CONCRETE ON THE FA IN Tm (JAM FEE i '^^^^P^^^WxV^y^Xm/WVV^KAWVWWWUK/. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND IN 1 THE SHOP A COMPLETE PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE COMMONEST EVERY-DAY USES OP C6NCRETE. WRITTEN IN PLAIN ENGLISH, SO THAT THE INEXPERIENCED PERSON DESIRING TO UNDERTAKE A PIECE OP CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION CAN, BY FOL- LOWING THE DIRECTIONS GIVEN, SECURE SUCCESS. THE CONSTRUCTION OF TANKS, TROUGHS, CISTERNS, FENCE POSTS. STABLE FLOORS. HOTBEDS, HOG WAL- LOWS, WALLS, FOUNDATIONS, PANEL FENCES, FEEDING FLOORS, AND ALL THE PURPOSES FOR WHICH CONCRETE is AN INVALUABLE AID TO THE FARMER ARE INCLUDED BY H. COLIN CAMPBELL, C.E., E.M. Contributing Editor, Cement World and American Carpenter and Builder Member, Editorial Staff, Farm Engineering VERY FULf^Y NEW YORK THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 132 NASSAU STREET 1916 COPYRIGHTED, 19 1G BY THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. AGRIC, DEPT. WAIN LIBRARY TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 5 GENERAL SUMMARY OF CONCRETE PRINCIPLES 9 AGGREGATES 12 PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTIONING 15 MIXING CONCRETE 18 PLACING CONCRETE - 27 PROTECTION AFTER PLACING 29 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING 30 RECOMMENDED MIXTURES 33 FORMS 38 CONCRETING TOOLS 49 FOUNDATIONS 55 PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCING 66 MATERIALS FOR REINFORCING 66 WALLS AND FENCES 73 POSTS 81 RUBBLE CONCRETE 96 TANKS AND TROUGHS 101 CISTERNS ' 107 FORM REMOVAL . 113 HOG WALLOW 113 MANURE PIT 115 REPAIRS OF LEAKS IN TANKS, ETC 117 HOTBEDS 121 ROOFS FOR SMALL BUILDINGS 125 PAVEMENTS, FEEDING FLOORS, AND WALKS 129 STEPS 136 WELL CURBS AND PLATFORMS 141 3 /I A O O f INTRODUCTORY WITHIN recent years there has been increas- ing attention given to the use of concrete as a building material. Nowhere has this interest been relatively greater than on the farm. The appeal of concrete is due largely to the fact that care and faithful observance of fundamental principles enable a large portion of the actual labor to be performed by those who are relatively unskilled. The increasing cost of lumber has made concrete not only a formidable competitor but successful rival. Not only is this true but those who have once used concrete have come to a realization that in the concrete structure expensive upkeep is eliminated. There is no longer the continual an- nual outlay for repairing, painting, straightening up, and rebuilding or patching the work to put it into condition equal to new, or to maintain it in serviceable condition. Concrete is also fireproof. This is another strong appeal. On the farm fireproof construc- tion is doubly advantageous since the country dweller is without the protection which his city friend enjoys; namely, the well-equipped and usually efficient fire department. But concrete in town is just as good as in the country. Another advantage comes from the sanitation resulting 5 6 ^INTRODUCTORY where concrete construction is properly applied. Feeding floors, hog wallows, watering troughs, all do their share on the farm and it is a large one toward preventing the filthy conditions that in a large percentage of cases are responsible for the epidemic stock diseases which annually exact a costly toll from farmers throughout the country. There are concrete books galore. No apology need be made for this one. The concrete worker who so far has met with scant success, will learn the "why" by carefully reading and following its message. The engineer or contractor thoroughly experienced in concrete work may find but little to interest him in this book. He will say that he has heard all of these subjects discussed before. Perhaps, however, he has not heeded many of the cautions which the writer has endeavored to put into plain language and which he knows are es- sential to success. In that respect the book may profit the engineer or contractor who heeds. It has, however, been primarily prepared with the beginner first in mind the man who knows noth- ing of concrete but wants to learn. Concrete ordinarily is a technical subject and most writers have described the methods of using it in high-sounding terms which are beyond the understanding of the average man without some engineering or construction experience. The writer has endeavored to translate technical ex-' pressions and technical terms into plain everyday English, that any one who can read can under-' INTRODUCTORY 7 stand. Simple drawings accompany the text. In some cases these are purposely exaggerated to better show what is meant. In many cases con- struction illustrated by drawings is shown in a reproduction of photograph illustrating the work in progress or completed. In the limited space of this booklet not all of the possibilities of Concrete on the Farm and in the Shop could be dwelt upon. The fundamentals of concreting, however, have been presented at some length, and these apply regardless of the construction. The examples used for purpose of illustration, that is, the various types of construc- tion described, are such as to give the beginner who follows all directions the necessary experience to undertake more pretentious uses of concrete. THE AUTHOB. March, 1916. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND . IN THE SHOP WHAT CONCRETE IS, HOW IT SHOULD BE MADE, AND SOME OF ITS USES GENERAL INCKEASIXG interest in the advantages of per- manent, fireproof and sanitary construction has resulted in recognition of the adaptability of con- crete for most buildings required upon the farm. Here its range of use is almost unlimited ; barns, hog houses, poultry houses, dairy buildings, silos, watering troughs and tanks, feeding floors, barn floors, foundations practically all types of farm building construction seem to be best solved by proper application of concrete. Notwithstanding the fact that there have been volumes written concerning the uses of concrete, a great deal of the so-called information scattered broadcast has been simply the recounting of in- dividual practices and experiences, which have not by any means always represented what those best qualified to know would endorse as correct methods of using concrete. Too often those who attempt concrete construction act upon the im- pression that a little cement a little sand, gravel 9 10 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP and water, then a few turnings with the shovel, and presto! the trick is done. This is far from the truth. WHAT CONCRETE IS Concrete consists of a certain quantity of broken stone or gravel of properly graded sizes, firmly bound together by a mortar consisting of Portland cement, sand and water. It is, therefore, a composite product, a manufactured one, so to speak, therefore success in the use of concrete involves observance of certain established require- ments of selection and mixing of ingredients, and proper placing. Like the black man and the red man, Portland cement's identity was established through color. It looks like the Portland stone of England; but nowadays when Portland cement is spoken of, only the manufactured product is meant. Natural cements are not suited to the general run of con- crete construction. WHAT PORTLAND CEMENT IS Portland cement is a carefully manufactured product, consisting principally of lime, silica and aluminum oxide. It is not necessary that the user should know the exact nature of its ingre- dients nor just how they are combined. There are so many reputable manufacturers of Port- CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 11 land cement in the country to-day that the person contemplating concrete construction need not concern himself with the process of manufacture. All he need do is to inform himself as to the known reliability of any particular brand he contemplates using. This can be done by cor- responding with the United States Department of Agriculture or the United States Bureau of Standards, both of Washington, D. C., and if the reply received indicates that the particular brand conforms to established engineering re- quirements he will be safe in using that brand. TESTING CEMENT The testing of cement is a science in itself that requires experience and skill acquired only in laboratories with special equipment, and the user need not concern himself with tests if he has been properly assured that the particular brand is known to meet with the requirements mentioned. If cement is properly stored before use by being protected against the possibility of absorbing moisture, it wifl keep a long time. It should be stored in a dry shed, piled on a tight board floor that is raised several inches above the ground. Any cement containing lumps that cannot be easily crushed between the fingers has probably been exposed to dampness. The lumps should always be discarded. Portland cement is usually sold packed in cloth 12 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP or paper sacks, each containing 94 pounds net. Four such sacks constitute a barrel. A sack of cement is considered one cubic foot. AGGREGATES DEFINED Aggregates is the term used to refer in a general way to the sand, stone screenings, gravel, broken stone such as granite and slag, or what- ever other rock material is used to mix with the cement to form concrete. Sand is usually re- ferred to as the fine aggregate. For convenience, sand is described as a clean rock material free from clay, loam or other foreign substances and ranging in size from the fine particles up to those which will just pass a screen having i-inch square meshes. (Four meshes to the linear inch or 16 meshes to the square inch.) Gravel, usually called coarse aggregate, is de- fined as clean rock material, such as pebbles, ranging in size from i inch up to 1, 11 or 2 inches, depending on which maximum size of particles would be allowable for the particular concrete work. As a rule, 11 inches is the maxi- mum size specified for gravel or Kroken stone ag- gregate in most concrete construction: IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN MATERIALS Gravel or broken stone used as coarse aggre- gate also must be free from clay, loam or other foreign materials. The presence of these in any considerable quantity, usually fixed at from three CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 13 to not more than five per cent, is likely to be injurious in concrete mixtures. Such foreign materials not only affect the strength of the re- sulting concrete, but exert an influence on its ten- dency to harden, sometimes delaying hardening so that the mass will not acquire any considerable strength for perhaps a number of days. BANK-RUN GRAVEL NOT SUITABLE The fact that nature has been very lavish with its distribution of sand and gravel, has led many users of concrete to think that bank-run material, that is, combined sand and gravel as dug out of a so-called gravel bank or pit, makes suitable ag- gregate for concrete. This is not correct, and has been responsible for much unsatisfactory con- crete construction, especially for the large amount of leaky and porous concrete. Bank-run material almost invariably consists of too large a percentage of sand usually twice as much sand as gravel and for good concrete, the proportions should be practically the reverse. It is always economy to screen bank-run material (see Fig. 1), separating the fine material (sand) from the coarse (pebbles) by passing over a quar- ter-inch mesh screen so that the two volumes (sand and gravel) can be reproportioned suitably for the particular construction. Many persons who have done concrete work will be inclined to question the truth of this state- 14 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP ment, but they should at once make a few ex- periments and convince themselves of its truth. A 1:2:4 mixture, for instance, which means 1 sack (1 cubic foot) of Portland cement, 2 cubic feet of well-graded sand and 4 cubic feet of well- graded gravel or broken stone, will, when prop- FIG. 1. Screening Bank-run Gravel. erly combined and mixed with water, form ^a bulk slightly exceeding 4 cubic feet. This proves that the sand has gone to fill up the voids (air spaces) between the particles of gravel and that the cement has gone to fill up the voids (air spaces) between the particles of sand. If instead of using a definitely proportioned 1:2:4 mixture the concrete worker were to take 1 sack of cement* CONCRETE QN THE FARM AND SHOP 15 and mix it with 6 cubic feet of material as coming from the gravel bank, he would then have 6 cubic feet of concrete containing 1 sack of cement as against slightly over 4 cubic feet containing the same quantity of cement. It should require but a moment's thought to prove that the 1:2:4 mix- ture contained proportionately more cement, hence should be a stronger, denser mixture. This is true. It might require several sacks of cement to make the mixture containing 6 feet of natural bank-run material as strong as the 1:2:4 mixture. Therefore, it should be seen that true economy follows correct proportioning of materials. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTIONING CON- CRETE MIXTURES Correct proportioning is based on the following conditions: voids or air spaces must be filled; every particle of sand must be coated with cement and every pebble of gravel or particle of broken stone must be coated with sand-cement mortar. Both strength and density, consequently water- tightness in finished concrete construction, are dependent largely upon careful proportioning of materials. Several methods of proportioning are practiced, but all consist essentially of ascertaining the per- centage or bulk of voids or air spaces in the coarse material (pebbles or broken stone) to be filled by the finer material (sand), then ascertain- 16 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP ing the percentage of voids or air spaces in the combined sand and pebbles to be filled by cement. Therefore, when definite mixtures are specified for any construction, best results cannot follow if instead of the separate and definite volumes of sand and gravel called for, a bank-run material of the same total volume is substituted. HARD, DURABLE AGGREGATES NECESSARY In addition to being free from the foreign sub- stances mentioned, both sand and gravel or what- ever aggregate is used, must be hard and durable. Flat, soft, shale-like pieces of stone cannot be combined in a concrete mixture so as to produce concrete of great density and strength, nor watertightness. WASHING AGGREGATES One of the simplest arrangements for washing sand and gravel is shown in Fig. 2. This -consists merely of a trough into which water is intro- duced by a pipe or hose at the higher end, where the sand and gravel are shoveled in also. The action of the water upon them as they roll over and over while descending the trough is such that they become thoroughly washed and the sand passes through the screen at the lower end, while the gravel is deposited in a pile at the open end of the trough beyond the screen. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 17 A washing platform or box like that shown in Fig. 3, can be arranged for by making a frame of 2 ..-Sideboard NOTE: Bottom Board 2"xl2" S/de2"x6" , Screen Dirty wafer l^SSJZrfa and sand . . .,' >''';'-'!;::,'\; .';/ Platform '^^^^ E 1 e v a t i o n Screen . Plan FIG. 2. Combined Trough and Screen for Washing Sand and Gravel. FIG. 3. Simple Washing Platform to Wash Sand and Gravel/ by 6-inch lumber around a tight bottom, then rais- ing up this platform slightly at one end, shoveling the sand and gravel to be washed upon it at the 18 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP high end and turning against them a strong stream from a hose, stirring the materials about while the water is being applied. Any clay or loam will be carried away in suspension in the water and will overflow with it at the low end of the platform or box: CLEAN, PURE WATER NECESSARY Another requirement is that the water used to mix the several materials shall also be clean. The best specification for mixing water is to say that water which is good to drink is best for con- crete. Any considerable amount of clay making the water "cloudy" is just as injurious to a con- crete mixture as though this clay were on the particles of sand and gravel. Water containing an excess of alkali or any oil is also objection- able. Eemember, therefore, to use clean, pure water in mixing the concrete water that you would not be afraid to drink. MIXING CONCRETE Concrete may be mixed by hand, but by far the better way is to use a power-operated batch mixer, as this insures a more thorough and uni- form combination of the several materials. Power- operated mixers that will meet the rural worker 's needs can be purchased with self-contained gaso- line engines for as little as $70 or $75, and for any CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 19 one contemplating a considerable amount of con- crete construction, they represent a wise invest- ment that will eliminate most of the labor where much concrete is to be mixed. Many farmers have found it advantageous to combine co-operatively in purchasing such an equipment, then to charge each person so much per day for the use of the outfit, thus eventually absorbing its cost among them. HOME-MADE CONCRETE MIXER Home-made concrete mixers have been con- structed by attaching cubical boxes to a shaft of gas pipe, and revolving the box by a pulley at- tached to the shaft belt driven by a gasoline engine. To obtain best results from a cubical drum without placing interior vanes or deflectors inside the box, the shaft on which it is mounted should not extend exactly from corner to corner of the cube but so that the cube will be hung "off center, " thus giving a sort of zigzag motion to the contents of the box while it is being revolved. In mixing concrete in the proportion 1:2:3, 6 cubic feet of loose materials are required for a one-bag batch, while in a leaner mixture such as a 1:3:5, 9 cubic feet of loose materials -are put into the mixer. Mixing batches as large as these in a box or drum operated by a gasoline engine requires that the construction be very rigid. The box should be 3 feet in each dimension, so will have a volume capacity of 1 cubic yard. Best 20 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP results in mixing are secured when the mixer cube or drum is not over -j full. Gears should be arranged so that the drum may be revolved at a proper speed. If revolved too slowly, too long a time will be required for mixing, and if FIG. 4. Home-made Concrete Mixer, Rear View. revolved too rapidly the materials will tend to cling to the sides of the box or drum and will therefore not be tumbled about enough to insure thorough mixing. Two types of home-made mixers are shown in accompanying reproduction of photographs, Figs. FIG. 5. Another View of the Mixer Shown in Fig. 4. FIG. 6. Home-made Barrel Mixer. Hand or Power Operated. 