THE UNITED STATES NAVY HENRY WILLIAMS 18001 Engineer School citt35909(73) THE UNITED STATES NAVY A HANDBOOK BY HENRY WILLIAMS NAVAL CONSTRUCTOR, U. 8. NAVY Illustrated from Photographs NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1911 COPTRIGHT, 1911, BT HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY Published October, 1911 THE OUINN * BODFH CO. PRESS RAHWAY, N. J. PREFACE IN the course of the author's tour of duty in the Navy Department, he was called on fre- quently to prepare answers to letters request- ing information about the Navy. These letters came from all parts and all classes. The wide- spread interest indicated in this manner, coupled with the absence of a book of general informa- tion regarding the Navy designed for general reading, induced him to undertake the prepara- tion of this book. It is intended primarily for the information of persons having some interest in naval affairs but it is not technical. Only subjects of possible general interest have been discussed, and those only so far as they seemed t^ to supply interest. *A There is at all times a demand on the press \ for news of the Navy's doings. The author fre- 7- quently has had the privilege of furnishing in- formation and data to newspapermen for use ^ in their paragraphs and has in this way also felt the need for a simple manual or handbook ^ on the Navy. ^ N Another inducement for the preparation of Jg the book was the fact that the Navy's enlisted iii iv PREFACE men are drawn almost entirely from inland states; many of them previous to their enlist- ment never saw the ocean. The friends and relatives of these men have had no ready means of satisfying a natural desire to be informed as to the Navy. H.W. OCTOBEB, 1911 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. NAVAL HISTORY 1 II. THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION ... 20 III. THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL ... 50 IV. MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION . . .81 V. CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY . .115 VI. DESCRIPTION 147 VII. HIGH EXPLOSIVES; MINES; TORPEDOES; AEROPLANES 187 VIII. DESIGNING AND BUILDING A WARSHIP ; DRY DOCKS 202 IX. THE NATIONAL DEFENSE . . .217 INDEX 223 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The chase of the Constitution by an English squadron in the War of 1812. Due to a calm the ships were towed by their small boats. (From an old paint- ing Frontispiece The protected cruiser Atlanta, built in 1888, one of the first vessels in the " New Navy " 14 The converted yacht Mayflower, purchased during the Spanish War and now used as the President's yacht . 20 Naval Coaling Plant, Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. In- tended for storage of coal and for its delivery to naval vessels 48 The sailing ship Severn, used formerly as a practice ship for midshipmen 54 The gun-boat Don Juan de Austria, captured from the Spaniards at Manila Bay. Now in use by the Michigan Naval Militia 80 The gun-boat Yorktown 80 The Atlantic Battleship Fleet under way in column, the flagship Connecticut leading 88 The battleship Kansas 94 Collar devices on service coat of officers, showing rank and corps 100 Specialty marks on rating badges 102 Rating badges for petty officers 104 The Hartford, built in 1858, flagship of Admiral Farragut at the battle of Mobile Bay 108 The battleship Massachusetts, sister ship of the Oregon, and one of the first American battleships . ... 114 The Civil War monitor Canonicus, one of a number built after the success of the Monitor against the Merrimao . 118 Monitor Amphitrite, commenced in 1874, finished in 1895 118 The torpedo-boat destroyer Preston 120 The submarine Narwhal cruising on the surface . . . 122 vii viii ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Battleship Texas, used recently as a target in gunnery experiments 124 The battleship South Carolina, the first American " all- big-gun battleship" 128 Armored cruiser Brooklyn, flagship of Commodore Schley during the Spanish War 130 Armored cruiser New York, flagship of Rear-Admiral Sampson during the Spanish War 130 The British armored cruiser Inflexible in North River, New York, during Hudson-Fulton celebration in 1909 . 132 Protected cruiser New Orleans, purchased from the Brazilian government just prior to the Spanish War . 136 U. S. naval collier Vestal 144 Modern 14-inch naval breech-loading rifle 150 The battleship Delaware, said to be the most powerful "all-big-gun battleship" 152 A smooth-bore 42-pounder cannon of 1780 154 The explosion, eight feet under water, of a naval defense mine containing 161 Ibs. of wet gun cotton .... 188 The battleship Georgia 192 The battleship Idaho 196 The Naval Experimental Model Basin at Washington . . 202 Hoisting a 12-inch gun on board the Louisiana . . . 204 The cruiser North Carolina just before launching . . 208 The battleship Oregon in the Puget Sound graving dry dock ; 212 The battleship Illinois in the New Orleans floating dry dock i . * . . . 212 DIAGRAMS Sketches of arrangement of battery, showing the essential differences between the "all-big-gun battleship" and the earlier type with mixed batteries 153 Longitudinal section of a 12-inch gun 155 Cross-sections of projectiles 183 Sketch of fuse 186 Floating electric contact mine 189 Arrangement of torpedo 194 THE UNITED STATES NAVY CHAPTER I NAVAL HISTORY THE foundation of the United States Navy was laid when, in 1775, during the War of the Revolution, the Continental Congress author- ized the building of thirteen war vessels, and thus established the Continental Navy, with a roster of officers, Captain Esek Hopkins being Commander-in-Chief. One of the lieutenants was John Paul Jones, who, becoming a captain shortly after, did more than any other one person in organizing the young Navy and plac- ing it on a recognized basis. It was necessary to pattern the new naval organization after that of England; customs, regulations, and traditions taken in this way from the English are still retained in the United States Navy. Due largely to the abil- ities and courage of Captain Jones, the Conti- 2 THE UNITED STATES NAVY nental Navy soon rose superior to the English Navy in point of efficiency, seamanship, and gun- nery. Jones demonstrated the possibility of vanquishing in equal combat an English man-of- war, a feat that had been regarded as impos- sible. When, on several occasions, the most notable of which was the victory of the Bon Homme Richard over the Serapis, he gained victories over English ships of equal or su- perior force, the American Navy won its spurs, and from thenceforth the world was destined to recognize the new nation as a factor on the seas. Besides the engagements of Captain Jones, and a few others, the activities of the Conti- nental Navy consisted largely in preying on the English merchant ships. Similar feats and re- sults, no less important, were achieved by ves- sels armed by the individual States or Colonies, and by the many privateers, authorized by the Continental Congress, and sent out by private enterprise. It has been stated on good author- ity that more men fought for their country's NAVAL HISTORY 3 liberty on the sea than on the land, and the results achieved are considered by many to equal, if not surpass, in importance those of the land forces under General Washington. The naval war was carried by Jones and others into the enemy's home waters, and, for the first time in history, merchant ships plying between England and Ireland required a naval convoy for their protection from Yankee pri- vateers. Another important feature of the naval activ- ities of the Colonies was the capture of British seamen, of whom no less than 16,000 were made prisoners on the high seas during the Revolution by American war craft. These sea- men could not be replaced by the English, as could the mercenaries who fought their battles on land, and consequently their loss was felt more seriously. Added to the enormous losses inflicted on the commerce of Great Britain, these conditions contributed in no small meas- ure to the willingness of the English to make peace. In all over eight hundred British ves- 4 THE UNITED STATES NAVY sels of all kinds were captured by the Amer- ican sea forces during the Kevolutionary War. At the close of the Kevolutionary War other matters more pressing than the maintenance of a Navy absorbed the* attention of the States, and for many years even after the ' ' more per- fect Union " had been formed, it was too poor to afford a Navy. The tendency, now observ- able, to neglect in time of peace to prepare for war, existed more strongly then. All the war- ships of the Continental government were sold, and for several years there was no national Navy, though many of the States had armed ships to protect their ports and to convoy their merchantmen. During the general European War conse- quent on the French Kevolution, the commerce of the United States grew very rapidly, and in almost every European port there was at least one trim clipper bearing the Stars and Stripes of the new nation. Piracy, privateering, and lawlessness on the ocean, and the outrages of the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean, how- NAVAL HISTORY 5 ever, soon brought the country to realize the necessity for a war Navy. In 1794 Congress, no longer able to overlook the conditions, after listening to a message from President Wash- ington, detailing the depredations of the Al- gerians, passed an act authorizing the construc- tion of six frigates. This was the beginning of the present Navy and, though so many years have elapsed, two of the ships built then, the Constellation and the Constitution, still are afloat. Officers were chosen and an organiza- tion established based in large measure on that existing during the Revolutionary War, many of the officers being the same. The ships designed at this time were, as was proved frequently in battle, the superiors in speed, manoeuver ing, and offensive power to sim- ilar vessels of their day. American naval con- structors, even in those early days, aimed at a higher standard of warships than their foreign contemporaries. England, in self- defense, was forced later to build frigates on the same plans, and in this respect also 6 THE UNITED STATES NAVY history has repeated itself to the present day. Before the completion of these vessels peace was concluded with the Barbary nations, so that three only of the six vessels were finished and the materials for the other three were sold. This peace involved the payment of consider- able sums of money and annual tributes to the pirates. Had the money so paid been devoted to defense rather than to tribute, a Navy that could have annihilated the pirates might have been equipped. President Washington, in a speech before both houses of Congress in 1796, said : * * To an active, external commerce the protection of a naval force is indispensable. To secure respect to a neutral flag requires a naval force organ- ized and ready to vindicate it from insult and aggression.'* In 1797 the depredations of the French men- of-war and privateers became unbearable, so much so that in spite of the disinclination of many Americans to make war against their NAVAL HISTORY 7 former allies, orders were issued by Congress to United States war vessels to capture French cruisers wherever found. Though there was at no time a formal declaration of war against France, the record of eighty-four French armed vessels captured, besides many American ves- sels recaptured, shows that the young Navy was emulating the example set during the Revolu- tionary War. No sooner had the French obtained peace than there was found work for the Navy in the Mediterranean; the Barbary pirates, to whom tribute had been paid, grew in rapaciousness, demanding more and more. Accordingly it was decided in 1802 to send a squadron to bring them to terms, and operations were carried on against the various Barbary nations until 1805, when peace was signed. Experience gained in the various engage- ments against the French and Algerians was destined to stand the American officers and men in good stead, for the United States soon de- clared war against the most powerful nation in 8 THE UNITED STATES NAVY the world, which then was flushed with numer- ous victories over the other nations, and had on its navy list more than 1,000 men-of-war, of them 250 ships-of-the-line. Small wonder was it that the English, with memories of long years of conflict and of practically undisputed su- premacy on the ocean, laughed at the idea of the Americans giving battle to their unconquered and, as they thought, unconquerable ships. Men and not ships carried the day for the Americans, superior marksmanship determin- ing the result of many engagements. The war was decided on the sea, as the armies of the United States almost invariably suffered defeat. The activities of the ships of the Navy and of the various privateers resulted nearly in driv- ing English commerce from the sea. Commenting on the treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, the London Times of December 30, 1814, wrote : ' ' We have retired from the combat with the stripes yet bleeding on our backs. Even yet, however, if we could but close the war with some great naval triumph NAVAL HISTORY 9 the reputation of our maritime greatness might be partially restored. But to say that it has not hitherto suffered in the estimation of all Europe, and, what is worse, of America itself, is to belie common sense and universal experi- ence. Not only two or three, but many of our ships on the ocean, and whole squadrons on the lakes, have struck to a force vastly inferior ; and the numbers are to be viewed with rela- tion to the comparative magnitude of the two navies. Scarcely is there an American ship of war which has not to boast a victory over the British flag; scarcely one British ship in thirty or forty that has beaten an American. With the bravest seamen and the most powerful navy in the world, we retire from the contest when the balance of defeat is so heavy against us." The Barbary States still smarted under the punishment they had received from the Amer- ican squadron in 1804-05, so, believing that the small Navy of the United States would be an- nihilated by her formidable enemy, and encour- aged by the English agents, they did not fail to 10 THE UNITED STATES NAVY take advantage of the war with England to show again their animosity. The conclusion of the war found the Americans in no humor to sub- mit to any insolence, and, in less than five months after the treaty of Ghent was signed, a squadron was despatched to the Mediterranean. This brought to terms promptly the Barbary rulers, and they were forced to agree to re- linquish all claim in future to tribute, and to guarantee the safety of American commerce from Corsairs in those waters. Upon the conclusion of this peace, the Amer- ican squadrons under Captain Decatur and Cap- tain Bainbridge, assembled in the harbor of England's great stronghold, Gibraltar. The presence of these squadrons, which included the captured British vessels Guerriere, Macedonian, Epervier, and Boxer, and the formidable ap- pearance of the American vessels, caused no lit- tle chagrin in the British garrison. With these incidents, the United States ceased for thirty years operations against an organized hostile nation. NAVAL HISTORY 11 The Navy was engaged, however, in other ways. The suppression of piracy in the West Indies required its services from 1821 to 1825. In compliance with the terms of the Webster- Ashburton treaty with England in 1842, there was maintained for many years a squadron to patrol the coast of Africa for the suppression of the slave trade. Many slavers were captured and much was accomplished toward ending the iniquitous traffic. To avenge the treacherous murder by natives of Qualla Battoo, on the coast of Sumatra, of the crew of the American brig Friendship, the frigate Potomac was sent in 1832. A force was landed which attacked the natives in their strongholds, destroyed the strongholds, and put to flight the survivors of the garrisons. When war broke out with Mexico, in May, 1846, the Navy played a most important part. Mexico had no navy of her own, so that the work of the United States Navy was confined to blockade duty and the capture of numerous cities and seaports. The operations leading 12 THE UNITED STATES NAVY to the capture and occupation of California were carried out entirely by the naval forces in those waters, and consequently it is to the Navy that the country is indebted for the capture from the Mexicans of that territory. The naval forces in the Gulf of Mexico, acting in conjunc- tion with the Army, aided in the capture of Vera Cruz and other seaports, and contributed largely to the success of the American cause. The outbreak of the Civil War found the Navy entirely inadequate to cope with the task laid out for it, which consisted of maintaining a strict and effective blockade of the ports and harbors of the Confederate States. By pur- chasing every available merchant ship, however, and by constructing under hurry orders numer- ous other ships, the Navy soon acquired the necessary number of war vessels to keep the blockade. The effective blockade contributed materially to the final outcome of the war by locking up in the ports of the Confederacy vast stores of wealth in cotton. Had they been able to market this, the Confederates undoubtedly NAVAL HISTORY 13 would have made a much more formidable struggle, and the war might have dragged on indefinitely. Of equal importance in this block- ade was the fact that it shut out essential sup- plies, munitions of war, medicines, that the Con- federacy could not furnish from her own re- sources. Foreign powers expected that the South would win, and the idea was based largely on a com- parison of land forces. Account was not taken of the remarkable development of the Union Navy, and of its unprecedented exploits. Had the resources of the South in naval matters been the equal of those in military matters, or had the South had mechanical resources to per- mit of building in an effective manner the ves- sels projected, many of these exploits of the Union fleets would have been impossible. The work of the Navy in the Civil "War was not confined to blockade duty, notwithstanding the fact that the Confederacy had few war ves- sels with which the Union ships might engage. The Navy assisted in land operations by cap- 14 THE UNITED STATES NAVY turing a number of Southern seaports, the most important operations being those leading to the capture of New Orleans and the Missis- sippi Eiver. These were regarded by many as the turning point of the struggle, as the Mis- sissippi Eiver is the key to the Middle West, and its control permitted the regulation of the commerce on it, and shutting off one of the Confederacy's chief sources of supplies. The work of the Navy during the Civil War contributed greatly to the advancement of naval science. Steam propulsion, which before then had not been in favor for naval use, came to be regarded at its true value, and its availabil- ity to supplant sails entirely was recognized. The possibility of mounting guns in turrets and of using armor protection for vessels was first demonstrated, and the * * monitor ' ' type of war vessel, which was the forerunner of the great bat- tleship of the present day, was developed. The navies of the world were not slow to profit by the lessons learned through the naval operations of the Civil War, and conservative writers have NAVAL HISTORY 15 estimated that in the few years of the war an ad- vance was achieved equal to fifty years' de- velopment under normal peace conditions. At the close of the Civil War, the Navy was reduced without delay to a peace basis, and it was neglected in succeeding years to such an extent that in 1880 it could be said that the United States had no navy capable of making war. At this time the necessity for upbuild- ing the Navy was recognized, and since then new ships have been built at such a rate that to-day the United States is the second naval power of the world, although that place soon will be claimed by Germany, if the present rate of warship construction in that country is maintained. The war against Spain in 1898 was almost entirely a naval war, and though there were some military operations, they were supplementary to those of the Navy. The fleets under Com modore Dewey and Bear-Admiral Sampson de- stroyed effectively the Spanish naval forces, and captured for the United States the Philip- 16 THE UNITED STATES NAVY pine Islands, Guam, and Porto Eico, and achieved the independence of Cuba. Later the Navy contributed a considerable share toward suppressing the Philippine insurgents, who car- ried on a guerrilla warfare for several years after peace had been made with Spain. The work of the Navy, however, has not been confined to waging war; it has performed dis- tinguished services of a peaceful character, a few only of the most important of which may be mentioned. Through the Navy many scientific and exploring expeditions have been made, among them Antarctic expeditions in 1838-1842 ; the Dead Sea exploration in 1848, and, also, the expeditions sent out for the relief of Arctic ex- plorers, notably the expedition in 1850 for the relief of Franklin, and that in 1882 for the re- lief of the Greely expedition. Difficult diplo- matic duties have been intrusted to naval of- ficers; probably the most celebrated was the Perry expedition, which resulted in opening Ja- pan to the world's commerce, the treaty having been signed finally in 1858. This has been NAVAL HISTORY 17 called justly one of the greatest diplomatic tri- umphs of recent years. Officers of the Navy, through their scientific abilities, have made many contributions to sci- ence. The founder of the sciences of physical geography and of hydrography was Lieutenant Maury of the Navy. In 1853 he suggested an international maritime congress which, under his guidance, adopted many rules as to the general study of matters of interest to nav- igators. Maury instituted the art of deep sea soundings, was the first to lay out definite routes for vessels crossing the oceans, and made ex- haustive studies of the Gulf Stream. He is- sued many charts, and was the first to suggest the possibility of an ocean cable. Naval officers since Maury 's time have con- tinued the work of hydrography and coast sur- vey, and valuable work in these lines has been done up to the present time. In 1900 the Cable Survey vessel Nero made a sounding of over six statute miles near Guam, which is the greatest depth ever attained. The Coast Survey 18 THE UNITED STATES NAVY steamer Blake and the Fish Commission ship Albatross carried out similarly important work, the latter having collected much information as to marine animals of all sorts. The U. S. S. Niagara, co-operating with the British ship Agamemnon, laid and completed in 1858 the first successful ocean telegraph cable. Officers of the Navy made a number of sur- veys of routes for the interoceanic canal, both by the Isthmus of Panama and by the Nica- ragua route, and the information gained in this way is regarded as having contributed materi- ally to the final solution of the question and the decision to build the Panama Canal, now near- ing completion. American citizens abroad must look to the Navy to protect them from oppression and en- force their rights. In time of great catas- trophe, such as earthquake, massacres, pesti- lence or famine, the Navy is first to respond to calls for aid; notable instances have been the relief of Martinique, Kingston, San Francisco, and Messina, and the critical situation in China NAVAL HISTORY 19 at the time of the Boxer uprising in 1900, when the combined naval forces of the Powers, by their presence and efforts, saved the lives of many persons who otherwise would have been victims of the massacre. Upon the Navy devolves the duty of showing the flag in the world's ports ; in this manner for- eign people become familiar with and impressed by the power of a nation. The recent cruise around the world in 1908-1909 by the fleet of six- teen battleships gave the country a prestige that it could not have acquired otherwise, and also went far in maintaining peace at a time when there was good reason to believe that hostile ac- tion threatened. CHAPTER II THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION THE President is the Commander-in-Chief of the United States Navy. Under his orders it is controlled and managed by the Navy Depart- ment, at the head of which is the Secretary of the Navy, a Cabinet officer. The Navy Depart- ment, through its various bureaus, administers the affairs of the Navy, its ships, navy yards, shore stations, and personnel; it directs the movements of all naval vessels, co-operating with the Department of State when diplomatic considerations require the services of men-of- war ; it has charge of the construction of all new ships for the Navy, and the repairs to those in service; it assigns to duty the various officers and men of the Navy ; it purchases all supplies needed for the naval service, including provi- sions and clothing for the enlisted men, am- 20 T? 7? 0> I THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 21 munition, coal, and miscellaneous articles needed for the building, repairing, maintenance, and running of the ships; it has charge of the Naval Observatory, and, through that, of the telegraphic time service all over the country, and the preparation of the Nautical Almanac ; it has charge of the Naval Academy and various naval training stations for the education and instruction of officers and enlisted men; also the Navy Department administers the affairs of the colonies of Guam, Mariana Islands, and Tu- tuila, Sainoan Islands. The Navy Department is responsible to Con- gress for the execution of its laws and the ex- penditures of the naval appropriations. The control of the Navy was vested in the Secretary of War until 1798, when the Navy Department was established, with Benjamin Stoddert, of Georgetown, D. C., as the first Secretary of the Navy. By reason of the priority of the secre- taryship, the Army is the senior service, and on ceremonial occasions and in parades the Army contingent takes precedence over the Navy. In 22 THE UNITED STATES NAVY England the opposite is true, the Navy being the senior service. The Navy Department is housed with the War and State Departments in a building on Penn- sylvania Avenue, adjacent to the White House. The present building has been occupied since 1879, and in recent years is much overcrowded. In addition to the Secretary of the Navy, the organization of the Navy Department consists of a civilian Assistant Secretary and eight chiefs of bureaus. The chiefs of bureaus are naval officers, and, while so serving, have the rank and pay of rear-admirals. The Assistant Secretary of the Navy per- forms such duties in connection with the admin- istration of the Navy Department as may be assigned to him by the Secretary, and, in the absence of the Secretary, performs the duties of his office. The chiefs of the bureaus are the deputies of the Secretary of the Navy, and, subject to his orders and instructions, they carry on the busi- ness of the Navy Department, each caring for THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 23 the matter directly under the cognizance of his bureau. All orders issued by the Assistant Secretary or the chiefs of bureaus are consid- ered as having full force as orders of the Secre- tary. The business of the Navy Department is dis- tributed among the bureaus in such manner as the Secretary of the Navy judges to be ex- pedient, certain limitations being placed by the annual appropriation bills, which provide the money for carrying out specified work by each bureau. The different bureaus of the Navy Depart- ment and the duties of each are as fol- lows : The Bureau of Navigation, the Chief of which is an officer of the line or seaman branch, is charged with the assignment to duty of officers and men ; the enlistment and instruction of the men ; the appointment and promotion of officers ; the publication and distribution of charts, and with the conducting of ocean and lake surveys. This Bureau supplies navigational outfits and 24 THE UNITED STATES NAVY libraries for ships. It administers the affairs of the Naval Academy, the Naval War College, the Naval Home, the Naval training stations, the Hydrographic Office, and the Naval Ob- servatory. The officers of this Bureau are line officers. The Bureau of Construction and Repair, the Chief of which is the Chief Constructor of the Navy, is charged with all that relates to the structural strength and stability of naval ves- sels, and with all that relates to designing, build- ing, and repairing their hulls and auxiliary ma- chinery. The officers of this Bureau are mem- bers of the Corps of Naval Constructors. The Bureau of Ordnance, the Chief of which is a line officer, has charge of the design and building of naval guns, the purchase and manu- facture of projectiles, armor, torpedoes, powder, and other explosives, and of the electrical ap- paratus connected with the installation of guns. It administers the affairs of the Naval Gun Fac- tory, the Proving Grounds, the Torpedo Fac- tory, and the magazines for storing ashore sup- THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 25 plies of ammunition. The officers of this Bureau are line officers. The Bureau of Steam Engineering, the Chief of which is the Engineer-in-Chief of the Navy, has charge of designing and building the ma- chinery for the propulsion of naval vessels, the boilers, pumps, distilling apparatus, and steam connections. It prepares specifications for the fuel used for the Navy, and controls the Engineering Experiment Station at Anna- polis. The officers of this Bureau are line officers. The Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, the Chief of which is the Paymaster-General of the Navy, is charged with disbursing and keeping an account of all money appropriated and ex- pended for the naval service ; with the purchase and custody of all stores and provisions for the Navy ; with the manufacture and issue of cloth- ing for the enlisted men, and with the purchase and preparation of the food for all enlisted men. The officers of this Bureau are members of the Corps of Paymasters. 26 THE UNITED STATES NAVY The Bureau of Yards and Docks, the Chief X)f which is a civil engineer, has charge of de- signing, building, and maintenance of dry docks, wharves, quays, and buildings at navy yards, and at naval stations ; also with providing fur- niture and accessories for the buildings. The officers of this Bureau are members of the Corps of Civil Engineers. The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, the Chief of which is the Surgeon-General of the Navy, is charged with maintaining the hygiene of the Navy and the health of the Navy person- nel. This Bureau controls naval hospitals, pur- chases medicines and surgical instruments, and has charge of the naval pension records. The officers of this Bureau are members of the Corps of Surgeons. Up to July 1, 1910, there existed also a Bureau of Equipment, the Chief of which was an officer of the line. The business formerly assigned to this Bureau has been divided tentatively by the Secretary of the Navy among other bureaus. That relating to electrical installations on board THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 27 ship, wireless telegraph stations on ship and on shore, and the maintenance and operation of coaling plants on shore, has been assigned to the Bureau of Steam Engineering. That re- lating to the supply of ships of navigational outfits, libraries, and charts, the carrying on of ocean and lake surveys, and the control of the Naval Observatory and the Hydrographic Office has been assigned to the Bureau of Navi- gation. The business of supplying anchors, chains, canvas, cordage, flags, and galley fittings has been assigned to the Bureau of Construc- tion and Repair, and that of supplying mess out- fits to ships has been assigned to the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts. Each chief of bureau is answerable for the proper performance of his duties to the Secre- tary of the Navy, and, through him, to the President. Chiefs of bureaus are appointed by the President from among the officers of cer- tain grades declared by law to be eligible for such appointments. The term of duty for each chief is four years. 28 THE UNITED STATES NAVY In addition to the bureaus, the organization of the Navy Department includes the follow- ing: The Judge Advocate General, whose duties are to consider and report upon the legal features of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, boards of investigation, boards for examina- tion of officers for promotion or retirement, and, in general, all legal questions relating to the personnel of the Navy. The Solicitor, whose duties are to consider and report upon all legal questions not relating to personnel that come before the Secretary of the Navy in connection with the business of the Department. This includes also the prepara- tion and certification of contracts. The General Board of the Navy, the duties of which are to devise plans and measures for the preparation and maintenance of the fleet in readiness for war, and to advise the Secretary of the Navy as to the disposition of the fleet, of- ficers, and men. This board is required also to submit recommendations as to the military THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 29 characteristics of new designs for naval ships. The General Board at present is composed of Admiral Dewey, the Aid for Operations, the Aid for Material, the Chief Intelligence Officer, the President of the Naval War College, and other officers, all of whom are officers of the line. The Office of Naval Intelligence, the duties of which are to collect and arrange, in form to be available when needed, information on all subjects of interest to the naval service. This includes information concerning foreign navies collected by naval attaches abroad. To assist and advise the Secretary in admin- istering and to co-ordinate the work under each of the four principal divisions of the Navy De- partment, there are assigned four officers of the Navy on the active list to act, respectively, as the Aid for Operations, the Aid for Person- nel, the Aid for Material, and the Aid for In- spections. The duty of each of these aids is to advise the Secretary of the Navy as regards the work of his division. 30 THE UNITED STATES NAVY The Division of Operations of the Fleet in- cludes the Office of Naval Intelligence, the Naval War College, and all that relates to the move- ments of naval vessels. The Division of Personnel includes the Bu- reau of Navigation, the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, the office of the Judge Advocate Gen- eral, and matters relating to the Naval Militia. The Division of Material includes the Bureaus of Ordnance, Construction and Repair, Steam Engineering, Yards and Docks, and Supplies and Accounts. The Division of Inspections includes the vari- ous boards of inspection and special inspecting officers. GOVERNMENT OF THE NAVY Officers and enlisted men of the Navy are sub- ject not only to the civil laws of the community in which they are, but, also, to special laws re- lating to the naval service and to the Navy Reg- ulations. The articles for the Government of the Navy, known also as the Articles of War, THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 31 are a part of the Revised Statutes of the United States. They specify the various crimes and misdemeanors, and the degree and method of punishment for each. Under their provisions, the commanding officer of a vessel, by his own order, may inflict certain punishment not to exceed, in the case of an enlisted man, confine- ment for ten days, solitary confinement for seven days, or a diet of bread and water for five days. More severe punishment may be inflicted on an enlisted man by a deck court, consisting of one officer, or by a summary court-martial, consisting of three officers. The deck court and the summary court-martial are appointed by the commanding officers. The deck courts can- not adjudge discharge from the service, nor confinement or loss of pay for more than twenty days. The summary courts-martial have the power to impose maximum sentences on enlisted men as follows : dismissal from the service, confinement on bread and water for one month, or confinement on regulation fare for two months, or loss of pay not to exceed three 32 THE UNITED STATES NAVY months. Summary courts-martial may sen- tence offenders to reduction in rating, extra police duties, or deprivation of liberty on for- eign stations. General courts-martial, consist- ing of not more than thirteen, nor less than five, commissioned officers, may impose any of the sentences, including that of death, mentioned in the articles for the Government of the Navy. Sentences of naval courts-martial are subject to review by the convening authority, and are carried into effect only upon approval by such authority. Those extending to loss of life or the dismissal of an officer are not carried into effect until confirmed by the President. The proceedings of a general court-martial are very formal ; the senior officer presides, and the other members take places in order of their rank. Each member is sworn to ' ' try truly the case depending, according to the evidence which shall come before the court, the rules for the Government of the Navy, and his own con- science." The Judge Advocate of the court keeps the record, and also acts as attorney for THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 33 the prosecution, bringing before the court the witnesses and evidence necessary to prove the charge. All witnesses are sworn to tell the " truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth." Except for a sentence of death, which requires a concurrence of two-thirds of the mem- bers, the vote of the majority determines the findings of a court-martial. General courts- martial may be convened by the President, the Secretary of the Navy, or the Commander-in- Chief of a fleet or squadron in foreign waters on his own authority, or in waters of the United States on the approval of the President. Under the Articles of War, the sentence of death may be imposed upon any person in the naval service for mutiny, disobedience of orders, treason, desertion in time of war, sleeping on watch in time of war, cowardice in battle, wilful destruc- tion or endangering a vessel of the Navy, or failure on signal for battle to use every en- deavor to engage the enemy in battle ; or failure to overtake and capture, or destroy any vessel which it is that person's duty to encounter; or 34 THE UNITED STATES NAVY for striking the flag to an enemy without proper authority; or, when in battle, treacherously yielding or pusillanimously crying for quarter. Other punishments of varying degree are specified, many of them imprisonment for terms of varying length. Others involve confinement on board ship, loss of pay, reduction in rank or rating. For certain misdemeanors an officer may be reduced to be a seaman. Desertion is one of the commonest crimes of enlisted men of the Navy; a greater number of the inmates of naval prisons are undergoing imprisonment for this offense than for any other. Desertion is punishable by confinement for terms of varying length, depending on the circumstances, and dishonorable discharge from the naval service, including loss of citizenship. An officer placed under arrest for trial by court-martial is required to deliver up his sword to his commanding officer, and to confine him- self to the limits prescribed. In time of peace no officer may be dismissed from the Navy ex- cept in pursuance of the sentence of a court- THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 35 martial or in mitigation of a more severe sen- tence. Formerly punishment by flogging was per- mitted, and many suffered from this inhuman treatment. In many cases * ' flogging from ship to ship " was adjudged. This consisted in tak- ing the offender in a launch and administering, alongside of each ship of the fleet in turn, the prescribed number of blows, all hands being called to witness the punishment. Now the Articles of War prohibit the punishment of any person in -the Navy by flogging, branding, or tattooing the body. One of the famous naval courts-martial in his- tory is that which sentenced, in 1757, Sir John Byng, Admiral of the Blue in the English Navy, to be shot for failing to do his utmost to take, seize, and destroy the French ships with which the fleet under his command was engaged off Minorca in 1756. The members of the court- martial which sentenced Admiral Byng unani- mously recommended him for clemency, stating that, under the Articles of War, this was the 36 THE UNITED STATES NAVY only punishment they could adjudge for the of- fense of which he was found guilty. In spite of this recommendation, the sentence was car- ried out. Mutiny is a most serious offense against naval discipline, and many cases have occurred. In the English Navy in the eight- eenth and early part of the nineteenth century, there were many such, punished invariably by hanging the offenders at the yard-arm of their ships, all hands on all ships present being called up to witness the punishment. In the United States Navy the most famous case is that of Midshipman Spencer, who was hung, along with a boatswain's mate and a seaman, for suspected mutiny on board the U. S. S. Somers in 1842. Mr. Spencer, who was a relative of the Secre- tary of the Navy, was not accorded a court- martial, but was hung by order of his captain. Persons in the naval service, sentenced to im- prisonment by courts-martial, are confined in prisons maintained under the control of the Navy Department. There are naval prisons at the navy yards at Portsmouth, N. H., Boston, THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 37 Mass., Mare Island, Cal., and Cavite, P. I. There are also prison ships at Portsmouth, N. H., and Bremerton, Wash. In these the gen- eral court-martial prisoners are confined to serve their sentences. THE FLEETS The ships of the Navy are divided into squad- rons and fleets for purposes of organization and drill ; at the present time there are three fleets, or main divisions, which include all vessels of the Navy in commission, except " special serv- ice " ships. These fleets are the Atlantic Fleet, the Pacific Fleet, and the Asiatic Fleet. Each is commanded by a Bear-Admiral, there not being regularly any higher grade in our Navy. It is probable that were thero officers of the grade of Vice-Admiral one would be in command of each fleet. Foreign countries with smaller navies than ours have in command afloat Vice-Admirals and even Admirals. It is ex- pected that Congress will establish the grade of Vice-Admiral, if not that of Admiral, so that 3d THE UNITED STATES NAVY this country will not be shamed further by having foreign officers commanding weaker fleets take precedence over its officers. Ad- miral Dewey and his predecessors in this grade, Farragut and David Porter, received the rank by special acts of Congress. Under present laws in this country, the grade and title of ad- miral cease with the death of the incumbent until again revived by special law. It does not follow that four battleships are four times as strong as one battleship, for it might happen that, if not drilled properly and managed skilfully, four ships would be less formidable than a single well-drilled ship. For this reason warships are maneuvered in squad- ron and fleet formations, to teach their officers to perform the various evolutions that the com- mander-in-chief may order by signal, and also to make them effective as a whole against a similar hostile aggregation. There are many elements that enter into the question of dispos- ing a fleet so as to present the strongest pos- sible formation to an attacking force, naval tac- THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 39 tics being a complicated subject which changes with each type of ship brought out, and which offers continually new and difficult problems. The headquarters of the Atlantic Fleet is on the east coast of the United States ; that of the Pacific Fleet is on the west coast, and the head- quarters of the Asiatic Fleet is in the Philippine Islands. As at present constituted the Atlantic Fleet consists of twenty-one battleships, four divi- sions of five battleships each, and a battleship to serve as flagship for the commander-in-chief. There are fleet auxiliaries consisting of supply ships, a range ship, a hospital ship, a repair ship, and several tenders. There is also a cruiser division of four ships. The Pacific Fleet consists of two divisions of three armored cruisers each and a fleet sup- ply ship. The Asiatic Fleet consists of three divisions, one of which comprises an armored cruiser and two protected cruisers, and the other two are 40 THE UNITED STATES NAVY made up of small gunboats. There are two coast defense monitors attached to this fleet. There are, similarly, three torpedo fleets, each consisting of the torpedo craft and submarines in the various waters. There are a number of vessels not attached to any fleet, but assigned to special service. This includes several battleships in reserve, which are manned only with skeleton crews, but are maintained in condition to be placed in service at short notice. The arrangement of the various fleets and the number and character of vessels attached to each are subject to fre- quent change, depending on various considera- tions. NAVY YARDS AND SHORE STATIONS For the repair and maintenance of vessels of the Navy there are a number of navy yards and stations. The principal ones are at Ports- mouth, N. H., Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Norfolk, Charleston, S. C., Mare Island, Cal., Puget Sound, Wash., and Cavite, P. I. There THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 41 are others, smaller ones, at Pensacola and Key West, Fla., and at New Orleans. There is also a navy yard at Washington, D. C., where the chief work is the manufacture of guns. Each ship of the Navy is assigned to a " home yard," which it visits usually twice a year for docking and necessary repairs and overhauling. All of the navy yards have shops and other facilities for carrying out the work on the ships assigned to them. They have dry docks capable of docking ships for periodical cleaning and painting of the bottoms, and for such work on the underwater portion of the hulls as may be necessary from time to time. Several of the navy yards are equipped for building ships, those at New York and Mare Island for building the largest size battleships. At the present time the New York Yard is en- gaged in building the 27,000-ton battleship New York. At this yard were built the battleship Maine, which was blown up in Havana harbor, and the battleships Connecticut and Florida. The greater number of the Navy's ships were 42 THE UNITED STATES NAVY built, however, in private shipyards under con- tract. All navy yards are provided with' the neces- sary shops, machines, tools, and appliances for all classes of repair work on naval vessels. This includes the facilities requisite for work on en- gines and machinery of every kind, guns, boil- ers, electrical installations, foundry and pattern work, ship carpenter and joiner work, sheet metal, steel plate, and structural work, painting and plumbing, spars and rigging, anchors and chains, blocks, cooperage ; for sail and flag mak- ing, and for building and repairing small boats. Navy yards have also general storehouses for the reception, care, and issue of material required to carry on the work in the yard, and for stores and provisions for the maintenance of the ships. At the New York Yard there is a shop for the manufacture of the uniform cloth- ing for the enlisted men of the Navy. The administration of a navy yard is under the Commandant, who is responsible to the Sec- retary of the Navy for the proper performance THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 43 of the work assigned to it. A Bear-Admiral or a Captain in the Navy usually is assigned to each of the large yards as Commandant. Under the Commandant are the Captain of the Yard and the heads of the divisions of the Manufac- turing Department, the former being a line of- ficer of the Navy of the rank usually of Captain. On duty in navy yards there are also a General Storekeeper, who is a member of the Pay Corps of the Navy, a Yard Surgeon, a pay officer, de- tailed as Paymaster of the Yard, and a pay of- ficer detailed as Accounting Officer, and charged with keeping the accounts of the cost of work. There is, also, a line officer, detailed as Inspect- ing Officer, who passes on work which has been performed by the manufacturing department. The manufacturing department is divided into the machinery division, the hull division, and the public works department. The head of each is, respectively, a line officer, a naval con- structor, and a civil engineer. The machinery division carries out all work on the engines, boilers, auxiliary machinery, and 44 THE UNITED STATES NAVY electrical plants of vessels ; the hull division has work relating to hulls and their accessories, in- cluding docking of vessels. The public works department has charge of work on buildings and grounds, and the construction of public works. The General Storekeeper is charged with ob- taining and issuing materials and stores neces- sary for carrying on the work, and to meet the requirements of ships in commission. Navy yard employes consist of two classes, clerks and draughtsmen forming one, and work- men another. The clerks and draughtsmen are appointed under the civil service rules, and hold permanent appointments during good behavior. The workmen are employed or discharged as required by the amount of work in hand. Formerly the employment of navy yard labor was a source of corruption for political pur- poses, but nowadays workmen are employed and discharged under a system that prevents any possibility of favoritism. The law requires that when additional workmen are needed they shall be called in the order in which their names THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 45 appear on a registration list, preference being given only to veterans of the Civil and Spanish Wars, and to honorably discharged enlisted men of the Navy or Army. There is also a require- ment of law that no increase in the force of workmen at a navy yard may be made within sixty days preceding a national election, except in case of emergency, to which the Secretary of the Navy must certify. Annually, a board of officers appointed by the Commandant, meets to determine the rate of wages that shall be paid to workmen of each trade and class during the succeeding year. The law requires that the rates of wages shall be based on those paid by private firms, in the vicinity, doing similar work. Navy yard work- men work only eight hours each day, have half holidays, with pay, on Saturdays during the summer months, are paid full wages for legal holidays, and are allowed, in addition, fifteen days' leave with full pay each year. Owing to these considerations, the Government is able to secure in its navy yards the best class of me- 46 THE UNITED STATES NAVY chanics in each community, and the work done is of the highest character. Boys between the ages of fifteen and eighteen years are employed in navy yards for appren- ticeship in the various trades. These are paid liberal wages, are encouraged to study, and to learn their trades thoroughly, and, upon reach- ing the age of twenty-one, they are given cer- tificates of completion of apprenticeship, and are rated in the regular yard force. This sys- tem gives a large number of boys an oppor- tunity, that they might not otherwise enjoy, of learning a trade. At each of the principal navy yards there are several hundred apprentices. In addition to the navy yards a number of other shore stations are maintained for various purposes in connection with the naval establish- ment ; the most important and widely known of these, perhaps, is the Naval Observatory in Washington. The Observatory has, as one of its functions, the duty of sending out daily at noon, to points throughout the country, the tele- graphic time signals; in its offices is compiled THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 47 " The Nautical Almanac and American Ephe- meris," for use of navigators all over the world; at this institution all chronometers and compasses for naval vessels are adjusted before being sent out. Also, at the Observatory naval officers may receive instruction in the manage- ment and use of chronometers and compasses. Other naval stations >are the Naval Proving Ground at Indian Head, Md., where all large guns for the Navy are proved, ballistic tests of armor plates are made, and smokeless powder is manufactured; the Naval Torpedo Station at Newport, E. I., where torpedoes are tested and some smokeless powder made. The Naval Training Stations, where newly enlisted ap- prentice seamen are given preliminary training, are: Newport, E. I., Norfolk, Va., San Fran- cisco, Cal., and on Lake Michigan, near Chicago. The Naval Academy, where midshipmen are in- structed, is at Annapolis, Md. There are a number of coal depots along the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf Coasts, and in the in- sular possessions ; in these coal for use of naval 48 THE UNITED STATES NAVY vessels is stored in varying quantities, ranging up to 40,000 tons at the larger depots. The Navy maintains an intercommunicating chain of wireless telegraph stations at conveni- ent points along the coast lines, and in Alaska and the island possessions, to insure prompt communication with vessels off shore. Wireless telegraphy, as well as being of growing im- portance to ship owners, has become an es- sential element in national defense. There are naval hospitals located near each of the navy yards for the care and treatment of the sick among the officers and enlisted men of the Navy. There is also a naval hospital at Las Animas, Colo., for the treatment of those suffering with tuberculosis. At Hot Springs, Ark., the Army and Navy General Hospital treats naval patients for rheumatic and similar ailments. There are naval powder depots, located at suitable isolated points, near each of the various navy yards, for the storage of ammunition. The Hydrographic Office of the Navy Depart- THE NAVY'S ORGANIZATION 49 ment is charged with disseminating information of interest to mariners, with the preparation and printing of charts for navigation purposes, and sailing directions. It prepares and issues a monthly pilot chart of the oceans, showing the direction and force of prevailing winds and currents, location of derelicts, and giving the most advantageous sailing routes. There are branch hydrographic offices in the principal ports, where information of the above character is collected and disseminated. CHAPTER III THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL COMMISSIONED PERSONNEL THE officers of the Navy are divided into line officers and staff officers. All commissioned of- ficers are appointed by the President in con- formity with the requirements of laws relating to such appointments. These appointments must be confirmed by the United States Senate ; that having been done, a commission, signed by the President and the Secretary of the Navy, and bearing the seal of the Navy Department, is issued to each officer. The various titles, in the order of their rank, of the line officers are : Admiral, Bear- Admiral, Commodore, a title existing only on the re- tired list, Captain, Commander, Lieutenant- Commander, Lieutenant, Lieutenant (junior grade), Ensign, Midshipman, Chief Boatswain, 50 LIBRARY SIQINEER SCHOOL. THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 51 Chief Gunner, and Chief Machinist. Boat- swains, Gunners and Machinists are warrant of- ficers of the line. The staff officers are : Surgeons, Paymasters, Professors of Mathematics, Naval Construct- ors, Civil Engineers, Chief Carpenters, Chief Sailmakers, and Chief Machinists. Carpenters, Sailmakers, and Pharmacists are warrant of- ficers of the staff. Staff officers of the Navy have rank for the purpose of determining their position in the service with relation to the line officers. Their commissions state their rank as well as their staff corps designation, but their titles are those of their corps designa- tion. Naval officers take rank with officers of the Army and Marine Corps as follows : The Admiral ranks with a general, Rear-admirals with major-generals, Commodores with brigadier-generals, Captains in the Navy with colonels, Commanders with lieutenant-colonels, Lieutenant-commanders with majors, 52 THE UNITED STATES NAVY Lieutenants in the Navy with captains in the Army, Lieutenants (junior grade) with first lieuten- ants, and Ensigns with second lieutenants. The Revised Statutes require that no person shall be appointed to any office in the Navy un- less he is a citizen of the United States, and not until he has passed a physical, mental, and pro- fessional examination. The oath of allegiance to uphold the Constitution of the United States is required to be taken prior to an appoint- ment. LINE OFFICERS The line of the Navy is recruited almost en- tirely from among the graduates of the Naval Academy, but each year the law allows a num- ber, not exceeding twelve, of boatswains, gun- ners, and machinists, who may be able to qualify by passing the prescribed examinations to be commissioned as ensigns. All midshipmen, before they become ensigns, THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 53 must have passed a four years' course on proba- tion at the Naval Academy, at Annapolis, and two years at sea in a cruising vessel. Appoint- ments to the Naval Academy are made by the President, Senators, and Representatives. The President each year is allowed to appoint at large five midshipmen to Annapolis, and each Senator and Eepresentative may have at one time two midshipmen from his respective State or District at the Naval Academy. In 1913 this number will be reduced to one for each Senator and Eepresentative. The age of the candidates must be between sixteen and twenty years. Can- didates, after receiving appointments to the Naval Academy, are examined thoroughly as to their mental and physical qualifications. Upon passing these examinations a candidate is admitted to the Naval Academy, takes the oath of allegiance, and becomes a midshipman. His pay is $600 per annum, and an allowance is made him of thirty cents each day of ration money. Out of their pay and allowance mid- shipmen must meet the cost of their food, cloth- 54 THE UNITED STATES NAVY ing, laundry, textbooks, etc., and they are re- quired to keep sufficient money to their credit to purchase an outfit upon graduation. Their pay is not turned over to the midshipmen, but their accounts are kept, and all authorized ex- penses charged to them. The midshipmen are allowed to draw small sums for pocket money, and when they go on the one-month leave granted each year, usually each is allowed to draw a sufficient amount to defray his traveling expenses to his home. The Naval Academy course covers four years; the studies embrace a wide range, and are very difficult, and many midshipmen fail to pass the semi-annual examinations and are dropped. Those who obtain an average of 62y 2 per cent, in each branch of study graduate and receive a diploma certifying that they have com- pleted the course of studies. If a midshipman's total average mark for the four years is more than 85 per cent, of the maximum, the words " with distinction " are inserted in the diploma. If his average is 74 per cent., he is stated to J O2 bO THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 55 have graduated " with credit." During the four years at the Naval Academy the corps of midshipmen is taken for three months, each summer, on a practice cruise. Formerly these cruises were made in wooden sailing ships, often to Europe and Madeira ; of recent years modern men-of-war have been utilized, and the cruises have been along the coast, and, more recently, abroad. Upon graduation midshipmen are assigned to duty afloat on board regular cruising vessels, and they take their place as junior officers of these ships and join the " steerage " messes. They are required to continue their studies, especially such as relate to practical work in navigation, engineering, and ordnance. At the end of two years they are examined again, and the marks obtained are averaged with those of the four years' course at the Naval Academy, and the total average, made by each midship- man, determines the order in which he will take rank, and in which his name will appear through life in the Navy Eegister, unless, by reason of 56 THE UNITED STATES NAVY reward or punishment, he is advanced or re- duced in grade. When officers have served as ensigns for three years, they are promoted, subject to their passing a thorough examination, to be lieuten- ants of the junior grade, after which they can be promoted only in order of their standing on the Navy Eegister, after due examination, as vacancies occur, the number of officers allowed in each higher grade being fixed by law. At the present time there are large numbers of young officers in the Navy, and when these are pro- moted to the higher grades there will be what is called a " hump," a number of officers of about the same age filling the upper grades for several years before retirement, and promotion will become very slow. The duties that may be performed by line of- ficers of each grade are specified by the Navy Regulations, and are in general as follows : The Admiral of the Navy may command a fleet or perform other duty as assigned by the Navy Department. THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 57 A rear-admiral may command a fleet, squad- ron, division, or a naval station. A captain may command a division or a squadron, a naval station, a battleship, an armored cruiser, or a ship not rated, or be chief of staff to a flag officer. A commander may command a division or a squadron, a naval station, a battleship, a pro- tected cruiser of the first rate, a ship of the second or third rate, a torpedo destroyer flotilla, or a ship not rated; be chief of staff to a flag officer; be fleet engineer or executive officer of a battleship or armored cruiser. A lieutenant-commander may command a ship of the third or fourth rate, a torpedo flotilla, a torpedo destroyer, or a ship not rated. He may serve as executive officer, navigator, ordnance officer or engineer officer of a ship commanded by an officer of superior grade, ex- cept a battleship or armored cruiser commanded by a captain. He may serve also as fleet ord- nance officer, or as flag secretary on the staff of a commander-in-chief. 58 THE UNITED STATES NAVY A lieutenant may command a ship of the fourth rate, or torpedo division, a torpedo de- stroyer, torpedo boat, submarine, tug, tender, or ship not rated. He may serve as executive officer, navigator, ordnance officer, senior en- gineer officer or watch officer in a ship com- manded by an officer of superior grade. He also may be flag lieutenant, or aide to a flag of- ficer, or secretary to the admiral while on sea service. A lieutenant (junior grade) may command a torpedo boat, submarine, tug, tender, or ship not rated, and may serve as executive officer, navi- gator, ordnance officer, senior engineer officer, or watch officer in a ship commanded by an officer of superior grade. He may be flag lieutenant or aide to the commander of a division. An ensign may command a torpedo boat, submarine, tug or ship not rated, and may serve as executive officer, navigator, ordnance officer, senior engineer officer, or watch officer in a ship commanded by an officer of superior grade. He THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 59 may be aide to the commander of a squadron, or the captain of a ship. A midshipman is required to perform such duty afloat, including watch and division duty, as maybe assigned to him. He, however, may not be detailed for duty as an aide to the cap- tain, nor on the personal staff of a flag officer. Line officers perform engineering duties. Formerly there was a Corps of Engineers in the Navy, but the Naval Personnel Act of 1899 amalgamated the Engineer Corps with the line, and required that line officers should perform engineering duties in addition to their other work. A line officer, therefore, besides being qualified in navigation and ordnance, must be a skilled engineer capable of taking charge of the complicated machinery of a modern warship. STAFF OFFICERS Medical Corps. The members of the Medical Corps of the Navy are appointed from civil life either as assistant surgeons or acting assistant surgeons. Candidates must be between the 60 THE UNITED STATES NAVY ages of twenty-one and thirty, and must pass an extremely severe professional examination before a board of naval surgeons. Upon being commissioned, usually they are detailed to take the course of instruction at the Naval Medical School in Washington and, after completing that, they are assigned to general duty either as assistant to the surgeon of the ship on a sea- going vessel, or in one of the naval hospitals or navy yards, or on stations where there is a marine detachment. Assistant surgeons rise by seniority through the successive grades of passed assistant surgeons, surgeons, medical inspectors, and medical directors. The officers of the Medical Corps are charged with maintaining the health of the personnel of the Navy and the Marine Corps. Paymasters. The members of the Corps of Paymasters are appointed from civil life, preference being given to those applicants who have had some experience as accountants. Can- didates must be between the ages of twenty-one THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 61 and twenty-six. They are appointed first as as- sistant paymasters, and are detailed for duty on one of the larger vessels as assistant to the paymaster of the ship, or as pay- master of a small ship, or as assistant to the general storekeeper in one of the navy yards. Assistant paymasters rise by seniority to be- come successively passed assistant paymasters, paymasters, pay inspectors, and pay directors. The officers of the Pay Corps are charged with disbursing all the money appropriated for the Navy, and with the purchase and care of stores of all kinds ; also, the paymasters of ships are commissary officers, and general storekeep- ers of their ships. Members of the Pay Corps are required, as disbursing officers of the gov- ernment and custodians of public funds, to file a bond for the faithful performance of their duty. Naval Constructors. The Corps of Naval Con- structors is the only corps consisting ex- clusively of graduates of the Naval Academy, 62 THE UNITED STATES NAVY nearly all the members having graduated with distinction. Formerly it was customary to send, for spe- cial instruction, to schools in England and France, such midshipmen as were selected for assignment to the Construction Corps, but that plan of education and recruiting the Corps has been abandoned. Selections for the Corps of Naval Constructors now are made from the class of midshipmen upon the completion of their two years' cruise after graduation, and they are sent to Boston to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to take a three years' special course in naval architecture. Officers in the Construction Corps first are commissioned as assistant naval constructors, rising by seniority, after service of not less than eight nor more than fourteen years, from the status of assistant to that of naval con- structor. The naval constructors are charged with the design, construction, and repair of hulls of naval vessels. THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 63 Professors of Mathematics. The members of the Corps of Professors of Mathematics are appointed from among officers of the Navy or from civil life. They are assigned either to duty at the Naval Academy, for the instruction of the midshipmen, or to the U. S. Naval Observatory for scientific work in connec- tion with the preparation of the " Nautical Almanac," and for the astronomical work that is done there. They are appointed by the President, who selects them with a view to the duties they are expected to perform. Civil Engineers. Members of the Corps of Civil Engineers are appointed from graduates of the Naval Academy, or from civil life, as as- sistant civil engineers. Candidates must be be- tween the ages of twenty-one and twenty-six years, and must pass a professional examination before a board of naval civil engineers. They are promoted by seniority to become civil engineers. These officers are charged with the duty of de- signing and constructing various public works for the Navy, 64 THE UNITED STATES NAVY Chaplains. Chaplains are appointed by the President. Candidates must be between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-five, and must be regularly ordained ministers of good standing in their denominations. They may be assigned to duty on board sea-going ships, or at navy yards, or stations. They are permitted to con- duct public worship according to the manner and forms of the churches of which they are members. Secretary. Besides the above-mentioned Corps of Staff Officers there is allowed as Sec- retary to the Admiral of the Navy, in the event of there being an admiral, a staff officer with the rank of lieutenant; this office holds only during the lifetime, and upon the recommendation of, the Admiral. WARRANT OFFICERS The warrant officers of the line are boat- swains, gunners, and machinists; those of the staff are carpenters, sailmakers, and pharma- cists. These officers are appointed or " war- THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 65 ranted " by the Secretary of the Navy and, excepting the pharmacist, after six years' service as warrant officers are promoted and receive commissions issued by the Presi- dent, giving them a rank with but next after ensign, and adding the prefix " chief ' to their titles, as chief boatswain, chief gunner, etc. Candidates for appointment as acting warrant officer must pass an examina- tion, before a board of officers, to demonstrate their ability to perform the duties of the posi- tion, preference being given to enlisted men of the Navy who have good records. After serv- ing one year under an acting appointment, an acting warrant officer is eligible to receive a permanent warrant. There are about six hun- dred warrant officers, the greater number of whom are ex-enlisted men. The duties of the warrant officers are largely mechanical, each having the functions indicated by his title, and being a specialist in that line. It is possible for warrant officers to become en- signs by being nominated and passing the re- 66 THE UNITED STATES NAVY quired examination, and thus come in the line of promotion for higher commissioned rank in the Navy. ENLISTED FORCE The Navy requires men of varied knowledge to operate its ships. These men are enlisted for a term of four years, and are graded and paid according to their capabilities. Each man on enlistment is required to take an oath binding himself to support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, for- eign and domestic, and to give true faith and allegiance to the same. Upon expiration of en- listment, each man, if recommended by his cap- tain for fidelity, obedience, and ability, receives an honorable discharge, with travel allowance from the place of discharge to the place of en- listment. If he presents himself for re-enlist- ment at a recruiting station or on board a naval ship within four months from date of discharge, he is entitled to be paid for the four months at his regular rate of pay, and is further en- THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 67 titled to receive increased pay for each re- enlistment for four years. At the present time no recruit is accepted un- less he is a citizen of the United States. Men who are aliens and have had previous service must agree to take out citizenship papers be- fore re-enlistment. More than 96 per cent, of the enlisted force of the Navy at the present time are Americans, there being no place in the Navy for any one except honest, conscientious, capable young Americans. An enlisted man is designated by a title or rate indicating the work he does. The desig- nations are: Seaman, carpenter's mate, machin- ist's mate, plumber, painter, ship-fitter, copper- smith, blacksmith, quartermaster, sailmaker, signalman, gunner's mate, electrician, yeoman, printer, hospital attendant, laundryman, musi- cian, steward, baker, mess attendant, cook, and master-at-arms. According to their capabil- ities and the importance of the work, the men are graded into classes as follows : Chief petty officers, first, second, and third class petty of- 68 THE UNITED STATES NAVY ficers. Below the petty officers there are three other grades, the designation depending on the branch ; for instance, in the seaman branch, the recruit is known as an " apprentice seaman," his next promotion being to " ordinary sea- man, ' ' and then to * ' seaman. ' ' In the engineer branch the recruit, unless he has had experience as a machinist, is a " coal passer," and is pro- moted to be a " fireman, second class," and then a " fireman, first class," and then is eligi- ble to be promoted to be an oiler, a water tender, or a machinist's mate. Many of the duties required of enlisted men are such that special training is necessary. For this purpose, in addition to the training sta- tions for the apprentice seamen, schools are maintained at different navy yards for the training of enlisted men in the special line of work for which they have demonstrated fitness. The training given is thorough, and provides many enlisted men with a trade that serves them in good stead if, after the expiration of their enlistment, they decide to leave the Navy. THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 69 Seamen. All newly enlisted men in the sea- man branch who have not had previous service are enlisted with the grade or rating of " ap- prentice seaman." The Navy maintains sev- eral training stations for the preliminary in- struction of such recruits, the course lasting four months, during which the apprentice sea- man is given lessons in the elements of navy life and duties. This includes teaching him to keep his outfit, sleep in a hammock, swim, row, sail a boat, make signals, and perform various drills. At the end of the course the apprentice seaman, who may be promoted to be an ordinary seaman, is transferred to a cruising warship, where he enters into his regular duties as a man-of-war 's-man. An enlisted man of the seaman branch is eligible for promotion to petty officership, to be a master-at-arms, a coxswain, boatswain's mate, gunner's mate, quartermaster, gun captain, tur- ret captain, or electrician. There are at the Navy Yard, Washington, and at the Torpedo Station at Newport schools for 70 THE UNITED STATES NAVY seaman-gunners. There enlisted men who show adaptability for the work are instructed so that they may qualify for positions as gunner's mates and turret and gun captains. For the training of electricians there are schools at the Navy Yards at New York and Mare Island. Men to go to these latter schools must be elec- tricians by trade or show special aptitude for the work. Engineer Force. There are two divisions in this branch that of the engine room and that of the fire room. In the former there are chief machinist's mates, machinist's mates, first and second class, and oilers. In the latter there are chief water tenders, water tenders, firemen, first and second class, and coal passers. There is a school for machinist's mates at the Navy Yard at Norfolk, Va., where men in the ratings of water tender, oiler, and firemen, first class, are entitled upon re-enlistment to be sent for instruction to fit them for advancement to be machinist mates. Artificers. This branch embraces carpenter's THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 71 mates, shipwrights, plumbers, painters, sail- maker's mates, shipfitters, coppersmiths, black- smiths and boilermakers. There is a school at the Norfolk Navy Yard where men, enlisted in these ratings, are taught the application of their trades that they may work in war vessels. The men of the artificers branch are rated as petty officers, and accordingly they receive higher pay, and also have training in a trade that can be used to advantage in civil life. Hospital Corps. This branch provides apothe- caries, attendants, and nurses for the naval hos- pitals on shore, and the " sick bays " on the men-of-war. The members are graded as hos- pital stewards and hospital apprentices, first and second class. The Hospital Corps Train- ing School, located at the Norfolk Naval Hos- pital, gives the recruits ground work for the study of medicine ; they are taught the elements of anatomy, physiology, pharmacy, materia medica, nursing, cooking, and clerical work, and they are given practical instruction in the care of the sick, first aid to the injured, etc. 72 Musicians. These are enlisted for service in bands, one of which is stationed on each large warship, and as buglers. They are rated as bandmaster, first musician, musician first class, musician second class, and bugler. There are schools for musicians at the Navy Yard, Norfolk, and at the Training Station at New-j port. There is a special band at the Naval Acad- emy, and one known as the Marine Band, at, Washington. The latter is considered by many to be the finest military band in the country. Commissary and Messmen Branch. The men of the commissary branch prepare and serve the food of the enlisted men, those of the messmen branch that for the officers. In the former there are two grades of commissary stewards, four grades of ship's cooks, and two grades of bakers; in the latter there are officers' stewards, cooks, and mess attendants. All of these are enlisted men, and have their stations at quarters just as do other members of the crew. There is at the Training Station at Newport a class for ship's cooks and bakers. THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 73 Clerical Branch. For the clerical work on board ship and to keep an account of the stores there are chief yeomen, and yeomen first, sec- ond, and third class; some of these must be stenographers and typewriters, others must be expert bookkeepers or qualified to keep the ship's log. At Newport and San Francisco there are yeoman's training schools, where re- cruits in this branch are instructed in the cler- ical duties which they will be called on to per- form on board ship. The pay of enlisted men is comparatively high, ranging from about $100 per month, for certain chief petty officers, to $18 for apprentice seamen and landsmen. In addition to the reg- ular pay of his grade, each man is offered the opportunity of earning extra pay for qualify- ing as gun pointer, or seaman gunner, or by per- forming special duty, such as signalman, cox- swain of steam launches, seamen in charge of holds, lamplighters, etc. Each recruit on en- listment is given free an outfit to the value of $60. Liberal allowance is made for feeding en- 74 THE UNITED STATES NAVY listed men and, unlike the officers, who must meet their own mess bills, they are well fed at the public expense. THE MARINE CORPS This Corps was established by the Continental Congress during the Revolutionary War, and since has taken part in every war in which the country has been engaged. At the present time the duties of the Marine Corps are to furnish guards for all of the large warships, and to form garrisons for the navy yards and some of the colonial dependencies, as Guam, the Philip- pines, and the Isthmian Canal Zone. The marine guard on one of the largest battleships consists of two officers and about seventy men. They perform sentry duty, and usually man several guns of the secondary bat- tery, and are available for landing parties, etc. The Marine Corps is under the immediate control of the Major-General Commandant, who is himself subject to the orders of the Secre- THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 75 tary of the Navy. The Marine Corps, notwith- standing it is under the Navy Department, strictly speaking, cannot be considered as a part of the Navy ; its officers and men wear dis- tinctive uniforms, and they are organized on a similar basis to the Army. The men and of- ficers receive the same pay and allowances as are provided by law for the Army, and the various grades correspond to those in the Army. Thus, among the enlisted men there are: Pri- vates, corporals, sergeants, first sergeants, sergeants-major, and gunnery sergeants, and among the officers there are: Second and first lieutenants, captains, majors, lieutenant-colo- nels, colonels, and the major-general com- mandant. Each grade among the officers cor- responds to some certain grade in the Navy, and the officers take rank among themselves accord- ingly. Recruits in the Marine Corps usually are sent to the barracks at one of the navy yards ; there they are taught the elements of soldiering be- fore being assigned to a regular station or ship. 76 THE UNITED STATES NAVY Officers of the Marine Corps formerly have been appointed both from among graduates of the Naval Academy, and from civil life. At the present time appointments are being made from civil life, although it is expected shortly to re- sume the practice of appointing Naval Academy graduates. Applicants for appointment from civil life as second lieutenants of marines must be between the ages of twenty-one and twenty- seven years, and they are required to pass a thorough mental and physical examination. After appointment usually they are detailed to take the course of instruction at the Marine Corps School of Application, now at the Naval Station, Port Royal, S. C. The Marine Corps consists of about 300 officers and 10,000 enlisted men, of whom approximately one-third perform duty on board ship, the remainder being sta- tioned at various naval stations. RETIREMENT Officers and enlisted men of the Navy have the privilege of retiring from active service un- THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 77 der certain conditions. Officers may be retired for disability incurred in the line of duty, or after the completion of thirty years' service. When officers reach the age of sixty-two years they are obliged to retire. Enlisted men may retire after having served thirty years, if they desire. Eetired officers and men receive three- quarters pay, while enlisted men receive, in addition, allowances for quarters and sub- sistence. NAVAL MILITIA The Naval Militia now is organized only un- der the laws of various States, in all about twenty-three, and consists of about 600 com- missioned and warrant officers, and about 7,000 petty officers and men. The United States Gov- ernment, through the Navy Department, ex- tends aid and encouragement to the various or- ganizations so far as it is possible in the absence of any general law regarding a Naval Militia. An appropriation of $100,000, increased re- cently to $125,000, has been made annually for 78 THE UNITED STATES NAVY providing arms and equipment to all of the various organizations. This meager allowance has been supplemented indirectly by the De- partment in loaning naval vessels, boats, and other equipment to the States for use in train- ing their organizations. The necessity for a law regarding an organ- ized national naval militia or reserve is gen- erally recognized, as in time of war many ves- sels are fitted out in addition to those regularly in commission. The needed crews could not be obtained at haphazard, and there must be some source of supply from which to draw the men and officers having the necessary training. Sec- retary Long, in his annual report for the year 1901, submitted strong recommendations, based on experience during the Spanish War, for the establishment of a national naval reserve. Suc- ceeding Secretaries have repeated his recom- mendations, which were as follows: " I have to call attention again to the pressing need of a national reserve force from which to draw for sea service immediately upon an outbreak of war. This THE NAVY'S PERSONNEL 79 subject has received attention in previous reports, and recommendations have been made for the enrolment and organization of such a national body, to be under the general direction of the Navy Department and sub- ject to the call of the Chief Executive in times of na- tional emergency. " The results of the Spanish- American War were such as to assure every one having knowledge of naval matters that steps should be taken at once to meet the one certain and positive requirement which will face the nation upon an outbreak of war the immedi- ate necessity at that exigent time, if it comes, of a large increase in the men of the Navy from an exist- ing reserve an increase which must, in the main, be made from the seafaring class, who, having acquired the habit of the sea, are at home on the water. There is no better way of insuring such a reserve than by the measure now urged. ' ' Our pressing need is for such a reserve a body to go to the front on board ship at once upon the out- break of war, or when it is imminent." The Naval Militia organizations, as they exist at the present time, consist of earnest men who desire to prepare themselves for the patriotic duty of rendering service to the country in time of war. These men deserve all encouragement, 80 THE UNITED STATES NAVY and should be placed on a proper status as re- gards their relations to the United States Gov- ernment, which they are preparing themselves to serve. This has been done already for the land militia by a law enacted in 1903. The Navy Department has loaned a number of vessels with skeleton crews from the Navy for use in training several of the various State organizations. Annually a cruise of vessels, loaned to the Naval Militia, is held for instruc- tion purposes. Also a number of the battleships of the Atlantic Fleet are assigned to take out the various organizations for drill and practical experience. The gun-boat Don Juan de Austria, captured from the Spaniards at Manila Bay. Now in use by the Michigan Naval Militia The gun-boat Yorktown CHAPTER IV MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION THERE is a certain ceremonious routine which must be observed in commissioning a man-of- war. The vessel is placed in commission by the officials of the navy yard in which it is built, or to which it is delivered by the builder. The Captain of the Yard, under the direction of the Commandant, usually has charge of the ceremony. The Captain, officers, and crew of the ship assemble on the quarter deck at an ap- pointed hour, the order of the Secretary of the Navy directing that the ship be commissioned is read, the colors and the commission pennant are then hoisted, the band plays the national air, and the ship is " in commission." After the commissioning it devolves upon the officers and crew to prepare the ship for sea. Stores, coal, and ammunition must be taken 81 82 THE UNITED STATES NAVY aboard, stations and duties must be learned, and the daily routine of a man-of-war estab- lished; station bills assigning duties and sta- tions to each member of the crew having been prepared in advance. Each man is assigned to a division, under the charge of a division officer. Midshipmen are assigned to the vari- ous divisions as junior officers, and they aid the division officers in the drilling and instruct- ing the men. The crew for a ship about to go into com- mission usually is assembled somewhat in ad- vance on the receiving ship at the navy yard. This permits the men to be drilled together and organized into a ship's company before the ship actually is commissioned. They are drafted from the various training stations and receiving ships, as may be necessary to form the required complement. When the ship is ready for sea, sailing orders are sent to the Captain, and he proceeds to sea for a so-called " shaking down " cruise, which is intended to shake down every officer and man MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 83 to a proper understanding of his duties, and so that all may accustom themselves to the ship. The following list of the various branches gives the complement of men and officers for a 27,000-ton battleship, a 14,500-ton armored cruiser, and for a 9,700-ton protected cruiser : BATTLESHIP ARMORED PROTECTED CRUISER CRUISER Wardroom officers 24 18 18 Junior " 39 16 8 Warrant " 14 8 7 Seaman branch (and ratings) 485 418 283 Engine-room force 274 298 278 Artificer branch 58 43 35 Commissary branch 18 17 14 Messmen 33 29 24 Special branch (yeomen, hospital attendants, and musicians) 38 37 16 Additional for flagship 48 23 37 Marine guard 77 67 52 1108 974 772 SHIP ORGANIZATION The commanding officer or captain of a war- ship, under the Secretary of the Navy, has con- trol of its movements and is held accountable for accidents and similar incidents. As has been seen, the Captain has the right to adjudge limited punishment and imprisonment for mis- behavior. The next below the Captain, is the 84 THE UNITED STATES NAVY executive officer, who has the rank of com- mander on battleships and armored cruisers, and lower rank on other vessels, depending on the rank of the commanding officer. He is, as his title indicates, the representative of the Captain in executing his orders and in main- taining the military and general efficiency of the ship. He succeeds to the command of the ship in the absence or death of the Captain. In time of battle he is fire-control officer, and as such di- rects and controls the fire of the guns, subject to the orders of the Captain. On board battleships and armored cruisers, an officer of the rank of lieutenant-commander or lieutenant is assigned as " first lieutenant." This officer generally is next in rank to the ex- ecutive officer, but always is senior to the watch officers. The first lieutenant is charged with the cleanliness, good order, and efficiency of the ship, and is thus the " housekeeper." In time of battle he assists the executive officer in his duties as fire-control officer. On board vessels to which no first lieutenant MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 85 is assigned, the executive officer performs the duties usually assigned to that officer. Next below the first lieutenant is the nav- igator, whose duty consists in navigating the ship when at sea. Also, he has charge of the chronometers. In case of the absence or death of the Captain and executive officer, the com- mand of the ship succeeds to the first lieuten- ant or to the navigator, whichever is senior, and so on down the list, the senior line officer pres- ent always assuming command. In time of bat- tle the navigator is ship-control officer, and is stationed in the conning tower to assist the com- manding officer in handling the ship. The ordnance officer, who ranks next to the navigator, has charge of the guns and am- munition. Upon him devolves the responsibil- ity of conducting target practice, and to his ef- forts is due largely the credit for a satisfactory showing in that direction. Under modern con- ditions the duties of the ordnance officer are very important and arduous. Next below the ordnance officer is the senior 86 THE UNITED STATES NAVY engineer officer, known usually as the chief en- gineer. He has charge of the engines and boil- ers, the electrical generating plant, and auxil- iaries operated by steam. Under him is the en- gineer division, which consists of the fire-room and engine-room forces, and constitutes a large percentage of the ship's company. Below the chief engineer in rank are the " watch and division " officers, whose duties consist of taking charge of their respective divisions during drills, and of standing deck- watch in turn. When at sea the officer on watch, or the officer of the deck, as he is called, stays on the bridge and has charge of the ship, complying with instructions received from the Captain or navigator as to speed, course to be steered, etc. In port the officer of the deck stands his watch on the quarter-deck. The of- ficer of the deck is the officer on watch in charge of the ship, and is regarded as the representa- tive of the Captain, and his orders have to be obeyed accordingly. Midshipmen are assigned to duty as junior MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 87 officers of the deck, and to assist various divi- sion officers in drills, etc. All the above-mentioned are line officers. The staff officers of the ship consist of the surgeon and assistant surgeons, the paymaster, assistant paymaster, and pay clerks. Staff of- ficers have their specified duties as indicated by their titles, and, in case of the absence or death of all the line officers, would succeed to the com- mand of the ship, in order of rank. The pay- master also is the commissary officer and the ship's general storekeeper, and has charge of messing the crew and cares for all stores on the ship. The Captain is quartered in the cabin, and maintains his own table, or mess, as it is called. The executive, navigator, ordnance officer, chief engineer, watch and divisions officers, and the surgeon, paymaster, marine officers, and their assistants, above the rank of ensign, are quar- tered in the wardroom, and maintain the ward- room mess. Ensigns who are not watch and division of- 88 THE UNITED STATES NAVY ficers, and midshipmen and staff officers of the rank of ensign, are quartered in the junior of- ficers' quarters, and maintain the junior of- ficers' mess, commonly called the " steerage." Warrant officers maintain a separate mess, which is called the warrant officers' mess. Except the chief petty officers, who maintain a separate mess frequently, all the enlisted men are fed out of the general mess, which is run by the ship's commissary, usually under the di- rection of the paymaster. All officers must pay for their own food, no allowance being made them for this purpose. Each enlisted man is allowed a ration which has a value of about thirty-six cents per day. These rations are pooled, and all the men are fed from it. The ration allowance is liberal, and enlisted men of the United States Navy are fed extremely well. The men are assigned to messes by divisions, mess tables being placed about the decks wher- ever there is available space; when not in use they are hung out of the way to the deck above. The problem of providing and serving food e a. I .2* " P3 MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 89 for 800 or 1,000 men on board ship, away from source of supplies, is by no means simple. Each of the large ships is fitted with a cold storage plant, and with electrically driven meat grind- ers, potato peelers, ice cream freezers, and dish- washers. A bakery, of adequate size, for sup- plying fresh bread, and laundry machinery of capacity to wash the clothes of the officers, are provided. FLEET ORGANIZATION Battleships and armored cruisers, as we have seen, are formed into fleets, which are divided into squadrons and divisions for drilling in fleet tactics. The Rear- Admiral, in command of the fleet, squadron, or division, has assigned to him one of the ships, as flagship. He occupies quar- ters on board, separate from the Captain, and maintains his own mess, usually in connection with the officers of his personal staff. Each rear-admiral transmits the orders of the Com- mander-in-Chief to the ships of his own divi- sion, and is responsible for maneuvering them 90 THE UNITED STATES NAVY properly in the various tactics. In case of the absence or death of the Commander-in-Chief, the supreme command of the fleet would devolve upon the senior of the rear-admirals, and so on in turn through the other rear-admirals and the captains of the various ships, in order of rank. At the battle of Trafalgar, after the death of Lord Nelson, his second officer in com- mand, Vice-Admiral Collingwood, succeeded to the command of the English fleet. At stated intervals each commander of a ship or division inspects the ships under him. Cer- tain specified drills are carried out, and upon the efficiency displayed and the condition of the ship depends the report of inspection forwarded to the Navy Department. The staff of a rear-admiral in command of a fleet consists of a chief-of-staff, who is an of- ficer with the rank of captain or commander, a flag secretary, and a flag lieutenant, and an aide. In addition there are a fleet ordnance officer, a fleet engineer, a fleet surgeon, a fleet paymaster, a fleet marine officer, and a fleet athletic officer. MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 91 Each of these officers, under the direction of the Commander-in-Chief, maintains supervision of his particular department in all the vessels of the fleet. Each of the junior rear-admirals, commanding squadrons or divisions, has a flag lieutenant and a flag secretary. These officers are aides to the rear-admirals and assist them in the performance of their duties. SIGNALS, FLAGS, ETC. Communication may be carried on among ships of the Navy in a number of ways, either by wireless telegraph, by visual signals, with flags or semaphores by day, or by electric lights, Roman candles, or rockets by night. In foggy weather sound signals made on the whistle or bell are used. For official messages, orders, etc., the wireless telegraph is used generally. For tactical drill signals, and for ordinary com- munication between ships not having wireless outfits, visual signals are used most generally. The semaphore signals, which are made either by means of a semaphore with wooden arms, or 92 THE UNITED STATES NAVY by the motions of the arms of the signalmen themselves, are used for spelling out messages. Semaphore signals, owing to the difficulty of seeing them, are not effective at any consider- able distance. Flag signals may be read many miles away, and ships are said to be within signal distance when it is possible to make out flag signals. There are two kinds of signal flags, the alpha- betical code flags and the numeral flags. The alphabetical code flags are the same as the In- ternational Code. By their use, with reference to the international signal books, ships of any nation or language can communicate. The nu- meral flags are used for tactical and routine signals. Every ship flies flags of especial significance. Men-of-war carry the flag of their country at the peak or on a flag-pole at the stern. In Eng- land the man-of-war flag is white, with the red cross of St. George and the union-jack in the corner, the naval reserve flag is blue, and the merchant ship flag is red. In the United States, MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 93 however, no such distinction is made; all ships carry the national ensign, which has thirteen red and white stripes, and a blue ground with a star for every State. The union-jack is carried at the bow when at anchor only. A flag is car- ried at the masthead to show the rank of the of- ficer in command, thus: an admiral has a blue flag with four stars, a rear-admiral a blue one with two stars, and the senior commanding of- ficer present, where there is no flag officer, a blue triangular flag. The President of the United States, the Secretary and Assistant Sec- retary of the Navy, each has a distinctive flag which is flown by a man-of-war, if any of these officials is on board, to indicate his presence. Besides the flags mentioned, there are a great many others carried by men-of-war, a complete knowledge of which is a study by itself. At night signals are made by the * ' winker ' ' light, by flashing different combinations of red and white electric lights, each light and com- bination of lights indicating a letter, or by the Very night signals, which consist of rockets and 94 THE UNITED STATES NAVY green and red stars, like Roman candles, dis- charged into the air. Signals may be made at night by illuminating the arms of the sema- phore or by means of the rays of a searchlight. Signal men acquire great skill in making and reading signals; the celerity with which their work is done is taken as an index of the ' l smart- ness " of the ship. SHIP ROUTINE Routine on board ship may be classed as daily routine and weekly routine, and is systematic- ally followed on all vessels of a fleet. It is fixed by the Commander-in-Chief, who decides each day what shall be the uniform, whether white clothes or blue, and what drills and exercises shall be carried out. Usually special drills are assigned for each day of the week, though these may be varied on occasion. This is called the weekly routine. With only occasional exceptions, the daily routine is as follows: all the men and certain of the officers are called at five o'clock; the MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 95 men, after having been served coffee and cocoa, clean decks, paint-work, boat gear, wash their clothes, etc. At 7 :30 the crew goes to breakfast. At 8 o'clock " colors " is sounded, and all hands stand at attention while the ensign is be- ing hoisted and the national air played by the band. At 9:30 the divisions are inspected at quarters, and the forenoon is passed in drills or exercises. At 12 dinner is served, and after that is finished afternoon drills are gone through. At sunset * ' evening colors ' ' are held and the ensign lowered. At 5:30 supper is served, at 7 :30 hammocks are given out, and at 9 o'clock, the flagship fires the evening gun, " taps " is sounded, and all hands, except those on watch, must turn into their hammocks. Of- ficers and others having special watches are not affected by the routine hours for turning out in the morning and turning in at night. Athletics are encouraged; the men are helped to form football and baseball teams, and boat crews, and to have matches between different ships. Trophies are provided for the winning 96 THE UNITED STATES NAVY teams of each fleet, and a healthy state of ri- valry in athletics exists among the crews of the different ships. Match games also are ar- ranged with outside organizations, and many amateur baseball and football teams can testify to the excellence of the teams from the men- of-war. Clubhouses for enlisted men have been estab- lished in several of the larger cities; in these liberty men can find amusements, as well as food and lodging. Life on shipboard is not rigorous, and the men are well looked after, are given reasonable opportunity to go ashore when off duty, and are well fed and clothed, and provided with com- fortable, well-ventilated quarters. Any monot- ony that may be about the ship routine is coun- terbalanced by the constant change of scene and climate. When sick, the men are placed in comfortable sick quarters, and receive the best medical attention and nursing. The drills are of different character and de- signed to prepare the crew for various duties. MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 97 The most common is " general quarters," when the guns are manned and the men rehearsed in their duties for a battle. Fire drill, boat drill, battalion drill as infantry or light artillery ashore, collision drill, abandon ship, landing force, swimming, signaling, steering, sounding, etc., are other drills that make a part of the weekly routine. The enlisted men are paid once a month and are granted liberty to go ashore when their be- havior has been such as to justify according that privilege, and when their services can be spared from the necessary ship-work. In this respect there has been a great change from the old Navy. Then it was not possible to pay the men at regular intervals, many months some- times elapsing between pay days, while cruises of several months' duration were made without the men being allowed ashore. In old Navy times, or up to about ten or fifteen years ago, a man-of-war's man would land with his pocket full of money, get into the hands of the numer- ous land-sharks, and in a few days he would find 98 THE UNITED STATES NAVY himself penniless. The American bluejacket of the present is a self-respecting citizen, amply able to take care of himself and his money. Arrangements are made so that any person in the Navy can allot a portion of his pay to his wife, dependent relative, or other person at home, with the assurance that it will be paid regularly, no matter where he himself may be. TARGET PRACTICE Target practice is one of the essential features of the preparation for war, as no shots count except those that hit. It is designed to afford a practice for the gun-pointers, in their im- portant duties of aiming and firing the guns, and for the gun crews, in reloading the guns after each shot, and for the " spotters " in determining the ranges, thus developing a ship's ability to hit an enemy rapidly with all guns firing. By a system of preparation and practice, adopted in 1902, the accuracy and rapidity of fire of naval gunners has been increased to a MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 99 wonderful degree. This system consists first in training the men in pointing the guns by means of the ' * dotter ' ' and the * * Morris tube ' ' attachments to the guns, which enable the point- ers to practise aiming at a small target, and to familiarize themselves with operating the mechanism of the guns. Later, shots are fired from each gun at a full-size target placed at some distance from the ship. As a final step in the course of instruction, battle practice is held; during that all guns are fired at a moving target at an unknown distance from the moving ship, which is maneuvered as in battle. The result of the annual record target prac- tice determines which ship of each class shall have the trophy; the desire to secure it creates a great and healthy rivalry among the various ships' companies. In addition to the incentive of a trophy, the men are encouraged to become qualified gun-pointers by extra pay and priv- ileges offered to those who qualify. An important feature of target practice is 100 THE UNITED STATES NAVY the fire-control system, by which the range is transmitted to the sight-setters at each gun, and the fall of the shots " spotted," to deter- mine whether the range is " over " or " short." The fire-control towers, or cage masts, as they are called, are intended to provide suitable sta- tions from which the spotters can see the fall of the shots. By means of telephones and voice tubes they transmit the results of their ob- servation to the fire-control officers, who in turn transmit the range to the sight-setters. UNIFORM All persons in the naval service are required to wear uniform on shipboard, when on duty in navy yards, and on certain other occasions. Each grade has distinctive uniforms and marks to indicate duties, rank, etc. There are differ- ent uniforms for occasions of ceremony, for ordinary wear, and for work, and white uni- forms for warm weather. Officers have special full dress, full dress, evening dress, mess dress, and white and blue ?. re- MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 101 service dress uniforms. Each uniform is in- tended for particular occasions. The senior of- ficer present designates the uniform to be worn each day, and on special occasions, in order that all officers may appear in the same dress. The rank of an officer is indicated by stripes of gilt, so-called ' ' lace ' ' or braid on his sleeves ; the higher the rank, the greater the number of stripes. Thus an officer with the rank of ensign has one stripe, while a lieutenant has two stripes. A captain has four stripes on each sleeve. The corps to which an officer belongs is indicated for a line officer by a star on each sleeve above the stripes, and for a staff officer by colored cloth between the gold lace stripes. These colors are different for each staff corps and are as follows : dark maroon velvet for surgeons, white cloth for paymasters, olive- green cloth for professors of mathematics, dark violet cloth for naval constructors, and light- blue velvet for civil engineers. In addition to the stripes on the sleeve the rank and corps are indicated by devices on the collar of the service 102 THE UNITED STATES NAVY blouse and on the shoulder straps and epaulets of dress uniforms. The corps devices consist of an anchor for line officers and various forms of oak leaves for the different branches of the staff corps. The rank is indicated further on the collar of the service blouse and on shoulder straps and epaulets: no mark for a midship- man or ensign, one bar for a lieutenant, junior grade, two bars for a lieutenant, a gold leaf for a lieutenant-commander, a silver leaf for a com- mander, an eagle for a captain, one star for a commodore, two stars for a rear-admiral, three stars for a vice-admiral, and four stars for the admiral. The sword is worn by all commissioned and warrant officers as a part of dress uniforms and on certain occasions, such as infantry drills, parades, and when on military duty. Epau- lets and shoulder straps are worn only by com- missioned officers. The mourning badge is worn by officers when attending funerals in uniform, and on other oc- casions when so ordered on account of the death 16 SPECIALTY MAKKS ON RATING BADGES 1, Master-at-arms ; 2, Boatswains' mates, coxswains ; 3, Quartermasters ; 4, Blacksmiths, ship fitters ; 5, Sailraakers' mates ; 6, Printers ; 7, Car- penters, plumber and fitters, painters ; 8, Turret captains ; 9, Gunners' mates ; 10, Chief yeomen ; 11, Yeomen, first, second, and third classes ; 12, Electricians ; 13, Machinists' mates, boiler makers, water tenders, coppersmiths, oilers; 14, Hospital stewards, hospital apprentices (red cloth); 15, Bandmaster, musicians ; 16, Commissary stewards MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 103 of a public official. It consists of a band of crape on the left sleeve, and a knot of crape on the sword hilt. The enlisted men have blue and white dress and undress uniforms. Chief petty officers have a distinctive uniform from other enlisted men; it consists of a double-breasted sack coat with brass buttons, and a cap with a visor. All other enlisted men wear a shirt with broad col- lar and a blue flat cap. Different grades and duties among enlisted men are indicated by rating badges and distinguishing marks, which are of cloth, except in certain special cases of petty officers, when the chevrons may be of gold lace instead of scarlet cloth. The rank of a petty officer is indicated by chevrons and his branch by the specialty mark placed between the chevrons and the eagle. There are sixteen specialty marks indicating the various branches among the enlisted men. In addition there are distinguishing marks worn on the uniform to indicate those men who have qualified as seaman-gunner, gun captain or gun- 104. THE UNITED STATES NAVY pointer, and a mark for those who are ex- ap- prentices or hospital attendants. There are also continuous service stripes of red that are worn on the left sleeve, and show the number of complete terms of enlistment served, one for each enlistment. All enlisted men of the seaman branch, except chief petty officers, are required to wear a jack- knife on a knife lanyard as part of the uniform. A " watch mark," of white or blue, for the deck force and red for the engine-room force, is worn on the shoulder seam of all, except petty officers, to indicate whether the man is in the starboard or port watch, the mark being worked in the right shoulder in the former case and the left in the latter. Petty officers wear their rating badge on the right or left sleeve to indicate to which watch they are assigned. CEREMONIALS AND DISTINCTIONS In all military services there are many cere- monial observances. This is especially true of RATING BADGES FOR PETTY OFFICERS 1, Chief master-at-arms ; 2, Boatswain's mate, first class ; 3, Gunner's mate, second class ; 4, Quartermaster, third class MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 105 the Navy, and the procedure to be followed on each occasion requiring ceremonial or other ob- servance is specified in great detail. An entire chapter in the Navy Regulations is devoted to the subject " Honors and Distinctions." It covers the ceremonies to be observed on board vessels of the Navy and at naval stations in honor of the President of the United States, the Vice-President, an ex-President, the president or sovereign of a foreign state, members of royal families, Cabinet officers, the Chief Justice of the United States, governors, mem- bers of Congress, diplomatic representatives, consuls, and naval and military officers. A section of the chapter is devoted to honors and distinctions in general and specifies the formal- ities to be observed in ordinary official inter- course and the details of other ceremonies. The most elaborate ceremony is that followed when the President of the United States visits a vessel of the Navy. All officers of the vessel are required to assemble in special full dress uniform on the side of the quarter-deck on 106 THE UNITED STATES NAVY which the President boards, the yards and rail are manned by the crew, and the marines and band are paraded on the quarter-deck. When the President reaches the deck, officers and men salute, the marine guard presents arms, the drum gives four ruffles and the bugle four flour- ishes, followed by the national air, played by the band. The President's flag is displayed at the mainmast-head, and kept flying as long as he is on board, and a national salute of twenty- one guns is fired immediately after the Presi- dent and his suite have been received. The same ceremonies are repeated at his departure, and all other United States warships present are required to man the rail and fire a national salute at the same time as the ship visited. Similar honors of different degree are paid to other officers, varying with the rank and im- portance of the person honored, the minimum honors prescribed being those for commissioned officers of the Navy or marine corps below the rank of commander. For these officers the " side is piped "; that is, a boatswain's mate MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 107 stands at the gangway and blows a call on his whistle, or " pipe," as it is called, and two " side-boys " attend the gangway, saluting as the officer reaches the deck. When a naval ship enters a foreign port, a na- tional salute of twenty-one guns is fired, but no United States ship is allowed to fire such a salute in honor of a foreign nation unless there is assurance that it will be returned gun for gun. All officers and men are required to salute the national ensign upon reaching the quarter-deck of a man-of-war, or on leaving it to go over the side; they must stand at attention when the ' ' Star Spangled Banner ' ' is being played, and during morning and evening colors, when also the marine guard is paraded. Every officer and enlisted man of the Navy, when buried, receives military honors in ac- cordance with his rank or rating. The most impressive and affecting of all cere- monies is that of burial at sea. The body is sewn in a hammock, weighted at the foot to 108 THE UNITED STATES NAVY make it sink, and placed on a slide on the star- board side of the quarter-deck. The flag is half-masted for an appropriate length of time, depending on the rank of the deceased, and, at the appointed hour, the ship is stopped and the boatswain's mates call, " all hands to bury the dead." After the funeral ceremonies, which are conducted by the captain if there is no chaplain on board, the end of the slide is raised and the body thus consigned to the deep. Three volleys of musketry are fired by the escort, the bugler sounds " taps," and the boatswain's mates " pipe down." When the interment is on shore, the exercises are more elaborate. The funeral cortege on its way to the cemetery marches at slow time, the band playing a dirge and the mourners march- ing in inverse order of rank; the ensign is draped in mourning, and the drums are muffled. The size of the funeral escort is determined by the rank of the deceased. For an admiral it consists of four battalions of infantry and two battalions of artillery ; for an enlisted man, MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 109 not a petty officer, it consists of eight men com- manded by a third-class petty officer. Officers and petty officers of intermediate rank have funeral escorts varying in size between the above extremes. At the grave, after the burial service, the usual three volleys of musketry are fired, and " taps " sounded as in the burial at sea. The most elaborate burial ever given any one who had served in the United States Navy was that given Admiral Farragut, whose death took place in Portsmouth, N. H. His body was taken to New York on a naval vessel. The funeral escort through the streets of New York con- sisted of the President of the United States and members of his Cabinet, many naval and military officers of high rank, sailors, ten thou- sand soldiers, the New York Fire Brigade, and numerous civic bodies. Public schools and of- fices, the Customs House, the Stock Exchange, and leading mercantile houses were closed. Bells were tolled and minute guns fired. Ad- miral Farragut was mourned sincerely by the 110 THE UNITED STATES NAVY people at large, not only on account of his dis- tinguished service to the country, but for his admirable personal qualities. After the death of Admiral Nelson at the Bat- tle of Trafalgar, where he won an overwhelm- ing victory over the French and Spanish allies, his body was taken to England on his flagship the Victory. The grateful people, in a desire to render him all possible honors, accorded him a funeral that probably never has been sur- passed. He was buried in a coffin made after the battle of the Nile of a part of the mainmast of the vanquished French flagship Orient. His body rested in state in Greenwich Hospital, and then was carried, covered by the Victory's bat- tle flag, through the streets of London by sailors from the fleet, and was followed by England's highest naval and military officers. Bells were tolled and minute guns were fired, and all of England was abroad to pay a last tribute to England's greatest naval hero, whose genius had prevented frequently the invasion of his country, and who had won many decisive vie- MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 111 tories over its enemies. He was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral and a monument indicative of his genius and achievements marks his tomb. THE WATCH BELL Time is indicated on shipboard by striking the * ' watch bell ' ' each half hour. Watches on ships are generally of four hours' duration, so that the bells are arranged to mark clearly the divisions of time in four-hour intervals. These, divisions are from midnight to 4 A. M., then to 8 A. M., then to noon, then to 4 p. M., then 8 P. M., and then to midnight. A half hour after the beginning of each watch one bell is struck, and an additional bell is struck for each succeeding half hour that elapses up to eight bells. As the crew is divided usually into an even number of watches that alternate with each other, and in order that the men may not be on watch at the same periods each successive day, the period from 4 p. M. to 8 p. M. is divided into two watch periods of two hours each, that from 4 to 6 o 'clock being the ' * first dog watch, ' ' and THE UNITED STATES NAVY that from 6 to 8 o'clock the " second dog watch." In the United States Navy the bells in the dog watches are struck the same as for any other four-hour period. In the English Navy, at half -past six o'clock, one bell only is struck, at seven o'clock two bells, and at half- past seven o'clock three bells are struck. This custom arose from the fact that a mutiny in a British fleet was planned at one time to take place at five bells (half -past six) of the second dog watch. The officers learned of the plot, and to avoid giving the signal, struck only one bell at that hour. The Navy Regulations require that the star- board or right-hand gangway of a ship is to be reserved for the use of commissioned officers and their visitors when going on board or leav- ing the ship, while the port gangway is used by others. When naval steam launches approach the side of a man-of-war at night or in day time, when the canopy is spread, they are re- quired to indicate the rank of the highest of- ficer on board by short blasts on the whistle. MAN-OF-WAR IN COMMISSION 113 This is sounded four times for a flag officer, three times for a commanding officer, twice for other commissioned officers, and once for any other person. Pulling boats reply to hails from a man-of-war by answering " flag " if there is a flag officer on board, the name of the ship commanded by him, if a captain is on board, " aye, aye " for other commissioned officers, " no, no " for other officers, and " hello " for enlisted men or marines. Officers in boats pass- ing one another are accorded specified honors according to their rank. Pulling boats toss their oars and steam launches stop their engines for flag officers, while the officer in charge of the boat salutes. Similar honors of less degree are accorded to commanding officers, while other commissioned officers simply exchange salutes with the hand, the junior saluting first. Juniors in boats are required to give way to seniors, and to show deference by abstaining from cross- ing their bows or in any manner ignoring them. The Navy Regulations prohibit the giving of cheers as a compliment to any officer. 114. THE UNITED STATES NAVY GROG Formerly grog, which consisted of a mixture of rum, sugar, and water, was issued to enlisted men of the Navy each day as a part of their ration. On September 1, 1862, this was discon- tinued by law, and now the Articles for the Gov- ernment of the Navy prohibit the introduction on board naval vessels of distilled spirits, ex- cept upon the order and under the control of medical officers, and to be used only for medical purposes. The sale or gift of malt or alcoholic liquors to enlisted men on board ship or at naval stations also is prohibited by regulation. 6 CHAPTER V CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY IN former days of wooden ships, the largest and most powerful men-of-war were called " ships of the line," or " line of battle " ships, and were classed according to the number of their guns; the smaller ships were frigates, corvettes, gunboats, sloops-of-war, etc. To give an idea of the classification at that period two well-known examples may be mentioned. They are Lord Nelson's flagship the Victory, which was a three-decker, first-rate ship of the line, and the Constitution, which was a frigate. The United States possessed only a few ships of the line, and none of these ever were in battle. At the present day warships may be separated into two broad divisions, and be subdivided further into classes. The main divisions are armored and unarmored ships. The first in- ns 116 THE UNITED STATES NAVY eludes battleships, monitors, and armored cruisers; the second, cruisers, gunboats, scouts, torpedo destroyers, torpedo boats, and auxili- ary vessels, such as transports, supply ships, repair ships, colliers, etc. Armored ships in- clude all those that are fitted with side armor to protect the hulls from being pierced by projectiles ; unarmored ships may be fitted with protective decks, but have no armor on their exterior surface. Battleships. This is the most formidable type of war vessel, and combines powerful weapons with the greatest protection possible under the limitations involved by floating warfare. To carry the heavy guns and massive armor requisite to meet the above conditions, a battle- ship must be of the largest possible size, and this tends to increase continually, and is limited only by the draft of water in the harbors, the size of dry docks, and the width of the locks of the Panama Canal. In recent years the size of battleships has increased from a displace- ment of 11,000 tons for the Oregon class, to CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY 117 28,000 tons for the Texas class, recently com- menced. The armament, armor protection, and speed have increased correspondingly with the size; speeds of over 21 knots, that formerly were considered high for protected cruisers, now are attained by battleships. Armored Cruisers. An armored cruiser may be defined as a battleship in which armament and armor, to a certain extent, have been sacri- ficed to speed ; thus an armored cruiser has the essential characteristics of a battleship, but its armor is lighter and extends over a compara- tively smaller area, its guns are fewer in num- bers and of smaller caliber ; its speed, however, may exceed by three to five knots that of a battleship of the same class. United States armored cruisers vary in displacement from 9,000 to 15,000 tons. In foreign navies greater displacements than those given have been adopted for recent armored cruisers. The pur- pose primarily of armored cruisers is for ad- vance skirmishing, and they are capable of taking place in the line of battle. They bear 118 THE UNITED STATES NAVY essentially the same relation to war on the sea that heavy cavalry bears to that on land, and, if emergency called for armored vessels for distant service, a squadron of armored cruisers would be sent, which, if it could not meet the enemy in equal battle, could harass and annoy, and, by superior speed, avoid definite engagement with the foe. Monitors. These vessels are heavily armored and carry a limited number of guns of the largest caliber. The type is distinctly Amer- ican, no other nation ever having adopted it, and in recent years it has fallen into disfavor in this country. Monitors vary in displacement from 3,000 tons to 8,000 tons. They carry one or two turrets, with guns of large caliber ; their sides, which extend only a short distance above the water, are heavily armored, and their main deck also is armored. Over the armored deck they are fitted with an unarmored superstructure, which, if shot away, would not affect the vitals of the ship. The two great defects in monitors as a type CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY 119 are that, owing to their form, they are quick rollers, and are so unsteady in a seaway as to prevent accurate firing of their guns, and, on account of their not being habitable, they are un- suited to cruising, and therefore are available only for coast and harbor defense. The true function of a man-of-war being to seek and de- stroy the enemy's fleet wherever it may be, there is no place in a fighting navy for harbor defense vessels. That purpose can be effected more surely by fortifications. Cruisers. Protected cruisers differ essentially from armored cruisers in having no side armor, the protection consisting, exclusively, of a pro- tective deck. They vary in size from 3,000 to 8,000 tons. Their purpose is to patrol the ocean, convoy merchantmen, prey on the enemy's commerce, and, in peace time, to show the flag and serve as international police. They are usually of moderate speed, and of large coal capacity and steaming radius. Scout Cruisers, which have higher speed than any ships except torpedo craft, are intended to 120 THE UNITED STATES NAVY cruise in company with the fleet, precede it for scouting, and to keep the Commander-in-Chief informed by wireless telegraph of the results. They are of light construction, and armed with guns of power adequate only to repel small craft. It is probable that, in the future, scout cruisers will be equipped with aeroplanes for scouting purposes. Gunboats may be classed as small cruisers. They range in displacement from 800 to 1,200 tons, have small armament, and no armor ; they serve in peace time for patrol and police duty, and, in war time, for picket duty, etc. There are special types, called river gunboats, which are built with light draft for service up rivers and in shallow harbors. This type has proved especially useful for operations against the in- surgents in the Philippines, and for police and patrol duty in Chinese waters. Torpedo Craft. This class includes torpedo destroyers, torpedo boats, and submarines. Torpedo boats are smaller and appeared first. So-called torpedo destroyers were built later to CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY 121 operate against them. Now only torpedo de- stroyers are built, and these increase in size each year. Those of the newest type which are being built for the United States Navy have a displacement of about 1,000 tons. These craft are of extremely light construction, and are built largely with a view to obtaining high speed. They are of lightest possible build in all parts, have no armor, few guns, and, to re- duce their weight to the lowest possible limit, they carry only the necessities. Submarines. To people not connected with the Navy the submarine appeals strongly as be- ing a vessel capable of cruising under the sur- face of the water, and, without being discov- ered, dealing a fatal blow to an enemy's ship. With the submarines, however, that have been constructed this ideal falls short of realization. At best the submarine can cruise under the water at only moderate speed; it cannot nav- igate except by means of the periscope project- ing above the water and causing a disturbance on the surface, almost as great as that of the 122 THE UNITED STATES NAVY boat itself when awash, rendering the discovery of its whereabouts comparatively simple. A submarine's movements, even with the aid of the periscope, are uncertain, and many persons who have considered the subject seriously in all its phases, believe that a submarine under mod- ern conditions of warfare would not present any considerable danger to a battleship. It is be- lieved by many that the presence of submarines in a harbor would prevent effectually the block- ading of that port by an enemy. A submarine is fitted with no armament except torpedo tubes, which are in the bow, or nose, of the boat. It is intended to approach the hostile warship awash, until within several thousand yards, and then to submerge, and, when within range, to fire its torpedo. As we have seen, this plan is difficult of realization. Submarine boats may be classed as torpedo craft, their sole armament being torpedo tubes. There are forty built or building in the Navy. Their displacement and speed vary consider- ably, the largest being about 500 tons with CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY a maximum speed submerged of about 10 knots. LIST OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY There are in the United States Navy 38 bat- tleships in service and building, 12 armored cruisers, 10 monitors, 20 protected cruisers, 2 unprotected cruisers, 3 scout cruisers, 29 gun- boats, 32 torpedo boats, 50 torpedo-boat de- stroyers, 40 submarines, 46 tugs, and a number of other vessels of various classes a total on the Navy list of 380 vessels of all classes. Battleships. The San Marcos, formerly the Texas, is the oldest battleship in the Navy, hav- ing been commissioned in 1895. She is rated as a second-class battleship, and has a displace- ment of 6,315 tons, a designed speed of 17 knots, and carries a main battery of two 12-inch and six 6-inch guns, the 12-inch in turrets. The San Marcos was assigned as station ship at the Navy Yard, Charleston, for a number of years. Recently, she was utilized as a target for ex- perimental purposes, primarily with a view to THE UNITED STATES NAVY determining the effect on modern armored ves- sels of gun fire at extreme ranges. This de- stroyed the vessel so that she will never float again. The San Marcos, then the Texas, took an active part in the Spanish War, and at the battle of Santiago was brought into prominence by the humane action of Captain Philip, who was in command, in stopping the cheering of his crew on account of the pitiful condition of the Spanish prisoners that had been brought on board. The next oldest battleships are the Massa- chusetts, Indiana, and Oregon, which were com- missioned in 1896. They are rated as coast defense battleships, being of slow speed and small coal capacity, and consequently not suited for operations far from base. They have a full load displacement of 11,688 tons, have a de- signed speed of 16 knots, and carry a main bat- tery each of four 13-inch and eight 8-inch guns, in turrets. These ships would be available in war time for coast and harbor defense, and for operations with the fleet not far from a base. bo 5 cs CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY 125 They would have been unable to make the cruise around the world with the other battleships on account of their slow speed and small coal capacity. All three ships served during the Spanish War. The Oregon in particular won distinction by her hurried trip from the west coast to the east coast of the United States around South America. The Iowa was commissioned in 1897, and was the finest battleship we had in the Spanish War. She has a full load displacement of 12,647 tons, has a designed speed of 16 knots, and carries a main battery of four 12-inch and eight 8-inch guns, in turrets, and four 4-inch, in broadside. The Kentucky and Kearsarge were commis- sioned in 1899, have a full load displacement of 12,320 tons, a designed speed of 16 knots, and carry each a main battery of four 13-inch and four 8-inch guns, in turrets, and fourteen 5-inch guns, in broadside. These battleships were the first to have the so-called superposed turrets, that is, to have four 8-inch guns in two turrets superposed on two 13-inch gun turrets, so that 126 THE UNITED STATES NAVY each pair of turrets turns four guns; this ar- rangement has not proved a success. The Alabama, commissioned in 1900, and the Illinois and Wisconsin, in 1901, have a full load displacement of 12,150 tons, a designed speed of 16 knots, and carry each a main battery of four 13-inch guns, in turrets, and fourteen 6-inch guns, in broadside. The Maine, Missouri, and Ohio, commissioned respectively in 1902, 1903, and 1904, have a full load displacement of 13,500 tons, a designed speed of 18 knots, and carry each a main bat- tery of four 12-inch guns, in turrets, and six- teen 6-inch guns, in broadside. The Virginia, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Georgia, commissioned in 1906, and the Ne- braska, in 1907, have a full load displacement of 16,094 tons, a designed speed of 19 knots, and carry each a main battery of four 12-inch, eight 8-inch guns, in turrets, and twelve 6-inch guns, in broadside. The two 12-inch turrets have each a turret containing two 8-inch guns super- posed on them, the other 8-inch guns being car- CLASSES OF SHIPS IN THE NAVY ried in turrets one on each side in the waist or middle of the ship. The Connecticut and Louisiana, commis- sioned in 1906, the Minnesota, Kansas, and Ver- mont, in 1907, and the New Hampshire, in 1908, have each a full load displacement of 17,650 tons, a designed speed of 18 knots, and carry each a main battery of four 12-inch and eight 8-inch guns, in turrets, and twelve 7-inch guns, in broadside. The Connecticut for five years has been the flagship of the Atlantic Battleship Fleet. The Mississippi and Idaho, commissioned in 1908, have a full load displacement of 14,465 tons, a designed speed of 17 knots, and carry each a main battery of four 12-inch and eight 8-inch guns, in turrets, and eight 7-inch guns, in broadside. These ships, which were under- taken after the Connecticut type had been de- veloped and undertaken, are regarded as a less efficient type, because, owing to their smaller size, they have less speed, smaller battery, and shorter coal endurance three vital features in 128 THE UNITED STATES NAVY warships that, with adequate armor protection, can be obtained only by means of large displace- ments. The South Carolina and Michigan, commis- sioned in 1909, have a full load displacement of 17,617 tons, a designed speed of !Sy 2 knots, and carry each a main battery of eight 12-inch guns, in turrets. These ships are the first battleships in the United States Navy embodying the so- called " all big gun " idea, that is, all of the guns of the main battery are of uniform size of 12 inches, the maximum size current in naval ordnance at the time of their design. These guns are mounted in four turrets on the center line of the vessel, and so arranged that all can be fired on either side, and four forward and four aft. These ships, developed contempo- raneously to the English Dreadnought, are re- garded as being superior to it as a type, as through having all turrets on the center line, they are able to fire all guns on either beam. The Delaware and North Dakota, commis- sioned in 1910, and the Florida and Utah in i f*f FLOATING ELECTRIC CONTACT MINK A. Mine case with explosive charge. B. Mooring apparatus. C. Mooring line. D. Battery box furnishing current to cause explo- sion when mine case comes in contact with a ship. E. Anchor. United States naval vessels are provided with outfits of so-called naval defense mines, which can be fired either as contact or observation mines. They are fitted with anchors and are ar- ranged so that they will be maintained, in a 190 THE UNITED STATES NAVY fixed locality, at a uniform depth below the surface of the water in spite of the rise and fall of the tide. Naval defense mines are fired elec- trically; when used as contact mines the circuit is closed by the movement of the mine caused by a passing vessel. When used as observation mines the firing key is located ashore in a con- venient spot for the observer. Each mine has a charge of over one hundred pounds of gun cotton, which is sufficient to dam- age seriously any vessel with which it is in con- tact when exploded. Naval vessels are fitted, also, with outfits for countermining, that is, for exploding and de- stroying an enemy's mine field, as might prove necessary in case of the capture of a harbor that had been mined by the enemy. These counter- mines contain very heavy charges of gun cotton, some as much as 500 pounds. They are run in lines across the mine field, and then exploded simultaneously in order to destroy the connec- tions and cause the defending mines to explode by shock. Mine fields for the protection of har- HIGH EXPLOSIVES 191 bors, etc., in the United States are put in place by the Coast Artillery Corps of the Army in connection with their work of coast defense. The space occupied by any system of mines is called the mine field, and its arrangement re- quires special study of conditions of the bot- tom, the channel, tides, etc. The mine field should be protected by the fire of small guns, to prevent countermining operations, and by elec- tric searchlights, to guard against night attacks. The mines are arranged in groups so that a ship entering will pass surely within striking distance of one or more of the groups. Some- times a special channel across a mine field, kept clear of mines, is designated for the use of friendly vessels. The protection afforded by an efficient mine field is regarded as being ab- solute, and no hostile vessel would consider en- tering a port known to be so protected. TORPEDOES The first type of torpedo used was the spar torpedo, which was fixed on the end of a spar 192 THE UNITED STATES NAVY in the bow of a small boat, and exploded upon impact against the side of the ship, the danger to the crew of the boat being practically as great as to the vessel attacked. This suggested the idea of the floating torpedo, propelled by clock- work, that has developed into the modern auto- mobile torpedoes, the most common types of which are the Bliss-Leavitt (American) and Whitehead (English). These torpedoes are propelled by engines driven by compressed air, have arrangements whereby they are auto- matically maintained at a fixed depth, and steered at the target toward which they have been aimed. The torpedo is so complicated a machine that a detailed description of all of its operations is impossible in this book's limited space, but a brief description will be given, as this phase of naval warfare, about which com- paratively little is known generally, is one that appeals to the public. The most modern form of torpedo used in the United States Navy is a modification of the Whitehead, known as the Bliss-Leavitt 5-meter, HIGH EXPLOSIVES 193 21-inch torpedo. It is over 16 feet long, weighs about a ton, carries nearly 200 pounds of gun cotton, and has an average speed of about 26 knots, with an effective range of over 4,000 yards. It is propelled by turbine engines driven by compressed air, carried in the body of the torpedo at a pressure of over 2,000 pounds to the square inch; the weight of this compressed air alone is over 200 pounds. The Bliss-Leavitt consists of three main parts as in- dicated in the illustration, the head A, the air flask B, to which is attached the immersion chamber C, and the afterbody D. This latter carries the operating mechanism, including the turbine engines and the propellers; the depth regulator, which controls the horizontal rudders that keep the torpedo at a fixed distance from the surface ; the gyroscopic gear, which controls the vertical rudders and keeps the torpedo pointed at the target, and a number of other mechanisms that are necessary to the operation of the torpedo. There are two interchangeable heads supplied 194 THE UNITED STATES NAVY with each torpedo, the war head, which is charged with gun cotton, and the exercise head, which is ballasted with water. The war head is used only when the torpedo is to be fired against an enemy, as, for obvious reasons, its handling for ordinary drills would be danger- ARRANGEMENT OF TORPEDO A. Head. B. Air flask C. Shaft compartment. D. Afterbody. E. Tail and propellers. F. War nose. ous. The war head is fitted with a war nose, which is screwed in its end and is intended to explode the gun cotton upon impact upon a ship's side. Torpedoes are fired from torpedo tubes by means of a small charge of gunpowder or by compressed air. In the case of modern armored vessels, the torpedo tubes are under the water ; in torpedo craft the tubes are placed on their decks. Formerly battleships and armored HIGH EXPLOSIVES 195 cruisers carried torpedo tubes above the water, but these were abandoned on account of the danger through premature explosion of a tor- pedo by an enemy's shot. As soon as the tor- pedo reaches the water the propelling engines start, the gyroscopic steering gear points it for the target, and when it attains its speed and proper depth below the surface of the water nothing indicates its whereabouts but a small ripple on the surface of the water, and the escaping air bubbles. When torpedoes are fired for exercise they must be recovered, and, for the purpose of indicating their location when spent, the exercise head is fitted with a small can of calcium phosphide, which is ignited by the water, giving smoke and flame. Formerly torpedoes were driven by a com- pact little engine of the reciprocating " Broth- erhood " balanced type. This, though small enough to be placed in a good-sized cheese box, was capable of developing as much as 60 horse- power. The turbine type engine has sup- planted the " Brotherhood " for torpedoes, and 196 THE UNITED STATES NAVY has added greatly to the speed and range of the torpedo, by using the air more economically and by reducing friction of moving parts. The gyroscope makes it possible to discharge a tor- pedo in a direction at an angle up to 120 de- grees from its target, and have it turn gradu- ally round through that arc to point for the objective. It is possible in this way for a tor- pedo boat to discharge all her torpedoes simul- taneously when the boat itself is steering head on for the hostile ship, and so to lessen the target offered to its gun fire. Another device that has increased greatly the efficiency of torpedoes is the arrangement for heating the compressed air by means of an al- cohol flame. In this way the speed has been in- creased by from 8 to 10 knots, with a corre- sponding increase in range. TORPEDO PROTECTION Foreign ships usually are provided with tor- pedo nets, which are intended to stop a torpedo before it comes into contact with the ship. o, 2 HIGH EXPLOSIVES 197 These nets are of steel, and are carried on booms about 20 feet long, arranged along the ship's side. They could not be used when the ship was under way, and their disadvantages have been regarded as being so great that they never have been adopted in the United States Navy. The danger to a modern battleship from tor- pedo attack under ordinary conditions is re- garded by many as not being serious, as by the use of searchlights and because of the large number of rapid-fire guns in the torpedo de- fense battery, the chance is not very great of a torpedo craft being able to approach suffi- ciently near to fire a torpedo with effect. Even if the torpedo strikes and explodes in contact with the ship, there is a strong probability that the damage would not be sufficient to disable the ship more than temporarily, as protection against torpedoes and mines is afforded by hav- ing the water-tight subdivisions of a ship so ar- ranged that the damage from the explosion of a torpedo would be confined to comparatively small compartments. 198 THE UNITED STATES NAVY AIRSHIPS AND AEROPLANES Serious consideration is being given by the United States, as well as by other naval powers, to the use, in naval warfare, of airships and aeroplanes. The possibilities are great, and though, up to present time, little has been done to develop them, there is no doubt that each step in improving the reliability of air craft renders their use for naval purposes more promising. Their importance in this connec- tion must not be exaggerated, however, as, like the submarines, they are at the best uncertain, easily destroyed if discovered when nearby, and incapable of great offensive action. Their use for scouting purposes would be great, and there is not much doubt that in the near future scout cruisers will be equipped with aeroplanes to aid them in their scouting duties. That an airship or an aeroplane could de- stroy a battleship by dropping on it high ex- plosives is hardly possible. It would be dif- ficult in the first place for an aviator going at HIGH EXPLOSIVES 199 high speed, as he must if he hopes to avoid be- ing struck by rifle fire from the enemy, to hit the deck of the ship with any explosive which he might drop. Even were he to succeed in land- ing one or more charges of explosives on the deck of a battleship, it is probable that the damage resulting would be only local, and would not affect the vessel seriously. It has been demonstrated by trial that an aeroplane can rise from an especially con- structed platform on the deck of a ship, and, after making a flight, can alight in the same place. Thus, it becomes comparatively a sim- ple matter and one of skill in handling and of reliability of the aeroplanes, to use them for scouting from a ship, wherever it may be. In order for an aeroplane to be of the great- est possible usefulness, and to render it inde- pendent of its ship in case it is forced to descend, it should be able, however, to alight and rise from the surface of the water. This, too, has been shown to be possible, by the use of the so-called hydroplane attachment, which per- 200 THE UNITED STATES NAVY mits the aeroplane to float on the surface of the water, and, when the propeller is started, to arise into the air. Similarly, when its flight is finished, it can alight on the surface of the water and remain there until picked up by its ship, and hoisted aboard in the same manner as a boat. Even if in alighting on the water the aeroplane could not be recovered, the aviator could be brought on board and deliver his in- formation. The ship could carry easily other aeroplanes. It has been proposed also to utilize aeroplanes for spotting the fall of shots fired at long range. As has been seen, especially designed towers of considerable height are constructed on battle- ships as stations for the spotters, to permit them to see the fall of shots and to correct the range in case the fall of the shots is short or over. An observer in an aeroplane, being at greater height, would be able to make these ob- servations to better advantage and signal them to the ship. It is likely that aeroplanes will be found to be of great usefulness for such work. HIGH EXPLOSIVES 201 Photographs can be taken readily from aero- planes in flight, and wireless telegraph messages can be sent and received. It is probable that rifle and small caliber auto- matic gun fire will be relied upon chiefly for defense against aeroplanes, although large guns of a type for firing vertically into the air have been developed. A moving aeroplane presents a difficult target, as there is no means of cor- recting the range, as is done ordinarily by ob- serving on the surface of the water the fall of the shot. For that reason, in order to attack an aeroplane successfully, a large volume of fire will be necessary, and this can be obtained most readily by means of a number of riflemen. CHAPTER VIII DESIGNING AND BUILDING A WARSHIP; DRY DOCKS NEAKLY all naval vessels of this country are built by private shipbuilding concerns under contract with the Navy Department. In former years, a number of the old wooden ships were built in the various navy yards, and, of recent years, several battleships have been so built. The San Marcos, formerly the Texas, was built at the Navy Yard, Norfolk. The original Maine, which was blown up in Havana Harbor, and the Connecticut, were built at the Navy Yard, New York, which yard is now engaged on the battleship Florida, which is nearly com- pleted, and the New York, which has been com- menced only a short time. When Congress passes a law authorizing new ships for the Navy, it becomes the duty of the Secretary of the Navy to take the necessary 202 ^ BUILDING A WARSHIP 203 steps looking to the construction of these ships. The characteristics of the ships are fixed in a general way by the act authorizing them ; it re- mains for the Navy Department to determine in full the details, such as the exact displacement, speed, armament, type of engines, arrangement, etc. The design is prepared in the Bureau of Construction and Repair under the general in- structions, as to military characteristics, of the General Board, which is charged by the Navy Regulations with this duty. In order to determine the proper form of the under-water body of the ship, so that it may offer the least resistance to propulsion through the water, and, also, to ascertain the power necessary to drive a ship of a given form, re- course is had to the Naval Experimental Model Basin at Washington. A model 20 feet in length is constructed of wood to the exact form which is proposed, and this is ballasted to float at the same relative depth as will the ship. The model is then towed in the basin, which is 470 feet long, by means of an electrically driven 204 THE UNITED STATES NAVY carriage, which travels from one end of the basin to the other. The speed of the carriage and the force that must be exerted to tow the model are registered carefully and, by suitable calculations from them is determined the power of the engines that will be required to drive the ship at the proper speed. Such experiments, of course, have been preceded by a number of trials of models of various shapes, to determine the most efficient form of under-water body. The improvement in speed brought about in the ships that have been designed since the estab- lishment of the Model Basin has been very marked. No design of a new ship to be added to the Navy is adopted until a model represent- ing it has been run at various speeds and drafts in the Model Basin, and it is therefore possible to predict with accuracy the speed that a new ship will attain. Having determined the under-water body of the new ship, the next step is to dispose the guns, armor, ammunition, coal, machinery, stores, etc., so as to have the completed ship Hoisting a 12-inch gun on board the Louisiana BUILDING A WARSHIP 205 float at the proper draft and at the same time insure the co-ordination of all the elements that go to make up an efficient battleship. The vari- ous parts of the structure must be designed so as to offer proper resistance to the enormous forces that act in a ship afloat and poised on waves. In addition to the calculations that are made in this connection, assurance must be had that the ship will be stable under all conditions, even when water enters through breaches in the hull that may be caused by collision, torpedo explosion, or projectiles. The preparation of the complete plans and specifications for a large battleship is a diffi- cult task, and requires the work of a number of men for several months. When they have been completed in sufficient detail to inform bid- ders exactly what is required, and to permit the construction of the ship, bids are invited from various shipbuilders for the contracts to build the ship. The lowest bidder making a satis- factory offer and having the necessary facilities for building a ship is awarded the contract, the 206 THE UNITED STATES NAVY decision being made by the Secretary of the Navy. In order to insure that ships under contract shall be constructed in accordance with the plans and specifications, naval officers are de- tailed as inspectors at the various shipyards doing work for the government, as well as at the steel mills, armor mills, gun factories, etc., to inspect the materials used and the manner of carrying out the work. The inspectors at the shipyards also are required to pass on all de- tail plans prepared by the builders. It must not be supposed that the contract plans repre- sent all the plans necessary to build the ship; there are many thousands of others which show details of the ship even to the locations of bolts and rivets. Owing to the amount of money involved, and the time required in the construction of a battle- ship, it would be very difficult for any builder to complete a ship before receiving any payment thereon. For this reason installments are paid from time to time as the work progresses. BUILDING A WARSHIP 207 When the builders have prepared the building slip on which the new ship is to be laid down, and a sufficient quantity of material has been assembled to insure rapid progress in the work, the keel is laid. This, which now is a much simpler ceremony than formerly was the case with wooden vessels, consists of laying the flat keel plate on the line of blocks which are placed along the middle of the building-slip for that purpose. The keel of a ship is similar to a human backbone, as to it, on each side, are at- tached the frames or ribs of the ship. These frames are like girders, and to their outer and inner sides are attached the outer skin and inner bottom of the ship, the space between the two being the so-called double bottom, which is in- tended to act as a protection in case the outer skin of the ship is pierced in any manner. Work on all parts of the ship progresses simultaneously and as rapidly as possible. The building slip usually is served by a great over- head traveling derrick, of the cantilever type, which has arms extending on each side to serve 208 THE UNITED STATES NAVY two slips. When the ship has progressed to a certain stage, and the weight has reached about 10,000 tons for the largest ships, it becomes necessary to launch it. It is desirable to delay launching as long as possible, as the facilities for carrying on work and handling materials usually are much better at the slip than when the ship is afloat. Launching is effected on two slides or launch- ing ways, which are built under the ship, at a distance apart equal to about one-third the beam of the ship, and securely fastened to the ground. Sliding ways are secured to the vessel, the sur- faces between them and the launching ways are coated with special lubricating grease, and wedges are arranged to be driven in so as to lift the ship clear of all supports except the ways. Premature launching is prevented by having the upper ends of the sliding and ground ways bolted and lashed together. When all is ready for the launching, the sliding ways are sawed through beyond the point where they are fastened, and the shig slides into the water, BUILDING A WARSHIP 209 after having been christened by having a bottle of champagne broken over its bows by the young lady who has been selected as sponsor. Frequently accidents happen in launching ships, as in the case of an Italian merchant ship, that recently turned over when launched, and be- came a total loss. Great care is necessary in the launching preparations, and detailed cal- culations must be made to insure that all will be as planned. In order to make certain that the contract re- quirements as regards speed, coal endurance, etc., are complied with, the contractors are re- quired to conduct a speed trial of a vessel be- fore delivery to the Government. A board of officers is appointed to supervise the trials, and to ascertain whether the terms of the contract have been fulfilled, the required speed attained, and other requirements met. To determine the speed of a ship, it is run first over a measured course one mile in length, which must be located in a sheltered harbor, where beacons and range poles on shore will be visible from the ship. It 210 THE UNITED STATES NAVY is also essential that the depth of water be considered, as shallow water retards the vessel. The harbor of Rockland, Me., usually is selected for these preliminary runs on account of the depth of water. Some recent vessels have been run, however, off the Delaware Breakwater. A vessel on trial is run over the measured mile course in opposite directions, and at suc- cessive speeds; meanwhile observations are made of the time necessary to pass over the course, and the number of revolutions of the propellers. From the data so obtained a curve is constructed which shows the speed of the vessel at a given displacement, for any given number of revolutions of the propellers. The ship is run out to sea for the period during which it is required that full speed shall be made, usually eight hours, and, by determining the total number of revolutions of the pro- pellers, the speed of the ship is found. After the full speed run, the endurance runs take place ; these are at reduced speed, and last usu- ally twenty-four hours each. The endurance BUILDING A WARSHIP 211 runs are intended to show that the coal capacity and the arrangements for handling it are ade- quate, and also the efficiency of the boilers and engines at reduced speeds. The speed trials are very important to the builders, for heavy money penalties are pro- vided in the contract for failure of the vessel to attain the required speed, or changes and im- provements may be called for, which would add to the cost of building the ship. Formerly in the contracts for naval vessels, money bonuses were offered for speed in excess of requirements, but this practice was discon- tinued a number of years ago, and at the pres- ent time, as a spur to the builders, there are only penalties for failure to meet the speed. Ships return to the builder's yard, after a successful trial trip, with all hands much elated ; brooms are hoisted on the mastheads, and the speed is painted on the superstructure. If, on the contrary, the speed trial is a failure, the crowd on board the ship is a very unhappy one. THE UNITED STATES NAVY Upon completion of the ship in all details, de- livery is effected to the Government, usually at the nearest navy yard. Formerly it was cus- tomary to send the crew on board at the build- er's yard to accept delivery and commission the ship. The builders are held responsible for any defects, arising during six months after deliv- ery, which may be due to defective material or workmanship. To secure this responsibility final payment is not made until the end of this six months' period, when, if there are no de- fects, final payments are completed and the con- tract declared to be satisfied, and closed. DRY DOCKS All ships require to have their bottoms exam- ined and repaired periodically; wooden ships less often than steel ships, for the reason that their bottoms are sheathed with thin plates of copper, which protect the wood from the attack of the borers or teredo worms, and marine growths, such as barnacles, grass, etc., are pre- vented by poisonous action of the copper from The battleship Oregon in the Puget Sound graving dry dock The battleship Illinois in the New Orleans floating dry dock BUILDING A WARSHIP attaching themselves. Before the discovery of copper sheathing, the loss of ships was not in- frequent through the destruction of their bot- toms by the borers. Sea water acts on the bot- toms of steel ships, causing rapid corrosion, and barnacles and marine growths attach them- selves readily to the steel, offering considerable resistance to the motion of the ship. For these reasons it is necessary periodically to clean and paint the bottoms of steel ships. To the bottoms of steel ships paint of a spe- cial character is applied. This is designed to prevent corrosion and the attachment of growths, or fouling, as it is called. This latter result is obtained usually by mixing in the paint a poisonous ingredient. It is not possible to use on steel ships the copper sheathing, owing to the galvanic action which takes place between copper and steel in sea water, causing very rapid eating away of the steel. For the purpose of examining, cleaning, paint- ing, and repairing the under-water bodies of ships, dry docks are provided. Each navy yard THE UNITED STATES NAVY has one or more, some of the larger yards having three or four of different sizes. Most of these dry docks are graving docks, which con- sist essentially of a basin into which the ship is floated. The entrance then is closed by a caisson or gate, which can be floated in its place and then sunk by admitting water. When the entrance to the dock has been closed effectively by the caisson, the water in the dock is pumped out by means of large electrically driven centrif- ugal pumps, which empty a dock of ordinary size in from two to three hours. This leaves the ship resting on the bottom of the dock, on blocks which have been especially arranged and placed to fit the irregularities of the ship 's bot- tom, and held upright by shores or spars sup- ported from the side of the docks. After the completion of work on the bottom of the ship, when it is desired to refloat her, water is ad- mitted to the dock through special openings. When the water in the dock is the same level as that outside, the caisson is floated by pumping out the water in it, and it is towed out of the BUILDING A WARSHIP 215 way. The ship then can be hauled out of the dock by a tug. Floating dry docks, of which one of the largest in the world is the Dewey, at the Olongapo Naval Station, are large floating steel structures so arranged as to be capable of lifting ships bodily from the water. Floating docks are much cheaper than graving docks as regards first cost, but the bottom of a steel dock cor- rodes in the same way as that of a ship, and its lifetime is limited, while a graving dock is prac- tically indestructible. When it is desired to dock a vessel, the floating dock is sunk by ad- mitting water to it, and the ship is floated over it. When the ship is in the proper place over the dock, the water is pumped out, and it rises, lifting the ship with it. When it is desired to refloat the ship, the dock is sunk again by ad- mitting water, and the ship hauled off. There are side walls to the dock which remain partly above water. In these are located the pumping machinery, and on them the docking gangs work. In order to permit of cleaning and painting the 216 THE UNITED STATES NAVY bottom of a steel dock, which is essential to pre- vent corrosion, so far as is possible, it must be arranged for self-docking, that is, the various sections, when loosened, can lift each other out of the water. The Dewey is in three sections, of which the two small end sections lift the large central section, and are themselves lifted by it. CHAPTER IX THE NATIONAL DEFENSE A NATION'S surest guarantee of peace is to be prepared for war. If at all times ready to wage war successfully, its chances of becoming entangled are infinitesimal; in order to secure such a guarantee an efficient fighting Navy is essential. A country which has over-sea pos- sessions is absolutely dependent on its Navy for their retention in time of war. No army, how- ever powerful, can operate far away from its home base without communications, and these its Navy must be depended upon to maintain. Had the Japanese Navy not vanquished the Russian Navy, Japan could not have maintained an army in Manchuria, nor could she have re- sisted in turn invasion by the Eussian armies. The British Empire owes its integrity to the Navy; repeatedly, when its very existence has 217 218 THE UNITED STATES NAVY been threatened, the English nation has been saved by its naval forces. Had Napoleon been able to obtain control of the sea long enough to realize his dream of invading England, his Empire could not have been destroyed. For this reason the English people as a whole regard their Navy as the nation's bulwark. The United States is in much the same position as England, as regarding its dependencies, which are far distant and largely in the Pacific Ocean. Unless there were a sufficient naval force to pre- vent a hostile fleet from operating, the Philip- pines and Hawaii could not be retained. The Army, without the Navy to maintain a line of communication, would not be able to hold them, no matter how strong were the fortifications. The problem of an invasion of the United States by sea has been worked out in the war offices of every other great armed nation, but, with the addition of each new squadron to the Navy, the solution becomes more difficult, and if the United States continues to build ships according to its means, in the near future its THE NATIONAL DEFENSE 219 invasion by sea would be regarded as impos- sible. The United States, for peace and im- munity from war, well can afford to pay so cheap an insurance as is involved by the cost of the Navy. Therefore, every citizen of the United States, whether of the East or the West, of the sea-coast States or of inland States, has an equal interest in the maintenance of a large and efficient Navy, as through it alone the safety of the nation and the integrity of its depend- encies can be assured. The function of the Navy is not directly to protect the coast and the seaports. There are coast defenses and fortifications for that pur- pose. The Navy must gain control of the sea, and, to do this, must be foot-loose to search out and destroy the enemy's fleet and so indirectly to protect the coasts ; to guarantee the country against invasion, and to enable the land forces to carry the war into the enemy's country. For these reasons the Navy must be not only power- ful, but it must be a cruising navy, and a fighting navy; the ships must be able to keep the sea in 220 THE UNITED STATES NAVY all weather; they must be capable of cruising long distances, and the gun crews must be well drilled and trained to make the greatest possible number of hits per minute. While the national defense is of first im- portance, the duties of the country abroad should not be lost sight of. Without an ef- fective Navy to back it up, the Monroe Doctrine would become a dead letter. Our interest in world affairs and influence in the cause of hu- manity would not avail anything without the power to make good our contentions. THE END INDEX INDEX Adams, 140. Admiral of the Navy, flag, 93 ; grade ceases, 38 ; duties, 56. Aeroplanes, 198. Agamemnon, 18. Aid for Inspections, Material, Operations, Personnel, 29. Airships, 198. Alabama, 126. Albany, 136. Alert, 140. " All - big - gun " battleship, 152. Allotments, 98. Alvarado, 139. Ammunition, 179. Amphitrite, 133. Annapolis, 138. Antarctic expeditions, 16. Arkansas, 129. Armor, 159; barbette, 157; belt, 157, 161 ; casemate, 162; Harveyized, 160; Krupp, 160; protection, 161; side, 157; turret, 157. Armored cruisers, 130; defini- tion, 117. Armored ships, 115. Army, senior service, 21. Articles for Government of the Navy, 30. Articles of War, 30. Artificers, 70. Asiatic Fleet, 37; composi- tion and headquarters, 39. Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 22. Athletics, 95. Atlanta, 134. Atlantic Fleet, 37; composi- tion and headquarters, 39. Auxiliary vessels, 142. Bainbridge, Captain, 10. Ballistics, 156. Baltimore, 134. Barbary pirates, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10. Barbette armor, 157. Battery, main, 149; sec- ondary, 149. Battle practice, 99. Battleship, definition, 116. Battleships Nos. 36 and 37, 130. Bennington, 138. Birmingham, 137. Blockade, in Civil War, 12; prevented by submarines, 122. Boats, small, ceremonies, 113. Boilers, 166. Bon Homme Richard, 2. Boston, 134. Boxer, 10, 141. Boxer uprising, 19. British seamen captured, 3. Brooklyn, 131. Building a warship, 202. Bureaus of Navy Depart- ment, 23, 24, 25, 26. Burial, at sea, 107; on shore, 108. Byng, Sir John, 35. Cabin mess, 87. Cable, first ocean telegraph, 18. " Calibers," length of gun, 156. California, 132. 223 INDEX Callao, 139. Captain, duties, 57. Captain of the Yard, 43. Castine, 138. Cementation, 160. Ceremonials and distinctions, 104. Chaplains, 64. Charleston, 137. Chattanooga, 135. Cheers, prohibited, 113. Chester, 137. Cheyenne, 133. Chicago, 134. Chief Engineer, 86. Chief Petty Officers, 67, 69, 88. Chiefs of Bureaus, appoint- ment, 27; duties of, 23. Cincinnati, 134. Civil Engineers, 63. Civil War, 12. Classes of ships, 115. Clerical Branch, 73. Clubhouses, 96. Coffer dams, 158. Colliers, 143. Collingwood, Vice-Admiral, 90. Colorado, 132. " Colors," 107. Columbia, 135. Commandant of Navy Yard, 42. Commander, duties of, 57. Commander-in-Chief of fleet, 89. Commanding officer of a ship, 83. Commissary branch, 72. Commissary, ship's, 88. Commissioning a man-of-war, 81. Complements, 83. Concord, 138. Connecticut, 127. Constellation, 5, 140, 146. Constitution, 5, 115, 140. Continental Navy, 1, 2, 4. Cost of ammunition, 185. Countermining, 190. Courts-martial, 31. Corvettes, 115. Cruisers, 119. Cumberland, 141. Cushing, 146. Dead Sea exploration,, 16. Death, sentence by court- martial, 33. Decatur, 10, 146. Deck Courts, 31. Deck, protective, 157. Deep sea sounding, 17. Defense, national, 217. Delaware, 128. Denver, 135. Desertion, 34. Designing a warship, 203. Des Moines, 135. Detroit, 134. Dewey, Commodore, 15; Ad- miral of the Navy, 38. Dimensions, 147. Displacement, 147. Distinguishing marks on uni- form, 103. Divisions of Navy Depart- ment, 30. "Dog Watches," 111. Don Juan de Austria, 138. "Dotter," 99. Draft, 148. Drills, 96. Dry Docks, 212; floating, 215; graving, 214. Dubuque, 138. Dunnite, 188. Elcano, 139. Electric plant, 171. Emmensite, 188. Engineer's force, 70. Engineer officer, 86. Engineering duties, 59. Engines, 162. Enlisted men, 66; pay, 73; rates, 68; titles, 67. INDEX 225 Ensign, duties, 58. Ensign, national, 93. Enterprise, 140. Epervier, 10. Essex, 140. Executive officer, 84. Farragut, Admiral, 146; burial, 109. Fighting tops, 177. Fire-control officer, 84. First lieutenant, 84. Flags, 91; national, 92. Fleet organization, 37, 89. Flogging, 35. Forced draft, 168. Franklin, 140. Franklin, relief, 16. Friendship, brig, 11. Frigates, 115. Fuel, 168. Funeral escort, 108. Fuses, 185. Galveston, 135. Gangway of ship, 112. General Board, 28. General Court-Martial, 32. General Mess, 88. General Quarters, 97. General Storekeeper, 43. Georgia, 126. Gopher, 140. Granite State, 140. Greely relief, 16. Grog, 114. Guam, administration of, 21; capture of, 16. Guerriere, 10. Gunboats, 115, 120, 137. Gun cotton, 187. Gun, rapid fire, 156; semi- automatic, 156; smooth bore, 155; wire wound, 155. Hartford, 139. Helena, 138. High explosives, 187. Honors and distinctions, 105. Hopkins, Captain Esek, 1. Horsepower, 166. Hospital Corps, 71. Hospital ships, 143. Hull, 145. Hydrographic office, 48. Idaho, 127. Illinois, 126. Independence, 140. Indiana, 124. Intrepid, 141. Invasion of United States, 218. Iowa, 125. 7s la de Cuba, 138. Isla de Luzon, 138. Jamestown, 141. Jarvis, 146. Jena, explosion, 180. Jones, John Paul, Captain. 1, 2. Judge Advocate-General, 28. Kansas, 127. Kearsarge, 125. Keel, laying, 207. Kentucky, 125. Knot, 149. Lancaster, 140. Launching, 208. Length, 148. Lieutenant-Commander, du- ties, 57. Lieutenant, duties, 58. Lights, signal, 93. Line officers, 52; duties, 56; promotion, 56. List of ships, 123. Louisiana, 127. Lyddite, 188. Macedonian, 10. Machias, 138. Maine, 126. Major-General Commandant, 74. MarWehead, 134. Marietta, 138. Marine Corps, 74. Mc^ryland, 132. Massachusetts, 124. Mast, cage, 178; military, 177. Maury, Lieutenant, 17. Medical Corps, 59. Messmen branch, 72. Mexican War, 11. Miantonomoh, 133. Michigan, 128. Midshipmen, 86; at Annap- olis, 53; at sea, 55; duties, 59. Milwaukee, 137. Mines, submarine, 188. Minneapolis, 135. Minnesota, 127. Mississippi, 127. Missouri, 126. Model Basin, 203. Mohican, 140. Monadnock, 133. Monaghan, 146. Monitors, 14, 118; list, 133. Monroe doctrine, 220. Montana, 132. Monterey, 133. Montgomery, 134. Morris tube, 99. Mourning badge, 102. Musicians, 72. Mutiny, 36. Naming naval vessels, 144. Nashville, 138. National defense, 217. Nautical Almanac, 47. Naval Academy, 53, 54. Naval coal depots, 47. Naval Constructors, 61. Naval Hospitals, 48. Naval Militia, 77. Naval Observatory, 46. Naval powder depots, 48. Naval prisons, 36. Naval Proving Grounds, 47, 180. Naval tactics, 38. Naval Torpedo Station, 47. Naval Training Stations, 47. Navigator, 85. Navy Department, building, 22; duties, 20. Navy Regulations, 30. Navy Yards, administration, 42; board on wages, 44; list of, 40. Nebraska, 126. Nelson, Admiral, 90, 110. Nero, deep sea sounding, 17. Newark, 134. New Hampshire, 127. New Jersey, 126. New Orleans, 136. Newport, 138. New York; battle ship, 129; cruiser, 131; name, 145. Niagara, 18. Nicaragua Canal route sur- vey, 18. Nipsic, 140. Nitro-glycerine, 187. North Carolina, 132. North Dakota, 128. Oath of allegiance, 52. Office of Naval Intelligence, 29. Officer of the deck, 86. Officers of Navy, 50. Ohio, 126. Olympia, 135. Ordnance officer, 85. Oregon, 124. Ozark, 133. Pacific Fleet, 37, 39. Paducah, 138. Pampanga, 139. Panama Canal Survey, 18. Panay, 139. Paymasters, 60, 87. Pennsylvania, 132. INDEX 227 Pensacola, 140. Perry expedition, 16. Petrel, 138. Petty officers, 68. Philip, Captain, 124. Philippines, Capture of, 15. Picric acid, 188. Piracy in the West Indies, 11. Porter, 146. Porto Rico, Capture of, 16. Portsmouth, 140. Potomac, frigate, 11. Powder, brown, 179; smoke- less, 180. President, honors, 105. Princeton, 138. Privateers, 2. Professors of Mathematics, 63. Projectiles, 181. Protected cruisers, 133. Protective deck, 157. Punishment, 31. Puritan, 133. Qualla Battoo, 11. Ram, 172. Ranger, 140. Rank, 51. Rank marks, 101. Rating badges, 103. Rear- Admiral, duties, 57; flag, 93. Record target practice, 99. Redoubtable, 177. Retirement, 76. Rhode Island, 126. Richmond, 140. Rifles, breech-loading, 155. Rockets, signal, 91, 93. Rodgers, 146. Routine, ship, 94. St. Louis, 137. Salem, 137. Samar, 139. Sampson, Rear-Admiral, 15. Sandovul, 139. San Francisco, 134. San Marcos, 123. Saratoga, 131. Scotch boiler, 167. Scout cruisers, 119. Seaman-gunners, 70. Seamen, 69. Searchlights, 179. Secretary, 64. Secretary of the Navy, 20. Senior officer's flag, 93. Serapis, 2. Severn, 141. " Shaking down " cruise, 82. Ship's bottom paint, 213. Ship control officer, 85. Ship routine, 94. Sick quarters, 96. Side boys, 107. Signal men, 94. Signals and flags, 91. Slave trade, suppression, 11. Sloops-of-war, 115. Solicitor, duties, 28. South Carolina, 128. South Dakota, 132. Spanish War, 15. Specialty marks, 103. Speed, 149. Speed trial, 209. Spencer, Midshipman, 36. Spotters, 98, 100. Squadrons, 89. Staff corps devices, 102. Staff of Commander-in-Chief, 90. Staff officers, 51, 87. Steerage, 88. Stoddert, Benjamin, 21. Submarines, 121. Submarine mines, 188. Surgeons, 59, 87. Sword, 102. Tacoma, 135. Tactics, naval, 38. Tallahassee, 133. 228 INDEX Target practice, 98. Tennessee, 132. Terror, 133. Texas, old, 123; new, 129; name, 145. Titles of staff officers, 51. Tonopah, 133. Torpedoes, 191; automobile, 192; spar, 191; protection, 196. Torpedo craft, 120, 121, 141; fleets, 40. Trafalgar, battle, 90. Transports, 143. Triple screws, 165. Trophies, target practice, 99. Turbine engines, 163. Turrets, 150. Turret armor, 157. Tutuila, administration, 21. Twin screws, 164. Unarmored ships, 115. Under-water body, 159. Uniform, 100, 103. Union-jack, 93. Vengeance, 146. Vermont, 127. 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