CONCRETE ON THE FA 
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CONCRETE ON THE FARM 
 
 AND 
 
 IN 1 THE SHOP 
 
 A COMPLETE PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE COMMONEST EVERY-DAY 
 USES OP C6NCRETE. WRITTEN IN PLAIN ENGLISH, SO THAT 
 THE INEXPERIENCED PERSON DESIRING TO UNDERTAKE A 
 PIECE OP CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION CAN, BY FOL- 
 LOWING THE DIRECTIONS GIVEN, SECURE SUCCESS. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF TANKS, TROUGHS, CISTERNS, 
 FENCE POSTS. STABLE FLOORS. HOTBEDS, HOG WAL- 
 LOWS, WALLS, FOUNDATIONS, PANEL FENCES, FEEDING 
 FLOORS, AND ALL THE PURPOSES FOR WHICH CONCRETE 
 is AN INVALUABLE AID TO THE FARMER ARE INCLUDED 
 
 BY 
 
 H. COLIN CAMPBELL, C.E., E.M. 
 
 Contributing Editor, Cement World and American Carpenter and Builder 
 Member, Editorial Staff, Farm Engineering 
 
 VERY FULf^Y 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 132 NASSAU STREET 
 
 1916 
 
COPYRIGHTED, 19 1G 
 
 BY 
 THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 AGRIC, DEPT. 
 
 WAIN LIBRARY 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY OF CONCRETE PRINCIPLES 9 
 
 AGGREGATES 12 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTIONING 15 
 
 MIXING CONCRETE 18 
 
 PLACING CONCRETE - 27 
 
 PROTECTION AFTER PLACING 29 
 
 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 30 
 
 RECOMMENDED MIXTURES 33 
 
 FORMS 38 
 
 CONCRETING TOOLS 49 
 
 FOUNDATIONS 55 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCING 66 
 
 MATERIALS FOR REINFORCING 66 
 
 WALLS AND FENCES 73 
 
 POSTS 81 
 
 RUBBLE CONCRETE 96 
 
 TANKS AND TROUGHS 101 
 
 CISTERNS ' 107 
 
 FORM REMOVAL . 113 
 
 HOG WALLOW 113 
 
 MANURE PIT 115 
 
 REPAIRS OF LEAKS IN TANKS, ETC 117 
 
 HOTBEDS 121 
 
 ROOFS FOR SMALL BUILDINGS 125 
 
 PAVEMENTS, FEEDING FLOORS, AND WALKS 129 
 
 STEPS 136 
 
 WELL CURBS AND PLATFORMS 141 
 
 3 
 
 /I A O O f 
 
INTRODUCTORY 
 
 WITHIN recent years there has been increas- 
 ing attention given to the use of concrete as a 
 building material. Nowhere has this interest been 
 relatively greater than on the farm. The appeal 
 of concrete is due largely to the fact that care and 
 faithful observance of fundamental principles 
 enable a large portion of the actual labor to be 
 performed by those who are relatively unskilled. 
 The increasing cost of lumber has made concrete 
 not only a formidable competitor but successful 
 rival. Not only is this true but those who have 
 once used concrete have come to a realization 
 that in the concrete structure expensive upkeep is 
 eliminated. There is no longer the continual an- 
 nual outlay for repairing, painting, straightening 
 up, and rebuilding or patching the work to put it 
 into condition equal to new, or to maintain it in 
 serviceable condition. 
 
 Concrete is also fireproof. This is another 
 strong appeal. On the farm fireproof construc- 
 tion is doubly advantageous since the country 
 dweller is without the protection which his city 
 friend enjoys; namely, the well-equipped and 
 usually efficient fire department. But concrete in 
 town is just as good as in the country. Another 
 advantage comes from the sanitation resulting 
 
 5 
 
6 ^INTRODUCTORY 
 
 where concrete construction is properly applied. 
 Feeding floors, hog wallows, watering troughs, all 
 do their share on the farm and it is a large one 
 toward preventing the filthy conditions that in 
 a large percentage of cases are responsible for 
 the epidemic stock diseases which annually exact 
 a costly toll from farmers throughout the country. 
 There are concrete books galore. No apology 
 need be made for this one. The concrete worker 
 who so far has met with scant success, will learn 
 the "why" by carefully reading and following its 
 message. The engineer or contractor thoroughly 
 experienced in concrete work may find but little 
 to interest him in this book. He will say that he 
 has heard all of these subjects discussed before. 
 Perhaps, however, he has not heeded many of the 
 cautions which the writer has endeavored to put 
 into plain language and which he knows are es- 
 sential to success. In that respect the book may 
 profit the engineer or contractor who heeds. It 
 has, however, been primarily prepared with the 
 beginner first in mind the man who knows noth- 
 ing of concrete but wants to learn. 
 
 Concrete ordinarily is a technical subject and 
 most writers have described the methods of using 
 it in high-sounding terms which are beyond the 
 understanding of the average man without some 
 engineering or construction experience. The 
 writer has endeavored to translate technical ex-' 
 pressions and technical terms into plain everyday 
 English, that any one who can read can under-' 
 
INTRODUCTORY 7 
 
 stand. Simple drawings accompany the text. In 
 some cases these are purposely exaggerated to 
 better show what is meant. In many cases con- 
 struction illustrated by drawings is shown in a 
 reproduction of photograph illustrating the work 
 in progress or completed. 
 
 In the limited space of this booklet not all of 
 the possibilities of Concrete on the Farm and in 
 the Shop could be dwelt upon. The fundamentals 
 of concreting, however, have been presented at 
 some length, and these apply regardless of the 
 construction. The examples used for purpose of 
 illustration, that is, the various types of construc- 
 tion described, are such as to give the beginner 
 who follows all directions the necessary experience 
 to undertake more pretentious uses of concrete. 
 
 THE AUTHOB. 
 
 March, 1916. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND 
 . IN THE SHOP 
 
 WHAT CONCRETE IS, HOW IT SHOULD BE 
 MADE, AND SOME OF ITS USES 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 INCKEASIXG interest in the advantages of per- 
 manent, fireproof and sanitary construction has 
 resulted in recognition of the adaptability of con- 
 crete for most buildings required upon the farm. 
 Here its range of use is almost unlimited ; barns, 
 hog houses, poultry houses, dairy buildings, silos, 
 watering troughs and tanks, feeding floors, barn 
 floors, foundations practically all types of farm 
 building construction seem to be best solved by 
 proper application of concrete. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fact that there have been 
 volumes written concerning the uses of concrete, 
 a great deal of the so-called information scattered 
 broadcast has been simply the recounting of in- 
 dividual practices and experiences, which have 
 not by any means always represented what those 
 best qualified to know would endorse as correct 
 methods of using concrete. Too often those who 
 attempt concrete construction act upon the im- 
 pression that a little cement a little sand, gravel 
 
 9 
 
10 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 and water, then a few turnings with the shovel, 
 and presto! the trick is done. This is far from 
 the truth. 
 
 WHAT CONCRETE IS 
 
 Concrete consists of a certain quantity of 
 broken stone or gravel of properly graded sizes, 
 firmly bound together by a mortar consisting of 
 Portland cement, sand and water. It is, therefore, 
 a composite product, a manufactured one, so to 
 speak, therefore success in the use of concrete 
 involves observance of certain established require- 
 ments of selection and mixing of ingredients, and 
 proper placing. 
 
 Like the black man and the red man, Portland 
 cement's identity was established through color. 
 It looks like the Portland stone of England; but 
 nowadays when Portland cement is spoken of, 
 only the manufactured product is meant. Natural 
 cements are not suited to the general run of con- 
 crete construction. 
 
 WHAT PORTLAND CEMENT IS 
 
 Portland cement is a carefully manufactured 
 product, consisting principally of lime, silica and 
 aluminum oxide. It is not necessary that the 
 user should know the exact nature of its ingre- 
 dients nor just how they are combined. There 
 are so many reputable manufacturers of Port- 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 11 
 
 land cement in the country to-day that the person 
 contemplating concrete construction need not 
 concern himself with the process of manufacture. 
 All he need do is to inform himself as to the 
 known reliability of any particular brand he 
 contemplates using. This can be done by cor- 
 responding with the United States Department 
 of Agriculture or the United States Bureau of 
 Standards, both of Washington, D. C., and if 
 the reply received indicates that the particular 
 brand conforms to established engineering re- 
 quirements he will be safe in using that brand. 
 
 TESTING CEMENT 
 
 The testing of cement is a science in itself 
 that requires experience and skill acquired only 
 in laboratories with special equipment, and the 
 user need not concern himself with tests if he 
 has been properly assured that the particular 
 brand is known to meet with the requirements 
 mentioned. 
 
 If cement is properly stored before use by being 
 protected against the possibility of absorbing 
 moisture, it wifl keep a long time. It should be 
 stored in a dry shed, piled on a tight board floor 
 that is raised several inches above the ground. 
 Any cement containing lumps that cannot be easily 
 crushed between the fingers has probably been 
 exposed to dampness. The lumps should always 
 be discarded. 
 
 Portland cement is usually sold packed in cloth 
 
12 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 or paper sacks, each containing 94 pounds net. 
 Four such sacks constitute a barrel. A sack of 
 cement is considered one cubic foot. 
 
 AGGREGATES DEFINED 
 
 Aggregates is the term used to refer in a 
 general way to the sand, stone screenings, gravel, 
 broken stone such as granite and slag, or what- 
 ever other rock material is used to mix with the 
 cement to form concrete. Sand is usually re- 
 ferred to as the fine aggregate. For convenience, 
 sand is described as a clean rock material free 
 from clay, loam or other foreign substances and 
 ranging in size from the fine particles up to those 
 which will just pass a screen having i-inch 
 square meshes. (Four meshes to the linear inch 
 or 16 meshes to the square inch.) 
 
 Gravel, usually called coarse aggregate, is de- 
 fined as clean rock material, such as pebbles, 
 ranging in size from i inch up to 1, 11 or 2 
 inches, depending on which maximum size of 
 particles would be allowable for the particular 
 concrete work. As a rule, 11 inches is the maxi- 
 mum size specified for gravel or Kroken stone ag- 
 gregate in most concrete construction: 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN MATERIALS 
 Gravel or broken stone used as coarse aggre- 
 gate also must be free from clay, loam or other 
 foreign materials. The presence of these in any 
 considerable quantity, usually fixed at from three 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 13 
 
 to not more than five per cent, is likely to be 
 injurious in concrete mixtures. Such foreign 
 materials not only affect the strength of the re- 
 sulting concrete, but exert an influence on its ten- 
 dency to harden, sometimes delaying hardening 
 so that the mass will not acquire any considerable 
 strength for perhaps a number of days. 
 
 BANK-RUN GRAVEL NOT SUITABLE 
 
 The fact that nature has been very lavish with 
 its distribution of sand and gravel, has led many 
 users of concrete to think that bank-run material, 
 that is, combined sand and gravel as dug out of a 
 so-called gravel bank or pit, makes suitable ag- 
 gregate for concrete. This is not correct, and has 
 been responsible for much unsatisfactory con- 
 crete construction, especially for the large 
 amount of leaky and porous concrete. 
 
 Bank-run material almost invariably consists 
 of too large a percentage of sand usually twice 
 as much sand as gravel and for good concrete, 
 the proportions should be practically the reverse. 
 It is always economy to screen bank-run material 
 (see Fig. 1), separating the fine material (sand) 
 from the coarse (pebbles) by passing over a quar- 
 ter-inch mesh screen so that the two volumes 
 (sand and gravel) can be reproportioned suitably 
 for the particular construction. 
 
 Many persons who have done concrete work 
 will be inclined to question the truth of this state- 
 
14 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 ment, but they should at once make a few ex- 
 periments and convince themselves of its truth. 
 A 1:2:4 mixture, for instance, which means 1 
 sack (1 cubic foot) of Portland cement, 2 cubic 
 feet of well-graded sand and 4 cubic feet of well- 
 graded gravel or broken stone, will, when prop- 
 
 FIG. 1. Screening Bank-run Gravel. 
 
 erly combined and mixed with water, form ^a 
 bulk slightly exceeding 4 cubic feet. This proves 
 that the sand has gone to fill up the voids (air 
 spaces) between the particles of gravel and that 
 the cement has gone to fill up the voids (air 
 spaces) between the particles of sand. If instead 
 of using a definitely proportioned 1:2:4 mixture 
 the concrete worker were to take 1 sack of cement* 
 
CONCRETE QN THE FARM AND SHOP 15 
 
 and mix it with 6 cubic feet of material as coming 
 from the gravel bank, he would then have 6 cubic 
 feet of concrete containing 1 sack of cement as 
 against slightly over 4 cubic feet containing the 
 same quantity of cement. It should require but a 
 moment's thought to prove that the 1:2:4 mix- 
 ture contained proportionately more cement, hence 
 should be a stronger, denser mixture. This is 
 true. It might require several sacks of cement to 
 make the mixture containing 6 feet of natural 
 bank-run material as strong as the 1:2:4 mixture. 
 Therefore, it should be seen that true economy 
 follows correct proportioning of materials. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTIONING CON- 
 CRETE MIXTURES 
 
 Correct proportioning is based on the following 
 conditions: voids or air spaces must be filled; 
 every particle of sand must be coated with cement 
 and every pebble of gravel or particle of broken 
 stone must be coated with sand-cement mortar. 
 Both strength and density, consequently water- 
 tightness in finished concrete construction, are 
 dependent largely upon careful proportioning of 
 materials. 
 
 Several methods of proportioning are practiced, 
 but all consist essentially of ascertaining the per- 
 centage or bulk of voids or air spaces in the 
 coarse material (pebbles or broken stone) to be 
 filled by the finer material (sand), then ascertain- 
 
16 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 ing the percentage of voids or air spaces in the 
 combined sand and pebbles to be filled by cement. 
 Therefore, when definite mixtures are specified 
 for any construction, best results cannot follow if 
 instead of the separate and definite volumes of 
 sand and gravel called for, a bank-run material 
 of the same total volume is substituted. 
 
 HARD, DURABLE AGGREGATES NECESSARY 
 
 In addition to being free from the foreign sub- 
 stances mentioned, both sand and gravel or what- 
 ever aggregate is used, must be hard and durable. 
 Flat, soft, shale-like pieces of stone cannot be 
 combined in a concrete mixture so as to produce 
 concrete of great density and strength, nor 
 watertightness. 
 
 WASHING AGGREGATES 
 
 One of the simplest arrangements for washing 
 sand and gravel is shown in Fig. 2. This -consists 
 merely of a trough into which water is intro- 
 duced by a pipe or hose at the higher end, where 
 the sand and gravel are shoveled in also. The 
 action of the water upon them as they roll over 
 and over while descending the trough is such that 
 they become thoroughly washed and the sand 
 passes through the screen at the lower end, while 
 the gravel is deposited in a pile at the open end 
 of the trough beyond the screen. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 17 
 
 A washing platform or box like that shown in 
 Fig. 3, can be arranged for by making a frame of 2 
 
 ..-Sideboard 
 
 NOTE: Bottom Board 2"xl2" 
 S/de2"x6" 
 
 , Screen 
 
 Dirty wafer l^SSJZrfa 
 and sand . . .,' >''';'-'!;::,'\; .';/ 
 Platform '^^^^ 
 
 E 1 e v a t i o n 
 
 Screen . 
 
 Plan 
 
 FIG. 2. Combined Trough and Screen for Washing Sand and Gravel. 
 
 FIG. 3. Simple Washing Platform to Wash Sand and Gravel/ 
 
 by 6-inch lumber around a tight bottom, then rais- 
 ing up this platform slightly at one end, shoveling 
 the sand and gravel to be washed upon it at the 
 
18 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 high end and turning against them a strong 
 stream from a hose, stirring the materials about 
 while the water is being applied. Any clay or 
 loam will be carried away in suspension in the 
 water and will overflow with it at the low end of 
 the platform or box: 
 
 CLEAN, PURE WATER NECESSARY 
 
 Another requirement is that the water used to 
 mix the several materials shall also be clean. 
 The best specification for mixing water is to say 
 that water which is good to drink is best for con- 
 crete. Any considerable amount of clay making 
 the water "cloudy" is just as injurious to a con- 
 crete mixture as though this clay were on the 
 particles of sand and gravel. Water containing 
 an excess of alkali or any oil is also objection- 
 able. Eemember, therefore, to use clean, pure 
 water in mixing the concrete water that you 
 would not be afraid to drink. 
 
 MIXING CONCRETE 
 
 Concrete may be mixed by hand, but by far the 
 better way is to use a power-operated batch 
 mixer, as this insures a more thorough and uni- 
 form combination of the several materials. Power- 
 operated mixers that will meet the rural worker 's 
 needs can be purchased with self-contained gaso- 
 line engines for as little as $70 or $75, and for any 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 19 
 
 one contemplating a considerable amount of con- 
 crete construction, they represent a wise invest- 
 ment that will eliminate most of the labor where 
 much concrete is to be mixed. Many farmers have 
 found it advantageous to combine co-operatively 
 in purchasing such an equipment, then to charge 
 each person so much per day for the use of the 
 outfit, thus eventually absorbing its cost among 
 them. 
 
 HOME-MADE CONCRETE MIXER 
 
 Home-made concrete mixers have been con- 
 structed by attaching cubical boxes to a shaft of 
 gas pipe, and revolving the box by a pulley at- 
 tached to the shaft belt driven by a gasoline 
 engine. To obtain best results from a cubical 
 drum without placing interior vanes or deflectors 
 inside the box, the shaft on which it is mounted 
 should not extend exactly from corner to corner 
 of the cube but so that the cube will be hung "off 
 center, " thus giving a sort of zigzag motion to 
 the contents of the box while it is being revolved. 
 
 In mixing concrete in the proportion 1:2:3, 6 
 cubic feet of loose materials are required for a 
 one-bag batch, while in a leaner mixture such as 
 a 1:3:5, 9 cubic feet of loose materials -are put 
 into the mixer. Mixing batches as large as these 
 in a box or drum operated by a gasoline engine 
 requires that the construction be very rigid. 
 The box should be 3 feet in each dimension, so will 
 have a volume capacity of 1 cubic yard. Best 
 
20 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 results in mixing are secured when the mixer 
 cube or drum is not over -j full. Gears should 
 be arranged so that the drum may be revolved 
 at a proper speed. If revolved too slowly, too 
 long a time will be required for mixing, and if 
 
 FIG. 4. Home-made Concrete Mixer, Rear View. 
 
 revolved too rapidly the materials will tend to 
 cling to the sides of the box or drum and will 
 therefore not be tumbled about enough to insure 
 thorough mixing. 
 
 Two types of home-made mixers are shown in 
 accompanying reproduction of photographs, Figs. 
 
FIG. 5. Another View of the Mixer Shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 FIG. 6. Home-made Barrel Mixer. Hand or Power Operated. 
 
 21 
 
22 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 4, 5, 6 and 7. One of these is cylindrical in shape 
 and was made of two round board heads fitted 
 into a drum frame which was composed of nar- 
 row boards of the desired length, bolted to two 
 old wagon tires. The other home-made mixer 
 
 FIG. 7, Showing How the Barrel may be Dumped. 
 
 consists of a barrel mounted on a suitable frame 
 and fitted with a set of gear castings which are 
 so connected to a shaft with pulley, as to be 
 operated* by a belt driven by gasoline engine. 
 This mixer can be hand driven also. The frame, 
 as will be seen, has been made so that the barrel 
 can be tilted after mixing has been completed to 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 23 
 
 dump the concrete into a wheelbarrow for trans- 
 ferring to where it is to be used. 
 
 In machine mixing it is desirable to revolve the 
 mixer at least one minute after all materials, in- 
 cluding the mixing water, have been placed in the 
 drum. One and one-half minutes would be better. 
 
 HAND MIXING 
 
 The greater portion of home-made concrete is 
 mixed by hand. In such cases a watertight plat- 
 form (Fig. 8) should be provided. This should 
 be made of smooth 1J or 2-inch boards, prefer- 
 ably tongued and grooved so that the platform 
 will be tight to prevent water carrying away 
 cement by leaking through cracks during mixing 
 of materials. 
 
 MEASURING MATERIALS 
 
 A practical method of measuring materials is 
 to use a bottomless box: This box may be made 
 to hold either 1 cubic foot or 4 cubic feet. In 
 the latter case there should be marks on the in- 
 terior indicating levels for 1, 2 and 3 cubic feet. 
 (Cement need not be measured as 1 sack (94 
 pounds) is considered 1 cubic foot.) The measur- 
 ing box is first set on the mixing platform, and 
 when the required amount of sand has been 
 measured, the sand is spread out in a layer on the 
 mixing platform. Next the cement is spread over 
 
24 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 25 
 
 the sand in a thin layer. Square-pointed shovels 
 are used to turn the cement and sand several times 
 until the mixture is of a uniform color, disap- 
 pearance of brown and grey streaks indicating 
 thorough mixing of the mass. Then the gravel or 
 crushed stone, first thoroughly wet, is measured 
 and spread in a layer on top of the cement and 
 sand and all of the materials again turned with 
 shovels. A depression is then shoveled in the 
 center of the pile and water is added while pre- 
 ferably two men turn the mass thoroughly. If 
 running water is available the water should be 
 sprayed from a hose to avoid washing away the 
 cement. At any rate it should be added gently, 
 shoveling being carried on while water is added 
 and continued until the entire batch is of a uni- 
 form consistency and color. This will generally 
 require that at least three turnings be given the 
 materials after the necessary amount of water 
 has been added. 
 
 Thorough hand mixing will produce a good 
 concrete mixture, but the labor involved is con- 
 siderable if much concrete work is planned, and 
 there is a tendency to slight mixing, so it quite 
 often follows that improperly mixed concrete is 
 used. For this reason the concrete worker should 
 endeavor to provide means for mixing his con- 
 crete by a power-operated batch mixer. 
 
26 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED 
 
 The amount of water required in a concrete mix- 
 ture varies to some extent, depending upon the 
 construction in which used. For most classes 
 of work, what is known as a " quaky 7 ' consistency 
 best fills requirements. Such a mixture is one 
 that is wet enough to settle in place with very 
 little working or spading in the forms, or, if 
 placed in a pile, as in building feeding floors or 
 barnyard pavements and walks, it will slowly 
 spread out or flatten of its own weight. Too 
 much water will cause the mortar to separate 
 from the pebbles or broken stone, and thus result 
 in stone pockets in the finished mass. Where re- 
 inforcing steel is used, too wet a mixture would 
 also result in pockets where the concrete had not 
 bonded or united with the steel. Finally, after 
 the concrete had hardened, the evaporation of the 
 excess water would cause the mass to have a por- 
 ous texture. 
 
 In making such concrete products as block, 
 brick and tile, which are usually made in iron 
 molds, these products being removed from the 
 mold immediately after tamping, a drier mixture 
 must be used. In that case the general rule is to 
 use as much water as possible without interfer- 
 ing with the quick removal of the molds, yet 
 enough so that with hard tamping free moisture 
 will flush to the surface of the concrete. 
 
 In reinforced concrete fence posts, where den- 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 27 
 
 sity and compactness are secured not by tamping 
 the concrete but rather by shaking or jarring the 
 molds, the mixture must be quite wet slightly 
 wetter than described by " quaky" as wet as pos- 
 sible without causing separation of mortar and 
 gravel in handling and placing. Such products as 
 fence posts are left in the molds for perhaps 24 
 hours, or until the concrete has hardened suf- 
 ficiently to permit removing sides of the molds 
 without injury to the concrete. 
 
 PLACING CONCRETE 
 
 All concrete should be placed where it is to be 
 used within 30 minutes after water has been 
 added to the mixed materials. This is important 
 because concrete begins to harden within this 
 time, and to disturb the mass after hardening has 
 begun destroys the final strength of the concrete, 
 and in the case of floors or pavements impairs 
 the wearing quality. 
 
 Methods of placing must necessarily vary in 
 accordance with the several types of construction. 
 To mention a few simple examples : 
 
 Concrete for feeding floors or barnyard pave- 
 ments is dumped from a wheelbarrow upon a 
 previously prepared sub-grade or foundation and 
 as rapidly as the forms for alternate slabs are 
 filled, the concrete is struck off level by using a 
 straightedge rested upon the top of forms. The 
 surface is then finished by smoothing with a wood 
 
28 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 float. Such a tool is preferable to a steel trowel 
 as it gives an even surface yet one not smooth 
 enough to be slippery. In the case of small 
 troughs and watering tanks, that can be built 
 without stopping concreting once it has begun, 
 part of the concrete for the floor of the trough or 
 tank is placed, then the reinforcing, then enough 
 concrete to finish the floor, then the inside form is 
 quickly set in place, concrete for side walls de- 
 posited immediately and spaded or tamped, so 
 that every portion of the forms is filled. A tool 
 like a garden spade or hoe flattened out, or a flat 
 piece of wood with the edge protected by sheet 
 iron, is used for this purpose. Spading next to 
 the forms forces back the coarse aggregate and 
 causes the mortar to flow against the form face, 
 giving a smoother finish and a denser surface. 
 
 In constructing walls for buildings, forms are 
 filled in a manner similar to that just described, 
 particular attention being given to spading the 
 coarse material away from the outside faces in 
 order to give a smooth exterior surface when 
 forms are removed, this, of course, assuming that 
 the exterior surface is to be left in its natural 
 condition. If, however, the surface is to be plas- 
 tered finally, spading should be done only between 
 form faces so that the exposed surface will be a 
 little rough, making the plaster bond or "key" 
 better to the wall face. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 29 
 
 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE AFTER 
 PLACING 
 
 Proper protection of concrete after placing is 
 of utmost importance, because while concrete 
 generally begins to harden noticeably within thirty 
 minutes after mixed, the subsequent changes in 
 the mass tending toward complete hardening take 
 place somewhat slowly and can be brought about 
 satisfactorily only in the presence of favorable 
 moisture and temperature conditions. Concrete of 
 "quaky" consistency generally has sufficient 
 water in it to result in proper hardening, if, after 
 placed, the concrete is protected from exposure 
 to sun and drying winds. If not so protected, the 
 concrete instead of really hardening will simply 
 dry out. 
 
 Many persons believe that drying out is the 
 natural and required process following the work 
 of placing concrete. Nothing could be farther 
 from the truth. The expression " curing " has 
 been quite generally used, but the word suggests 
 drying rather than hardening. In any concrete 
 work the finished structure must be so protected 
 that the concrete will retain the water already in 
 it. To accomplish this, concrete floors, for in- 
 stance, must be covered with wet straw or damp 
 sand, and this covering sprinkled or otherwise 
 kept moist for a period varying from one to two 
 weeks according to weather conditions. 
 