21 22 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 4, 5, 6 and 7. One of these is cylindrical in shape and was made of two round board heads fitted into a drum frame which was composed of nar- row boards of the desired length, bolted to two old wagon tires. The other home-made mixer FIG. 7, Showing How the Barrel may be Dumped. consists of a barrel mounted on a suitable frame and fitted with a set of gear castings which are so connected to a shaft with pulley, as to be operated* by a belt driven by gasoline engine. This mixer can be hand driven also. The frame, as will be seen, has been made so that the barrel can be tilted after mixing has been completed to CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 23 dump the concrete into a wheelbarrow for trans- ferring to where it is to be used. In machine mixing it is desirable to revolve the mixer at least one minute after all materials, in- cluding the mixing water, have been placed in the drum. One and one-half minutes would be better. HAND MIXING The greater portion of home-made concrete is mixed by hand. In such cases a watertight plat- form (Fig. 8) should be provided. This should be made of smooth 1J or 2-inch boards, prefer- ably tongued and grooved so that the platform will be tight to prevent water carrying away cement by leaking through cracks during mixing of materials. MEASURING MATERIALS A practical method of measuring materials is to use a bottomless box: This box may be made to hold either 1 cubic foot or 4 cubic feet. In the latter case there should be marks on the in- terior indicating levels for 1, 2 and 3 cubic feet. (Cement need not be measured as 1 sack (94 pounds) is considered 1 cubic foot.) The measur- ing box is first set on the mixing platform, and when the required amount of sand has been measured, the sand is spread out in a layer on the mixing platform. Next the cement is spread over 24 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 25 the sand in a thin layer. Square-pointed shovels are used to turn the cement and sand several times until the mixture is of a uniform color, disap- pearance of brown and grey streaks indicating thorough mixing of the mass. Then the gravel or crushed stone, first thoroughly wet, is measured and spread in a layer on top of the cement and sand and all of the materials again turned with shovels. A depression is then shoveled in the center of the pile and water is added while pre- ferably two men turn the mass thoroughly. If running water is available the water should be sprayed from a hose to avoid washing away the cement. At any rate it should be added gently, shoveling being carried on while water is added and continued until the entire batch is of a uni- form consistency and color. This will generally require that at least three turnings be given the materials after the necessary amount of water has been added. Thorough hand mixing will produce a good concrete mixture, but the labor involved is con- siderable if much concrete work is planned, and there is a tendency to slight mixing, so it quite often follows that improperly mixed concrete is used. For this reason the concrete worker should endeavor to provide means for mixing his con- crete by a power-operated batch mixer. 26 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED The amount of water required in a concrete mix- ture varies to some extent, depending upon the construction in which used. For most classes of work, what is known as a " quaky 7 ' consistency best fills requirements. Such a mixture is one that is wet enough to settle in place with very little working or spading in the forms, or, if placed in a pile, as in building feeding floors or barnyard pavements and walks, it will slowly spread out or flatten of its own weight. Too much water will cause the mortar to separate from the pebbles or broken stone, and thus result in stone pockets in the finished mass. Where re- inforcing steel is used, too wet a mixture would also result in pockets where the concrete had not bonded or united with the steel. Finally, after the concrete had hardened, the evaporation of the excess water would cause the mass to have a por- ous texture. In making such concrete products as block, brick and tile, which are usually made in iron molds, these products being removed from the mold immediately after tamping, a drier mixture must be used. In that case the general rule is to use as much water as possible without interfer- ing with the quick removal of the molds, yet enough so that with hard tamping free moisture will flush to the surface of the concrete. In reinforced concrete fence posts, where den- CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 27 sity and compactness are secured not by tamping the concrete but rather by shaking or jarring the molds, the mixture must be quite wet slightly wetter than described by " quaky" as wet as pos- sible without causing separation of mortar and gravel in handling and placing. Such products as fence posts are left in the molds for perhaps 24 hours, or until the concrete has hardened suf- ficiently to permit removing sides of the molds without injury to the concrete. PLACING CONCRETE All concrete should be placed where it is to be used within 30 minutes after water has been added to the mixed materials. This is important because concrete begins to harden within this time, and to disturb the mass after hardening has begun destroys the final strength of the concrete, and in the case of floors or pavements impairs the wearing quality. Methods of placing must necessarily vary in accordance with the several types of construction. To mention a few simple examples : Concrete for feeding floors or barnyard pave- ments is dumped from a wheelbarrow upon a previously prepared sub-grade or foundation and as rapidly as the forms for alternate slabs are filled, the concrete is struck off level by using a straightedge rested upon the top of forms. The surface is then finished by smoothing with a wood 28 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP float. Such a tool is preferable to a steel trowel as it gives an even surface yet one not smooth enough to be slippery. In the case of small troughs and watering tanks, that can be built without stopping concreting once it has begun, part of the concrete for the floor of the trough or tank is placed, then the reinforcing, then enough concrete to finish the floor, then the inside form is quickly set in place, concrete for side walls de- posited immediately and spaded or tamped, so that every portion of the forms is filled. A tool like a garden spade or hoe flattened out, or a flat piece of wood with the edge protected by sheet iron, is used for this purpose. Spading next to the forms forces back the coarse aggregate and causes the mortar to flow against the form face, giving a smoother finish and a denser surface. In constructing walls for buildings, forms are filled in a manner similar to that just described, particular attention being given to spading the coarse material away from the outside faces in order to give a smooth exterior surface when forms are removed, this, of course, assuming that the exterior surface is to be left in its natural condition. If, however, the surface is to be plas- tered finally, spading should be done only between form faces so that the exposed surface will be a little rough, making the plaster bond or "key" better to the wall face. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 29 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE AFTER PLACING Proper protection of concrete after placing is of utmost importance, because while concrete generally begins to harden noticeably within thirty minutes after mixed, the subsequent changes in the mass tending toward complete hardening take place somewhat slowly and can be brought about satisfactorily only in the presence of favorable moisture and temperature conditions. Concrete of "quaky" consistency generally has sufficient water in it to result in proper hardening, if, after placed, the concrete is protected from exposure to sun and drying winds. If not so protected, the concrete instead of really hardening will simply dry out. Many persons believe that drying out is the natural and required process following the work of placing concrete. Nothing could be farther from the truth. The expression " curing " has been quite generally used, but the word suggests drying rather than hardening. In any concrete work the finished structure must be so protected that the concrete will retain the water already in it. To accomplish this, concrete floors, for in- stance, must be covered with wet straw or damp sand, and this covering sprinkled or otherwise kept moist for a period varying from one to two weeks according to weather conditions. Concrete hardens much more rapidly in warm 30 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP than in cool weather. In the case of walls of buildings or vertical faces, which cannot be covered with straw, canvas or similar material is hung over them and kept thoroughly moist by sprinkling. The concrete surface also is sprink- led; Most concrete should not be subjected to its intended use until it has hardened under favor- able conditions for a week or more, depending upon the nature of the construction. Longer time will be required in cold weather. WINTER CONCRETING A great deal of concrete work can be done as well in winter as in summer if simple precautions are taken to prevent the concrete from freezing during the periods of mixing, placing and harden- ing. No material containing frost or frozen lumps should ever be used in preparing a con- crete mixture. Sand and gravel should be heated in winter or kept in a room where the tempera- ture does not fall below 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Water used for mixing should not contain ice, and in very cold weather should be heated. The idea is to heat materials (except the cement) enough so that the concrete when placed will have a temperature not lower than 80 degrees Fahren- heit. This temperature, with proper precautions to protect the concrete immediately after placing, will be retained for some time, especially as it is supplemented by heat developed within the CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 31 concrete during the early hardening process as a result of chemical action between the cement and water. Consequently, if concrete in this heated condition is protected from freezing during the first 48 hours after it has been placed, it will not usually be harmed by subsequent exposure to freezing temperatures. Floors placed in the winter time should be covered with a foot of straw, or with tar paper with 6 inches of dry manure shoveled on top, which should be left in place from ten days to two weeks. Manure should not be placed immediately on or against the fresh concrete as it has been known to injure the surface previous to thorough hardening. CONCRETE PRODUCTS EASILY MANUFAC- TURED IN WINTER Fence posts and similar concrete products may be manufactured in winter just as well as in summer, provided they are made in a workroom where the temperature is kept above 50 degrees and the materials are heated as suggested. Such manufactured products should be kept indoors until they are two weeks old before exposure to the usual winter weather. Permanent farm improvements of concrete are rapidly supplanting all other kinds of construc- tion for the reason that concrete is, with the ex- ception of the cement, made from materials which are obtainable on or near every farm. 32 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP With a little experience, ordinary farm struc- tures may be built by home labor. Consequently the cost of these improvements is moderate, while their upkeep is nothing. They require neither painting nor repairs; on the contrary, the older they get the better they get if the concrete work has been properly done, because good concrete increases in strength with age. No doubt the chief merit of concrete for build- ings is its fire-resistance. Concrete will not burn, and insurance on a structure entirely of concrete is unnecessary, although insurance may be re- quired upon its contents. To secure complete protection from fire, roofs as well as walls of buildings should be of concrete. By no means least among the advantages of concrete on the farm is protection against the depredations of rats and mice. This brings us to the question of sanitation also, which has recently assumed such vast importance owing to the number of epidemic stock diseases which periodically take their toll in various sections of the country. Nothing is a better preventive of disease than cleanliness, and nothing is so con- ducive of cleanliness in farm buildings as con- crete in all the surroundings of live stock. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 33 RECOMMENDED MIXTURES FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION The following table gives suggested mixtures for various classes of concrete work. In each case the first figure represents 1 sack, or 1 cubic foot, of Portland cement; the second figure represents the required number of cubic feet of clean, well-graded sand ranging from the finer particles to those that will just pass a i-inch mesh screen ; the third figure represents the num- ber of cubic feet of clean, well-graded pebbles or crushed stone ranging in size from | to not more than 1-| inches. Further limitations on the maximum size of coarse aggregate (pebbles or broken stone) will be given later when each par- ticular class of construction is described more in detail. TABLE OF CONCRETE MIXTURES A 1:2:3 mixture for : Feeding floors and barnyard pavements One-course floors and walks Roofs Fence posts Water troughs and tanks A 1:2:4 mixture for : Beams and columns Engine foundations Watertight basement walls 34 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP Reinforced concrete floors Work subject to vibration A 1 : 2i : 4 mixture for : Building walls above foundation Silo walls Base of two-course walks and floors Backing of concrete block and similar concrete products A 1:3:5 mixture for : Basement walls where watertightness is not es- sential and foundations belowground Mass concrete footings, etc. MORTAR 1 : 14 mixture for : Wearing course of two course floors 1 : 2 mixture for : Scratch coat of exterior plaster Facing blocks and similar cement products Wearing course of two course walks, feeding floors and barnyard pavements 1 : 2i mixture for : Finish coat of exterior plaster Table I shows the cubic feet of sand and gravel (or crushed stone) to be mixed with one sack of cement to secure mixtures of the different propor- tions indicated in t}te first column. The last column gives the resuming volume in cubic feet of compacted mortar or concrete. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 35 TABLE I MIXTURES. MATERIALS. VOL. IN CU.FT. Cement. Sand. Gravel or Stone. Cement in Sacks. Sand, Cu.ft. Gravel or Stone, Cu.ft. Mortar. Con- crete. 1 1.5 1 1.5 1.75 1 2 1 2 2.1 1 3 1 3 2.8 1 1.5 3 1 1.5 3 3.5 1 2 3 1 2 3 3.9 1 2 4 1 2 4 4.5 1 2.5 4 1 2.5 4 4.8 1 2.5 5 1 2.5 5 5.4 1 3 5 1 3 5 5.8 Table II gives the number of sacks of cement and cubic feet of sand and gravel (or broken stone) required to make 1 cubic yard (27 cubic feet) of compact concrete proportioned as indi- cated in first column. Following are given a number of examples which will illustrate the method of using Tables I and II. EXAMPLE I. How much cement, sand and gravel will be required to build a feeding floor 30 by 24 feet, 5 inches thick! Multiplying the area (30 by 24) by the thick- ness in feet gives 300 cubic feet, and dividing this by 27 gives 11 i cubic yards as the required volume of concrete. A one-course floor should be of 1 : 2 : 3 mixture. Table II shows that each cubic yard of this mixture requires 7 sacks of cement, 36 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP TABLE II MIXTURES. QUANTITIES OP MATERIALS. Cement. Sand. Gravel or Stone. Cement in Sacks. Sand, Cu.ft. Stone or Gravel, Cu.ft. 1.5 15.5 23.2 2 12 8 25 6 3 9.6 28.8 1.5 3 7.6 11.4 22.8 2 3 7 14 21 2 4 6 12 24 2.5 4 5.6 14 22.4 2.5 5 5 .12.5 25 3 5 4.6 13.8 23 14 cubic feet of sand and 21 cubic feet of gravel or stone. Multiplying these quantities by the number of cubic yards required (11-J-) gives the quantities of material required (eliminating frac- tions) as 78 sacks of cement, 156 cubic feet of sand and 233 cubic feet of gravel or stone. As there are 4 sacks of cement in a barrel, and 27 cubic feet of sand or gravel in a cubic yard, there will be needed a little less than 20 barrels of cement, 6 cubic yards of sand and 9 cubic yards of gravel or stone. EXAMPLE II. How many fence posts 3 by 3 inches at the top, 5 by 5 inches at the bottom and 7 feet long, can be made from 1 sack of cement? How much sand and gravel will be needed! Fence posts should be of a 1:2:3 mixture. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 37 Table I shows the volume of a 1-sack batch of this mixture to be 3ro cubic feet. The volume of one concrete post, found by multiplying the length by the average width and breadth in feet (7XJX1) is I cubic foot. By dividing 3 T 9 o by J we find that five posts can be made from 1 sack of cement when mixed with 2 cubic feet of sand and 3 cubic feet of gravel. EXAMPLE III. What quantities of cement, sand and gravel are necessary to make 100 un- faced concrete block, each 8 by 8 by 16 inches? The product of height, width and thickness, all in feet (iXfX-f) gives if cubic feet as the con- tents of a solid block. As the air space is usually estimated as 33i per cent, the volume of concrete in one hollow block will be I of if, or If cubic feet; in 100 blocks, the volume of concrete will be -If 2 - or 39i cubic feet, which being divided by 27 gives a little less than 11 cubic yards. Unfaced concrete block should- be of 1 : 2i : 4 mixture. Table II shows that each cubic yard of this mix- ture requires 5 T 6 o sacks of cement, 14 cubic feet of sand and 22 T % cubic feet of gravel. Multiplying these quantities by the number of cubic yards required (li) gives the quantities of material required as 8f sacks of cement, 21 cubic feet of sand and 33| cubic feet of gravel. EXAMPLE IV: How many 6-foot hog troughs, 12 inches wide and 10 inches high, can be made from 1 barrel of cement? 38 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP Use a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture. Table I shows the volume of a 1-sack batch of this mixture to be 3 T 9 o cubic feet. As there are 4 sacks in 1 barrel, a barrel of cement would be sufficient for 4 times 3A, or 15 A cubic feet of concrete. The product of the three dimensions, all in feet, gives the volume of one trough as '5 cubic feet. How- ever, approximately 30 per cent of this volume is in the open water basin or inside of the tank, leav- ing 3^ cubic feet as the solid contents of con- crete in one trough. Dividing 15 T % by 3 T %, we find that 4 troughs (and a fraction over) can be made from 1 barrel of cement when mixed with 8 cubic feet of sand and 12 cubic feet of gravel. FORMS FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF CON- CRETE CONSTRUCTION Forms or molds are the receptacles in which concrete is placed so that it will have the desired shape or outlines when hardened. Forms are constructed of wood, cast iron or sheet steel, or of wood lined with sheet iron or steel, depending upon the nature of the work and the surface finish which it is desired to obtain. By far the greater portion of concrete is placed in wood forms. The character of the work and the cost of lumber generally determine the kind of lumber that shall be used for forms'. For work where a very smooth surface finish is required, planed lumber is best, and if ornamental trim is to be CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 39 reproduced in concrete, then white pine is best. For ordinary work, however, white pine is too expensive, and too soft to be durable under re- peated iise. Therefore spruce, Norway pine, and southern pine are generally the most economical kinds of form lumber. California redwood will stain the concrete surface so should not be used where such staining would be objectionable. Where spruce can be readily obtained, it is per- haps the best material for form studs and posts. Hemlock is too coarse grained for sheathing and splits so easily as to be unsafe where forms must be strong and heavy to support a great load of concrete. Most of the hardwoods are too expen- sive and too difficult to work. Form lumber should be free from defects that will affect its strength or cause the concrete to show a reproduction of the markings on the lumber, where surface markings on the concrete would be undesirable. Air-seasoned lumber is better than kiln-dried; the latter will swell and bulge at the joints, while green lumber will shrink if not kept wet, thus opening cracks in the forms through which water carrying cement will leak out when the concrete is placed. Even for plain work, lumber that has been dressed at least on one side and on the edges is best, because the boards will fit closely together and the smooth surface will reduce the labor of removing and cleaning forms. Tongued and grooved lumber is often used for form 40 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP sheathing. This makes tight forms and prevents leakage of water through forms when wet con- crete is being placed, hence, will prevent the loss of cement from the concrete mixture. But for most farm work, tongued and grooved lumber is unnecessarily expensive. Form lumber should be uniform in thickness, as any inequalities of thickness cause unevenness on the concrete surface. Posts and studs for supporting forms must be sufficiently stiff and strong to hold forms in true line and to prevent bulging or sagging under the load of concrete. Careful thought should be given to construct- ing forms so that if it is desired to use them again or to use the lumber of which they have been made for further concrete form work they can be knocked down with least injury to the lumber. It may often be found advantageous to assemble certain forms with screws instead of with nails. Forms should be so designed that they can be taken down with the least amount of hammering, thus preventing possible injury to the concrete before it has thoroughly hardened. For some foundation work, especially where the earth is so firm that the sidewalls of the excavation will stand without caving, forms will not be necessary for portions of the construction underground; but when placing and tamping the concrete, care must be taken not to knock down earth into the concrete. This will cause weak porous spots in the wall. CONCKETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 41 Economy of lumber and consequently reduced cost of form construction will result from planning the forms in units so far as possible; that is, as panels or sections which can easily be removed and reset in other places on the same job without alteration. This is especially true of building- wall construction aboveground. Depending upon the mass of concrete to be supported, form lumber may vary in thickness from 1 to 2 inches. Likewise studding to which the sheathing boards are nailed may be spaced from 18 inches to perhaps 2J or 3 feet apart, depending upon the thickness of sheathing and the mass of the concrete to be placed, and, hence, upon its tendency to cause forms to bulge. Studs should be selected with this in view also, hence may vary from 2 by 4 to 2 by 8 stock. If forms of planed lumber are to be used repeatedly on the same construction, it is advis- able to give the form face against which the con- crete is to be placed, several coats of shellac to render the lumber non-absorbent. This will prevent loss of water from the concrete and will also keep the concrete from sticking when hard- ening. This, however, applies rather to forms used in ornamental work and is not usually war- ranted in the average construction. The common practice is to oil or wet forms at each setting just before depositing the concrete. A mixture of equal parts of boiled linseed oil and kerosene is very effective for this purpose, and such a 42 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP mixture should be painted on by using a swab, or a brush like a whitewash brush. Thorough wetting down with water will also prevent con- crete from sticking if before used the first time the forms have been thoroughly oil-soaked. All concrete adhering to forms from previous work should be carefully removed before placing new concrete. While no high degree of skill is required to make forms for ordinary concrete construction, never- theless, thoughtful care should be exercised when measuring and cutting lumber, so that the con- crete placed in them will correspond in line and dimension to the plan intended. If properly planned, forms can be assembled in part by clamps and wedges, and only a few nails partly driven will be necessary. This will permit taking them down with least injury to the lumber and to the partly hardened concrete. After forms are made they should be set up perfectly plumb, and well braced in position so as to withstand the pressure of the fresh con- crete, also of tamping it into place. Wood spacers should be used to hold opposite form faces exactly the correct distance apart, then bolts or wire ties be passed through or around form studs and across the space between forms to tighten the forms against the spacers and thus hold them in true alignment so that in wall construction, for instance, the finished structure will have a uniform thickness throughout. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 43 Bolts used as form ties should be greased before placed so that they may be readily knocked out of the concrete when taking down forms. Removing them of course leaves holes in the con- crete, which must afterward be pointed up with a cement mortar, usually consisting of 1 part cement to 2 parts of clean, coarse sand. Gener- ally wire ties are cheapest, as the wire can be cut and all except the projecting ends be left in the concrete. Wire ties are tightened by twisting between form faces. Spacers, of course, are removed as 'concreting progresses. The length of time forms should be left in place cannot be definitely stated. This depends alto- gether upon the nature of the work and the weather conditions, which govern the rapidity with which the concrete will gain strength enough to be not only self-supporting but to carry any load which is placed upon it: It is particularly important that column forms be left in position long enough to prevent failure of the concrete after form removal. The same applies to forms used for supporting roof and floor slabs. Where no particular pressure is brought against the concrete or no load other than its own weight must be carried, forms can some- times be removed in from one-half to two days, or as soon as the concrete will withstand hard pressure of one's thumb without showing a mark. On massive walls without load one to three days are generally required ; but where the wall must 44 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP withstand earth pressure, as in a retaining wall, the forms may have to be left in place three to four weeks. This depends largely upon the time of year, which influences the rapidity with which the concrete gains strength. SIMPLE FORM SYSTEM Although there are a number of form systems which considerably simplify concrete construc- tion, most of these are subject to patent control, hence the user must pay a royalty to the patent owner for the privilege of using the systems; or where patented forms may be purchased outright, their cost is greater than usually war- ranted for the limited use made by the home con- crete worker. Probably no use of concrete shows the material to more advantage than does monolithic con- struction. But the unit system, in which various pre-cast members are ultimately set up in place, possesses its advantages also, because doing away largely with expensive form construction. Yet frequently members must for various reasons be cast of such size as to be unwieldy when necessary to assemble the structure. A form system which combines simplicity with cheapness is illustrated in Fig. 9. This pro- duces what in a way is a combination of unit and monolithic construction. Columns, piers or posts are formed of hollow blocks cast in simple molds, CONCRETE OK THE. FARM AND SHOP 45 then laid up as masonry. The core or hollow space is afterward filled with concrete, reinforc- ing rods being inserted if necessary or desirable, FIG. 9. Construction Showing Adaptable System of Simple Forms. thus resulting essentially in a reinforced mono- lithic column. Blocks when cast are made in a mold that pro- vides for ribs on each end against which planks may be clamped to serve as forms for placing 46 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP the concrete of intervening panels. By varying the relative position of these ribs on the block, as shown in Fig. 10, one can see the possibili- ties of constructing walls or panels of practically any desired thickness. Most of the commercial block machines could FIG. 10. Illustrating How the System Shown in Fig. 9 may be Readily Varied. be equipped with a mold that would permit man- ufacturing such blocks by machine, yet as they form but a small portion of the entire construc- tion where this system is used, most home work- ers will find it quite as desirable to make a simple mold and manufacture the block by hand. A 1 : 2 : 4 or 1 : 2i : 4 mixture in which the coarse CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 47 aggregate does not exceed 1 inch in greatest di- mension should be used for the block and the con- crete should be of a drier consistency than is ex- pressed by the word t i quaky, ' ' yet not so wet that the forms cannot be removed immediately after the concrete has been tamped in the mold. Just enough water should be used in the mixture to cause a slight flushing of free water to the sur- face when compacting the concrete. In constructing columns or piers for building- walls, foundation walls aboveground, or for panel fences, these blocks should, after thoroughly hardened, be laid up in a 1:2 cement mortar. Blocks should be thoroughly wet before being laid up so that they will not absorb an excess of water from the cement mortar thus preventing the morta-r from bonding them together. Piers or columns are built up 5 or 6 feet high before filling the hollow space with concrete. Whether reinforcing will be necessary or not can be de- termined only when it is known to what purpose the construction is ultimately to be put. Forms used to place the monolithic panels between columns, posts or piers, consist simply of 12 or 14-inch planks 2 inches thick, bolted together with 1-inch bolts. Holes for bolts should be so laid out in the planks that it will be possible to turn planks end for end if neces- sary to correct warping or twisting from previous use. Bolts should be well oiled before placing concrete so that when form removal is started 48 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP they can be readily driven out of the wall and again used. The holes left may be- easily pointed up with a 1 : 2 cement mortar. In some wall construction holes will need to be closed only on the outside face of the wall, wood plugs being driven in the holes on the inside face to serve as nail holds for attaching furring strips if lath- ing and plastering is contemplated later. Four planks are commonly used to a panel, and after being bolted in place the space between them is filled with concrete. When the concrete has sufficiently hardened, forms are reset for further use by removing the lower pair of planks first and placing them on top of and resting on the pair above where they are bolted against the projecting lugs of blocks. After concreting has been carried to the height at which piers were built in the first instance, more blocks are laid to extend the piers or columns to a higher point, and so on. Reinforcing of panels can be easily done where necessary. This system of form construction practically eliminates carpenter work and requires no outlay of lumber that after concreting represents waste. In fact there is no waste of lumber where this system is used. Blocks cast after the manner suggested yet without projecting lugs form convenient units for building porch piers and may be filled with concrete if such added strength is necessary, and may also be reinforced. On the other hand, if CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 49 it is desired to enclose the foundation with walls or panels between piers then naturally the blocks with projecting lugs will -be used. CONCRETING TOOLS In addition to the advantage of being able to secure most of the concrete materials near the work, is the advantage that but few tools are required in ordinary concreting. A carpenter's square, hammer and saw, nails and screws to assemble lumber, a sand screen (Fig. 1) so that the fine and coarse materials may be separated for proper reproportioning afterwards, perhaps a trough or washing box (Figs 2 and 3) in which dirty material can be freed from clay, loam and similar foreign matter, a mixing platform (Fig. 8), measuring box, water barrel, square-pointed shovels, strikeboard, spade, or similar tool already described, a tamper, and a hand float, similar to a trowel, are the essential tools. A sand screen of convenient size can be made by nailing a frame of 2 by 6 lumber over wire mesh having quarter-inch openings; that is, 4 openings to the linear inch, or 16 openings to the square inch, or, a screen fabric consisting of f-inch slotted screen wire with cross wires as braces from 4 to 6 inches apart. Legs should be attached to one end of the frame so that the screen when set up for use will stand at an angle of about 45 degrees with the horizontal. 50 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP A very serviceable type of mixing platform can be made by nailing 2-inch lumber planed on one side and the edges, to a frame of 2 by 6's. Tongued and grooved lumber is preferable, how- ever, so that joints will be tight enough to pre- vent mixing water leaking through and carrying with it a quantity of cement. The 2 by 6 stringers to which the platform boards are nailed should be spaced not farther than 2 feet apart and if the outer two have holes bored at the ends, so that clevises can be attached to them, a horse can be used to drag the platform easily about where needed. A bottomless box 3 feet long, 1 foot 4 inches wide and 1 foot deep, inside measurements, made of 14-inch lumber, has been found of convenient size for measuring materials, because such a box holds exactly 4 cubic feet. It should be marked on the inside at 3-inch intervals so that the volume of sand and gravel may be easily measured in multiples of one cubic foot. In other words, the measuring box is really a frame with handles, and when in use is set on the mixing platform which serves as a bottom. Suppose it is required to prepare a 1:2:4 mix- ture; sand is shoveled into the box until there are 2 cubic feet, which would fill the frame half full or 6 inches deep. Then the box is lifted and the sand spread level over the center of the plat- form. One sack of cement (which equals 1 cubic foot) is then dumped on top of the sand and CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 51 spread about evenly. The cement and sand are thoroughly mixed and leveled off. The measuring box is now set on top of the mixed sand and cement or on the platform beside them and filled level full of gravel or broken stone. The box is then lifted, leaving 4 cubic feet of gravel or broken stone to be mixed with the sand and cement. Mixtures made up of different propor- tions of sand, gravel and cement are prepared in a similar manner. Although concrete should always be mixed as near to the place where it is to be used as pos- sible, it is almost always necessary to handle it some distance from the mixing platform or mixer. For transferring concrete from the mixing ma- chine or platform to the place where it is to be deposited, a wheelbarrow may be needed. One having a sheet-iron body is preferable, as less concrete is likely to adhere to the surface and after use it can more readily be cleansed than a wood one. A type should be chosen that has the front portion of the body higher than the back, so that when the handles are lifted to wheel it the concrete may lie level in the barrow without flowing over one end and thus being wasted. Watertightness of concrete construction is largely dependent upon the proper proportioning of materials and suitable consistency; neverthe- less, it is in part secured, by spading the concrete in the form so as to force back from the form face the coarse particles and allow the sand- 52 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP cement mortar to flow next to the forms. In use the spading tool (Fig. 50) should be worked up and down, not only in the center of the mass, but next to the form face as concrete is deposited. Little or no tamping will be required if a " quaky" mixture is used. Ordinarily concrete should be deposited in layers not more than 6 or 8 inches thick, never more than 12 inches, preferably 6 to 8, because if more than this is placed in the forms at one time, it will not be possible to tamp or spade it to maxi- mum compactness and density. In foundation work, especially where most of the concrete is placed below ground level and there is to be no basement within the foundation walls, hence watertightness is not essential, con- crete is often mixed with slightly less water than is required to produce a "quaky" mixture, in which case the concrete is tamped into position rather than spaded. For this work a tamper may be made by fastening a piece of 1-inch gas pipe, 5 feet long, into a hardwood block 8 by 8 by 12 inches, by boring a hole into the end of the block and driving in the pipe. The durability of such a tamper may be increased somewhat, by "shoeing" it with a piece of sheet-iron; or, a steel tamper can be purchased, and will of course be more durable. For most work, how- ever, the home-made tamper described will be sufficient. One of smaller square dimensions than mentioned may be needed where the dis- CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 53 tance between form faces will not permit using a tamper 8 inches square. In building floors, walks, and barnyard pave- ments, a straightedge is used to level or strike off the concrete after it has been placed in the forms. The straightedge (see Fig. 46) is used by resting it upon the top edge of forms, and should be long enough to project beyond the forms so that it may be conveniently handled by working it back and forth with a saw-like motion. A piece of li-inch lumber, from 4 to 6 inches wide and 6 feet long, planed to a true face on the lower edge, makes a good straightedge to strike off a slab 5 feet wide. For a wider sur- face a longer one will be needed. Although it is now common practice to lay concrete floors and pavements of one-course con- struction, that is, of the same mixture through- out, sometimes such work is laid in two courses ; that is, the base is of a "leaner" mixture than the top (having less cement in it) and in such case a base gage or strikeboard is necessary which is similar to the ordinary straightedge but notched at the ends so that when resting upon the sides of the forms it will project into them 1 inch and consequently strike off the concrete at that depth below the top of the forms so there will be a 1-inch space remaining to be filled im- mediately with the richer concrete top or wearing course. Most classes of concrete work such as pave- 54 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP ments, walks, barn floors, driveways, etc., are now finished by using a wooden finishing trowel, called a wood float, because of its similarity to the float used by plasterers. Such a tool should be from 4i to 6. inches wide and from 10 to 12 inches long, and can very readily be made by fitting a wood handle to a piece of i-inch board of the desired size. The edges which are to come in contact with the concrete should be very slightly rounded. The wood float gives to the surface of a concrete walk, feeding floor or pavement a tex- ture which is even but not slippery, and one that is much preferable for stock to walk upon than a concrete surface finished with a steel trowel. Danger of slipping is entirely removed if the sur- face is wood floated in final finishing. Corruga- tions in walks, floors and pavements are not neces- sary then. For most home concrete work, the tools de- scribed will be sufficient. It may be necessary to buy three small ones: a rectangular steel trowel, a groover and an edger. The steel trowel is not recommended for general use, but is of advan- tage in finishing the inside of mangers, water- troughs, and work where a particularly smooth surface is desired. Care should be taken not to overtrowel the surface, as this causes a separa- tion of the cement from the sand, bringing the former to the surface as a fine film which is not at all durable ^ under wear. The groover, as indicated by its name, is for CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 55 making a groove at the joints of walk or pave- ment slabs, but is used only on two-course work, one-course work being laid in alternate slabs to secure perfect joints of separation. As one- course work is largely replacing two-course con- struction, the groover will seldom be required. The edger, however, is necessary to finish the edges of all slabs in walk, floor or pavement con- struction regardless of whether the work is one or two-course; These three small tools may be purchased from almost any hardware dealer, or can readily be obtained by him. They are not expensive and if kept clean and well oiled after laid away will last almost indefinitely. FOUNDATIONS No material lends itself more readily to the construction of foundations than does concrete. The very ease with which it may be made to fill irregular excavations simplifies foundation con- struction by comparison with brick or stone masonry. Furthermore, the rapidity with which the work can be carried on with unskilled labor is another advantage. Where the nature of the ground is such that the walls of the excavation are self-sustaining, it may not be necessary to use forms for that portion of a foundation wall below ground. But if the interior of the excava- tion is to form a basement or cellar, then inside forms at least will be necessary so that a smooth surface can be given to the concrete while placing. 56 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP LAYING OUT FOUNDATIONS As most buildings are square or rectangular, laying out the foundation is a relatively simple matter. (See Fig. 11.) A stake should be driven where one corner of the proposed building is to come: From this stake a string should be /> _;$ FIG. 11. Method of Laying Out Foundation to Square Corners. stretched in the direction of one side of the building and to a point where another corner is to fall. For instance, suppose in Fig. 11 one corner of the building is to be located as indicated by the stake A, and another at the stake C. After these two points have been fixed, a string should be tightly stretched from stake A to stake C. Then measure off the required distance from A to B, stretching a string also between these points. When setting stake B, endeavor to locate it so that the string A-B will be nearly at right angles CONCRETE ON THE FAKM AND SHOP 57 with the string A-C. Now measure off on the string A-C 8 feet and drive a stake into the ground directly beneath the string at this point. Mark the 8-foot distance by a small brad or nail driven in the top of the stake at Z. Measure off on the string A-B 6 feet and drive a stake at Y, marking the 6-foot point also on the top of stake 7. The stake Y may now be shifted slightly, either to the right or left as may be necessary, until the distance between the mark on the top of stake Y and stake Z is exactly 10 feet. When this has been fixed, the stake B can be moved to the right or left as necessary until the string A-B exactly crosses the mark on top of stake Y. This will make the foundation corner as indicated by the strings B-A and A-C a right angle. Other corners can be then squared in the same manner. Piers that are necessary within the foundation enclosure can be readily located by following similar methods. These strings serve as a guide for the exterior line of the foundation trench. DEPTH OF EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATIONS Excavations for foundations should in all cases extend deep enough to reach firm bearing soil and to be below possible frost penetration. If not placed below the level to which frost may enter the ground, heaving may result and this may eventually cause cracking of the construction. 58 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP This may mean that the bottom of the foundation or footing must start at a point 3 or 4 feet below ground level. For light structures, perhaps no footing will be needed, although it is best to provide a footing somewhat wider than the actual foundation wall thickness, as this insures a firm bearing for the load that is to be carried. Ordinary footings may vary in width from 18 inches to 2 feet or more and from 6 to 12 inches in thickness. For most farm structures it will rarely be necessary to build a foundation wall more than 10 or 12 inches thick, probably the former will be sufficient, unless the building is to be a very heavy one or carry heavy loads. Building walls aboveground will vary from 6 to 10 inches thick, depending on the size of struc- ture. Foundations ordinarily require no rein- forcing. Form construction for the portions of the foun- dation wall aboveground is simple, and consists merely of panels which are constructed by nailing- sheathing boards to 2 by 4-inch studs spaced from 18 inches to 2 or 2i feet apart, depending upon the thickness of the sheathing and the weight of the concrete. The forms should, of course, be well braced, so as to hold them in true line and enable them to resist the pressure or thrust from con- crete while being placed and spaded in the forms; Where the enclosure within foundation walls is not to be used as a basement or cellar, and hence CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 59 need not be thoroughly watertight, a somewhat drier mixture than is described by the word " quaky" may be used for foundation construc- tion; and unless the load to be carried is an ex- tremely heavy one, a 1:3:5 mixture will be suited to that portion of the foundation below- ground. Jrfst as soon as ground level is reached, however, the mixture used should be a richer one, preferably a 1:2:4 or 1 : 2i : 4. Concrete should be placed continuously in layers not exceeding 6 or 8 inches thick, and carefully tamped or spaded as placed. A somewhat dry mixture needs thorough tamping; a "quaky" one needs thorough spading but little tamping. Spacers should be removed from inside the forms as fast as concrete is placed up to a level with them. In placing the concrete the layers should continue of uniform thickness all around the foundation enclosure and at a uniform level. This means that the work should not be finished all at once in one place until the .forms are filled, unless a stop-board is fastened vertically in the forms to make a vertical joint, and then only for work belowground where such a joint would be no objection. Under no circumstances should more concrete be mixed at one time than can be placed within thirty minutes, and in case any of that which has been mixed commences to stiffen or harden before it can be used, it should not be softened up ("retempered") by adding more water and remixing it, but should be thrown away. 60 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP Retempered concrete will not acquire the desired strength when finally hardened. If a stop-board has been used to form a vertical joint in the construction, then when concreting is resumed in the adjoining section, this stop can be removed and the concrete previously placed will have so hardened that it will serve as an end form. Where a certain piece of work cannot be finished in one day, the work at the close of a day should be left with a rough top surface in the forms. Preparatory to placing concrete the follow- ing day, the surface of the previous day's work should be well scrubbed and washed off with a broom and water and painted with a mixture of pure cement and water, mixed to the consistency of cream and applied with a whitewash brush. Fresh concrete should at once be placed and will practically unite with the old without leaving a construction seam or a joint. Such a precaution is not necessarily required in ordinary foundation work where the building is not to have a cellar or basement, but if watertightness is desired it is imperative that such a precaution be taken to join two days' concreting, An admirable service is performed by concrete in the construction of foundations for gasoline engines, cream separators, and similar small machines. For such work excavation should be carried to a sufficient depth to insure a firm bear- ing and necessary provision must be made when CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 61 designing the forms to make a template with holes bored in it in the same relative position as the holes in the machine base, so that bolts can be embedded in the concrete to permit afterward bolting the machine to the foundation. Just how this work is provided for will be seen in an ac- companying illustration (Fig. 12). FIG. 12. Simple Form for Machinery Foundations. Some of the principles which must be observed to secure the best results will be briefly men- tioned. Carrying capacity is a quality chiefly sought in any foundation, and permanence is a consideration secondary only to strength. The cost of a well-built concrete foundation is con- siderably less than that of one constructed of any other suitable building material when strength 62 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP and durability are considered. Under average conditions, the time required for building a con- crete engine or machinery foundation is shorter than that required to build of brick or stone. Concrete is the only foundation material that may readily be adapted to slopes, change of grade or FIG. 13. Simple Form for Foundation Construction Belowground. other irregularities in the subgrade on which the foundation is to be placed. Where soil is reasonably firm, no form will be required for an engine foundation, except for the portion above ground level, as shown in Fig. 12. Consequently the excavation should be carefully made in a manner to prevent caving in of the sides and should not be larger than the size of founda- tion required satisfactorily to hold the engine or CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 63 machine to be placed thereon. The size of the foundation and the corresponding size of the ex- FIG. 14. Form Construction for Concrete Wall Aboveground. -.-Spacer FIG. 15. Method of Tying or Locking Wall and Column Form. cavation will, of course, be determined by the type and size of engine or machine to be set, and will usually be indicated by instructions for set- 64 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP ting the engine, which are furnished by all engine manufacturers. Concrete meets all requirements of rigidity and appearance required in founda- tions for gasoline engines, cream separators and other stationary machinery. It is seldom necessary to reinforce concrete en- gine foundations unless they are to be subjected to excessive side thrusts, vibration, or other un- usual strain. Where they extend aboveground some distance, reinforcing is occasionally used in large foundations to counteract the effect of con- traction and expansion from temperature changes, but this does not apply to small work. The safe loading of concrete in foundation construction is as follows : 1:2:4 concrete, 47 tons per square foot, 1 : 2J : 5 concrete, 41 tons per square foot, 1:3:6 concrete, 36 tons per square foot. (A "f actor of safety" of 4 was allowed in com- puting this loading.) Engine foundations should be made with suf- ficient footing so that the allowable pressure upon the soil will not be exceeded. The bearing power of soils varies, and is usually considered to be as follows : Ledge Rock 36 tons per square foot, Hardpan 8 tons per square foot, Gravel 5 tons per square foot, Clean Sand 4 tons per square foot, CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 65 Dry Clay 3 tons per square foot, Wet Clay 2 tons per square foot, Loam 1 tori per square foot. To avoid spreading, sand must be confined when wet. Two-inch lumber is to be preferred for the form aboveground although 1-inch boards may be used for small foundations. Notice that the boards are shown extending beyond the form corners. This overreaching is merely to avoid cutting and thus save lumber, as by following this method the lumber may be cleaned, nails removed, and the boards again used for some other purpose. Anchor bolts of the size specified by the engine manufacturer may be set by the method illus- trated. A template should be constructed of straight-grained, 1-inch material, fastened to- gether by screws. Holes slightly larger than the bolts should be bored in the template to conform to the location of the holes in the engine base. The bolts are suspended head downward, from the template, with threaded ends projecting above the template, a distance not less than the thick- ness of the engine base and nuts to be used. Anchor plates or large washers should be placed over bolt heads to prevent bolts from pulling out of the concrete. Bolt ends projecting above the template should be covered to prevent concrete from touching them when filling the forms. Care should be exercised to keep the bolts as nearly 66 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP perpendicular as possible while placing the con- crete. When the concrete has partly hardened, the template may be removed and the foundation top finished to a level surface, care being taken not to strike the projecting bolt ends, as the fresh concrete offers but slight resistance. By making bolts 2 inches longer and threading them 2 inches farther from the end, the concrete may be allowed thoroughly to harden before removing the tem- plate, which in that case is supported by 2-inch blocks placed on top of the forms, allowing space for finishing the concrete surface under the tem- plate. The engine may be placed in position after the concrete has thoroughly hardened, which will require from ten days to two weeks, depending upon weather conditions. The same principles as are described in the foregoing paragraphs apply to setting any other machines. PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCING AND THE MATERIALS USED Concrete shows great strength in supporting loads that are placed directly upon it, but it is relatively weak when subjected to strains that tend to pull it apart (see Fig. 16). In some parts or types of construction it is therefore necessary to reinforce the concrete by embedding in it at the time of placing, wires, steel rods or some kind of metal fabric, to increase its ability to withstand pulling strains (tension) and at the CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 67 same time obtain full benefit of its compressive strength. Reinforcing also often results in economy of concrete required. Common types of construction where reinforc- Tension Without Reinforcing -ct- Compression Rei n-forced FIG. 16. Illustrating Beam Fracture where Concrete is not Rein- forced, and when it is. ing is necessary are fence posts, watering troughs and tanks, beams, columns, large floor slabs, roof slabs, etc. It is not possible to give a fixed rule that will serve as an invariable guide for determining the 68 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP amount of reinforcing required for various struc- tures, but as an illustration, it may be said the quantity of reinforcing metal required in beams and roof or .floor slabs may vary from | to 1 per cent of the cross-sectional area of the concrete section. More specific illustrations will be given "Tfci. Upper Side in Tension 1 Load Cantilever Noi Reinforced FIG. 16a. Concrete Beam as Cantilever. later when describing particular types of con- struction. The ratio of concrete's strength in resisting pulling strains (tension) as compared to its strength in supporting loads placed directly upon it (compression) is about 1 to 10. Steel is strong in tension, although rods and wire mesh, which are CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 69 the common forms of steel used for reinforcing, will bend easily, and therefore must be placed so as at once to take up the load of tension which may be brought upon the concrete. The ideal position for reinforcing steel is at the surface of the side or face of the concrete member that is to be subjected to tension. As this position is not practicable in practice, the steel must be embed- ded in the concrete just as near the outer surface where it is to resist tension as possible, and at the same time permit surrounding it with concrete to form a perfect bond or union between concrete and steel. The distance from the surface will sometimes vary in accordance with the size of pebbles or broken stone being used in the con- crete mixture. The side of any concrete member that may be exposed to pulling strains may not always be the same side as is true in a beam, where the lower side is always the one. As an example, take a concrete fence post (Fig. 17). As one cannot tell from which direction the strains may come, a fence post is reinforced at all four corners. Sometimes a concrete structure may be of such shape and weight that it might crack on account of unstable foundation and unequal settlement; likewise a concrete trough full of water may freeze, therefore the strains of tension would be exerted on all sides of the structure by the expansion of the ice. To be suitable for reinforcing concrete, steel 70 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP should possess certain particular qualities. This means that only steel manufactured to have cer- tain chemical composition and other properties should be used. Generally speaking, the home worker had best confine his choice to some type of H-i Direction of Pull ^ ^:>: ; -w^-v>* ! If pull were in opposite direction, dreak would occur on Side opposite to that shown ' ' FIG. 17. Illustrating the Requirements of Fence Post Reinforcement. round or square twisted bars, or to some one of the woven mesh wire fabrics like those used for fencing, although the type of fabric made for reinforcing is not necessarily intended for fenc- ing. Any attempt to substitute barbed wire, old scrap iron, pipes or similar odds and ends of scrap metal will not result in the same success CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 71 and security of construction that will follow using proper reinforcing materials. Round bars will be found easiest to obtain under most conditions and will be suited to the general run of home concrete wc>rk. One should remember that the steel or iron bars which he may be able to obtain from the local blacksmith shop may not have the desired qualities for con- crete reinforcement. It will therefore be found best to purchase reinforcing steel from some dealer or manufacturer making a specialty of such material. There are various types of so-called ' ' de- formed" bars used in reinforced concrete work. These are variously shaped in rolling, with the object of increasing the "mechanical bond" be- tween concrete and steel. Most of these, however, are subject to some kind of patent-right control and therefore are higher priced than plain round or square twisted rods. If the concrete is mixed to the right consistency and properly placed there will be a good bond between the concrete and metal, so that there is really no advantage in using any of the deformed types of bars for ordinary concrete construction. In a beam, floor slab or roof slab, steel must be near the bottom face of the beam or slab. In a wall that is to withstand earth pressure, it should be on the face farthest away from the earth. In a tank that is to withstand water pres- sure, it should in theory be near the outside (far- 72 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP thest away from the water), but in practice it is more convenient in walls that are to withstand earth pressure and walls that are to resist the pressure of water to use a little larger reinforc- ing or more steel than might really be necessary if it were placed where it theoretically belongs, and to place it near the center of the wall. This makes placing of concrete easier. Whenever plans call for placing reinforcing in a certain position, the plans should be followed exactly. Sometimes walls are designed in which reinforcing is placed near both inner and outer faces. One strain of tension which is brought upon concrete is the tension due to expansion of the mass under temperature changes, that is, when concrete rises in temperature corresponding to temperature changes of the air, the mass will expand as the temperature rises. Expansion is somewhere in the neighborhood of one inch per hundred feet. Fortunately steel expands at prac- tically the same rate. Therefore, reinforcing steel not only resists the tendency for the concrete to crack, but in expanding with it at practically the same rate, the bond between the steel and con- crete is not broken. Reinforcing steel should be kept clean until used. Any coating of scaly rust or mill scale or a coating of oil will prevent the concrete from forming a good bond with it, hence will prevent the construction from having the strength that might be expected from incorporating the steel CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 73 Whenever reinforcing bars have to be shaped, as in placing them around a corner of a tank, they should be very carefully bent so that the rods will lie in exactly the desired position in the concrete. Any temporary block supports or stays that are to be used to hold reinforcing in correct position while concrete is being placed should be removed as rapidly as concrete is placed up to them. Both rods and mesh when lapped should be securely wired together. Soft black No. 16 or No. 18 gage wire is tough and pliable and is the common material used for binding or tying together rods and fabric when lapped or spliced. CONCRETE WALLS AND FENCES Concrete lends itself admirably to the con- struction of walls and fences, although in the latter class of construction there is a limit to the variety of work which can be produced by the average home worker. Form construction for anything like a fence having the appearance of a wood picket fence is very complicated and placing of the concrete is difficult. On the other hand fences which are essentially a post-and-rail com- bination are simple, as they represent unit con- struction; that is, the posts and rails are cast separately and the units afterward erected in just about the same manner as a wood post and rail fence would be set up (see Fig. 18). Con- sidering the time element, however, such classes 74 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP of concrete fences would better be replaced by some one of several types of light panel wall con- struction. The form system shown by Figs. 9 and 10 is very adaptable to panel fence or wall construction. In the post and rail fence (Fig. 18) posts are FIG. 18. Post-and-Ra.il Type of Concrete Fence. square and reinforced with f-inch rods, placed three-quarters of an inch from each corner. The "rails" are 2 inches thick and 6 inches wide, reinforced with two i-inch rods, running the entire length one inch distant from each edge. Posts should be made of a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture, in which the large aggregate, that is, pebbles or broken stone, is not larger than f inch in greatest di- CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 75 mension, while the rails should be made of a 1:2:3 mixture containing a uniformly graded ag- gregate ranging from the finer particles up to J inch in greatest dimension. The particular disadvantage of a unit post and rail fence of this kind is that the different mem- bers must be thirty days old before they can be set in place, that is, they should be allowed to harden that length of time before being used, and as the "rails" should be left in the molds for a FIG. 19. Detail of Post and Form Construction Shown in Figs. 20 and 21. day or two before handling, this requires a large quantity of molds and considerable facilities for properly storing the units until used. In the various types of panel wall or panel fence construction, the concrete is cast in place. Ordinary panel forms can be used and these may be removed usually within 24 hours after placing the concrete, thus not many forms are required. In Figs. 19, 20 and 21 the design represents a wall section 3 inches thick with triangular mesh fabric for reinforcement. The posts are cast in place and are of such shape (Fig. 19) that when 76 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP the panels are cast, they interlock with the posts. Concrete for such construction as this should be FIG. 20. Construction Illustrated in Fig. 19 in Process. a 1:2:3 mixture in which the coarse aggregate does not exceed f-inch in size. In another design (Fig. 22) is shown a post and CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 77 FIG. 21. Construction Illustrated in Fig. 19 in Process. 78 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP panel construction in which the posts are also cast in place, with a recess in two faces that will permit the wall panels to enter when they are subsequently cast. Wall panels rest on a founda- tion which is 10 inches wide and 18 inches deep, vertical rods being placed in this foundation (Fig. 23) so as to lap with the vertical rods in the wall panels. Posts may be of any desired dimension, but in this particular instance are supposed to be & r &. : != -x ^.a^s^ ,__ ' ftef + Cast< ;.' in ; ;: ''Place- *0^ u -.__ -s~. , K- .'' -*?. E=_ Bol+s-i* -=== 3^ te*^ ^ ==r - te^- j o ^--^ " 1 _=T=. ^~ g fa~ V '''Form Stud FIG. 22. Post and Panel Wall or Fence Cast in Place. 10 inches square, reinforced with 1-inch or f- inch rods, placed li inches from the outer face at each corner. The height may be varied as de- sired. Panels are 16 feet long and 4 inches thick and, reinforced with rods k inch in diameter, placed 18 inches apart center to center, both vertically and horizontally, being assembled as a sort of lattice before being raised in position and well wired together where they intersect or cross (see Fig. 23). Enough forms should be provided for CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 79 FIG. 23. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. FIG. 24. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. 80 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP FIG. 25. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. FIG. 26. Various Details of the Construction Illustrated in Fig. 22. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 81 such construction to accommodate one day's plac- ing of concrete, then on the following day the forms first used the preceding day can be removed and placed ahead for commencing the day's work, this operation continuing as concreting pro- ceeds during the day. Figs. 24, 25 and 26 show details of the work. A 1 : 3 : 5 mixture will be suited for the founda- tions for panels, although it may be just as con- venient and in the end as economical if a 1:2:4 mixture is used throughout rather than go to the trouble of preparing and using two different con- crete mixtures. Posts should be of a 1 : 2 : 4 mix- ture throughout. FENCE, GATE, CLOTHES-LINE, AND GRAPE- ARBOR POSTS Owing to the increasing scarcity in many sec- tions of the country of wood suited to fence posts, one of the most timely uses of concrete on the farm is for fence posts. When one realizes the expenditure of time and labor necessary to keep a fence in which wood posts are used in proper repair, it is not surprising that concrete posts should have gained in popularity during recent years. Wood posts, especially those that are most desirable, have advanced in price until in most sections of the country they are just as expen- sive as concrete posts, with the latter in greater favor because being fireproof and rotproof. The 82 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP life of a cedar post under the most favorable conditions cannot be expected to exceed 15 years. Concrete posts properly made should have an al- most unlimited life; and where good sand and gravel can be obtained on the farm or nearby, they can in some instanc.es be made for less than a good cedar post now costs. POST MOLDS If a large quantity of fence posts is to be made it will well pay the home worker to purchase some r Platform Platform ".'BlocHs and Wedges, FIG. 27. Ho ne-made Gang Mold for Concrete Fence Posts. one of the several types of commerical fence post molds. But it is very easy to make a home- made mold (see Fig. 27) that will answer ad- mirably foi concrete post making during spare hours. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 83 Commercial molds are usually of sheet steel and, taking all types into consideration, are manu- factured so that concrete posts can be made of al- most any shape desired round, square, rectan- gular and semi-elliptical, and both straight and tapered. Choice of size and shape is largely a matter of individual preference, although for general line-fence purposes no post should be smaller than 3 by 3 inches at the top and 4J by 4i inches at the bottom, this for a length of 7 feet. In fact, it will be found perhaps easier to make a post 3i or 4 inches square at the top and 5 inches square at the bottom, these dimen- sions being of advantage in facilitating the pro- per placing of reinforcing one of the most im- portant details of fence post manufacture. MIXTURES FOR FENCE POSTS Although concrete line fence posts have been made out of a mixture consisting of 1 part of cement and 3 parts of well-graded sand in which the particles ranged from the finest permissible up to J inch, such a mixture will not ordinarily give a post of as great strength as a properly proportioned 1:2:3 mixture in which the coarse aggregate (pebbles or broken stone) consists of particles graded from J up to f inches. A 1:2:4 mixture for fence posts has often been recom- mended, but as the home worker is not always careful uniformly to grade his materials the 84 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 1:2:3 mixture compensates in a measure for pos- sible neglect in this respect and therefore is a safer mixture to use. COST OF CONCRETE POSTS A rectangular post of average size may range in price from 20 to 35 cents, but will probably average around 24 or 25 cents. These figures are based on the assumption that all materials must be purchased, and that Portland cement will cost $2 per barrel, sand and gravel $1 per cubic yard, and reinforcing steel 21 cents per pound. The farmer rarely need buy sand and gravel, and in many instances can obtain cement for less than $2 per barrel, so the cost can often be re- duced. More than one farmer has found it pos- sible to turn out standard size concrete fence posts for 19 cents each. Probably the cost may safely be estimated as never likely to exceed the highest figure previously mentioned and quite often may be below the lowest figure. REQUIREMENTS OF REINFORCING Many persons have a false impression of re- inforcing requirements for concrete .fence posts. Some have made posts with a single rod running through the center, thinking that if this one rod contained the same amount of steel as four smaller rods spaced near the surface at each corner, the result would be the same. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 85 If a preceding explanation of the principles of reinforcing has been understood, one can see that the single rod at the center of the post does not accomplish the desired purpose. When set in place, a fence post may be subjected to strains or shocks from any direction. If the wires are tightly attached, it certainly may receive pulls from either direction along the line of the fence, as well as shocks or blows from inside or outside the enclosure, due to animals attempting to get into or out of the pasture lot. These possibilities must be anticipated, and the only way to do .so successfully is to place suitable reinforcement near the face at each corner of a square or rectan- gular post, and in a circular post place the rein- forcing at points corresponding to four corners of a square post and as near the surface at the circumference as possible, yet far enough away to permit surrounding the rods with concrete. MATERIALS FOR REINFORCING Another false impression often entertained is that almost any kind of scrap wire, even barbed fence wire, will serve as post reinforcing. While it is possible to place reinforcing in the form of wires in a fence post so that the amount of metal would correspond to that obtained by properly placing i-inch round rods, nevertheless, the inconven- ience of handling wire makes it almost certain that when the post has been finished, the rein- 86 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP forcing metal will not be in proper position in the concrete, therefore will not accomplish the desired results. All of the kinds of wire com- monly recommended or suggested for reinforcing are far- more difficult to handle in placing than are straight rods. Reinforcing wire usually comes in coils and it is very difficult to straighten it so that it will lie in the proper plane while placing concrete. Greater economy of time and much more certainty of successful results follow the use of suitable steel rods. . An accompanying table will be of considerable assistance to the concrete worker in enabling him to choose suitable dimensions for his posts and the necessary reinforcing. This table also gives the volume of various size posts in cubic feet, the approximate weight each in pounds, and the quantity of materials required for ten posts of various dimensions, made of a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture. Referring again to the desirability of making fence posts of a 1 : 3 cement-sand mixture, one can see by examining the table that for 7-foot posts 5 inches square at the bottom and 3 inches square at the top, one barrel of cement will be a little more than sufficient to make fourteen posts, while if a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture is used, the same quantity of cement will make twenty posts of the same size. Hence there is economy in the 1:2:3 mixture, equalling very nearly 33i per cent. Most of the commercial fence post molds are relatively inexpensive, yet if a person does not CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 87 (MI^OCO cO (MOO CO t^O (MOOO(N rHCDOOOi JH ^ O ^ (N tOCO TH O OS i i co o co CO5 COCOCOCO O C ^ ] ^ O (D *S lissg II rH (M (M (M ss.^ 00 CO OS i i iO (M Oi-H cO^b- gxxxx xxxx xxxx cocococo T^TtH b>bibib gxxxx xxxx xxxx COCOCOCO oocoo 88 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP desire to make the expenditure necessary to se- cure such equipment, the home-made mold shown will answer all purposes admirably. Such a gang mold can be made to make a post of any desired dimensions, and of any capacity up to the limit of floor space or bottom board used to rest the mold on. Sides and ends of molds are held in place by blocks and wedges. After the concrete has been in the mold 12 hours, wedges can be knocked out so that sides, ends and partitions may be re- moved, then the posts allowed to remain undis- turbed on the pallet or bottom board until they have become strong enough to handle without possible injury. One-inch lumber will be suited for the ends and interior strips of such a mold, but 2-inch stock should be used for outside pieces. Before being used the entire mold must be pro- tected from warping by painting with two coats of boiled linseed oil and kerosene, equal parts of each, which will also prevent the concrete from sticking to the mold. Molds should be well cleaned after use and oiled before each filling. PLACING CONCRETE AND REINFORCING After having placed three-quarters of an inch in the bottom of the mold the two reinforcing rods for that side are laid in proper position, then ad- ditional concrete placed until within about three- quarters of the top, when the two remaining re- CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 89 inforcing rods are pressed into proper position in the concrete and the mold filled level. Con- crete for fence post manufacture should be mixed a little wetter than quaky consistency, so that it will settle to all parts of the mold with little stirring or puddling and completely surround and bond with the reinforcing. It is very important that concrete fence posts be dense, and added density is secured by jarring or rapping the mold in some manner so as to release air bubbles which may be in the concrete mixture and thus prevent resulting air pockets in the finished post. Some of the commercial fence post mold outfits are used in connection with a vibrating table to jar the concrete, thus making it dense and compact. If the home worker does not find it feasible to ar- range his gang mold on some support so that the mold can be vibrated or shaken while the concrete is being placed, then it is well to take a stick or a rod and stir the concrete gently along the form faces to release air bubbles, and to tap the mold while placing concrete. SPACERS FOR REINFORCING To hold reinforcing rods in correct relative position when placing them in the concrete, it will be found advantageous to take some small pieces of No. 16 gage wire and twist it as shown in Fig. 28 so that loops are formed around the rods. They will thus be held at the desired separation in the mold while placing concrete. 90 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP If concrete is placed at proper consistency, jogging the mold will result in a smooth, dense surface on the post and cause a perfect bond or union between the concrete and the reinforcing. One must be careful not to use too much water *;: ' Rods Q Spacer "Rods Rods FIG. 28. Common Sections for Reinforced Concrete Fence Posts. for fence post . mixtures. The concrete should not be slushy nor soupy, as that will cause the sand-cement mortar to separate from the peb- bles, and when the post has thoroughly hardened there will be pockets in the concrete possibly some of the reinforcing steel may be exposed. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 91 HARDENING THE FINISHED POSTS Posts must not be allowed to dry out quickly. They must be protected from drying wind and sunlight and should be covered with wet straw or chaff, which should be kept wet for a week or ten days before attempting to store them any- where out of doors. If they have been made under usual summer weather conditions it will be safe to lift them from the floor or bottom sup- port of the mold within 36 hours after placing the concrete. Extreme care, however, should be used in handling them, as cracks will affect the strength of the finished post. Posts may be care- fully piled in some convenient shed (not corded up, however, in piles one on top of the other, but spread out on an even support so that the protec- tive wet chaff covering may be kept over them) until hardening has progressed sufficiently to per- mit moving them out of doors to complete harden- ing naturally. Here they may be set up on end, resting against a building or a wall, and by the time they are 30 days old, they will be in good condition to set in the fence line. FASTENING LINE WIRES Numerous suggestions have been made as to the best way of fastening line wires to concrete fence posts. Some advocate inserting wood or metal pegs in the concrete at the time of placing. 92 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP then withdrawing these pegs when the concrete has stiffened, leaving a small hole entirely through the post to receive a tie wire, the ends of which are wrapped around the fence wires. Other methods have consisted of embedding eye- let fasteners in the concrete, or embedding small bolts with loops at one end in the same manner. Holes in the post, no matter how small they may be, tend to weaken it. Eyelet fasteners will eventually rust off. By far the simplest method that has been used consists of tying the fence wire to the post by means of a loop of wire passed around it on three sides using the ends which project at the back of the post to wrap around the line wire, exactly as telephone or telegraph wires are fastened to the glass insulators on poles. CORNER POSTS Concrete corner posts on account of the strains to which they are subjected must, of course, be larger than line posts (see Figs. 29 and 30). Depending upon the length of the fence stretched from them, the size required may vary within a considerable range. Corner posts may be from 6 inches square up to 10 or 12 inches square; and the amount of reinforcing required will de- pend upon the strain to which the posts are to be put and therefore upon their square dimen- sions. In a 6 by 6 or 7 by 7 post there should be four rods at least -& of an inch in diameter. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 93 A 10 by 10 post should have four fj-inch rods; a 12 by 12 post, four 1-inch rods. On account of their weight and the consequent inconvenience of handling, corner posts larger than 8 inches square are usually cast in place; that is, a hole is dug in the ground, rods properly placed, concrete deposited to ground level, and the FIG. 29. Concrete Line and Corner Fence Post. form set right up in position, properly braced where the post is to stand, and the concrete placed in the form from the end. Reinforcing rods should extend from the bottom of the foun- dation right up through the post. When the earth is firm there will be no need to use a form for the part that is to be underground; if not firm, it is best to build a form for the entire post, 94 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP that is, for both the portions below and above ground. The portion belowground had best be FIG. 30. Corner Post with Brace Cast Monolithic with it. of larger square dimensions than aboveground, for stability. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 95 BRACES FOR CORNER POSTS Sometimes corner posts complete with braces are cast as one piece as in Fig. 30. Form con- struction will readily suggest itself. Of course, the brace also must be suitably reinforced with rods in each corner, of proper size. GATE POSTS Gate posts or entranceway posts are also mas- sive and are cast in place the same as heavy cor- ner posts. ' If subjected to strains of fence stretched from them they must be braced. Like- wise, reinforcing rods must be chosen as regards size with reference to the size of post and the load or stains to which it is to be subjected, such as heavy, swinging iron gates, and fence stretched from them. The reason why reinforcing must extend down below ground level in corner and gate posts is to resist the possibility of their breaking at ground level under severe strains or load. FORMS FOR GATE POSTS Form construction for entranceway or gate posts is simple or complicated, depending upon the design which it is intended to execute. Us- ually such posts are made square or round. In the latter case a very convenient way of making the form is to use a section of old metal smoke- 96 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP stack of the required diameter, first cutting this down the entire length so that after concrete has been 'placed, the form can be removed. Wires or other fastenings will have to be wrapped around this form after it has been cut to prevent it from spreading open while concrete is being placed. RUBBLE CONCRETE POSTS Another and easy way to construct entrance- way or gateway posts consists of using rubble stones or field stones ranging from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. Such stones are selected so that they will form a pleasing arrangement on the exposed face of the work when forms are re- moved. They are laid around against the inside of the form as shown in an accompanying sketch, Fig. 31, a 1:3 cement mortar being used to bed them. Then a quaky 1:2:4 concrete mixture is used to fill in the center. Work should be done so that concrete is placed in layers no greater than 6 inches at a time. Proper reinforcing must be used and placed a little back of the stones. Rubble stones must be wet when placed so that the concrete will bond to them. A concrete cap can be cast separately and placed on the rubble construction later if desired, or the forms can be so built that this cap will be monolithic with (a part of) the remainder of the work. After forms have been removed the surplus mortar in the joints between stones should be CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 97 picked back slightly and any mortar adhering to the face of the stones washed off with a stiff E I e v ex \ \ o r> <3C + i on (Size of Main Reinforcing f/ote< Rods w/7/ depend on size I of Posf FIG. 31. Sketch Showing Method of Constructing a Rubble Concrete Gate Post. brush and water. The appearance should be as in Fig. 32. 98 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP FIG. 32. Appearance of Finished Rubble Work. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 99 Provision should be made while placing con- crete to embed necessary fittings for iianging the gates. Hangers should be threaded on the end that is to be placed in the concrete and -a nut be passed over the threads so as to prevent the hangers from pulling out when gates are hung. Corner posts and gate posts must also be made of a quaky concrete. While the concrete is being placed in the forms, a long-handled spading tool should be used to spade the concrete next to the form face (except in rubble work) so that there will be a smooth, dense surface free from stone pockets when forms are removed. CLOTHES-LINE POSTS Concrete posts from 9 to 10 feet long make durable and practical grape arbor and clothes- line posts (see Fig. 33). They need reinforcing the same as do other concrete posts and the quan- tity of metal required depends upon the square dimensions of the posts and the loads or strains to which they are to be subjected. They should be of a 1:2:3 mixture. Wires upon which to train vines or hang clothes may be attached in the same manner as fence wires are attached to line fence posts, but usually short pieces of iron rod are embedded near the top of clothes-line posts and in grape-vine posts wood plugs are inserted in the soft concrete while placing and these plugs withdrawn when the concrete has 100 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP FIG. 33. Clothes-line Posts of Concrete. CONCRETE ON THE FARM 4ND SHOP }0i stiffened, thus forming holes through which wires may be strung, or if posts are to form an arbor, then the wood plugs may be left in the concrete and be used as nail holds when attaching wood slats. What has already been said as regards subjecting fence posts to pulls and strains until after they are a month old applies also to grape arbor and clothes line posts. They should be pro- tected against too rapid drying by being covered with w r et straw, hay, or similar covering, and sprinkled often enough to keep them moist. CONCRETE TANKS Among the various classes of concrete) con- struction which may be considered as coming under the heading of tanks are hog wallows, watering troughs, feeding troughs, manure pits and cisterns. All these require that the construc- tion be watertight. This makes a 1:2:3 mixture preferable, although if one can be certain that the materials are properly proportioned and uni- formly graded throughout, a 1:2:4 mixture may accomplish the desired results. However, the first mentioned mixture is safer and is recom- mended. Small troughs or tanks such as are to be used for hog feeding or watering (see Fig. 34) can very readily be cast upside down (see Fig. 35) on some smooth level surface like a barn floor and when the concrete has properly hardened forms can be removed and the con- 102 COXCpETp >N THE FARM AND SHOP FIG. 34. Small Portable Hog Feeding Trough Cast Upside Down. FIG. 34a. Another Portable Type Trough also Cast Upside Down. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 103 crete protected for a week or ten days by a moist covering. Then the trough may be set up where intended to use it. REINFORCING SMALL TROUGHS Poultry netting or similar fabric can often be used for reinforcing small troughs in place of Floor or Platform FIG. 35. Form Construction for Small, Portable Troughs. rods. Sometimes a combination of both is used and desirable. Fig. 35 illustrates clearly how the forms for such construction are made and set up. No further explanation should be necessary. STOCK TROUGHS Large stock watering troughs on account of their bulk and weight must be constructed at the point where they are to be used. For the same reason it is quite essential that 104 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP a suitable foundation be provided for them, otherwise unequal settlement of the ground will most likely result in causing- the concrete to crack, owing to the strains put upon it not only by the weight of the structure itself but also the weight of contents. Construction like that involved in large tanks, troughs, cisterns and manure pits makes it impossible to lay down invariable rules as to how such structures shall be reinforced. Lf 1 in "*iflLf - P 4 T pavement A H~1? O ve/ ~fiw %y* i__ =& '4' Round l2"Cente Bent up Rods A <^\ r to Center Into Sides FIG. 36. Concrete Watering Trough or Tank. This depends entirely upon its size and conse- quently upon the weight of contents which it is to carry. Illustrations show a stock watering tank (Fig. 36), a small concrete trough (Fig. 35), cistern (Fig. 39), and hog wallow (Fig. 40) and manure pit (Fig. 41). All of these belong es- sentially to the same class of construction. Re- inforcing required for the stock watering tank of the dimensions shown (Fig. 36) is specified in the drawing. For the other structures, reinforcing will depend on the size of the structure. For the CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 105 FIG. 37. Finished Tank Similar to that Illustrated in Fig. 36. FIG 37a. Concrete Cistern Built Partly Aboveground. 106 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP cistern, if 6 feet square and 8 feet deep, pro- bably J or f-inch rods 12 inches center to center FIG. 38, Another Trough Similar to Preceding Types. will be sufficient. For the small trough use i-inch rods and 1-inch poultry netting. WATERTIGHTNESS. HOW SECURED As tanks and cisterns must be watertight to ac- complish the desired purpose, one should, before commencing work, have all materials on hand ready for use, forms properly constructed and in place, so that work may proceed continuously, if possible, thus preventing seams or construction joints that would later open up and cause leak- age. If, however, it becomes necessary to sus- pend work after concreting has started, then the surface of concrete in the forms should be left CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 107 rough, and when concreting is to be resumed this surface should be well brushed and washed with water, painted with cement and water mixed to the consistency of thick cream and applied with a whitewash brush and concreting resumed im- mediately; that is, before the cement grout paint has had a chance to commence hardening. In stock watering troughs, cisterns and similar structures where the floor is constructed mono- lithic with the sides, it is desirable that the rein- forcing of the floor extend up into the sides, thus forming vertical reinforcing for those portions of the structure. So the rods must then be bent to the shape of three sides of a square or rectan- gle depending upon the shape of the structure. Horizontal rods must be tied to vertical rods with wires where the two intersect, so that all reinforc- ing will be held in correct relative position while concrete is being placed. DETAILS OF PLACING CONCRETE FOR CISTERNS, ETC. Concrete used for cisterns and similar con- struction, however, should be of quaky consis- tency, therefore it is sometimes difficult to con- struct the side walls and floors monolithic. Hence i1 is easier to build floor and walls separately. In such a case, the walls should start in a trench that has been excavated deep enough to be below possible frost penetration. After the walls are 108 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP finished and concrete has hardened sufficiently to permit removing the forms, then the bottom or floor of the structure can be placed. The earth should be excavated to a depth sufficient to se- cure a firm foundation and if necessary there should be placed a fill of clean gravel or cinders well tamped up to the bottom of the proposed floor level. On top of this concrete from 4 to 6 inches thick for the floor can be placed. If the area does not exceed 100 square feet or if no one dimension of the floor exceeds 1.0 feet, it is not likely that reinforcing will be needed in the floor when placed separate from the walls and in one continuous concreting operation. Before commencing to lay the concrete floor, a i-inch board strip should be pkced all around the inside of the walls, the top of (:Ms strip being at the top of the proposed floor and held away from the side walls by i-inch wedges. These wedges will when released after the concrete floor has hardened make it possible easily to withdraw the wood strips. Then the space so made should be filled with hot tar or asphalt effectively to seal the joint against leakage. PROTECTION WHILE HARDENING Like all other concrete construction, tanks, troughs and cisterns must be protected against too rapid drying out. They should not be put into use until they are at least a week or ten days CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 109 old, and during this time the structure should be kept covered with wet canvas, burlap or straw, so that sun and wind will not cause rapid evapora- tion of water from the concrete and thus result in a porous structure. If such protection is not afforded for a week or ten days, then no matter how well the materials may have been propor- tioned and placed, the resulting structure cannot be expected to give as good satisfaction as would result were all necessary precautions taken. Cisterns are sometimes constructed either en- tirely or partly aboveground. The one shown in the accompanying drawing may be constructed entirely belowground or entirely aboveground or partly aboveground. In the first case the walls may be uniformly 8 inches thick throughout because protected below the ground the contents of the cistern are not likely to freeze, therefore there will be no pressure caused from ice. If, how- ever, the structure is partly or wholly above- ground, then the walls must be battered or sloped on the inside so that the pressure resulting from water freezing will be counteracted. This precau- tion must also be taken with the stock tank de- scribed; reference to the drawing will show that this batter has been provided for in the design. Where entirely belowground, the cistern floor may commence at the same level as do the side walls. Fig. 37 A shows how one of these struc- tures would appear if partly aboveground and intended to receive its supply of water from the 110 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP roof of an adjoining structure. If the struc- ture is built entirely aboveground, of course, both inside and outside forms will be necessary. But ^_ t - ;- ^ "-^ ' " - T* ' ; ." ' ,Vr~ "~" ', 11 - - - - ' "-3 .a 3 '/jl'- m FIG. 39. Sectional View of Concrete Cistern. any portion of the cistern structure belowground can be built with inside forms only, if the earth is carefully excavated and firm enough so as to be self-sustaining. Care must be taken, however, when placing the concrete in the trench not to CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 111 knock down any earth that would thus become partly mixed with the concrete and result in por- ous and consequently leaky pockets in the wall. POSITION OF REINFORCING IN TANKS AND CISTERNS Theoretically reinforcing should be near the outer face of the wall for an aboveground struc- ture, but it will be effective if placed at the cen- ter, and in such position will make it easier to place the concrete and spade around it in the forms next to the form face so as to produce a smooth, non-porous surface. In all tank and cistern construction, or similar construction, when it is necessary to lap horizontal rods, laps should be made at the center of a side, never near or at a corner. Rods should be lapped from 50 to 60 times their diameter. In the case of i-inch rods, this means not less than 12 inches. In the case of i-inch rods, this would mean not less than 25 inches. When mesh fabric is lapped the ends and edges must be well wired together. BUILDING COVER SLAB FOR CISTERN In setting the vertical rods to reinforce the cistern walls they should be at least 2 feet longer than required so that the projecting ends may be bent over and finally become a part of the re- inforcing for the roof or cover slab. After walls 112 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP and floor have been concreted and the concrete floor has sufficiently hardened, a wood floor can be constructed level with the top of side walls to serve as a form on which to lay the cover slab. This slab would be 6 inches thick. A frame should be placed at the proper place on this floor to provide for the manhole opening in the roof or cover slab. This frame is nothing but a bot- tomless box with its edges sloping inward so that the resulting manhole opening in the slab will have a beveled edge to receive a correspondingly shaped concrete manhole cover. This cover can be cast in the manhole opening in the concrete, by lining this opening with building or tar paper to prevent the concrete from adhering to that of the cover slab. An eyebolt fitted with a ring should be embedded in the cover slab at the time it is cast to permit removal of the cover as oc- casion requires. WATER CONNECTIONS In tank and cistern construction suitable pro- vision must be made when setting up forms to arrange for the necessary inlet and outlet for water supply and overflow. CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP 113 FORM REMOVAL Forms supporting the roof or cover slab of the cistern should not be removed until the concrete is at least two weeks old. This applies if the work has been carried on under favorable weather conditions. In cold weather it may be necessary to leave forms in place even twice as long. PAVEMENT AROUND WATERING TROUGHS All stock watering troughs should have a con- crete pavement laid around them so that the vicinity will not be w r orked up into a mudhole when stock go to water. Directions for laying pavements will be given later. (Circular tanks have not been described because form construc- tion is somewhat difficult. Usually commercial silo forms are best for such structures.) HOG WALLOW In constructing a concrete hog wallow (Figs. 40 and 4:0 A) a trench should be excavated so that the side walls will extend below frost level, then bring the walls up to slightly above ground level. Afterward the interior of the enclosure should be excavated and the ground -firmly com- pacted so as to make a good foundation for the floor, which should be laid in the same manner as described for the cistern floor, except that one 114 CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND SHOP Pavement j"Tar F 'flea 'Joint I *&te - Corrugations '.' ifp;.^//!;^ ^> */ " J, i S Q'l i ' ' ',/ -T^.y*. ^ ./M,,M^^,/^,^,,i^'. :,.,,,; v, a:/.;;?;-' ' ' f"-o.;: "u- "--^50-(C:^'^ r i=s 1 -iri. :; S^r, ;>.-4x8M. Cloth, 328 pages, 82 illustrations, 1 colored plate. Price, Jp4.5O THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR AND USES. By XENO W. PUTNAM. A useful and practical treatise on the modern gasoline and kerosene engine, its construction, management, repair and the many uses to which it can be applied in present-day farm life. It considers all the various household, shop and field uses of this up-to-date motor and includes chapters on engine installation, power transmission and the best arrangement of the power plant in reference to the work. 5K*7/4 Cloth. 527 pages. 179 illustrations. < t , -^ , Price, ?3.00 ^GASOLINE ENGINES: THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. HYATT VERRILL. A comprehen- sive, simple and practical work, treating of gasoline engines for stationary, marine or vehicle use; their construction, de- sign, management, care, operation, repair, installation and troubles. A complete glossary of technical terms and an alpha- betically arranged table of troubles and symptoms form a most valuable and unique feature of the book. 5^4 x 7J^. Cloth. 275 pages, 152 illustrations. Price, $1 5O GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL, ENGINES. By GARD- NER D. Hiscox. Revised by VICTOR W. PAGE. Just issued 191K revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas engine needs this book. 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The index refers to each trouble, remedy and subject alphabetically. Being a quick reference to find the cause, remedy and _ prevention for troubles, and to become an expert with his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. Price, 25 cents MODERN GAS TRACTOR, ITS CONSTRUC- TION, UTILITY, OPERATION AND REPAIR. By VICTOR W. PAGE. Treats exhaustively on the design and construction of farm tractors and tractor "power-plants, and gives complete instructions on their care, operation and re- pair. All types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractory are described, and every phase of traction engineer- ing practice fully covered. Invaluable to all desiring re- liable information on gas motor propelled traction engines and their use. 5*4 x? 1 /^. Cloth. 475 pages, 204 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price, $2.OO GEARING AND CAMS BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. AG. ENGSTROM. No one who has to do with bevel gears in any way should be without this book. 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Just imagine all the common troubles that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, but that you had never thought about, and you will find that they are all treated with the very best methods of re- pair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. Eighth edition. 294 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, $1.OO LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIM- SHAW. Twenty-eighth revised and enlarged edition. This may well be called an encyclopedia of the locomotive. Con- tains over 4,000 examination questions with their answers, including among them those asked at the first, second and third years' examinations. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and 3 folding plates. Price, $2.5O WESTINGHOUSE ET AIR-BRAKE INSTRUC- TION POCKET BOOK CATECHISM. By WM. W. WOOD, Air-Brake Instructor. A practical work containing examination questions and answers on the E. T. Equipment. Covering what the E. T. Brake is. How' it should be oper- ated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E T equipment that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to thoroughly understand the E T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every de- tail. Makes air-brake troubles and examinations easy. Fully illustrated with colored plates, showing various pressures. Cloth. Price, 91. BO 19 PRACTICAL, INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN AND EN- GINEERS. By CHAS. F. LOCKHART. An entirely new book on the locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. Written by a man who has had years of practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and running. The information given in this book cannot be found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for exam- ination. 368 pages, 88 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.5O PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. By GEORGE BRAD- SHAW. This book is a heart-to-heart talk with railroad em- ployees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and practical suggestions are given. Every railroad employee who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copy; read it, and do their part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated. Price, 5O cents WALSCHAERT LOCOMOTIVE VALVE GEAR. By WM. W. WOOD. If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear, you should possess a copy of this book. The author divides the subject into four divisions, as follows: I. Analysis of the gear. II. Designing and erecting of the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. Questions and answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. This book is specially valuable to those preparing for promotion. Third edition. 245 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth. Price, 91.5O MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE MACHINE -SHOP ARITHMETIC. By COLVIN- CHENEY. Most popular book for shop men. Shows how all shop problems are worked out and "why." Includes change gears for cutting any threads; drills, taps, shink and force fits; metric system of measurements and threads. Used by all classes of mechanics and for instruction in Y. M. C. A. and other schools. Sixth edition. 131 pages. Price, 5O cents TOOLS FOR MACHINISTS AND WOOD WORKERS, INCLUDING INSTRUMENTS ( OF MEASUREMENT. By JOSEPH G. CORNER. The prin- ciples upon which cutting tools for wood, metal, and other substances are made are identical, whether used by the ma- chinist, the carpenter, or by any other skilled mechanic in their daily -work, and the object of this book is to give a correct and practical description of these tools as they are commonly designed, constructed, and uced. 340 pages, fully illustrated. - Price, $3.5O 20 AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTER- CHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING. By J. V. WOODWORTH. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of *he different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, dc- ices and special appliances which are in general use in all machine-manufacturing and metal-working establishments where economy, capacity and interchangeability in the pro- duction of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaustively discussed, and particular atten- tion is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures and devices illustrated and described have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, type- writers, electrical apparatus, mechanical appliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal arti- cles, drop forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. Second edition. 531 pages. Price, $4.OO HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. Edited by JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.Mech.E. This book covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The best known experts in all branches of engineering have con- tributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well as the mechanical engineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman and machinist. It is a modern treatise in five volumes. Handsomely bound in half morocco, each volume containing nearly 500 pages, with thousands of illustrations, including diagram- matic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. Price, for the complete set of five volumes, $25. OO MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By OSCAR E. PERRIGO. The only work published that describes the Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. Just the book needed by those contem- plating the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and -want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 400 large quarto pages, 225 original and specially-made illus- trations. Price, $5.OO ^ < "SHOP KINKS." By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. This shows special methods of doing work of various kinds, and releas- ing cost of production. Has hints and kinks from some of the largest shops in this country and Europe. You are almost sure to find some that apply to your work, and in such a way as to save time and trouble. 400 pages. Fifth edi- tion. Cloth. Price, $2.5O 21 THE WHOI-F*- FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVE* MENTS COVERED BY MR. HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will keep you from "inventing" things that have been done be- fore, and suggest ways of doing things that you have not thought of before. Many a man spends time and money, pondering over some mechanical problem, only to learn, after he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been accomplished and put in practice by others long before. Time and money spent in an effort to accomplish what has al- ready been accomplished are time and money lost. The whole field of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, and practically every device is covered by these two books. If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in them. If it hasn'ti been invented, then you'll find in them the nearest things to what you want, some movement or device that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will give you a key from which to work. No book or set of books ever published is of more real value to the inventor, draftsman or practical mechanic than the two volumes de- scribed below. MECHANICAL, MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appli- ances, accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all read- ers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmis- sion of Power; Measurement of Power; Steam Power; Air Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navi- gation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Control- ling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appli- ances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; Miscel- laneous Devices, etc. Fourteenth edition. 400 octavo pages. Price, ^2.50 MECHANICAL, APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL, MOVEMENTS AND NOVELTIES OF CON- STRUCTION. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a sup- plementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the first volume, which is more elementary in char- acter, this volume contains illustrations and descriptions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances found in different lines of machinery, each device being shown by a line drawing with a description showing its -working parts and the method of operation. From the multitude of devices described and illustrated might be mentioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various types of boil- ers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, car coup- lers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of others of equal importance. 1,000 specially made engravings. 396 octavo pages. Third revised edition. Price, f 2.5O 22 MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRAC- TICE. By W. H. VANDERVOORT. A work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful data and tables. Sixth edition. Cloth. Price, $3.OO MODERN MILLING MACHINES: THEIR DE- SIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. By JOSEPH G. HORNER. This book describes and illustrates the Milling Machine and its work in such a plain, clear, and forceful manner, and illustrates the subject so clearly and completely, that the up-to-date machinist, student, or me- chanical engineer cannot afford to do without the valuable information which it contains. It describes not only the early machines of this class, but notes their gradual develop- ment into the splendid machines of the present day, giving the design and construction of the various types, forms, and special features produced by prominent manufacturers, Ameri- can and foreign. 304 pages, 300 illustrations. Cloth Price, $4.OO THE MODERN MACHINIST. By JOHN T. USHER. This book might be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any machinist's library and should be consulted whenever a new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or planing, as they are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth edition. 320 pages, 250 illus- trations. Cloth. Price, $2.5O THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By COLVIN and STABEL. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread- cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. Price, 25 cents MARINE ENGINEERING MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a submarine of the latest type. You get more information from this chart about the construction and operation of a subma- rine than in any other way. No details omitted everything is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved by naval engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern submarine boat are shown, and to make the engraving more readily understood all the features are shown in operative form, with officers and men in the act of performing the duties assigned to them in service conditions. THIS CHART IS REALLY AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many times its cost. Mailed in a tube for 25 cents 23 MARINE ENGINES AND -BOILERS, THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By DR. G. BAUER, LESLIE S. ROBERTSON and S. BRYAN DONKIN. In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present -work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a condensed treatise embodying the theoretical and practical rules used in designing marine engines and boilers. The need of such a work has been felt by most engineers engaged in the construction and working of marine engines, not only by the younger men, but also by those of greater experience. The fact that the original German work was written by the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan Works, Stettin, is in itself a guarantee that this book is in all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all the information which is necessary for the design and con- struction of the highest types of marine engines and boilers. It may be said that the motive power which Dr. Bauer has placed in the fast German liners that have been turned out of late years from the Stettin Works represent the very best practice in marine engineering of the present day. The work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of the plans, drawings, tables, and sta- tistics is without reproach. The illustrations are careful re- productions from actual working drawings, with some well- executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. 744 pages, 550 illustrations and numerous tables. Cloth. Price, 99.0O net MANUAL TRAINING ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis ROUILLION. The only book that gives just the infor- mation needed by all interested in manual training, regarding buildings, equipment and supplies. Shows exactly what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and Normal School. Gives itemized lists of every- thing needed and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies. Illustrated. Second edition. Cloth. Price, 91.50 MINING ORE DEPOSITS, WITH A CHAPTER ON HINTS TO PROSPECTORS. By J. P. JOHNSON. This book gives a condensed account of the ore deposits at present known in South Africa. It is also intended as a guide to the prospector. Only an elementary knowledge of geology and some mining experience are necessary in order to understand this work. With these qualifications, it will materially assist one in his search for metalliferous mineral occurrences and, so far as simple ores are concerned, should enable one to form some idea of the possibilities of any they may find. Illustrated. Cloth. Price, $2.OO PRACTICAL, COAL MINING. By T. H. COCKIN. An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustra- tions, complete with practical details, which will intuitively impart T. H. BYROM. A practical work for the use of all preparing for examinations in mining or qualifying for colliery man- agers' certificates. The aim of the author in this excellent book is to place clearly before the reader useful and authori- tative data which will render him valuable assistance in his studies. The only 'work of its kind published. The infor- mation incorporated in it will prove of the greatest practical utility to students, mining engineers, colliery managers, and all others who are specially interested in ;the present-day treatment of mining problems. 160 pages, illustrated. Price, $2.OO PATTERN MAKING PRACTICAL, PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. BARROWS. This book, now in its second edition, is a com- prehensive and entirely practical treatise on the subject of pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, and with definite instructions on the use of plaster of paris in the trade. It gives specific and detailed descrip- tions of the materials used by pattern makers and describes the tools; both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools; having complete chapters on the lathe, the circular saw and the band saw. It gives many examples of pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with much detail. These examples, in their great variety, offer much that will be found of interest to all pattern makers, and especially to the younger ones, who are seeking informa- tion on the more advanced branches of their trade. Con- taining nearly 350 pages and 170 illustrations. Second edi- tion, revised and enlarged. Price, $2. GO PERFUMERY HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited by G. D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno-chemical receipt book published. Contains over 10,000 practical receipts, many of which will prove of special value to the perfumer. $3.OO PERFUMES AND COSMETICS, THEIR PREP- ARATION AND MANUFACTURE. By G. W. ASKINSON, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Com- plete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling- salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles; preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances; their nature, tests of purity, and whole- sale manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic products, with formulas for their use. A book of general, as well as professional interest, meeting the wants not only of the drug- gist and perfume manufacturer, but also of the general public. Fourth edition much enlarged and brought up-to-date. Nearly 400 pages, illustrated.^ Price, $5.OO 25 PLUMBING STANDARD PRACTICAL, PLUMBING. By R. M. STARBUCK. This is a complete treatise and covers the subject of modern plumbing in all its branches. It treats ex- haustively on the skilled work of the plumber and the theory underlying plumbing devices and operations, and commends itself at once to everyone working in any branch of the plumbing trade. A large amount of space is devoted 'to a very complete and practical treatment of the subjects of hot water supply, circulation and range boiler work. Another valuable feature is the special chapter on drawing for plumbers. The illustrations, of which rftere are three hun- dred and forty-seven, one hundred being full-page plates, were drawn expressly for this book and show the most modern and best American practice in plumbing construction. 6 l / 2 x9 l A. Cloth, 406 pages, 347 illustrations. Price, $3. GO MECHANICAL, DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. By R. M. STARBUCK. A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing will so helo the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to cus- tomers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of greater responsibility. 150 illus- trations. Price, $1.50 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. STARBUCK. The author of this book, Mr. R. M. Starbuck, is one of the leading authorities on plumbing in the United States. The book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. A very comprehensive work, illustrating and describ- ing the drainage and ventilation of dwellings, apartments and public buildings. The very latest and most approved methods in all branches of sanitary installation are given. The stand- ard book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, boards of plumbing examiners and for the property owner, as well as the workman and apprentice. It contains fifty-five entirely new and large full pages of illustrations with descriptive text, all of which have been made specially for this work. These plates show all kinds of modern plumbing work. Each plate is accc npanied by several pages of text, giving notes and practical sugges- tions, sizes of pipe, proper measurements for setting up work, etc. Suggestions on estimating plumbing construction are also included. 400 octavo pages, fully- illustrated by 55 full-page engravings, Price, $4. GO RECIPE BOOK HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- chemical formulae book published, including over 10,000 se- lected scientific, chemical, technological and practical recipes and processes. This book of 800 pages is the most complete book of recipes ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, helps, practical ideas and secret processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every branch of the yseful arts 26 and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. The pages arc filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable prac- tical value to the photographer, the perfumer, the painter, the manufacturer of glues, pastes, cements and mucilages, the physician, the druggist, the electrician, the brewer, the engineer, the foundryman, the machinist, the potter, the tanner, the confectioner, the chiropodist, the manufacturer .of chemical novelties and toilet preparations, the dyer, the electroplater, the enameler, the engraver, the provisioner, the glass worker, the goldbeater, the watchmaker and jeweler, the ink manufacturer, the optician, the farmer, the dairyman, the paper maker, the metal worker, the soap maker, the veterinary surgeon, and the technologist in general. A book to which you may turn with confidence that you will find what you are looking for. A mine of information up-to-date in every respect. Contains an immense number of formulas that every one ought to have that are not found in any other work. New edition. Cloth binding, $3.OO; Half Morocco binding, Price, $4.OO RUBBER HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OP RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. Contains upward of 10,000 Practical receipts, including among them formulas on arti- cial rubber. Price, $3.OO RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIP- ULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. By T. O'CoNOR SLOANE. This book gives full details of all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly every- thing it is necessary to understand for a commencement in any branch of the India rubber manufacture. The making of all kinds of rubber hand stamps, small articles of India rubber, U. S. Government composition, dating hand stamps, the manipulation of sheet rubber, toy balloons, India rubber solutions, cements, blackings, renovating varnish, and treat- ment for India rubber shoes, etc.; the hektograph stamp inks, and miscellaneous notes, with a short account of the dis- covery, collection and manufacture of India rubber are set forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the ex- planation being plain and simple. Third edition. 175 pages illustrated. Cloth, " * Price, SAWS SAW FILING AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By ROBERT GRIMSHAW. A practical hand book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering and the brazing of band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints and rules for gumming, setting, and fifing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price, $1.OO 27 SCREW CUTTING THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By Cot. VIN and STABEL. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. Price, 25 cent* STEAM ENGINEERING AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. CRANE. A new book by a well-known author. Begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. Con- tains the result of years of practical experience in all sorts of engine rooms and gives exact information that canno* be found elsewhere. It's plain enough for practical men and yet of value to those high in the profession. Has a complete ex- amination for a license. Second edition. 28'S pages. Illus- trated. Cloth. Price, $2.OO STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By ROBERT GRIM- SHAW. This volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer principle, but it contains formulas and wprked-out answers for all the steam problems that appertain to the operation and management of the steam engine. Illustrations of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. 34 tables that are in- dispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling are within .its pages. It is a most valuable instructor in the service of steam engineering. Leading engineers have recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as well as a reference book for the engineer. Sixteenth edition. Price, $2.00 BOILER ROOM CHART. By GEO. L. KOWLER. A chart size 14 x 28 inches showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. Water tube boilers, ordinary grates and mechanical stokers, feed water heaters and pumps comprise the equipment. The various parts are shown broken or removed, so that the in- ternal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room the names of more than 200 parts being given. It is educational worth many times its cost. Price, 25 cent* EMINENT ENGINEERS. By DWIGHT GODDARD. Everyone who appreciates the effect of such great inventions as the steam engine, steamboat, locomotive, sewing machine, steel working, and other fundamental discoveries, is inter- ested in knowing a little about the men who made them and their achievements. Mr. Goddard has selected thirty-two of the world's engineers who have contributed most largely to the advancement of our civilization by mechanical means, giving only such facts as are of general interest and in a way which appeals to all, whether mechanics or not. 280 pages, 35 illustrations. . Price, f 1.5O 28 ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM. By ROBERT T. GRIMSHAW. Tells how to erect, adjust and run the princi- pal steam engines in use in the United States. The work is of a handy size for the pocket. To young engineers this catechism will be of great value, especially to those who may be preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates of competency; and to engineers generally it 'will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more really practical and useful information than is to be found any- where else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price, $ 2.0O MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By GARDNER D. Hiscox. This is a complete and practical work issued for stationary engi- neers and firemen dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the exam- ining board, are included. Third edition. 487 pages, 405 engravings. Cloth. Price, $3.OO HORSE POWER CHART. Shows _the horse power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter or stroke; the steam pressure or cut-off; the revolutions, or whether condensing or non- condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. , Price, 5O cents STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By COL- VIN-CHENEY. A practical pocket book for the steam engi- neer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of en- gines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you onto all of the little kinks in figuring what- ever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and 1,001 other things; and every- thing is plain and simple not the hardest way to figure, but the easiest. Second edition. Price, 5O cents STEAM PIPES STEAM PIPES: THEIR DESIGN AND CON- STRUCTION. By WM. H. BOOTH. The work is well illustrated in regard to pipe joints, expansion offsets, flexible joints, and self-contained sliding joints for taking up the ex- pansion of long pipes. In fact, the chapters on the flow of steam and expansion of pipes are most valuable to all steam fitters and users. The pressure strength of pipes and method of hanging them is 'well treated and illustrated. Valves and by-passes are fully illustrated and described, as are also flange joints and their proper proportions. Exhaust heads and sepa- rators. One of the most valuable chapters is that on siiper- heated steam and the saving of steam by insulation with the various kinds of felting and other materials, with comparison tables of the loss of heat in thermal units from naked and felted steam pipes. Second edition. Contains 187 pages. Cloth. Price, ?2.OO 29 STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATING PRACTICAL, STEAM, HOT-WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By A. G. KING. This book has been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. Tells how to get heating contracts, how to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. It describes all the prin- cipal systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor and vacuum- vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. Second edition. 367 pages, 300 detailed engrav- ings. Cloth. Price, $3.OO 5OO PLAIN ANSWERS TO DIRECT QUES- TIONS ON STEAM, HOT-WATER, VAPOR AND VACUUM HEATING PRACTICE. By ALFRED G. KING. This work, just off the press, is arranged in question and answer form; it is intended as a guide and text-book for the younger' inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for all fitters. All long and tedious discussions and descriptions formerly considered so important have been eliminated, and the theory and laws of heat and the various old and modern methods and appliances used for heating and ventilating are treated in a concise manner. This is the standard Question and Answer examination book on Steam and Hot Water Heating, etc. 200 pages, 127 illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price, f 1.50 STEEL HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OP STEEL,. By J. V. WOODWORTH. A book containing special directions for the successful hard- ening and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet- metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, both large and small, the simplest, and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are presented. 320 pages, 250 illustra- tions. Fourth edition. Cloth. Price, $2.5O STEEL,: ITS SELECTION, ANNEALING, HAR- DENING AND TEMPERING. By E. R. MARKHAM. This work was formerly known as "The American Steel Worker," but on the publication of the new, revised edition, the publishers deemed it advisable to change its title to a more suitable one. This is the standard work on hardening, tempering, and annealing steel of all kinds. This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It is the standard book on selecting, hardening, and tempering all grades of steel. 400 pages. Very fully illustrated. Fourth edition. Price, $12. 5O 30 HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OP RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited by GARDNER D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- chemical receipt book published, giving, among other practical receipts, methods of annealing, coloring, tempering, welding, plating, polishing and cleaning steel. Price, $3.OO TRACTORS THE HOME-MADE TRACTOR. By XENO W. PUTNAM. A practical treatise on the construction .of small and special purpose tractors in the home workshop from the odds and ends of cast-off machinery available on nearly every farm. This work shows the farmer how, at small expense, to make his gasoline engine conveniently portable by making it self-moving; It guides him in the construction of a prac- tical farm tractor that is capable of hauling, harvesting, plow- ing and doing all the ordinary farm work in which the pro- pulsion of other machinery is required. Twenty-four chapters are contained in this book and it is illustrated with over 125 working engravings showing many successfully built and tested home-made tractors. (Ready shortly.) THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. By VICTOR W. PAGE. A complete treatise describing all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene, and oil tractors. Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instruction for care, operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field. The best and latest work on - farm tractors and tractor power plants. A work needed by farmers, students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, designers and engineers. 500 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations and folding plates. Price, $2.OO TURBINES MARINE STEAM TURBINES. By ; : D$ Q, BAUER and O. LASCHE. Assisted by E. Ludwig and". H. Vflgel. Translated from the German and edited by M. G. .. Swallow. The book is essentially practical and discusses ttirbines in which the full expansion of steam passes through a number of separate turbines arranged for driving two or more sh.afts, as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which* the complete expansion of steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in a turbine on one shaft, as in the case of the Curtis machines. It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calcu- lation necessary for the construction of steam turbines, hence it fills a want which is hardly met by larger and more theo- retical works. Numerous tables, curves and diagrams will be found, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason why turbine blades are designed as they are, .the course which steam takes through turbines of various types, the thermody- namics of steam turbine calculation, the influence of vacuum on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, the very information which a designer and builder of steam turbines most requires. Large octavo, 214 pagesi Fully il- lustrated and containing 18 tables, including an entropy chart. Price, $3.5O net * 31 WATCH MAKING WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. By CLAUDIUS SAUNIER. No work issued can compare with this book for clearness and completeness. It contains 498 pages and is in- tended as a workshop companion for those engaged in watch- making and allied mechanical arts. Nearly 250 engravings and 14 plates are included. This is the standard work on watchmaking. Price, 93. OO The Most Valuable Techno-Chemical Recipe Book Ever Offered to the Public! Henley's Twentieth Century Book of RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES Price $3.00 It contains more than 10,000 prac- tical recipes and formulas for everyday use in business, at home, or in the factory. Everything you want to make Antiseptics, Water proofing, Lubricants, Rust Preven- tives, Dyes, Filters, Cleaning Prep, arations, Enameling, Beverages, Inks, Adhesives, Polishes, Disin- fectants, Flavorings, Cosmetics, Ceramics, etc., etc. Photography is treated in all its various branches, as are also Plating, Painting, Leather Work, etc. Tests for Food Adul- terants are fully covered; how to make fly paper; to color flowers artificially; to estimate weight of ice by measurement; to make materials fireproof; to work with metals aluminum, brass, etc.; to make anything and everything, from A to Z. | A fl A A Practical Formulas and Processes 1U,UUU The Best Way to Make Everything ONE USEFUL RECIPE WILL BE WORTH MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE PRICE OF THE BOOK (See page 26 for further description of the book.) 32 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. LD 21-100m-12, '43 (8796s) Oaylord Bros. Makers Syracuse, N. Y. PAT. JAN. 2 1, 1908 ~TA- 402.356 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY