 
 implements. On the landing of the Romans 
 agriculture had made some progress, and before 
 they finally left our shores, large quantities of 
 corn were exported. The progress of industry 
 since that period has been very various. Some- 
 times the arts and sciences flourished rapidly, 
 B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION, PROGRESS, AND 
 
 while at other times again almost no advance 
 was made. During the last two centuries, 
 from the science of labour being better under- 
 stood in some parts of the kingdom than in 
 others, the march of improvement has been 
 much more diversified than at any previous 
 period. In England and the greater 'part of 
 Scotland, civilisation has proceeded at an ac- 
 celerated speed, while in some parts of Ireland 
 and the Highlands of Scotland matters have 
 rather gone in a retrograde way. At present, 
 industry is not in a healthy state in any province 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 Political economists have differed widely in 
 opinion, and, in endeavouring to erect their 
 several theories, have adopted different branches 
 of industry as the basis on which to build them. 
 Some have adopted the agricultural — some the 
 manufacturing — and some the commercial; but 
 the impropriety of thus laying the all but entire 
 stress upon one element is daily becoming more 
 apparent. Those several branches of national 
 industry are visibly but the subdivision of labour 
 applied to the soil and its productions, in order 
 to render them both beneficial to man. 
 
 In agriculture, for instance, the farmer cul- 
 
ELEMENTS OF INDUSTRY. S 
 
 tivates the soil, whether foreign or domestic; 
 but in this he were immensely restricted without 
 the assistance of the merchant and the manu- 
 facturer. He nmy resolve by his industry 
 to raise much more farm produce, such as 
 corn, cattle, flax, cotton, sugar-cane.. &c. &c., 
 than he can require for his own use and imme- 
 diate wants; but, before doing so, he must 
 make tip his mind for either becoming com- 
 mercial and manufacturing in his own opera- 
 tions, or else to be indebted to the others 
 engaged in those two branches of industry. 
 
 Or again, as to commerce : — On visiting the 
 extensive shops of this great metropolis (Lon- 
 don), we witness the agricultural produce of 
 every clime in the world manufactured into a 
 thousand forms, and exhibited in the most in- 
 vitino; manner that the mercer can imamne : but 
 all the anxiety, exquisite skill, and taste thus 
 manifested are simply, when viewed in their 
 most comprehensive light, so many aids to the 
 farmer in procuring from the soil its produce 
 in a shape that can meet the wants, luxuries, 
 and refinement of society. 
 
 The industry of the manufacturing world 
 might easily be shown to be a similar subsidiary, 
 
 B 2 
 
4 CORPORATE BRANCHES OP 
 
 acting its own part in that alliance or corpo- 
 ration. 
 
 It is only when those branches of national 
 industry go hand in hand together that the 
 social structure of any nation can be said to 
 rest upon a solid foundation. If more than a 
 due proportion of industry be bestowed upon 
 any one branch, the nation must get into an 
 unnatural condition, and, on that account, be 
 more liable to experience sudden changes of 
 fortune. This is the position of Great Britain 
 and Ireland at present. Our agricultural, 
 commercial, and manufacturing strength is not 
 in that state of equilibrium which is conducive 
 to political health, and to a uniform state of 
 general prosperity. 
 
 In England, agriculture has hitherto been 
 considerably neglected ; while the manufactur- 
 ing and commercial interests, on the other hand, 
 have been prosecuted with more than salutary 
 assiduity. England is, therefore, at present in 
 a very unnatural position. She is depending 
 too much upon foreign agriculture for the pro- 
 ductions natural to her own climate, such as 
 corn, cattle, flax, &c. ; thus cultivating, as it 
 were, a soil which is not her own, and the pro- 
 
NATIONAL INDUSTRY. 5 
 
 duce of which is naturally denied her during 
 seasons of scarcity, when she stands in the 
 greatest need of it ; while she has millions of 
 colonial acres of her own unoccupied, not to 
 mention her much-neglected resources at home, 
 with thousands of her subjects unemployed, and 
 starving for want of employment. To gain to 
 themselves a name, Englishmen have, so to 
 speak, built a commercial tower whose top may 
 reach to heaven, lest they themselves should be 
 scattered abroad to multiply and replenish the 
 immense extent of colonial territory which Pro- 
 vidence has given them. The same innate 
 spirit which concocted the building on the plain 
 of Shinar obviously dictates the present com- 
 mercial and manufacturing policy of England — 
 England, famous for overcrowded cities and 
 densely populated manufacturing towns. 
 
 During the last century, our commercial 
 interest has figured upon the stage of the world 
 in a very conspicuous form. The extraordinary 
 part which it has acted abroad is not more re- 
 markable than the hazardous game which it 
 has been playing at home : for, while England 
 has been studious to satisfy the wants of 
 strangers for an uncertain temporary gain, she 
 
 B 3 
 
6 DISTRESSED STATE OF THE 
 
 has also at the same time been sapping the 
 national independence of her own manufacturing 
 classes. This will appear evident from a glance 
 at her manufacturing districts. 
 
 At present, in Manchester alone, the number 
 of unemployed operatives, according to the 
 official reports, cannot be estimated at less than 
 10,000, taking into account the deficiency of 
 those working short time and those wholly out 
 of employment : in other words, there are 
 between one-fourth and one-fifth of their whole 
 number idle ! the consequence of which is ob- 
 vious. The wages of the operatives are near 
 the lowest level even when in full employment ; 
 and the lowest figure at which.we can state the 
 actual loss sustained in the single case of Man- 
 chester is 300,000/. yearly. Such being the 
 case in reference to this branch of industry in 
 one town, what must the general loss to the 
 nation be, including all classes of the commercial 
 as well as the manufacturing interests ? In all 
 probability, more than 30,000,000/. ! 
 
 Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland are 
 in the opposite extreme. They have neglected 
 to cultivate both the manufacturing and com- 
 mercial branches of industry, and are therefore 
 
ENGLISH OPERATIVES, ETC. 7 
 
 in a yery different position from England and 
 the Lowlands of Scotland, including the manu- 
 facturing districts of the west, as Glasgow, &c. 
 From the want of manufacturing and commer- 
 cial enterprise among them, they have neglected 
 to subdivide the agricultural produce of their re- 
 spective soils, and hence it has been conveyed to 
 England to support her manufacturing interest, 
 and uphold it in its unnatural state. Instead of 
 subdividing labour, they have subdivided land, 
 the result of which they fearfully experience. 
 
 The agriculture of Ireland, deplorable as it 
 may be in many instances, is, upon the ichole, 
 perhaps not so far behind that of England as 
 many imagine, and as the different circumstances 
 of the peasantry of the two countries would 
 lead one naturally to infer. We were frequently 
 told by gentlemen farmers in the Sister Isle, 
 who had visited this country for the purpose of 
 obtaining information, that theirs was at least 
 upon a footing of equality with ours in respect of 
 agriculture, if not in advance. We are aware 
 that many Englishmen and Scotchmen who 
 have visited Ireland may not be prepared to 
 accord to such a sentiment ; but it too frequently 
 occurs that those who visit that unfortunate 
 
 B 4 
 
8 IRISH AGRICULTURE. 
 
 country without residence and practice in it, 
 enter upon, the examination of her unsettled 
 provinces with minds greatly prejudiced both 
 against the people and their proceedings. 
 But let any impartial observer take up the 
 arguments which such men advance, and the 
 facts on which they found these arguments for 
 the condemnation of Ireland ; let him proceed 
 w4th them a day's journey in any direction out 
 of the English capital, and apply them to the 
 agricultural state of England ; and he will find 
 them as applicable for the one country as they 
 are for the other. Such is the inaccuracy of gene- 
 ral conclusions deduced from isolated facts. 
 
 Those who conclude that the calamities of 
 Ireland arise from the inferiority of her agri- 
 culture, do not comprehend the industrial state 
 of her provinces. It may just as well be said, 
 that the inferiority of the condition of the 
 agricultural labourers of Easter and Wester 
 Ross to the condition of those of East-Lothian 
 or Norfolk, is occasioned by the inferiority of 
 the agriculture of the former to that of the 
 latter. It is a well-authenticated fact, that 
 agriculture is farther advanced in Easter-Ross 
 than in the generality of English counties ; not 
 
DEPRESSED TRADE OF THE HIGHLANDS. 9 
 
 SO the condition of the agricultural labourer. 
 In the north, he is still a long way behind his 
 southern neighbour. Perhaps the domestic cir- 
 cumstances of the agricultural labourer on the 
 shores of the Cromarty and Beauly Friths 
 may be stated as a mean between those of the 
 Hebrides and Norfolk. While agriculture has 
 prospered in this quarter of the Highlands during 
 the present century, manufacturing industry 
 has declined. About the end of last century, 
 probably not less than 20,000 hands derived a 
 livelihood from this source, who now do not. 
 The Highland capital at that period was the seat 
 of a thread manufactory giving employment to 
 some 10,000 of the inhabitants of the north 
 scattered over its diiferent counties, which has 
 now entirely disappeared. The quantity of 
 home-manufactured woollen, linen, and canvas 
 stuffs sold in the different fairs has annually 
 been getting less also during the last forty or 
 fifty years. All these branches of manufacturing 
 industry have given way before the machinery of 
 England and the Lowlands of Scotland. Almost 
 the only machinery connected with the above 
 branches in the north belongs to Inverness, and 
 only gives employment to some twenty or thirty 
 
10 PROGRESS OF MACHINERY IN 
 
 hands. How different has been the progress of 
 art in the south during the same period ! At 
 the commencement of the present century, 
 power -looms, for instance, were only invented or 
 brought into general use. In 1813 the number 
 did not exceed 2,400, which were wholly en- 
 gaged in plain works. "In 1820 there were 
 estimated to be 12,150 in England, and 2,000 
 in Scotland. In 1829, 45,000 in England, and 
 10,000 in Scotland. In 1833 the estimated 
 number in England was 85,000, and in Scotland 
 15,000. At the close of the year 1835, accord- 
 ing to the returns of the Factory Inspectors, 
 the total number in use in England was 
 97,564; in Scotland 17,721; and in Ireland 
 1516: total, 116,801; of which in England 
 there were employed of — 
 
 "Cotton - - . 90,679 
 
 Woollen - - - 5,105 
 
 Silk - - - - 1,714 
 
 Flax - - - - 41 
 
 Mixed Goods - - - 25 
 
 97,564 
 
ENGLAND, IRELAND, AND SCOTLAND. II 
 
 "In Ireland, 
 Cotton - - - 1,416 
 
 Flax - 
 
 "Jw Scotland, 
 
 100 
 1,516 
 
 Cotton 
 
 - 
 
 - 17,531 
 
 Woollen 
 
 - 
 
 22 
 
 Flax 
 
 - 
 
 168 
 
 17,721 
 
 " Since this return has been made, there has 
 been a large accession in number." 
 
 Figures so different as these, connected with 
 one branch of industry, furnish evidence of 
 results not easily calculated. The south and 
 west of Scotland, with a population of only one- 
 fourth of that of Ireland, has nearly twelve 
 times the amount of machinery of the above 
 kind. In England, the difference is nearly as 
 great. In every other department of manu- 
 facturing industry, similar differences exist. In 
 short, every Englishman not only performs 
 double the work of an Irishman personally, 
 but he brings into the field of industry, along 
 
12 MISMANAaEMENT OF THE 
 
 with himself, a power many times greater than 
 that of his own. No wonder, therefore, although 
 the latter has been unable to keep pace with 
 the former in the march of improvement Ireland 
 and the Highlands of Scotland have scarcely 
 got beyond the age of the caschrom and loi ; 
 with these primitive and patriarchal implements 
 of husbandry, a large number of their inhabitants 
 are still persisting in scratching the hallowed 
 surface of the soil in order to procure from it 
 a scanty allowance of potatoes ! This procured, 
 they are content ! Beyond this they cannot 
 discern the object of English industry. 
 
 The great defect in Ireland lies in the 
 management of her labouring population; for 
 acquaint yourself with the wants of the peasantry 
 and small farmers, and from the one end of the 
 island to the other, you will find but one uni- 
 versal complaint, viz. the want of employment, 
 the almost total non-existence of the means of 
 industry. You will consequently find the people 
 starving for want of bread, and that too while 
 exporting bread to this country, so as to enable 
 them to purchase our manufactures, and thus 
 furnish both employment and bread for our 
 labouring population : you will find the people, 
 
IRISH PEASANTRY. 13 
 
 as it were, giving away their very birth-right, 
 and then stirring up one another by noisy- 
 declamation and clamorous complaint against 
 the laws of the United Kingdom, the whole 
 terminating in tumult and agrarian outrage. 
 That something must be radically wrong in 
 the management of such a people is unques- 
 tionable. 
 
 An appeal to Ireland — to the Highlands 
 of Scotland — to the princely residences of 
 landlords, gentlemen farmers, commercial and 
 manufacturing capitalists, and others of the 
 higher grades, of every Christian denomination, 
 and of every extraction, in contrast with the 
 miserable cabins of the peasantry, will satisfy 
 the most obtuse observer, that something is 
 wrong about the very foundation of the fabric 
 of social affairs — something inherently wrong 
 in the whole industrial machinery of those 
 countries — a something not confined to any 
 one class of society, but extending to all 
 classes. This something is a fatal misconcep- 
 tion of the covenant and science of labour. 
 In short, Ireland and the Highlands of Scot- 
 land have overlooked the essential elements of 
 industry* 
 
14 EVILS EXPERIENCED FROM 
 
 This has, indeed, been the stumbling-block 
 of all ages, the rock upon which the greatest 
 nations have been shipwrecked. At the very- 
 moment we write, France furnishes an in- 
 teresting, although peculiar example of this 
 kind. Louis-Philippe and his coadjutors, instead 
 of cultivating labour, and trusting to the in- 
 dustry of Frenchmen, fortified Paris ; and, for- 
 getful of the troubled element on which they 
 were borne, have found their frail bark, in a 
 moment the most unexpected, dashed to pieces 
 on this very rock. The fate of kings is also 
 the fate of nations, and they who trust in aught, 
 for their daily bread, but in industry and the 
 sweat of the brow, trust in an empty bubble, 
 which must eventually explode into vapour. 
 Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, like 
 every nation in the world since the creation 
 of man which has neglected to cultivate the 
 resources of its own industry, furnish evidence 
 of this. Ancient and modern history teems 
 with consequences overwhelming to empires, 
 arising from the improper employment of the 
 labouring population. The sword, no doubt, 
 in many instances, has been able to quell the 
 spirit of insubordination, to quash rebellion^ 
 
INATTENTION TO INDUSTRY. 15 
 
 and to restore submission to authority; but 
 such submission has always proved but of 
 temporary duration, wherever the industrious 
 habits of the common people have been set at 
 nought. The sword may conquer the most 
 potent of monarchs, and the most extensive 
 kingdoms abroad, but can never subdue the 
 invulnerable arm of famine and want, in the 
 midst of plenty at home : neither can it erase 
 from the page of inspiration, and the statute- 
 book of nature, the irreversible decree, pro- 
 nounced against every state, kingdom, and 
 country, " Cursed is the ground for thy sake^'' 
 
 The pecuniary benefits directly experienced 
 by the rich, arising from the proper cultivation 
 of the industrious habits of the labouring 
 population, are not less remarkable than the 
 evil consequences flowing from the neglect of 
 them: for, in the north of Ireland, Ave found 
 the expense of labour to be nearly double that 
 which exists in this country, while the wages 
 of the Irish labourer were only one-half those 
 of the English ; and taking the year over, even 
 less than that proportion : while in the south 
 and west of the Sister Isle, the difference was 
 still greater. - 
 
16 INDUSTRY OF THE ! 
 
 The difference between the annual incomes 
 of the English and Irish labourers in our em- 
 ployment in the counties of Huntingdon and 
 Armagh, and in the employment of the same ■ 
 nobleman, at the same species of work in the \ 
 two countries, averaged from 20/. to 30Z. and 
 upwards in favour of the former, taking the 
 wages of the latter at Is. per day, the sum I 
 which we paid on our arrival in the Sister Isle. 
 The total deficiency in the wages of the whole 
 labouring population of Ireland, according to 
 this scale, will be found considerably beyond -J | 
 20,000,000/ yearly, a deficiency quite sufficient j 
 to account for all those privations and sufierings I 
 under which her unfortunate peasantry groan, | 
 especially when we consider, at the same time, | 
 that the amount of their productive labour is i 
 still more deficient than that of their wages, as ; 
 will be subsequently shown. . ^ 
 
 The comparative prosperity of the north of ; 
 Ireland, over the south and west, arises from ' 
 the culture and manufacture of flax, and the \ 
 amount of employment thus aflforded, with the \ 
 consequent increase of wages received by the " 
 small farmers and working people from this ] 
 source. The benefit derived from manu- 
 
NORTH AND SOUTH OF IRELAND. 17 
 
 facturing and commercial industry by the 
 labouring population of Ulster is far greater 
 than is generally credited, and too much praise 
 cannot be bestowed upon those who are so 
 laudably exerting themselves to extend its in- 
 fluence to the other provinces of their country. 
 The incomes of the small farmers and workmen 
 in the flax manufacturing districts of Ulster 
 will be found, taking the year over, little short 
 of being double the incomes of those of the 
 other districts and provinces of Ireland, where 
 the industrial resources of the country have 
 been more neglected. 
 
 It would be diflicult, perhaps, to find a 
 parallel in the history of the world, from Adam 
 downwards, to the condition of the peasantry 
 in the south and west of Ireland, taking every- 
 thing into account, unless it be found in that 
 of the Hebrideans' and Highlanders of the 
 mainland of Scotland opposite them, wdiose 
 case is equally deplorable. 
 
 The adversity under which the above two 
 classes sufler, viz. the manufacturing operatives 
 and others connected with our commercial 
 interest, and the agricultural labourers of Ire- 
 land and the Highlands of Scotland, although 
 C 
 
18 FALSE VIEWS OF INDUSTRY, 
 
 ... S' 
 
 arising from apparently different causes, yet I 
 originate from the same. The primary cause in | 
 both cases is a want of labour ; and the final i 
 result in both, a want of bread. Between .1 
 those two extremes, however, there lies a vast j 
 diversity of circumstances ; and hence the differ- 
 ence of opinion which has arisen in the respective j, 
 minds of the two parties themselves relative tOtSJI 
 the cause of their misfortunes : the one party 1i 
 imputing the principal amount of their griev- 
 ances to the operation of the corn laws and 
 other statutes that regulate the importation of ^ 
 provisions ; the other to the tenure of land. 
 The former seeks the free import of foreign i 
 corn, and the latter "tenant-rights," as the ] 
 panacea for all their ills. 
 
 In the first case, the object, or rather am- \ 
 bition of English commercialists and manu- ■ 
 facturers is obvious, and simply resolves itself 
 into this demand : " Give us acts of parliament 
 to our liking, and we will then cultivate the 
 whole earth, and provide a sufficiency of bread 
 for the increasing population of Britain to the J 
 end of the world ; " — a demand this, than which ! 
 scarcely anything can be more preposterous. ' 
 Corn, and other absolute necessaries of life. 
 
IRISH PEASANTRY, ETC. 19 
 
 may justly be said to be the standard value of 
 gold ; and gold has already nearly attained to 
 an uniform level in Europe, and will ultimately 
 do so, in defiance of all the legislative measures 
 which commerce or agriculture may advocate. 
 
 In the second case, there is something very 
 comprehensive in the sound of tenant-right 
 in the ears of an Irish tenant in adverse cir- 
 cumstances. " A drowning man will catch at 
 straws ; " and a poor tenant liable to be ejected 
 from his small holding has many things to ex- 
 cuse him for listening to proposals, however 
 delusory, which have for their object the 
 rescuing him from the greatest of all calami- 
 ties which can ever befal an Irishman. To do 
 the small farmers justice, however, we must 
 
 t acknowledge that the grounds on which they 
 themselves based their arguments for relief 
 were much more plausible than those advanced 
 by many of their pretending friends of more 
 liberal education. 
 
 A poor man, for instance, will tell you that 
 he has got a very fine farm of five acres of land 
 at the rent of 5/. yearly, a figure not at all to 
 be complained of, and he himself is a very good 
 farmer, and equal to any in the town- land on 
 c 2 
 
20 WANT OF AGRICULTURAL EMPLOYMENT. 
 
 which he resides. He does not want foreign 
 corn, for he has nothing to give for it ; nor 
 cheap corn either, for he never buys any, and 
 that for the self-same reason ; and when he 
 seUs, the greater that the price is, so much the 
 better. He is perfectly content with the 
 management of his own farm, and the amount 
 of its produce. It is all that Providence has 
 been pleased to give him, and therefore he 
 has no reason to be otherwise than satisfied. 
 But, after all, he is not without his misfor- 
 tunes. He wants employment to the value of 
 61. yearly, at least, in order to enable him to 
 pay his rent. If his landlord would come 
 forward generously and supply the deficiency 
 here wanting, then the relation between them 
 would be what it ought to be — matters would 
 go on smoothly, and every one w^ould receive 
 his own ; but Irish landlords are so unreason- 
 able as to spend their rents upon anything and 
 everything except Irish agricultural employ- 
 ment. In short, they support commercial and 
 manufacturing industry ; and hence the per- 
 plexing difficulties with which the poor people 
 are surrounded. 
 
 There are in Ireland about 2,000,C00 of 
 
( 
 
 I 
 
 FALSE VIEWS OF TENANT-RIGHTS. ^1 
 
 her rural population thus situated, including 
 the small farmers and their families ; so that 
 were landlords to make a present to them of 
 their holdings (which is neither more nor less 
 than what the demand above made for employ- 
 ment requests), it would not thereby promote 
 them to that rank which they ought to occupy 
 in the British community, nor advance even 
 their incomes threepence half-penny per day, or 
 61. per annum. 
 
 The present tenant-right system of Ulster, 
 so strenuously advocated by Mr. Crawford 
 and others, even when viewed only in its most 
 favourable light, proposes no more to the tenant 
 than the performance by the landlord of duties 
 at the expiry of his lease which he ought to 
 have discharged at its commencement. But, 
 when that period has arrived, instead of the 
 landlord putting his hand into his pocket, the 
 tenant-right is sold at the rate of some 10/., 
 1 21., or 201. per acre, for which investment the 
 purchaser receives at the most a fair percentage 
 for his money, but in the majority of cases no 
 interest at all. 
 
 In the former case, the tenant is landlord 
 (so to speak) to the amount of the yearly 
 c 3 
 
22 ERRONEOUS VIEWS OF THE 
 
 interest, which, upon a small farm of the size 
 formerly specified, may be estimated at from 
 12s. to 155. per acre, being equivalent to an 
 advance upon his wages of about tioopence per 
 day, leaving out of consideration the fact, that 
 if his money had been differently invested, as 
 in the purchase of manures, it might have 
 returned him from ten to twenty times the 
 rate of interest above calculated. But even 
 taking this view of the question, in those 
 districts of Ireland where the labouring man 
 receives sixpence per day, it would only advance 
 his wages to eightpence, or to about one-third 
 of the wages of an Englishmen ! Is this ^^ justice 
 to Ireland ?^^ If it is so, it must be in the Irish 
 degree of comparison ; which, to say the least of 
 it, is " robhing Peter to pay Paul^'' taking the 
 interest of the poor man's money out of his own 
 pocket to advance his wages. 
 
 In the latter case, the incoming tenant, or 
 son who succeeds his father, advances to the 
 outgoing tenant the purchase price of the 
 tenant-right, or accounts with his brothers 
 and sisters for the same, which, upon a farm of 
 five acres at 12/. jDcr acre would be 60Z., to save 
 his landlord the bother: and in many cases which 
 
TENANT-RIGHT QUESTION. 23 
 
 came under our notice this was absolutely 
 necessary, for the money slid quietly into the 
 landlord's pocket in the shape of arrears of rent. 
 If in the first case we robbed St. Peter to pay 
 St. Paul, in this we are robbing St. Patrick 
 to pay the landlord ! 
 
 That the relation between landlord and 
 tenant in Britain requires revisal, few will 
 deny who are acquainted with the different forms 
 of that relation in different parts of the three 
 kingdoms. But that the calamities of Ireland 
 and the Highlands of Scotland flow from this 
 source, is a question the fallacy of which will 
 readily be perceived from the following three 
 views of it, 
 
 1. The difference between the condition of the 
 tenantry of the Hebrides and that of the tenantry 
 of the Aird, Black-Isle, Wester and Easter Ross, 
 is as great and even greater than the difference 
 between the condition of the tenantry of Tippe- 
 rary and that of those of the county of Armagh. 
 Both the Hebridean tenantry and the Tipperary 
 tenantry complain of tenant-rights. It may 
 with as much propriety and justness be alleged, 
 that the present deplorable condition of the 
 Hebridean tenantry, and the difference which 
 c 4 
 
24 ERRONEOUS VIEWS OF THE 
 
 exists between them and the farmers of Easter 
 and Wester Ross, is entirely attributable to the 
 tenant-right system of the former being different 
 from hnd inferior to that of the latter, as to 
 eay that the condition of the peasantry of 
 Tipperary, and the difference between them and 
 the peasantry of Armagh, is owing to the Avant 
 of the influence of the Ulster tenant-right 
 system in the former which is in operation in 
 the latter. Confining our remarks, for the 
 sake of brevity, to Ireland, the difference 
 between the tenant-right system of Tipperary 
 and that of Armagh is conventional, not legal. 
 No act of parliament was ever passed by the 
 British legislature conferring such a privilege 
 upon the one county and denying it to the 
 other. It would be absurd and ridiculous to 
 entertain the idea of an Irish parliament having 
 done so. If the farmers of the north had 
 power at any previous period to introduce a 
 system flivourable for themselves, so have the 
 farmers of the south and west at present. 
 
 The tenant-right system of Ulster is compa- 
 ratively of recent origin. It was not the 
 primitive system of the Celtic communities 
 during the patriarchal ages. It was not eveu 
 
TENANT-RIGHT QUESTION. 25 
 
 introduced by Brian Borrhoiml after he had 
 united the Irish clans under one banner, ac- 
 complishing the deliverance of their common 
 country from the thraldom and slavery under 
 which it had suffered from the Danish yoke ; — 
 but was introduced by either modern landlords 
 or modern tenants for the special purpose of 
 benefiting either the one or the other, and agreed 
 to by both. We believe the system to be a 
 landlords'-system or landlord-right rather than 
 a tenant-right, and that it originated with 
 landlords : but, be that as it may, it is imma- 
 terial to the question at issue which of the two 
 gave birth to the scheme ; for if it is purely a 
 landlord- scheme, then it cannot be brought 
 forward as the means which have been instru- 
 mental in advancing the condition of the 
 peasantry of Armagh beyond that of those of 
 Tipperary; and if, on the other hand, it is 
 purely a tenant-scheme, why did not and do 
 not the tenantry of the south and west adopt it, 
 as formerly noticed? 
 
 2. The tenant-right schemes now in agitation 
 for the amelioration of the British farmer, are 
 measures adapted not to the poor man but to 
 men of capital, who have plenty of money to 
 
26 ERRONEOUS VIEWS OF THE 
 
 invest in the permanent improvement of their 
 farms ; for not only the original outlay, but the 
 whole tear and wear of houses, fences, and 
 everything of the kind, have to be borne by 
 them. In Ireland, we had hundreds of the 
 small tenants of Ulster in our employment at 
 task-work who were in the enjoyment of those 
 rights ; but the majority of them, instead of 
 being able to finish a job of 601. and receive 
 payment for it at the expiry of their lease?, 
 could not finish one of as many shillings ; for 
 they had to receive so much weekly to account, 
 and to many of them we were obliged to 
 advance a few shillings during the currency of 
 the very first week. Some had credit at least 
 for a week, but none had money. It is very 
 evident, therefore, that the want of such measures 
 as those now proposed cannot be advanced as 
 the cause of the poverty of the peasantry of the 
 south and west of Ireland, who were never rich 
 beyond their present circumstances — never in 
 possession of capital to invest in the improvement 
 of their farms. 
 
 It may be said, however, that were tenants 
 allowed to dispose of their farms at the ex- 
 piry of their leases, on the plans now advocated 
 
TENANT-RIGHT QUESTION. 27 
 
 for, they could borrow money to improve 
 them, or rather to support themselves while 
 they were doing so. This is the very evil ex- 
 perienced by the small tenants of Ulster at 
 present. The system enables a poor man to 
 borrow money by granting an assignation of his 
 tenant-right, in order to purchase the good- 
 will of a farm, for which any sacrifice is willingly 
 made ; a transaction which places him among 
 the hands of money-jobbers, who extort from 
 him interest in many cases higlier than the 
 landlord's rent. It is probable that money- 
 jobbers derive a higher revenue from the pro- 
 vince of Ulster than landlords, for they are 
 neither subject to tax or assessment for the 
 interest they possess in the soil. The interest 
 of the money-jobber is in a great measure 
 diametrically opposed to that of the landlord and 
 tenant. If, for instance, we suppose that a 
 Tipperary landlord lets a farm to a tenant at 
 20s. per acre, and that the tenant borrows some 
 10/. per acre from a money jobber, for which he 
 agrees to pay say ten per cent, of interest ; that 
 he invests this money in effecting similar im- 
 provements to those which have been effected 
 in Ulster; the whole of the improvements in 
 
28 ERRONEOUS VIEWS OF THE 
 
 Ulster, and in every province of Ireland, are 
 void of every tiling like permanency of character 
 about them, and hence in the course of time 
 have to be renewed ; — it is very evident, 
 therefore, that eventually the poor man must 
 either negotiate with his private banker for a 
 new loan, who would now probably scruple to 
 give it, or else remain in a situation like many 
 of his friends of Ulster, paying a high enough 
 rent to the landlord, and as high a one to the 
 money-jobber from whom he borrowed the lOZ. 
 per acre. The want of a system which has for 
 its ultimate object the payment of some 205. per 
 acre of additional rent, can scarcely be brought 
 forward, on any feasible grounds whatever, by 
 those who are unable to pay their present rents, 
 as the cause of their being unable to do so. 
 The same conclusion is obvious, whether the 
 tenant borrows the money invested or not, pro- 
 vided the improvements are effected at his 
 expense., or that they are included in the 
 purchase price of his tenant-right. 
 
 3. The most unfortunate delusion which 
 exists among the small tenantry of Ulster 
 connected with the subject, is the belief that 
 their tenant-rights give to them a security or 
 
TENANT-RIGHT QUESTION. 29 
 
 fixity of tenure which they otherwise would not 
 enjoy. The fallacy of this view of the question 
 will readily be perceived from the fact that the 
 tenant-right is a separate document from and 
 posterior to the lease. The lease alone can 
 grant possession or maintain the tenant in his 
 holding. It may contain a conventional irritancy 
 at the option of the landlord, stipulating that if 
 the tenant shall fall one full year's rent in 
 arrears, his lease, and hence his tenant-right, 
 shall be null and void without any procedure at 
 law, forfeiting all right to payment for improve- 
 ments, and that the irritancy shall not be 
 purgeable. The subject which the tenant-right 
 pretends to convey may be given as security 
 for rent, which in practice is established as the 
 rule ; but this landlords are not bound to accept. 
 In many cases, it is only of value because an 
 Ulster tenant will give value for it ; its intrinsic 
 value, if called in question, tenants would often 
 have difficulty in proving. If, for instance, we 
 suppose again that the Tipperary landlord shall 
 let a farm to a tenant, and that the houses on 
 the farm at his entry shall be valued at 10/., — 
 that the tenant pulls down those houses and 
 rebuilds new ones at a cost of 60/. ; it is very 
 
30 TENANT-RIGHT DELUSIONS. 
 
 evident now, that, according to equity, the 
 tenant-right is worth 50Z. If, however, we 
 farther suppose that by the expiry, say not of 
 the current lease, but of the succeeding one, 
 the houses are only worth 10/., the original 
 inventory of the landlord ; it is now evident 
 that, according to the same doctrine of equity, 
 all claim against the landlord ceases. It is 
 no argument whatever, that this or the other 
 tenant offers to give 50Z. for the good-will of 
 the farm or tenant-right: the subject of the 
 tenant-right being lost, the right itself becomes 
 a dead letter — the good-wiU of the farm 
 expires with the lease. 
 
 The apparent object which parties have in 
 view in soliciting legislation on this subject 
 at present is to annex the tenant-right to 
 the lease, and thus render the two inseparable. 
 The result of such a settlement of the question 
 as this would effect is obvious; although we 
 are apprehensive that not a few of the Ulster 
 tenants do not perceive it. At present, land- 
 lords have comparatively little to do -with the 
 tenant-rights of Ulster. Although they have 
 full power were they to exercise their privi- 
 leges, and could do so "without altering in one 
 
TENANT-EIGHT DELUSIONS. 31 
 
 iota the principle of the system, yet they 
 seldom do more in cases where tenant-rights 
 are disposed of than exercise a veto in the 
 selection of incoming tenants. But were 
 tenant-rights legalised, so to speak, they would 
 become the principal party connected with 
 them, and hence the present privileges of the 
 tenant would be excluded by express stipulation. 
 This Is obvious from the very constitution and 
 character of a lease ; for a lease is a contract 
 of location conditioned for the mutual benefit 
 of contracting parties, in which the respec- 
 tive rights and obligations of landlord and 
 tenant are either expressly stipulated or legally 
 understood. The law of the land is only effec- 
 tive in the absence of stipulation ; and bynce 
 the tenant-right bills now pending before par- 
 liament, let them be passed in what shape they 
 may, or in all the shapes proposed, can only 
 be effective during the currency of present 
 leases. On renewals, their operation is at the 
 mercy of the landlord, who can stipulate to 
 suit himself, or what he thinks proper for his 
 own or his tenant's interest. He may even 
 insert covenants excluding assigning and sub- 
 letting, as well as those already mentioned re- 
 
32 IMPROPIUETY OF 
 
 lative to meliorations and irritancy. In Scotch 
 leases, all these stipulations are already inserted, 
 and Irish landlords are not ignorant of them. 
 The loudest complaint at present in the South 
 and West of Ireland relative to fixity of tenure 
 is from such tenants as hold from year to year ; 
 the very parties, it will be observed, who have 
 the last chance of being benefited by those 
 tenant-right schemes now proposed for their 
 melioration. What is true at present would 
 have been so at any previous period of Irish 
 history. 
 
 From each of those views which we have 
 thus briefly glanced at, it must be obvious that 
 the impropriety of exciting in the minds of 
 small tenants notions which at the best can 
 never be realised, is very great; and still worse 
 any attempt to establish a general belief that 
 their misfortunes arise from anything seriously 
 wrong in the relation between them and their 
 landlords. Their misfortunes arise from a very 
 different source. 
 
 There appears to be a general misconception 
 entertained relative to the twofold position which 
 the small Irish and Highland tenantry occupy 
 as subjects of the state, as well as the tw^ofold 
 
TENANT-RIGHT AGITATION. 33 
 
 relation which exists between them and their 
 landlords. They occupy the same sj^here and 
 position in society, and perform the same duties 
 to the state, as the farm servants of this country; 
 and it is in the relation which here subsists 
 between them as subjects of their landlords 
 and the state, while acting in the capacity of 
 labourers, where all those evils have originated, 
 which have brought upon them their present 
 calamities. 
 
 In England, the large farmer stands between 
 the landlord and the labourer. In Ireland, 
 there is a want of this golden mean between 
 the two extremes of poverty and wealth, which 
 has been the stay of England. To the English 
 farmer belongs the merit of the industrious 
 and laborious habits of his labourer, and not to 
 landlords. English landlords are generally 
 Irish landlords, and Highland lairds also; and 
 much more liberal towards their Irish and 
 Highland tenants, than they are towards their 
 English ones. They have for the most part 
 availed themselves of the services of English 
 and Scotch land- stewards and gardeners in im- 
 proving their properties, and affording an ex- 
 ample to tenants as tenants ; but, unfortunately 
 D 
 
34 APtTIFICIAL STATE OF I^'DUSTRY. 
 
 for their tenants as labouring subjects, how 
 many of them hav^e been unable to proceed 
 further in the reformation of their country ! 
 
 Althouojh the ac^riculture of Eno-land has 
 been very much neglected, yet the condition of 
 her agricultural labourers is very different, and 
 very much superior to that of the Irish. The 
 extraordinary industry of her manufacturing 
 towns has relieved her rural districts of their 
 surplus population. The Lowlands of Scotland 
 is similarly situated, both having enjoyed the 
 full benefit of manufacturing and commercial 
 industry. The principal feature in the manu- 
 facturing and commercial industry of England 
 is its artificial character, or the application of 
 inanimate power to machinery to such a stu- 
 pendous amount, as already noticed. But 
 Avhile this artificial state of industry has enabled 
 her to compete with and outstrip the rest of 
 the world, the muscular strength and industry 
 of many of her people in her large towns arc 
 at a very low ebb, and fast descending to a 
 level with those of the present potatoe-fed 
 inhabitants of Ireland. The amount of labour 
 performed by many of the labouring classes in 
 London and other large towns falls infinitely 
 
ENGLAND MUST CHANGE HER rOLICT. 35 
 
 short of that performed by an equal number of 
 hands in the rural districts ; which will readily be 
 perceived by any farmer, — a deterioration, the 
 evil consequences of which must eventually be 
 experienced by every class of the community. 
 
 It has been pompously affirmed, it is true, 
 that the commercial and manufacturing industry 
 of this country can never be equalled, much 
 less outrivalled by others ; but England would 
 do well to consider the advantageous grounds 
 which she has hitherto occupied before coming 
 to hasty conclusions of this kind. Many of 
 those advantages are now no more, and others 
 are ftist disappearing ; and although she still 
 possesses many commercial and manufact»::ring 
 advantages, which the majority of the States of 
 Europe do not, yet she labours, at the same 
 time, under many disadvantages from w^hich 
 they are exempt, and these are daily increasing. 
 The obvious inference therefore is, that the 
 success of her future policy depends upon a 
 very different line of procedure from that 
 which she has hitherto followed. It cannot be 
 fairly expected that the rest of Europe will 
 remain much longer in that semi-barbarous 
 state under which it has lain for such a period 
 P 2 
 
36 BALANCE OF INDUSTRY. 
 
 of tiine an eye-witness only to England's 
 prosperity and greatness. Sufficient evidence 
 is already afforded us, to the contrary, that 
 every citizen of the Continent is preparing to 
 reach to the privileges of Englishmen ; and to 
 practise every branch of national industry which 
 we practise. We cannot for a moment wish 
 the labouring population of the Continent of 
 Europe to remain any longer in their present 
 condition. The peace and prosperity of the 
 world require the contrary. We wish them 
 British freedom and British liberty — to become 
 our faithful neighbours, and honest rivals, co* 
 equal in every respect. 
 
 The improvement of the manufacturing and 
 commercial interest of this country may be 
 eifected to a certain extent, at present, without 
 materially meliorating our agricultural. This 
 can always be done, so long as the circumstances 
 of the former are inferior to those of the latter. 
 For instance, full employment to the 10,000 
 idle operatives in Manchester would not affect 
 the condition of the agricultural labourers of 
 Lancashire. But if more than the unemployed 
 hands of the manufacturing districts of this 
 country were required, and if the agricultural 
 
DIFFERENT ELEMENTS. 37 
 
 districts supplied this demand, then the latter 
 would be relieved of its surplus population, 
 and the result to the country would be, a 
 general benefit gained ; both by a diminution 
 of the amount of rates, as also of the burdens 
 sustained by private families of the poor peo- 
 ple in supporting their unemployed connec- 
 tions. 
 
 The question may be asked, why does not 
 the existence of so many unemployed operatives 
 affect the ao-ricultural labourers? Why do not 
 half the idle hands in towns go to the country 
 and compete with the agricultural labourers, 
 and throw at least the inferior workmen out of 
 employment ? 
 
 The fict is curious vvhich prevents the 
 occurrence of such an event. The only pro- 
 tection which the agricultural labourers of 
 England and the Lowlands of Scotland have 
 at present, lies in this: that the idle townspeople 
 of both countries are devoid of 23hysical strength 
 sufficient to enable them to perform the daily 
 amount of the heavy task-work of the country ; 
 and the moment that the country-people them- 
 selves fall short of their present strength, and 
 the execution of this amount of daily labour, 
 D 3 
 
3^ BALANCE OF INDUSTRY. 
 
 that moment their ruin Is inevitable from this 
 very source. 
 
 The principal losses to which agricultural 
 labourers are liable at present, are those arising 
 from the non-removal of their increasing num- 
 bers by the other interests. The immense 
 employment afforded by the formation of rail- 
 ways in the United Kingdom has almost pre- 
 vented any bad effects from being experienced 
 by over-population in our rural districts for the 
 last few years ; but Britain cannot continue for 
 any great length of time to make railways at 
 such an extraordinary rate. The inference, 
 therefore, is obvious, that the interest of the 
 agricultural labourers of the United Kingdom 
 is liable to be affected, at no distant perioil, by 
 a diminution of revenue to the amount of many 
 millions yearly, and the poor rates increased. 
 
 On the other hand, the slightest improvement 
 or depression in the circumstances of the agri- 
 cultural labourer at once affects the interest 
 of commerce. The reason of this is obvious. 
 Our agriculture is more dependent upon our 
 commerce than our commerce upon our agri- 
 culture. Our agriculture is almost exclusively 
 dependent upon our commerce, while our 
 
DIFFERENT ELEMENTS. 39 
 
 commerce is too little dependent upon native 
 agriculture, and too much upon foreign, as 
 formerly noticed. 
 
 Tlie effect which a diminution of the yearly 
 incomes of our agricultural population below 
 the proper level would have upon our com- 
 mercial and manufacturing interests, and the 
 benefit which the latter would gain by an 
 advance in the incomes of the former, from a 
 depressed state to a proper level, w^ill, perhaps, 
 appear more evident from the following two 
 examples. 
 
 1. If we take the agricultural labourers of 
 England and the Lowlands of Scotland in 
 round numbers at 1,000,000, the rate of wages 
 2s. per day ; then the amount of their yearly 
 incomes will be 31,200,000/. The whole of this 
 sum passes into the hands of the commercial and 
 manufacturing interests from the hands of the 
 agricultural labourer ; and how many exchanges 
 take place afterwards, before its return to them 
 again, it \vould be useless to attempt to calcu- 
 late. 
 
 A reduction of the incomes of the agricultural 
 labourers of the United Kingdom to the Ulster 
 level, where the daily wages are Is., w^ould of 
 
 D 4 
 
40 BALANCE OF INDUSTRY. 
 
 course be one-half the present amount, or 
 15,600,000/.; and to the Connaught level of 
 6d. per day, one-fourth, or 7,800,000/. yearly. 
 Query. What influence would this have upon 
 our commerce ? Let commerce ansicer. 
 
 2. In Ireland, there are not less than an 
 equal number of agricultural labourers, or 
 1,000,000. The extent of cultivated land is 
 rather more than one-third that of England 
 and the Lowlands of Scotland, but considerably 
 under one-half; the number of agricultural 
 labourers being about equal. We cannot, 
 however, estimate the average wages of the 
 four provinces of the Sister Isle at more than 
 one-third of what we allowed for England, or 
 8f/. per day; and hence the total amount of their 
 incomes would be 10,400,000/. yearly at present. 
 An advance of w^ages to the English level of 
 2s. per day, the expense of labour being the 
 same, or, in other words, an advance of the 
 daily quantity of labour performed to the 
 English level, then the advance of the yearly 
 incomes of the agricultural labourers of Ireland 
 would be 20,800,000/. The beneficial influence 
 of such an increase above the present demand 
 for manufactured goods will readily be appre- 
 
 i 
 
PROPRIETY OF EFFECTING A BALANCE. 41 
 
 dated by our manufacturing and commercial 
 interests. 
 
 Under such circumstances, it must appear 
 obvious, that to maintain the agricultural 
 labourers of England and the Lowlands of 
 Scotland in their present industrial position, 
 and to bring up those of Ireland and the 
 Highlands of Scotland to the same standard, 
 is a subject of national importance, affecting 
 nearly as much the manufacturing and com- 
 mercial interests of the country as the agri- 
 cultural ; and that the whole community would 
 participate in the advantages to be gained by 
 such a reformation. 
 
 To bring the industrious habits and domestic 
 circumstances of the British a2:ricultural labour- 
 ers to one uniform level — one uniform amount 
 of wages being considered due for one uniform 
 amount of labour received, other things being 
 the same — is not a fanciful theory, but evidently 
 the grand object contemplated by all parties 
 now interestin<T themselves in behalf of Ireland 
 and the Highlands of Scotland, relative to 
 their final settlement, and the establishment of 
 peace and prosperity among their distracted 
 inhabitants. 
 
42 EXTRAORDINARY DIFFERENCES OF 
 
 What is here meant by a uniform amount of 
 wages, is not the value of labour in so much 
 gold or silver, Avhether paid in the shape of 
 day's wages, or the stipulated price per piece ; 
 but what will produce an uniform or regular 
 quantity of food, clothing, and household accom- 
 modation of a uniform quality. The price of 
 provisions and other necessaries of life fluctuates 
 very much ; but a labouring man can only 
 perform a certain uniform quantity of work, 
 and hence, on the counterpart, requires a certain 
 uniform supply of those necessaries to enable 
 him to do so. This equitable principle will be 
 found in o-eneral to re2:ulate the washes of the 
 workmen of both England and the Lowlands of 
 Scotland at present. For instance, we paid 
 our servants an advance on their w^ages in cash 
 of eightpence per day, being at the rate of 
 10/. 85. per annum in 1847 over 1846. This, 
 however, was no advance of their incomes ; nor 
 were their domestic circumstances in 1847 even 
 equal, after all, to what they had been in 1846. 
 In the latter year they suffered considerably, 
 along with the community at large. 
 
 The wages which we paid in 1846 were IO5. 
 and 125. weekly, and in 1847 145. and I65. to 
 
AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY. 43 
 
 the same hands. The mere advance of wages 
 here paid to the English labourer was equal to 
 the entire average wages in Ireland at the same 
 period, although the difference of the expense 
 of provisions in the two countries was imma- 
 terial. To justify such an extraordinary dif- 
 ference in the incomes of our labouring popu- 
 lation is hardly possible. The united incomes 
 of the agricultural labourers of Ireland we have 
 already stated at 10,400,000/. Taking the 
 averao;e wa";es of an Enolish labourer in 1847 
 to be 155. weekly, then the yearly income of 
 this class would be 39,000,000/., being an excess 
 over the same class in Ireland of the enormous 
 sum of 28,600,000/. annually during seasons of 
 scarcity like the last. It is very evident 
 that the incomes of Irish labourers must 
 be advanced 28,600,000/. before they can 
 stand upon equal footing with English labourers, 
 and enjoy the same domestic comforts. Such 
 being the case, the first question which naturally 
 suggests itself to the practical man is, from 
 what source is this immense sum to be obtained ? 
 From some source or other it must come before 
 the reformation of Ireland is effected. The 
 
44 FALSE MEAXS FOR 
 
 theory, therefore, which does not make this 
 provision, must be rejected as impracticable. 
 
 Before proposing any scheme or schemes for 
 the melioration of our labouring classes, from 
 whose calamities evidently all others flow, con- 
 taining such a provision, let us briefly glance at 
 some of the more popular theories of the times, 
 in accordance with the above view of the subject, 
 as this will enable us to avoid rocks on which 
 others have been shipwrecked. It will also 
 introduce several practical questions, inseparably 
 connected with it, which are necessary to be 
 borne in mind. 
 
 Two" of those theories have already been 
 alluded to : first, that embraced in the plea of 
 the small Irish tenant, who wanted employment 
 from his landlord to enable him to pay his 
 rent ; and second^ the tenant-right theories of 
 Mr. Crawford and others. A third scheme is 
 that of the introduction of manufacturing in- 
 dustry. A fourth source from which to obtain 
 this prijicely sum is the Exchequer ; and the 
 fifth and last alternative, the Irish Parliament. 
 
 The two former of these schemes have already 
 been disposed of in a former page, and there- 
 fore shall only be noticed in this place as 
 
EFFECTING EQUALITY. 45 
 
 sources from which to obtain 28,000,000/. 
 annually for our Irish labourers ; or rather 
 schemes which will enable us to elevate the 
 domestic circumstances of our labouring popu- 
 lation to one common level. The third has 
 also been in some measure anticipated in stating 
 the cause of the present depressed state of 
 Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland ; but, 
 on review, will be found an unfit scheme for 
 the reformation of those two provinces at 
 present. The latter two are so ridiculous as to 
 merit no serious consideration, and are both 
 disposed of accordingly. 
 
 1. The pocket of the landlord. A large por- 
 tion of the British public, both in Ireland 
 and the United Kingdom, unhappily attach by 
 far too much importance to the residence of our 
 landed aristocracy among them, and, on the 
 contrary, set less value upon the resources of 
 their own industry than justice demands of 
 them. Our limits will not allow us fully to 
 expose the grossness of the delusion which 
 prevails as to this point among the villagers 
 and labouring population in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of noblemen's residences. When 
 their landlord happens to be an absentee, all 
 
46 ABSENTEEISM OF LANDLORDS. 
 
 the calamities with which they are surrounded 
 are traced to his absenteeism as their source ; 
 and when he is resident, less perhaps than the 
 one-half of them are satisfied wath his conduct. 
 Both my lord and lady are partial in their 
 dealings, and their servants, like themselves, are 
 too familiar with London and Dublin commo- 
 dities and prices to make many purchases in the 
 country village. Instead of being obliging, these 
 subordinates in the establishment are rather 
 disposed to make other people as wise as them- 
 selves, and hence overturn the contentment and 
 prosperity of former times ; and in nhie cases 
 out of ten resign their offices, leaving the 
 district in a more deplorable and discontented 
 state than when they first entered it. By 
 increasing the population without making the 
 necessary provision for consequences, landlords 
 and villagers together have increased their own 
 miseries, and entailed them upon their unfor- 
 tunate posterity. 
 
 We have already stated, in a former para- 
 graph, that Irish landlords are generally 
 English landlords also, and more liberal tow^ards 
 their Irish than towards their English tenantry. 
 Granting, however, that they should be remiss 
 
ABSENTEEISM OF LANDLORDS. 47 
 
 in their duties as landlords in that country ; 
 that they should make no provision for their 
 own families, but spend the whole of their 
 surplus incomes in advancing the wages of their 
 agricultural labourers in Ireland : it must be 
 obvious to every one acquainted with the rental 
 of landed property in that island, that this 
 surrender would not raise the requisite sum 
 which the adverse circumstances of the case 
 require. And farther, if we grant this boon 
 to Ireland, we must also, as a matter of justice, 
 grant the same to England ; so that in the end 
 w^e leave the Sister Isle where we found her, 
 some 28,000,000/, short annually from being 
 able to discharo-e her duties to her labouring: 
 population engaged in agriculture, and of bring- 
 ing them to a level with those of this country. 
 Moreover, if landlords were to change their 
 rentals from the channel in which they flow at 
 present, what would become of their present 
 recipients, who number two to one of the 
 others in this country ? Is not a large amount 
 of our present commercial distress traceable to 
 this source? We are aware of the argument 
 so often brought forward by many, that the 
 rental of the landlord cannot be better spent 
 
48 ABSENTEEISM OF LANDLORDS. 
 
 for the interest of the manufacturer and com- 
 mercialist than in the improvement of the 
 country by the employment of our agricultural 
 labourers. This,, however, is a conclusion more 
 popular than true, and based upon the unchari- 
 table hypothesis that landlords mis-spend their 
 money. The obvious duty of the landlord is 
 to make provision for his own family, not 
 those of others ; and if his income is prudently 
 spent in this channel, it is as favourable for our 
 commercial and manufacturing interests as if 
 spent by our agricultural labourers. Even grants 
 ing the justness of this popular conclusion, 
 unfortunately for it as a scheme for the refor- 
 mation of Ireland, it leaves us exactly in our 
 former position, 28,000,000/. short of being upon 
 a footing of equality with England, and even 
 worse than that : for the latter would pocket 
 the lion's share of the manufacturino* and com- 
 
 o 
 
 mercial advantages which the fonner would 
 yield under^ this improved system of things, 
 independent of the benefits resulting from her 
 own. 
 
 We cannot therefore procure the necessary 
 funds from this source, in accordance with 
 any plan at present in operation, either in 
 
TENANT-RIGHT SCHEMES. 49 
 
 England or the Lowlands of Scotland. It is 
 not from the pockets of English landlords that 
 English labourers receive this immense sum, 
 but from the pockets of English farmers ; and 
 in Ireland it must be taken from the same 
 quarter, before the two countries can attain to 
 similarity as to the point under discussion. 
 
 2. The multifarious schemes of tenant-right 
 now in agitation. Our limits will not allow us even 
 to enumerate the many theories advanced upon 
 this subject, which at present engrosses so much 
 of the attention of the agricultural world. We 
 therefore concede to all parties the justness of 
 their own theories, and assume that one and 
 all of them tend to forward the advancement 
 of the agricultural interest of Ireland to a level 
 with the agricultural interest of England. 
 This is obviously the final result which all 
 parties calculate upon. We do not believe 
 that Mr. Crawford, or any of his compeers, 
 wishes to advance the incomes of the farmers 
 or agricultural labourers of the sister country 
 beyond the incomes of those of England; 
 neither can we, in fairness and respect for their 
 avowed liberality, suppose for a moment that 
 they entertain anything less. 
 E 
 
50 TENANT-RIGHT SCHEMES. 
 
 According to Mr. M^CuUoch (we abridge 
 from the "Farmers' Almanac" of the present 
 year), the extent of land under aration in 
 Ireland is 5,750,000 acres. The yearly value 
 of the same is estimated at 28,200,834Z., or about 
 41. ISs. per acre. The annual produce of the 
 cultivated lands would, according to this cal- 
 culation, require to be doubled, in order to 
 afford the necessary sum required by agricul- 
 tural labourers alone, leaving nothing for the 
 large farmer, the blacksmith, the carpenter, 
 the saddler, &c., who will naturally look for 
 their own share of any returns from the soil. 
 
 We concur in the practicability of doubling 
 the present amount of agricultural produce 
 from the arable lands in Ireland. But granting 
 this, and waiving all other practical questions 
 with which it stands inseparably connected, 
 what will it avail the advocates of the tenant- 
 right question ? This is the very policy which 
 Ireland, unhappily, has hitherto been pursuing. 
 For the last century, she has been acting upon 
 the principle which modern vanity is now 
 endeavouring to foist upon the British public 
 as the only panacea which can save her devoted 
 provinces from sinking into everlasting ruin. 
 
TENANT-RIGHT SCHEMES. 51 
 
 She has, in fact, already doubled her agricul- 
 tural produce ; but, unfortunately for her, she 
 has at the same time tripled the number of her 
 people. Her national industry has not kept 
 pace with her increasing population ; nor is she 
 in circumstances more favourable for entering 
 the field than she has been at any previous 
 period of her history, even on the supposition 
 that she is in full possession of all that is now 
 so strenuously affirmed as hers. The scheme 
 of itself, isolated from every physical difficulty 
 with which it is surrounded, is a hopeless 
 chimera, which can never exist, save in the 
 minds of men ignorant of practical workings. 
 
 On the very threshold of the tenant-right 
 question, we are met with the singular and 
 unexpected fact — that the tenant-right system 
 of Ireland is more favourable for the farmer 
 than the tenant-right system of either England 
 or Scotland. We visited a large extent of the 
 sister country for the express purpose of 
 renting land for third parties in this country, 
 and could find no objections to tenant-rights 
 whatever. In fact, promise an Irish landlord 
 rent, and he will give you a tenant-right or 
 lease to your own satisfaction if you are a rea- 
 
 E 2 
 
52 TENANT-llIGHT SCHEMES. 
 
 sonable man. Rents no doubt are high enough 
 in the majority of cases, but not higher than 
 what they are in this country, nor so high as 
 what they are in. Scotland, taking everything 
 into consideration. We neither objected to 
 rents nor tenant-rights. Our only objection 
 Avas the expense of efficient labour. The 
 whole industrial machinery of the country was 
 out of order (so to speak), and • we could not 
 recommend to any friend to undertake single- 
 handed the execution of necessary repairs in 
 any one district. 
 
 Tenant-rights in Ireland therefore, being 
 superior to those in this country, or at least 
 upon a footing of equality with them, it is 
 evident that any improvement which may 
 confer a benefit upon the former will also con- 
 fer a greater or equal benefit upon the latter. 
 The tenant-right system which will double the 
 acreable produce of the arable lands of Ireland, 
 and increase its value 28,000,000/., will at the 
 same time double the acreable produce of the 
 arable lands of England, and increase its value 
 80,000,000/. annually, and that of the United 
 Kingdom 100,000,000/. The total value of 
 the agricultural produce of the.United Kingdom 
 
MANUFACTURING SCHEME. 53 
 
 at present is estimated at 168,8515143/., and 
 that of Ireland 48,200,834/. annually. Accord- 
 ing to the tenant-right scheme, the former may 
 be 268,851,143/., and the latter, 76,200,834/., 
 leaving a difference in favour qf the former of 
 nearly 200,000,000/. . annually, the difference 
 in the agricultural population of the two being 
 immaterial. 
 
 3. Manufacturing scheme. We have already 
 stated that the cause of those calamities which 
 at present afflict Ireland and the Highlands of 
 Scotland, is the want of manufacturing and 
 commercial industry. In these places, the 
 science of labour and the elements of national 
 industry have been very much neglected. 
 Many theorists have arrived at the erroneous 
 conclusion, that the introduction of manu- 
 facturing industry at present would meliorate 
 the condition of the peasantry of those pro- 
 vinces, and advance them to a level with those 
 of England, They further conclude, that, but 
 for the unsettled state of the country, and the 
 insecurity of life and capital in Ireland, this 
 scheme of reformation would immediately be 
 carried into effect, owing to the natural richness 
 of the country, and the many facilities which it 
 
 E 3 
 
54 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 affords for this branch of industry. Those 
 theorists, however, entirely overlook the effect 
 which such a scheme would have, when reduced 
 to practice, upon the manufacturing industry 
 of England, and the results which that effect, 
 recoiling back, would produce upon Ireland. 
 They further overlook the notorious fact, that 
 the Highlands of Scotland is already a peace- 
 ful country, the most quiet and pacific province 
 of the British empire, affording more facilities 
 for commercial and manufacturing industry 
 than perhaps any other country in the world. 
 This was more particularly the case previous to 
 the introduction of steam and its application 
 as a moving power to machinery. The water- 
 power of the Highlands is immense, tenfold 
 more than that of its inhabitants, who might 
 have entered the field with England on the 
 most advantageous terms which commercial 
 ambition could have desired. But instead of 
 Highlandmen taking advantage of the natural 
 wealth of their country, they fought for the 
 profitless peculiarities of patriarchal times, and 
 never thought of enlisting in the warfare of 
 modern industry, until it was too late to enter 
 the lists with any prospect of success. Ire- 
 
UNFIT SCHEME FOR IRELAND. 55 
 
 land, also, equally favourably situated, left the 
 material world, and fought for similar privileges 
 of an ideal kind ; hence the reason why both 
 are surrounded by those kindred calamities 
 which are at present consuming them. 
 
 It w^ill readily be perceived, from what has 
 been said in a former page relative to the 
 expense of labour, that upwards of 500,000 
 labourers, at present employed in Irish agri- 
 culture, would have to be employed by those 
 who embark in this manufacturing scheme. 
 YVe estimated the number of agricultural la- 
 bourers in Ireland at 1,000,000, — found labour 
 more expensive than what it is in this country, 
 where the w^ages of the workman are double. 
 Before the Irish labourer can therefore receive 
 equal wages with the English labourer, he 
 must first perform daily, at least double his 
 present quantity of work. The consequence 
 of such a change would obviously be, to turn 
 the one-half of the workmen out of employ- 
 ment, the number above stated, which the 
 manufacturing and commercial interests would 
 have to employ. The effect which this would 
 have, without any additional demand upon our 
 commercial interest for manufactured goods, 
 
 E 4 
 
56 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 is obvious. In the shape of wages alone, it 
 would place in our over-loaded warehouses 
 20,000,000/. worth of goods annually. This 
 is the very reverse of that reformation which 
 we formerly acknowledged as alike beneficial 
 in its results to all classes of the community. 
 The fact that England and the Lowlands of 
 Scotland are already prepared to supply an- 
 nually this amount of manufactured goods, 
 without the erection of a single pennyworth 
 of machinery, renders the scheme fruitless, 
 were it even possible to be reduced to practice. 
 There can be no doubt that, were it possible 
 to reduce the scheme to practice, it would have 
 for its ultimate result the reduction of our 
 manufacturing interests in the three kingdoms 
 to a uniform level, as to the wages of the 
 artist. But the practical question is, what 
 would that level be ? Undoubtedly, not even the 
 present distressed level of our operatives, but 
 something worse, if worse can possibly be. For 
 the same reason, the introduction of the manu- 
 facturing industry of Ulster into the south and 
 w^est of Ireland would ultimately reduce the 
 industry of her four provinces to a uniform and 
 common level ; but it is very obvious, that 
 
UNFIT SCHEME FOR IRELAND. 57 
 
 unless Irish commerce should at the same time 
 obtain five or six times her present demand for 
 manufactured goods, that that level would not 
 be the level of the north at present — a level 
 which does not exceed one shilling per day on an 
 average for a labouring man. A great many, 
 if not the majority of the small farmers and 
 their sons whom we had in our employment in 
 the county of Armagh, were weavers, but pre- 
 ferred out-door work at this rate of wages 
 to plying the shuttle. The condition of many 
 of these was deplorable, and that of the most 
 favoured of them far below what it should be. 
 We can point out a small tenant with a family 
 in the above county, not an exceptionary case, 
 but an average of the most industrious hands, 
 occasionally employed in agriculture and occa- 
 sionally on their looms. We can point out a 
 labouring man in this country, with a family 
 of a similar size, equal in every respect as to 
 numbers, age, and physical appearances, wholly 
 engaged in agriculture, where the difference of 
 the joint incomes of the two families exceeded 
 40/. per annum on ordinary years in favour 
 of the latter, and much more under seasons like 
 the last. 
 
58 3IANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 People who dream of such imaginary schemes 
 forget to calculate the power and value of the 
 stupendous machinery of England; and that 
 Ireland, before she can enter the manufacturing 
 field with any prospect of being able success- 
 fully to compete with her, must first adopt 
 the same artificial system. She must first 
 metamorphose two-thirds of her agricultural 
 labourers into artisans and tradespeople of all 
 kinds, before she can even enter the field on 
 equal terms with this country, or commence to 
 erect her machinery. 
 
 Although Ireland and the Highlands of Scot- 
 land possess many natural advantages over 
 England for commercial and manufacturing 
 industry, and could, at one period of their history, 
 have entered the field of competition with every 
 prospect of success, taking the lead in the march 
 of improvement, that is no reason for the 
 opinion that they can do so at present. It 
 is one thing to shun danger or prevent con- 
 tagion by the use of preventives, but quite a 
 different thing to effect a cure after members of 
 the body have not only been bruised or diseased, 
 but the physical system reduced to the last 
 stage curable. Before a healing remedy can 
 
UNFIT SCHEME FOR IRELAND. 59 
 
 be now applied, inflammatory action must be 
 allayed and the progress of disease arrested. 
 Before manufacturing industry can be intro- 
 duced into those provinces of the Empire, from 
 500,000 to 600,000 effective men must be 
 found in profitable employment of a reproductive 
 kind. Bread must be found for about 3,000,000 
 of our population. It is only when this has 
 been accomplished, that the rising generation 
 of Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland can 
 be initiated into the manufacturing and com- 
 mercial industry of England, and the domestic 
 circumstances of the labouring population of 
 the two countries be brought to a common 
 standard. It is totally useless, therefore, at 
 present, to expect from any manufacturing 
 scheme the reformation of our agricultural la- 
 bourers in Ireland, or of our manufacturing 
 ones in this country. 
 
 Fourth and fifth schemes. On the first plan, 
 we found the purses of Irish landlords deficient 
 by some 28,000,000/. ; and on the second, those 
 of their tenants by some 100,000,000/., at 
 present, with double that sum staring them as 
 requisite for their future reformation ! We save 
 ourselves the trouble of visiting St. Stephen's 
 
60 AGRICULTUKAL INDUSTRY 
 
 with either of those shortcomings, and there- 
 fore at once proceed to the Irish Parliament, 
 where the least of them will be found the most 
 suitable figure for its Chancellor's budget. 
 
 From these and previous remarks it will 
 appear obvious, that the improvement of our 
 national industry cannot be effected through 
 the instrumentality of any of those popular 
 schemes which we have just mentioned. A 
 new scheme must be concocted, which will 
 produce the necessary amount of capital and 
 employment — that employment must be agri- 
 cultural. British agriculture can only stay the 
 progress of our present calamities and restore 
 the people to a comparative state of industry 
 and well-being. 
 
 The improvement of the industrious habits 
 of the labouring population of Britain, especially 
 of Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, is 
 evidently a matter of a very different character 
 from what it is generally supposed to be, and 
 one of far greater magnitude, although perhaps 
 less difficult to accomplish, after all, than what 
 may willingly be admitted. That such a refor- 
 mation will soon take place, is not only our 
 wish but confident expectation ; but before it 
 
FOR IRELAND. 61 
 
 can be obtained, material means must be used 
 to procure this as other material ends, and the 
 man who has made practice his study must 
 perceive that the means necessary at present 
 are those of no ordinary decription. It is the 
 amount and character of the means which has 
 hitherto been experienced as the great difficulty 
 to obtain ; these obtained, the performance of 
 the work will not be found so formidable and 
 opposing an obstacle. 
 
 On our arrival in Ulster, the first thing 
 which arrested our attention was the neglected 
 state of industry among the labouring popula- 
 tion, especially those connected with agriculture. 
 Had we not previously seen the same state of 
 things in the Highlands of Scotland, we would 
 have had some difficulty in giving credit to the 
 testimony of those who informed us that matters 
 were still worse in the south and western pro- 
 vinces of Ireland, to which we were afterwards 
 eye-witness. Both the method of working and 
 the character of the implements in use were 
 some centuries out of date. In order to show 
 the want of information which exists on this 
 subject, we quote from " British Husbandry" 
 the following extract by the author of that 
 
62 IRISH AGRICULTURISTS UNCONSCIOUS 
 
 work from Weld's Survey of Roscommon. 
 " Another peculiarity of Irish digging imple- 
 ments is, that for ordinary use they are in- 
 variably provided with longer handles than are 
 customary in England, whereby the labourer is 
 enabled to maintain a more erect position than 
 can be preserved in using the short-handled 
 English spade ; and hence in no part of Ireland 
 is it usual to meet men bent down by their 
 labour, as commonly seen amongst old men in 
 other countries." In alluding again to the 
 workmen working in bands or companies at 
 spade-work, he says : " These congregations of 
 workmen give vivacity to the labour, and are 
 ordinarily scenes of much cheerfulness." 
 
 We found the misfortune of Irishmen to be 
 that they were too little bent down hy hard 
 labour, and too much addicted to grouping 
 themselves together for the express purpose of 
 killing time by gossiping at work. The servant 
 was scarcely more to blame perhaps in this 
 respect than his master, if so much. Brought 
 up to such a system of things, both evidently 
 were unconscious of the evils which it entailed 
 upon them. The maxim of the master is to 
 keep in a state of buoyancy the flagging spirits 
 
OF THEIR OWN STATE. 63 
 
 of his potato-fed labourers, to excite among 
 them a little emulation, where that is possible, 
 and have the whole under his own personal 
 superintendence. So far is prudent, and abso- 
 lutely necessary. Potato-fed labourers require 
 something more stimulating to keep afloat their 
 sinking spirits than either potatoes or a six- 
 pence per day: — but then comes the abuse of 
 the system. For a master to hang over a lot 
 of workmen day after day, without an hour's 
 intermission, is rather a tedious task for an 
 Irish farmer : hence, to obviate this, twice the 
 number of hands are called in to perform the 
 work, which consequently gives the master 
 half the time to himself. The result of such 
 a practice with a dense population like that 
 of Ireland, or, in fact, wherever the system is 
 practicable, is obvious. In the first place, the 
 labourers are half the year out of employment, 
 lounging about in idleness, and stirring up each 
 other to all those agrarian outrages which 
 disgrace their country. In the second place, 
 they are often, or rather invariably, induced to 
 neglect the cultivation of their own small 
 holdings at the proper season, in order to 
 secure the work of the landlord and large 
 
64 AUTHOE'S experience in IRELAND. 
 
 farmer. And in the last place, it has this per- 
 nicious tendency, of making an Irish job last as 
 long as possible, as many land-stewards and 
 large farmers no doubt have experiencedi 
 Many of the small tenantry who have only a 
 few weeks' employment upon their own holdings, 
 labour under the erroneous impression that 
 large farmers and landlords are in duty bound 
 to supply the remainder, as we have already 
 noticed; and do not hesitate to acknowledge, 
 that they are perfectly justified in eking out a 
 job when in the employment of the latter, if 
 they have any prospect of being turned adrift. 
 In short, parties are mutually jealous of each 
 other. A general distrust on the part of the 
 workmen is fanned into a consuming flame, 
 enervating and unfitting them for laborious 
 exercise. 
 
 We very soon discovered, that by a proper 
 system of management, and the adoption of 
 taskwork, the whole of the operations of the 
 farm could be performed at half the cost by 
 half the number of hands, — the workmen at 
 the same time making double wages. In 1843 
 the joint wages of a man and his two sons were 
 145. Qd, weekly, and the average of the last 
 
65 
 
 four weeks prior to Lady-day, 1845, when we 
 left for our employer's residence in England, 
 SOs. and some odd pence. The expense of 
 the work in 1843 was 8d, per cubic yard for 
 excavation, and in 1845, Ad. ; the materials exca- 
 vated being of the same quality. At the 
 generality of jobs, the difference is greater in 
 favour of the task-work system. 
 
 On the comparative merits of task-work over 
 day-work, our limits will scarcely permit us to 
 offer a practical remark. In this country, a 
 labouring man is found able to perform about 
 one-fourth more work daily on task-work than 
 upon day-work, without being more fatigued. 
 The reason of this lies partly in the position of 
 the workman's body, and partly in the animus 
 of his mind. When at task-work he brings 
 himself better up to his work, so to speak, 
 acquiring thus a greater lever power, which 
 enables him to keep the muscles a shorter time 
 extended. A man who lifts ttco ordinary 
 spadefuls in a given time will not be so much 
 exhausted as he would have been by only lifting 
 one of them during the same time — twice the 
 time being occupied in lifting the one spadeful 
 that was occupied in lifting each of the other 
 F 
 
66 TASK-WORK AND SPADE 
 
 two. If a man has got a small job to do, it is 
 much better to finish it off quickly than to 
 hang over it a whole day. The propriety of all 
 work being done by the task is therefore ob- 
 vious. 
 
 If the whole labour of Irish agriculture could 
 be performed by half the present number of 
 hands, under a proper system of taskwork, then 
 the effect of introducing the system into general 
 practice would accordingly be, to turn half a 
 million of her peasantry out of employment, or 
 the whole only on half-employment. The task- 
 work system, therefore, of itself places us exactly 
 in the same dilemma as that in which we found 
 ourselves launched by the manufacturing scheme ; 
 so that before it can become instrumental in 
 effecting the reformation of the Sister Isle, 
 double the present amount of agricultural em- 
 ployment must somehow be found with which 
 to conjoin it. 
 
 When we commenced task- work, we did not 
 diminish our hands, but, on the contrary, by 
 the introduction of an efficient system of spade 
 husbandry, did more than double their number. 
 The immediate introduction of spade husbandry 
 by landlords and gentlemen farmers into Ireland 
 
HUSBANDKY FOR IRELAND, 67 
 
 and the Highlands of Scotland, and its gradual 
 introduction into this country, would restore 
 our national industry to a healthy tone, and 
 prove itself more profitable in the end than 
 our present practice. Many of our leading 
 agriculturists are sensible of the fact; many 
 have already experienced the advantage of the 
 spade or fork over the plough. The system is 
 fast taking root in England, and is destined at 
 no distant period to supersede the old-school 
 practice. The easchrom, loi, and plough will 
 become interesting objects to the antiquary. 
 
 The system no doubt requires more capital 
 to commence with, taking the three kingdoms 
 as a whole, but not so much as many are at 
 first apt to calculate. This obstacle would be 
 easily got over in this country by means of 
 gradual introduction ; and in Ireland, owing to 
 the incredible expense of horse-work at present, 
 and the well-known fact that a majority of the 
 small tenants lounge about in idleness as long 
 as they might dig their lands, it would be 
 almost immaterial if matters were judicially 
 managed. We have frequently seen small far- 
 mers lounging about idle as long as they might 
 have dug tlie whole of their lands for the ensuing 
 
 F 2 
 
68 DIFFICULTIES TO ITS INTRODUCTION. 
 
 crop ; and then, after the arrival of seed-time, 
 pay more for horse-labour, imperfectly performed 
 and out of season, than would have dug and 
 dibbled the whole in a proper manner by task- 
 work. They would also have realised more 
 than double the produce in harvest. It is true 
 the poor tenant wanted food to support him 
 under hard work, and he had no money with 
 which to purchase it. The question, however, 
 starts up, Where got he money to pay for horse- 
 work ? Would not those who gave him credit 
 for the one give him credit for the other? 
 Could he not have got a boll of oatmeal and 
 paid for it in labour as he did his horse-work ? 
 Before such confidence can be established in 
 Ireland, the relation between master and servant, 
 not that of the landlord and tenant, must be 
 changed, as we subsequently shall see. It is 
 one thing to lend a boll of oatmeal, but quite 
 a different thing to lend horse-work, performed 
 at a season when perhaps the horseman would 
 otherwise have been idle. It is one inducement 
 for the small tenant to plough his land, that he 
 gets employment of the farmer who ploughs it. 
 He is often encouraged to do so, and not 
 unfrequently induced to believe, that more 
 
LARGE AND SMALL FARMS. 69 
 
 work will be given him than he ultimately 
 receives. In short, a certain class of small 
 Irish tenants has to serve two masters, and to 
 the members of it the system of spade hus- 
 bandry can never be profitably reduced to 
 practice, as it will confine their labours exclu- 
 sively to their own small holdings, which are 
 insufficient to employ them. 
 
 This part of the subject involves the important 
 question as to the proper size of farms. To 
 both large and small farms there is obviously a 
 limit. Small farms ought never to be less than 
 would afford sufficient employment for the tenant 
 and his successor, returning, on an average, 
 produce to the value of 100/. per annum. The 
 size of large farms will always be limited by 
 the distance from the buildings and the conse- 
 quent expense of carting out manure during 
 seed-time, and home the produce of the fields 
 during harvest. Between those two extremes, 
 no farmer ought to measure his neighbour's foot 
 in his own shoe, — a maxim too frequently dis- 
 regarded in discussing this subject. 
 
 The amount of capital required by the farmer 
 to cover the difference in the ordinary expense 
 between digging and ploughing is not all that 
 
 F 3 
 
70 LARGE AND SMALL FARMS. 
 
 is necessary in order to insure success, or even 
 render spade husbandry practicable in all cases. 
 On some soils, the system can be profitably in- 
 troduced without any preparatory improvement 
 being effected: they are naturally adapted 
 for it. The saving of horse-work, and conse- 
 quently the prime cost of horses, carts, ploughs, 
 &c., and the keeping up of the same, will do 
 more than cover the whole expense of digging 
 in the outset ; so that by this system less capital 
 will be required to commence with than by the 
 present. In other cases, it is very different. 
 The expense in the outset for digging, owing 
 to the quality of the soil, is more than double, 
 while the returns in harvest are less in favour of 
 the spade system than the other. Such soils, 
 too, are those which stand most in need of spade 
 husbandry. 
 
 On the majority of soils, before the system can 
 be profitably carried into operation, they ought 
 to be effectually drained and subsequently 
 trenched or subsoiled. This will not only confer 
 a permanent value upon their productive capa- 
 bilities, but render them more easily and cheaply 
 dug afterwards. Great caution, however, must 
 always be observed in trenching land incum- 
 
SPADE HUSBANDEY. 71 
 
 l^ent upon a bad or noxious subsoil. No more 
 must be turned up than what can be neutralised 
 in one season. Landlords may sometimes 
 prudently make a sacrifice of one crop, but 
 farmers seldom can, and therefore should always 
 avoid the experiment. 
 
 The fact of a thin soil being incumbent upon 
 an unsound subsoil, does not render the deepen- 
 ing of that soil an imprudent or injudicious 
 step, but, on the contrary, a more necessary one 
 to be prosecuted with double perseverance. 
 
 Permanent improvements of this kind, in- 
 separably grafted upon the soil, ought always 
 to belong to the landlord, and hence be made 
 at his expense. The expense of draining and 
 trenching, on an average, may be stated at 
 about lOL per imperial acre, for which the 
 tenant would have to pay interest. Such an 
 outlay, no doubt, few British landlords are able 
 to incur without recourse to credit ; and such 
 an additional rent as 6 J per cent, on this invest- 
 ment would create, many more than Irish 
 tenants would hesitate to give. Neither, how- 
 ever, have any reason to be apprehensive of con- 
 sequences where the money is properly laid 
 out. We never knew an instance where lands 
 r 4 
 
72 EXTENT OF PERMANENT 
 
 properly drained and trenched did not repay- 
 double the interest here stated, while in many 
 cases we have known cent, per cent, realised. 
 
 The position of British landlords and tenants 
 is such at present, that neither of them can 
 expect to be able to perform those duties which 
 they mutually owe to one another and the 
 public, unless from the proceeds of permanent 
 improvements of the kind just mentioned. 
 They may expect great things, as many do, 
 from geology and chemistry, without having 
 to put their hands into their own pockets, but 
 the expectation is vain and delusory. Those 
 are the very first improvements which these 
 sciences will recommend for the advancement 
 and prosperity of British agriculture. 
 
 The sum of lOL invested in every British 
 acre cultivated, or capable of cultivation, may 
 be stated in round numbers at about 600,000,000/. 
 The investment of such a sum in the soil is 
 obviously a scheme, to say the least of it, of no 
 ordinary magnitude, and may appear to many 
 unacquainted with capital to be uncalled for 
 and chimerical. What is true, however, in 
 respect of a part, must be admitted as true in 
 respect of the whole ; what is true of one acre 
 
IMPROVEMENTS IN BRITAIN. 73 
 
 is true of 60,000,000. The amount of credit 
 to which the ^soil is entitled is almost in- 
 credible. There are very few farmers who 
 have not invested the greatest portion of 10/. 
 per acre, before they got their farms into a 
 profitable state, while many have considerably 
 exceeded that sum. The practical question, 
 however, to which we must confine ourselves 
 at present, is the source from which this enor- 
 mous sum is to be obtained by landlords, or 
 rather the machinery with which they are to 
 create capital to this amount : unless this is 
 obtained, the scheme of spade husbandry falls 
 to the ground for want of the necessary means 
 to reduce it to general practice. 
 
 Taking a limited view of the subject, no 
 doubt money must be had before a single spit 
 is turned over, and the whole sum of 
 600,000,000/. before the whole work is finished : 
 but taking a more comprehensive view of it, 
 not a single farthing more is required by land- 
 lords than they at present possess. All that is 
 necessary on their part is to turn the industry of 
 one and a half million of their subjects, at 
 present idle, or only nominally employed, into 
 this improveable field, which may return them 
 
 k 
 
74 LAND-IMPKOVING SCHEME PROPOSED. 
 
 a revenue of some 40,000,000/. annually, and 
 the nation 100,000,000/. The workman no 
 sooner receives his wages than he pays them 
 away for food and clothing. The merchant 
 and manufacturer return the same to the 
 farmer for the raw produce of the soil. Let 
 the labour be productive, and it will support 
 the workmen. 
 
 There is perhaps no class of the British 
 community who have greater difficulty in making 
 a provision for their families in accordance 
 with their rank than landowners. Many of them 
 are left to provide for brothers and sisters at 
 the demise of their parents, to the neglect of 
 their own families, who in their turn become 
 a burden upon the heir of the patrimonial in- 
 heritance. The system is unnatural. It has 
 often occurred to us, that they, as a body, 
 ought to institute a land-improving scheme, of 
 a national character, having for its object the 
 procuring, from permanent improvements effected 
 upon the soil, annuities for the younger members 
 of their families. 
 
 It is obvious that money invested in any 
 improvement returning 6J per cent, will in 
 course of time redeem itself, and also mean- 
 
LAND-IMPROVING SCHEME. 75 
 
 while yield shareholders a fair rate of interest. 
 Supposing, therefore, that at the birth of a son 
 or daughter, for whom a father wished to make 
 provision, that he shall insure 1000/., or any- 
 other sum being invested in the soil, in the 
 shape of permanent improvements returning 6^ 
 per cent., and that he shall guarantee, by assig- 
 nation or otherwise, that this interest shall be 
 regularly paid in the shape of annual premiums 
 into the funds of the establishment, it is evident 
 that he can obtain the 1000/. from this source 
 on procuring a policy and executing a deed of 
 security. 
 
 At the expiry of the first term, or when the 
 1000/. has been redeemed, the landlord has still 
 the 6^ per cent, paid him by his tenant with 
 which to obtain a second 1000/. It is this 
 second 1000/. with which we propose purchasing 
 an annuity from the funds of the establishment 
 for the son or daughter of the landlord, as the 
 case may be ; or the 1 000/. may be given in 
 dowry to his daughter. 
 
 At the expiry of the second term, the 6 J per 
 cent, may merge into the rental of the landlord's 
 estate; or, if his family is large, he may provide 
 by will that the 1000/. be three times redeemed. 
 
76 LAND-IMPROVING SCHEME. 
 
 or oftener, before the 6^ per cent, falls to his 
 eldest son and successor. It is the fruit of his 
 own industry, and he can bequeath it to his family 
 without interfering with the rights of his heir. 
 
 Not only may landlords make provision for 
 their families in this manner; but also clear 
 their estates of all incumbrances where such exist. 
 There would also be this advantage attending 
 the scheme, that it would furnish that species 
 of employment which the labouring population 
 of Britain are at present so much requiring. 
 
 The machinery of such a company or associa- 
 tion would be analogous to that of any life 
 assurance company, only on a more extensive 
 scale. Its principal office would require to be 
 in the metropolis — every banking company a 
 branch, and every landlord's banker an agent 
 throughout the provinces. 
 
 We have in the above example taken 6^ per 
 cent, as the interest paid by the tenant, because 
 it is a rate now generally demanded. This 
 sum would leave say 4^ or 4 per cent, for 
 interest to the establishment as lender, and 2 or 
 2^ per cent, as premiums with which to redeem 
 the principal borrowed. Landlords, however, 
 would not be restricted to 2 or 2^ premiums. 
 
LAND-IMPROVING SCHEME. 77 
 
 Instead of the 6^ per cent, which they receive 
 from the tenant, they may grant an assignation 
 to 10 per cent, out of their rentals, when that is 
 necessary in order to procure annuities at a 
 shorter date. Or, for every 2000Z. which they 
 borrow, they may add a 1000/. from their rental, 
 making the sum invested in the soil 3000/., for 
 which they would be entitled to interest from 
 the tenant. This would give them 5^ or 5 j per 
 cent, to go towards redeeming the 2000/. bor- 
 rowed from the funds of the establishment. 
 
 In some instances, again, landlords may take 
 tracts of improveable land into their own hands, 
 and by investing money in draining, trenching, 
 and buildings, realise 10 per cent, and upwards. 
 These, however, are exceptionary cases, and 
 cannot be brought forward as grounds on which 
 to establish a general rule. In the majority of 
 cases, tenants are at present requiring assistance 
 from such improvements, as formerly noticed, 
 in order to enable them to discharge the increas- 
 ing obligations which the present state of 
 society demands of them; and hence they cannot 
 be fairly expected to return the landlord the 
 whole of the benefit derived from the soil in the 
 shape of interest* For instance, improvements 
 
78 COUNTER-EFFECTS OF THE 
 
 would require to yield from 10 to 12 per cent, 
 before tenants could afford to give 6|. More- 
 over, it ought always to be borne in mind by 
 landlords, that if improved practice is to flow 
 from a more extensive acquaintance with the 
 sciences, then improved practice must pay for 
 it. Education at agricultural schools and the 
 like is not procured by the farmer for his sons 
 without considerable expenses being incurred. 
 
 Several practical questions arise out of what 
 has been said relative to the effect which such 
 schemes would have upon the different branches 
 of industry, agricultural, manufacturing, and 
 commercial, when reduced to practice. The 
 following three are the most important, which 
 we shall briefly consider. 
 
 1. What effect will those schemes have 
 upon the wages of the agricultural labourer of 
 England and the Lowlands of Scotland, which 
 we have adopted as the standard level to 
 which we propose advancing those of Ireland 
 and the Highlands of Scotland ? It is very 
 obvious that spade husbandry, when in full 
 operation, will give employment to more than 
 double the present number of workmen. Such 
 being the case, what effect will its gradual 
 
INDUSTRY OP MASTER AND SERVANTS. 79 
 
 introduction have upon the price of labour? 
 We have already assumed that a taskman shall 
 make 2s, per day. Is there any probability of 
 an advance taking place under those changes ? 
 
 No definite answer can be given to such a 
 question, as the issue entirely depends upon 
 circumstances, the effects of which cannot be 
 estimated. We can see no reasons for an 
 advance, but many reasons for the contrary. 
 We are doubtful if the prices of provisions are 
 yet at the lowest level, to which they ulti- 
 mately may be reduced. The price of food 
 will always exercise a two-fold influence 
 upon the money expense of spade husbandry. 
 First, by directly affecting the wages of the 
 labourer ; and second, by diminishing or in- 
 creasing the expense of horse-work, which will be 
 found less or more to counterbalance any extra- 
 ordinary demand for manual labour of this kind. 
 
 We can hardly estimate the amount of labour 
 to be spent in draining, trenching, and other 
 extra improvements of this kind, to exceed 
 that which is at present expended in the form- 
 ation of railways ; so that the diminution in 
 the latter may, in all probability, keep pace 
 with the increase of the former. If the evils 
 
80 EFFECTS OF AGRICULTUPwAL 
 
 can be averted which are likely to arise from 
 this source to the labourer, as formerly noticed, 
 it is the utmost that can reasonably be expected 
 from the land-improving scheme. The infer- 
 ence, therefore, is almost obvious, that the in- 
 crease of the labouring portion of our rural 
 population will keep pace with the increase of 
 spade labour, occasioned by the adoption of 
 spade husbandry. 
 
 2. What effect would the reduction of those 
 schemes to practice have upon the commercial 
 and manufacturing branches of industry ? In 
 England, we formerly stated the wages of the 
 agricultural labourer at 25. per day, and the 
 gross yearly income of this class at 31,200,000/. 
 This, however, will be found considerably to 
 exceed the truth, if we descend to details in 
 practice ; for not more than perhaps two-thirds 
 of the whole number are regularly employed, 
 so that many shortcomings have to be de- 
 ducted from the gross income above stated. 
 These can scarcely be stated at less than from 
 2,000,000/. to 3,000,000/. annually. 
 
 Spade husbandry will have a two-fold effect 
 upon this state of our rural industry. In the 
 first place, it will give more Tegular employ- 
 
INDUSTRY IX IRELAND. 81 
 
 ment, and In the second place it will almost ex- 
 tinguish poor rates, and hence turn money, 
 at present flowing in this fruitless channel, into 
 a productive one. There may therefore pro- 
 bably be an increased demand for manufactured 
 2;oods in Endand and the Lowlands of Scot- 
 land, from this source, to the amount of from 
 8,000,000/. to 10,000,000/. annually. 
 
 In Ireland matters are very different from 
 what they are in England in every respect. 
 In the latter no advance of w^ages are pre- 
 sumed to have taken place or alteration in the 
 price of labour, while in the former wages 
 must be doubled, tripled, and quadrupled, and 
 the price of labour at the same time reduced. 
 Before even an advance of wages can be ob- 
 tained, an entire revolution must take place, 
 not only in the system of Husbandry but 
 also in the mode of living and working. 
 The food, clothing, household accommodation, 
 implements of the labourer, and his relation with 
 his employer, must all be changed. This 
 change is, no doubt, a work of gradation, 
 and will take some considerable period of time 
 before it can possibly be concluded: still the 
 result is obvious if persevered in ; for the facta 
 G 
 
82 EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL 
 
 already adduced, relative to Irish workmen in 
 our employment, prove that there can be no 
 doubt whatever as to the practicability of the 
 advancement of labour and wages to the 
 English level, provided the necessary steps are 
 taken to accomplish it, and that, too, at no 
 distant period. 
 
 We have already stated the present wages of 
 the Irish agricultural labourers, at 1 0,400,000/. 
 per annum, their increased wages to the 
 English level, 31,200,000/., giving a balance in 
 favour of manufacturing industry of 20,800,000/. 
 The result, however, would be much greater 
 than this figure represents : for the Irishman's 
 potato neither goes to the mill or bakehouse. 
 If we suppose that potatoes to the value of 
 2,000,000/. only were consumed, and that the 
 balance of the 10,000,000/. was spent in the 
 purchase of bread, then it is obvious that 
 8,000,000/. would pass through the hands of 
 the meal monger, miller, and corn merchant, 
 before its return to the pocket of the farmer, 
 as it does in this country. The difference 
 therefore would be 28,000,000/. instead of 
 20,000,000/. ; and the difference in the circu- 
 lation of money, 28,000,000/. multiphed by 
 
INDUSTRY IN IRELAND. 83 
 
 the number of exchanges between commerci.il 
 parties — assuming that four-fifths of the 
 labourers at present are paid their wages in 
 potatoes, an assumption which is probably not 
 far from the truth. Such a difference in the 
 monetary w^orld would obviously silence the 
 present popular complaint, both in the Sister 
 Isle and the Hiofhlands of Scotland relative to 
 the scarcity of money. 
 
 That the principal amount of the increase of 
 wages of the labouring population of Ireland 
 and the Highlands of Scotland will find its way 
 into the pockets of our commercial and manu- 
 facturing classes of this country, for a time, 
 we think will readily be granted from what 
 has been said ; but that the whole, or eventually 
 the major part, will flow in this channel we 
 think very questionable, for the following, 
 among many other reasons. 
 
 The effect which an advance of wages from 
 %d. to 2s. per day on the plan we propose, 
 would have upon the manufacturing industry 
 of Ireland, would be the erection of machinery. 
 This would become an unavoidable step on the 
 part of the manufacturer. In Ulster generally, 
 and in some parts of the south and western 
 
 G 2 
 
81 EFFECTS OF AGKICULTURAL 
 
 provinces, tlie erection of machinery may 
 justly be said to have commenced already; and 
 but for the restraints put upon it by agrarian 
 calamities would have produced the most 
 fiivourable results before this time. Remove 
 those restraints, and its extension over the 
 whole of the four provinces of the Sister Isle, 
 on a scale not inferior to that which exists in 
 this country, is the obvious result. 
 
 We are aware that the opinions of some 
 theorists differ widely from those contained in 
 the last paragraph. They entertain those ex- 
 alted notions of England's unrivalled great- 
 ness formerly alluded to, and assure themselves 
 that the introduction of manufacturing industry 
 into Ireland would be a hopeless as well as pro- 
 fitless step, and that it is her wisest policy to 
 limit her labours to the production of raw 
 materials ! " She has," say they, " very great 
 facilities for the production of raw materials; 
 and it is in all respects more suitable for her as 
 well as for England that she should direct her 
 efforts to this department, and import manu- 
 fiictured articles from Britain, than that she 
 should attempt to enter into an unequal com- 
 petition with the latter in manufacturing in- 
 
INDUSTRY IN IRELAND. 85 
 
 dustry." Instead, however, of the premises 
 from whicli this conclusion is drawn being true, 
 the opposite are so, and hence the inference 
 ouo'ht to be reversed. England contains 
 greater facilities for growing raw materials of 
 an exportable kind than Ireland, and Ireland 
 greater facilities for manufacturing industry, 
 and the production of raw materials of a non- 
 exportable quality than England. 
 
 Many other reasons have been advanced 
 rather of a moral than physical character, vainly 
 attempting to prove that Irishmen are un- 
 qualified for the task of establishing artificial 
 industry, so to speak, in their native country. 
 Granting for the sake of argument that they 
 were so, the question Immediately starts up, — 
 Would not Englishmen enter the field, em- 
 brace the many advantages which the country 
 naturally affords, and teach their English friends 
 of the mother country that half the expense of 
 transporting the raw material once across the 
 channel is a remunerating profit through the 
 instrumentality of machinery ? Had reasons 
 of the above description been valid, manu- 
 facturing industry would long before now have 
 been established in the sister country. 
 G 3 
 
bb MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 There is in man, not excluding Irishmen and 
 Highlandmen, a natural propensity to abridge 
 labour by artificial means, whenever those 
 means are placed within his reach. The 
 manufacturing and commercial greatness of 
 England and the Lowlands of Scotland has 
 not been achieved by our aristocracy, but by 
 our labouring people. Place the same means 
 within the hands of Irishmen which English- 
 men have enjoyed, and the same result will be 
 ultimately obtained. The full employment of 
 the whole of the agricultural population at 
 wages above what they can make at hand- 
 loom weaving, or similar branches of manu- 
 facturing industry, w^ould not only remove the 
 present re>traints upon the application of 
 inanimate power to machinery, but also call 
 into life the latent ingenuity and mechanical 
 talents of Irishmen. The rising generation of 
 the diiFerent classes of the Sister Isle Avould 
 become initiated into the different arts, ac- 
 cording to their natural acquirements, and 
 hence ultimately manufacture what goods they 
 require for their own use. 
 
 In England, the agricultural population in 
 point of numbers is to that of the other 
 
WILL FOLLOW AGEICULTURAL. 87 
 
 branches of Industry as one to two nearly, 
 while in Ireland this position is reversed, the 
 agricultural population being double that of 
 the others. The possibility therefore is, that 
 Ireland may ultimately double her present 
 population without increasing the number of 
 her agricultural labourers. 
 
 3. The last question which we propose con- 
 sidering is this: Will those schemes, when 
 reduced to practice, make provision for all 
 classes of the community ? It will readily be 
 perceived that in this they fall infinitely 
 short. In Ireland and the Highlands of Scot- 
 land they make a temporary provision for 
 all classes, until they double their present 
 numbers, — a limited period only, comparatively 
 speaking, for either of those provinces. We 
 formerly stated that English commerce is at 
 present capable of supplying the quantity of 
 manufactured goods which a reformed state of 
 the country would require, while latterly we 
 have been entertaining the probability of 
 Ireland ultimately manufacturing articles for 
 herself. In the sister country at present the 
 number of agricultural labourers are nearly 
 sufficient to cultivate every arable acre of her 
 G 4 
 
88 AGRICULTURE A^D MANUFACTURES 
 
 four provinces with the spade ; hence the 
 whole of the increasing population of this class 
 will have to be initiated into the manufacturing 
 and commercial branches, so that the demand 
 for English manufactures will gradually be- 
 come less. On the other hand, in this country 
 fortunately the case is very diiferent, double 
 the present number of agricultural labourers 
 being ultimately required. Such being the 
 case, it is more than probable that the increase 
 of agricultural labourers in England will keep 
 pace with the increase of manufacturing in- 
 dustry in Ireland, so that evils resulting from 
 this source may be avoided, and the balance of 
 industry and trade be found more favourable 
 for both countries. 
 
 This, however, would not relieve Ireland 
 from the consequences to which she would be 
 subject at no very distant period, arising from 
 her rapidily increasing population, nor even 
 make provision for our present wants in this 
 country. Spade husbandry makes a temporary 
 provision for the increase upon the number of 
 our, agricultural labourers, but none for that 
 of the other branches of English industry. N^o 
 source of industry is opened up for the sons of 
 
WILL NOT EFFECT A BALANCE. 89 
 
 landlords and other capitalists, our farmers, our 
 commercial and manufacturing classes — no pro- 
 vision is made for the increase upon the numbers 
 of those classes of the community. It is true 
 that annuities have been proposed for the sons 
 of landlords and capitalists. These, however, 
 are only the means to an end. An annuity 
 only represents the industry of the father, not 
 that of the son. It is only when they have been 
 obtained, that the more important duties of 
 industry devolve upon annuitants. With them- 
 selves these would become extinct, leaving their 
 familiies behind them unprovided for, unless the 
 necessary means are used to provide against 
 contingencies of this kind. 
 
 There is perhaps no class of the community 
 whose industry has been less fruitful than that 
 of this, the reason of which is obvious, because 
 no natural field has been open to its members 
 which they could profitably occupy. The battle- 
 field no doubt at one period was occupied by 
 thousands of them, while the sword of the 
 enemy kept pruning down their increasing 
 numbers to a fruitful standard : but war Ijas 
 become antiquated. Post and pension, once so 
 fashionable, have been declared incompatible 
 
90 AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURES 
 
 with the spmt of modern times ; in short, 
 landlords and capitalists have overgrown their 
 industry. 
 
 The other classes, above alluded to, are now 
 little better situated. Formerly farmers' sons 
 found an asylum in towns, but now towns are 
 crammed to overflowing, and a counter move- 
 ment is taking place of a very interesting 
 character. Several of our towns-people at the 
 present moment are making no mean efforts to 
 attain to agricultural eminence, while many more 
 are preparing to enter the field. There cannot 
 be a doubt but that with the establishment of 
 agricultural schools and colleges in every 
 district and province of the kingdom, thousands 
 of the sons of the other branches of industry 
 w^ill be trained up to agriculture. 
 
 It is very evident therefore from the present 
 position of British industry, that one element is 
 still wanting in order to complete the theory 
 which we have been proposing for the reform- 
 ation of the United Kingdom and the final 
 establishment of political health and general 
 prosperity among all classes of the community. 
 That element is colonisation. As soon as we 
 have obtained anything like a prosperous state. 
 
WILL NOT EFFECT A BALANCE. 91 
 
 ■\ve must institute a national scheme of coloni- 
 sation, in order to maintain that comparative 
 state of prosperity, to organise which it is more 
 tlian time we were commenced. 
 
 Our system of emigration at present, instead 
 of relieving us from the consequences of over 
 population, rather adds to our calamity. It is 
 a system only adapted for a state of adversity, 
 while we want a system suitable for a state of 
 prosperity. Some system therefore of a more 
 extensive nature, and more encouraging to the 
 different classes of society, must be devised and 
 carried into effect. Colonisation, in short, 
 must become a work of the mother country 
 and not of her colonies, a branch of national 
 industry having for its immediate object the 
 making a suitable provision for the wants of 
 the above classes not provided for, and ulti- 
 mately for our whole surplus population. 
 
 The two great classes for whom the present 
 system is most defective in making provision 
 are the sons and daughters of landlords, capi- 
 talists, principal farmers, merchants, master 
 mechanics and artisans of all kind, together with 
 the sons and daughters of the labouring popula- 
 tion in their employment, parties whose inter- 
 
92 AGRICULTURE AND MANUFACTURES 
 
 ests and duties can never be separated in 
 any well-organised system of industry. The 
 state of the labourer is always a sure index to 
 the industry of the master. 
 
 We propose a colonisation scheme analogous 
 to the land-improving scheme already noticed, 
 embracing manufacturing and commercial in- 
 dustry as well as agricultural ; and which would 
 have for its object, not only the relieving this 
 country of our superabundant population, but 
 also the reduction of our national debt and the 
 prosperity of our colonies. The principle of 
 the plan by which we would accomplish this 
 national work is the same as that already 
 noticed under the land-improving scheme for 
 this country, where it will be observed that we 
 not only provided for redeeming the original 
 outlay of 600,000,000/., but also 600,000,000/. 
 worth of annuities and upwards, handing over 
 to landlords afterwards property to the value of 
 600,000,000/. returning 6i per cent. It is 
 very evident, therefore, that not only may we 
 relieve ourselves of our surplus population and 
 national debt by a properly organised scheme of 
 this kind, but also hand over to our posterity 
 property to the value of this debt in the shape 
 
WILL NOT EFFECT A BALANCE. 93 
 
 of comfortable homes in our colonies as their 
 patrimonial inheritance. By this scheme the 
 domestic happiness of our emigrants would be 
 in a measure secured before leaving the parent 
 country, all those hardships and calamities 
 which are at present experienced by settlers on 
 their first landing avoided^, and their ultimate 
 success rendered undoubted. 
 
 It will be observed, that it is unnecessary to 
 carry out the details of the scheme to the same 
 length in effecting the payment of our national 
 debt, as stated above, in the purchasing of 
 annuities, and handing eventually the property 
 created to the landlord undiminished in value. 
 We have only to create property to the value 
 of the national debt in the shape of agricultural 
 improvements, manufactories, roads, railways, 
 &c. &c. This property will enhance the value 
 of our colonial territories more than double that 
 of itself to that class of our people more 
 especially who stand the most in need of it. 
 At present improvements sometimes increase 
 the value of colonial lands twenty-fold, while 
 the character of those improvements are out of 
 date and totally unfit for the age we live in. 
 This enhanced value could be easily transferred 
 
94 THREE SCHEMES REQUIRED. 
 
 to the national creditor on sufficiently liberal 
 terms to encourage all classes of the community 
 to emigrate. 
 
 We have thus seen that in effectincr the 
 reformation of British industry, and tlie im- 
 provement of the diiferent classes of the com- 
 munity, three separate schemes, as it were, are 
 requisite, each comparatively distinct from the 
 other, yet inseparably connected together ; the 
 prosperity of the one being as dependent upon 
 the success of the other as is that of the different 
 classes themselves. The three schemes may 
 be thus stated in connection with the several 
 classes to which they are more immediately 
 allied. 
 
 1. The reformation of our labouring popu- 
 lation, agricultural, commercial, and manufac- 
 turing. This we proposed effecting through 
 the instrumentality of task- work, spade hus- 
 bandry, and the introduction of machinery into 
 Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 2. A land-improving scheme comprehending 
 every species of improvement connected with the 
 soil. This scheme embraces the industry of 
 landlords, capitalists, and all other classes not 
 included in the first scheme. 
 
FIRST SCHEME. 95 
 
 3. Colonisation, comprising the relieving this 
 country of our surplus population, the reduction 
 of our national debt, and the improvement of our 
 colonies. This scheme embraces the industry 
 of all classes of the community, domestic and 
 colonial. 
 
 Hitherto we have been more than brief on 
 every point of the subject touched upon ; and 
 in offering a few practical remarks upon each 
 of those schemes the same cursory mode of 
 treatment must be observed. 
 
 1. The reformation of our labouring popu- 
 lation. From what has been said in a former 
 page it will be perceived that the immediate 
 reformation of this class depends entirely upon 
 the gaining of one point — the performance of 
 an additional quantity of agricultural labour 
 by the present number of labourers, principally 
 in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, so 
 as to restore the balance of industry to a proper 
 state of equilibrium. By obtaining this increase 
 of industry, we obtain at the same time an 
 increase of agricultural produce exceeding in 
 value some 40,000,000/. annually, which enables 
 us to increase the waojes of our aOTcultural 
 labourers to this amount, and those of our 
 
9Q IMniOYEMEXT OF 
 
 commercial and manufacturing classes the same. 
 These may appear large figures, viewing them 
 in the gross ; but when subdivided among those 
 whose industry they are presumed to reward, 
 they are no larger than our present deplorable 
 condition demands. This scheme naturally 
 divides itself into two branches — Jirsf, the re- 
 formation of our agricultural labourers ; and 
 seco7id, the reformation of our manufacturing 
 and commercial ones. 
 
 1. The reformation of our agricultural la- 
 bourers, alluding principally to Ireland and the 
 Highlands of Scotland. On the very threshold 
 of the matter we are met by many jarring 
 elements. We proposed the circumstances of 
 the farm servants of England and the Lowlands 
 of Scotland as a common standard ; but when 
 we enter the domestic circle, and witness the 
 food, household accommodation, and general 
 management of the one ; and the food, house- 
 hold accommodation, and general management 
 of the other, we perceive dlfferencss which 
 cannot be reconciled. A chancre somewhere 
 is demanded, and the demand is responded to 
 by the interest of the landlord, the tenant, the 
 labourer himself, and the whole body of the 
 
THE ENGLISH LABOURER. 97 
 
 community together. We must, therefore, im- 
 prove our own industry at liome before we can 
 recommend it as an example to others. 
 
 The principal difference between the food 
 of our English and Scotch labourers lies in the 
 quantity of animal food consumed by the former, 
 and the oatmeal and milk consumed by the 
 latter. In some parts of Scotland a sufficient 
 quantity of animal food is now beginning to 
 be used daily, but generally speaking there is 
 not. On the other hand, the almost total 
 exclusion of oatmeal, and in the majority of 
 cases milk, from the diet of the English labourer 
 is very much against him, and subjects liim to 
 many pinching consequences during years of 
 scarcity which otherwise would be greatly 
 alleviated. Many of them with whom we 
 conversed on this subject during the high 
 prices of 1847 appeared sensible of their loss; 
 but they had no opportunity of bettering their 
 condition. What oatmeal is offered for sale in 
 this country is only ground for dogs. No 
 doubt it is used in such a coarse form in some 
 parts of Scotland, Ireland, and the north of 
 England. We are perfectly aware of the fact, 
 but we are also aware that when it is exported 
 
 H 
 
98 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 to other parts It has to be ground over again 
 before it can be used. Over ahnost the whole 
 of the northern counties of England, and in 
 many cases in the midland and southern pro- 
 vinces, the children of the rich receive oatmeal 
 pudding and milk for breakfast in preference 
 to any other species of food ; but although a diet 
 the most suitable for the children of the la- 
 bouring man, it is wholly excluded from his 
 table. England can only manufacture and 
 cook oatmeal for the dogs and children of her 
 grandees ! 
 
 There cannot be a doubt but that both parties, 
 English and Scotch, are very much prejudiced 
 in fivour of their own pecuhar mode of living, 
 without even stopping to reflect upon the 
 validity of the grounds which they have for 
 being so ; and that a medium between the two 
 extremes which they severally follow would 
 be much more favourable and nourishing for 
 either. Science undoubtedly recommends to 
 both the use of flour manufactured, not from 
 wheat exclusively, but from all our cereal and 
 leguminous plants cultivated for their seeds 
 according to their several merits ; and also the 
 consumption of animal and vegetable food, in 
 
THE ENGLISH LABOURER. 99 
 
 general, in a very different manner from what 
 they are used by either party at present. 
 
 The principal difference which exists between 
 the household accommodation of the two coun- 
 tries lies in the situation of the labourer's 
 cottage, and the consequent difference in the 
 relation between him and his master occasioned 
 thereby. So far as the mere construction and 
 character of the buildings are concerned, the 
 difference is immaterial to notice ; but the 
 difference in the situation of the cottage requires 
 particular attention. Over a large extent of 
 Eno-land the cottao:es of the labourers are 
 grouped together in villages and hamlets, while 
 in Scotland every farmer almost without ex- 
 ception has a sufficient number of cottages and 
 gardens upon his farm with which to accom- 
 modate his labourers. That of a house and 
 garden is the principal Article for consideration 
 with every married man to whom terms of 
 agreement are proposed by the farmer, or who 
 shall offer his services to him; and when a 
 farmer is renting a farm, the accommodation for 
 servants is not the last thing he looks after. 
 
 The Scotch system will readily be perceived 
 to be mutually beneficial for master and servant 
 
 H 2 
 
lOO IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 — both in a moral and physical light. To 
 the labourer this is more particularly the case. 
 The fact of the labourer's cottagie beinsr con- 
 tinually under the eye of the farmer induces 
 him to pay more deference to the value of 
 moral character. Not only is the character of 
 the labourer himself more narrowly examined, 
 but also that of his wife and family. Well-dis- 
 posed servants have a twofold interest in assist- 
 ing their masters in this selection. They not 
 only procure good fellow-workmen, but also 
 honest and exemplary neighbours. They are 
 thus relieved from the curse of the village 
 system, the ensnaring influence of bad example. 
 The farmer is also in some measure necessitated 
 to cultivate the moral and physical welfare of 
 his subjects ; but whatever interest he and his 
 wife may take in the management of their 
 domestic affairs, and the comforts of the cottage, 
 Avhich are seldom overlooked during periods of 
 sickness or adversity, their immediate presence 
 dally among them exercises a powerful and 
 salutary influence. It checks the many way- 
 ward propensities of children — incites and 
 supports the timely authority of parents, and 
 indirectly, as it were, trains up the rising gene- 
 
THE ENGLISH LABOURER. 101 
 
 ration to that forethought and circumspection 
 which they generally maintain after they attain 
 to maturity. The labourer again has always 
 liis work contiguous to him, — he diets at his 
 own table with his wife and family, — takes 
 a delif^ht in the retirement of his cottao;e and 
 the produce of his garden ; and becomes in- 
 variably interested in the prosperity of every- 
 thing around him, whether belonging to himself, 
 his fellow-labourers and cottagers, or to his 
 employer. 
 
 There is obviously here a wide field of indus- 
 try for English landlords to cultivate and im- 
 prove. The village system must be done away 
 wdth, and comfortable cottages with gardens 
 attached erected upon every farm for the ac- 
 commodation of a suitable number of labourers. 
 
 In this country the system of taskwork is 
 more generally adhered to than in the north ; 
 which no doubt arises from the difference in 
 the character of the relation between master 
 and servant above alluded to. The adoption 
 of taskwork, however, would not necessarily 
 change the principle of that relation, but on the 
 contrary would rather give a more durable 
 character to it. In point of fact, the principle 
 
 H 3 
 
102 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 of taskwork is already in operation in Scotland; 
 for at every job to which the labourer is sent, a 
 certain quantity of work is expected to be per- 
 formed by him, and which is acknowledged by 
 himself as just to be given. A Scotch hind en- 
 gaged for twelve months, at a fixed amount of 
 wages, is perfectly aware that if he falls short 
 of the quantity of work which he daily ought 
 to perform, a brief termination to the relation 
 between him and his master will be the result. 
 Taskwork, however, on the English plan is 
 decidedly preferable, and the interest of both 
 parties requires that it should be more strictly 
 adhered to. 
 
 In Ireland the relation between master and 
 servant is the same as it is in this country where 
 the workman is engaged by the day. Over a 
 large extent of the Highlands of Scotland it is 
 similar. In some parts of the latter, where the 
 husbandry of the Lowlands has been introduced, 
 the farmer furnishes household accommodation 
 for his principal servants, such as ploughmen, 
 cattlemen, and shepherds. But in the High- 
 lands taskwork is much more loudly called for 
 than it is in the Lowlands. 
 . Confining our remarks to Ireland, we may 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. 103 
 
 briefly remark that the cabins of the labour- 
 ing classes require no farther notice in a work 
 of this kind, than their immediate condemnation, 
 and the erection of proper new ones, in accord- 
 ance with those which we propose for England. 
 We cannot estimate the number of new cot- 
 tages and gardens required for Ireland at less 
 than 1,000,000, which at 60/. each will cost 
 60,000,000/. Some Irish landlords may probably 
 stare at such an expenditure, but never was 
 money better invested than would 60,000,000/ 
 in the erection of comfortable cottages for the 
 Irish peasantry at present, as above recom- 
 mended. 
 
 The minute subdivision of land, and the 
 erection of miserable cabins upon those divisions, 
 instead of being a blessing to small farmers, has 
 hitherto been experienced by them as a very 
 heavy clog upon their industry, and will be 
 experienced still more so before an effectual 
 reformation of the country takes place, more 
 especially in Ulster and other places, where 
 fines and other burdens have been imposed upon 
 them. Many of the small Ulster tenants we 
 found had borrowed money from a race of 
 money-jobbers, to purchase tenant-rights, or 
 
 H 4 
 
104 IMPROVEMENT 01^ 
 
 cover misfortunes, and were paying from 6 to 
 12|^ per cent of annual interest for such loans. 
 Instead of appropriating any extra wages which 
 they might happen to make to the purchase of 
 proper food and clothing, they hoarded them 
 up, either for the purpose of paying those 
 shameful exactions in the shape of interest, or 
 else to purchase a small farm of land. During 
 the quarter ending Lady Day 1845, the family 
 already alluded to left in our hands, out of 
 their 305. of weekly earnings, the sum of 8/. ; 
 which went to liquidate a sum of money pre- 
 viously borrowed for the purpose of purchasing 
 the tenant-ric-ht of a small cottao;e and sjarden. 
 The family were the tenant-right richer, but 
 they were the same nerveless, potato-fed family 
 as before, and void of that relation with their 
 employer which entitles^ them to "permanent 
 employment. 
 
 The general advancement of wages to 2s. per 
 day, by taskwork, with cottages, gardens, and 
 regular employment to labourers from large 
 farmers, and the consequent elevation of their 
 circumstances above the circumstances of those 
 who have small farms, without employment extra- 
 neous of them, will eventually put a stop to that 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. 105 
 
 unbounded desire for small holdings, which at 
 present reigns in every province of Ireland. Any 
 one practically acquainted with the dependence 
 of an Irish labourer at present, will readily excuse 
 his ambition to possess a small farm of land to 
 grow him potatoes. Elevate his condition above 
 this dependence, and you at once annihilate this 
 ambition for such a farm, and make him am- 
 bitious only to excel as an Industrious labourer. 
 The effects of innutrltlous food upon the 
 physical system are obvious. The Irish la- 
 bourer knows nothing else but the almost 
 exclusive diet of potatoes. He has been ac- 
 customed to this species of food from Infancy, 
 and it is the only one which Is naturally relished 
 by him. There are theorising parties, however, 
 who have themselves been brought up on more 
 substantial food, who appear to think that a 
 " belly-full of potatoes " is sufficient for an Irish 
 labourer ! nay, who in the reduction of their 
 theories to practice even attempt to reduce the 
 daily allowance of them ! Such theories, how^- 
 ever, unfortunately for the Sister Isle, cannot be 
 supported by facts ; but, on the contrary, are 
 entirely overthrown by them. We have had 
 such theories preached up to us, — Irish la- 
 
106 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 bourers accused as lazy, and even unable to 
 work, but to us the want of industry on the 
 part of the servant was the clearest evidence 
 of a greater want on the part of the master. 
 
 We have always been accustomed to consider 
 it a duty incumbent upon us, not only to teach 
 our servants, when working by the piece or on 
 taskwork, how to perform a quantity of work 
 for their own sakes as quality for ours, but 
 also to see that they had a sufficiency of whole- 
 some food such as would enable them to do so, 
 convinced that this was no more social duty 
 than wise policy. It is a well-established fact, 
 and one experienced by every labouring man, 
 that that muscular strength which is so abso- 
 lutely necessary for him to possess, can only be 
 acquired by a combination of hard labour and 
 proper feeding ; and that the two are insepa- 
 rably connected together. Hence, also, the 
 physical improvement of the labouring popu- 
 lation of Ireland, as the amelioration of their 
 domestic circumstances, must ever be insepa- 
 rably connected with the agricultural improve- 
 ment of her provinces as already noticed ; but 
 the former must have precedence of the latter as 
 cause has precedence of effect. What farmer 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. 107 
 
 yokes his plough without first having fed his 
 horses and seen that otherwise they had been 
 properly cared for ? How much more shall we 
 attend to the wants of our fellow-creatures ! 
 
 Owing to very peculiar circumstances, we 
 have had perhaps a wider field for experiment 
 and observation than many practical men, both 
 in Ireland and also in the Highlands of Scot- 
 land, among the potato-fed labourers of the 
 north, while we have been able at the same 
 time to contrast our experience in those two 
 provinces with that in England and the Low- 
 lands of Scotland. The result of our observa- 
 tion, independent of any chemical knowledge 
 which we may possess, satisfies us that no 
 labouring man can consume a quantity of 
 potatoes sufficient to supply the muscular waste 
 of the body while subjected to hard labour. 
 In Ireland we had servants of every extrac- 
 tion — English, Scotch and Irish, Celt and 
 Saxon, and found them alike. The anxiety of 
 the poor people to ameliorate their condition, 
 and their inability to do so for the want of 
 physical support, furnished a subject of serious 
 contemplation to us. By the successful opera- 
 tion of taskwork among them for two years, 
 
108 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 we were able with drudgery on our j)art, and 
 more than drudgery on theirs, to effect a con- 
 siderable advance upon their wages, as already 
 noticed, to nearly the English level ; but then 
 the workman was never master of his work — 
 his task was master of him, so to speak, and 
 the result was that he was daily over-exhausted. 
 
 On the contrary, we have observed, that 
 where our labourers used a totally different 
 species of food from potatoes, subsisting on 
 Mdiat contained the largest quantities of the 
 constituent elements of muscle, they were in- 
 variably the most industrious and laborious 
 servants — the hardest workers and the least 
 fatigued at the close of a day's work. 
 
 The body requires daily a certain supply of 
 particular elements to balance the daily waste. 
 This waste is increased by laborious exercise, 
 and it will be found, on making the necessary 
 inquiry, that the quantity of potatoes consumed 
 by Irish labourers is quite deficient of the re- 
 quisite amount of those particular elements. 
 A labourer, it is true, may cram a sufficient 
 quantity into his stomach, but his stomach will 
 not digest them. It cannot appropriate from 
 them the necessary elements required for the 
 
THE lEISH LABOURER. 109 
 
 reparation of the body under severe exercise. 
 It is therefore physically impossible for Ireland 
 to undergo the hard labour of England and the 
 Lowlands of Scotland, and hence obtain the 
 same rate of wages until this deficiency has 
 been supplied by means of proper food and 
 clothino;. 
 
 About the commencement of digging the new 
 potatoes, where two or three hundred of 
 labourers are collected together at one job, the 
 quantity of excrementitious matter surrounding 
 the work presents a sight sufficient to make the 
 most obtuse observer relinquish his favourite 
 theory of exclusive potato-feeding. The case 
 of a labouring man under such circumstances 
 is truly deplorable. Those only can under- 
 stand his condition, moral and physical, who 
 have experienced the cravings of hunger, and 
 the racking sensations occasioned by the over- 
 exertion of the muscular system. The chas- 
 tisement with which it has pleased Providence 
 to visit the country since Lady Day 1845, will 
 greatly tend to modify the peculiar notions of 
 Irishmen relative to feeding their labourers so 
 exclusively upon potatoes. Master and servant 
 are justly suffering together. The punishment 
 
110 IMPPtOVEMENT OF 
 
 inflicted is not greater than the system de- 
 served ; and no doubt both will look upon the 
 produce of a conacre with considerable susj^icion 
 for the future: so that, viewing the potato 
 failure prospectively, we cannot help pausing 
 over the probability that it has been laid on 
 Ireland by the hand of one who sticketh closer 
 to her than a brother. 
 
 The body of a labouring man may justly be 
 said to be in an unnatural state, certain parts 
 undergoing greater waste than others, accord- 
 ing to the character of the work at which he is 
 employed ; and hence the natural disposition of 
 man to evade labour altogether. This un- 
 natural and artificial state of the body, instead 
 of being injurious to its health and existence, is 
 wisely ordained to be otherwise ; and hence 
 again the awful consequences to those tribes 
 and nations who have followed the natural dis- 
 position. 
 
 The world presents us with a lamentable 
 evidence of the general degeneracy in the 
 moral and physical character of the human race. 
 To such an extent have the intellectual facul- 
 ties as well as the material system of man been 
 changed and deteriorated in many instances. 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. Ill 
 
 that Natural History has had her difficulties in 
 distinguishing between certain of the offspring 
 of Adam on the one hand, and the brute cre- 
 ation on the other. There is scarcely, perhaps, 
 any subject in the world more humiliating to 
 the pride of man, than the study of the natural 
 history of himself; and there cannot be a 
 doubt but that the species of food, clothing, 
 and exercise of the body, were the material 
 means used in effecting those physical changes 
 which have taken place in the family of 
 Adam. 
 
 There are many obstacles connected with the 
 introduction of taskwork into Ireland, which 
 are not experienced in this country, where the 
 system has been in operation from time im- 
 memorial, and w^hich make their appearance 
 immediately on entering the field of practice. 
 We shall briefly notice a few of those obstacles, 
 which will readily convince our agricultural 
 readers of this country of the necessity of more 
 attention being paid to this branch of Irish 
 industry than has hitherto been done. Had 
 one-fourth of the attention been paid to it, 
 which has been paid to political movements 
 connected with parliament, the sister country 
 
112 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 would evidently have enjoyed very different 
 circumstances from what she does at present. 
 On the part of the servant there are perhaps 
 fewer difficulties to overcome than there are on 
 the part of the master. In the majority of 
 cases we found Irishmen as anxious and willinor 
 
 o 
 
 to embrace every opportunity of ameliorating 
 their condition as we found Englishmen or 
 Scotchmen, if not the most anxious and willing 
 of the three, considering their peculiar situation, 
 and the difficulties in which they were in- 
 volved. A few no doubt would have rather 
 chosen day work and small wages, in preference 
 to exertion at taskwork; but these were the 
 exception in the one country, as they are in 
 the others. 
 
 There is also a prevalent anxiety on the part 
 of employers to better the condition of their 
 labourers ; but very unfortunately, three-fourths 
 of this class know little or nothing as to the 
 value of labour, and still less as to how it ought 
 to be performed; while the remainder only 
 know how to handle an Irish spade and shovel. 
 The disadvantages under which both lie are 
 obvious and almost inseparably connected with 
 each other, but can only be properly compre- 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. 113 
 
 hended by those who are practically acquainted 
 with labour and can handle both the English 
 and Irish spade and shovel. Such an one, 
 although but slightly versed in mechanical 
 science, will readily perceive from the Irish- 
 man's method of working his long-handled 
 implements over his knee, that with half the 
 power applied in equal times, he performs a 
 given quantity of work in twice the time ; or 
 he performs in two days, what he ought to do 
 in one with actually less muscular w^aste of 
 the body. Hence, the excessive hurry and the 
 bustling evolutions of the workmen the moment 
 they are put upon taskwork and begin to 
 exert themselves in order to advance their 
 wages; and hence also the deception passed 
 on observers ignorant of the cause of this ex- 
 cessive activity. 
 
 To illustrate this by an instance : — In 1843 
 we drained and trenched some sixteen to twenty 
 acres for green crop. The work was done by 
 the task. The workmen wrought furiously as 
 if determined to triple their wages. Their 
 activity was admired by the generality of on- 
 lookers, but differently appreciated by different 
 individuals; while we were striving as fast 
 I 
 
 k 
 
114 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 as we were able to undo it and to get the 
 workmen into the Eno^lish method of working 
 
 CD O 
 
 as near as possibly could be accomplished with 
 the implements in use. Few if any compre- 
 hended our object. In 1845 the workmen 
 were performing more work than in 1843 with 
 almost half the bodily evolutions. In conse- 
 quence of this change different conclusions 
 were arrived at. All parties were agreed as 
 to the justness of the system of taskwork in 
 the abstract, but then a variety of consider- 
 ations, if such they may be called, got afloat to 
 prevent a unanimous opinion relative to the 
 intrinsic value of labour, the equity of the 
 specific arrangement. One party thought the 
 men were not working so hard as they did on 
 previous occasions. Another party fancied the 
 work was more easily performed ; a third, that 
 it was got over in a more superficial manner. 
 A fourth party very gravely concluded that 
 the poor fellows were beginning to fag. These 
 and many other erroneous notions were mooted 
 by parties who knew nothing of the value of 
 labour, all of which were calculated to oppose 
 the general adoption of the system, and even to 
 cramp its healthy operation where reduced to 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. 115 
 
 practice. With regard to the actual expense 
 of the work alluded to above, the facts are 
 these. In March 1843 when we commenced, 
 provisions were cheap, and we fixed the price 
 of labour considerably under that current in 
 this country at the time by fully two shillings 
 per week on the labour of a man. This price 
 was not increased in 1845. 
 
 Another and perhaps not the least of the 
 many obstacles which oppose the successful 
 introduction of taskwork into Ireland, is the 
 fixing of a limit to the earnings of the work- 
 man. In the north where the wages are Is, 
 per day we found this ne plus ultra to be 
 7s. 6d. weekly. Hence the erroneous conclu- 
 sions noticed in the last paragraph : the labourer 
 to whom we paid lOs. weekly only earned 
 75. 6d. of them; while, in point of fact, he 
 earned 125. in order to do justice to Ireland. 
 In a different part of the country, where the 
 ordinary wages of a man were eightpence per 
 day, we found ten-pence the limit of the task. 
 For instance, in the interior of Ireland we 
 made up to a man draining upon the demesne 
 of a resident landlord. The labourer was upon 
 taskwork. The utmost he was making was 
 1 2 
 
116 IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 tenpence per day. He was anxious, he said, to 
 make a shilling, but could not accomplish it. 
 According to the price which he was allowed 
 he ought to have made 2s. per day or 12^. 
 weekly, and that too with much more ease to 
 himself than he was making the 6s. Any 
 Englishman would have made the 125. ; as 
 would also many of the Irishmen in our em- 
 ployment in the north. The question then 
 may be asked: Why did not this workman 
 execute as much work as the workmen of this 
 country do? or why, in other words, did he 
 not receive the same wages? The task was 
 looked upon as impossible in the district. It 
 had never been in practice, nor ever could be, 
 was the opinion of every practical man in the 
 locality. Even had this man made 2s. per day, 
 the next job would have been so reduced in 
 price as to bring down his wages to the common 
 standard of the district. 
 
 Irish labourers are, in general, sufficiently 
 knowing not to spoil a good job when they get 
 one, and the drainer above referred to, even had 
 he received double the price allowed him on 
 the occasion, would not have ventured beyond 
 1*. per day on any account. Some time pre- 
 
THE IRISH LABOURER. 117 
 
 vious to 1843 part of the lands which we 
 trenched at 3Z. 4^. per acre, was dug only half the 
 depth at the cost of some 61, the top spit being 
 more easily dug than the bottom one. In- 
 stances of this kind are not confined indeed to 
 Ireland. They are also to be found in England, 
 wherever parties unacquainted with labour com- 
 mence to let work upon task ; but in Ireland 
 it operates as a serious clog upon the advance- 
 ment of industry and comfort among the la- 
 bouring population. 
 
 From these remarks it will readily be per- 
 ceived that the first practical step in the re- 
 formation of Ireland is the instruction of the 
 peasantry how to execute the necessary quantity 
 of labour, in order to obtain sufficient wages. 
 In the performance of this task many weighty 
 and important responsibilities obviously devolve 
 upon the landlord and large farmer which we 
 shall subsequently notice. The counter duties 
 of the servant will appear obvious when we 
 state those of the master. 
 
 2. The reformation of our commercial and 
 manufacturing classes. The practice of task- 
 work is in full operation among the labouring 
 portion of these two classes, so that all that is 
 I 3 
 
118 IMPKOVEMENT OF LABOUKING 
 
 necessary to be procured for them is full 
 employment, which will naturally follow an 
 increased demand for manufactured goods from 
 the agricultural body. Kemunerating employ- 
 ment, however, we have seen is not all that is 
 necessary in order to secure the comfort and 
 happiness of the labouring man. Proper food, 
 clothing, and household accommod'ation are also 
 requisite and indispensable. In alluding to the 
 food of the agricultural labourer, we only 
 noticed that which is destined to supply the 
 wants of the stomach. But animal and vege- 
 table food, however well proportioned, are but 
 one of two elements necessary to supply the 
 wants of the body. The respiratory organs 
 require to be, if possible, more carefully ad- 
 ministered to than the other. 
 
 The household accommodation appropriated 
 to this class of our labouring population is de- 
 plorable in the extreme, more especially as 
 regards ventilation. Nowhere is this more 
 conspicuously to be observed than in the me- 
 tropolis itself. The crowded state of London 
 is shameful. Half the iniquity and discontent- 
 ment, as well as half the bad health, re- 
 sult from the inferior character and crowded 
 
POPULATION IN TOWNS 119 
 
 state of the lodgings of the lower orders of the 
 people. This is not only applicable to the old 
 houses in the narrow lanes of the city, but 
 also to buildings, comparatively of yesterday's 
 erection. The maxim acted upon by every 
 town is perhaps the most narrow that can 
 well be imagined. If an acre of land in 
 London is worth more than ten in any other 
 part of Middlesex, surely the wisdom of the 
 metropolis is to possess as many acres as pos- 
 sible. Is this the maxim she has acted upon ? 
 The very contrary has been her policy ! The 
 house in which we lodge presents a fair ex- 
 terior to Albany Street, but its value is greatly 
 depreciated by the crowded state of the houses 
 between it and the canal basin. Here there 
 are four ranges of buildings, where there only 
 ought to have been but one. These appear to 
 be principally occupied by the labouring classes. 
 A little more acquaintance with science, and 
 the elements of health, will teach both parties 
 the folly of their present conduct. We our- 
 selves can honestly tell the landlord of the 
 buildings in which we live, that were it not for 
 the value of his tenant, we should put ex- 
 tremely little value upon our lodgings. 
 
 I 4 A 
 
120 IMrROVEMENT OF LABOURING 
 
 The health of towns is a subject which 
 would require volumes to do justice to it, in- 
 stead of the few passing remarks which we are 
 able to bestow upon it in this place. It is a 
 field of industry which has hitherto been 
 seriously neglected, but which is likely to be 
 differently occupied for the future. Several 
 important improvements are now in progress 
 in London, having this among other things for 
 their object. The clearance system of every 
 kind cannot be too effectually persevered in : 
 but while this is being done, more stringent 
 measures must be enforced for the purpose of 
 preventing the possibility of present evils being 
 experienced for the future, than are yet adopted, 
 Little Albany Street, &c. must be built on 
 Hampstead Common. Our municipal autho- 
 rities must not only prevent, but remove every 
 human habitation from such and similar filthy 
 localities, which are a disgrace both to those 
 who own, those who occupy, and those who 
 allow them. 
 
 If, instead of old houses and crowded back 
 lanes being set apart for our labouring popu- 
 lation in towns, and every other door appa- 
 rently shut against them, a society, supported 
 
POPULATION^ IN TOWNS. 121 
 
 by the different mechanics, artisans, and working 
 people themselves, was to organize itself, having 
 for its object the building of houses entirely 
 adapted for the accommodation of this class, in 
 every airy and healthy district of large towns, 
 with gymnasiums attached for the purpose of 
 affording youth the necessary amount of exer- 
 cise so absolutely requisite for health, and the 
 proper developement of the body, half the rents 
 which they now pay would soon redeem the 
 outlay. A general benefit would be gained in 
 the end, were even a consideration made to the 
 society in the shape of taxes and towns' dues, 
 by the different urban authorities. 
 
 The scheme would exercise a threefold 
 effect. 1st. It would promote a different 
 spirit among proprietors in the erection of new 
 houses, and the patching up of old ones. 
 There is as much household accommodation in 
 London unoccupied at present, as would suit 
 the majority of this class well, if not the 
 whole of them who are badly situated, were 
 houses so constructed that this accommodation 
 could be let to them. The wants of the 
 labourer, however, are not consulted, but the 
 wants of the landlord and tenant ; and hence. 
 
122 IMPROVEMENT OF LABOURING 
 
 as is invariably the case, the interests of the 
 whole are sacrificed. We are busy building 
 for grandees, while two thirds of our people 
 are beggars ! 2d. It would inspire a diiFerent 
 and more elevated feeling among the working 
 classes themselves for the quality of their 
 lodgings, and in a great measure place the 
 better-disposed of them beyond the influence of 
 the grosser characters. 3d. It would reduce 
 the value of old buildings, prove a salutary 
 check to worthless characters offering long 
 rents for them, in the hopes of being able to 
 sublet to lodgers, and render the removal of all 
 those abominable nests more easily accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The household accommodation of the work- 
 man can never be separated from his wages. 
 Inferior quality, especially bad ventilation, low 
 wages, and little work performed daily, are 
 three things inseparably connected together. 
 Any master who has studied the value of the 
 work performed by a labourer, both as to 
 quantity and quality, will readily admit that 
 6s, per week falls infinitely short of existing 
 diflferences among them, occasioned not by 
 a lazy disposition or unhealthy constitution 
 
POPULATION IN TOWNS. 123 
 
 naturally, as many ignorantly imagine, but 
 from the want of proper food, clothing, and 
 household accommodation. Such being the 
 case, the master who pays his servant 20^. only 
 receives I5s. worth of labour for it. He 
 sacrifices 5s. to his own want of industry, in 
 not interesting himself in behalf of the house- 
 hold accommodation of his servant. He may, it 
 is true, adopt means to prevent this sacrifice 
 directly, but if he does so, he, in nine cases out 
 often, loses double indirectly. Millions have 
 been annually sacrificed upon this altar by our 
 commercial and manufacturing capitalists, the 
 consequences of which they have deservingly 
 experienced, but which they have unhappily 
 been unable to comprehend ; and hence the 
 reason why they have always so strenuously 
 endeavoured to tax the landed interest with 
 their own misconduct. 
 
 In town, as in country, every master ought 
 to furnish household accommodation for his 
 workman, of a quality, so far as health is con- 
 cerned, at least equal to that of his own. We 
 would act upon the principle of building new 
 houses for both parties, and when the old ones 
 were unfit to live in, rebuild again. Where 
 
 I 
 
124 IMPROVEMENT OF LABOURING 
 
 one man could not live, we would rest satisfied 
 with the experiment; and not attempt to 
 naturalize our species by a system of pro- 
 gressive training to live in sinks of iniquity 
 degrading to the British character. 
 
 Although we do not experience the effects 
 of living in London to be greater than what 
 we anticipated, still we feel a very material 
 difference in the quality of the air which we 
 breathe, and this difference is doubled and 
 tripled as we proceed towards the centre of 
 the town. The air is not only more densely 
 loaded with smoke, but also by many other 
 impurities ; and although the last may not be 
 traceable to any particular source, yet they are 
 sensibly felt as being present in a greater 
 desiree. There can be no doubt as to the 
 cause of such a difference, and of the impurity 
 of the air in general. The whole arises from 
 the immense amount of decomposition con- 
 tinually taking place. Among old houses, this 
 waste is of course greatest where the materials 
 of the buildings were originally of equal quality. 
 Every house with all its contents is daily and 
 hourly undergoing dissolution, and hence giving 
 off part of their constituent elements in a 
 
POPULATION IN TOWNS. 125 
 
 gaseous form, materially affecting the purity 
 of the atmosphere, and the vitality of those 
 who inhale it. 
 
 In many of our vineries, peach-houses, &c. 
 are yet to be seen flues through which smoke is 
 conducted for the purpose of heating them. 
 These are often of tortuous length. In theory, 
 we see no difficulty in building a city ten times 
 the size of London, and removing the whole of 
 the smoke and foul air from the interior of every 
 house in it to any distance beyond its environs 
 by properly constructed flues, communicating 
 with every apartment in every house by means 
 of chimnies, tubes, &c. Any velocity of current 
 could be given to the air in the flues by means 
 of machinery at the exterior vent, where the 
 contents would be discharged. The whole 
 smoke as it was discharged could be condensed 
 and appropriated to agricultural or other pur- 
 poses. The state of the air in every room, 
 bed-room, cellar, storehouse, &c. could be regu- 
 lated by machinery, self-acting or otherwise, 
 and supplied afresh from the untainted atmo- 
 sphere without. In theory we see no difficulty 
 in erecting the whole and keeping it clean and in 
 working order, but we see many difficulties in 
 
126 INDUSTRY OF 
 
 reducing such a theory to practice in the present 
 capital of the empire, but none which may not 
 ultimately be overcome by the industry and 
 genius of its inhabitants. 
 
 2. Land-improving scheme. The compre- 
 hensive character of this subject will readily 
 be understood when we mention the fact, that 
 it embraces the whole of the tenant-right 
 question now engrossing so much of the atten- 
 tion of the agricultural world. It does so, not 
 only in rural subjects, but also in urban. It 
 includes every improvement which adds to the 
 amount and value of public and private property. 
 In offering a few practical remarks upon the 
 present practice, and that which we propose 
 for the future, we shall confine ourselves to agri- 
 cultural subjects. 
 
 For the sake of perspicuity as well as brevity, 
 let us take an example, say three farms capable 
 of undergoing very great permanent improve- 
 ments. One farm is in this country, another 
 in Scotland, and a third in Ireland. The two 
 former contain 200 acres each, and the latter 
 only 5. The three farms belong to one landlord, 
 whose duty to himself, his family, and the 
 public is to improve them. He is unable to do 
 so personally, and therefore the state authorises 
 
LANDLORD AND TENANT. 127 
 
 him by Acts of Parliament to transfer his obli- 
 gations to tenants, the good-will of the business, 
 to use a commercial phrase, for a term of years, 
 securing to the latter the privileges of the former 
 according to agreement. The farms are to let 
 on leases: among others six unexceptionable 
 candidates make their appearance. Invariably 
 when taking a farm the worst tenants are the 
 loudest in their pretensions to merits of a 
 superior kind ; and the small ones of the Sister 
 Isle are not the least noisy. In the present 
 case, however, all are equal. 
 
 The English candidates A. B. concur in 
 their opinions relative to the conditions of lease 
 and the meliorations to be executed. They 
 harmonise with those of the landlord and his 
 duty to the nation. They are just what they 
 should be. A. offers 210/. and B. 200Z. The 
 former, from being equally an industrious, im- 
 proving, and in every respect an eligible farmer, 
 becomes tenant, and consequently receives pos- 
 session of the farm for the period of one year 
 certain. Both parties being satisfied with each 
 other, the relation continues to subsist between 
 them. At the expiry of a definite period of 
 time, say twenty years, an advance of rent is 
 
128 INDUSTRY OF 
 
 justly expected by the landlord, the improve- 
 inents having been admitted to be such that the 
 tenant would have no claim upon the landlord 
 at the expiry of such a period ; in other words, 
 that they would have redeemed the outlay 
 within that period. Accordingly, the farm is 
 examined by competent judges, the promises of 
 the tenant are found honourably fulfilled, and 
 an award pronounced, allowing the landlord 
 6s. 6d. per acre of additional rent, to which the 
 tenant concurs. 
 
 The Scotch farmers C. and D. are also equal 
 in their promises as to meliorations, perfectly 
 satisfied as to the general articles of lease, but 
 the offer of C. is accepted for the same reason 
 that A.'s was in the last case ; and accordingly 
 he becomes tenant for a term of nineteen years 
 on condition of paying 210Z. of rent, and execu- 
 ting the improvements. At the expiry of his 
 lease, C. stands exactly in the same position 
 with his landlord as we found A. — takes a se- 
 cond nineteen years' lease, agreeing to pay 
 6s. 6d, per acre of additional rent. 
 
 The two Irish farmers E. and F. are also 
 agreed upon the extent of meliorations which 
 they intend to execute, and are perfectly satisfied 
 
LANDLORD AND TENANT. 129 
 
 with the tenant-right. E. offers 51. 5s. and F. 
 51. Both parties being equal in other respects 
 the offer of the former is accepted, and he be- 
 comes tenant for a term of years, at the expiry 
 of which he renews his lease, agreeing to pay 
 65. 6d. per acre of additional rent. 
 
 In the above three examples it will readily 
 be perceived that A., C, and E., by agreeing to 
 become industrious and imj3roving tenants, ex- 
 clude themselves from having any claims upon 
 their landlords at the expiry of their leases 
 for meliorations executed by them. 
 
 What is true of permanent improvements is 
 also true of specific modes of husbandry. In 
 ninety-nine cases out of every hundred A., C, 
 and E. promise to cultivate on the most improved 
 system. If for instance, therefore, we suppose 
 that during the currency of a lease, artificial 
 manures shall be discovered, and that the 
 application of these shall actually enhance the 
 value of the soil 6s. 6d. per acre, over and above 
 all expenses, the tenant positively excludes 
 himself from having any right to make a claim 
 upon the landlord at the expiry of his lease 
 for some 51. per acre. The argument of E. 
 that F. will give 251. for his tenant-right is 
 
130 OF THE RIGHTS AND INDUSTRY OF 
 
 untenable, and cannot for a moment be listened 
 to. It amounts to neither less nor more than 
 this, that if the landlord will allow it, his tenant 
 
 E. through the instrumentality of a third party 
 
 F. will pick his pocket of some 25L honestly. 
 For the same reason, if tenants adopt a more 
 efficient system of culture, as spade husbandry, 
 on the plan we propose, thereby doubling the 
 acreable produce of the kingdom, they have no 
 right on that account to make a demand upon 
 British landlords of something more than the 
 fee-simple of their farms at the expiry of 
 their leases. Compliance with such demands 
 enforced by statutory enactments or otherwise 
 Avould be a direct violation of the contract 
 existing between parties. 
 
 In some cases again it is agreed upon that 
 the tenant shall receive payment at the expiry 
 of his lease for meliorations executed by him 
 during its currency. Let us now suppose that 
 in the above three examples the landlord is con- 
 ventionally obligated to pay for meliorations, 
 and see how it will affect the several interests 
 of parties. 
 
 1. In this case the primary obligations on 
 the part of the landlord have reference to 
 
LANDLOED AND TENANT. 131 
 
 possession and the payment at the expiry of 
 the lease of say 51 per acre for meliorations 
 executed by the tenant, or 1000?. for the erection 
 of houses and fences. The question therefore 
 is, what are to be the counter obligations of 
 the tenant ? One of these, it must be admitted, 
 is the execution of the meliorations. The other 
 is the amount of additional rent, which the six 
 candidates may think or judge the additional 
 obligation on the part of the landlord worth 
 to them. It is very obvious that all stand 
 again upon equal footing, so that being equal 
 in judgment A., C, and E. arrive at the same 
 conclusion. In the former case they calculated 
 upon a certain percentage to redeem the outlay, 
 and in the present they give this percentage as 
 additional rent. 
 
 Let us again suppose that the landlord shall 
 advance lOOOZ. to each of the first two tenants, 
 A. and C, and 251. to E., at their entry to their 
 respective farms, for the purpose of effecting 
 the meliorations in question. The counter 
 obligations on the part of the tenants would, 
 now, obviously, be the immediate payment of 
 interest in the shape of say 6s. 6d. per acre of 
 additional rent. 
 
132 DIFFICULTIES IN REDUCING 
 
 According to the above three examples, 
 showing the different plans by which improve- 
 ments are effected by landlords and tenants at 
 present, it will readily be perceived that it is 
 immaterial to either party what the law of 
 the land may be, or what the relation between 
 them — the whole depending upon the fact of 
 the 5/. per acre being properly invested in 
 meliorating their farms. It is from this source 
 alone that any benefit is to be derived, and 
 from none other. There are many practical 
 questions, however, arising out of this view of 
 the subject, where the several interests of 
 parties may or may not be seriously affected 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 1, The above examples cannot be admitted 
 as strictly in accordance with present practice, 
 generally speaking. They rather exemplify 
 the equitable principles by which parties are 
 guided in the discharge of their several duties to 
 one another, than show the result of those 
 principles when reduced to practice. For 
 instance, in the above three examples, we have 
 supposed that the meliorations are wholly 
 effected by either landlord or tenant ; whereas 
 in practice, in the vast majority of cases, they 
 are a compound of the three — a patch-up 
 
PRINCIPLES TO PRACTICE. 133 
 
 between the two — the landlord performing 
 part and the tenant part. The principle, how- 
 ever, remains the same, each party being inter- 
 ested for the part similarly to what we have 
 represented him for the whole, so that interests 
 are not materially affected according to this 
 view. 
 
 2. We have supposed the period of twenty 
 years to be necessary for the tenant in order to 
 enable him to recover his outlays. In practice, 
 English tenants holding from year to year 
 have no such security in the majority of cases. 
 Houses, fences, gates, &c., consequently belong 
 to the landlord, who is bound to keep the 
 whole in repair, the tenant performing carriages. 
 The improvements effected by the English 
 farmer are those which immediately repay him, 
 and hence from the paucity of their numbers, 
 are upon the whole not worth mentioning. 
 Any advance of rent which has been obtained 
 in England, has arisen from currency questions 
 and superior management on the part of the 
 tenant. No doubt there are many exceptions 
 from this statement, but these are of an indi- 
 vidual character, whether as relating to landlord 
 or tenant. 
 
 K 3 
 
134 DIFFICULTIES EXPERIENCED Bf 
 
 In Scotland, nineteen years may be granted 
 as sufficient to redeem the outlay, but this pro- 
 ceeds upon the hypothesis that the principal had 
 been invested during the first year of the lease, 
 which every farmer is aware is impracticable 
 in the vast majority of cases. Although houses 
 may be built in one year, it is seldom that the 
 tenant is able to perform all the carriages 
 during this period, especially the first year, if 
 he is an incoming tenant. Improvements con- 
 nected with the soil cannot be performed in 
 shorter time than one rotation, and more fre- 
 quently require two, so that half the currency 
 of the lease is expired before they are concluded. 
 The inference, therefore, is obvious, that the 
 tenant is oblio^ed to resort to illesjitimate means 
 in order to keep himself safe, and get his money 
 out of the farm. Hence it is, that a vast 
 amount of improvements are of a very super- 
 ficial kind ; and while the tenant has been 
 meliorating one part of the farm, he has at the 
 same time been reducing in value two parts, 
 hy severe cropping, frequently leaving the 
 farm at the expiry of his lease actually worth 
 less rent than at its commencement. We could 
 instance numerous examples where both parties 
 
LANDLORD AND TENANT. 135 
 
 were losers — where the landlord had to take 
 less rent in consequence of the effects of over- 
 cropping; and where the away-going tenant left 
 without getting up his money. Evil consequences 
 of this kind have been generally avoided by 
 timely renewals, some four or five years or 
 the period of one rotation before the expiry of the 
 lease. Thus if a farm is cropped on a four- 
 course shift, four years — five-course shift, ^\q 
 years, and so on, before the expiry of the lease. 
 By this judicious arrangement, the tenant is 
 enabled to get his money out of the farm during 
 the ensuing lease, when it has been invested; 
 and when it has not, he executes part of the 
 improvement during the last few years of the 
 expiring lease ; so that he is enabled to realise 
 the whole by the expiry of the ensuing one. 
 
 In Ireland, tenants are similarly situated as 
 in Scotland, or rather superior, the duration of 
 leases being longer. Unfortunately, however, 
 for the Sister Isle her improvements have not 
 been of a very redeeming character, but the 
 reverse. The principal amount of meliorations 
 which have been executed by small tenants 
 are houses, fences, &c., and from the superficial 
 character of these, the tear and wear upon them 
 K 4 
 
136 EVILS OF THE PRESENT 
 
 can scarcely be estimated at less than quadruple 
 that which has to be borne by the large farmers. 
 There is a limit to ao-ricultural buildings, which 
 if either landlord or tenant shall exceed, they 
 entail upon the soil, not only the original un- 
 necessary cost, but also the annual expense of 
 keeping the same in repair: lOOOZ. will erect 
 sufficient household accommodation to A. and C, 
 but 25Z. will not provide the same for E. If 
 lOOOZ. is the limit on 200 acres, then 251. is 
 the limit on 5 acres. Granting that with 
 spade husbandry A. and C. should require 500/. 
 in addition for labourers' cottages, it still leaves E. 
 more than the one half behind. The consequence 
 is, that as a labourer depending upon labour 
 extraneous of his small holding, he must supply 
 the balance. Hence the curse of the small 
 farms of Ireland. They have to support house- 
 hold accommodation for the labourers of the 
 large farms, whether their occupants as labourers 
 receive employment or no. In other words, 
 they have been instrumental in doubling the 
 number of labourers, which the present system 
 of husbandry requires. The industry of both 
 landlord and tenant has here been turned into 
 a fruitless field. Neither can regain what they 
 
SYSTEM IN IRELAND. 137 
 
 have lost, but both may avoid similar conse- 
 quences by the adoption of the plan already 
 noticed ; viz. — the landlord immediately build- 
 ing new houses in situations where they will 
 confer a value upon his property and a blessing 
 upon his subjects. 
 
 3. In the above examples we have supposed 
 that all parties had plenty of money, an hy- 
 pothesis which merits no practical remark. 
 Experience has satisfactorily proved to tenants, 
 that their greatest loss has arisen from the ap- 
 propriation of capital to permanent improve- 
 ments, especially in the erection of houses, which 
 ought to have gone towards the purchase of 
 stock and manure. In order to avoid immediate 
 sacrifices from this source, similar, if not greater 
 ones have ultimately been sustained from im- 
 properly executed improvements. The want 
 of capital also on the part of the landlord has 
 almost excluded him from taking an active part 
 in the improvement of his property. For the 
 want of means, the few Improvements executed 
 by him have been of a very superficial kind, 
 especially in draining, and the losses conse- 
 quently experienced by both parties very great. 
 
 The adoption of the scheme which we propose 
 
138 MAXIMS OP 
 
 would remove all those evils by enabling land- 
 lords to execute every permanent improvement 
 upon their estates in an efficient manner. All 
 that tenants w^ould have to do would be to 
 test the value of new improvements by ex- 
 periment; and whenever they saw that the 
 reduction of any theory to practice would prove 
 beneficial to them, to apply to the landlord for 
 money or for leave to turn their current rents 
 to this source where such are sufficient, an 
 application which would always be gladly re- 
 sponded to by him. Parties, however, must not 
 proceed faster than experiment will sanction. 
 Neither landlords nor tenants must listen to 
 the advice of theory unless accompanied with 
 practice. Science has not yet made sufficient 
 progress to warrant exclusive reliance upon in- 
 formation from this source. And even when 
 experiment is resorted to science has made so 
 little progress, that the greatest caution will 
 be necessary in giving credence to her deduc- 
 tions. 
 
 From these remarks it will readily be per- 
 ceived that the land-improving scheme which 
 we propose is a scheme to be founded upon 
 successful experiment — a scheme where theory 
 
LAND-IMPROVING SCHEME. 139 
 
 and practice are conjoined, and where the one 
 cannot be admitted a hearing in the absence 
 of the other. The obvious maxim of all parties 
 therefore must be successful practice at home 
 — receive as much theory abroad as possible, but 
 only communicate instruction at home. Land- 
 lords must not attempt to reduce their theories 
 to practice beyond their own home farms. If 
 they are successful here tenants will require 
 little inducement to follow their example if 
 they place the means within their reach on 
 the plan we propose. They must not, how- 
 ever, allow themselves to think that they are 
 always successful because stewards and bailiffs 
 say so. We have seen flattering balance sheets 
 both in the United Kingdom and in Ireland, 
 which, although they greatly enriched the 
 landlord, would still have made the tenant look 
 sadly on a rent day. If tenants will not follow 
 the landlord's plans the latter may depend 
 upon it that the former have specific reasons 
 sufficient to justify them for not doing so. 
 It matters not Avhether those reasons are well 
 founded or not, provided they are sufficient to 
 overturn the plans of the landlord. In short, 
 in executing extensive improvements upon their 
 
140 EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. 
 
 properties, such as draining, trenching, &c., 
 where tenants are called upon to pay 6 J per 
 cent, landlords must walk with the greatest 
 circumspection. 
 
 Experimental and model farms are wanted 
 in every district in order to afford practical 
 information to both landlords and tenants. 
 These must be established on every different 
 geological character of soil. Practice on the 
 Oxford clay is not practice on the London clay, 
 much less on the intermediate chalk and green 
 sand soils ; neither can the science of the one 
 be joined to the practice of the other. It is not 
 diversity of practice which ought to be the ob- 
 ject of these institutions ; but successful practice, 
 suitable to the immediate districts with which 
 they stand respectively connected. They must 
 not be instruments in the hands of landlords 
 for teaching tenants superior practice, but rather 
 instruments in the hands of tenants for teaching 
 landlords : for undoubtedly the latter have the 
 most need of practical tuition. They must not 
 be subject to agricultural schools and colleges, 
 so called, for the purpose of exemplifying the 
 theories there inculcated to juvenile classes, 
 but superior institutions for the purpose of 
 
EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. 141 
 
 perfecting the work which has there been begun. 
 There cannot be a doubt but that many parents 
 who are now sending their sons to such agri- 
 cultural seminaries as those at present estab- 
 lished, for the purpose of acquiring the necessary- 
 practical information which a farmer requires, 
 will experience serious disappointment: and 
 that those young men have yet " an apprentice 
 fee to pay" (as the saying is) before they 
 become masters of the art of agriculture. The 
 art of agriculture is one thing, but a general 
 notion of that art a very different thing. A 
 farmer's son can never be master of the art 
 until he is qualified to take every implement 
 of the farm, and by his own practice, not that of 
 his foreman, teach his labourer how to perform, 
 not quality of work only, but quantity also : 
 for the latter is of as much importance to the 
 farmer as the former — and not quantity for one 
 hour, day, week, or month, but for any given 
 time. The servant must be conscious that he 
 is a practical man before success can attend his 
 instruction. In short, an agricultural apprentice, 
 like every other apprentice, must support him- 
 self during the last year of his apprenticeship 
 on taskwork, and none ought to be admitted 
 
142 EXPERIMENTAL FARMS 
 
 as indoor students to the agricultural depart- 
 ment of any seminary who would not do so. 
 Colleges adapted to amateur and gentlemen 
 farmers will never suit practical ones. 
 
 In Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, 
 attention to the purport of these remarks is 
 more necessary than even in England and the 
 Lowlands of Scotland. In the former we have 
 only got gentlemen farmers and labourers, but 
 in the latter we have got practical men, who 
 will, we hope, be able to maintain their ground 
 between the two extremes of poverty and 
 wealth already referred to. In Ireland, there- 
 fore, such industrial means must be established. 
 
 The first practical step on the part of Irish 
 landlords and gentlemen farmers in the re- 
 formation of their country is the appointment 
 of practical men as agents, stewards, and bailiffs ; 
 men who are qualified to advance the circum- 
 stances of the labourer on the plan already 
 noticed, as well as to improve the properties of 
 their employers. The next work is the erection 
 of cottages with gardens attached to them for 
 the accommodation of labourers required in 
 cultivating their demesnes. In conjunction with 
 the erection of cottages the clearance system, 
 
IN IRELAND. 143 
 
 but conducted on a very different plan from 
 that now in operation, must be introduced. 
 Pauper tenantry must exchange their present 
 miserable hovels or cabins for the comfortable 
 homes which we propose erecting for them. 
 Each may then as a tenant enjoy the same 
 security of tenure which he now does — earn 2^. 
 per day in ordinary circumstances, and have 
 full employment for every member of his family 
 on equally favourable terms, the circumstances 
 of the family being some 40/. per annum on an 
 average better than what they are at present. 
 
 While these changes are taking place, the 
 establishment of experimental and model farms 
 is also progressing. This is absolutely necessary, 
 for, however well conducted the home farms 
 of landlords and gentlemen farmers may be, 
 there will always be a suspicion attached to 
 them by the generality of practical farmers. 
 Model farms must be independent and self- 
 supporting establishments, having no connection 
 either with the pocket or the person of the 
 landlord, or any other dignitary, so to speak. 
 If thus established, as we propose, they will 
 greatly assist land-stewards where landlords 
 are over-officious and theorising ; and on the 
 
144 COLONISATIOI^. 
 
 other part will always afford landlords sufficient 
 evidence to support their theories when they 
 require it. 
 
 3rd. Colonisation. This scheme we have 
 said has three objects in view. 1st. The reliev- 
 ing us of our surplus population. 2nd. The 
 reduction of our national debt ; and 3rd. The 
 improvement of our colonies and the proper 
 settlement of our emigrants in them. In this 
 national work our industry is also divided into 
 three great divisions, corresponding to the above 
 three objects of the scheme. 1st. We have the 
 industry of the mother country at home, re- 
 ciprocating with the reduction of our national 
 debt. 2nd. We have our naval industry in 
 conjunction with the removal of our surplus 
 population from our shores to our colonies. 
 3rd. Our colonial industry busy in providing 
 for the wants of this surplus population. Each 
 of those divisions must be properly organized 
 before any attempt is made at a commence- 
 ment. The following will convey a general 
 idea of the machinery of such a scheme. 
 
 Let the mother country be divided into 
 districts, one or more counties to each district, 
 according to the number of their inhabitants. 
 
MACHINERY OF SCHEME. 145 
 
 Let our colonies be divided into a correspond- 
 ing number of districts, according to the quality 
 of the soil, and the commercial and manufac- 
 turing capabilities of each. Let the inhabit- 
 ants of each district of the mother country- 
 form themselves into a company, having its 
 corresponding company or companies in the 
 colony or colonies, so as to afford every facility 
 for keeping up the minutest intimacy which 
 possibly can exist between the two parties thus 
 mutually interested on all practical subjects. 
 Let each company jointly co-operate with 
 government in effecting the three great objects 
 in view. Let government grant a free passage 
 out to shareholders of colonial stock, exclusive 
 of provisions — provisions to be furnished by the 
 colonies. Let government fit out a suitable 
 navy for this purpose. Let all new vessels 
 built be constructed, so that they may be 
 turned into war vessels in the event of any 
 emergency. This navy need not entail upon 
 the finances of the nation a much greater ex- 
 pence than the safety of British commerce at 
 present requires. Let each company send out 
 a practical man to select its colonial territory, 
 and let a regularly organized body of agricul- 
 
 L 
 
146 MACHINERY OF SCHEME. 
 
 tural labourers, mechanics, and artizans, accord- 
 ing to his report, follow. Let all kinds of 
 work be done by the task, and regularly 
 accounted for. Let each emigrant be a share- 
 holder, and the amount of his interest in the 
 company equal to his own and his relations' 
 subscriptions at home and his labour in the 
 colony. 
 
 In the construction of this machinery three 
 things are necessary to be considered. 1st. 
 The probable number of emigrants. 2nd. The 
 expense of supporting them until they are able 
 to support themselves ; and 3rd, the source 
 from which this capital is to be derived. 
 
 1st. The probable number of emigrants. 
 We formerly divided these into two great 
 classes. 1st. The sons of landlords, capitalists, 
 farmers, merchants, manufacturers, mechanics, 
 &c. The number contained in this class may 
 be stated at 60,000 annually. The other class, 
 comprising persons entirely depending upon 
 their own manual labours in connection with 
 the above, may be stated at 300,000 under a 
 prosperous state of industry in the mother 
 country. Exclusive of the above, there may 
 probably be under a sufficiently encouraging 
 
WORKING CAPITAL. 147 
 
 scheme 30,000 foreigners, 10,000 of the former, 
 and 20,000 of the latter class. 
 
 2nd. The assistance which would probably 
 be required by the mother country, in order to 
 keep this machinery in motion may be stated 
 at 10,000,000/. annually, exclusive of the ex- 
 pense of the navy which would have to be 
 borne by government. The more that is re- 
 quired so much the better for all parties. For 
 this sum, the colony would have to pay, say 6^ 
 per cent of interest for a certain period, until 
 the principal was redeemed. 
 
 The above would principally be required for 
 machinery, and in fitting out poor emigrants 
 with clothes and provisions during their passage 
 out. Although no doubt the majority would 
 be able to fit out themselves, still a vast 
 number would not, but would require less or 
 more assistance. Emigrants, from being share- 
 holders, would of course be debtors for what 
 they severally received, and hence have to 
 account to the company accordingly. 
 
 3rd. We do not contemplate that companies 
 in the mother country would have any diffi- 
 culty in procuring capital, as the money does 
 not leave the country. Were any difficulty, 
 L 2 
 
148 CAPITAL AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 however, to be experienced we would have re- 
 course to an assessment, each party being 
 liable to be assessed who pays poor rates at 
 present. It is very evident that the schemes 
 which we have proposed, have one and all of 
 them for their object the reduction of poor- 
 rates, so that the assessment in all probability 
 would not at any time be experienced to be 
 heavier than it is at present, if so heavy, while 
 it would have this difference to recommend it. 
 Money paid as poor-rates is for ever lost to the 
 payer; but money paid for colonial rates 
 would only be money invested in colonial 
 stock, entitling the payer to rank as a share- 
 holder. Thus if a farmer or city merchant 
 paid lOZ. of rates, he would have his 3^ per 
 cent for his outlay, and 10/. at the expiry of 
 the redeeming term with which to purchase a 
 farm for his son ; or he could sell his interest 
 in the company at any time to an emigrant or 
 other purchaser. An assessment, we repeat, 
 we have every reason to believe would not be 
 required, as merchants would always be found 
 willing to advance goods on receipt of the 
 company's bills. 
 
 In starting this machinery, the first step 
 
AGE OF EMIGRANTS. 149 
 
 would be to annex it to the poor-law machinery 
 of the mother country. This would avoid any 
 additional expense of management at home ; 
 while it would afford rate-payers the means of 
 insisting upon colonial bills for their rates, 
 where they had the slightest reason to suspect 
 that these were to be paid in supporting parties 
 able to emigrate or work at home, 
 
 A great many farmers' sons as well as those 
 of merchants, master-mechanics, and manufac- 
 turers, &c. would not be able to purchase pro- 
 perty or colonial bills before leaving home, and 
 hence would have to enter the service of the 
 company. These would become managers in 
 the different branches of colonial industry. 
 
 The age which ought to emigrate is youth. 
 Young people ought to serve an apprenticeship 
 in our colonies, not only for the interest of 
 their parents at home, but also on their own 
 account. This is more particularly the case 
 with towns- people. Were such to emigrate at 
 the age of from fourteen to sixteen years, they 
 could be trained up to any branch of industry 
 which they might choose. A youth entering as an 
 apprentice at the age of fifteen would, were he 
 industrious and well disposed, by the time he 
 
 L 3 
 
150 AGE OF EMIGRANTS, ETC. 
 
 was twenty-five be able to purchase a farm of 
 fifty acres of land, with ten acres cultivated, 
 and having good household accommodation, 
 equal to that on any fifty-acre estate in this 
 country sufficiently furnished, or property to 
 the same value, if he belonged to the commer- 
 cial or manufacturing interests. 
 
 The period of agricultural apprenticeship we 
 would not fix at any particular number of 
 years, but rather measure it by the amount of 
 labour the party had performed, or the capital 
 he was possessed of. As soon as any one was 
 able to purchase property, it would be sold him. 
 If he thought otherwise, he could remain in the 
 enjoyment of the advantages of the company, 
 and purchase property for his family : so long as 
 he rendered his services he would be a share- 
 holder. Mechanics, &c., of course would have 
 to serve a regular period, as in this country, 
 before earning wages. 
 
 If we suppose the period of an apprenticeship 
 to be on an average six years, then the total 
 number of labourers in our colonies may be 
 stated at about 1,000,000 men and as many 
 women, of different ages. 
 
 This, however, would not represent the whole 
 
CHARACTER OF COLONIAL INDUSTRY- 151 
 
 of the power brought into the field of industry 
 by the British people for the purpose of im- 
 proving our colonies, and effecting the reduction 
 of our national debt. The power which we 
 would apply to this purpose would be more of 
 an artificial kind, than that now in operation. 
 We would abridge labour at all hands by 
 the application of machinery, as it is done in 
 this country. The abridgement of labour in 
 our colonies at present is very defective, and on 
 the lowest calculation a saving may be effected, 
 such as would bring up our strength to some- 
 thing equivalent to that of from 10,000,000 to 
 20,000,000 effective hands. 
 
 It is with this extra power in the hands of 
 our colonial apprentices, that we would enable 
 them to establish industry on a more solid basis 
 than it is at present ; so that by the time they 
 were qualified for entering upon their own 
 responsibility, they would have property to the 
 Value of their labour double and triple of what 
 they would have had, had they served their 
 apprenticeship in the mother country ; while at 
 the same time they would be able by well- 
 directed labour with machinery to create a large 
 amount of property, over and above what they 
 I. 4 
 
152 CHARACTER OF 
 
 otherwise could have done by their own un- 
 aided efforts, even had they left this country 
 journeymen, and which to themselves would be 
 comparatively valueless — but to the mother 
 country of infinite value, as she could dispose 
 of it to a different class of emigrants possessing 
 capital, whose settlement in the colony would on 
 the other hand be of infinite value to them ; thus 
 conferring a twofold benefit upon both parties. 
 
 At present the settler is left to fight single- 
 handed against every opposing element which a 
 strange land and climate throws in his way. 
 Ko attention is paid to the balance of the 
 different branches of industry. The expense 
 o-f labour is such as almost to exclude manu- 
 facturing and commercial industry at least from 
 entering the field on equal footing with that of 
 the mother country. Both countries, strange to 
 say, are actually suffering from two opposite 
 extremes which always ought to balance each 
 other. At home labourers are idle and starving 
 for want of bread, while in our colonies masters 
 cannot find servants nor mouths to consume 
 even the agricultural produce of their own 
 labours. 
 
 This extraordinary and unpardonable state of 
 
COLONIAL INDUSTRY. 153 
 
 British industry evidently results from the 
 narrow-minded policy of our commercial in- 
 terest, alluded to at the commencement of this 
 essay, who have been pulling down their barns 
 and building larger ones, in order to harvest 
 the fruits of their ambition, and support as 
 they vainly imagined our rapidly increasing 
 millions, which now threaten to consume them ! 
 We would be actuated by very different mo- 
 tives. If we were able to purchase agricultural 
 produce on a foreign shore, we would send out 
 our own farmers' sons and labourers to grow it, 
 and our own commercial and manufacturing 
 classes to consume it. We would keep the 
 different branches of industry in perfect equi- 
 librium ^and wholly independent of the mother 
 country after they were finally settled on their 
 own account. We would not only do away 
 with the barbarous stage of agriculture, which 
 every settler at present so severely experiences, 
 and introduce a more civilised and scientific 
 system of husbandry, but also establish all the 
 other branches of industry on a scale, if possible, 
 superior to that of the same in this country. 
 It is only by giving our colonies these advan- 
 tages that success can attend the scheme which 
 
154 COLONIAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 we propose in any of its divisions, either for the 
 removal of our surplus population, the reduc- 
 tion of our national debt, or the improvement 
 and prosperity of our colonies themselves. 
 
 Another defect of our colonial industry, at 
 present, lies in this, that comparatively little 
 attention is paid to overcome by art the physical 
 difficulties which a different climate throws in 
 the way of the colonist. Industry is evidently 
 here at fault, from the want of science to direct 
 her labours. This is more particularly the 
 case in our colonies of the southern hemisphere, 
 than in those of the north. We are intro- 
 ducing the pastoral system of the Highlands of 
 Scotland into our Cape and Australian terri- 
 tories. While the clearance system is going 
 on at home, our expatriated countrymen are 
 reducing the same theory to practice in a 
 foreign land. The Caffre and Papua are fast 
 being supplanted by the flocks and herds of Great 
 Britain. Such a system probably may be 
 justified as a temporary expedient ; but cer- 
 tainly it can never be looked upon in any other 
 light, and therefore ought to be acted upon 
 accordingly in time. 
 
 The general complaint against the immense 
 island of New Holland is the scarcity of 
 
COLONIAL INDUSTRY. 155 
 
 water. The absence of springs, however, in a 
 level country, is no evidence that water is 
 beyond the reach of art. Many millions of 
 acres on the globe once presented a busy scene 
 of industry ; but have become a parched wilder- 
 ness since they were deserted by the art of man, 
 and probably were so before they were reclaimed 
 by his labours. It is more than probable, we 
 think, from the partial manner in which this 
 immense extent of our dominions has been ex- 
 plored, that the conclusions of geographers 
 relative to its being unfit ever to support a 
 dense population are erroneous, and that the 
 opposite may turn out to be true. A 20-acre 
 farm cultivated by the spade or on the horti- 
 cultural system may produce more human food 
 under such a climate where water can be had, 
 than a 100-acre one in Britain or Canada with 
 the plough. 
 
 In the United Kingdom there are 53,363 
 gardeners. If we take the total in Britain at 
 70,000, the whole population of this class at 
 300,000, the decennial increase at 14 per cent, 
 then the increase which would remain as surplus 
 stock for emigration may be stated at 4200 an- 
 nually, or 2100 young gardeners, each having a 
 sister. There can be no doubt that were these 
 
1^6 COLONIAL INDUSTKY. 
 
 introduced into our Cape and Australian co- 
 lonies, with so many apprentices each under a 
 properly organised and encouraging system, 
 they would very soon redeem all expenses, and 
 realise for themselves suitable properties, such as 
 would render them comparatively independent. 
 
 Gardeners, however, would have many things 
 to learn under such a climate, as well as farmers, 
 before being able to bring the different vegetable 
 productions to a state of perfection, so as to 
 serve the purposes of the manufacturing and 
 commercial interests. Hence, again, the ne- 
 cessity of an apprenticeship being served by 
 those who could not afford to employ a steward 
 or foreman on their arrival as colonists. 
 
 In subdividing land, we would always be 
 regulated by the wants of purchasers. If a 
 landlord wanted an estate of 1000 or 2000 acres, 
 with 200 of these cultivated and suitable 
 household accommodation, let him give his 
 orders, and we would endeavour to suit him. 
 If a farmer wanted 100, 200, or 300 acres, 
 with 50 improved, he could have his request 
 with any household accommodation he wanted. 
 If we suppose that a farmer's son. A., leaves 
 this country as a manager, and along with him 
 a carpenter and mason, B. and C, each 
 
COLONIAL INDUSTRY. 157 
 
 manager being accompanied by a number of 
 apprentices, a landlord requiring an estate 
 for his son, gives orders to A. to select one of 
 equal quality with that which he may choose 
 for himself, and arranges with B. and C. relative 
 to houses. On the arrival of A. at the colony, 
 if he is satisfied as to the quality of the soil, 
 his first object is a farm for himself, and con- 
 tiguous to it another for the landlord. On 
 securing these, he gets possession of the former, 
 on condition of complying with the landlord's 
 orders. He has also to improve other farms, 
 until the value of his own labour is sufficient 
 to cover the purchase price of his own. The ap- 
 prentices entrusted to his charge are similarly 
 interested, and so are B. and C. The same 
 field of industry is opened to every emigrant. 
 
 The revenue of our colonies for the purpose 
 of liquidating the national debt may be as- 
 sumed to be as follows. The class likely to 
 become purchasers, we have already stated at 
 60,000, exclusive of 10,000 foreigners. Let 
 the last number go for managers. Let us 
 suppose that a father will give so much to 
 a son and daughter on an average. Some 
 landlords and capitalists would no doubt be- 
 come purchasers, to the extent of from 5000/. 
 
158 VALUE OF COLONIAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 to 20,000/. The whole 600,000,000/. alluded 
 to in the land -improving scheme, may in the 
 course of time be invested in the colonies, re- 
 turning a perpetuity of 6 J per cent, instead of 
 an annuity. Officers and soldiers entitled to 
 pensions, as well as annuitants, may enter into 
 equally favourable arrangements with govern- 
 ment. A farmer may insure 10007. payable to 
 his son and daughter when they become of age 
 or at any definite period, and thus obtain a 
 farm of this value in the colonies. The pur- 
 chases by this class may run individually from 
 200Z. to 20,000/. If we take 1000/. as an 
 average for a son and daughter, it will yield 
 a revenue of 30,000,000/. annually for the above 
 purpose, leaving the proceeds of the sales of 
 land and other property among the 10,000 
 managers and 320,000 labourers who settle 
 annually, to go as profits among themselves as 
 shareholders, after paying the 10,000,000/. 
 annually of expenses advanced by the mother 
 country. The above revenue, it will be ob- 
 served, from the number of efltective hands em- 
 ployed, together with the benefits of machinery, 
 is but a tithe of the value of the property 
 which may be annually added to our colonies. 
 There are, no doubt, many objections to 
 
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 159 
 
 coupling the reduction of our national debt 
 with a branch of industry so important as that 
 of colonisation to Britain at present ; but there 
 are none which ought not to be willingly 
 sacrificed by every patriotic subject of the 
 realm : while on the other hand its connection 
 with it is qualified to enlist national enter- 
 prise in a manner which will do far more than 
 counterbalance all the objections which can be 
 brought forward, so that the gain to the 
 mother country will be twofold to the colony. 
 
 In concluding this essay we have to observe, 
 that although it has been our endeavour as 
 much as possible to have recourse to facts in 
 support of what has been said or advanced, 
 yet we have been unable to do so in such a 
 manner as the different branches of the subject 
 necessarily require. It will readily be per- 
 ceived that in many cases we have confined 
 ourselves almost exclusively to a few general- 
 ising remarks on agitated questions ; and have 
 left unnoticed what is of far more importance 
 to farmers' sons — the body of facts. 
 
 Any attempt to have introduced these 
 would have involved us in details, the treatment 
 of which, although perhaps the most familiar 
 part of the subject to a practical man, is yet 
 
160 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 foreign from the object of the present work. 
 Enough however, it is hoped, has been said to 
 show, that the numerous causes assigned by 
 political agitators for our present calamities, 
 agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing, 
 are as erroneous as the several schemes ad- 
 vanced by them for effecting the melioration 
 of the different classes of the community are 
 totally inadequate for the purpose, and that 
 the improvement of our industry can only be 
 effected in accordance with what we propose. 
 
 A few lines are given by way of preface, in 
 order to apprise the reader of the object which 
 the author has in view in bringing so compre- 
 hensive a subject before the public in so con- 
 tracted a form. He is now busily engaged in 
 preparing for the press a large work, where 
 the different subjects so imperfectly glanced 
 at in the foregoing pages will be more metho- 
 dically and fully discussed. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 
 London : 
 
 Spottiswoode and Shaw, 
 
 New-street- Square. 
 
NEW WORKS 
 
 In miscellaneous and GENERAL LITERATURE, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS, 
 
 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
 CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 AGRICULTURE & RURAL AFFAIRS. 
 
 Pages 
 
 Bayldon on Valuing Rents, etc. - - 6 
 
 Crocker's Land Surveying • - - 10 
 
 Davy's Agricultural Chemistry - - 10 
 
 Fresenius' „ ,, _ • • 12 
 
 Jolinson's Farmer's EncyclopiEdia - - 16 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture - 19 
 
 ,, Self-Instruction for Farmers, etc. 18 
 
 ,, (Mrs.)Lady'sCountryCompanion 18 
 
 Low's BreedsoftheDomesticatedAnimals 20 
 
 ,, Elements of Agriculture - -20 
 
 ,, On Landed Property - - - 19 
 
 „ On tlie Domesticated Animals - 19 
 
 Parnell on Roads ----- 24 
 
 Stewart on Transfer of Landed Property 29 
 
 Thomson on Fattening Cattle, etc. - 30 
 
 Topham's Agricultural Chemistry • 31 
 
 ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Ball on the Manufacture of Tea 
 Braiide's Dictionarj' of Science, etc. - 
 Budge's Miner's Guide . - . - 
 Cartoons (The Prize) . . - - 
 Cresy's Encycl. of Civil Engineering 
 D'Agincourt's History of Art - 
 Dresden Gallery - - - - - 
 Eastlake on Oil Painting - - _ 
 
 Evans's Sugar Planter's Manual - 
 Gwilt's Encyclopeed ia of Architecture - 
 Havdon's Lectures on Painting & Design 
 Holland's Manufactures in Metal 
 Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art 
 Loudon's Rural Architecture - - - 
 Moseley's Engineering and Architecture 
 Parnell on Roads . . - - - 
 Porter's Manufacture of Silk ... 
 ,, ,, Porcelain & Glass 
 
 Reid (Dr.) on Warming and Ventilating 
 Steam Engine (The) , by the Artisan Club 
 lire's Dictionary of Arts, etc. 
 Wood on Railroads - - - - - 
 
 32 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Andersen's (H.C.) Autobiography - 5 
 
 Bell's Lives of the British Poets - - 17 
 
 Dunham's Early Writers of Britain - 17 
 
 ,, Lives of the British Dramatists 17 
 
 Forster's Statesmen of the Commonwealth 17 
 
 ,, LifeofJebb - - - - 17 
 
 Gleig's British Military Commanders - 17 
 
 Grant (Mrs.) Memoir and Correspondence 12 
 
 Haydon's Autobiography and Journals • 13 
 
 James's Life of the Black Prince - - 15 
 
 ,, Eminent Foreign Statesmen - 17 
 
 Kindersley's De Bayard • - - - 16 
 
 Lai's (M.) Life of liost Mohammed - - 23 
 
 Leslie's Life of Constable - - . is 
 
 Mackintosh'sLifeof Sir T. More - - 20 
 
 Maunder'sBiographicalTreasury - - 22 
 
 Roscoe's Lives of Eminent British Lawyers 17 
 
 Pages 
 Rowton's British Poetesses • - - 26 
 Russell's Bedford Correspondence - 6 
 
 Schopenhauer's Youthful Life - - 27 
 
 Shelley's Literary Men of Italy, etc. - 17 
 ,, Eminent French Writers - 17 
 
 Southey's Lives of the British Admirals - 17 
 Life of Wesley - - - - 29 
 Taylor's Loyola ..... 30 
 
 Townsend's Twelve eminent Judges - 31 
 Waterton's Autobiography and Essays - 32 
 
 BOOKS OF GENERAL UTILITY. 
 
 Acton's (Eliza) Cookery Book . - 5 
 
 Black's Treatise on Brewing - - - 6 
 Cabinet Lawyer (The) - - - - 8 
 Collegian's Guide .... - 8 
 Donovan's Domestic Economy . - 17 
 
 Foster's Handbook of Literature - - 12 
 
 Hints on Etiquette 13 
 
 Hudson's Executor's Guide - - .15 
 
 On Making Wills - - 15 
 
 Hume's Account of Learned Societies, etc. 15 
 
 Loudon's Self Instruction - - - 18 
 
 ,, (Mrs.) Amateur Gardener - 13 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge • - 22 
 
 ,, ScientiiicandLiteraryTreasury 22 
 
 ,, Treasury of History - - 22 
 
 ,, Biographical Treasury . - 22 
 
 ,, Natural History - ' - - 22 
 
 Parkes's Domestic Duties - - - 24 
 
 Pocket and the Stud . . _ . 25 
 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading - 25 
 
 Reader's Time Tables - - - - 25 
 
 Rich's Companion to the Latin Dictionary 25 
 
 Riddle's Eng.-Lat. and Lat.-Eng. Diet. - 26 
 
 Robinson's Art of Curing, Pickling, etc. 26 
 
 „ Art of Making British Wines, 26 
 
 Rowton's Debater - - . - - 26 
 
 Short Whist 27 
 
 Suitor's Instructor (The) - - - 29 
 Thomson's Management of Sick Room - 30 
 ,, Interest Tables - - -30 
 
 Webster's Encycl. of Domestic Economy ,'«2 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar .... 32 
 
 BOTANY AND GARDENING. 
 
 Abercrombie's Practical Gardener - - 5 
 
 ,, and Main's Gardener - 5 
 
 Ballon the Cultivation of Tea - - 6 
 Callcott's Scripture Herbal 
 
 Conversations on Botany • • - 9 
 
 Evans's Sugar Planter's "Manual - - II 
 
 Henslow's Botany . - ... 17 
 
 Hoare On the Grape Vine on Open Walls 14 
 
 On the Roots of Vines - 
 Hooker's British Flora 
 
 ,, Guide to Kew Gardens 
 Lindley's Theory of Horticulture - 
 
 ,, Orchard and Kitchen Garden 
 
 ,, Introduction to Botany - 
 
 ,, Synopsis of Brit' 
 Loudon's 1 
 
 London; Printed by M. Mason, Ivy Lane, Paternoster liow. 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX 
 
 Paifes 
 
 Loudon's Hortus Lignosus Londinensis - 19 
 
 ,, Encyclopcedia of Trees & Shrubs 19 
 
 ,, ,, G<irdening - 19 
 
 Plants - 19 
 
 ,, Suburban Gardener - - 19 
 
 ,, Self-Instruction for Gardeners 18 
 
 ,, (Mr.) Amateur Gardener - - 18 
 
 Rcpton's Landscape Gardening, etc. - 2a 
 
 Rivers's Rose Amateur's Guide - - 26 
 
 Rogers's Vegetable Cultivator - • - 26 
 
 Smith's Introduction to Botany - • 28 
 
 „ English Flora .... 28 
 
 ,, Compendium of English Flora - 28 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Blair's Chronological Tables - - - 6 
 
 Bosanquet's Chronology of Ezra, etc. - / 
 
 Bunsen's Ancient Egypt - - " ,1 
 
 Nicolas's Chronology of History - 17 
 
 Riddle's Ecclesiastical Chronology . - 26 
 
 COMMERCE AND MERCANTILE 
 AFFAIRS. 
 
 Banfield and Weld's Statistics 
 Baylis's Arithmetic of Annuities 
 M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce 
 Reader's Time Tables - - - - 
 Steel's Shipmaster's Assistant - • - 
 Symonds' Merchant Seamen's Laws 
 Thomson's Tables of Interest - 
 VValford's Customs' Laws ... 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND ATLASES. 
 
 Butler's Ancient and Modern Geography 
 
 ,, Atlas of Modern Geography 
 
 ,, ,, Ancient Geography 
 
 ,, „ General Geography 
 
 De Strzelecki's New South Wales - 
 
 Erraan's Travels through Siberis 
 
 graphy . 
 las 
 
 of Arabia 
 
 Forster's Historical Geoi 
 Hall's Large General Atl 
 M'Culloch^'s Geographical Dictionary 
 Mitchell's Australian Expedition - 
 Murray's Encyclopsedia of Geography 
 Parrot's Ascent of Mount Ararat - 
 Schomburgk's Barbados, and Map - 
 
 HISTORY AND CRITICISM. 
 
 Bell's History of Russia - - - . 
 Black Prince - - 
 Blair's Chron. and Historical Tables 
 Bloomfield's Translation of Thucydides - 
 
 ,, Edition of Thucydides 
 Bunsen's Ancient Egypt ... 
 
 Convbeare and Howson's St. Paul - 
 Cooiey's Maritime and Inland Discovery 
 Crowe's History of France ... 
 Coultou on Junius's Letters . - - 
 De Sismondi's Fall of the Roman Empire 
 
 „ Italian Republics 
 
 Dunham's History of Spain and Portugal 
 
 ,, Europe in the Middle A^es 
 
 ,, History of the German Empire 
 
 ,, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 
 
 ,, History of Poland ... 
 
 Dunlop's History of Fiction 
 
 Kastlake's History of Oil Painting 
 
 Eccleston's English Antiquities 
 
 Foster's European Literature - 
 
 Fergus's United States of America 
 
 Gibbon's Roman Empire - - - - 
 
 Grant (Mrs.) Memoir and Corespondence 12 
 
 Grattan'sHistory of Netherlands • 17 
 
 Grimblot's William III. and Louis XIV. 12 
 
 Halsted's Life of Richard III. - - 13 
 
 Harrison On the English Language - 1.1 
 
 Haydon's Lectures on Paintingand Design 13 
 
 Pages 
 - 13 
 
 Historical Charades _ _ . 
 
 Historical Pictures of the Middle Ages - 
 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions 
 
 Keightley's Outlines of History 
 
 Laing's Kings of Norway _ - . 
 
 Lemprifere's Classical Dictionary 
 
 Macaulay'g Essays - ... 
 
 „ History of England 
 
 Mackintosh's History of England - 
 ,, Miscellaneous Works 
 
 M'CuUoch's Dictionary, Historical, Geo 
 graphical, and Statistical 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of History 
 
 Milner's Church History ... 
 
 Moore's Historv of Ireland 
 Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History - 
 
 Nicolas's Chronology of History 
 Passages from Modern History 
 Ranke's History of the Reforniation 
 Rich's Companion to the Latin Dictionary 25 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - - - 26 
 Rome, History of - - . - - 17 
 Rowtoii's British Poetesses - . .26 
 Russell's Bedford Correspondence - 6 
 
 Scott's History of Scotland - . - 1* 
 Sinnett's Byways of History - - - 28 
 Southey's Doctor, etc. - - - - 29 
 Stebbing's History of the Christian Church 17 
 
 - 22 
 
 - 22 
 
 - 17 
 
 - 23 
 
 - 17 
 
 - 28 
 
 - 25 
 
 Church History 
 
 Switzerland, History of - - - . 
 
 Sydney Smith's Works - - . 
 
 Taylor's Loyola . - . . . 
 
 Thirlwall's History of Greece . . . 
 
 Tooke's Histories of Prices _ . . 
 
 Turner's History of England . . . 
 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar - - - . 
 
 JUVENILE BOOKS. 
 
 Amv Herbert •--.-. 
 
 Callcott's Home among Strangers - 
 
 Gertrude ....... 
 
 Gower's Scientific Phenomena 
 
 Historical Charades . - . . . 
 
 Howitt'g Boy's Country Book - 
 „ Children's Year 
 
 Laneton Parsonage - - - . . 
 
 Mackintosh's Life of Sir T. More . 
 
 Marcel's Conversations— 
 
 On Chemistry 
 
 On Natural P'hilosophy 
 
 On Political Economy . . , 
 
 On Vegetable Physiology - 
 
 On Land and Water . - ■ . 
 
 Marryat's Masterman Ready . . . 
 „ Privateer's-Mau 
 „ Settlers in Canada . 
 „ Mission ; or. Scenes in Africa 
 
 Passages from Modern History 
 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading 
 
 Twelve Years Ago - - - _ . 
 
 MEDICINE, 
 
 Bull' 
 
 I Hints to Mothers 
 Management of Children 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine 
 Elliotson's Human Physiology 
 Holland's Medical Notes - 
 Lane's Water Cure at Malvern 
 Latham On Diseases of the Heart 
 Pereira On Food and Diet 
 Sandby On Mesmerism 
 Thomson On Food - - - 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Blcssington's Fugitive Fancies 
 Carey's Past, Pre^ent, and Future 
 Cartoons (The Prize) 
 Cocks's Bordeaux, its Wines, etc. 
 Collegian's Guide - . . 
 
TO Messrs. LONGMAN and Co.'s CATALOGUE. 
 
 Pages 
 9 
 
 Coltoii's Lacon • • • 
 Coulton On Authorship of Junius - 
 De Jaenisch On Chess Openings - 
 De la Gravifere s Last Naval War - 
 Ue Morgan On Probabilities - 
 De Strzelecki's New South Wales - 
 Dresden Gallery . - - - 
 Dunlop's History of Fiction - 
 Field On Prison Discipline 
 Gardiner's Sights in Italy 
 Gower's Scientific Phenomena 
 Graham's English . . . • 
 Grant's Letters from the Mountains 
 Hobbes's (Thos.) complete Works 
 Hooker's Kew Guide - - • 
 Howitt's Rural Life of England 
 
 „ Visits to Remarkable Places 
 „ Student Life of Germany 
 ,, Rural and Social Life of Germany 15 
 ,, Colonisation and Christianity - 15 
 Hume's Account of Learned Societies - 15 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions - - 16 
 
 Lane's Life at the Water Cure - - 16 
 
 Loudon's(Mrs.) Lady's Country Companion 18 
 Macaulay's Critical and Historical Essays 20 
 Mackintosh's (Sir J.) Miscellaneous Works 20 
 Maitland's Church in the CHtacombs - 21 
 NeckerDeSaussure's on Education - 24 
 Plunkett On the Navy - - - - 25 
 Pycroft's Course of English Reading • 25 
 Rich's Companion to the Latin Dictionary 25 
 - ■ ■ - - 26 
 
 - 26 
 
 - 26 
 
 - 26 
 
 Richter 8 Levana 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries - 
 Roget's Economic Chess-board 
 Rowton's Debater - - • 
 Sandy's Mesmerism . - - 
 
 Sandford's Parochialia - - - - 26 
 
 Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreck - 27 
 
 Southey's Common-Place Book ■ -29 
 
 „ Doctor, etc. - - - - 29 
 Suitor's Instructor (The) 
 
 Sunimerly's Sea and Railway - - - 29 
 
 Sydney Smith's Works - - • - 28 
 
 Thomson on Food of Animals, etc. - - 30 
 Walker's Chess Studies - 
 Willoughby's (Lady) Diary 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar - 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY IN GENERAL. 
 
 Callow's Popular Conchology . - • 8 
 
 Doubledav's Butterflies and Moths - 10 
 
 Gray and Mitchell's Ornithology - - 12 
 
 „ ,, Accipitres - - 12 
 
 Kirby and Spence's Entomology - - 16 
 
 Lee's Taxidermy - - - - 18 
 
 ,, Elements of Natural History - - 18 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Natural History 22 
 
 Stephens' British Beetles • - - 29 
 
 Swainson on the Study of Natural History 17 
 
 ,, Animals - • - - 17 
 
 ,, Quadrupeds • „ • - - 17 
 
 „ Birds 17 
 
 ,, Animals in Menageries • 17 
 
 ,, Fish, Amphibia, and Reptiles 17 
 
 ,, Insects - - - - 17 
 
 ,, Malacology - - - - 17 
 
 ,, Habits and Instincts - - 17 
 
 ,, Taxidermy - - - - 17 
 
 Tarton's Shells of the British Islands - 'A\ 
 
 Waterton's Essays on Natural History - 32 
 
 Westwood's Classification of Insects - 32 
 
 NOVELS AND WORKS OF FICTION. 
 
 Callcott's Home among Strangers - - 8 
 Dunlop's History of Fiction - - - 11 
 Hall's Midsummer Eve - - - 13 
 
 Lady Willoughby's Diary - - - 32 
 Madame De Mal'guet - - - - 21 
 
 Pages 
 
 Marryat's Masterman Ready - - - 21 
 
 „ Privateer's-Man - - - 21 
 
 „ Settlers in Canada - - - 21 
 
 „ Mission; or, Scenes in Africa - 21 
 
 Pericles, a Tale of Athens ... 24 
 
 Southey's Doctor, etc. - - • - 29 
 
 Twelve Years Ago . - ... 31 
 
 ONE VOLUME ENCYCLOP/EDIAS 
 AND DICTIONARIES. 
 
 Blaine's, of Rural Sports - • - - 6 
 
 Brande's, of Science, Literature, and Art 7 
 
 Copland's, of Medicine - - . - 9 
 
 Cresy's, of Civil Engineering - • • 9 
 
 Gwilt's, of Architecture - - - - 13 
 
 Johnson's Farmer ----- 16 
 
 Loudon's, of Trees and Shrubs - - 19 
 
 ,, of Gardening . . - - ig 
 
 ,, of Agriculture - - - '19 
 
 „ of Plants - - ... 19 
 
 ,, of Rural Architecture - - 19 
 
 M'CuUoch's Geographical Dictionary - 20 
 
 ,, Dictionary of Commerce - 20 
 
 Murray's Encyclopttdia of Geography • 24 
 
 Ure's Arts, Mnuufactures, and Mines - 31 
 
 Webster's Domestic Economy - - 32 
 
 POETRY AND THE DRAMA 
 
 Aikin's (Dr.) British Poets 
 Chalenor's Walter Gray - - - 
 Collier's Roxburghe Ballads • 
 Costello's Persian Rose Garden 
 Flowers and their Kindred Thoughts 
 Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated 
 Gray's Elegy, illuminated 
 Howitt's (Mary) Ballads 
 L. E. L.'s Poetical Works 
 Linwood's Antbologia Oxoniensis - 
 Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome - 
 Mackay's EuKlish Lakes ... 
 Montgomery's Poetical Works 
 Moore's Irish Melodies - - . 
 
 „ Lalla Rookh - - . 
 
 ,, Poetical Works - - • 
 Moral of Flowers . . _ . 
 Poets' Pleasaunce - - - . 
 Rowton's British Poetesses 
 Shakspeare, by Bowdler 
 Sophocles, by Linwood ... 
 Southey's Poetical Works 
 
 ,, British Poets • . . 
 Spirit of the Woods 
 Thomson's Seasons, illustrated 
 
 „ with Notes, by Dr. A. T. Thomson 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY AND 
 STATISTICS. 
 
 Banfield and Weld's Statistics - - 6 
 M'Culloch's Geographical, Statistical, and 
 
 Historical Dictionary - - - 20 
 
 M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce - 20 
 
 „ Literature of Polit. Economy 21 
 
 „ On Succession to Property . 21 
 
 ,, On Taxation and Funding - 21 
 
 ,, Statistics of the British Empire 20 
 
 Marcet's Conversations on Polit. Economy 21 
 
 Symonds' Merchant Seamen's Law - 29 
 
 Tooke's Histories of Prices - . . 30 
 
 Twisss (Dr.) View of Political Economy 31 
 
 „ Schleswig-Holsteiu Question 31 
 
 RELIGIOUS AND MORAL 
 WORKS, ETC. 
 
 Amy Herbert, edited by Rev. W. Sewell 5 
 Barrett's Old Testament Criticisms - • 6 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX. 
 
 Pag:e8 
 Bloomfield's Greek Testament 
 
 College and School ditto - 
 „ Lexicon to Greek Testament 
 
 Bunsen's Church of the Future 
 Burder's Oriental Customs • - - 
 
 Burns's Christian Philosophy - • - 8 
 
 ,, Christian Fraifments - - " ^ 
 
 Callcott's Scripture Herbal ' ■ * ° 
 
 Closing Scene - - - - - ' ° 
 
 Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul - - a 
 
 Cooper's Sermons - - - " " q 
 Coquerel's Christianity -""",« 
 
 Dale's Domestic Liturgy - ' * ;„ 
 Dibdin's Sunday Library ••**{}; 
 
 Discipline ""'"■"* iV 
 
 Englishman'* Hebrew Concordance - |} 
 
 ,, Greek Concordance - IJ 
 
 Forster's Historical Geography of Arabia H 
 
 „ Life of Bishop Jebb • - - | J 
 
 From Oxford to Rome - - ' ,' H 
 
 Gertrude, edited by the Rev. W. Sewell - ij 
 
 Hook's (Dr.) Lectures on Passion Week 14 
 
 Home's Introduction to the Scriptures - 14 
 
 ,, Compendium of ditto - " ;f 
 
 Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art - lo 
 
 Jebb's Correspondence with Knox - " f? 
 
 ,, Translation of the Psalms - - jo 
 
 Kip's Christmas in Rome - - * ' ;« 
 
 Knox's (Alexander) Remains . - - lo 
 
 Laneton Parsonage - " " " " i| 
 
 liCtters to my Unknown Friends - " i? 
 
 Maitland's Church in the Catacombs - ^| 
 Margaret Percival """**£, 
 
 Milner's Church History - - - • ^^ 
 
 Miracles of Our Saviour " " " oa 
 
 Moore on the Power of the Soul - - ^ 
 
 „ on the Use of the Body - - ^ 
 
 ,. on Man and his Motives - - S^ 
 
 Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History - - i': 
 Parables of Our Lord -"-"$! 
 
 Parkes's Domestic Duties ... ^4 
 
 Pitman's Sermons on the Psalms - " o- 
 
 Ranke's Reformation " " "* " 9? 
 
 Renaud's Matutina - - - - S= 
 
 Rest in the Church ^» 
 
 Riddle's Letters from a Godfather - - 26 
 
 Sandford On Female Improvement - - 27 
 
 ,, On Woman ' " ' " ol 
 
 ,, 's Parochialia - - - " o- 
 
 Sermon on the Mount (The) - - " '!' 
 
 Shunanimite (The Good) - - - - 27 
 
 Sinclair's Journey of Life " " " «2 
 
 ,, Business of Life - - - „' 
 
 Sketches (The) 28 
 
 Smith's (G.) PerilousTimes - " . ■ oa 
 
 ,, Religion of Ancient Britain 28 
 
 ,, Sacred Annals • - - ?5 
 
 (J.) St. Paul's Shipwreck - - 28 
 
 Soames's Latin Church - - - - ^8 
 
 Southey's Life of Wesley - - " f, 
 
 Stebbing's Christian Church - - - 1/ 
 
 ,, Reformation - - - -11 
 
 Stephen's Church of Scotland - - ^9 
 
 Sydney Smith's Sermons - . . 28 
 
 Tate's History of St. Paul 
 
 Tayler's (Rev. C. B.) Margaret 
 
 Lady Mary - - 3U 
 
 Taylor's (Jeremy) Works - - . 30 
 
 ., (Isaac) Loyola - - - 30 
 
 Tomline's Introduction to the Bible - 30 
 
 Turner's Sacred History ... 31 
 
 Twelve Years Ago ----- 31 
 
 Walker's Elementa Liturgica - - - 31 
 
 Wardlaw On Snciniaii Controversy . 31 
 
 Wilberforce's View of Christianity - 32 
 
 Willoughby's (Lady) Diary - - - 32 
 
 Wilson^ Lands of the Bible . - - 32 
 
 Wisdom of Johnson's Rambler, etc. • 16 
 
 Woodward's Sermons and Essays - - 32 
 
 ,, Sequel to Shuuammite - 32 
 
 30 
 
 RURAL SPORTS. 
 
 Pages 
 
 Blaine'sDictionary of Sports . - - 6 
 
 Ephemera on Angling - - - • 11 
 
 Hawbuck Grange ----- 13 
 
 Hawker's Instructions to Sportsmen - 13 
 
 Jones's Norway Salmon Fisher - - 16 
 Loudon's (Mrs.) Lady's Country Companion 18 
 
 Pocket and the Stud - - - - 25 
 
 Stable Talk and Table Talk . - - 29 
 
 THE SCIENCES IN GENERAL, 
 AND MATHEMATICS. 
 
 Baker's Railway Engineering - • - 5 
 
 Bakewell's Introduction to lieology - 5 
 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, etc. - 7 
 
 Brewster's Optics ----- 17 
 
 Conversations on Mineralogy - - 9 
 
 De la Beche on theGeology ot Cornwall, etc. 10 
 
 Donovan's Chemistry . - - - 17 
 
 Farey on the Steam Kngine - - - 1 1 
 
 Fosbroke on the Arts of the Ancients - 17 
 
 Gower's Scientific Phenomena - - 12 
 
 Herschel's Natural Philosophy - - ^7 
 
 ,, Astronomy - - - - 17 
 
 Holland's Manufactures in Metal - - 17 
 
 Humboldt's Cosmos . - - - 15 
 
 Hunt's Researches on Light - . . 15 
 
 Kater and Lardner's Mechanics - - 17 
 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia - - 17 
 
 ,, Hydrostatics and Pneumatics - 17 
 
 „ and Walker's Electricity - 17 
 
 „ Arithmetic - - - - 17 
 
 „ Geometry - - - . 17 
 
 ,, Treatise on Heat - - - 17 
 
 Low's Chemistry . - - . . 19 
 
 Marcet's Conversations on the Sciences 21 
 
 Matteucci On Physical Phenomena - • 21 
 
 Memoirs of the Geological Survey - - 22 
 
 Moseley's Practical Mechanics - - 23 
 
 and Architecture 23 
 
 Engineering! 
 
 Owen's Lectures On Comparative Anatomy 24 
 
 Peschel's Physics ----- 24 
 Phillips's PalaeozoicFossilsof Cornwall, etc. 24 
 
 ,, Mineralogy, by Prof. Miller - 25 
 
 ,, Treatise on Geology - - - 17 
 
 Portlock's Geology of Londonderry - 25 
 
 Powell's Natural Philosophy - - - 17 
 
 Ritchie (Robert) on Railways - - 26 
 
 Topham'g Agricultural Chemistry . - 31 
 
 TRAVELS. 
 
 Allan's Mediterranean - - - - 5 
 
 Borrer's Campaign in Algeria - - - 7 
 
 Costello's (Miss) North Wales - . 9 
 
 Coulter's California, etc. - - - 9 
 
 ,, Pacific ----- 9 
 
 De Strzelecki's New South Wales - - 10 
 
 Dunlop's Central America - - - 10 
 
 Erman's Travels through Siberia - - 1.' 
 
 Gardiner's Sights in Italy - - - 12 
 
 Harris's Highlands of ^Ethiopia - - 13 
 
 Jones's Norway Guide - - - - 16 
 
 Kip's Holydays i» Rome - - - 16 
 
 Laing's Tour in Sweden - - - 16 
 
 Mackay's English Lakes - - 20 
 
 Marryat's Borneo ----- 21 
 
 Mitchell's Expedition into Australia - 22 
 
 Parrot's Ascent of Mount Ararat - - 24 
 
 Schomburgk's Barbados - - - 27 
 
 Schopenhauer's Pictures of Travel - . 27 
 
 Seawurd's Narrative of his Shipwreck - 27 
 
 TischendorfTsTravelsin the East - - 30 
 
 Von Orlich's Travels in India - - 31 
 
 Wilson's Travels in the Holy Land - 32 
 
 VETERINARY MEDICINE 
 
 Miles On the Horse's Foot - - - 22 
 
 Pocket and the Stud - - - - 25 
 
 Stable Talk and Table Tulk - - - 29 
 
 Thomson on Fattening Cattle - - 30 
 
 Winter On the Horse - . - . 32 
 
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12 
 
 NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
 FOSTER.-THE HAND-BOOK OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE. 
 
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 FRESENIUS.-A MANUAL OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
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 FROM OXFORD TO ROME : AND, HOW IT FARED WITH SOME WHO 
 
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 GERTRUDE. 
 
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 GRANT (MRS., OF LAGGAN).- MEMOIR AND CORRESPONDENCE 
 
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 GRAY AND MITCHELL'S ORNITHOLOGY.— THE GENERA OF BIRDS; 
 
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 GRIMBLOT (P.)— LETTERS OF WILLIAM III. AND LOUIS XIV. AND OF 
 
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PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. LONGMAN AND Co. 13 
 
 GWILT.-AN ENCYCLOP/EDIA OF ARCHITECTURE; 
 
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 *** Publishing in Monthly Parts, a/which 11 have appeared. To be completed 
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 HALSTED.— LIFE AND TIMES OF RICHARD THE THIRD, 
 
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 HARRIS.-THE HIGHLANDS OF /ETHIOPIA; 
 
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 HAWBUCK GRANGE; 
 
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 HAYDON (B. R.)-LECTURES ON PAINTING AND DESIGN, 
 
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 HOARE— A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE 
 
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PUBLISHED -BY MeSSKS. LONGMAN AND Co. 15 
 
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16 NEW WORKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
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28 NEW WOllKS AND NEW EDITIONS 
 
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