 Concrete hardens much more rapidly in warm 
 
30 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 than in cool weather. In the case of walls of 
 buildings or vertical faces, which cannot be 
 covered with straw, canvas or similar material 
 is hung over them and kept thoroughly moist by 
 sprinkling. The concrete surface also is sprink- 
 led; Most concrete should not be subjected to its 
 intended use until it has hardened under favor- 
 able conditions for a week or more, depending 
 upon the nature of the construction. Longer time 
 will be required in cold weather. 
 
 WINTER CONCRETING 
 
 A great deal of concrete work can be done as 
 well in winter as in summer if simple precautions 
 are taken to prevent the concrete from freezing 
 during the periods of mixing, placing and harden- 
 ing. No material containing frost or frozen 
 lumps should ever be used in preparing a con- 
 crete mixture. Sand and gravel should be heated 
 in winter or kept in a room where the tempera- 
 ture does not fall below 50 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 Water used for mixing should not contain ice, 
 and in very cold weather should be heated. The 
 idea is to heat materials (except the cement) 
 enough so that the concrete when placed will have 
 a temperature not lower than 80 degrees Fahren- 
 heit. This temperature, with proper precautions 
 to protect the concrete immediately after placing, 
 will be retained for some time, especially as it 
 is supplemented by heat developed within the 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 31 
 
 concrete during the early hardening process as a 
 result of chemical action between the cement and 
 water. Consequently, if concrete in this heated 
 condition is protected from freezing during the 
 first 48 hours after it has been placed, it will not 
 usually be harmed by subsequent exposure to 
 freezing temperatures. 
 
 Floors placed in the winter time should be 
 covered with a foot of straw, or with tar paper 
 with 6 inches of dry manure shoveled on top, 
 which should be left in place from ten days to two 
 weeks. Manure should not be placed immediately 
 on or against the fresh concrete as it has been 
 known to injure the surface previous to thorough 
 hardening. 
 
 CONCRETE PRODUCTS EASILY MANUFAC- 
 TURED IN WINTER 
 
 Fence posts and similar concrete products may 
 be manufactured in winter just as well as in 
 summer, provided they are made in a workroom 
 where the temperature is kept above 50 degrees 
 and the materials are heated as suggested. Such 
 manufactured products should be kept indoors 
 until they are two weeks old before exposure to 
 the usual winter weather. 
 
 Permanent farm improvements of concrete are 
 rapidly supplanting all other kinds of construc- 
 tion for the reason that concrete is, with the ex- 
 ception of the cement, made from materials which 
 are obtainable on or near every farm. 
 
32 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 With a little experience, ordinary farm struc- 
 tures may be built by home labor. Consequently 
 the cost of these improvements is moderate, while 
 their upkeep is nothing. They require neither 
 painting nor repairs; on the contrary, the older 
 they get the better they get if the concrete work 
 has been properly done, because good concrete 
 increases in strength with age. 
 
 No doubt the chief merit of concrete for build- 
 ings is its fire-resistance. Concrete will not burn, 
 and insurance on a structure entirely of concrete 
 is unnecessary, although insurance may be re- 
 quired upon its contents. To secure complete 
 protection from fire, roofs as well as walls of 
 buildings should be of concrete. 
 
 By no means least among the advantages of 
 concrete on the farm is protection against the 
 depredations of rats and mice. This brings us 
 to the question of sanitation also, which has 
 recently assumed such vast importance owing to 
 the number of epidemic stock diseases which 
 periodically take their toll in various sections of 
 the country. Nothing is a better preventive of 
 disease than cleanliness, and nothing is so con- 
 ducive of cleanliness in farm buildings as con- 
 crete in all the surroundings of live stock. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 33 
 
 RECOMMENDED MIXTURES FOR VARIOUS 
 CLASSES OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The following table gives suggested mixtures 
 for various classes of concrete work. In each 
 case the first figure represents 1 sack, or 1 
 cubic foot, of Portland cement; the second figure 
 represents the required number of cubic feet of 
 clean, well-graded sand ranging from the finer 
 particles to those that will just pass a i-inch 
 mesh screen ; the third figure represents the num- 
 ber of cubic feet of clean, well-graded pebbles or 
 crushed stone ranging in size from | to not more 
 than 1-| inches. Further limitations on the 
 maximum size of coarse aggregate (pebbles or 
 broken stone) will be given later when each par- 
 ticular class of construction is described more in 
 detail. 
 
 TABLE OF CONCRETE MIXTURES 
 
 A 1:2:3 mixture for : 
 
 Feeding floors and barnyard pavements 
 
 One-course floors and walks 
 
 Roofs 
 
 Fence posts 
 
 Water troughs and tanks 
 A 1:2:4 mixture for : 
 
 Beams and columns 
 
 Engine foundations 
 
 Watertight basement walls 
 
34 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 Reinforced concrete floors 
 
 Work subject to vibration 
 A 1 : 2i : 4 mixture for : 
 
 Building walls above foundation 
 
 Silo walls 
 
 Base of two-course walks and floors 
 
 Backing of concrete block and similar concrete 
 
 products 
 A 1:3:5 mixture for : 
 
 Basement walls where watertightness is not es- 
 sential and foundations belowground 
 
 Mass concrete footings, etc. 
 
 MORTAR 
 
 1 : 14 mixture for : 
 
 Wearing course of two course floors 
 
 1 : 2 mixture for : 
 
 Scratch coat of exterior plaster 
 Facing blocks and similar cement products 
 Wearing course of two course walks, feeding 
 floors and barnyard pavements 
 
 1 : 2i mixture for : 
 
 Finish coat of exterior plaster 
 
 Table I shows the cubic feet of sand and gravel 
 (or crushed stone) to be mixed with one sack of 
 cement to secure mixtures of the different propor- 
 tions indicated in t}te first column. The last 
 column gives the resuming volume in cubic feet of 
 compacted mortar or concrete. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 35 
 TABLE I 
 
 MIXTURES. 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 VOL. IN CU.FT. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Gravel 
 or 
 Stone. 
 
 Cement 
 in 
 Sacks. 
 
 Sand, 
 Cu.ft. 
 
 Gravel or 
 Stone, 
 Cu.ft. 
 
 Mortar. 
 
 Con- 
 crete. 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 2.8 
 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 
 3 
 
 
 3.5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 4.5 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 
 
 
 4.8 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2.5 
 
 5 
 
 
 5.4 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 5.8 
 
 Table II gives the number of sacks of cement 
 and cubic feet of sand and gravel (or broken 
 stone) required to make 1 cubic yard (27 cubic 
 feet) of compact concrete proportioned as indi- 
 cated in first column. 
 
 Following are given a number of examples 
 which will illustrate the method of using Tables 
 I and II. 
 
 EXAMPLE I. How much cement, sand and 
 gravel will be required to build a feeding floor 
 30 by 24 feet, 5 inches thick! 
 
 Multiplying the area (30 by 24) by the thick- 
 ness in feet gives 300 cubic feet, and dividing this 
 by 27 gives 11 i cubic yards as the required 
 volume of concrete. A one-course floor should be 
 of 1 : 2 : 3 mixture. Table II shows that each cubic 
 yard of this mixture requires 7 sacks of cement, 
 
36 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 TABLE II 
 
 MIXTURES. 
 
 QUANTITIES OP MATERIALS. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 Gravel or 
 Stone. 
 
 Cement in 
 Sacks. 
 
 Sand, 
 Cu.ft. 
 
 Stone or 
 Gravel, 
 Cu.ft. 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 15.5 
 
 23.2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 12 8 
 
 25 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 9.6 
 
 28.8 
 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 3 
 
 7.6 
 
 11.4 
 
 22.8 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 
 
 5.6 
 
 14 
 
 22.4 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 .12.5 
 
 25 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4.6 
 
 13.8 
 
 23 
 
 14 cubic feet of sand and 21 cubic feet of gravel 
 or stone. Multiplying these quantities by the 
 number of cubic yards required (11-J-) gives the 
 quantities of material required (eliminating frac- 
 tions) as 78 sacks of cement, 156 cubic feet of 
 sand and 233 cubic feet of gravel or stone. As 
 there are 4 sacks of cement in a barrel, and 27 
 cubic feet of sand or gravel in a cubic yard, there 
 will be needed a little less than 20 barrels of 
 cement, 6 cubic yards of sand and 9 cubic yards of 
 gravel or stone. 
 
 EXAMPLE II. How many fence posts 3 by 3 
 inches at the top, 5 by 5 inches at the bottom and 
 7 feet long, can be made from 1 sack of cement? 
 How much sand and gravel will be needed! 
 
 Fence posts should be of a 1:2:3 mixture. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 37 
 
 Table I shows the volume of a 1-sack batch of this 
 mixture to be 3ro cubic feet. The volume of 
 one concrete post, found by multiplying the 
 length by the average width and breadth in feet 
 (7XJX1) is I cubic foot. By dividing 3 T 9 o by J 
 we find that five posts can be made from 1 sack 
 of cement when mixed with 2 cubic feet of sand 
 and 3 cubic feet of gravel. 
 
 EXAMPLE III. What quantities of cement, 
 sand and gravel are necessary to make 100 un- 
 faced concrete block, each 8 by 8 by 16 inches? 
 
 The product of height, width and thickness, all 
 in feet (iXfX-f) gives if cubic feet as the con- 
 tents of a solid block. As the air space is usually 
 estimated as 33i per cent, the volume of concrete 
 in one hollow block will be I of if, or If cubic 
 feet; in 100 blocks, the volume of concrete will 
 be -If 2 - or 39i cubic feet, which being divided by 
 27 gives a little less than 11 cubic yards. Unfaced 
 concrete block should- be of 1 : 2i : 4 mixture. 
 Table II shows that each cubic yard of this mix- 
 ture requires 5 T 6 o sacks of cement, 14 cubic feet of 
 sand and 22 T % cubic feet of gravel. Multiplying 
 these quantities by the number of cubic yards 
 required (li) gives the quantities of material 
 required as 8f sacks of cement, 21 cubic feet of 
 sand and 33| cubic feet of gravel. 
 
 EXAMPLE IV: How many 6-foot hog troughs, 
 12 inches wide and 10 inches high, can be made 
 from 1 barrel of cement? 
 
38 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 Use a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture. Table I shows the volume 
 of a 1-sack batch of this mixture to be 3 T 9 o 
 cubic feet. As there are 4 sacks in 1 barrel, a 
 barrel of cement would be sufficient for 4 times 
 3A, or 15 A cubic feet of concrete. The product 
 of the three dimensions, all in feet, gives the 
 volume of one trough as '5 cubic feet. How- 
 ever, approximately 30 per cent of this volume is 
 in the open water basin or inside of the tank, leav- 
 ing 3^ cubic feet as the solid contents of con- 
 crete in one trough. Dividing 15 T % by 3 T %, we 
 find that 4 troughs (and a fraction over) can 
 be made from 1 barrel of cement when mixed with 
 8 cubic feet of sand and 12 cubic feet of gravel. 
 
 FORMS FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF CON- 
 CRETE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Forms or molds are the receptacles in which 
 concrete is placed so that it will have the desired 
 shape or outlines when hardened. Forms are 
 constructed of wood, cast iron or sheet steel, or 
 of wood lined with sheet iron or steel, depending 
 upon the nature of the work and the surface 
 finish which it is desired to obtain. By far the 
 greater portion of concrete is placed in wood 
 forms. The character of the work and the cost of 
 lumber generally determine the kind of lumber 
 that shall be used for forms'. For work where a 
 very smooth surface finish is required, planed 
 lumber is best, and if ornamental trim is to be 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 39 
 
 reproduced in concrete, then white pine is best. 
 For ordinary work, however, white pine is too 
 expensive, and too soft to be durable under re- 
 peated iise. Therefore spruce, Norway pine, and 
 southern pine are generally the most economical 
 kinds of form lumber. California redwood will 
 stain the concrete surface so should not be used 
 where such staining would be objectionable. 
 Where spruce can be readily obtained, it is per- 
 haps the best material for form studs and posts. 
 Hemlock is too coarse grained for sheathing and 
 splits so easily as to be unsafe where forms must 
 be strong and heavy to support a great load of 
 concrete. Most of the hardwoods are too expen- 
 sive and too difficult to work. 
 
 Form lumber should be free from defects that 
 will affect its strength or cause the concrete to 
 show a reproduction of the markings on the 
 lumber, where surface markings on the concrete 
 would be undesirable. 
 
 Air-seasoned lumber is better than kiln-dried; 
 the latter will swell and bulge at the joints, while 
 green lumber will shrink if not kept wet, thus 
 opening cracks in the forms through which water 
 carrying cement will leak out when the concrete 
 is placed. Even for plain work, lumber that 
 has been dressed at least on one side and on the 
 edges is best, because the boards will fit closely 
 together and the smooth surface will reduce the 
 labor of removing and cleaning forms. Tongued 
 and grooved lumber is often used for form 
 
40 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 sheathing. This makes tight forms and prevents 
 leakage of water through forms when wet con- 
 crete is being placed, hence, will prevent the loss 
 of cement from the concrete mixture. But for 
 most farm work, tongued and grooved lumber is 
 unnecessarily expensive. 
 
 Form lumber should be uniform in thickness, 
 as any inequalities of thickness cause unevenness 
 on the concrete surface. Posts and studs for 
 supporting forms must be sufficiently stiff and 
 strong to hold forms in true line and to prevent 
 bulging or sagging under the load of concrete. 
 
 Careful thought should be given to construct- 
 ing forms so that if it is desired to use them 
 again or to use the lumber of which they have 
 been made for further concrete form work they 
 can be knocked down with least injury to the 
 lumber. It may often be found advantageous 
 to assemble certain forms with screws instead 
 of with nails. Forms should be so designed that 
 they can be taken down with the least amount 
 of hammering, thus preventing possible injury 
 to the concrete before it has thoroughly hardened. 
 
 For some foundation work, especially where 
 the earth is so firm that the sidewalls of the 
 excavation will stand without caving, forms will 
 not be necessary for portions of the construction 
 underground; but when placing and tamping the 
 concrete, care must be taken not to knock down 
 earth into the concrete. This will cause weak 
 porous spots in the wall. 
 
CONCKETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 41 
 
 Economy of lumber and consequently reduced 
 cost of form construction will result from planning 
 the forms in units so far as possible; that is, as 
 panels or sections which can easily be removed 
 and reset in other places on the same job without 
 alteration. This is especially true of building- 
 wall construction aboveground. 
 
 Depending upon the mass of concrete to be 
 supported, form lumber may vary in thickness 
 from 1 to 2 inches. Likewise studding to which 
 the sheathing boards are nailed may be spaced 
 from 18 inches to perhaps 2J or 3 feet apart, 
 depending upon the thickness of sheathing and 
 the mass of the concrete to be placed, and, hence, 
 upon its tendency to cause forms to bulge. Studs 
 should be selected with this in view also, hence 
 may vary from 2 by 4 to 2 by 8 stock. 
 
 If forms of planed lumber are to be used 
 repeatedly on the same construction, it is advis- 
 able to give the form face against which the con- 
 crete is to be placed, several coats of shellac to 
 render the lumber non-absorbent. This will 
 prevent loss of water from the concrete and will 
 also keep the concrete from sticking when hard- 
 ening. This, however, applies rather to forms 
 used in ornamental work and is not usually war- 
 ranted in the average construction. The common 
 practice is to oil or wet forms at each setting 
 just before depositing the concrete. A mixture 
 of equal parts of boiled linseed oil and kerosene 
 is very effective for this purpose, and such a 
 
42 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 mixture should be painted on by using a swab, 
 or a brush like a whitewash brush. Thorough 
 wetting down with water will also prevent con- 
 crete from sticking if before used the first time 
 the forms have been thoroughly oil-soaked. All 
 concrete adhering to forms from previous work 
 should be carefully removed before placing new 
 concrete. 
 
 While no high degree of skill is required to make 
 forms for ordinary concrete construction, never- 
 theless, thoughtful care should be exercised when 
 measuring and cutting lumber, so that the con- 
 crete placed in them will correspond in line and 
 dimension to the plan intended. If properly 
 planned, forms can be assembled in part by 
 clamps and wedges, and only a few nails partly 
 driven will be necessary. This will permit taking 
 them down with least injury to the lumber and to 
 the partly hardened concrete. 
 
 After forms are made they should be set up 
 perfectly plumb, and well braced in position so 
 as to withstand the pressure of the fresh con- 
 crete, also of tamping it into place. Wood spacers 
 should be used to hold opposite form faces 
 exactly the correct distance apart, then bolts or 
 wire ties be passed through or around form studs 
 and across the space between forms to tighten 
 the forms against the spacers and thus hold them 
 in true alignment so that in wall construction, 
 for instance, the finished structure will have a 
 uniform thickness throughout. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 43 
 
 Bolts used as form ties should be greased 
 before placed so that they may be readily knocked 
 out of the concrete when taking down forms. 
 Removing them of course leaves holes in the con- 
 crete, which must afterward be pointed up with 
 a cement mortar, usually consisting of 1 part 
 cement to 2 parts of clean, coarse sand. Gener- 
 ally wire ties are cheapest, as the wire can be cut 
 and all except the projecting ends be left in the 
 concrete. Wire ties are tightened by twisting 
 between form faces. Spacers, of course, are 
 removed as 'concreting progresses. 
 
 The length of time forms should be left in place 
 cannot be definitely stated. This depends alto- 
 gether upon the nature of the work and the 
 weather conditions, which govern the rapidity with 
 which the concrete will gain strength enough to be 
 not only self-supporting but to carry any load 
 which is placed upon it: 
 
 It is particularly important that column forms 
 be left in position long enough to prevent failure 
 of the concrete after form removal. The same 
 applies to forms used for supporting roof and 
 floor slabs. Where no particular pressure is 
 brought against the concrete or no load other than 
 its own weight must be carried, forms can some- 
 times be removed in from one-half to two days, 
 or as soon as the concrete will withstand hard 
 pressure of one's thumb without showing a mark. 
 On massive walls without load one to three days 
 are generally required ; but where the wall must 
 
44 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 withstand earth pressure, as in a retaining wall, 
 the forms may have to be left in place three to 
 four weeks. This depends largely upon the time 
 of year, which influences the rapidity with which 
 the concrete gains strength. 
 
 SIMPLE FORM SYSTEM 
 
 Although there are a number of form systems 
 which considerably simplify concrete construc- 
 tion, most of these are subject to patent control, 
 hence the user must pay a royalty to the patent 
 owner for the privilege of using the systems; 
 or where patented forms may be purchased 
 outright, their cost is greater than usually war- 
 ranted for the limited use made by the home con- 
 crete worker. 
 
 Probably no use of concrete shows the material 
 to more advantage than does monolithic con- 
 struction. But the unit system, in which various 
 pre-cast members are ultimately set up in place, 
 possesses its advantages also, because doing away 
 largely with expensive form construction. Yet 
 frequently members must for various reasons be 
 cast of such size as to be unwieldy when necessary 
 to assemble the structure. 
 
 A form system which combines simplicity with 
 cheapness is illustrated in Fig. 9. This pro- 
 duces what in a way is a combination of unit and 
 monolithic construction. Columns, piers or posts 
 are formed of hollow blocks cast in simple molds, 
 
CONCRETE OK THE. FARM AND SHOP 45 
 
 then laid up as masonry. The core or hollow 
 space is afterward filled with concrete, reinforc- 
 ing rods being inserted if necessary or desirable, 
 
 FIG. 9. Construction Showing Adaptable System of Simple Forms. 
 
 thus resulting essentially in a reinforced mono- 
 lithic column. 
 
 Blocks when cast are made in a mold that pro- 
 vides for ribs on each end against which planks 
 may be clamped to serve as forms for placing 
 
46 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 the concrete of intervening panels. By varying 
 the relative position of these ribs on the block, 
 as shown in Fig. 10, one can see the possibili- 
 ties of constructing walls or panels of practically 
 any desired thickness. 
 
 Most of the commercial block machines could 
 
 FIG. 10. Illustrating How the System Shown in Fig. 9 may be 
 Readily Varied. 
 
 be equipped with a mold that would permit man- 
 ufacturing such blocks by machine, yet as they 
 form but a small portion of the entire construc- 
 tion where this system is used, most home work- 
 ers will find it quite as desirable to make a simple 
 mold and manufacture the block by hand. 
 
 A 1 : 2 : 4 or 1 : 2i : 4 mixture in which the coarse 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 47 
 
 aggregate does not exceed 1 inch in greatest di- 
 mension should be used for the block and the con- 
 crete should be of a drier consistency than is ex- 
 pressed by the word t i quaky, ' ' yet not so wet that 
 the forms cannot be removed immediately after 
 the concrete has been tamped in the mold. Just 
 enough water should be used in the mixture to 
 cause a slight flushing of free water to the sur- 
 face when compacting the concrete. 
 
 In constructing columns or piers for building- 
 walls, foundation walls aboveground, or for panel 
 fences, these blocks should, after thoroughly 
 hardened, be laid up in a 1:2 cement mortar. 
 Blocks should be thoroughly wet before being laid 
 up so that they will not absorb an excess of water 
 from the cement mortar thus preventing the 
 morta-r from bonding them together. Piers or 
 columns are built up 5 or 6 feet high before 
 filling the hollow space with concrete. Whether 
 reinforcing will be necessary or not can be de- 
 termined only when it is known to what purpose 
 the construction is ultimately to be put. 
 
 Forms used to place the monolithic panels 
 between columns, posts or piers, consist simply 
 of 12 or 14-inch planks 2 inches thick, bolted 
 together with 1-inch bolts. Holes for bolts 
 should be so laid out in the planks that it will 
 be possible to turn planks end for end if neces- 
 sary to correct warping or twisting from previous 
 use. Bolts should be well oiled before placing 
 concrete so that when form removal is started 
 
48 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 they can be readily driven out of the wall and 
 again used. The holes left may be- easily pointed 
 up with a 1 : 2 cement mortar. In some wall 
 construction holes will need to be closed only on 
 the outside face of the wall, wood plugs being 
 driven in the holes on the inside face to serve 
 as nail holds for attaching furring strips if lath- 
 ing and plastering is contemplated later. 
 
 Four planks are commonly used to a panel, and 
 after being bolted in place the space between 
 them is filled with concrete. When the concrete 
 has sufficiently hardened, forms are reset for 
 further use by removing the lower pair of planks 
 first and placing them on top of and resting on 
 the pair above where they are bolted against 
 the projecting lugs of blocks. After concreting 
 has been carried to the height at which piers 
 were built in the first instance, more blocks are 
 laid to extend the piers or columns to a higher 
 point, and so on. Reinforcing of panels can 
 be easily done where necessary. 
 
 This system of form construction practically 
 eliminates carpenter work and requires no outlay 
 of lumber that after concreting represents waste. 
 In fact there is no waste of lumber where this 
 system is used. 
 
 Blocks cast after the manner suggested yet 
 without projecting lugs form convenient units 
 for building porch piers and may be filled with 
 concrete if such added strength is necessary, and 
 may also be reinforced. On the other hand, if 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 49 
 
 it is desired to enclose the foundation with walls 
 or panels between piers then naturally the blocks 
 with projecting lugs will -be used. 
 
 CONCRETING TOOLS 
 
 In addition to the advantage of being able to 
 secure most of the concrete materials near the 
 work, is the advantage that but few tools are 
 required in ordinary concreting. A carpenter's 
 square, hammer and saw, nails and screws to 
 assemble lumber, a sand screen (Fig. 1) so that 
 the fine and coarse materials may be separated 
 for proper reproportioning afterwards, perhaps 
 a trough or washing box (Figs 2 and 3) in which 
 dirty material can be freed from clay, loam and 
 similar foreign matter, a mixing platform (Fig. 
 8), measuring box, water barrel, square-pointed 
 shovels, strikeboard, spade, or similar tool 
 already described, a tamper, and a hand float, 
 similar to a trowel, are the essential tools. 
 
 A sand screen of convenient size can be made 
 by nailing a frame of 2 by 6 lumber over wire 
 mesh having quarter-inch openings; that is, 4 
 openings to the linear inch, or 16 openings to the 
 square inch, or, a screen fabric consisting of 
 f-inch slotted screen wire with cross wires as 
 braces from 4 to 6 inches apart. Legs should 
 be attached to one end of the frame so that the 
 screen when set up for use will stand at an angle 
 of about 45 degrees with the horizontal. 
 
50 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 A very serviceable type of mixing platform can 
 be made by nailing 2-inch lumber planed on one 
 side and the edges, to a frame of 2 by 6's. 
 Tongued and grooved lumber is preferable, how- 
 ever, so that joints will be tight enough to pre- 
 vent mixing water leaking through and carrying 
 with it a quantity of cement. The 2 by 6 stringers 
 to which the platform boards are nailed should 
 be spaced not farther than 2 feet apart and if 
 the outer two have holes bored at the ends, so 
 that clevises can be attached to them, a horse 
 can be used to drag the platform easily about 
 where needed. 
 
 A bottomless box 3 feet long, 1 foot 4 inches 
 wide and 1 foot deep, inside measurements, made 
 of 14-inch lumber, has been found of convenient 
 size for measuring materials, because such a box 
 holds exactly 4 cubic feet. It should be marked 
 on the inside at 3-inch intervals so that the volume 
 of sand and gravel may be easily measured in 
 multiples of one cubic foot. In other words, the 
 measuring box is really a frame with handles, 
 and when in use is set on the mixing platform 
 which serves as a bottom. 
 
 Suppose it is required to prepare a 1:2:4 mix- 
 ture; sand is shoveled into the box until there 
 are 2 cubic feet, which would fill the frame half 
 full or 6 inches deep. Then the box is lifted and 
 the sand spread level over the center of the plat- 
 form. One sack of cement (which equals 1 cubic 
 foot) is then dumped on top of the sand and 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 51 
 
 spread about evenly. The cement and sand are 
 thoroughly mixed and leveled off. The measuring 
 box is now set on top of the mixed sand and 
 cement or on the platform beside them and filled 
 level full of gravel or broken stone. The box is 
 then lifted, leaving 4 cubic feet of gravel or 
 broken stone to be mixed with the sand and 
 cement. Mixtures made up of different propor- 
 tions of sand, gravel and cement are prepared 
 in a similar manner. 
 
 Although concrete should always be mixed as 
 near to the place where it is to be used as pos- 
 sible, it is almost always necessary to handle it 
 some distance from the mixing platform or mixer. 
 For transferring concrete from the mixing ma- 
 chine or platform to the place where it is to be 
 deposited, a wheelbarrow may be needed. One 
 having a sheet-iron body is preferable, as less 
 concrete is likely to adhere to the surface and 
 after use it can more readily be cleansed than a 
 wood one. A type should be chosen that has the 
 front portion of the body higher than the back, 
 so that when the handles are lifted to wheel it 
 the concrete may lie level in the barrow without 
 flowing over one end and thus being wasted. 
 
 Watertightness of concrete construction is 
 largely dependent upon the proper proportioning 
 of materials and suitable consistency; neverthe- 
 less, it is in part secured, by spading the concrete 
 in the form so as to force back from the form 
 face the coarse particles and allow the sand- 
 
52 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 cement mortar to flow next to the forms. In use 
 the spading tool (Fig. 50) should be worked up 
 and down, not only in the center of the mass, but 
 next to the form face as concrete is deposited. 
 Little or no tamping will be required if a 
 " quaky" mixture is used. 
 
 Ordinarily concrete should be deposited in 
 layers not more than 6 or 8 inches thick, never 
 more than 12 inches, preferably 6 to 8, because if 
 more than this is placed in the forms at one time, 
 it will not be possible to tamp or spade it to maxi- 
 mum compactness and density. 
 
 In foundation work, especially where most of 
 the concrete is placed below ground level and 
 there is to be no basement within the foundation 
 walls, hence watertightness is not essential, con- 
 crete is often mixed with slightly less water than 
 is required to produce a "quaky" mixture, in 
 which case the concrete is tamped into position 
 rather than spaded. For this work a tamper 
 may be made by fastening a piece of 1-inch gas 
 pipe, 5 feet long, into a hardwood block 8 by 8 
 by 12 inches, by boring a hole into the end of the 
 block and driving in the pipe. The durability 
 of such a tamper may be increased somewhat, 
 by "shoeing" it with a piece of sheet-iron; or, 
 a steel tamper can be purchased, and will of 
 course be more durable. For most work, how- 
 ever, the home-made tamper described will be 
 sufficient. One of smaller square dimensions 
 than mentioned may be needed where the dis- 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 53 
 
 tance between form faces will not permit using a 
 tamper 8 inches square. 
 
 In building floors, walks, and barnyard pave- 
 ments, a straightedge is used to level or strike 
 off the concrete after it has been placed in the 
 forms. The straightedge (see Fig. 46) is used 
 by resting it upon the top edge of forms, and 
 should be long enough to project beyond the 
 forms so that it may be conveniently handled by 
 working it back and forth with a saw-like motion. 
 A piece of li-inch lumber, from 4 to 6 inches 
 wide and 6 feet long, planed to a true face on 
 the lower edge, makes a good straightedge to 
 strike off a slab 5 feet wide. For a wider sur- 
 face a longer one will be needed. 
 
 Although it is now common practice to lay 
 concrete floors and pavements of one-course con- 
 struction, that is, of the same mixture through- 
 out, sometimes such work is laid in two courses ; 
 that is, the base is of a "leaner" mixture than 
 the top (having less cement in it) and in such case 
 a base gage or strikeboard is necessary which 
 is similar to the ordinary straightedge but 
 notched at the ends so that when resting upon 
 the sides of the forms it will project into them 1 
 inch and consequently strike off the concrete at 
 that depth below the top of the forms so there 
 will be a 1-inch space remaining to be filled im- 
 mediately with the richer concrete top or wearing 
 course. 
 
 Most classes of concrete work such as pave- 
 
54 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 ments, walks, barn floors, driveways, etc., are now 
 finished by using a wooden finishing trowel, called 
 a wood float, because of its similarity to the float 
 used by plasterers. Such a tool should be from 
 4i to 6. inches wide and from 10 to 12 inches 
 long, and can very readily be made by fitting a 
 wood handle to a piece of i-inch board of the 
 desired size. The edges which are to come in 
 contact with the concrete should be very slightly 
 rounded. The wood float gives to the surface of 
 a concrete walk, feeding floor or pavement a tex- 
 ture which is even but not slippery, and one that 
 is much preferable for stock to walk upon than a 
 concrete surface finished with a steel trowel. 
 Danger of slipping is entirely removed if the sur- 
 face is wood floated in final finishing. Corruga- 
 tions in walks, floors and pavements are not neces- 
 sary then. 
 
 For most home concrete work, the tools de- 
 scribed will be sufficient. It may be necessary to 
 buy three small ones: a rectangular steel trowel, 
 a groover and an edger. The steel trowel is not 
 recommended for general use, but is of advan- 
 tage in finishing the inside of mangers, water- 
 troughs, and work where a particularly smooth 
 surface is desired. Care should be taken not to 
 overtrowel the surface, as this causes a separa- 
 tion of the cement from the sand, bringing the 
 former to the surface as a fine film which is not 
 at all durable ^ under wear. 
 
 The groover, as indicated by its name, is for 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 55 
 
 making a groove at the joints of walk or pave- 
 ment slabs, but is used only on two-course work, 
 one-course work being laid in alternate slabs to 
 secure perfect joints of separation. As one- 
 course work is largely replacing two-course con- 
 struction, the groover will seldom be required. 
 The edger, however, is necessary to finish the 
 edges of all slabs in walk, floor or pavement con- 
 struction regardless of whether the work is one or 
 two-course; These three small tools may be 
 purchased from almost any hardware dealer, or 
 can readily be obtained by him. They are not 
 expensive and if kept clean and well oiled after 
 laid away will last almost indefinitely. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS 
 
 No material lends itself more readily to the 
 construction of foundations than does concrete. 
 The very ease with which it may be made to fill 
 irregular excavations simplifies foundation con- 
 struction by comparison with brick or stone 
 masonry. Furthermore, the rapidity with which 
 the work can be carried on with unskilled labor 
 is another advantage. Where the nature of the 
 ground is such that the walls of the excavation 
 are self-sustaining, it may not be necessary to 
 use forms for that portion of a foundation wall 
 below ground. But if the interior of the excava- 
 tion is to form a basement or cellar, then inside 
 forms at least will be necessary so that a smooth 
 surface can be given to the concrete while placing. 
 
56 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 LAYING OUT FOUNDATIONS 
 
 As most buildings are square or rectangular, 
 laying out the foundation is a relatively simple 
 matter. (See Fig. 11.) A stake should be driven 
 where one corner of the proposed building is to 
 come: From this stake a string should be 
 
 /> 
 
 _;$ 
 
 FIG. 11. Method of Laying Out Foundation to Square Corners. 
 
 stretched in the direction of one side of the 
 building and to a point where another corner is 
 to fall. For instance, suppose in Fig. 11 one 
 corner of the building is to be located as indicated 
 by the stake A, and another at the stake C. After 
 these two points have been fixed, a string should 
 be tightly stretched from stake A to stake C. 
 Then measure off the required distance from A 
 to B, stretching a string also between these points. 
 When setting stake B, endeavor to locate it so 
 that the string A-B will be nearly at right angles 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FAKM AND SHOP 57 
 
 with the string A-C. Now measure off on the 
 string A-C 8 feet and drive a stake into the 
 ground directly beneath the string at this point. 
 Mark the 8-foot distance by a small brad or nail 
 driven in the top of the stake at Z. Measure off 
 on the string A-B 6 feet and drive a stake at Y, 
 marking the 6-foot point also on the top of stake 
 7. The stake Y may now be shifted slightly, 
 either to the right or left as may be necessary, 
 until the distance between the mark on the top of 
 stake Y and stake Z is exactly 10 feet. When this 
 has been fixed, the stake B can be moved to the 
 right or left as necessary until the string A-B 
 exactly crosses the mark on top of stake Y. This 
 will make the foundation corner as indicated by 
 the strings B-A and A-C a right angle. Other 
 corners can be then squared in the same manner. 
 Piers that are necessary within the foundation 
 enclosure can be readily located by following 
 similar methods. These strings serve as a guide 
 for the exterior line of the foundation trench. 
 
 DEPTH OF EXCAVATION FOR 
 FOUNDATIONS 
 
 Excavations for foundations should in all cases 
 extend deep enough to reach firm bearing soil and 
 to be below possible frost penetration. If not 
 placed below the level to which frost may enter 
 the ground, heaving may result and this may 
 eventually cause cracking of the construction. 
 
58 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 This may mean that the bottom of the foundation 
 or footing must start at a point 3 or 4 feet below 
 ground level. 
 
 For light structures, perhaps no footing will 
 be needed, although it is best to provide a footing 
 somewhat wider than the actual foundation wall 
 thickness, as this insures a firm bearing for the 
 load that is to be carried. 
 
 Ordinary footings may vary in width from 18 
 inches to 2 feet or more and from 6 to 12 inches 
 in thickness. For most farm structures it will 
 rarely be necessary to build a foundation wall 
 more than 10 or 12 inches thick, probably the 
 former will be sufficient, unless the building is 
 to be a very heavy one or carry heavy loads. 
 Building walls aboveground will vary from 6 to 
 10 inches thick, depending on the size of struc- 
 ture. Foundations ordinarily require no rein- 
 forcing. 
 
 Form construction for the portions of the foun- 
 dation wall aboveground is simple, and consists 
 merely of panels which are constructed by nailing- 
 sheathing boards to 2 by 4-inch studs spaced from 
 18 inches to 2 or 2i feet apart, depending upon 
 the thickness of the sheathing and the weight of 
 the concrete. The forms should, of course, be well 
 braced, so as to hold them in true line and enable 
 them to resist the pressure or thrust from con- 
 crete while being placed and spaded in the forms; 
 
 Where the enclosure within foundation walls is 
 not to be used as a basement or cellar, and hence 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 59 
 
 need not be thoroughly watertight, a somewhat 
 drier mixture than is described by the word 
 " quaky" may be used for foundation construc- 
 tion; and unless the load to be carried is an ex- 
 tremely heavy one, a 1:3:5 mixture will be 
 suited to that portion of the foundation below- 
 ground. Jrfst as soon as ground level is reached, 
 however, the mixture used should be a richer one, 
 preferably a 1:2:4 or 1 : 2i : 4. Concrete should 
 be placed continuously in layers not exceeding 6 
 or 8 inches thick, and carefully tamped or spaded 
 as placed. A somewhat dry mixture needs 
 thorough tamping; a "quaky" one needs 
 thorough spading but little tamping. Spacers 
 should be removed from inside the forms as fast 
 as concrete is placed up to a level with them. In 
 placing the concrete the layers should continue 
 of uniform thickness all around the foundation 
 enclosure and at a uniform level. This means 
 that the work should not be finished all at once in 
 one place until the .forms are filled, unless a 
 stop-board is fastened vertically in the forms to 
 make a vertical joint, and then only for work 
 belowground where such a joint would be no 
 objection. Under no circumstances should more 
 concrete be mixed at one time than can be placed 
 within thirty minutes, and in case any of that 
 which has been mixed commences to stiffen or 
 harden before it can be used, it should not be 
 softened up ("retempered") by adding more 
 water and remixing it, but should be thrown away. 
 
60 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 Retempered concrete will not acquire the desired 
 strength when finally hardened. 
 
 If a stop-board has been used to form a vertical 
 joint in the construction, then when concreting is 
 resumed in the adjoining section, this stop can 
 be removed and the concrete previously placed 
 will have so hardened that it will serve as an end 
 form. 
 
 Where a certain piece of work cannot be 
 finished in one day, the work at the close of a day 
 should be left with a rough top surface in the 
 forms. Preparatory to placing concrete the follow- 
 ing day, the surface of the previous day's work 
 should be well scrubbed and washed off with a 
 broom and water and painted with a mixture of 
 pure cement and water, mixed to the consistency 
 of cream and applied with a whitewash brush. 
 Fresh concrete should at once be placed and will 
 practically unite with the old without leaving a 
 construction seam or a joint. Such a precaution 
 is not necessarily required in ordinary foundation 
 work where the building is not to have a cellar or 
 basement, but if watertightness is desired it is 
 imperative that such a precaution be taken to 
 join two days' concreting, 
 
 An admirable service is performed by concrete 
 in the construction of foundations for gasoline 
 engines, cream separators, and similar small 
 machines. For such work excavation should be 
 carried to a sufficient depth to insure a firm bear- 
 ing and necessary provision must be made when 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 61 
 
 designing the forms to make a template with holes 
 bored in it in the same relative position as the 
 holes in the machine base, so that bolts can be 
 embedded in the concrete to permit afterward 
 bolting the machine to the foundation. Just how 
 this work is provided for will be seen in an ac- 
 companying illustration (Fig. 12). 
 
 FIG. 12. Simple Form for Machinery Foundations. 
 
 Some of the principles which must be observed 
 to secure the best results will be briefly men- 
 tioned. Carrying capacity is a quality chiefly 
 sought in any foundation, and permanence is a 
 consideration secondary only to strength. The 
 cost of a well-built concrete foundation is con- 
 siderably less than that of one constructed of any 
 other suitable building material when strength 
 
62 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 and durability are considered. Under average 
 conditions, the time required for building a con- 
 crete engine or machinery foundation is shorter 
 than that required to build of brick or stone. 
 Concrete is the only foundation material that may 
 readily be adapted to slopes, change of grade or 
 
 FIG. 13. Simple Form for Foundation Construction Belowground. 
 
 other irregularities in the subgrade on which the 
 foundation is to be placed. 
 
 Where soil is reasonably firm, no form will be 
 required for an engine foundation, except for the 
 portion above ground level, as shown in Fig. 12. 
 Consequently the excavation should be carefully 
 made in a manner to prevent caving in of the sides 
 and should not be larger than the size of founda- 
 tion required satisfactorily to hold the engine or 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 63 
 
 machine to be placed thereon. The size of the 
 foundation and the corresponding size of the ex- 
 
 FIG. 14. Form Construction for Concrete Wall Aboveground. 
 
 -.-Spacer 
 
 FIG. 15. Method of Tying or Locking Wall and Column Form. 
 
 cavation will, of course, be determined by the 
 type and size of engine or machine to be set, and 
 will usually be indicated by instructions for set- 
 
64 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 ting the engine, which are furnished by all engine 
 manufacturers. Concrete meets all requirements 
 of rigidity and appearance required in founda- 
 tions for gasoline engines, cream separators and 
 other stationary machinery. 
 
 It is seldom necessary to reinforce concrete en- 
 gine foundations unless they are to be subjected 
 to excessive side thrusts, vibration, or other un- 
 usual strain. Where they extend aboveground 
 some distance, reinforcing is occasionally used in 
 large foundations to counteract the effect of con- 
 traction and expansion from temperature 
 changes, but this does not apply to small work. 
 
 The safe loading of concrete in foundation 
 construction is as follows : 
 
 1:2:4 concrete, 47 tons per square foot, 
 1 : 2J : 5 concrete, 41 tons per square foot, 
 1:3:6 concrete, 36 tons per square foot. 
 
 (A "f actor of safety" of 4 was allowed in com- 
 puting this loading.) 
 
 Engine foundations should be made with suf- 
 ficient footing so that the allowable pressure upon 
 the soil will not be exceeded. The bearing power 
 of soils varies, and is usually considered to be as 
 follows : 
 
 Ledge Rock 36 tons per square foot, 
 
 Hardpan 8 tons per square foot, 
 
 Gravel 5 tons per square foot, 
 
 Clean Sand 4 tons per square foot, 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 65 
 
 Dry Clay 3 tons per square foot, 
 Wet Clay 2 tons per square foot, 
 Loam 1 tori per square foot. 
 
 To avoid spreading, sand must be confined 
 when wet. 
 
 Two-inch lumber is to be preferred for the form 
 aboveground although 1-inch boards may be used 
 for small foundations. Notice that the boards 
 are shown extending beyond the form corners. 
 This overreaching is merely to avoid cutting and 
 thus save lumber, as by following this method 
 the lumber may be cleaned, nails removed, and 
 the boards again used for some other purpose. 
 
 Anchor bolts of the size specified by the engine 
 manufacturer may be set by the method illus- 
 trated. A template should be constructed of 
 straight-grained, 1-inch material, fastened to- 
 gether by screws. Holes slightly larger than the 
 bolts should be bored in the template to conform 
 to the location of the holes in the engine base. 
 The bolts are suspended head downward, from 
 the template, with threaded ends projecting above 
 the template, a distance not less than the thick- 
 ness of the engine base and nuts to be used. 
 Anchor plates or large washers should be placed 
 over bolt heads to prevent bolts from pulling out 
 of the concrete. Bolt ends projecting above the 
 template should be covered to prevent concrete 
 from touching them when filling the forms. Care 
 should be exercised to keep the bolts as nearly 
 
66 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 perpendicular as possible while placing the con- 
 crete. When the concrete has partly hardened, 
 the template may be removed and the foundation 
 top finished to a level surface, care being taken 
 not to strike the projecting bolt ends, as the fresh 
 concrete offers but slight resistance. By making 
 bolts 2 inches longer and threading them 2 inches 
 farther from the end, the concrete may be allowed 
 thoroughly to harden before removing the tem- 
 plate, which in that case is supported by 2-inch 
 blocks placed on top of the forms, allowing space 
 for finishing the concrete surface under the tem- 
 plate. The engine may be placed in position after 
 the concrete has thoroughly hardened, which will 
 require from ten days to two weeks, depending 
 upon weather conditions. The same principles as 
 are described in the foregoing paragraphs apply 
 to setting any other machines. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCING AND THE 
 MATERIALS USED 
 
 Concrete shows great strength in supporting 
 loads that are placed directly upon it, but it is 
 relatively weak when subjected to strains that 
 tend to pull it apart (see Fig. 16). In some parts 
 or types of construction it is therefore necessary 
 to reinforce the concrete by embedding in it at 
 the time of placing, wires, steel rods or some 
 kind of metal fabric, to increase its ability to 
 withstand pulling strains (tension) and at the 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 67 
 
 same time obtain full benefit of its compressive 
 strength. Reinforcing also often results in 
 economy of concrete required. 
 
 Common types of construction where reinforc- 
 
 Tension 
 Without Reinforcing 
 
 -ct- 
 
 Compression 
 
 Rei n-forced 
 
 FIG. 16. Illustrating Beam Fracture where Concrete is not Rein- 
 forced, and when it is. 
 
 ing is necessary are fence posts, watering troughs 
 and tanks, beams, columns, large floor slabs, roof 
 slabs, etc. 
 
 It is not possible to give a fixed rule that will 
 serve as an invariable guide for determining the 
 
68 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 amount of reinforcing required for various struc- 
 tures, but as an illustration, it may be said the 
 quantity of reinforcing metal required in beams 
 and roof or .floor slabs may vary from | to 1 
 per cent of the cross-sectional area of the concrete 
 section. More specific illustrations will be given 
 
 "Tfci. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Upper Side 
 
 
 in Tension 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Load 
 
 
 
 
 Cantilever Noi Reinforced 
 
 FIG. 16a. Concrete Beam as Cantilever. 
 
 later when describing particular types of con- 
 struction. 
 
 The ratio of concrete's strength in resisting 
 pulling strains (tension) as compared to its 
 strength in supporting loads placed directly upon 
 it (compression) is about 1 to 10. Steel is strong 
 in tension, although rods and wire mesh, which are 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 69 
 
 the common forms of steel used for reinforcing, 
 will bend easily, and therefore must be placed so 
 as at once to take up the load of tension which 
 may be brought upon the concrete. The ideal 
 position for reinforcing steel is at the surface of 
 the side or face of the concrete member that is to 
 be subjected to tension. As this position is not 
 practicable in practice, the steel must be embed- 
 ded in the concrete just as near the outer surface 
 where it is to resist tension as possible, and at 
 the same time permit surrounding it with concrete 
 to form a perfect bond or union between concrete 
 and steel. The distance from the surface will 
 sometimes vary in accordance with the size of 
 pebbles or broken stone being used in the con- 
 crete mixture. 
 
 The side of any concrete member that may be 
 exposed to pulling strains may not always be the 
 same side as is true in a beam, where the lower 
 side is always the one. As an example, take a 
 concrete fence post (Fig. 17). As one cannot tell 
 from which direction the strains may come, a 
 fence post is reinforced at all four corners. 
 
 Sometimes a concrete structure may be of such 
 shape and weight that it might crack on account 
 of unstable foundation and unequal settlement; 
 likewise a concrete trough full of water may 
 freeze, therefore the strains of tension would 
 be exerted on all sides of the structure by the 
 expansion of the ice. 
 
 To be suitable for reinforcing concrete, steel 
 
70 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 should possess certain particular qualities. This 
 means that only steel manufactured to have cer- 
 tain chemical composition and other properties 
 should be used. Generally speaking, the home 
 worker had best confine his choice to some type of 
 
 
 H-i 
 
 Direction of Pull ^ 
 
 ^:>: ; 
 -w^-v>* 
 
 ! If pull were in opposite 
 direction, dreak would 
 occur on Side opposite 
 to that shown ' ' 
 
 FIG. 17. Illustrating the Requirements of Fence Post 
 Reinforcement. 
 
 round or square twisted bars, or to some one of 
 the woven mesh wire fabrics like those used for 
 fencing, although the type of fabric made for 
 reinforcing is not necessarily intended for fenc- 
 ing. Any attempt to substitute barbed wire, old 
 scrap iron, pipes or similar odds and ends of 
 scrap metal will not result in the same success 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 71 
 
 and security of construction that will follow using 
 proper reinforcing materials. 
 
 Round bars will be found easiest to obtain 
 under most conditions and will be suited to the 
 general run of home concrete wc>rk. One should 
 remember that the steel or iron bars which he 
 may be able to obtain from the local blacksmith 
 shop may not have the desired qualities for con- 
 crete reinforcement. It will therefore be found 
 best to purchase reinforcing steel from some 
 dealer or manufacturer making a specialty of 
 such material. 
 
 There are various types of so-called ' ' de- 
 formed" bars used in reinforced concrete work. 
 These are variously shaped in rolling, with the 
 object of increasing the "mechanical bond" be- 
 tween concrete and steel. Most of these, however, 
 are subject to some kind of patent-right control 
 and therefore are higher priced than plain round 
 or square twisted rods. If the concrete is mixed 
 to the right consistency and properly placed there 
 will be a good bond between the concrete and 
 metal, so that there is really no advantage in using 
 any of the deformed types of bars for ordinary 
 concrete construction. 
 
 In a beam, floor slab or roof slab, steel must be 
 near the bottom face of the beam or slab. In 
 a wall that is to withstand earth pressure, it 
 should be on the face farthest away from the 
 earth. In a tank that is to withstand water pres- 
 sure, it should in theory be near the outside (far- 
 
72 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 thest away from the water), but in practice it is 
 more convenient in walls that are to withstand 
 earth pressure and walls that are to resist the 
 pressure of water to use a little larger reinforc- 
 ing or more steel than might really be necessary 
 if it were placed where it theoretically belongs, 
 and to place it near the center of the wall. This 
 makes placing of concrete easier. Whenever plans 
 call for placing reinforcing in a certain position, 
 the plans should be followed exactly. Sometimes 
 walls are designed in which reinforcing is placed 
 near both inner and outer faces. 
 
 One strain of tension which is brought upon 
 concrete is the tension due to expansion of the 
 mass under temperature changes, that is, when 
 concrete rises in temperature corresponding to 
 temperature changes of the air, the mass will 
 expand as the temperature rises. Expansion is 
 somewhere in the neighborhood of one inch per 
 hundred feet. Fortunately steel expands at prac- 
 tically the same rate. Therefore, reinforcing steel 
 not only resists the tendency for the concrete to 
 crack, but in expanding with it at practically the 
 same rate, the bond between the steel and con- 
 crete is not broken. 
 
 Reinforcing steel should be kept clean until 
 used. Any coating of scaly rust or mill scale or 
 a coating of oil will prevent the concrete from 
 forming a good bond with it, hence will prevent 
 the construction from having the strength that 
 might be expected from incorporating the steel 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 73 
 
 Whenever reinforcing bars have to be shaped, 
 as in placing them around a corner of a tank, they 
 should be very carefully bent so that the rods will 
 lie in exactly the desired position in the concrete. 
 
 Any temporary block supports or stays that are 
 to be used to hold reinforcing in correct position 
 while concrete is being placed should be removed 
 as rapidly as concrete is placed up to them. Both 
 rods and mesh when lapped should be securely 
 wired together. Soft black No. 16 or No. 18 gage 
 wire is tough and pliable and is the common 
 material used for binding or tying together rods 
 and fabric when lapped or spliced. 
 
 CONCRETE WALLS AND FENCES 
 
 Concrete lends itself admirably to the con- 
 struction of walls and fences, although in the 
 latter class of construction there is a limit to 
 the variety of work which can be produced by 
 the average home worker. Form construction for 
 anything like a fence having the appearance of a 
 wood picket fence is very complicated and placing 
 of the concrete is difficult. On the other hand 
 fences which are essentially a post-and-rail com- 
 bination are simple, as they represent unit con- 
 struction; that is, the posts and rails are cast 
 separately and the units afterward erected in 
 just about the same manner as a wood post and 
 rail fence would be set up (see Fig. 18). Con- 
 sidering the time element, however, such classes 
 
74 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 of concrete fences would better be replaced by 
 some one of several types of light panel wall con- 
 struction. The form system shown by Figs. 9 
 and 10 is very adaptable to panel fence or wall 
 construction. 
 
 In the post and rail fence (Fig. 18) posts are 
 
 FIG. 18. Post-and-Ra.il Type of Concrete Fence. 
 
 square and reinforced with f-inch rods, placed 
 three-quarters of an inch from each corner. The 
 "rails" are 2 inches thick and 6 inches wide, 
 reinforced with two i-inch rods, running the 
 entire length one inch distant from each edge. 
 Posts should be made of a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture, in which 
 the large aggregate, that is, pebbles or broken 
 stone, is not larger than f inch in greatest di- 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 75 
 
 mension, while the rails should be made of a 
 1:2:3 mixture containing a uniformly graded ag- 
 gregate ranging from the finer particles up to 
 J inch in greatest dimension. 
 
 The particular disadvantage of a unit post and 
 rail fence of this kind is that the different mem- 
 bers must be thirty days old before they can be 
 set in place, that is, they should be allowed to 
 harden that length of time before being used, and 
 as the "rails" should be left in the molds for a 
 
 FIG. 19. Detail of Post and Form Construction Shown in Figs. 
 20 and 21. 
 
 day or two before handling, this requires a large 
 quantity of molds and considerable facilities for 
 properly storing the units until used. 
 
 In the various types of panel wall or panel 
 fence construction, the concrete is cast in place. 
 Ordinary panel forms can be used and these may 
 be removed usually within 24 hours after placing 
 the concrete, thus not many forms are required. 
 In Figs. 19, 20 and 21 the design represents a 
 wall section 3 inches thick with triangular mesh 
 fabric for reinforcement. The posts are cast in 
 place and are of such shape (Fig. 19) that when 
 
76 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 the panels are cast, they interlock with the posts. 
 Concrete for such construction as this should be 
 
 FIG. 20. Construction Illustrated in Fig. 19 in Process. 
 
 a 1:2:3 mixture in which the coarse aggregate 
 does not exceed f-inch in size. 
 
 In another design (Fig. 22) is shown a post and 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 77 
 
 FIG. 21. Construction Illustrated in Fig. 19 in Process. 
 
78 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 panel construction in which the posts are also 
 cast in place, with a recess in two faces that will 
 permit the wall panels to enter when they are 
 subsequently cast. Wall panels rest on a founda- 
 tion which is 10 inches wide and 18 inches deep, 
 vertical rods being placed in this foundation (Fig. 
 23) so as to lap with the vertical rods in the wall 
 panels. Posts may be of any desired dimension, 
 but in this particular instance are supposed to be 
 
 
 & 
 
 r 
 
 
 &. 
 
 
 
 
 
 : != -x 
 
 
 
 ^.a^s^ 
 
 
 ,__ 
 
 
 
 ' ftef 
 + Cast< 
 
 ;.' in ; ;: 
 ''Place- 
 
 *0^ 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 -.__ -s~. , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K- .'' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -*?. 
 
 E=_ 
 
 
 Bol+s-i* 
 
 
 
 -=== 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 te*^ 
 
 
 
 ^ ==r - 
 
 
 
 
 
 te^- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 o 
 
 ^--^ " 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 _=T=. 
 
 ^~ 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fa~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V '''Form Stud 
 
 FIG. 22. Post and Panel Wall or Fence Cast in Place. 
 
 10 inches square, reinforced with 1-inch or f- 
 inch rods, placed li inches from the outer face 
 at each corner. The height may be varied as de- 
 sired. 
 
 Panels are 16 feet long and 4 inches thick and, 
 reinforced with rods k inch in diameter, placed 
 18 inches apart center to center, both vertically 
 and horizontally, being assembled as a sort of 
 lattice before being raised in position and well 
 wired together where they intersect or cross (see 
 Fig. 23). Enough forms should be provided for 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 79 
 
 FIG. 23. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. 
 
 FIG. 24. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. 
 
80 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 FIG. 25. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. 
 
 FIG. 26. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 81 
 
 such construction to accommodate one day's plac- 
 ing of concrete, then on the following day the 
 forms first used the preceding day can be removed 
 and placed ahead for commencing the day's work, 
 this operation continuing as concreting pro- 
 ceeds during the day. Figs. 24, 25 and 26 show 
 details of the work. 
 
 A 1 : 3 : 5 mixture will be suited for the founda- 
 tions for panels, although it may be just as con- 
 venient and in the end as economical if a 1:2:4 
 mixture is used throughout rather than go to the 
 trouble of preparing and using two different con- 
 crete mixtures. Posts should be of a 1 : 2 : 4 mix- 
 ture throughout. 
 
 FENCE, GATE, CLOTHES-LINE, AND GRAPE- 
 ARBOR POSTS 
 
 Owing to the increasing scarcity in many sec- 
 tions of the country of wood suited to fence posts, 
 one of the most timely uses of concrete on the 
 farm is for fence posts. When one realizes the 
 expenditure of time and labor necessary to keep 
 a fence in which wood posts are used in proper 
 repair, it is not surprising that concrete posts 
 should have gained in popularity during recent 
 years. Wood posts, especially those that are most 
 desirable, have advanced in price until in most 
 sections of the country they are just as expen- 
 sive as concrete posts, with the latter in greater 
 favor because being fireproof and rotproof. The 
 
82 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 life of a cedar post under the most favorable 
 conditions cannot be expected to exceed 15 years. 
 Concrete posts properly made should have an al- 
 most unlimited life; and where good sand and 
 gravel can be obtained on the farm or nearby, 
 they can in some instanc.es be made for less than 
 a good cedar post now costs. 
 
 POST MOLDS 
 
 If a large quantity of fence posts is to be made 
 it will well pay the home worker to purchase some 
 
 r Platform 
 
 Platform 
 
 ".'BlocHs and Wedges, 
 
 FIG. 27. Ho ne-made Gang Mold for Concrete Fence Posts. 
 
 one of the several types of commerical fence 
 post molds. But it is very easy to make a home- 
 made mold (see Fig. 27) that will answer ad- 
 mirably foi concrete post making during spare 
 hours. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 83 
 
 Commercial molds are usually of sheet steel 
 and, taking all types into consideration, are manu- 
 factured so that concrete posts can be made of al- 
 most any shape desired round, square, rectan- 
 gular and semi-elliptical, and both straight and 
 tapered. Choice of size and shape is largely a 
 matter of individual preference, although for 
 general line-fence purposes no post should be 
 smaller than 3 by 3 inches at the top and 4J by 
 4i inches at the bottom, this for a length of 7 
 feet. In fact, it will be found perhaps easier to 
 make a post 3i or 4 inches square at the top 
 and 5 inches square at the bottom, these dimen- 
 sions being of advantage in facilitating the pro- 
 per placing of reinforcing one of the most im- 
 portant details of fence post manufacture. 
 
 MIXTURES FOR FENCE POSTS 
 
 Although concrete line fence posts have been 
 made out of a mixture consisting of 1 part of 
 cement and 3 parts of well-graded sand in which 
 the particles ranged from the finest permissible 
 up to J inch, such a mixture will not ordinarily 
 give a post of as great strength as a properly 
 proportioned 1:2:3 mixture in which the coarse 
 aggregate (pebbles or broken stone) consists of 
 particles graded from J up to f inches. A 1:2:4 
 mixture for fence posts has often been recom- 
 mended, but as the home worker is not always 
 careful uniformly to grade his materials the 
 
84 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 1:2:3 mixture compensates in a measure for pos- 
 sible neglect in this respect and therefore is a 
 safer mixture to use. 
 
 COST OF CONCRETE POSTS 
 
 A rectangular post of average size may range 
 in price from 20 to 35 cents, but will probably 
 average around 24 or 25 cents. These figures 
 are based on the assumption that all materials 
 must be purchased, and that Portland cement will 
 cost $2 per barrel, sand and gravel $1 per cubic 
 yard, and reinforcing steel 21 cents per pound. 
 The farmer rarely need buy sand and gravel, 
 and in many instances can obtain cement for less 
 than $2 per barrel, so the cost can often be re- 
 duced. More than one farmer has found it pos- 
 sible to turn out standard size concrete fence 
 posts for 19 cents each. Probably the cost may 
 safely be estimated as never likely to exceed the 
 highest figure previously mentioned and quite 
 often may be below the lowest figure. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS OF REINFORCING 
 
 Many persons have a false impression of re- 
 inforcing requirements for concrete .fence posts. 
 Some have made posts with a single rod running 
 through the center, thinking that if this one rod 
 contained the same amount of steel as four 
 smaller rods spaced near the surface at each 
 corner, the result would be the same. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 85 
 
 If a preceding explanation of the principles of 
 reinforcing has been understood, one can see that 
 the single rod at the center of the post does not 
 accomplish the desired purpose. When set in 
 place, a fence post may be subjected to strains or 
 shocks from any direction. If the wires are 
 tightly attached, it certainly may receive pulls 
 from either direction along the line of the fence, 
 as well as shocks or blows from inside or outside 
 the enclosure, due to animals attempting to get 
 into or out of the pasture lot. These possibilities 
 must be anticipated, and the only way to do .so 
 successfully is to place suitable reinforcement 
 near the face at each corner of a square or rectan- 
 gular post, and in a circular post place the rein- 
 forcing at points corresponding to four corners 
 of a square post and as near the surface at the 
 circumference as possible, yet far enough away 
 to permit surrounding the rods with concrete. 
 
 MATERIALS FOR REINFORCING 
 
 Another false impression often entertained is 
 that almost any kind of scrap wire, even barbed 
 fence wire, will serve as post reinforcing. While it 
 is possible to place reinforcing in the form of wires 
 in a fence post so that the amount of metal would 
 correspond to that obtained by properly placing 
 i-inch round rods, nevertheless, the inconven- 
 ience of handling wire makes it almost certain 
 that when the post has been finished, the rein- 
 
86 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 forcing metal will not be in proper position in 
 the concrete, therefore will not accomplish the 
 desired results. All of the kinds of wire com- 
 monly recommended or suggested for reinforcing 
 are far- more difficult to handle in placing than 
 are straight rods. Reinforcing wire usually 
 comes in coils and it is very difficult to straighten 
 it so that it will lie in the proper plane while 
 placing concrete. Greater economy of time and 
 much more certainty of successful results follow 
 the use of suitable steel rods. . 
 
 An accompanying table will be of considerable 
 assistance to the concrete worker in enabling him 
 to choose suitable dimensions for his posts and 
 the necessary reinforcing. This table also gives 
 the volume of various size posts in cubic feet, the 
 approximate weight each in pounds, and the 
 quantity of materials required for ten posts of 
 various dimensions, made of a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture. 
 
 Referring again to the desirability of making 
 fence posts of a 1 : 3 cement-sand mixture, one can 
 see by examining the table that for 7-foot posts 
 5 inches square at the bottom and 3 inches square 
 at the top, one barrel of cement will be a little 
 more than sufficient to make fourteen posts, while 
 if a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture is used, the same quantity of 
 cement will make twenty posts of the same size. 
 Hence there is economy in the 1:2:3 mixture, 
 equalling very nearly 33i per cent. 
 
 Most of the commercial fence post molds are 
 relatively inexpensive, yet if a person does not 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 87 
 
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 JH ^ O 
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 COOO(MOO 
 
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 COCOCOCO 
 
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 lissg 
 
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 rH (M (M (M 
 
 ss.^ 
 
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 cO^b- 
 
 gxxxx xxxx xxxx 
 
 cocococo T^TtH b>bibib 
 
 gxxxx xxxx xxxx 
 
 COCOCOCO 
 
 oocoo 
 
88 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 desire to make the expenditure necessary to se- 
 cure such equipment, the home-made mold shown 
 will answer all purposes admirably. Such a gang 
 mold can be made to make a post of any desired 
 dimensions, and of any capacity up to the limit 
 of floor space or bottom board used to rest the 
 mold on. 
 
 Sides and ends of molds are held in place by 
 blocks and wedges. After the concrete has been 
 in the mold 12 hours, wedges can be knocked out 
 so that sides, ends and partitions may be re- 
 moved, then the posts allowed to remain undis- 
 turbed on the pallet or bottom board until they 
 have become strong enough to handle without 
 possible injury. One-inch lumber will be suited 
 for the ends and interior strips of such a mold, 
 but 2-inch stock should be used for outside pieces. 
 Before being used the entire mold must be pro- 
 tected from warping by painting with two coats 
 of boiled linseed oil and kerosene, equal parts of 
 each, which will also prevent the concrete from 
 sticking to the mold. Molds should be well 
 cleaned after use and oiled before each filling. 
 
 PLACING CONCRETE AND REINFORCING 
 
 After having placed three-quarters of an inch in 
 the bottom of the mold the two reinforcing rods 
 for that side are laid in proper position, then ad- 
 ditional concrete placed until within about three- 
 quarters of the top, when the two remaining re- 
 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 89 
 
 inforcing rods are pressed into proper position 
 in the concrete and the mold filled level. Con- 
 crete for fence post manufacture should be mixed 
 a little wetter than quaky consistency, so that 
 it will settle to all parts of the mold with little 
 stirring or puddling and completely surround and 
 bond with the reinforcing. It is very important 
 that concrete fence posts be dense, and added 
 density is secured by jarring or rapping the mold 
 in some manner so as to release air bubbles which 
 may be in the concrete mixture and thus prevent 
 resulting air pockets in the finished post. Some 
 of the commercial fence post mold outfits are used 
 in connection with a vibrating table to jar the 
 concrete, thus making it dense and compact. If 
 the home worker does not find it feasible to ar- 
 range his gang mold on some support so that 
 the mold can be vibrated or shaken while the 
 concrete is being placed, then it is well to take a 
 stick or a rod and stir the concrete gently along 
 the form faces to release air bubbles, and to tap 
 the mold while placing concrete. 
 
 SPACERS FOR REINFORCING 
 
 To hold reinforcing rods in correct relative 
 position when placing them in the concrete, it will 
 be found advantageous to take some small pieces 
 of No. 16 gage wire and twist it as shown in Fig. 
 28 so that loops are formed around the rods. 
 They will thus be held at the desired separation 
 in the mold while placing concrete. 
 
90 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 If concrete is placed at proper consistency, 
 jogging the mold will result in a smooth, dense 
 surface on the post and cause a perfect bond or 
 union between the concrete and the reinforcing. 
 One must be careful not to use too much water 
 
 *;: 
 
 ' Rods 
 
 Q 
 
 Spacer 
 
 "Rods 
 
 Rods 
 
 FIG. 28. Common Sections for Reinforced Concrete Fence Posts. 
 
 for fence post . mixtures. The concrete should 
 not be slushy nor soupy, as that will cause the 
 sand-cement mortar to separate from the peb- 
 bles, and when the post has thoroughly hardened 
 there will be pockets in the concrete possibly 
 some of the reinforcing steel may be exposed. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 91 
 
 HARDENING THE FINISHED POSTS 
 
 Posts must not be allowed to dry out quickly. 
 They must be protected from drying wind and 
 sunlight and should be covered with wet straw 
 or chaff, which should be kept wet for a week or 
 ten days before attempting to store them any- 
 where out of doors. If they have been made 
 under usual summer weather conditions it will 
 be safe to lift them from the floor or bottom sup- 
 port of the mold within 36 hours after placing 
 the concrete. Extreme care, however, should be 
 used in handling them, as cracks will affect the 
 strength of the finished post. Posts may be care- 
 fully piled in some convenient shed (not corded up, 
 however, in piles one on top of the other, but 
 spread out on an even support so that the protec- 
 tive wet chaff covering may be kept over them) 
 until hardening has progressed sufficiently to per- 
 mit moving them out of doors to complete harden- 
 ing naturally. Here they may be set up on end, 
 resting against a building or a wall, and by the 
 time they are 30 days old, they will be in good 
 condition to set in the fence line. 
 
 FASTENING LINE WIRES 
 
 Numerous suggestions have been made as to 
 the best way of fastening line wires to concrete 
 fence posts. Some advocate inserting wood or 
 metal pegs in the concrete at the time of placing. 
 
92 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 then withdrawing these pegs when the concrete 
 has stiffened, leaving a small hole entirely 
 through the post to receive a tie wire, the ends 
 of which are wrapped around the fence wires. 
 Other methods have consisted of embedding eye- 
 let fasteners in the concrete, or embedding small 
 bolts with loops at one end in the same manner. 
 Holes in the post, no matter how small they may 
 be, tend to weaken it. Eyelet fasteners will 
 eventually rust off. By far the simplest method 
 that has been used consists of tying the fence 
 wire to the post by means of a loop of wire passed 
 around it on three sides using the ends which 
 project at the back of the post to wrap around 
 the line wire, exactly as telephone or telegraph 
 wires are fastened to the glass insulators on 
 poles. 
 
 CORNER POSTS 
 
 Concrete corner posts on account of the strains 
 to which they are subjected must, of course, be 
 larger than line posts (see Figs. 29 and 30). 
 Depending upon the length of the fence stretched 
 from them, the size required may vary within 
 a considerable range. Corner posts may be from 
 6 inches square up to 10 or 12 inches square; 
 and the amount of reinforcing required will de- 
 pend upon the strain to which the posts are to 
 be put and therefore upon their square dimen- 
 sions. In a 6 by 6 or 7 by 7 post there should be 
 four rods at least -& of an inch in diameter. 
 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 93 
 
 A 10 by 10 post should have four fj-inch rods; 
 a 12 by 12 post, four 1-inch rods. 
 
 On account of their weight and the consequent 
 inconvenience of handling, corner posts larger 
 than 8 inches square are usually cast in place; 
 that is, a hole is dug in the ground, rods properly 
 placed, concrete deposited to ground level, and the 
 
 FIG. 29. Concrete Line and Corner Fence Post. 
 
 form set right up in position, properly braced 
 where the post is to stand, and the concrete 
 placed in the form from the end. Reinforcing 
 rods should extend from the bottom of the foun- 
 dation right up through the post. When the earth 
 is firm there will be no need to use a form for 
 the part that is to be underground; if not firm, 
 it is best to build a form for the entire post, 
 
94 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 that is, for both the portions below and above 
 ground. The portion belowground had best be 
 
 FIG. 30. Corner Post with Brace Cast Monolithic with it. 
 
 of larger square dimensions than aboveground, 
 for stability. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 95 
 
 BRACES FOR CORNER POSTS 
 
 Sometimes corner posts complete with braces 
 are cast as one piece as in Fig. 30. Form con- 
 struction will readily suggest itself. Of course, 
 the brace also must be suitably reinforced with 
 rods in each corner, of proper size. 
 
 GATE POSTS 
 
 Gate posts or entranceway posts are also mas- 
 sive and are cast in place the same as heavy cor- 
 ner posts. ' If subjected to strains of fence 
 stretched from them they must be braced. Like- 
 wise, reinforcing rods must be chosen as regards 
 size with reference to the size of post and the 
 load or stains to which it is to be subjected, such 
 as heavy, swinging iron gates, and fence stretched 
 from them. The reason why reinforcing must 
 extend down below ground level in corner and 
 gate posts is to resist the possibility of their 
 breaking at ground level under severe strains or 
 load. 
 
 FORMS FOR GATE POSTS 
 
 Form construction for entranceway or gate 
 posts is simple or complicated, depending upon 
 the design which it is intended to execute. Us- 
 ually such posts are made square or round. In 
 the latter case a very convenient way of making 
 the form is to use a section of old metal smoke- 
 
96 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 stack of the required diameter, first cutting this 
 down the entire length so that after concrete has 
 been 'placed, the form can be removed. Wires 
 or other fastenings will have to be wrapped 
 around this form after it has been cut to prevent 
 it from spreading open while concrete is being 
 placed. 
 
 RUBBLE CONCRETE POSTS 
 
 Another and easy way to construct entrance- 
 way or gateway posts consists of using rubble 
 stones or field stones ranging from 3 to 5 inches 
 in diameter. Such stones are selected so that 
 they will form a pleasing arrangement on the 
 exposed face of the work when forms are re- 
 moved. They are laid around against the inside 
 of the form as shown in an accompanying sketch, 
 Fig. 31, a 1:3 cement mortar being used to bed 
 them. Then a quaky 1:2:4 concrete mixture is 
 used to fill in the center. Work should be done 
 so that concrete is placed in layers no greater 
 than 6 inches at a time. Proper reinforcing must 
 be used and placed a little back of the stones. 
 Rubble stones must be wet when placed so that 
 the concrete will bond to them. A concrete cap 
 can be cast separately and placed on the rubble 
 construction later if desired, or the forms can be 
 so built that this cap will be monolithic with (a 
 part of) the remainder of the work. 
 
 After forms have been removed the surplus 
 mortar in the joints between stones should be 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 97 
 
 picked back slightly and any mortar adhering to 
 the face of the stones washed off with a stiff 
 
 E I e v ex \ \ o r> 
 
 <3C + i on 
 
 (Size of Main Reinforcing 
 f/ote< Rods w/7/ depend on size 
 I of Posf 
 
 FIG. 31. Sketch Showing Method of Constructing a Rubble 
 Concrete Gate Post. 
 
 brush and water. The appearance should be as 
 in Fig. 32. 
 
98 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 FIG. 32. Appearance of Finished Rubble Work. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 99 
 
 Provision should be made while placing con- 
 crete to embed necessary fittings for iianging the 
 gates. Hangers should be threaded on the end 
 that is to be placed in the concrete and -a nut be 
 passed over the threads so as to prevent the 
 hangers from pulling out when gates are hung. 
 
 Corner posts and gate posts must also be made 
 of a quaky concrete. While the concrete is being 
 placed in the forms, a long-handled spading tool 
 should be used to spade the concrete next to the 
 form face (except in rubble work) so that there 
 will be a smooth, dense surface free from stone 
 pockets when forms are removed. 
 
 CLOTHES-LINE POSTS 
 
 Concrete posts from 9 to 10 feet long make 
 durable and practical grape arbor and clothes- 
 line posts (see Fig. 33). They need reinforcing 
 the same as do other concrete posts and the quan- 
 tity of metal required depends upon the square 
 dimensions of the posts and the loads or strains 
 to which they are to be subjected. They should 
 be of a 1:2:3 mixture. Wires upon which to 
 train vines or hang clothes may be attached in 
 the same manner as fence wires are attached to 
 line fence posts, but usually short pieces of iron 
 rod are embedded near the top of clothes-line 
 posts and in grape-vine posts wood plugs are 
 inserted in the soft concrete while placing and 
 these plugs withdrawn when the concrete has 
 
100 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 FIG. 33. Clothes-line Posts of Concrete. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM 4ND SHOP }0i 
 
 stiffened, thus forming holes through which wires 
 may be strung, or if posts are to form an arbor, 
 then the wood plugs may be left in the concrete 
 and be used as nail holds when attaching wood 
 slats. What has already been said as regards 
 subjecting fence posts to pulls and strains until 
 after they are a month old applies also to grape 
 arbor and clothes line posts. They should be pro- 
 tected against too rapid drying by being covered 
 with w r et straw, hay, or similar covering, and 
 sprinkled often enough to keep them moist. 
 
 CONCRETE TANKS 
 
 Among the various classes of concrete) con- 
 struction which may be considered as coming 
 under the heading of tanks are hog wallows, 
 watering troughs, feeding troughs, manure pits 
 and cisterns. All these require that the construc- 
 tion be watertight. This makes a 1:2:3 mixture 
 preferable, although if one can be certain that 
 the materials are properly proportioned and uni- 
 formly graded throughout, a 1:2:4 mixture may 
 accomplish the desired results. However, the 
 first mentioned mixture is safer and is recom- 
 mended. Small troughs or tanks such as are to 
 be used for hog feeding or watering (see Fig. 
 34) can very readily be cast upside down (see 
 Fig. 35) on some smooth level surface like a 
 barn floor and when the concrete has properly 
 hardened forms can be removed and the con- 
 
102 COXCpETp >N THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 FIG. 34. Small Portable Hog Feeding Trough Cast Upside Down. 
 
 FIG. 34a. Another Portable Type Trough also Cast Upside Down. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 103 
 
 crete protected for a week or ten days by a moist 
 covering. Then the trough may be set up where 
 intended to use it. 
 
 REINFORCING SMALL TROUGHS 
 
 Poultry netting or similar fabric can often be 
 used for reinforcing small troughs in place of 
 
 Floor or Platform 
 
 FIG. 35. Form Construction for Small, Portable Troughs. 
 
 rods. Sometimes a combination of both is used 
 and desirable. Fig. 35 illustrates clearly how 
 the forms for such construction are made and set 
 up. No further explanation should be necessary. 
 
 STOCK TROUGHS 
 
 Large stock watering troughs on account of 
 their bulk and weight must be constructed at 
 the point where they are to be used. For 
 the same reason it is quite essential that 
 
104 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 a suitable foundation be provided for them, 
 otherwise unequal settlement of the ground will 
 most likely result in causing- the concrete to crack, 
 owing to the strains put upon it not only by the 
 weight of the structure itself but also the weight 
 of contents. Construction like that involved in 
 large tanks, troughs, cisterns and manure pits 
 makes it impossible to lay down invariable rules 
 as to how such structures shall be reinforced. 
 
 
 Lf 
 
 1 
 in "*iflLf 
 
 - 
 
 P 4 
 
 
 T 
 pavement A 
 
 H~1? O ve/ ~fiw 
 
 %y* 
 
 i__ 
 
 =& '4' Round 
 l2"Cente 
 Bent up 
 
 Rods A <^\ 
 r to Center 
 Into Sides 
 
 FIG. 36. Concrete Watering Trough or Tank. 
 
 This depends entirely upon its size and conse- 
 quently upon the weight of contents which it is 
 to carry. Illustrations show a stock watering 
 tank (Fig. 36), a small concrete trough (Fig. 
 35), cistern (Fig. 39), and hog wallow (Fig. 40) 
 and manure pit (Fig. 41). All of these belong es- 
 sentially to the same class of construction. Re- 
 inforcing required for the stock watering tank of 
 the dimensions shown (Fig. 36) is specified in the 
 drawing. For the other structures, reinforcing 
 will depend on the size of the structure. For the 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 105 
 
 FIG. 37. Finished Tank Similar to that Illustrated in Fig. 36. 
 
 FIG 37a. Concrete Cistern Built Partly Aboveground. 
 
106 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 cistern, if 6 feet square and 8 feet deep, pro- 
 bably J or f-inch rods 12 inches center to center 
 
 FIG. 38, Another Trough Similar to Preceding Types. 
 
 will be sufficient. For the small trough use i-inch 
 rods and 1-inch poultry netting. 
 
 WATERTIGHTNESS. HOW SECURED 
 
 As tanks and cisterns must be watertight to ac- 
 complish the desired purpose, one should, before 
 commencing work, have all materials on hand 
 ready for use, forms properly constructed and 
 in place, so that work may proceed continuously, 
 if possible, thus preventing seams or construction 
 joints that would later open up and cause leak- 
 age. If, however, it becomes necessary to sus- 
 pend work after concreting has started, then the 
 surface of concrete in the forms should be left 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 107 
 
 rough, and when concreting is to be resumed this 
 surface should be well brushed and washed with 
 water, painted with cement and water mixed to 
 the consistency of thick cream and applied with a 
 whitewash brush and concreting resumed im- 
 mediately; that is, before the cement grout paint 
 has had a chance to commence hardening. 
 
 In stock watering troughs, cisterns and similar 
 structures where the floor is constructed mono- 
 lithic with the sides, it is desirable that the rein- 
 forcing of the floor extend up into the sides, thus 
 forming vertical reinforcing for those portions of 
 the structure. So the rods must then be bent 
 to the shape of three sides of a square or rectan- 
 gle depending upon the shape of the structure. 
 Horizontal rods must be tied to vertical rods with 
 wires where the two intersect, so that all reinforc- 
 ing will be held in correct relative position while 
 concrete is being placed. 
 
 DETAILS OF PLACING CONCRETE FOR 
 CISTERNS, ETC. 
 
 Concrete used for cisterns and similar con- 
 struction, however, should be of quaky consis- 
 tency, therefore it is sometimes difficult to con- 
 struct the side walls and floors monolithic. Hence 
 i1 is easier to build floor and walls separately. 
 In such a case, the walls should start in a trench 
 that has been excavated deep enough to be below 
 possible frost penetration. After the walls are 
 
108 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 finished and concrete has hardened sufficiently 
 to permit removing the forms, then the bottom 
 or floor of the structure can be placed. The earth 
 should be excavated to a depth sufficient to se- 
 cure a firm foundation and if necessary there 
 should be placed a fill of clean gravel or cinders 
 well tamped up to the bottom of the proposed 
 floor level. On top of this concrete from 4 to 6 
 inches thick for the floor can be placed. If the 
 area does not exceed 100 square feet or if no one 
 dimension of the floor exceeds 1.0 feet, it is not 
 likely that reinforcing will be needed in the floor 
 when placed separate from the walls and in one 
 continuous concreting operation. 
 
 Before commencing to lay the concrete floor, 
 a i-inch board strip should be pkced all around 
 the inside of the walls, the top of (:Ms strip being 
 at the top of the proposed floor and held away 
 from the side walls by i-inch wedges. These 
 wedges will when released after the concrete floor 
 has hardened make it possible easily to withdraw 
 the wood strips. Then the space so made should 
 be filled with hot tar or asphalt effectively to seal 
 the joint against leakage. 
 
 PROTECTION WHILE HARDENING 
 
 Like all other concrete construction, tanks, 
 troughs and cisterns must be protected against 
 too rapid drying out. They should not be put 
 into use until they are at least a week or ten days 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 109 
 
 old, and during this time the structure should be 
 kept covered with wet canvas, burlap or straw, so 
 that sun and wind will not cause rapid evapora- 
 tion of water from the concrete and thus result 
 in a porous structure. If such protection is not 
 afforded for a week or ten days, then no matter 
 how well the materials may have been propor- 
 tioned and placed, the resulting structure cannot 
 be expected to give as good satisfaction as would 
 result were all necessary precautions taken. 
 
 Cisterns are sometimes constructed either en- 
 tirely or partly aboveground. The one shown 
 in the accompanying drawing may be constructed 
 entirely belowground or entirely aboveground 
 or partly aboveground. In the first case the 
 walls may be uniformly 8 inches thick throughout 
 because protected below the ground the contents 
 of the cistern are not likely to freeze, therefore 
 there will be no pressure caused from ice. If, how- 
 ever, the structure is partly or wholly above- 
 ground, then the walls must be battered or sloped 
 on the inside so that the pressure resulting from 
 water freezing will be counteracted. This precau- 
 tion must also be taken with the stock tank de- 
 scribed; reference to the drawing will show that 
 this batter has been provided for in the design. 
 
 Where entirely belowground, the cistern floor 
 may commence at the same level as do the side 
 walls. Fig. 37 A shows how one of these struc- 
 tures would appear if partly aboveground and 
 intended to receive its supply of water from the 
 
110 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 roof of an adjoining structure. If the struc- 
 ture is built entirely aboveground, of course, both 
 inside and outside forms will be necessary. But 
 
 ^_ t - ;- ^ "-^ ' " - T* ' ; ." ' ,Vr~ "~" ', 11 - - - - ' 
 
 "-3 .a 
 
 3 
 
 '/jl'- 
 
 
 m 
 
 FIG. 39. Sectional View of Concrete Cistern. 
 
 any portion of the cistern structure belowground 
 can be built with inside forms only, if the earth 
 is carefully excavated and firm enough so as to 
 be self-sustaining. Care must be taken, however, 
 when placing the concrete in the trench not to 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 111 
 
 knock down any earth that would thus become 
 partly mixed with the concrete and result in por- 
 ous and consequently leaky pockets in the wall. 
 
 POSITION OF REINFORCING IN TANKS 
 AND CISTERNS 
 
 Theoretically reinforcing should be near the 
 outer face of the wall for an aboveground struc- 
 ture, but it will be effective if placed at the cen- 
 ter, and in such position will make it easier to 
 place the concrete and spade around it in the 
 forms next to the form face so as to produce a 
 smooth, non-porous surface. 
 
 In all tank and cistern construction, or similar 
 construction, when it is necessary to lap horizontal 
 rods, laps should be made at the center of a side, 
 never near or at a corner. Rods should be lapped 
 from 50 to 60 times their diameter. In the case of 
 i-inch rods, this means not less than 12 inches. In 
 the case of i-inch rods, this would mean not less 
 than 25 inches. When mesh fabric is lapped the 
 ends and edges must be well wired together. 
 
 BUILDING COVER SLAB FOR CISTERN 
 
 In setting the vertical rods to reinforce the 
 cistern walls they should be at least 2 feet longer 
 than required so that the projecting ends may be 
 bent over and finally become a part of the re- 
 inforcing for the roof or cover slab. After walls 
 
112 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 and floor have been concreted and the concrete 
 floor has sufficiently hardened, a wood floor can 
 be constructed level with the top of side walls to 
 serve as a form on which to lay the cover slab. 
 This slab would be 6 inches thick. A frame 
 should be placed at the proper place on this floor 
 to provide for the manhole opening in the roof 
 or cover slab. This frame is nothing but a bot- 
 tomless box with its edges sloping inward so that 
 the resulting manhole opening in the slab will 
 have a beveled edge to receive a correspondingly 
 shaped concrete manhole cover. This cover can 
 be cast in the manhole opening in the concrete, 
 by lining this opening with building or tar paper 
 to prevent the concrete from adhering to that of 
 the cover slab. An eyebolt fitted with a ring 
 should be embedded in the cover slab at the time 
 it is cast to permit removal of the cover as oc- 
 casion requires. 
 
 WATER CONNECTIONS 
 
 In tank and cistern construction suitable pro- 
 vision must be made when setting up forms to 
 arrange for the necessary inlet and outlet for 
 water supply and overflow. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 113 
 
 FORM REMOVAL 
 
 Forms supporting the roof or cover slab of the 
 cistern should not be removed until the concrete 
 is at least two weeks old. This applies if the 
 work has been carried on under favorable 
 weather conditions. In cold weather it may be 
 necessary to leave forms in place even twice as 
 long. 
 
 PAVEMENT AROUND WATERING TROUGHS 
 
 All stock watering troughs should have a con- 
 crete pavement laid around them so that the 
 vicinity will not be w r orked up into a mudhole 
 when stock go to water. Directions for laying 
 pavements will be given later. (Circular tanks 
 have not been described because form construc- 
 tion is somewhat difficult. Usually commercial 
 silo forms are best for such structures.) 
 
 HOG WALLOW 
 
 In constructing a concrete hog wallow (Figs. 
 40 and 4:0 A) a trench should be excavated so 
 that the side walls will extend below frost level, 
 then bring the walls up to slightly above ground 
 level. Afterward the interior of the enclosure 
 should be excavated and the ground -firmly com- 
 pacted so as to make a good foundation for the 
 floor, which should be laid in the same manner 
 as described for the cistern floor, except that one 
 
114 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 Pavement j"Tar F 'flea 'Joint 
 
 I 
 
 *&te - Corrugations 
 
 <O- - N i : : ^' / 7&/- /y//<f^ 
 
 
 "WW'Ywrr, ; .. ''i' 
 
 FIG. 40. Section of Concrete Hog Wallow. 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 40a. Concrete Hog Wallow in Course of Construction, 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 115 
 
 end should slope upward so as to be at a level 
 with the top of the wall, thus making an incline 
 for animals to enter and leave the wallow easily. 
 The surface of this incline should be corrugated 
 with grooves so that hogs can readily secure a 
 firm foothold. 
 
 REGULATING VALVE FOR CONTROLLING 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 It is well to make provision for a separate 
 but adjoining chamber in which there is some 
 kind of valve mechanism similar to that used in 
 flushing water closets so that by connecting a 
 pipe line to a source of water supply the amount 
 of water in the wallow can be automatically main- 
 tained at the level desired. There should be an 
 outlet arranged in the wallow so that when oc- 
 casion requires the wallow can be drained and 
 cleaned out. This means that it will be preferable 
 to select a slight elevation as a site for the wal- 
 low, so that the drain leading away from the trap 
 in the bottom will readily draw off the contents. 
 
 MANURE PITS 
 
 Manure pit walls may be made straight or bat- 
 tered inside. Probably the battered wall is best, 
 inasmuch as it permits compacting the manure 
 more solidly in the pit. The batter should be 
 at the rate of 1 inch for every 4 inches of height. 
 
116 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 The top of the walls should extend at least 6 inches 
 aboveground so that surface water will not wash 
 into the pit during rains. The floor of the manure 
 pit need not be more than 3i feet below the top 
 of the side walls, as it is not advisable to store 
 manure more than 3 feet deep. Six inches will be 
 a suitable thickness for the floor and this should 
 be laid so that an upward slope at one end will 
 permit backing a wagon into the pit for loading. 
 Floors for manure pits must be properly rein- 
 forced and the concrete placed continuously to 
 prevent joints. 
 
 Every manure pit should have as an adjunct a 
 small cistern connected to it by a pipe drain so 
 that liquids from the manure may drain into the 
 cistern. A 1:2:4 concrete will be suited for 
 manure pit construction throughout, although the 
 adjoining cistern should be of 1 : 2 : 3 concrete. 
 
 Manure pits should be planned in size to ac- 
 commodate the herd of stock for which they are 
 to provide manure storage. If ten head of stock 
 are to be kept the manure pit should be about 
 32 by 19 feet and have an adjoining cistern 3 by 
 5 feet. For twenty head the pit should be 32 by 
 32, with a 5 by 5-foot cistern. For thirty head, 
 50 by 32 feet, with an 8 by 5-foot cistern. For 
 forty head, 65 by 39 feet with a 9 by 6-foot cis- 
 tern. For fifty head, 82 by 39 feet, with a 10 
 by 7- foot cistern. As flies find a convenient breed- 
 ing place in manure piles it is always advisable 
 to house a manure pit with studding (see Fig. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 117 
 
 41) and attach fly screen wire to these studs to 
 prevent flies from using the manure pile as breed- 
 ing headquarters. The pit shown however, is not 
 screened; and being built entirely aboveground 
 
 FIG. 41. Aboveground Concrete Manure Pit. 
 
 cannot be loaded from so easily as if arranged 
 for backing in a wagon. 
 
 REPAIRING CRACKS IN TANKS, CISTERNS, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 If properly constructed, stock watering troughs, 
 tanks, cisterns and similar receptacles will not 
 crack. Sometimes, as a result of neglecting a 
 requirement of construction, cracks appear in the 
 
118 CONCRETE OJSTTHE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 concrete. If these are simply due to omitting 
 proper precautions when joining one day's work 
 to the next, they can often be satisfactorily re- 
 paired to prevent leakage by the following 
 method : 
 
 The cracks should be cut out so as to form a 
 V-shaped groove, say li inches deep and about 
 an inch wide at the surface. After being thor- 
 oughly cleansed out by brushing and washing, 
 then allowing to dry, this groove may be calked 
 with oakum soaked in far so that about one-half 
 of the depth of the groove is thus filled. Then 
 the remainder should be filled with a plastic mix- 
 ture consisting of pine tar and Portland cement 
 combined in proportions so as to make a paste as 
 stiff as can be conveniently plastered into the 
 groove. This mixture may harden slightly while 
 being used but can be kept soft enough to work 
 with by subjecting it to moderate heat in the metal 
 receptacle in which mixed. 
 
 Where cracks are due to insufficient reinforc- 
 ing or to lack of reinforcing, the repair method 
 suggested will be of little or no avail. The only 
 thing that can be done with the tank is to use it 
 as an inner or outer form and deposit a new 
 shell of concrete inside or outside of the old 
 structure. This may be from 2 to 4 or more 
 inches thick, depending upon a number of con- 
 ditions ; and to prevent a recurrence of the crack- 
 ing this shell should be properly reinforced. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 119 
 
 REMEDYING A POROUS SURFACE BY 
 PLASTERING 
 
 If as a result of improper mixtures or im- 
 proper handling, there are porous spots in the con- 
 struction through which contents leak, the whole 
 interior of the tank may be given a cement plas- 
 ter coat that, if properly applied, may remedy 
 the trouble. Preparatory to applying this plaster 
 coat, the surface to be treated should be thor- 
 oughly cleansed by scrubbing with a good stiff 
 brush and water, or better still, wash the surface 
 with a solution of 1 part of commercial muriatic 
 acid to 3 or 4 parts of water, allowing this to re- 
 main for a few moments and then thoroughly rinse 
 off the surface with clean water. The acid treat- 
 ment removes the cement coating from the parti- 
 cles of sand and gravel, thus exposing clean sur- 
 faces to which the cement plaster will more readily 
 bond or adhere. 
 
 APPLYING THE PLASTER COAT 
 
 Immediately before applying the plaster, the 
 cleansed surface should be painted with a paint 
 of cement and water mixed to the consistency of 
 cream. This can be applied with an ordinary 
 whitewash brush, but should not be applied very 
 far in advance of the plastering, otherwise it 
 will have commenced to harden and the plaster 
 will not unite with it. 
 
120 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 Plastering rnortar should be mixed in the pro- 
 portion of 1 part cement to li or not more than 
 2 parts of sand. No more mortar should be mixed 
 than can be used within thirty minutes as once it 
 has commenced to harden it will be worthless. 
 Mortar can be applied with a steel trowel and the 
 surface should be subsequently worked thoroughly 
 as soon as possible with a wood float to make a 
 dense impervious coating. Final smoothing may 
 be done with a steel trowel, but one should be very 
 careful not to overtrowel, as this will impair the 
 quality of "the coating by drawing a film of cement 
 to the surface with water, thus robbing the mor- 
 tar coat of uniform distribution of cement 
 throughout. After having finished plastering the 
 surface must be protected from too rapid drying 
 out by being kept wet for several days so that the 
 plaster coating will thoroughly and uniformly 
 harden. The foregoing methods apply also in 
 practically all cases where cement mortar is to 
 be used as plastering on an old surface. 
 
 APPLYING WATERPROOFING CHEMICALS 
 
 Sometimes the porous nature of concrete in 
 tanks and cisterns due to improper protection 
 while hardening, can be remedied by applying 
 a coating of what is called "waterglass"; this 
 is chemically known as sodium silicate. The 
 chemical is dissolved in water in the proportion of 
 1 part silicate to 3 or 4 parts water, depending 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 121 
 
 upon the porosity of the concrete to be treated. 
 Two or three coats of this solution applied at 
 intervals of 24 hours may be necessary to fill up 
 the pores. Effectiveness of this method depends 
 upon a chemical combination between the silicate 
 and the alkalies present in the concrete, resulting 
 in the formation of an insoluble compound; that 
 is, one that water will not dissolve. 
 
 CONCRETE HOTBEDS 
 
 An admirable use for concrete is in construct- 
 ing hotbeds (see Figs. 42 and 43). In the past 
 farmers and vegetable growers have been in the 
 habit of building these structures of wood, which 
 being always in contact with the soil is subjected 
 to alternate dry and moist conditions that con- 
 tribute most to rapid rot. Concrete solves the 
 problem of permanence, and hotbed construction 
 represents about as easy an application of con- 
 crete as can be made. 
 
 A 1 : 2i : 4 mixture of quaky consistency will be 
 suitable. Forms will be necessary only for that 
 portion of the walls aboveground provided the 
 earth trench is in firm soil so that the sides do 
 not cave. As soon as concrete has been placed 
 to ground level the forms for the structure above- 
 ground must at once be set in position and con- 
 creting continued so that there will be a perfect 
 bond formed between the wall belowground and 
 that aboveground. 
 
122 CORCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 Strap * 
 
 Hinge 
 
 S?.:;-V.- 
 W-'.'a:- 
 
 ;>'.' 
 
 ifp;.^//!;^ 
 
 ^> */ " J, i S Q'l i ' ' ',/ -T^.y*. ^ 
 
 ./M,,M^^,/^,^,,i^'. :,.,,,; v, a:/.;;?;-' ' ' 
 
 f"-o.;: "u- "--^50-(C:^'^ r i=s 1 -iri. :; S^r, ;>.-<j-'- '..- 
 
 FIG. 42. Sectional View of Concrete Hotbed. 
 
 l'6he a/thing 
 
 Board Forms 
 
 2*4 
 
 FIG. 42a. Hotbed Form Construction for the Walls Aboveground. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 123 
 
 If the bed is not larger than 5 or 6 feet wide 
 and 10 or 12 feet long, no reinforcing will be 
 
 FIG. 43. A Finished Concrete Hotbed. 
 
 needed except one f-inch rod bent at right 
 angles in each corner at the lower (front) side 
 of the bed and two rods in each corner bent 
 
124 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 similarly in the back corners of the bed. These 
 rods should lie along the center line of the wall, 
 two feet around corners. Four-foot rods are 
 therefore necessary. This will prevent possible 
 cracking at corners due to temperature changes. 
 
 Whenever hotbeds are to be built longer than 25 
 feet, it is advisable either to provide an expan- 
 sion joint in the walls to prevent cracking due 
 to temperature changes or to reinforce the wall 
 throughout its entire length so as to counteract 
 the strains of expansion. 
 
 When laying up the back walls of hotbeds, ar- 
 rangement should be made to embed carriage 
 bolts or some kind of fittings in the concrete so 
 that the sash hinges may be readily attached. 
 Hotbeds and cold frames are alike as regards 
 concrete construction, the difference simply be- 
 ing in the manner in which the seed bed is pre- 
 pared and whether the resulting structure is 
 covered with glazed sash or with cheese cloth. 
 It is a very easy matter to embed rods in the 
 walls so that wires can be attached to these and 
 cheese cloth coverings hung over the bed to coun- 
 teract the effect of strong sunlight which under 
 certain conditions is often injurious to tender 
 plants under glass. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 125 
 
 ROOFS FOR SMALL BUILDINGS 
 
 The subject of concrete roofs is a broad one and 
 cannot be covered thoroughly in the limited space 
 of this booklet. Flat slab roofs are the simplest 
 type to construct. Inasmuch as slab thickness 
 and the amount and spacing of reinforcing must 
 vary in accordance with the span to be covered, 
 the best method of suggesting requirements 
 will be by presenting a number of tables. 
 
 Table I shows the thickness of roof slabs in 
 inches for various spans between walls. 
 
 Table II shows the recommended spacing of re- 
 inforcing rods in inches for the spans listed. 
 
 Table III shows quantities of cement, sand and 
 stone for various slabs. 
 
 TABLE I 
 THICKNESS OF ROOF SLABS IN INCHES 
 
 Width in Feet 
 Between Center 
 Lines of Walls. 
 
 LENGTH OF ROOF IN FFFT BETWEEN CENTER LINES OF 
 WALLS. 
 
 4 Ft. 
 
 6 Ft. 
 
 8 Ft. 
 
 10 Ft. 
 
 12 Ft./ 
 
 14 Ft. 
 
 16 Ft. 
 
 4ft. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 2 ij n . 
 
 2| in. 
 
 2| in, 
 
 2| in. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 6ft. 
 
 
 2 in. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 2* in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 8ft. 
 
 
 
 3 in. 
 
 3| in. 
 
 3| in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 10ft. 
 
 
 
 
 3in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4| in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 12ft. 
 14ft. 
 16 ft. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 5 in. 
 
 5 in. 
 5^ in. 
 6 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
126 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 TABLE II 
 CEMENT, SAND AND STONE 
 
 WIDTH OF SLAB IN FEET (BETWEEN EAVES) 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 Sacks 
 
 Length 
 
 
 4 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 
 6 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cement 
 
 Roof 
 
 
 8 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 (1 sack 
 
 in 
 
 = 
 
 10 
 
 2.2 
 
 3.3 
 
 6.1 
 
 7.6 
 
 
 
 
 = lcu.ft.) 
 
 feet 
 
 
 12 
 
 2:6 
 
 4.7 
 
 7.3 
 
 10.4 
 
 12.5 
 
 
 
 
 between 
 
 
 14 
 
 3.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 8.5 
 
 13.7 
 
 16.4 
 
 21.2 
 
 
 
 eaves 
 
 
 10 
 
 3.5 
 
 6.2 
 
 10.1 
 
 14.4 
 
 20.8 
 
 26.7 
 
 33.3 
 
 Cu.ft. 
 
 Length 
 
 
 4 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 
 6 
 
 2.1 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 Roof 
 
 
 8 
 
 3.4 
 
 5.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 = 
 
 10 
 
 4.3 
 
 6.5 
 
 12.1 
 
 15.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 feet 
 
 
 12 
 
 5.2 
 
 9.4 
 
 14.6 
 
 20.8 
 
 25.0 
 
 
 
 
 between 
 
 
 14 
 
 6.1 
 
 10.9 
 
 17.0 
 
 27.3 
 
 32.8 
 
 42.5 
 
 
 
 eaves 
 
 
 16 
 
 6.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 20.2 
 
 28.8 
 
 41.6 
 
 53.4 
 
 66.6 
 
 Cu.ft. 
 
 Length 
 
 
 4 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 
 6 
 
 3.1 
 
 5.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stone 
 
 Roof 
 
 
 8 
 
 5.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 12.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 = 
 
 10 
 
 6.5 
 
 9.8 
 
 18.2 
 
 22.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 feet 
 
 
 12 
 
 7.8 
 
 14.0 
 
 21.8 
 
 31.2 
 
 37.4 
 
 
 
 
 between 
 
 
 14 
 
 9.1 
 
 16.4 
 
 25.5 
 
 41.0 
 
 49.1 
 
 63.7 
 
 
 
 eaves 
 
 
 16 
 
 10.4 
 
 18.7 
 
 30.3 
 
 43.2 
 
 62.4 
 
 80.1 
 
 99.8 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 127 
 
 TABLE III 
 SPACING OF REINFORCING RODS IN INCHES 
 
 Width in 
 Feet 
 
 LENGTH OF ROOF IN FEET BETWEEN CENTER LINES OF WALLS 
 
 between 
 
 
 Center 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lines 
 of Walls. 
 
 4 Ft. 
 
 6 Ft. 
 
 8 Ft. 
 
 10 Ft. 
 
 12 Ft. 
 
 14 Ft. 
 
 16 Ft. 
 
 Steel. 
 Size 
 
 4 Ft. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 91 in. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 
 
 12 in. 
 
 24 in. 
 
 30 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (round 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 
 6 in. 
 
 4f in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 rods 
 
 
 
 6 in. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 
 8 ft. 
 
 
 
 11 in. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 71 in. 
 
 71 in. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 !1 in. 
 
 22 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 
 10ft. 
 
 
 
 
 81 in. 
 
 71 in. 
 
 7 in. 
 
 6J in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 81 in. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 27 in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 in. 
 
 12ft. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6| in. 
 
 51 in. 
 
 51 in. 
 
 ( round 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 in. 
 
 12 in. 
 
 16 in. 
 
 rods 
 
 Hft. 
 
 
 NOTE. Upper figures 
 
 
 51 in. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 
 
 
 are for cross rein- 
 
 
 5J in. 
 
 SI in. 
 
 
 
 
 forcement; lower 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 ft. 
 
 
 figures for long re- 
 
 
 
 4 in. 
 
 
 
 
 inforcement. 
 
 
 
 4 in. 
 
 i 
 
 Forms for concrete roofs should be very care- 
 fully made so that the concrete will have rigid 
 support until it has hardened sufficiently not only 
 to support its own weight but the weight due to 
 wind, snow and driving rain. They must be stout 
 enough absolutely to prevent the least sagging 
 under the load of concrete. 
 
 Of course roofs must be watertight. This sug- 
 gests a 1:2:3 mixture. It is very essential that 
 roof reinforcing be properly placed so that the 
 
128 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 full effect of the steel in tension will be secured. 
 Reinforcing may be blocked up from the forms in 
 proper place by using small concrete cubes pre- 
 viously made or by using small blocks of wood. 
 The latter should be withdrawn as fast as con- 
 creting proceeds. 
 
 To be on the safe side, roof forms should be 
 left in place a little longer than may seem ab- 
 solutely necessary. Under ordinary conditions 
 two weeks is not too long. In cold weather double 
 this time, or more, may be necessary. 
 
 As concrete roofs expose a large area to sun 
 and air, it is very necessary that the concrete 
 be covered with some protective covering to pre- 
 vent too rapid drying out. This may be canvas 
 or burlap, kept wet, or a layer of 2 inches of 
 moist sand, kept moist by frequent sprinkling 
 daily for a week or ten days. After this the 
 covering may be removed and several wettings 
 per day be given by means of a hose or otherwise 
 ,and the concrete allowed to progress in harden- 
 ing under natural conditions. Where the area 
 to be covered does not permit finishing the work 
 in one continuous operation, provision must be 
 made for a construction joint in the work. This 
 can afterward be filled with hot tar or asphalt to 
 seal it against leakage. 
 
CONCRETE ON THE 'FARM AND SHOP 129 
 
 PAVEMENTS, WALKS, STEPS AND FLOORS 
 
 Pavements, walks, and floors all belong to the 
 same class of construction. Steps are included 
 in this section simply because they often serve to 
 provide a means of entering a building from a 
 walk, where the building is above or below the 
 walk level. Barnyard pavements and feeding 
 floors (see Figs. 44 and 45) are true time savers 
 
 Finished Floor 
 
 ^^- Curb 
 Place 
 
 FIG. 44. Concrete Feeding Floor or Barnyard Pavement. 
 
 and money makers. They do away with barn- 
 yard and feeding lot mudholes and provide com- 
 fort and cleanliness for the stock, which means 
 greater sanitation. They make doubly sure that 
 all feed will be eaten; none can be tramped into 
 the mud and lost. 
 
 The first essential to floor, pavement or walk 
 (see Fig. 46) construction is that the foundation 
 be firm and well drained. All turf or vegetation 
 should be removed from the site where the con- 
 crete is to be laid and any soft spots should be 
 dug out and refilled with clean material, well 
 
130 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 tamped. The whole foundation area should be 
 compacted by rolling or ramming to uniform 
 solidity. In some cases it may be necessary to 
 make a gravel or cinder fill or subbase (Fig. 46) 
 upon which to lay the concrete. This, however, 
 should not be done unless absolutely necessary, as 
 
 FIG. 45. Concrete Hog Feeding Floor, without Curb. 
 
 in a location where the soil does not drain readily 
 and water would be likely to remain under the 
 pavement in freezing weather. If this happened 
 the expansion resulting from freezing would cause 
 the pavement to heave and possibly would crack 
 some of the slabs. 
 Wherever a cinder or gravel subbase is pro- 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 131 
 
 vided, arrangement should be made to connect 
 short lengths of tile to this subbase to insure 
 drainage of water from beneath the floor or pave- 
 ment. 
 
 FORMS FOR WALKS AND FLOORS 
 
 Forms for walks (Fig. 46) should be set up so 
 that the walk will have either a slope of i inch 
 
 t"Top Course 
 
 4"Concrefe 
 Base 
 
 if 
 
 '<" 
 
 X, Well compacted 
 ' soil or cinder or 
 gravel sub-base 
 
 FIG. 46. Detail of Concrete Sidewalk Construction, Two-course 
 
 Work. 
 
 to the foot in one direction to make surface water 
 drain from it readily, or else the forms may be 
 set up to the same level and a slightly curved 
 template or strikeboard be used to strike off the 
 surface, thus giving it a slight crown which will 
 also accomplish quick drainage. This refers par- 
 ticularly to w alks ; barnyard pavements and feed- 
 
132 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 ing floors (Figs. 44 and 45) should be laid with a 
 uniform grade or slope in one direction, toward 
 a gutter formed in the concrete at the low side, 
 which in turn should be connected to a tile line 
 leading to a manure pit so that all of the liquid 
 droppings on the floor can be conserved, as these 
 represent money. 
 
 SIZE OF SLABS 
 
 Walk and pavement slabs should not be greater 
 than 6 feet in any one dimension and forms should 
 be placed so that alternate slabs may be concreted 
 first, then after these have hardened the forms 
 should be removed and concrete for the remain- 
 ing slabs placed. This will guarantee perfect 
 joints of separation between adjacent slabs, which 
 is quite necessary to prevent destruction of the 
 pavement in case of unequal settlement or up- 
 heaval as a result of faulty foundation or to 
 freezing. 
 
 MIXTURES FOR FLOORS, PAVEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 Barnyard pavements and feeding floors are now 
 almost universally of one-course construction. 
 This means a mixture of uniform richness 
 throughout ; a 1:2:3 mixture is preferable, al- 
 though a 1:2:4 mixture is sometimes used. In 
 this class of work also concrete should be of 
 quaky consistency. If it is desired to have a 
 smooth finish to walks, then it is common to use 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 133 
 
 a leaner mixture, such as 1:3:5 for the founda- 
 tion and apply a 1 or li-inch wearing course of 
 a 1 : 2 sand-cement mortar. The top or wearing 
 course of two-course construction should be placed 
 immediately after the base (before the base has 
 commenced to harden) so that there will be a 
 perfect bond or union between the two courses. 
 
 FINISHING WALKS AND FLOORS 
 
 The consistency of the top course should be 
 rather stiff so that when attempting to dump the 
 mortar from a wheelbarrow it will have to be 
 scraped out. If mixed to such stiffness the top 
 can be troweled to the desired finish a few min- 
 utes after striking off. Then only one troweling 
 will be necessary and the resulting surface will 
 be more durable and wear-proof than if the top 
 course is mixed wetter, thus making it necessary 
 to trowel several times at intervals to secure the 
 desired finish. Repeated trowelings break up the 
 chemical action taking place between the cement 
 and water during the process of hardening and 
 considerably affect the wearing qualities of the 
 surface. 
 
 PROTECTION OF WALKS, FLOORS AND 
 PAVEMENTS 
 
 Just as soon as concrete in feeding floor, walk 
 or pavement construction has hardened suf- 
 ficiently to permit throwing upon it a protective 
 
134 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 FIG. 47. Forms for Concrete Curb Construction, 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 135 
 
 layer of moist sand or earth this should be ap- 
 plied to protect the concrete so it may acquire 
 strength slowly under favorable conditions. This 
 covering should be kept wet by frequent sprinkling 
 for a week or ten days. At the end of this time the 
 walk, floor or pavement can be put to its intended 
 use. 
 
 CURB FOR FEEDING FLOORS 
 
 Feeding floors should be built with a curb all 
 around them extending 18 or 20 inches below 
 ground level and 3 or 4 inches above the floor 
 level. Forms for curbs are shown in Fig. 47. 
 This prevents the animals from pushing feed off 
 the floor, thereby wasting it; while the extension 
 of curb below ground level will keep them from 
 rooting underneath the floor. 
 
 SANITATION SECURED 
 
 Feeding floors and barnyard pavements, next 
 to concrete watering troughs, are the most ef- 
 fective of barnyard appointments toward secur- 
 ing sanitation. They are largely cleaned by 
 sunlight and rain, but they must, of course, oc- 
 casionally be washed off with broom and hose to 
 keep them in sanitary condition. Barnyard pave- 
 ments and feeding floors should never be finished 
 with a steel trowel but with a wood float, as it is 
 desirable to have a surface that will not be slip- 
 
136 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 pery. The wood-float surface will be even, but 
 gritty enough in texture to make a safe foothold 
 for the animals. 
 
 INDOOR FLOORS 
 
 Floors inside buildings are laid in the same 
 manner as feeding floors or barnyard pavements, 
 with the exception that slabs may be larger, even 
 up to 10 feet square, as temperature changes 
 under cover are not so great as those out of doors, 
 therefore it is less likely that the slabs will crack 
 from expansion. 
 
 THICKNESS OF SLABS 
 
 Walks, pavements and floors should not be less 
 than 5 inches thick and preferably 6 inches thick 
 if subjected to heavy usage such as would prevail 
 in horse barns where subjected to the impact of 
 heavy horses shod with steel shoes. For or- 
 dinary walks, feeding floors and barnyard pave- 
 ments, 5 inches will be sufficient. 
 
 STEPS 
 
 Most woods in contact with soil, especially 
 when lying upon rather than buried in it, rot 
 rapidly. This is especially true of woods that are 
 commonly used for porch or step construction. 
 Probably no home owner has escaped the neces- 
 sity of frequently replacing the steps at the front 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 137 
 
 or back of the house. When wood is used for 
 such a purpose it should be easy to see that one's 
 labors are soon lost. 
 
 Constructing for permanence by using concrete 
 involves little if any greater expense than re- 
 quired to build impermanently of wood. Further- 
 more, construction such as required either for 
 front or back porches is relatively simple. Forms 
 are of the simplest. Take the back steps by way of 
 
 r , , 
 
 Stakes 2x4" Form cut away / 
 
 to show base or -foundation 
 
 FIG. 48. Forms for Plain Concrete Steps - 
 
 illustration. Figs. 48 and 49 show the simplicity 
 of forms required and the finished porch steps. 
 
 Before commencing the work, the ground should 
 be leveled and any soft spots or vegetation such 
 as sod, dug out and removed. Then the area 
 where the steps are to be placed should be filled 
 in with clean, well-compacted gravel. Arrange- 
 ments should be made to mix and place the con- 
 crete so that construction can be continuous from 
 the time started until finished. A small job like 
 
138 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 the one illustrated will not require more than a 
 few hours of work, so there need be no construc- 
 tion seams in the work. 
 
 Concrete mixed in the proportions of 1 : 24 : 4 
 will be well suited to this work, and pebbles 
 larger than 1 inch, also field. stones, may be used 
 
 FIG. 49. Finished Concrete Steps. 
 
 on the interior of the mass, but it will consider- 
 ably reduce the labor of finishing the surface when 
 spading if no pebbles or broken stone larger than 
 1 inch is used in the concrete placed against 
 forms. Use enough water to form a concrete of 
 quaky consistency and mix no more concrete at 
 one time than can be placed within 30 minutes 
 after mixing. Do not retemper, that is, add 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 139 
 
 water and attempt to remix a batch of concrete 
 that has commenced to harden. 
 
 In placing concrete use a spade or similar tool 
 (Fig. 50) to work up and down against the inner 
 form face, so as to remove air bubbles and force 
 back the coarse gravel from the form and permit 
 
 FIG. 50. Method of Spading Concrete Next to Form Face. 
 
 the sand-cement mortar to come forward so that 
 a smooth surface which will require little or no 
 finishing after the forms are removed, will be 
 secured. Under favorable summer weather con- 
 ditions forms can be removed within 24 hours 
 from such construction, so that if there are stone 
 pockets or similar imperfections appearing on 
 
140 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 the face of the exposed work, these can be readily 
 filled with a 1 : 2 cement-sand mortar. Then the 
 whole surface is floated, that is, wet down and 
 rubbed with a brick, wood float or similar finish- 
 ing tool while it is wet. 
 
 Nothing has so far been said about the surface 
 finish of the tread of the steps and top of the 
 porch area. If forms are filled to within an inch 
 of the top with a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture, a top, or wearing 
 coat, mixed 1 : 2 or not leaner than 1 : 2J provided 
 the sand is well graded, can be applied before the 
 mass of concrete has commenced to harden. A 
 little 1 : 2 mortar can be spread around on the sur- 
 face, then worked with a wood float. This will 
 give an even and non-slippery finish. Use the 
 edger around the forms just at final finishing. 
 
 Some persons desire the smoothness obtained 
 by using a steel trowel for final finishing. 
 
 After the forms have been removed, the steps 
 should be protected by some kind of a cohering 
 that will prevent too rapid evaporation of moist- 
 ure so that the concrete can properly harden. Old 
 burlap sacks kept wet for a week, or a covering 
 of moist earth sprinkled down frequently will ac- 
 complish the purpose. The steps may be used 
 after the time mentioned. 
 
 Such work can be done during cold weather 
 provided there is no frost in the ground ; but cer- 
 tain precautions must be taken, such as heating 
 the sand and gravel and mixing water and pro- 
 tecting the concrete just as soon as it has been 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 141 
 
 placed, so as to prevent the possibility of freez- 
 ing for at least 48 hours. The forms can be 
 covered with canvas, burlap or building paper, 
 and on top of this there may be piled 6 or 8 
 inches of hay, straw or manure, which will protect 
 the work sufficiently so that after 48 hours no 
 damage from freezing need be feared. Concrete 
 hardens more slowly in cold weather than in 
 warm weather, and it would be well not to use 
 the steps until two weeks or more after doing the 
 concreting. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 Concrete falls in for a great many uses on the 
 farm that could not be enumerated in the limited 
 space of this book. It forms very suitable mate- 
 rial for curbing springs of water, that is, building 
 a protective wall around them so that surface 
 water may be prevented from polluting them. 
 This construction falls within the same require- 
 ments as that described for tanks and cisterns. 
 The same applies to concrete used for well ca- 
 sings or curbs. If the well is a circular one, of 
 course a circular form will be required on the 
 inside. After this has been placed the earth may 
 be excavated around the outside of this form and 
 it will be possible, if the earth is firm, to deposit 
 concrete without any outside form, otherwise 
 outside forms will be necessary. 
 
 The curb may be reinforced with i-inch round 
 rods bent to the desired curve or with woven wire 
 
142 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 
 
 fabric such as is used for wire fencing. If fabric 
 is used it serves for both vertical and horizontal 
 reinforcing. If rods are used, they must be placed 
 both vertically and horizontally to accomplish the 
 desired results. Horizontal rods should be spaced 
 6 inches center to center and vertical ones from 
 
 FIG. 51. A Concrete Well Platform. 
 
 18 inches to 2 feet apart around the circumference 
 of the well. Vertical and horizontal rods should 
 be tied together where they intersect so as to hold 
 them in correct position while concrete is being 
 placed. Reinforcing can be assembled above- 
 ground, then set in place. If the curb is 6 inches 
 thick, which will be sufficient, the reinforcing 
 
CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 143 
 
 should be midway between the inner and outer 
 surfaces of the concrete. 
 
 Excavation should be made 4 or 5 feet deep so 
 that the curb will extend at least that depth below 
 ground level. This will largely prevent seepage 
 of surface water into the well. After this curb 
 has been laid and has properly hardened a con- 
 crete slab for a well platform (Fig. 51) should be 
 constructed. This should be not less than 4 inches 
 thick and should be reinforced with i-inch rods 
 placed 6 inches center to center in both directions 
 1 inch from the slab bottom, suitable opening 
 being provided in the slab to permit the passage 
 of pump pipe. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aggregates defined ................................... 12 
 
 , Hard, durable ones necessary ................ 16 
 
 , Importance of clean ............ . ........... 12 
 
 /Washing .................................. 16 
 
 Beams, Mixture for ................................... 33 
 
 1 ' , Reinforcing of ................................. 67 
 
 Block, Simple Column ................................ 45 
 
 Box, Measuring .................. , ................... 50 
 
 Cement, How to Store ................................ 11 
 
 ' ' , Lumps in .................................... 11 
 
 ' ' , Portland, defined ............................. 10 
 
 " , Size of sack .................................. 12 
 
 " , Testing ..................................... 11 
 
 Cistern .............................................. 107 
 
 ' ' , Building cover slab ............................ Ill 
 
 ' ' , Form removal ................................ 113 
 
 ' ' , Repairing cracks .............................. 117 
 
 ' ' , Water connections ................. ........... 112 
 
 Column, Simple block for ......... ..................... 46 
 
 Conclusion .......................................... 141 
 
 Concrete, Amount of water required .................... 26 
 
 11 , "Curing" of ................................ 29 
 
 , defined ..................................... 10 
 
 , Examples of figuring quantities ................ 35 
 
 c ' , Hardening of ............................... 29 
 
 ' * , Measuring materials for ...................... 23 
 
 " , Mixer for ................................... 19 
 
 " , Mixing ......................... ............ 18 
 
 " , Mixing by hand ............................. 23 
 
 , Placing .................................. 27, 52 
 
 " , Principles of proportioning .................... 15 
 
 ' ' , Protection after placing ...................... 29 
 
 145 
 
 " 
 
146 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Concrete, Retempering 59 
 
 , Rubble 96 
 
 " , Safe loading for 64 
 
 " , Water for 18 
 
 ' ' , Watertight, how secured 51 
 
 Concreting, Resuming work from day before 60 
 
 ' ' , Stopping for the d?v 60 
 
 ' ' tools 49 
 
 Curb, Feeding floor 135 
 
 11 , Well 142 
 
 Feeding floors 129 
 
 Fence, Panel 75 
 
 ' ' , Post or rail 74 
 
 Fences 73 
 
 Floor, feeding, Curb for 135 
 
 " , Mixture for 33 
 
 ' ' , Mixture for base of two-course 34 
 
 ' ' , Wearing course for two-course 34 
 
 1 ' , Feeding 129 
 
 " , Finishing 133 
 
 " , General 129 
 
 ' ' , Protection of : 133 
 
 ' ' , reinforced, Mixture for 34 
 
 " , Size of slabs 132 
 
 Footing, Mixture for 34 
 
 ' ' , Width and thickness of 58 
 
 Form, Engine foundation 61 
 
 ' ' , Foundation 62 
 
 Forms, Care in setting up 42 
 
 1 ' , Kind of lumber to use 39 
 
 ' ' , Oiling or wetting 41 
 
 " , Studs for, Thickness of 41 
 
 ' ' , System 44 
 
 ' ' , Thickness of lumber 41 
 
 ' ' , Time to leave in place 43 
 
 ' ' , Wire ties and bolts for 43 
 
 Form, Wall, and column 63 
 
 Foundation, Depth for 57 
 
 ' ' , Laying out, Method 56 
 

 
 INDEX 147 
 
 Foundations, Bearing power of soils . 64 
 
 , Concrete for 55 
 
 , Engine, Mixture for 33 
 
 ' ' , ordinary, Mixture for 34 
 
 Gravel, Bank-run, not suitable 13 
 
 ' ' Defined 12 
 
 " , Screening 13 
 
 " , Washing 16 
 
 ' ' , Washing, Device for 17 
 
 Hardening, Time required 30 
 
 Hog Wallow 113 
 
 " ' ' ; Water supply for . . . . 115 
 
 Hotbed 121 
 
 Introductory 5 
 
 Manure Pit 115 
 
 Mixer, Home-made 19 
 
 Mixing Concrete 18 
 
 Mixtures, Recommended 33 
 
 Mortar, Mixtures for various uses 34 
 
 Pavements 129 
 
 ' ' , Finishing 133 
 
 " , Protection 133 
 
 Plastering 119 
 
 Platform mixing 50 
 
 Posts, Braces for 95 
 
 ' ' , Clothesline 99 
 
 " , Corner 92 
 
 " , Cost of 84 
 
 ' ' , Fastening line wires 91 
 
 ' ' , Forms for gate 95 
 
 ' ' , Gate 95 
 
 " , Hardening 91 
 
 ' ' , Mixtures for 33, 83 
 
 " , Molds for 82 
 
148 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Posts, Principles of reinforcing 70 
 
 ' ' , Reinforcing requirements 84 
 
 " , Rubble gate 96 
 
 1 ' , Sections of 90 
 
 ' ' , Spacers for reinforcing metal 89 
 
 ' ' , Various types 81 
 
 ' ' , Winter manufacture of 31 
 
 Reinforcing, Materials to use 70 
 
 ' ' , Position of in beams 69, 71 
 
 " , " " " tanks and cisterns Ill 
 
 ' ' , Principles described 66 
 
 , Rust or scale on 72 
 
 Roofs, Mixtures for 33 
 
 " , Tables for 125, 126, 127 
 
 Sand, Defined 12 
 
 " , Washing 16 
 
 ' ' , Washing device for 17 
 
 Screen, Home-made 49 
 
 Silo, Mixture for walls 34 
 
 Slabs, Floor, pavement, etc., Thickness of 136 
 
 Soils, Bearing power of 64 
 
 Spading , 139 
 
 Steps 129, 137, 138 
 
 System, Simple form 44 
 
 Table. Fence post reinforcing and quantities 87 
 
 Table of mixtures and quantities 35, 36 
 
 Tanks 101 
 
 ' ' and troughs, reinf orcing 103 
 
 " , Mixtures for 33 
 
 ' ' , Repairing cracks 117 
 
 Tools, Concreting 49 
 
 Trough, Design for stock watering 104 
 
 Troughs 103 
 
 ' ' and tanks, reinforcing 103 
 
 " , Mixture for 33 
 
 ' ' , Repairing cracks 117 
 
 " , Water-tightness, how secured 106 
 
INDEX 149 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Walk, Mixture for base of two-course 34 
 
 ' ' , Wearing course for two-course 34 
 
 Walks 129 
 
 ' ' , Finishing , 133 
 
 ' ' , Protection 133 
 
 " , Size of slabs 132 
 
 Wall, Panel type 78 
 
 Walls 73 
 
 ' ' , Ordinary building, Mixtures for 34 
 
 ' ' , Watertight basement, Mixture for 33 
 
 Water, Amount required in concrete 26 
 
 ' ' , -Clean, pure water necessary for concrete 18 
 
 Waterproofing porous surface 120 
 
 Water-tightness, How secured 51 
 
 Winter Concreting . 30 
 
nnnnnnnnnDnnnnnnanDnnnnnnnnnnnnDnn 
 
 CATALOGUE 
 
 Mechanical, Scientific and 
 Practical Books 
 
 Any of these books will be sent prepaid to any 
 
 Remit by Draft, Postal Order, Express 
 
 n 
 
 PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY 
 
 The Norman W. Henley Publishing (o. I 
 
 H 132 Nassau St., New York, U. S. A. g 
 
 n "a 
 
 DD nn 
 
 aaDDnaDnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnanaDanD 
 
INDEX TO SUBJECTS 
 
 Automobiles 3 
 
 Balloons 4 
 
 Brazing and Soldering 4 
 
 Cams 15 
 
 Charts : 4 
 
 Chemistry 26 
 
 Civil Engineering 6 
 
 Coke 6 
 
 Compressed Air 6 
 
 Concrete 6, 7, 8 
 
 Dictionaries 9 
 
 Dies Metal Work 8, 9 
 
 Drawing Sketching Paper 9 
 
 Electricity 10, 11, 12, 13 
 
 Enameling 13 
 
 Factory Management, etc 13 
 
 Fuel 13 
 
 Flying Machines 4 
 
 Gas Engines and Gas 14, 15 
 
 Gearing and Cams IS 
 
 Hydraulics 16 
 
 Ice and Refrigeration 16 
 
 Inventions Patents 16 
 
 Knots 16 
 
 Lathe Work 17 
 
 Liquid Air 17 
 
 Locomotive Engineering 18, 19, 20 
 
 Machine Shop Practice 20, 21, 22, 23 
 
 Manual Training 24 
 
 Marine Engineering 23, 24 
 
 Mechanical Movements ; 22 
 
 Metal Work-Dies 8, 9 
 
 Mining 24 
 
 Motoi Cycles 3, 4 
 
 Patents and Inventions 16 
 
 Patter?, Making 25 
 
 Perfumery 25 
 
 Plumbing 26 
 
 Receipt Book 26 
 
 Refrigeration and Ice ^ 16 
 
 Rubber 27 
 
 Saws 27 
 
 Screw Cutting 28 
 
 Sneet Metal Work 8 
 
 Soldering 4 
 
 Steam Engineering 28, 29 
 
 Steam Heating and Ventilation 30 
 
 Steam Pipes 29 
 
 Steel 30 
 
 Tractor 31 
 
 Turbines 31 
 
 Watch Making 32 
 
 Wireless Telephones 13 
 
 I3P Any of these books will be sent prepaid to any part of the 
 
 world, on receipt of price. 
 REMIT by Draft, Postal Money Order, Express Money Order, 
 
 or by Registered Mail. 
 
 2 
 
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 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATING TO 
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 Price, $3.00 
 
 POPULAR HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT AND 
 CONCRETE USERS. By MYRON H. LEWIS. "Everything 
 of value to the concrete user is contained, including kinds 
 of cement employed in construction, concrete architecture, 
 inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, 
 rules, tables, working and cost data. The book comprises 
 thirty-three chapters. A valuable addition to the library of 
 every cement and concrete user. Cloth, 430 pages, 126 illus- 
 trations. Price, $2.50 
 
 WATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By MYRON H. 
 LEWIS. Modern methods of waterproofing concrete and other 
 structures. A condensed statement of the principles, *-ules 
 and precautions to be observed in waterproofing and damp- 
 proofing structures and structural materials. Paper binding. 
 Illustrated. Second Edition. Price, 5O cents 
 
 DIES METAL WORK 
 
 PUNCHES, DIES AND TOOLS FOR MANUFAC- 
 TURING IN PRESSES. By J. V. WOODWORTH. An 
 encyclopedia of die-making, punch-making, die-sinking, sheet- 
 metal working, and making of special tools, suppresses, de- 
 vices and mechanical combinations for punching, cutting, 
 bending, forming, piercing, drawing, compressing, and assem- 
 bling sheet-metal parts and also articles of other materials 
 in machine tools. This is a distinct work from the author s 
 book entitled "Dies; Their Construction and Use." 500 
 pages, 700 engravings. Second edition. Cloth. 
 
 Price, $4.OO 
 
 8 
 
DIES, THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE FOR 
 THE MODERN WORKING OF SHEET METALS. 
 
 By J. V. WOODWORTH. A new book by a practical man, for 
 those who wish to know the latest practice in the working 
 of sheet metals. It shows how dies are designed, made and 
 used, and those who are engaged in this line of work can 
 secure many valuable suggestions. Fifth edition. 505 illus- 
 trations, 384 pages. Cloth. Price, $ 3.OO 
 
 DROP FORGING, DIE-SINKING AND MA- 
 CHINE-FORMING OF STEEL,. By J. V. WOODWORTH. 
 The processes of die-sinking and force-making, which are 
 thoroughly described and illustrated in this admirable work, 
 are rarely to be found explained in such a clear and con- 
 cise manner as is here set forth. The process of die-sink- 
 ing relates to the engraving or sinking of the female or lower 
 dies, such as are used for drop forgings, hot and cold 
 machine forging, swedging and the press working of metals. 
 The process of force-making relates to the engraving or 
 raising of the male or upper dies used in producing the lower 
 dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplicate 
 parts of metal. The book contains eleven chapters, and the 
 information contained in these chapters is just what will 
 prove most valuable to the forged-metal worker. All opera- 
 tions described in^ the work are thoroughly illustrated by 
 means of perspective half-tones and outline sketches of the 
 machinery employed. 300 detailed illustrations. 339 pages, 
 cloth. Price, $2.5O 
 
 DICTIONARIES 
 
 STANDARD ELECTRICAL, DICTIONARY. By 
 
 T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. A practical handbook of reference con- 
 taining definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and 
 phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include 
 every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. 
 Twelfth Edition. 682 pages, 393 illustrations. Price, $3.OO 
 
 DRAWING SKETCHING PAPER 
 
 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By 
 
 HERMAN T. C. KRAUS. This work gives the theory and 
 practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, engi- 
 neering and mechanical drawings. The arrangement of the 
 book is good; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descrip- 
 tive text follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily 
 referred to. The drawings are on sufficiently large scale to 
 show the work clearly and are plainly figured. The whole 
 work makes a very complete course on perspective drawing. 
 Cloth. Price, $2.5O 
 
 SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING 
 AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE DESIGN. By F. 
 
 L. SYLVESTER, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by Erik 
 Oberg, associate editor of "Machinery." A practical ele- 
 mentary treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine De- 
 sign, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechan- 
 ical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength of 
 materials and the calculation and design of machine details, 
 compiled for the use of practical mechanics and young 
 draftsmen. 330 pages, 215 engravings, cloth. Price, $2.OO 
 
A NEW SKETCHING PAPER. A new specially 
 ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in 
 isometric perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is 
 being used for shop details as well as for assembly drawings, 
 as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no work- 
 man can help seeing just what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 
 6x9 inches, Price, 25 cents 
 
 9 x 12 inches, Price, 5O cents 
 
 12 x 18 inches, Price, ?1.OO 
 
 PRACTICAL, PERSPECTIVE. By RICHARDS and 
 COLVIN. Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical 
 irawings in the only practical perspective isometric. Makes 
 everything plain so that any mechanic can understand a 
 sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing 
 room and mistakes in the shops. Contains practical exam- 
 ples of various classes of work. Third edition. Limp 
 cloth. Price, 5O cents 
 
 ELECTRICITY 
 
 ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICITY. By PROF. T. 
 O'CoNOR SLOANE. A practical treatise on electrical calcula- 
 tions of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all of the 
 simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each 
 rule illustrated by one or more practical problems with de- 
 tailed solution of each one. This book is classed among the 
 most useful works published on the science of electricity, 
 covering as it does the mathematics of electricity in a man- 
 ner that will attract the attention of those who are not 
 familiar with algebraical formulas. 160 pages. Twenty-first 
 edition. Cloth. Price, $1.OO 
 
 DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR 
 HOW TO CONSTRUCT A FIFTY WATT DY- 
 NAMO. By ARTHUR J. WEED. A practical treatise show- 
 ing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, 
 the entire machine work of which can be done on a small 
 foot lathe. Dimensioned working drawings are given for 
 each piece of machine work, and each operation is clearly 
 described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an 
 output of fifty watts; when used as a motor it will drive a 
 small drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a sewing 
 machine on any and all ordinary work. The book is illus- 
 trated with more than sixty original engravings showing the 
 actual construction of the different parts. 
 
 Price, paper binding, 5O cents; Cloth, $1.OO 
 
 ELECTRIC WIRING, DIAGRAMS AND 
 SWITCHBOARDS. By NEWTON HARRISON. This is the 
 only complete work issued showing and telling you what you 
 should know about direct and alternating current wiring. It 
 is a ready reference. The work is free from advanced tech- 
 nicalities and mathematics, arithmetic being used throughout. 
 It is in every respect a handy, well-written, instructive, com- 
 prehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, foremPn, con- 
 tractor or electrician. 272 pages, 105 illustrations. Cloth. 
 
 Price. 
 10 
 
COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By WM. BAX- 
 TER, JR. The business end of any dynamo or motor of the 
 direct current type is the commutator. This book goes into 
 the designing, building and maintenance of commutators, 
 shows how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; 
 everyone who fusses with dynamos needs this. Fourth edi- 
 tion. Price, 25 cents 
 
 ELECTRIC FURNACES AND THEIR INDUS- 
 TRIAL, APPLICATIONS. By J. WRIGHT. This is a 
 book which will prove of interest to many classes of people; 
 the manufacturer who desires to know what product can be 
 manufactured successfully in the electric furnace, the chem- 
 ist -who wishes to post himself on the electro-chemistry, and 
 the student of science who merely looks into the subject 
 from curiosity. 288 pages. Fully illustrated, cloth. 
 
 Price, 93.00 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND HEATING POCK- 
 ET BOOK. By SYDNEY F. WALKER. This book puts in 
 convenient form useful information regarding the apparatus 
 which is likely to be attached to the mains of an electrical 
 company. Tables of units and equivalents are included and 
 useful electrical laws and formulas are stated. 438 pages, 
 300 engravings. Bound in leather. Pocket book form. 
 
 Price, ? 3.00 
 
 ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILD- 
 ING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, 
 electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos and instruments in 
 general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young 
 and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical 
 appliances. 210 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. Twentieth 
 edition, enlarged. Price, $1.OO 
 
 PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY. By PROF. T. 
 O'CONOR SLOANE. This work of 768 pages was previously 
 known as Sloane's Electricians' lland Book, and is intended 
 for the practical electrician who has to make things go. 
 The entire field of electricity is covered within its pages. 
 It contains no useless theory; everything is to the point. It 
 teaches you just what you should know about electricity. It 
 is the standard work published on the subject. Forty-one 
 chapters, 610 engravings, 761 pages, handsomely bound in 
 cloth. Third edition. Price, $2.5O 
 
 ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By PROF. T. 
 O'CONOR SLOANE. The object of "Electricity Simplified" is 
 to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what 
 the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two 
 plates of different metals immersed in acid can send a mes- 
 sage around the globe; to explain how a bundle of copper 
 wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting 
 our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and 
 what high and low tension mean; and to answer the ques- 
 tions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of elec- 
 tricity. 172 pages. Illustrated. Thirteenth edition. "<']oth. 
 
 Price, $1.00 
 11 
 
HOUSE WIRING. By THOMAS W. POPPE. Describing 
 and illustrating up-to-date methods of installing electric light 
 wiring. Intended for the electrician, helper and apprentice. 
 Contains just the information needed for successful wiring 
 of a building. Fully illustrated with diagrams and plans. 
 It solves all wiring problems and contains nothing that con- 
 flicts with the rulings of the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers. It gives just the information essential to the suc- 
 cessful wiring of a building. 125 pages, fully illustrated, 
 flexible cloth. Price, 5O cents 
 
 MANAGEMENT OP DYNAMOS. By LUMMIS-PAT- 
 ERSON. A handbook of theory and practice. This work is 
 arranged in three parts. The first part covers the elementary 
 theory of the dynamo. The second part, the construction 
 and action of the different classes of dynamos in common 
 use are described; while the third part relates to such 
 matters as affect the practical management and working of 
 dynamos and motors. Fourth edition. 292 pages, 117 illus- 
 trations. Price, ^l.SO 
 
 ELECTRICITY IN FACTORIES AND WORK- 
 SHOPS. Its cost and convenience. A handy book for 
 power producers and power users. By ARTHUR P. HASLAM. 
 S*/ 2 x 8. Cloth, 312 pages, 70 illustrations. Price, $2.5O 
 
 HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL, ELECTRI- 
 CIAN. By PROF. T. O'CONOR SLOANE. An interesting book 
 from cover to cover. Telling in simplest language the surest 
 and easiest way to become a successful electrician. The 
 studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation 
 and the requirements of the successful electrician are pointed 
 out and fully explained. 202 pages. Illustrated. Eighteenth 
 revised edition. Cloth. Price, $1.OO 
 
 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By 
 
 PROF. T. O'CONOR SLOANE. A practical handbook of refer- 
 ence containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, 
 terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and 
 include every term used in electrical science. Twelfth edi- 
 tion. 682 pages, 393 illustrations. Price, $3.OO 
 
 ^ SWITCHBOARDS. By WILLIAM BAXTER, JR. This 
 book appeals to every engineer and electrician who wanes to 
 know the practical side of things. All sorts and conditions 
 of dynamos, connections and circuits are shown by diagram 
 and illustrate just how the switchboard should be connected. 
 Includes direct and alternating current boards, also those 
 for arc lighting, incandescent and power circuits. Special 
 treatment on high voltage boards for power transmission. 
 Second edition. 190 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.5O 
 
 TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLA- 
 TION, WIRING, OPERATION AND MAINTE- 
 NANCE. By W. H. RADCLIFFE and H. C. GUSHING. This 
 book gives the principles of construction and operation of 
 both the Bell and Independent instruments; approved meth- 
 ods of installing and wiring them; the means of protecting 
 them from lighting and abnormal currents; their connection 
 together for operation as series or bridging stations; and 
 rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and 
 the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are 
 also treated. 224 pages, 132 illustrations. Second revised 
 edition. Price, fl.OO 
 
 12 
 
" WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 
 
 SIMPLY EXPLAINED. By ALFRED P. MORGAN. This 
 is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehen- 
 sible treatises on the subject ever published, and a close 
 study of its pages will enable one to master all the details 
 of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has 
 filled a long-felt want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, 
 comprehensible explanation in simple language of the theory 
 and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. 154 pages, 
 156 engravings. Price, $1.OO 
 
 WIRING A HOUSE. By HERBERT PRATT. Shows a 
 house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; 
 where to begin; what wire to use; how to run it accord- 
 ing to insurance rules; in fact, just the information you 
 need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition. 
 
 Price, 25 cents 
 
 ENAMELING * 
 
 HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY RE- 
 CEIPT BOOK. Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. A work 
 of 10,000 practical receipts, including enameling receipts for 
 hollow ware, for metals, for signs, for china and porcelain, 
 for wood. etc. Thorough and practical. 1914 edition. 
 
 '\. Price, $3.OO 
 
 * FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC, 
 
 MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, 
 EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By O. E. 
 
 PERRIGO, M.E. A work designed for the practical and every- 
 day use of the architect who designs, the manufacturers who 
 build, the engineers who plan and equip, the superinten- 
 dents who organize and direct, and for the information of 
 every stockholder, director, officer, accountant, clerk, super- 
 intendent, foreman and workman of the modern machine 
 shop and manufacturing plant of Industrial America. 
 
 S Price, ? 5.00 
 
 FUEL A 
 
 ' COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVEN- 
 TION OF SMOKE. By WM. M. BARR. This book has 
 been prepared with special reference to the generation of 
 heat by the combustion of the common fuels found in the 
 United States, and deals particularly with the conditions 
 necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of 
 bituminous coals in stationary and locomotive steam boilers. 
 The presentation of this important subject is systematic and 
 progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of 
 practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, 
 which describe in language, *ree from technicalities, the sev- 
 eral processes involved in the furnace combustion of Amer- 
 ican fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for per- 
 fect combustion, and points out the best methods for fur- 
 nace construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat 
 from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully 
 illustrated. Fifth edition. Price, fl.OO 
 
 SMOKE PREVENTION AND FUEL ECONOMY. 
 By BOOTH and KERSHAW. As the title indicates, this book 
 of 197 pages and 75 illustrations deals with the problem of 
 complete combustion, which it treats from the chemical and 
 mechanical standpoints, besides pointing out the economical 
 and humanitarian aspects of the question. Price, Jf-.5O 
 13 
 
GAS ENGINES AND GAS 
 
 , GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, Or How to Build 
 a Half-'Horse-power Gas Engine. By PARSELL and WEED. 
 A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of 
 the action of gas engines of various types, and the design 
 and construction of a half-horse-power gas engine, with illus- 
 trations of the work in actual progress, together with dimen- 
 sioned working drawings giving clearly the sizes of the vari- 
 ous details. 300 pages. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $2.5O 
 
 CHEMISTRY OP GAS MANUFACTURE. By H. 
 
 M. ROYLES. This book covers points likely to arise in the 
 ordinary course of the duties of the engineer or manager of 
 a gas works not large enough to necessitate the employment 
 of a separate chemical staff. It treats of the testing of the 
 raw materials employed in the manufacture of illuminating 
 coal gas and of the gas produced. The preparation of 
 standard solutions is given as well as the chemical and physi- 
 cal examination of gas coal. 5>4x8M. Cloth, 328 pages, 82 
 illustrations, 1 colored plate. Price, Jp4.5O 
 
 THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: 
 ITS OPERATION, REPAIR AND USES. By XENO 
 W. PUTNAM. A useful and practical treatise on the modern 
 gasoline and kerosene engine, its construction, management, 
 repair and the many uses to which it can be applied in 
 present-day farm life. It considers all the various household, 
 shop and field uses of this up-to-date motor and includes 
 chapters on engine installation, power transmission and the 
 best arrangement of the power plant in reference to the 
 work. 5K*7/4 Cloth. 527 pages. 179 illustrations. 
 < t , -^ , Price, ?3.00 
 
 ^GASOLINE ENGINES: THEIR OPERATION, 
 USE AND CARE. By A. HYATT VERRILL. A comprehen- 
 sive, simple and practical work, treating of gasoline engines 
 for stationary, marine or vehicle use; their construction, de- 
 sign, management, care, operation, repair, installation and 
 troubles. A complete glossary of technical terms and an alpha- 
 betically arranged table of troubles and symptoms form a 
 most valuable and unique feature of the book. 5^4 x 7J^. 
 Cloth. 275 pages, 152 illustrations. Price, $1 5O 
 
 GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL, ENGINES. By GARD- 
 NER D. Hiscox. Revised by VICTOR W. PAGE. Just issued 
 191K revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas 
 engine needs this book. Simple, instructive and right up- 
 to-date. The only complete work on the subject. Tells all 
 about internal combustion engineering, treating exhaustively 
 on the design, construction and practical application of all 
 forms of gas, gasoline, kerosene and crude petroleum-oil en- 
 gines. Describes minutely all auxiliary systems, such as 
 lubrication, carburetion and ignition. Considers the theory 
 and management of all forms of explosive motors for sta- 
 tionary and marine work, automobiles, aeroplanes and motor- 
 cycles. Includes also Producer Gas and Its Production. 
 Invaluable instructions for all students, gas-engine owners, 
 gas-engineers, patent experts, designers, mechanics, drafts- 
 men and all having to do with the modern power. Illustrated 
 by over 400 engravings, many specially made from engineer- 
 ing drawings, all in correct proportion. 650 pages, 435 en- 
 gravings. Price, net, $2.5O 
 14 
 
MODERN GAS ENGINES AND PRODUCER 
 GAS PLANTS. By R. E. MATHOT, M.E. A practical 
 treatise of 320 pages, fully illustrated by 175 detailed illus- 
 trations, setting forth the principles of gas engines and pro- 
 ducer design, the selection and installation of an engine, 
 conditions of perfect operation, producer-gas engines and 
 their possibilities, the care of gas engines and producer-gas 
 plants, with a chapter on volatile hydrocarbon and oil en- 
 gines. This book has been endorsed by Dugal Clerk as a 
 most useful work for all interested in gas engine installation 
 and producer gas. Price, $2.5O 
 
 HOW TO RUN AND INSTALL, GASOLINE 
 
 ENGINES. By C. VON CULIN. New revised and enlarged 
 edition just issued. The object of this little book is to fur- 
 nish a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who 
 uses an engine for pleasure or profit, but who does not 
 have the time or inclination for a technical book, but sim- 
 ply to thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install 
 and care for his own engine. The index refers to each 
 trouble, remedy and subject alphabetically. Being a quick 
 reference to find the cause, remedy and _ prevention for 
 troubles, and to become an expert with his own engine. 
 Pocket size. Paper binding. Price, 25 cents 
 
 MODERN GAS TRACTOR, ITS CONSTRUC- 
 TION, UTILITY, OPERATION AND REPAIR. 
 
 By VICTOR W. PAGE. Treats exhaustively on the design and 
 construction of farm tractors and tractor "power-plants, and 
 gives complete instructions on their care, operation and re- 
 pair. All types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil 
 tractory are described, and every phase of traction engineer- 
 ing practice fully covered. Invaluable to all desiring re- 
 liable information on gas motor propelled traction engines 
 and their use. 5*4 x? 1 /^. Cloth. 475 pages, 204 illustrations, 
 3 folding plates. Price, $2.OO 
 
 GEARING AND CAMS 
 
 BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. AG. ENGSTROM. 
 No one who has to do with bevel gears in any way should 
 be without this book. The designer and draftsman will find 
 it a great convenience, while to the machinist who turns up 
 the blanks or cuts the teeth, it is invaluable, as all needed 
 dimensions are given and no fancy figuring need be done. 
 Third edition. Cloth. Price, $1.OO 
 
 CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. By OSCAR E. FERRIC^ 
 A book for every designer, draftsman and mechanic who is 
 interested in feed changes for any kind of machines. This 
 shows what has been done and how. Gives plans, patents 
 and all information that you need. Saves hunting through 
 patent records and reinventing old ideas. A standard work 
 of reference. Cloth. Price, $1.OO 
 
 I 
 
 DRAFTING OF CAMS. By Louis ROUILLION. The 
 laying out of cams is a serious problem unl&ss you know how 
 to go at H right. This puts, you on the right road for prac- 
 tically any kind of cam vou are likely to run up against. 
 Third edition. Price, 25 cent* 
 
 15 
 
HYDRAULICS 
 
 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By GARDNER D. 
 Hiscox. A treatise on the properties, power, and resources 
 of water for all purposes. Including the measurement of 
 streams; the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse- 
 power of falling water; turbine and impact water-wheels; 
 wave-motors, centrifugal, reciprocating and air-lift pumps. 
 With 300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. 320 
 pages. Price, $4.OO 
 
 ICE AND REFRIGERATION 
 
 POCKETBOOK OP REFRIGERATION AND 
 ICE MAKING. By A. J. WALLIS-TAYLOR. This is one of 
 the latest and most comprehensive reference books published 
 on the subject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains 
 the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids 
 in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the 
 construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required 
 pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures 
 and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all 
 kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of 
 goods, ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda 
 for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly 
 one hundred tables containing valuable references to every 
 fact and condition required in the installment and operation 
 of a refrigerating plant. New edition just published. 
 
 Price, ?1.5O 
 
 INVENTIONS PATENTS 
 
 INVENTOR'S MANUAL, HOW TO MAKE A 
 PATENT PAY. This is a book designed as a guide to 
 inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their 
 patents, and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a 
 Patent Solicitor's circular nor a Patent Broker's advertise- 
 ment. No advertisements of any description appear in the 
 work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's ex- 
 perience of a successful inventor, together with notes based 
 upon the experience of many other inventors. Revised edi- 
 tion. 120 plages. Cloth. Price, $1.OO 
 
 KNOTS 
 
 KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. 
 
 HYATT VERRILL. This is a practical book giving complete 
 and simple directions for making all the most useful and orna- 
 mental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, 
 Pointing, Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully illus- 
 trated with one hundred and fifty original engravings, which 
 shows how each knot, tie or splice is formed, and its appear- 
 ance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest 
 value to campers, yachtsmen, travelers or Boy Scouts, in 
 fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or 
 knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and 
 practical, and is not only a guide but a teacher. It is the 
 standard work on the subject. 118 pages, ISO original en- 
 gravings. Price, GO cents 
 
LATHE WORK 
 
 TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. By FRED H. 
 
 COLVIN. There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way 
 and one other. This treatise has to do with the right way; 
 it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the 
 lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and 
 one other little things that you should follow. Fourth edi- 
 tion. Price, 25 cents 
 
 LATHE DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, AND 
 OPERATION, WITH PRACTICAL, EXAMPLES 
 OP LATHE WORK. By OSCAR E. PERRIGO. A New revised 
 edition, and the only complete American work on the subject, 
 written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be 
 done, but who also knows how to do it, and how to convey 
 this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its de- 
 scriptions and illustrations. Lathe history and the relations 
 of the lathe to manufacturing are given; also a description of 
 the various devices for feeds and thread cutting mechanisms 
 from early efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe 
 ksign is thoroughly discussed, including back gearing, driving 
 tones, thread-cutting gears, and all the essential element of the 
 modern lathe. The classification of lathes is taken up, giving 
 the essential differences of the several types of lathes including, 
 as is usually understood, engine lathes, bench lathes, speed 
 lathes, forge lathes, gap lathes, pulley lathes, forming lathes, 
 multiple-spindle lathes, rapid-reduction lathes, precision lathes, 
 turret lathes, special lathes, electrically-driven lathes, etc. 
 In addition to the complete exposition on construction and 
 design, much practical matter on lathe installation, care and 
 operation has been incorporated in the enlarged 1915 edi- 
 tion. All kinds of lathe attachments for drilling, milling, 
 etc., are described and complete instructions are given to 
 enable the novice machinist to grasp the art of lathe oper- 
 ation as well as the principles involved in design. A number 
 of difficult machining operations are described at length and 
 illustrated. The new edition has nearly 500 pages and 350 
 illustrations. Price, $2.5O 
 
 PRACTICAL METAL TURNING. By JOSEPH G. 
 HORNER. A work of 404 pages, fully illustrated, covering in 
 a comprehensive manner the modern practice of machining 
 metal parts in the lathe, including the regular engine lathe, 
 its essential design, its uses, its tools, its attachments, and 
 the manner of holding the work and performing the opera- 
 tions. The modernized engine lathe, its methods, tools and 
 great range of accurate work. The turret lathe, its tools, 
 accessories and methods of performing its functions. Chap- 
 ters on special work, grinding, tool holders, speeds, feeds, 
 modern tool steels, etc., etc. Second edition. Price, $3.5O 
 
 LIQUID AIR 
 
 LIQUID AIR AND THE LIQUEFACTION OF 
 GASES. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. Theory, history, biog- 
 raphy, practical applications, manufacture. Second edition. 
 365 pages. Illustrated. Price, $ 3.OO 
 
 17 
 
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING 
 
 AIR-BRAKE CATECHISM. By ROBERT H. BLACK- 
 ALL. This book is a standard text book. It is the only- 
 practical and complete work published. Treats on the equip- 
 ment manufactured by the Westinghouse Air Brake Com- 
 pany, including the E-T Locomotive Brake Equipment, the 
 K (Quick-Service) Triple Valve for freight service; the L 
 High Speed Triple Valve; the P-C Passenger Brake Equip- 
 ment, and the Cross Compound Pump. The operation of all 
 parts of the apparatus is explained in detail and a practical 
 way of locating their peculiarities and remedying their de- 
 fects is given. Endorsed and used by air-brake instructors 
 and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. 
 Twenty-sixth edition. 411 pages, fully illustrated with fold- 
 ing plates and diagrams. New edition. Price, $2.OO 
 
 AMERICAN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. By 
 
 FRED H. COLVIN. The most complete book on compounds 
 published. Shows all types, including the balanced compound. 
 Makes everything clear by many illustrations, and shows 
 valve setting, breakdowns and repairs. 142 pages. Cloth. 
 
 Price, $1.OO 
 
 APPLICATION OP HIGHLY SUPERHEATED 
 STEAM TO LOCOMOTIVES. By ROBERT GARBE. A 
 practical book which cannot be recommended too highly to 
 those motive-power men who are anxious to maintain the 
 highest efficiency in their locomotives. Contains special chap- 
 ters on Generation of 'Highly Superheated Steam; Super- 
 heated Steam and the Two-Cylinder Simple Engine; Com- 
 pounding and Superheating; Designs of Locomotive Super- 
 heaters; Constructive Details of Locomotives Using Highly 
 Superheated Steam. Experimental and Working Results. 
 Illustrated with folding plates and tables. Cloth. 
 
 Price, $2.50 
 
 COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVEN- 
 TION OP SMOKE. By WM. M. BARR. To be a success a 
 fireman must be "Light on Coal." He must keep his fire 
 in good condition, and prevent, as far as possible, the smoke 
 nuisance. To do this, he should know how coal burns, how 
 smoke is formed and the proper burning of fuel to cotain 
 the best results. He can learn this, and more too, from 
 Barr's "Combination of Coal." It is an absolute authority 
 on all questions relating to the firing of a locomotive. Fifth 
 edition. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.OO 
 
 DIARY OP A ROUND-HOUSE FOREMAN. By 
 
 T. S. REILLY. This is the greatest book of railroad experi- 
 ences ever published. Containing a fund of information and 
 suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., 
 that one cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. Price, Jpl.OO 
 
 LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SET- 
 TING. By FRED H. COLVIN, Associate Editor of "American 
 Machinist." A handy book that clears up the mysteries of 
 valve setting. Shows the different valve gears in use, how 
 they work, and why. Piston and slide valves of different 
 types are illustrated and explained. A book that every rail- 
 road man in the motive-power department ought to have. 
 Fully illustrated. New revised and enlarged edition just 
 published. Price, 5O cent* 
 
 18 
 
TRAIN RULE EXAMINATIONS MADE EASY. 
 
 By G. E. COLLINGWOOD. This is the only practical work on 
 train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and puzzling 
 points are explained in simple, comprehensive language, mak- 
 ing it a practical treatise for the train dispatcher, engine- 
 man, trainman and all others who have to dp with the move- 
 ments of trains. Contains complete and reliable information 
 of the Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows 
 signals in colors, as used on the different roads. Explains 
 fully the practical application of train orders, giving a clear 
 and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. 
 256 pages. Fully illustrated with train signals in co'ors. 
 
 Price, $1.25 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By 
 
 FRANK A. KLEINHANS. The only book showing how locomo- 
 tive boilers are built in modern shops. Shows all types of 
 boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, 
 such as life of riveting punches and dies, work done per 
 day, allowance for bending and flanging sheets and other 
 data that means dollars to any railroad man. Second edition. 
 451 pages. 334 illustrations. Six folding plates. Cloth. 
 
 Price, $3.00 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS AND THEIR 
 REMEDIES. By GEO. L. FOWLER. Revised by Wm. W. 
 Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued. Revised pocket 
 edition. It is out of the queston to try and tell you about 
 every subject that is covered in this pocket edition of Loco- 
 motive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles 
 that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then 
 add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, 
 but that you had never thought about, and you will find 
 that they are all treated with the very best methods of re- 
 pair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric 
 Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions and Answers on the 
 Air Brake are all included. Eighth edition. 294 pages. 
 Fully illustrated. Price, $1.OO 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIM- 
 SHAW. Twenty-eighth revised and enlarged edition. This 
 may well be called an encyclopedia of the locomotive. Con- 
 tains over 4,000 examination questions with their answers, 
 including among them those asked at the first, second and 
 third years' examinations. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and 
 3 folding plates. Price, $2.5O 
 
 WESTINGHOUSE ET AIR-BRAKE INSTRUC- 
 TION POCKET BOOK CATECHISM. By WM. W. 
 
 WOOD, Air-Brake Instructor. A practical work containing 
 examination questions and answers on the E. T. Equipment. 
 Covering what the E. T. Brake is. How' it should be oper- 
 ated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be 
 asked of the engineman up for promotion on either the No. 
 5 or the No. 6 E T equipment that is not asked and answered 
 in the book. If you want to thoroughly understand the 
 E T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every de- 
 tail. Makes air-brake troubles and examinations easy. Fully 
 illustrated with colored plates, showing various pressures. 
 Cloth. Price, 91. BO 
 
 19 
 
PRACTICAL, INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE 
 BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN AND EN- 
 GINEERS. By CHAS. F. LOCKHART. An entirely new 
 book on the locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, 
 as it tells him how things are done and the right way to do 
 them. Written by a man who has had years of practical 
 experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and 
 running. The information given in this book cannot be 
 found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and 
 fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which 
 will prove specially helpful to those preparing for exam- 
 ination. 368 pages, 88 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.5O 
 
 PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, 
 OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. By GEORGE BRAD- 
 SHAW. This book is a heart-to-heart talk with railroad em- 
 ployees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the 
 men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents 
 occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated 
 with seventy original photographs and drawings showing the 
 safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no 
 ideal pictures. Just plain facts and practical suggestions are 
 given. Every railroad employee who reads the book is a 
 better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives 
 just the information which will be the means of preventing 
 many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should 
 procure a copy; read it, and do their part in preventing 
 accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated. 
 
 Price, 5O cents 
 
 WALSCHAERT LOCOMOTIVE VALVE GEAR. 
 
 By WM. W. WOOD. If you would thoroughly understand the 
 Walschaert Valve Gear, you should possess a copy of this 
 book. The author divides the subject into four divisions, as 
 follows: I. Analysis of the gear. II. Designing and erecting 
 of the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. Questions 
 and answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. This 
 book is specially valuable to those preparing for promotion. 
 Third edition. 245 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth. 
 
 Price, 91.5O 
 
 MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 MACHINE -SHOP ARITHMETIC. By COLVIN- 
 CHENEY. Most popular book for shop men. Shows how all 
 shop problems are worked out and "why." Includes change 
 gears for cutting any threads; drills, taps, shink and force 
 fits; metric system of measurements and threads. Used by 
 all classes of mechanics and for instruction in Y. M. C. A. 
 and other schools. Sixth edition. 131 pages. 
 
 Price, 5O cents 
 
 TOOLS FOR MACHINISTS AND WOOD 
 WORKERS, INCLUDING INSTRUMENTS ( OF 
 MEASUREMENT. By JOSEPH G. CORNER. The prin- 
 ciples upon which cutting tools for wood, metal, and other 
 substances are made are identical, whether used by the ma- 
 chinist, the carpenter, or by any other skilled mechanic in 
 their daily -work, and the object of this book is to give a 
 correct and practical description of these tools as they are 
 commonly designed, constructed, and uced. 340 pages, fully 
 illustrated. - Price, $3.5O 
 
 20 
 
AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTER- 
 CHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING. By J. V. 
 
 WOODWORTH. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, 
 Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. 
 The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical 
 treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of 
 interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the 
 United States. In it are described and illustrated all of *he 
 different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, dc- ices 
 and special appliances which are in general use in all 
 machine-manufacturing and metal-working establishments 
 where economy, capacity and interchangeability in the pro- 
 duction of machined metal parts are imperative. The science 
 of jig making is exhaustively discussed, and particular atten- 
 tion is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures 
 and other devices in which the parts to be machined are 
 located and fastened within the contrivances. All of the 
 tools, fixtures and devices illustrated and described have 
 been or are used for the actual production of work, such 
 as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, type- 
 writers, electrical apparatus, mechanical appliances, brass 
 goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal arti- 
 cles, drop forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 
 Second edition. 531 pages. Price, $4.OO 
 
 HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL 
 ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. Edited 
 by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.Mech.E. This book covers the 
 entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The 
 best known experts in all branches of engineering have con- 
 tributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well 
 adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught 
 practical man, as well as the mechanical engineer, designer, 
 draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman and machinist. 
 
 It is a modern treatise in five volumes. Handsomely 
 bound in half morocco, each volume containing nearly 500 
 pages, with thousands of illustrations, including diagram- 
 matic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. 
 Price, for the complete set of five volumes, $25. OO 
 
 MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, 
 EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By OSCAR E. 
 PERRIGO. The only work published that describes the Modern 
 Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the 
 grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished 
 product is shipped. Just the book needed by those contem- 
 plating the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding 
 and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern 
 Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a book written 
 and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men 
 who are too busy to read theories and -want facts. It is the 
 most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 
 400 large quarto pages, 225 original and specially-made illus- 
 trations. Price, $5.OO 
 
 ^ < 
 
 "SHOP KINKS." By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. This shows 
 special methods of doing work of various kinds, and releas- 
 ing cost of production. Has hints and kinks from some of 
 the largest shops in this country and Europe. You are almost 
 sure to find some that apply to your work, and in such a 
 way as to save time and trouble. 400 pages. Fifth edi- 
 tion. Cloth. Price, $2.5O 
 21 
 
THE WHOI-F*- FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVE* 
 
 MENTS COVERED BY MR. HISCOX'S 
 
 TWO BOOKS 
 
 We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will 
 keep you from "inventing" things that have been done be- 
 fore, and suggest ways of doing things that you have not 
 thought of before. Many a man spends time and money, 
 pondering over some mechanical problem, only to learn, after 
 he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been 
 accomplished and put in practice by others long before. Time 
 and money spent in an effort to accomplish what has al- 
 ready been accomplished are time and money lost. The 
 whole field of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, 
 and practically every device is covered by these two books. 
 If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in 
 them. If it hasn'ti been invented, then you'll find in them 
 the nearest things to what you want, some movement or 
 device that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will 
 give you a key from which to work. No book or set of 
 books ever published is of more real value to the inventor, 
 draftsman or practical mechanic than the two volumes de- 
 scribed below. 
 
 MECHANICAL, MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND 
 DEVICES. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a collection 
 of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appli- 
 ances, accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of 
 great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all read- 
 ers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen 
 sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified 
 under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmis- 
 sion of Power; Measurement of Power; Steam Power; Air 
 Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navi- 
 gation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Control- 
 ling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appli- 
 ances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; Miscel- 
 laneous Devices, etc. Fourteenth edition. 400 octavo pages. 
 
 Price, ^2.50 
 
 MECHANICAL, APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL, 
 MOVEMENTS AND NOVELTIES OF CON- 
 STRUCTION. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a sup- 
 plementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. 
 Unlike the first volume, which is more elementary in char- 
 acter, this volume contains illustrations and descriptions of 
 many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices 
 and appliances found in different lines of machinery, each 
 device being shown by a line drawing with a description 
 showing its -working parts and the method of operation. 
 From the multitude of devices described and illustrated 
 might be mentioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and 
 elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various types of boil- 
 ers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, 
 Corliss and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water 
 motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, 
 automobile and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, car coup- 
 lers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block 
 mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of 
 others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made engravings. 
 396 octavo pages. Third revised edition. Price, f 2.5O 
 
 22 
 
MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRAC- 
 TICE. By W. H. VANDERVOORT. A work of 555 pages and 
 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, 
 operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. 
 Includes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on 
 drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, 
 shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear 
 cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; 
 grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; 
 gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful data and 
 tables. Sixth edition. Cloth. Price, $3.OO 
 
 MODERN MILLING MACHINES: THEIR DE- 
 SIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. By 
 
 JOSEPH G. HORNER. This book describes and illustrates the 
 Milling Machine and its work in such a plain, clear, and 
 forceful manner, and illustrates the subject so clearly and 
 completely, that the up-to-date machinist, student, or me- 
 chanical engineer cannot afford to do without the valuable 
 information which it contains. It describes not only the 
 early machines of this class, but notes their gradual develop- 
 ment into the splendid machines of the present day, giving 
 the design and construction of the various types, forms, and 
 special features produced by prominent manufacturers, Ameri- 
 can and foreign. 304 pages, 300 illustrations. Cloth 
 
 Price, $4.OO 
 
 THE MODERN MACHINIST. By JOHN T. USHER. 
 This book might be called a compendium of shop methods, 
 showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will 
 give new ideas to many mechanics from the superintendent 
 down to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable 
 addition to any machinist's library and should be consulted 
 whenever a new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is 
 boring, milling, turning, or planing, as they are all treated 
 in a practical manner. Fifth edition. 320 pages, 250 illus- 
 trations. Cloth. Price, $2.5O 
 
 THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By COLVIN 
 and STABEL. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread- 
 cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, 
 catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful 
 hints and several tables. Third edition. Price, 25 cents 
 
 MARINE ENGINEERING 
 
 MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. A cross-section 
 view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a 
 submarine of the latest type. You get more information from 
 this chart about the construction and operation of a subma- 
 rine than in any other way. No details omitted everything 
 is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every 
 detail, having been approved by naval engineers. All the 
 machinery and devices fitted in a modern submarine boat are 
 shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood 
 all the features are shown in operative form, with officers 
 and men in the act of performing the duties assigned to them 
 in service conditions. THIS CHART IS REALLY AN 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SUBMARINE. It is educational and 
 worth many times its cost. Mailed in a tube for 25 cents 
 
 23 
 
MARINE ENGINES AND -BOILERS, THEIR 
 
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By DR. G. BAUER, 
 LESLIE S. ROBERTSON and S. BRYAN DONKIN. In the words 
 of Dr. Bauer, the present -work owes its origin to an oft 
 felt want of a condensed treatise embodying the theoretical 
 and practical rules used in designing marine engines and 
 boilers. The need of such a work has been felt by most 
 engineers engaged in the construction and working of marine 
 engines, not only by the younger men, but also by those of 
 greater experience. The fact that the original German work 
 was written by the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan 
 Works, Stettin, is in itself a guarantee that this book is in 
 all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all 
 the information which is necessary for the design and con- 
 struction of the highest types of marine engines and boilers. 
 It may be said that the motive power which Dr. Bauer has 
 placed in the fast German liners that have been turned out 
 of late years from the Stettin Works represent the very best 
 practice in marine engineering of the present day. The work 
 is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; 
 while the character of the plans, drawings, tables, and sta- 
 tistics is without reproach. The illustrations are careful re- 
 productions from actual working drawings, with some well- 
 executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. 
 744 pages, 550 illustrations and numerous tables. Cloth. 
 
 Price, 99.0O net 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING 
 
 ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By 
 
 Louis ROUILLION. The only book that gives just the infor- 
 mation needed by all interested in manual training, regarding 
 buildings, equipment and supplies. Shows exactly what is 
 needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to 
 the High and Normal School. Gives itemized lists of every- 
 thing needed and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows 
 where to buy supplies. Illustrated. Second edition. Cloth. 
 
 Price, 91.50 
 
 MINING 
 
 ORE DEPOSITS, WITH A CHAPTER ON 
 HINTS TO PROSPECTORS. By J. P. JOHNSON. This 
 book gives a condensed account of the ore deposits at present 
 known in South Africa. It is also intended as a guide to 
 the prospector. Only an elementary knowledge of geology and 
 some mining experience are necessary in order to understand 
 this work. With these qualifications, it will materially assist 
 one in his search for metalliferous mineral occurrences and, 
 so far as simple ores are concerned, should enable one to 
 form some idea of the possibilities of any they may find. 
 Illustrated. Cloth. Price, $2.OO 
 
 PRACTICAL, COAL MINING. By T. H. COCKIN. 
 An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustra- 
 tions, complete with practical details, which will intuitively 
 impart <to the reader, not only a general knowledge of the 
 principles of coal mining, but also considerable insight into 
 allied subjects. The treatise is positively up to date in every 
 instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery engi- 
 neer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and 
 all others who are interested in or connected with the indus- 
 try. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $12. 5O 
 24 
 
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF MINING. Bj> 
 
 T. H. BYROM. A practical work for the use of all preparing 
 for examinations in mining or qualifying for colliery man- 
 agers' certificates. The aim of the author in this excellent 
 book is to place clearly before the reader useful and authori- 
 tative data which will render him valuable assistance in his 
 studies. The only 'work of its kind published. The infor- 
 mation incorporated in it will prove of the greatest practical 
 utility to students, mining engineers, colliery managers, and 
 all others who are specially interested in ;the present-day 
 treatment of mining problems. 160 pages, illustrated. 
 
 Price, $2.OO 
 
 PATTERN MAKING 
 
 PRACTICAL, PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. 
 
 BARROWS. This book, now in its second edition, is a com- 
 prehensive and entirely practical treatise on the subject of 
 pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and 
 metal, and with definite instructions on the use of plaster 
 of paris in the trade. It gives specific and detailed descrip- 
 tions of the materials used by pattern makers and describes 
 the tools; both those for the bench and the more interesting 
 machine tools; having complete chapters on the lathe, the 
 circular saw and the band saw. It gives many examples of 
 pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with 
 much detail. These examples, in their great variety, offer 
 much that will be found of interest to all pattern makers, 
 and especially to the younger ones, who are seeking informa- 
 tion on the more advanced branches of their trade. Con- 
 taining nearly 350 pages and 170 illustrations. Second edi- 
 tion, revised and enlarged. Price, $2. GO 
 
 PERFUMERY 
 
 HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF 
 RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited 
 by G. D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno-chemical receipt 
 book published. Contains over 10,000 practical receipts, many 
 of which will prove of special value to the perfumer. $3.OO 
 
 PERFUMES AND COSMETICS, THEIR PREP- 
 ARATION AND MANUFACTURE. By G. W. 
 
 ASKINSON, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, in which 
 there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to 
 the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Com- 
 plete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling- 
 salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles; preparations for the care 
 of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and 
 other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of 
 aromatic substances; their nature, tests of purity, and whole- 
 sale manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic products, 
 with formulas for their use. A book of general, as well as 
 professional interest, meeting the wants not only of the drug- 
 gist and perfume manufacturer, but also of the general public. 
 Fourth edition much enlarged and brought up-to-date. Nearly 
 400 pages, illustrated.^ Price, $5.OO 
 
 25 
 
PLUMBING 
 
 STANDARD PRACTICAL, PLUMBING. By R. 
 
 M. STARBUCK. This is a complete treatise and covers the 
 subject of modern plumbing in all its branches. It treats ex- 
 haustively on the skilled work of the plumber and the theory 
 underlying plumbing devices and operations, and commends 
 itself at once to everyone working in any branch of the 
 plumbing trade. A large amount of space is devoted 'to a 
 very complete and practical treatment of the subjects of hot 
 water supply, circulation and range boiler work. Another 
 valuable feature is the special chapter on drawing for 
 plumbers. The illustrations, of which rftere are three hun- 
 dred and forty-seven, one hundred being full-page plates, 
 were drawn expressly for this book and show the most 
 modern and best American practice in plumbing construction. 
 6 l / 2 x9 l A. Cloth, 406 pages, 347 illustrations. Price, $3. GO 
 
 MECHANICAL, DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. 
 
 By R. M. STARBUCK. A concise, comprehensive and practical 
 treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various 
 modern applications to the work of all who are in any way 
 connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so helo 
 the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to cus- 
 tomers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the 
 workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his 
 position to positions of greater responsibility. 150 illus- 
 trations. Price, $1.50 
 
 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. 
 
 M. STARBUCK. The author of this book, Mr. R. M. Starbuck, 
 is one of the leading authorities on plumbing in the United 
 States. The book represents the highest standard of plumbing 
 work. A very comprehensive work, illustrating and describ- 
 ing the drainage and ventilation of dwellings, apartments and 
 public buildings. The very latest and most approved methods 
 in all branches of sanitary installation are given. The stand- 
 ard book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing 
 inspectors, boards of health, boards of plumbing examiners 
 and for the property owner, as well as the workman and 
 apprentice. It contains fifty-five entirely new and large full 
 pages of illustrations with descriptive text, all of which have 
 been made specially for this work. These plates show all 
 kinds of modern plumbing work. Each plate is accc npanied 
 by several pages of text, giving notes and practical sugges- 
 tions, sizes of pipe, proper measurements for setting up work, 
 etc. Suggestions on estimating plumbing construction are 
 also included. 400 octavo pages, fully- illustrated by 55 
 full-page engravings, Price, $4. GO 
 
 RECIPE BOOK 
 
 HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK 
 OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- 
 chemical formulae book published, including over 10,000 se- 
 lected scientific, chemical, technological and practical recipes 
 and processes. This book of 800 pages is the most complete 
 book of recipes ever published, giving thousands of recipes 
 for the manufacture of valuable articles for everyday use. 
 Hints, helps, practical ideas and secret processes are revealed 
 within its pages. It covers every branch of the yseful arts 
 
 26 
 
and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the 
 book everyone should have at his command. The pages arc 
 filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable prac- 
 tical value to the photographer, the perfumer, the painter, 
 the manufacturer of glues, pastes, cements and mucilages, 
 the physician, the druggist, the electrician, the brewer, the 
 engineer, the foundryman, the machinist, the potter, the 
 tanner, the confectioner, the chiropodist, the manufacturer 
 .of chemical novelties and toilet preparations, the dyer, the 
 electroplater, the enameler, the engraver, the provisioner, the 
 glass worker, the goldbeater, the watchmaker and jeweler, 
 the ink manufacturer, the optician, the farmer, the dairyman, 
 the paper maker, the metal worker, the soap maker, the 
 veterinary surgeon, and the technologist in general. A book 
 to which you may turn with confidence that you will find 
 what you are looking for. A mine of information up-to-date 
 in every respect. Contains an immense number of formulas 
 that every one ought to have that are not found in any other 
 work. New edition. Cloth binding, $3.OO; Half Morocco 
 binding, Price, $4.OO 
 
 RUBBER 
 
 HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK 
 OP RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. Contains upward of 10,000 
 
 Practical receipts, including among them formulas on arti- 
 cial rubber. Price, $3.OO 
 
 RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIP- 
 ULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. By T. O'CoNOR 
 
 SLOANE. This book gives full details of all points, treating 
 in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly every- 
 thing it is necessary to understand for a commencement in 
 any branch of the India rubber manufacture. The making 
 of all kinds of rubber hand stamps, small articles of India 
 rubber, U. S. Government composition, dating hand stamps, 
 the manipulation of sheet rubber, toy balloons, India rubber 
 solutions, cements, blackings, renovating varnish, and treat- 
 ment for India rubber shoes, etc.; the hektograph stamp inks, 
 and miscellaneous notes, with a short account of the dis- 
 covery, collection and manufacture of India rubber are set 
 forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the ex- 
 planation being plain and simple. Third edition. 175 pages 
 illustrated. Cloth, " * 
 
 Price, 
 
 SAWS 
 
 SAW FILING AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. 
 
 By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. A practical hand book on filing, 
 gumming, swaging, hammering and the brazing of band saws, 
 the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A 
 handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those 
 mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper 
 shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many 
 useful hints and rules for gumming, setting, and fifing, and is 
 a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. Third 
 edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price, $1.OO 
 27 
 
SCREW CUTTING 
 
 THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By Cot. 
 VIN and STABEL. This clears up many of the mysteries of 
 thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal 
 threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of 
 useful hints and several tables. Third edition. 
 
 Price, 25 cent* 
 
 STEAM ENGINEERING 
 
 AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By 
 
 W. E. CRANE. A new book by a well-known author. Begins 
 at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. Con- 
 tains the result of years of practical experience in all sorts 
 of engine rooms and gives exact information that canno* be 
 found elsewhere. It's plain enough for practical men and yet 
 of value to those high in the profession. Has a complete ex- 
 amination for a license. Second edition. 28'S pages. Illus- 
 trated. Cloth. Price, $2.OO 
 
 STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIM- 
 SHAW. This volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on 
 the question and answer principle, but it contains formulas 
 and wprked-out answers for all the steam problems that 
 appertain to the operation and management of the steam 
 engine. Illustrations of various valves and valve gear with 
 their principles of operation are given. 34 tables that are in- 
 dispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be 
 progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling 
 are within .its pages. It is a most valuable instructor in 
 the service of steam engineering. Leading engineers have 
 recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as 
 well as a reference book for the engineer. Sixteenth edition. 
 
 Price, $2.00 
 
 BOILER ROOM CHART. By GEO. L. KOWLER. A 
 chart size 14 x 28 inches showing in isometric perspective 
 the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. Water 
 tube boilers, ordinary grates and mechanical stokers, feed 
 water heaters and pumps comprise the equipment. The 
 various parts are shown broken or removed, so that the in- 
 ternal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given 
 a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, 
 are given in a glossary printed at the sides. This chart is 
 really a dictionary of the boiler room the names of more 
 than 200 parts being given. It is educational worth many 
 times its cost. Price, 25 cent* 
 
 EMINENT ENGINEERS. By DWIGHT GODDARD. 
 Everyone who appreciates the effect of such great inventions 
 as the steam engine, steamboat, locomotive, sewing machine, 
 steel working, and other fundamental discoveries, is inter- 
 ested in knowing a little about the men who made them and 
 their achievements. Mr. Goddard has selected thirty-two of 
 the world's engineers who have contributed most largely to 
 the advancement of our civilization by mechanical means, 
 giving only such facts as are of general interest and in a way 
 which appeals to all, whether mechanics or not. 280 pages, 
 35 illustrations. . Price, f 1.5O 
 
 28 
 
ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM. By ROBERT T. 
 GRIMSHAW. Tells how to erect, adjust and run the princi- 
 pal steam engines in use in the United States. The work 
 is of a handy size for the pocket. To young engineers this 
 catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may 
 be preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates 
 of competency; and to engineers generally it 'will be of no 
 little service, as they will find in this volume more really 
 practical and useful information than is to be found any- 
 where else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh 
 edition. Price, $ 2.0O 
 
 MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY 
 AND PRACTICE. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is 
 a complete and practical work issued for stationary engi- 
 neers and firemen dealing with the care and management 
 of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating 
 machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and 
 all other branches with which the modern engineer must be 
 familiar. Nearly 200 questions with their answers on steam 
 and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the exam- 
 ining board, are included. Third edition. 487 pages, 405 
 engravings. Cloth. Price, $3.OO 
 
 HORSE POWER CHART. Shows _the horse power 
 of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter 
 what the cylinder diameter or stroke; the steam pressure 
 or cut-off; the revolutions, or whether condensing or non- 
 condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves 
 time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and 
 designers. , Price, 5O cents 
 
 STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By COL- 
 VIN-CHENEY. A practical pocket book for the steam engi- 
 neer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine room 
 and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of en- 
 gines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and 
 circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engineering 
 terms. Puts you onto all of the little kinks in figuring what- 
 ever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about 
 the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic expansion; duty of 
 engines; factor of safety; and 1,001 other things; and every- 
 thing is plain and simple not the hardest way to figure, 
 but the easiest. Second edition. Price, 5O cents 
 
 STEAM PIPES 
 
 STEAM PIPES: THEIR DESIGN AND CON- 
 STRUCTION. By WM. H. BOOTH. The work is well 
 illustrated in regard to pipe joints, expansion offsets, flexible 
 joints, and self-contained sliding joints for taking up the ex- 
 pansion of long pipes. In fact, the chapters on the flow of 
 steam and expansion of pipes are most valuable to all steam 
 fitters and users. The pressure strength of pipes and method 
 of hanging them is 'well treated and illustrated. Valves and 
 by-passes are fully illustrated and described, as are also flange 
 joints and their proper proportions. Exhaust heads and sepa- 
 rators. One of the most valuable chapters is that on siiper- 
 heated steam and the saving of steam by insulation with the 
 various kinds of felting and other materials, with comparison 
 tables of the loss of heat in thermal units from naked and 
 felted steam pipes. Second edition. Contains 187 pages. 
 Cloth. Price, ?2.OO 
 
 29 
 
STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATING 
 
 PRACTICAL, STEAM, HOT-WATER HEATING 
 AND VENTILATION. By A. G. KING. This book has 
 been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of 
 steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. Tells how to get 
 heating contracts, how to install heating and ventilating 
 apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with "Tricks 
 of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating 
 radiation and cost and such tables and information as make 
 it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, 
 hot-water heating and ventilation. It describes all the prin- 
 cipal systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor and vacuum- 
 vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of 
 hot-water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods 
 of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and 
 ventilation. Second edition. 367 pages, 300 detailed engrav- 
 ings. Cloth. Price, $3.OO 
 
 5OO PLAIN ANSWERS TO DIRECT QUES- 
 TIONS ON STEAM, HOT-WATER, VAPOR AND 
 VACUUM HEATING PRACTICE. By ALFRED G. 
 KING. This work, just off the press, is arranged in question 
 and answer form; it is intended as a guide and text-book for 
 the younger' inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for 
 all fitters. All long and tedious discussions and descriptions 
 formerly considered so important have been eliminated, and 
 the theory and laws of heat and the various old and modern 
 methods and appliances used for heating and ventilating are 
 treated in a concise manner. This is the standard Question 
 and Answer examination book on Steam and Hot Water 
 Heating, etc. 200 pages, 127 illustrations. Octavo. 
 Cloth. Price, f 1.50 
 
 STEEL 
 
 HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, 
 AND FORGING OP STEEL,. By J. V. WOODWORTH. 
 A book containing special directions for the successful hard- 
 ening and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, 
 thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, 
 punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet- metal working tools, 
 shear blades, saws, fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all 
 descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, both large 
 and small, the simplest, and most satisfactory hardening and 
 tempering processes are presented. 320 pages, 250 illustra- 
 tions. Fourth edition. Cloth. Price, $2.5O 
 
 STEEL,: ITS SELECTION, ANNEALING, HAR- 
 DENING AND TEMPERING. By E. R. MARKHAM. 
 This work was formerly known as "The American Steel 
 Worker," but on the publication of the new, revised edition, 
 the publishers deemed it advisable to change its title to a 
 more suitable one. This is the standard work on hardening, 
 tempering, and annealing steel of all kinds. This book tells 
 how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal 
 steel for everything on earth. It is the standard book on 
 selecting, hardening, and tempering all grades of steel. 
 400 pages. Very fully illustrated. Fourth edition. 
 
 Price, $12. 5O 
 
 30 
 
HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK 
 OP RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. 
 
 Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- 
 chemical receipt book published, giving, among other practical 
 receipts, methods of annealing, coloring, tempering, welding, 
 plating, polishing and cleaning steel. Price, $3.OO 
 
 TRACTORS 
 
 THE HOME-MADE TRACTOR. By XENO W. 
 PUTNAM. A practical treatise on the construction .of small 
 and special purpose tractors in the home workshop from the 
 odds and ends of cast-off machinery available on nearly every 
 farm. This work shows the farmer how, at small expense, 
 to make his gasoline engine conveniently portable by making 
 it self-moving; It guides him in the construction of a prac- 
 tical farm tractor that is capable of hauling, harvesting, plow- 
 ing and doing all the ordinary farm work in which the pro- 
 pulsion of other machinery is required. Twenty-four chapters 
 are contained in this book and it is illustrated with over 125 
 working engravings showing many successfully built and tested 
 home-made tractors. (Ready shortly.) 
 
 THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. By VICTOR W. 
 PAGE. A complete treatise describing all types and sizes of 
 gasoline, kerosene, and oil tractors. Considers design and 
 construction exhaustively, gives complete instruction for care, 
 operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the 
 road and in the field. The best and latest work on - farm 
 tractors and tractor power plants. A work needed by farmers, 
 students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, 
 designers and engineers. 500 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations 
 and folding plates. Price, $2.OO 
 
 TURBINES 
 
 MARINE STEAM TURBINES. By ; : D$ Q, BAUER 
 and O. LASCHE. Assisted by E. Ludwig and". H. Vflgel. 
 Translated from the German and edited by M. G. .. Swallow. 
 The book is essentially practical and discusses ttirbines in 
 which the full expansion of steam passes through a number 
 of separate turbines arranged for driving two or more sh.afts, 
 as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which* the complete 
 expansion of steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in 
 a turbine on one shaft, as in the case of the Curtis machines. 
 It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calcu- 
 lation necessary for the construction of steam turbines, hence 
 it fills a want which is hardly met by larger and more theo- 
 retical works. Numerous tables, curves and diagrams will be 
 found, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason 
 why turbine blades are designed as they are, .the course which 
 steam takes through turbines of various types, the thermody- 
 namics of steam turbine calculation, the influence of vacuum 
 on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, 
 the very information which a designer and builder of steam 
 turbines most requires. Large octavo, 214 pagesi Fully il- 
 lustrated and containing 18 tables, including an entropy chart. 
 
 Price, $3.5O net 
 
 * 31 
 
WATCH MAKING 
 
 WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. By CLAUDIUS 
 SAUNIER. No work issued can compare with this book for 
 clearness and completeness. It contains 498 pages and is in- 
 tended as a workshop companion for those engaged in watch- 
 making and allied mechanical arts. Nearly 250 engravings 
 and 14 plates are included. This is the standard work on 
 watchmaking. Price, 93. OO 
 
 The Most Valuable Techno-Chemical Recipe Book 
 Ever Offered to the Public! 
 
 Henley's Twentieth Century Book of 
 
 RECIPES, FORMULAS 
 AND PROCESSES 
 
 Price $3.00 
 
 It contains more than 10,000 prac- 
 tical recipes and formulas for 
 everyday use in business, at home, 
 or in the factory. Everything you 
 want to make Antiseptics, Water 
 proofing, Lubricants, Rust Preven- 
 tives, Dyes, Filters, Cleaning Prep, 
 arations, Enameling, Beverages, 
 Inks, Adhesives, Polishes, Disin- 
 fectants, Flavorings, Cosmetics, 
 Ceramics, etc., etc. Photography 
 is treated in all its various branches, 
 as are also Plating, Painting, Leather 
 Work, etc. Tests for Food Adul- 
 terants are fully covered; how to 
 make fly paper; to color flowers 
 artificially; to estimate weight of 
 ice by measurement; to make 
 
 materials fireproof; to work with metals aluminum, brass, etc.; 
 
 to make anything and everything, from A to Z. 
 
 | A fl A A Practical Formulas and Processes 
 1U,UUU The Best Way to Make Everything 
 
 ONE USEFUL RECIPE WILL BE WORTH MORE 
 THAN TEN TIMES THE PRICE OF THE BOOK 
 
 (See page 26 for further description of the book.) 
 32 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 LD 21-100m-12, '43 (8796s) 
 
Oaylord Bros. 
 
 Makers 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 PAT. JAN. 2 1, 1908 
 
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 402.356 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY