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 liCSB LIBRARY
 
 SHIPBUILDING 
 
 lfeS4 
 
 IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE, 
 
 GIVING FULL DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION, PROCESSES OF 
 
 MANUFACTURE, AND BUILDING ARRANGEMENTS ; 
 
 WITH RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON IRON AND STEEL, AND ON 
 
 THE STRENGTH AND WATERTIGHTNESS OF 
 
 RIVETED WORK. 
 
 By E. J. REED, C.B., 
 
 CHIEF CONSTRUCTOR OF THE NAVY, 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTION OF NATAL ARCHITECTS, AND HONOEARY MEMBER 
 OF THE LIVERPOOL LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 
 
 By order of the Lords Commissioners of tlie Admiralty, tlie Examinations in Practical 
 
 Iron Shiphuilding of Candidates for Promotion in H.M. Dochjards 
 
 ■will he mainly based upon this Worh. 
 
 ' LONDON: 
 JOHN MUKRAft'j/il^BRMAELE STREET. 
 
 1869. 
 
 'J'lie right of 'J'l-anslation is re!.erved.
 
 ... $!f,.. 
 
 IX)^fI>OS: riMNTF.D BT WII.LtAM CIVjVeS *AVn*SONS,'l)Ulft; STREET, f-TAMFORD STRF.KT, 
 ANn CHARING CROSS.
 
 TO 
 
 VICE-ADMIRAL EGBERT SPENCER ROBINSON, 
 
 CONTEOLLEE OF THE NAVY, 
 
 IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF 
 
 THE MANY AND IMPORTANT IMPKOVEMENTS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 CONSTEUCTION OF IRON SHIPS 
 
 WHICH HAVE BEEN MADE 
 
 BY HIS DESIEE AND UNDER HIS AUTHORITY, 
 
 Clits Wloxli 
 
 u 
 IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 BY HIS 'OBLIGED AND OBEDIENT SERVANT, 
 
 THE AUTHOE. 
 
 a 2
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 My principal object in Avriting this book has been to furnish to 
 shipbuilders, and tc shipbuilding oflficers of all grades, fuller 
 information respecting the details of ship construction in iron and 
 steel than any previous work records. In the body of the book 
 I have borne repeated testimony to the merits of the existing 
 writings of ]Mr, Grantham, Mr. Scott Eussell, Dr. Fairbairn, 
 Professor Kankine, and others ; but none of these either gives, or 
 professes to give, that copious detailed information of which tliose 
 who have to superintend the practical operations of shipbuilding, 
 and even cultivated workmen, have often felt the want. 
 
 The book is without pretension as a record of the history of 
 iron shipbuilding ; but I have nevertheless given, under the several 
 heads, a brief account of the methods of construction adopted in 
 early iron ships, and of the successive improvements which have 
 led up to existing methods. In all cases I have endeavoured to 
 give to the treatise an essentially practical character, — the descrip- 
 tions and criticisius comprised in it being based on what are 
 universally recognised as the first principles of ship construction. 
 The reader who seeks for theoretical instruction is referred to the 
 works of Mr. Scott Eussell, Dr. Fairbairn, and Professor Eankine, 
 named above. 
 
 It must not be supposed, because my daily duties connect me 
 
 most intimately with the building of Government ships, that I have 
 
 restricted this volume to that branch of ship construction; still 
 
 ^ less that the following pages are devoted exclusively to iron-clad 
 
 vessels. On the contrary, I have thought it well to treat lai-gely 
 
 ur. 
 
 ex. 
 
 of the practice of mercantile shipbuilders, and have given copious
 
 vi Preface. 
 
 descriptions of the systems of work adopted on the Mersey, the 
 Clyde, tlie Tyne, and the Thames, taking pains, in all cases, to 
 represent as accurately as possible the general practice of the ship- 
 building firms upon those rivers. At the same time, I have con- 
 sidered it desirable to bring together information, useful to ship- 
 builders, from numerous sources which must be more or less 
 difficult of access to many whom I hope to have among my readers, 
 — such as the Proceedmfjs of the Institution of Civil Engineers ; 
 the Tramactims of the Koyal Society, of the Institution of Naval 
 Architects, and of the Scottish Shipbuilders' Association ; and the 
 Specifications of Patents, — nor have I hesitated in a few cases, to 
 make mention of improvements wliich have yet to find a place in 
 actual practice. 
 
 The construction of war ships is now so important a part of the 
 shipbuilder's art, even in private establishments, that I have 
 described at length the novel features introduced into recent iron- 
 clad ships, in so far as the arrangement and combination of their 
 frames, plating, decks, and bulkheads are concerned ; bringing the 
 information down to the date of the ' Invincible ' class. The 
 methods of testing the materials used in the construction of the 
 ships of the Navy ; the building system adopted in the lioyal 
 Dockyards at Chatham and Pembroke ; and the operations con- 
 nected with preparing, fitting, and fastening armour plates, are also 
 fully explained. 
 
 There are four chapters of this work upon which great labour 
 has been bestowed, in order not only to bring together much 
 scattered information, but also to set forth facts and considerations 
 which have hitherto been to some extent disregarded or mis- 
 apprehended. These are the chapters on Outside Plating, Steel 
 Plates for Shipbuilding, Kivets and Eivet Work, and Systems of 
 "Work. The chapter on Outside Plating, taken in connection with 
 that on Kivets and Rivet-work, will be found valuable, I trust, in 
 aiding the shipbuilder to avoid the employment of an unnecessary 
 weight of material, and to obtain the utmost structural strength out
 
 Preface, vii 
 
 of the material and labour which are employed. I have no 
 hesitation in saying that riveted work, both in its general relations 
 and in its special adaptations to shipbuilding purposes, is more 
 fully considered in this volume than in any other work of like 
 character. The information gathered from numerous works on 
 Bridge construction and from many published accounts of experi- 
 ments, is supplemented by further accounts of experiments recently 
 made in the Eoyal Dockyards which have not been previously 
 published. The investigations and calculations of the strengths of 
 butt fastenings are also original, and are based upon examples 
 taken from actual practice and upon the most trustworthy experi- 
 ments. The chapter on Steel Plates brings together the principal 
 results of the experience we have had of the use of this material in 
 shipbuilding. It necessarily partakes somewhat of the tentative 
 and partial character by which the employment of steel for this 
 purpose has hitherto been marked ; but the fulness of the informa- 
 tion afforded will, I hope, tend nevertheless to facilitate the 
 extended application of the material. The chapter on Systems of 
 Work, to the substance of which I have already referred, will well 
 repay all the pains taken in its compilation, if it promotes greater 
 simplicity and uniformity in the various shipbuilding establishments 
 throughout the country. 
 
 In preparing this volume I have, at times, drawn largely from 
 the writings and experiments of others ; but as I have in all cases 
 acknowledged the sources of my information, it is unnecessary to 
 further acknowledge them here. I must, however, observe that I 
 have received assistance from Messrs. Barnaby, Barnes, and Cross- 
 land, Assistant Constructors of the Navy, especially in working 
 out the details of the novel systems of construction which have 
 been embodied in the recent ships of H.M. Navy, and described in 
 the follov/ing pages. Mr. W. H. White, late of the Eoyal School 
 of Naval Architecture, has given me valuable assistance during the 
 preparation of several of the chapters of this book, and in the coi- 
 rection of the press.
 
 viii Preface. 
 
 I liavo only to add tliat, as one of my principal objects in 
 writing this book has been to extend a knowledge of tlie details of 
 their business among the officers and men of H.M. Dockyards, it is 
 a great satisfaction and pleasure to me to have received the order 
 of the liords of the Admiralty to employ it as the text-book upon 
 which the examinations in Practical Iron Shipbuilding of candi- 
 dates for promotion in those Dockyards will hereafter be mainly 
 based. 
 
 E. J. KEED. 
 
 London, Oct. 18G8.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STRENGTH OP IRON SHIPS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory remarks on Shipbuilding 1 
 
 Progress made in bridge construction, and notice of writings on the subject . . 1 
 
 Consideration of a ship as a girder, principally due to Dr. Fairbairn 2 
 
 Instances in which ships have been supported at the middle, or suspended by 
 
 the extremities— ' Prince of Wales' and ' Nun* 2 
 
 Necessity for taking account of the other deteriorating influences and strains to 
 
 which ships are liable 3 
 
 Statement of the primary considerations to be borne in mind in ship construction 3 
 These principles illustrated by cases of actual weaknesses and defects, and not 
 
 by theoretical enquiries 4 
 
 Longitudinal strength especially necessary in upper and lower parts of a shij) ; 
 
 this fact not properly recognised in the construction of ships 4 
 
 Cases of deficiency of longitudinal strength : — 
 
 Atlantic mail steamer 4 
 
 Mode m which additional strength was supplied 5 
 
 Bilges often strengthened by working doubling plates upon the sunk 
 
 strakes ; Messrs. Laird adopt this mode of strengthening 5 
 
 Examples of this mode of strengthening, and description of the doubling 
 
 arrangements 6 
 
 Mail paddle-steamer for ocean service ; weaknesses discovered, and means 
 
 of strengthening 6 
 
 Similar case, with an account of the repairs and additions made . . . . 7 
 Contiimity of longitudinal strength most essential ; but often neglected ; cases 
 illustrating this statement, and particulars of the manner in which the 
 
 defects were remedied 9 
 
 Longitudinal ties often insufficiently butt-strapped 10 
 
 Singlc-rivctod butts often cause weakness, but very frequently adopted .. .. 11 
 
 Kigidity in skin-plating very desirable 11 
 
 Weakness often arises from flexibility in the jilating — three cases illustrating 
 this statement, with particulars of the means employed to remedy the 
 
 defects 11 
 
 Opinion of an experienced shipbuilder on this subject 13 
 
 Cases of injury done by grounding : — 
 
 IMail steamer upon a sand-bank ; injuries principally caused by a bad 
 
 disposition of biitts of plating and longitudinal framing 14 
 
 Necessity for careful disposition of tlio butts in all cases 15 
 
 Ship of 1500 tons on a stone causeway ; surveyor's report on the injuries 
 sustained, and remarks thereon 15
 
 X Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 KEELS, KEELSONS, AND GARBOARD-STRAKES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 rrinmry object of fitting keels and keelsons 18 
 
 Keels first used external, either of wood, or of hollow plate-iron filled with 
 
 wood 1° 
 
 Wood keelsons also employed at first . . • 18 
 
 Dangerous practice of tlirougli-bolting wood keels to iron plates' 18 
 
 Rabbeted bar-keels : ' Malta's ' and ' Persia's ' . . . . 19 
 
 riaiu bur-keels 19 
 
 Hollow iron keels : — 
 
 ' Dover's ' keel 19 
 
 Oakfarm Iron Company's patent 20 
 
 Butt-straps to ' Dover's ' keel 20 
 
 ♦ Birkenhead's ' keel 21 
 
 ' Nevka's ' and ' Dictator's ' keel 21 
 
 Sometimes filled with wood 21 
 
 Garboards sometimes run across the keel 21 
 
 Box -shaped keels ; three sections 22 
 
 Plain bar-keel now most commonly adopted in merchant service 22 
 
 Three modes of connecting a bar -keel with a middle-line keelson plate . . . , 23 
 
 Advantages of these arrangements in preventing folding down of floors . . . . 23 
 
 Blodes of connecting the several lengths of a bar-keel 24 
 
 Thin-plate keel sometimes substituted for a solid bar-keel 24 
 
 Side-bar keels : — 
 
 Ordinary arrangement 25 
 
 With horizontal plate beneath side bars 25 
 
 Keelsons employed with bar-keels 26 
 
 Advantages gained by the use of an intercostal middle-line keelson . . 26 
 
 Longitudinal ties of bulb-iron used with intercostal keelsons 26 
 
 Flat-plate keelsons and angle-iron stringers sometimes employed .. .. 27 
 
 Keelsons employed with side-bar keels 27 
 
 Horizontal keelson plates : — 
 
 With centre plate stopped at the height of floor throat 28 
 
 With cross straps 28 
 
 With angle-iron stringer above 29 
 
 With centre plate carried up and connected by a pair of angle-irons .. 29 
 
 With centre plate formed into an I-shaped keelson above floors 30 
 
 Flat-plate keels : — 
 
 With middle-line keelson plates intercostal or continuous ; used in mer- 
 chant service . . , . 30 
 
 Used in the iron-clad frigates 31 
 
 Details of ' Warrior's' keel arrangements 31 
 
 „ 'Northumberland's' „ 32 
 
 Table of thicknesses of plates and angle-irons in ' Northumberland's ' keel 32 
 Particulars of butt-strapping of keel-plates and angle-irons, garboard 
 
 strakcs, &c 33 
 
 Remarks on these arrangements 34. 
 
 Disposition of butts of plates and angle-iions in the keel, keelson, and 
 
 garboards 35 
 
 Description of ' Bellerophon's ' keel 37 
 
 Arrangementsof keel, &c., of 'Hercules' .' 37
 
 Contents. xi 
 
 Flat-plate keels : — continued. page 
 Particulars of butt-strapping of keel-plates and angle-irons, garboards, 
 
 &c., and disposition of butts of ' Hercules ' 38 
 
 Mode of making vertical keel-plate watertight 39 
 
 Details of keel, &c., of ' Captain ' 40 
 
 Particulars of butt-strapping of keel-plates and angle-irons, garboards, &c. 41 
 
 Mode of making vertical keel-plate watertight 42 
 
 Flat-plate keel, with external bar-keel, and turned-down garboards 42 
 
 Keel arrangements of ships built on Mr. Scott Eussell's longitudinal system . . 42 
 Side or bilge keels : — 
 
 Of ' Great Britain ' and other early ships 43 
 
 Of ships of Koyal Navy — 'Warrior,' ' Bellerophon,' 'Penelope,' and 
 
 'Malabar' 43 
 
 Considerations to be taken account of in fixing side-keels 45 
 
 Keelsons and sister-keelsons 45 
 
 Lloyd's rules for middle-line keelsons 45 
 
 The Liverpool rules for do. 46 
 
 Curved hollow-plate keelson 46 
 
 Special arrangement of intercostal middle-line keelson and bulb-iron adopted in 
 
 ' Cohunbian ' 46 
 
 Side-keelsons : — 
 
 Lloyd's rules for 46 
 
 Liverpool rules for 47 
 
 Longitudinal frames serve same purpose 47 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 STEMS. 
 
 Stem usually a prolongation of keel 48 
 
 ,, requires special strengthening for ram-bows 48 
 
 Hollow iron stems — ' Dover's ' and ' Birkenhead's ' 48 
 
 Solid stems— at first rabbeted bars, and then plain bars used ; the latter now 
 
 generally employed 48 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for connection of stem with keel 48 
 
 Devices for connecting stems with keelson-plates 49 
 
 Connection of solid stems with side-bar keels— the ' Orontes ' 49 
 
 Connection of solid stems, with flat-plate keels 49 
 
 Examples of this connection: — 1100-ton blockade runner, and Indian troop- 
 
 ships *^" 
 
 Details of stem, and its connections in the 'Northumberland' 51 
 
 Stems of ' Bellerophon,' ' Kin^ William,' and ' Penelope ' 53 
 
 Description of process of making a large stem 54 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 STERN POSTS. 
 
 Hollow-plate stern posts— 'Dover's' and' Birkenliead's' 56 
 
 Solid bars now used 56 
 
 Lloyd's and Liverpool rules for stern post connections with keels 56 
 
 Connection of solid stern posts with side-bar keels—' Queen's ' and ' Orontes' ' . . 57 
 
 Thin-plate stern posts used instead of solid forgings 58
 
 xii Co7itents. 
 
 PAUE 
 
 I'rcsent arraugemcnta of stern posts 
 
 Stern posts of IiKlian troop-ships ^^ 
 
 * Nurtliumbtrlixntr ol 
 
 Mode of forging a Inrgc stern post *^^ 
 
 Wfl.liiig the parts of a body post ^^ 
 
 „ preparing a rudder post ^^ 
 
 Stem post proposed for ' King William ' ^^ 
 
 of ' Barwon ' 
 
 m 
 
 ' Penelope ' _ 
 
 • Belleroi)hon ' ^'^ 
 
 'King William' 71 
 
 ' Hercules ' ''^ 
 
 ' Pervenetz ' "^ ^ 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SYSTEMS OF FRAMING. 
 
 Classification of systems of framing 73 
 
 Framing of early iron ships — 'Dover' 74 
 
 „ ' Birkenhead ' 75 
 
 „ ' Ilecruit ' 7(5 
 
 Floor-plates of early ships 7(j 
 
 Moileru arrangement of transverse framing 77 
 
 Frame angle-irons — usual arrangement 77 
 
 „ Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for 78 
 
 Floor-plates— Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for 78 
 
 ,, with l)ar or hoUow-ijlate keels . . 7!) 
 
 „ witli side-bar keels 7!> 
 
 „ with flat-plate keels 81) 
 
 „ Mr. Mackrow's plan 81 
 
 Kcversed angle-irons — strengthening effeet of 82 
 
 „ Lloyd's and Liverpool rules for 82 
 
 Bow and stern framing — ordinary arrangement 83 
 
 „ „ canted frames 83 
 
 Bow framing — diagonal breasthooks 84 
 
 „ strengthened by breasthooks 85 
 
 Diagouid ties on transverse framing 86 
 
 Provision of longitudinal strength 86 
 
 Particulars of steamship ' Queen ' • 86 
 
 'China' 88 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell's longitudinal system of framing 89 
 
 ,, comparison of ' Annette ' with a transversely-framed ship of same 
 
 tonnage 91 
 
 Mr. Jen-'en's remarks on this system 93 
 
 Particulars of framing of ' Great Eastern ' 93 
 
 Advanttigcs claimed for longitudinal system 93 
 
 Bow and stem framing of ships built on this system 94 
 
 Objections made to system 95 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell's remarks 96 
 
 Particulars of framing of ' Sentinel ' and ' Rouen ' 96
 
 Contents. xiii 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COMBINED TKANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SYSTEM OF FRAMING — 
 FRAMING OF 'WARRIOR,' 'NORTHUMBERLAND,' &C. 
 
 Details of framing of ' Warrior ' : — p^(,j. 
 
 Of longitudinal frames 98 
 
 Of transverse frames in protected part of the ship 99 
 
 Of ditto before and abaft armour -plating 100 
 
 Of wing-passage arrangements 101 
 
 Details of framing of ' Northumberland ' : — 
 
 Of longitudinal frames 102 
 
 Of mode of making longitudinals watertight at bulkheads 102 
 
 Of armour shelf, manufacture and working 104 
 
 Of transverse framing 106 
 
 Of differences between ditto in ' Wamor ' and ' Northumberland ' . . . . 107 
 
 Of bow framing p I07 
 
 Of stern framing 108 
 
 Of wing-passages and partial inner bottom 109 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 BRACKET-PLATE SYSTEM OF FRAMING — FRAMING OF 
 ' BELLEROPHON,' 'HERCULES,' &C. 
 
 Characteristic features of system HO 
 
 Details of framing of ' Bellerophon ' :— 
 
 Of longitudtaal frames HO 
 
 Investigation of breaking strengths of No, 6 longitudinal HI 
 
 Of watertight longitudinals II4 
 
 Of inner bottom and wing -passages II4 
 
 Of transverse framing, its advantages as compared with preceding ships . . 115 
 
 Of transverse framing before and abaft double bottom HG 
 
 Of watertight flat forward and bow framing II7 
 
 Of stern framing II9 
 
 Of light framing above armour 122 
 
 Of cant frames abaft the stern post 122 
 
 Description of manner in which framing was jn-oceeded with 123 
 
 Longitudinals and wing-passage bulkheads of ' Hercules ' 124 
 
 Watertight longitudinals in ^ Hercules ' and ' Captain ' 124 
 
 Armour shelf of 'Hercules' 126 
 
 ,, 'Captain' I27 
 
 ,, 'Invincible' 128 
 
 Endings of longitudinals in ' Hercules ' and ' Captain ' I29 
 
 Disposition of butts of longitudinals in ' Hercules ' and ' Captain ' 129 
 
 ,, and scarphs of transverse frames in ' Hercules ' .. .. .. 131 
 
 Transverse framing of ' Invincible ' class • 132 
 
 Light framing above armour in ' Hercules ' I33 
 
 Bow and stern framing of ' Hercules ' 233 
 
 Comparison of weights of hull of ships built on bracket-plate system with those 
 built on combined transverse and longitudinal system I34
 
 XIV 
 
 Contents. 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DECK FRAMING AND PILLARING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 135 
 
 Iiitrotluctory romarks on deck framing 
 
 Woo<n .earns formerly employed— 'Recruit 'and' Mcgc-eia' 13b 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell's modes of litting wood beams Ip' 
 
 Iron beams first used in steam-ships over engines and l)oilers li^7 
 
 Comparative weights of iron and wood beams of equal streugtlis 137 
 
 Sectional forms of beams used •• ■• ^Jf 
 
 Statement of the principles which should regulate proportions and forms of beams 140 
 
 Lloyd's and the LiveriX)ol rules for beams •• •• 1-12 
 
 Made beams— of earlier iron ships 1*'^ 
 
 Of ' Northumberland ' 14^ 
 
 Of Indian troop-ships I'iS 
 
 Manufacture of patent welded Butterley beams 145 
 
 bulB-iron and H-iron beams 145 
 
 Modes of bending beams 145 
 
 „ forming beam-knees 146 
 
 Messrs. Laird's arrangement for welding on beam-knees 147 
 
 Riveting of beam-work 147 
 
 Connection of beam ends with the ship's side : — 
 ' Birkenhead's ' and ' Vulcan's ' 148 
 
 Lower-deck and hold beams 149 
 
 Battery beams of ' Invincible ' class 149 
 
 Beams at principal hatchways of ' Queen ' 150 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for connections 150 
 
 Ordinary mode 150 
 
 Main-deck beams of ' Hercules ' 151 
 
 Diagonal deck-framing at extremities of ' Northumberland' and ' Bellerophon ' 151 
 Deck-framing of ships built on Mr. Scott Russell's longitudinal system .. .. 152 
 
 Spacing of beams ; Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for 152 
 
 ,, „ in iron-clad sliips of Navy 153 
 
 Deck-framing in wake of hatchways, &c 153 
 
 Modes of taking lengths of beams, &c 154 
 
 Mode of straightening beams in place 155 
 
 Pillars to beams : — 
 
 Their importance 155 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for 155 
 
 Necessity for well securing the heels 156 
 
 Connections of heads and heels of pillars between decks, hinged pillars, 
 
 (fee 156 
 
 Connections of heads and heels of hold-stanchions 158 
 
 Deck-framing sometimes supported by girders 158 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 DECK STRINGERS AND PLATING. 
 
 Ship regarded as a girder 159 
 
 Adoption of partial and complete iron upper decks 159 
 
 Examples from ships of mercantile marine IGO
 
 Contents. xv 
 
 stringers and tie-plates : — p^ej. 
 
 Ordinary arrangement . . . . i6o 
 
 Comparative value of 161 
 
 Lloyd's rule for Igl 
 
 Liverpool rule for 162 
 
 Comparison of the two rules 163 
 
 Continuity of strength in, most desirable 164 
 
 Mr. Bamaby's proposal for 164 
 
 Deck-stringer arrangements : — 
 
 With wood beams 165 
 
 Of ' Birkenhead ' and ' Eecruit ' 166 
 
 Modes now in use 166 
 
 On ' Captain's ' lower deck 167' 
 
 Box-stringers on beam-ends 168 
 
 Cellular stringer of ' Sentinel ' 169 
 
 Mr. Fairbaim's proposal for strengthening upper decks 169 
 
 Stringer arrangements at extremities • 170 
 
 Iron decks : — 
 
 Usual arrangement 170 
 
 Details of ' Warrior's ' deck plating 171 
 
 , , ' Northumberland's ' deck plating 172 
 
 , , ' Bellerophou's ' , , 172 
 
 , , ' Hercules' ' , , 174 
 
 Of tm-ret ships, the ' Affondatore's ' 175 
 
 Mr. Bamaby's proposed arrangement . . . . 175 
 
 ' Great Eastern's ' upper deck • • . . , . 177 
 
 Fastenings of wood deck-planking 177 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OUTSIDE PLATING. 
 
 Introductory remarks 180 
 
 An-augements of plating : — 
 
 Flush 180 
 
 Clinker fashion 181 
 
 Lengths, thicknesses, &c., of plates, of early iron ships 182 
 
 Ordinary plan 183 
 
 Mr. Lamb's patent, and similar modes of plating 183 
 
 In unprotected parts of topsides of iron-clads 185 
 
 Mr. Daffsplan 185 
 
 Usual method of disposing outside plating 186 
 
 Methods of working stealers 186 
 
 Plating at extretnities 188 
 
 Arrangement of shifts of butts of plating 188 
 
 Illustrations of shifts of butts 189 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for disposition of butts 192 
 
 Ordinary dimensions of bottom plates 192 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for fitting butts, &c 193 
 
 General outline of process of plating a ship 193 
 
 Mr. Grantham's remarks on ordinary workmanship 194 
 
 Description of operation of punching 195 
 
 Ordinary form of rivet in bottom plating 196 
 
 Holes often half-blind or blind ; drilling holes proposed as a remedy 197 
 
 Evil effects of " drifting " holes 198
 
 xvi Contents. 
 
 Riveting of outside plating :— i-agr 
 
 Lloyd's and llio Liverpool rules for 200 
 
 Opinions cntLituinud by shipbuilders 200 
 
 Single-riveted butts in ' Annette ' and other sliips 200 
 
 Single edge riveting 201 
 
 Double ,, 202 
 
 Remarks on compamtive advantages of zigzag and chain riveting for 
 
 edges 202 
 
 Breadths of lap required and adopted for edge-riveting 203 
 
 Modes of fitting butt-stnips 203 
 
 Tlucknesses, &e., of butt-straps 204 
 
 Double-zigzag riveted butt ' 205 
 
 Treble ,, ,, , 205 
 
 Double-chain , , , 205 
 
 Treble-chain . , , , 205 
 
 Quadruple-chain , , , , 206 
 
 Special arrangertients of treble-chain riveted butts 20G 
 
 ' Hercules' ' bottom plating . . . . ' 207 
 
 Breadths of butt-straps 207 
 
 Remarks on rules for thicknesses of plating 208 
 
 Mr. Letty's statenicuts with regard to possible arrangements with a given total 
 
 ♦ weight of plating 208 
 
 Tiloyd's and the Liverpool rules for thicknesses of plating 209 
 
 Reductions in thickness of plating at extremities 210 
 
 Account of the plating of some iron ships : — 
 
 ' Birkenlicad,' 'Megffira,' and ' Himalaya ' 211 
 
 ' Warrior ' and ' Hercules ' 212 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 BULKHEADS. 
 
 Introductoi7 remarks 213 
 
 Transverse bulkheads nearly universal 213 
 
 Longitudinal watertiglit divisions often fitted 213 
 
 Arrangement of watertight bulklieads : — 
 
 Ijloyd's and the Liverpool Rules for 214 
 
 In early iron sliips 214 
 
 In moc^ern ii-on ships 214 
 
 Remarks on present iiractice 215 
 
 In iron-clad ships 215 
 
 Mr. Scott Ivussell's opinion on 215 
 
 No arbitrary rule can be given for 215 
 
 Mr. Lungley's plan of watertight decks or flats 216 
 
 Construction of bulkheads : — 
 
 Ordinary mode of arranging plating and stifieners 216 
 
 Illustrations of 217 
 
 Objections to, and advantages of ordinary mode 218 
 
 Mr. INIackrow's proposal 220 
 
 Middle-line and stuffing-box bulkheads 220 
 
 In ships of the Navy 220 
 
 "With length of plates vertical 221 
 
 Connections of watertight bulkheads :— 
 
 Methods formerly in use 222 
 
 Tiloyd's and the Liverpool Rules for 223
 
 Contents. xvii 
 
 Connections of watertight bulkheads — continued. page 
 
 Present practice in merchant-ships 223 
 
 In ships built on Mr. Scott Russell's longitudinal system 225 
 
 In ships with double bottoms 225 
 
 In ' Great Eastern ' 226 
 
 Liners to bulkhead frames 226 
 
 Mr. Hodgson's patent 226 
 
 Mr. Eae's 227 
 
 Mr. Ash's ,, 227 
 
 Remarks on these methods 227 
 
 Modes of securing the upper edges of bulkheads 228 
 
 Watertight work where keelsons, stringers, &c., pass through bulkheads . . . . 228 
 
 , , , , , , beams and half-beams , , , , , , .... 230 
 
 Watertight doors to bulkheads :^ 
 
 In hold of ' Mmotaur ' 230 
 
 'Penelope' 232 
 
 On lower deck of ' Bellerophon ' 232 
 
 To wing-passage bulkheads of ' Minotaur ' 233 
 
 Sluice-valves used in H.M. Service 234 
 
 Modes of indicating when watertight doors or sluice- valves are open 235 
 
 , , testing watertight compartments 235 
 
 Partial bulkheads in iron ships 236 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TOPSIDES. 
 
 Topsides of early iron vessels 237 
 
 Topsides now fitted — either wholly or partially of iron 239 
 
 , , , , — various plans of wooden topsides 241 
 
 , , , , to turret-ships — the ' Scorpions ' and ' Affondatore's ' . . . . 244 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 RUDDERS. 
 
 Rudders of early iron ships 247 
 
 Introduction of forged rudder frames 248 
 
 Mode of making rudders now practised 248 
 
 Illustration of present practice — the ' Northumberland's ' rudder 250 
 
 Modes of hanging rudders 251 
 
 Heel ropes, &c., of large iron nidders 251 
 
 Balanced rudders : — 
 
 Of ' Great Britain ' 252 
 
 Of twin-screw ships 252 
 
 Of single-screw ships — ' Bellerophon's ' 252 
 
 „ ,, — 'Hercules" 255 
 
 Bow rudders 258 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 IRON MASTS. 
 
 Their introduction 259 
 
 Comparison between wood and iron lower masts 259 
 
 b
 
 xviii Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Relative weight of wood aad iron lower masts * 2G0 
 
 ,, cost of „ „ 260 
 
 General mode of constructing iron masts 261 
 
 Various sectional arrangements adopted for iron masts 261 
 
 Particulars of masts of ' Bellerophon ' and ' Monarch ' 263 
 
 Mast-head airangemeuts 264 
 
 Ventilating covers fitted to iron masts , 266 
 
 Mast-heel arrangements 267 
 
 Plans for " cutting away " iron masts 269 
 
 Eemarks on the construction of topmasts, yards, &c 270 
 
 Account of weights of masts and fittings of a sloop of war j 271 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS. 
 
 Framing of mast-holes 272 
 
 „ hatchways 274 
 
 Bitts around masts 276 
 
 Riding bitts 277 
 
 Paddle and spring beams 278 
 
 Watertight scuttles 282 
 
 Mast steps 283 
 
 Thrust bearers 287 
 
 Chain plates 289 
 
 Bollard heads and towing bollai-ds 291 
 
 Catheads 292 
 
 Deck houses ^ 294 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 STEEL PLATES FOR SHIPBUILDING. 
 
 Introductory remvrks on the character of steel, and its use m shipbuilding .. 297 
 
 Mode of making puddled steel plates and bars 298 
 
 „ „ Bessemer „ „ .. 298 
 
 Remarks on two methods 298 
 
 Examples of tensile strengths of puddled and Bessemer steel plates, and 
 
 remarks thereon 209 
 
 Superior ductility of steel compared with iron 300 
 
 Examples of comparative angles of bending, without fracture, of "Best Best " 
 
 iron and Bessemer steel plates, when cold 301 
 
 Uniform ductility cannot at present be secured in Bessemer steel plates .. .. 301 
 
 Puddled steel is usually more ductile than Bessemer steel 301 
 
 Resolution of Lloyd's Committee with respect to steel-built ships 301 
 
 Bessemer steel will, probably, be more largely Used hereafter 302 
 
 Chatham experiments on Bessemer steel plates : — 
 
 Results of one set of experiments 303 
 
 Remarkable character of fractures 304 
 
 Results of a second set of experiments 305 
 
 Experiments to determine comparative effects of drilling and punching 306 
 Experiments to determine effect produced by fall of lieavy weights 
 
 upon Bessemer steel and u'on plates 307 
 
 Conclusions drawn from the results obtained 308
 
 Contents. xix 
 
 Chatham experiments on Bessemer steel plates -.—continued. page 
 Suappiug-ofl" of a stringer-plate in ' Hercules,' and the tests made on 
 
 the broken plate 308 
 
 Annealing necessary after plates are received from manufacturers 309 
 
 Diflerent modes of annealing steel 309 
 
 Mr. Sharp's suggestion with respect to annealing, and experiments made to 
 
 test the effect 309 
 
 Kesults of experiments with Bessemer steel 310 
 
 „ puddled steel 312 
 
 „ crucible cast steel 313 
 
 Necessity for care in the use of steel plates 314 
 
 Mr. Eochussen's proposal to use lead baths in annealing steel plates .. .. 315 
 
 Hardness and toughness produced in steel by cooling in oil 317 
 
 Mode of conducting the operation introduced by Mr. Anderson in the Eoyal 
 
 Arsenal at Woolwich 318 
 
 Mr. Ede's remarks on the process 318 
 
 Example of tests of toughened steel made at Woolwich 319 
 
 Mr. Kirkaldy's experiments on the subject 320 
 
 Mr. Sharp's experiments on effect produced on steel plates by enlarging the 
 
 dies used in puncliing 320 
 
 • Chatham experiments on the same subject 321 
 
 Mr. Krupp's remarks on the treatment of cast steel boiler plates 322 
 
 Keductions made in scantlings of steel-built ships 323 
 
 Scantlings of a steel paddle-steamer built at Livei-pool 324 
 
 CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 RIVETS AND EIVET-WORK. 
 
 Importance of proper arrangement of fastenings in a shiji 326 
 
 Eivet iron : its quality and tensile strength 326 
 
 Eivet making : by hand and by macliines 327 
 
 Eivet-heads : ordinary forms of, lengths allowed for, &c 328 
 
 Eivet-points : various forms of, lengths allowed for, &c 329 
 
 Particidars of riveted work of ' Northumberland,' and table showing practice 
 
 ofMillwall Ironworks 331 
 
 Diameters of rivets for various thicknesses of plates : — 
 
 Tables of, and rules for 332 
 
 Considerations which Gx the maximum and minimum diameters . . . . 333 
 
 M. Dupuy de Lome's calculations of theoretical proportions 335 
 
 Pitch of rivets : — 
 
 Original practice in boiler work 335 
 
 Eules for, and remarks on 335 
 
 In watertight work — Mr. Samuda's experiments 336 
 
 Chatham , 336 
 
 Operations connected with punching and riveting :— 
 
 Pressures required to punch holes 338 
 
 Effect produced on strengths of plates by punching 339 
 
 Process of hand-riveting 340 
 
 • „ machine-riveting 341 
 
 Comparison of two methods 342 
 
 Messrs. Forrester's jaortable riveting-machines 343 
 
 Number of rivets for day's work, &c., in private and Eoyal Dockyards.. 344 
 Shearing strength of rivet-iron and rivets : — 
 
 Experiments show it to be proportional to sectional area 345 
 
 b 2
 
 XX Contents. 
 
 Shearing strength of rivet-iron and rivets : — continued. page 
 Sir Charlos Fox's discovery with respect to size of pins required for 
 
 connecting fiat links of chains of suspension bridges 34G 
 
 Application of this principle to iron ship construction 348 
 
 Mr. Clark's experiments on shearing strength of rivet-iron 349 
 
 Mr. Doyne's experiments 350 
 
 Mr. Maynsird's experiments on effect produced on shearing strength by 
 
 having drilled instead of punched holes 350 
 
 Chatham experiments 351 
 
 Contraction of rivet-iron in cooling — Mr. Clark's statements and experiments 351 
 Friction induced by contraction of rivets : — 
 
 Mr. Clark's exijeriments 352 
 
 Pemljroke experiments 353 
 
 Mr. Clark's estimate of value of friction, and remarks thereon . . . . 356 
 
 ]Mr. Fairbaim's opinion on this subject 357 
 
 Effect produced on shearing strength of rivets by working and cooling 357 
 Arrangement of butt fa.stenings : — 
 
 Experimental enquiries on 358 
 
 Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on .single and double riveted butts . . . . 359 
 Strength of rivets should be made equal to sectional strength of plate 
 
 taken through a line of rivet-holes 359 
 
 Ordinary rule is to make the collective areas of the rivets equal to 
 
 sectional area of plate thi'ough a line of holes 359 
 
 Eemarks on Blr. Fairbairn's deductions from his experiments . . . . 3G0 
 
 Butt-fastenings of plate-ties — Mr. Barton's arrangement 3G1 
 
 „ „ Mr. Barnaby's arrangement, with calcula- 
 
 ^ tions of breaking strengths 302 
 
 Butt-fastenings of stringer-plates, with calculations of strengths . . . . 3(j5 
 „ „ outline of the general method of 
 arrangement of rivets and butt- 
 straps 367 
 
 Butt-fastenings of outside and deck plating 368 
 
 Example taken from ' Hercules' ' outside plating, with calculations of 
 
 strengths 369 
 
 Example taken from ' Samaria's ' outside plating, with calculations of 
 
 strengths 373 
 
 Kemarks on method of calculation 376 
 
 Outline of general method of arranging fastenings 377 
 
 General observations on present state of our information 378 
 
 Table of the sizes and pitches of rivets employed in the ' Hercules ' 379 
 
 Steel rivets : — 
 
 Remarks on the use of 381 
 
 Tensile strength of rivet-steel— Pembroke experiments 382 
 
 „ Mr. Kirkaldy's „ 382 
 
 Principal points requiring care in the use of 382 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ON TESTING IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 Provisions of Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules as to quality of iron, and general 
 practice of surveyors of both Committees 384 
 
 Admiralty Code of Tests : — 
 
 Tests for " best best " and " best " iron plates 385 
 
 Weight test for plates and angle-irons 386
 
 Contents, xxi 
 
 Admiralty Code of Tests : — continued. page 
 
 Examples of weights of iron and steel plates supplied to dockyards . . . . 388 
 
 Preliminary examination of plates 389 
 
 Tensile tests of iron plates ; mode of conducting 390 
 
 Calculation of tensile strains ; with example 392 
 
 Specimen page of test-book 393 
 
 Tensile tests of angle-iron and rivet-iron 394 
 
 Forge tests of iron plates (cold) 395 
 
 Forge tests of iron plates (hot) 396 
 
 Forge tests of angle-iron 396 
 
 Forge tests of rivets 397 
 
 Tests of armour-bolts 398 
 
 Tests for steel jDlates and angle-bars 399 
 
 Special i^recautions to be taken in testing steel plates 400 
 
 Effect produced on apparent tensile strength of material by shape of 
 
 sample plates tested 401 
 
 Chatham experiments on this point 402 
 
 Test of armour-plates 403 
 
 Chemical tests for carbon, i^hosphorus, sulphur, &c 403 
 
 Professor Eggertz's method of- colour testing 403 
 
 CHAPTEK XIX. 
 Lloyd's and the liveepool eules foe ieon shipbuilding. 
 
 Effect produced by Eules only considered in its practical aspect 404 
 
 Mr. Eitchie's introduction to Lloyd's revised Eules 404 
 
 Difiereuccs between Lloyd's Eules of 1862«and those now enforced, as regards : — 
 
 Application of Table of Dimensions 406 
 
 Keels, stems, and stern posts 406 
 
 Scantlings and spacing of frames 406 
 
 Floor-plates • 406 
 
 Ee versed angle-irons 407 
 
 Middle-line keelsons 407 
 
 Bilge keelsons 408 
 
 Outside plating 408 
 
 Deck beams 409 
 
 Eiveting 409 
 
 Bulkheads 409 
 
 Double bottoms 410 
 
 Deck jalanldng, planksheers, and waterways 410 
 
 Deck stringers 410 
 
 Longitudinal and diagonal tie-plates on decks 411 
 
 Hatchways and mast-partners 411 
 
 Eequu-ements for ships of excessive proportions 411 
 
 Eudders 411 
 
 Sm-veys 411 
 
 Ditferences between the Liverpool Eules of 1862 and those now enforced, as 
 regards : — 
 
 Classification and sm'veys 412 
 
 Keels 412 
 
 Scantlings and spacing of frames 413 
 
 Eeversed angle-irons and floor-plates 413 
 
 Middle-line keelsons 413 
 
 Bilge keelsons and hold stringers 413
 
 xxii Contents. 
 
 Differences between the Liverijool Rules of 1862, &c. — continued. pagk 
 
 Out&ide plating 414: 
 
 Deck beams 414 
 
 Riveting 415 
 
 Bulkheads 415 
 
 Deck planking 415 
 
 Deck stringers and tic-plates 415 
 
 Requirements for ships of excessive proportions 416 
 
 Rudders, &c 416 
 
 Extension of cliaractcr of vessels, and the foi-m of survey required .. .. 416 
 Differences between Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules as at present enforced, as 
 regards : — 
 
 Nomenclatiu'e 416 
 
 Classification 417 
 
 Surveys 417 
 
 Quality of the u-on employed .. .. 417 
 
 Keels and garboard-strakes 418 
 
 Flat keelson or gutter-plates . . . . 418 
 
 Stems and stern posts 419 
 
 Scantlings and spacing of frames and reversed angle-irons 419 
 
 Floor-plates 420 
 
 Middle-line keelsons 420 
 
 Bilge keelsons and hold stringers 421 
 
 Outside plating 421 
 
 Deck beams 422 
 
 Riveting '423 
 
 Bulklieads 424 
 
 Double bottoms 424 
 
 Inside planking or ceiling 424 
 
 Deck planking 424 
 
 Deck stringers 424 
 
 Deck tie-plates 425 
 
 Hatchways and mast-partners 425 
 
 Requirements for ships of excessive proportions 425 
 
 Rudders 426 
 
 Painting and cementing 426 
 
 Surveys for classification 426 
 
 Criticisms have been numerous on both set of Rules 426 
 
 Discussion on difierences at Scottisli Shipbuilder's Association . . 426 
 
 Lloyd's rules for ships built of steel 427 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF WORK. 
 
 Introductory remarks , 428 
 
 Mersey System : — 
 
 Preparation of model and arrangement of outside plating 428 
 
 Mode of ordering plates and angle-irons 429 
 
 Emijloyment of black-boards for getting in curves to which frames and 
 
 floor-plates are bent 429 
 
 Preparation of frame angle-irons 429 
 
 Proposed method of twisting instead of bevilling frames 430 
 
 Preparation of keel work, stem, and stern post 431 
 
 „ beams 431
 
 Contents. xxiii 
 
 Mersey System — continued. page 
 
 Process of framing 432 
 
 Preparation of floor-plates, and reversed angle-irons 432 
 
 D^cription of ordinary mode of plating a ship 433 
 
 Method of taking the account for, and working plates with large amounts 
 
 of curvature and twist 436 
 
 Ordinary arrangements of riveting in outside plating 436 
 
 Mode of working deck-stringers 437 
 
 Preparation of bulkheads 437 
 
 Putting-in rivets, and testing riveted work 437 
 
 Caulking laps and butts of plating 438 
 
 Usual practice with respect to painting, &c., of ships' bottoms 43S 
 
 Clydk System : — 
 
 Laying-off of ship 438 
 
 Use of a pennanent floor for getting in lines to which the frames and 
 
 floor-jjlates are to be bent 438 
 
 Preparation of expansion drawing 439 
 
 Mode of ordering plates and angle-ii"ons 439 
 
 Preparation of frame angle-irons . . * 439 
 
 Preparation of floor-plates, and reversed angle-irons 440 
 
 „ keel, stem, and stern post 440 
 
 Frames and floors riveted up across the keel 440 
 
 Preparation of beams 441 
 
 Beams generally riveted to frames before being hoisted 441 
 
 Preparation of bulkheads 442 
 
 Process of framing 442 
 
 Preparation of deck-stringers 442 
 
 Stern framing, how fltted and arranged 443 
 
 Working of outside plating ; templates used 443 - 
 
 Usual arrangements of riveting 443 
 
 Summary of difterences between systems followed on Mersey and Clyde 444 
 
 Thames System : — 
 
 Preparation of model and arrangement of plating, &c 445 
 
 Mode of ordering materials 445 
 
 IMoulds made for frames and floor-plates 446 
 
 Prejiaration of frame angle-irons 446 
 
 Fitting and fixing of the keel work 446 
 
 Process of framing 446 
 
 Preparation of floor-plates and reversed angle-irons 447 
 
 Duties of the " liner " 447 
 
 Preparation of beams 447 
 
 Working of outside plating ; templates used 448 
 
 Ordinary arrangements of riveting 448 
 
 Preparation of bulkheads 448 
 
 Statement of principal difl"erences between Thames and Mersey systems 449 
 
 Tyne Systesi : — " 
 
 Preparation of model, and afterwards of expansion drawing 449 
 
 Mode of ordering jilates and angle-irons 449 
 
 Deck plans prepared 450 
 
 Fixed floor used for lines required in bending frames 450 
 
 Preparation of frame angle-irons 450 
 
 Preparation of floor-plates and reversed angle-irons 450 
 
 Eiveting-up of frames and floors before being raised 450 
 
 Proceeding with keel work, stem, and stern post 451 
 
 Process of framing 451 
 
 Preparation of beams 451
 
 xxiv Contents. 
 
 Tyne System — continued. tage 
 
 Preparation of bulkheads 452 
 
 Work on decks 452 
 
 Working of outside plating % .. 452 
 
 Usual arrangements of riveting 452 
 
 Stern work generally fitted before put up 453 
 
 System of H.IM. Dockyards : — 
 
 Laying-ofi" of ship 453 
 
 Ordering of materials for a portion of length amidships 453 
 
 Preparation of model and arrangement of bottom plating, armour- 
 plates, &c 453 
 
 Disijosition of hutts of keel-work, bottom plating and longitudinals, and 
 
 preparation of demands for materials 454 
 
 Arrangement of butts and scarplis of transverse framing 455 
 
 Disposition of plating in inner bottom 455 
 
 Arrangement of butts and edges of skin-plating behind armour, and of 
 
 topside plating 455 
 
 Preparation of moulds for stem and stem post, and engineer's drawing . . 455 
 
 , , keel-work . . . . •• 456 
 
 , , short transverse plate and bracket frames 456 
 
 , , longitudmal frames 457 
 
 ,, continuous transverse angle-irons and deep frames .. .. 457 
 
 Process of framing 458 
 
 Mode of fitting transverse plate-frames next below armour-shelf . . . . 459 
 
 General mode of conducting work 459 
 
 Working of bottom plating — description of template 459 
 
 Fitting of skin-plating and girders behind armour 460 
 
 Preparation of beams 460 
 
 , , bulkheads 461 
 
 Deck-stringers and plating, how arranged, ordered, fitted, ko, 462 
 
 Armour plating, begun amidships 462 
 
 Work of framing and plating unprotected parts of topsides 462 
 
 Remarks on diliercnce between this system and those described above . . 463 
 Methods adopted by Messrs. Laird and Messrs. Napier in building ships with 
 bracket-plate framing 463 
 
 CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 ARMOUR PLATING. 
 
 Practical aspect of subject only considered 464 
 
 Disposition of butts and edges of armour-plating 464 
 
 Preparation of expansion drawings and specifications for plates 465 
 
 Skin-plating behind armour arranged in accordance with disposition of armour- 
 plating ., .. * 465 
 
 Arrangement of longitudinal girders and wood backing behind armour . . . . 466 
 
 Pitting and fastening of wood backing 467 
 
 Mode of taking account of an annour-plate 468 
 
 Heating armour-plates, usual mode of 469 
 
 Bending armour-plates by hydraulic pressure 470 
 
 , , , , by the cradle system 470 
 
 Comparison of the two methods . . . . • 472 
 
 Special care required in bending plates accurately 473 
 
 Operations performed after Ijending — planing, drilling, &c. 473 
 
 Another mode of setting off armour-fastenings, &c 474
 
 Contents. xxv 
 
 Armour-fastenings: — page 
 
 Screw-bolts on French pattern 475 
 
 Fastenings of American iron-clads 475 
 
 Report of trial on " small plate target " 476 
 
 Ordinary through-bolts 476 
 
 Elastic cup-washers 477 
 
 Particulars connected with driving the bolts 478 
 
 Modes of making the bolt-holes watertight 478 
 
 Palliser's bolt 479 
 
 Proposed bolts by Mr. Chalmers, Mr. Orampton, Mr. Paget, Mr. Hughes, 
 
 and Mr. Parsons 479 
 
 Results of experiments made at Chatham with reference to Palliser bolts 480 
 Diflerence ia effect produced on Palliser bolts, and ordinary bolts with 
 
 elastic cup- washers, by impact of shot 480 
 
 DifHculty in making Palliser bolt watertight, and proposal made for that 
 
 purpose 481 
 
 Adoption of this fastening in the Gibraltar shield, and results of trials . . 481 
 
 Diameters of bolts in relation to thickness of plates 482 
 
 Particulars of armoiu-bolts of ' Hercules ' 482 
 
 , , fastenings of " small plate target " 482 
 
 Concluding remarks 483 
 
 Paper " On the ' Bellerophon,' ' Lord Warden,' and ' Hercules ' Targets " . . 483 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Lloyd's Rules for iron ships 491 
 
 Liverpool ,, ,, 510 
 
 Index 523
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 To face Page 
 
 Plate 1. Perspective view of midshii^ framing of the 'Queen' SH 
 
 „ 2. „ „ „ 'China' 88 
 
 „ 3. „ „ „ 'Warrior' 98 
 
 „ 4. „ „ ,, ' Bellerophou ' 110 
 
 ,, 5. „ ,, „ 'Hercules' 124 
 
 Table V. Beam Stringers, &c 521 
 
 Figs. 
 
 
 1-46 
 
 Illustrative 
 
 47-56 
 
 
 57-69 
 
 
 70-77 
 
 
 78-82 
 
 
 83-84 
 
 
 85-87 
 
 
 88-90 
 
 
 91-92 
 
 93-94 
 
 95 
 96-98 
 99-102 
 103-107 
 
 108 
 109-111 
 112-118 
 119-120 
 121-125 
 126-129 
 130-132 
 133-137 
 138-143 
 144-153,1 
 and 247 J 
 154-157 
 158-163 
 164-171 
 172-177 
 178-193 
 194-195 
 
 WOOD EXGEAVINGS. 
 
 of keels, keelsons, garboard-strakes, and bilge-keels .. 18-46 
 
 stems 48-55 
 
 stern posts 56-72 
 
 the transverse system of framing 74-85 
 
 details of work in the ' Northumberland ' . . . . 103-108 
 
 longitudinal frames of the ' Belleroijlion ' 111-114 
 
 bow and stern framing of ,, 118-120 
 
 watertight longitudinals, and armour-shelf of the 
 
 ' Hercules ' and ' Captain ' 125-127 
 
 upper part of double bottom and armom'-shelf of the 
 
 ' Invincible ' class 128 
 
 shifts of butts in longitudinal and in transverse 
 
 framing of the ' Hercules ' 130-131 
 
 sectional forms of iron beams 138 
 
 made beams of the ' Northmnberland ' 143-144 
 
 modes of forming beam-knees 140-147 
 
 beam end connections 148-150 
 
 machine for straightening beams 155 
 
 connections of pillars 156-158 
 
 stringer-plates, and box and cellular stringers .. 166-169 
 
 iron decks 170-174 
 
 deck fastenings 178-179 
 
 arrangements of outside plating 180-183 
 
 stealers in „ 186-188 
 
 shifts of butts of „ 189-192 
 
 the operation of punching 195-197 
 
 riveting of outside plating } - ' 
 
 ^ ° . I and 373 
 
 bulkhead construction 218-222 
 
 „ connections 223-227 
 
 watertight work on bulkheads 229-230 
 
 watertight doors and sluice valves 231-234 
 
 topsides 237-245 
 
 common rudders 247-250
 
 List of Illustrations. 
 
 xxvii 
 
 Figs. Pages 
 
 19G-197 Illustrative of balanced rudder of ' Bellerophon ' .. 254-255 
 
 198 „ „ „ 'Hercules' 256 
 
 199-207 „ sections of iron masts 261-263 
 
 208-213 „ heads, heels, &c., of iron masts 265-269 
 
 214-215 „ framing of mast-holes 272-273 
 
 216-219 „ „ hatchways 274-275 
 
 220-221 „ bitts 276-277 
 
 222-224 „ paddle and spring beams 279-281 
 
 225 ,, watertight scuttles 283 
 
 226-228 „ mast steps 284-286 
 
 229 „ thrust bearers 288 
 
 230-232 „ chain plates 289-291 
 
 233 „ towing bollards 291 
 
 234 „ catheads 293 
 
 235-236 „ deckhouses 295-296 
 
 237 „ ' Oliver ' rivet-making machine 327 
 
 238-241 „ different forms of rivet-points 329-330 
 
 242 ,, links of suspension-bridge chains 346 
 
 243 , , experiments on friction of riveted joints 353 
 
 244-246 ,, butt -fastenings of plate-ties and stringers .. .. 361-365 
 
 248-254 „ testing iron and steel 390-401 
 
 255 „ reverser used in working outside plating 435 
 
 256 ,, caulking of butt and lap joints 438 
 
 257 „ cradle for bending armour-plates 470 
 
 258-261 „ armour- fastenings 475-479 
 
 262-266 ,, targets 484-489
 
 SHIPBUILDING IN IRON 
 AND STEEL. 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 PEACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE STEENGTH OF IRON SHIPS. 
 
 The Art of Shipbuilding owes both its difficulty and its dignity 
 to the fact that the comprehension of great scientific principles 
 and the power of wisely arranging a multitude of minute details 
 are alike essential to its complete mastery. 
 
 We all know that Land Architecture, or the art of construct- 
 ing edifices upon the fixed and solid earth, has absorbed a large 
 measure of the thought and invention of the races of men, and has 
 been the means by which many splendid reputations have been 
 worthily erected. But it may be permitted to us, who are en- 
 gaged in the Architecture of the Sea, or the constrnction of edifices 
 which shall stand upon and traverse the unsteady and yielding 
 deep, to claim for our art both the greater difficulty and the 
 greater honour ; or, if this be denied, we may at least assure 
 ourselves that we are devoted to an extremely arduous and 
 honourable employment. 
 
 The construction of a fixed suspended bridge, like that across 
 the Menai Straits for example, was a work requiring an immense 
 amount of investigation and invention, as those know who have 
 read the writings of Dr. Fairbairn, Mr. Edwin Clark, and Professor 
 Hodgkinson on the subject ; and that neither the theory nor the 
 practice of bridge construction is yet complete must be obvious to 
 those who have, on the one hand, made themselves acquainted 
 with the recent experiments of Sir Charles Fox, or those of Mr. 
 Crampton, or, on the other hand, have studied that extremely 
 able paper, ' On the Strains in the Interior of Beams,' which 
 Mr. Airy, the Astronomer Royal, contributed to the Royal Society 
 
 B
 
 2r Practical Considerations Chap. i. 
 
 a short time ago. But the scientific construction of a ship involves 
 all that is comprised in the construction of a fixed beam or girder, 
 together with a mass of other fiicts and circumstances peculiar to 
 its own purposes and uses.* 
 
 It is to Dr. Fairbairn that we chiefly owe the repeated enforce- 
 ment of the fact that a shi23 is in many respects to be regarded in 
 this way as a huge beam or girder ; and it must be acknowledged 
 that ships have repeatedly been placed in positions which, although 
 exceptional, fully justify even the extreme examples with which he 
 has illustrated his argument, by showing ships sometimes supported 
 wholly at the middle and sometimes wholly suspended by tlie 
 extremities. A remarkable instance of the former occurred 
 recently, Avhen an iron ship, laden with a cargo of iron, got across 
 a stone causeway ; and, as an extraordinary case of suspension by 
 the ends, we may mention that of the ' Prince of Wales,' described 
 by Mr. Clark in his work above referred to. The incident took 
 place in the launching of the vessel at Blackwall, many years ago, 
 at the works of Messrs. Miller and Eavenhill, and was considered at 
 the time so demonstrative of the extraordinary strength of iron 
 ships that Mr. Miller published an account of it. She was an iron 
 boat 180 feet long, and, by the giving way of the bolts of the 
 launching cleat, she was let down till the bilge bore on the wharf. 
 She was ultimately forced off, cutting her Avay deeper into the 
 concrete and plankiug of the wharf as she went, until she attained 
 a steeply inclined position in which she was supported by the water 
 at the stern and by the wharf at the bow, when the distance from 
 the face of the wharf to the point of contact of the vessel with the 
 surface of the water was 110 feet. Although the whole of the deck 
 in the centre of the vessel was left unfastened for the reception of 
 the machinery, it was found, when she was completely afloat, that 
 her sheer was not broken, and that she had received no injury 
 beyond that of the twisting of the bow by the set of the tide against 
 the side. Three of the angle-iron frames were broken, and one of 
 the plates cracked, the repair of these defects being effected in four 
 days. Several cases of a similar kind occurred on the Mersey in 
 the early days of iron shipbuilding; among others the *Nun,' a 
 
 * Tlie next few pages contain the substance of a Paper read by the Author at 
 the Institution of Naval Architects, April 11, 1867, 'On Certain Cases of Weakness 
 in Iron Ships,' and published in extenso, with illustrative diagrams, in the Transac- 
 tions of that year. — E. J. E.
 
 Chap. I. on the Strength of Iron Ships. 3 
 
 vessel of ^h H.P. built by Messrs. Laird, which got aground on the 
 end of a stone pier, and was there left by the ebb tide resting by 
 the stern on the pier and by the bow on a hard stone bottom. This 
 vessel was 105 feet long, having in the centre an engine weighing 
 %f) tons ; and although she remained for many hours in this posi- 
 tion, with a distance of 81 feet between the points of support, no 
 visible deflection could be observed in the keel. It is unnecessary 
 to multiply such examples, of which hundreds might probably be 
 cited. 
 
 But a ship would obviously be most imperfectly constructed if 
 designed as a beam or girder only, for she has to endure forces, 
 and to undergo deteriorating influences, to which a fixed beam, 
 or a bridge, is not at all subjected. A ship has, of course, to be 
 propelled through the sea, either by the wind acting from without, 
 or by steam generated within her ; she has to be largely immersed 
 in corrosive and vegetating salt water ; she has to be lifted from 
 the hollows of waves to their summits, and pitched thence into 
 their hollows again ; she has to endure being rolled violently 
 through extreme angles; she has to undergo all this under the 
 burden of weights often far greater than her own weight ; and she 
 has, in the mercantile marine, to withstand the deteriorating effects 
 of cargoes that often tend greatly to injure and destroy her ; while 
 in the Koyal Navy she now is often expected to withstand not 
 only the simultaneous discharge of several heavy guns, but also 
 the shock of missiles weighing many hundred weights, propelled 
 by enormous quantities of powder, and containing explosive charges 
 of considerable force. Besides all this, she is to be made capable of 
 withstanding, as far as possible, all the trials of collisions, storms, 
 groundings, and a multitude of other evils and mischances. 
 
 As it is our intention to give to these remarks as practical a 
 character as possible, we shall not enter into those general investi- 
 gations, respecting the nature and amount of the forces to which 
 ships are liable to be subjected, which have been very ably dis- 
 cussed by other persons. It will be sufficient for our purpose to 
 bear in mind that a ship is substantially of the nature of a hollow 
 beam or girder, narrowed away to nothing in breadth at the ends ; 
 that this beam is in a sea-way sujiported, more or less, by the 
 ends and by the middle alternately, the supports shifting incessantly, 
 and completely changing positions many times in a minute, thus 
 throwing the top and bottom into states of tension and com- 
 
 B 2
 
 4 Practical Considerations Chap. i. 
 
 pression successively ; that the strains of the masts and sails, and 
 of the sea, tend to produce sudden and frequent changes of angle 
 between the decks and sides ; and in cases of steam ships, the thrust 
 of the propelling shafts and the resistance of the water, being 
 exerted usually at different heights, tend also to rack and strain the 
 structure longitudinally. This outline of the subject will suffice 
 to keep before our minds, for occasional reference, the nature and 
 circumstances of the structure we have to consider, viz., an iron 
 ship's hull. Instead of seeking to fill up this outline by theoretical 
 enquiries and expositions, we shall endeavour to do so by pointing 
 out some of the weaknesses and defects which iron ships have 
 practically been found to possess; because, however sound one's 
 theoretical principles may be, the true requirements of a structure 
 subject to so many exigencies as the hull of a ship, cannot be 
 thoroughly understood without a large resort to practical ex- 
 perience. 
 
 As the primary object to be kept in view in the construction of 
 a fixed tubular girder is to adapt the top and bottom to receive the 
 principal strains, of tension or compression as the case may be, 
 the longitudinal strength of the upper and lower parts of a ship 
 must obviously require to be very considerable. But as the con- 
 struction of fixed girders was but very imperfectly understood 
 prior to the building of the Britannia Bridge, and as the resem- 
 blance of a shij) to such a structure is even now but partially 
 understood, or, to say the least, admitted, among shipbuilders, it is 
 not surprising that both the upper parts and the bottoms of ships 
 have been in many cases too weakly constructed. We propose, 
 before describing the various details of construction Avhich we shall 
 have to explain, to mention a few instances of this kind which have 
 at various times come under our notice ; and in order to familiarise 
 the reader with details of work, and to complete our information, 
 we shall in these, as in all future illustrations, explain in general 
 terms, so far as w'e may be able, the arrangement and devices 
 which have been adopted for making good the deficiencies of 
 strength that we shall have occasion to point out. 
 
 We will, in the first place, instance the case of a large Atlantic 
 mail paddle-steamer. This ship was not by any means deficient 
 in the quantity of material put into her: on the contrary, the 
 weight of iron in her hull was unusually great. But she was a 
 very long ship, and after making a few passages across the Atlantic
 
 Chap. I. on the Strength of Iron Ships. 5 
 
 it was found that she had not sufficient longitudinal strength to 
 properly withstand the strains to which she was subjected. On 
 examination it was found that one of the plates, and the strap 
 over the adjacent butt, in the topside above the spar-deck in 
 wake of the paddle-box, were broken ; several of the rivets in the 
 plating had worked loose in the neighbourhood of this fracture ; 
 and other slack rivets were found in the bottom plating under 
 the engines and boilers, and in the hollow of the bows, — a certain 
 amount of leakage resulting, of course. 
 
 Additional strength was supplied in this case in the following 
 manner. An inch plate 2 feet 3 inches broad was worked on the 
 frames as a doubler to the ^-inch strake immediately above 
 the spar-deck ; and above this, one f -inch and one |-inch plate, 
 these jDlates completing the side up to the rail, which was formed 
 as a continuous |-inch plate, connected to the uppermost strake by 
 an angle-iron. A second rail-plate 15 inches broad was worked a 
 few inches below the u]3per rail, being let partly in between the 
 frames to meetthe outer plating; and below this and connected to 
 it by an angle-iron, a |-inch plate 18 inches broad was worked on 
 the inside of the frames, stiffened by an angle-iron on its lower 
 edge. This inner plate extended for a length of 103 feet ; the- 
 outer plating for 112 feet ; and the plate-rails for 180 feet 6 inches, 
 the ship being 374 feet long. This completed the strengthenings 
 of what we may call the top of the girder. Below the spar-deck 
 a |-inch clamp-plate 2 feet broad, stiffened by an angle-iron on its 
 upper edge, was worked for a length of 240 feet. The bottom was 
 strengthened by doubling the whole of the inner plates up to the 
 turn of the bilge for 50 feet in wake of the engines, thus making 
 the bottom plating a flush sm*face at that part.* 
 
 This mode of strengthening the bilge is one easy of applica- 
 tion, and has been adopted in many cases by Messrs. Laird of 
 Birkenhead, who have had great experience in the actual indica- 
 tions of weakness in ocean-going steam ships, owing in some degree 
 to the circumstance of their works being easily accessible to vessels 
 which have suffered from stress of weather in the Atlantic. In 
 some vessels it has formed a part of their original design ; in 
 others it has been added where signs of weakness have become 
 
 * For illustrations of the strengthenings applied in this and the following cases 
 see the Paper referred to in the footnote, p. 2.— E. J. K.
 
 6 Practical Considerations Chap. I. 
 
 apparent after the vessels have been at work for some time, and 
 have gone to them for repair ; and in others it has been adopted 
 when vessels originally designed for general trade have been fitted 
 out for carrying special cargoes of dead weight, such as machinery, 
 or telegraph cables, or have been lengthened in the midship body. 
 
 An example of the first may be found in the Holyhead mail- 
 boats 'Ulster,' 'Munster,' and 'Connaught,' and in many of the long 
 screw-steamers now employed in the merchant service, trading 
 from the port of Liverpool. The system is provided for in one of 
 the Kules of the Liverpool Underwriters' Registry for Iron Vessels, 
 when the length of the vessels exceeds certain proportions of 
 breadth and depth. A specimen of it may be found in the 
 S.S. 'Queen' of 3250 tons, recently built by Messrs. Laird for 
 the National Steam Navigation Company, of which vessel a view 
 of the amidship framing is given in Plate 1. In the cases of 
 vessels which have been strengthened in this way, where weakness 
 has become apparent after some amount of service, it has usually 
 had the effect of preventing any extension of injury. Among 
 vessels altered for special service may be mentioned the 'Impe- 
 rador,' ' Imperatriz,' and 'Bahiana,' originally intended for the South 
 American trade, but afterwards fitted for carrying the electric 
 telegraph cable to the Red Sea, when very heavy weights were 
 placed in small sections of the vessel's length, and at a consi- 
 derable distance before and abaft the centre of displacement. 
 
 The plates used are of the same thiclniess as the other parts of 
 the outside plating, and care is taken to shift the butts of the 
 doubling-strake from the butts of the adjoining strakes. They 
 extend from a lialf to two-thirds the length of the vessel. At each 
 butt of the doubling-strake there is a butt-strap placed inside of 
 the skin-plate, and the rivets pass through both. All the butts 
 and seams are made close and caulked tight, so that no moisture 
 can get between the plates. Sometimes a layer of canvas satu- 
 rated with red-lead is placed between the surfaces, but often there 
 is nothing but red-lead paint, or a mixture of red and white lead, 
 which does perfectly well if the plates are carefully fitted. 
 
 Another case which may be mentioned instructively is that of 
 a large mail jDaddle-steamer, built for ocean-service, which en- 
 countered a gale in the English Channel on her first voyage out of 
 port. On being taken into dock it was reported that the whole of 
 the butts of the flat keel and bottom plating for about 180 feet
 
 Chap. I. on the Strength of Iron Ships. 7 
 
 amidships were very much, strained ; and several of the butts in the 
 upper strakes, in the wake of the paddle-boxes and sponsons, were 
 likewise much strained, indicating such a deficiency of strength in 
 the vessel, especially in the longitudinal direction, as to render her 
 unseaworthy, and to fully account for the leakage which had taken 
 place, and which was said to have required the whole of the engine- 
 pumps and bilge-injections to keep it under. An experienced 
 surveyor, who inspected this vessel on behalf of the owners, reported 
 that in his opinion the structural weakness of this ship was so great 
 that she could not proceed to sea without the risk of foundering. 
 The strengthenings which were applied to her before she was again 
 sent out on service were as follows : — An external iron keel made 
 up of several thicknesses of plates, was applied, and connected to 
 the original flat keel by garboard-plates, which of course served 
 as dou biers to the main flat keel. The plating of the bottom was 
 made flush from this point to above the turn of the bilge over 
 a length of about 240 feet, by plates worked between the lapped 
 edges of the outer over-lapping plates of the bottom. An external 
 bilge-keel was worked on the turn of the bilge, consisting of two 
 plates on edge, connected to the bottom by two large angle-bars. 
 A large central box-keelson completed these lower strengthenings, 
 which involved an addition of more than 150 tons to the weight of 
 the hull. Besides this, an increase of 15 tons was made to the 
 orlop-deck stringer ; a stringer-plate and clamp on the maindeck 
 was converted, by an addition of 64 tons of plate and angle-iron, 
 into a box waterway or girder. A double sheer-strake and stringer- 
 plate weighing over 100 tons, were applied to what were before 
 rounded beam ends, thus giving a new top, so to speak, to the ship 
 herself viewed as a girder. Other additions were made to the ship, 
 in the form of bulkheads, bulwarks, a forecastle, &c. ; and much of 
 the bottom was riveted anew ; but the above facts will suffice to 
 indicate where this ship proved weak, and how she was strengthened 
 by a very experienced firm. 
 
 Another case of a very similar kind, but presenting sufficient 
 points of difference to justify a reference to it, occurred with a ship 
 built for the same service. In the former case no middle line 
 keelson above the floors was fitted in the ship originally. In the 
 present case there was a keelson with intercostal plates below 
 between the floors, but these intercostal plates were not riveted to 
 the flat keel-plates. There were also other differences in the
 
 8 Practical Cojisiderafions Chap. I. 
 
 original construction, the nature of "which may be gathered from 
 what follows. It should be stated here, however, that some of the 
 longitudinal ties of tliis ship were broken at the bulkheads ; some 
 of the butt-straps were considered of insufficient width to ensure 
 good work, and some of the work itself was not of the highest class. 
 The ship made a voyage or two across the Atlantic in safety, but 
 she was found to strain considerably, and she was consequently 
 taken into dock and received the folloAving repairs and additions : 
 The shell was re-riveted throughout, the projecting strakes of plating 
 being nearly all taken off, and also about half the sunken strakes, the 
 countersinks of the rivets being enlarged and the holes made fair. 
 An external keel and doubling garboard-strakes were worked, as in 
 the former case, throughout nearly the whole length of the ship. 
 The box-keelson was removed, and intercostal plates were fitted 
 and secured below to the inner garboards, and at top to the new 
 bottom plate of the box-keelson, which last was then put together 
 again and re-riveted. The four sunken strakes of bottom and bilge 
 on each side of the keel were doubled with plates of equal thick- 
 ness, for about 250 feet of length, the strake nearest the keel 
 extending the whole length of the ship. The sunken strake near 
 the main-deck beams was also doubled for about 200 feet amid- 
 ships, and a short doubling-plate Mas worked under each paddle- 
 beam. A bilge-keel, formed as in the previous case, was worked on 
 the turn of the bilge. A box waterway or stringer on the main 
 deck was re-fitted, extended to the ends of the vessel, and secured 
 on top to the outside plating by a plate and short angle-irons between 
 the frames, and a box-stringer was fitted on the lower deck for 
 about 240 feet of length. The sheer-strake was doubled with 
 a steel plate \ inch thick and a stringer-plate 3 feet wide by | inch 
 riveted to the beams, and doubled by an 18-inch plate, secured to 
 the sheer-strake by angle-steels. The deck finished on this stringer 
 against angle-steels forming a sunk waterway. A girder 2 feet 6 
 inches wide and f inch thick, intended to aid in distributing the 
 thrust of the paddle-shaft, was wrought above the sheer-strake, and 
 over the paddle-beams. Other additions were made, but need not 
 be mentioned here. 
 
 From the foregoing illustrations, it will be seen that the 
 practical experience gained with ships at sea shows the extreme 
 necessity of giving great longitudinal strength to them, especially 
 at the top and at the bottom. We do not consider that precisely
 
 Chap. I. 07i the Streftgth of Iron Ships. 9 
 
 the best means of securing that strength was taken in every case 
 before described, but the object aimed at in each instance is 
 apparent enough. 
 
 In endeavouring to secure the necessary longitudinal strength, 
 either in building a new ship or in repairing a weak ship, one 
 thing is obviously essential to an effective use of the iron applied, 
 viz., as near an approach to continuity of uniform strength as is 
 possible. We have often been astonished at the extent to which 
 tliis has been neglected in many iron ships that have come under 
 our notice. It is, or certainly has been, a very common practice 
 on the part of some builders to break their longitudinal strength- 
 enings in a most remarkable manner. One common form of this 
 defect is the practice of stopping short the longitudinal ties at a 
 watertight bulkhead. In building a certain ship the central angle- 
 iron keelson was stopped short against a bulkhead. The plating 
 forming the seat for the engines, and extending nearly to the turn 
 of the bilge on the tops of the floors, was likewise stopped short at 
 a frame just before a bulkhead, no longitudinal tie existing origin- 
 ally between this plating and the keelson. To remedy this defect, 
 which was discovered by a surveying officer, the builders afterwards 
 applied a short scarphing keelson-piece, formed of a plate between 
 two angle-irons, and carried watertight through the bulkhead ; 
 and also a f - inch plate, 4 feet wide, extending from the bulk- 
 head to the plating forming the seat for the engines. The con- 
 nection between the plating and the keelson was thus effectually 
 completed. A similar arrangement was carried out at the other 
 engine-room bulkhead, where also the central keelson was broken 
 off. In the same ship the side keelsons also were originally 
 stopped at the engine-room bulkheads, and had to be strengthened 
 in a similar manner, except that the plating was not necessary, 
 and the scarphing angle-irons had no plate between them, but 
 were fitted directly back to back. In order to show that this ship 
 was not by any means an exceptional case, we will make brief 
 reference to a few other examples of similar weakness, taken from 
 reports of surveys with which we have had to do, or which we 
 have had to consider. In one ship of somewhat recent construc- 
 tion, and built for ocean mail service, we found that the butts of 
 the angle-irons on the top of the centre keelson-plate had no butt- 
 straps to connect them together, thereby considerably reducing, 
 and, in fact, almost destroying the value of the longitudinal strength
 
 lo Practical Consideratio7is Chap. I. 
 
 of these angle-irons. The gutter-plates on the top of the floors, 
 forming the flat central keelson, were found to be badly fitted, 
 and several rivets in the short angle-irons immediately under them 
 were defective. The butt-straps of these gutter-plates were not 
 made to completely cover the ends of the plates, thereby introduc- 
 ing a serious source of weakness. The butts of the angle-irons 
 and bulb-irons forming the side and bilge keelsons were not suffi- 
 ciently connected together, and it was recommended to cover the 
 butts of these angle-irons with straps 24 inches long, and to 
 introduce separate straps for the bulb-irons. The bilge keelsons 
 and lower-deck stringers were found to be severed at some of the 
 transverse bulkheads, and means had to be taken afterwards to 
 preserve the continuity of their longitudinals. The main-deck 
 sheer-strake, which was formed of two thicknesses, had butt-straps 
 to the butts in the inner thickness only, the butts in the outer 
 being riveted to the inner thickness of plating. This, it will be 
 observed, was very objectionable, as it to a large extent destroyed 
 the usefulness of the outer thickness, and, besides, with covers 
 to one thickness only, the butts of the outer strakes should 
 have had them in preference to those of the inner, as it was the 
 thicker of the two. To get the greatest strength, however, both 
 the inner and outer thickness should of course have been supported 
 with straps, as the increased thickness of plating forming the sheer- 
 strake was for the purpose of increasing the longitudinal strength 
 of the topsides, and without straps the extra plating used was 
 merely adding weight to the vessel without obtaining the advantage 
 aimed at. 
 
 In another vessel, built for the same service as the last named, 
 the butts of the angle-irons forming the fore and aft bilge-stringers, 
 were not sufficiently connected, requiring additional strapping in 
 many places. Another example of the same defect was observed 
 in a new ocean-going vessel. It was found that her main and 
 side keelsons were stopped short at the fore and after part of the 
 engines, completely destroying their longitudinal strength at these 
 parts. They were afterwards made of continuous strength there 
 by the introduction of two deep angle-irons riveted to each, carried 
 watertight through the bulkheads, and extended from 5 to 6 feet 
 on each side. 
 
 It is unnecessary to further multiply instances of this kind, 
 which are exceedingly numerous. It may be well, however, to
 
 Chap. I. on the Strength of Irofz Ships. ii 
 
 state here that one very frequent source of longitudinal weakness 
 in our ships — a more frequent source than would be supposed pro- 
 bable — is the single-riveting of the butt-straps, especially where 
 there are but one or two passing strakes between. Out of twelve sea- 
 going ships, whose construction we were examining not long ago, no 
 less than five were single-riveted at the butts of the bottom plating. 
 
 Having now practically illustrated, as fully as appears to be 
 necessary, the great importance of securing longitudinal strength 
 in iron ships, and especially at the top and bottom, we proceed to 
 state, that when this has been sufficiently secured, there should be 
 provided such intermediate strength of frames, clamps, beams, 
 stringers, waterways, &c., as will insure rigidity throughout the 
 skin-plating of the ship under all circumstances. Flexibility in 
 the skin is a great source of weakness and rapid deterioration, as 
 we will show by again referring to practical experience. 
 
 The first case we shall mention — and we intend to refer but to 
 three — is that of a remarkably well-formed ship of about 1200 tons. 
 She had made her first voyage to India ; and upon her arrival in 
 the Thames, the captain of her engaged a dry dock for the purpose 
 of cleaning and painting her bottom. When docked, the owner, 
 with the captain and her builder, marked forty-two rivets M'hich 
 leaked, and which were consequently cut and punched out. Four- 
 teen of these rivets were at the junction of the fore bulkhead with 
 the ship's sides. The rivets were carefully replaced, but when 
 the water was let into the dock to float the ship, it was found that 
 several of them at the bulkhead leaked. The ship was kept in 
 dock, and every suspected rivet was taken out and replaced by 
 new. A stream of water was then thrown upon the re-riveted 
 parts with the force of a fire-engine — a device by means of which 
 innumerable leaks in ships are discovered — every rivet being tested, 
 and not one of them was found to " weep." The water was again 
 let into the dock, and just as the ship floated several rivets started 
 again, and with the new rivets two old rivets which had not started 
 before. The ship was retained in the dock, and the o^vner then took 
 the opportunity of securing the bulkhead to the skin more firmly 
 by means of brackets. When the spring tides returned she was 
 floated out of dock, took in a heavy cargo at the Victoria Dock, 
 and proceeded to sea. When near the Western Islands she sprang 
 a leak, and had to put back to Liverpool, where a survey was held 
 upon her. The new rivets with several others had started, and the
 
 1 2 Practical Considerations Chap. i. 
 
 external plating was considerably torn in the way of the rivet- 
 holes. The owners then brought an action against the firm who 
 performed the new riveting work, and the matter was thoroughly 
 sifted by a legal referee. The evidence adduced on both sides was 
 of the most important character, and the fact was undoubtedly 
 established that a want of rigidity in the skin of the vessel was the 
 cause of the mischief. Instances were adduced of ships " panting " 
 in their fore compartments ; and it was proved beyond doubt that 
 iron ships have in many cases expanded when dry on the blocks, 
 and collapsed when sustained by the water. In this instance, so 
 strikingly was this the case that the fore bulkhead, which was per- 
 fectly tight when she was upon the blocks, buckled into an irre- 
 gular curve when she was afloat. This ship now makes her voyages 
 satisfactorily, having had more rigidity imparted to her by an 
 entire range of orlop-beams being put into her, with a stringer on 
 each side at their ends ; by some additional reverse irons ; and by 
 a double angle-iron with plates being added at the sides of her 
 bulkheads. 
 
 The second case is that of a ship of 1000 tons built for tlie 
 Bombay trade, and admirably constructed in every respect but 
 one, viz., insufficient beams and pillars. A ship rolling about with 
 a heavy cargo will alter her form, as regards its transverse section, 
 very much, if she is built of iron, and is not sufficiently strutted 
 and tied with beams, — for beams act, of course, both as struts and 
 ties, according to circumstances. The captain of this ship on his 
 passage out was much alarmed by a noise on board the ship resem- 
 bling the explosion of some combustible substance, and he con- 
 cluded that a portion of the cargo was of this nature, and that the 
 ship would be very soon in flames. No such result took place 
 however ; but on arriving at India and discharging his cargo, he 
 found that some of the beams had been fractured and their pillars 
 bent. The weight betwee decksn was moderate, and therefore the 
 accident could not be attributable to that. But the beam-end 
 bracket-plates appeared to have strained considerably, and the 
 beams developed an error in their construction of an important 
 description. Instead of being made of " bulb " iron, they were 
 made with two pieces of half-round iron at their lower edge, so 
 that when a violent strain was brought upon them they " buckled," 
 the half-round iron broke, and tore off the countersinks of its 
 rivets, and the hole for the rivet became the commencement of a
 
 Chap. I. 07i the Strength of Iron Ships. 13 
 
 fracture across the beam. The butts of this ship showed no indica- 
 tions of weakness whatever, and all that was done to her was to 
 refasten the gusset bracket-plates at her beam ends, clamp the 
 beams with a plate on each side, and introduce new pillars with a 
 different mode of securing them, so that the lower-deck and orlop 
 beams should be compelled to yield together, if at all. One col- 
 lateral circumstance may be referred to : the rivets in the gar- 
 board-strake were in such a condition, from the alteration of the 
 ballast and the action of the bilge-water upon their heads, that 
 some were ordered out. It was found, however, that new ones 
 could not be put in without disturbing the remainder of the old, 
 and the result was that all the butt-straps were removed, refitted, 
 and entirely riveted anew. This wearing away of the rivet heads 
 is a source of great injury to iron ships, and has led to the very 
 general use of cement for their protection. 
 
 The third case is that of a ship which went into dock to be 
 painted, but as the water was leaving her, it was observed that her 
 plates appeared to be cracked. At about twenty feet from the 
 stem two projecting plates, and the under or sunk plate situated 
 between them, were evidently broken across vertically. Knowing 
 that with flexible ships the edge of the bulkhead was a sort of 
 node to the flexure, and that the rivets were very liable to become 
 loose, the gentleman who told us of this case asked the owner to 
 accompany him to the larboard side, and they there found that 
 precisely the same thing had taken place. There could be no 
 doubt then that the bulkhead edge had to do with the mischief, 
 and he asked the owner if he had done anything to secure the 
 bulkhead to the ship's side. It turned out that some brackets 
 had been put, which no doubt relieved the rivets of the bulkhead 
 frame, but they checked the bending of the plate, and it broke at 
 the point where its flexure was stopped. The broken plates were 
 cut out and replaced by new ones ; stringers were added to the 
 fore body to give it rigidity ; additional reverse irons were fitted 
 to the frames, and a few additional beams introduced. Here again 
 are weakness and flexibility in the fore body, where iron-ship- 
 builders and Lloyd's are supposed by some persons to put too 
 much iron. 
 
 " To me it appears clear," says a practical man of great expe- 
 rience in writing to us on the subject, " that rigidity of the skin 
 " of an iron ship is the most important element of strength. It is
 
 14 Practical Consider atioiis Chap. i. 
 
 " impossible to see the broken frames, and the odd bows and sides 
 ". which are occasionally brought under the notice of practical men, 
 " without coming to this conclusion. Just imagine a ship's fore 
 " compartment full of a heavy cargo, and contemplate the force 
 " with which it is lifted out of, and immediately afterwards dashed 
 " into the water. What section near the neutral point in mid- 
 " ships is required to sustain a strain like that to which this 
 " compartment is subjected ? It appears to me that a transverse 
 " section forward is forced into a more acute or flattened form when 
 " the ship pitches, unless adequate beams and stringers are placed 
 " in its vicinity to prevent it. On the other hand, when the end 
 " is thrown up, the skin pressed upon by a heavy cargo has a 
 " tendency to expand, and mischief results in the opposite di- 
 " rection." There is no doubt much force in these remarks. 
 
 We will conclude these general illustrations of the practical 
 weaknesses of iron ships, by referring to two cases of ships ground- 
 ing, and suffering injury from the strains thus brought upon them. 
 
 The fiirst case is that of an ocean steamer which went on shore 
 upon a sandbank at the entrance to a river, and broke across 
 between the foremast and the funnel. The fracture was of such 
 a character as to suggest at once a source of longitudinal weakness, 
 the mention of which has been reserved till now, for obvious 
 reasons, viz., the placing of the butts of the plating and other 
 longitudinal ties in too close proximity to each other. A butt is 
 usually (not always and necessarily) a weak place, and it is of 
 course essential to a uniformity of strength longitudinally that 
 these weak places should not fall in or near the same vertical Kne, 
 or the same transverse section. 
 
 This important consideration was not attended to as thoroughly 
 as was desirable in some of the earlier portions of the Conway and 
 Britannia Tubular Bridges, but we doubt if it was ever so completely 
 disregarded as in the ship which is now under our notice. On the 
 port side there was a butt of the second strake of plating and a butt 
 of the clamp behind it, both falling in the same frame space as the 
 port, and close above it ; and immediately over these butts of the 
 outside plate and inside clamp was a butt of the deck stringer- 
 plate. In the strake next below the port was a butt immediately 
 under the port, and a butt of the main-deck stringer fell exactly 
 in the same place. In the second strake below these fell another 
 butt of the outer plating, in accordance with the common brick-
 
 Chap. I. on the Strength of Iron Ships. 15 
 
 fashion arrangements of plating adopted in this and so many other 
 ships ; and close to the line of weakness formed by this astonishing 
 succession of butts falling vertically above and below the port, the 
 beam-stringer of the hold was broken by the bulkhead at the fore 
 part of the boiler-room. It seems doubtful if the most evil inge- 
 nuity could have devised a worse or weaker disposition of material 
 than was thus presented, and the strain of the ship on grounding 
 naturally enough found out a weak place. On the starboard side 
 also the fracturing force found for itself a somewhat similar place 
 of weakness, and broke the side down through a butt of the deck 
 stringer-plate, a scuttle, a butt of outer plating, a butt of inner 
 clamp, and through other butts below. The lower part of this 
 fracture was diverted (by some cause not observable) away from 
 the butts of the outer plating and the hold beam-stringer, and 
 broke through two frames. 
 
 It will add to the interest of this case if it is stated that we 
 happen to be aware that the clamp between the upper and main 
 decks, and the main-deck stringer, were not in the vessel origin- 
 ally. The clamp was added afterwards, and at the same time the 
 original stringer to the main deck, which had been cut considerably, 
 was removed, and a new one substituted for it on that account. 
 As this addition and this alteration were made expressly with the 
 view of giving the vessel increased longitudinal strength, of which 
 she was supposed to be deficient, it seems astonishing that in 
 arranging the butts of the new work care should not have been 
 taken to succour the weak parts, instead of placing them in exactly 
 the same places as the existing butts, and consequently render- 
 ing the additional plates of the least possible service. 
 
 We often hear of iron ships being practically of one piece, 
 while wooden ships are not less often spoken of as "bundles of 
 sticks ; " but any one who will study this very instructive example 
 will see that unless a careful disposition of the butts of a ship's 
 plating and stringers is made, it is quite easy to fall into arrange- 
 ments which will justify the comparison of her hull to a series of 
 short trunks or tubes, very imperfectly joined at their extremities, 
 or to a hollow beam or girder, half broken through in several 
 places before the strain it is to bear is put upon it. 
 
 The other case of a ship being injured by grounding to which 
 we have to refer, is that of a ship of 1500 tons, which got on shore 
 across a stone causeway, in a river where there is a very great
 
 1 6 Practical Co7isiderations Chap. i. 
 
 rise and fall of tide. Her draft of water when taking the ground 
 was 21 feet, and the breadth of the slip or causeway was 28 feet. 
 She had on board at the time of the accident a cargo largely 
 composed of ii'on, weighing about 2100 tons. The weight of cargo 
 and ship was estimated at 3180 tons. When on the slip-way her 
 fore foot was a few inches in the • sand, but certainly not in any 
 way supported by it, all the strain being in the middle of the 
 vessel. We have had an opportunity of seeing a report upon this 
 case, written by an experienced surveyor, who says : — 
 
 " The fracture to various parts will be hereafter enumerated, 
 " but it is worthy of remark, that during the time of her being on 
 " the ground, the pumps on the aft side of the mainmast were 
 " forced up through the deck about 15 inches. The mainmast 
 " appeared unchanged until she floated off, when it settled down 
 " and the rigging became slack, showing that the keelson had 
 '•' forced itself up into the heel of the mast, taking the iron step 
 " with it, and when the vessel floated the bottom dropped 5 to 7 
 " inches and the mast followed. All the damage done to the out- 
 " side plating was confined to the flat of bottom and to the height 
 " of the upper part of bilges, and showing no strains in the upper 
 " works. 1 believe that in all cases of vessels being supported at 
 " the middle with their ends free, as in this case, unless the base of 
 " support is of sufficient length, or the vessel of very extreme 
 " dimensions, the bottom must crush up, and thereby prevent the 
 " great amount of strain to the top that would otherwise take place, 
 " and I am disposed to think that sand is the worst descrij)tion of 
 " ground for a ship to set on as it forms a curved base, caused by 
 " the sharp ends of vessels settling in it, and by not yielding in the 
 " middle, communicates the strain to the top, and the breaking 
 " must of necessity take place at the sheer-strake, deck-stringer, 
 *' &c., unless the bottom is of a very weak construction. It is 
 " evident from this damage, that had the ship double the amount 
 " of stringer, and any quantity of strength given to the upper works, 
 " over and above that at present in her, the damage would have 
 " been the same, so that there can be no doubt about the upper 
 " part of such vessels being sufficiently strong for all practical pur- 
 " poses. Again the base of support being only 28 feet, it is really 
 " surprising that the floors in way of the same did not crack or 
 " bend, as well as break down, and that the vessel ever floated off, 
 " and that the bottom did not break into a hole."
 
 Chap. I. on the Stre^igth of Iron Skips. 17 
 
 This case of damage is certainly very interesting and instructive. 
 The writer of the above remarks considered that it was a favourable 
 illustration of the merits of Lloyd's Rules, as no defect resulted, in 
 his opinion, from imperfect construction. In this case also the 
 butts proved, as was to be expected, the weakest points. We will 
 only add, on this case, that we concur in the tribute of praise which 
 the writer claims for Lloyd's Eules, in conformity with which this 
 ship was fortunately built, and consequently exhibited no such defects 
 as the former vessel ; but at the same time it appears pretty 
 evident, as we shall see further on, that the effects of the local up- 
 ward pressure upon the keel in this case were aggravated by the 
 absence of an intercostal middle-line keelson-plate. This, how- 
 ever, is no reflection whatever upon Lloyd's, because their Eules 
 are very favourable to the use of such keelsons with bar-keels. 
 
 In concluding this chapter it is only just to mention that the 
 cases of weakness herein described were in some instances foreseen 
 by Mr. Luke, the Admiralty Surveyor of mail and contract-built 
 ships, to whose professional skill, and fearless fulfilment of a most 
 difficult public duty, the art of iron ship-building owes much of its 
 successful development in the merchant service.
 
 1 8 K eels ^ Keelsons, Chap. ii. 
 
 CHAPTEK II. 
 
 KEELS, KEELSONS, AND GAKBOARD-STRAKES. 
 
 Coming now to notice the various details of iron-ship construc- 
 tion in succession, we will commence, as is usual, with keels and 
 keelsons, taking it for granted that they are desirable features of a 
 hull, and that their primary object is to give longitudinal strength 
 and rigidity to it ; to distribute along the floors pressures and 
 strains which would otherwise be too localized in their action, such 
 as those of pillars, deck blocks, cVc. ; and when external, to act as 
 checks to lee-way and to rolling motions. 
 
 The keels of iron ships were originally external, and not unfre- 
 quently of wood. Sometimes they were formed hollow, of iron, and 
 filled with wood. The keelsons also were of wood. It was soon 
 found, however, that the bolting of a wooden keel to an iron plate 
 by through bolts was a dangerous practice, because in the case of 
 the ' Iron Duke,' and also in some other vessels that took the 
 ground, when the keel was stripped off, the ship escaping with no 
 other damage, the water entered through the bolt-holes and nearly 
 caused her to founder. M. Dupuy de Lome called attention to 
 this circumstance as long ago as 1842, in his very able Eej)ort on 
 the Iron Shipbuilding of this country, observing that if in some 
 particular cases it becomes desirable to put a keel or false keel of 
 wood on an iron vessel, it is necessary first to fix upon the inside 
 of the plates of the bottom an opposite keel, bedded in cement 
 or felt, and secured with bolts having their heads countersunk in 
 the outside of the plate, then to apply the outside wood keel, and 
 bolt it through both the plate and inner wood keel. At the same 
 time he judiciously recommends the avoidance of such a combina- 
 tion wherever that is practicable. Mr. Grantham also, in his useful 
 book on Shipbuilding,* repeats the opinion that wooden keels are 
 imperfect and dangerous appendages to iron ships. The subject is 
 
 * ' Iron Shipbuilding, with Practical Illustrations," by John Grantham, C.E. London, 
 John Weale.
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Garboard-Strakes. 
 
 19 
 
 well worth mention here, because there appears to be a strong 
 tendency to fall again into a similar system of construction and 
 fastenings for keels in what are now known as composite ships. 
 In getting rid of the wooden keel, builders very naturally fell into 
 the use of a solid iron keel, formed with a rabbet on each side to 
 receive the garboard-strakes of plates ; the rivets of these strakes 
 (through the keel in the vertical flange, and through the angle-irons 
 of the frames or floor-plates in the horizontal flange) forming the 
 only connections between the keel and the ship. The planing of 
 the rabbet was obviously an expensive process, and the connection 
 just mentioned was clearly not of the most satisfactory character. 
 But this form of keel has not wholly disappeared : it is to be found, 
 for example, in the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steam-ship 
 ' Malta,' which was built as a paddle-steamer in 1847, and subse- 
 quently turned into a screw-ship by Mr. Laird. The Atlantic 
 Mail steam-ship ' Persia,' built in 1855 by Messrs. Napier of 
 Glasgow, has also a solid rabbeted keel 
 of the form and dimensions shown in 
 Fig. 1. It must be admitted, wg think, 
 that with very accurate workmansliip, 
 where a keel is formed with a rabbet 
 in this manner, the keel rivets are sub- 
 jected to less strain when the ship is 
 docked, or goes on shore, than if the 
 rabbet did not exist ; but the expense 
 of the plan, and the obvious necessity 
 for careful work in fitting, have led to 
 its general abandonment, and the resort 
 to the plain bar-keel, Fig. 2, 
 
 Before offering any remarks upon 
 this last form of keel, or upon the 
 modifications it sometimes undergoes, it will be well to refer to 
 the hollow iron keels which were formerly much in vogue, but 
 which are not often to be met with now. The keel of the mail- 
 packet 'Dover,' built for the Admiralty in 1839, by Mr. Laird, 
 was formed in this way, of | -inch iron plate bent to shape as shown 
 in Figs. 3 and 4, these being a section and elevation at midsliips, 
 showing also the attachment of a wooden keelson, and Fig. 5 a sec- 
 tion near the bow. Such a keel can only be formed, of course, out 
 of plate of good quality, especially if the angles are to be made at 
 
 c 2
 
 20 
 
 Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 all sharp, and the iron is no doubt greatly distressed and injured 
 in the bending process. Hence it would obviously be better to 
 roll the gutter-flanged plate to the required form, if that could be 
 done, and JMr. Grantham mentions that the Oakfarm Iron Company 
 
 patented the plan of rolling it in the 
 form shown in section in Fig. 6. 
 
 " It was roUed," he says, " with 
 " much success, and was an interest- 
 " ing specimen of what may be done 
 " by machinery. Its principal dis- 
 " advantage arose from the short 
 " lengths in which it was rolled, and 
 " the difficulty of welding such a 
 " peculiar form into long lengths. It 
 " was made of three slabs previously 
 "prepared in separate rolls, and 
 " then finally welded by passing the 
 " whole together through other rolls, 
 "and thus took the form shown in 
 " the drawing. I have not heard of 
 " its being used for several years." 
 
 The improvements in rolling ma- 
 chinery, and in the manipulation of 
 large masses of iron at the rolls, 
 have been so gi-eat of late years, and 
 especially since the introduction of armour-plates, and of armour 
 shelf-plates like those of the ' Warrior ' (which are immense angle- 
 irons, in fact), that such a section of 
 iron could no doubt now be rolled 
 of much greater lengths than for- 
 merly, and thus part of what must 
 liave been a great weight of butt- 
 straps in the Oakfarm plan might be 
 saved. The weight of these butt- 
 straps, and the obstruction Avhich 
 they offer to the flow of bilge-water, 
 along the gutter which the keel 
 forms, was avoided by a very pecu- 
 liar arrangement in the vessel already 
 mentioned, the ' Dover.' It consisted in sinking a tapering butt- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 RL-tJ-'-^AJT 
 
 
 O O 1 o o 
 O O j o 
 
 o o j o o 
 ^ o^ j o o 
 
 1 
 
 Tt-« — M-*r 1 
 
 O O [ o o 
 o o i o o
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Ga7''board-Strakes. 
 
 21 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 strap into the abutting ends of the keel-plates as shown in plan and 
 elevation in Fig. 7, an arrangement which is plainly inconsistent 
 with either due strength or economy of workmanship. Were such 
 keels employed now, we should no doubt either weld the successive 
 lengths together, as far as practicable, or strap the butts with 
 treble-riveted straps, and cement the channel up to the level of the 
 rivet-heads, or rather so as to bury them beneath a flush surface of 
 cement. 
 
 The difficulty of manufacturing the hollow iron keel led in 
 some cases to the adoption of curious devices. One of the most 
 singular of these, perhaps, was that which Mr. 
 Laird employed in the * Birkenhead,' a ship 
 built for the Admiralty in 1843 as a steam- 
 frigate, but used by them as a troop transport, 
 and -^vTecked in a memorable manner. This 
 keel was formed, as shown in Fig. 8, of two angle-irons and a 
 shallow gutter-plate, connected by single-riveted joint-straps. 
 Perhaps the simplest of all the 
 forms of hollow keels was that 
 of a simple plate, with an easy 
 curved depression in the middle 
 of it — a form adopted, we re- 
 member, in the Empress of Eussia's yacht 'Nevka,' and in the U.S. 
 monitor ' Dictator,' designed by Captain Ericsson, as shown in Fig. 9. 
 
 In some cases hollow keels were filled with wood, which, of course, 
 decayed long before the iron, and 
 could not be renewed without re- 
 moving the floors or keel. In 
 other cases the builders ran the 
 garboard-plates across the hollow ^'°' ^"^ 
 
 keel, as shown in Fig. 10, and thus made the latter merely an 
 external channel, as security to the ship 
 in the event of the keel being injured. 
 But this, of course, led to the rapid cor- 
 rosion of the keel and garboards, and at 
 the same time rendered the repairs, which 
 consequently became necessary, exceed- 
 ingly difficult and expensive. 
 
 Another form of a hollow external ^ig. n. 
 
 closed keel is given in Fig. 11, which is taken from an able article 
 
 Fig- 9.
 
 22 
 
 Keels, Keelsons^ 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 on Shipbuilding in the Eneyelopcedia Britannica * by Mr. Andrew 
 Murray, who says of it : — 
 
 " In the keel, according to the above sketch, it will be observed 
 " that the plating is carried right across it, so that it might be very 
 "much injured, and probably even torn away in parts, without 
 " causing any leak into the ship, its edge being made purposely 
 " weaker than the bottom plates to which it is attached, Cross- 
 " plates with flanges, or with angle-irons, may be riveted across it, 
 " at any distance that may be desired, so as to stiffen it ; and the 
 " plates can be made thicker, or additional strengthening plates 
 " may be added inside or outside the side-plates, at the stern-post 
 " or at the fore-foot." 
 
 Mr. Murray also gives the section of a vessel designed by 
 Mr. Bowman, in which the keel is formed box-fashion as shown in 
 Fig. 12, the floors abutting against the sides of the box-keel ; and 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 the section of a form of keel adopted by Messrs. Taylerson and Co. 
 of Poi-t Glasgow, as shown in Fig. 13. 
 
 The rabbeted bar-keel has been succeeded, as already stated, 
 by the plain bar-keel, a simple bar of iron rectangular in section. 
 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 which is now very common in the merchant service. In its 
 usual form this keel, like the rabbeted solid keel, has no other 
 
 Eeprinted in a separate treatise, and published by Black of Edinburgh.
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 ajid Garboard-Strakes. 
 
 ^3 
 
 connection with the ship than that which it derives from the 
 garboard rivets upon which it hangs ; there have been cases, how- 
 ever, in which a direct attachment of the bar-keel to a keelson- 
 plate has been effected by means of a groove in the keel, as in 
 Fig. 14, or by means of a rabbet on the side, as in Fig. 15. In 
 these cases, the keel ceases, of course, to be a plain bar-keel, 
 the machining of the groove or the rabbet being indispensable 
 and expensive. There have been instances, however, of 
 the direct attachment being effected 
 without a rabbet or groove, the keel- 
 son-plate being simply lapj)ed upon 
 the keel, as will be seen from Fig. 16, 
 which represents a middle-line sec- 
 tion of the Peninsular and Oriental 
 steam-ship 'Nemesis,' built at Glasgow 
 in 1857. It will be observed that the 
 only connection between the two is a single row of rivets, and the 
 keel being 12 inches by 3 inches, the arrangement obviously throws 
 the keelson 1^ inch out of the middle line — a matter of little or no 
 moment probably. As far as the single row of rivets can accomplish 
 the object, this plan, like all other plans which connect the keel with 
 a central keelson, has the important advantage of opposing the rack- 
 ing of the floor-plates longitudinally. Comparing this arrangement 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 with that of either of the plans shown in Figs. 17 and 18, which 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 show combinations of common bar-keels and through-floors with a 
 plate-keelson and a box-keelson respectively (as given in Lloyd's 
 plate of illustrations for their keels for building iron ships), it will be 
 seen that while in both the latter cases the floors are comparatively 
 free to trip, by the keelson riding along the keel, this cannot 
 happen in the ' Nemesis ' arrangement (the floors being riveted to 
 the keelson-plate) until the rivets connecting the keel and keelson
 
 24 
 
 Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 have first been stripped. That the resistance which a single row 
 of rivets .can present to any great and violent strain — such as 
 would ensue from the ship striking the ground at speed, for 
 example — is not great, is very evident ; but it is obviously a step 
 in the right direction, and it gives to the plain bar-keel an ad- 
 vantage which it is impossible for it to possess while hung upon 
 the garboard rivets alone. It is only necessary to add, in reference 
 to the bar-keel, that it is not uncommon to weld the several lengths 
 into one continuous bar ; and where that is not done, it has to 
 be carefully scarphed together by vertical scarphs, the length of 
 which must, according to Lloyd's Rules, be in lengtli at least 8 
 times the thickness of the solid keel. The Liverpool Enles require 
 the length of the scarph to vary with the size of the keel, and on the 
 average the length they prescribe is about 9 times the thickness. 
 
 The solid-bar keel has in some instances had an assemWage of 
 plates laid side by side substituted for it, the butts of the several 
 
 layers being carefully shifted. An 
 early instance of this is to be found 
 in the case of an iron brig called 
 the ' Recruit,' built many years 
 ago for the Admiralty. Fig. 19 
 is a section of her keel and gar- 
 boards. It will be observed that, 
 in this case, the built keel merely 
 takes the place of the solid keel, 
 and is not connected to the floors, 
 except by the garboards. This 
 arrangement of keel has recently 
 been adopted in the construction 
 of the War Department store-ship 
 * Earl de Grey and Ripon,' and 
 has frequently been applied in 
 other cases. 
 
 We have already seen that 
 the connection of the keel with the 
 middle-line keelson-plate, which 
 is connected by angle-irons to the 
 floors, is an object of great importance, as it obstructs the racking 
 or folding-down of the floors. We also see how difficult it is to 
 efl'ect this connection satisfactorily with a solid plate. But if we 
 
 Fig. 19.
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Garboard-Strakes . 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 make the keel of two edge-bars instead of one only, we are obvi- 
 ously enabled to j)ass the keelson-plate down between them, and by 
 riveting the garboards through all, we shall get the keel and keel- 
 son directly combined by several rows of rivets, in addition to the 
 indirect connection resulting from the floors being riveted to both 
 the garboards and the keelson. This is the arrangement known 
 as the " side-bar keel," and a very excellent arrangement it is for 
 external iron keels. It is illus- 
 trated in combination with a central 
 through-plate keelson, and a flat 
 keelson-plate \\\ Fig. 20, — a sec- 
 tion of the Union Mail Steam-ship, 
 ' Eoman,' built by Mr. Lungley, 
 of Deptford Green; and is favour- 
 ably provided for in Lloyd's Eules, 
 which only require the same total 
 thickness for the keel- bars and keelson-plates as is required for a 
 solid keel, and provide that the butts of the several plates of which 
 the keel is formed shall be carefully shifted from each other, and 
 from the butts of the garboard-strakes, which also must be carefully 
 shifted so as not to be opposite or nearer each other than two 
 spaces of frames. The Liverpool Eules also provide favourably for 
 this keel, and state that it is preferred to the bar-keel. It was 
 first employed, we believe, in a little vessel named the ' Vulcan,' 
 built in 1818 for the Forth and Clyde Canal from the designs of 
 Sir John Eobison. 
 
 In some instances a horizontal plate has been worked in places 
 beneath the side-bar keel, and connected thereto by a couple of 
 angle-irons, as shown in Fig. 21. Mr. 
 Murray gives a specimen of this arrange- 
 ment in his book before referred to, the 
 example being taken from the specifi- 
 cation of a steam-ship built for the 
 Peninsular and Oriental Company. The 
 vertical flanges of the angle-irons w^ere 
 bolted through all. This additional plate 
 and pair of angle-irons extended 50 feet 
 from the after sternpost. A similar arrangement is adopted at the 
 after end of the keel of H.M. Troop-ship ' Oroutes.' We will only add 
 at this point, that side bars, like keels themselves, ai'e sometimes 
 
 Fig. 21.
 
 26 Keels^ Keelsons, Chap. ii. 
 
 formed of more than one thickness, as we shall show hereafter by 
 giving a section of the ' Ulster's * keel and keelson. 
 
 Before proceeding to remark upon horizontal or flat-plate iron 
 keels, it becomes necessary to observe the forms of middle-line 
 keelsons which builders have associated with the bar-keel and the 
 side-bar keel. The only keelsons employed by some builders with 
 the bar-keel have been situated upon the tops of the floor-plates, 
 which liave crossed unbroken beneath them and above the keel, as 
 already shown in Figs. 17 and 18. Sometimes this surmounting 
 keelson has been formed with a single plate and a pair of angle- 
 irons at top and bottom, or with two plates placed together and 
 a like arrangement of angle-irons as in Fig. 17, and at other times 
 it has been formed as a box-keelson, as in Fig. 18, the lower pair of 
 angle-irons being riveted to the angle-irons at the top of the floors. 
 But as there is an entire absence of intercostal plates between the 
 floors, it is obvious, for the reasons already stated, that neither of these 
 arrangements of keel and keelsons, taken alone, is fully satisfactory. 
 
 Reverting to the case of the ship that got across the stone cause- 
 way (page 15), it may be observed that she was an instance of this 
 kind, having a solid-bar keel and a box-keelson on the floors, with 
 nothing between the floors, and it is easy to see that an intercostal 
 keelson-plate woidd have been the very thing to oppose that bowing 
 up of the keel which took place, and which led to the fracture both 
 of the transverse floors and of the longitudinal keelson. An 
 actual and considerable racking of the floor-plates obviously took 
 place, and the strain was allowed to concentrate itself upon the tajp 
 of the keelson and of the floors, and tear them downwards ; whereas 
 had the form of the rectangular spaces between the floors, tlie keel, 
 and the keelson, been preserved, this tearing action could not have 
 taken place, and all the sectional strength both of the keelson and 
 of the floors would have been brought into play. For reasons 
 which will be apparent, the solid bar is now generally associated 
 with a middle-line keelson, consisting of short intercostal plates 
 between the floors, connected to them by short pieces of angle-iron. 
 Sometimes these intercostal plates are worked flush wdth the 
 throats of the floors, and at other times they stand up above them. 
 In either case, a pair of angle-irons is usually worked fore and aft 
 upon the throats of the floors, to give a longitudinal tie above tlie 
 floors as well as below them, and frequently a bulb-iron is intro- 
 duced between the angle-irons, to add still further to the longi-
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Gar boar d-Strakes. 
 
 27 
 
 tiidinal tie. When the keelson-pieces are shallow, and do not rise 
 above the floors, this bulb-iron is scoi-ed down between the floors 
 sufficiently deep to lay hold of the keelson-pieces with a double row 
 of rivets, as shown in Fig. 22. When the keelson -plates stand up 
 above the floors, this scoring down of the bulb-iron is unnecessary 
 and the arrangement then assumes the form shown in Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Builders are often content, ho\vever, to do without this bulb-iron, 
 especially when the keelson-plates stand above the floors, and then 
 the arrangement assumes the simple form shown in Plate 2, which 
 shows, in section, the keel and keelson of the fine Atlantic Mail 
 Steamship ' China,' built by Messrs. Napier and Sons of Glasgow. 
 
 It will be observed in this last figure that a flat keelson-plate, 
 lying along the tops of the floors, is worked on each side of the up- 
 right keelson-plate, beneath the angle-irons, adding, of course, both 
 to the longitudinal and the transverse strength. As the floors all 
 cross the keel and keelson, this addition scarcely seems necessary 
 as far as regards the transverse strength ; but, on the whole, the 
 arrangement no doubt presents a very satisfactory combination, the 
 only weak feature of it being the absence of any direct connection 
 between the bar-keel and the keelson. 
 
 Having thus completed all that it seems necessary to say, 
 respecting the combination of solid single-bar keels with suitable 
 keelsons, we have to turn to the combination of side-bar keels with 
 their keelsons, of which we have already had one example before 
 us in Fig. 20. In that example the upright keelson-plate is a con- 
 tinuous plate dividing all the floors ; and a little consideration -will 
 show that the division of the floors at the middle line, and the use 
 of a continuous plate, although not absolutely essential to the direct 
 attachment of side keel-bars to a central keelson-plate, are by far 
 the most convenient arrangement. As the side bars and the 
 central keelson-plate must be effectually caulked, the plate cannot 
 be scored down over the floors, not only because it would be
 
 28 
 
 KeelSy Keelsons^ 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 exceedingly difScult to work a plate scored so deeply, but also 
 because, if that were done, a hole or space would be left below every 
 floor-plate. It would be practicable to score the keelson-plate 
 and let it up between the floors, or which would be the same 
 thing, to let the floors down into it, leaving the plate continuous 
 below the floors, to receive the side bars, and to caulk against 
 them. This plan is, however, not adopted, because the deep 
 scoring of the keelson-plate is most objectionable in practice, and it 
 is deemed simpler and better work, and more favourable to longi- 
 tudinal strength, to make the central upright keelson-plate continu- 
 ous through the floors, and to abut the floors against it, making 
 good the transverse strength by other means. 
 
 "Presuming the upright keelson to be a continuous or through- 
 plate, then we may do one of two things, — either keep its upper edge 
 level with the throating of the floors, or bring it up above them. 
 In the first case — that in which it is stopped at the height of the 
 floor-throat — it is usually associated with a horizontal keelson-plate 
 
 worked on the floors, and connected 
 to it by means of two angle-irons 
 lying against both, as shown in Fig. 
 20 and as shown also in the accom- 
 panying section of the 'Ulster's' keel, 
 Fig. 24 (before referred to), which 
 likewise illustrates the use of side 
 bars in two thicknesses, and of cer- 
 tain angle-iron connections of the 
 floors and keelsons A and B to which we may hereafter revert. In 
 this case the angle-irons connecting the flat and upright keelson- 
 plates are continuous, but in other cases the reverse irons of the floors 
 are made continuous, being scored down into the keelson, and then 
 the longitudinal angle-irons of the keelsons are worked in short 
 lengths between the floors. Some builders occasionally have cross- 
 strapped the floors, in addition 
 to working the horizontal keel- 
 son-plate. This was done, we 
 remember, in the 'Tasmania,' a 
 vessel built at Poi-t Glasgow 
 in 1858, for the conveyance of 
 the European and Australian 
 Mails. Fig. 25 is a section of her keel, keelson, and cross-straps. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Fig. 25.
 
 Chap. II, 
 
 and Garboard-Strakes. 
 
 29 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 or tie-plates, these last being 9 feet long, 22 inches broad, | inch 
 thick, and worked on every second pair of floors. In other cases, 
 again, the angle-irons, instead of being below the flat keelson-plate, 
 are on top of it, close together and 
 back to back, as shown in Fig. 26. 
 
 The second plan — that of carry- 
 ing the upright keelson-plate above 
 the floors — is, however, usually pre- 
 ferred. When this is done, a flat 
 keelson-plate and an angle-iron are 
 usually worked on each side of it, as 
 shown in Plate 1, which is a view of the amidship framing of the 
 ' Queen,' a fine screw-ship, built recently by Messrs, Laird for a 
 Trans- Atlantic Steam Company; an 
 elevation of this keel, with its fasten- 
 ings, being given in Fig. 27, and the 
 disposition of its butts being shown in 
 elevation and plan in Fig. 28. The 
 stations are drawn in dotted lines. 
 The butts in dotted lines refer to the 
 ]3ort side in the elevation, and to the 
 garboard-strakes in the plan. These figures illustrate the shift of 
 butts and the fastenings adopted by one of our leading private firms 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 PLAN 
 
 Fig, 28. 
 
 in the construction of a first-class ship, with a side-bar keel, a 
 central through-plate, and two flat keelson-plates on the floors con- 
 nected by upstanding angle-irons, and their correspondence with 
 the requirements of Lloyd's Rules for the shift of butts Avith such 
 keels, already quoted.
 
 30 
 
 Keels^ Keelsons^ 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 In Lloyd's sheet of illustrations provision is made for the 
 central continuous plate rising up to a sufficient height to receive 
 two pairs of angle-irons, as sho\vn in Fig. 29 ; thus forming an up- 
 right-plate keelson above the floors, 
 an arrangement which may be useful 
 in some ships, but which, as a rule, 
 would provide an excess of longitudi- 
 nal and too little transverse strength. 
 It is, of course, in very long and 
 fine sliips, with comparatively small 
 beam, that so much longitudinal and 
 so little transverse strength would be most appropriate. 
 
 We have now considered, as completely as appears to be 
 desirable, the cases of external central keels, and have next to con- 
 sider flush keels, or internal keels, which are now frequently used 
 in mercantile ships, and almost universally in H.M. ships. Com- 
 paring these with the keels and central keelsons already considered, 
 we may almost say that ships fitted with them have no keels at all, 
 for if we take away the external bar or side bars, and make the two 
 garboard-strakes into one central plate, we have pretty nearly all 
 that constitutes what is known as the " flat-plate keel " of the 
 merchant service, a couple of continuous longitudinal angle-irons, 
 to connect this single garboard with the upright plate (whether the 
 latter be "intercostal " or " continuous") being all that are neces- 
 sary to complete the combination. With this form and arrange- 
 ment of keel, most of the arrangements of keelsons previously 
 described may be combined. Fig. 30 illustrates the case in which 
 the flat-plate keel is combined with a centre continuous plate, and 
 with a flat-plate keelson with the angle-irons below it ; and Fig. 31 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 illustrates the case in which it is combined with an intercostal 
 middle-line keelson, and a bulb-iron and pair of angle-irons run- 
 ning along on top of the floors. 
 
 Before passing to the ships of the Eoyal Navy, in which the
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Gar boar d-Strakes. 
 
 31 
 
 arrangements are somewhat different from those usually adopted in 
 merchant ships, it will be proper to add that Lloyd's Eules provide 
 that, where flat-plate keels are used, the intercostal keelson-plates 
 are to be fitted close down on, and connected to, the keel by double 
 angle-irons riveted all fore and aft to the keel and keelson ; and 
 that in all cases, where centre continuous plates are applied, they 
 are to be extended to the stem and stern post, and connected 
 thereto, where practicable. As these Eules regulate the greater 
 part of the practice of the mercantile shipbuilders, we shall not 
 enter here or indeed, at all, upon the details of the dimensions and 
 proportions to be given to the various parts of merchant vessels, 
 but shall give the Eules themselves, and the well-known Table Gr, 
 in the form of an Appendix. We shall also add the Eules of the 
 Liverpool Underwriters' Eegistry. 
 
 The flat-keels, which have been given to H.M. iron-clad 
 frigates differ from those already described chiefly in the fact that 
 the flat-keel plates are doubled in them, the garboard-strakes 
 meeting the inner-keel plate, flush with it, and the outer-keel plate 
 being worked broad 
 enough to lap upon 
 the garboards, as shown 
 in Fig, 32, which is a 
 section of the 'War- 
 rior's ' keel and keel- 
 son-plates. Here the 
 continuous centre-plate 
 is 40 inches deep and 
 I inch thick, and is 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 connected below to the two keel-plates by 6-inch angle-irons 
 1 inch thick, and above by two smaller irons (31 inches by 
 3^ inches by f inch) to a flat-keelson plate f inch thick and 
 3 feet broad. These latter angle-irons are in short lengths, 
 between the floors, as the upper pair of the floor angle-irons 
 and the shallow plate between them run continuous across the 
 centre plate, into which they are scored. The outer angle-irons 
 of the floors turn up against the centre continuous plate. The 
 outer and inner keel-plates have each a short butt-strap worked on 
 each side of the keel angle-irons, and the butts of the angle-irons 
 are also covered in the usual way. The keel-plates are in lengths 
 equal to the other plates of the bottom, as are also the vertical
 
 32 
 
 Keels. Keelsons. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 middle-line plates. The angle-irons are in length from two to four 
 lengths of the outside plating. 
 
 The keel arrangements of the 'Northumberland' are of 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 substantially the same character, but 
 are given in greater details in section, 
 plan and elevation in Figs. 3.3 and 
 34, in ^hich are also shown the butt- 
 straps of the outer and inner keel- 
 plates, the garboard-strakes, the ver- 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 P LAN. 
 
 tical continuous plate, the gutter 
 plate, and the rivets in each 
 
 case. The thicknesses of the plates are as follows : — 
 
 Vertical keel-plate \ inch thick. 
 
 Butt-straps to ditto, double, each \ , , 
 
 Outer flat-keel plate If , , 
 
 Butt- strap to ditto, single IJ ,, 
 
 Inner flat-keel plate 1^ , , 
 
 Butt-straps to ditto, single 1;^ , , 
 
 Garboards, and adjacent strakes 1 g , , 
 
 Butt-straps to ditto, single 1,^ , , 
 
 Gutter or flat keelson-plate f , , 
 
 Butt-straps to ditto, double, each 7s > » 
 
 Vertical keelson-plate f , , 
 
 Butt-straps to ditto, double, each ^ , , 
 
 Floors ^ 
 
 Angle-irons connecting vertical and flat-keel plates 
 
 Angle-irons connecting vertical keel and gutter plate 3J 
 
 6 inches by 6 inches by 1 inch
 
 Chap. II. and Gavboard-Strakes, 
 
 33 
 
 Angle-irons connecting vertical keel and floor-plates 4 inches by 3§ inches by | inch 
 Angle-irons connecting vertical keelson-plate and I „2^ „i ^ 
 
 gutter-plate J - " "^^ .. ts . . 
 
 Angle-irons on top of vertical keelson-plates . . 3J , , Z\ , , J , , 
 Angle-irons forming continuous transverse frame . . 7 , , 3i , , | , , 
 
 It will be seen from the Figs. 33 and 34 that the vertical keel- 
 plate A passes through, with the floors B,Bj butting against it, and 
 the transverse angle-irons on the top of the floors scoring through 
 it. These transverse angle-irons form continuations of the frames 
 of the ship, and running across the keel, terminate alternately on 
 opposite sides of it, at a distance of about 6 feet from it, thus giving 
 shilt to each other. 
 
 The vertical keel-plate A is strapped with a butt-strap, a, 
 on each side, treble-chain riveted, as shown in the elevation in 
 Fig. 34. This butt-strap, a, is 18 inches long and fills the whole 
 space between the angle-irons of the adjacent floors. 
 
 Both the outer and inner keel-plates, C and D, are strapped 
 at the butts with treble-riveted straps, c, d, respectively ; both sets 
 of straps lying on the inside of the inner keel-plate, as there are 
 many objections, of course, to placing butt-straps on the outside 
 of the keel and bottom plating. The straps of the outer flat keel- 
 plate butts, e, are of the same thickness as the plating (1 J inch), 
 and extend in breadth from the keel angle-iron across the inner 
 keel-plate overlapping upon the garboard-strake E, at c', to the 
 same extent as the outer keel-plate itself under laps the garboard. 
 They receive four rows of rivets (If inch), two rows through the 
 double keel-plates, C, D, and two rows through the outer keel- 
 plate C, and garboard E. The straps, d, of the inner keel-plate 
 are of the same length, breadth, and thickness as those, c, of the 
 outer keel-plate, and riveted in the same way ; these flat keel- 
 plate straps, like those of the vertical keel-plate, usually filling up 
 the space between adjacent floor angle-irons. The keel angle- 
 irons, all of which are properly butt-strapped themselves, may at 
 first sight seem to complete the strapping of both the vertical and 
 the horizontal keel-plates, with which they are made to give a 
 shift of butts ; but this is not strictly the case, as we shall see 
 presently. 
 
 The butts of the garboards, E, are strapped similarly with 
 plates, e, 1-f^ inch thick, riveted by 1^-inch rivets. They extend 
 from one floor angle-iron to another, and overlap the inner keel- 
 
 D
 
 34 On Keels, Keelsoits, Chap. ii. 
 
 plate sufficiently to receive a row of rivets passing through it, as 
 shown at e'. This overlap of the garboard butt-strap upon the 
 inner keel-plate, while it no doubt makes very strong and good 
 work, appears to involve an excess of weight for the use of which 
 there is no sufficient reason ; as the treble-riveted butt-strap, if of 
 the width of the plate to be strapped and no more, would make 
 the butt as strong as the plate itself is in the line of the rivet- 
 holes that connect it to the floor angle-iron. The same remark 
 will not apply to the overrunning of the inner keel-plate butt- 
 straps upon the garboard-strakes, because that tends to make up 
 for the manifest deficiency of strength at the flat keel-plate butts. 
 It is true, as already remarked, that the keel angle-irons seem to 
 complete the strapping of the keel-plates ; but it is obvious that 
 they have only the same strength at the keel-plate butts as else- 
 where, and that the strength would require to be increased in order 
 to give the same total sectional strength at the keel-butts as away 
 from them. At the butts of the outer keel-plate, therefore, where 
 there is no extension of the breadth of the butt-straps beyond the 
 edge of the plate itself, there must be places of permanent com- 
 parative weakness. There are many practicable methods, how- 
 ever, of succouring these points, and restoring to them the uniform 
 strength of section which is elsewhere maintained, or very nearly 
 that amount. One way would be to joggle the butt-strap over the 
 keel angle-iron ; another, to work additional strap-pieces of angle- 
 iron there upon the keel angle-irons, these additional pieces being 
 short pieces on one side of the vertical keel, and prolongations of 
 the actual keel angle-iron butt-strap on the other side ; for, as we 
 shall soon see, there is an outer flat keel-plate butt in a floor space 
 adjacent to every butt of the keel angle-irons. But the readiest 
 and probably the best mode of doing it is that which was adopted 
 in the ' Bellerophon,' ' Hercules,' and other recent ships, and which 
 consists in increasing the thickness of the butt-strap, keeping it of 
 the same breadth as in the ' Northumberland.' * If one or other 
 of these methods is not adopted, it is difficult to see why the 
 strength of the keel angle-irons themselves need be made con- 
 tinuous throughout by means of butt-straps, because while a loss 
 
 * A slight but insufficient increase in thickness was contemplated in the design 
 of this ship, for the specification provided for keel-plate butt-straps 1| inch in 
 thickness.
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Garboard-Strakes. 
 
 35 
 
 of 16 square inches of section occurs at the butts of the outer flat 
 keel-plate, a loss of 11 square inches only would occur by the 
 omission of the angle-iron butt-strap ; and it is useless to make 
 the section so much stronger in one place than in another. It is 
 also obvious that the extra weight incurred in the butt-straps of 
 the inner keel-plate is unavailing (except locally) while the outer 
 keel-plate butts are imperfectly connected. Somewhat similar 
 observations may also be applied in a less degree to the butt- 
 strapping of the vertical keel-plate, which can only be done 
 effectually by carrying the butt-straps down over the vertical 
 flange of the keel angle-irons, or by increasing their thickness. 
 To double those angle-irons themselves at these points would in 
 this case be to incur an excess of strength and weight, because the 
 only loss in the present arrangement is that of 4^ square inches of 
 section. Unless the strength of the lower keel-plate were made 
 continuous, however, as already suggested, there clearly would be 
 no advantage in thus strengthening the butts of the vertical keel- 
 plate, as the section there is already, though weak, stronger than 
 the section at the lower keel-plate butts, being double-strapped 
 with ^inch plates, and treble-riveted, as shown at a. 
 
 The gutter-plate, G, is also strapped by double butt-straps, 
 each j'^g-inch thick, and treble zig-zag riveted. 
 
 The disposition of the butts of the keel-plates, garboard-strakes, 
 &c., in the ' Northumberland,' and their relation to the spacings of 
 the frames, are shown in Fig. 35. 
 
 n^F 
 
 m^ 
 
 -1-^i 
 
 ?3^ 
 
 £\::\.j9. 
 
 ^js^^,. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 The usual frame space is 2 feet 4 inches ; but at regulated in- 
 tervals — viz. at the ports — pairs of spaces, each of 1 foot 11 inches, 
 are thrown in to ensure a good arrangement of port-frames. The 
 lengths of the keel, gutter, and garboard-plates are about 11 feet, 
 and those of the keel angle-irons about 22 feet. The vertical keel- 
 butts are marked a a; the outer flat keel-plate butts, c c; the 
 
 D 2
 
 36 On Keels, Keelso?is, Chap. 11. 
 
 inner, d d ; the garboard -butts, e e; and those of the gutter-plate, 
 g g. The butts, c c, of the outer flat keel-plate, and the butts, 
 d d, of the inner flat keel-plate, each give shift by one frame space 
 to the vertical keel-butts, a a, on opposite sides of them. The 
 garboard-butts, in like manner, give shift by one frame space to the 
 inner keel-butts, d d, a. similar shift to the gutter-plate butts, and 
 a shift of two frame spaces to the outer keel-butts, c c. These 
 garboard-butts are exactly opposite to each other on opposite sides 
 of the keel, having the three keel-plates, the keel angle-irons, and 
 the gutter-plate unbroken between them. There are no adjacent 
 plate-butts occurring in the same frame space throughout the 
 arrangement. In fact, the only butts that come in the same 
 space are the butts of the gutter-plate on top of the vertical keel, 
 and those of the keel angle-irons, k k, at the bottom of it. This 
 coincidence is obviously unavoidable, unless a worse arrangement 
 is resorted to ; for every other frame space is already occupied by 
 a butt-strap, either of one of the three keel-plates, or of the gar- 
 board-strakes. It was, of course, out of the question to make the 
 butt of the keel angle-iron coincident with tlie butt of either 
 of the keel-plates themselves, and consequently the only choice 
 was to make it coincide either with the garboard-butts, or with the 
 gutter-plate butt ; and of these, we think the latter was properly 
 preferred. We shall have occasion to consider the general question 
 of the disposition of plate-butts hereafter ; but this illustration of 
 the 'Northumberland's' keel and garboard-butts will serve to 
 indicate the general considerations which have to be borne in 
 mind, observing that we defer our remarks upon the necessity of 
 making certain keel work watertight, and the means by which 
 tliis is accomplished, until we come to consider, as we are now 
 about to do, other cases in which water-tightness has to be more 
 largely regarded. 
 
 The iron-clad frigate ' Bellerophon ' was the first ship in which 
 was carried out the bracket-frame system of construction, which 
 has since been applied to the ' Penelope,' ' Hercules,' ' Monarch,' 
 ' King William,' five large steam troop-ships built for the Indian 
 Service, and other vessels. In this system the general keel 
 arrangements of the ' Warrior,' ' Northumberland,' and other such 
 ships were preserved ; but were associated with an internal bottom, 
 and with short brackets instead of floor-plates, as shown in the 
 engraving given in Plate 4.
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 and Gar boar d-Strakes. 
 
 Z7 
 
 The ' Bellerophon ' being a much smaller ship than the ' North- 
 umberland/ her general scantlings (apart from the armoured side) 
 were less. Her outer keel-plate was \\, and her inner 1 Jg. i^ch 
 thick ; and, in order to compensate for the absence of strapping in 
 the centre, the side straps were made If inch thick. We do not 
 purpose, however, to dwell upon the ' Bellerophon's ' arrangements, 
 but to pass at once to those of the ' Hercules,' which are of sub- 
 stantially the same kind, and fully represented in the accompany- 
 ing engravings. 
 
 Fig. 36 is a side elevation of the central keel, showing a butt 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 and the floor angle-irons ; Fig. 37 is a section through one of the 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 bracket frames ; Fig. 38, a section through a watertight frame 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 (observing that such a frame occurs every 20 feet, dividing the 
 double bottom space into watertight compartments) ; and Fig. 39 
 is a plan view, showing the arrangements of the butt-straps of the 
 keel-plates and garboards.
 
 38 
 
 On Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 The vertical keel-plate is a |-inch plate; the outer flat-keel 
 \\ inch thick; the inner flat keel and garboards 1 inch; the 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 keel angle-irons, 6 inches each flange, and 1 inch thick. The 
 plates are about 12 feet long, and as the frames are spaced 4 feet 
 apart, it is of course impossible to separate the butts of all these 
 plates and angle-irons by a frame space. The arrangement adopted 
 is that of bringing the butts of the vertical keel-plate and garboards 
 in the same frame space, the former being strapped with double 
 straps, each ^ inch thick, and treble-chain riveted with 1^-inch 
 rivets ; and the latter united with single straps ^ inch thick, double- 
 chain riveted with 1^-inch rivets. We shall hereafter discuss the 
 general question of butt-strapping plates, and will therefore only 
 observe here that there is good reason for this employment of 
 treble-riveted butt-straps thicker than the plates to be strapped in 
 the one case (the vertical keel), and double-riveted straps thinner 
 than the plates in the other (the garboards) ; for while in the 
 former case the deficient breadth of the butt-strap as compared 
 with that of the plate has to be compensated for, in the latter the 
 section of the butt-strap and keel-plates, through a row of rivet- 
 holes in the garboard-butt, is obviously equal in strength to a 
 section of the garboard-strakes and keel-plates taken through the 
 rivet-holes of the frame angle-irons. 
 
 In the spaces adjacent to that containing the butts of the 
 vertical keel and garboards come on the one side the butt of 
 the outer keel-plate, and on the other the butt of the inner keel- 
 plate. In both cases the butt-straps extend in width from the
 
 Chap. II. and Garboard-Strakes. 39 
 
 keel angle-irons to the edge of the plate to be strapped ; and in 
 both cases these straps are If inch in thickness, and treble-chain 
 riveted with If-inch rivets. The same thickness of butt-straps 
 is preserved in both cases for the sake of simplicity, although the 
 plates differ by \ inch in thickness, and the excess of thickness is 
 adopted as a compensation for the deficiency of breadth, which 
 results from the butt-straps stopping at the sides of the keel angle- 
 irons. Taking the case of the inner keel-plate, for example, we 
 have a plate 3 feet 1 inch broad, and 1 inch thick, its butt there- 
 fore having a sectional area of 37 square inches. The butt-straps 
 (taking the two together) are 24^ inches broad, and If inch 
 thick, and therefore have a sectional area of 33f inches. But the 
 inner flat keel-plate is pierced at the frames by 2 rivets, each If 
 inch in diameter, and 4 of 1^ inch in diameter, and therefore 
 has its section of 37 inches reduced by 1\ inches, while there are 
 6 rivets, each If inch, in the weakest line of the butt-strap, which 
 reduce its sectional area by ] If inches ; so that the true relative 
 strengths of the strap and plate (considering these alone) are in 
 the proportion of 22 : 29|. 
 
 In the same frame space as the butts of the outer keel-plate 
 come the butts of the keel angle-irons, which are strapped by 
 double-riveted butt-straps, as shown at a in Fig. 39. 
 
 As the two flat keel-plates are bound together by all the rivets 
 passing through the horizontal flanges of the keel angle-irons, as 
 well as by an additional rivet in each floor-plate, a single row of 
 rivets is obviously sufiicient to connect the outer edge of the inner 
 keel-plate to the outer plate, while the laps of the outer keel-plate 
 and garboards, of course, require the usual double row. 
 
 In the system of construction now under consideration, the 
 vertical keel is made water-tight. At the bottom of the plate this 
 is easily accomplished, because the keel angle-bars are continuous, 
 and when riveted to the vertical keel and flat plates, have only 
 to be caulked in the usual way ; the transverse floor angle-irons, 
 which lie along the bottom, and tm-n up the vertical keel-plate, 
 being worked afterwards, and joggled over them, as shown in 
 Figs. 37 and 38. The upper transverse angle-irons or frames, 
 however, which receive the inner bottom plating and the heads of 
 the brackets, run unbroken across the keel, scoring down into 
 it. To make the keel water-tight at the upper part, therefore, it 
 becomes necessary to turn down both ends of the short pieces of
 
 40 On Keels, Keelsons^ Chap. Ii. 
 
 longitudinal angle-iron that connect the vertical keel-plate to the 
 inner bottom plating, and to joggle one end over the transverse 
 through-angle frame, abutting it also carefully against the upper 
 end of the large angle-iron which has been turned up from below, 
 and working the ends of the adjacent short pieces of longitudinal 
 angle-iron close against each other, as well as against the trans- 
 verse frame. All this angle-iron work is well caulked, and 
 caulked also against the vertical keel-plate wherever the two come 
 together, and the whole is thus made water-tight before the 
 bracket plates are brought on. 
 
 It is only at the water-tight divisions of the double bottom, as 
 shown at Fig. 38, that the transverse frames require to be made 
 water-tight away from the keel. In this case the brackets are 
 replaced by solid-plate frames which are carried home to the 
 vertical keel-plate between the ends of the short upper longitudinal 
 angle -irons, and these latter are caulked against them and against 
 the keel. 
 
 The S3^stem of framing adopted in the turret-ship ' Captain,' 
 now being built by Messrs. Laird, is identical with that just de- 
 scribed for the * Hercules,' but the disposition of the butts of the 
 middle-line work and the arrangements of the riveting are different. 
 The vertical keel-plate is 42 inches deep and f inch thick ; the 
 outer flat keel is 1 inch thick, and the inner flat keel and garboards 
 each f inch thick ; the keel angle-irons have each flange 5 inches 
 wide and are f inch thick, and the gutter-plate is \ inch thick. 
 The plates forming the vertical keel are worked in 24 feet lengths ; 
 all the other plates in the keels, garboards, and gutter-plate in 
 12 feet lengths; the keel angle-irons are made up of 36 feet 
 lengths. The spacing of the frames is identical, with that of the 
 ' Hercules,' and here also it is absolutely impossible to prevent 
 more than one butt of a plate or angle-iron coming in the same 
 frame space. 
 
 The butts of the inner keel-plate and the butts of the garboard- 
 strake on each side are brought into the same frame space, and 
 have a distance between them of about 19 inches. The butts 
 of the outer flat keel come in the space on one side of that in 
 which the butts of the inner flat keel and garboards are placed, and 
 the butts of the vertical keel-plate come in the frame space on the 
 other side. The bu.ts of the gutter-plate give a shift of 2 feet to 
 those of the vertical keel, at their shortest distance ; but on account
 
 Chap. II. and Garboard-Strakes. 41 
 
 of the lengths of the plates in the vertical keel being double those 
 in the gutter-plate, there are two butts of the gutter-plate between 
 every two butts of the vertical keel. A similar remark applies to 
 the butts of the flat keels and garboards in relation to the 
 butts of the vertical keel. The butts of the keel angle-irons 
 are placed midway between the butts of the outer and inner flat 
 keel, falling in the same frame space as the butt of the outer 
 flat keel ; the shift between the butts of the keel angle-irons on 
 opposite sides of the vertical keel is 12 feet. 
 
 The butt-straps to the vertical keel-plates are double, each 
 being | inch thick, and are treble-chain riveted with j^f-inch rivets. 
 These butt-straps only extend from the upper edge of the keel 
 angle-irons to the lower edge of the short longitudinal angle-irons 
 on the upper edge of the keel plate, and are W\ inches wide. 
 The butt-straps to the inner and outer flat keels are single, their 
 thickness being \\ inch and their breadth 20 inches. They are 
 treble-chain riveted with 1^-inch rivets, and extend from the keel 
 angle-irons to the edge of the plates they connect. The inner 
 flat keel is 2 feet wide, and the outer 3 feet 2\ inches, and, as in 
 the ' Hercules,' the edges of the inner flat keel are single-riveted, 
 and the garboards double-riveted to the outer flat keel, the rivets 
 in this ship being 1^ inch and their pitch 4 inches. The butts 
 of the garboard are connected by f-inch butt-straps, which extend 
 the whole width of the strake, and are 17^ inches wide ; they are 
 treble-chain riveted with 1-inch rivets. The butt-straps of the 
 gutter-plate are 15 inches wide and ^ inch thick, and are treble- 
 chain riveted with -j^-inch rivets. The butts of the keel angle- 
 irons are connected by double-riveted covering straps 2 feet long. 
 These angle-irons are secured to the flat keels by 1^-inch rivets, 
 and to the vertical keel-plate by 1^-inch rivets, the pitch in both 
 flanges being 6 inches. 
 
 It will be remembered that a comparison between the strengths 
 of the inner flat keel-plate and its butt-strap has been made 
 for the ' Hercules,' and a similar comparison for this ship, the 
 ' Captain,' may be of interest. In this ship the total width of 
 the inner flat keel is 2 feet, and at a frame the plate is weakened 
 by two 1^-inch rivets in the keel angle-irons, and two 1^-inch rivets 
 in the edges, thus reducing its effective width to 19^ inches, and 
 its effective sectional area to 19^ by | = 16| sq. inches. The 
 width covered by the keel angle-irons and vertical keel is lOf
 
 42 
 
 On Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 inches, and thus the total width of strap is 13| inches, and the 
 effective width is less than the total width by four li-inch rivet- 
 holes; and therefore the effective width equals 8| inches, and 
 the effective sectional area equals 8| by 1^ = 11^ sq. inches. AVe 
 thus see that the relative strength of the plate and its butt-strap 
 along their weakest lines are in the proportions of 3 : 2 nearly. 
 
 The vertical keel of the ship is made water-tight in a somewhat 
 different manner from that of the ' Hercules.' The angle-irons on 
 the upper edge are forged staple fashion, and on both sides of the 
 water-tight frames, or on one side of the bracket frames, they butt 
 on the vertical parts of the frame angle-irons (where they are 
 turned up against the keel) and are connected to them by short 
 covering angle-irons. 
 
 There have been instances in which internal keels, resembling 
 
 those which we have lately been 
 describing, have been combined 
 with an external bar-keel and 
 turned down garboards. This 
 arrangement was carried out in 
 the large iron-clad frigate ' Vic- 
 toria,' built by the Thames 
 Shipbuilding Company for the 
 Spanish Government. Fig. 40 
 is a section of it. 
 
 In Mr. Scott Eussell's longi- 
 tudinal system, which preceded 
 the Admiralty system of com- 
 bined longitudinal and trans- 
 verse frames, a vertical keel is 
 employed with a single flat keel- 
 plate, as shown in Fig. 41, which 
 is a section of the ' Great East- 
 ern's ' keel, and in Fig. 42, which 
 is a section of a vessel named 
 the ' Annette,' built upon the 
 same system, but without an inner bottom. These constructions 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 will be further illustrated when we come to speak of methods of 
 framing iron ships.* 
 
 * See Chapter V.
 
 Chap. II. and Garboard-Strakes. 
 
 43 
 
 It is not at all an uncommon thing to employ side-keels, which 
 are variously called by that designation, or known as " drift-keels," 
 " auxiliary keels," " bilge-keels," and so forth. They no doubt 
 check the tendency of a ship to make lee-way when under canvas ; 
 they tend to check rolling ; and, if suitably fitted, add greatly to 
 the chances of safety for a ship in the event of her going ashore. 
 
 The ' Great Britain ' is an early and remarkable instance of 
 an iron ship having no external middle-line keel, but a keel on 
 each side. In his Eeport on Iron Shipbuilding in England, 
 M. Dupuy de Lome, speaking of this ship, makes the following 
 remarks : — "At 6 feet from the middle line, measured athwartship 
 " upon the plates, are fixed two side-keels, composed of plates 1 inch 
 " thick, and angle-irons of 5 inches. These keels extend for one- 
 " half the length of the vessel. They are only 8 inches deep in 
 " midships, but as their under sides are horizontal, at some distance 
 "from the middle they are 14 inches deep from the bottom." 
 And in a note he says, " The builders of the ' Great Britain ' con- 
 " sider this application of the keels as altogether a new idea, but it 
 " has been employed many years in France. Builders have there 
 " used this means to increase the lateral resistance of vessels 
 " without giving them a large draught of water. In 1811 it was 
 " adopted by M. Bonard, our present Inspector-General of Marine, 
 " in projecting a floating battery of 28 guns for the protection of 
 " the river Bordeaux." He also instances several vessels, built in 
 some cases for the Nile, in others for the coasting trade of Algiers, 
 in which three keels were used for reducing lee-way. 
 
 In the Eoyal Navy side-keels have become very common since the 
 introduction of iron-clad ships. They Avere used in the ' Warrior,' 
 formed as shown in section in Plate 3, the angle-irons being riveted 
 through the bottom plating. Such keels only extend over a portion 
 of the length of the ship, at the midship part, stopping where the 
 rise of the body forward and aft renders them no longer necessary. 
 Similar keels were applied to our other iron-clad ships when built 
 of iron, until a change was introduced in the ' Bellerophon.' As 
 that ship has a flatter floor than her predecessors, and as we 
 wished to give her all the security possible, we attached no less 
 than four side-keels to her bottom, forming them as shown in section 
 in Plate 4. They are each composed of two angle-irons, tap-riveted 
 or screwed (and not through-riveted) to the bottom plating, im- 
 mediately beneath a longitudinal frame, the rivet-holes not being
 
 44 
 
 Ofi Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 formed completely through the plate, in order that if these angle- 
 irons should get torn off by rocks or otherwise leakage should 
 not result. Between the falling flanges of these angle-irons are 
 bolted timber keels, to which again false keels are lightly attached, 
 after the manner of the false keels of wooden ships, these keels 
 and false keels being sheathed with thin iron plating. Similar 
 side-keels have been applied to the 'Penelope,' 'Hercules,' 
 ' Monarch,' the five new troop-ships for India, and other ships. In 
 the ' Penelope,' a bilge-keel of which ship 
 is shown in section in Fig. 43, the angle- 
 irons for connecting it to the bottom 
 (4 inches by 4 inches by f inch) are 
 secured to the plating by 1-inch screws 
 tapped through it, with a nut on the in- 
 side, it being presumed that in the event 
 of the angle-irons getting stripped off, 
 part at least of the screw would be left in 
 the plating, and prevent leakage. The screws used for the purpose 
 are placed 6 inches apart, and have countersunk heads, with a square 
 projection formed on each for heaving it up, which projection is 
 afterwards cut off. Lugs are formed on the outer angle-iron, to 
 enable the bolts through the wood keel to take a better hold of it, 
 and to pass more squarely through it. A false keel is worked out- 
 side of all, as in the ' Bellerophon.' 
 
 Fig. 44 illustrates in section and plan the manner in which the 
 bilge-keels are fitted to the ' Malabar,' one of the five large Indian 
 troop-ships just referred to. In fitting these keels, their positions 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 I o o o 
 i o o 
 i o o 
 i o o o 
 
 • I II ^ 
 
 O O O I 
 
 o o o I 
 
 o O o ; 
 
 o o o i 
 
 o o o 
 
 tl 
 
 i o o o o o o j 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 were lined off upon the frames of the ship ; and when an account 
 was being taken of the plates upon which they were to come, these 
 lines were transferred to the template (Messrs. Napier, who built 
 this ship, employing templates for this purpose, as will be explained
 
 Chap. II. and Garboard-Strakes. 45 
 
 hereafter) in order that the rivets in the butts of these plates might 
 be so arranged as to admit of tap-rivets being placed as shown by 
 the black rivets of the figures. By these means the butts of the 
 plates can be efficiently caulked before the angle-iron is secured 
 to the bottom. This angle-iron is also carefully caulked on both 
 sides, the tap -rivets which secure it being made sulficiently long to 
 admit of the points being clenched over and caulked. 
 
 In fixing the positions and directions of external side or bilge 
 keels, it is desirable, of course, to so place them that they shall 
 move truly endwise through the water when the ship is steaming 
 or sailing ahead without encountering pressure upon either side, as 
 that would check the progress of the ship. With this view, it is 
 usual to place them in planes parallel to the direction of the motion, 
 or at right angles to the midship section. It is also customary to 
 reduce the width and depth of these keels at the fore and after 
 ends, in order to avoid the direct resistance of the fluid. 
 
 The forms of keelsons and sister-keelsons used in iron-ship- 
 building have been almost as various as the forms of keels. In 
 early days it was not at all an uncommon thing to make them of 
 wood. This was the case in the mail-packet ' Dover ' and in the 
 brig ' Eecruit.' The keelsons of the former vessel, with the mode 
 of fastening them, are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, and in Fig. 70, 
 page 74, and those of the ' Eecruit ' in Fig. 19. 
 
 The iron ship 'Birkenhead' (which like the two preceding 
 vessels has before been adverted to) had keelsons formed of iron, 
 those under the engines being box-keelsons, formed with the upper 
 angle-irons inside, and those under the boilers single-plate keelsons, 
 having double angle-irons on the upper and lower edges, with 
 doubling plates introduced between the vertical flanges of the 
 angle-irons, — the construction of beams being less understood 
 twenty-seven years ago than it now is. 
 
 In considering keels we have already become so familiar with 
 the commoner forms of central keelsons that little remains to be 
 said respecting them. All that Lloyd's Kules provide for is, that 
 the middle-line keelson, if of single plate, shall be of the same 
 thickness as the garboard-strakes, and in depth equal to two-thirds 
 the depth of the floors above which it is to stand, and to which it 
 is to be well fitted and riveted. Double angle-irons at both top 
 and bottom, and extending fore and aft, are insisted upon, and the 
 horizontal flanges of the lower pair of angle-irons have to be riveted
 
 46 
 
 On Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 Chap. II 
 
 to double reversed angle-irons on the floors. If a box-keelson is 
 employed, it has to be formed with a foundation plate, the depth 
 the same as the single-plate keelson, and the breadth of the box 
 two-thirds its depth. The Liverpool Kules require that the centre 
 keelson standing upon the floors shall be made either box-shaped 
 with top, bottom, and two sides, or of a double centre-plate with 
 top and bottom plates. They also require double reversed angle- 
 irons in wake of the keelsons. 
 
 Messrs. Napier have sometimes used a box or hollow keelson with 
 a curved top, as shown in Fig. 45, which is a section of the keelson of 
 the * Colombo,' a ship built for the Peninsular 
 and Oriental Company. The main keelson of 
 the ' Columbian,' a ship built at Whiteinch, 
 near Glasgow, is formed, as shown in Fig. 46. 
 This form is not uncommon, and only differs 
 from one of those shown in the illustrations of 
 Lloyd's Eules by having the keelson-plates car- 
 ried up to lay hold of the bulb-iron plate, instead 
 of having the latter carried down between the 
 floors to lay hold of the keelson-plates. In 
 fact, precisely the same arrangement is shown 
 in these illustrations in association with a solid bar-keel. 
 
 Side keelsons usually consist, when situated at the deeper por- 
 tions of the floors, of intercostal plates carried up and laid hold of 
 by a pair of angle-irons running along the floors ; and when 
 situated near the outer ends of the floors, of a pair of angle-irons 
 only. But different builders vary the number and description of 
 the side keelsons. The sketch given in Plate 2, shows the arrange- 
 ment adopted by Messrs, Napier in the ' China ' Atlantic Mail- 
 steamer; this is unquestionably a good and strong arrangement, 
 double angle-irons being used to connect the lower edge of the 
 intercostal plate to the bottom-plating, where a single iron only is 
 ordinarily employed. Plate 1 shows a difi'erent arrangement 
 adopted by Messrs. Laird in a large Atlantic passenger-steamship, 
 from which it will be seen that pau's of angle-irons are chiefly used 
 as keelsons, and that external keels, similarly formed, are also 
 applied under the bilge. The intercostal side keelson is as- 
 sociated with a standing box-keelson in wake of engines. 
 Lloyd's Rules requii-e that at least one intercostal keelson shall 
 be fitted on each side of all ships of 1000 tons and upwards, and 
 
 Fig. 46.
 
 Chap. II. and Garboard-Strakes. 47 
 
 be carried as far forward and aft as practicable. It is to be placed 
 about midway between the middle-line keelson and the bilge- 
 keelson, with a double angle-iron riveted on the top of the floor- 
 plates. All vessels of 500 tons and upwards must have fitted 
 between the bilge-keelsons and the hold beams, at the upper part 
 of the turn of the bilge, strong angle-irons, as stringers, extending 
 all fore and aft, riveted back to back and to the reversed iron 
 frames, the size of them not to be less than that of the angle-irons 
 used for the middle-line keelson. And Lloyd's likewise very pro- 
 perly provide for that continuity of strength of which we have 
 previously shown the necessity, by requu-ing that : " In all cases of 
 " middle-line, side, and bilge keelsons, and, where practicable, the 
 " stringers, are to be carried fore and aft, without being cut off at 
 " the bulkheads, the latter being made watertight around them ;'' 
 and where such parts of the ship are necessarily separated, the 
 longitudinal strength is to be efficiently maintained to the satis- 
 faction of the surveying officer. 
 
 The Liverpool Eules require an intercostal keelson to be put 
 at half-floor, in vessels exceeding 32 feet beam, for two-thirds of the 
 vessel's length where practicable, to be fastened through the skin 
 and the floors, and to project above the floors to form a keelson. 
 All vessels must have two stringers, formed of double angle- 
 iron, one at the lower and one at the upper turn of the bilge. 
 Special regulations are made for vessels of difierent dimensions, as 
 will be seen in the Appendix. Similar care is enjoined in pre- 
 serving the continuity of the strength of these keelsons and 
 stringers as is required by Lloyd's Rules. 
 
 The iron-clad frigates of our Navy, built of iron, have numerous 
 continuous side and bilge keelsons, which practically form a series 
 of longitudinal frames, and will be considered more particularly 
 hereafter as part of the frames of the ship. The same remark 
 applies to the ' Great Eastern,' and to other vessels built on the 
 longitudinal system of Mr. Scott Eussell.
 
 48 07t Stems. Chap. III. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON STEMS. 
 
 The stem of an iron ship, like that of a wooden ship, is usually a 
 prolongation of the keel ; but in iron ships of war, which are now 
 most frequently formed to act as rams, a very different construction 
 to that of the keel has become necessary. The construction of such 
 ram-stems, and their connection with the keel, will afford us very 
 interesting and instructive matter for consideration ; but before 
 attending to it, we propose to notice, briefly, some of the more 
 ordinary forms of stems. 
 
 The mail-steamer 'Dover,' whose hollow-iron keel we have 
 seen in Fig. 3, furnished a good example of the old hollow form of 
 iron stem, and of its combination with the bottom plating, and with 
 the knee of the head above ; but it is not of sufficient interest, 
 now, to justify the expenditure of so much space and trouble 
 as would be required for its description. The ' Birken- 
 head ' also had a hollow iron stem, which was formed 
 of two plates of iron each ^ inch thick, bent to shape, 
 ^. . and riveted together as shown in Fiff. 47. Considering' 
 
 Fig. 47. _ ° p O 
 
 the difficulty and expense of forming such stems, the 
 plates of which could only be bent in short lengths ; the great 
 nicety of workmanship required in putting them together; and 
 the punishment which the iron of necessity underwent in being- 
 bent to the necessary sharpness for the stem of a ship of moderate 
 size, and which rendered it liable to split under a blow, it is not at 
 all surprising that they were speedily replaced by solid stems in the 
 same manner as the hollow keels became replaced by solid. Like 
 the solid keel, the stem also was rabbeted, in the first instance, to 
 receive the bottom plating ; but the rabbeting has now been almost 
 universally dispensed with, for the sake of simplicity and economy, 
 and the iron stem has become simply a curved solid bar of uniform 
 section, or nearly so, generally forming the contour of the bow, even 
 where a projecting knee forms an ornamental head. Lloyd's 
 Rules simply provide, that the keel and stem shall be scarphed or
 
 Chap. III. 
 
 On Stems. 
 
 49 
 
 welded together ; if scarphed, the length of the scarphs must be 
 eight times the thickness. The Liverpool Eules require that the 
 feet of stems shall be extended so as to form part of the keel, not 
 less than four and a half feet long. The various devices which we 
 have previously seen resorted to for connecting external keels with 
 the vertical keelson-plates — grooves, rabbets, simple laps, and side- 
 bars — have all been repeated in the case of stems. Even with side- 
 bar keels, however, the stem is frequently solid, and when this is 
 the case, either the central through-plate is scored for some 
 distance into the stem, or the stem is formed to run along the side 
 of the through-plate on one side, and thus form a scarph with the 
 side-bar of the keel on the opposite side. In other cases of side- 
 bar keels, the side-bars scarph with the stem on each side of the 
 centre through-plate, as shown in the sketches in Fig. 48, which 
 
 PLA.'J or SCARPH 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 represent the scarphing of the stem and keel of H.M. troop-ship 
 ' Orontes.' It will be seen, also, that in this case the continuous 
 plate is tapered down in depth from station A, and at the station 
 on the after side of B is cut down to the same depth as the side- 
 bars. At A there is an athwartship bulkhead, at which the gutter- 
 plate ends, but the angle-irons at the middle line are run through 
 and secured to the deep-throated floor-plates on the fore side. The 
 length of the plane scarph made by the side-bar and the stem is 
 20 inches, and the butt of the centre plate is 8 inches from each 
 termination of the scarphs, the whole length of the after part 
 of the stem directly connected with the keel-plates being 4 feet 
 8 inches, 
 
 ^Yhe^e internal or flat-plate keels are used, the solid stem runs 
 
 E
 
 50 
 
 On Stents. 
 
 Chap. III. 
 
 down inside and is simply riveted to the keel-plates, garboards, and 
 bottom plating, as shown in Fig. 49, which represents the junction 
 of the keel and stem of an 1100-ton steamer, built for blockade 
 running during the late American War. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 The manner in which the stems of the five Indian troop-ships 
 are formed and connected to the keels is shown in Fig. 50. It 
 will be remembered that these vessels are built with double 
 flat-plate keels, a central water-tiglit through-keel or keelson, and 
 an inner bottom, hke the ' Bellerophon.' The stem is a common 
 rabbeted stem, as shown in the sections B,C, and is connected to 
 the keelson-plate by means of a pair of angle-irons screwed on to it, 
 and receiving the kpelson-plate between, as shown at D and at E. 
 
 Abaft this it is forked, and embraces the vertical flanges of the 
 main keel angle-irons as shown in the section at F, and in the plan. 
 At F, and at E also, the flat keel-plates are both worked under the
 
 Chap. Ill 
 
 On Stems. 
 
 51 
 
 heel of the stem, but before the point where the section E is taken 
 they are stopped in succession, the one stopping altogether, and the 
 other rising up into the rabbet, as shown at D, and as will be shown 
 with greater particularity presently, in reference to the stems of 
 other ships similarly connected. 
 
 The manner in which the stem of a large iron-clad frigate is 
 formed and connected to a flat-plate keel is shown in Figs. 51 and 52, 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 cl PLAN 
 
 m^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 @s^i&.$sg^^ag; 
 
 
 (7 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 which represent the stem (and its connections) of the ' North- 
 umberland,' with the details of the keel of which ship we are 
 
 E 2
 
 52 On Stems. Chap. III. 
 
 already familiar. In this figure we have given cross sections on 
 a large scale at so many points, that a very few words will suffice 
 by way' of further explanation. As this stem is formed and fitted 
 with special regard to its adaptation for forcing or ramming in the 
 sides of other ships, the consideration of expense, which so largely 
 and so properly controls the designs of mercantile vessels, is here 
 subordinated to other considerations, and the forging and planiug 
 of the stem into any required form is held to be justifiable. The 
 first thing to be accomplished is to give to such a stem the sup- 
 port of all the bow bottom plating and armour plating in delivering 
 a horizontal blow. For this purpose all such plating is let into 
 the substance of the stem, abutting squarely and closely against 
 the fore side of the rabbet ; the stem being made deep enough in 
 front of the plate-ends to form a sufficiently stout abutment for 
 them, and deep enough behind the rabbet-line — or, in other 
 words, aifording sufficient surface for the skin-plating — to receive 
 a double row of bolts through that plating. In the wake of 
 armour, the stem has to be formed sufficiently deep to receive 
 not the armour only but the skin-plating behind it ; and as it is 
 not desirable to provide for this by deej)ening the stem suddenly 
 at that part, the increased depth (measured in a fore and aft 
 direction) is carried upward and downward, narrowing gradually 
 as shown. In order still further to support the stem against a 
 blow, a middle-line web-plate, a, is worked (extending back many 
 feet, and supported by frames, decks, and deck-hooks, as will be 
 explained hereafter), and to receive this plate, a rabbet is formed 
 on the inside of the stem at h, from top to bottom, as shown in the 
 sections. The lower part or heel of the stem is formed with a 
 fork, the arms of which, c c, receive the vertical flanges of the 
 keel angle-bars and the vertical keel or keelson, a (see sectional 
 view), as already explained with reference to the stems of the 
 Indian transports, the fork being long enough to receive six \\- 
 incli rivets or bolts, as will be seen clearly from the enlarged plan 
 in Fig. 52. The keel angle-irons butt, of course, against the inner 
 fore end of the fork, and the vertical keel-plate there steps up 
 upon the inside of the stem, and stands against the tongue formed 
 to connect with it. From this point forward the two are connected 
 by a row of rivets, the keel-plate merging itself above into a stem- 
 plate ; the two practically forming the termination of the middle- 
 line bulkhead, and the row of rivets {\.\ inch) extending completely
 
 Chap. III. Oil Stems. 53 
 
 up and down at h, h. At about 18 inches before the butts of the 
 keel angle-irons and the step of the vertical keel-plate, the inner 
 flat keel-plate terminates, an abutment, d, Fig, 52, being formed 
 in the stem to receive the end of it, three pairs of tapped rivets 
 connecting the two from below as shown. At about 3 feet before 
 the butt of the inner flat keel-plate, the outer plate is joggled up 
 at e, Fig. 52, into the under side of the stem (which now comes to 
 the front and continues there to the top) and falls into the stem- 
 rabbet, abutting at its fore end into the garboard-strake, which is 
 thinned away to receive it at the shaded part, marked A B ; 
 observing that while the outer keel-plate is lyg inch thick, the 
 garboard-strake is 1 inch thick only. It will be remarked also in 
 the plan that the stops for the fore ends of the garboards, marked 
 / and g, are arranged so as to give shift to each other. All these 
 arrangements will be made plain to the practised eye by the figures, 
 and especially by the enlarged sketches of the connection given in 
 Fig. 52. It is proper, however, to state that the stem was formed 
 in two pieces, connected by a carefully-fitted hook-scarph, shown 
 in the engraving at S, Fig. 51, eight 1-inch rivets or bolts passing 
 through the scarph. 
 
 In the ' Bellerophon ' we did away with the middle-line bulk- 
 head, and made the bottom-plating double for about 45 feet from 
 the stem, rabbeting each thickness separately into the stem below 
 the armour as shown in Fig. 53, and dealing with the double- 
 plating in wake of armour as shown in Fig. 54. The inside or 
 
 Fig. 53. Fig- 54. 
 
 back of the stem was formed square, a series of breast-hooks 
 endino; against it. The connection of the stem with the keel was 
 formed in substantially the same manner as in the ' Northumber- 
 land,' -with the exception that, in order to diminish the ath wart- 
 ship thickness of the fork of the stem, we carried the keel angle- 
 irons only (back to back) into the fork; the vertical keel-plate 
 being withdrawn from between them, and stepped upon them 
 before tbey entered the fork.
 
 54 On Stems. Chap. hi. 
 
 The stem of the ' King William,' the large Prussian iron-clad, 
 is formed in a manner similar to that of the ' Bellerophon.' The 
 same observation applies to the stem of the ' Penelope.' 
 
 The stems of all H. M. iron-clad frigates and of the ' King 
 William,' are formed of tlie best scrap-iron under the steam-hammer, 
 commencing with a number of flat bars made from that description 
 of iron (say about 12 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 1^ inch thick, 
 or larger), which bars are welded together to form a staff, or 
 foundation piece. The end of this staff is hammered do^vn as at A 
 
 to receive the pile of slabs B, 
 
 J J-. , ■ . . '^^.'^ Q-s shown in Fig. 55, and is built 
 
 ^ ' upon by piles of slabs in this 
 
 way until it becomes of the size 
 required for the stem, the end being left sufficiently large to 
 receive another pile of slabs, which, like the former, are brought 
 on at a carefully regulated welding heat. In this way the forging 
 is gradually built along, being controlled and handled while under 
 the hammer, and moved about by means of the other end of the 
 staff. Great care is taken with the heats, and to bring the grain 
 of the iron in the right direction ; also to pile the slabs opposite 
 to each other, so that the scarphs or welds may not be all on 
 one side of the forging. The slabs used are forged from the best 
 hammered scrap-iron, as follows : — a rough wooden frame is first 
 made to about a foot square, and the scrap, after being cut up in 
 lengths of not more than a foot, but of all sizes below that, is 
 piled upon it in layers ; care being taken to break all joints and 
 butts, and every (or nearly every) alternate layer being piled 
 across the other until it becomes about a foot deep. The pile is 
 then put into the furnace and brought to a welding heat, and then 
 hammered out to the size required, the weight being about 2 cwt. ; 
 two of these piles are brought from the furnace at the same time 
 and welded together, the two forming one of the slabs previously 
 mentioned. 
 
 The stem having been forged as above described, is sometimes 
 bent to form and planed afterwards, and at other times planed first 
 and then bent. The best method is to bend it first and plane it 
 afterwards ; but the planing in that case occupies a long time, and 
 is very 'costly, owing to the planing-tool having to be made to 
 travel round the varying curvature of the stem. Where the cur- 
 vature is very great, as in the middle-piece of the ' Penelope's '
 
 Chap. III. On Stems. 55 
 
 stem, for example, it is almost a necessity to plane it after the 
 bending ; and this was done, both in the case of the ' Penelope ' 
 and in that of the * Agincourt^ (which were made at the IMersey 
 Iron-works), while the upper and lower pieces were first planed 
 and then bent. For the sake of economy, it is now the practice 
 to plane the stem-piece before it is bent, wherever that can be 
 done consistently with its form and character. 
 
 The mode of bending varies in different works. At the Mill- 
 wall Works and the Thames Iron-works, the stems of the ' North- 
 umberland ' and ' Minotaur ' respectively were bent to shape 
 on the cast-iron slabs used for bending ship-frames, a coke fire 
 being made round a length of about 8 feet at a time ; and when 
 the heat was sufficient, the fire was removed, and the bending 
 effected by means of wedge-setts, a tackle and crab, and other like 
 appliances. This operation was repeated until the whole length 
 was brought to the required shape. 
 
 At the Mersey Works, where such appliances as the above do 
 not exist, the bending of the ' Agincourt's ' stem and of the ' Pene- 
 lope's ' also, was eifected as follows : the 
 stem was slung on edge by a crane, as 
 shown in Fig. 56, and a portion of it, 
 from A to A, was brought to the re- 
 quisite heat ; a patent lift-jack was ^'s- ^'^■ 
 then placed in the centre of the heat, as shown, its upper part 
 pressing against the chain sling, and was worked until the stem 
 was bent to tlie required curvature ; this operation being repeated 
 as often as was necessary.
 
 56 Stern Posts. Chai'. iv. 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 STERN POSTS. 
 
 The stern posts of iron ships admit of the same variety as the 
 keels and stems. Hollow stern posts were at first used, in con- 
 junction with hollow keels and stems, and were, like them, open to 
 the objections of weakening the iron by excessive bending, and 
 of being made up of short lengths, generally averaging about 
 6 feet. In this arrangement the groove or gulleting on the after- 
 side of the rudder post to receive the rudder was obtained by 
 riveting on a solid piece of iron Avith a hollow in it, or by hol- 
 lowing the plates themselv^es. An illustration of this is found in 
 the * Dover,' the keel of which ship has been before described. 
 The construction of the stern post is illustrated in 
 section by Fig. 57. In the sketch, B shows the stern 
 post, and E what was then known as the rudder post. 
 This rudder post was fitted to the rudder at the forge ; 
 when in place, it was secured by nut and screw bolts. 
 The strap-plates D were fitted in order to secure the after ends of 
 the bottom plating to the stem post. 
 
 In Fig. 58 a section of the ' Birkenhead's ' stern post is given. 
 It was formed of plates f inch thick, and had a 
 wrought-iron rudder post 2^ inches thick, similar 
 to that of the ' Dover.' The screw bolts securing 
 the rudder post were 1^ inch diameter, tapped 
 ^'e-58. through. 
 
 These hollow-plate stern posts gave place to solid bars, of 
 which the feet are connected with the keel in a manner suited 
 to its character. If the keel is formed by a solid bar, the stern 
 post is scarphed or welded to it in the same manner as the 
 stem is secured. In either case, Lloyd's Rules now require that 
 in a vessel so constructed, the stern post, and the after end of the 
 keel, shall be double the thickness of, or double the sectional area 
 of the adjoining length of keel, and be tapered fair into that 
 length, the siding in no case being less than the thickness of
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Ster7i Posts. 
 
 S7 
 
 keel amidships. If the stem post be. scarphed to the keel the 
 length of the scarph must be eight times the thickness of the keel. 
 The Liverpool Eiiles require the feet of stern posts to be extended 
 so as to form part of the keel, not less than 4^ feet long. When 
 a vessel is built with a side-bar keel, the connection of the stern 
 post to it is similar to that of the stem. The details of this 
 connection, as carried out in the steam-ship ' Queen,' are given 
 in Fig. 59. In this case the fore end of the sole piece on the post 
 
 c 
 
 n 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 '•V_ 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 was formed so as to successively butt first one side-bar, then the 
 centre keel-plate, and then the other side-bar. The plate marked 
 B was lapped on the after end of the centre keel-plate, and was 
 double riveted to it. Its lower edge and after end Avere rabbeted 
 into the post, and riveted to it, thus completing the connection 
 of the keel and post. The stops for the garboard-strakes are 
 
 ELEVATION, 
 
 SECTION AT a 
 
 PLAN OFSCflRPH S. 
 
 
 Fig. 6'J.
 
 58 Stern Posts. Chap. iv. 
 
 marked A in the sketch. The connection of the stern post and 
 side-bar keel of H.M. ship ' Orontes ' is given in Fig. 60. 
 The side-bars terminated in plane scarphs, wliich fitted against 
 corresponding scarphs in the fore end of the sole or keel-piece on 
 the post, and were through riveted. The butts of the bars gave 
 shift to each other, and to the butt of the centre keel-i)late, as 
 shown in the plan. In this vessel the depth of the centre plate 
 was the same as that of the side-bars, for about 1 1 feet of its after 
 part from the station marked B. The transverse frames abaft the 
 stuffing-box bulkhead were formed of deep-throated solid plates 
 and angle-ii-ons. In order to keep up the longitudinal strength 
 and make a good connection, a horizontal stiffening-plate, 1 inch 
 thick, was worked underneath the sole-piece and keel, and extended 
 about 27 feet before the post. It was connected to the sole-piece, 
 keel, and garboards, by angle-irons, 6 by 4^ by 1 inches, riveted 
 tlu'ough them, as shown in the section at B. 
 
 The great expense involved in making the large forgings for 
 the stern posts of screw ships, led to the proposal to make them 
 of several thicknesses of thin plates riveted together. It was 
 found on trial that, in consequence of the amount of vibration in 
 the ship when under full steam, these stern posts, combined with 
 the stiffeners in wake of the screw then in use, were not sufficient 
 to bear the heavy strains brought upon them. 
 
 The stern posts now in universal use are solid forgings. The 
 body post in screw ships is fashioned in wake of the shaft, to 
 receive the engineer's shaft-tube, &c., and the rudder post has the 
 lugs for carrying the rudder, either forged upon it, or secured to 
 it by forked arms embracing it and riveted to it. In sailing 
 ships, and in paddle-wheel steamers, the stern post, besides being 
 secured to tlie outside plating of the ship's counter by an angle- 
 iron collar, runs up to the deck above, and is 'connected to one 
 or more of the beams. 
 
 In screw ships, when the weight of the two posts, with theii- 
 connecting pieces, is not too great, the whole mass is forged in 
 one piece. The first stern frame forged in one, at the Thames 
 Iron Works, was for the Peninsular and Oriental Company's steam 
 ship ' Pera,' and its weight was about 20 tons, while the posts, &c., 
 of the Turkish frigate ' Sultan Mahmoud ' weighed 27 tons, and 
 are supposed to have been the largest single forging ever put into 
 the hull of a ship — although not the largest existing in a ship, as
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Stern Posts. 
 
 59 
 
 will be seen presently when the stern posts of the ' Northumberland ' 
 are described. 
 
 In Fig. 61 the arrangements and connections of the stern posts 
 
 ELEVATION 
 
 PLAN or TOP Or POSTS. 
 
 n 
 
 SECTION.ATH. SECTION AT C. SECTION AT F. 
 
 Fig. 61.
 
 6o Stern Posts. Chap. iv. 
 
 of the new Indian troop-ships are fully shown. The fore post and 
 the sole or keel-piece were forged in one ; the rudder post, 
 with its lugs for the pintles, was forged separately, and had a large 
 foot with a dovetail mortice cut in it, into which fitted a dovetail 
 tenon that projected above the after end of the sole-piece. The 
 connection of the two was secured by very large rivets driven down 
 from the upper side, and riveted up underneath the sole-piece. 
 In some cases the rivets used for this purpose are formed of bar- 
 iron, cut to the length required, and turned in a lathe so as to fit 
 the holes accurately. The rivets or bolts thus formed are made 
 hot at one end and put into the hole, the head being formed by 
 beating it down so as to fill the countersink ; when it has cooled, 
 the rivet is driven out, and, after its point has been heated, is 
 replaced and knocked down so as fill the countersink in the sole- 
 piece. The connecting piece, at the ship's counter, in this case, 
 was forged in two parts, one being formed on each post ; and when 
 the posts were in place, the two parts were connected by a keyed 
 scarph, as indicated in the sketch. 
 
 In nearly all the screw ships of the Royal Navy, and in many 
 other vessels, the sole-piece is very broad and shallow in wake of 
 the aperture. This form is adopted for the double purpose 
 of giving stiffness to resist bending sideways, and keeping the 
 screw as low as possible.* It will be seen, from the plan of the 
 sole-piece, that this is done in the vessels now under notice. In 
 them the sole-piece extends forward 18 feet into the vessel, and is 
 connected with the keelson-j)late, flat plate-keels, and keel angle- 
 irons, in a similar manner to that previously described for the 
 stems of those ships. The fore end of the sole-piece is forked and 
 embraces the vertical flanges of the keel angle-irons, and the 
 keelson-plate, the connection being completed by through riveting. 
 The under side of the sole-piece is cut back in order to allow the 
 horizontal flanges of the keel angle-irons to work in flush above 
 the inner keel-plate. The fork is about 3 feet 6 inches long, 
 and the keel angle-irons are stopped at its after end. At that 
 
 * In ' Shipbuilding Theoretical and Practical,' edited by Prof. Eankine, an 
 account is given of a method, cmploj-ed by Mr. J. K. Napier, for giving deeper 
 immersion to the screw in shallow-draught vessels. In the case of the ' Lancefield ' 
 this object was attained by means of a curved depression of the after end of the keel, 
 so that w hile the vessel floated on an even keel, at a draught of 8 feet, the depth of 
 immersion of the screw was 10* feet.
 
 Chap. IV. Stem Posts. 6i 
 
 point the keelson-plate steps up above the sole-piece, and is taken 
 up by angle-irons on each side, tap-riveted to the sole-piece, and 
 through-riveted to the plate, as shown in the sections at F, G, 
 and H. The-keel plates fold up around the sole-piece, as shown in 
 the sections, and are tap-riveted to it. The inner keel-plate ends 
 about 21 inches abaft the fork, and at 30 inches from its ending 
 the outer keel-plate ceases to fold up around the sole-piece, and 
 steps up into a rabbet in the side. The ends of the bottom plating 
 are through-riveted to the foremost post, except in wake of the 
 shaft, where the rivets are tapped. The posts are run up and 
 have their heads secured to the beams, as shown in full detail in 
 the elevation and plan of top of the posts in Fig. 61. The framing 
 of the rudder-hole is, in these ships, made a means of strongly 
 connecting the after post and the stern of the ship, and the 
 transverse plate-frames K, L, and M, are taken up by angle- 
 irons on the posts and connecting piece, thus adding gi-eatly 
 to the vessels' rigidity, and resisting the local vibration so 
 generally experienced in ships where special provisions have not 
 been made to prevent it. 
 
 The connections between the stern posts, centre keelson, flat 
 keel-plates, &c., of the iron armour-plated frigate 'Northumber- 
 land,' are shown in Fig. 62. As in the case of the stem and its 
 connections, the elevation, plan, and sections illustrate fully the 
 details of the arrangements, which are, in general, similar to those 
 above described for the Indian troop-ships. At the section, marked 
 A in the sketch, the fork of the sole-piece ends ; at B the inner flat 
 keel -plate stops, and at C the outer flat keel-plate steps up into the 
 rabbet in the post, the garboard-strake in the part from E to F being 
 snaped away in order to make flush work. One difference between 
 this arrangement and that of the Indian troop-ships is that a ver- 
 tical flange is forged on the upper side of the sole-piece, and the 
 centre keelson is through-riveted to it, instead of being taken up 
 by angle-irons on each side. The after end of the centre keelson- 
 plate is secured to the stern post by a pair of angle-irons tap- 
 riveted to the post. The keel-plates are tap-riveted to the under 
 side of the sole-piece, the arrangement of the rivets being shown 
 in the sections, and their diameter being If inch. The garboard- 
 strakes and bottom plating are secured to the post by 1^-inch tapped 
 rivets, the after row of rivets in the ends of the bottom plating, 
 between the upper edge of the garboard and the swell of the post
 
 62 
 
 Stern Posts. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 in wake of the screw-shaft, being li^-inch through-rivets, so as to 
 make a strong connection. The rudder post with the lugs, &c., 
 was forged separately, and connected by the usual arrangement of 
 
 ^LEVATIOrj. 
 
 FORWARD. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 dovetail mortice and tenon, to the after end of the sole-piece ; the 
 rivets completing the connection being 2^ inches in diameter, and 
 arranged as shown in the plan. 
 
 In the case of the stern post there is not the same necessity
 
 Chap. IV. Stem Posts. 63 
 
 for protecting the edge of the plating by burying it in a 
 rabbet, as exists at tlie stem of an iron-clad which has a ram-bow. 
 The sole-piece forms a rabbet for the lower edge of plating, and 
 protects it from the chances of injiu:y if the ship grounds ; 
 and on the sides of the post itself, where there is little likeli- 
 hood of the plating being ripped off, it is worked plain, and 
 a strong connection made by the arrangement of rivets described 
 above. 
 
 The process of forging the stern posts of a large iron frigate is 
 conducted as follows : — In the first place a staff is formed similar 
 to that used in forging the stem, and piles of slabs are added so as 
 to form a forging about 4 feet 6 inches broad, 2 feet 6 inches thick, 
 and 5 feet long. This forging is for the boss of the body post. 
 Large slabs are then piled on each side of the forging, each slab 
 being about 5 feet long, 1 foot 6 inches broad, and 5 inches thick, 
 and a forging about 5 feet 6 inches long and 4 feet 6 inches square 
 is formed, and, when welded into a solid mass, is drawn out at 
 each end, to form the boss and a portion of the upper and lower 
 part of the post. The large slabs are piled on each side of the 
 mass, in the direction of the upper and lower part of the post, for 
 the purpose of giving the greatest amount of strength to the sides 
 of the boss when the shaft-hole is bored out. The boss is then 
 taken to the fitting shop, and its fore and after sides having been 
 planed, it is fixed on the bed of a lathe and has the shaft-hole 
 bored in it, and the fore and after sides turned off. This turning 
 having been completed, the boss is placed on the table of the 
 slotting machine, and its sides and a portion of the upper and 
 lower parts of the post are slotted. It is then taken to the 
 forge, and the upper part of the post is finished. The lower 
 part of the fore post and the 
 foot are then forged, the opera- 
 tion being conducted as before 
 described. The first pile of slabs 
 forming the lower part of the 
 post, and the fore and after 
 sides of the foot, is arranged as 
 shown in Fig. 63. Slabs marked B are then laid on each side of 
 the bottom of the post so as to form the foot or sole-piece, the 
 arrangement of the slabs for the fore part being similar to that 
 shown in Fig. 64. A staff is then welded to the fore part of 
 
 Fig. 63.
 
 64 
 
 Sterfi Posts. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 the foot and the forging completed from the point marked D to 
 that marked E in Fig. 65, by laying slabs across 
 the foot, commencing at D. A staif is next 
 fixed on the after part of the foot, and the 
 forging of the fore end, which is connected to 
 the keel, is completed. The foot is thus formed 
 in one solid forging, and being taken to the 
 planing machine, all the planing required before 
 welding it to the other part of the post, is per- 
 formed. In the case of the ' Northumberland ' 
 this welding was performed in the manner 
 illustrated by Fig. 66. The foot or sole-piece 
 with the stump of the body post forged on it and Y'd, was 
 first placed in its proper position on the blocks on which 
 the ship was being built. The body post was then hoisted 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 A THWARTSHIP VIEW. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 into place, and the parts Y'd were brought together as shown 
 by the sketches. Two small coke furnaces, / /, were then built, 
 one on each side of the stern-post, Avith a blast leading to them, 
 as shown in the athwartship view. A coke fire was next made, 
 and when a good welding heat was obtained, the upper piece 
 of the body post was pressed heavily down by two screw- rods 
 and (jhains c, in addition to its own weight, while in the fire, 
 until it had contracted about 3 inches in length. The crowns 
 of the furnaces were then suddenly removed, and two monkeys
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Stern Posts. 
 
 65 
 
 or iron battering-rams a and h, one on each side, were brought 
 to bear upon the heated parts simultaneously, until they were 
 welded. The crowns of the furnaces were then rebuilt and 
 another welding heat obtained, when the operation of striking the 
 welded parts with the battering-rams was repeated, care being 
 taken this time to get the stern post to its proper length, it having 
 been ascertained by the iirst welding heat how much it would 
 contract in cooling between the centre of the boss and the keel- 
 piece. This having been satisfactorily performed, the furnaces 
 were removed and the surplus iron chipped off. 
 
 The rudder post of an iron screw steam-ship is forged in the 
 same way as the stem ; and when the forging has been completed 
 it is taken to the machine, and the heel, sides, lugs, &c., are planed. 
 This course was followed in the ' Northumberland ;' and when the 
 welding of the body post had been completed, in the manner just 
 described, the rudder post was hoisted into place and secured. The 
 weight of the two posts and their connecting pieces, exceeded 40 
 tons. It will be seen that in this ship the connecting piece, at the 
 counter, was a separate forging, and was connected to the pro- 
 jecting pieces forged on the posts by two hooked scarphs, whose 
 positions are shown in the elevation in Fig. 62. The slabs used in 
 forging the stern posts of this vessel were made of the best selected 
 scrap-iron, such as the shearings of rolled plates, and other new, 
 clean scrap kept for the purpose of forging important work. 
 
 The arrangement proposed for the ' King William,' Prussian 
 iron-clad frigate, previous to her being supplied with a balanced 
 rudder, is illustrated by the elevation and view of the after side of 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 the rudder post in Fig. 67. The connections of the keels, &c., 
 with the sole-piece are of an identical character with those of the 
 'Northumberland,' and it is, consequently, unnecessary to show 
 the lower part of the stern frame, the peculiarity of the mode of 
 securing a firm connection between the head of the post and the 
 
 F
 
 66 Stern Posts. Chap. iv. 
 
 stern beine: that which constitutes its interest. In the common 
 arrangement an attempt is made to increase the connection of the 
 heavy stern posts with the body of the ship by bringing the heads 
 of the posts up to a deck and securing them there. In the case 
 before us we intended to combine the upper part of the rudder 
 post with the frame of the vessel by forging horns on it. These 
 horns were formed as shown in the view of the aft side, and ex- 
 tended 5 feet up the side, being tapered, in thickness, from G inches 
 at the middle line to 1^ inch at their extremities. They were 
 bolted to the outside plating, and so an increased extent of direct 
 connection was effected between the post and the hull of the ship ; 
 and this seems preferable to the usually indirect connection 
 between the two, made by the beams and deck-plating, while it 
 also does away with the very local character of the usual combina- 
 tion by spreading the fastenings over a larger area. 
 
 An arrangement, having the same object in view, but differing 
 in the mode of accomplishing it, was made, we have since found, 
 in the screw steam-ship ' Barwon,' of 485 tons, built in 1854 by 
 Mr. J. Bourne,* for the Australian coasting trade. The stern 
 frame is thus described in the specification : — " To be forged in one 
 " piece of the best scrap-iron, with an aperture of a size adequate to 
 " admit the most approved screw, and the forging to be without 
 " scarphs or joinings in it ; but the frame is to be scarphed to the 
 " keel with a long scarph with planed joint, which is to be riveted 
 " with turned rivets, the holes being accurately rimelled out and 
 " the rivets driven in so as to fit accurately throughout their 
 " lenglh. The scantling of the stern frame is to be 8 inches 
 " broad by 3 inches thick, with a projecting spur for the reception 
 " of the rudder heel, and a tapered piece is to be welded to the 
 " keel so as to bring up the thickness of the keel gradually to that 
 " of the stern frame, so as to enable the plates to lie fair over the 
 " joint. On the foremost upper corner of the frame a palm is to 
 " be forged on, which is to be riveted to a strong breast-hook plate, 
 " so as to enable the stern frame to obtain a firm hold of the ship 
 " near the water-line Avhere the breadth is sufficient to resist the 
 "lateral strains wliich the stern frame has to withstand." The 
 palm here spoken of was shaped like the palm of a vice, and was 
 run in underneath the iron flat of the lower saloon, and riveted 
 
 The well-known autlior of works on the steam-engine, &c.
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Stern Posts. 
 
 67 
 
 to it. The rudder post was run up to the upper deck and secured 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 The arrangements of the stern posts of H.M. twin-screw armour- 
 plated ship ' Penelope,' which is constructed with two after dead- 
 woods, are shown in Fig. 68. She is fitted with two screw-wells so 
 
 FORE 
 S/DE. 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 d B 
 
 SECTION AT JCL. 
 
 X 
 
 SECTION AT IRS. 
 
 SECTION AT MST. 
 
 . (^mi 
 
 SECT/ON AT. CD 
 
 |w'lT"* %X^|w^%T--->3-.^-^^:'rO_-:.-v^-:^^^ 
 
 TtsMv:) 
 
 PLAN. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 as to lift the screws inboard when necessary, and consequently 
 the posts are run up to the upper deck. Their scantlings are 
 reduced on account of their having less strain to bear than those 
 of single screw vessels, and, as shown in the various sketches, every 
 means has been taken to lighten them. The principal modes of 
 doing this are, the reduction of both the heads of the posts to a 
 siding and moulding of 6 inches; the cutting of a groove 11 feet 
 long, 4 inches wide, and 2 inches deep in the fore side of the head 
 of the rudder post, as shown in the view of its fore side ; the cut- 
 
 F 2
 
 68 Stern Posts. chap. iv. 
 
 ting out the hole A in the lower pa^t of the body post, as shown 
 in the section at C D ; and the unusual arrangements of the boss 
 and bearings shown in the sections. It may appear to the reader 
 that the siding of the lower part of the body post is excessively 
 great ; but this was purposely designed in order to give more 
 room for working in the extreme after part of the ship. For with 
 thinner posts it has been found very difficult, and in some cases 
 almost impossible, to complete the riveting of the after end of the 
 vertical keelson-plate and its angle-irons, and of the plating of this 
 part of the ship, in a proper manner. This difficulty was got rid 
 of in the ' Bellerophon ' by increasing the siding of the body post 
 'to 22 inches, as is shown in the sketch of her stern post given 
 further on. In the ' Penelope ' the siding is 14 inches, and as this 
 is far above that required by the strains experienced by the stern 
 frame, the hole marked A in the section, at C D is cut out and a 
 piece of plate riveted on the inside to keep out the water. 
 
 The fore end of the sole-piece is not forked like that of the 
 Indian troop-ships, but is run off to a thin edge at about 11 feet 
 before the post, the keel angle-irons and centre keelson-plate 
 running along on its upper side, and the keel-plates folding up 
 around it as shown in the section at M N in Fig. 68. The keel 
 angle-irons are secured to the sole-piece by 1^-inch tapped rivets, 
 and to the keelson-plate by |-inch rivets. The inner keel-plate 
 is |- inch thick, and the outer f inch, their connection being made 
 by 1-inch rivets. In this vessel the outer keel-plate is not rab- 
 beted up into the sole-piece, but is run out underneath and 
 tap-riveted to it, the shape of the after part being that shown in 
 the plan. It will be seen on reference to this plan that from the 
 points P aft, a flanged plate Q is worked, the horizontal part fitting 
 upon the outer flat keel and being riveted to it, and the vertical 
 flange being tap-riveted to the heel of the post ; this arrangement 
 is illustrated by the section at E S. On the after side of the plates 
 marked Q the flat keel is connected to the sole-piece by angle- 
 irons on each side, as shown in the plan and the section at K L, 
 and the outer edges are stiffened by bars of half-round iron riveted 
 through the plate. By means of this arrangement the cost of 
 forging the sole-piece, and its weight, are both considerably 
 reduced while the strength of the after part is amply sufficient to 
 resist the strains tending to bend it side-ways. In the elevation 
 the butt marked T is the point at which the outer keel-plate ceases
 
 Chap. IV. Stem Posts, 69 
 
 to fold up around the sole-piece, and on the aft side of T the 
 vertical flange of the plate Q completes the double thickness of 
 plating, in the manner shown by the section at M N. Tiie after 
 part of the outside plating is worked flush, internal longitudinal 
 strips being fitted to take the edge riveting. The after ends of 
 the strakes of plating are double chain-riveted to the body post. 
 
 In ships fitted with the ordinary rudder the after post is essen- 
 tial, and, in addition to serving as a means of hanging the rudder, 
 it is of use in taking the thrust of the propeller when the vessel is 
 going astern, in those ships which are fitted with gear for lifting 
 the screw inboard. In ships which have balanced rudders (as for 
 instance the ' Bellerophon,' whose stern arrangements are given in 
 great detail in Fig. 87) the after post is sometimes dispensed with, 
 the rudder being kept in position by the counter of the ship aloft, 
 and by a massive pintle in the heel, which fits into a socket in the 
 sole-piece. 
 
 The stern post of the ' Bellerophon ' is of a very novel form, 
 and its connections with the keel-plates and with the hull of the 
 vessel are of an entirely different character from those previously 
 illustrated, as will be seen on reference to the profile view in 
 Fig. 87, page 120, there is no sole-piece forged on this body post, 
 only a short toe being forged on the after side at the heel. The 
 sole-piece is formed by a prolongation of the keel-plates arranged 
 and stiffened as shown in the plan and in the section at E F, and 
 the comparative slightness of the arrangement is justified by the 
 considerations that there is no after post to connect with it, and 
 that the weight of tlie rudder is taken inboard, as will be described 
 hereafter. At the station marked S in the plan, the outer flat keel 
 ceases to fold up around the frames, and is worked out so as to 
 form the lower plate of the sole-piece ; but in order to keep up the 
 double thickness of plating at tlie heels of the frames, and make a 
 good connection between the sole-piece and the hull, a flanged- 
 plate marked D |-iucli thick, is Avorked on each side, upon the 
 upper thickness of plating in the sole-piece, and against the verti- 
 cal flange of the inner flat keel as shown in the section at E F. 
 The sole-piece on the after side of the plates D, is formed by a 
 double thickness of plating, amounting to 2y"g inches, and in order 
 to give strength to resist transverse bending, the extreme width of 
 the sole-piece is increased to 6 feet, and along the edges on its 
 under side a forged plate 8 inches wide is worked, which serves as a
 
 70 Stern Posts. Chap. iv. 
 
 stiffener to the plating. The hole C is made in order to allow the 
 free passage of water when the ship is pitching or 'scending, and 
 so relieve the sole-piece from the great pressure thus brought on 
 it. At the after end is a circular hole which takes the pintle in 
 the heel of the rudder, its position being shown in the elevation 
 and plan. 
 
 The siding of the stern post is 22 inches, and its moulding 
 21 inches, the former being adopted in order to give room for 
 working in the extreme after part of the ship, as was before stated, 
 and it succeeded perfectly in this respect, as there was not a single 
 rivet in the stern of the ' Bellerophon,' the knocking down or the 
 tapping of which presented any difficulty or caused any delay. 
 In addition to this, the large dimensions of the stern post allowed 
 the introduction of a great mass of iron in the short post, and so 
 tended to resist the vibration consequent on the immense engine- 
 power, and with the stern framing (which will be fully described 
 further on), effectually accomplished this object. 
 
 The boss on the post was forged in the usual manner, but the 
 head was formed by welding on a plate 4^ inches thick, marked M 
 in the profile, of which the shape is shown in plan in Fig. 87. It 
 will be seen on reference to the profile view, that the plate M ran 
 in underneath the flat A, which was formed of f-inch iron plate, 
 and was riveted to it, thus strongly connecting the head of the 
 post with the body of the ship.* This combination was further 
 strengthened by the connection Avith the post of the iron flat B, 
 and the double wrought-iron shaft tubes. The Avhole of this longi- 
 tudinal framing was run forward and connected with the stuffing- 
 box bulkhead. The connection of the stern post with the outside 
 plating was made by treble chain-riveting, the plating being 
 worked plain on the sides of the post, and the rivets being tapped 
 into it. Above the stern post, two thicknesses of plates were bent 
 to the shape of the stern, and had their lower edges worked into 
 the rabbets shown in the head of the post, so that the outer surface 
 of the plating was flush with the after side of the post. These 
 plates were secured to the head of the post by double tap-riveting 
 and the outer plate was narrower than the inner, so that the after 
 ends of the bottom plating lapped on the inner plate and were 
 
 * It will be seen that this arrangement substantially resembles that adopted by 
 Mr. Bourne iu tlic 'Barwon.' When the 'Bellerophon' was designed, however, I had 
 no knowledge of the latter vessel, or of a like plan ever haviug been adopted. — E. J. R.
 
 Chap. IV. Stem Posts. 71 
 
 double riveted to it, and fitted flush against the edge of the outer 
 plate. The connection of the foot of the post with the sole-piece 
 was made by the flanged plates D, and the short pieces of angle- 
 iron worked around the sides of the toe, as shown in the plan, 
 together with large rivets through the plate sole-piece ; the after- 
 most rivets were driven through the thin part of the toe, and 
 knocked down in a countersink as usual, but those in the foremost 
 part were taj)ped up from beneath into the post. The after end 
 of the centre keelson-plate was taken up by double angle-irons, tap- 
 riveted to the post ; thus the connections of the latter were com- 
 pleted, and, though novel, they have stood the test of actual 
 service most satisfactorily. 
 
 The stern post of the Prussian iron-clad frigate ' Eang William ' 
 as fitted in connection with a balanced rudder, combines the mode of 
 connection of the sole-piece with the flat keels, &e., adopted in the 
 'Northumberland,' with a slightly different mode of connecting 
 the head of the post to the hull, from that described above for the 
 ' Bellerophon.' The head of the post is 7 feet above the centre 
 of shaft, or about 3 feet higher than the ' Bellerophon's ' extends, 
 and it is secured to an iron flat by a frame of angle-iron enclosing 
 it, the flat being strengthened to receive the fastenings by a 
 doubling plate worked on it, and extended to the aftermost trans- 
 verse plate frame. The wrought-iron tube which takes the en- 
 gineer's shaft tube, is in this vessel made of a single thickness of 
 plate, and the fore side of the boss is forged differently to that 
 of the ' Bellerophon,' so as to rivet the tube to it. The flat corres- 
 ponding to that marked B in the sketch of the 'Bellerophon,' 
 Fig. 87, is omitted in this vessel, the transverse plate frames being 
 continuous from the keel to the flat at the head of the post. The 
 longitudinal strength is kept up, however, by the fore end of 
 the sole-piece being run 4 feet before the stuffing-box bulkhead. 
 
 In the ' Hercules,' the connections of the sole-piece with the flat 
 keels, plates, &c., and the arrangements of the after end of the outer 
 flat keel, are very similar to those described in detail for 
 the ' Penelope.' There is no fork at the fore end, but the sole- 
 piece is run off to a thin edge, and the vertical keel and keel 
 angle-irons run along upon it. This stern post differs from all the 
 preceding in being scarphed, instead of welded, to the sole-piece. 
 The connection of the head of the stern post with the plate-iron 
 flat is identical in character with the corresponding connection in
 
 72 
 
 Stent Posts. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 the * Bellerophon.' It should be added that the body post, while 
 retaining a very large siding, has a comparatively small moulding, 
 except in the neighbourhood of the boss, differing in this respect 
 from the ' Bellerophon's ' post. 
 
 A very novel arrangement of the stern frame, designed by 
 Mr. Mackrow, for the 'Pervenetz,' a Kussian iron-clad battery 
 built at the Thames Iron Works, is shown in Fig. 69. The stern 
 
 SECTION 
 THROUCH PINTLES. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 frame was forged in one piece, and the connections between it and 
 the keels, &c., were similar to those before described ; but the forg- 
 ing was so shaped, at its upper part, as to form the contour of 
 the stern, which was constructed as sliown in order to protect the 
 steering apparatus. The rudder-head was enclosed in an armour- 
 plated chamber, the construction of which is shown in the section. 
 The whole of the weight of this box or chamber was attached to 
 the forging directly, and through it and the skin-plating behind 
 armour to the hull of the ship. The shape of the section was such 
 as must cause the impact of projectiles to be usually oblique, and 
 the weight of protecting armour was reduced to a minimum by the 
 small height of the chamber. The connection of the head of 
 the post to the hull was made by the skin-plating behind armour, 
 and by the armour plates being bent around it, and lying in direct 
 contact with it.
 
 Chap. V. Systems of Framing. 'j'^ 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 TEANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SYSTEMS OF TEAMING. 
 
 The systems of framing adopted in iron ships may be classed 
 under three heads — 1. The transverse system; 2. The longitu- 
 dinal system introduced by Mr. Scott Eussell ; and 3. The systems 
 followed in the construction of H. M. iron ships, which may be 
 regarded as combinations of the other two systems.* This classi- 
 fication represents the order of introduction of the respective 
 systems, and is that which will be followed in their illustration. 
 The transverse and longitudinal systems only will be described in 
 this chapter ; the systems adopted in H. M. ships will form the 
 subject of further chapters. The transverse frames of the early 
 iron vessels were formed either by a single angle-iron, or by a 
 frame angle-iron, and a reversed frame riveted back to back, the 
 rivets being spaced from 5 to 6 inches apart. The addition of 
 the reverse iron added greatly to the strength of the frame to resist 
 bending, and at the same time it served to receive the fastenings 
 of the internal plankmg. In the case of a single angle-iron form- 
 ing the frame, the internal planking was secured to short pieces of 
 angle-iron, or to wooden scantling fastened to the sides of the 
 frame angle-irons. The frames extended from gunwale to gunwale, 
 and were formed of several lengths of angle-iron either scarphed 
 or welded to each other. When a single angle-iron frame was 
 used, it was either made up of two lengths scarphed to each other. 
 
 * This classification is intended only to include the systems of framing which 
 have been employed to some considerable extent in the construction of iron ships, 
 and, consequently, does not embrace the special modes of framing which have been 
 adopted in particular cases, such as, for instance, the arrangement in which the 
 frames are placed diagonally, &c. It may be added that iron ships have been built 
 which have no frames, and, as an illustration of such a vessel, we may refer to a 
 collier described by Mr. Henderson, in a discussion on ' Steam and Sailing Colliers,' 
 which is recorded in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers for 1855. 
 This ship was designed by Mr. Hodgson of Liverpool, and was built of stout iron 
 plates only. Along each bilge a compartment was formed for water ballast, and the 
 coal was carried in the central space between and above the compartments.
 
 74 Transverse and Lojigitudinal Chap. v. 
 
 the scarphs of adjacent frames being on opposite sides of the keel, 
 or of three pieces, one of which crossed the keel and extended up 
 the Lilge on each side, where the other two lengths were scarphed 
 to it. An illustration of the latter arrangement is sriven in Y'vx- 70 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 which shows a part section of the iron packet ' Dover,' before 
 alluded to. In this vessel the frame angle-iron was 3 by 3 by 
 f inches, and was scarphed as shown at D D, the length of the 
 scarph being 2 feet G inches. 
 
 The number of lengths of angle-iron usually employed in 
 forming a double frame — that is, a frame having a reversed angle- 
 iron — was five, and the scarphs of adjacent frames were carefully 
 shifted. These frames possessed such great advantages, in strength 
 and convenience, over the single angle-iron frames just described, 
 as to lead to their almost universal employment. M. Dupuy de 
 Lome states, that in 1842 " The usual scantlings of angle-iron, in 
 " the frames of sea-going vessels, were from 3 to 6 inches, the 
 " flanges to which the bottom plating was attached never exceed- 
 " ing 3^ inches. The space between the frames was variable, 
 " according to the character of the vessels, but in sea-going shij)s, 
 *' in the midship part, they were never nearer than 15 inches, nor 
 " further apart than 20 inches. These intervals were augmented 
 " gradually toward the extremities, where they varied from 2 to 
 " 3 feet." The outer flanges of the frame angle-irons were then, 
 as now,' turned aft in the fore body, and forward in the after body, 
 so as to always have an obtuse angle between the two flanges, and 
 thus reduce the strength of the angle-iron less than would be the 
 case if the angle were acute, and in addition give greater facilities 
 for riveting the bottom plating. 
 
 Another illustration of the old transverse single frames is given 
 in Fig. 71, which represents the midship section of the ' Birken- 
 head.' It will be seen that in wake of the beam-ends short
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Systems of Framing. 
 
 75 
 
 pieces of reversed angle-iron were worked, for the purpose of 
 receiving the fastenings of the waterway, plate shelf, &c. The 
 connection of the beams to the ship's side was peculiar, and will be 
 described hereafter. The scantlings of the frames and their spacino- 
 
 Fig. n. 
 
 were as follows : — For 120 feet amidships, 5 by 4^ by \ inches, 
 spaced 15 inches apart; forward, 5 by 4^ by /g inches, spaced 
 18 inches apart ; and aft 5 by 4i by -^^ inches, spaced 20 inches 
 apart from centre to centre. The total length of the ship was 210 
 feet, and it will be seen from the above that the framing of the
 
 76 Transvci'se aiid Longitudinal Chap. v. 
 
 extremities was considerably lighter than that of the amidship 
 portion. The longitudinal bulkheads marked A in the sketch 
 were fitted in the fore and after holds, and were so arranged as to 
 form the sides of tlie magazines, the water-tiglit plating B being 
 worked on the floors between them as shown in the sketch. In 
 wake of the engines and boilers the lower deck was discontinued, 
 and the longitudmal bulkheads forming the sides of the coal 
 bunkers were continuous from the floors to the upper deck, being 
 stiffened by vertical angle-irons, worked upon the plating of the 
 bulkheads, and supported by stiffeners formed of bar and angle- 
 iron, which extended from the bulkheads to the frames. A water- 
 tight flat was fitted at the bottom of the coal space, and secured to 
 the frames, to the bottom plating, and to the bulkhead, thus 
 making the bunker a water-tight compartment. 
 
 H. M. iron brig ' Recruit,' the details of the framing of which 
 are given in section in Fig. 72, had a reversed angle-iron riveted on 
 every other frame, and wooden quartering bolted to the sides of the 
 single frames to receive the fastenings of the internal planking. 
 The port timbers were of wood, and were secured to the outside plat- 
 ing, and planked over inside the vessel, as shown in the sketch. The 
 iron frames were, in general, extended up to the plank sheer, those 
 only in wake of the ports or of the port timbers being stoj)ped short. 
 
 The use of floor-plates dates from the commencement of iron 
 shipbuilding, and is illustrated in each of the preceding sections. 
 The arrangements of the ' Dover's ' floors are shown in Fig. 70. The 
 plates marked C were flanged in the midship part of the ship, 
 to receive the bolts of the engine and boiler bearers, being, 
 under those timbers, 9 inches deep, 4^ inches flange, and |- inch 
 thick. Forward and aft the floor-plates were 9 by j^g inches at 
 the middle line, and there were no reversed angle-irons woi'ked on 
 them. The floors of the ' Birkenhead ' are shown in Fig. 71, and 
 are thus described in the specification : — To be 2 feet deep amid- 
 ships, and to extend across until they die away with rise of floor, 
 being formed of plates \ inch thick riveted to the frames, and 
 having a 3^ by 3^ by j^g inches angle-iron riveted to the upper 
 edges, and under the engines there are to be two angle-irons on the 
 nj)per edge for better securing the keelson. In the * Dover ' 
 the floor-plates and frames ran across the middle line ; but in the 
 'Birkenhead,' the floor-plates abutted at the middle line, and 
 were connected by a single riveted strap as shown in the sketch.
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Systems of Framing. 
 
 17 
 
 In tlie section of the * Eecruit ' given in Fig. 72, it will be seen 
 that the floor-plates butted at the middle line, and were notched 
 down over the keel ; the upper part of the score above the keel 
 served as a watercourse, and as the frame angle-irons stopped at 
 the keel, it was 
 necessary to secure 
 the two pieces of 
 the floor-plate by a 
 double riveted butt- 
 strap. The details 
 of this arrangement 
 are shown clearly in 
 Fig. 19, p. 24. The 
 rivets which are 
 there shown on the 
 middle line served 
 to secure the heel 
 of the iron pillar to 
 the floor-plate. In 
 this vessel the re- 
 versed angle -irons 
 on the upper edge 
 of the floor-plates 
 were run across 
 the middle line, 
 and took the bolts 
 which secured the 
 wood keelson. 
 
 In very small and 
 light vessels, the 
 floor-plates were fre- 
 quently omitted, and a short piece of reversed angle-iron M'as riveted 
 to the frame angle-iron to receive the fastenings of the keelsons. 
 
 In more modern vessels built on the transverse system, the 
 framing always consists of three distinct parts, the frame angle-iron, 
 the reversed frame, and the floor-plate. The first of these does 
 not differ from that used in earlier vessels, and is formed in lengths 
 which, if necessary, are either scarphed or welded to each other, care 
 being taken to give shift to the scarphs or welds of adjacent frames. 
 Lloyd's rule with respect to frames, is, that they " are to be in as
 
 78 Transverse and Longitudinal Chap. v. 
 
 " great lengths as possible, fitted close to tlie upper edge of keel, 
 " and in all cases to extend to the gunwale ; and when butted on 
 " the keel (except when double frames or centre continuous keels 
 " are adopted), and wherever else butted, to have not less than 
 " four feet lengths of corresponding angle-iron, fitted back to back, 
 " to cover and support the butts, and receive the plating. If 
 " wekled together, the welds to be perfect with not less than 4 feet 
 " shifts. The spacing from centre to centre, with single frames, is 
 " not to exceed 21 inches, but provided an additional fi-ame be 
 " fitted for half the length amidships at opposite sides of the floor- 
 " j)l^tes across the keel, and extended to the upper part of the 
 " bilges, and riveted to the floor-plates and main frames, and to 
 " the bottom plating similarly to the riveting required for the main 
 " frames, the si3ace may be increased to 23 inches in ships under 
 " 1000 tons, and to 24 inches in ships of 1000 tons and upwards." 
 The Liverpool Eules require the frames " To be spaced so as not to 
 " exceed 21 inches from centre to centre throughout in vessels 
 " under 1000 tons. In vessels of 1000 tons and above, the frames 
 " may be spaced 24 inches from centre to centre, for one-fifth the 
 " vessel's length from each end ; or may be spaced throughout so 
 " as not to exceed 24 inches from centre to centre, provided a 
 " double frame of the same size as the fi-ames of the vessel be 
 " carried from the centre line to the upper turn of the bilge, and 
 " be properly secured to the floors and shell of the vessel for three- 
 " fifths the length amidships. All frames should be in one length, 
 " but when butted they must have scarph pieces same size as 
 " frames, 4 feet long in vessels up to 900 tons, and 6 feet long in 
 " vessels above 900 tons, with a good shift of butts. Laj)ping 
 " pieces to connect heels of frames across the centre line, where 
 " bar-keels are used, to be not less than 4 feet long, and of the 
 " same size as the frames." It will be seen that in all the prin- 
 cipal provisions the two sets of rules are identical. 
 
 The various modes in which floor-plates are fitted, are regulated 
 by the arrangement of keel which is adopted, and the sketches 
 of keel arrangements already given fully illustrate the practice 
 of different shipbuilders. In accordance with Lloyd's Eules, 
 the floor-plates of a vessel must be fitted and riveted to every 
 frame, and extend up the bilges to a perpendicular height of twice 
 the depth of floors in midships, and must not be less moulded 
 at the heads than the moulding of the frames. The depth of the
 
 Chap. V, Systems of Framing. 79 
 
 floor-plates at tlie middle line is determined by tlie following 
 rule : — " To the vessel's depth, measured from the top of the keel 
 " to the top of the upper or spar-deck beams amidships, add the 
 " extreme breadth of the vessel ; two-fifths of that sum in inches 
 " will be the depth required." The dimensions fixed by Lloyd's 
 for the floor-plates of vessels of various sizes will be found in the 
 Appendix. The Liverpool Eules state that floor-plates " are to be 
 " riveted on every frame, to be half the centre depth at lower 
 " turn of bilge, and to be carried well up into the bilge, and 
 " finished at the depth of the moulding edge of the frames." 
 
 In vessels which have external solid-bar keels, the floor-plates 
 usually cross the middle line, while the frame angle-iron ends at 
 the middle line, in many cases. A strap of angle-iron about 4 feet 
 long of the same size as the frame angle-iron, is riveted on the 
 opposite side of the floor-plates in most vessels where this arrange- 
 ment is adopted, and so keeps up the transverse strength of the 
 frame and secures the bottom-plating. Sometimes, however, 
 the frame angle-iron is continuous across the middle line, as shown 
 in Fig. 2, page 19. The limber-holes in the floor-plates are, as a 
 general rule, cut above the frame angle-iron, and, to prevent water 
 lodging in the spaces below, they are usually filled up with cement. 
 
 When hollow-plate keels are adopted the arrangement of the 
 floor-plates is exactly similar to that just described for a bar- 
 keel ; the frame angle-irons, however, in these cases generally run 
 across the keel, and the hollow keel itself forms the watercourse. 
 
 In vessels which have side-bar keels and continuous centre 
 plates the arrangements are often similar to those shown in Fig. 
 20, page 25, which is a part section of the screw steam-ship 
 'Eoman,' previously referred to. The floor-plates on each side 
 heel against the continuous centre plate, and are connected to it 
 by two vertical angle-irons 3J by 3^ by J inches. The centre 
 plate is -j-^ inch thick, and has two continuous angle-iron bars 3^ 
 by 3J by | inches riveted to its upper edge, the floor plates being 
 cut back, as shown, to allow them to pass. In order to keep up 
 the transverse strength the gutter plate is worked above the floors 
 and riveted to the reversed angle-irons in wake of it, which are 3^ 
 by Z^ by ^^ ; and in addition the angle-iron bar A A is reeved 
 through a score cut in the centre plate, and riveted to the floor- 
 plates. This bar is 3 by 3 by ^^ inches, and extends about 18 
 incjies on each side of the middle line. As the score in the centre
 
 8o 
 
 Tra7isverse and L onc^itudinal 
 
 o 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 plate is cut very near the neutral axis of the girder formed by the 
 plate and its angle-irons, &c., the reduction made in the longi- 
 tudinal strength is comparatively small, while at the same time 
 the bar A is in a most favourable position to act as a transverse tie 
 to the floor-plates. 
 
 In some vessels the continuous centre plate is run up above the 
 floors and taken up by angle-irons on two gutter plates as is shown 
 in Plate 1. In such cases the transverse tie-bar A is dispensed 
 with, but the short piece of angle-iron worked underneath the 
 gutter plates to receive their fastenings is reeved through a score, 
 and this leaves sufficient longitudinal strength, as the depth of the 
 centre plate has been increased. The sketches in Fig. 73 are 
 aLVATioN *^ken from a 
 
 XI. 
 
 HE 
 
 1^ 
 
 :^!. 
 
 Jk^ 
 
 SECTION. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 screw vessel of 
 2500 tons, and 
 represent a floor 
 section and an 
 elevation of the 
 keel, the latter 
 being drawn so 
 as to represent 
 the condition of 
 the keel when 
 put upon the 
 
 blocks. It will be seen that in this vessel there are double frames, 
 and one of the angle-irons at each transverse fi'ame is reeved through 
 a score cut just above the upper edge of the side-bar, in addition 
 to the reeving through of the angle-iron marked B B, so that 
 a very strong transverse connection is made. 
 
 When the continuous centre plate of a side-bar arrangement is 
 run up above the floors and its upper part riveted to two pairs of 
 angle-irons, so as to form an upright I-shaped plate keelson similar 
 to that shown in Fig. 29, page 30, the transverse connection of the 
 floor-plates is made in a similar manner to that described above. 
 
 When flat-plate keels are adopted, and associated with inter- 
 costal middle-line keelsons, as shown in Fig. 31, jDage 30, the 
 floor-plates are continuous across the middle line and the inter- 
 costal plates are connected to them by double angle-irons, as there 
 shown. If, however, as is usual, a continuous centre plate is 
 employed in connection with the flat-plate keel, the floor-plates
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Sy steins of Framing. 
 
 are heeled against the centre plate, and connected to it in a similar 
 manner to that described for a side-bar keel and continuous centre 
 plate. An illustration of the arrangement usually followed in the 
 construction of vessels belonging to the mercantile marine has 
 already been given in Fig. 30, page 30. It will be seen on refer- 
 ence to the sketch that the pairs of angle-irons at the upper and 
 lower edges of the continuous centre plate are run fore and aft in 
 continuous bars. The frame angle-irons and the reversed frames 
 are stopped on each side, and a bar of angle-iron, A A, is reeved 
 through a score near the middle of the continuous centre plate, 
 and, being riveted to the floor-plates, completes the transverse 
 connection previously made by riveting the reversed angle-irons 
 and the angle-irons at the upper edge of the centre plate to the 
 flat keelson or gutter plate, and the flat keel plate to the frame 
 angle-irons on each side. 
 
 An unusual arrangement proposed by Mr. Mackrow is shown in 
 section and elevation in Fig. 74. It is designed for a very flat 
 bottomed vessel Avith nEmioN section 
 
 a flat-plate keel and 
 a continuous centre 
 plate run up so as 
 to form an upright- 
 plate keelson. The 
 floor - plates butt 
 against the centre 
 plate, and are cut away as shown at their lower corners in order 
 to form limber holes. The tie-bar A passes through a score in 
 the centre plate, and the double frame B B is curved at the 
 middle line, and reeved through another score. The two angle- 
 iron bars, together with the vertical angle-irons C, complete 
 the transverse connection, while the scores in the centre plate 
 are some distance from the edges, and thus leave ample longi- 
 tudinal strength. The object in view in making this arrange- 
 ment was the avoidance of the great weiglit of cement which 
 would have been required if the limber holes had been cut 
 above the frame angle-irons, as is very often the case. It need 
 hardlv be said that the curving of the tie-bar B B is a disadvantasre 
 as regards strength, but is probably justified in special cases by the 
 considerations above mentioned. 
 
 The early introduction of the reversed angle-iron into the frame 
 
 G 
 
 Fig. 74.
 
 82 
 
 Transverse and Longihidinal 
 
 Chap, V. 
 
 will appear from tlie remarks previously made on the framing, of 
 the first iron vessels, as will also the great advantages resulting 
 from its employment, which have led to its general adoption. It 
 may not, however, be out of place to regard more closely the part 
 played by the reversed frames in resisting alteration in the shape 
 of the transverse sections of a vessel. We may suppose the ship 
 to be cut completely through by two transverse planes of which 
 the distances from a frame equal half tlie room and space on either 
 side. The section of the plating and deck so cut off may be regarded 
 as forming (with the frame and beam) a hoop, the shape of which 
 tends to alter under the strains resulting from the pressure of the 
 fluid, the weight of the hull and cargo, and other causes. The 
 strength of the frame to resist those strains is measured by the 
 moment of inertia of the section of the frame, reversed frame, and 
 plating made by a plane pei-pendicular to the ship's surface at any 
 point, such as, for instance, the section at a 5 in Fig. 75. As the 
 
 centre of gravity, G, of such a 
 section lies very close to the 
 outside plating, it follows that 
 the reversed frame, being the 
 most distant from the centre 
 of gravity of the section and 
 neutral axis of the hoop at that 
 point, is that which is most 
 eifective in resisting alteration 
 of form. We may also con- 
 clude from this fact, that having 
 provided a sufficiently strong 
 frame angle-iron to receive the 
 fastenings of the outside plating, 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 and of the reversed angle-iron, the most judicious employment of 
 surplus weight in the frame of a ship would be the increase of the 
 size of the reversed frames. In making this statement it is 
 supposed that proper regard has been had to the longitudinal 
 strength of the ship, which is independent of the transverse 
 strength derived from the framing under consideration. 
 
 Lloyd's Kules provide that all vessels are to have reversed 
 angle-iron riveted to every frame and floor-plate across the middle- 
 line to the height of the upper part of the bilges, and to have 
 double reversed angle-iron in way of all keelsons and stringers in
 
 Chap. V. Systems of Fi^aming. 83 
 
 hold ; and in addition, all vessels of 300 tons and upwards are to 
 have reversed angle-iron extended from the bilges to the upper 
 deck beam stringer on alternate frames ; and vessels of 800 tons 
 and upwards to have reversed angle-iron extended on every frame 
 from the bilges to above the lower deck or hold beam stringer, if 
 tlie vessel has two decks or tiers of beams, and to above the height 
 of the middle deck beam stringer if the vessel has three decks or 
 tiers of beams. The rivets securing the reversed angle-iron to the 
 frames and floor-plates are not to be spaced more than 8 diameters 
 apart, and the butts of the angle-iron are to be secured with butt- 
 straps. 
 
 The Liverpool Eules are similar to Lloyd's in requiring 
 double reversed angle-irons in wake of keelsons and hold stringers, 
 and in addition it is stipulated that reversed frames are to be 
 riveted to every frame, and to be carried to the upper parts 
 of the bilge and gunwale alternately, in vessels under 12 feet 
 in depth of hold ; to the upper bilge stringer and the gun- 
 wale alternately in vessels with two tiers of beams ; and in 
 vessels with three decks to the main and upper deck alternately. 
 Where much closing bevil is required in the short pieces of 
 angle-iron used under keelsons and stringers at the ends of 
 vessels, the pieces requiring closing are to be left out, and the 
 keelsons or stringers are to be fastened to the reversed frames 
 only. 
 
 In most of the ships built on the transverse system the framing 
 of the bow and stern is of a similar character to that of the mid- 
 ship part, the only difference requiring notice being that the floor- 
 plates are considerably increased in depth at the bow and stern 
 frames. A very common practice amongst sliipbuilders is to fit 
 transverse plate-ties from side to side, about midway between the 
 lower deck beams and the throating of the floors in the fine parts 
 of the vessel. These ties are riveted to the transverse flanges of 
 the frame angle-irons, and strongly connect the two sides of the 
 ship. 
 
 Some shipbuilders, however, cant a few of the foremost and 
 aftermost frames so as to make them stand square to the side, or 
 nearly so, as is the case in the corresponding frames of a wooden 
 ship ; their object being, not to save material, as is the case there, 
 but to render the angle-iron frames less fatigued by reducing the 
 { bevilling of their flanges, and thus preserving their strength unim- 
 
 G 2
 
 84 
 
 Transverse and Longitudinal 
 
 Chap.- V. 
 
 d^ 
 
 \d 
 
 Fig. 
 
 paired. The difficulties experienced in 
 framing the deck, and attaching the 
 beams to those frames have, however, 
 rendered the practice of making all the 
 frames transverse almost universal. For 
 it will easily be seen that in places where 
 the frames are considerably canted the 
 beam knees must be ffanged in order to 
 fit against them, and thus the transverse 
 tie is somewhat reduced. In H. M. S. 
 ' JBellerophon/ where a considerable num- 
 ber of the bow and stern frames were 
 canted, tlie full-length beams were dis- 
 pensed with, and a different mode of 
 framing the deck adopted, the details 
 of which will be described hereafter. 
 
 In some ships all the frames are trans- 
 verse except those at the bow, which are 
 arranged so as to form a series of diagonal 
 breast-hooks. An instance of this is 
 found in the British and North- American 
 mail steamer 'Persia,' built by Messrs. 
 Napier, in which ship the frames are 
 inclined almost square to the stem, and 
 their after ends are secured to the colli- 
 sion bulkhead. The support thus given 
 to the stem and bow, in case of collision, 
 is evidently much greater than that pos- 
 sessed by a ship where the bow is framed 
 transversely, unless a large additional 
 weight of iron is put into her in the form 
 of breasthooks, A jiroof of the satisfac- 
 tory nature of the ' Persia's ' arrangement 
 is given in the fact, which Mr. Grantham 
 states, that she encountered a small ice- 
 berg when at full speed, and split it in 
 two without receiving any injury except 
 that caused by the fragments floating tp 
 the paddle-wheels and breaking several 
 floats.
 
 Chap. V. Systems^/ F7^aming, 85 
 
 The practice of strengthening the bows of vessels which are 
 transversely framed by working breasthooks formed of continuous 
 or intercostal plates and angle-irons has been already alluded to. 
 These breasthooks are very commonly formed by joining the fore 
 ends of the stringer-plates on the various tiers of beams, and stiffen- 
 ing them for some distance aft by angle-iron stringers on the edges. 
 In most of the vessels in the mercantile marine this is the only 
 means adopted for strengthening the bow longitudinally, but in 
 some of the larger iron ships additional breasthooks have been 
 fitted between the various decks. In ships which have a very fine 
 entrance, the breasthook plates are not run right forward to the 
 stem, but are stopped at transverse plate frames, and their fore 
 ends are connected by transverse horizontal plates. The outer 
 edges of the plates are stiffened and secured to the frames by 
 continuous angle-irons. On the fore side of the frames on which 
 the breasthooks end, the transverse frames are completed across 
 the bow. The primary object of this arrangement is obviously to 
 thoroughly connect the two sides and not to support the stem, the 
 decks and side plating furnishing all the strength that is considered 
 necessary for that purpose. The bows of the new Indian troop- 
 ships are strengthened by a series of breast-hooks, the arrangement 
 of which is shown in section in Fig. 76. The main deck is marked 
 a, the lower deck h, and the breast-hooks c ; while the longitudinal 
 frames which extend forward 
 to the bow are marked d, and 
 the platform below the lower 
 deck is marked e. The de- 
 tails of a portion of one of the 
 breasthooks e are given in 
 plan in Fig. 77, from which 
 it will be seen that the plates 
 are scored in between the 
 frames, and connected with 
 the frames and outside plating 
 by staple angle-irons. An 
 illustration of the arrange- '^' 
 
 ment of the breasthooks of the vessels of the ' Noij^humberland ' 
 class is given in Fig. 82, page 108, and will be described further 
 on. It may be remarked here, that one great difference between 
 it and the arrangement first described is that the breasthook
 
 86 Transverse and fLongitudinal Chap, v. 
 
 plates are fitted in between the frames, and so a direct connection 
 is made between them and the outside plating similar to that 
 obtained in the troop-ships just described, while at the same time 
 the folding-back of tlie frames in case of the vessel being used 
 as a ram, is effectually prevented. 
 
 The employment of diagonal ties on the frames of iron vessels 
 has been proposed by many individuals, and patents have been 
 taken out for various modes of fitting them. In a wooden ship the 
 necessity for their adoption is evident, as they serve to prevent 
 longitudinal bending and vertical racking in the structure, and 
 especially to resist the change in the relative positions of the 
 planks and frames, which the former kind of straining tends to 
 produce. But in an iron ship which has the plates of the skin 
 riveted to each other, so as to form an almost perfectly united 
 mass, there is no possibility of the sliding of edge on edge which 
 would take place in the skin of a wooden ship that had no diagonal 
 strengtheners. Another objection to the use of such ties in an 
 iron ship is the additional work which their use entails. For these 
 reasons they have never come into general use. 
 
 The provisions made to ensui-e longitudinal strength in a vessel 
 framed on the transverse system, might, with propriety, be included 
 here ; but as they have already been described, in part, Avliile 
 treating of keels and keelsons, and will be further si)oken of while 
 describing the modes of framing decks and the details of plating, 
 they are only alluded to here in order to note the extreme impor- 
 tance of keeping up longitudinal connections, failures in which 
 respect, combined with ill-designed strengtheners, have caused 
 many of the weaknesses which were mentioned in the commence- 
 ment of this work. 
 
 In Plates 1 and 2 are given perspective views of a portion ot 
 the amidship framing of the steam-ship ' Queen,' built by Messrs. 
 Laird, and of the Atlantic mail steamer ' China,' built by Messrs. 
 Napier, which ships may be taken as instances of well-built vessels 
 framed on the transverse system. 
 
 The ' Queen ' is 400 feet long and 42 feet in extreme breadth, 
 and in consequence of the large proportion which the length bears 
 to the breadt]^, special arrangements are made to give longitudinal 
 strength, as will be seen on reference to Plate 1. The dimensions 
 ol the various parts of the framing are as follows : —
 
 Plate J 
 
 Ih-awii by J, Ma^rti'i 
 
 Jolm Mujy-ay. Jlhemai-le Sti-eet, yov ^1363. 
 
 Eiurravr.Ut JK L.vvr^
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Systems of Framing. 
 
 87 
 
 Angle-irons forming frames 5 J by 3§ by | inches. 
 
 Angle-irons forming reversed frames 4 by 3^ by J'g , , 
 
 Angle-irons connecting the floors to continuous! 31 bv 3^ bv * 
 
 centre plate 1 2>jy8 «» 
 
 Angle-irons connecting the floors fo intercostal plates 3J by 3J by | , , 
 
 Angle-irons forming stringers on tie-plates to decks \ 
 
 Angle-irons connecting gutter-plates to centre plate I 
 
 Angle-irons forming stringer on turn of bilge . . > 6 by 4 by f , , 
 
 Angle-irons at heels of pillars I 
 
 Angle-irons forming bilge-keel for 210 feet . . ■' 
 
 Angle-irons worked on inner edges of deck-stringers 5 by 3 by -jg , , 
 
 Angle-irons worked on outer edges of deck-stringers 4 by 4 by f , , 
 
 Angle-irons worked on inner edge of I-shaped| ^ 1 , i_ o 
 
 hold-stringer \ ^ by 4 by fj , . 
 
 Angle-irons worked on frames at I-shaped hold-l „ , o 1 1 
 
 stringer . .. ( 3 by 3 by ^ , , 
 
 Angle-irons worked on intercostals at I-sbapedl 31 hv 3^ bv " 
 
 hold-stringer j 5y2yT6.. 
 
 Continuous centre plate 44 by | inches. 
 
 Side-bars 12 by 1 ,, 
 
 Floor-plates at middle line 27 by fg , , 
 
 Gutter-plates 30 by | , , 
 
 Plating in sides of box-girder on the floors . . . . 24 by | , , 
 
 Plating in top of box-girder on the floors . . . . 31 by | , , 
 
 Plating in bottom of box-girder on the floors . . . . 24 by J , , 
 
 Intercostal plates at box-guxler on the floors . . . . 1 9 by J , , 
 
 Plate in I-shaped hold-stringer 12 by J , , 
 
 Upper-deck plating at sides 84 by § , , 
 
 Upper-deck stringer-plate 24 by | , , 
 
 Upper-deck tie-plate 36 by | , , 
 
 Middle-deck stringer-plate 36 by | , , 
 
 IVIiddle-deck vertical stringer, or clamp 15 by g , , 
 
 Middle-tleck tie-plate 18 by f 
 
 Lower-deck stringer-plate 30 by | , , 
 
 LoAver-deck vertical stringer, or clam^j 15 by | ,, 
 
 Lower-deck tie-i^late 18 by | , , 
 
 All deck beams, except those at principal hatch- 
 ways, 10 by 6J by -^ inches bulb T-u'on. 
 
 The garboard-strakes are f inch thick forward and |^ inch aft ; 
 the general thickness of bottom plating is f , and the sheer-strake 
 is j^g inch thick, and is doubled by a -j^-inch plate worked inside 
 it throughout the entire length. In addition to this doubling plate 
 others are worked throughout the length on the second strake 
 below the sheer strake, and on the strake in wake of the beam-ends 
 on the lower deck, their thickness being j^ inch. On the turn of 
 the bilge two sunken strakes ancf one outer strake are doubled for 
 two-thirds of the length with f -inch plating on the plan previously 
 described. All this, as has been stated, is done to give longitudinal 
 strength, and this object is further attained by the working of box 
 and I-shaped hold stringers, combined with intercostal plates ; and 
 by the bilge keel outside, which extends from 100 feet abaft the
 
 88 Transverse and Longitudinal Chap. V. 
 
 midship section to 110 feet before it. Tlie deck stringer and tie- 
 plates are also specially stiffened by the angle-irons worked on them, 
 and a great addition of longitudinal stiffness is given to the sliip by 
 the partial iron upper deck, or very broad strinsrer, by the vertical 
 stringers on the two lower tiers of beam-ends, and by a box stringer 
 at the ship's side on the amidship part of the lower deck. These 
 stringer arrangements will be described hereafter. The transverse 
 connection of the floors of this ship, and the whole arrangement of 
 keel-bars have been previously illustrated. It will be seen that a 
 very efficient arrangement of pillars is adopted. Those heeling on 
 the floors and lowest tie-plate are Z\ inches in diameter and the 
 rest 3 inches. Their heads give dii-ect support to the beams, and 
 are also secured to the beam-plates by two |-inch rivets passing 
 through lugs forged on them. Their heels have palms formed 
 on them which fit against the vertical flanges of the angle-irons on 
 the tie-plates and floors, and are riveted to them. The details of 
 the topside fittings will be described further on. 
 
 The ' China ' is 323 feet long and 40 feet 4 inches broad, 
 her tonnage B. ]\I. being 2575. The principal dimensions of her 
 framing are as follows : — 
 
 Augle-irons forming frames 6 by 4 by -^ inches. 
 
 Angle-irons forming reversed frames 4 by 3 by i 
 
 Angle-irons connecting floors to intercostal keelsons 4 by 4 by | 
 
 Angle-irons connecting gutter-plate to intercostal 1 s bv 4 bv ■• 
 
 keelson i ^ ^^ 
 
 Angle-irons on upper edge of floors at the lower 1 ^ ^ ^ , ., 
 
 side-keelson ) ^ ^^ 
 
 Angle-irons on floors at upper side-keelson . . . . \ 5 ty 4 bv ' 
 
 Angle-irons on lower-deck stringer-plate .... ) ^ •' ^ 
 
 Angle-irons on middle-deck stringer-plate . . . . I 5 by 4 by ■' 
 
 Angle-irons on upper-deck stringer-plate .. .. ) ® 
 
 Angle- irons on vertical stringer or clamp 5 by 3 by ^ 
 
 Angle-irons on outer edge of upper-deck stringer . . 4 by 4 by g 
 
 Angle-ii-ons on upper edge of upper and lower deck I 31 bv 3 bv ■ 
 
 beams J 2 > •> ta 
 
 Angle-irons on upper edge of middle-deck beams . . 4 by 3 by \ 
 
 Floor plates at middle line — amidships 29 by | inche 
 
 Floor-plates at middle line— forward and aft . . . - 29 by J , , 
 
 Gutter-plates 14 by | ,, 
 
 Lower-deck stringer-plate 24 by -^ , , 
 
 Middle-deck stringer-plate 36 by g , , 
 
 JNIiddle-deck tie-plate 24 by § , , 
 
 Vertical stringer or clamp between upper and middle ! q. , 5 
 
 decks f ^t 'J> 5 .. 
 
 Upper-deck stringer-plate 42 by | , , 
 
 Upper-deck tie-plate 24 by II5 , , 
 
 Upper and lower deck beam-plates (bulb-iron) . . *^ by j , , 
 
 Middk-dcL'k beam-plates (bidb-iron) If by J ,,
 
 /■"Aey lAa^ti^^: 
 
 Flate 2. 
 
 wn Ijy J Mwztan 
 
 JohhMvjTity. Albemarle Street.'Nov^ 1868 
 
 Enoroved hv J.W lowrj.
 
 Chap. V. Systems of F^^aming. 89 
 
 Forward aud aft the frame angle-irons are reduced to 6 by 4 
 by \ inches, and in the engine and boiler space the reversed 
 angle-irons are worked double and are 4^ by 3i by \. The 
 keel arrangements have been previously described, and it will 
 be remarked that the side intercostal plates, which are | inch thiclc, 
 are secured to the bottom plating by double angle-irons 4 by 4 by 
 \ inches. The importance of this mode of connection has been 
 already alluded to, though many shipbuilders neglect it. The 
 stringer plates are not connected to the outside plating on the 
 lower and middle decks, but on the upper deck the stringer is run 
 out between the frames and connected to the sheer-strake. The 
 vertical stringer or clamp between the upper and middle decks is 
 worked in order to give longitudinal strength. The garboard- 
 strakes of the ' China ' are 1 inch thick ; the next strake is ^ 
 inch ; the next eight strakes ^| inch ; the next iive strakes |f 
 inch ; and the remainder, up to the sheer-strake, \% inch. The 
 sheer-strake is ^ inch thick, and has a doubling strake |§ inch 
 thick worked on it. The topside plating is f inch thick, and it is 
 worked directly on the frames which are run up about 4 feet above 
 the upper deck. The deck house extends the whole length of the 
 ship, and is framed in the manner shown in the section, the wood 
 beams of the spar deck being 7 by 7 inches, and the planking 2| 
 inches thick. 
 
 The longitudinal system of framing practised by Mr. Scott 
 Russell, was described by him in a paper read at the meeting of 
 the Institution of Naval Architects, in May, 1862, from which 
 paper the following particulars are taken.* The principal arrange- 
 ments of this system are thus stated by the author : — 
 
 1. " To divide the ship by as many transverse watertight iron 
 " bulkheads as the practical use of the ship will admit. I like to 
 " have at least one bulkhead for every breadth of the ship in lier 
 " length. In a ship eight breadths to her length, I wish to have 
 " at least eight transverse bulkheads. 
 
 2. " I have between these bulkheads, what I call partial bulk- 
 " heads, or the outer rim of a complete bulkhead, with the centre 
 
 * The author lias since republished this description in his large work on ' Naval 
 Arcliitet'ture,' where <letailed illustrative drawings of longitudinally framed ships are 
 given.
 
 90 Transverse and Longitudinal Chap. V. 
 
 '•' part omitted, so as to form a kind of continuous girder run- 
 " ning transversely all round the ship, and not interfering with 
 " stowage. 
 
 3. " I run from bulkhead to bulkhead, longitudinal iron beams 
 " or stringers, one along the centre of every plate of the skin, so 
 " giving each strake of plates the continuous strength of an iron 
 " beam, one portion placed at right angles to another. This longi- 
 " tudinal forms one continuous scarph across all the butt joints of 
 " the plates, hitherto their weakest part ; and adds also to the 
 " strength of the rivets of the joint, the help of a line of rivets and 
 " angle-irons along the centre of the plate. These longitudinals 
 " and the skin are therefore one. 
 
 4. " What remains over after this is done, of the superfluous 
 " iron formerly used in ribs, I make into a continuous iron deck, 
 " mainly carried by the bulkheads and by longitudinals under it ; 
 " and I believe this ii'on is infinitely better applied in a deck than 
 " in ribs fastened to the skin." 
 
 The following table gives an idea of the difference between the 
 new and the old systems, and is taken from ships of GOO to 
 700 tons scale, built on both systems. 
 
 WEIGHTS OF IRON USED IN THE GENERAL STRUCTURE. 
 
 Old System. New System. 
 
 In the skin 110 tons. 110 tons. 
 
 In transverse internal strengtliening . . . . 130 , , 40 , , 
 
 In longitudinal strengthening 40 , , 130 , , 
 
 Mr. Russell goes on to say, that from the proportions of trans- 
 verse and longitudinal strengthening in the old system, it might 
 be supposed that the strains tending to break a ship athwartsliip, 
 were greater than the longitudinal strains tending to break her 
 through the middle ; but it is notorious that the contrary is the 
 fact, and that a ship framed on the old system is most strained 
 and weakened lengthways. When the longitudinal system is 
 adopted, the relative longitudinal breaking strengths obtained, 
 as compared with that given by the transverse system (equal 
 weights of iron being used), are in the ratio of 5 : 4. 
 
 The following description of the 'Annette,' iron auxiliary 
 screw clipper, of the 600-ton scale, 845 ton B. 0. M. classed A 1 
 12 years at Lloyd's, is given by him as a further illustration of 
 the system under consideration.
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Systems of Frmning. 
 
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 Chap. V. Systems of Framing. 93 
 
 If this comparison be correct, the ultimate measures of the 
 strengths of the ships to resist a strain tending to hog or sag, or 
 break them across, is in round numbers as 650 to 520, or as 5 : 4. 
 The gain in longitudinal strength by tlie adoption of the new 
 system, is thus about 25 per cent. 
 
 In a paper by B. Jensen, Esq., of Dantzic, on the " Compara- 
 " tive Merits of the Longitudinal and Vertical Systems of Iron 
 " Shipbuilding," it is stated that in a vessel of 600 tons 0, M., the 
 gain in weight on a similar ship built according to Lloyd's Eules, 
 was 7 per cent., and the gain in strength 10 per cent. ; and that 
 if the plating had been made as thick as is required by Lloyd's for 
 a vessel of the same tonnage, the gain in weight would have been 
 3'6 per cent., and the gain in strength 18 per cent, on a ship 
 intended to occupy the highest class ^ at Lloyd's. 
 
 The ' Great Eastern ' is another instance of the adoption of the 
 longitudinal system of framing, combined with a cellular double 
 bottom and upper deck. The longitudinal frames in this ship are 
 34 inches deep and \ inch thick, with single angle-irons 4|- by 4-| 
 by L inciies oii b<ith;ed<^e:&'.. TJp;to tbe height of 36 feet, to which 
 tlie doable bottom, extonds, the longicudinals are placed about 5 feet 
 apaxt, &nd the plating ia 30 arranged, that a longitudinal comes in 
 the cent.ne c-f every alterijate' si:.?ake. On the bottom where the 
 weight of the ship, is taken when she grounds, the longitudinals are 
 about 2 feet 6'ilii^lite apart, and above the double bottom the 
 distance between them is about 8 feet, and they are arranged so as 
 to form stringers on the various decks. A similar system of trans- 
 verse and partial bulkheads to that just described is adopted in 
 this vessel, and in order to strengthen the structure above the 
 double bottom, the partial bulkheads are increased in number. 
 In addition to this transverse and longitudinal framing, there are 
 lono-itudinal, vertical bulkheads, which rise from the inner bottom 
 to the' upper deck, and form the sides of the engine and boiler 
 spaces. 
 
 Among the advantages claimed for the longitudinal system 
 by Mr. Russell and other shipbuilders, are the increased strength 
 and simplicity of the bow and stern framing ; the distribution of 
 strength from the transverse bulkheads by means of the longitu- 
 dinal frames, and a consequent increase in local strength 
 generally ; the support and connection of the plating of the 
 bottom due to the longitudinal stringers on each strake crossing
 
 94 Transverse and Longitudinal Chap. v. 
 
 the butts, and the rivets connecting the frames to the plating 
 acting as joint-rivets at the weak points ; the convenience for 
 stowing cargo, and for cleaning and painting the inside of the 
 ship ; the prevention of the wash of bilge-water with the coals, 
 dirt, and debris of every kind, which it carries with it when the 
 ship rolls, and the consequent wearing down of the rivet heads, 
 and laps of plating ; and the facilities for making the frames in 
 place, and bending the angle-irons to the easier curves required by 
 the longitudinal system, thus effecting a saving in time, materials, 
 and workmanship. 
 
 It is evident that there is a great addition of strength in the 
 bow framing of a ship which is built on the longitudinal system, 
 over that of one which is transversely framed. For in the latter, 
 in case of collision, the transverse frames do not resist the com- 
 pression or collapse of the bow, especially in very fine ships ; 
 while in the former the longitudinal frames become close and 
 numerous at the bow, and form a series of breasthooks, which lie 
 in the line of greatest strain, and are placed in the best way for 
 strengthening the bow. Thqs; capability; (?f: the :bovi?;tc).'^?;^lth^tf^;lldl 
 collision is valuable in the mercantile matii'ie, and much' more' sb 
 in war vessels built for running-dowr purposes, as will be shown 
 hereafter when illustrating the arrfngementtr' of s(tme ra-n-bcws. 
 In addition to these advantages, which are gained by framing 
 the bow longitudinally, there is the further gain in'. the simplicity 
 of the workmanship, and the time required to perform it. For in 
 framing the bow of a long fine ship on the vertical system, it is 
 found that the work is extremely difficult to execute, and that 
 it is so circumstanced as to allow only a few men to be employed 
 upon it, and those men work at the greatest disadvantage, and 
 consequently cannot build quickly. This is a very important point, 
 because if it were required to build an iron navy rapidly, no 
 amount of j)ecuniary compensation could enable the builders 
 to frame the bows of such ships quickly. It may be mentioned, in 
 illustration of this statement, that while in the ships of the ' North- 
 umberland ' class, the bows of which were framed on the vertical 
 system, a considerable time was taken in completing the framing 
 forward, in the ' Bellerophon,' where the principal framing of 
 the bow is longitudinal, it was completed and put in place in a 
 fortnight. 
 
 The stern framing of ships built on the longitudinal system, is
 
 Chap. V. Systems of Framing. 95 
 
 in some longitudinal, in some transverse, and in others a com- 
 bination of the two. Whenever the longitudinal frames can be 
 continued aft, they are well adapted to resist the vibration caused 
 by the screw propeller, and in this respect, also, they are superior 
 to the transverse frames. An instance of transverse framing in 
 tlie after part, is, however, given in the vessel described by 
 Mr. Jensen, and before alluded to. This vessel's longitudinal 
 frames ended at the after engine-room bulkhead, and a space of 
 .31 feet 6 inches on the after side was framed with 4 by 3 by -j^ 
 inches ribs, pitched 21 inches apart. The details of this vessel 
 will be found in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval 
 Architects for 1865. 
 
 In the ' Great Eastern ' the after part of the ship abaft the 
 stuffing-box bulkhead is strengthened by a large number of 
 horizontal flats extending between the bulkhead and a cast-iron 
 cellular stern-post. Above the screw aperture', and the upper 
 iron flat, tlie framing of the stern is completed by vertical frames, 
 the aftermost ones being canted. The longitudinal frames are 
 ended at various stations, three being terminated at the aftermost 
 bulkhead, five at the bulkhead next before it, three in the com- 
 partment between those bulkheads, and the remainder at the 
 third transverse bulkhead from aft. Particulars of the arranj^e- 
 ments will be found in Mr. Eussell's great work on ' The Modern 
 System of Naval Architecture.' 
 
 It has been objected to the longitudinal system of framing, 
 that a greater space of unsupported bottom plating is left 
 between the frames than is the case in the vertical system. But 
 it has been stated, in reply, that in case a vessel with transverse 
 frames strikes on a rock, those transverse frames become imme- 
 diately the most certain agents of destruction to the bottom of 
 the ship; while in the longitudinal system, especially when a 
 double bottom and inner skin are adopted, the weakness existing 
 is precisely what is v/anted, for it allows the plates between the 
 longitudinals to be indented, or torn through, without the general 
 structure of the ship becoming injured. A case in point is that of 
 the 'Great Eastern,' which ran ashore on the rocks on her voyage to 
 America, and though she had nine holes torn in her bottom, one of 
 which was 85 feet long, by 4 or 5 feet wide, yet she continued her 
 voyage to New York in safety, as the inner skin was not pene- 
 trated.
 
 96 Trajisverse and Lo7igitudinal Chap. v. 
 
 It has been suggested by some shipbuilders that the framing of 
 that part of a ship which is near the middle of her depth, might, 
 >Yitli advantage, be made vertical, even when her bottom and 
 upper part are framed longitudinally. This is especially the case 
 in wall-sided vessels, where the vertical strains are very consider- 
 able ; but it cannot be doubted that in all vessels it is necessary 
 to provide against these vertical strains. Wlien the longitudinal 
 system in its entirety is carried out, the only provisions made to 
 give the requisite vertical strength, are the use of partial bulk- 
 heads intermediate between the complete transverse bulkheads, 
 and the strength gained by attaching the beam-ends to the sides, 
 when, as is sometimes the case, the deck is framed transversely. 
 Mr. Russell, however, while denying the necessity of additional 
 vertical strength to that thus obtained, in vessels built for ordinary 
 purposes, admits that in exceptional cases, as, for instance, under- 
 neath a heavy gun or other concentrated weight, the number of 
 the partial bulkheads should be increased, in order to take the 
 vertical strains, and keep the longitudinals from buckling. 
 
 Other objections made to the longitudinal system, are the 
 inconveniences experienced in securiug the bulkheads and com- 
 pleting the internal fittings, ^^^hich are felt by those who have been 
 accustomed to build vessels on the transverse system ; but to such 
 objections the closing remarks of Mr. Russell in the paper before 
 quoted, may be fairly applied : — " It may be considered a disad- 
 " vantage of the longitudinal system that somewhat greater skill is 
 " required in its design, greater intelligence in its construction, and 
 " greater accuracy and excellence in its workmanship, blunders 
 " made are less easily remedied, want of forethought in the beginning 
 " is less easily compensated by afterthought, and blundering execu- 
 " tion will make a mess of it ; but I trust that the growing intelli- 
 " gence among shipbuilders, the growing science among naval 
 " architects, better information among shipowners, greater know- 
 " ledge in ship captains, and better training among workmen, will 
 " bring us to a point of design and execution in this country, such 
 " that we shall never be prevented from preferring the better to 
 " the worse, for want of science, forethought, and sldll." 
 
 In the construction of the ' Sentinel,' a vessel designed by 
 Mr. Spencer, and built by Messrs. Palmer, of Jarrow-on-Tyne, the 
 framing out to the lower part of the bilge was made longitudinal, 
 and above that height, transverse. The double bottom was 21 inches
 
 Chap. V. Systems of Fr awning. 97 
 
 deep at the middle line, and 15 incbes at the upper longitudinal 
 frame. The spaces enclosed by the two bottoms and the longitu- 
 dinal frames, were used for water ballast, provision for which was 
 the principal object of the construction. The partial floor-plate 
 was secured to the outer longitudinal fi-ame by the double reversed 
 angle-iron being bent down so as to fit against it. The arrange- 
 ment of the frames and reversed frames in the upper part of the 
 ship was similar to that employed in the common transverse 
 framing. In a vessel named the ' Kouen,' designed by Mr. 
 Mclntyre previous to the building of the ' Sentinel,' the transverse 
 framing was completed in the usual manner, and fore and aft 
 keelsons were Avorked on top of the floors. Every other keelson 
 was rim down between the floors and riveted to the skin plating, 
 and an inner bottom being worked above the keelsons, completed 
 the space for water ballast. The arrangement of the ' Sentinel's ' 
 frame gave more room for stowage of cargo and less for water 
 ballast than that of the ' Eouen,' while, as was said before, all 
 the transverse framing of the bottom was dispensed with. The 
 foregoing description of the 'Sentinel' has been given here on 
 account of the fact that the longitudinal and transverse systems 
 are both represented in her construction.
 
 98 
 
 Combined Trmisverse and Longitudinal Chap. vi. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COMBINED TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SYSTEM OF FRAMING. 
 
 FRAMING OF ' WARRIOR,' ' NORTHUMBERLAND,' &C. 
 
 In all the iron-built armour-clad ships of the Eoyal Navy, and in 
 the new Indian-troop ships, the^ system of framing adopted com- 
 bines both of those previously described. In this chapter we shall 
 illustrate the arrangements of the framing in the ' Warrior ' and 
 ' Northumberland,' which ships may be taken as examples of the 
 earlier iron-clads. The ' Warrior's ' midship section is given in 
 Plate 3, which also shows a perspective vieAv of a portion of her 
 framing. The details of the keel arrangements have been described 
 already, and illustrated by Fig. 32, page 31. It will be seen from 
 the midship section, that from the armour-shelf to the keel the 
 framing is made up of six longitudinal frames, and of short trans- 
 verse plate-frames fitted between them, the athwartship connection 
 being kept up by continuous transverse frames, made up of plates 
 and angle-irons, in the manner shown in the section in Fig. 32. 
 These frames pass through scores cut in tlie upper edges of Nos. 3 
 and G longitudinal frames, and all the other longitudinals are of 
 such a depth as to allow the continuous transverse frames to pass 
 above their inner edges ; and consequently the angle-irons on their 
 inner edges are continuous, while on Nos. 3 and 6 longitudinals 
 they are worked in short lengths between the transverse frames. 
 The following are the scantlings of the longitudinal frames : — 
 
 No. 1 Longitudinal, or Shelf-plate 
 
 No. 2 ,, 
 
 No.3, ,, 
 
 No. 4 ,, 
 
 No. 5 ,, 
 
 No.*; ,, 
 
 Phite. 
 
 Angle 
 
 -irons. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 Inner Edge. 
 
 Outer Edge. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 23byl 
 
 5 by 5 by i 
 
 6 by 6 by 2 
 
 21byi 
 
 3Jby3byfg 
 
 4 by 3J by % 
 
 27by i 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 lObyi 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 19 by I 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 i 27 by ^ 
 
 4 l^y 3i bv ffl 
 
 ditto
 
 hii .IMiurton 
 
 JoTmJUurray, Alienua'U Street, Nov'' ISM- 
 
 :E7itirwiil I'V J.KIl'wi
 
 Chap. VI. System of Framing. no 
 
 The angle-irons on the outer edges of all the longitudinals, except 
 that forming tlie armour shelf, are double ; those on the inner 
 edges are single. The longitudinal which forms the armour-shelf 
 is a flanged plate, or very large angle-iron, the horizontal flange 
 being 23 inches in width, and the vertical flange 17 inches. The 
 details of the manufacture and mode of bending this plate will be 
 described hereafter. The lono-itudiual frames extend for a lenofth 
 of from 280 to 320 feet, and are terminated at transverse bulkheads. 
 The fore and after parts of the ship are framed transversely, as will 
 hereafter be explained with reference to the ' Northumberland.' 
 The specification of this ship states that " the plates and angle-irons 
 " composing the longitudinal frames are to be wrought in tlie 
 " greatest lengths procurable, and great care is to be taken that the 
 "butts are well fitted; the angle-irons, if required, as well as the 
 " plates, to pass tlu'ough the bulkheads, the surrounding joints 
 " being carefully caulked and made watertigiit ; the butts of the 
 " plates to be secured by double butt-straps of f-inch plate, double 
 '' riveted ; the butts of the angle-irons are also to be supported by 
 " straps or covering angle-irons. The longitudinal frames must be 
 "placed in such a direction throughout their length as to clear all 
 " the longitudinal joints of the outside plates, and fillings or liners 
 " between the angle-irons and the bottom plates are to be dispensed 
 " with, the angle-irons being bent so as to pass over the butt- 
 " straps." 
 
 It will be seen from Plate 3, that two continuous girders, form- 
 ing a kind of external framing, are worked longitudinally on the 
 skin-plating behind armour, between the heights of the main and 
 lower decks, and another similar girder is worked in short lengths 
 between the ports. The dimensions of these giiders are 10 by f 
 inches plate, with double angle-irons 4^ by 3^ by f inches on the 
 inner edge. Intercostal plates and angle-irons are also worked 
 just above and below the ports, and riveted to the frames and skin- 
 plating. 
 
 As far as the longitudinal frames extend the spacing of the con- 
 tinuous transverse frames is usually 3 feet 8 inches, but before and 
 abaft their termination it is 22 inches. In wake of the armour- 
 plating tiie continuous frames are made up of 10 by i inches 
 plates, with an angle-iron 3^ by 3^^ by f inches on the inner edge, 
 and double angle-irons 3^ by 4i by | inches on the outer edge. 
 The plate tapers gradually to a moulding of 7 inches, and runs, 
 
 H 2
 
 lOO Combined Transverse and Longitudinal Chap. VI. 
 
 with the angle-iron on the inner edge, from gunwale to gunwale ; 
 while the angle-irons on the outer edge only run down close to 
 No. 3 longitudinal. Below tin's point another angle-iron is worked 
 on the inner edge of the continuous transverse frames, as shown in 
 the section in Fig. 32. The butts of the plates and angle-irons in 
 these frames are not nearer than 6 feet to the middle line, and they 
 are properly shifted and butt-strapped. 
 
 An intermediate frame is fitted between every pair of regular 
 frames behind the armour-plating, and is run down from the upper 
 deck to the third longitudinal. The scantlings of these intermediate 
 frames are identical with those of the frames behind armour, except 
 that the plates are /g inch thick. Plates, similar to those worked 
 at the frames, are fitted between the second and third longitudinals, 
 in order to secure the heels of the intermediate frames. 
 
 The short transverse plates, which, with the angle-irons on their 
 edges, form the transverse framing in wake of the longitudinals, are 
 \ inch thick, except those at the watertight bulkheads, and the floor- 
 plates, which are both | inch thick. These plate-frames are fitted 
 between the longitudinals, and secured to them by the double frame 
 angle-irons, 4 by 3^ by y^g inches, worked stajile fashion. All the 
 plates, with the exception of those at the watertight bulkheads, are 
 lightened, as shown in the section in Plate 3, and their inner edges 
 overlap the continuous transverse frames about 3 inches and are 
 riveted to them. Intermediate floor-plates are fitted in this ship, 
 and extend from the vertical keelson-plate to No. 6 longitudinal, 
 which is about 10 feet 6 inches from the middle line. These floor- 
 plates have a reversed angle-iron, 7 by 3^ by f inches, on one side 
 of their upper edge, extending in one length right across the keel, 
 and a single angle-iron, 4 by 3^ by f inches, on their lower edge. 
 
 The armour-plating of this ship only extends over a portion of 
 her length (213 feet), and the uniDrotected parts, forward and aft, 
 are framed differently from the protected midship j)art. For 30 
 feet before and abaft the armour-plates, the continuous frames are 
 formed of 7. by 4 by | inches angle-irons, and the reversed frames 
 are 3^ by 3 by ^ inches ; for the next 30 feet, before and abaft 
 this, the frames are 6 by 4 by ^^ inches, and the reversed frames 
 3^ by 3 by -f^ inches ; and beyond this, the frames are 5 by 4 by 
 1% inches, and the reversed frames 3^ by 3 by \ inches. A floor- 
 plate is attached to each transverse frame, and has a reversed angle- 
 iron worked on its upper edge.
 
 Chap. VI, System of Fi^aming. loi 
 
 It will be remarked that this ship has a longitudinal vertical 
 bulkhead at about 3 feet from the inside of the frames, which ex- 
 tends from the main deck down to the third longitudinal. The 
 plating of this wing passage bulkhead is |^ inch thick at the lower 
 part, \ inch thick at the lower deck, and j^g inch thick between 
 decks, and has vertical stiffeners 3^ by 3 by \ inches, worked at 
 intervals of 22 inches. The upper edge of the bulkhead is 
 effectually secured to the underside of the plating on the main deck, 
 and the lower edge to tlie inner angle-iron on the third longitudinal. 
 This longitudinal frame is carefully made watertight where the 
 continuous frames pass through it, and the plating of the bulkhead 
 is also carefully worked and caulked, so that the space thus 
 enclosed shall form a longitudinal watertight compartment. The 
 compartment thus formed is further subdivided, by transverse 
 bulkheads and partial bulkheads, and by the lower-deck stringer 
 plate ; and admission is obtained to each division by watertight 
 doors and man-holes. Sluice valves and cocks are also fitted to 
 each compartment. The details of the watertight work thus 
 rendered necessary will be fully described hereafter. By means of 
 this arrangement of bulkheads an immense addition is made to the 
 strength of the structure ; for, being stiffened and connected as 
 they are, they form longitudinal, vertical, rigid webs throughout 
 their length, and help to prevent the change of form which the 
 unequal distribution of weights, and the motions of the ship in 
 a seaway, tend to produce ; while at the same time they afford an 
 additional provision for the ship's safety, in case the side should be 
 penetrated near the water-line. As these bulkheads enclose a space 
 on each side of the lower deck, corresponding in position with the 
 wing passages of wooden ships of war, they have been very generally 
 termed " wing passage bulkheads." 
 
 The internal plating shown in the sketch extending from the 
 keelson to the nearest longitudinal on each side, only reaches from 
 a little before the boiler space to a little abaft the engines. This 
 plating is f inch thick and is made watertight, the longitudinal 
 compartment thus formed on each side being subdivided by con- 
 tinuations of the transverse watertight bulkheads. 
 
 The details of the general framing of the ' Northumberland ' 
 are in most particulars identical with those just described for the 
 ' Warrior.' The number of the longitudinal frames is the same, 
 and their dimensions are as follow: —
 
 I02 Co7nbincd Xransverse and Longitudinal Chap. Vl. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 I Angle-irons. 
 
 I 1 
 
 I Inner Kdge. Outer Edge. 
 
 No. 1 Longitudinal, or Sheli-i)late 
 
 No. 2 ,, 
 
 No. .S 
 
 No. 4 ,, 
 
 No. 5 
 
 inches. inclie.^. Inches. 
 
 15 by \ , 5 by 5 by ^ I 6 by 6 by f 
 
 17 by 7, ! 3^ bv 3 by ^ ! 4 by 3i by I 
 25 by /., I ditto ; ditto 
 
 18 by T^ : ditto ditto 
 18 ^y t'b *^'tto ' ditto 
 
 No. 6 ,, 27 by -f^ ditto ditto 
 
 One difference between the longitudinal frames of the two shijis is 
 that the angle-irons on tlieir outer edges are worked single in the 
 ' Northuiuberland ' and double in the ' Warrior,' and it will be seen, 
 on a comparison of the two tables of dimensions, that the plates 
 and angle-ii'ons in the ' Northumberland ' are lighter than those in 
 the ' Warrior.' The decrease in breadth of the shelf-plate of this 
 ship, from that of the * Warrior,' is due to the fact that only one 
 9-inch thickness of wood backing is worked, instead of two layers, 
 making a total thickness of 18 inches in the ' Warrior.' The same 
 care is taken to keep up the continuity of longitudinal strength in 
 this ship as in the 'Warrior,' the specification stating that the 
 longitudinal frames are to be reduced in breadth at the extremities 
 of the ship, and as many of them continued to the stem and body 
 post as may be directed. The butts of the longitudinals are con- 
 nected by double straps, treble riveted. At the points where the 
 longitudinal frames pass through the transverse watertight bulk- 
 heads, great pains have to be taken in order to make watertight 
 work, and the manner in which this is done in the ' Northumber- 
 land' is illustrated by Figs. 78 and 79, the former of which 
 shows a section of No. 5 longitudinal, and the latter a section of 
 No. 6, which is nearest to the keel,- tlie difference in the arrange- 
 ments being due to the fact that the continuous transverse frame is 
 scored down into No. 6 longitudinal, but runs above the inner edge 
 of No. 5, as was noticed in the ' Warrior.' In both tlie sketclies 
 the liners to the outer strake of plating, on which the longitudinal 
 comes, are drawn in solid black, and the fish pieces or covering plates 
 worked inside the liners are stroked across. The liners extend 
 under one frame on each side of the bulkhead, so as to form a butt- 
 strap over the weak place caused by the line of rivets in the bulk- 
 head angle-irons, which are worked double. The fish pieces extend 
 between the frames on each side of the bulkhead, and make the 
 liners watertight. Canvas is used, in the immediate vicinity of the
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 System of Framing.
 
 iO-|. Combined Transvei^se and Longitudinal Chap. Vl. 
 
 bulkheads, in order to make the joints of the plates and angle-irons 
 watertight. Strong black lines in both sketches show where the 
 canvas is used behind the longitudinal angle-irons, &c. It will be 
 seen, on reference to Fig. 79, that the angle-iron marked c on the 
 inner edge of No. 6 longitudinal is forged staple fashion, and run 
 from the bulkhead to the adjacent frame. The butt of the angle- 
 iron c is connected with the frame angle-iron by an angle-iron strap 
 d'. All the angle-irons are carefully (;aulked and. the watertight- 
 ness of the work tested when it is completed. The use of canvas 
 steeped in paint, here illustrated, is very common in the bulkhead 
 work of this and other ships. By means of it a stop-water is 
 formed, and the longitudinal angle-irons need only be caulked for 
 a short distance from the bulkhead, instead of being made water- 
 tight throughout the ship. In the ' Bellerophon ' and later ships 
 built at Chatham, it has been deemed sufficient to thickly coat the 
 faying surfaces of the plate and angle-iron, with red lead. In the 
 sketch of No. 5 longitudinal, in Fig. 78, it is shown that the frame 
 angle-irons are turned up on both sides of the longitudinal, and one 
 of them is run up the full depth of the transverse plate-frames, 
 while the other is stopped at the upper edge of the longitudinal. 
 A short clump angle-iron, a, connects these frame angle-irons, and 
 has canvas at its back, as shown in black lines. All the other longi- 
 tudinals, except that at the foot of the wing-passage bulkhead and 
 the armour-shelf, are similarly arranged with No. 5, 
 
 The armour-shelf plate, or No. 1 longitudinal, is similar to that 
 
 of the ' Warrior,' and the flanged plates forming it have to be bent 
 
 so considerably that a special mode of manufacture is necessary. 
 
 ^.^^ The sections of these plates, 
 
 ' "^^ -^ as they are served in by the 
 
 ^. makers, are shown in Fig. 80, 
 
 " " ^ ' the ridge rolled in the centre 
 
 Fig. 80. 1 • 1 1 • 1 (> 1 
 
 being that which lorms the 
 outer angle of the shelf when the plates are flanged. The 
 machine used for bending the plates of the ' Northumberland's ' 
 shelf consists of a very strong iron frame, having a series of 
 longitudinal girders secured to its upper part. The under side 
 of these girders is plated over, and to this plating are attached 
 brackets, the lower edges of which are formed to the angle to 
 which the plate is required to be flanged, which is generally 
 a right angle. Hydraulic presses placed below tlie frame sup-
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 Syste77i of Fra7mng. 
 
 105 
 
 port a longitudinal ridged bed, on which the plate to be flanged 
 is laid, after having been heated in the furnace. When all is 
 ready, the pumps of the presses are set to work, and the bed, with 
 the plate upon it, is forced up under the brackets, the flanges being 
 thus turned down. Blows are struck on the flanges, by the work- 
 men, at intervals, so as to facilitate the flanging ; and when the 
 operation is completed, the plate is allowed to cool in place, and 
 when cold is removed to have the edges and butts planed, holes 
 punched and countersunk, &c. The iron in these plates requires 
 to be of the very best description, and in some cases it has been 
 found that, notwithstanding the greatest care, the severe bending 
 they have to undergo has caused plates to break under the press, 
 while in other instances after a plate has been worked and riveted 
 in place, it has been found to crack, and it has been necessary to 
 remove it and work 
 another. The expense 
 consequent on the ma- 
 nufacture of, and the 
 injury done by bend- 
 ing to, these plates, 
 have led to the intro- 
 duction of other ar- 
 rangements of armour 
 shelf, which will be 
 fully described here- 
 after. 
 
 The inner edo-e 
 of the shelf-plate of 
 this ship is secured to 
 the skin-plating be- 
 hind armour by double 
 angle-irons, as shown 
 in Fig. 81. These 
 angle-irons are conti- 
 nuous, and the lower 
 one has consequently 
 to pass through the 
 
 transverse watertight bulkheads, and a special arrangement which 
 was adopted for making the joints watertight is shown fully in the 
 sketch. Tlie angle-irons marked a, a, are those which receive the
 
 io6 Combined Transverse and Lo7izitudinal Chap. VI. 
 
 fastenings of the skin-plating behind armour. At I the 10-inch 
 reversed frame is butted, and strapped and riveted as shown. The 
 bulkhead plate c overlaps the transverse frame and plates, and the 
 rivets securing it have a pitch of 8| inches so as to make the joint 
 watertight. The reversed frame is only ended in this way at the water- 
 tight bulkheads. In order to make the angle-iron on the underside 
 of the shelf-plate watertight, a short piece of angle-iron d is care- 
 fully fitted against the plate and angle-iron, and canvas steeped in 
 paint is employed to form a stop-water, its position being indicated 
 as before by strong black lines in the joints. Here also it will be 
 seen that unless canvas, or some substitute is employed, the edges 
 of the longitudinal angle-iron would have to be caulked throughout 
 the ship's length, as the water might enter at some distance from 
 the bulkhead and run along underneath the flange of the angle-iron 
 into the adjoining compartments. The black plate-liner, shown 
 under the vertical flange of the shelf-plate, extends to the adjacent 
 frame on each side of the bulkhead. 
 
 The spacing of the continuous transverse frames of this ship 
 has already been given when describing her keel arrangements, 
 but may be repeated here for convenience. The usual frame 
 space is 2 feet 4 inches, observing that at the ports pairs of spaces 
 1 foot 11 inches are thrown in, so as to ensure a good arrangement 
 of port-frames. In wake of armour these continuous frames are 
 formed of 10 by 3^ by J inches angle-irons, tapering to 7 by 3^ by 
 \ inches at the turn of the bilge. They extend from gunwale to 
 gunwale, their butts being properly shifted and strapped, and no 
 butt is nearer to the middle line than (J feet. The heads of all 
 frames to which beams are not attached are secured to the under- 
 side of the upper-deck stringer-plate by short angle-irons. The 
 double angle-irons on the outer edge of the 10-inch frames are 
 3^ by 4^ by f inches, and they extend from the gunwale to the 
 longitudinal next below the armour-shelf. 
 
 The transverse plate-frames of this ship are -^ inch thick, 
 except at the watertight bulklieads, where they are f inch. The 
 mode of lightening is similar to that shown in the 'Warrior's' 
 midship section in Plate 3. The frame angle-irons are worked 
 staple fashion between the longitudinals, and are single on all 
 except the bulkhead frames. Their dimensions are as follow : — 
 On the floor-plates 4 by 3^ by f inches, and on all other plates 
 4 by 3 J- by -f^ inches.
 
 Chap. VI. System of Framing. 107 
 
 The principal differences in tlie transverse framing of tlie ' War- 
 ' rior ' and ' Northumberland ' are, that in the latter the continuous 
 transverse frame is formed by a reversed angle-iron, instead of a 
 plate and angle-iron, as in the former ; that the intermediate frames 
 and floor-plates, and double-reversed frames on the plate-frames of 
 the ' Warrior,' are dispensed with in the ' Northumberland ' ; that the 
 spacing of the frames is considerably reduced in the latter vessel ; 
 that the double angle-irons on transverse frames behind armour 
 are only run down to No. 2 longitudinal in the latter, while they 
 extend to No. 3 in the former ; and that the frame angle-irons on 
 the common transverse frames are single in the 'Northumberland,' 
 and double in the ' Warrior.' 
 
 The framing of the bow in vessels of this class is of a different 
 character from that amidships. A middle-line bulkhead is fitted 
 in the bow, and extends back into the ship about 54 feet. At the 
 fore end it reaches from the keel to the main deck, and its height 
 is gradually reduced by successive steps, until it is brought down 
 to 18 feet from the keel at the after end. The plating in this 
 bulkhead is worked flush at the edges and butts, the edge-strips 
 being single, and the butt-straps double riveted. Vertical angle- 
 iron stiffeners are fitted on alternate sides of the bulkhead, at 
 intervals of from 2 feet to 2 feet *6 inches ; and the bulkhead is 
 further stiffened by the angle-irons connecting the floor-plates and 
 transverse bulkheads to it. All these arrangements tend to make 
 the bulkhead rigid, and to prevent it from buckling, in case the 
 ship should be used as a ram; and in order to give additional 
 strength to the bow for this purpose, breast -hooks are fitted at and 
 intermediate between the decks. The details of the construction 
 of one of these breast-hooks are given in Fig. 82, which represents 
 a plan of the foremost end. The plates are fitted between the 
 frames, and are secured to the outside plating by short pieces of 
 angle-iron worked underneath them. A strong angle-iron runs 
 along; inside the reversed frames and is riveted to them, and to the 
 transverse and middle-line bulkheads, as shown. The inner edge 
 of the breast-hook plates is stiffened by an angle-iron worked 
 underneath, as indicated in dotted lines. By means of this com- 
 bination of bulkheads and breasthooks the transversely framed 
 bow is made sufficiently strong to act as a ram in case of need ; 
 and, in addition, the forward part of the vessel is divided into a 
 large number of watertight compartments, which add to the ship's
 
 io8 Conibmed Transverse and Longitudinal Chap. Vl. 
 
 safety when so employed. None of the longitudinal frames are con- 
 tinued forward to the stem, the upper longitudinal being worked 
 into a flat at its fore end, and the endings of the remaining three 
 longitudinals being shifted, in order to avoid a sudden reduction 
 of longitudinal strength in any one transverse plane. 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 The stern framing of the vessels of this class requires a brief 
 description. One of tlie longitudinals is run aft to the stern post, 
 and the others are ended at the stuffing-box bulkhead. The loss 
 of longitudinal strength thus involved is, however, compensated 
 for in a measure, by the plating on the lower-deck beams, the flat 
 below the lower deck, the shaft tube, and the middle-line bulk- 
 head, all being connected with the post and the bulkhead. An 
 iron flat is laid below the lower-deck beams, on the fore side of the 
 stuffing-box bulkhead, and serves both as' a platform for store- 
 rooms and a crown to the shaft-passage, in addition to adding 
 considerably to the strength of the ship. The shaft-j)assage bulk- 
 heads are formed of ^-inch plates, and are stiffened by vertical 
 bars 3 by 2^ by | inches. The whole of this work is made water- 
 tight, and so a longitudinal compartment is formed, which extends 
 from the bulkhead at the after end of the engine-room to the 
 stern. The communication with the engine-room is made by an 
 opening in the transverse bulkhead, to which a watertight door is 
 fitted, and there is a stuffing-box arrangement on the shaft where 
 it passos through the bulkhoad. The framos abaft the stuffing-box
 
 Chap. VI. System of Framing. 109 
 
 bulkhead are formed of ^inch plates, and are secured to the shaft- 
 tube by encircling angle-irons. On the aft side of the stuffing-box 
 bulkhead the vertical keelson is increased in height, so as to form 
 a middle-line bulkhead below the shaft-tube, and this bulkhead is 
 completed above the shaft-tube by a vertical plate extending up 
 to the flat below the lower deck. 
 
 Tlie wing passage and its connections are similar to those of the 
 ' Warrior,' and the flats, stiffeners, &c., are identical in arrangement, 
 the only difference being that the plating in this ship is -^ inch 
 thinner than the 'Warrior's.' One important difference between 
 the two ships, however, both as respects strength and safety, consists 
 in the fact, that throughout the engine and boiler spaces of the 
 ' Northumberland,' an inner bottom is formed by working watertight 
 plating upon the bearers, and continuing it up the frames to the 
 foot of the wing-passage bulkhead. This inside plating extends a 
 short distance before and abaft the bulkheads, which bound the 
 boiler and engine-rooms.
 
 no 
 
 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. vii. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 BRACKET-PLATE SYSTEM ,0F FRAMING. 
 
 FRAMING OF ' BELLEROPHON,' 'HERCULES,' &C. 
 
 The bracket-plate system of construction, which was introckiced 
 for the first time in the design of H. M. armour-clad frigate ' Bel- 
 ' lerophon,' is fully illustrated in the perspective view of a portion 
 of the midship framing of that vessel, which is given in Plate 4. 
 The objects of the invention and introduction of this system were 
 to save weight, to simplify workmanship, and to add both to the 
 strengtli and safety of the ship. The characteristic features of 
 the system are the adoption of an inner bottom, and of short angle- 
 irons connected by bracket-plates, in place of staple and other 
 forged angle-iron work. Many minor differences of detail in con- 
 struction will be remarked hereafter. A great increase of longitu- 
 dinal strength is gained by the use of much deeper longitudinal 
 frames than those of the ' Warrior ' and other of the earlier iron- 
 clads. Another important feature resulting from the employment 
 of deep longitudinals is that the space between the two bottoms is 
 roomy and easy of access for cleaning and painting, operations 
 which are essential to the preservation of an iron structure. Faci- 
 lities are also offered by these arrangements for letting in water 
 between the bottoms to serve as ballast, the space being so divided 
 into watertight compartments as to enable the officer to regulate 
 the trim of the vessel by filling the fore or the aft spaces. Pro- 
 vision is, of course, made to pump out any compartment, when 
 required. The dimensions of the longitudinal frames of the ' Bel- 
 ' lerophon ' are as follow : — 
 
 
 
 Plate. 
 
 Angle-irons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inner Edge. 
 
 ! Outer Edge. 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 No. 1 Longitudiua 
 
 , or armour-shelf 
 
 KJi bv \ 
 
 5 by 5 bv % 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 
 17 by fs 
 
 3 bV 3 by i 
 
 3J by 4 by fg 
 
 No. 3 
 
 
 31 by i 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 No. 4 
 
 
 37 by ^ 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 No. 5 
 
 
 43 by f, 
 
 ditto 
 
 j ditto 
 
 No: G 
 
 
 49 by * 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 ditto
 
 /v.//.: 4 
 
 y J.Mavctov . 
 
 JohnMurray, Alhermule Street . i'ov'^ 1808.
 
 Chap. vii. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The longitudinals are made of one depth of plate ; the butts 
 are carefully fitted and secured by double butt-straps each -^ inch 
 thicker than half the thickness of the plates they connect. All the 
 butts are double riveted, except those of No. 3 longitudinal, which 
 are treble riveted, as this longitudinal is a watertight division, and 
 is therefore left solid. The angle-irons on the outer edges of the 
 longitudinal frames are single, and continuous throughout the ship. 
 As the longitudinals are worked directly upon the outside plating, 
 these angle-irons have to be bent and the plates notched, in order 
 to fit over the butt-straps to the plating. The butts of the con- 
 tinuous longitudinal angle-irons are suj^ported by covering angle- 
 irons. The angle-irons on the inner edges of the longitudinals are 
 worked in short lengths between the transverse frames, and 
 are double throughout the double bottom. The working of these 
 angle-irons in short lengths is necessitated by the fact that all the 
 longitudinals run up close to the inner bottom, and the continuous 
 transverse frames pass through scores cut in their upper edges. 
 Though a loss of longitudinal strength is thus involved, it still 
 leaves an ample remainder. The detailed arrangements of angle- 
 irons, butt-strap, &c., of one of the lower longitudinals are shown 
 in Fig. 83. The large holes a, a, shown in the sketch, are 2 feet by 
 
 1 foot, and are cut for the purpose of lightening the plate, while at 
 the same time they serve as man-holes, which afford communi- 
 cation between the various parts of the space included between the 
 two bottoms. These holes are so arranged as to give as great sec- 
 tional strength of plate in wake of them as there is along the 
 weakest line across the longitudinal. In the case illustrated by 
 the sketch, this weakest line extends from the bottom of the score 
 cut for the continuous transverse frame, down through a line of 
 rivet-holes at the side of a watertight frame, w. It may be inte- 
 resting to examine the relation between the strength along the 
 weakest line and the strength in wake of the hole, so as to ascer- 
 tain whether or not uniformity of strength has been, as nearly as
 
 112 Bracket-plate System of Fi^aming. Chap. vii. 
 
 possible, preserved. The score for the continuous angle-iron is 
 5^ inches deep, and there are eight |-ineli rivet-holes in the 
 breadth of the plate. The total breadth along the supposed line 
 of fracture equals 50 inches,* and hence the effective length is 
 reduced to 37^ inches, and the effective sectional area =37^ inches 
 by \ inch = 183 square inches. If the plate breaks across the light- 
 ening hole, there are two rivet-holes in the line of fracture, one 
 I inch and one f inch, and thus the effective breadth of plate is 
 reduced from 49 inches to 35f inches, and the eflfective sectional 
 area =35| by ^ = 17^^ square inches. But in order that the 
 plate may se^jarate, the angle-irons on the inner edge must also 
 break in this case. These angle-irons are double, 3 x 3 x ^ inches, 
 and there are two |-inch rivet-holes in the transverse section of 
 each angle-iron. Their united effective sectional area, therefore, 
 equals 2 x^J^ — 1^) xi=4 square inches. By the angle-irons, 
 therefore, the total effective sectional area in wake of the hole 
 cut for lightening is brought up to 2l|^ square inches, and it has 
 been shown above that along the weakest line the longitudinal 
 has an effective area of 18| square inches. Hence the propor- 
 tionate strengths along the two supposed lines of fracture are as 
 300 : 347, or as 6 : 7 nearly, the margin of strength being left in 
 wake of the large hole. 
 
 In order to complete the investigation of the approximation to 
 uniformity of strength in the longitudinal, it is necessary to deter- 
 mine the relation between the strains required to open the butt by 
 shearing the rivets on one side of the butt, or tearing the butt- 
 straps asunder at their weakest section, and the strength of the 
 longitudinal at its weakest section. First suppose the butt-straps 
 to be broken down through the row of rivet-holes nearest to 
 the butt, and the angle-irons on the inner edge to be broken 
 across. The sectional area of the straps is reduced by the f-inch 
 rivet-holes, and as there are ten rivets in the strap on one side of 
 the plate, which is 46 inches deep, and nine rivets in the strap on 
 the other side, which is 42^ inches deep, the effective sectional area 
 becomes ^^ { (46 - 7^) + (42^ — 6f ) } =23^ square inches. Adding 
 4 square inches for the angle-irons on the inner edge, we obtain 
 
 * The length of the line of fracture is one inch more than the total breadth of the 
 longitudinal, on account of the diagonal direction of the line joining the bottom of 
 the score with the adjacent rivet-hole.
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Frammg. 113 
 
 the total effective area of straps and angle-irons =27^^ square 
 inches. And since the least effective area of the longitudinal has 
 been found to equal 18| square inches, the proportion of the 
 strains required to produce fracture in these two ways is as 
 18f : 27^1, that is, the strengths are in the ratio of 2 : 3 roughly. 
 If the rivets in the butt-strap on one side of the butt shear, and the 
 angle-irons on the inner edge of the longitudinal break, the butt 
 can separate. In this case eighteen rivets f inch in diameter will 
 have to shear twice, since there are double butt-straps, and two 
 rivets of the same size in the flange of the outer angle-iron on the 
 longitudinal will have to shear once, thus requiring a force = 18 x 
 18 tons -f 2 X 10 tons = 344 tons, if we suppose the shearing 
 strength of a |-inch rivet to be 10 tons for a single shear, and 
 18 tons for a double shear. Also by punching holes in plates or 
 angle-irons the strength is found to be reduced, and a fair value of 
 the strength per square inch after punching is about 18 tons. 
 Taking tliis, we have as the strength of the angle-irons on the 
 inner edge 4 x 18 tons = 72 tons, and thus find the total strain 
 required to open the butt in the supposed manner = 344 -J- 72 = 
 416 tons. Now the effective sectional area of the weakest section 
 of the longitudinal = 18f square inches, and taking 18 tons per 
 square inch as the breaking strain, we find that the strain required 
 to break the longitudinal at this section = 18 x 18| tons = 337 
 tons. Hence we have : — Strength of plate : Shearing strength 
 of rivets, &c. : : 337 : 416 : : 6 : 7^ nearly. We thus obtain 
 finally the following approximate proportions between the various 
 breaking strengths of the longitudinal and its butt fastenings. 
 Taking the strength of the longitudinal at the side of a watertight 
 frame as 6, that in wake of the hole cut for lightening will be 7, 
 that along a row of rivet-holes in the butt-strap will be 9, and 
 the shearing strength of the rivets on one side of the butt will 
 be 7^. In all these calculations the continuous angle-iron on 
 the outer edge of the longitudinal is not taken any account of, the 
 longitudinal plate and the short angle-irons only being considered. 
 The results obtained above would, of course, be modified, if the 
 strength of the continuous bar was added in tlie calculation of 
 the various breaking strains. 
 
 It will be remarked in Fig. S3, that in the frame space where 
 the butt of the longitudinal comes, no holes are taken out. The 
 bracket frames, h, h, are secured to the longitudinal by single angle- 
 
 I
 
 114 
 
 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. vii. 
 
 irons, \jhich are worked on the opposite side of the brackets to that 
 on which the short frame angle-irons are worked. The watertight 
 frame, w, has double staple angle-irons on its end. Where a longi- 
 tudinal crosses a butt-strap of the bottom plating, as at the point 
 marked c in the sketch, it is notched up, and the angle-iron on its 
 edge bent so as to pass over the strap. All the longitudinals be- 
 tween the keel and the longitudinal at the foot of the wing-passage 
 bulkhead are similarly lightened and riveted, but No. 3 is made 
 watertight at all the joints where the continuous fi-ames pass through 
 it, by means of angle-irons similar to those marked a in Fig. 84, the 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 edges of which are caulked ; the lower edge of the plate-frame is 
 also caulked on the opposite side from that on which the angle- 
 iron, a, is worked. It will be seen in Plate 4 that the armour- 
 shelf in this ship is formed and worked \\\ a similar manner to the 
 shelf of the ' Northumberland,' which has been fully described. 
 The skin-plating behind armour is worked in two thicknesses of 
 |-inch plate, and longitudinal frames or girders are worked outside 
 it, as shown in the section in Plate 4, their dimensions being 9^ by 
 3^ by \ inches, their spacing nearly the same as the vertical 
 frame spacing, and their disposition such that one is situated at 
 about 12 inches from the edge of each strake of armour. 
 
 The inner bottom extends throughout two-thirds of the ship's 
 length, and, by means of the wing-passage bulkhead on each side, 
 is continued up to the under side of the main deck. The plating 
 on the floor is \ inch thick, and is worked flush on the upper side, 
 with single-riveted edge strips, and treble-riveted butt-straps worked 
 on the under side. The vertical plating forming the wing-passage 
 bulkheads is y^g inch between the main and lower decks, and \ inch 
 below the lower deck, and is stiffened by 4 by 3^ by | inches 
 angle-irons, placed 2 feet apart. The remarks previously made 
 on the advantages, as regards strength and safety, resulting from 
 the wing-passage bulkheads fitted in the ' Warrior ' and ' North-
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 115 
 
 umberland,' apply with equal force to the arrangements of the 
 ' Bellerophon.' 
 
 The transverse framing in the double bottom is for the most 
 part similar to that shown in Plate 4, and is made up of the con- 
 tinuous angle-irons, which extend from gunwale to gunwale ; of 
 the 5^ by 4 by y^ inches frame angle-irons worked in short lengths 
 between the longitudinals ; and of bracket plates j^ inch thick, 
 formed and riveted as shown, and connected to the longitudinals 
 by short angle-irons, Z\ by 3 by y^g inches, worked on the opposite 
 sides of the bracket-plates to those on which the frame angle-irons 
 are secured. At intervals of about 20 feet, watertight frames are 
 worked, and are formed of i-iujh plates fitted between the longi- 
 tudinals and the inner and outer bottoms, and supported on the 
 uj)per edge by the continuous angle-irons, and at the bottom and 
 ends by double staple angle-irons. 
 
 By these arrangements of the transverse framing we dispense 
 with one-half the frames which would be required if the framing 
 were similar to that of the ' Northumberland,' and at the same 
 time the strength of the structure as a whole is considerably 
 increased. The transverse strength, which is derived from the 
 watertight bulkheads and the plate frames, is distributed over the 
 intermediate spaces by the strong longitudinal frames ; and by 
 means of the bracket-frame arrangement the rigidity of the bottom 
 is ensured, thus supplying a feature of the construction, the import- 
 ance of which was illustrated at the commencement of this work. 
 By means of these arrangements the work of building is also 
 much simplified, and consequently can be performed more quickly 
 and cheaply. One instance of this is found in the fact that on all 
 except watertight frames staple angle-irons are dispensed with, 
 and so the cost of forging is saved ; while the frame angle-irons, 
 and the short comiecting pieces on the longitudinals, being worked 
 on opposite sides of the brackets, do not require to be joggled over 
 one another, or to have their ends accurately fitted, and thus the 
 cost of moulding and working is reduced. 
 
 Between the armour-shelf and the next longitudinal each 
 transverse frame is completed by a plate frame -^q inch thick, 
 which is lightened, as shown in the section, at all except the bulk- 
 head frames, and has its frame angle-iron turned in under the 
 shelf plate and riveted through it. These plate frames are 2 feet 
 apart, and by their use provision is made for the vertical strains 
 
 I 2
 
 ii6 Bracket-plate System of Frammg.' Chap. vil. 
 
 which are always experienced by this portion of the framing of a 
 shij), and which are so much greater in a ship which, Hke the 
 ' Bellerophon,' carries a great weight of armour on her sides. 
 
 By means of the various watertight frames before described, 
 both longitudinal and transverse, the space included between the 
 inside and the bottom plating is divided into a series of cells or 
 compartments. The watertight vertical keelson and No. 3 longi- 
 tudinal on each side, form the boundaries of two large longitudinal 
 compartments ; and the wing-passage bulkhead and No. 3 longi- 
 tudinal, form those of another compartment on each side. Each 
 of these, compartments is subdivided by the transverse watertight 
 frames, so that in case of accident happening to any part of the 
 ship's bottom, the water would only have access to a limited space. 
 Watertight manholes are fitted to each compartment to give admis- 
 sion for painting, repairs, &c. 
 
 In wake of the armour the frames are formed of 10 by 3^ by 
 ^ inches reversed angle-irons, with double angle-irons 3^ by 3^ 
 by f inches on the outer edge. These frames are 2 feet apart, 
 and the transverse flanges of the reversed angle-irons are tapered 
 from 10 inches at the lower edge of armour, to 5^ inches at the 
 foot of the wing-passage bulkhead. Between the armour shelf 
 and No. 2 longitudinal each of these frames is connected with the 
 plate frames described above. The alternate frames only are con- 
 tinued below No. 3 longitudinal, the intermediate frames ending 
 there. The continuous transverse angle-irons of the framing in 
 the double bottom are scarphed to the lower ends of the alternate 
 frames, the scarphs of adjacent frames being carefully shifted so 
 as to bring the ending of the continuous angle-irons alternately 
 3 feet above and below No. 3 longitudinal. An illustration of the 
 arrangements of the scarphs and butts of the continuous angle- 
 irons Avhich were adopted in the ' Hercules,' will be found in Fig. 
 94, page 131, and will be described further on. 
 
 Before and abaft the double bottom, the arrangements of the 
 framing below the armour shelf are slightly different from tliose 
 of the framing througliout the double bottom. The spacing of the 
 transverse frames, and the whole arrangement of the framing in 
 wake of armour are, however, identical with those amidships. 
 Outside the double bottom the longitudinal frames are reduced 
 in depth so as to allow the continuous transverse angle-irons to 
 pass above thoir inner edges, and in consequence of the latter not
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 1 17 
 
 scoring down, single angle-irons on the inner edge of the longi- 
 tudinals are made continuous, thus adding considerably to the 
 longitudinal strength. The continuous transverse angle-irons are 
 reduced in size to 3^ by 4 by y'^jj inches, and the frame angle-irons 
 are reduced to 3^ by 4 by j^g inches. The brackets are replaced 
 by plate frames considerably lightened. At the bow, No. 2 longi- 
 tudinal is made to work into the watertight flat below the lower 
 deck. This flat extends back to the watertight bulkhead which 
 forms the foremost boundary of the double bottom, and ends for- 
 ward at the cant frame marked A in Fig. 85, being connected to 
 the transverse watertight plating B by double angle-irons. The 
 plating of the flat is f inch thick, and is worked flush on the plat- 
 form beams, the butt-straps and edge strips being worked above 
 it. The platform so formed supports the store rooms, and in 
 addition adds greatly to the safety of the ship by forming the space 
 below it into a watertight compartment, and thus serving one of 
 the purposes for which the double bottom is fitted in the midship 
 part of the ship. It may be remarked here, that the weight of 
 material which would be required to complete the inner skin, from 
 its present ending forward to the stem, would be much greater 
 than that employed in the construction of the flat ; while the 
 fineness of the ship forward renders the size of the space enclosed 
 by the flat comparatively small, and thus removes the objection 
 which might reasonably be made to a large fore compartment. 
 Admission is gained to the space below the flat by means of a 
 watertight trunk which extends up to the main deck, and encloses 
 the scuttle in the flat. It will readily be seen, that in case 
 the bow is broken through, and the lower compartment is filled, the 
 water cannot find its way out upon the lower deck. This is a 
 patented improvement of Mr. Charles Lungley, and was, by his 
 permission, introduced into the construction of the ' Bellerophon.' 
 The arrangement forms part of a plan proposed by Mr. Lungley 
 for making iron ships unsinkable, which will be found described 
 in detail in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects 
 for 1861. 
 
 The framing of the bow is shown in detail in Figs. 85 and SQ, 
 •which afford an illustration of the simplification of work, and the 
 increase of strength resulting from the adoption of longitudinal 
 framing. The profile view in Fig. 85 shows the manner in which 
 the lonaitudiuals are run forward and secured to the stem, and
 
 ii8 
 
 Bracket-plate System of Frammg. Chap. vii. 
 
 the plan in Fig. 86 gives, in full detail, the arrangements by 
 which the fore ends of the longitudinals are converted into power- 
 ful breasthooks, by means of small flats of iron plate worked across 
 the ship, and stiffened on their after ends by angle-irons. The 
 
 armour shelf is decreased in width forwarS on account of thd 
 reduced thickness of the armour plating and Avood backing, and 
 Its fore end is secured to the stem by the double angle-irons on 
 the inner edge of the shelf. The manner in which No. 2 longi-
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 1 19 
 
 tudinal is ended lias been already described, but it may be added 
 here that at its fore end the angle-irons on the outer edge are 
 doubled as shown in Fig. 85. All the other longitudinals which 
 extend forward to the stem are finished similarly to each other, 
 and it will therefore suffice to describe the arrangements of No. 3, 
 which are shown in plan in Fig. 86. On the fore side of the 
 frame A short pieces of doubling angle-iron are worked on the 
 outer edge of the longitudinal, between the vertical frames. The 
 cant frames on the fore side of A are reduced in depth, in order 
 to allow the plate C to lap on the longitudinal and be riveted to 
 it. The fore part of C is arranged so as to form an edge strip 
 to the joint of the fore ends of the longitudinals on opposite sides. 
 The double angle-irons on the fore end are tap-riveted to the stem, 
 and their rivets, together with the riveting of the outside plating 
 to the longitudinal angle-irons, complete the connection of the 
 breasthook with the bow. It will be remarked that only five of 
 the six longitudinal frames shown on the midship section in 
 Plate 4 are carried right forward. The explanation of this arrange- 
 ment is that the girth of the ship decreases so rapidly toward the 
 extremities as to render it inconvenient to carry the longitudinal 
 next the keel beyond the double bottom, at the boundaries of 
 whicli«it is therefore terminated both forward and aft. The vertical 
 keelson is connected with the stem in a manner similar to that 
 previously described, and its fore end is secured to a diagonal 
 breasthook, G. A few of the foremost vertical frames in this ship 
 are canted, as shown in the sketches in Figs. 85 and ^^, and have 
 their heads and heels secured to the stem and the vertical keelson 
 plate respectively. 
 
 The stern framing of this ship is illustrated in Fig. 87. Before 
 the stufiing-box bulkhead the general character of the framing is 
 similar to that already described, special provisions being made, 
 however, for the shaft bearers, &c. Abaft the stuffing-box bulk- 
 head the framing is specially designed to resist the strains caused 
 by the action of the screw propeller, and prevent the local vibration 
 so destructive to the fastenings of an iron ship, and at the same 
 time to accomplish this object without costly forgings or difficult 
 workmanship. Some reference has already been made to the 
 character of the framing between the stern post and the after- 
 most bulkhead, but, for convenience, it may be better to give a 
 complete description here. The bulkhead is 14 feet before the
 
 I20 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. Vll. 
 
 Fig. 87.
 
 Chap. VII, Bracket-plate SysteiJi of Framing, 121 
 
 post, and is formed of |-iiic]i plating worked watertight. Its upper 
 edge is secured to the watertight plating on the after part of the 
 lower deck, and thus the after end of the hold is converted into a 
 watertight compartment. All the longitudinals (except the armour 
 shelf and the longitudinal next below it) which extend beyond the 
 double bottom, are stopped at the bulkhead ; but the two upper 
 longitudinals on each side are continued beyond the bulkhead, the 
 armour shelf extending around the stern, and No. 2 longitudinal 
 being ended at a transverse frame just before the post. Between 
 the bulkhead and the stern post the longitudinal strength is kept 
 up by the horizontal continuous flats marked A and B in the 
 profile view, and by the wrought-iron tube which takes the engineer's 
 shaft tube ; all of which are strongly connected to the post and 
 to the bulkhead. The flat A is constructed of f-inch plates, 
 lightened by large holes ; B is formed of f-inch plates, and is also 
 lightened ; and the tube is made up of two thicknesses of 1^-inch 
 plating, flush riveted. It will be seen on reference to the profile 
 in Fig. 87 that there are three thicknesses of plating at the ends 
 of the tube. The inner thickness there worked forms the bearina: 
 on which the engineer's tube fits, and by this means the length of 
 the interior of the iron tube which has to be turned out accurately 
 is very much reduced. The transverse framing between the bulk- 
 head and the stern post is formed of plates \ inch thick, spaced 
 2 feet apart and, lightened considerably. This framing, up to the 
 lower deck, is composed of three distinct parts, as will be seen on 
 reference to the sketch. One set of plate frames extends from 
 the keel up to the flat, B ; a second extends from B to A, and is 
 pierced with holes for hghtening above and below the hole through 
 which the tube passes ; and a third set completes the transverse 
 framing up to the lower deck, and is alternately made up of trans- 
 verse plates considerably lightened in the central part, and of inter- 
 mediate frames, I, I, formed of plates and angle-irons of moderate 
 scantlings. The large holes cut in the central part of the alter- 
 nate plate frames above the flat A, in addition to lightening the 
 frames, serve to give easy access to the after part, as do also those 
 in the remainder of the transverse and longitudinal framing. The 
 frames behind armour in this part of the ship terminate in a foot 
 at the lower deck, and are secured to the deck plating ; in other 
 respects they are similar to. those previously described. 
 
 The ' Bellerophon ' being constructed with a central battery
 
 122 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. Vli, 
 
 and a belt of armour at the water-line throughout her length, it 
 is necessary to introduce a lighter system of framing above the 
 armour plating, and the details of this framing, although it is 
 common to all the unprotected portions of the ship, may, with 
 propriety and convenience, be given here, as they are illustrated 
 in the profile. The frames are formed of 7 by j^g- inches plates, 
 with 4 by 3^ by -f^ angle-irons on their outer edge, spaced 4 feet 
 apart. The lower ends of these angle-irons are turned in upon the 
 main-deck plating, the feet thus formed being strengthened by 
 J-inch bracket plates, which are riveted to the plate frames and to 
 the feet of the angle-irons. In order to connect these light frames 
 with the frames behind armour, the transverse flanges of the latter 
 are run up through the stringer plate, and riveted to the bracket 
 plates as shown by G in Fig. 87, which sketch gives an enlarged 
 view of the lower part of one of these frames. Between these 
 frames intermediate stiffeners are fitted, formed of 4 by 3J by j^g 
 inches angle-irons, having the lower ends turned in on the stringer 
 plate, and riveted to it. 
 
 Having completed the description of the framing between tlie 
 stuffing-box bulkhead and the stern post, we have now to notice 
 the framing on the after side of the stern post. It will be seen 
 from the profile that a plate marked P, f inch thick, is worked 
 vertically at the middle line, and taken up on the double thickness 
 of plating at the counter, and in wake of armom-, by two 5 by 4 
 by f inches angle-irons ; while its lower end is secured to the after 
 part of the flat A, and its foremost edge to the upper plate of the 
 after transverse frame, which is increased in thickness to f -inch in 
 order to receive the fastenings. In wake of the rudder-hole the 
 plate P is bent so as to form one side of the hole, while another 
 plate of equal thickness forms the other side, and the secure con- 
 nection of the two is ensured by an internal wrought-iron tube, 
 which is strongly riveted to them both. The upper part of the 
 plate P is secured to the main-deck plating at P', and it thus 
 forms the aftermost frame of the ship from the main deck to the 
 top of the stern post, and at the same time, with the two thick- 
 nesses of plating at the counter and behind armour, keeps up the 
 character of the middle-line arrangements. A considerable number 
 of the vertical frames of the stern of the ship are canted, and are 
 heeled against and connected with the plate P. The method of 
 forming the armour recess at the extreme after part of the ship is
 
 Chap. VII, Bracket-plate Sy stein of Framing. 123 
 
 shown in the profile, and it will be seen that the armour-plating 
 on the stern entirely protects the rudder-head and steering appa- 
 ratus. A full description of the peculiar arrangements of the 
 rudder, &c., adopted in this ship will be given hereafter. 
 
 Keverting now to the general framing of the ' Bellerophon,' 
 the following brief account of the manner in which it was pro- 
 ceeded with may prove interesting. The two midship pieces of the 
 outer flat keel-plate having been flanged by the smiths were lined 
 to length and breadth, the rivet-holes were marked and drilled, 
 and the edges and butts planed ; when these operations had been 
 completed, the plates were placed in position on the blocks. While 
 this was being performed, the corresponding piece of the inner flat 
 keel-plate was flanged, and, when the fixing of the outer flat keel- 
 plates had been completed, was laid in place and fitted, the rivet- 
 holes being marked so as to correspond with those on the outer 
 plates. It was then drilled and planed, and secured by screws to 
 the two outer plates, the three forming a starting length from 
 which to work towards each end of the ship. In doing this the 
 same order was adhered to, namely, first an outer plate and then 
 the inner plate that butted on it. During this time the vertical 
 keel had been planed to width, &c., the rivet-holes had been 
 punched, and the scores for the continuous transverse angle-irons 
 cut out. When a sufficient number of pieces had been prepared 
 and fixed, a piece of the keel angle-iron was fitted in place, and the 
 rivet-holes having been marked, it was taken away and drilled, after 
 which it was replaced and riveted up. The rivets which pass 
 through the frames were omitted in the keel angle-irons until after 
 tlie former had been fitted. Before fitting the frames the joints of 
 the keel and keel angle-irons were carefully caulked, and when this 
 was completed the keel was ready to receive a tier of bracket- 
 frames, which were got into position and secured by screws. A rib- 
 band having the stations of the frames marked on it was next 
 secured at about 3 inches from the head of the frames and shored. 
 The lowest longitudinal was then screwed upon them, and another 
 tier of frames fixed on it ; and so on until the longitudinal framing 
 was completed. As previously stated, great care was taken to make 
 watertight the longitudinal which was at the foot of the wing-pass- 
 age bulkhead. Before this work was done, the transverse framing 
 behind armour was hoisted in and secured, and while this was 
 proceeding, the frame, continuous, and connecting angle-irons were
 
 124 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. vii. 
 
 fitted, tlie boles marked and punched, and the riveting up of the 
 framing completed. Full details of all these operations will be 
 found in chap. 20. 
 
 The bracket-frame system of construction before described for 
 the ' Bellerophou,' has been carried out also in the 'Hercules,' 
 ' Monarch,' * Captain,' ' King William,' and other ships. The de- 
 tails of the framing of the first two of these ships are, with a few 
 slight modifications, identical with those of the ' Bellerophou ;' and 
 the general arrangements of the framing in the ' Captain ' are similar 
 to those of the ' Bellerophon.' It may, how^ever, be interesting to 
 examine the differences w'hich exist between the framing of the 
 ' Bellerophon ' and that of the ships which have succeeded her ; and 
 at the same time to give some details of the construction of these 
 ships which have not been fully illustrated for the ' Bellerophon.' 
 
 In the ' Hercules ' the lower longitudinal frames are about 
 4 inches less in dej^th than those of the ' Bellerophon,' but the 
 thicknesses of the plates and the mode of lightening them are the 
 same. The angle-irons on the inner edge of the longitudinals in 
 the ' Hercules ' are single throughout the double bottom instead of 
 being double as in the ' Bellerophon.' A perspective view of the 
 midship framing of the ' Hercules ' is given in Plate 5, and it 
 will be seen from it that the vertical portion of the plating of 
 the inner bottom is closer to the ship's side than the corre- 
 sponding plating in the ' Bellerophon.' This alteration, together 
 with the increase in the thickness of the plating to f inch, and 
 the adoption of the vertical stififeners formed of 7 by 3 by ^ 
 inches angle-irons, with a 3^ by 3^ by \ inches angle-iron on the 
 outer edge, is made in order to increase the resisting power of 
 the side; and this is still further added to by filling the space 
 between the vertical plating and the ship's side with teak backing 
 as far down as the lower edge of armour. The watertight longi- 
 tudinal in the ' Hercules ' is that next below the armour-shelf, and 
 the arrangements of this longitudinal are shown in plan in 
 Fig. 88. The frames marked i, i, in this sketch are the inter- 
 mediates which end upon the longitudinal, the alternate frames only 
 being run through and connected with the continuous angle-irons. 
 It will be seen on reference to the sketch that there is an angle- 
 iron, a, w'orked at the heel of each plate-frame, and joggled out 
 over the transverse flange of the reversed angle-iron. In order, 
 however, to avoid the necessity of caulking the whole width of the
 
 piau ••; 
 
 ■ ^//r '/Iye^i6>i6^c^j . 
 
 J.^ltUi^tOtV. 
 
 John Mu/Twv. Albemarle Street, KovV 1866. 
 
 Enaraved by JV' Ic» /•)
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 
 
 125 
 
 j)late-frame at its lower edge, as was done in the ' Bellerophon,' a 
 short piece of angle-iron marked h is worked on the opposite side of 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 the continuous frame, and in order to allow the angle-iron & to fit 
 directly against the continuous frame a rectangular piece is cut out 
 of the corner of the plate-frame. The length of h is such as to take 
 a rivet in its outer end, by which it is secured to the angle-iron a, 
 and so a good caulk can be made. The angle-irons a and h are 
 worked and caulked before the plate-frames are put in place. 
 One of the officers engaged in the construction of the ' Hercules ' 
 says with regard to this arrangement that with ordinary care in 
 the workmanship it is impossible for the water to run down the 
 frame, whereas in the ' Achilles ' and ' Bellerophon ' it was very 
 difficult to make the wing-passages absolutely watertight. 
 
 The lower longitudinals of the ' Captain ' are considerably less 
 in depth than those of the ' Bellerophon,' but the thickness of the 
 plates is very nearly the same for the corresponding longitudinals. 
 The watertight longitudinal in the ' Captain ' is similarly situated 
 with that in the ' Bellerophon,' but its arrangements differ consider- 
 ably. The 10 by 8^ by \ inches reversed frames in wake of armour 
 keep their full width of transverse flange down to the longitudinal, 
 while, in order to reduce the dimensions of the scores in the 
 longitudinal, the transverse flanges are there reduced, at once, to 
 7 inches, thus leaving a shoulder of 3 inches resting on the 
 longitudinal. On the bracket frames the frame angle-irons are 
 single, their upper ends being turned in under the longitudinal. 
 A straight piece of angle-iron is worked at the heel of each 
 bracket-plate and extends right across the longitudinal, corre- 
 sponding to the angle-iron marked a in Fig. 88, but worked 
 on the opposite side of the plate-frame. In order to make the 
 scores for the continuous frames watertiglit, a short piece of angle- 
 iron is worked against each frame, and is of sufficient length to 
 be joggled in against the bracket-plate and to takts a rivet through
 
 126 
 
 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. vil. 
 
 it. This short angle-iron is worked on the opposite side of the 
 continuous frame to that on which tlie short angle-irons marked h 
 in Fig. 88 are worked in the ' Hercules,' and it is consequently 
 necessary to caulk the heels of the bracket-plates in the ' Captain ' 
 from the outer end of the short angle-irons out to tlie side. On 
 the bulkhead frames the frame and reversed angle-irons are both 
 double, only one of the reversed bars being continuous, and the 
 scores in the lono^itudiuals beina: made watertight in a similar 
 manner to the preceding. 
 
 It has already been stated that the armour-slielf in the later 
 ships is differently formed from that of the ' Bellerophon,' which 
 
 it will be remembered is formed 
 of a large flanged plate specially 
 manufactured for the purpose. 
 In the 'Hercules' the arrange- 
 ments shown in section in Fig. 
 89 are adopted. The longitudinal 
 plate forming the shelf is 16 by 
 I inches, with double angle-irons 
 5 by 5 by f inches on the inner 
 edge connecting it to the plating 
 behind armour, and a single angle- 
 iron of the same size connecting 
 it to the upper strake of the 
 bottom plating. All the rivets in 
 these angle-irons are l|^-inch, and 
 are countersunk in the upper 
 surface of the shelf-plate. The 
 butt-straps are worked below the shelf-plate and only extend 
 between the edges of the longitudinal angle-irons ; they are double- 
 chain riveted. The edges of the plate and angle-irons are carefuUy 
 caulked, and a covering plate 13 inches wide is worked over the 
 seam at the lower edge of armour, being double tap-riveted to the 
 armour, and through-riveted to the bottom plating. This covering 
 plate has been omitted in ships of more recent design as unnecessary. 
 The method of fitting the armour-shelf of the ' Captain,^ build- 
 ing by Messrs. Laird, is given in Fig. 90, and differs from that of 
 the ' Hercules ' in having the outer part of the shelf formed by a 
 deep-flanged angle-iron, which is secured to the longitudinal plate 
 forming the inner part of the shelf by a double-riveted edge-strip, 
 
 Fig. 89.
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 
 
 11'] 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 worked underneath. The outer angle-iron of the 'Hercules' 
 arrangement is thus dispensed with, while the upper strake of 
 bottom plating has its edge 
 double riveted to the vertical 
 flange of the angle-iron, instead 
 of being single riveted as in the 
 'Hercules.' There is, however, 
 an increase of weight over the 
 ' Hercules ' plan, and the caulk- 
 ing and any re-caulking that 
 may become necessary, are not 
 quite so well provided for. If 
 the edge of the upper strake of 
 bottom plating did not come up 
 to the lower edge of armour, 
 but stopped about f inch below 
 it, the inner edge could then be 
 caulked on the vertical flange of 
 the angle-iron, in case of leakage, 
 without removing the armour. This arrangement has been adopted 
 in the ' Invincible ' class of ship, without the covering plate, but of 
 course an open groove is thus left, between the armour and the 
 bottom plating, which has to be cemented. The inside plate of the 
 shelf of the ' Captain ' is 10 by | inches and the double angle-irons 
 are 5 by 5 by f inches ; the plates being worked in 48-feet lengths 
 welded in the middle and having treble riveted butt-straps, and 
 the angle-irons being worked in 36-feet lengths and having double- 
 riveted covering angle-irons. The angle-iron forming the outer 
 part of the shelf is 8 by 6 by f inches, and is worked in lengths 
 of 48 feet, the butts being secured by treble-riveted straps. At 
 the butts of this angle-iron the plate, which connects the two 
 parts of the shelf to each other, is widened and turned down so as 
 to form a butt-strap. The plate thus made to serve as butt-strap 
 is worked in 16-feet lengths, and has treble-riveted straps. It is 
 evident that where so many longitudinal plates and angle-irons 
 are combined to form this shelf, great care is required in disposing 
 the butts, and the lengths of plates and angle-irons used are as 
 great as to render a very good disposition possible. 
 
 Allusion has been made to the armour-shelf arrangements of 
 the ' Invincible ' class of ship, and the details of these arrangements
 
 I2i 
 
 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. vii. 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 are illustrated in Figs. 91 and 92, of which the latter is on a smaller 
 scale than the former. Before proceediug to notice the particulars 
 
 of this armour-shelf, it may- 
 be well to state that in 
 these shijjs there are no 
 wing--passage bulkheads, 
 but the upper part of the 
 double bottom is made of 
 a considerable depth, as 
 shown in Fig. 92. By this means the capacity of the hold is made 
 greater than it would be if there were wing-passages, and this is a 
 
 matter of imjjortance in compara- 
 tively small vessels which are very 
 Jiighly powered. At the same time, 
 by increasing the space between 
 the two bottoms near the water-line, 
 protection is obtained from the pro- 
 bability of injury by ramming, and 
 by having the upper part of the 
 inner bottom nearly vertical it is 
 made to act as a girder which gives 
 the same kind of strength to the 
 structure as is usually obtained from 
 a wing-passage bulkhead. The upper 
 longitudinal forming the top of the 
 double bottom is made up of two 
 plates, one of which is very wide, 
 and the other forms the armour- 
 shelf. These two plates are con- 
 nected by a lap-joint as shown in 
 Fig. 91, and the inner edge of the 
 shelf-plate is attached to the skin- 
 plating behind armour by a single 
 continuous angle-iron, the fasten- 
 ings in the horizontal flange of this 
 angle-iron being made to serve as 
 fastenings in the lap of the shelf-plate and the longitudinal. The 
 arrangement of the outer edge of the shelf-plate has been pre- 
 viously described. 
 
 In the ' Hercules,' as in the ' Bellerophon,' all the longitudinals 
 
 Fipc. 92.
 
 Chap. VII. B racket-p late System of Fratning. 129 
 
 except the lowest one are continued forward to the stem. No. 6 
 longitudinal, in both ships, ends at the boundary of the double 
 bottom. The ends of the longitudinals are connected with the 
 plate-frames by single angle-irons, and the apparently slight 
 character of this arrangement is justified by the considerations 
 that it would be perfectly useless, under any circumstances, to 
 make the connection between the longitudinal and the transverse 
 frame very much stronger than the longitudinal frame itself is at 
 its weakest section; and that in this case the transverse frame 
 could not transmit to the ship a great longitudinal stress. A 
 very similar arrangement is followed at the endings of the longi- 
 tudinals which are stopped at the stuffing-box bulkheads, only as 
 the angle-iron on the inner edge of the longitudinal is there conti- 
 nuous, it is sometimes turned down against the bulkhead and 
 riveted to it. 
 
 The longitudinals of the 'Captain' do not run forward to the 
 stem, and most of them are ended at transverse frames. Here, as 
 in the case before described, the angle-iron on the inner edge 
 is continuous as well as that on the outer edge, and both of these 
 continuous angle-irons are turned down against the transverse 
 frame and riveted to it. Where the longitudinals run well forward, 
 those on opposite sides are joined by a horizontal plate, and 
 the connection of the fore ends is made by continuing the angle- 
 iron around the outer and foremost edges, and riveting it to the 
 transverse plate-frame at which the longitudinal stops. The fine 
 part of the bow is thus greatly strengthened, and the two sides are 
 firmly united. The general rule observed in determining the 
 ending of the longitudinals in ships such as the ' Captain,' of which 
 the extreme forward part is framed transversely, is that the longi- 
 tudinal shall never be brought closer than 2 feet to the armour- 
 shelf, so as to allow the transverse frames to be run down that 
 distance below the shelf. 
 
 Allusion has previously been made to the care which was taken 
 in disposing the butts of the longitudinal frames of the 'Belle- 
 rophon,' in order to preserve, as nearly as possible, the continuity 
 of longitudinal strength. A sketch showing the disposition of 
 these butts which was made in the ' Hercules,' is given in Fig. 9o. 
 In this sketch the various longitudinal frames are supposed to be 
 laid on one plane, with the outer edge of one coinciding with the 
 inner edge of the frame next higher in number; thus No. 1. or
 
 30 
 
 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap. VII. 
 
 shelf plate, lias its outer edge well with the inner edge of No. 2, 
 and so on. The corresponding stations are kept well with each 
 
 SHELF PLATE 
 
 l\ 
 
 \N9.2\ 
 
 l\ 
 
 T 
 /v.". 51 a 
 
 W°. s : 
 
 
 „ I VERTICAL 1 „ 
 ^^\ KEEL \^ 
 
 \ i ! 
 
 1^ 
 
 -U_ 
 
 h\ 
 
 i ! 
 J 6\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i. 
 
 b\ 
 
 I I 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
 other on all the longitudinals, and are shown in the sketch by the 
 dotted straight lines. These stations are 4 feet apart. The butts 
 of the plates are marked a, and those of the angle-irons, h. The 
 vertical keel is worked in 12-feet lengths ; but all the other longi- 
 tudinals are in 16 and 20-feet lengths, the longer plates being 
 used to give good shift. The butt-straps are double and double- 
 chain riveted. The continuous angle-irons on the outer edges of 
 the longitudinals are worked in 2S-feet lengths, the butts being 
 connected by covering angle-irons, double riveted. On reference 
 to Fig. 93, it will be seen that there are never less than two longi- 
 tudinals between consecutive butts, either of plates or angle-irons, 
 in the same frame space of 4 feet; and in several spaces there 
 are only one or two butts. The butt h of an angle-iron is never 
 nearer than 4 feet to the butt a of the plate on which the angle- 
 iron is worked, except on the vertical keel, where the distance 
 between a and h is about 3 feet. By means of this disposition 
 of butts there is no transverse section of the longitudinal frame- 
 work, where the strength is very much less than that of any other 
 section. In the 'Captain' the longitudinal plates are worked in 
 24-feet lengths, and the continuous angle-irons in 48-feet lengths. 
 On account of the great lengths of the plates and angle-irons the
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Fi^aming. 
 
 131 
 
 shift of butts obtained is a very good one, and with the exception of 
 the vertical keel and No. 3 longitudinal, no two butts of longi- 
 tudinal plates come in the same transverse section, while in no case 
 are two butts of the angle-irons h placed in the same frame space. 
 The butts of adjacent longitudinals generally have a shift of 8 feet, 
 and are in no case nearer than 4 feet ; and the butts of the anale- 
 irons are never nearer than 4 feet to the butts of the longitudinal 
 plate on which they are worked. 
 
 The transverse framing throughout the double bottom of the 
 ' Hercules ' is identical in 
 character with that of the 
 ' Bellerophon,' as will be 
 seen on reference to Plate 5. 
 The plates at the water-tight 
 frames of the ' Hercules ' are, 
 however, -^ inch thick, m- 
 stead of \ inch, as in the 
 ' Belleroplion,' and the con- 
 tinuous transverse angle- 
 irons are there reduced to 
 3^ by 3^ by y^g inches, while 
 the staple angle-irons on the 
 outer edges and ends are 
 single. Sketches, showing the 
 detailed arrangements of this 
 ship at a bracket and a 
 watertight-frame, have al- 
 ready been given in Figs- 
 37 and 38, p. 37, and will 
 fully illustrate the preceding 
 remarks. Before and abaft 
 the double-bottom, the trans- 
 verse framing below the 
 second longitudinal is simi- 
 lar to that of the 'Bellero- 
 phon,' before described, and 
 the dimensions of the plates 
 and angle-irons are almost 
 identical with those pre- 
 viously given. In wake of 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 1 P 
 
 1 n 
 
 SliELF 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V?P 
 
 
 h 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 h 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 v? 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 -a 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 ^':6 
 
 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 LINE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I'.T 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 --\ 
 
 ) 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 armour the 
 
 frames of tlie two ships 
 K 2
 
 1 3 2 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap, v i i . 
 
 are similarly arranged and formed ; but the double angle-irons 
 on the outer edges of the 10-ineh reversed frames are reduced 
 to 3^ by 3^ by \ inches in the ' Hercules.' The positions of the 
 scarphs of the alternate frames behinc^ armour with the con- 
 tinuous transverse angle-irons, and of the butts of the continuous 
 angle-irons of the ' Hercules,' are shown in Fig. 94. This sketch is 
 an inside view of an expansion of the frames, and in it the butts 
 are marked a, and the scarphs h b. The lowest longitudinal, No. 6, 
 is about 6 feet 4 inches from the vertical keel, and the butts a of 
 the continuous angle-irons are 18 inches further out, and are placed 
 alternately on ojDposite sides of the middle line. A covering angle- 
 iron is worked over each butt to keep up the transverse strength. 
 The scarphs hb are 3 feet long, and are alternately above and 
 below No. 3 longitudinal. The riveting of the scarphs is shown in 
 Plate 5. The intermediate frames behind armour end upon No. 2 
 longitudinal, as shown at i, i, in Fig. 94. This arrangement of butts 
 and scarphs is almost identical with that of the ' Bellerophon.' 
 
 It will be remembered that in illustrating the armour-shelf of 
 the vessels of the ' Invincible ' class, attention was called to the 
 fact that wing-passages are not formed in these ships, but that 
 the double bottom is made to serve the same purposes. On again 
 referring to Fig. 92 it will be seen that the transverse framing of 
 these vessels above No. 2 longitudinal differs greatly from that 
 of the ' Bellerophon.' Below No. 2 longitudinal, the transverse 
 frames are identical in their character with those of the ' Belle- 
 rophon,' being made up of continuous angle-irons, of frame and 
 connecting angle-irons, and of bracket-plates. At No. 2 longi- 
 tudinal the continuous angle-irons are ended, and forged angle- 
 irons are fitted on the edges of the plate-frames. 1'he lower ends 
 of the outer angle-irons on the frames behind armour are turned 
 in upon the top of the double bottom and riveted to it, and plate- 
 brackets are fitted and riveted to the frames and beams in order 
 to strengthen the connection of the various parts of the framing, 
 and prevent any working at the junction of the protected part 
 with the double bottom. It will be obvious from the preceding 
 remarks that the transverse connection of the frames from gunwale 
 to gunwale, wliich is obtained in the ' Bellerophon,' is not given by 
 this plan, as there is no direct connection between the continuous 
 transverse-frames, ending at No. 2 longitudinal, and the frames 
 behind armour. But the indirect connection, made by means of
 
 Chap. VII. Bracket-plate System of Framing. 133 
 
 the inner bottom and the frame angle-irons between No. 2 longi- 
 tudinal and the top of the double bottom, gives ample transverse 
 strength, and the advantages previously enumerated as accruing to 
 the plan, are secured without injuriously affecting the strength of 
 the structure. 
 
 The framing of the unprotected parts of the 'Hercules' differs 
 from that of the ' Bellerophon' in having frame angle-irons, 7 by 
 3^ by J'g inches at intervals of 4 feet, instead of frames formed of 
 plates and angle-irons. No bracket-plates are used at the feet 
 of these frames ; but the transverse flanges of the alternate frames 
 behind armour are run up through the stringer and directly con- 
 nected with tlie angle-iron frames. The whole of the arrangement 
 is thus made simpler and less expensive than the corresponding- 
 framing of the ' Bellerophon.' 
 
 The general disposition and arrangements of the bow-framing 
 of the ' Hercules ' are similar to those previously described for the 
 ' Bellerophon,' and the same precautions are taken to ensure the 
 strength and safety of the bow in case the ship should be used as a 
 ram. Between the stuffing-box bulkliead and the stern post the 
 transverse plate-frames are an-anged and lightened in this ship 
 similarly to the corresponding frames of the 'Bellerophon,' only 
 in this ship they are bounded by the flat below the lower deck 
 (corresponding to the flat marked A in Fig. 87), which is made 
 watertight. Above this flat a bracket arrangement of framing is 
 adopted, and so a saving of weight is effected as compared with 
 the corresponding framing of the ' Bellerophon.' The increase in 
 weight of the flat A, required in order to make it watertight, is 
 comparatively small, and it bounds that jDart of the stern most 
 liable to injury from accidents happening to the propelling appa- 
 ratus, and forms a smaller compartment than that at the stern of 
 the ' Bellerophon.' In consequence of the flat A being made water- 
 tight, the lower deck abaft the stuffing-box bulkhead is not plated 
 over in this vessel, but the lower- deck stringer is continued around 
 the stern. The stern framing abaft the post is of a similar cha- 
 racter to that described for the 'Bellerophon,' the principal dif- 
 ference in the arrangements of the t^o ships being that only a 
 few of the stern frames are canted in the ' Hercules.' The rudder 
 arrangements of the ' Hercules ' are of a very novel character, and 
 will be fully described further on. 
 
 Before concluding our remarks on the bracket-frame system, it
 
 134 Bracket-plate System of Framing. Chap, Vll. 
 
 may be interesting to add, that the introduction of this system of 
 construction, so far from adding to the weight of the liull, dimi- 
 nishes it in the proportion shown in the following list, in which it 
 is supposed that the skin-plating behind the armour is y^^inch in 
 every case, and that the armour and wood backing are removed : — 
 
 AVeight per 100 feet of 
 Irngtii in Tons. 
 
 Achilles 1333 
 
 Agincouit 1'234 
 
 Black Prince 1303 
 
 Hector 1170 
 
 Resistance 1253 
 
 Bellerophon 1123 
 
 Penelope 680 
 
 The lirst live ships have single bottoms with partial inner 
 plating, and the last two have double bottoms on the new system. 
 It should be added, that the great (h'fference between the weight 
 for the '■ Penelope ' and the weights for the other ships is largely 
 due to the use of steel in place of iron, and to the fact of her being 
 a comparatively shallow ship.
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 135 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DECK FRAMING AND PILLARING. 
 
 The important part which the decks of a ship play, not only in 
 forming platforms, but in keeping the sides at a fixed distance, 
 and preventing change in either their longitudinal or their trans- 
 verse form, was fully recognized by wooden shipbuilders, who 
 endeavoured by every means to make a firm connection between 
 the beam ends and the ship's side, to prevent change in the angle 
 which the beam made with the side, and to ensure a good arrange- 
 ment of pillars underneath the beams, thus greatly contributing to 
 the strength and rigidity of the ship. Nor does the iron ship- 
 builder neglect any of the precautions formerly practised in wooden 
 ships ; but in carrying them into execution he has on the one 
 hand greater difficulties to encounter, and on the other greater 
 facilities to aid him. His difficulties are greater because the un- 
 stiffened shell of an iron ship is much more .flexible than that of a 
 wooden ship, and unless great care is taken, the fastenings will be 
 injured by the working which results from that flexibility ; and he 
 has greater facilities, inasmuch as the connection of the beams 
 with the side and the provision of longitudinal strength are easily 
 made without having recourse to the elaborate arrangements of a 
 wooden ship. The beams of an iron ship are usually spaced so that 
 each shall come on a frame, and be directly attached to it; and 
 the knee which is usually formed on the beam-end is made of 
 sufficient depth to effectually resist the tendency to change of angle 
 between the side and the beam end which results from the strains 
 to which the vessel is exposed. This, which is the principal object 
 of a beam knee, is much more effectually accomplished in an iron 
 than in a wooden ship, owing to the readiness with which the end 
 of a plate-beam is formed into a knee of considerable transverse 
 depth, and to the superiority of riveted iron work to bolt work in 
 wood, especially where, as in this case, the rivets can be placed so 
 much nearer to each other than the bolts. And, further, an iron 
 ship is usually provided with transverse bulkheads, and has in them
 
 o 
 
 6 Deck Framing and Pillariiig. Chap. Vlll. 
 
 au amount of strength well adapted to prevent change in the trans- 
 verse curvature of the sides as high up as the bulklieads extend. 
 In most iron ships longitudinal stringer-plates are worked on the 
 beam ends, and the advantages resulting from the arrangement are 
 very great, and are recognised by all shipbuilders. These plates 
 act as horizontal knees to each beam, and do useful work even if 
 they run out no further than the inside of the frames, and are not 
 fastened to them. If, however, the stringers are attached by means 
 of longitudinal angle-irons to the reversed frames, they add still 
 more to the resistance to change in the longitudinal form of tlie 
 ship ; and if, as is now usual, they are run out between the frames 
 and connected with the outside plating, the greatest possible 
 amount of stiffness is secured. The advantages, in respect of 
 longitudinal strength, which result from the use of stringers will 
 be more fidly considered hereafter. 
 
 For some time after the introduction of iron shipbuilding the 
 deck beams were made of wood. An instance of this is given in 
 Fig. 72, page 77, which is the section of the 'Eecruit' before 
 alluded to when describing the details of her framing. It Mill be 
 seen that the arrangements of shelf, waterway, clamp, and beam- 
 knees of the upper deck, are exactly similar to those of a wooden 
 ship, except that the lower end of the knee is turned in and screw- 
 bolted to the longitudinal stringer worked between decks. 
 
 Another instance of the use of wood beams in an iron ship is 
 found in the iron troop-ship 'Megaera.' Here also the arrange- 
 ments of the beam-knee, &c., are similar to those of a wooden ship. 
 The knee is secured by screw-bolts, of which the nuts are hove up 
 on the reversed angle-iron. A longitudinal angle-iron is worked 
 above the beams and against the frames, being riveted to the latter 
 and bolted to the former. 
 
 The connections between the wood beam and the ship's side in 
 both these cases are altogether disproportionate in strength to the 
 usual mode of connecting iron beams ; and the use of a yielding 
 materia], such as wood, for beams in au iron ship, is in itself highly 
 objectionable, on account of the working which must, in some 
 degree at least, ensue, and which must eventually injure the 
 fastenings. 
 
 Althougli the employment of iron beams in iron ships has now 
 become almost universal, there are still cases in which wood beams 
 arc fitted. Mr. Scott liuissell in his work on ' Naval Architecture '
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 137 
 
 gives an instance of an ocean screw steamship constructed for the 
 Australian mail and passenger service in 1852, in which the beams 
 were of wood, and were secured to the frames by bracket-plates, 
 riveted to the frames and bolted to the beams. A similar mode 
 of connecting wooden beams with iron frames has also been adopted 
 in many of the iron-built American monitors. Mr. Scott Russell 
 states that, in his opinion, a wooden deck with iron beams makes 
 a weaker ship than a wooden deck with wooden beams, and adds 
 that in order to give the wooden deck the support which wooden 
 beams afford, and at the same time to preserve the transverse 
 strength given by iron beams he has adopted two different arrange- 
 ments. One plan consists in putting in iron beams at intervals 
 in order to supply transverse strength, and fitting wooden beams 
 between them to assist the wooden deck. In the other plan the 
 beams have been formed of vertical plates with a timber beam 
 bolted on each side of them. He strongly states his preference, 
 however, for an iron deck and iron beams, and advocates their 
 adoption on the grounds of the increase of structural strength, 
 and the simplicity of the deck framing thus rendered possible. 
 
 Iron beams were first employed in steamships above the en- 
 gines and boilers, and their superior qualities in respect of strength 
 and durability, together with the facilities presented for firmly 
 connecting them with the sides of the ship, soon led to their general 
 adoption. According to calculations made by M. Dupuy de Lome, 
 and given in his Report, the weights of iron and wood beams of 
 equal strength (for the sections of iron beams then in use) are in 
 the proportion of '65 : 1, or 1*2 : 1. This latter proportion, which 
 makes the iron beam heavier than the wood beam is deduced from 
 a very defective form of section, and in all the other cases given by 
 tlie author the iron beam is the lightei-. It should be observed, 
 however, that these calculations are based, for the most part, upon 
 theoretical considerations, and that in his work on ' Iron Ship- 
 building ' Mr. Fairbairn states, as the result of experiment, that 
 as regards the strengths with equal weights for beams or frames it 
 is in favour of oak ; but goes on to say that, on account of the 
 superior fastenings in the hull of an iron ship the number of beams 
 can be considerably decreased, and thus a great reduction of weight 
 be effected, while at the same time the strength of the ship as a 
 whole is considerably greater than could be possibly attained in a 
 wooden ship.
 
 138 
 
 Deck Framino- and Pillarijio-. 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 The forms of section which have been adopted for iron beams 
 are very various, and are illustrated in Fig. 95. In some light 
 vessels, and in the framing of mere platforms in larger vessels, the 
 section marked a has been used, the broader flange of the angle- 
 iron being vertical. In some ships two angle-irons set back to 
 
 d^h\ 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 back, as sliown by h, and riveted together, 
 have been used to form the beams; and in 
 other vessels the simple angle-iron arrange- 
 ment given above at a, has been modified 
 by riveting another angle-iron on the lower 
 edge, as shown in section by c. In the construction of the com- 
 posite gunboats for H.M. Service, a bulb angle-iron has been used 
 for the deck beam, of the section illustrated by d. In many of the 
 earlier iron ships the beams were formed of a vertical plate with 
 double angle-irons on the upper edge, similar to that shown in 
 section by e, and this arrangement has been modified by riveting 
 to the lower edge strips of plate or half-round iron, in the manner 
 shown by / and g. In some ships the beams have been formed in 
 the manner shown by h, and this was the section adopted on some 
 of the decks of the * Great Eastern.' One of the forms of section 
 now in most common use for large beams is that given at i, and it
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 1 39 
 
 is very generally employed for lower-deck and bold beams of large 
 sbips. Tbe bold beams bere alluded to are fitted in large mercbant 
 sbips, wben it would be inconvenient to bave a complete lower 
 deck, in order to give transverse strengtb, and very frequently 
 the sectional form adopted, instead of tbe last-mentioned, is tbat 
 given in Tc, wbicb is known as a box beam. Tbis form of section 
 is also very commonly used for paddle-beams in steamsbips, and 
 bas been employed in the deck-framing of turret-ships underneath 
 the turrets. T-iron bars are sometimes used for beams, and in some 
 cases beams bave been formed of two T bars riveted together, as 
 shown by I. The sections marked m and n are known as the " But- 
 terley Neutral Axis Eiveted Beams," Tbe latter of these two 
 sections has not, we believe, been applied in shipbuilding. Tbe 
 ■objection to beams formed in this manner is that the material 
 required to form the scarphing parts is placed in such a manner as 
 to be almost ineffective as regards strengthening the section. They 
 are therefore heavy in proportion to their efficiency. In other 
 ships I-iron beams have been used, the sectional form given in 
 being arrived at either by rolling it in one, or welding two T-irons 
 together. The section now in most general use for the upper and 
 main-deck beams is that marked p, wbicb is composed of a bulb- 
 plate, with two angle-irons on the upper edge. Another form now 
 commonly employed, especially for upper-deck beams, is known as 
 tbe " Butterley Patent Welded Beam," its section being that shown 
 by q. The bulb-half of this beam is rolled separately from tbe 
 upper or T-half and tbe two are welded together along the neutral 
 axis of the beam. A similar section bas, however, recently been 
 rolled in one, and been brought into use. A new sectional form 
 for beams which bas been patented by Mr. Phillips is shown by r. 
 It will be seen that tbe beam is made of an I-sbaped girder rolled 
 in one and having a wide plate riveted to the upper flange. This 
 plate is intended to give lateral stiffness to tbe beam, and prevent 
 it yielding in any but a vertical direction. It appears from experi- 
 ments made with Mr. Kirkaldy's testing machine tliat this section 
 is considerably stronger than tbat marked i for equal weights of 
 material per foot of length. The section is proposed, principally, 
 for girder work in connection with civil architecture, but its 
 application to the beams of sbips bas also been recommended. 
 It may be remarked, however, tbat in tbe framing of a deck, tbe 
 carlings and other longitudinal pieces resist the tendency to bending
 
 140 Deck Framing and Pillaring. Chap. VI 1 1. 
 
 sideways or buckling, which the top plate of Mr. Phillips' section 
 is intended to prevent ; and in ships which have iron decks, the 
 deck plating acts as an immensely strong top flange, which effectu- 
 ally resists any buckling in the vertical webs of the beams. 
 
 Mr. Fairbairn states as the result of his experiments on the 
 strength of beams that the I-shaped is the strongest when the flanges 
 are properly proportioned. This section is very difficult to roll in 
 one, and cannot, at present, be obtained of sufficient dimensions 
 for very large beams, unless it is welded along the neutral axis. 
 There seems little doubt, however, as the power of rolling 
 machinery is being increased so greatly, but that ere long manu- 
 facturers will be able to supply the largest beams required of this 
 section rolled in one, and at the present time beams of considerable 
 dimensions of I-shaped section, and of the Butterley pattern, are- 
 thus made. 
 
 Having given most of the sections of beams which have been 
 employed in iron ships, it may not be out of place to consider 
 briefly the principles which should regulate the proportions and 
 forms of the sections. The object to be aimed at in determining 
 on the section to be adopted, is that the maximum strength of the 
 amount of material in the section shall be as nearly as possible 
 attained. The investigations of those who have treated on the 
 " Strength of Materials " show that in order to arrive at this result 
 two things are necessary ; the first, that the moment of inertia of 
 the section shall be made as great as possible, consistently with the 
 retention of the sectional strength required to resist the vertical 
 shearing strains resulting from the load ; and the second, that the 
 section shall be of uniform strength, so as to ensure that the top 
 and bottom of the section shall begin to yield simultaneously under 
 a breaking load, the one giving way to a compressive and the otlier 
 to a tensile strain. In order to meet the first requirement the 
 sections of beams have been made up of a vertical web, and of either 
 top and bottom flanges, or only a top flange. The varied arrange- 
 ments of the webs and flanges have already been described. In a 
 deck beam it is imperative that there shall be a top flange in order 
 to receive the fastenings of the deck planking ; but in many cases 
 the bottom flange has either been wanting altogether, as in the 
 sections a, h, and e in Fig. 95, or has been imperfectly supplied, as 
 in the sections / and g. In all the other cases given in the pre- 
 ceding sketches, the bottom flange of the beam is formed of a flange
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 141 
 
 or bulb rolled on the web-plate, or of angle-irons riveted to it. By 
 these arrangements of web and flanges the material in the latter 
 is placed at the greatest possible distance from the centre of gravity 
 of the section, and is thus made most effective in resisting the 
 bending moment. The ordinary assumption made in propor- 
 tioning the material in the web and flanges, is that the web bears 
 the shearing strains, and the flanges resist the bending moment. 
 This is a veiy good approximation in the case of beams with top 
 and bottom flanges such as those whose sections are shown by I, 0, 
 p, and q, in. Fig. 95. But in the cases where the web has a con- 
 siderable sectional area, as compared with the areas of the flanges, 
 it is necessary to take into account the resistance to bending 
 offered by the material in the web ; and this is still more necessary 
 when the beam has no lower flange. In order to meet the second 
 requirement, and arrive at an uniformly strong section, the usual 
 method, for beams with top and bottom flanges, is to make the 
 sectional areas of the flanges inversely proportional to the resist- 
 ance offered to rupture by compression and extension respectively, 
 or, in other words, inversely proportional to the moduli of rupture 
 by compression and extension respectively. In wrought-iron beams 
 the area of the bottom flange is generally about five-sixths that of the 
 top flange, and the flanges together have an area about equal to 
 that of the web. Mr. Eankine states that for a T-iron beam of uni- 
 formly strong section, the web should be of three times the sectional 
 area of the upper flange, and this proportion is also applicable to 
 the sections marked a, h, and e. 
 
 Beams are generally of uniform depth throughout their length, 
 except at the ends, where the knees are considerably deeper than 
 the beam amidships. It may be supposed that the principle of 
 uniformity of strength might, with advantage, be applied to the 
 longitudinal sections of beams. If it were applied here the depth 
 of the web would be made proportional to the bending moment 
 at every section, and the beams would consequently require to be 
 decreased in depth from the middle toward the ends. But in prac- 
 tice, as has already been stated, the beams are considerably deepened 
 at the ends in order to make a firm connection with the side ; and, 
 consequently, if the beam were decreased in depth from the middle 
 outwards as far as the knee, the weakest section would be imme- 
 diately adjacent to the strongest. It may be added to the above 
 that a beam in a ship has to act not merely as a girder which
 
 142 Deck Framing and Pillaring. c h a p. v 1 1 1 . 
 
 supports a load, but as a strut or tie between the two sides, and 
 as part of the ship's frame, and consequently it would not be suffi- 
 cient to determine its form and dimensions simply from considering 
 it as a girder only. On the whole, therefore, we may conclude 
 that the general practice of keeping the beams of uniform depth, 
 is preferable to attempting to vary their depth according to a 
 bending moment the amount of which is not known, and whicli 
 varies considerably under diiferent circumstances. The usual 
 practice among shipbuilders is to go upon some successful example 
 in designing the beams of a new ship, instead of acting on partial 
 and theoretical considerations simply. 
 
 Lloyd's rule with respect to the form and depth of beams is as 
 follows : — '' Beam-plates to be in depth one-quarter of an inch for 
 " every foot in length of the midship-beams, and to be in thick- 
 " ness one-sixteenth of an inch for every inch in depth of the said 
 " beams, and to be made of H iron, T bulb-iron, or bulb-plate 
 " with double angle-irons riveted on the upper edge ; the two 
 " sides of each of these angle-irons to be not less in breadth than 
 " three-fourths the depth of beam-plate, and to be in thickness one- 
 " sixteenth of an inch for every inch of the two sides of the angle- 
 " iron ; or the beams may be composed of any other approved 
 " form of beam-iron of equal strengtli. Where beams below the 
 " upper or middle deck (including orlop beams) have no deck laid 
 " upon them, the angle-irons on their upper edges are required to 
 " be of the dimensions of the angle-irons of the reverse frames." 
 The Liverpool Rules require that the beams shall be formed of 
 bulbed iron with strongly bulbed lower edge, with double angle- 
 irons on the top edge, or of bulbed T iron, or of any other approved 
 form, and their regulation as to depth is almost identical witli that 
 of Lloyd's Rules. 
 
 The beams of the earlier iron ships were usually formed of 
 plates and angle-irons. In the ' Dover ' the beams were formed as 
 shown by e in Fig. 95, and in the ' Birkenhead,' as shown by i. As 
 the lengths of the beam-plates required were greater than could then 
 be rolled in one, it was usual to join the several lengths of a beam- 
 plate either by a lap or butt-joint. The latter was most common, 
 and double butt-straps were usually fitted, the angle-irons on the 
 edges being joggled over them. In some ships the lengths of 
 plate were welded together instead of being lapped or butt-strapped. 
 As the lengths in which plates can be rolled have been so greatly
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 Deck Fi'amino; and Pillariup'. 
 
 143 
 
 increased since the commencement of iron shipbuilding, it is now 
 usual to have the plates of the made beams of most shij)s in one 
 length, and the angle-irons are also rolled in one length in most 
 cases. In large ships, however, where the breadth is great, the plates 
 of the made beams are still made up of two or more lengths welded 
 to each other, and in some cases the angle-irons on the edges are 
 also made up of two lengths connected by cross-welding. The 
 particulars of the manufacture of the made beams of the ' North- 
 umberland' will ilhistrate the foregoing remarks. The longest 
 beams on the main and lower decks are made up of four lengths, 
 and the others of three lengths of plate, and in all cases the angle- 
 irons on the edges are in two lengths. The arrangement of the 
 butts of plate and angle-irons in a three-piece beam is given in 
 Fig. 96, and the arrangement of butts in a four-piece beam in Fig. 
 97. In both the sketches tlie butts a, a, are those of plates, and 
 
 Figs. 96, 97. 
 
 those dotted and marked h, h, are the butts of plates of the adjacent 
 beams on each side of the first. The butts of the angle-irons on one 
 side of the beam-plate are marked c, c, and those on the other side 
 of the same beam-plate are dotted and marked d, d. It will be 
 seen that care is taken to shift the butts, so as to prevent any- 
 unavoidable weakness at the weld from occurring near to a similar 
 place of weakness. The plates forming the beam-arms are 5 feet 
 long on one end and 7 feet on the other end of the same beam, 
 and a shift of 2 feet is given to the welds of adjacent beams by 
 bringing the long and short arms alternately on the same side of 
 the ship. The iron for these beams was rolled on the premises, 
 and it was considered more economical to roll plates which would 
 admit of the two arms of a beam being punched out of one plate,
 
 1 44 Deck Framing a7id Pillaring. Chap, v i i i . 
 
 than to form the knees in the usual manner. A plan showing the 
 way in which the beam-arms were lined on the plate is given in 
 
 Fig. 98. When the lining-out 
 had been completed the beam- 
 arms were punched out, and 
 the jagged edges were trimmed 
 off after the beam had been 
 Fig. 98. put in place. The surplus 
 
 pieces of plate were used for 
 making welds and forming knees to the Butterley beams. The 
 process of wielding the beam-plates together was conducted in the 
 following manner: — The butts of the plates were each snaped 
 away with the hammer and slightly upset, and the plates were 
 tixed on low carriages or trollies, and secured in the proper posi- 
 tion for welding by a clamping arrangement, which allowed the 
 welding to be conveniently performed. The carriages on which 
 the beam-plates were fixed ran on a portable railway, and the 
 beam was thus easily conveyed from the furnace to the anvil. 
 The blast-furnace was also portable, and was constructed of iron 
 with a lining of fire-bricks, and supplied Avith coke through a 
 rectangular orifice in the top. The parts requiring to be heated 
 were laid over the opening in the top of the furnace, the adjacent 
 parts of the beam-j^lates being kept cool by a covering of fire-brick 
 and wet loam. At the same time a piece of square iron was heated 
 in an adjoining fire ready to be placed in the lips of the scarphs, 
 so as to w^eld the two together. The latter operation was per- 
 formed by hand, the workmen employed being two smiths, two 
 hammermen, and two helpers. It should also be stated that each 
 piece of plate after being heated was bent to its curve on the iron 
 slabs used for bending angle-iron frames. The angle-iron for these 
 beams was first straightened, then welded to the required lengths, 
 and the parts which fitted against the beam-arms were bent on the 
 slabs. While this was being done, the beam-plates were finally 
 shaped by the beam-mould, and the rivet-holes on both edges were 
 punched. The angle-irons were then temporarily secured to the 
 beam-plates and the rivet-holes marked, after which they were 
 removed to the punching machine, and had the holes punched. 
 They were then brought back and riveted up on the beam-plates. 
 The mode of welding the lengths of angle-iron for these beams was 
 identical with that described above, only two heats were required
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 145 
 
 in this case, as each flange of the angle-iron was welded sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 In the new Indian troop-ship ' Euphrates ' the central part of 
 the beam-plate is rolled in one, and the beam-knee ends are welded 
 on to the central piece. The fibre of the beam-knees is in the same 
 direction as that of the central piece of plate. The angle-irons 
 are rolled in two lengths, the positions of the welds being inter- 
 changed on alternate beams, the lower becoming upper. and vice 
 versa. In the made beams of the ' Serapis,' another of the Indian 
 troop-ships, each beam-plate is made up of two lengths, the welds 
 on alternate beams having a shift of 14 feet 6 inches, and the 
 angle-irons are rolled in one length. 
 
 Having tiius illustrated the manufacture of made beams, we 
 proceed to describe briefly the mode of manufacture of the patent 
 welded beam of the Butterley pattern. It has already been 
 stated that the T part and the bulb part of this beam are rolled 
 separately and afterwards welded along the neutral axis ; the 
 following details of the mode of welding are taken from the speci- 
 fication of Mr. Alleyne's patent, dated 8th December, 1859. The 
 edges which are to be welded are introduced into the grooves of an 
 H-shaped piece of iron, which the patentee calls a "glut." The 
 parts to be welded are then heated by means of small cupola fur- 
 naces, and, when the welding heat has been attained, the joint is 
 completed either by hammering or by passing it under the rolls. 
 A portion of the glut may be burnt during the operation, but the 
 edges of the T and bulb-irons, as well as the inside parts of the 
 glut itself, are protected from oxidation. The specification goes on 
 to state that, although the form of the glut may be varied from 
 that described above, yet the same principle must be carried out 
 in making the weld, and the edges which are to be welded must be 
 embraced by the glut. 
 
 The bulb-iron now so generally used for deck-beams is rolled in 
 one, and the angle-irons on the upper edge are worked after the 
 bulb-iron has been bent to the round-up. The mode of manufac- 
 ture of H-iron beams has already been alluded to, and the mode 
 of welding the two T-iron bars which usually compose a beam 
 of this section is similar to that described for the Butterley beams. 
 
 The different modes of bending beams to their round-up are 
 worthy of remark. On the Mersey the beams are bent to their 
 round-up and straightened cold in a screw-press worked by hand ; 
 
 L
 
 146 
 
 Deck Framing cind Pillarino;. 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 on the Clyde they are usually bent cold by Kennie's patent beam- 
 bending machine ; on the Tyne also the beams are bent cold ; but 
 in some yards the beams are made moderately hot, and bent to 
 their round-up on the slabs used for bending frames, and in other 
 oases the beams are heated and then placed upon blocks laid to 
 the required curve, upon which they are allowed to settle, care 
 being taken to prevent them from twisting during the operation. 
 
 The superior convenience and strength of attachment of the 
 beams to the side obtained by the use of beam-knees, have led to 
 their almost universal adoption. There are two modes of forming 
 
 beam-knees which are now in general use. 
 
 I The first and most common method is that 
 
 illustrated by Fig. 99. After the beam has 
 been bent to the round-up, the end is split 
 up for a short distance, and the lower 
 part is turned down to form the outline of the knee. A piece of 
 plate, marked a, is then welded in so as to fill the space thus left, 
 and it is shaded in the sketch in order to distinguish its outline. 
 When Butterley beams are used, the welding of the two parts 
 is generally discontinued at such a distance from the end as to 
 allow the beam-end to be turned down to form the knee in the 
 manner above described. Sometimes the plate a does not exactly 
 fill the space at the beam-end, but leaves a triangular hole in 
 the beam-end, as shown in the upper and main-deck beams of the 
 ' Warrior,' in Plate 3. The second method of forming the beam- 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 Mg. 100. Fig. 101. 
 
 knee is used on the Clyde when the beam has no upper flanges 
 rolled on it. The beam-end is itself turned down in order to form 
 the lower part of the knee, and a piece of plate, marked h in 
 Fig. 100, is welded on to form the upper corner. A third mode 
 of forming beam-knees sometimes practised on the Tyne is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 101, It consists in turning down the lower part of 
 the beam-end, as in the method first described, and riveting on a
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 
 
 147 
 
 piece of plate to the side of the beam-web, in order to preserve 
 the form of the knee. This method is heavier and less neat than 
 the method generally followed of welding in a piece of plate. At 
 Messrs. Harland and Wolffs yard, at Belfast, the knees to beams 
 are usually formed by welding on a piece of plate below the beam- 
 web proper, and when, as is most common, bulb beams are 
 employed, the bulb is cut away from the lower edge as far in as 
 the weld comes. 
 
 In Fig. 102 there is given a sketch of the mode of slinging the 
 beam, and the arrangement of the anvils, which are adopted at 
 Messrs. Laird's works, in order to readily perform the welding of 
 the knees. The sketch needs no explanation ; but it may be 
 remarked that the fire in which the beam-ends are heated is placed 
 so as to allow the beam to be transferred from it to the anvils 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 while slung from the crane. It will be seen, also, that the arrange- 
 ments of the crane and slings are such as to allow the beam to be 
 easily handled, and that by the use of two anvils, shaped and placed 
 as shown, the welding of both sides of the beam-knee is very 
 readily accomplished. 
 
 The angle-irons on the edges of beams are taken account of 
 and worked in the manner described for the made beams of the 
 'Northumberland,' and the holes in beam-plates and angle-irons 
 are usually punched. It is a very common practice in many ship- 
 building yards to use the steam riveting-machine for riveting the 
 beam angle-irons to the plates; but on the Tyne the riveting is 
 performed by hand, the reason given for this course being that 
 when the machine is used the beams have their round-up increased 
 
 L 2
 
 148 
 
 Deck Framing- and Pillaring. Chap. VI 1 1. 
 
 and have to be again taken to the bending machine and brought 
 to their correct form after the riveting is completed. 
 
 Coming now to the illustration of the different means which have 
 been adopted for connecting the beam-ends with the ship's side, we 
 commence with a description of the arrangements of the * Birken- 
 head,' which are fully shown in the enlarged views of the beam 
 ends given in Fig. 71, page 75. The connections of the beams 
 on the main and upper decks were very similar. A horizontal 
 shelf-plate was worked below the beam-ends, and secured to short 
 pieces of reversed angle-iron, and a stringer-plate and angle-iron 
 were worked on the upper side of the beams. It will be seen from 
 the sketches that, on account of the frames having been ended 
 below the upper-deck shelf-plate, both shelf and stringer-plate on 
 the upper deck were extended out to the skin-plating and secured 
 to it, instead of ending inside the frames as on the main deck. On 
 the lower deck only a shelf-plate was worked, the stringer-plate 
 being omitted. These arrangements differ from those in general use 
 in more modern ships, in having no beam-knees, nor any direct con- 
 nection between the beams and the frames ; in many instances .where 
 the plan was adopted, the beams were not stationed at frames. 
 
 The beams of H.M.S. ' Vulcan,' built in 1846, were formed and 
 connected as shown in Figs. 103 and 104. In wake of the upper 
 
 deck beam-ends a longfi- 
 
 CD 
 
 tudinal clamp-plate, 30 
 by \ inch, was worked 
 on the inside of the 
 frames. The beam-end 
 was formed into a trian- 
 gular knee, which was 
 connected with the 
 clamp-plate by double 
 angle-irons. A stringer- 
 plate and angle-iron were 
 worked on the beam- 
 ends and connected with 
 the upper edge of the clamp-plate. With this arrangement also, 
 there was no necessity for stationing every beam at a frame. The 
 lower-deck beams of this ship were stationed at frames and con- 
 nected to them by bracket-plates, in the manner shown in Fig. 104. 
 This mode of connection was extensively practised previously to 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 Fig, 104.
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillarins'. 
 
 ig ana riLLaring. 1 49 
 
 Br; ;i 
 
 
 
 
 !rS! 
 
 
 
 
 
 r" 
 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 -2-/ 
 
 fi/ ('°p') 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 fi; 1° n'" 
 
 — 
 
 E^ 
 
 ,". 
 
 ,°, 
 
 00 
 
 Ij 
 
 ^??~T^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 
 fc[/ 
 
 / 
 
 X 
 
 / 
 
 
 the introduction ofthe present mode of forming beam-knees, and is 
 still sometimes adopted. 
 
 Having thus illustrated some of the principal means of connec- 
 tion which were adopted in a few comparatively old iron ships, 
 we pass to the consideration of the arrangements of beam-ends 
 now in common use. The employment of beam-knees has now 
 become almost universal, and the only exceptions worthy of remark 
 are those in which bracket-plates, or shelf-plates and brackets, aro 
 used. The latter arrangement is some- 
 times adopted for lower-deck and hold- 
 beams, and an illustration of its details 
 is given in Fig. 105. The beam-plate is 
 run into the bosom of the frame and 
 riveted to it, and a plate-shelf is worked 
 under the beams and secured to the 
 outside plating by intercostal angle -irons. 
 The connection is further strengthened by a bracket-plate being 
 worked below the shelf and directly under the beam, so that the 
 rivets connecting the angle-iron on the upper edge of the bracket 
 with the shelf, pass up through the angle-iron on the lower edge 
 of the beam. A direct connection is thus made between the 
 bracket-plate and the beam. The connection of the beam-end is 
 completed by a stringer worked in the ordinary manner. In the 
 vessels of the ' Invincible ' class the battery deck is higher than 
 the main deck before and abaft the battery, the difference in 
 height being equal to the depth of the battery beams at the side. 
 This arrangement is made in order to obtain a good height of the 
 port-sill above the water-level, and at the same time to make the 
 height and weight of the belt of armour-plating as little as possible. 
 This break in the deck would cause a great reduction in the longi- 
 tudinal strength, unless the stringer were continued along the 
 battery beams,* and hence the stringer is worked below, and the 
 battery beams have no knees, bracket-plates being worked below 
 the stringer-plate, in order to strengthen the connection. The 
 whole arrangement is very similar to that shown in Fig. 105, 
 except that there is no stringer-plate upon the beam-ends, a gutter 
 waterway only being worked. 
 
 * It will be noticed also from the ' Bellerophon's ' section in Plate 4, that the 
 main-deck beams have no knees, and that a stringer-plate is worked beneath them. 
 The explanation of this arrangement is identical with that given above.
 
 I50 
 
 Deck Framing and Pillaring. Chap. vill. 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 Another special arrangement of the beam-ends is illustrated in 
 Fig. lOG and represents the connection sometimes adopted for the 
 arms of beams, which form the sides of the princijjal hatchways. 
 The sketch is taken from the * Queen,' a vessel of which the details 
 of the framing have already been described. The beam-plate is 
 
 run out to the side and attached to 
 the side of the frame. A plate 
 bracket or knee, rnarked A, is fitted 
 below the beam and extends as far 
 down as the next deck, its foot being 
 connected with the stringer-plate. 
 The plate A is connected with the 
 beam-plate by a double-riveted strap, 
 and the outer edge of the plate over- 
 laps the frame and is riveted to it. 
 The beam angle-irons on the lower 
 edo;e are continued alouc: the inner 
 edge of the plate A by short lengths 
 of angle-iron, which are butted at h, h, the butts being secured 
 by double-riveted covering angle-irons. This very strong connec- 
 tion of beam to side is made in order to provide against the loss 
 of transverse strength consequent on the fact that throughout the 
 length of the hatchway there is no complete transverse tie. 
 
 Lloyd's Rule with respect to the connection of the beams with 
 the ship's side, is as follows : — " All beams are to be well and 
 '* efficiently connected or riveted to the frames, with bracket-ends 
 " or knee-plates ; each arm of the knee-plates at ends of beams not 
 PLAN " to be less in length than twice and a half 
 
 " the depth of the beams, and to be in thick- 
 '• ness equal to the beams." The Liverpool 
 Rules agree with Lloyd's as to the depth of 
 the beam-knees. The usual mode of con- 
 necting a beam-knee Avith a frame in a vessel 
 of moderate dimensions, in which the frames 
 are of comparatively small moulding, is 
 illustrated in Fig. 107. In the sketch a 
 reversed frame is worked upon the frame 
 in wake of the beam-ends, and the knee is run into the bosom 
 of the frame and ended just inside the fore and aft flange. Of 
 the double angle-irons on the upper edge one is continued out 
 
 Fig. 107.
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 151 
 
 nearly to the flange of the frame angle-iron and the other is stopped 
 against the reversed frame, as shown in the plan. The beam-knee 
 is secured to the frame by a single line of rivets in this case, but 
 in some ships where the moulding of the frames is greater, there 
 are two or three lines of rivets, generally placed zigzag. An 
 instance of this is given on the main deck of the ' Hercules ' in 
 Plate 5, which illustrates the connection of the beams of the 
 more recent iron-clad frigates with the 10-inch frames in wake of 
 armour. In these vessels the beam-knee and one of the upper 
 flanges are run out as far as the inner edge of the 3^ by 3^ by ^ 
 inches angle-iron and fitted against it, the other flange is stopped 
 against the reversed frame, and the knee is secured to the frame by 
 two rows of rivets placed zigzag. On the upper deck of most 
 merchant vessels the beams are fitted against the outside of the 
 transverse flanges of the frame angle-irons, instead of being run 
 into the bosom of the frames as is done on the middle and lower 
 decks. This difference is made on account of the reversed frame 
 ending just above the middle deck of a three-decked ship, and the 
 lower deck of a two-decked ship, and consequently the outer edge 
 of the knee can be either fitted against or brought just clear of 
 the outside plating. In the unprotected parts of the iron-clads 
 where there are no reversed frames the beams are run in and 
 secured in a similar manner. 
 
 In the preceding remarks on the attachment of the beam-end to 
 the frames, it has been assumed that both beams and frames are 
 transverse. This is the usual case met with by the iron ship- 
 builder ; but there are some instances in which a few of the frames 
 at the extremities of an iron ship are canted, and the common 
 practice in such cases is to flange the beam-knees so as to make 
 them fit against the sides of the frames, the beam itself being kept 
 transverse. The objection to this practice is that the strength of 
 the beam, considered as a transverse strut or tie, is somewhat 
 reduced. In some of the iron-clads a large number of the frames 
 at the bow and stern are canted, and the deck-framing is arranged 
 diagonally. This is the case in the vessels of the ' Northumber- 
 land ' class, in which the last transverse beam is that to which the 
 head of the fore stern-post is secured. Abaft this beam the deck 
 framing is made up of diagonal half-beams and a middle-line 
 carling which extends between the stern-posts. The half-beams 
 stand in the planes of the cant frames and are consequently nearly
 
 15-2' Deck Framing and Pillaring. Chap. VI 1 1 
 
 at right angles to the side. Their inner ends are secured *to the 
 aftermost beam, and to the middle-line carling. Their outer ends 
 are secured to the frames by beam-knees in a similar manner to 
 that previously described. The transverse strength of a deck thus 
 framed is, of course, less than that of a deck framed transversely, 
 but in this case the diagonal arrangement has the advantage 
 of giving great support to tlie armour-plated stern in case it is 
 struck by heavy projectiles. In some of the later iron-clads, the 
 forward and after parts of the decks are also framed diagonally. 
 In the ' Bellerophon,' the diagonal half-beams have their inner 
 ends attached to two fore and aft carlings, one on each side of the 
 middle line, which extend from the aftermost beam to the stern. 
 Between the fore and aft carlings athwartship carlings are worked 
 in order to complete the connection of the two sides of the ship. 
 
 In vessels built on the longitudinal system of Mr. Scott Russell, 
 the deck framing consists, for the most part, of longitudinal girders 
 running from one transverse bulkhead to the next, and of longi- 
 tudinal stiffeners worked between the girders underneath the deck 
 plating. The only transverse framing usually adopted in the decks 
 of these vessels is formed by continuations of the partial bulkheads, 
 and by the upper edges of the watertight bulkheads. In the ' G-reat 
 Eastern ' the upper deck is a cellular iron structure of which the 
 framing consists of longitudinal girders. The details of the con- 
 struction of this deck will be described hereafter. The main-deck 
 beams of this ship are placed transversely, as are also the beams of 
 the decks below the main deck. Where the transverse beams of 
 these decks come on partial bulkheads, they are secured to the upper 
 parts of the bulkheads, no beam-knees being formed on their ends. 
 Between the partial bulkheads the beams have the usual form of 
 knee and are secured to the skin-plating by double angle-irons. 
 
 Returning to the consideration of the usual mode of deck- 
 framing, the question of the arrangement of the beams is one 
 which requires attention. Lloyd's Rules state that upper-deck 
 beams in vessels with one or two tiers of beams, and the upper 
 and middle deck beams in vessels with three tiers of beams, are to be 
 fastened to alternate frames. The arrangement of the lower-deck 
 or hold beams, as settled by the Rules, is regulated by the depth in 
 hold. Thus, for vessels of 12 feet and under 13 feet depth of hold, 
 or where the tonnage exceeds 200 tons, the hold-beams are not to be 
 further apart than every eighth frame ; for vessels of 13 feet depth
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Framing and Pillaring. 153 
 
 and under 15 feet, the hold-beams are to be fastened to every fourth 
 frame ; for vessels of 15 feet depth and under 18 feet, the hold or 
 lower-deck beams are to be fastened to every second and fourth 
 frame alternately ; and for vessels of 18 feet depth and above, the 
 hold or lower-deck beams are to be fastened to every alternate frame. 
 The Kules also provide for the use of orlop-beams fastened to every 
 sixth frame, in two-decked vessels where the depth from the upper 
 side of the upper-deck beams to the top of floor-plates exceeds 24 
 feet, and in three-decked ships where the depth from the upper side 
 of the middle-deck beams to the top of floor-plates exceeds 24 feet, 
 and where the depth from the under side of the lower-deck beams 
 exceeds 15 feet. A depth of 25 feet is allowed instead of 24 feet 
 for flush-decked ships in which the depth of the lower hold does 
 not exceed 16 feet. These orlop-deck beams are required to have 
 stringer-plates and angle-irons worked on their ends, of equal 
 strength with those on the lower-deck beams. When the spaces 
 between beams exceed two frame-spaces a knee or bracket plate 
 is to be riveted to alternate frames and to the under side of the 
 stringer-plate. It is also stipulated that where deviations are 
 made from the foregoing Eules in wake of engine-rooms or 
 hatchways, or where no deck is intended to be laid, a sketch, 
 showing the proposed arrangements which are to be substituted, 
 is to be forwarded for the consideration of the Committee. 
 
 The Liverpool Rules agree with Lloyd's in the arrangement 
 of the upper and middle deck beams, and give very nearly the 
 same directions with respect to lower-deck or hold and orlop beams. 
 The differences of depth in hold required by the two Eules, for the 
 same arrangement of lower-deck and orlop beams, are compara- 
 tively small, as will be seen on reference to the Appendix. 
 
 In the iron-clad frigates of the Royal Navy the deck-beams are, in 
 most cases, secured to alternate frames ; and as the frame-space in 
 the later iron-clads is 2 feet, the space between the beams is generally 
 4 feet. In some ships, however, where the weight of the armament 
 is very great, the beams in the battery-decks are only 2 feet apart. 
 
 In wake of hatchways and mast-holes, of which the length 
 generally exceeds the usual space between the beams, the deck- 
 framing is completed by half-beams, of which the outer ends are 
 secured to the frames in a similar manner to the beam-ends, and 
 the inner ends to the fore and aft carlings forming the framing 
 of the hatchways or mast-holes. At the larger hatchways over
 
 J 4 Deck Framing and Pillariiig. Chap. viii. 
 
 engines, boilers, and the cargo-holds of merchant-ships, there are 
 several half-beams abreast of the hatchway, and the carlings 
 are made very strong in order to secure the inner ends. At these 
 parts of the decks the transverse strength is considerably reduced, 
 and various means of compensating for this loss of strength have 
 been adopted. One has already been given in Fig. 106, which 
 shows the arrangement made in the ' Queen,' built by Messrs. 
 Laird. In some ships the depth of the hatch-beams has been 
 increased, and by this means an increase of strength has been ob- 
 tained ; while in many vessels transverse carlings have been fitted 
 so as to form continuations of the half-beams across the hatch, 
 and are fixed in place after the engines, boilers, or cargo have 
 been put in or stowed. This latter arrangement is specially suited 
 for engine and boiler hatchways which do not require to be used 
 frequently. The transverse carlings are generally secured to the 
 fore and aft carlings by screw-bolts, so as to be readily removed. 
 In some ships the fore and aft carlings are omitted at the sides of 
 the hatchways over engines and boilers, the inner ends of the half- 
 beams being simply connected with the deck tie-plates ; and when 
 the hatch is to be closed, middle pieces are fitted to each pair of 
 half-beams, being connected with them by vertical scarphs, fastened 
 with nut and screw bolts. 
 
 In the larger number of shipbuilding yards the lengths of 
 beams and the forms of the knees are given out from the mould- 
 loft, but on the Tyne it is customary to take the lengths from 
 the ship. On the Clyde it is the usual practice to rivet the 
 beams to the frames before hoisting them into place in vessels 
 which do not exceed from 500 to 600 tons, and for ships up to 
 1600 tons this course is frequently adopted, but for larger vessels 
 it is customary to proceed in the manner commonly followed, and 
 get in the beams after the frames have been put in place and set 
 fair. On the Mersey a strake of outside plating is worked at or 
 near the beam-ends, and the ship is shored on it before the beams 
 are put in place ; but in many yards the ship is faired by means 
 of ribands and cross-spalls only before the beams are fitted. In 
 many cases the holes for the rivets in beam-knees are punched in 
 the frames before they are hoisted into place. These holes are 
 easily set off, as the heights of the decks are marked on the frames 
 and the depths of the knees are known. When the lengths of the 
 beams are taken from the ship the stations of the holes are marked
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Fra7ning and Pillaring. 
 
 155 
 
 on the mould, and transferred from it to the beam, and the holes 
 are punched or drilled before the beams are put in place. When 
 the beams are worked to the lengths given from the mould-loft, the 
 holes in the beam-knees are generally punched or drilled before the 
 beams are put in, and the holes in the frames are drilled, or punched 
 with a machine known as a hear, after the beams are fixed in place. 
 Illustrations of the usual modes of arranging the fastenings in 
 beam-knees have already been given, and it may be added here 
 that care should always be taken not to weaken the frame by two 
 rivet-holes placed abreast each other or near together. It some- 
 times happens that the beams 
 require to be straightened 
 after being put in place and 
 secured, and a sketch showing 
 the machine used for this 
 purpose is given in Fig. 108. 
 The side view shows how the 
 arms of the clamp are formed 
 so as to clutch the bulb 
 of the beam, and the plan illustrates the manner in which the 
 screw is worked in the clamp. The end of the screw is furnished 
 with a solid head formed so as to fit against the bulb, and when the 
 machine has been fixed at any part of the beam where it has been 
 bulged sideways by an accident, the beam is straightened very 
 quickly by heaving up the screw. 
 
 The pillars to the beams of an iron ship are a very important 
 means of increasing her structural strength, not merely by acting 
 as vertical struts, but, when properly secured at the heads and 
 heels, by forming vertical ties. Mr. Kankine states, in ' Shipbuild- 
 ing Theoretical and Practical,' that the use of pillars at the 
 middle line increases the strength of the beams by about one-half, 
 and points out the increase in the resistance to transverse bending 
 obtained by connecting the beams with the floors. The great 
 advantages gained by placing the beams of the different decks 
 directly over each other, in respect both of pillaring, and of facilities 
 for framing hatchways by which ready access is given to lower 
 decks and holds, have led to the very general adoption of this 
 arrangement. Lloyd's Eules require that the beams shall be 
 placed over each other and pillared where practicable. The 
 Liverpool Rules state that stanchions are to be fixed to every 
 beam amidships for one-third of the vessel's length, and to al-
 
 1^6 
 
 Deck Framing and Pillaring. c h ap. v 1 1 1 . 
 
 ternate beams forward and aft; and require that hold -stanchions 
 shall have two 1-inch rivets through palms upon their heads and 
 heels. In most parts of a ship it is possible to place the pillars 
 directly above one another, and so form a strut which extends from 
 the floors to the upjjer deck. When this direct vertical support 
 cannot be kept up, on account of the interior arrangements of 
 the ship, there is still an indirect support derived from the thrust 
 of the pillars which heel on a deck being transmitted by it to 
 the pillars beneath. The principal use of pillars is to transmit the 
 loads on the decks to the floors, keelsons, &c, ; and many ship- 
 builders, regarding this as the only use, firmly connect the heads 
 of the pillars to the beams, and are contented with leaving the 
 heels unsecured against upward tensile strains. It cannot, how- 
 ever, be doubted that if the pillars are to assist in resisting the 
 strains which often result from a ship's motion in a seaway, it is 
 requisite that they shall be so secured at the heels as to form ties. 
 The special importance of securing the heels of pillars in war- 
 ships carrying heavy guns has been repeatedly demonstrated. One 
 instance occurred on board the 'Viper,' where the heels of the 
 pillars were not securely fastened, and were consequently drawn 
 out of their sockets by the deck being slightly lifted by the violent 
 concussion caused by the explosion of her guns. The 
 pillars in most common use in ships of the mercantile 
 marine are formed of solid bars, but in the ships of 
 the Eoyal Navy the pillars are formed of wrought- 
 iron tubes welded in solid at the heads and heels. 
 This latter form is preferable, as it possesses con- 
 siderable lateral stiifness, whereas the solid bar can 
 be easily bent sideways by a horizontal blow. The 
 facilities offered in an iron ship for connecting the 
 pillars to the beams and floors are much greater than 
 those in a wooden ship. In considering the various 
 modes of securing the heads and heels of pillars, the 
 connections of the pillars between decks will be first 
 illustrated. A very common mode of securing the 
 heads of pillars to bulb-beams is that given in Fig. 
 109. It will be seen that the head of the pillar is 
 formed into a palm on one side of the beam, and can thus give 
 direct support to the beam and be securely fastened to it. It may 
 be added that the holes for the bolts which secure the pillar-head 
 should be placed as near as possible to the neutral axis of the 
 
 Fig. 109.
 
 Chap. VIII. Deck Fra7ning and Pillariiig. 
 
 157 
 
 beam, in order to preserve the strength. When made beams are 
 used, a horizontal palm is formed on the pillar-head, and is bolted 
 to the horizontal flanges of the angle-irons on the lower edge of the 
 beam. This arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 110, and a similar 
 mode of connection is adopted when H-iron beams are used. There 
 
 (1 
 
 9- 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 110 
 
 is a greater variety in the modes of securing the heels of pillars 
 between decks than there is in the fastenings of their heads. In 
 one arrangement, illustrated in Fig. 110, the heel of the pillar 
 merely fits into an iron shoe or socket which is bolted to the deck, 
 and wedges are driven in through slots in the sides of the shoe in 
 order to set up the pillar. Another very common mode of securing 
 the heels of pillars is that given in Fig. 109. Horizontal palms 
 are formed on the pillars and are bolted to the deck ; and, where 
 possible, the bolts are made to pass through the beam-flanges 
 underneath, in the manner shown in the sketch. This mode of 
 fitting gives good security to the heel, and allows the pillar to be 
 easily removed, when required. In many ships, instead of heeling 
 the pillars on the deck planking, they are brought down on the 
 beams and secured, the planking being fitted around them. In 
 wake of the capstan-bars the pillars are made to turn up, in order 
 to give room to work the bars, and the arrangement usually 
 followed in H.M.'s Service is illustrated in Fig. 111. The palm is 
 formed separately from the pillar, and its lower end is arranged as 
 a hinge. An iron shoe is bolted on the deck, and is slightly 
 wedge-shaped, as is seen from the transverse \ie\v given in the 
 sketch. When the capstan is not in use the pillar is let down, 
 and the heel is forced into the iron shoe, which by its wedge-shape 
 sets the pillar up to its proper height. In order to support the
 
 158 
 
 Deck Framing and Pillaring. Chap. Viii. 
 
 li 
 
 Rg. 111. 
 
 deck in the neighbourhood of the capstan, when it is required to 
 turn up the pillars to work the capstan-bars, screw-pillars are used in 
 some ships, and, being similar in their arrangements to the ordinary 
 
 " screw-jack," they can be transferred 
 to any part of the deck. In other 
 ships additional hinged pillars are 
 iitted to the beams just outside the 
 sweep of the capstan-bars, and are 
 usually kept turned up, but when 
 the capstan is in work they are let 
 down and support the deck above. 
 
 Coming now to the consideration 
 of the modes of securing the heads 
 and heels of hold stanchions or pil- 
 lars, the connections with the lower- 
 deck beams hardly require notice, as 
 they are identical in character with 
 the arrangements already described 
 for pillars between decks. The heels 
 of the stanchions are formed differently in different ships in order 
 to connect them with the keelsons or hold-stringers. When the 
 ship has a flat keelson-plate, the stanchions have horizontal palms 
 on their lower ends, and are bolted through the keelson-plate and 
 angle-irons. When a centre-plate or a side-bar keel is run up to 
 form the keelson, and is taken up by angle-irons on each side, the 
 heels are generally secured by bolting them through the vertical 
 flanges. When an angle-iron keelson is employed without a centre 
 plate, the connection of the heel is similar to the preceding ; and 
 when a bulb-iron keelson is worked it is usual to secure the stanchions 
 in a manner similar to that shown for a pillar-head in Fig. 109. 
 
 Mention has already been made of the difficulty sometimes 
 experienced in efficiently pillaring beams, and in a steam-ship the 
 engine and boiler rooms are the parts of the ship where this 
 difficulty most frequently occurs. In order to support those parts 
 of the deck-framing which cannot be directly pillared, wrought- 
 iron girders of I-shaped section formed of plates and angle-irons 
 are often worked below the beams, and are ended under beams at 
 which pillars can be fitted. Similar girders are also worked 
 under those parts of a deck which have to sustain any special load, 
 in order to distribute it, as for instance in wake of mast-steps, Ac.
 
 Chap. IX, Deck Stringej^s and Plating. 159 
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 DECK STRINGERS AND PLATING. 
 
 Coming now to the consideration of deck stringer-plates, we may 
 first observe that the aspect of a ship regarded as a girder having 
 top and bottom flanges and an intervening web, is, although fami- 
 liar, not sufficiently borne in mind by shipbuilders, who often fail in 
 properly adjusting the proportionate strength of the flanges. Thus 
 in an iron ship the bottom flange, formed by the keel, keelsons, 
 and bottom plating, is usually enormously strong, both in tension 
 and compression ; but the upper flange is often neglected, and in some 
 ships it is merely a flange of wood. Both Lloyd's and the Liver- 
 pool Kules provide that stringer and tie plates shall be worked on 
 the upper decks of all ships, but no mention is made of iron decks, 
 the adoption of which has been so strongly advocated by Mr. Fair- 
 bairn, Mr. Scott Eussell, and others, and which have now become 
 almost universal in her Majesty's service. It seems probable, how- 
 ever, that the great disproportion between the strength of the top 
 and bottom of an iron ship as commonly built, and the evident 
 want of economy of material involved, will lead to the introduction 
 into general use of, at least, partial iron decks. At present, in 
 cases where great longitudinal strength is required (as for instance 
 in the ' Queen,' of which ship's framing a view is given in Plate 1) 
 a partial iron deck is adopted. In the ' Queen ' a belt of plating 
 f-inch thick is worked on the upper-deck beam-ends, and extends 
 out to a distance of 7 feet from the side, and upon its outer part a 
 stringer-plate | inch thick and 2 feet wide is worked and stiffened 
 by three longitudinal angle-irons. A longitudinal tie-plate | inch 
 thick and 3 feet wide stiffened by a double angle-iron stringer, is 
 worked at 6 feet from the middle line. Thus on the upper deck 
 of this ship, of which the extreme breadth is 41 feet, there is a 
 partial iron deck, of which the total width is 20 feet, and this 
 partial deck is stiffened by the plate and angle-iron stringers above 
 described. The doubling of the sheer-strake and the other strakes 
 of the upper part of the outside plating shown on the section.
 
 i6o Deck Stringers and Plating. Chap. IX. 
 
 together with the otlier arrangements of stringers, &c., form a 
 very efficient top-flange in this ship. Another illustration of 
 the use of partial iron decks is found in the steamships built at the 
 Thames Iron Works for the " Compagnie generale transatlantique," 
 from the designs of ]\r. Forquenot, In these vessels there is a 
 partial iron deck, on the upper and main decks, which extends in 
 as far as the sides of the boiler-hatch, and the upper flange is still 
 further strengthened by box-stringers on these two decks. 
 
 Iron upper decks have also been worked in the very long fine 
 ships built by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, in some of 
 which ships the length is between 10 and 11 times the beam. 
 Thus, for instance, in the ' Istrian,' ' Iberian,' and ' Illyrian,' of 
 which the breadth extreme is 37 feet, the length of keel 390 feet, 
 and the depth in hold 29 feet 3 inches, there is au iron upper 
 deck, and the stringers on the middle-deck beam-ends are 5 feet 
 broad, while there are tie-plates 22 inches broad on each side of 
 the hatchways on the middle deck. 
 
 In the greater number of iron ships, however, the only partial 
 iron deck which is fitted is composed of the stringer-plates, and of 
 fore and aft and diagonal tie-plates. These are of service in adding 
 strength to the top of the girder formed by the ship, and in prevent- 
 ing change in the longitudinal form. In a wooden ship all the deck 
 planking tends to prevent this change, by resisting alteration in 
 the angles between the beams and the various strakes of planking ; 
 but in an iron ship the wooden deck has very little power to resist 
 this change, since the natm-e of the materials and fastenings is 
 such as to always allow some motion, and would probably admit of 
 enough motion to injure the fastenings of the ship's side before 
 they themselves came effectually into play. Mention has pre- 
 viously been made of the fact, that the stringer-plates and angle- 
 irons on the beam-ends act as horizontal knees to the beams, and 
 their efficiency in this respect is increased by the practice, now 
 introduced into common use, of working upon the stringer-plates 
 continuous angle-irons, which serve both as stiffeners to the stringers 
 and as gutter waterways at the side. The tie-plates, usually 
 worked on the various tiers of beams, are arranged so as to have 
 two placed longitudinally, one on each side of the hatchways, and 
 the remainder placed diagonally and running from side to side 
 between the hatchways. These plates serve to prevent the racking- 
 forces which are brought into play when the ship is heeled over,
 
 Chap. IX. Deck Stringers and Plating. i6i 
 
 or lies across a series of waves. For, though the decks and bottom 
 of an iron ship form in most cases the top and bottom of the girder, 
 there are positions, as we have seen, in which a ship is placed 
 when at sea, where they become the web of the girder, and the 
 sides of the ship form the upper and lower flanges. And between 
 these extreme positions there are intermediate ones, in which con- 
 siderable forces are acting, and tending to produce change in the 
 longitudinal form, and consequently to rack the deck-framing. 
 It may be doubted, however, whether the disposition of material in 
 the form of fore and aft and diagonal tie-plates is as good as it 
 would be if the material were disposed in additional stringer-plate. 
 In ships which have no iron upper deck, the side plates, and espe- 
 cially the sheer-strakes, form an important part of the top of the 
 girder, and are so recognised in both sets of Eules, where addi- 
 tional longitudinal strength is obtained when required, either by 
 increasing the thickness of the sheer-strake, or doubling it for 
 the whole or part of its length, and by increasing the thickness of 
 the stringer-plates. In such vessels, therefore, if the tie-plates 
 were dispensed with, and the iron thus saved put into additional 
 thickness of stringer-plate, it would be directly connected with the 
 sheer-strakes instead of lying many feet away from them, and 
 would, as stringer, tend to resist the first changes of form, while as 
 tie-plate certain alterations must take place in the curvature of 
 the beams before it can aid the sheer-strakes. By securing the 
 stringer to the sheer-strake, the material in both is 'also rendered 
 much more efficient to resist compressive strains. There is, in 
 fact, no part of an iron ship of more consequence than the stringer- 
 plates ; and the due proportioning of plates, butt-straps, and rivets 
 in their construction requires most careful attention. 
 
 Lloyd's Rules with respect to stringers and tie-plates are as 
 follow : — " All vessels to have stringer-plates upon the ends of 
 " each tier of beams. Those upon the ends of upper-deck 
 " beams in vessels with one or two decks or tiers of beams, and on 
 " ends of middle-deck beams in vessels with three decks or tiers 
 " of beams, to be in width one inch for every seven feet of the 
 " vessel's entire length, for half her length amidships, and from 
 " thence to the ends of the vessel they may be gradually reduced 
 " to three-fourths the width amidships — in no case, however, is the 
 " width to be less than 18 inches amidships. The stringer-plates 
 " are to be fitted home and riveted to the outside plating at all 
 
 M
 
 i62 Deck Stringei^s and Plating. Chap. IX. 
 
 " upper decks, and at the middle deck in vessels having three 
 " decks, with angle- iron of the dimensions given in Table G : the 
 " middle-deck stringer-plates to have an additional angle-iron 
 " extending all fore and aft inside of the frames, riveted to the 
 " reversed angle-iron on the frames, and to the stringer-plate. 
 " Stringer-plates on ends of beams below the upper deck in vessels 
 " with two decks, or below the middle deck in vessels with three 
 " decks, may be reduced in width to three-fourths of the midship 
 " breadth above named ; this breadth is to be extended all fore and 
 " aft, and to have an angle-iron of the dimensions given in Table G, 
 " extending all fore and aft, riveted to the reversed angle-iron of 
 *' the frames and to the stringer-plates. In cases where no deck 
 " is laid and the width of stringer-plate on ends of hold-beams is 
 " objected to, it may be reduced, provided such reduction be fully 
 " compensated for. The objectionable practice of cutting through 
 " the stringer-plates for the admission of wood rough-tree stan- 
 " chions \\ill not be allowed." 
 
 " All vessels to have tie-plates, ranging all fore and aft upon 
 " each side of the hatchways on each tier of beams, and in addition 
 " thereto the beams of the upper and middle decks, in three-decked 
 " or spar-decked ships, and of the upper deck in vessels of one or 
 " two decks must have the tie-plates fitted from side to side 
 " diagonally, whenever the arrangements of the deck will admit 
 " of them ; the tie-plates are to be in width once and a half the 
 '* depth of the beams and of the thickness required for stringer- 
 " plates, and to be well riveted to each other and to the beams, 
 " deck-hooks, and transoms ; and all butts to be properly shifted. 
 " Upon hold-beams where no deck is laid, or where tie-plates would 
 " interfere with stowage of cargo, an angle-iron of the dimensions 
 " given for angle-iron on beam stringers, placed at middle line, ex- 
 *' tending fore and aft wherever practicable, and well riveted to all 
 " beams, deck-hooks and transoms, will be admitted in lieu thereof." 
 
 Until 1867 the Liverpool Rules on this subject were as follow : — 
 Stringer-plates are to be laid upon the ends of each tier of beams, 
 and riveted thereto throuo^h both beam angles. Main-deck strino^er- 
 plates may be reduced in width one-fourth at ends of vessels, and 
 one-sixteenth in thickness ; this reduction to begin at one-fifth the 
 length of the vessel from each end. Stringer-plates on upper deck, 
 and in vessels with three decks on main and upper decks, to be fitted 
 and riveted to shell-plates with angles as per table for keelsons.
 
 Chap. IX. Deck Stringers and Plating. 163 
 
 All stringer-plates are to extend fore and aft, where practicable, 
 and not to be stopped at bulkheads. If desired, stringers on orlop- 
 deck beams may be diminished in width not exceeding one-third, 
 if proportionately increased in thickness. Angle-iron on gunwale- 
 stringer not to be butted at scuppers, but to be formed around 
 them, or if butted to be otherwise strengthened. Poop and fore- 
 castle stringers may be one-third lighter than lower-deck stringers. 
 Tie-plates to be laid upon each tier of beams alongside of hatches, 
 and on main deck with double angle-irons on upper side, ranging 
 all fore and aft ; to be riveted to both angles of the beams, and 
 riveted at ends of vessel to the stringer-plates. In vessels under 
 600 tons, and on orlop-deck beams where no deck is laid, two 
 angle-irons, back to back, each side of hatchways, same size as for 
 keelsons, to be riveted through and through, and to the beams, may 
 be substituted for tie-plates. The Eules at present enforced are 
 given in the Appendix. 
 
 In the Liverpool Rules the breadth and thickness of the 
 stringer and tie plates are given in Table No. 5, which will be 
 found in the Appendix, as will also the Table G, referred to in 
 Lloyd's Rules. By a comparison of these rules and tables, it will 
 be seen that for small ships the Liverpool Rules require a much 
 wider stringer than Lloyd's, and that the disproportion in the 
 widths required decreases as the size of the vessel increases, until 
 the sizes approximate to equality in the largest ships. The thick- 
 ness required by both rules is nearly the same. The stringer 
 angle-irons required by Lloyd's are about the same size for the 
 smaller ships, and of greater size for the larger ships than are 
 required by the Liverpool Rules. According to Lloyd's Rule, the 
 principal deck-stringers may be reduced at the extremities to three- 
 quarters of the midship breadth, the tapering being begun at one- 
 fourth of the vessel's length from each end; but the Liverpool 
 Rules allow the main-deck stringer to be reduced one-sixteenth 
 in thickness at the extremities, in addition to being diminished in 
 breadth to an equal extent with that permitted by Lloyd's, and 
 require the tapering to be commenced at one-fifth the length from 
 each end. The tie-plates required by Lloyd's Rules are narrower 
 than those required by the Liverpool Rules, except for the smaller 
 ships, and the latter Rules require a double angle-iron stringer to 
 be worked upon the main-deck tie-plate. The diagonal tie-plates 
 required by Lloyd's, are not mentioned in the Liverpool Rules. 
 
 M 2
 
 164 Deck Stringers and Platijig. Chap. IX. 
 
 A more detailed statement of the differences existing between the 
 two sets of regidations will be found in Chapter 19. The practice 
 of cutting holes in the upper-deck stringer in order to allow the 
 top timbers to pass doAvn, which is forbidden by Lloyd's Rules, was 
 formerly very common, and is described and strongly condemned 
 by M. Dupuy de Lome, in his Report. As now fitted, the upper- 
 deck stringer-plate is left uninjured except by the holes required 
 for fastenings, and by the scuppers. 
 
 The great importance of the preservation of a continuity of 
 longitudinal strength has been previously illustrated, and in the 
 case of deck-stringers this continuity is preserved, in some measure, 
 by butt-strapping the various lengths of plates and angle-irons, and 
 by continuing the stringers through the bulkheads. In a well- 
 built iron shijD care is taken also that the butts of the stringer-plate 
 shall give good shift to the butts of the strake of outside plating in 
 wake of the beam-ends ; and it will be remembered that in one of 
 the cases of weakness illustrated in the commencement of this 
 work, a want of care in this respect led to very serious results. 
 The arrangement of the butt fastenings of stringer-plates is also a 
 subject requiring careful consideration. If we suppose the stringer- 
 plate under notice to be that on the middle-deck beams of a three- 
 decked ship, the plate has to be scored in between the frames, and 
 at each beam it crosses it is perforated by a number of holes for 
 the purpose of receiving rivets to secure it to the beam. The plate 
 is thus weakened by the sectional area of iron punched out, and by 
 the loss of strength in that which remains, caused by the punching. 
 In order, therefore, to secure breaking lines of equal strength along 
 the lines of the beams, and across the butts, it is necessary to arrange 
 the fastenings so that the tensile strengths at the butt and beam 
 respectively shall be equal. If the fastenings are not so arranged, 
 the butt is made too strong, and labour wasted, or too weak and 
 material sacrificed. It is consequently necessary to make calcula- 
 tions, in order, as far as possible, to ensure uniformity of strength. 
 
 In a paper by Mr. Barnaby, in the Transactions of the Institu- 
 tion of Naval Architects for 1866, on " Economy of Material in 
 Iron Decks and Stringers," the author proposes a novel mode of 
 lightening stringers and tie-plates without reducing their strength ; 
 on the contrary, he states that the tensile power of the jjlates will 
 be increased when thus lightened. The principle on which this 
 arrangement rests is, that when strains are suddenly applied to the 
 plates, it is necessary to consider not only the number of tons re-
 
 Chap. IX. Deck Stringers and Plating. 1 65 
 
 quired to break the weakest sections, but the amount which it would 
 stretch before breaking, in other words, the work done in producing 
 rupture. In order, therefore, to make the amount of work done 
 as great as possible, it is necessary to reduce the strength of the 
 plate between the weak sections, at the butts and beams, to 
 the strength at these sections, or even to less than this, in order 
 to obtain long spaces of uniform strength to give elongation. If 
 these long spaces of uniform strength are not provided, and the 
 plate is consequently left with strong parts between the beams, no 
 practical elongation will take place in these strong parts under 
 the action of a sudden strain ; but the stretching will be thrown 
 almost entirely on the weak points, and if any one of these is weaker, 
 in any sensible degree, than the rest, it will be confined to that 
 point. The author states that the fact that the strains of greatest 
 magnitude in a ship are sudden makes the principle above stated 
 of no slight importance to naval architects, because by its appli- 
 cation the time is increased during which a given force must be 
 applied in order to produce rupture. He illustrates the application 
 of this principle to stringers and tie-plates, by supposing a stringer 
 or tie-plate to cross a series of beams 3 feet 6 inches apart, and to 
 have the strength at each beam reduced to seven-ninths the full 
 strength of the plate, by the holes punched in it to receive the 
 fastenings. If this plate is brought under the action of a steady 
 strain, it is a matter of indifference how many such points of 
 weakness there may be, or how much stronger the material may be 
 which lies between these weak points. For under these circum- 
 stances the strength of the tie will be measured by the strength at 
 the weakest place. But when the plate is brought under the 
 action of strains which are sudden in their nature, like the most 
 severe strains in a ship, the principle above stated becomes appK- 
 eable, and the long spaces of uniform strength required are 
 obtained by cutting holes, 2 feet long and 5 inches broad, in the 
 supposed plate, in all the beam spaces except those in which 
 the butts come. Sketches showing the proposed arrangement of 
 holes and fastenings of the supposed stringer or tie-plate, are given 
 in the Transactions, and are well worth careful study. 
 
 The various arrangements of deck-stringers which have been, 
 and now are in use, are illustrated in the sketches of framing and 
 beam connections which have been given. In iron ships which 
 have wood beams stringer-plates are not usually worked, but in 
 some ships stringer angle-irons have been worked on the beam-
 
 1 66 Deck Stringers and Plating. Chap. IX. 
 
 ends. Mr. Scott Russell gives two modes of working stringers on 
 wood beams which are attached to the frames by bracket-plates. For 
 a simple wood beam the stringer-plate is bolted through the beam, 
 and the connection thus made is strengthened by riveting it to a 
 short jnece of angle-iron worked on the upper edge of the bracket- 
 plate. When the beam is made up of a central web-plate and two 
 woo 1 beams, a short piece of angle-iron is worked on the upper 
 edge of the web-plate, under the stringer, and is riveted to both. 
 Passing to tlie illustration of the stringer arrangements of some of 
 the earlier iron ships which have iron beams, we need only refer 
 to the arrangements of the ' Birkenhead ' given in Fig. 71, page 75, 
 which were described when speaking of the connection of the beams 
 to the side. On the lower-deck beams of the ' Recruit ' the stringer 
 
 — -= arrangements were of a very sin- 
 gular character, as will be seen 
 on reference to Fig. 112. The 
 
 LJ LJ LJ stringer plate proper, a, is 5 
 
 *'s- 1^2- inches wide, and is scored in 
 
 over the frames and fitted against their flanges, but is not con- 
 nected to the outside plating. The only fastenings in the stringer 
 consist of two rivets in each beam. In addition to this a longi- 
 tudinal strip of plating, h, is worked on the beams in a position 
 corresponding to that occupied by the binding-strake in a wood 
 ship, and is secured by a single rivet in each beam. 
 
 The modes of working stringer-plates now in general use are the 
 following : — 1st, that in which the stringer-plate is run along inside 
 the frames, and connected to the reversed frames and angle-irons ; 
 2nd, that in which the stringer is directly connected with the 
 outside plating; and 3rd, that in which the stringer- plate is con- 
 nected to a vertical stringer or clamp-plate worked inside the frames 
 above the beams. The first two modes of working: stringers are 
 those most commonly followed, and in some ships the second and 
 third modes are combined. The first mode is generally adopted 
 on the lower-deck and hold beams, and sometimes also on the 
 middle deck. Illustrations of this arrangement are given on 
 the lower and middle decks of the ' China,' as shown in Plate 2. 
 The second mode of working stringers is almost universally adopted 
 on the upper-deck beams, and can, in general, be readily performed 
 as the frames usually end underneath the upper-deck stringer- 
 plate. Illustrations of the common mode of securing the stringer 
 on the upper deck to the outside plating are given in Plates 1 and 4.
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 Deck Stringers and Platmg. 
 
 167 
 
 s<,-'. ■ 
 
 ~--~-~mmm^^^^ 
 
 ^» 
 
 
 
 ^^1 
 
 1 
 
 \| 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 o<^'o^oOo°c! 
 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 Both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Kules require that this mode 
 shall be adopted on the upper deck in all ships, and on the upper 
 and middle decks in three-decked ships. On the middle deck the 
 stringer is usually scored in between the transverse frames, and 
 secured to the outside plating by short pieces of angle-iron. Sec- 
 tional views of this arrangement are given in Plate 3, and it will 
 be seen from Plate 2 that the 'China's' upper-deck stringer is 
 fitted similarly, on account of the 
 fact that her frames are run up to 
 form the topside framing. Li 
 Fig. 113 there is given a plan 
 which illustrates the usual mode 
 of scoring in and securing a 
 stringer-plate. The sketch is taken 
 from the ' Captain,' and represents a part of the lower-deck stringer 
 where it is not required to be made watertight. It will be re- 
 marked that the cost of fitting is reduced to a minimum by cutting 
 away the corners of the plate which 
 would come against the frame 
 angle-irons. In those parts of the 
 ship where this stringer has to be 
 made watertight, in order to form 
 a top to the wing-passage, a dif- 
 ferent mode of fitting is adopted, 
 and is illustrated in plan and sec- 
 tion in Fig. 114. Intercostal 
 plates and angle-irons are carefully 
 fitted between the frames, and the 
 plates overlap the continuous 
 stringer-plate sufficiently to allow 
 the continuous stringer angle-irons 
 to be worked along upon the inner 
 edges, as is seen in the section. 
 The fastenings of the stringer 
 angle-irons are thus made to work 
 in as fastenings in the inner edges 
 of the intercostal plates. The 
 edges of the plates and angle-ii'ons 
 in this arrangement can be caulked 
 with facihty and the whole made watertight. The stringer-plate 
 is worked in 16-feet lengths, with treble-chain riveted butt-straps ; 
 
 PLAN 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 114.
 
 1 68 Deck Stringers and Plating. Chap. ix. 
 
 and the continuous stringer angle-iron is worked in lengths of 
 72 feet, formed by welding two 36 feet lengths together, the butts 
 being secured with treble-riveted covering angle-irons. In some 
 ships where the lower or middle-deck stringer has to be made 
 watertight the intercostal plates are worked out beyond the frames 
 so as to admit of their being connected with the stringer-plate 
 by a flush joint and an edge-strip, the latter being worked under- 
 neath the stringer, and in short lengths between the beams. This 
 is the arrangement adopted in the ' Hercules,' in which ship also 
 the staple angle-irons connecting the intercostal plates with the 
 frames and skin-plating are worked underneath the plates. 
 
 The third mode of fitting stringers is illustrated in Fig. 104, 
 page 148, and the combination of the second and third modes pre- 
 viously referred to is illustrated on the middle and lower decks oi 
 the ' Queen ' in Plate 1. 
 
 In cases where great longitudinal strength is required, box- 
 stringers are formed on the beam-ends, and it will be remembered 
 that the construction of these box-stringers is one of the means by 
 which the defects of longitudinal strength previously described 
 have been remedied. Their easy application in ships of which the 
 stringer arrangements are of the usual character, 
 has rendered the use of box-stringers very gene- 
 ral in such cases. The simplest arrangement of 
 box-stringer on tlie beam-ends is that given in 
 j_,.^ j^ ^,. Fig. 115, and it will be seen that the top and 
 
 front plates, and their connecting angle-irons, 
 are the only additions to the ordinary stringer. No direct 
 connection is made in this case between either the stringer- 
 plate or the top-plate, and the outside plating, but as usually 
 fitted the stringer - plate would be carried out and connected 
 to the plating. On lower decks where the 
 stringer-plate is run along inside the frames, a 
 very efficient box-stringer is formed by the 
 arrangement shown in Fig. 116, which is taken 
 from Lloyd's illustrations. Intercostal flanged- 
 plates are fitted between the frames, and over- 
 lap and are riveted to the top-plate of the 
 box-stringer. A direct connection is thus made 
 with the outside plating, without weakening the stringer or top- 
 plate by scoring them in between the frames. When box-stringers
 
 Chap. IX. Deck Stringers and Plating. 1 69 
 
 are used on the upper-deck beam-ends the arrangements are 
 usually similar to those shown in Fig. 190, page 243, and, as will 
 be seen, are of a very simple character. In the ' Queen ' a box- 
 stringer is worked on the amidship part of the lower deck, and 
 formed as shown in Tig. ]17, by adding top and front 
 plates and connecting angle -irons, to the stringer arrange- -^ 
 
 ments which are continuous throughout the length of the j 
 ship. 
 
 A very peculiar arrangement of upper-deck stringer Fign^- 
 was fitted in the ' Sentinel ' (before referred to) before and abaft 
 the cabins. A stringer -plate of the usual form was worked 
 on the beam-ends, and, by means of a bent r-™ 
 
 plate formed and secured as shown in Fig. 118, 11 
 
 a kind of cellular arrangement was made. As 1 'i 
 
 far as the cabins extended a- box-stringer was ^____,,,-r-K^?\S*^ 
 Avorked on each side, the fittings being of /^^^^^^^^^l 
 such a character as to obviate the inconve- t==:^^ 
 niences which would have been caused if a box- \ 
 
 stringer had been continued throughout the ship's \ 
 
 length. 
 
 T . , . ^ig- 118. 
 
 In a paper on " Iron-Plated Ships," in the 
 Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1863, 
 Mr. Fairbairn proposes a novel means of strengthening the 
 upper deck. He suggests that six longitudinal cells should be 
 worked under the deck beams, four of them being rectangular 
 in section, and the other two forming a continuous stringer- 
 bracket on each side. The transverse beams are to.be H-iron 
 girders, and the upper deck is to be plated over, while the 
 hull of the ship is to be built on the system usually adopted 
 in H.M. Service, which combines the longitudinal and trans- 
 verse framing. The author states that this arrangement of girders 
 or cells, &c., would make the upper part of the ship of a corre- 
 sponding strength to that of the lower part, and supports his 
 proposal by the statement that " the cellular form is the only one 
 " calculated to attain the maximum powers of resistance with a 
 " flexible material such as wrought iron, and it has been demon- 
 " strated by direct experiment that nearly one-half the material 
 " is saved by the cellular system, or in other words it would require 
 " double the weight of metal on the deck of a ship to resist a cor- 
 " responding force of compression to that of extension." It will
 
 170. 
 
 Deck Stringers and Plating. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 be obvious that the height between decks is usually insufficient to 
 admit of this arrangement.* 
 
 At the extremities of an iron ship the stringers on the opposite 
 sides of a deck are usually joined, and the stringer angle-irons con- 
 tinued around the fore and after ends. Angle-iron stiffeners are 
 also worked in many ships around the inner edges of the fore part 
 of the stringers, which are thus converted into breasthooks, as was 
 previously stated. 
 
 Having illustrated the different arrangements of deck-stringers, 
 we turn to the consideration of the disposition and fastenings of 
 iron decks. The importance attaching to this subject results from 
 the fact previously stated, viz., that iron upper decks have become 
 almost universal in ships of war built in this country, and that the 
 employment of, at least, partial iron decks is becoming more 
 general for ships of the mercantile marine. 
 
 The usual disposition of plating, edge-strips, &c., of an iron 
 deck is shown in Fig. 119, and it will be seen that one strake of 
 
 rt:^::^; 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 
 I--I 
 
 
 rHE 
 
 EEIh 
 
 
 LI 
 
 u 
 
 la 
 
 "^W 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 plating comes between successive butts in the same beam space. 
 The butt-straps are treble-chain riveted, the alternate rivets being 
 left out in the rows next the butt. The edge-strips are single- 
 riveted, and both edge-strips and butt-straps are worked on the 
 upper side of the deck, the planking being scored down over them. 
 
 * Full details and illustrative sketches of this proposal will bo found in the 
 Transactions.
 
 CHAP. IX. Deck Stringers mid Plating. i^i 
 
 Double straps are very commonly employed in the butts of deck 
 plating. The holes in the beam flanges serve alternately for the 
 rivets in the iron deck and for the screw bolts in the deck planking. 
 Two strakes of the planking are shown in the sketch and marked jt?,ji?, 
 while their fastenings to the beam flanges are made larger for dis- 
 tinction. In some ships the deck fastenings are brought out into 
 the spaces between the beams, and this arrangement is preferable 
 to the preceding, as it tends to more uniformity of strength in the 
 plating than can be attained when a very weak line is caused in 
 wake of each beam flange by punching rivet and bolt holes, while 
 the plating between the beams retains its full strength. 
 
 The following details of the deck -plating of the ' Warrior ' are 
 of interest as illustrating the arrangements of the first iron-built 
 armour-clad frigates of the Koyal Navy. The whole surface of the 
 upper deck is covered with ^-inch plates worked flush at the joints, 
 and having double-riveted butt-straps, and feiugle-riveted edge- 
 strips. A tie-plate 24 inches broad is worked on each side of the 
 hatchways, and a stringer-plate 36 inches broad is worked round 
 the side, with diagonal tie-plates 24 inches broad running across 
 the deck. The whole of these plates are | inch thick and are 
 worked above the ^-inch plating ; the butt-straps are double and 
 treble riveted. The lengths of the plates are not less than 15 feet, 
 and the rivet heads are countersunk on the upper surface. All 
 the joints of the plates are made watertight. The stringer-plate 
 is attached to the sheer-strake by angle-irons, 6 by 4 by | inches 
 for 20 feet before and abaft the armour plates, and 5 by 3^ by 
 f inches for the remainder of the length of the deck. Short angle- 
 irons 4 by 4 by -^q inches are also worked between the frames on 
 the underside of the stringer and are riveted to the sheer-strake. 
 The main deck is entirely covered with ;^-inch plates, and two tie- 
 plates 20 inches broad, with a stringer-plate 4 feet 6 inches broad at 
 the ship's side, are worked upon the :^-inch plating. The thickness 
 of these plates, their lengths, arrangements of butt-straps, &c., are 
 the same as for the upper deck. The plating on this deck is 
 scored out against the outside plating and attached to it by short 
 angle-irons between the frames, both above and below, and 
 secured to the reversed frames by a continuous angle-iron 4 by 4 
 by Y^g inches. On the lower deck, stringer and tie plates are 
 worked, the former being the whole breadth of the wing-passage,
 
 172 Deck Stringers ajid Plating. Chap. ix. 
 
 and being secured to the outside plating in a similar manner to the 
 main-deck stringer. All these arrangements are illustrated by the 
 section of this ship given in Plate 3. 
 
 From the following details of the deck-plating of the vessels of 
 the ' Northumberland ' class the reader will see what was considered 
 to be an efficient top to the girder formed by those very long armour- 
 clad ships, plated to the extremities. The upper deck has a tie-plate 
 f inch thick and 30 inches wide on each side of the hatchways, the 
 width being decreased gradually to 20 inches at the ends. Be- 
 tween the tie-plates -j^g -inch plating is worked. At the side a f-inch 
 stringer-plate is worked of which the width amidships is 5 feet, 
 and forward and aft 4 feet. The deck between the tie-plates and 
 the stringer is covered with ^-inch plating. The butt-straps of the 
 f and \ inch plating are double and treble riveted, and the plates 
 are worked in lengths of 16 and 20 feet. All the plating is A\orked 
 flush on the beams, *and has single-riveted edge-strips. The rivet- 
 holes are countersunk in the upper surface of the plating, and all 
 the joints and butts are made watertight. The stringer plates are 
 attached to the sheer-strakes by angle-irons 6 by 4 by | inches, 
 worked above the stringer, and by short angle-irons 4 by 4 by -j^g 
 inches between the frames under the stringer. On the main deck 
 a tie-plate 20 inches broad, and a stringer-plate 4 feet broad are 
 fitted on each side, the thickness of both being f inch, and the 
 lengths of plates at least 20 feet. The butts are fastened and the 
 rivets countersunk as on the upper deck. The stringer-plates are 
 scored home to the ship's side and united thereto by short angle- 
 irons 4 by 4 by -j-^g inches, worked above and below the stringer, 
 and secured to the reversed angle-irons by a continuous angle-iron of 
 equal dimensions Avorl^ed on the upper side. On the lower deck a 
 stringer-plate \ inch thick and of the breadth of the wing-passage, 
 is fitted, and secured similarly to the main-deck stringer. Tie- 
 plates \ inch thick and 18 inches broad are worked on each side of 
 the hatchways, and the butt-straps of both stringer and tie plates 
 are double and treble riveted. 
 
 The ' Bellerophon's ' deck plating is arranged as follows : — On 
 the upper deck, from about 70 feet from the bow, and from 7 feet 
 out on each side of the middle line, the beams are covered with 
 ■^-inch steel plates, and on the fore side of this with ;^-inch steel- 
 plates. Over the central battery, and in wake of masts and capstans.
 
 Chap. IX. Deck Stringers and Plating. 173 
 
 the 14-feet space at the middle line is filled in with iron plates, as 
 are also the corresponding spaces at the extremities of the ship. 
 The butt-straps to the -^-inch steel-plates are double, each being 
 \ inch thick, and the straps to the :|^-inch plates are single, and of the 
 same thickness as the plates. The butts are treble-chain riveted, 
 with every other rivet left out in the rows nearest the butts. The 
 rivets used in the ^-inch plating are |-inch, and those in the |-inch 
 plating, ^-inch. In the single-riveted edge-strips, the pitch of the 
 rivets varies from 3 to 3-^ inches. The holes in the steel-plates 
 require to be carefully drilled. The whole surface of the main- 
 deck is covered with ^-inch iron plates, worked flush with edge- 
 strips and butt-straps of the same thickness. The edge-strips are 
 single, and the butts treble riveted, the diameter of the rivets being 
 |- inch, and the pitch from 4 to 4^ inches. On this deck, as well 
 as on the upper deck, the plating is directly attached to the 
 plating behind armour, but in this case the plating has to be 
 scored in between the frames and secured by short angle-irons. 
 The beams under the central battery of this ship are placed higher 
 than the beams of the main deck before and abaft the battery, the 
 lower side of the battery-beams being well with the upper side of 
 the main-deck beams. The object of this arrangement is to have 
 the port sill high out of the water, and at the same time to make 
 the height and weight of protecting armour before and abaft the 
 battery as small as possible, as explained on page 149. In order 
 to keep up the longitudinal connection on the main deck, the 
 stringer-plates on the beams before and abaft the battery are run 
 along under the battery beams as shown in Plate 4, and the plating 
 in the battery is made to scarph for the length of two beam spaces 
 with the plating on the other parts of the main deck. In conse- 
 quence of these arrangements no knees are formed on the battery- 
 beams, but the connection witli the side is made by vertical partial 
 bulkheads, which are fitted between the main and lower deck 
 stringers, and secured to them and to the frames. It may be added 
 that the main-deck plating in tliis ship is worked less on account 
 of the structural strength, than on account of the protection against 
 vertical fire which it affords to the parts of the ship before and abaft 
 the battery. On both the main and upper decks, the joints of the 
 plating are made watertight, and the holes in the upper flanges of 
 the beams are occupied alternately by rivets and screw bolts, the 
 former securing the plating, and the latter the deck-planking. On
 
 174 
 
 Deck Stringers and Plating. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 the lower deck a stringer-plate \ inch thick is worked, the butts 
 being secured by single butt-straps, treble-chain riveted. Tie- 
 plates 18 inches broad and \ inch thick are worked at the sides of 
 the hatchway's, and the butts are fastened similarly to those of the 
 stringers. The part of this deck abaft the stuffing-box bulkhead 
 is entuely covered with y^g-inch plating worked watertight, and 
 forming the after end of the hold into a compartment, as previously 
 described. 
 
 The arrangements of the ' Hercules' ' deck-plating are in most 
 respects similar to those of the ' Bellerophon.' The principal 
 differences are that the ' Hercules ' has |-inch plating on the main- 
 deck outside the battery, instead of ^-inch in the ' Bellerophon,' * 
 and that the butts of plating are double-chain riveted in the 
 'Hercules.' No tie-plates are worked on the lower-deck beams in 
 
 i..! 
 ! 
 
 1. J 
 
 !••! 
 
 I. 
 
 in 
 
 !. . 
 
 
 I! I 
 
 i. .1 
 I \\\ 
 I.I.I 
 
 
 iti 
 
 < I 
 
 |.|J 
 ; II I 
 
 I- •' 
 
 ' I 
 i.i. 
 
 I 1 1 
 
 !-i-l 
 
 .1.1 
 
 i-i 
 
 j.i.l 
 I I I 
 
 !' 1 
 
 i.i.l 
 I- -I 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 tl 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 -ncr 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 this ship, nor is the deck plated over abaft the stuffing-box bulk- 
 head, as the flat below the lower deck is worked watertight instead. 
 A plan of a portion of the upper-deck plating of the ' Hercules ' is 
 given in Fig. 120. The plate a is the stringer and the row of 
 rivet-holes on its outer edge takes the fastenings of the stringer 
 angle-irons connecting it with the skin-plating. The rows marked 
 c, c take the fastenings of the angle-irons which form the gutter 
 waterway, of which a section is given in Plate 5. The butts of the 
 
 * The height of the main deck of the ' Hercules ' is much greater than tlmt of tlie 
 * Bellerophon,' and tlierefore less exposed to injur)- in a naval engagement.
 
 Chap. IX. Deck StriJigers and Plati7ig. 1 75 
 
 stringer a are treble-chain riveted, and in order to keep the bottom 
 of the gutter waterway flush, the butt-straps are worked below the 
 stringer. Where the rows c, c cross the butt one rivet is left out in 
 the butt fastening in order to avoid too great a weakening of the 
 angle-irons. The diagonal arrangement of butts is adopted, and 
 there are consequently two strakes between consecutive butts in 
 the same beam space. The edges of the strakes of deck are joined 
 by single-riveted straps, and the butts by double-chain riveted 
 straps. These straps are double to the ;|-inch steel plates, and 
 single to the :|^-inch steel plates. In this ship the fastenings of the 
 deck-planking are brought out between the beams as shown for a 
 few strakes in the sketch. This arrangement has the double 
 advantage of rendering the pitch of the holes in wake of the beams 
 considerably greater, and of preventing the deck-plating from 
 " bagging " down, or becoming concave on the upper surface, 
 between the beams, when it is subject to a compressive strain. It 
 will readily be seen that the deck fastenings in this case hold up 
 the plating and. form points of support intermediate between the 
 beams. 
 
 In low-decked turret-ships, where there is great need of pro- 
 tection against vertical fire, and where, unless special arrangements 
 were made, the upper deck would be very seriously weakened by the 
 large holes required for the turrets, it is usual to work a very strong 
 iron deck. In some ships this deck is made up of layers of plates. 
 A brief description of the arrangements adopted on the main deck 
 of the Italian iron-clad turret-ship ' Affondatore,' will be of interest. 
 In this ship the armour is only carried up to the height of the main 
 deck, and, for the reasons above stated, the plating of that deck is 
 formed of two layers of plates, each 1 inch thick. The edges of the 
 plates of one thickness are placed just in the centre of the strakes 
 of the other thickness, and the butts of the two thicknesses form 
 steps in which the shift for adjacent strakes of the same thickness 
 varies from 5 to 6 feet, the lengths of plates used being about 
 12 feet. The butt of an underlying strake is placed about midway 
 between the butts of the strakes of the upper thickness which rest 
 upon it. The upper thickness of plating is ended inside the frames, 
 but the lower thickness is run out to the side, and attached to the 
 plating. 
 
 In the paper on " Iron Decks and Stringers " previously alluded 
 to, Mr. Barnaby proposes a new mode of plating iron decks, by
 
 176 Deck Strmgers and Plating. Chap. ix. 
 
 means of which the tensile strength of the unperforated plates 
 intervening between adjacent butts is to be made equal, or nearly 
 equal, to the strength of the intervening plates together with that 
 of one of the butted plates across a line of rivet-holes on a beam. 
 By this arrangement spaces of uniform strength are formed in 
 which elongation can take place, and thus increase the amount of 
 work requiring to be done to produce rupture. The principle here 
 carried out is identical with that explained when illustrating 
 Mr. Barnaby's proposal with respect to stringers and tie-plates. 
 The deck fastenings are put between the beams, instead of in the 
 beam-flanges, and instead of strapping the butts, spaces are left 
 between them, while three plates intervene between consecutive 
 butts in the same beam space. The length of the intervals which 
 separate the ends of adjacent plates of the same strake, is 
 determined by the number of rivets which can be placed in the 
 edge of the butted plate between the beam and the butt, as there 
 must be siifBcient to break the plate across the beam. A short 
 piece of edge-strip is worked on the underside from the beam to 
 the butt, and doubles the shearing strength of the rivets, so that 
 the intervals between the butts will be about one-third of the beam 
 space.* ]\[r. Barnaby sums up the advantages of the proposed plan 
 as follow : — 
 
 1. In the ordinary system one-fifth or one-sixth of the iron is 
 punched away ; by that proposed only one-ninth or one-tenth 
 is punched out. There is from this cause a gain in tensile 
 strength, to which must be added an increase of strength in 
 the iron between the holes. These are together equal to 
 about 12 per cent. 
 
 2. The strength of an iron deck under compression is limited 
 
 not by the area of section, but by its resistance to buckling 
 between the beams. According to the ordinary mode this 
 is very small, since it is quite free to bend downwards 
 between the beams. But by spacing the deck fastening at 
 intervals of 2 feet instead of 3 feet 6 inches, the tendency 
 to buckling would be reduced. The wooden deck would thus 
 by its own resistance to compression, and by the support it 
 gives to the plates, play a most useful part in compression, 
 
 * For full details of the proposal sec the Transactions of the Institution of Naval 
 Architects for 186(i.
 
 Chap. IX. Deck Stringers and Plating. 177 
 
 although it is powerless against extension when in connection 
 with iron. I therefore conclude that no loss of compressive 
 strength is incurred by the holes in the plates. 
 
 3. All the holes for receiving the deck-fastenings may be 
 punched, whereas if the fastenings are in the beam-flanges 
 the holes for them must be drilled either in the plates or in 
 the beams. 
 
 4. The expense of cutting, fitting, punching, and riveting butt- 
 
 straps is avoided. Where the material employed is steel, 
 the gain is more considerable, as all the holes in the butts of 
 the plates and in the straps would require to be drilled. 
 
 5. The weight of material omitted at the butts amounts to one- 
 
 seventh of the whole material employed. 
 
 6. There is a gain in strength against injury and rupture by 
 
 the action of sudden forces, the amount of which is not 
 susceptible of calculation, but which being in proportion 
 to the extent of the spaces of uniform strength which 
 have been introduced is, I think, very considerable. 
 
 There can be no doubt that, where the strength of the deck is 
 required for structural purposes only, this is a very economical and 
 good arrangement, although not applicable to decks which are 
 liable to be struck by shot or shell. 
 
 The upper deck of the ' Great Eastern ' differs in its construc- 
 tion from that of other iron ships. It is a cellular iron structure of 
 which the top and bottom are formed of long plates, worked in two 
 thicknesses, each of -^-inch plate. Sketches are given in Mr. Scott 
 Russell's work on Naval Architecture which illustrate the details of 
 the construction. In the description of the upper deck there given 
 it is stated that the butts are secured by double-riveted butt-straps, 
 and it is added that " the plates themselves being in pairs break 
 "joint and serve as butt-plates to one another, and it is only 
 "where they do not supply this function that butt-plates are 
 " needed." 
 
 The employment of wood planking for the decks of iron vessels 
 is almost universal, even when iron decks are laid on the beams. 
 In some cases, however, iron-plates similar to those used in the 
 flats of stoke-holes have been laid on the beams and riveted to them 
 so as to form the surface of the deck. The objectionable features 
 of this arrangement are, the discomfort resulting to the crew, and 
 
 N
 
 178 
 
 Deck Stringei^s aiid Plating. 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 the fact that tlie moisture in the interior of the ship rising in the 
 form of vapour becomes condensed under the iron deck, of which 
 the upper surface is acted upon by the external atmosphere, and 
 the water tlms produced does injury to both sliip and cargo. In a 
 few other cases, as in the ' Scorpion ' and ' Wivern ' built by 
 Messrs. Laird, iron plates have been laid on the deck-planking. In 
 these ships this was done to protect the deck, but the inconveniences 
 resulting were such .as to cause the removal of the iron plates. 
 The objections stated above to an exposed iron deck, do not apply 
 to one on which a wooden deck is laid, as the wood-planking 
 renders it almost unaffected by slight variations of the external 
 temperature. As the employment of wooden decks is thus 
 universal it is necessary to consider the deck-fastenings usually 
 employed, in both iron beams and iron decks. In some ship- 
 building yards the holes for the deck-fastenings are punched in the 
 beam-flanges or angle-irons before the beams are put in place, with- 
 out taking account of the positions which the strakes of planking 
 will occupy. This practice is a bad one, as it often brings the 
 fastening too near the edge of the strake ; and, in order to avoid this 
 evil, it is now the common practice to drill or punch the holes for the 
 deck-fastenings after the beams have been put in, and the disposition 
 of the deck-planking has been made. In most ships each plank is 
 secured by a bolt in each beam-flange. Lloyd's Rules require two 
 bolts in each plank in every beam where the planks exceed six 
 inches in width, one of which may be a short screw-bolt if the 
 planks are not wider than eight inches. The different modes of 
 fastening which have been adopted aro illustrated in the followmg 
 
 cfr-i 
 
 ^70=^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 sketches. The fastening: shown inFisr. 121 consists of a wood screw 
 hove up from beneath and passing into the plank for about three- 
 fourths of the thickness ; that illustrated by Fig. 122 is formed by 
 a screw-bolt driven down from above, and secured by a nut hove 
 up underneath the flange or iron deck ; that given in Fig. 123
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 Deck Stringers and Plating. 
 
 179 
 
 consists of a screw-bolt hove up from beneath, and secured by a nut 
 let down into the plank ; and the fourth arrangement in Fig. 124, 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 which is sometimes made in the decks of merchant ships, is formed 
 by combining the first two fastenings, care being taken that the wood 
 screws on adjacent beams shall fasten opposite edges of a plank. 
 The second plan of fastening is that most usually employed. 
 
 An unusual kind of deck-fastening employed by Messrs. Harland 
 and Wolff, the eminent shipbuilders of Belfast, is illustrated in 
 detail in Fig. 125. This is a 
 watertight fastening, and, as will 
 be seen, tlie iron nut is itself 
 screwed up into the deck-plating, 
 and the screw-bolt hove down into 
 the thread on the inside of the 
 nut. The bolt-head li is very wide, 
 and is hove down upon a washer, 
 w, so as to ensure a fair bearing, 
 and prevent the bolt-head from being worked into the planking 
 when hove in. The nuts are formed of malleable cast iron, and 
 the cavity below the screw thread is filled with tallow before the 
 bolts are put in. In order to ensure that the bolt-holes in the 
 planks shall be correctly bored, a nut with the bolt-hole bored 
 through the bottom is used. This nut is screwed up into the deck 
 and the auger passed up through it in boring the hole. After the 
 hole has been bored this nut is taken out of place and one of the 
 complete nuts put in its place, after which the deck-bolt is hove in. 
 
 The decks of an iron ship are usually caulked in a similar 
 manner to those of a wooden ship ; but in some few instances iron 
 tongues have been worked in the edges of the planks so as to 
 form a stop for the caulk. The expense of the latter plan has led 
 to its disuse. Where holes are made in the surface of the deck for 
 bolts or nuts, plugs dipped in paint are driven in to prevent 
 leakage. n 2
 
 i8o 
 
 Outside Platmg. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 OUTSIDE PLATING. 
 
 The skin of a ship is obviously a very important part of her 
 structure ; and in an iron ship, where the edges and butts of the 
 plates are strongly connected, it forms a continuous shell well 
 adapted for resisting strains in all directions. But while it is 
 true that a well-built iron ship, of which the proportions, scant- 
 lings, and arrangements of framing, fastenings, and butts of plating, 
 have been well considered, forms a structure of almost perfect 
 rigidity, and of immense strength, it is also true that in many 
 ships in which the quantity of material employed is large, a pro- 
 portionate strength is not obtained, on account of the fact that 
 proper care has not been taken in determining the details of the 
 construction. Among the most important of these details, the ar- 
 rangements of the plates of the skin and their fasten- 
 ings are placed by the common consent of ship- 
 bjiilders. Instances of weakness resulting from a 
 bad shift of butts in the plating and longitudinal 
 framing were given in the commencement of this 
 work. The arrangements of outside plating which 
 have been, and are at present in use, will now be 
 more fully considered and described ; and, as in the 
 preceding pages the older methods have been first 
 given, so here the plating of the earlier iron ships 
 will be first illustrated. 
 
 The oldest method of plating is that shown in 
 section by Fig. 126, and further illustrated by the 
 part section of the ' Dover,' given in Fig. 70, p. 74. 
 The edges of the strakes of plating were fitted against 
 one another, and the flush-joints thus formed were 
 covered by internal edge-strips. These strips were 
 worked in as great lengths as possible, and their 
 butts connected either by short butt-straps, or by 
 thinning down the ends and riveting through the overlap. In 
 this, as in all succeeding arrangements, the butts of the plates 
 were flush-jointed, and secured by internal butt-straps. These 
 
 T3 
 
 
 \ 
 
 O 
 
 [ 
 
 1 
 
 [ 
 
 1 
 
 3^ 
 
 0| 
 
 ! 
 
 o 
 
 [ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 [ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 [ 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 126.
 
 O! 
 
 ci 
 
 o\ 
 
 o\ 
 
 Ol 
 
 Chap. X. Outside Plating. 1 8 1 
 
 straps were in some ships worked between the edge-strips, and 
 in other ships were joggled over the strips so as to extend the 
 whole width of the plate, and take the rivets forming the edge- 
 fastening, as shown by the section marked a in Fig. 126. The 
 latter method was superior to the former, both as respects strength 
 and the facilities it afforded for caulking. On account of the edge- 
 strips being worked inside the plates, liners had to be fitted at 
 each frame. These liners were of the same thickness as the edge- 
 strips, and, usually, were as wide as the frames. The edge-riveting 
 adopted was sometimes single, and sometimes double ; all the rivets 
 were countersunk on the outside of the plating.* 
 
 The greater simplicity of the clinker arrangement of plating, 
 shown in Fig. 127, led to its general adoption in preference to the 
 arrangement above described. In the clinker-built ships 
 the plates of adjacent strakes were lapped over each 
 other, and the edge-riveting passed through both thick- 
 nesses. The liners between the plates and the frames 
 were wedge-shaped, and had to be specially prepared- 
 In some vessels, instead of fitting these plate-liners, mere 
 plate-washers were put in between the plating and the 
 frames in wake of the rivet-holes, and thus the plates 
 were only supported at these points and at their edges. 
 This latter practice, however, was strongly condemned by 
 the greater number of shipbuilders. In addition to the 
 expense of properly fitting the liners of a clinker-built 
 ship, there was the disadvantage of having the vertical 
 strains borne by the rivets, instead of by the plate- Fig. 127. 
 edges as in the preceding arrangement. But, on the other hand, 
 the clinker plan of plating had the advantage of only requiring 
 in the edges one-half the rivets which were necessary when internal 
 joint-strips were employed ; and the edges of the plates requii-ed 
 much less care and precision in fitting. The cost of materials and 
 workmanship was thus reduced, and by means of the lap-joint the 
 caulking of the edges was more easily performed. For these 
 reasons the clinker arrangement was prevalent for some years, 
 until it was superseded by the now almost universal mode of 
 plating. In some of the earlier iron ships the above-named ad- 
 vantages of the flush and clinker plans of plating led to the com- 
 
 * It may be of interest to state that this plan of plating has recently been adoj^ted 
 in tlie construction of some iron ships buikling at the Palmer Company's yard at 
 Jarrow-on-Tyne.
 
 1 82 Outside Plating. Chap. x. 
 
 bination of the two methods. Thus in the ' Dover ' and ' Megaera,' 
 the plating was worked flush on the broadside where there were 
 considerable vertical strains, and ch'nker-fashion from the keel out 
 to the turn of the bilge where these strains were inconsiderable. 
 
 The usual lengths of plates formerly employed were from 7 to 
 8 feet, and their breadth amidships 2 feet. The shift of butts 
 generally adopted was that shown in Fig. 133, p. 189, where there 
 is one strake between every two butts in the same vertical line. 
 The thickness of the plates used varied, of course, with the dimen- 
 sions of the vessel, and the common rule formerly in use was to 
 make the thickness of plating in similar vessels proportional either 
 to a single dimension in each, or to the cube roots of the products 
 of the three principal dimensions in each. The thickness of the 
 plating near the keel was usually greatest, and that of the plating 
 between wind and w^ater least ; the variation in some cases being 
 as great as from 1 inch to f inch. The plates used were very 
 light as compared with those now employed. The processes of 
 fitting the joints and butts of the plates were extremely rough, 
 and were usually completed by the projecting parts being ham- 
 mered down by the workman, the joint being made watertight 
 with the caulking-tool after the plates were riveted. In some 
 cases the Scotch sliipbuilders did not take even this trouble to 
 make close joints, but drove in strips of iron, and caulked the 
 edges to them, in the plating above the water-line. An instance 
 of want of care in this respect is found in the case of the ' John 
 Garrow,' an iron sailing-sliip of 555 tons, built at Aberdeen in 
 1838, which, after a single voyage to Bombay was thoroughly 
 repaired at Liverpool by JMr. Grantham. Among other defects 
 named by the arbitrators appointed to determine whether the 
 contract between the builders and the proprietors had been pro- 
 perly carried out were the following : — " That the outside seams 
 " or joints of the plates w^ere very large and filled in with wood 
 " and iron cement, and that it was necessary that these joints 
 " should be cleared out and caulked in the usual manner. The 
 " spaces between the plates and frames ought to have been filled 
 " with wedge-shaped liners, instead of cement as they were." 
 This employment of cement instead of making close joints is stated 
 by ]M. Dupuy de Lome to have been very general at Glasgow and 
 Greenock when he visited those places, but it was from the first 
 opposed by most shipbuilders, and has fallen into disuse. 
 
 Having briefly illustrated the modes of plating which have been
 
 Chap. X, Outside Plating. 183 
 
 adopted, we turn to the consideration of the plan now in general use. 
 This plan is illustrated in Fig. 128. It was introduced, we believe, 
 simultaneously and independently by Mr. Scott Eussell 
 and Mr. J. R. Napier. In this arrangement each alternate 
 strake is worked directly on the frames, and the interme- 
 diate strakes form an outer layer, each strake of which 
 overlaps the edges of the two adjoining strakes of the inner 
 layer. The strakes worked on the frames are termed 
 sunken or inside strakes, and those of the outer layer raised 
 or outside strakes. It will be evident that while this plan 
 has the same advantages in respect of riveting and caulk- 
 ing as are possessed by the clinker arrangement, it has the 
 additional advantage of requiring liners to one -half the 
 strakes only, and these liners are all of parallel thickness, 
 instead of being wedge-shaped as in the clinker plan of 
 plating. Hence it follows that the modern plan more 
 effectively combines the shell of a ship with the frame, 
 and does this at a less cost for workmanship in preparing 
 the liners than would be necessary if the clinker plan were 
 adopted. The butts of adjacent plates in the same strake 
 are connected by internal butt-straps, and the edge-riveting 
 is sometimes double, and sometimes single, while in some 
 ships one part is double-riveted and the rest single. The 
 subject of riveting will be fully treated of further on. 
 
 Another plan of plating is illustrated in section in ^'°' ^^^* 
 Fig. 129. A patent was taken out by Mr. Seaton in 1852 
 for applying this arrangement to the bottom-plating of ships 
 from the keel up to the water-line, and in 1856 Mr. Lamb, 
 of Southampton, patented the application of this arrange- 
 ment to outside plating in general. All the plates are 
 worked directly on the frames, liners being altogether dis- 
 pensed with, and the flush longitudinal joints are covered 
 by external edge-strips. In the specification of Mr. Lamb's 
 patent it is stated that these strips may either be confined 
 to the breadth sufficient to take the rivets forming the 
 edge-fastenings, or they may be worked as a complete 
 outer skin, thus forming a flush bottom within and without. 
 The arrangement illustrated by Fig. 129 is that commonly 
 known as Lamb's patent. This plan has the advantages, 
 before spoken of, which result from the fact that flush horizontal 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 r ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 [| 
 
 01 1 
 
 J 
 
 Oi 1 
 
 
 1 L 
 
 oi 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 oi 
 
 Ki 
 
 Fig. 129.
 
 184 Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 seams will sustain the greatest vertical force, and take its shear- 
 ing effect from the rivets. But it also possesses the disad- 
 vantages which are caused by the number of rivets in the edge- 
 fastening being double the number required for an ordinary- 
 lap-joint of equal strength. It may be further assumed, as war- 
 ranted by general experience, that in a ship plated in the usual 
 manner the strength of the side is am])ly sufficient to resist vertical 
 strains ; and that the reduction in vertical strength made by the 
 usual plan of plating is compensated for by the increased economy, 
 and tlie strength to resist disturbance in the relative positions of 
 the plates, which result. Experience shows also that strip-iron is 
 deficient in strength both when sheared and when in bars, and 
 this together with the width, and consequently weight, required 
 for the strips, constitute objections to the plan. It has, however, 
 been employed in the construction of a few vessels, and has been 
 highly spoken of by some shipbuilders. Mr. Grantham says, " I 
 " consider this plan gives the greatest amount of strength with the 
 " same amount of iron of any system of jointing yet proposed ; 
 " and I should like to see a large vessel so built." The plating 
 of the large unarmoured iron frigate 'Inconstant' is, for a par- 
 ticular purpose, worked flush with external edge-strips, the strips 
 being made thick enough to receive the fastenings of wood-plank- 
 ing worked upon the outside as a sheathing. In tlie earlier iron- 
 clads the skin-plating in wake of armour is worked flush with 
 external edge-strips, as will be seen on reference to the section 
 of the ' Warrior ' in Plate 3. In the ' Bellerophon,' and other of the 
 later iron-clad frigates, the skin-plating in wake of armour is worked 
 flush, and made up of two thicknesses. The arrangements adopted 
 in the ' Bellerophon ' and the ' Hercules ' are given in section 
 in Plates 4 and 5. The outer thiclaiess of skin-plating has single- 
 riveted edge-strips on the outside, but there are no edge-strips to 
 the inner thickness. The widths of the strakes of plating are so 
 determined as to admit of one row of rivets in the edges of the 
 inside thickness being worked in as fastenings in the longitudinal 
 girders. In the vessels of the ' Invincible ' class now building, the 
 two thicknesses of skin-plating behind armour have no edge-strips 
 or butt-straps, but are single-riveted to each other at both edges 
 and butts. This plan reduces the tensile strength of the two 
 thicknesses to a certain extent, but this is not so objectionable 
 as it may at first appear, in consequence of the fact that the
 
 Chap. X. Outside Plating. 185 
 
 double thickness of plating is introduced in order to increase 
 the resisting power of the side, and is not required for structural 
 strength. It should be added that the employment of two thick- 
 nesses of plating has the advantage of requiring much smaller 
 rivets than would be necessary if the plating were in one thickness, 
 and the frames are consequently much less weakened. 
 
 The unprotected parts of the later iron-clads above the armour- 
 belts are flush-plated, the edge-strips being worked inside. In 
 order, however, to avoid the use of liners, all the plates are worked 
 directly upon the frames, and the edge-strips are worked in short 
 lengtlis between the frames. In wake of the channels doubling 
 plates are worked between the frames to receive the fastenings of 
 the chain-plates, and consequently the edge-strips are there dis- 
 pensed with. This plan of plating has not been adopted in any 
 other parts of the iron-clads, the bottom-plating of which vessels is 
 in all cases worked on the usual plan of inside and outside strakes. 
 
 Another mode of plating, which has been proposed by Mr. Daft, 
 differs from all the preceding arrangements in not making close 
 joints at the butts of the plates. The system on which the butts 
 and joints are formed grew out of a desire to apply zinc-sheathing 
 directly to iron ships. Longitudinal strips of plating are worked 
 inside the plates in order to take the edge-riveting, and the plates 
 are separated at both edges and butts so as to form grooves. 
 Strips of teak are afterwards fitted into these grooves, and the 
 zinc sheathing is fastened to the teak. But independently of the 
 facilities for sheathing furnished by this method, the proposer claims 
 for it the advantages both of the flush and lap jointed systems of 
 plating. He supports this claim by the statement that, by means 
 of the separation of the edges and butts of adjacent plates, all the 
 joints are virtually lap-joints, which require less care in fitting, 
 and can be better caulked than butt-joints ; while by means of the 
 teak strips filling up the grooves the ship's bottom is made a flush- 
 surface. Full details of the system and of the advantages claimed 
 for it will be found in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval 
 Architects for 1866. The objections made to its adoption are, that 
 there is an increase in the weight of material employed, and in the 
 labour of punching, riveting, &c., as compared with the usual 
 systems of plating. 
 
 Coming now to the illustration of the disposition of the butts and 
 edges of outside plating, we shall assume that the system of plating 
 with alternate inside and outside strakes is the only one taken into
 
 1 86 Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 consideration. The usual mode of procedure in arranging the 
 plating of an iron ship is as follows : — The breadths of the plates 
 are set off on the drawing of the midship section, and then either 
 a model of one side of the ship or- an expansion drawing is pre- 
 pared, on which to set off the edges and butts of the plates. The 
 expansion drawing is necessarily inaccurate, on account of the fact 
 that the surface of a ship is what is known in geometry as an 
 undevelopable surface, that is, it cannot be truly flattened out on a 
 plane surface. Consequently the lines drawn upon the exjDansion 
 drawing are only rude approximations to the true forms of the edges. 
 On the model, however, the form of every plate is truly shown, and 
 fair edges can be more readily obtained. These reasons have led to 
 the general adoption of the model for the purpose of disposing the 
 plating, tliough in some cases the expansion drawing is still used 
 for this purpose. The breadths of plates having been transferred 
 to the model, or to the expansion drawing, lines are drawn through 
 the points thus obtained, to represent the edges of the plates, and 
 the butts are disposed of. 
 
 In some ships all the strakes, varied in breadth so as to give 
 fair lines, are run throughout the whole length ; but in many 
 vessels the number of strakes is reduced at the bow and stern, by 
 working some of them as stealers, i. e., stopping them short of the 
 stem and stern-post, and working tlie stealer and an adjacent strake 
 into one. The manner in which stealers are worked is illustrated 
 in the succeeding sketches. The first plan, illustrated in Fig. 130, 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 was adopted in the ' Achilles.' The strake of plating marked h was 
 first worked, and before it was put in place the lower edge, from 
 the frame d to the butt / was twisted outward through a distance 
 equal to the thickness of the plating, and was planed straight 
 through for the breadth of the lap as shown in dotted lines in the 
 horizontal section of the lap given in the sketch. The strake c
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Otitside Plating. 
 
 187 
 
 was then put on and the foremost plate was shaped so as to com- 
 plete the strakes h and c from the butt / to the stem. On tlie 
 fore side of the butt / the plate c was twisted in on the upper edge 
 so as to underlap the lower edge of the strake a, which was then 
 put in place. The butt/ was about 15 inches wide, and was placed 
 at such a distance from the frame e as to admit of a treble-riveted 
 butt-strap, of which the after edge was well with the end of the 
 snape in the lower edge of the plate h. The butt/ and the chased 
 part of the edge of h were caulked similarly to a butt-joint, but the 
 lap of the plates a and was caulked in the usual manner. On 
 the frame e and the other frames between it and the stem, tapered 
 liners had to be fitted under the strake c, which was there worked 
 clinker-fashion on account of the strake h having been butted. 
 
 The next two sketches are illustrations of different methods of 
 arranging the butts of stealers, which have been adopted in the 
 ' Captain,' The first of these in Fig. 131 shows the plan followed 
 a 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 1 i 
 
 £ 
 
 r 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 oooiooo 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 00 oio 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 1 s 
 
 
 
 "6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 5ECTI0N OF LAP 
 
 T 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 when the stealer is an inside strake. From the section at a 5 it 
 '\\ill be seen that the lower edge of the stealer s is planed away 
 so as to aUow the upper edge of the strake t to chase in. The 
 rabbet or chasing thus formed is snaped away as shown by the hori- 
 zontal section through the lap of the stealer. It ends at the dotted 
 line marked h, just before the frame e. Beyond the line h the 
 stealer is reduced in width by the breadth of the lap, and the strakes 
 s and t are flush-jointed as far forward as the butt g. From the 
 section at e c? and the plan, it will be seen that the butt-strap to 
 the stealer serves also to secure the flush-joint of the plates s and t.
 
 Oittside Plating. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 The second arrangement of the butt of a stealer given in Fig. 
 132 is tliat adopted where the stealer is an outside strake. Here 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 r 
 
 o 
 
 e 
 
 
 o 
 y 
 
 o 
 
 
 ol 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 O O i o o o 
 
 o 
 
 ol 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 
 o_^ 
 
 o o o j o o o 
 
 oo'ofy'Qo" 
 i^oojggo 
 
 o ° S^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 Ol 
 
 'o' 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 o. 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 t 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 T 
 
 ? — 
 
 
 
 // 
 
 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 the upper edge of the strake t is chased away for some distance 
 abaft the frame e, as shown in the section at a b. The chasing ends 
 at the dotted line marked h, between which and the butt (/ the 
 strakes s and t are flush-jointed, and are secured by the butt-strap 
 in a similar manner to that described above. 
 
 Near the extremities of the ship the usual plan is to thin away 
 the laps of the plates, so that the inside and outside strakes may 
 chase into each other, and form a flush surface. In some ships the 
 same object is attained by working the plates flush-jointed for a 
 short distance, and securing the edges by internal strips. In the 
 later iron-clad frigates of the Royal Navy the outside bottom 
 plating for about 40 feet from the bow has been doubled, in order 
 to take the wear of the anchors and cables, and to increase the 
 strength for ramming. 
 
 The butts of outside plating on one side of a ship are generally 
 opposite those on the other side. The exceptions, in most cases, 
 are the butts of the garboards, and those of the plating of tlie fine 
 parts of the vessel, where the two sides are within a few feet or 
 inches of each other. In arranging a shift of butts in which the 
 butts of the garboard on one side are not opposite those on the other 
 side, it is not possible to alter the shift so as to have the remaining 
 butts ahke on both sides, and at the same time to get as good an 
 arrangement where the alteration is made as at all other parts 
 of the ship, with plates of the same length. On this account, and 
 in order to avoid the use of longer plates, the arrangement of butts 
 made for the garboards and adjoining strakes is sometimes carried 
 throughout the ship, thus making the whole of the butts on one side
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 189 
 
 fall in different frame spaces from tliose which they occupy on the 
 other side. 
 
 In arranging a shift of butts care has to be taken to adjust it so 
 as to suit the positions of the scuttles and ports, and, in fact, these 
 go far towards determining the positions of some of the joints and 
 butts of the topside plating, and fixing the lengths and breadths of 
 the plates. In all well-built ships the butts of deck-stringers, 
 and of internal plating and angle-irons, are shifted as far as possible 
 from the adjacent butts of outside plating. The importance of this 
 was illustrated in the case previously given (p. 14), where a ship 
 with a large quantity of material in her hull, broke down through 
 a series of butts of plating, stringers, &c. 
 
 The butts of outside plating are generally placed midway 
 between the frames, and their usual arrangements are shown in the 
 following sketches. The disposition of butts given in Fig. 133 is 
 
 
 _ ji n 
 
 ^ n 
 
 n n 
 
 n 
 
 \_i\ i.1 l\ IJ .|__ll u 1 1 __) 
 
 II 11 
 
 riT — ii ' ttn 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 1 ! II 
 
 — il 
 
 1 1 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 1' I I ' 
 
 1 1 II 
 
 ! II ■ . 1 II 
 
 1 
 
 l_ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 11 II 
 II II 
 
 Il II II II 
 II II 11 II 
 
 II 11 II II 
 
 11 
 1 1 
 1 1 ._ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ii i] ii i 
 
 [] l[ M L 
 
 11 j 1 ir 
 11 M 
 
 II M 
 
 L.| 4J i..) 
 
 
 . il il 
 
 II ! 1 
 
 !! ii 
 !l II 
 
 i 1 
 ^1 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 1 1 
 1 1 
 
 U 
 
 
 M ! ! 1! L' 
 
 __ i IT" 
 
 __[i; i j[___ 
 
 li 1; 1 II ii ;| 11 .1 t! ; 
 
 
 u u 
 
 u u 
 
 u u 
 
 u 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 that which was formerly almost universally adopted. It is known 
 as the hrich arrangement, and with the short plates formerly in 
 use no bett«r arrangement could be made. It is still adopted in the 
 construction of many iron ships. The butts of alternate strakes 
 are in one vertical line, each butt being placed at the middle of the 
 lefigth of the plates above and below it. It may be remarked, in 
 passing, that this arrangement brings the butts of the inside strakes 
 on one set of vertical lines, and those of the outside strakes on 
 another set. Some builders, in order to make all the strakes appear 
 of equal breadths, work the inside strakes broader than the outside 
 strakes by twice the width of the lap. Others prefer having the 
 inside and outside strakes of equal breadths. The cost of labour
 
 I90 
 
 Outside Plathig. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 and materials is the same for both arrangements, but, presuming 
 the butts to be places of weakness even when strapped, the latter 
 arrangement is the stronger of the two, although the difference is 
 not great. For, if the plates of the inside strakes are all wider than 
 those of the outside strakes, the ship will not be so strong through 
 a line of butts of the inside strakes as through one of the liues of 
 butts of the outside strakes. But if the strakes are of equal width 
 the strength at the two lines of butts will be equal. And it is 
 evident that the ship will be stronger through any line of butts 
 in the latter an-angement, than through a corresponding line of 
 butts of the inside strakes in the former arrangement. 
 
 The next disposition of butts given in Fig. 134 is known as the 
 : p ^R- fi D R R O q CL 
 
 
 J-l Ll 
 
 
 ti-Mj= 
 
 43 ti d n b 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 diagonal arrangement, and is now in common use on the Mersey, 
 Clyde, and Tyne, and in the construction of the iron ships of the 
 „ _ „ „ Royal Navy. There are 
 always two strakes be- 
 tween consecutive butts 
 in the same frame space, 
 and the butts of adjacent 
 strakes are never nearer 
 than two frame spaces. 
 It will also be remarked 
 that the successive butts 
 in the same frame space 
 are alternately those of 
 inside and outside strakes. 
 The disposition of butts illustrated by Fig. 136 is adopted in the 
 
 "C D" 
 
 Fig. 135.
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 191 
 
 outside plating of the ' Inconstant,' the arrangements of which have 
 been previously described. The sketch is, however, drawn to 
 represent the ordinary mode of plating. There are three passing 
 strakes between consecutive butts in the same vertical line, and the 
 lengths of plate used extend over four frame spaces. In some 
 instances the butts of successive strakes are only one frame space 
 apart ; but as this is 3 feet 6 inches in this ship, the shift obtained 
 very nearly agrees with that required by Lloyd's Eules, which 
 state that a shift of two frame spaces must be obtained, and fix the 
 spacing of the frames at from 21 to 24 inches. 
 
 The fourth disposition of butts shown in Fig. 136 has four 
 
 , p p. — 
 
 i.l.-,....li_- 
 
 n 
 
 P — j 
 
 ...it 
 
 -_D. IJ . ) 
 
 
 i.l. . : ! Li i-i U 
 
 ii 
 
 i-! 
 
 [[""""'jr'" 
 
 
 ..-_!.!. 1 ! — 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 J L 
 
 
 ] r ■ ■ 1 1- II ' 1 i 1 
 
 11 1 \ 
 
 
 
 X""X" 
 
 i 
 
 || 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 i 1 ! 1 
 
 1 II 
 
 
 1 11 li 
 
 — ij .. 
 
 ■■"I'r 
 
 ""[[""' 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ■1 — 
 J.— 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 — h 
 
 h — ' — i"^ h 11 h il 
 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 U 
 
 u ■ 
 
 u 
 
 
 u 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 passing strakes between consecutive butts in the same vertical 
 line. Each plate is five fi-ame spaces in length and the butts of 
 adjacent stralies are never nearer than two frame spaces. In this, 
 as in the second disposition, successive butts in the same vertical 
 line are alternately those of inside and outside strakes. 
 
 The sketch in Fig. 137 illustrates the arrangements of the butts 
 and edges of the armour plates, and of the two thicknesses of skin- 
 plating behind armour, of the 'Hercules.' The butts of armour 
 plates are marked a, those of the outer thickness of skin-plating h, 
 and those of the inner thickness c. The lines s, s are the stations 
 of the frames behind armour, and are 2 feet apart. The armour 
 plates are 16 feet in length, and their butts are arranged brick 
 fashion, and placed directly upon the stations. The sldn-plating 
 is in 12-feet lengths, the diagonal arrangement being adopted 
 for the butts of each thickness. It will be seen from the sketch 
 that the butts c of the inner thickness come in the frame spaces 
 between those in which the butts h of adjacent strakes of the outer
 
 192 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 thickness are placed, and vic& versa. The butts a, a of the armour 
 are in most instances placed on the stations midway between the 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 .; 
 
 •» 
 
 ' J 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 
 s s 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■c- 
 
 
 
 i\ 
 
 a 
 
 
 \c 
 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ..!_. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ic 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 i*^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...■■ i_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 \6 
 
 \c 
 
 
 
 
 \6 
 
 \c^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j— 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 a 
 
 
 \c 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 i '^f 
 
 
 
 
 \c 
 
 \6 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 \i 
 
 
 P' 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 : 
 
 
 1 1^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 butts b and c of the underlying strakes of skin-plating. It may 
 be remarked here that in some of the iron-clads the butts of the 
 skin-plating behind armour are placed upon the frames, instead of 
 being midway between them as is usual. 
 
 Lloyd's Kules require that all plates, except the fore and after 
 hoods, shall be at least five frame spaces in length, and that no 
 butts of outside plating shall be nearer to each other than two 
 frame spaces. These requirements are illustrated by Fig. 136. 
 The Liverpool Rules stipulate that all butts of garboard strakes, 
 shell-plating, stringers, and scarphs of keels, shall be two Irame 
 spaces apart ; that butts in the garboards must not be opposite 
 each other ; and that butts of the upper-deck stringer-plates must 
 not be nearer than three feet to butts of the sheer strake. 
 
 The lengths of bottom plates are generally determined so as to 
 give a good arrangement of butts, and the breadths are modified 
 by the girth of the frames and weight of the plate, but are usually 
 about one-fourth or one-fifth of the lengtks. The use of longer 
 plates tends to make a ship stronger and lighter, but at the same 
 time more expensive, as the price per ton increases with the 
 weight. The minimum length allowed by Lloyd's would average 
 about 9 feet ; on the Tyne the lengths of plate in general use vary 
 from 8 feet to 10 feet 6 inches; on the Mersey and Clyde they 
 are about 10 feet. In the ' Great Eastern ' all the bottom plates are
 
 Chap. X. Outside Plating. 193 
 
 10 feet long and 33 inches wide. In the ships of the Eoyal Navy 
 the plates are usually in 12-feet lengths, although in some cases 
 16-feet lengths are introduced to give a good shift, and in a few- 
 instances greater lengths have been employed. In the ' Resistance,' 
 for example, there are a few 1-inch plates, 22 feet long, and 3 feet 
 6 inches wide; in the 'Captain' the skin -plating behind armour 
 is in 16-feet lengths. 
 
 The preceding remarks have been limited to the arrangement 
 of outside plating ; there remains another subject of very great 
 importance to be considered, viz., the modes of fitting and securing 
 the plates. Lloyd's Eules state that " all plates are to be Avell- 
 " fitted and secured to the frames and to each other ; the butts to 
 " be closely fitted by planing or otherwise, and to be united by 
 " butt-straps of not less than the same thickness as the plates, and 
 " of sufficient breadth for riveting, and to be fitted with the fibre of 
 " the iron in the same direction as the fibre of the plates to which 
 " they are riveted." The Liverpool Eules are identical with 
 Lloyd's in their specification for butt-straps. Their requirement 
 with respect to the fitting of butts is fuller than Lloyd's, and 
 is as follows: — " Butts to be closely fitted either by planing or 
 " jumping ; when jumped tlie ridge formed by jumping is to be 
 " chiselled off the inside, in order that the butt-straps may fit closely. 
 " The ridge outside to be hammered into the seam." Both rules 
 require that the rivet-holes shall be punched from the faying 
 surfaces, and countersunk through the outer plating, in order to 
 preserve a comparatively flush surface. 
 
 Before giving a detailed description of the modes of securing 
 outside plating, it may be interesting to give a brief general outline 
 of the process of plating. After the frames have been put in place, 
 faired, and fixed, the lines for edges of the inside strakes of plating 
 are got in, and marked upon them. The plates of the inside strakes 
 are then prepared. If the plates are light they are put in place, and 
 the rivet-holes in the frames, and the positions of the edges and butts, 
 are marked on them. If the plates are heavier than can be conve- 
 niently handled, the account for them is taken by means of a mould 
 or template of wood or iron, and the holes and stations are trans- 
 ferred from the mould to the plates. The plates are then lined, and 
 the edge and butt fastenings having been set off, and the fastenings 
 to frames having been marked, the holes are punched, the plate edges 
 sheared, and their butts either jumped or planed. These operations 
 
 o
 
 1 94 Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 having been completed the plates are fixed in place by means of 
 screw-bolts, and the butt-straps are fitted, marked, and punched. 
 In the meantime, as soon as two inside strakes have been worked, 
 the plates for the outside strake which overlaps them are prepared. 
 These plates are taken account of in a similar manner to the plates 
 of the inside strakes, only tlie edge fastenings have to be marked on 
 the plate or mould when it is first put up in place. The edge 
 fastening requires great care in its marking, transference, and 
 punching, and by far the greater number of what are termed hlind, 
 or half-blind, holes are found in the edges. The plates are put in 
 place, secured, and have their butt-straps fitted, similarly to the 
 inside strakes. When the plates have been temporarily secured, 
 the plate liners on the frames are prepared and fixed in position. 
 It is usual, in parts of the ship where there is moderate cur- 
 vature, to bend the plates to an approximation to the form required, 
 by means of rollers. In general, the fitting, marking, and fixing of 
 the outside plating are performed by a party of workmen known as 
 platers, assisted by a number of labourers or helpers, and while these 
 proceed with their work other workmen are engaged in riveting up 
 and caulking the plating wliich has been fixed. A more detailed 
 description of the operations will be found in chap. 20. 
 
 The care in fitting the butt-joints of outside plating, which is 
 now enjoined by both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules, has not 
 been generally taken in ships of the mercantile marine. In a 
 paper published in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval 
 Architects, for 1862, Mr. Grantham speaks as follows on the sub- 
 ject : — " To make the ends a tolerable fit, a hammer is generally 
 " used, knocking down the higher parts and throwing up a burr on 
 " one edge ; but as this operation is very imperfect, the plates in 
 " reality only touch at points ; and even in what appears to the 
 " eye a good joint, the plates often only touch at two or three 
 " points. In other cases where still less care is observed, the joints 
 " wiR touch at one corner of the plates only, and be entirely sepa- 
 " rated from all the rest. These defects are quite visible at first, 
 " but when the butt-strap is put on, the light can no longer be 
 " seen through the joints, and thus observation is partially pre- 
 " vented. When the men are told of this, the reply is that the riveting 
 " will stretch the plates and close the joint; but though this cannot 
 " be relied upon to any extent to compensate for the width too 
 " frequently left, yet all questions are set at rest by the caulking
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 195 
 
 " tool knocking down the burr which has before been raised, and 
 " closing the plates on the outer part of the joint. This system 
 " makes the joint watertight, but is so entirely defective in strength 
 " that no one ought to be satisfied with it. All parts not really 
 " in contact, however slight the separation may appear, are deprived 
 " of the great additional strength which well butted plates must 
 " afford. " The remedy for this bad workmauship is found in the 
 use of planing and slotting machines, which are now employed in 
 many private yards. In the ships of the Eoyal Navy the butts of 
 plates are always planed and accurately fitted. 
 
 The mode of punching rivet-holes in bottom plating is a matter 
 requiring great attention. The importance of care in punching 
 holes is not confined to bottom-plating, but is also essential to 
 good work throughout a ship ; still, as the connection of the plates 
 forming the shell of an iron ship is, by the common consent of 
 shij)builders, regarded as one of the most important features of her 
 construction, we may, with convenience and propriety, here give a 
 slight sketch of the process of punching as usually performed. After 
 the positions of the holes have been marked on a plate, it is taken 
 to the press or punching- machine and held in position by several 
 men, who also shift the plate at intervals so as to bring the stations 
 of the holes successively under the 
 punch. The form of punch usu- 
 ally employed is shown by a in 
 Fig. 138, and is flat-ended. When 
 a centre-punch is used to mark 
 the stations of the holes for punch- 
 ing, a pointer is sometimes formed 
 at the centre of the end of the 
 punch, as shown by h in Fig, 138, 
 in order to feel for the punctures 
 and to ensure accuracy. It is also found that punches distress 
 the iron less when the ends are formed as shown by c in Fig. 138, 
 instead of being flat. It is usual to have the holes ^ inch larger 
 than the rivets, in order to allow for their expansion when heated ; 
 it is evident, however, that the difference between the diameters of 
 the holes and the rivets should vary with the size of the rivet. Mr. 
 Fairbairn states that, for ordinary work, the proportion of the dia- 
 meter of the punch to that of the hole in the die varies from 
 1 : 1-15 to 1 : 1-2. By this means the holes when punched are 
 
 ■'v^ 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
 o 2
 
 196 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 Chap. X 
 
 made slightly conical, as shown in Fig. 139. It is the fact of this 
 slight countersink being obtained by punching which makes punch- 
 ing from the faying surfaces 
 such an important matter. 
 Some shipbuilders 
 
 do not 
 ^ carry out any fixed plan in 
 Fig- 139. punching plates, and others 
 
 punch all the outside plating from the inside, so that the holes 
 in the edges of inside strakes are not punched from the faying 
 surfaces. In order to carry out the regulations of both Lloyd's 
 and the Liverpool liules, the holes in the frame angle-irons 
 should be punched from the outside, and the corresponding holes 
 in the plating should be punched from the inside. The holes 
 for edge-fastenings should be punched from the inside of the out- 
 side strakes, and from the outside of the inside strakes ; the holes 
 for butt-fastenings should be punched from the inside of all the 
 plates, and from the faying surface of the butt-straps. The holes 
 are countersunk in the outer surface of the plating, in order to 
 allow the rivets to be knocked down into them, and make the 
 plating flush, or nearly so. Both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules 
 require that tlie countersinking shall extend through the whole 
 
 thickness of the plate. The 
 rule which is sometimes em- 
 ployed for guiding the coun- 
 tersink is illustrated by 
 Fig. 140. The centre a of 
 the hole on the inner sur- 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 face of the plating is joined with the boundaries c, e, at the common 
 surface of the plates, and the lines ac produced give the taper, cb, 
 of the countersink. It is a very common practice, however, to 
 leave a small shoulder of about -j^g or ^ inch 
 at c, as shown in Fig. 141, instead of counter- 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 sinking quite through. The last sketch shows the form of the hole 
 before the rivet is put in, and the form of rivet now in common use 
 is illustrated by Fig. 142. It will be seen that under the head of the
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Platins'. 
 
 197 
 
 rivet there is a slightly conical part, which fills the countersink 
 made by punching the holes in the inner plate. In knocking down 
 the rivet the large countersink in the outer plate is also filled 
 so that the rivet-shank then has the form of two truncated cones 
 with their smaller ends joined. This form has the great advan- 
 tages of completely filling the hole when it is riveted up, and of 
 drawing the plates close together and making a tight joint. In 
 many instances, where the rivet-heads have been worn away by the 
 corrosive action of bilge-water, the rivets have by this means been 
 kept in place, and the plates held together. The importance of the 
 last-named advantage will appear when it is stated that in some 
 ships the entire heads of many of the rivets of the bottom have 
 been worn down in less than five years, and it has been necessary 
 to re-rivet the greater part of the bottom. Lloyd's Rules require 
 that the points of the rivets shall be round or convex, and not be 
 below the surface of the plating. The Liverpool Eules require the 
 rivet points to be perfectly fair with the surface of the plating. 
 The practice of shipbuilders also differs on this point. On the 
 Mersey the points of the rivets are made flush, but on the Clyde 
 and Tyne the usual custom is to have the points flush above the 
 light water-line, and about -^ inch convex below it. The heads of 
 the rivets are generally laid-up, that is, are made close to the 
 surface, against which they fit by a few heavy blows given by 
 the workman, known as " the holder-up ; " this is required by 
 the Liverpool Rules only. 
 
 In the preceding description of the manner i nwhich holes are 
 generally punched and countersunk, and rivets formed and riveted 
 up, it has been supposed that when two plates which are to be 
 riveted are put together, the corresponding holes are coincident 
 and have a common centre. This is what is aimed at in all well- 
 built ships, and is required by both Lloyd's and the Liverpool 
 Rules. But in practice it often happens that holes are not coin- 
 cident, and either occupy 
 a position similar to that 
 shown in Fig. 143, when 
 they are said to be half- 
 blind, or are even more ec- Fig. 143. 
 centric and are nearly blind altogether. In rough imperfect work 
 this fault is of very common occurrence ; and even in cases where 
 care is taken in marking, transferring, and punching the holes, it 
 frequently occurs. Nor can this be wondered at when it is remem-
 
 198 Outside Plating, Chap. X. 
 
 bered that the plate is held and shifted by manual labour while 
 the holes are being punched, and that, consequently, slight devia- 
 tions from the true positions of the holes are almost unavoidable. 
 But, on the other hand, it cannot be doubted that the worst faults 
 in punching are caused by the gross carelessness of workmen. In 
 order to avoid this source of error and to ensure correct holes, two 
 proposals have been made. The first of these is to perform the 
 punching by means of a self-regulating machine, such as the Jac- 
 quard machine of the late Mr. Eoberts ;* and the second is to drill 
 the holes. To the first proposal there is the great objection, that 
 although such a machine is suitable for punching a great number 
 of plates of the same pattern, in plating an iron ship, where the 
 shapes of the plates and the positions of the holes differ widely, 
 the machine could not be applied. To the second proposal it has 
 been objected that there is a difficulty in fixing the drill in the 
 exact position required to make the hole true, and that drilled 
 holes are not always perfect, nor so well suited to rivets as to bolts, 
 Mr. Fairbairn says, on this point, "according to our judgment, 
 " drilled holes are not always perfect, and are never so sound, nor 
 " yet so secure for rivets as those which come from the punch ; and 
 " for this reason, that in punching a hole through an iron plate it 
 " is not tlie same as a drilled hole, exactly cylindrical, parallel, or 
 " smooth, but the frustum of a cone, and hence follows the supe- 
 ** riority of the joint as more easily adjusted, and more closely 
 " incorporated with the plates." 
 
 In practice, when the holes are badly punched the workman 
 drives in a steel drift-punch, of which the end is tapered and the 
 centre is nearly parallel, and the plate is thus forced and torn and 
 the holes enlarged, so that the rivet passes obliquely through the 
 plate and is very imperfectly riveted up. If the rivet is very hot 
 and the hole not very irregular, it may be filled when the rivet is 
 knocked down ; but if the hole is much distorted the rivet will 
 not fill it, and when put under strain the rivet becomes loose. 
 This process of drifting the holes cannot be too strongly condemned, 
 as it considerably reduces the effective strength of the iron, espe- 
 cially in the edges and butts. The frequency of its being required 
 
 * The machine here alluded to was used in the construction of the Conway and 
 Britannia tubular bridges, and a full description of it is given by Mr. Clark in his 
 work, ' The Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges.' He states that by means of it 
 3168 holes, each \\ inch in diameter, were punched per hour in tlie ^-inch plates 
 forniinjir the bottom of the tube.
 
 Chap. X. Outside Plating. loo 
 
 has led some sliipbuilders to adopt and advocate the practice of 
 drilhng the holes in outside plating.* 
 
 * Since this was written tlie following letter has appeared in Mr. Colburn's 
 valuable journal, Engineering : — 
 
 " To THE EDITOR OF ' EnGINEEKIXG.' 
 
 " Sib, — It has often appeared inexplicable to me that whilst engineers uow-a-days 
 so generally insist on the importance of drilling instead of punching the rivet-holes in 
 girder and boiler work, the subject has not received the same amount of attention at 
 the hands of our naval architects. • 
 
 " Some years ago I chanced to see a large Messageries Impe'riales' steamer which 
 had strucli upon a submerged rock in the Mediterranean, the impetus of the vessel 
 being so great that she had not been brought to a stand until pretty nearly evenly 
 balanced on the rock. 
 
 " We are taught that a sea-going ship may be considered in the light of an 
 immense girder, which, under varying circumstances, may be called uj^on to carry a 
 load in the middle wliilst supported at the ends, or vice versa ; but it was evident that 
 either the rules upon which this vessel had been constructed, or the workmanship, or 
 both, were at fault, I am disjaosed to think both, for no sooner did she begin to fill 
 than she parted amidships, and settled down fore and aft in deep water (I hope I am 
 correct, or at least understandable, in my nautical phraseology). The rents, of course, 
 commenced at the bulwarks, and gradually extended downwards, choosing, however, 
 the lines of rivet-holes. No doubt this would have been the case under any circum- 
 stances, and that it is impossible by any system of riveting, except, perhaps, thicken- 
 ing the edges of the plates, to preserve the full strength of it. The result of the 
 exjjeriments of IMr. Fairbaim and other well-known engineers would appear to prove 
 that we cannot, in any api^reciable degree, avoid the loss of strength occasioned by 
 diminishing the sectional area of the plate ; but, although they show that this loss is 
 fm-ther unnecessarily increased by forcing out the portions of iron by means of a 
 punch, instead of cutting them out with a drill, I am not aware that there have been 
 any satisfactory experiments made to test the eflects of the subsequent operation of 
 drifting, which all punched holes must undergo. 
 
 " The manager of one of the largest shipbuilding yards in the north told me the 
 other day that it was then- practice to punch the rivet-holes an eighth of an inch less 
 than they were intended ultimately to be, and to make tlie two holes (in a manner) 
 correspond, by forcing through a steel drift the size of the rivets. One advantao-e 
 attends this jjlan, that is, it tests the qualify of the iron. None but a tough strono- 
 iron, with a hole anything like within its own diameter of the edge of the plate or bar, 
 would stand such fearful treatment as this. But whilst there may be no crack that 
 even the sharp eye of the inspector can detect, who shall say how many or how few 
 more blows would suffice to produce one, how nearly the strength and tenacity of the 
 iron are exhausted, or how fit it is to fulfil its proper functions as a portion of the 
 vessel ? 
 
 " Taking into consideration the inevitable loss of strength occasioned by the dimi- 
 nished sectional area, the avoidable loss caused by punching, and, as I believe, the 
 still greater loss which the drifting lu'ocess entails, is it safe to assume in many cases 
 that there is 30 per cent, of the original strength of the bar or plate left ? To remedy 
 the two last-named evils, I would suggest the practicability of drilling and counter- 
 sinking at one operation tlie rivet-holes after the plates are placed in position on the 
 sides of the vessel, simultaneously through skin and framing. This could be accom- 
 plished by a portable multiple thilling-machine, having its own engine attached, of 
 course supplied with steam by means of a llexible or jointed steam-pipe. 
 
 " The construction of such a machine with six, eight, or ten drills of readily 
 variable pitch 'presents no mechanical difficulty.' It would not be an expensive
 
 200 Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 We now turn to the arrangement of the rivets which attach 
 the plates to the frames and to each other. Lloyd's Rules give 
 eight diameters as the distance apart of the rivets in the frames, 
 and the Liverpool Rules give the same distance apart (8 diameters) 
 from centre to centre of the rivets. In bulkhead frames of 
 merchant-ships, and in watertight frames of ships of the Royal 
 Navy, the pitch of the rivets is reduced to from five to six 
 diameters. In the laps of the plating the usual pitch of the 
 rivets is from four to five diameters. Lloyd's Rule with respect 
 to the edge-riveting is, " that all vessels are to have all edges or 
 " horizontal joints of outside plating double-riveted from the keel 
 " to the upper part of bilges, all fore and aft ; but vessels of 700 tons 
 " and above, intended for the highest grade, are to have all edges 
 " or horizontal joints of outside plating double-riveted throughout." 
 The Liverpool Rules require all vessels to be double-riveted in 
 bottom, bilges, and sheer strake, and all vessels above 000 tons 
 to be double-riveted throughout. Lloyd's stipulate that all butts 
 of outside plating are to be double-riveted, and the Liverpool 
 Rules require butts to be double or treble-riveted. 
 
 The arrangement of rivets in the laps and butts of outside 
 plating is a much disputed subject. Some shipbuilders, among 
 whom is Mr. Grantham, approve of double-riveting for butts, but 
 doubt its utility for horizontal joints; others think with Mr. 
 Fairbairn that double-riveting is sufficiently strong in the longi- 
 tudinal joints, but comparatively weak in the butts. The simplest 
 mode of connection of both edges and butts is that made by single- 
 riveting. This is not allowed by the Rules for butts, but it has 
 been adopted by Mr. Scott Russell in the construction of the 
 ' Annette' and other longitudinally framed vessels. He justifies 
 the course adopted by the statements that the widths of plates 
 used were greater, and that the longitudinal frames being con- 
 
 machine, and conld be easily applied to most parts of the shell of the vessel, whilst an 
 ordinary radial drill, also with its own engine, could be apj)lied to the more inac- 
 cessible parts. 
 
 " The plan might be somewhat more costly than punching, but so is drilled girder 
 work, and the stability of a bridge is not of more importance than the strength of 
 a ship. 
 
 " If this suggestion has not been made before, I shall be glad if you think it worth 
 publishing, and subscribe myself, ., Yours &c 
 
 " G. Hutchinson. 
 "Skernc Iron Work-!, Darlington, Sept. 21, 1SG7."
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 20I 
 
 tinuous and firmly riveted, to the plates, formed efficient ties across 
 the butts, and made a stronger union than any other arrangement. 
 01" course, if the longitudinal strength is ample for the purpose 
 with this arrangement, no objection can be offered to it, and it 
 must be added that in these cases the strength of the bottom 
 plates is said to be really limited by the resistance to buckling, 
 the tensile strength being excessive. It may be remarked, how- 
 ever, generally, that while it is perfectly true that the longitudinal 
 frames thus succour the butts, it is also true that the longitudinal 
 strength of the ship's framing is reduced proportionately to the 
 help thus afforded ; or, in other words, since the single-riveted butt 
 is of itself confessedly weaker than the other parts of a plate, 
 it follows that in order to bring up the strength of the butt to that 
 of the other parts of the plate, the effective strength of the longi- 
 tudinal frame crossing the butt must be proportionately reduced. 
 Hence it is evident that in a longitudinally-framed ship, if the full 
 strength of both bottom-plates and longitudinals is requisite, 
 there are the alternative courses of either giving surplus strength, 
 and therefore weight, to the frames in order that they may succour 
 the single-riveted butts, or of more efficiently riveting the butt- 
 straps. But it is not only in ships which are thus framed tha 
 the butts of outside plating have been single-riveted, for, in many 
 vessels which are transversely framed, this course has been also 
 
 followed without adopting a shift 
 of butts which would have sup- 
 plied the requisite strength. Allu- 
 sion has already been made to this 
 practice when illustrating some of 
 the weaknesses of iron ships, and 
 its effect in reducing longitudinal 
 strength has been pointed out. 
 An illustration of a single-riveted 
 
 V 
 
 I 
 
 ra- 
 
 o ol o'!o o ^o o o 
 
 oi 
 
 |0 
 
 olio 
 
 Oli 
 
 p ol ol 
 
 !o o oio o Ol 0!|o 
 
 lap-joint is given in Fig. 144. 
 Objection has been made to single- 
 riveting as applied to the laps of 
 thick plates, on account of the 
 supposed want of closing power 
 which it presents ; but this is answered by the statements that the 
 laps are made close and secured by screw-bolts before the riveting 
 is begun, and that in single-riveting the rivets are placed closer. 
 
 Fig. 144.
 
 202 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 When double-edge riveting is adopted, it may be eitber zigzag, 
 as shown in Fig. 145, or chain, as shown in Fig. 146. The first 
 of these arrangements requires that each butt shall pass through 
 the centre of a rivet in each lap, as will be seen on reference to the 
 sketch. This cannot be well avoided, for if the butt were placed 
 between two rivet-holes in the laps they would be too close to the 
 butt to make good work. The rivets in the butt are not very 
 
 \ 
 
 i ll 
 
 r n 
 
 111 111 1 
 
 o|o|lo O O OlOiiO 
 _J_ j! 090 I il 
 
 j Ij 
 
 ]0 ii 
 
 
 
 i I 
 
 jO li 
 
 
 
 |0 li 
 
 1 11 
 
 "'\~ \\~~~6~c 
 
 a y Ij 
 
 |o II 
 
 jo ll 
 
 . ! li . 11 1 
 
 1 .. 'J 
 
 1 1 
 
 r :1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~T1 
 
 
 
 
 1 Oil 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 j 
 
 ioij 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 1 
 
 io|| 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 
 jo i| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lO j! 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i Oil 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 i 
 
 io li 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 L_U 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 objectionable, for, though they do not help to unite the two plates, 
 they may keep the butt from opening under a transverse strain. 
 An objection to the zigzag system is that a long space is left 
 clear at every frame in one row of rivets, as is shown in the sketch 
 in Fig. 145. In some ships, however, in order to avoid this evil, 
 two rivets have been put in each frame, and while the continuity 
 of the edge-riveting has thus been kept up, the frames have, of 
 course, been weakened. 
 
 Chain-riveting was proposed by Mr. Fairbairn, and largely 
 adopted in the construction of the Britannia Bridge. It is gene- 
 rally regarded as a stronger mode of connection than the zigzag 
 system described above, and this opinion is supported by the ex- 
 periments made by Mr. Fairbairn, and by those conducted by 
 Mr. Mumford, in 1837, under the direction of Lloyd's Committee. 
 In the Report made by the latter gentleman it is stated that the 
 breaking strains, of plates 13^ by | inches, which were connected 
 by double-chain and zigzag riveting respectively, were 50 and 42 
 tons. On the other hand, in his history of the Britannia and 
 Conway bridges, Mr. Clark states that zigzag or diagonal riveting
 
 Chap. X. Outside Plating. 203 
 
 was proved to be stronger than chain-riveting by the experiments 
 made in order to show the great importance of friction between 
 the surfaces of the connected plates. Lloyd's Kules do not state 
 which system of riveting must be followed, but in the illustrative 
 sketches accompanying the Eules the edges and butts are chain- 
 riveted. The Liverpool Kules require that all double-riveting shall 
 be arranged chain-fashion. When the edges are double-chain 
 riveted, as shown in Fig, 146, the butts of outside plating can be 
 placed well clear of the rivets in the laps, and the pitch of the 
 rivets can generally be so regulated as to leave no vacant spaces 
 at the frames. These facts, together with the supposed stronger 
 character of the connection, have led to the extended use of chain- 
 riveting. Zigzag riveting is, however, still very extensively em- 
 ployed in the ships of the mercantile marine, especially in the laps 
 of outside plating. The breadth of lap required by Lloyd's Eules 
 is 3j diameters for single-riveting, and 5^ diameters for double- 
 riveting. The Liverpool Kules do not state the lap necessary for 
 single-riveting, and agree with Lloyd's in their requirement for 
 double-riveting. Lloyd's also require that the rivets shall not be 
 nearer to the butts or edges of plating than a space not less than 
 their own diameter. It follows from this last regulation that in 
 a double-riveted lap the distance between the rows of rivets would 
 equal one and a half times the diameter of the rivet. In many 
 shipbuilding yards, however, it is customary to have the breadth 
 of lap for double-chain riveting G diameters instead of 5^ diameters 
 as required by the Kules. The rivet-holes are then placed at 1^ 
 diameter from the edges, and the distance between the rows is 
 1| diameter. For single-riveted laps the breadth in many cases 
 is increased to 3^ diameters. 
 
 The butts of outside plating are secured by butt-straps, which 
 are in most ships double or treble riveted. Before proceeding to 
 illustrate the various arrangements of butt-fastenings, it will be 
 necessary to consider the various modes of fitting butt-straps. At 
 the butt of an inside strake the strap usually extends the whole 
 width of the strake, as shown in section in Fig. 144, p. 201, and 
 takes the rivets in the laps on both edges. For the butts of 
 outside strakes the arrangement illustrated in section by Fig. 145 
 was formerly in general use. It will be seen that the ends of the 
 strap are joggled over the edges of the adjacent inside strakes so 
 as to take the edge-riveting. This ai-rangemerit was superseded by
 
 204 Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 the plan shown in Fig. 14G, where the butt-strap c is fitted between 
 the edges of the inside strakes, and covering plates, d, d, are worked 
 as shown, and take the edge-riveting and a few rivets through the 
 strap c. This plan was adopted in some of the first iron-clads of 
 the lioyal Navy, but it has since been displaced by a simpler and 
 lighter arrangement, which consists in dispensing with the covering 
 plates d, d, and sometimes having the butt-strap c a little thicker in 
 order to give sufficient strength. In the case of outside strakes 
 where the frames are spaced a moderate distance apart, it is often 
 well to make the butt-strap and liners to the adjacent frames in 
 one piece, especially in parts where the strain is great, such as the 
 plating near the screw-propeller, and that forward in a ship with 
 a ram-bow, &c. Lloyd's Rules require this arrangement to be 
 carried out at the butts of sheer strakes, which are made outside 
 strakes in order to allow the butt-straps to be thus fitted. 
 
 Butt-straps are usually of the same thickness as the plates 
 they connect. In a letter appended to the Report of Mr. Mumford's 
 experiments, Lloyd's surveyors for the Port of London state that 
 butt-straps of the same thickness as the plates are not equal to 
 double -riveting, and should in all cases (excejjt where broad liners 
 are used behind bulkheads) be ^ inch thicker than the plates. In 
 some of the later iron-clads, however, the straps to the butts of 
 inside strakes are ^e i^^ch thinner than the plates they connect, 
 and the straps to the butts of outside strakes are the same thick- 
 ness as the jjlates ; the latter arrangement is consequent on the 
 fact that the straps are fitted between the edges of the adjacent 
 inside strakes, and are 10 or 11 inches narrower than the plates 
 they connect. It will hereafter be seen, on examining the case 
 of the * Hercules,' that these thicknesses are sufficient when the 
 riveting arrangements are properly carried out. 
 
 It will be remembered that both Lloyd's and the Liverpool 
 Rules require that the fibre of the iron in the butt-straps shall be 
 in the same direction as that of the plates. The importance of this 
 provision has been proved by experience, and follows from the 
 fact that wrought iron is considerably stronger lengthwise of a plate 
 than crosswise, the difference in tensile strength in the two direc- 
 tions amounting to between 3 and 4 tons per sq. inch of sectional 
 area. It was formerly very common to roll the iron for butt-straps 
 in a long bar of the required width and thickness, and then cut off 
 the straps to the length required. This plan is, of course, for-
 
 Chap X. 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 205 
 
 bidden by the provision of the Eules with regard to the direction 
 of the fibre, and the straps are now cut from plates having the 
 fibre in the dii-ection of the breadth of the straps. 
 
 The rivets of butt-fastenings, like those connecting the plate- 
 edges, are placed either zigzag or chain-fashion. The usual arrange- 
 ment of butt-strap with double zigzag riveting is given in Fig. 147. 
 This plan of butt-fastening is allowed by Lloyd's for all ships, and 
 has been adopted in the ' Warrior,' ' Black Prince,' and others of 
 the first iron-clads of the Eoyal Navy. In some of the larger 
 iron - clads built 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i° 
 
 0| 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Ol 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 |o 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lo 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o o 
 
 o . 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o o 
 
 o oi 
 o ! 
 
 O Ol 
 
 o 1 
 
 O Ol 
 
 o I 
 O Ol 
 
 o i 
 O Ol 
 
 o ol 
 
 o o! 
 
 Fig. U8. 
 
 since 
 the ' Warrior,' and in 
 some iron-cased ships 
 for foreign Governments 
 which have been built in 
 this country, the butts of 
 outside plating have been 
 treble-zigzag riveted as 
 shown in Fig. 148. This 
 plan is heavier and more 
 costly than common double-chain riveting, and is stronger than 
 double-chain riveting only in cases where increased rivet-power is 
 required. 
 
 The double chain-riveted butt-fastening illustrated in Fig. 149 
 is now very extensively 
 used in the construc- 
 tion of merchant- 
 vessels, and has been 
 adopted in some of the 
 more recent iron-clads 
 of the Eoyal Navy. 
 Sketches showing the 
 butt-fastenings em- 
 ployed in the 'Her- *"is- 1«- ^'s- iso. 
 eules ' are given in Fig. 153, and will be further alluded to here- 
 after. In the ' Bellerophon ' and ' Captain ' the butts are secured, 
 as shown in Fig. 150, and the arrangement of rivets there shown is 
 that usually referred to as treble-chain riveting. In a paper on 
 * The Strength of Iron Ships ' in the Transactions of the Institution 
 of Naval Architects for 1860, Mr. Fairbairn advocated the adoption 
 of quadruple-chain riveted butt-straps, and stated that the arrange- 
 
 io 
 
 ol 
 
 jOO 
 
 o| 
 
 
 
 o| 
 
 
 
 ol 
 
 !0 
 
 ooj 
 
 |o 
 
 Oj 
 
 jO c 
 
 01 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 \ 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 
 
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 000 
 
 
 
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 000 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 000 
 
 
 i 
 
 000 
 
 
 "m;v//!H 
 
 W^y^^^--i^-:'f 
 
 -:,^y-fiX
 
 206 
 
 OtUside Plating. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 ment would add 20 per cent, to the strength of the ship, while 
 the expense and weight would be but slightly increased. In the 
 very long fine sliips built by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, 
 the butts of the sheer-strakes are quadruple-chain riveted for about 
 half the length amidships. Another proposed arrangement of a 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 treble'chain riveted butt is shown in Fig. 151. The arrangement of 
 butt-fastening given in Fig. 152 was proposed by Mr. Fairbairn in the 
 
 paper previously referred to. This 
 plan of fastening has been largely 
 adopted in the ' Northumberland ' 
 in places where a very efficient 
 connection is required, such as 
 the sheer strakes, strakes under 
 ports, garboards, &c. It will be 
 remarked that the number of 
 rivets employed is nearly identical 
 with that required for a double- 
 chain riveted butt-strap, but that 
 the alternate rows are placed so 
 as to form treble-chain riveting. 
 The intermediate rivets near the 
 butt are introduced in order to 
 allow of the joint being effectu- 
 ally caulked. It should be noticed 
 that this arrangement of rivets 
 makes it necessary to have the 
 
 Fig. 152.
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 207 
 
 strap thicker than the plate, in order to secure equal strengths 
 along their respective breaking lines. The sketch in Fig. 153 
 shows an inside view of a portion of the bottom plating of the 
 ' Hercules,' with the arrangement of the rivets in the butts, edges? 
 
 / 
 
 XB 
 
 H 
 
 d 
 
 ■K C 
 
 LD 
 
 P 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 and frames. We shall revert to this sketch hereafter, in order to 
 calculate the breaking strengths of the plating and butt-straps, and 
 to investigate the relations between the strengths of the butt- 
 fastenings and the plating. 
 
 For double-riveted butt-straps Lloyd's Rules require the same 
 breadth of lap as for double-riveted edges, so that the whole breadth 
 of the strap equals 11 diameters of the rivet. The Liverpool Rules 
 require 12 diameters for the breadth of a double-riveted strap, and 
 in H.M's Service the breadth employed is from 11 to 11^ diameters. 
 Neither of the Rules gives any regulation as to the breadth of 
 treble-riveted butt^straps. In H.M.'s Service the usual practice in 
 fitting treble-riveted straps has been to allow the same distance 
 between the rows of rivets as is allowed by Lloyd's for double-
 
 2o8 Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 riveting, viz. H diameter. The whole breadth of the strap has 
 thus equalled 16 diameters ; but in some later ships, in order to 
 keep the outer rows of rivets further from the plates and strap, the 
 breadth of the strap has been increased to 16^ diameters; in 
 the ' Captain' the butt-straps are 17^ diameters in breadth. 
 
 What rule should be followed in determining the thickness of 
 outside plating, is a very difficult and much disputed question. 
 Lloyd's Eules j)i'Oceed upon the basis of the tonnage of vessels, 
 and the Liverpool Eules upon the depth in hold. Another rule 
 given in Professor Eankine's 'Shipbuilding Theoretical and 
 Practical,' and said to have been deduced by ]\Ir. J. K. Napier 
 from the practical working of a great number of iron ships, is as 
 follows : — 
 
 _,, . , „,..., Displacement in tons x Lensrtli in feet 
 
 Thickness of skin in inches = -—-^ — - — ,,,■„, ,-> .. • . . • 
 
 800 X Breadth in teet x Deptn in teet 
 
 This expression is obtained from the consideration that the mean 
 thickness of the skin should be proportional directly to the load 
 displacement and length, and inversely to the breadth and depth. 
 The constant iu the denominator is determined from several 
 examples of well-built ships. In practice, however, the usual mode 
 of settling this point, as to the thickness of the skin-plating, is by 
 means of the experience gained in preceding ships. As previously 
 stated, the plating of the earlier iron ships was much lighter than 
 that now employed ; but it is of interest to know that some of those 
 earlier vessels were in good condition after twenty years' work. 
 The employment of thicker plates for the skin of iron ships has 
 many manifest advantages, of which the chief are that the increase 
 of strength due to increased thickness of plating is far more rapid 
 than the increase of weight, and consequently of displacement, 
 thus caused; and that greater durability is also ensured, while 
 local strength is added to the bottom, enabling it to resist more 
 efiectually a blow caused by striking a rock, or any hard-pointed 
 substance. The great liability to injury from this cause which is 
 experienced by iron ships, has led to the adoption of double bottoms 
 in many vessels. In a valuable paper published in the Transactions 
 of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1864, the late Mr. Letty 
 made the following statements, which are very interesting as 
 illustrating the various arrangements of plating which are 
 possible for a given total weight. *' If we increase the thickness 
 " of the plates and keep the total weight of plating the same, we
 
 Chap. X. Outside Plating. 209 
 
 " must reduce the breadths of the laps and the weight of the butt- 
 " covers. By taking an average length and breadth of plate 
 " (10 feet by 2 feet 6 inches) it appears that the \Yeight of 
 "hull-plating will be the same in the three following arrange- 
 " ments : — 
 
 "I. |-inch plating, laps double riveted, butts quadruple 
 " chain-riveted as recommended by Mr. Fairbairn, with 
 " a distance of twice the diameter of the rivet between 
 " the rows of rivet-holes in the butts. 
 
 "II. Bare |-inch plating ('82 inch) double-riveted laps and 
 " butts as requii'ed by Lloyd's. 
 
 " III. Full 1-inch plating (1-09 inch), single-riveted laps and 
 " butts, or a double bottom of f inch full, and f inch." 
 
 The thicknesses of plating required by Lloyd's and the Liverpool 
 Eules respectively will be found in the Tables in the Appendix. 
 It appears on comparison that the Liverpool Rules require, in 
 most cases, thinner plating than Lloyd's. In the Liverpool Eules 
 the plating from the garboard to the sheer strake of the two 
 higher classes of ships is required to be of an uniform thickness ; 
 the garboard must be ^ inch, and the sheer strake \ inch thicker 
 than the remainder of the plating. According to Lloyd's Table 
 the space between the garboard and the sheer strake is divided 
 into four parts ; the general rule observed with respect to the 
 plating of these parts being, that the thickness must be -^ inch 
 less than that of the plating of the part below it ; the garboard is 
 j'g inch, and the sheer strake \ inch thicker than the adjacent 
 strakes of plating. According to theoretical investigations, a good 
 distribution of material would be made, if the outside plating 
 between the upper part of the floor and the neutral axis of the ship 
 for transverse strains, were made one-third less thick than the 
 plating of the bottom and topsides. But this would be an arrange- 
 ment specially suited to the position usually occupied by a ship 
 when floating in still water ; whereas, when at sea, her position, and 
 consequently the position of the parts forming the top and bottom 
 of the girder, are constantly changing ; this constitutes the prime 
 argument of those who advocate the adoption of plating of uniform 
 thickness from keel to gunwale. The common practice of iron 
 shipbuilders is in accordance witli the arrangement required
 
 2IO Outside Plating. Chap. X. 
 
 by Lloyd's, or only differs in some small degree from tliat arrange- 
 ment. 
 
 It is obvious that the strains experienced by the extremities of 
 an iron ship are less intense than those borne by the parts of the 
 structure nearer the middle of the length. On this account it is 
 usual to reduce the thickness of the outside plating toward the bow 
 and stern. The theoretical law for the decrease in thickness can- 
 not be adopted in practice, as the local strength of the plating of 
 the extremities would be so greatly reduced as to endanger the 
 structure, liules are given both by Lloyd's and the Liverpool 
 Underwriters to regulate the decrease of thickness. Lloyd's 
 Rules state that " in vessels under 1200 tons, the plating may be 
 " reduced ^ inch forward and aft, for a distance not exceeding one 
 "quarter of the length of the vessel from each end, below the 
 " upper edge of main sheer-strake, down to a perpendicular height 
 "from upper side of keel of three-fifths the internal depth of hold ; 
 " and in ships of 1200 tons and upwards a reduction of two-sixteenths 
 " will be allowed ; the plates next abaft and next afore the quarter 
 " length of the vessel to be of an intermediate or graduated thickness 
 " between that required in midships, and the reduction allowed at 
 " the ends. In screw propelled vessels, however, no reduction is to 
 " be made in the plating at the after end below the lower part of 
 " the rudder-trunk." The Liverpool Rules allow a reduction of one- 
 sixth of the total thickness forward and aft on all outside plating 
 from the thickness required amidships, the reduction commencing at 
 one-fifth of the vessel's length from each end. In the ' Warrior ' 
 the plating is of the midship thickness for a length of about 
 250 feet and before and abaft is reduced ^^ incli. In the ' Her- 
 cules ' and other of the more recent iron-clads, the reduction in 
 thickness has been commenced before and abaft a length of about 
 100 feet amidships. Mr. Fairbairn is of opinion that the reduction 
 in thickness should never exceed one-third of the midship thickness. 
 
 Great objection has been made to the thickness of plating still 
 required by Lloyd's Rules at the bow and stern below the water 
 line, and it has been stated that thick plates are not wanted, and 
 only cause a waste of material without adding to the safety of the 
 ship. In answer to this objection, it has been urged that the friction 
 of the water at the bows is so considerable as to cause a more rapid 
 decrease in the thickness of the plating there than amidships ; and 
 tliat the wear of the anchors and cables on the plating necessitates
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Outside Platijig. 
 
 211 
 
 the keeping up of the thickness. The last regulation of Lloyd's 
 Eule, with respect to the plating on the sterns of screw-steamers, is 
 due to the facts that in wake of the screw-shafts, internal hooks and 
 other strengthenings cannot be fitted, and that in some vessels 
 while the plating aft has been thinner the rivets have become 
 loose and the plating has required to be replaced. 
 
 The following account of the plating of ships which have 
 been previously mentioned may be interesting as illustrating the 
 practice of shipbuilders in various periods of the progress of iron 
 shipbuilding. The 'Birkenhead' of 1400 tons was plated as 
 follows : — Up to 4-feet water-line, f-inch plates lapped and double 
 riveted; above the 4-feet line j^g-inch plates, lapped and single 
 riveted up to the 9-feet water-line ; and above this line worked 
 flush with internal edge-strips. The butts were double-riveted, 
 and the edge-strips and butt-straps were ^^g^ inch thicker than the 
 plates. The ' Megaera,' of 1 o95 tons, had her plating arranged as 
 follows : — All the plates were \ inch thick, except the strakes in 
 wake of the lower-deck beams which were ^ inch, and those 
 second out from the keel which \\ere f inch. Up to the strake 
 next above the floor-head the plating was worked clinker-fashion ; 
 but above this height it was flush-jointed with internal edge-strips. 
 All laps and butts were double-riveted. The ' Himalaya's ' plating 
 was worked in alternate inside and outside strakes as far up as the 
 wales ; these strakes together with the topside plating were worked 
 flush. The ship's burden is 3453 tons, and the thicknesses of 
 plating used are as follow : — 
 
 Garboard-strakes 
 8 next , , 
 
 Wales (2 strakes) 
 Topsides .. 
 Sheer strake . . 
 
 Amidships. 
 
 Forward 
 and Aft. 
 
 inch. 
 
 inch. 
 
 1t^ 
 
 i 
 
 ii 
 
 1^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 T«S 
 
 1.1 
 
 T3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 The details of the plating of the steam-ships ' Queen ' and 
 • China ' have been given previously, and may be considered as good 
 examples of the practice of mercantile shipbuilders. 
 
 p 2
 
 212 
 
 Outside Plating. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 The outside plating and skin-plating behind armour of the 
 * Warrior.' of 6039 tons' burden, were arranged, as shown in the 
 followine: table : — 
 
 For a length 
 
 of about 250 ft. iorn-ard 
 amidships. and Aft. 
 
 ( Upper 
 Middle-line or keel-strakes \ 
 
 \ Lower 
 
 Next two strakes 
 
 Next strake 
 
 Thence to 14-ft. water-line 
 
 From 14-ft. water-line to port-sill, except I 
 behind armour J 
 
 Plating behind armour : lower-strake . . 
 
 , , , , remainder . . 
 
 Strake under ports (doubled) 
 
 Between the ports forward and aft 
 
 Sheer strake (worked in two thicknesses) . . 
 
 inch. 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 U 
 
 1^. 
 
 li 
 
 i li 
 
 1| 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ' I 
 
 The thicknesses of the outside plating of the 
 5226 tons burden are as follow : — 
 
 Hercules ' of 
 
 ( Upper 
 Middle-hne or keel-strakes { ^ 
 
 \ Lower 
 
 Next strake 
 
 Next four strakes 
 
 The remainder 
 
 For a length 
 
 of about 100 ft. 
 
 amidships. 
 
 Forward 
 and Aft. 
 
 inch. 
 
 inch. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 li 
 
 11 
 T3 
 
 f 
 
 It must be remembered that an inner bottom \ inch thick extends 
 for 216 feet amidships in this ship, so that the strength and 
 safety of the ship are considerably increased. As previously stated 
 the bottom plating forward is doubled for about 40 feet abaft the 
 stem. The skin-plating behind armour is worked in two thicknesses, 
 each being | inch thick amidships, and a little less forward and 
 aft. The plating of the unprotected parts above the armour belt is 
 1 inch thick. The details of the modes of working both of the 
 last-named assemblages of plating have been previously explained.
 
 Chap. XI. Bulkheads, 213 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 BULKHEADS. 
 
 There is, probably, no subject on which iron shipbuilders are more 
 generally agreed, than on the desirability, both as regards safety 
 and structural strength, of the employment of watertight bulkheads. 
 These were first introduced, we believe, by the late Charles Wye 
 Williams, of Liverpool, Avho is entitled to the foremost place among 
 the introducers of iron ocean-steamers, and, in fact, contributed in 
 a pre-eminent manner to the introduction of ocean steam-naviga- 
 tion. The increased safety resulting from the adoption of these 
 bulkheads proceeds from the fact that a leak or fire in any com- 
 partment can in most cases be prevented from affecting the other 
 compartments. The increase in structural strength caused by the 
 use of bulkheads has already been alluded to when speaking of the 
 various systems of framing, and of the connection of the beam-end 
 with the side. Watertight bulkheads in iron vessels are almost 
 always placed transversely, but there are, in many instances, lon- 
 gitudinal watertight divisions also. In many steam ships the 
 longitudinal bulkheads enclosing the coal bunkers are made water- 
 tight, and thus form subdivisions in the compartments bounded by 
 the transverse bulkheads. A very common practice in the earlier 
 steam ships was to have an arched passage between the engines 
 and boilers, the plating in the arched bulkhead being watertight. 
 The shaft-passage bulkheads of many screw-steamers are water- 
 tight, and form the sides of a longitudinal compartment extend- 
 ing from the engine-room to the stuffing-box bulkheads. It will 
 be remembered also that in the ' Bu'kenhead,' notwithstanding her 
 disastrous loss, longitudinal bulkheads were fitted, as shown in Fig. 
 71, p. 75 ; and in the armour-clad frigates of the Royal Navy the 
 wing-passage bulkheads form longitudinal divisions of the liold, as 
 previously explained, while advantage is taken of the subdivisions 
 formed by the bulkheads of magazines, shell-rooms, chain -lockers, 
 shaft-passages, and passages between engines and boilers, all of 
 which are made watertight. The ' Great Eastern ' is, however, the
 
 2 1 4 Bulkheads. Chap. X i . 
 
 ship in which the greatest prominence is given to longitudinal bulk- 
 heads. In this vessel there are two longitudinal bulkheads extend- 
 ing up to the upper deck, and running about half the length of the 
 ship, being so placed as to form the sides of the engine and boiler 
 spaces, &c. In general, however, the watertight bulkheads are, as 
 before stated, vertical and transverse. Lloyd's Kules require that 
 the transverse watertight bulkheads of a steamer shall be placed so 
 that, in addition to the engine-room bulkheads, there may be two 
 bulkheads built at a reasonable distance from the ends. In sailing- 
 ships the foremost or collision bulkhead only is required. The 
 Liverpool Rules are almost identical with Lloyd's. In the earlier 
 iron sailing-ships it was usual to have at least three watertight 
 bulkheads ; two being placed at some distance from the extremi- 
 ties, and one in the mid-ship part of the vessel. In steamers there 
 were generally four bulkheads ; two toward the extremities, and 
 two enclosing the engine space. An instance of the arrangements 
 of the bulkheads in a comparatively old iron steam-ship is found in 
 the ' Birkenhead,' just referred to. There were six transverse bulk- 
 heads, which extended up to the upper deck. The engine-room 
 was divided into five watertight compartments, and the coal bunkers 
 were enclosed by two longitudinal bulkheads. Between the engines 
 and boilers there was a bulkhead which had a large arched opening 
 in it, that served for communication and ventilation. In the 
 fore and main holds two vertical longitudinal bulkheads were fitted, 
 and extended up to the orlop deck, as shown in Fig. 71, p. 75. 
 The greater interest attaches to this description of the bulkhead 
 arrangements of the ' Birkenhead,' as she was lost at sea, and went 
 down rapidly. The explanation of this occurrence is found in the 
 fact that some of the compartments had been opened up in order 
 to afibrd communication between them. 
 
 In iron steam-ships the common practice now is to place the 
 engines and boilers in watertight compartments. In some vessels 
 the engines and boilers are in one compartment ; but in others, and 
 especially where the power is large, the boilers are placed in a 
 separate compartment from the engines ; and in some paddle-wheel 
 steamers the boilers are divided, one-half being placed in a com- 
 partment before the engines, and the other half in a compart- 
 ment abaft them. All the arrangements, together with the 
 disposition of the other watertight bulkheads in the fore and after 
 holds of merchant vessels, depend entirely on the shipowner and
 
 Chap. XI. Bulkheads. 215 
 
 the shipbuilder, and are made to conform to the purposes for 
 which the ship is to be employed. The collision bulkhead forward, 
 required by both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Eules, is fitted in 
 almost all iron ships, and experience has fully justified the import- 
 ance attached to it by the Rules. In many instances where the 
 bows of vessels have been broken through by accidental collision, 
 the ships have been kept afloat by means of this bulkhead. A case 
 in point is found in the ' Samphire,' a steam-packet running 
 between Calais and Dover, which had her bow stove in by collision 
 with another vessel, but was kept afloat by her bulkheads, and 
 brought into harbour. In the collision between the 'Haswell' 
 and 'Bruiser,' the former ship was saved in a similar manner, 
 and brought into port, although tlie plating on the port-bow was 
 greatly injured, and in several places completely fractured. The 
 bulkliead usually placed a few feet before the stern post of 
 a screw-steamer, has also been of great service in many cases 
 where the water has entered the after compartment through acci- 
 dent to the stern or its fittings, rudder-braces, &c. By means of 
 the small compartments thus formed at the bow and stern, those 
 parts of the hull most liable to injury may be penetrated or other- 
 wise injured, and yet the trim or speed of the ship may be very 
 little affected by the quantity of water which enters. 
 
 In the iron-clad frigates of the Koyal Navy the transverse bulk- 
 heads have been arranged so as to enclose the engine and boiler- 
 rooms, the magazines, and fore and after holds ; in all cases the 
 aftermost bulkhead has been placed at about 12 or 14 feet before 
 the post, in order to take the stuffing-box arrangement of the 
 engineer's shaft tube, and the foremost bulkhead has been mode- 
 rately close to the stem. In the later frigates, such as the ' Belle- 
 rophon ' and ' Hercules/ which have an inner bottom, there are 
 nine transverse watertight bulkheads. One of these bounds the 
 double bottom forward, another forms the stuffing-box bulkhead, 
 and, of the remainder, two enclose the boiler space, and a third 
 divides it into two compartments, while two enclose the engine- 
 room, and two bound the compartment in which the after maga- 
 zines are placed. 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell gives it as his opinion that a ship should have 
 at least as many watertight compartments as there are breadths in 
 her length, and states that for the most part the watertight bulk- 
 heads in a ship are not sufficiently numerous. No arbitrary rule, 
 however, can be satisfactorily adopted ; much must depend upon
 
 21 6 Bulkheads. Chap. XI. 
 
 the internal arransfements of the vessel, and especially upon the 
 height to which the bulkheads rise above tlie water-line. The 
 importance of having numerous watertight compartments has been 
 repeatedly shown by ships thus constructed having been saved, and 
 by vessels with too few compartments liaving been lost. When bulk- 
 heads are introduced not merely as a source of structural strength, 
 but as a means of giving safety to the ship, it is requisite that they 
 should divide the ship in such a manner that if one of the com- 
 partments were injured and filled the vessel would still float. It 
 has been objected to the division of the hold into numerous com- 
 partments by transverse bulkheads, that the stowage of the ship's 
 cargo is thereby greatly interfered with. In order to avoid this 
 inconvenience, and yet preserve the safety of the ship, Mr, Lungley 
 has proposed a plan for dividing the hold into compartments by 
 means of watertight decks or flats, and for obtaining admission to 
 these compartments by means of watertight trunks which extend 
 up above the water-level. It will be remembered that an illustra- 
 tion of this plan has already been given, as applied in the ' Belle- 
 rophon ' between the fore end of the double bottom and the stem. 
 
 We now come to the illustration of the construction and modes 
 of securing transverse watertight bulkheads. The plating of the 
 bulkheads is in most cases lap-jointed both at the edges and butts 
 and single riveted; but in some instances the plating lias been 
 worked flush, and the edges and butts have been secured by single- 
 riveted strips. The Irick arrangement of butts shown in Fig. 133, 
 p. 189, is commonly adopted, but in some of the bulkheads of 
 the later iron-clads the diagonal arrangement shown in Fig. 184, 
 p. 190, has been followed. It may be remarked, in passing, that 
 while the latter disposition of butts is the stronger of the two, 
 the former disposition gives ample strength to resist extension in 
 the plating of the bulkhead. In order to stiffen the plating, angle- 
 iron or T-iron bars are worked, and in most cases are placed ver- 
 tically. Lloyd's Kules require the bulkheads to be supported 
 vertically by angle-irons not exceeding two feet six inches apart. 
 The Liverpool Eules state that bulkheads are to be stayed on both 
 sides with angle-iron bars four feet apart, one set being vertical and 
 the other horizontal. It has been previously remarked, that in a 
 well built iron-ship change in the transverse form is almost entirely 
 prevented by the bulkheads. This statement, however, impHes 
 that the bulkheads are so constructed as to be themselves rigid ; 
 but it is a fact that in some ships, where the bulkheads have not
 
 Chap. XI. Bulkheads. 217 
 
 been properly stiffened, they have buckled when the vessel has 
 been afloat and become fair when she has been docked. The 
 arrangement of the stiffening bars in both horizontal and vertical 
 directions is in perfect accordance with that which theory suggests 
 as the most effective for resisting change of form, as it consists of a 
 network of bars at right angles to each other connected by the 
 web formed by the plating. This mode of stiffening is now largely 
 adopted, and is especially suited for the bulkheads bounding the 
 engine and boiler spaces and cargo-holds in large ships, where the 
 transverse strength of the decks is considerably reduced by the 
 large hatchways required for getting in the machinery, boilers, 
 and cargo. It should be mentioned, however, that when vertical 
 stiffeners only are worked, the decks and platforms act as hori- 
 zontal stiffeners and add greatly to the strength of the bulkhead. 
 
 Before passing on to the illustration of the different modes of 
 working bulkhead plating and stiffeners, it may be well to add that 
 some shipbuilders have favoured the proposal to place the plates 
 with their greatest length vertical, instead of horizontal as is almost 
 always the case. This arrangement has been carried out in many 
 merchant ships, being very commonly followed on the Clyde and 
 at Belfast, and in a few cases in vessels of the Koyal Navy. In 
 the latter ships the bulkheads have had to sustain great vertical 
 pressures from heavy weights directly above them, and the stiff- 
 eners have been formed of T-iron bars which also served as seam- 
 strips to the vertical joints of the plating. An illustration of a 
 bulkhead with the plates placed with their greatest length vertical 
 is given in Fig. 156, p. 221, and will be again referred to here- 
 after. 
 
 A sketch is given in Fig. 154, which illustrates the manner in 
 which bulkheads are sometimes fitted in small vessels. The ship 
 in which this arrangement is adopted is 23 feet 6 inches broad, and 
 ' 11 feet in depth of hold. The plating is \ inch thick, and is stiffened 
 by vertical angle-irons 2| by 2^ by ^^ inches, spaced 33 inches 
 apart. The plating is lap-jointed both at the vertical and horizontal 
 joints, and the rivets in the laps are ^ inch in diameter. 
 
 The usual mode of constructing the transverse watertight bulk- 
 heads of the larger ships of the mercantile marine is shown in 
 Fig. 155, which is taken from the ' Paramatta' of 3000 tons, built 
 at the Thames Iron Works for the Koyal West India Mail Co. 
 The details of this bulkhead were given by Mr. Mackrovv in a
 
 2l8 
 
 Btdkheads. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 paper read before the Institution of Naval Architects in 1863. In 
 this case also the plating is connected by lap-joints both at the 
 edges and butts. One unusual feature in this bulkhead is that the 
 plates at the middle are f-iuch, and those at the sides y^^j-inch, 
 instead of being uniformly thick as is generally the case. There 
 are two sets of stiffening bars formed of 4 by 3 by f angle-irons 
 spaced 30 inches apart, one set being horizontal and the other 
 vertical, worked on opposite sides of the bulkhead. 
 
 Fig. 145 
 
 One objection to the lap-jointed bulkhead is that liners are 
 requisite under the stiffeners, and in order to dispense with liners 
 some builders have had the stiffening-bars worked in the forge so 
 as to fit them directly upon the plating ; but the cost of workman- 
 ship causes this plan to be seldom adopted. Another feature of 
 lap-jointed bulkheads requiring notice is that at those parts where 
 the horizontal and vertical laps cross each other there are three 
 thicknesses of plating, and in order to joreserve the uniformity of 
 the work, and to caulk the joints of the plating, it is necessary to
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 219 
 
 hammer out the corners of the butt-lap to a thin edge, so that 
 they may overlie each other and form but one thickness. It 
 has also been stated that in lap-jointed bulkheads the rivets in 
 the edges are very liable to be sheared when the vessel receives 
 
 tig. 155 
 
 a very severe shock by grounding, or otherwise. In the case of 
 the mail steamer ' Tyne,' which was wrecked in the Channel, this 
 shearing did take place in the riveting of the engine-room bulk- 
 head, which was directly over the part where she settled. It
 
 2 20 Btilkhcads. Chap. XI. 
 
 may be remarked, however, that the arguments used in favour of 
 lapped joints in the outside plating, apply also to the case of bulk- 
 heads, and that in respect of tlie number of rivets, and the cost of 
 workmanship, lap-jointed bulkheads are superior to flush-jointed 
 bulkheads, while the latter have the advantage as regards strength. 
 
 In the paper previously referred to, Mr. Mackrow proposes a 
 new plan of arranging the plating and stiffeners of bulkheads. The 
 plating is worked flush or jump-jointed, and supported at the ver- 
 tical and horizontal joints by T-irons 4^- by 4^ by ^ inches. The 
 vertical T-irous are on one side and the horizontal on the other 
 side of the plating, and, in addition to stiffening the bulkhead, serve 
 as seam-strips. Between successive vertical T-irons an angle-iron 
 stifiener is worked. The advantages claimed for this arrangement 
 are, the prevention of the rivets being sheared off as they were in 
 tlie ' Tyne,' the dispensing with liners behind the stiffeners, and 
 the consequent economy of material in the bulkhead. The author 
 states that a bulkhead built on his plan would be about 2| ]3er 
 cent, lighter than the 'Paramatta's' bulkhead previously described. 
 
 It may be added here, that in the middle line bulkhead forward 
 of vessels of the ' Northumberland ' class, the plating is worked 
 flush with horizontal edge-strips and vertical butt straps. The 
 stiffening bars to this bulkhead are vertical, and in consequence 
 of the use of edge-strips it is necessary to employ liners in wake of 
 the stiffeners. In the aftermost transverse bulkheads of the iron- 
 clad frigates the plating is worked in a similar manner, but there 
 are no stiffening bars. It must be recollected, however, that these 
 bulkheads are effectually stiffened by means of the horizontal iron 
 flats and the wrought-iron shaft-tube on the aft side, and by the 
 longitudinal frames and shaft-passage bulkheads on the fore side. 
 
 In the transverse bulkheads of the later vessels of the Royal 
 Navy the arrangements differ from all the preceding plans. In 
 order to illustrate the system followed, we will take as an example 
 one of the midship bulkheads of the iron-clad frigate ' Hercules.' 
 The plating is -^q inch thick, with the exception of the upper strakes, 
 which are \ inch ; it is worked flush ^\ith T-iron bars 4^ by 2^ by 
 ^ inches as horizontal seam-strips, and single-riveted plate butt- 
 straps. Vertical angle-iron stiffeners 3 by Z\ by ^^ inches are 
 worked at intervals of four feet on the opposite side of the bulkhead 
 to that on which the T-bars are fixed. This arrangement is 
 identical with Mr. Mackrow 's plan as far as the horizontal T-iron
 
 Chap. XL 
 
 Btilkheads. 
 
 221 
 
 stiffening bars are concerned, but differs from it in having plate 
 butt-straps and a different arrangement of vertical stiffeners. 
 The bulkhead proper is bounded by the inner bottom and the 
 vertical wing-passage bulkheads ; but, in order to complete it between 
 these bulkheads and the frames, a partial bulkhead is fitted, 
 the outer edge of which laps upon and is riveted to the 10-iuch 
 frame. 
 
 Fig- 156. 
 
 The sketch in Fig. 15G affords an illustration of a bulkhead in 
 which the plates are placed with their greatest length vertical, and
 
 222 Bulkheads. Chap. XI. 
 
 gives an example of the mode of construction practised in some 
 vessels belonging to the French mercantile marine. It is taken from 
 the Traite Pratique de Construction NavaU by M. de Freminville. 
 The vertical joints of the plating are lapped, and the horizontal 
 joints worked flush, and connected by plate butt-straps worked 
 on the opposite side to the vertical stiffening bars. By this means 
 the vertical stiffeners are worked directly on the plating, and no 
 ] liners are required. Two horizontal 
 
 \ angle-iron stiffeners are also shown 
 
 j\ in the sketch ; these are placed at 
 
 fji ° j " ■■ _ ^ C^ ^^ height of the decks and plat- 
 
 ^l~y ^ ^ forms in most cases. It will be 
 
 y^ remarked, from the horizontal sec- 
 
 ' tion of the bulkhead ejiven in 
 
 ■ Fig. 157 
 
 ' ■ Fig. 157, that the plating is ar- 
 
 ranged clinker-fashion, and that consequently tajjered liners are 
 required behind the horizontal stiffeners. M. de Freminville states 
 that in some instances the angle-irons have been worked in the 
 forge in order to fit directly upon the plating, but that the expense 
 of workmanship has caused this plan to be but seldom followed. 
 
 In the paper previously alluded to, Mr. IMackrow expresses the 
 opinion that if the plates were worked flush with their greatest 
 length vertical, and T-iron bars were employed both as vertical 
 seam-strips and stiffeners, there would be a coiisiderable advantage 
 with regard to weight ; while for vessels of 1000 tons and under, the 
 plates might be worked in one length, and for larger vessels in two 
 lengths connected by a butt-strap. It has been previously stated 
 that bulkheads constructed in this manner have been fitted in some 
 vessels of the Eoyal Navy, in places where there was a special need 
 of vertical strength. It will be obvious that in bulkheads built on 
 this plan the shearing strength of the rivets in the vertical joints 
 and tlie horizontal ties at the heights of the decks form the only 
 provision for resistance to horizontal extension, but this vA'ould, no 
 doubt, ordinarily be ample to resist all probable strains. 
 
 Having thus considered the modes of plating and stiffening 
 practised in the construction of bulkheads, we turn to the illustra- 
 tion of the different means employed for making a secure and 
 watertight connection between them and the ship's side. In some 
 of the earlier ships the bulkheads were secured to the outside 
 plating by a single angle-iron, as shown in Fig. 158. In order to
 
 Chap. XL Bulkheads. 
 
 2^3 
 
 make watertight work the pitch of the rivets in this angle-iron 
 was made very small, thus reducing the effective sectional area of 
 the bottom-plating in wake of the bulk- 
 head, and causing great weakness. Many 
 ships have been lost by their being broken 
 down through the line of rivet-holes at 
 a bulkhead when exposed to great longi- Rg. iss. 
 
 tudinal strains, the builders having, in their over-anxiety to 
 make a watertight division, neglected the corresponding reduction 
 in strength. Some builders, in avoiding this fault of construction, 
 have secured the bulkheads so slightly to the skin-plating, that 
 they have either burst when under the pressure of water in the 
 compartment, or the rivets have been broken or made loose and 
 a leak has been caused. Another mode of attaching the bulkhead 
 to the plating of the bottom, which was 
 very commonly employed, is given in Fig. 
 159. Two frame angle-irons were worked 
 on the edge of the bulkhead, and the usual 
 spacing of the rivets in both flanges was ^'°" ^^'^' 
 
 \\ diameters. In some ships, in order to dispense with liners 
 between these frame angle-irons and the plating, the angle-irons 
 were worked in the forge, so as to fit directly upon the plates and 
 be caulked to them. This plan was not usually adopted, and in 
 many cases the joints were made watertight by forcing in cement. 
 
 These two modes of connecting bulkheads with the side are still 
 practised with some modiiications. Both Lloyd's and the Liver- 
 pool Rules require that the bulkheads shall be either fitted between 
 two frames and be well riveted through them, or be attached only 
 to one frame and have horizontal bracket or knee-plates riveted to 
 the bulkhead and to the outside plating. A sketch showing the 
 latter mode of connection is given in Fig. 160. From the elevation 
 it will be seen that the fore and aft flange of the bulkhead frame 
 is considerably wider than that of the other frame angle-irons. 
 This difference is made in order to allow the riveting through the 
 bottom plating to be zigzagged, and thus increase the distance 
 between the holes in the two lines of rivets. The plates marked 
 h, b are the horizontal brackets or knees previously referred 
 to, which are fitted on alternate sides of the bulkhead, as shown in 
 the elevation. The importance attaching to the employment of 
 these brackets has been already alluded to wlien illustrating some
 
 224 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 of the weaknesses of iron ships. By this means tlie strength of the 
 bulkhead is distributed over the adjacent parts, and the evil eftects 
 
 are prevented which would 
 ensue if the bulkheads formed 
 a series of rigid divisions in 
 the structure, between which 
 the hull was comparatively 
 flexible, and might work to 
 such an extent as to loosen or 
 break the rivets in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the bulkheads 
 and cause leaks. The longi- 
 tudinal keelsons and stringers 
 in the hold of a vessel, and 
 the stringer-plates and angle- 
 irons on the various decks, 
 also act as very efficient dis- 
 tributors of the strength of 
 the bulkhead over the inter- 
 vening parts of the bottom. 
 In the ships built on the lon- 
 gitudinal system of Mr. Scott 
 Kussell, the transverse and 
 -| partial bulkheads are reKed 
 upon to supply the transverse 
 strength of the parts of the 
 structure lying between them, 
 and it has been proved by ex- 
 perience that the longitudinal 
 frames distribute the strength 
 of the bulkheads. But it has 
 also been proved that the 
 necessity exists in vessels built on the transverse system for the 
 employment of longitudinal plates or brackets at bulkheads in 
 order to avoid the localization of their strength and the consequent 
 injury to the hull. For this reason, as well as on account of the 
 very efficient aid they give in connecting the bulkheads with the 
 plating, bracket-plates are required by the Kales, and generally 
 employed by shipbuilders. It is worthy of note that the brackets 
 are usually placed near the centre of the strakes of outside plating 
 on which they come. 
 
 Fig. 160.
 
 Chap. XI. Bidkheads. 
 
 225 
 
 Although brackets are not required by the Rules in eases 
 where the bulkheads are attached to double angle-iron frames, 
 they are often fitted, especially in large ships. An instance of 
 this is given in Figs. ] 56 and 157, pages 221, 222, where the 
 brackets are marked h,h. It will be remarked that one of the 
 double frame angle- irons has its transverse flange considerably 
 deeper than that of the other, and takes an inner row of rivets. In 
 the elevation of the bulkhead it will be noticed that the brackets 
 h, b are near the edges of the strakes of outside plating. This is 
 contrary to the usual practice of English shipbuilders, and to the 
 requirement of Lloyd's Rules. It seems probable, however, that 
 the lower bracket is placed where it is, in order to take hold of the 
 horizontal stiffener to the bulkhead, and that the upper bracket is 
 situated as in the sketch in order to be as nearly as possible half- 
 Avay between the deck and the horizontal stiffener next below it. 
 
 In ships built on Mr. Scott Russell's longitudinal system, a belt 
 of plating is worked on the inside of the longitudinal frames in wake 
 of the bulkhead, and connected with the bulkhead by means of a 
 single angle-iron. The watertight division is comj)leted between 
 this belt of plating and the outside plating by means of plate- 
 frames fitted between the longitudinals. The vertical angle-iron 
 stiffeners on the bulkhead are connected with the longitudinal 
 framing of both the hull and the deck. Mr. Russell thinks this 
 connection a very desirable feature, and recommends that in ships 
 which are framed transversely the bulkhead stiffeners should be 
 connected to some longitudinal framing, such as keelsons or hold- 
 stringers. 
 
 In vessels which are constructed with a double bottom, the 
 bulkheads are usually attached to the inner skin by either single 
 or double angle-irons, according to the size of the ship. In the 
 ' Hercules,' for example, the angle-irons connecting the bulkhead 
 with the inner skin are double. In the 'Captain,' instead of 
 directly attaching the bulkhead plating to the inner bottom, it is 
 lapped upon and riveted to the edge of a partial bulkhead or deep 
 frame, formed of plates and angle-irons and fitted against the 
 inner skin. In these ships the watertight divisions are completed 
 out to the outside plating by means of watertight plate-frames 
 fitted between the inner and outer skins. Before and abaft the 
 double bottom, the bulkheads are simply lapped upon, and riveted 
 to, the continuous reversed angle-irons. 
 
 Q
 
 22,6 Bulkheads. Chap. Xi. 
 
 Ill tlie * Great Eastern ' the transverse bulkheads are attached 
 to the inner skin, but all the watertight divisions of the hold thus 
 formed are not completed between the two skins by plate-frames. 
 Mr. Scott Eussell was led to adopt this course by the considerations 
 that the transverse strength of the ship was amply provided for, 
 and that it was unnecessary to subdivide the double bottom to so 
 great an extent as would have been done if all the bulkheads had 
 been completed. 
 
 Before jDroceeding to notice a few of the proposed methods of 
 attaching ti'ausverse bulkheads to the ship's side, it may be proper 
 to call attention to a very important feature in the ordinary bulk- 
 head connections, viz., the means employed for strengthening the 
 outside plating in wake of the bulkheads. Mention has already 
 been made of the fact that the strength of the plating is seriously 
 reduced by the small pitch of the rivets in the bulkhead frames 
 rendered necessary in order to make watertight w^ork. This pitch 
 should be about six diameters in the fore and aft flanges of the 
 bulkhead frames, and four diameters in the transverse flanges. In 
 order to strengthen the section of the plating thus weakened, 
 it is the practice of many builders to increase the breadth of the 
 liners between the outside strakes of the bottom plating and the 
 bulkhead frames, so that they may act as straps across the lines of 
 rivet-holes. Both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Kules require that 
 the liners shall extend in one piece from the fore side of the frame 
 before the bulkhead to the aft side of the frame abaft the bulk- 
 head, and this is the general arrangement followed by the 
 principal merchant-shipbuilders. It will be readily understood 
 from the horizontal section given in Fig. 157, page 222, where the 
 liner is drawn in black for the sake of distinction. In the iron- 
 built vessels of the Eoyal Navy it is also usual to increase the 
 breadth of the liners at the bulkhead frames, but not to as great an 
 extent as is customary in vessels of the mercantile marine. In the 
 ' Hercules ' the liners overlap the transverse frames about 3 inches, 
 and take a row of rivets on each side of the frame. * These liners 
 are marked e, e in Fig. 153, page 207. In the ncAV Indian troop- 
 ships the liners at the bulkheads are made broad enough to take 
 two rows of rivets on each side of the frame angle-irons. 
 
 Coming now to the illustration of some jjroposed modes of 
 securing bulkheads, we hrst call attention to the arrangement shown 
 in Fig. l(jl. This was patented by Mr. Hodgson in 1851), and con-
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 21' 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 sists in working the bulkhead into two parts near the side, and 
 making them diverge so that their flanged outer edges may be 
 attached to the reversed angle-irons on two successive frames, and 
 thus make watertight joints. 
 
 The second plan, shown in Fig. 
 1G2, was patented by Mr. Eae in 
 1860. It will be seen, on reference 
 to the sketch, that the bulkhead 
 frame is formed of a broad flanged 
 T-iron, of which the arms are suf- 
 ficiently broad to allow^ the rivets 
 in the bottom plating to be placed 
 zigzag fashion. The athwartship 
 flange of the T-iron is rolled three 
 times the usual thickness, and is 
 grooved on the inner edge. The bulkhead plating is worked flush 
 and fitted into this groove, its fastening consisting of through- 
 rivets, as shown in the sketch. The proposer also patents the 
 use, in wake of bulkheads, of broad-plate liners inside the bottom 
 plating, combined with corresponding plates on the outside, the 
 latter being thinned away at the fore and after edges in order to 
 offer as little resistance as possible to the ship's progress. 
 
 The third mode of connecting bulkheads with the ship's side 
 was patented by Mr. Ash in 1860, and is illustrated in Fig. 163. 
 A belt of plating is worked inside ■ 
 the ship and secured to the reversed 
 angle-irons on two successive frames. 
 Tlie bulkhead is then attached to 
 this belt of plating b}' a single frame. 
 This plan greatly resembles the arrangement of the bulkhead con- 
 nections made by Mr. Scott Russell in ships built on his longi- 
 tudinal system, and having no double bottom. 
 
 In all these proposals the aim is to avoid weakening the side 
 plating in wake of the bulkheads, and to prevent the strength of the 
 bulkhead from being too much localized. They are all more 
 expensive and less simple than the ordinary plans of attaching 
 bulkheads, and, while both in the first and third plans the direct 
 connection of the bulkheads with the outside plating is avoided, it 
 must be evident that this is done at the expense of forming spaces 
 between the frames on each side of the bulkheads which are 
 
 Q 2 
 
 Kig. 1(53.
 
 2,2 8 Bulkheads. Chap. XI. 
 
 inaccessible for painting and cleaning, and where, consequently, 
 oxidation is likely to proceed very rapidly. It may be added, 
 however, that the idea of connecting the bulkheads with an internal 
 belt of plating is favoured by some eminent shipbuilders, although 
 it has not been generally practised. 
 
 The upper edges of transverse bulkheads are usually brought 
 up to a deck above the load water-line, and secured by means 
 of single or double angle-irons. Lloyd's Kules require all bulk- 
 heads, except the aftermost in steam ships, to be carried up to the 
 upper deck in two-decked vessels, and to the middle deck in vessels 
 with three decks. The aftermost, or stuffing-box bulkhead is 
 allowed to be brought above the load water-line and secured to 
 a watertight flat which extends around the after part of the vessel, 
 and renders the lower after body a watertight compartment. In 
 many cases, however, the bulkheads of merchant ships do not 
 extend to the height above the load water-line which is requisite 
 for safety ; and in some instances they have actually been stopped 
 below the load line, thus rendering them perfectly useless as 
 respects safety, although, of course, they are of use in giving 
 structural strength. In the ships of the Royal Navy the bulk- 
 heads are usually brought up to the main deck and connected with 
 the deck plating, but some of the bulkheads toward the bow 
 and stern are, in some ships, ended underneath the watertight 
 platforms. 
 
 The great importance attaching to the preservation of the con- 
 tinuity of the longitudinal pieces of the framing has led to the 
 bulkheads being pierced by the keelsons and stringers, and very 
 great care is needed to make the bulkheads watertight around the 
 longitudinal framing. Watertightness is usually secured by 
 working angle-irons around the keelsons or stringers in such a 
 manner as to allow the caulking of the joints to be readily per- 
 formed. The arrangements of a box, I-shaped, and bulb-iron 
 keelson, and of stringers formed of a plate and two angle-irons, or 
 of double angle-irons set back to back, are illustrated by Figs. 164- 
 168. It will be observed 'that in all these arrangements the edges 
 of the angle-irons can be caulked at all the joints. It has been 
 previously remarked (when describing the watertight work in con- 
 nection with the longitudinal frames of the 'Northumberland' which 
 is illustrated in Figs. 79, 80, 81, pages 103 and 105), that a stop- 
 water, formed of canvas steeped in paint or of some other material,
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 229 
 
 must be fitted between the continuous plates and angle-irons in order 
 to prevent the water from passing from one compartment to another. 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 For the sake of convenience, the reasons before given for the use 
 of these stop-waters may be repeated here. Unless a stop-water 
 were fitted in each of the joints of the continuous plates and angle- 
 irons in the neighbourhood of each bulkhead, it would be necessary 
 to caulk the edges of the angle-irons throughout the ship. For 
 if this were not done, the water might enter at some distance from 
 the bulkhead, and, running along between the plate and angle-iron, 
 find its way into the adjacent compartment. When stop-waters are 
 fitted, the passage of water in the manner described is effectually 
 prevented. It has been found also that a thick coat of paint will 
 act very efficiently as a stop- water, and thus canvas may be dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 Before leaving this subject of watertight work it may be well 
 to call attention to the manner in which tlie wing-passage bulkheads
 
 230 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 of the iron-dads are made watertight where the deck beams pass 
 through them. The sketches given in Figs. 109 and 170 are 
 illustrative of the arrangements followed in the ' Northumberland ' 
 
 Fig. 160. Fig. 170. 
 
 for I-shaped and Butterley beams, respectively. The staple angle- 
 irons between the beams are turned out horizontally at their lower 
 
 ends, and a short piece of angle- 
 iron is worked beneath in order 
 to allow the edges to be caulked. 
 In some cases the half-beams of 
 the Butterley pattern are made 
 watertight as shown in Fig. 171. 
 Here the lower ends of the staple 
 Fig- 1^1- angle-irons are forged so that 
 
 they clasp the bulb of the half-beam and take a rivet through the 
 vertical flanges, which are brought together below the half-beam. 
 
 Watertight doors are fitted to bulkheads in order to afford 
 ready communication between the different compartments under 
 ordinary circumstances, and to allow the compartments to be 
 completely separated in case of an accident occurring in any one of 
 them. In the hold it is especially desirable that there should be, 
 direct communication between the compartments containing the 
 engines and boilers, and large watertight doors are generally fitted 
 at the openings in the bulkheads made for the purpose of affording 
 this communication. In most merchant steamers the boilers are 
 placed in the compartment next to that in which the engines 
 are situated ; but in many of the ships of the Royal Nav}'^ there is 
 an intermediate compartment between the engine and boiler rooms, 
 and, in order to connect the two, a watertight passage is constructed 
 and watertight doors are fitted at each end of the passage. In 
 Figs. 172 and 173 sketches are given which show the details of one 
 of these watertight doors as fitted in H.IM.S. ' Minotaur.' The door
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 Bulkheads, 
 
 ^31 
 
 SECTION 
 THRQUCH G 
 
 is formed of a wrought-irou plate 1 inch thick, and slides in a frame 
 of wron"-ht iron which is fastened to the bulkhead. This frame is 
 rabbeted, as shown in the sections, at both the top and bottom; and 
 also at one end. From the 
 horizontal section through 
 
 B, in Fig. 172, it will be seen 
 that the part of the rabbet 
 in whicli the door rests when 
 it is open, is of parallel width, 
 but that the part of the 
 rabbet occupied by the door 
 when it is closed (as in the 
 sketch) is wedge-shaped. 
 As the plate forming the 
 door is of parallel thickness 
 it is necessary to work wedge- 
 shaped bearings on the top 
 and bottom edges in order 
 that the door may fit the 
 rabbets tightly when it is 
 closed. The shape of these 
 bearings will be seeij from 
 the vertical section through 
 
 C, in Fig. 173, and it will 
 be evident that the section 
 adopted for the bottom bear- 
 ing: is such that the weight 
 of the door is made to assist 
 in making the rabbet water- 
 tight. In order to make a 
 watertight joint at the edge 
 of the door which is not 
 buried in a rabbet when the 
 door is closed, a bearing is 
 fitted which has a wedge- 
 shaped horizontal section, as 
 shown in the sections at A 
 and B, in Fig. 172, and this bearing is pressed tightly against a 
 corresponding wedge-shaped bearing fastened on the bulkhead. 
 The bearings which are fitted on the edges of the door are all 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 Fig. n."*.
 
 2 '12 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 \^^ 
 
 brass castings. Motion is given to the door, when it is 
 required to be opened or closed, by means of the vertical 
 rod C, which extends up to the main deck and is worked 
 from thence, so that even when the hohl is partially 
 filled with water the door can be closed. The vertical 
 rod carries two pinions which gear with the iron racks 
 attached to the door, as shown in Fig. 173, and by this 
 means the door can be moved horizontally. It may 
 be remarked here that the principle of making both 
 door and slide of a wedge-shaped section, and securing 
 water-tightness by the use of brass bearings, is almost 
 universally adopted in fitting watertight doors. The 
 arrangements for opening and closing the door described 
 above are also those generally adopted, although, 
 instead of moving the door horizontally as in this case, 
 the motion is in many instances vertical. An illus- 
 tration of the latter arrangement is given in Fig. 174, 
 which is taken from the watertiglit doors fitted in 
 H.M.S. ' Penelope.' The sketch shows a side view of 
 the door when closed. Here the vertical shaft extends 
 from the upper part of the door up to the main deck. 
 The lower end of the shaft has cul^ in it a coarse-threaded 
 screw which works in the large metal nut that is fastened 
 to the upper part of the door. As any vertical motion 
 of the shaft is prevented by the bearing B, it is obvious 
 that when the shaft is turned from the main deck the 
 door must move vertically. In this case the door and 
 frame are of cast iron, and the vertical wedge-shaped 
 section is given to the edges of the door in casting. 
 Metal bearings are worked on both sides of the door, 
 on the vertical and the lower edges, in order to make 
 watertight joints with the rabbets of the frame. 
 
 In vessels where the bulkheads extend up to the main 
 deck it is very desirable that there should be direct 
 communication between the various parts of the lower 
 deck. For this purpose light watertight doors are fitted 
 in the ships of the Eoyal Navy, similar to that shown 
 by the horizontal section in Fig. 175, which is taken 
 from the ' Bellerophon.' The door is formed of a wrought- 
 iron plate stiffened by strips on the edges and under the 
 
 Fig. 174.
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 233 
 
 middle hinge, and when closed fits tiglitly into the rabbets 
 of a wrought-iron frame which is fastened on the bulkhead. 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 
 The door is hung to the frame by three hinges, similar to that of 
 which the details are given in the section. Beads of india-rubber 
 are fitted in the rabbets of the frame, and project above the 
 surface of the rabbet. When the door is to be closed, the clamp- 
 screws (or " butterfly nuts "), which are hinged to the frame, are 
 turned back from the doorway, and when the door has been brought 
 into the rabbet they are turned up into the forks of the lugs on the 
 edge of the door and are hove up. By this means the door is pressed 
 tightly against the india-rubber beading, and the rabbet is made 
 watertight There are no brass bearings fitted on these doors, and, 
 as they are above the lower deck, it is obvious that there would be 
 ample time for the doors being closed and secured by manual 
 labour in ease of any compartment being injured. 
 
 In the iron-clad frigates of the Royal Navy admission is 
 obtained to the wing passages from the lower deck through openings 
 
 FRONT ELEVATION s/DE ELESTATION 
 
 PLAN 
 tT~ n rm tm
 
 ^34 
 
 Bulkheads. 
 
 Chap. XI. 
 
 which 
 given 
 
 can be closed by small watertight doors. The sketches 
 
 in Fig. 176 show the details of one of these doors as fitted in 
 
 _^_^^ . the ' Minotaur.' The doors and frames 
 
 ::a^^.=j-p^ £-^^'^^--j g^^,g qJ- wrouglit iron, and the bearings on 
 
 M I all the edges are of brass. The door is 
 
 moved horizontally by means of a pinion 
 fixed at one end of the frame, which gears 
 with a rack bolted on the door. The 
 details of the horizontal grooves are 
 shown in the plan, and it will be seen 
 that the wedge-shaped section is given to 
 the edges of the door by means of metal 
 bearings, as before described. 
 
 Having thus illustrated various modes 
 of fitting and working watertight doors, 
 it may be well to give the particulars of 
 a sluice-valve before leaving the consider- 
 ation of the fittings of watertight bulk- 
 heads. Sluice-valves are usually fitted in 
 order to allow the water to pass from one 
 compartment to another when required. 
 This is absolutely necessary when each 
 compartment is not supplied with the 
 means of drainage, and is required by 
 Lloyd's Rules under such circumstances. 
 In the ships of the Royal Navy which 
 have a double bottom, sluice-valves are 
 fitted to the watertight frames in the 
 double bottom. The example chosen to 
 show the mode of fitting and working 
 sluice-valves is taken from one of H.M. 
 ships, and is illustrated by Fig. 177. It 
 will be seen, from the sketch, that the 
 valve is placed as low down as possible, 
 and is bolted to the watertight frame, 
 while, by means of a vertical connecting- 
 rod it can be worked from the main deck. 
 Where the rod passes through the lower 
 deck a stuffing-box is fitted around it, 
 and its upper end is secured by means o. 
 
 x\\
 
 Chap. XI. Bulkheads. 235 
 
 a swivel joint to the lower end of a cup-screw which is let down 
 into the main deck. When it is required to open or close the 
 valve, a key is employed with a mortice on the loAver end 
 which fits upon the head of the screw. By means of the swivel 
 joint mentioned above, the connecting-rod does not turn with the 
 screw to which its upper end is secured, and when the screw is 
 turned the rod moves upwards and opens the valve. It may 
 be added that when the valve is open, the end of the screw is 
 above the level of the main deck, and, consequently, it can 
 hardly fail to be noticed ; by this means the probability of leaving 
 the valve open by accident is much reduced. When the valve 
 is closed a cover is hove down upon the top of the screw-cup, 
 which is thus kept free from dirt and in working order. Similar 
 arrangements are usually made at the upper ends of the vertical 
 shafts by which watertight doors are moved, so that it may at once 
 be evident when the doors are open. Mr. Roberts, of Millwall, has 
 patented an arrangement by means of which the position which 
 the door occupies is indicated by a tell-tale placed on the deck 
 from which the door is worked. The tell-tale consists of a hand 
 travelling round a dial, the motion of the hand being com- 
 municated from the vertical shaft by means of a train of mechanism. 
 The modes of testing the watertight work in bulkheads and 
 other divisions in the hold are worth a passing notice. One very 
 common method has been previously referred to, viz., the use of 
 a fire-engine and hose, by means of which a stream of water at a 
 high velocity is brought upon the part to be tested ; this plan is 
 especially suited for watertight doors in bulkheads, and side 
 scuttles. In some cases the compartments are filled up to the 
 height of the top of the floors, and the remainder of the work tested 
 with the fire engine. In H. M. Service watertight compartments 
 in the hold are usually tested either by filling them entirely with 
 water, or only up to the height of the load water-Kne, according 
 to circumstances. Watertigbt flats, such as crowns to magazines, 
 platforms, &c., are usually tested with a depth of from 9 to 12 
 inches of water, which is allowed to remain for about two days, in 
 order to ascertain the amount of leakage. Double bottoms are 
 generally tested by a pressure equal to that due to the height of 
 the load water-line above them, which is, of course, as great a 
 pressure as they can ever have to bear. The great importance 
 attaching to the ensuring of watertightness in bulkheads, &c., is so
 
 236 Bulkheads. Chap. XI 
 
 obvious as to need no enforcement, although it often happens that 
 imperfect workmansliip escapes detection unless carefully tested. 
 
 All the preceding remarks have had reference to watertight 
 bulkheads ; but there are cases in which it would be inconvenient 
 or impossible to introduce complete transverse bulkheads, and yet 
 by the use of partial bulkheads sufficient structural strength may 
 be ensured. It will be remembered that the use of these partial 
 bulkheads forms part of the longitudinal system of framing 
 practised by Mr. Scott Kussell. In the ships of the Royal Navy, 
 built on the bracket-frame system, the watertight plate-frames at 
 intervals of about 20 feet form partial bulkheads. In some of the 
 iron-clads partial bulkheads have been fitted in the wing passages 
 and placed between the complete bulkheads. In wake of engines and 
 boilers also, when deep transverse bearers are fitted, they may be 
 regarded as acting as partial bulkheads and adding considerably to 
 the transverse strength of this part of a ship. In many vessels 
 built on the transverse system deep plate-frames have been worked 
 at intervals in order to give the requisite strength, and at the same 
 time allow the convenient stowage of the cargo. In ships which 
 have to carry timber or any other cargo requiring great length for 
 its stowage, these deep frames are particularly suitable. The usual 
 plan is to have a deep beam-plate in the same transverse plane as 
 the plate-frame, and to connect the two by means of brackets at 
 the ends of the beam-plate. The various lengths of plate in the 
 deep frames are connected by lap or butt joints, and frame and 
 reversed angle-irons are worked on the outer and inner edges 
 respectively.
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Topsides. 
 
 237 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TOPSIDES. 
 
 The topsides of iron vessels were at first almost universally con- 
 structed of wood, and Mr. Laird was, we believe, the only English 
 builder, who in 1842, was constructing vessels 
 with iron topsides. An example of the mode 
 of fitting wooden topsides adopted in some 
 of the earlier ships is given in Fig. 178, 
 which is taken from the ' Dover.' The rough- 
 tree stanchions are of wood, and are run 
 down by the side of the frames, and bolted 
 through the outside plating. It will also be 
 noticed that the wooden gunwale, or cover- 
 ing board, is fitted around the stanchions, 
 and bolted to them and to the beams. The 
 upper edge of the outside plating is rabbeted 
 into the gunwale, and the topside above 
 the gunwale is similar to that of a Avooden 
 ship. There is no stringer-plate on the 
 beam-end, and consequently the watertight- 
 ness of the gunwale depends entirely on the 
 fitting and caulking of the stanchions and 
 covering-board. 
 
 In most ships where deck stringer-plates were fitted, the 
 practice was to cut holes in the stringers in order to allow 
 the timber stanchions to be continued down by the side of the 
 frames and secured by bolts through the plating and the frames. 
 It will, no doubt, be remembered that this practice has been pre- 
 viously alluded to, when illustrating the modes of fitting deck- 
 stringers, and the serious reduction which is thus made in the 
 longitudinal strength has been pointed out. Lloyd's Eules ex- 
 pressly forbid this arrangement of the stringers and stanchions. 
 
 The topsides of the ' Birkenhead,' built by Mr. Laird, are 
 
 Fig. n
 
 238 Topsides. ' Chap. XII. 
 
 shown ill Fig. 71, p. 75. In order to avoid cutting through the 
 upper-deck shelf and stringer-plates, the transverse frames are 
 stopped below the shelf, and the side plating only is continued up 
 for a short distance. The upper edge of the plating is stiffened by 
 a continuous angle-iron, which also serves to receive the fastenings 
 of the wooden planksheer. The waterway is \\orked directly 
 against the side plating, and bolted through it and the stringer- 
 plate, and by this means the low iron 4iopsides are considerably 
 stiffened. In most of the ships which have been constructed with 
 topsides similar to the preceding, portable iron stanchions and 
 guard-rails have been fitted upon the planksheer. 
 
 The topside arrangements of the 'Eecruit' have been before 
 alluded to, and are of a very unusual character, as will be seen 
 from Fig. 72, p. 77. It will be remarked that the outside plating 
 is continued up to the rough-tree rail, and that inside the ship the 
 topsides are planked similarly to those of a wooden ship. The 
 iron frames extend up to the rough-tree rail, and top timbers are 
 bolted to the sides of alternate frames, the outside plating on the 
 topsides being riveted to the iron frames, and the inside planking 
 being bolted to the top timbers. 
 
 Attention has been called to the ' IMegsera ' as an example of 
 the once common practice of fitting wooden beams in iron ships. 
 In this vessel the frames and outside plating are continued up for 
 a short distance above the upper deck, and a gunwale or covering 
 board is worked upon the upper ends. It is customary to complete 
 the topsides above this gunwale by, what is termed, a top-gallant 
 bulwark formed of wooden berthing and stanchions. The berthing 
 or thin planking on the bulwarks is usually rabbeted or tongued. 
 
 The last example we shall give of a comparatively old topside 
 an-angement is taken from the ' Vulcan,' and is illustrated by 
 Fig. 103, p. 148. The frames and plating are ended similarly to 
 those of the ' Megajra,' and the top-gallant bulwark is shown in the 
 sketch. In describing the beam connections mention has been 
 made of the vertical clamp-plate worked inside the frames, and it 
 will be seen that by this arrangement a very strong connection 
 is made between the stringer and the frames, and the frames can 
 be run up to form the topsides without cutting the stringer. 
 
 Coming now to the illustration of the topsides of more modern 
 iron vessels, we will take first those cases w'here the topsides are
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Top sides. 
 
 239 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 either wholly or partially of iron.* In Plate 2 is seen the topside 
 
 of the steam-ship ' China,' built by Messrs. Napier. It will be 
 
 observed that the frames and side plating are continued up to form 
 
 the bulwark for a height of 4 feet above the deck, and that a light 
 
 top-gallant bulwark of wood, about 2 ft. 
 
 hiffh, is worked above them. When 
 
 this plan of fitting topsides is adopted, 
 
 it is usual to stop the alternate frames 
 
 below the upper-deck stringer. As it 
 
 would be very expensive to fit the 
 
 stringer-plate and angle-irons accu- 
 rately between the frames Avhich are 
 
 run up, it is a very common practice 
 
 in merchant ships to depend upon the 
 
 fitting and caulking of the covering 
 
 board for the water-tightness of the 
 gunwale. A very similar arrangement 
 
 to the preceding is shown in Fig. 179. The principal differences 
 consist in dispensing with the top-gallant bulwark, substituting a 
 simple rough-tree rail, and working a vertical clamp-plate and a 
 gutter waterway on the beam-ends. In cases of weakness, ad- 
 ditional strength is often given to the upper part of a ship by 
 means of rail and clamp-plates worked upon the topside frames. 
 In some vessels with gutter waterways the spaces between the 
 frames, enclosed by the outside plating and the angle-iron worked 
 inside the frames, are filled up with cement, in order to secure 
 watertightness, and to prevent the water from lodging. 
 
 It is generally considered that greater simplicity and strength 
 are obtained by ending the frames below the upper-deck stringer, 
 and an illustration is given in Plate 1 of a common mode of form- 
 ing the topsides of vessels in which this arrangement is carried out. 
 The topside plating forms a continuation of the side plating, and is 
 supported by iron stanchions. Above the iron topsides a light 
 wooden bulwark is fitted. The total height of the bulwark is about 
 5 feet 6 inches, and the height of the iron topsides 4 feet. It 
 may be added that the arrangement here shown is modified, in 
 some cases, by fitting a simple rail instead of a top-gallant 
 bulwark, and by varying the form of the iron stanchions. An illus- 
 
 * Several of the fdllowing sketches arc taken from the very admirable illustrations 
 Avhicli accompany Llnyd's Knics.
 
 240 
 
 Topsides. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 tration of this statement is given in Fig. 180, and needs no further 
 description. In many ships which have iron topsides, light angle-iron 
 or T-iron frames are employed instead of stanchions formed of bar- 
 iron. The illustration of this arrange- 
 ment, given in Fig. 18 1 , is taken from 
 the ' Bellerophon.' In this ship 
 the topsides are supported by light 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 angle-iron frames of which the lower ends are turned in on the 
 deck plating. It will be remarked that wooden stanchions are 
 also fitted in order to receive the fastenings of the inside planking.* 
 A plate-rail is fitted upon the top of the frames and supports the 
 hammock bei-thing. The addition of the inside planking and wooden 
 stanchions to the ordinary iron topsides was made on account of the 
 great facilities thus obtained for fixing cleats, &c., on any part of 
 the topsides where they might be required ; a matter of great 
 importance in a fully rigged ship of the size of the ' Bellerophon.' 
 Another mode of fitting topsides is given in 
 Fig, 182. The plating of the topsides is in this 
 case supported by light frames formed of plates 
 bent to the sectional form shown by a in the sketch. 
 The heels of these frames are secured to the stringer- 
 plate by bent angle-irons fitted around them. 
 Double angle-irons are worked on the upper edge 
 of the plating, and receive the fastenings of the 
 Fig. 1S2. wooden rail. 
 
 * These stanchions and the internal topside planking have been omitted in the 
 section given in Plato 4.
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Topsides. 
 
 241 
 
 Fig. 183. 
 
 Another arrangement of iron topsides is illustrated in Fig. 183. 
 The transverse frames are run up about 2 feet above the upper 
 deck, and a horizontal gunwale plate is 
 worked upon them. Above the gunwale 
 plate the bulwarks are completed by 
 light plating, supported by bar-iron 
 stanchions similar to those before de- 
 scribed. 
 
 In some vessels which have poops 
 and forecastles, the bulwarks in wake of 
 them are constructed of a rounded form 
 at the gunwale. This plan is recognized 
 by Lloyd's Kules, which provide that 
 the beams of the poop or forecastle 
 may be of plain angle-iron, of a size 
 not less than that of the main frames, and that the angle-iron 
 beams must be properly riveted to every alternate main frame 
 with a scarph not less than 4 feet in 
 length. An illustration of this kind of 
 gunwale is given in Fig, IS-l, which 
 is taken from the ' Sentinel,' a ship 
 of which the details of the construction 
 have been previously given. The plating 
 is continued up over the gunwale, and 
 a stringer angle-iron is worked at the 
 beginning of the round-down in order 
 to form a finish to the deck planking. 
 Light guard rails and stanchions are 
 usually fitted upon the poops and fore- 
 castles. 
 
 We next turn to the consideration of various arrangements of 
 wooden topsides now commonly employed. As before stated, the 
 practice of cutting the stringer-plate, in order to allow the wooden 
 stanchions to be passed down through it, is now forbidden by 
 Lloyd's ; and the general custom of shipbuilders is to leave the 
 stringer unpierced, except by the rivet-holes and the scuppers. 
 Various plans have been adopted in order to secure the heels of the 
 topside stanchions. One very common mode is that shown in Fig. 
 185. A wooden covering board or gunwale is worked on the 
 stringer and forms the waterway. The heels of the stanchions are 
 
 R 
 
 Fig. 184.
 
 ■14-2 
 
 ^apsides. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 let down into the gunwale and tlirough-bolted. The arrangements 
 of the rails and outside planking or berthing are similar to those 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 
 of a wooden ship's bulwarks. In some vessels the foregoing plan 
 is slightly varied by working an additional covering board upon 
 the wooden waterway, as shown in Fig. 186, and by having an 
 additional rail. 
 
 A very common plan of securing the rough-tree stanchions is to 
 extend the sheer strake up above the stringer-plate, and to work a 
 
 vertical clamp-plate parallel to the 
 sheer strake, and at a distance from it 
 •equal to the moulding of the heels of 
 the stanchions. An illustration of this 
 is given in Fig. 187. The stanchions 
 step in between the sheer strake and 
 the parallel plate, and are through- 
 bolted. The spaces between the heels 
 of the stanchions are filled in within 
 wooden chocks in most instances. In 
 the case shown in the sketch, a wood 
 waterway is worked ; but in some ships 
 a covering board is also fitted upon the waterway, and in others both 
 waterway and covering board are omitted and a gutter waterway 
 formed, as shown in Fig. 188. A slightly modified form of this 
 arrangement is given in Fig. 189, where the chocks between the 
 heels of the stanchions and the waterway are not worked up to 
 the full height of the sheer strake, and the covering board is sup- 
 ported by an angle-iron on the outer edge, and on the inner edge 
 
 Fig. 187.
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Topsides. 
 
 243 
 
 by a shallow strake of spirketing. Another modification of the 
 preceding arrangement consists in working a deep angle-iron 
 
 Fig. 188. Fig. 189. 
 
 parallel to the sheer strake, instead of having a plate and angle- 
 iron. 
 
 When box-stringers are fitted on the upper deck, wooden top- 
 sides are sometimes adopted, and an arrangement is given in Fig 
 190, which will illustrate the manner 
 in which the topsides and stringer are 
 combined. As it would cause a serious 
 reduction in the strength of the stringer 
 if the top plate were pierced, the heels 
 of the stanchions are fitted into iron 
 sockets riveted to the stringer. The 
 remainder of the arrangements of the 
 bulwark require no description. 
 
 In the 'Warrior' the topsides are 
 of wood, and are fitted as shown in 
 Plate 3. The only matter requiring 
 remark, is the mode of securing the Fig- lao- 
 
 heals of the Avooden stanchions. As the backing is in two thick- 
 nesses, and in the outer layer the planks are worked vertically, it 
 is evident that the heels of the stanchions can readily be secured 
 between the vertical planks. The gunwale or covering board is 
 very wide, and since the upper edges of the armour and waterway 
 are rabbeted into the gunwale they can be effectually caulked, 
 and tlie passage of water down between the teak planks in the 
 backing can be prevented. 
 
 R 2
 
 244 
 
 Topsides. 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 Ill the ' Hercules' there is only one thickness of backing, and 
 the topside stanchions are let down, dowelled, and bolted, as shown 
 
 in section in Fig. 191. As it would 
 be a very expensive and wasteful pro- 
 cess to cut away the upper strake of 
 backing in order to let down the 
 stancliions, another plan is adopted. 
 Thin strakes of planking are worked 
 between the skin plating and tlie 
 stanchions, and the spaces between the 
 heels of the stanchions ai-e filled in 
 solid with short vertical timbers ex- 
 tending up to the height of the top of 
 the spirketing. Outside the protected 
 portion of the ship the stanchions are 
 let down into, and dowelled and bolted 
 to a wooden gunwale worked upon the 
 deck plating. It will be remarked that 
 in this case, as well as in that illustrated by Fig. 188, gutter water- 
 ways are fitted in combination with w'ooden topsides. It has been 
 previously pointed out in how great a measure these waterways add 
 to the strength of the ship ; and it may be added here, that they 
 are also most efficient in clearing water from the decks, and are 
 very highly spoken of by practical seamen. 
 
 In concluding this chapter, it may be well to call attention to 
 the topsides of turret ships, which are usually fitted so that they 
 can be turned down when required. Of these topsides two ex- 
 amples are given in Figs. 192 and 193, wliich are taken from 
 H. M. S. ' Scorpion,' built by Messrs. Laird, and the Italian iron- 
 clad ' Affondatore,' built at the Millwall Company's Works. In 
 the ' Scorpion ' the bulwarks are made in lengths of about 8 feet, 
 in order that they may be lifted easily, and each length is secured 
 by means of two hinged stanchions similar to that shown in the 
 section in Fig. 1 92. When in place, the inside part of the stanchion 
 is secured by the pin marked a, which is removed Avhen the top- 
 sides are to be turned down, and they then move upon the hinge 
 marked h. It will be seen that the lower part of the bulwark 
 is covered with thin iron plating \ inch thick, stiffened by angle- 
 irons along the edges, and the upper part is formed of a toj)-gallant 
 bulwark of wood. In the ' Affondatore ' the bulwarks are in lengths
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 Topsides. 
 
 245 
 
 of 8 fee^inches, each length being secured by three hinges. The 
 bulwarks are lower than those of the 'Scorpion/ 
 and are made up of light plating (j^g-iuch), with 
 a plain rail on the upper part, and stiffening angle- 
 irons on the edges. The hinges are differently 
 formed and secured from those of the ' Scorpion,' 
 as will be seen from Fig. 193. When in place the 
 bulwarks are secured by stays similar to s, and 
 T-iron and angle-iron stiffeners are worked upon 
 the bulwark plating in order to stiffen it in wake 
 of the stays. In these ships it is usual to place 
 
 Fi;;. 193.
 
 246 Topsides. Chap. XII. 
 
 the awning stanchions in such positions as to bring them be- 
 tween two lengths of the bulwarks. A side view of one of these 
 stanchions, as fitted in the * Affondatore,' is marked a in Fig. 193, 
 and will serve as an example of the ordinary method of securing 
 them. In these low-decked vessels it is very essential to have 
 the means of speedily clearing the water from the deck; for 
 this purpose flap ports are fitted in the bulwarks, and are so 
 arranged as to open outwards under pressure,. while they prevent 
 the entrance of the water. It will be obvious that when the 
 bulwarks were turned down against the side some difficulty would 
 bo experienced in raising them again, unless special provision were 
 made for that purpose. In Fig, 193 there is given a separate 
 sketch showing the plan adopted in the ' Affondatore.' The bulwark 
 is shown turned down, and it will be seen that in order to give a 
 good lead to the rope by which the men pull it up, the lever I is 
 fitted, its outer end being connected with the upper part of the 
 topsides by a chain. By this means the bulwarks can be brought 
 up to the position in which the men can take hold of the lever I, 
 and then the operation can be easily completed. There are two 
 levers to each length of the bulwarks. On reference to the sketch 
 in Fig. 192, it will be evident that the foot of the stanchion in 
 the 'Scorpion' will serve the same pm-pose as the lever I in 
 the ' Affondatore,' as the men can take hold of it to raise the 
 bulwark.
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 Rudders. 
 
 247 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Rudders. 
 
 In this chapter we propose to give a brief sketch of the modes of 
 forming and fitting the rudders of iron ships, without entering on a 
 discussion of the relative advantages of the various proposals which 
 have been made for increasing the steering power of ships, which 
 is a subject that scarcely falls within the compass of a work 
 that, like the present, is limited to practical information. In 
 the course of the following remarks it will be necessary, however, 
 to point out some of the reasons which have led to the adoption 
 of novel forms of rudders, and to notice the results of their trials. 
 
 In the early iron ships the main pieces of the rudders were 
 formed of hollow iron plates, the space between the plates being filled 
 in with fir or some light wood. A good illustration of 
 this is found in Fig. 194, which gives a section of the 
 ' Dover's ' rudder. The main piece, or front, and the sides 
 of the rudder were formed by a bent plate, and the space 
 between the side-plating was filled in with fir secured by 
 through-bolts on the after edge. The rudder-head was 
 hollow and cylindrical for about one-thu'd of the depth of 
 the rudder, and down to the part where the breadth of 
 the rudder began to increase rapidly, it was welded. The 
 rudder was hung to three braces, riveted to the hollow- 
 plate stern-post, by means of three similar braces riveted 
 to the bent plate forming the front of the rudder, and 
 was kept in place by a long pintle-bolt wliich passed down 
 through all the braces. The upper end of this bolt was supported 
 on a shoulder formed on the inside of the upper part of the rudder- 
 head, and was easily got at from the upper deck. When the 
 rudder was to be unshipped, the bolt was withdrawn. In the sketch 
 the pintle-bolt is shown in section, and it will be seen that its 
 centre is coincident with that of the fore part of the rudder, so 
 that although the front of the rudder was straight, the size of the 
 rudder-hole was only required to be as much larger than the dia- 
 
 ^ 'JJ 
 
 Fig. 194.
 
 248 Rudders. Chap. XI 11. 
 
 meter of the rudder-head as would give room for shipping and 
 unshipping the rudder. The casing of the rudder-hole was made 
 of thin plating worked watertight, and extending from the counter 
 up to the deck above. 
 
 M. Dupuy de Lome gives an account of a mode of forming 
 the rudders of small vessels which was practised at Glasgow 
 at the time of his visit in 1842. This method is interesting on 
 account of its simplicity, as will appear from the following de- 
 scription given in the Report : — " They pass through all the braces 
 " a bar of round iron, and rest its lower end upon the keel. They 
 " then rivet on the sides of the bar the plates which form the 
 " rudder. In case of these rudders being damaged, the ships must 
 " be docked, or the whole of the stern post is spoiled by stripping 
 " off the bottom plating. If it becomes necessary to shift or 
 " change the rudder, it must be taken to pieces in place, in the 
 " same way as it was constructed, and on this account the method 
 " is not suited to vessels which are liable to be long absent from 
 " port." 
 
 When the hollow-plate stern posts were displaced by the solid 
 bar posts, the great diminution made in the siding of the posts 
 necessitated a corresponding reduction in the siding of the rudders, 
 and so led to the introduction of a solid forging for the main piece. 
 This arrangement had the great advantage of giving the necessary 
 resistance to torsion with much smaller dimensions than would 
 have been required for a hollow-plate main piece. In addition, 
 the pintles were forged in one with the main piece, and the frame 
 of the rudder was either scarphed or welded together, and then 
 plated over, the space between the side-plating being left empty. 
 It was then thought unnecessary to fill in the interior of the rudder 
 with fir, as the siding was so small as to render the increase of 
 weight very trifling in case the rudder was by accident filled with 
 water. 
 
 We next come to consider the mode of forming rudders now 
 generally followed. The main piece or front of the rudder is, 
 almost invariably, a solid forging, the pintles being forged in one 
 with it, and in most cases the back of the rudder is also formed 
 by a. solid iron frame which is welded to the main piece. In 
 some cases, however, the body of the rudder has been made of 
 a single plate, and the rudder-head and pintles have been sepa- 
 rately forged and riveted to the plate-rudder. Lloyd's Rules state
 
 Chap. XIII. Rudders. 249 
 
 that the main piece of the rudder is to be made of the best 
 hammered iron, and the plating to be carefully stayed and riveted. 
 The Liverpool Eules simply require that rudder-frames shall be 
 forged solid. In both cases dimensions are given for the rudder- 
 heads and heels of various classes of ships. The rudder of a large 
 iron ship is now usually made in the following manner : — The 
 main piece is made in one forging from the head to the heel, 
 lugs in the rough being brought on to receive the other portions 
 of the frame. The forging of the main piece is so formed as 
 to admit of the pintles being worked out of the solid, and they 
 are afterwards shaped out under a slotting-machine and com- 
 pleted by hand with chisel and file. A turning-machine has been 
 sometimes used for the purpose of finishing the pintles, and 
 machinery may be advantageously employed also for boring the 
 holes in the braces, and taking out the guUeting in the back of 
 the rudder-post. The back of the rudder is formed in a separate 
 forging, and is connected with the main piece by horizontal 
 stays. The stays and back of the rudder are welded to the 
 main piece by means of the lugs left on it for the purpose, and 
 thus the rudder-frame is made into one solid forging. The 
 back and the heel of the rudder are usually tapered considerably 
 from the dimensions of the head, and the sides are made nearly 
 in one plane, and covered with thin plating worked flush. The 
 front, back, and stays of the rudder-frame are perforated through 
 and through with holes for the riveting of the side-plates, and 
 the edges of the plates are connected by internal edge-strips 
 worked between the stays. After account has been taken of the 
 rivet-holes in the rudder-frame, and the edge-strips have been 
 fitted in place and the holes for the edge-riveting punched, the 
 plating of each side is taken off, the holes for the fastenings in 
 the rudder-frame are drilled, and the edge-rivets are put in. 
 When this work has been comj)leted, the plating is replaced on 
 the frame, and the through-riveting is proceeded with. The edges 
 of the plating are caulked in the ordinary manner, and the whole 
 is supposed to be perfectly watertight. There is, however, a 
 difficulty in ensuring this at first, and when it is remembered 
 that the rudder is very liable to be struck, it will appear that 
 the chances are greatly against the inside of the rudder being 
 free from water. With a view to ensure the exclusion of the 
 water, rudders are frequently filled in between the frame and stays
 
 250 
 
 Rudders. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 with some light wood (generally Dantzic fir) and then covered by 
 
 the side-plates in the usual way. 
 
 The sketch in Fig. 195 will fully illustrate the preceding 
 
 description. It is taken from the 
 rudder of an armour-plated frigate 
 of the ' Northumberland ' class. 
 The diameter of the rudder-head 
 is 11^ inches, and the siding of 
 the back tapers from 11^ inches 
 at the upper part to 5 inches at 
 the heel. Between the front and 
 back of the rudder there are four 
 horizontal stays, marked s, and 
 upon the upper and lower stays 
 stop-cleats, marked c, are riveted, 
 and serve to prevent the rudder 
 from being put over past a certain 
 angle, or being driven beyond it 
 by a sudden blow. It may be 
 remarked here that the number 
 of cross-stays similar to s varies 
 ya\h the size of the rudder, and 
 in vessels of moderate dimensions 
 they are entirely dispensed with. 
 In very small vessels the back 
 piece also is omitted and the 
 plates are secured to the main 
 piece, theu' after ends being 
 brought together and riveted. 
 It will be noticed that tlie pintles 
 are forged in one with the main 
 piece, and that their centre is in 
 a line with the centre of the rud- 
 der-head, as is usually the case 
 in iron rudders. The pintle at 
 the heel fits into a socket in the 
 after end of the keel-piece, and 
 the other pintles fit the braces 
 Fig. 195. forged on the rudder-post. The 
 
 pintle next below the upper one and that next above the lower
 
 Chap, XIII. Rtidders. 251 
 
 one are considerably shorter than the other pintles, and they 
 have steel pins screwed into their lower convex surface. These 
 steel-pointed pintles bear on corresponding steel pins fitted 
 in the braces, when the rudder is in place, and the weight of 
 the rudder being taken by these convex surfaces of steel, the 
 friction is reduced to a very small amount, and the rudder is made 
 to turn readily. The importance of this arrangement will appear 
 when it is considered that the total weight of this rudder is 15 tons, 
 of which weight the frame makes up 12 tons and the plating, 
 fillings, &c., the remaining 3 tons. For a considerably smaller 
 and lighter rudder one of these steel-pointed pintles would be 
 considered sufficient. Another advantage attaching to this ar- 
 rangement, which also deserves notice, is that with it there need 
 be little trouble taken in bringing the lower part of every pintle 
 to bear accurately on the upper part of every brace, as is usual 
 in a wood ship. If there are two sets of pins it is sufficient to 
 bring them accurately into contact, and if there is but one the 
 only care required is to give sufficient play between the several 
 pintles and braces to ensure the rudder turning entirely on the 
 pins. The sketch in Fig. 195 shows the arrangement of a portion 
 of the riveting of the |-inch plating forming the sides of the 
 rudder. The space between the frame and plating is filled with 
 Dantzic fir. 
 
 In some cases, instead of hanging the rudder in the manner 
 described above, the following plan is adopted. The recesses in 
 the front piece are made only of the same length as the pintles, 
 and the usual kind of brace is replaced by iron straps, which are 
 bent so that they may fit around the pintles and have their fore 
 ends riveted to the stern-post. The rudder has to be in place 
 before these straps can be riveted ; and when once fixed, the rudder 
 cannot be unshipped without cutting out the rivets in the straps. 
 These inconveniences form grave objections to the plan, but it is 
 frequently adopted in merchant ships, and is cheaper than the 
 usual method. 
 
 Heel-ropes are usually fitted to large iron rudders, and in 
 order to receive them iron tubes are worked through the thin 
 plating, their ends being tm-ned back outside the plates and beaten 
 down or clenched. One other feature of the ordinary mode of 
 fitting iron rudders requires a passing notice. The axis of the 
 rudder is usually at an equal distance from the back of the post
 
 252 Rudders. Chap. Xl 11. 
 
 throughout its length, and as the rudder generally tapers consider- 
 ably from the head to the heel the consequence is that when the 
 rudder is put hard over, a hollow is found on one side of it and a 
 projection on the other, both of which tend to seriously obstruct 
 the action of the rudder. This evil is, however, entirely removed 
 by making the distance of the axis of the rudder from the back 
 of the post correspond to the siding of the rudder at every point of 
 its length, thus following the practice of tlie wooden shipbuilder. 
 
 Balanced rudders have in several instances been fitted to iron 
 ships. The screw steam-ship ' Great Britain,' built at Bristol, was 
 originally supplied with a rudder of this kind, the head of the 
 after post above the bearing for the after end of the screw-shaft 
 being rounded in order to serve as the axis of rotation of the 
 rudder. Of the total area of the rudder one-third was before 
 the axis and two-thirds abaft it. When the ship was wrecked in 
 Dundrum Bay the rudder was knocked away, and when the repairs 
 were performed a solid rudder-post was fitted, and the ordinary 
 form of rudder was adopted. Within the last few years balanced 
 rudders have been more frequently employed, both in ships with 
 single and twin screw-propellers. This adoption of balanced rudders 
 has been consequent on the recognition of the great advantages 
 they possess as compared with ordinary rudders in respect both 
 of the increased area of rudder-surface thus obtainable, and the 
 ease with which they can be put over to very large angles. As 
 instances of twin-screw ships with balanced rudders we may refer 
 to the American monitors, and the ships of the ' Invincible ' class in 
 our own Navy. In these vessels, which have a single dead-wood, 
 the rudder-head is secured at the ship's counter, and the heel is 
 kept in place by a large pintle which steps into a socket in the after 
 end of the keel. The keel is prolonged for a few feet abaft the 
 post in order to receive the pintle in the rudder-heel, and the fore 
 edge of the rudder clears the after side of the body-post by about 
 2 feet. As examples of single-screw ships with balanced rudders, 
 we may mention H.M.'s ships ' Bellerophon,' 'Monarch,' 'Incon- 
 stant,' and ' Hercules,' and the Prussian iron-clad ' King William.' 
 The rudder arrangements of the ' Bellerophon ' and ' King William ' 
 are of an almost identical character, and it will suffice, therefore, 
 to illustrate those of the former ship ; the arrangements adopted 
 in the ' Hercules ' are very different, and will be fully described 
 hereafter. In the Bellerophon' the rudder is constructed as
 
 Chap. XIII. Rudders. 253 
 
 shown in side view and section in Fig. 87, p. 120. The front, 
 upper, and lower edges of the rudder-frame are formed by a solid 
 forging, and the after edge by a bent plate as shown in the section. 
 The rudder-fi'ame is completed by four vertical frames formed 
 of plates and angle-irons, the two foremost frames being placed 
 close together and at equal distances on each side of the axis of 
 the rudder. By means of this arrangement of the rudder-frame 
 its weight is considerably diminished, and its cost considerably 
 reduced, from what would be rendered necessary if the frame were 
 one solid forging; while the rudder is made as strong as usual 
 on those parts which have to resist torsion, or are most exposed to 
 violent blows. The plating on the sides ot the rudder is yq inch 
 thick, and the inside of the rudder is filled with a mixture of cork 
 cuttings and Hay's glue, which is used in order to keep out the 
 water. The rudder-heel is steadied by a pintle 8 inches in dia- 
 meter, having a large nut hove up on its lower end below the 
 keel-plates. The rudder-head is a solid forging of circular section 
 of which the diameter is 12 inches. Its lower end steps into the 
 socket formed by the two foremost vertical frames in the rudder 
 and the side-plating, and is run down about 4 feet 6 inches into 
 the rudder. The uj)per part of the piatle-forging at the rudder- 
 heel also extends up into the socket about 2 feet, and it will 
 be seen from the side view of the rudder in Fig. 87, that the 
 forgings forming the pintle and rudder-head are both secured to 
 the forged rudder-frame by shoulders having a hook-scarph at 
 each end. The siding of the rudder is tapered considerably before 
 the axis, as will be seen from the section, and thus its retarding 
 effect on the ship is considerably reduced. It may be added that 
 in this case, as in all modern balanced rudders, the proportion of 
 the area of the rudder before the axis to that abaft it is about 
 1 to 2. One other feature requiring notice is the casting fitted 
 between the upper edge of the rudder and the counter, in order to 
 prevent the rudder from being driven upward by striking the ground, 
 and so injuring the inboard arrangements. This casting is shown 
 in Fig. 87. In order to allow the rudder to be unshipped a 
 transverse slot is cut in the casting, the width of the slot being a 
 little greater than the siding of the rudder. When the rudder is 
 placed in an athwartship position, it can be lifted up into this slot 
 and the heel-pintle withdrawn from the socket in the keel-plates. 
 In order to allow the rudder-heel to be carried aft to clear the 
 keel-plates the fore side of the casing of the rudder-hole is inclined
 
 254 
 
 RtLciders. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 as shown in the sketch, and when the rudder is in place a metal 
 casing is put into the rudder-hole which just allows the rudder- 
 head room to work. At the upper end of the casing a stufifing-box 
 arrangement is fitted to prevent the passage of water inboard. It 
 will be remarked, from the sketch of the stern in Fig. 87, that the 
 upper end of the rudder-head is steadied by an angle-iron socket 
 worked underneath the main deck, and that a scuttle is made 
 in the deck to allow the rudder-head to pass up when the rudder 
 is being shipped or unshipped. 
 
 We now come to 
 notice the arrange- 
 ments made for sup- 
 porting and ^\■orking 
 the rudder. As pre- 
 viously stated, the 
 weight of the rudder 
 is taken inboard, and 
 the pintle at the heel 
 is merely intended 
 to steady it. The 
 four aftermost verti- 
 cal frames support a 
 horizontal platform, 
 marked O in Fig. 
 87, on which the 
 weight of the rudder 
 is taken. Upon this 
 platform is fixed an 
 arrangement of fric- 
 Figi96- i|i!L___-J ""^ tion rollers which is 
 
 shown in the sketch just referred to, and is illustrated on a larger 
 scale in Figs. 196 and 197. From the elevation of the rudder-head 
 given in Fig. 196 it will be seen that a circular forging, Q, is secured 
 to the platform O, and forms a table, upon the upper bevilled 
 surface of which the friction rollers rest. These rollers are of brass 
 and are conical frusta in shape, being secured in the cone band R 
 as shown in Fig. 197. The rudder-head is of uniform diameter as 
 far up as the upper side of R, but from that point, and throughout 
 the depth of the forging S, the diameter is reduced to 11 inches, 
 thus foiToing a shoulder of \ inch at the upper and lo^^ er edges of 
 S. By means of this shoulder all the weight of the rudder is
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 Rtidders. 
 
 255 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 transmitted by S to the friction rollers underneath it, so that the 
 working of the rudder is rendered extremely easy. It may be of 
 interest to state that this arrangement has stood the test of actual 
 employment most satisfac- 
 torily, and that the officers 
 who have had opportunities 
 of observing it in work have 
 all expressed their entire 
 approval of it. The sketch 
 in Fig. 196 shows the manner 
 in which the rudder can be 
 locked at any angle which 
 may be desired. The after 
 part of the table S is formed 
 in such a manner as to over- 
 lap the fore edge of the lock- 
 ing plate, and the usual form of locking pin is employed to keep the 
 rudder fixed. In the sketch one of these pins is shown in position. 
 In designing the rudder of the ' Hercules ' provision has been 
 made to allow it to be used as a balanced rudder when under 
 steam, and .to lock the part of the rudder before the axis and steer 
 only with the part abaft the axis, if it should be thought necessary, 
 when the ship is under sail. The change from the preceding 
 arrangement has been made on account of the opinion expressed 
 by the officers who have commanded the ' Bellerophon,' that the 
 great area of the balanced rudder, while adding very greatly to the 
 ship's manoeuvring power under steam, tends to destroy the ship's 
 way when she is tacking, and causes her occasionally to miss stays. 
 The details of the arrangements of the rudder of the ' Hercules ' 
 are given in side view and sections in Fig. 198. The two parts of 
 the rudder before and abaft the axis are separately built, and are 
 connected by pintles and braces, the braces being forged on the 
 after edge of the fore part and the pintles on the fore edge of the 
 after part. From the sketches it will be remarked that the fore 
 part has its frame formed in one forging, while the after part has 
 its frame made up of a forging and a bent plate, with two vertical 
 frames intermediate between the fore and after edges. The after 
 part is sided uniformly throughout, but the fore part is tapered in 
 siding, as shown in the sections, the reason for this difference being 
 the same as has been given for a similar arrangement in the
 
 256 
 
 Rtidders. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 rn 
 
 PIAA/ orJJ. 
 
 Fig 193.
 
 Chap. XIII. Rudders. 257 
 
 ' Bellerophon,' The heel of the rudder is steadied by the after end 
 of the keel j)iece, and the lower pintle on the after piece of the 
 rudder passes through a brace welded to the frame of the fore 
 piece, and through a hole in the keel piece. The after piece of 
 the rudder is attached to a solid iron rudder head, very similar 
 in form to that of the ' Bellerophon,' its lower end being con- 
 nected with the forged frame by hook-scarphs, as shown in the side 
 view in Fig. 198. The fore piece of the rudder is attached to 
 a tubular rudder-head at the lower end of which there is formed an 
 arm that clasps the upper part of the frame. The solid rudder- 
 head attached to the after piece passes up through the tubular 
 rudder-head, and its upper end is steadied by a socket, worked 
 below the main deck, similar to that fitted in the ' Bellerophon.' 
 The side view of the rudder, &c., shows how the weight of the 
 rudder is taken inboard on a platform built on tlie stern frames, 
 and that in this ship there are two sets of friction rollers. The table 
 marked C which rests upon the lower set of conical rollers is 
 attached to tlie tubular rudder-head, and its after part is arranged 
 to receive the locking-pins which also pass through the fixed 
 locking-plate P at the stern of the ship. A plan of the table is 
 given in Fig. 198, and the aftermost row of holes there shown 
 is that which these pins pass through in order to lock the fore part 
 of the rudder in any position that may be desired. The second 
 system of rollers rests upon the table C, and supports a table D 
 which is connected with the solid rudder-head. A plan of D is also 
 given, and it will be seen that its after part is arranged so that it 
 can be locked to the foremost row of holes in C. In the side view 
 the two locking-pins are shown in the positions they occupy when 
 C is locked to D, and D is locked to the fixed locking-plate. 
 From the preceding description it will be obvious that when it is 
 desired to use the rudder as a simple balanced rudder the two parts 
 can be made to move together by locking the tables C and D to 
 each other, and when the rudder has been put over to the desired 
 angle it can be fixed there by putting in the locking-pins in the 
 after row of holes in C. If, on the other hand, it is desired to use 
 only the after part of the rudder, the fore part can be locked in its 
 amidship position, and the after part, being moved by the solid 
 rudder-head which turns within the tubular head, can be locked at 
 any angle by putting in the pins which pass through the holes in 
 the after parts of C and D. It need only be added that provision 
 
 s
 
 258 Rtidders. Chap. XIII. 
 
 is made in this case also to prevent the rudder from being driven 
 upward if it strikes the ground, by means of a forging fitted between 
 the counter and the upper part of the rudder; and that the 
 shipping or unshipping is performed in a manner similar to that 
 fully described for the ' Bellerophon.' 
 
 Before concluding this chapter it may be well to notice that 
 bow-rudders liave been fitted to iron ships, and are often employed 
 in double-ended ships which are intended to run in both directions. 
 The steam ferry boats which cross the Mersey between Liverpool 
 and Birkenhead have a rudder at each end, and the ' Waterwitch,' 
 which is fitted with a hydraulic propeller and is double-ended, has 
 a similar arrangement of rudders. In these and other ships which 
 have bow-rudders it is usual to form the bow-frame in such a 
 manner that the rudder can be placed in a recess, and the rudder 
 is so sliaped that when locked in its amidship position it completes 
 the form of the body both longitudinally and vertically. The 
 rudder-head is formed by a solid forging which passes inboard, and 
 the rudder itself is very lightly framed and plated. Proposals 
 have been made to fit bow-rudders in very long ships in conjunction 
 with the ordinary stern rudder, in order to decrease the time re- 
 quired for turning. These proposals have, however, been rejected 
 for the twofold reasons, that great difficulty would be experienced 
 in working a bow and a stern rudder in conjunction, and the fact 
 that a bow-rudder is much less effective than a stern rudder, as 
 it acts upon water moving much slower than that which is driven 
 upon the stern rudder by the screw.
 
 Chap. XIV. Iron Masts. 259 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 IRON MASTS. 
 
 One of the more recent applications of iron in the equipment of 
 ships has been its employment in the construction of masts and 
 yards. In his book on " Iron Shipbuilding " Mr. Grantham states 
 that an iron mast was placed in one of the City of Dublin Com- 
 pany's steamers about 35 years ago ; but it is only within the last 
 ten or fifteen years that iron lower masts have been constructed for 
 large ships. At first there were great objections raised on account 
 of the supposed danger incurred from the impossibility of cutting 
 away an u-on mast when the ship's safety seemed to demand such 
 a measure ; and it was further urged that in case of shipwreck the 
 means of constructing a raft would be considerably smaller in a 
 ship with iron masts than in one of which the masts were of 
 wood. These objections have, however, been over-ruled by other 
 and more important considerations, and at the present time the 
 lower masts of a very large number of our iron ships, and of 
 many wood ships, are built of iron, while in numerous instances 
 the topmasts, topgallantmasts, and the yards are also made of iron 
 or steel. Before passing to the illustration of the construction of 
 iron lower masts, it may be of interest to give a brief summary of 
 the advantages which are supposed to be gained by their employ- 
 ment. In a vessel of moderate "size the large dimensions of a wood 
 lower mast compel the builder to make it up of several pieces, 
 which are coaked and bolted to each other, and bound together by 
 numerous iron hoops. The various pieces used in a large mast 
 are difficult to procure, and even when the greatest care is taken 
 to secure a good combination of the different parts^ it is absolutely 
 impossible to prevent the gradual decay of the material. An 
 iron lower mast of the same diameter Avould be made up of 
 plates, each bent to I'orm an arc of a circle (generally 120 degrees) 
 and connected at the edges and ends by through-riveted lap-joints 
 
 s 2
 
 26o Iron Masts. Chap. XIV. 
 
 or covering strips, the structure being usually stiffened by conti- 
 nuous T or angle-irons. No difficulty is experienced in procuring 
 the materials for the mast, however large its dimensions, and no 
 danger is incurred from decay, as the interior of the mast can be 
 readily got at, cleaned, and painted, while the various parts of the 
 structure are well combined. Iron masts have usually been made 
 of the same diameter as the wood masts they have replaced, and it 
 appears that the strength of a well built iron mast is nearly the 
 same as that of a tree of Eiga fir of the same dimensions. Iron 
 masts are stated by some authorities to be considerably lighter than 
 wood masts of the same dimensions. Thus Mr. Grantham states 
 that, for vessels of the same tonnage, the weight of the three lower 
 masts and the bowsin-it when built of iron, is only two thirds their 
 weight when built of wood ; and adds that he is confirmed in this 
 opinion by independent calculations made by Mr. John Vernon. 
 In the ships of the Eoyal Navy which have iron masts it is found 
 that for the larger masts the weights are nearly identical with those 
 of wooden masts of the same dimensions, but that for the smaller 
 masts those made of iron are rather heavier than those built of 
 wood. Tlie explanation of the difference between Mr. Grantham's 
 estimate and the observed weights of the iron masts in H.M. ships, 
 is found in the fact that a very strong system of stiffeners is adopted 
 in these masts, and consequently their weight is increased. 
 
 The relative cost of iron and wood masts is a matter requiring 
 notice. In a paper on " Iron and other masts and spars " in 
 the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1863, 
 Mr. Lamport states as the result of his experience that the first cost 
 of iron lower masts is greater than that of wood masts in vessels 
 under 700 tons, and that it is only for vessels of at least 1000 tons 
 that the gain on iron masts is a decided one. Mr. Grantham 
 expresses a similar opinion, and renjarks that when compared with 
 wood-built masts in large vessels iron masts are rather less ex- 
 pensive. Clyde shipbuilders differ considerably in their opinions 
 on this point, some thinking with Mr. Lawrie that there is a con- 
 siderable gain in tlie use of iron masts and spars, and others agree- 
 ing with Mr. Lamport. The iron lower masts employed in the 
 ships of the Eoyal Navy are more expensive than wood masts of 
 the same dimensions. The advantages gained in respect of strength 
 and durability are, however, such as to outweigh any of these con- 
 siderations of expense.
 
 Chap. XIV. Iron Masls. 261 
 
 The Liverpool Eules give a table of dimensious for iron masts, 
 which will be found in the Appendix, in which the diameter, 
 thickness of plating, &c., is stated for masts of various lengths. 
 Lloyd's Rules do not give any regulations or dimensions for iron 
 masts. Before concluding these preliminary remarks it may be 
 added that iron masts are usually made to serve as ventilators to 
 the interior of the vessel, and that in order to remove the objection 
 previously mentioned, several modes of cutting away iron masts 
 have been proposed, and in some cases adopted. The plates used 
 in the construction of lower masts vary from ^ inch to f inch in 
 thickness, and their breadth is usually one-third the circumference, 
 although in small masts plates having a breadth of half the circum- 
 ference, and in large masts of one-fourth the circumference, are 
 sometimes employed. The longitudinal seams of the plating are 
 generally single-riveted, and the butts ai'e double-riveted, except 
 in wake of wedging decks where they are often treble-riveted. In- 
 ternal stiffeners are fitted throughout the length of many masts, and 
 in some cases horizontfd cross-stays are also worked at intervals. 
 
 Coming now to the illustration of the various modes of forming 
 iron masts we would first call attention to the section given in 
 Fig. 199, in which there are four plates in the circumference, con- 
 
 Fig. 199. Fig. 200. Fig. 201. 
 
 nected by double-riveted lap-joints, and stiffened by four continuous 
 angle-irons worked upon the centre of each plate. Sometimes 
 instead of having the stiffening bars as in this case of simple angle- 
 irons, they are formed of double angle-irons set back to back, or of 
 T-irons. In the masts of many merchant ships the stiffening bars 
 are dispensed with, and the thickness of the plating somewhat 
 increased in order to give the requisite strength. In other masts 
 the angle-iron stiffeners are placed as shown in the section in 
 Fig. 200, so that the edge riveting shall work in as fastenings in 
 the stiffeners. In masts where the plating is worked flush at the
 
 262 
 
 Iron Masts. 
 
 Chap. XI\' 
 
 edges it is nsual to have tlie stiffeninp: bars of T-iron, and to place 
 them, as shown in section in Fig. 201, so that they shall serve as 
 edge strips. In order to still further stiffen masts the flanges of 
 the stiffening bars are often connected by braces or horizontal 
 stays, formed of T or angle-iron, or of plate. In addition to 
 adding to the strength of the mast these cross-stays also afford 
 the means of climbing up inside for the purpose of inspecting, 
 cleaning, and painting it. A section showing a mast constructed 
 with T-iron stiffeners and plate stays is given in Fig. 202, which 
 illustrates the arrangements adopted in the masts of the ' Defence ' 
 and other of the earlier iron-clads. These plate stays are 
 placed at intervals of from 4 to 6 feet. In some masts the 
 plate stays are arranged as shown in Fig. 203, a bent plate 
 
 r\ 
 
 rN^ 
 
 r \ 
 
 u \ 
 
 Vj 
 
 ',1 
 
 Fig. 202. 
 
 Fig. 203. 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 
 forming two parts and a separate plate the remaining part. 
 Mr. Grantham gives a section of a mast, from which Fig. 204 is 
 taken, and in whicli there are four plates in the circumference, 
 the seams being flush-jointed and the stiffeners, formed of T-bars 
 placed as usual upon the seams. The plate cross stays in this 
 instance are placed in diametral planes, being riveted to the 
 flanges of the T-irons, and connected with 
 each other at the centre of the mast by 
 short angle-irons. In the ' Kesistance ' the 
 masts were constructed as shown in section 
 by Fig. 205. There are four plates in 
 the circumference, the edges being flush- 
 jointed, and covered by T-iron stiffeners. 
 At intervals of 10 feet the stiffening 
 arrangement shown in the sketch is 
 fitted, consisting of a ring of angle-iron 
 worked in short lengths between the T-iron stiffeners and con- 
 nected by a horizontal stiffening plate p. 
 
 Fig. 205.
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 Iron Masts. 
 
 263 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
 Fig. 20'?. 
 
 In the masts of the ' Hector ' a very unusual mode of stiffening 
 was adopted, as will be seen from the section given in Fig. 206. At 
 intervals of 9 feet angle-iron stiffening rings are fitted within the 
 angle-iron stiffeners and connected with them by short reversed 
 ano-le-irons worked on the stiffeners. In addition to this a bolt 
 is put in through 
 each lap and passed 
 through a cylindrical 
 tube or washer fitted 
 between the plating 
 and the stiffening 
 ring as shown. In 
 the construction of 
 the masts of the ' Bel- 
 lerophon ' and others 
 of the later iron-clads the arraugements have been similar to those 
 shown in Fig. 207. The cross-stays are formed o^T-iron, and are 
 placed at intervals of about 6 feet throughout the masts. This 
 mode of forming and stiffening masts may be taken as the illustra- 
 tion of the practice of H.M. Service, and as an example of the 
 dimensions of plates, and stiffeners which are employed, we have 
 given the following particulars of the masts of the ' Bellerophon.' 
 The fore-mast is 33 inchesin diameter and the main-mast 35 inches, 
 both masts being formed of ^ inch plates riveted to three T-irons 
 6 by 4 by -^ inches, and supported by T-iron cross stays 5 by 3 by 
 \ inches, at intervals of 6 feet. The mizen-mast is 24 inches in 
 diameter, and is formed of | inch plates riveted to three T-iron 
 stiffeners 5 by 4 by ^ inches, and supported at every 6 feet by cross 
 stays of T-iron 5 by 1\ by f inches. 
 
 In the sea-going turret-ship ' Monarch ' where the usual 
 arrangement of shrouds is not adopted, and the masts have, in 
 consequence, less support than is commonly the case, it has been 
 considered desirable to increase the diameters of the masts and 
 the dimensions of the plates and stiffeners of which they are built. 
 In tliis ship the fore and main-masts are 40 inches in dia- 
 meter, and are formed of \ inch plates riveted to three T-irons 
 6 by 5 by I inches, and supported by cross stays of T-iron 5 
 l>y 3 by ^ inches at intervals of 6 feet. The mizen-mast is 
 36 inches in diameter, and is formed of | inch plates riveted to 
 three T-irons 5f by \\ by ^^ inches and supported by cross
 
 264 h'on Masts. Chap. XIV. 
 
 stays of T-iron 5 by 1\ by f iucbes spaced as in tbe fore and 
 main-masts. 
 
 The plates used in the coustruction of the masts of the sliips 
 of the Navy are of the " hnt best " quality, in lengths of at least 
 12 feet, their edges being single riveted to the T-irons, and their 
 butts double chain riveted to covering plates worked inside. 
 The T-bars which form the continuous stiffeners are usually 
 welded up into one length, but when this cannot be accomplished 
 the lengtlis used must be at least 24 feet and butt covers are 
 fitted. In the latter case great care is required in arranging 
 the shifts of butts of the T-bars and plates in the mast, and the 
 evil effects of neglecting this precaution have been shown in some 
 cases where spars which have been constructed with an ample 
 weight of material have given way under severe strains, and the 
 fractures have shown a bad disposition of the butts of plating 
 and stiffeners to be the cause of the accident. Another very 
 important feature in the construction of iron masts is the accurate 
 fitting of the butts. This accuracy is required in all the specifi- 
 cations for iron masts built for H.M. Ships, and is aimed at by 
 most private builders. It will be obvious that too much care can- 
 not be taken in securing this result, when it is considered that so 
 great a thrust is brought upon the mast by the tension of the 
 shrouds, and that when the butts are badly fitted the strain is in 
 some measure thrown upon the rivets, and they are consequently 
 injured. It should be stated, however, that the masts of some 
 merchant ships are lap-jointed at the butts, as well as at the edges 
 of the plates. All the rivets in mast-work are countersunk on the 
 outside of the plates, and chipped fair with the surface. 
 
 Iron lower masts are very often of uniform diameter from the 
 heel up to the trestle-trees, but their heads have, in many cases, 
 been made of the same external form as is commonly adopted 
 for wood masts. Mr. Grantham gives two illustrations of this form 
 of mast head, and in both cases the dimensions of the head are 
 considerably less than the diameter of the lower mast from the 
 hounds downward, while upon the shoulders thus formed the 
 trestle-trees rest and are bolted to the head. When this form of 
 mast-head is adopted, the lower part of the head is generally run 
 down some distance into the body of the mast, and firmly con- 
 nected with the plating and stiffeners. In more recent masts the 
 square section of the head has been given up, and the head forms
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 Iron Masts. 
 
 265 
 
 a continuation of the mast below the hounds, its diameter being 
 slightly reduced by a gradual taper. In Fig. 208 sketches are 
 given showing in plan and elevation the mainmast head of a 
 sloop of war of 1100 tons. This mast is built on the plan illus- 
 trated by Fig. 207, and the T-iron stiffeners extend throughout its 
 length. The sketches show the mode of fitting wood trestle-trees 
 to an iron mast with this form of head. As there are no shoulders 
 at the hounds, special provision has to be made for supporting the 
 trestle-trees, and this is accomplished by working a plate and a 
 ring of angle-iron around the mast, and fitting plate-knees h, h, 
 which correspond with the cheeks usually worked below the trestle- 
 Pi^y,!^ trees of a wood mast. The plan 
 
 shows very clearly the spread 
 of the knees and the arrange- 
 ment of the plate and angle- 
 iron below the trestle-trees. 
 
 ELEVATION. 
 
 Fig. 208. Fig. 209. 
 
 Iron trestle-trees are often fitted to iron lower masts, especially 
 in vessels of the mercantile marine, and an illustration of such an 
 arrangement is given in plan and elevation in Fig. 209. From the 
 plan it will be remarked that the trestle-trees are formed of one 
 length of angle-iron, the fore part being curved in such a manner as 
 to fit around the heel of the topmast. The angle-iron trestle-trees
 
 266 Iron Masts. Chap. xiv. 
 
 are riveted to the sides of the mast, and are supported at the lore 
 and after sides of the mast by plate-knees fitted as shown in 
 the elevation. The wooden cross-trees are in this case fitted 
 directly upon, and bolted to the trestle-trees. In many ships the 
 cross-trees also are of iron. It may be added that these sketches 
 are taken from the mizenmast of the sloop of which tlie mainmast 
 head is illustrated in Fig. 208, the vessel being barque rigged. 
 
 Mr. Lamport remarks with respect to mast-head arrangements 
 that they should be such " as to ensure the pressure from the 
 " heel of the topmast, &c., being as near the centre of the mast as 
 " practicable, and at the same time to allow the drag of the shrouds 
 " to be fairly carried over the plates of each side. These desiderata 
 " are easily attained by cariying up the plate on the aft side of the 
 " mast in a straight line to form the back of the head, riveting a 
 " strong plate over the round of the mast at the hounds to a strong 
 " angle-iron running around the outside, and building upon it the 
 " remaining three sides of the square doubling or liead." The 
 section of the head which he proposes would be square on three 
 sides, and on the aft side a circular arc forming a continuation of 
 the curve of the mast. There would be no plate-knees underneath 
 the plate upon which the head is built, corresponding to the cheeks 
 fitted to wood masts. 
 
 One other mast-head fitting requires notice, namely, the manner 
 in which the cover is formed which admits of ventilation, but pre- 
 
 # vents the entrance of wet. Sketches showing 
 the details of one of these covers are given in 
 plan and vertical section in Fig. 210. It will 
 be seen that a ring of angle-iron is worked 
 inside the mast at the upper edge of the plating, 
 and upon the rim thus formed the angle-iron r 
 is riveted. The cover is formed of a circular 
 
 SECTION. plate with a ring of deep flanged angle-iron 
 
 I I j ji riveted to the edge. When in position the 
 
 cover is supported by the radial frame marked 
 / in the plan, the vertical sides of which are 
 secured to the angle-iron r. From the vertical 
 section it will be evident that the cover thus 
 formed and supported fulfils the conditions 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 for which it was designed. 
 
 The various fittings of an iron lower mast (sling and stay cleats,
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 Iron Masts. 
 
 267 
 
 eyes for braces, halyards, stays, &c,) are of a similar character to 
 those of a wooden mast of the same dimensions, the only differences 
 being due to the fact that the means of attaching the eyes, &c., 
 have to be varied on account of the different material in the mast. 
 Iron caps are now universally fitted to iron lower masts and are 
 secured by being shrunk on. It does not fall within the compass 
 of this work to give the details or dimensions of the various 
 fittings, information with respect to which will be found in works 
 on masting. 
 
 Incidental reference has been made to the usual practice of 
 working doubling plates upon the masts in wake of the wedging 
 decks. These plates serve ^the double 
 purpose of giving additional rigidity in 
 wake of the wedges, and preventing corro- 
 sion in the mast-plating itself. The latter 
 feature is especially important on the 
 upper deck, where, most probably, there 
 will always be some moisture which has 
 passed down between or through the 
 wedges, and tends to cause more or less 
 rapid corrosion. By means of the doubling 
 plates the strength of the mast is not 
 affected by the corrosion, and new doubling 
 plates can be readily worked if required. 
 We shall describe the details of the 
 framing of mast holes in the following 
 chapter. 
 
 The modes of forming the heels of 
 iron lower masts require a brief descrip- 
 tion. At first the heels were constructed 
 of the same external form as the heels of 
 wood masts, rectangular tenons being 
 formed upon them and fitted into mortices 
 in the top of the mast-steps. This ar- 
 rangement effectually prevented the masts 
 from rotating when the yards were swung 
 round and the ship under sail, in exactly 
 the same manner as had been done previously for wood masts. 
 Now, however, the heels of iron masts are usually formed m an 
 entirely different way, and in order to illustrate a very common 
 
 STEP PLAT 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 211.
 
 268 
 
 Iron Masts. 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 arrangement the sketches in Fig. 211 are given. It will be seen 
 from the section and plan tliat the end of tlie mast is closed by 
 a circular plate fitted against, and connected with its outside 
 phitiug. In the centre of this plate there is a square hole around 
 which the angle-iron frame a is fitted, tlie vertical flange of the 
 angle-iron thus forming the sides of a mortice in the heel. When 
 in place tlie mast heel rests on a step-plate upon which is 
 riveted a rectangular box-shaped frame of angle-iron 6, and the 
 tenon thus formed fits into the mortice in the heel of the mast. 
 The yjlan and section of the step-plate given in Fig. 211 M'ill illus- 
 trate these remarks. In many cases the preceding arrangement 
 is modified, by working a circular rising ledge or ring of angle- 
 iron upon the step-plate, and fitting 
 it around the heel. An illustration of 
 this mode of fitting is given in section 
 and plan in Fig. 212. In the sketch the 
 rising ledge is marked c, and the rectan- 
 gular angle-iron tenon on the step-plate 
 is marked fe. The remainder of the heel- 
 fittings are similar to those described 
 above. In some ships instead of fitting 
 the circular rising ledge close to the mast, 
 there is a small space left between them 
 into which wooden wedges are driven to 
 In other ships the angle-iron tenon on the 
 
 ._.J_JLi.i_^ 
 
 Fig. 212 
 
 keep the heel steady. 
 
 step-plate is dispensed with, and the mast is kept from rotating by 
 
 being bolted to the vertical flange of the rising ledge. A man hole 
 
 is usually cut at a few feet from the lower end of an iron mast in 
 
 order to give access to the interior and to admit of ventilation ; 
 
 other openings are also made at various heights for the latter 
 
 purpose. 
 
 Before concluding these remarks on the heels of iron masts it 
 may be well to call attention to a proposal made by Mr. Lamport 
 in the Paper previously referred to. That gentleman considers 
 that the usual plan of wedging should be abandoned, and that 
 while the lower-mast, topmast, and topgallantmast should all be 
 rigid in themselves they should yield with an articulated flexure to 
 the elastic spring of the shrouds and stays. In order to combine 
 rigidity with the power of yielding to the play of the rigging he 
 proposes that each mast should oscillate from the heel, and to
 
 Chap. XIV. Iron Masts. 269 
 
 effect this he would apply " a cast-iron foot terminating in a ball a 
 " little flattened in the fore and aft direction to prevent the mast 
 " turning, and widening above to give a flat, even, but moveable 
 " support to the plates of the hollow mast." He meets the objection 
 which might be raised to the use of a ball-ended mast, by the 
 statement that when the direction of the strain varies, as in a 
 swaying mast, and the mast oscillates freely from the heel, the 
 arrangement he proposes will have the same effect as a flat end 
 has in the case of a fixed pillar and a strain of which the 
 direction is constant, and will keep the strain in a line with 
 the metal. 
 
 It was remarked at the commencement of this chapter that 
 various plans had been proposed and adopted for letting iron 
 masts go overboard (or cutting them 
 away) if the safety of the ship re- 
 quired the loss of a mast. Messrs. 
 Finch and Heath have proposed a 
 parting-joint for iron or steel masts 
 which is illustrated by Fig. 213.* 
 The upper and lower parts of the 
 mast are each strengthened at their 
 junction by a flanged collar, the Fig. 213. 
 
 horizontal flanges of which are accurately fitted to each other. 
 The ring marked K is grooved internally, and when in position 
 (as is the case with one-half only in the sketch) this groove 
 clasps the horizontal flanges of the collar. When both halves of 
 the ring E are in position they are held together by the screw bolt B 
 and the parting-joint is at least as strong as any other j)art of 
 the mast. When the bolt is unscrewed the ring R falls off, and 
 the mast goes overboard, Avhile the deck remains uninjured. In 
 the ' Aerolite ' Mr. Lamport applied a cutting-away arrangement 
 which he thus describes : — " The masts were in two lengths. 
 " The lower piece reached about 2 feet above the deck and had 
 " strong angle-iron riveted round, in the horizontal rim of which 
 "oblong T-shaj)ed slots were cut every 3 inches of the circum- 
 "ference. The upper length had a similar angle-iron aflixed, 
 "holding T-ended bolts corresponding to and fitting into the 
 
 * This sketch is taken from ' Shipbuilding Theoretical and Practical,' edited by 
 Dr. Rankine.
 
 270 Iron Masts. Chap. XIV. 
 
 "slots. Below the angle-iron of the lower portion of the mast 
 "was a loose flat ring with T-shaped slots through which the 
 "bolts also passed. When therefore the ring was moved each 
 " bolt was simultaneously locked. The ring was at once held 
 " firmly in its place and turned when required by a horizontal 
 " worm working into three or four teeth cut into the rim. A 
 " few turns locked or unlocked the T-ended bolts at will, and 
 " kept the mast firm, or severed it, as required. The ring should 
 " be of brass to prevent the bolts and screw rusting from disuse." 
 Mr, Lamport adds that a simpler arrangement, and one less 
 liable to get out of order, w^ould be to have broad angle-iron 
 flanges on the two portions of the mast, with long pins secured 
 to the upper flange and passing through holes in the lower, the 
 pins being kept in place by a few lockings driven through the 
 lower ends, or by a simple lashing. Mr. Roberts of Manchester 
 proposed and patented a novel method of securing iron masts, 
 in which the lower or housed part of the mast is built separately 
 and is riveted to the upper part of a transverse bulkhead that 
 passes up through the centre of the mast. The upper part of this 
 fixed heel projects a little above the upper deck, and the lower 
 end of the upper portion of the mast steps over, and is bolted to it 
 with a double row of screw bolts. The inventor considers that by 
 this arrangement the pressure of the mast will be distributed over 
 tlie sides and bottom of the vessel, instead of being localized as he 
 supposes it to be with the ordinary mast step. It is also thought 
 that when the screw bolts connecting the lower end of the mast 
 with the fixed heel are withdrawn the mast will go overboard, thus 
 rendering the fitting of a parting-joint unnecessary. 
 
 Iron and steel have also been applied to the construction of 
 topmasts, topgallantmasts, and yards, but in these spars the 
 advantages resulting from the change from wood are not so great as 
 in the case of lower masts, and consequently the employment has 
 not been as general. The details of the construction of these 
 various spars do not differ greatly in principle from those pre- 
 viously described for lower masts. The plating is usually flush- 
 jointed and angle-iron or other stiffeners are generally fitted in 
 the larger spars. 
 
 The following account of the weiglits of the masts and fittings 
 of the sloop of war from which Figs. 208 and 2U0 are taken may be 
 of interest. The foremast and the mainmast are 22 inches in
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 Iron Masts. 
 
 271 
 
 diameter, and the extreme lengths are respectively 75 feet 6 inches 
 and 80 feet 10 inches; the mizenmast is 15 inches in diameter 
 and 62 feet 1 inch in length. 
 
 Ak Account showing the Weights op Masts and Fittings foe a 
 British Sloop of War op 1100 tons Barque-rigged. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Shell of masts 
 
 Caps 
 
 Knees and angle-irons 
 
 Head hoops 
 
 Angle-iron necklace-lioop . . 
 
 Awning lioops 
 
 Trysail lioops 
 
 Belly-stay hoop 
 
 Boat-davit hoop 
 
 Topmast fatrlead hoop 
 
 Main topmast brace 
 
 Spider hoop 
 
 Brace-eyes 
 
 Eyes for topping bowsprit . . 
 
 Stay and sling cleats 
 
 Boom-topping Mft eyes 
 
 Ventilators 
 
 Truss cleats 
 
 Stepping-plates 
 
 Paunches and battens 
 
 Trestle and crosstrees 
 
 Screws for paimches, battens, andl 
 trestle, and crosstrees . . . . / 
 
 Total weights . . . . tons 
 
 
 Foremast 
 
 
 
 Mainmast 
 
 
 Mizenmast. 
 
 tons 
 
 cwts. qrs 
 
 .lbs. 
 
 tons. 
 
 cwts 
 
 . qrs 
 
 .lbs. 
 
 tons. 
 
 cwts. qrs 
 
 .lbs. 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 6 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0"2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 15 
 27 
 12 
 11 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 For the three fl 
 
 msts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 10 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 3 1 
 
 
 
 For the three n 
 
 lasts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 8 2 
 
 5
 
 272 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS. 
 
 This chapter is intended to supply information with respect to the 
 arrangements of some of the minor parts of the structure, and 
 a few of the more important fittings, of an iron ship. It has been 
 considered desirable to reserve the notice of these details up to 
 this point, rather than to interfere with the description of the 
 principal features of iron ship construction which has been given 
 in the preceding chapters, by going into the particulars of such 
 subjects as the framing of hatchways or mast-holes, the arrange- 
 ments of paddle beams, the construction of mast-steps, thrust- 
 bearers, &c. No particular order has been attempted in the 
 arrangement of the following descriptions, the endeavour being, 
 as far as possible, to supply practical information concerning the 
 various details. 
 
 FEAIHING OF MAST HOLES, 
 
 The deck framing of an iron ship in wake of a mast hole 
 usually consists of two fore and aft carlings, placed similarly to 
 
 those marked c, c in Fig. 214, and 
 secured at the ends to the beams 
 hh ; and when, as in the case illus- 
 trated by the sketch, the length 
 of these carlings is considerable, 
 half beams h, h are fitted. Fig. 
 214 is taken from the ' Queen,' 
 a vessel of which mention has 
 repeatedly been made, and shows 
 the framing of a mast hole in 
 plan and athwartship elevation. 
 Upon the beams and carlings, 
 plates, marked a, a, |-iucli thick are Avorked, and are connected by 
 a single riveted strip at the middle line. Tlie mast hole is cut 
 half out of each plate, and a circular ring or rising-ledge of angle- 
 
 Jl— ■ 
 
 ■-^7- 
 
 
 
 .°---J----4^4.-_^ 
 
 .^^^^-.^.j 
 
 
 s 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 a. 
 
 4 
 ^ 
 
 
 xr— 
 
 i ri m 
 
 .■^,,^^^j 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 ^ il' 
 
 
 ih— - 
 
 
 --------- 
 
 ----——"= 
 
 -— ™'i 
 
 -:dh 
 
 Fig. 214.
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 273 
 
 iron is worked around it both above and below the plating, thus 
 forming a short tube, which gives a bearing for the wedges. The 
 partner plates a are always fitted in iron ships, and are required 
 by both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules, but in some cases wooden 
 mast partners are fitted both above and below the plating, in order 
 to give a greater depth of bearing surface for the wedges. In 
 some ships the partner plates have been cut away in order t6 
 allow the corner chocks of the wood partners to pass down through 
 in one length, but it is considered preferable not to cut the plates, 
 and to fit the corner chocks in two parts. Another illustration of 
 
 SECTION 
 
 Fig. 215. 
 
 a mast hole is given in Fig. 215, which is taken from the iron-clad 
 frigate ' Hercules,' and will serve to show the provision made for 
 wedging large iron masts. The deck framing is of the usual cha- 
 racter, except that the bulkhead marked ^ cZ in the plan occupies 
 the place usually filled by a beam similar to b b. The carlings are 
 marked c, c, and the half beams a, a ; the section is taken through 
 a, a. The mast hole is cut in the deck plating, and the lining 
 or casing is formed of a wrought-iron tube | inch thick, extending 
 from the under side of the beams up to a sufficient height above 
 the deck plating to be riveted to the vertical flanges of the angle- 
 
 T
 
 2 74 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 iron rising-ledge, worked around the mast hole. The plan given 
 in the sketch is taken on the under side of the beams, and from it 
 and the section, it \vill be seen that the lower end of the mast-hole 
 casing is connected with a lightened plate, worked flush with the 
 underside of the beams and fitted into the space enclosed by 
 the deck framing and the bulkhead. This plate is connected with 
 the horizontal flanges of the beam angle-irons by means of the 
 strips marked e, e in the section ; all the riveting in this plate has 
 to be tapped. In some cases where very great rigidity is required 
 the space between the tube and the mast framing is filled in with 
 wood chocks. This is done in cases where the mast cannot be 
 run down into the hold and is stepped on the lower deck; the 
 upper deck wedging in such cases is obviously very important, 
 and the mast hole needs to be made as rigid as possible. It may 
 be observed in conclusion, that in both the arrangements given in 
 Figs. 214 and 215, the deck plating and planking can be 'efficiently 
 caulked, which is a matter requiring considerable attention in the 
 arrangement of any deck fittings. 
 
 FRAMING OF HATCHWAYS. 
 
 The usual practice of iron shipbuilders is to fit wood coamings 
 and headledges to all except the principal hatches, such as those 
 over engines, boilers, and cargo holds. Iron carlings are generally 
 fitted below the coamings, but as the upper flanges of the beams 
 and carlings are too narrow to receive the bolts securing the 
 headledges and coamings, and those which form the fastenings in 
 the butts and edges of the deck planking, it is usual to work a 
 
 broad plate and angle-iron in the man- 
 ner shown in section in Fig. 216. The 
 fastenings in the planks are brought 
 clear of the beams and carlings, and the 
 angle-iron a resists the pressure brought 
 upon the coamings and headledges by 
 caulking the deck j^lanking, thus sup- 
 plying the place of the dowels usually 
 fitted when the framing is carried on 
 wood carlings and beams. In the ' Serapis,' one of the new Indian 
 troop-ships, instead of working a plate and angle-iron, a broad 
 flanged angle-iron (8 by 3^ by ^ inches) is fitted around the hatch- 
 ways, as shown in section in Fig. 217. By this arrangement the 
 
 Fig. 216. 
 
 Fig. 217
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 275 
 
 butts of the planking are fastened, and the coamings and headledges 
 bolted and supported as in the preceding case. When iron decks 
 are worked upon the beams there is, of course, no 
 necessity for fitting the plate and angle-iron, or the 
 simple angle-iron arrangement just described. The 
 
 section in Fig. 218 will illustrate the usual plan, and ^^n_ 
 'it will be seen that an angle-iron is fitted on the inside 
 of the framing in order to resist the caulking. 
 
 Iron coamings are generally fitted to the prin- 
 cipal hatchways, and the sketch in Fig. 219 will 
 illustrate an arrangement of this kind. It is 
 taken from the boiler-hatch of the ' Hercules ' on the main deck, 
 and represents an athvvartship elevation of the fore side of the 
 
 Fig. 218. 
 
 -flt 
 
 ^ilL 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 
 hatchway. The deep longitudinal plate ah\s, made to serve the 
 purpose of the carling and coaming usually fitted, and the head- 
 ledge e is also of plate, the two being connected at the angle 
 of the hatchway by a vertical angle-iron as shown.- In most 
 instances half-round iron is riveted to the upper edges of the plate 
 coamings and headledges. The inner ends of the half-beams form- 
 ing the deck framing in wake of the hatchway are connected with 
 the plate coaming a h, and a frame of angle-iron is worked around 
 the hatchway upon the beams and half-beams, in order to connect 
 the coamings and headledges with the beam angle-irons. The ver- 
 tical stringer marked c d in the sketch, is fitted in order to secure 
 the upper part of the coal bunker bulkhead. It is formed of inter- 
 costal plates fitted between the beams and half-beams, and secured 
 to them by staple angle-irons, the lower edges of the plates being 
 carried down sufficiently below the beams to be riveted to short 
 angle-iron straps, which connect the different lengths together. It 
 will be obvious that this vertical stringer also serves to keep up 
 the strength of the deck in wake of the hatchway. 
 
 On the upper deck of an iron ship it is often considered de- 
 sirable to arrange the framing of the principal hatchways in such 
 a manner as to allow the openings in the deck to be partially closed 
 
 T 2
 
 276 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap XV. 
 
 after the engines, boilers, or cargoes, have been put in. In such 
 cases the permanent deck framing around the hatchway is usually- 
 made up of a long carling on each side extending throughout 
 the length of tlie hatch, the carlings being in most instances of the 
 same form and dimensions as the deck beams. The inner ends of 
 the half-beams are connected with these carlings by single or double 
 angle-irons, usually the latter. What may be termed the portable 
 part of the deck framing in wake of the hatchway, consists in most 
 ships of plate coamings, similar to a 5 in Fig. 219, which are 
 placed at a few feet from the fixed carlings, and of light transverse 
 carlings placed so as to form continuations of the half-beams, and 
 connected at the ends with the fixed carlings and the plate coam- 
 ing. By this means the breadth of the opening in the deck is 
 much diminished, and in some cases a similar plan is followed in 
 order to reduce the length also by means of plate headledges* and 
 light fore and aft carlings. This portable framing is generally 
 fastened with nut and screw bolts at such of the hatchways as 
 frequently require to be opened. 
 
 BITTS AROUND MASTS. 
 
 The sketches in Fig. 220 illustrate a common method of secur- 
 insf the heels of bitts to iron beams. It will be seen from the side 
 
 S7DE" \]\£^ 
 
 /iftflV/lRrSH/P VIEIV 
 
 view of the bitt that its heel is faced 
 in over the beam flange, and one 
 edge is fitted against tlie web. In 
 order to keep the bitt in its proper 
 position, a triangular-shaped chock is 
 fitted between the heel and the beam, as shown in the plan. 
 The flanged plate a, wliich embraces the heel of the bitt, and is 
 riveted to the beams, is slightly dovetailed as shown in the 
 
 Fig. 220.
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 277 
 
 athwartsbip view, and this dovetail, together with the facing on of 
 the heel, prevents the bitt from being drawn upward. The heel 
 is further fastened by two through screw-bolts, as shown in the 
 sketches. It will also be noticed that the horizontal flanges of a 
 serve to receive the fastenings of the butts and edges of the deck 
 planking and allow them to be efficiently caulked. In some 
 ships, instead of having a flanged plate similar to a, the heel of 
 the bitt is secured by wooden chocks fitted around it, and attached 
 to the beams by short angle-irons. 
 
 ala.l. 
 
 EIDING BITTS. 
 
 Messrs. Brown and Harfield's patent riding bitt is that most 
 commonly fitted in iron ships. It consists of a hollow cylindrical 
 casting with a broad flanged base, and is secured to the deck by 
 through bolts, which also pass through wood chocks fitted between 
 the beams in wake of the bitt. loncitudinal section. plan. 
 
 It is usual to fit a plate into the 
 under side of the chocks in order 
 to prevent the nuts on the ends 
 of the through bolts from work- 
 ing up into the wood when they 
 are hove up, and to enable all 
 the fastenings of the bitt to as- 
 sist one another in resisting any 
 strains. This very simple ar- 
 rangement is found to answer all 
 the requirements of the shi^is 
 of the mercantile marine, and 
 of some ships of war; but in 
 the larger vessels of the Koyal Fig. 221. 
 
 Navy it has been considered necessary to make special arrange- 
 ments in the construction and support of the riding bitts. The 
 sketches in Fig. 221 give the details of a riding bitt as fitted in 
 the ' Bellerophon,' and several other iron-clads. The bitt is 
 formed of a cylinder of wrought-iron made up of two plates, each 
 of which is bent to a semicircular section. The lower part of 
 the bitt rests upon a doubling plate worked upon the deck plating, 
 and is secured by a ring of angle-iron. In addition to the strong 
 connection thus made between the heel of the bitt and the deck,
 
 278 Miscellaneous Details. Chap. XV. 
 
 the bitt is stiflfened by a vertical web c, formed of a plate with 
 double angle-irous 011 the edges, as shown in the section at a b. 
 This web extends from the top of the bitt down to the lower deck 
 and the lower end is riveted to the carling d. The double angle- 
 irons on the edges of the web plate are made to serve as edge 
 strips to the two plates forming the bitt. The horizontal frames 
 marked e, e are formed of semicircular plates fitted on each side of 
 the vertical web, and attached to the plating by angle-irons worked 
 as shown in the plan. The holes cut in these plates and marked 
 /, / are made in order to admit of the bitt being used as a venti- 
 lator to the lower deck. It will be obvious that the frames e, e, 
 and the angle-iron securing the heel of the bitt to the deck, form 
 most efficient stiffeners, which resist any change of sectional form 
 in the bitt, and the web c gives great strength to resist the tendency 
 of the bitt to move forward at the head which is caused by the 
 strain on the cables when the ship is riding at anchor. 
 
 PADDLE AND SPKING BEAMS. 
 
 Paddle-boxes are usually built upon a framing, of which the 
 paddle-beams form the athwartship and the spring-beams the longi- 
 tudinal boundaries. The paddle-beams are generally continued 
 across the vessel, and the spring-beams lie parallel to the ship's 
 side and are supported at their ends by the paddle-beams. In 
 small paddle-steamers, however, the paddle-beams are frequently 
 ended at a few feet inside the vessel, as it would be inconvenient 
 to have a complete transverse tie. In iron ships the paddle-beams 
 were at first of wood, and as an instance of this arrangement, we 
 may mention the ' Dover,' in which ship the wood paddle-beams 
 were strengthened at the outer ends by iron plates bolted to the 
 sides. Now, however, paddle-beams are always of iron, and are 
 usually of an I-shaped or box section, the latter being most 
 common for the largest ships. The dimensions of paddle-beams 
 are determined in great measure by the mode in which the paddle- 
 shaft bearings are arranged. Common radial paddle-wheels usually 
 have two shaft bearings, one of which is supported by the enta- 
 blature of the engine-framing, and the other by the s^sring-beam. 
 Feathering paddle-wheel shafts are sometimes carried on brackets 
 secured to the ship's side, and in such cases the paddle and spring 
 beams have only to carry the weight of the joaddle-box and
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 279 
 
 feathering gear, and can be made of about half the dimensions 
 of the beams required for a radial paddle-wheel. Spring-beams 
 are very often of wood, and in large ships are trussed consider- 
 ably in order to give them the requisite strength. In large ships 
 the spring-beams are sometimes of iron, and are either of I-shaped 
 or box section, their depth in most cases being greatest at the 
 middle and being gradually diminished toward the ends where 
 it is equal to the depth of tlie paddle-beams. 
 
 The sketch in Fig. 222 will serve to illustrate a mode of secur- 
 ing the paddle-beams of a small tug-vessel. The beam is formed 
 of a vertical plate 
 with double angle - 
 irons on the edges, the 
 depth being greatest 
 at the ship's side, and 
 gradually reduced to- 
 wards the ends. The 
 length outboard is 8 
 feet 6 inches, and that 
 inboard about 3 feet. 
 The transverse tie is 
 thus incomplete, but, 
 as before remarked, 
 it would be very in- 
 convenient to have the paddle-beam continued across the ship 
 when the depth in hold is so very small. The inner end of the 
 paddle-beam is secured to a partial bulkhead fitted in the coal- 
 bunker, and the deck is plated over above it. The outer part is 
 supported by a diagonal iron stay 3 inches in diameter (fitted as 
 shown in the sketch), which also serves to hold down the paddle- 
 beam in case the framing of the paddle-box should be struck 
 by a rising sea. The spring-beam is of wood, and its ends rest 
 upon shoulders formed in the outer ends of the paddle-beams. 
 The two last-mentioned plans for supporting paddle-beams, and 
 receiving the ends of spring-beams, are very commonly em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The second illustration of a paddle-beam, given in Fig. 223, 
 is taken from a steamer of 1500 tons. Li this case there is a 
 complete athwartship tie at each paddle-beam ; but in order to 
 economise material, the plate which forms the beam-web inboard 
 
 Fig. 222.
 
 28o 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 only extends 3 feet beyond the side, and the remaining 8 feet of 
 the length of the arm is made up of a separate plate secured to 
 
 Fig. 223. 
 
 the main plate by double-butt straps, treble-chain riveted as shown 
 in the athwartship section. The beam-arm is of I-shaped section, 
 the web-plate being |-inch thick, and the double angle-irons on 
 the edges 4 by 4 by f inches. Inboard the beam is of uniform 
 depth except for a short length close to each side, where it is 
 slightly increased, and the outboard portion is tapered a little in 
 depth toward the end. Where the beam passes through the side, 
 the plating is strengthened by a frame of angle-iron marked a, of 
 which a front view is given. The horizontal knee-plates, h, h, are 
 fitted in order to increase the strength of the connection between 
 the side and the beam, and to give lateral stiffness to the beam 
 at this part. In this ship also the spring-beam is of wood, and 
 the shoulder for the reception of its end is formed as in the pre- 
 ceding case. Before passing on to consider a third mode of fitting 
 paddle-beams, it may be added that where box-beams are employed 
 and are continued out through the ship's side, as is generally done 
 in large vessels, the plating is stiffened by an angle-iron frame, 
 corresponding to that marked a in Fig. 223, which is fitted around 
 and riveted to the beam-plates. 
 
 The last illustration of a paddle-beam which will be given is 
 taken from a larger vessel, and differs from the preceding cases 
 both in its construction and connections. In Fig. 224 the details 
 of the arrangement are given, and it will be obvious from a study 
 of the sketches that by this method of fitting a very strong trans- 
 verse tie is secured, and the ship's framing is specially strength- 
 ened to support the strains brought upon it. The section of the
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 281 
 
 paddle-beam is marked h in the sketcli, and it will be observed 
 that the ordinary I-shaped section, formed of a plate with double 
 angle-irons on both edges, is modified by adding a horizontal plate 
 to both the upper and lower flanges. At the middle line of the 
 ship the beam is 15 inches deep, the web-plate is \ inch thick, 
 the double angle-irons on both edges are 4 by 4 by ^ inches, the 
 upper flange-plate is 12 by f inches, and the lower 8^ by | inches. 
 
 Fig. 224. 
 
 The web of the beam-arm is formed of a separate plate of which 
 the thickness is | inch full, the double angle-irons on the edges 
 are of the same dimensions as those inboard, but the flange-plates 
 are increased in thickness to \ inch. It will be remarked from 
 the athwartship view that the butt of the web-plate in the beam- 
 arm with the main web-plate is placed 3 feet inboard, and is 
 secured by means of double butt-straps treble chain-riveted. A 
 very important feature of the arrangement which requires notice 
 is the addition of a plate-frame 20 inches deep to the ordinary 
 angle-iron frame upon which the paddle-beam comes, thus con- 
 verting it into a partial bulkhead, to the upper part of which the 
 lower edge of the beam is connected by double-riveted strips. It 
 will be noticed that the double angle-irons on the upper edge of 
 the inboard portion of the beam are continued out upon the beam- 
 arm, and that the double angle-irons and flange-plate on the lower 
 edge of the beam are turned down on the inside of the 20-inch 
 frame. The strong connections thus made are strengthened by 
 the addition of the horizontal knee-plates c and d fitted above and 
 below the beam-arm at the side. The details of these knees are 
 shown in the athwartship view and the plans. It need only be
 
 282 . Miscell'aneous Details. Chap. XV. 
 
 added with respect to these connections that a very efficient 
 arrangement of upper-deck stringer and clamp plates is made, 
 and that the stringer marked a in the sketch forms a continua- 
 tion of the lower-deck stringer through the engine-room. The 
 spring-beam in this sliip is formed of iron, and is of a box section 
 as shown in the athwartship view. The side plates are \ inch 
 thick, the top | inch, and the bottom y^g inch, and it will be 
 remarked that the angle-irons connecting the various plates are 
 all jilaced outside the box, and can consequently be much more 
 conveniently riveted than if they were placed inside. The two 
 angle-irons on the outer end of the beam-arm gerve to receive the 
 fastenings of the wood rubbing-piece worked to protect the outside 
 of the paddle-box. 
 
 Before and abaft the paddle-boxes light platforms or wings 
 are usually fitted, of which the plan is nearly a triangle, and are 
 supported by light brackets formed of plate and angle-iron and 
 placed at intervals of about 3 feet. The outer edges of the wings 
 are fitted with rubbing-pieces or fenders which form continuations 
 of the spring-beam and are scarphed to it, their foremost and 
 aftermost ends being secured to the ship's side. Diagonal iron 
 stays are often fitted underneath the wings, in a manner similar 
 to that shown in Fig. 222, and act as ties or struts according to 
 circumstances. In small vessels the only framing of the wings is 
 often formed by the paddle-beams, and the fenders on the outer 
 edges. 
 
 WATEETIGHT SCUTTLES. 
 
 When watertight flats are fitted below the lower deck in order 
 to divide the extremities of the ship into separate compartments 
 it is necessary to provide means of access to the spaces thus en- 
 closed. For this purpose watertight scuttles are fitted in some 
 ships, and in others Mr. Lungley's plan is adopted, and watertight 
 trunks are fitted around the openings and extended up to the 
 main deck. It will be remembered that Mr, Lungley's plan 
 has been carried out in the ' Bellerophon ' and other iron-clad 
 frigates ; but in the earlier iron-clads watertight scuttles are fitted, 
 and an illustration of their arrangements is given in Fig. 225. 
 The sketches are taken from the ' Defence,' and consist of a plan 
 and two sections. The framing of the scuttle is formed of 3^ by 1\ 
 by f inches angle-iron riveted to the plating of the flat, and having
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 283 
 
 a 2 by 2 by ^ inclies angle-iron on the upper edge. The flap-cover 
 to the scuttle is hinged to this frame, an additional plate and angle- 
 iron being worked upon the 
 
 ENLARCED SECTION at W.T). 
 
 upper 
 
 edffe 
 
 angle-iron 
 
 ENLARGED SECTION ubc.d,.,^ 
 -&- —T, . A 
 
 Fig. 225. 
 
 of the 3-inch 
 in wake of the 
 hinges in order to receive 
 the fastenings. When closed, 
 the cover rests upon brass 
 bearings which are shown in 
 the sections at a b and d, 
 and is pressed upon the bear- 
 ings by the catches or buttons 
 /,/, which also prevent the 
 cover from being lifted in 
 case the compartment below 
 the flat is filled. 
 
 In some ships the framing 
 of the scuttle is formed of a 
 solid forging with a rabbet in 
 the edge into which the cover 
 fits, and is prevented from rising under pressure from beneath by 
 numerous catches, which are bolted to the frame and are turned 
 in over the cover when it has been closed. 
 
 In parts of an iron 'ship where it is not often necessary to 
 obtain admission to spaces below watertight flats (as for instance 
 the lower parts of the wing passages of iron-clads), it is usual 
 to have man-holes instead of scuttles, and to fit simple plate- 
 covers. These covers are of rather larger dimensions than the 
 man-holes, and are secured directly upon the plating of the flat 
 by screw-bolts, a thick coating of red lead being interposed be- 
 tween the plating and the covers before the nuts are hove down 
 in order to ensure watertightness. 
 
 MAST STEPS. 
 
 In small iron ships the mast steps are sometimes formed by 
 fitting large wood chocks upon the floors, and bolting them to 
 the reversed angle-irons. The step-plate upon which the mast- 
 heel rests is bolted to the upper surface of the bed thus formed, 
 the arrangements of the plate being, in most cases, similar to 
 those described in Chapter XIV., and illustrated by Figs. 211
 
 284 
 
 Miscella7ieous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 and 212, pp. 2G7, 268. The more commou practice in vessels of 
 the mercantile marine is to lieel the mast upon a plate worked 
 directly upon the floors, the length of the plate being such as to 
 allow it to be riveted to three or more floors. The middle-line 
 keelson serves to distribute the vertical thrust caused by the 
 weight of the mast, spars, sails, and rigging, and by the tension 
 of the shrouds, and it also resists the tendency of the floors to 
 fold down under longitudinal strains, both of which services are 
 very important. A very similar arrangement has been adopted in 
 some of the mast-steps of the new Indian troop-ships, in which the 
 step-plate has been worked dh'ectly upon the inner-skin plating, 
 but as the frames are 3 feet 6 inches apart, it has been considered 
 necessary to work transverse brackets formed of plate and angle- 
 iron midway between the frames over which the step-plate extends, 
 in order to support it efficiently. 
 
 In order to illustrate more fully the arrangements of mast- 
 steps in a large iron shij), we have given the sketches in Figs. 226, 
 227, and 228, which are respectively taken from tlie fore, main, 
 and mizen ste})S of the * Hercules.' The step of the foremast 
 is built upon the inner bottom, the fi-aming consisting of three 
 
 Kig. 226
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 285 
 
 longitudinal bearers placed as shown in tlie section in Fig. 226, and 
 stiffened by the transverse frames 5, h, h. The longitudinal bearer 
 
 d 
 
 ATHWARTSHIP VIEW 
 
 Fig. 227. 
 
 at the middle line is formed of |-inch plating with double angle- 
 irons on both edges, and the other two bearers are \}^ inch thick 
 with single angle-irons on the edges. It will be remarked in the 
 elevation that the longitudinal bearers are continued for some 
 distance before and abaft the horizontal platform on which the 
 heel of the mast rests, and by this means the vertical thrust of 
 the mast is distributed, and much more than the requisite strength 
 is obtained to resist the small horizontal thrust due to the rake of 
 the mast. 
 
 The mainmast step is on the lower deck, the reason for not 
 continuing the mast down into the hold being that it is considered 
 desirable that the passage between the engine and boiler rooms 
 should be kept clear. The details of the step are given in eleva- 
 tion and athwartship view in Fig. 227. In order to strengthen 
 the deck-framing in wake of the step, middle-line carlings, c, c, are 
 fitted between the beams, and a deep longitudinal girder a, formed
 
 286 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 of |-inch plate with double angle-irons on both edges, is worked 
 below the beams, and extends from the transverse bulkhead ddio 
 
 ATHWARTSHIP VIEW 
 
 the bulkhead next abaft it. The knee-ends of the girder a are 
 connected with the bulkheads by double vertical angle-irons, the 
 double angle-irons on the upper edge are riveted to the angle- 
 irons on the lower edges of the carlings c, c and of the beams, 
 and at each beam the girder is stiffened by brackets marked h, h 
 in order to enable it to transmit the load to the pillars j!?, f, and 
 to prevent it buckling. The pillars are hollow cylinders of 
 wrought iron \ inch thick and 7 inches external diameter, the 
 heads and heels being welded in solid and secured to the girder a 
 and the middle-line keelson respectively. A strip of plating, 
 5 feet wide and | inch thick, is worked upon the beams and 
 carlings and runs throughout the compartment. This completes 
 what may be termed the framing of the mast-step, and the only 
 other part requiring notice is the manner in which the teak chocks 
 are fitted and bolted that form the bed to which the step-plate is 
 secured. These chocks are 12 inches thick in the neighbourhood 
 of the mast-step, and are screw-bolted to the deck-plating. It will 
 be obvious that by these arrangements the vertical load is well 
 sustained and distributed, and the small longitudinal thrust effi- 
 ciently provided against. 
 
 The mizenmast step is also on the lower deck and is placed 
 just before the transverse bulkhead shown hy hb in the elevation 
 in Fig. 228. The dimensions of this mast, and the vertical and 
 longitudinal thrusts to be provided for, being so much less than 
 for the mainmast, a very much simpler arrangement is made.
 
 Chap. XV. Miscellancotis Details. 287 
 
 In order to support the deck in wake of the step two fore and 
 aft bracket-knees a, a are worked between the bulkhead and the 
 beam c. Each of the brackets is formed of |-inch plate with 
 double angle-irons on the edges, and is placed at about a foot from 
 the middle line. Upon the brackets a f-inch plate is worked, and 
 its fore end is secured to the beam c. This plate serves to support 
 the teak chocks forming the bed on which the mast-heel rests, and 
 receives their fastenings. 
 
 THEUST-BEAREES. 
 
 In a screw steam-ship it is necessary to make some arrange- 
 ment by means of which the thrust of the propeller-shaft shall be 
 transmitted to the ship, and the injurious effects prevented which 
 would result from the dii-ect action of the thrust upon the ma- 
 chinery. For this purpose thrust-bearers are fitted, and the ex- 
 ample we have chosen to illustrate the details of the construction 
 of such a bearer is taken from the 'Agincourt,' and shown in 
 elevation, plan, and transverse section in Fig. 229. The bulkhead 
 a a forms the boundary of the engine-room, and the shaft-passage 
 bulkheads are marked h h. The thrust-bearer is placed just abaft 
 the bulkhead a a, and is built upon the inner bottom-plating, 
 which extends out as far as the lowest longitudinal frame on each 
 side, as shown in the section at a a. The shaft-passage bulklieads 
 are brought down upon and connected with the inner skin, and a 
 crown of watertight plating is worked upon their upper ends, thus 
 converting the passage into a compartment, as has been previously 
 explained. The flat of the shaft-passage is carried by the middle- 
 line keelson c, and its edges are connected with the side bulk- 
 heads. In wake of the thrust-bearer additional support is given 
 to the flat by means of the transverse frames e, e, e, e formed of 
 lightened plates with double angle-u'ons on the edges, as shown 
 in the elevation and section. Upon the plating of the flat three 
 longitudinal bearers d, d, d are worked, and upon their upper edges 
 a horizontal plate 1^ inch thick is secured, to which the bearing 
 is afterwards bolted. The bearers are about 15 feet long, and 
 being secured to the flat by double angle-irons, give ample strength 
 to resist the strains consequent on the transmission of the thrust 
 of the propeller. It should be remarked tliat this very efiScient 
 bearer only requires for its construction the addition of the trans- 
 verse frames e, e, e, the longitudinal bearers d, d, d, and the hori-
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 SECTION AT rta 
 
 Fig. 229.
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 289 
 
 zontal plate to which the bearing is bolted, together with their 
 connecting angle-irons ; as the keelson c and the flat are con- 
 tinuous throughout the shaft-passage. It may be added that the 
 increased breadth of the fore end of the shaft -passage, shown in 
 the plan, is given in order to make room for the watertight door 
 by which admission is obtained to the passage from the engine- 
 room ; and that the bearer / is the aftermost one in the en- 
 gine-room. It will be obvious that the bearers similar to / are 
 useful not only in supporting the engines and boilers, but in 
 giving great transverse strength to the ship at a part where the 
 transverse tie of the decks is seriously reduced. This feature of 
 construction is of especial importance in small ships in which the 
 lower deck is entirely discontinued in wake of engines and boilers. 
 The thrust bearers of small screw-steamers are, of course, of 
 a very much simpler and lighter character, but in most cases the 
 framing consists of longitudinal bearers formed of plates and angle- 
 irons worked upon the floors, and stiffened by transverse plate 
 frames, which are usually stationed at the floors and connected 
 with the reversed angle-irons. 
 
 CHAIN PLATES. 
 
 In order to illustrate some of the modes of securing the chain 
 plates of iron ships we have given the 
 three following sketches. The first is 
 taken from the ' Agincourt,' and is shown 
 in Fig. 230. This ship has no channels, 
 the shrouds being led down to the side 
 inboard, and pin-racks being fitted below 
 the lower dead-eyes. The chain plates are 
 fitted upon and riveted to the skin plating 
 beliind armour, the rivets connecting the 
 plates also passing through the frame 
 angle-irons. A very strong attachment 
 is thus secured, but the chain plates have 
 to be put in place and fastened before 
 the teak backing is worked, and it is im- 
 possible to examine their condition or to 
 remove them at any time without in- '^" ' 
 
 curring a large amount of work. It should be added, however, 
 that being protected as they are for nearly the whole length the
 
 290 
 
 Miscella7ieoiis Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 chain plates are much less liable to rust than they would be if 
 exposed to the weather as is commonly the case. 
 
 The second sketch, Fig. 231, shows the manner in which the 
 chain plates of the ' Bellerophon ' are secured. There is a very 
 
 51D£ VIEW 
 
 ^^m^ 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
 narrow channel fitted in tliis case, and the lower end of each chain 
 plate is shackled to the upper part of brackets similar to a. The 
 brackets are formed of 1-inch plates, and are connected with the 
 armour plating by double angle-irons, tap riveted to the armour, 
 and through riveted to the bracket. The main pieces of the channel 
 are worked in short lengths betw^een the brackets, and the face 
 piece or channel rail is worked in one length. The chain j)lates 
 are of such a length as to allow the dead-eyes to be housed in 
 the hammock berthing. This mode of securing chain plates is 
 the one now followed for the iron-clads of the Royal Navy, and 
 is also applicable to unarmoured iron ships, as the brackets might 
 be through riveted to the skin plating instead of being tap riveted 
 to the armour. Of late wooden dead-eyes have been dispensed 
 with, and fair-leads or dead-eyes of malleable cast-iron have been 
 employed. 
 
 A third mode of securing chain plates is illustrated by Fig. 
 232. The sketch is taken from the wood-built iron-clad 'Lord 
 Warden,' but it will be evident that the plan is suited to any 
 iron-clad ship whether of wood or iron. In this case there is a
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 291 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 
 channel fixed at the height of the covering board. The chain 
 plate is forged to such a form as to serve the purposes for which 
 chain and preventer chain plates are usually fitted, as well as to 
 support the channel Instead of hav- 
 ing T-plates, as is customary in a 
 wood ship. The most remarkable (^ 
 feature of the plan consists, however, QT^ 
 in making the armour bolts serve 
 as fastenings for the chain plates. 
 The head of the bolt is formed, as 
 shown by h in the sketch, so that 
 when the chain plate has been 
 shipped over the projecting points, 
 it may be secured by metal nuts 
 hove up on the thread cut in the 
 bolt points. There are two bolts in 
 each chain plate, as shown by the side view, and by the front view of 
 the lower part of the plate, marked a. It will be obvious that 
 great care is needed in driving the bolts, and it has been found 
 desirable to leave the projecting part of the head unfinished until 
 the bolt has been put in, when the finishing of the point and the 
 cutting of the screw thread can be readily accomplished. 
 
 BOLLARD HEADS, &C. 
 
 In iron ships bollard heads and towing bollards are frequently of 
 cast-iron, and are bolted to the giinwale. In cases where the frames 
 are run up above the upper deck- section 
 
 stringer the bollard heads are some- 
 times formed by bolting wood 
 chocks to the sides of the frames. 
 In some small vessels the bollard 
 heads have been formed of wrought- 
 iron plates and angle-irons, and an 
 instance of such an arrangement is 
 given in Fig. 233. The section at 
 a h shows that the bollard is formed 
 of two bent plates \ inch thick, connected by single riveted edge 
 strips. The dimensions of the bollard are 9 by 6 inches. The lower 
 edge of the plate forming the outer part overlaps and is riveted to 
 the upper edge of the sheer strake, and the inside plate of the bollarS 
 
 u 2
 
 2-92 Miscellaneous Details. Chap. XV. 
 
 is formed with a flanged foot which rests upon the stringer angle- 
 iron, and is strongly riveted to it. At the upper edge of the 
 bollard there is an angle-iron frame upon which the plate cover is 
 fitted. These arrangements are clearly shown in the sketches. 
 
 CATHEADS. 
 
 The catheads of iron ships are usually solid forgings bolted to 
 the ship's side and to the gunwale. It will be evident that the 
 dimensions and weight of the forging required for the cathead of 
 a very large ship must be considerable, and the time and expense 
 required for its manufacture must be great. In order to reduce 
 both the weight and the cost of the catheads of the iron-clad 
 frigates and some other ships of the Navy, box catheads have 
 been introduced instead of solid forgings. The construction of a 
 cathead of this description is fully shown in the sketches given 
 in Fig. 234. The section through c d shows the general arrange- 
 ment of the box section, the plates forming the sides being \ inch, 
 and the connecting angle-irons 3 by 3 by ^ inches. The form of 
 tlie cathead and its connections with the side will be fully under- 
 stood from the side view and plan. The angle-irons connecting 
 the sides of the cathead with the outside plating are 3^ by 3i 
 by f inches, and an angle-iron of the same dimensions secures the 
 top plate of the cathead to the side. It will be observed from 
 the plan and the section through e f that the top plate is consi- 
 derably increased in breadth as it approaches the ship's side, the 
 object of this arrangement being to distribute the fastenings of 
 the angle-iron connecting the top with the side, and thus to make 
 a very strong connection, by means of which the tendency of the 
 upper part of the cathead to move outward when the anchor is 
 catted is effectually resisted. The space for the sheave is enclosed 
 by two ^ inch plates iitted into the cathead, and connected with 
 the side plates and top and bottom by forged angle-irons. The 
 block is of iron, and is carried by two spindles which rest in metal 
 bearings bolted to the | inch plates. These arrangements are 
 illustrated by the section through a h. The object of thus allowing 
 the block to swivel, is to give a fairer lead to the cat pendant 
 when it is led forward to the hawse-hole, and to prevent tlie edge 
 of the block from being chafed. This arrangement is specially 
 needed in ships with ram-bows in wliich the distance from the 
 ctitheads to the hawse-holes is considerable. Haviue: thus brieflv
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 293 
 
 Fi". 234.
 
 294 Miscellaneous Details. Chap. xv. 
 
 described the construction and connections of the cathead, it may 
 be of interest to notice a few of the fittings. When the anchor is 
 suspended from the cathead, one end of the chain on Avhich it 
 hangs is secured to the slip stopper s, and after being passed 
 through the anchor-ring the chain is led over the bracket k, and 
 its inner end is secured to the bollard head. The slip-stopper s is 
 worked by means of a lever I, on the opposite side of tlie cathead, 
 and when the anchor is to be let go the lever is raised by means 
 of a lanyard attached to its inner end, and the toggle bolt of the 
 stopper being released, the end of the chain to which the anchor 
 hangs is freed. In order to prevent the lever from being drawn 
 upwards by the catching of a rope or any other accident, the pin p 
 is put in above it when the anchor is catted. 
 
 In conclusion it may be remarked, that in addition to the great 
 increase of strength obtained by this mode of constructing large 
 catheads, there is a considerable saving both in weight and cost as 
 compared with a forged cathead. Thus the actual saving in weight 
 on a box cathead of the dimensions of that shown in Fig. 234, 
 amounts to one-fourth the weight of a forged cathead for the same 
 class of ship, and the saving in cost amounts to nearly one-third. 
 
 DECK HOUSES. 
 
 We shall conclude this chapter with an account of the special 
 arrangements made for supporting the spar and awning decks, and 
 giving transverse strength to the Pacific Steam Navigation Com- 
 pany's ships, ' Pacifico,' ' Limenia,' and ' Santiago,' built by Messrs. 
 Eandolph and Elder. These ships are 260 feet in length between 
 the perpendiculars, and have a complete spar deck throughout 
 their length, and an awning deck above this extending from the 
 stern forward to about 60 feet from the bow. As far back as 
 the fore end of the awning deck, and for about 45 feet before the 
 stern, the side plating is carried up to the height of the spar deck, 
 and for 63 feet of the amidship length, in wake of the paddle- 
 boxes, the plating is continued up to the height of the awning 
 deck. At the intermediate parts of the ship the framing is of the 
 character shown in the section in Fig. 235, the frame angle-irons 
 and the plating being ended at about 4 feet above the upper deck, 
 while the spar deck beams are carried by light iron stanchions 
 riveted to the frames and supported by three tiers of pillars, and 
 the awning deck is carried by three tiers of pillars. The diagonal
 
 Chap. XV 
 
 Miscellaneotis Details. 
 
 295 
 
 gtays marked s, s are fitted in order to give rigidity to the structure, 
 and efficiently connect the various decks and the hull. There are 
 
 Fig. 235. 
 
 five of these stays in wake of the a\vning deck, two being placed 
 before the paddle-boxes, and three abaft them. They are formed of 
 two bars of wrought-iron 6x1 inches, enclosing the deck beams, and 
 being secured by through bolts to both beams and frames. The de- 
 tails of the stays s, s are given in Fig. 236, next page. It will be seen 
 that the upper ends of the plates forming the stay s are brought on 
 opposite sides of the vertical flanges of the T-iron awning deck beams 
 b, and are secured by through bolts. At the spar and upper decks 
 the plates have to be kept sufficiently far apart to clear the beam 
 flanges, and consequently the forgings a, a have to be introduced 
 between the beam web b and the stays s, s in order to receive the 
 screw bolts. Below the upper deck the plates are brought close 
 together as shown at d, and the lower end of the stay is connected 
 with the outside plating by means of the bracket plate c and the 
 angle-iron e. These arrangements afford a most instructive example 
 of the manner in which lightness and strength may be combined in 
 the construction of vessels designed for special services.
 
 296 
 
 Miscellaneous Details. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 JCD m m 
 
 % liJ ^' 
 
 ^h 
 
 AWNINC DECK 
 
 mm 
 
 ^j 
 
 — WW 
 
 SPm DECK 
 
 000 
 c o 
 
 mm. 
 
 o o 
 
 000 
 
 m m 
 
 
 I 
 
 ,'- ,'--, ^ ^ ^ \ \ < 
 
 
 
 
 ' ^^ ^ Lj vJi ^L, N 1 1 i 
 
 a, ■ia' .-J >-J k-J ' 
 
 ™, liy 
 
 } DECK 
 
 1 s 
 
 b 
 
 Fig. 236.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Ship btiilding. 297 
 
 CHAPTEll XVI. 
 
 STEEL PLATES FOR SHIPBUILDING. 
 
 Nearly all the general considerations which have been set forth in 
 the preceding chapters respecting combinations of materials, and 
 rccbdes of operation, are as applicable to steel as to iron. But there 
 are essential differences in the two materials of great importance to 
 the shipbuilder, and it is proposed to consider them at some length 
 in this chapter. 
 
 Steel may be defined chemically as iron combined with a small 
 but definite proportion of carbon. It is distinguished on the one 
 side from pure iron, by the presence of carbon ; and on the other 
 side from cast iron by the smallness of its proportion of carbon. 
 Steel may be said, in another aspect of it, to be iron in such a 
 condition, that when heated to redness, and suddenly cooled, 
 it becomes very hard but may be again softened by heat. Taking 
 advantage of this peculiarity the shipbuilder, like others, has 
 long employed it for tools for cutting iron and softer metals. It 
 is but recently, however, that it has come to occupy the important 
 position in which we have now to consider it, which may be said 
 to be that of wrought iron possessing extraordinary ductility and 
 strength. 
 
 Steel is now regarded by the shipbuilder as a material which 
 may with care be made to possess greater ductility, both hot and 
 cold, than the best wrought iron, in combination with a tensile 
 strength 50 per cent, greater thau that of iron. It has on this 
 account come to be largely used by shipbuilders instead of iron for 
 plates and angles, and to a great extent for rivets also. There is 
 but little room for doubt that it is destined to a far more extended 
 use than it now has for these purposes ; and it is possible that it may 
 ultimately displace iron for such uses. But, in the present state of 
 the manufacture, steel ship-plates possess some very dangerous pecu- 
 liarities. There is ample experience to prove that ships built of steel 
 may be weaker, both structurally and locally, than ships built of
 
 298 Steel Plates for ShipbiLildi7ig. Chap. xvi. 
 
 iron of the same scantlings, and with precisely similar arrangements 
 of framing and fastening. It may be said indeed, with truth, that 
 if steel supplied by first class makers is treated in the same manner 
 as iron in working it into a ship, it will require to be of the same 
 thickness as the best iron in order to obtain the same strength, and 
 that as the practice has been to reduce the thickness in nearly 
 inverse proportion to the tensile strength of the perfect plate, steel 
 ships so built are by so much inferior in this respect to ships 
 built of iron of unreduced thickness. 
 
 Several kinds of steel have been used in shipbuilding in the 
 form of plates and angles, but there are only two which have had 
 any extensive use, viz. : Puddled and Bessemer steels. These two 
 materials differ widely from each other, not only in the mode 
 of manufactm-e, but in their qualities. Puddled steel plates and 
 bars, like iron, are made from a pile of small pieces, welded together 
 under the hammer, and between the rolls, and are subject to those 
 well known and troublesome defects produced in these processes, 
 to a greater extent even than iron. Each Bessemer steel plate or 
 bar is, on the contrary, made from a single ingot, and is therefore 
 free from these defects. Large plates can thus be made by the latter 
 process with the same precision, and almost with the same ease as 
 small ones, but in puddled steel this is not so. It also appears to be 
 more difficult to obtain uniformity of temj)er in a batch of puddled 
 steel plates than in Bessemer steel, probably because of the 
 extreme care required in selecting the puddled bars of which each 
 pile is made, as these bars differ greatly from each other in temper, 
 and the selection is made from observation of the nature of the 
 fracture when they are broken. In the manufacture of Bessemer 
 steel, the selection which requires to be made is dependent on 
 precise chemical analysis, which is part of the daily operation of 
 the mills, and is altogether independent of the workmen. Puddled 
 steel is not necessarily inferior in strength to Bessemer steel, but 
 that made in England is generally of lower tensile strength, as well 
 as less uniform in strength. The following are examples of batches 
 of puddled and Bessemer steel sent in by different makers to stand 
 the Admiralty forge tests, and to have a tensile strength of 33 tons 
 per square inch lengthways or with the grain, and 30 tons across 
 the length or grain.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 299 
 
 Puddled Steel, \ inch thick. 
 
 Tons per sq. inch 
 of original section. 
 
 L 26 
 A 25 
 A 24 
 L 35 
 L 32 
 L 29 
 L 27 
 A 26 
 A 28 
 
 485 
 203 
 300 
 409 
 593 
 377 
 306 
 189 
 466 
 743 
 212 
 893 
 247 
 
 2 
 
 678 
 
 321 
 
 664 
 
 867 
 
 699 
 
 656 
 
 89 
 
 093 
 
 •269 
 
 •576 
 
 •038 
 
 •314 
 
 •26 
 
 ■754 
 
 •958 
 
 •006 
 
 Elongation in 
 12 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 Td 
 
 175 
 
 li 
 
 113 
 
 1 
 
 J-TJ: 
 
 Bessemer Steel, \ inch thick. 
 
 Tons per sq. inch of 
 original section. 
 
 Elongation in 
 12 inches. 
 
 43-319 
 43-617 
 45^572 
 49-218 
 42-897 
 41-851 
 45-277 
 42-5 
 
 li 
 li 
 
 li 
 
 1^ 
 
 li 
 14. 
 
 \ in. thick, 
 by the same maker as above. 
 
 34-985 
 
 .35 • 841 
 
 36-386 
 
 35-862 
 
 38-297 
 
 38-122 
 
 37-89 
 
 38-151 
 
 J in. thick, by another maker. 
 
 32-649 
 
 2i 
 
 33-552 
 
 2 
 
 32-345 
 
 2| 
 
 31-841 
 
 2^ 
 
 34-552 
 
 lis 
 
 34-765 
 
 iF 
 
 34-217 
 
 2 
 
 34-303 
 
 If 
 
 From these figm-es it will be seen that in the puddled steel 
 there resulted a variation in the strength, lengthwise, between 
 26*2 and 36'754, in the attempt to secure 33 tons ; and in the 
 strength crosswise, which should have been 30 tons, there was a 
 variation between 23*893 and 33-006. The great want of elongation 
 in some of the crosswise specimens is undoubtedly due to the 
 defective welding of the pieces composing the pile. Subsequent 
 plates of the same thicknes.?, made by the same makers, but by a 
 different system of piling, gave the following results as tested by 
 the manufacturer. 
 
 * In this and the following tables the letters l anil A .stand for "lengthwise" and 
 " across " respectively.
 
 300 Steel Plates for SJiipbuilding. c h a p. x \' i . 
 
 Tests of |^-Inoh Pudpled Steel. 
 
 Hreakini; strain per Stretch in 
 
 sq. inch. 4 inches. 
 
 Breaking .strain per , Stroicli in 
 sq. inch. 4 inches. 
 
 Icins. 
 
 lethsof an Inch.' 
 
 tons. 
 
 cnt. ' I 
 
 6ths of an inch, i 
 
 L 37-75 
 
 9 
 
 L 35 
 
 
 
 11 ! 
 
 A 35-00 
 
 4 
 
 A 32 
 
 IG 
 
 8 1 
 
 L 38-30 
 
 12 1 
 
 L 32 
 
 IG 
 
 11 
 
 L 35-00 
 
 12 
 
 A 29 
 
 10 
 
 .) 
 
 A 33-90 
 
 7 
 
 \. 35 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 L 30 05 
 
 14 
 
 A 30 
 
 12 
 
 .) 
 
 A 32-25 
 
 5 
 
 L 33 
 
 IS 
 
 10 
 
 L 32-80 
 
 5 
 
 A 29 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 A 32-25 
 
 7 
 
 , L 32 
 
 IG 
 
 11 
 
 L 36 -05 
 
 10 
 
 A 30 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 A 33-9 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 In the case of the tests of the Bessemer steel the decrease in the 
 elongation as the tensile strength increases is very noticeable. 
 The variation in the tensile strength of the ^-incli and :^-inch plates 
 supplied by one maker is between 34*985 tons and 49-218 tons, 
 and the corresponding elongations are 2 inches, and f of an inch. 
 These examples of Bessemer steel are not so good or so uniform as 
 might have been given. The uniformity in strength in some cases, 
 where the manufacturers make Bessemer steel plates an important 
 part of their business, is admirable. 
 
 Every one acquainted with these steels, or steel irons as they 
 are sometimes called, knows that their ductility when hot is very 
 remarkable. The angles to Mhich ordinary or second-class iron 
 ship plates are expected to bend, when hot, are 60° and 90° 
 breadthwise and lengthwise respectively. In iirst-class iron plates 
 the standard is raised to 90° and 125° ; but these steels will stand, 
 if of good quality, not only the 110° and 140° j)rescribed by the 
 Admiralty tests, but will, up to | of an inch in thickness, bend 
 double twice without fracture. The superior ductility of this 
 material when cold, as compared with iron, is also very marked, 
 but not so considerable as when hot. Bessemer steel plates may 
 be said to vary in tensile strength from about 30 to 50 tons per 
 square inch, but they are most useful for shipbuilders' purposes 
 when they are between 32 and 38 tons, say 35 tons per inch, or 
 about 50 per cent, stronger than first-class iron. At this temper 
 the plates are more ductile when cold than first-class iron, as 
 indicated by the following comparative table of tests taken from 
 the Admiralty Code.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 301 
 
 Comparative Angles of Bending of " Best Best " Iron and Bessemer 
 Steel Plates when cold, without fracture. 
 
 With the grain. 
 
 Across the grain. 
 
 
 Best 
 
 Besse- 
 
 
 Best 
 
 Besse- 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Best 
 
 mer 
 
 ] Thickness. 
 
 Best 
 
 mer 
 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 1 inch and 15-16ths inch 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 1 inch and 15-16ths inch 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 i ,, lo 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 i ,, 13 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 ? ,, 11 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 1 f ,, 11 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 ^ ,, 9 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 i ,, 9 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 \ ,, .. .. 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 ! 1 ,, .. .. 
 
 15 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 TB ' ' .... 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 7^ 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 i 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 g > ? .... 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 is ' > .... 
 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 Ti) ' ' .... 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 -^ and under 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 fg and imder 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 If tlie ductility here indicated could be secured as uniformly in 
 a batch of steel plates as the average qualities of "best best" iron are 
 secured in a batch of plates of this material, the higher price of 
 steel would be but little bar to its use ; but at j^resent one is obliged 
 to say that it cannot be, for the manufacturers with whom we are 
 acquainted — and they are the best in England — have so far as 
 our experience goes, failed to secure this uniformity. The following 
 is the result of tests with samples from deliveries of Bessemer 
 plates for which a high price was given. 
 
 Bessemer Steel Plates, manufactured by two Firms to comply with the 
 Admiralty conditions. Angles of bending, cold. 
 
 Thickness 
 of pbte. 
 
 With 
 grain. 
 
 Across 
 grain. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 j Thickness 
 of plate. 
 
 With 
 grain. 
 
 Across 
 gi-aiu. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 
 J-inch .. 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 No fracture. 
 
 I'inch . . 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 Fracture. 
 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 Fracture. 
 
 
 47 
 
 60 
 
 , , 
 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Fracture at 8°. 
 
 
 88 
 
 62 
 
 Slight fracture. 
 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 Fractiu-e. 
 
 . 5 •• 
 
 87 
 
 65 
 
 > J 
 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 ^ J 
 
 
 85 
 
 72 
 
 , , 
 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 J ^ 
 
 , , .. 
 
 85 
 
 73 
 
 , , 
 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 " 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Puddled steel is usually found to be more ductile than 
 Bessemer steel, and is on that account often strongly recom- 
 mended instead of Bessemer steel, but disappointments are some- 
 times experienced in this respect, as well as in its tensile strength. 
 
 The course recently taken by Lloyd's Committee with reference 
 to the use of steel is a very important one. It will doubtless be pro- 
 ductive of much good on the whole, but it will need extreme care
 
 302 Steel Plates for Shipbiiildiiig. Chap. XVI. 
 
 on the part of the Surveyors to avert in many cases disastrous con- 
 sequences. It has been resolved as follows : — 
 
 " That ships built of steel of approved quality, under special 
 " survey, be classed in the Register Book with the notation ' Ex- 
 " perimental ' against their characters. 
 
 " In all cases, however, the specifications for the ships must be 
 " submitted to the Committee for approval. 
 
 " That a reduction be allowed in the tliickness of the plates, 
 " frames, &c., of ships built of steel, not exceeding one-fourth from 
 " that prescribed in Table G for iron ships. 
 
 " (In no case, however, are the rivets to be made of steel, nor 
 " will any reduction be allowed in the sizes of rivets from those 
 " prescribed in Table G for ships of the same tonnage, built of iron.) 
 
 " In other respects the rules for the construction of iron ships 
 " will apply equally to ships built of steel." 
 
 The reduction thus made in scantlings will bring the cost of 
 a steel ship down to about that of a similar ship built of good 
 iron, and there will probably be a saving in weight of about 100 
 tons for 1000 tons of builders' measurement. It is understood 
 that the steel which has commended itself to the surveyors of 
 Lloyd's is Bessemer steel, but as the price of puddled steel is about 
 \l. per ton less than that of Bessemer, the resolution will be likely 
 to give a great imjDulse to the manufacture of the cheaper ma- 
 terial. Its ductility, and its great resemblance to iron in its 
 characteristics, the absence also of certain peculiar and disagree- 
 able defects to which Bessemer steel is liable, and what is perhaps 
 still more important, the fact that all the good iron-makers can 
 produce this material — all these considerations will probably give 
 to it, for the present at least, a run of popular favour. Hereafter, 
 when the peculiarities of the Bessemer steel are better understood 
 by makers and shipbuilders, and when the price is reduced by the 
 termination of the present royalty, it will in all probability be 
 used almost exclusively by shipbuilders and engineers. So far as 
 angles are concerned, Bessemer steel is now admitted to be su- 
 perior to every other material. The amount of working which 
 the ingot receives in the course of manufacture into a bar appears 
 to perfect it, and the material has proved itself to be, for angle- 
 bars, unequalled. In order to explain the reservation with which 
 the good qualities of Bessemer plates have been set forth, it is 
 necessaiy to give the results of experience in its use.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steeb Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 3^0 
 
 In the year 1864 we had a series of experiments on steel made 
 in Chatham Dockyard. The material was of Bessemer manu- 
 facture, the conditions being that it should stand 33 tons per 
 square inch lengthwise and 30 tons crosswise. The results are 
 recorded in the following^ table. 
 
 Tests of i-Inch Bessemer Steel. 
 
 
 
 Breaking strain per 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Breadth 
 
 square inch in tons. 
 
 Elonga- 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 Speci- 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 tion* 
 in inches. 
 
 
 Ren 
 
 • 
 
 Speci- 
 
 ' 
 
 
 larks. 
 
 men. 
 
 men. 
 
 Original 
 area. 
 
 Fractured 
 area. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 [1 
 
 42-55 
 
 46-37 
 
 1-18 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 
 
 43-5 
 
 55-49 
 
 1-94 
 
 Across 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 {I 
 
 43-25 
 
 59-4 
 
 2-00 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 
 
 43-75 
 
 55-81 
 
 1-94 
 
 Across 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ( 2 
 
 41-75 
 
 50-88 
 
 1-75 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 
 
 I 2 
 
 40-25 
 
 43-85 
 
 1-69 
 
 Across 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 i 2 
 
 40-25 
 
 48-02 
 
 1-69 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 
 
 40-50 
 
 52-89 
 
 2-12 
 
 Across 
 
 
 
 
 ( ^ 
 
 40-16 
 
 37-28 
 
 0-56 
 
 Lengthwise ^ 
 
 
 Broke tlirough nar- 
 rowed part, but 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 not at narrowest 
 place. 
 
 
 { 3 
 
 38-60 
 
 15-73 
 
 0-44 
 
 Across 
 
 to 
 
 •a 
 
 Through rivet-holes 
 in the head. 
 
 6 
 
 {I 
 
 40-58 
 
 16-51 
 
 0-56 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 B 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 36-50 
 
 35-05 
 
 0-37 
 
 Across 
 
 tiz 
 
 Through narrowed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 part, but not at 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 narrowest place. 
 
 7 
 
 { t 
 
 31-0 
 
 16-0 
 
 0-25 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 , '^ 
 
 Thi-ough head. 
 
 31-5 
 
 16-0 
 
 0-19 
 
 Across 
 
 .a 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 f 
 I 4 
 
 32-75 
 
 17-64 
 
 0-19 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 c 
 
 '1 
 
 28-0 
 
 15-18 
 
 0-12 
 
 Across 
 
 a. 
 
 
 9 
 
 / 5 
 5 
 
 29-2 
 
 14-97 
 
 0-12 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 cS 
 
 
 29-8 
 
 16-55 
 
 0-12 
 
 Across 
 
 o 
 
 
 10 
 
 {t 
 
 28-0 
 
 15-34 
 
 0-12 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 > 
 
 ^^ 
 
 30-6 
 
 16-76 
 
 0-19 
 
 Across 
 
 Si 
 
 , , 
 
 11 
 
 i 6 
 I 6 
 
 28-0 
 
 17-01 
 
 0-19 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 
 J ^ 
 
 27-5 
 
 16-5 
 
 0-19 
 
 Across 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 {t 
 
 27-5 
 
 16-5 
 
 0-12 
 
 Lengthwise 
 Across .. y 
 
 
 
 25-3 
 
 14-82 
 
 0-12 
 
 
 J J 
 
 13 
 
 {1 
 
 38-1 
 
 16-38 
 
 0-56 
 
 Lengthwise ] 
 
 ■2f. 
 
 J , 
 
 34-8 
 
 14-96 
 
 0-50 
 
 Across . . 1 
 
 't:'~. bo 
 
 J J 
 
 14 
 
 / 5 
 5 
 
 38 15 
 
 16-41 
 
 0-50 
 
 Lengthwise j 
 
 
 
 36-3 
 
 15-95 
 
 0-44 
 
 Across . . J 
 
 ■"-*• 
 
 ,, 
 
 15 
 
 {I 
 
 35-2 
 
 16-0 
 
 0-50 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,, 
 
 42-8 
 
 47-32 
 
 1-62 
 
 Across 
 
 ■2 .So 
 
 Through narrowest 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ M !* 
 
 part. 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 42-7 
 
 47-55 
 
 1-50 
 
 Ijengthwise 
 
 ^.= <D 
 
 J ^ 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 41-05 
 
 43-59 
 
 137 
 
 Lengthwise , 
 
 « 
 
 " 
 
 * The elongation in this case and in cases following, where not otherwise specified, 
 was taken in a length of 24 inches, that being the distance between the bolts by 
 which the pieces were pulled. This was done because it was impossible to tell where, 
 within these points, the pieces would break. Nearly the whole of the elongation
 
 304 Steel Plates for Shipbuildiiig. Chap. XVI. 
 
 The thirty-two pieces tested were cut from four ^inch plates, 
 viz. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12 in the table lengthwise, and the 
 same numbers crosswise, from one plate ; 5, C, 7, and 8 lengthwise 
 and crosswise from another; 13, 14, and 15 lengthwise and cross- 
 wise from a third ; and 16 and 17 lengthwise from a fourth. The 
 lengthwise and crosswise tests are bracketed together in all the 
 cases in which they were made upon similar pieces cut from the same 
 plate. The pieces numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4 were parallel from end 
 to end, and were gripped by the machines ; the others had a head 
 formed on them with strengthening pieces or clamp-plates riveted 
 on each side with four |-inch rivets placed symmetrically around 
 the hole formed to receive the centre bolt, to which the chain was 
 attached. This hole was in each case centred with great care. 
 
 The results were very remarkable. The material was shown 
 to have one-third more strength than was expected, when it frac- 
 tured fairly ; but it was also shown to have an erratic mode of 
 fracturing, which caused a variation in the breaking strain per 
 square inch of original area between 43f tons and 25^ tons. Or, 
 regarding the fractured area, there is a variation between, say, 15 
 and GO tons. 
 
 There appears to be nothing in the circumstances to account 
 for these eccentricities. When the holes in the head, which deter- 
 mined the fracture in so many cases, were punched 1^ inches from 
 the edges {i. e. nearly two diameters), the plates would not always 
 break there, but fractured through a portion of the unpierced plate, 
 which was not the least in section. And when the holes were 
 drilled, one of the specimens broke through the drilled holes at 
 16 tons to the inch, while its companion piece, similar to it in 
 every respect, except that it was cut crosswise of the plate instead 
 of lengthwise, stood more than 47 tons to the inch. 
 
 The tests following, with steel manufactured by another firm, 
 were made under precisely the same circumstances as those above 
 recorded. The first four pieces, being only 2 inches wide, were 
 gripped ; and the others had a clamped head with rivet-holes 
 punched 1^ inches from the head. 
 
 There is certainly more uniformity in these cases, inasmuch as 
 all the riveted pieces broke at a low strain, the variation lying 
 between 13*16 and 15*3 tons per square inch. 
 
 must, however, hsive taken place in tlie reduced parallel part, which was iu every 
 case 9 inches Ions:.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding, 
 
 305 
 
 Fdkther Tests of i-Inch Bessemer Steel Plates. 
 
 No. 
 of 
 Speci- 
 men. 
 
 Breaking strain per 
 square inch in tons. 
 
 Original j Fractured 
 area. ' area. 
 
 Elonga- 
 tion 
 in inches. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 1 
 
 { 
 
 2 
 
 35-0 
 
 59-73 ' 
 
 2-5 
 
 Lengthwise. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 36-0 
 
 58-21 
 
 2-25 
 
 Across. 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 35-25 
 
 57-0 
 
 2-87 
 
 Lengthwise. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 36-25 
 
 57-12 1 
 
 2-75 
 
 Across. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 33-5 
 
 15-09 
 
 0-75 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 32-5 
 
 13 -IG 
 
 0-812 
 
 Across 
 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 / 
 I 
 
 ( 
 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 
 33-5 
 34-12 
 32-2 
 30-2 
 
 15-098 
 14-18 
 15-3 
 151 
 
 1-0 
 1-25 
 0-5 
 0-5 
 
 Lengthwise 
 Across 
 Lengthwise 
 Across 
 
 All broke through 
 V rivet-holes in 
 the head. 
 
 6 
 
 { 
 
 5 
 
 30-4 
 
 14-65 
 
 0-5 
 
 Lengthwise 
 
 
 5 
 
 31-9 
 
 14-fi 
 
 0-5 
 
 Across 
 
 
 These experiments might by many persons have been held 
 sufficient to prove that Bessemer steel plates were altogether 
 unsuited to the use of the shipbuilder. But as there was some 
 indication that the plates suffered much less from drilling than 
 from punching, further experiments were made iu this direction 
 before any decision was arrived at, as the material was held to 
 be worthy of the most careful and patient trial. Four pieces 
 of a -^-incli steel plate were therefore next cut out lengthvnse, 
 and formed with heads, the first two being undamped, and the 
 latter two clamped. The former were 3 inches wide in the nar- 
 rowed part and had two i-inch holes drilled in the centre of the 
 length of this part : the latter were 6 inches wide and had two 
 1-inch holes similarly drilled. The former two broke through the 
 drilled holes at 42-9! and 40-^3 tons respectively per square inch 
 of fractured area. The others broke, not through the i-incli holes 
 which had been drilled through the smallest section, but through 
 the connecting holes at the head, at 17-11 and 17-94 tons respect- 
 ively per square inch of fractured area. Two other plates of ^-inch 
 steel were then taken, supplied by the same maker as those first 
 above referred to, and four pieces were cut from one plate, and two 
 from another, all of them lengthwise. They were all clamped at the 
 ends, and the holes fastening the clamps were drilled at \\ inches 
 from the edge. In these experiments, notwithstanding the drilling 
 of the holes, the first piece broke, like those in the first experiments, 
 at 14-15 tons per square inch of fractured area, and with an elong- 
 ation of 0-375 of an inch. The next three pieces broke fairly in 
 
 X
 
 ;o6 
 
 Steel Plates for Shipbiiilding. 
 
 Chap. XVI. 
 
 the reduced part at the following strains respectively, viz., per 
 square inch of original area 41'375, 29-2, and 39"8 tons, with an 
 elongation of 1"37, 2*25, and 2"12 inches ; the breaking strain per 
 square inch of fractured area being 41-54, 55*42, and 56-27 tons. 
 The other two pieces, which were 6 inches wide, had two -i-inch 
 holes drilled in the middle of them. The plates broke through 
 these di'illed holes at 39-2 and 37*8 tons per square inch of original 
 area, exclusive of holes, and 41'26 and 39*52 tons per square 
 inch of fractured area, the elongation being 0*37 and 0*5 inch 
 respectively. 
 
 The next plates tried were by the other maker. Two samples 
 were taken precisely similar in every respect to the last two, i. e. 
 they were ^-inch plates cut lengthwise, clamped, with punched 
 holes for the rivets, and they had two i-inch holes drilled in the 
 centre of the straight reduced part. They broke through the drilled 
 holes at 32*55 and 3390 tons per square inch of original area, 
 exclusive of holes, and 34*92 and 35*91 tons of fractured area, the 
 elonjration being: 0*5 inch in both cases. 
 
 Some further experiments were then made with pieces 4 inches 
 and 6 inches wide, and ^ inch thick, clamped at the ends, but 
 having a third hole put through the clamps in a line with, and 
 midway between the two holes through whieli the fracture always 
 occurred, the object being to reduce the strength still further, to 
 ascertain what this reduction would be, and the disadvantage of 
 punching as compared with drilling under these circumstances. 
 The results were as follows : — 
 
 Tests of ^-inch Bessemer Steel Plates, 4 inches broad. 
 
 Breaking strain per square 
 inch in tons. 
 
 Elonga- 
 
 
 Original Fractured 
 area. area. 
 
 in inches. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 B}' another By one mttnu- 
 manul'acturer. facturer. 
 
 34-19 
 
 34-87 
 40-25 
 40-44 
 32-31 
 
 30-03 
 
 35-43 
 35-43 
 
 13-34 
 
 16-66 
 49-69 
 53-8 
 14-98 
 
 14-13 
 
 47-88 
 44-21 
 
 031 
 
 0-.31 
 1-18 
 1-62 
 0-25 
 
 1-375 
 
 1-875 
 2-125 
 
 Broke through two of the holes in the head. 
 Holes punched. 
 
 Ditto. ditto. 
 Broken in centre of reduced part. Holes drilled. 
 
 Ditto. ditto. 
 Broke through two of the holes in the head. 
 
 Holes punched. 
 Broke through the three holes in the head. 
 
 Holes punched. 
 Broke in centre of reduced part. Holes drilled. 
 Ditto. ditto.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 307 
 
 lu the six cases following two holes were put through the centre 
 of the reduced part. The first two (^-inch) punched ; the second 
 two (1-inch) drilled ; and the third two punched to \ an inch and 
 reamed to f-inch, | inch from the edge. 
 
 Tests of ^-inch Bessemeb Steel Plates, 6 inches broad. 
 
 Breaking 
 
 strain per 
 
 
 
 square inch in tons. 
 
 Elonga- 
 
 
 
 tiou 
 ill inches. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Original 
 
 Fractured 
 
 
 
 area. 
 
 area. 
 
 
 
 22-30 
 
 22-30 
 
 0-016 
 
 Broke through the two holes in reduced part. 
 
 20-0 
 
 20-0 
 
 0-125 
 
 Ditto. ditto. 
 
 32-45 
 
 33-8 
 
 0-5 
 
 Ditto. ditto. 
 
 32 -.35 
 
 33-4 
 
 0-437 
 
 Ditto. ditto. 
 
 29-13 
 
 26-95 
 
 0-5 
 
 Ditto. ditto. 
 
 30-45 
 
 24-54 
 
 0-625 
 
 Broke througli one of the holes, and also at the same 
 
 
 
 moment through the solid reduced part. 
 
 Further experiments were made at about the same time at 
 Chatham, and some others at Pembroke. The only ones among 
 them which appear to possess additional interest were made at 
 Chatham, to ascertain the comparative effect of a falling weight 
 upon a Bessemer steel, and an iron })late. A deep angle-iron was 
 bent into an ellipse, about 6 feet long, and 4 feet 6 inches wide. 
 A piece of Bessemer plate 15 inches wide and \ an inch thick was 
 placed on this, in the direction of the longest diameter, and was 
 riveted to the flange at each extremity with five rivets, there being 
 thus nearly six feet of the plate left unsupported between. This 
 piece had been butted in the middle, and strapped with double- 
 straps, \ of an inch thick, treble-riveted, with five rows of iron 
 rivets, the alternate ones nearest the butt being omitted. All the 
 holes for these rivets were drilled. A weight was then allowed 
 to fall on the centre of the plate, i.e., on the butt strap, from 
 a height of 32 feet. 
 
 A 32-pound shot was first tried, this slightly loosened one 
 rivet. A 68-pounder followed ; this slightly loosened another 
 rivet ; then an 84-pounder was dropped, and it was found that the 
 total damage was seven rivets slightly loosened, one point of 
 a rivet off, and the plate bent somewhat below a level. An 
 elongated ball having a round bottom, and weighing 16 cwts., was 
 then dropped. This broke out a piece of the solid steel 21 inches 
 long, short of the rivet holes at both ends. The rivets in the frame 
 
 X 2
 
 3o8 Steel Plates for Shipbuildi7ig. Chap. xvi. 
 
 were in fact perfect, and there were no fractures at tlie butt-strap. 
 The shape of the frame remained unaltered. 
 
 The rivets were then cut out and an iron plate riveted on. 
 This was similar in every way to the steel plate, except that the 
 rivet holes had been punched. The 32-pounder appeared to have 
 no effect. The 68-pounder slightly loosened one rivet. The 84- 
 pounder bent the plate down about 2 inches, bnt there was no 
 further injury to the rivets. The IG-cwt. ball cracked the butt- 
 strap in wake of several of the rivets, and the frame in front of 
 several of the connecting rivets. Tlie plate did not break, but it 
 drew the frame out of shape, shortening one diameter, and lengthen- 
 ing the other by about nine inches. 
 
 The issue of these various experiments was that the use of 
 Bessemer steel was chiefly limited to those portions of the ship 
 in which the strain on the plates was in the direction of their 
 length, i.e. in whicli dangerous cross-strains were not to be expected, 
 such, for example, as upper deck plating, plating of inner bottom, 
 and longitudinal frames. The rule was also made imperative that 
 the rivet-holes should be drilled. 
 
 But with these precautions there was still danger, as was made 
 apparent by the sudden snapping off of a ^-inch Bessemer plate 
 which formed one of the upper deck plates in the ' Hercules,' with- 
 out warning, and without any apparent cause. This plate was 
 delivered in a breadth of 4 feet, and it was so placed as to form 
 one length of the outer or side stringer plate to the upper deck. 
 It lapped half over the centre battery, and had therefore to be 
 narrowed to about 2 feet for half its length. A joggle or abut- 
 ment was formed in doing this, which joggle was punched out by 
 the workmen, and an angle was formed in the corner. When 
 the plate had been fitted, it was laid down on the beams, and 
 riveted to them. After having been so fastened for several days, 
 during which it was exposed without cover to the weather, it 
 snapped suddenly one morning (succeeding a cold night) across 
 the breadth of 2 feet, the fracture commencing at the angle. 
 Tests made on several pieces of this broken plate gave the follow- 
 ing: curious results.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 309 
 
 Tests of Fractured i-inch Bessemer Steel Plate. 
 
 Size of 
 
 sample. 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 inch. 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 X 
 
 •485 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 X 
 
 •485 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 X 
 
 •495 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 X 
 
 •5 
 
 Breaking 
 
 
 i-train per 
 
 Eloncatinn 
 
 quare inch 
 
 in 
 
 of original 
 
 6 inches. 
 
 area. 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 inches. I 
 
 35-86 
 
 li : 
 
 .35 ■ 67 
 
 li ! 
 
 24-07 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 35-73 
 
 TS 
 
 Lengthwke. 
 Across. 
 
 1st piece 
 2nd ditto 
 1st ditto 
 2nd ditto 
 
 Forge Tests. 
 Hot Tests all Good. 
 Cold Tests. 
 With the grain . . Proof 70° . . 
 
 Across the grain . . Proof 40° . . 
 
 Fractured badly at 24°. 
 Bent to 70°. 
 Fractured badly at 24°. 
 Bent to 40°. 
 
 Other cases of fracture have occurred, where an angle has been 
 the evident origin, and the necessity for rounding the angle has 
 become apparent. 
 
 It was conjectured with regard to this plate that it had not been 
 annealed after manufacture, and that while cooling from the rolls 
 a current of cold air had perhaps been allowed to pass over it, or it 
 might have been laid on cold iron, or in a damp place to cool. 
 But whatever was the cause it was evident that some of the best 
 English Bessemer steel makers were not then to be trusted in the 
 performance of this most important duty — the careful annealing of 
 the plates after manufacture ; and it was thought that the only 
 absolute security was to be found in annealing the plates after 
 receipt.* While this was under consideration it was suggested by 
 Mr. Sharp, of the Bolton Iron and Steel Works, that if annealing 
 were adopted in the dockyards it would be found to restore a large 
 
 * " Steel is annealed in a variety of ways. Some artists anneal steel by heating it 
 " to redness in the open or hollow fire, and then burying it in lime ; others heat it, 
 "and bury it in sand; others heat it and bury it iu cast-iron borings; others heat 
 " it and bury it in dry sawdust, and some anneal it by surrounding it on all sides 
 " in an iron box, with carbon, and then heat the whole to redness. This latter 
 " process is undoubtedly the most effectual method of annealing steel ; that is, 
 " providing the steel is not heated to excess. When this method of annealing steel 
 " is adopted, a layer of wood charcoal, coarsely powdered, is placed at the bottom of 
 " an iron box, and then a layer of steel, iipon this another layer of charcoal, and 
 " upon that again another layer of steel, and so on until the box is nearly full, 
 " finishing with a layer of charcoal. The lid of the box must then be put on, 
 " and the box luted with clay or loam in order to exclude the air. The whole 
 " may then be placed m a fm-nace or hollow fire and gradually heated to redness." 
 — Edc - On the Management of Steel,' chapter v. See also p. 318.
 
 3IO 
 
 Steel Plates for Shiphiilding. Chap. XVI. 
 
 portion of the strength lost by punching. Experiments were 
 made to ascertain to what extent this was the case. 
 
 Two -l-inch Bessemer steel plates were taken, manufactured by 
 tlie Bolton Company, and they were punched througliout to receive 
 the regular fastening of deck plates. One of these plates was then 
 cut into two, and while one haK was laid on one side, the entire 
 plate and the other half plate were annealed. The entire jilate 
 was then tried at its work to ascertain whetlier the holes had been 
 displaced in any way by the process. It was ascertained that no 
 displacement had occurred, and that no inconvenience would arise 
 in this respect from annealing after punching. 
 
 Pieces were then cut from the annealed and the unannealed 
 halves of the separated plate. All these pieces were similar in size 
 and shape, and they each had two f holes similarly situated in 
 them. The pieces were 3'6 inches wide, and there was a little more 
 than a diameter outside each hole. The results were as follows : — 
 
 Tests of Bessemer Steel 
 
 , Annealed and Unannealed after Punching. 
 
 
 
 Breaking strain per square inch 
 
 
 
 
 Size of Sample 
 exclusive of holes. 
 
 In Ions. 
 
 Direction of 
 
 grain. 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Unannealed. 
 
 Annealed. 
 
 
 
 
 inches. inch. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ! 2-28 X -475 
 
 19-39 
 
 Across. 
 
 
 2-28 X -475 
 
 
 33-01 
 
 
 
 2-33 X -47 
 
 26 -369 
 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -475 
 
 
 29-98 
 
 
 
 2-18 X -47 
 
 22-46 
 
 
 Lengthwise. 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -48 
 
 
 34-929 
 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -47 
 
 22-781 
 
 
 1 \ 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -48 
 
 
 35-397 
 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -475 
 
 18-885 
 
 
 Across. 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -48 
 
 
 30-724 
 
 
 
 
 2-28 X -475 
 
 18-005 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-28 X -475 
 
 
 31-278 
 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -475 
 
 16-997 
 
 
 Lengthwise. 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -475 
 
 .. 
 
 33-522 
 
 
 
 
 2-28 X -475 
 
 23-891 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-23 X -475 
 
 
 33-876 
 
 \ \ 
 
 
 
 Mean 
 
 Percentage .. 
 
 2i09 
 
 32-84 
 
 
 
 
 iGain 56 
 
 i 
 
 
 It was found also, from the cold forge tests, that the ductility 
 had been increased considerably. 
 
 Mr. Sharp, in a paper read at the Institution of Naval Architects, 
 in April 1868, gave the results of some fm-ther experiments made 
 by him as to the relative damage doUe by drilling and punching, 
 and the recovery of strength due to annealing in Bessemer steel.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for SJiipbuilding. 
 
 311 
 
 He first ascertained, from six experiments made on ^g-inch Bessemer 
 plates, three of which were punched, and three drilled for f-inch. 
 holes, that the drilled plates broke at 35-22, 37'27 and 36-40 tons 
 per square inch of original section, exclusive of holes ; and that the 
 punched plates broke at 26-69, 23*735 and 22-57 tons per square inch. 
 
 A number of steel jDlates were then prepared with riveted 
 joints of various construction, as described in the table given 
 below. The pieces were all cut from one plate, y^g of an inch 
 thick, lengthwise of the plate. One half were drilled, as shewn 
 below, and the other half punched and annealed. They were then 
 riveted up by a Garforth Machine, and reduced in the middle 
 on a shaping machine, to an uniform width of 4^ inches, the 
 length of the straight reduced part being 6 inches. The rivets 
 were y^g-inch in diameter, and were placed 1| inches from centre 
 to centre. The plates were first riveted with " best best " double 
 worked rivet iron, but the rivets gave way in every case but one. 
 In this case there was double-riveting with double butt straps, the 
 holes had been punched and the piece subsequently annealed. The 
 plate broke through the upper row of holes, under a tensile strain 
 of 39-12 tons per square inch of original area, exclusive of holes. 
 
 The iron rivets having thus proved to be too weak, the plates 
 were again riveted up with mild steel rivets, and the results were as 
 follows : — 
 
 Tests of Bessemer Steel, Annealed after Punching, and Unannealed 
 
 after Drilling. 
 
 Area of 
 
 Breaking 
 
 original Sec- 
 
 Strain per 
 
 tion, exclu- 
 
 square inch 
 
 sive of holes. 
 
 of Section. 
 
 Sq. inches. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 •78125 
 
 36-22 
 
 •7617 
 
 24-928 
 
 •754 
 
 26-254 
 
 •7617 
 
 42-33 
 
 •754 
 
 37-0 
 
 •7617 
 
 23-68 
 
 •754 
 
 24-53 
 
 •7617 
 
 39-25 
 
 •754 
 
 43-63 
 
 •7617 
 
 36-62 
 
 •754 
 
 40-98 1 
 
 •7617 
 
 42-93 1 
 
 •754 
 
 39^11 
 
 Not perforated ; elongated \^ ins. in 6 inches. 
 
 Drilled holes. Lap joint ; three rivets ; rivets sheared. 
 
 Punched and annealed. Same as above. 
 
 Drilled. Lap joint ; douljle riveted ; 6 rivets ; rivets sheared. 
 
 Punched and annealed. Same as above. 
 
 Drilled. Single butt strap; single riveted; three rivets 
 
 each side of butt ; rivets sheared. 
 Punched and annealed. Same as above. 
 Drilled. Single butt strap; double riveted; seven rivets 
 
 each side of butt ; plate and rivets gave way together. 
 Punched and annealed. Same as above, except that only 
 
 plate gave way. 
 Drilled. Double butt strap; single riveted; three rivets 
 
 each side butt ; rivets sheared. 
 Punched and annealed. Same as above, but plate broke. 
 Drilled. Douljle butt strap ; double riveted ; seven rivets 
 
 each side of butt ; plate broke. 
 Punched and annealed. Same as above.
 
 312 
 
 Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. Chap. xvi. 
 
 Taking all the plates that gave way through the holes, we find 
 that the drilled uuannealed plates gave an average of 41'075 tons 
 per square inch ; and the punched annealed plates 41*24 tons per 
 square inch. 
 
 It may now be interesting to state the result of tests similar 
 to the foregoing applied to puddled steel (unannealed), the average 
 tensile strength of which was 31^ tons lengthwise, and 27^ tons 
 crosswise. 
 
 Tests of Puddled Steel Plates, Comparative Effects of Pimching 
 aucl Drilliner. 
 
 Size of Test-piece with 
 holes deducted. 
 
 ins- 
 06 
 07 
 06 
 10 
 06 
 03 
 08 
 06 
 
 In. 
 •27 
 •26 
 •27 
 •27 
 •26 
 •26 
 •26 
 •26 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 per square inch 
 of this Section. 
 
 Tons. 
 25-17 
 23-69 
 23-822 
 19-217 
 28-939 
 25-104 
 27-644 
 22-404 
 
 One g iu. hole. 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched, 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched. 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched. 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched. 
 
 In each of the above cases the test-piece was 2*7 inches wide, so 
 that the f-inch hole removed nearly one-fourth of the material. 
 
 In the cases following the test-piece was 4*24 inches wide and 
 two ^inch holes were put through in a line with each other 
 across the middle of the piece. Thus a little more than one- 
 fourth of the material was removed. 
 
 Further Tests of Puddled Steel Plates, Comparative Effects of 
 Punching and Drilling. 
 
 Size of Test-piece with 
 holes deducted. 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 per sq. inch 
 of this Section. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 ms. 
 
 3-12 x 
 12 X 
 12 X 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 
 •245 
 
 •255 
 
 •255 
 
 •26 
 
 •245 
 
 •25 
 
 •255 
 
 •25 
 
 Tons. 
 3r07 
 26-08 
 28-751 
 20-95 
 29-925 
 23-076 
 31-894 
 25-474 
 
 Two -^ in. holes. 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched, 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched. 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched, 
 
 Drilled. 
 
 Punched, 
 
 The following tests were made to ascertain the benefit of 
 annealing after punching in puddled steel plates \ of an inch
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 313 
 
 thick, of which the tensile strength lengthwise was 34 tons, and 
 crosswise 30| tons. The test-pieces were 4-06 inches wide and liad 
 two -^-inch holes punched in them placed at about the same 
 distance from each other as from the edges. Four of the pieces 
 were annealed after they were punched, and four were left un- 
 annealed. 
 
 Tests of Puddled Steel Plates, Annealed and Unannealed after 
 Punching. 
 
 Size of Test-piece 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 per square inch 
 
 with holes deducted. 
 
 of this Section in tons. 
 
 ins. in. 
 
 Unannealed. 
 
 Annealed. 
 
 L 3-0425 X -27 
 
 26-644 
 
 
 L ,, X -26 
 
 
 27-496 
 
 L ,, X -28 
 
 25-705 
 
 
 L ,, X -27 
 
 
 24 -.S6 
 
 A ,, X -27 
 
 22-99 
 
 
 A ,, X -275 
 
 
 21-581 
 
 A , , X • 27 
 
 24-208 
 
 
 A ,, X -265 
 
 
 23-107 
 
 The cold forge tests were found to be improved by annealing. 
 These experiments show that this mild material loses less of its 
 tensile strength by punching than Bessemer steel does ; and that 
 it is not benefited in this respect by subsequent annealing. No 
 experiments have been made with stronger puddled steel. 
 
 Some tests exactly similar to those last described were made 
 with some -j^g-inch and |^-inch crucible cast steel, the average 
 tensile strength of which was lengthwise 26*63 tons, and crosswise 
 26"21 tons per square inch, the actual strengths being as follows : — 
 
 Tests of f-inch Crucible Cast Steel Plates Unpunched. 
 
 Size of Test-piece. 
 
 ins. in, 
 
 L 3-125 X -37 
 
 L ,, X -37 
 
 L ,, X -37 
 
 L ,, X -35 
 
 A ,, X -37 
 
 a , , X • 37 
 
 a ,, X -36 
 
 A , , X -36 
 
 Breaking Strain 
 
 per sq. inch 
 of this Section. 
 
 tons. 
 25-843 
 26-167 
 25-735 
 27-104 
 
 27-249 
 26-492 
 26-222 
 26-555 
 
 Elongation in 
 6 inches. 
 
 ins. 
 in 
 
 li 
 
 lii 
 
 li 
 
 1?
 
 3H 
 
 Steel Plates for Shipbzulding. Chap. XYi. 
 
 These tests were made it will be seen with the | inch plate ; 
 those following were made with the -^^ inch. Both sets of plates 
 were made at the same time, and were of the same temper. 
 
 The tests witli the ^^y inch plate as to the loss by punching, and 
 the benefit of reheating after punching were as follows : — 
 
 Tests of Crucible Cast Steel Plates, Annealed and Unannealed after 
 
 Puuchinc 
 
 Size of Test-piece 
 with holes deducted. 
 
 ins. m. 
 
 3-03 X -32 
 
 X -32 
 
 X -32 
 
 X -32 
 
 X -31 
 
 X -315 
 
 X -31 
 
 X -315 
 
 Breaking Strain per square inch 
 of this Section. 
 
 Unannealed. 
 
 Tons. 
 26-315 
 
 122 
 
 159 
 361 
 
 Annealed. 
 
 Tons. 
 28 '766 
 
 28 '508 
 29-612 
 28-432 
 
 Here again the material is mild, the loss by punching is re- 
 markably little, and the advantage of annealing is not very marked. 
 It is, however, sufficient to command attention. The loss per cent, 
 in punching is lengthwise 7, and crosswise 3f . The gain per cent, 
 of annealed over unannealed is 14 lengthwise, and 12 crosswise. 
 
 The cold forge tests were extremely good unannealed, and 
 somewhat better annealed. This crucible steel has been used for 
 boilers, but it is too costly for use in shipwork. It costs nearly 
 twice as much as Bessemer steel. 
 
 The foregoing results of experience with steel in H. M. Dock- 
 yards, show what just ground there is for extreme caution in its 
 use in the form of plates.* The injury sustained by Bessemer 
 
 * In a paper ' On the Employment of Steel in Shiiibuilding and IMarinc 
 Engineering,' published in the ' Transactions of the Institution of Engineers in 
 Scotland for 1866,' ]Mr. Barber, surveyor to the Board of Trade, states that in his 
 visits to various yards he has seen steel plates buckle and fly under the hammer, and 
 crack during the jjroccss of riveting up ; and that much greater care is required on 
 the part of the workmen in working, countersinking and riveting steel plates, frames 
 and beams, than in working those of iron. He adds that " having regard to the 
 " facts which have come to my own knowledge, I should hesitate to recommend, 
 '' except under carefully considered regulations, its adoption for the entire con- 
 " struction of sea-going ships ; " but he considers that steel may be advantageously 
 employed for sheer-strakes, deck-stringer, and tie-plates, and in the construction of 
 masts and yards, for sea-going ships, and in the entire construction of river steam- 
 boats with light draught of water.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 315 
 
 steel in punching is shown to be very great, and the necessity for 
 drilling, or for annealing after punching is evident. 
 
 There has not yet been sufficient experience in annealing 
 punched Bessemer plates to bring out the special difficulties which 
 may practically attend it. It may, however, be as well to remark, 
 that when the plates are obliged to be removed from the furnace 
 for cooling, and are covered with sand or ashes, there is said to be 
 some risk of a kind of cementation or chemical combination between 
 the constituents of the sand or ashes and the heated plate, which 
 will induce brittleness in the plate. There may possibly be no 
 good foundation for this suspicion in the case of such a low heat 
 as that which would be employed, and should there be, the danger 
 might probably be avoided by using a top plate to prevent actual 
 contact between the plates to be used and the covering material. 
 
 Mr. Eochusseu, of the Hoerde Iron and Steel Works, Prussia, 
 recommends a melted lead bath as superior to an ordinary reheat- 
 ing furnace.* His remarks on the subject, forming part of a 
 Paper read by him before the Institution of Naval Architects, 
 April, 1868, are as follows : — 
 
 " We often hear, and probably with justice, that steel is not 
 " reliable, that it is not homogeneous, and people who have spent 
 " a life in successfully treating iron, point with scorn at a steel 
 " plate which has split or snapped, under circumstances where 
 " iron would not have sustained any injury. Thus steel yards 
 " have snapped in the truss, topmasts split in the fid-hole, plates 
 " cracked on sharp curves, and saving the possibility of bad 
 " material, inherent to all human production, the quality of the 
 " steel, may for all that, have originally been unimpeachable. 
 " Steel, as many a young beginner in life, had to be saved from 
 " its friends ; the belief in its breaking strain was at first un- 
 " fortunately based upon the knowledge of tool steel, and it was 
 " not uncommon to specify in construction, steel equal to 42 to 
 " 45 tons per square inch. That metal, supplied by ambitious or 
 *' sanguine makers, did not work well, or committed suicide after 
 " working, and the effect of such failures has taken some time to 
 " work off. The fault did not always arise from want of homo- 
 " geneity, because of all the varieties of iron manufacture, that of 
 
 * Lead baths have been used for many years for annealing and temperino- wire 
 
 E. J. R.
 
 3 1 6 Steel Plates for Shipbuilding, Chap. XVI. 
 
 " making steel ensures more tlian any other an even distribntion 
 " of component particles. Having split upon the rock of hardness, 
 " and knowing what steel could not do, it seems to be agreed by 
 " makers and ship constructors, that we are within bounds of 
 " safety by exacting a tensile strength of 32 tons per square inch, 
 " This mild steel is adapted to every purpose intended by the 
 " builder, viz., bending to curve and punching, but with greater 
 " care than would be observed with iron, inasmuch that we have 
 " not the free command of heat which iron allows with impunity. 
 " And it is just this important point of heat which has to decide 
 " the part which steel can play in shipbuilding, and the careless 
 " application of which has been the primary cause of such misliaps 
 " as may have occurred. Heating for the purpose of bending 
 " through rolls where the material does not receive any elongating 
 '* pressure, under all circumstances entails a loss of tensile strength 
 " both in iron and steel. But with steel we run two risks, either 
 " the steel may become overheated, and, slowly cooling after 
 " bending, remain very soft and weak ; or, on the passage of the 
 •' heated plate from the furnace through the rolls, a keen draught 
 " of wind, a shower of rain, or dragging over Avet ground, may 
 " chill the metal, and, while making it wholly, or in part, hard, 
 " render it unfit for a construction requiring elasticity. Build- 
 " ing yards are, as a rule, constructed for the requirements of 
 " wooden ships, viz., plenty of room for bulky timber. There is 
 " free access to wind and weather, and almost every operation 
 " of iron and steel is carried on in the open air. The bending 
 " rolls are seldom roofed over ; the reheating furnaces are fixed 
 " from the back or sides ; thus when opening the doors there is 
 *' a rush of cold air upon the hot plate, which, then, getting a 
 " chill, cracks when bending through the rolls, or when ham- 
 " mered to a curve. Above all things, it is therefore necessar}'- 
 *' either so to control the heat given in the yard within a limit which 
 *' cannot be exceeded, or to dispense with heat altogether. Pre- 
 " vious annealing has been suggested as the sovereign cure for over- 
 " heating hard steel, or as affording indemnity against the danger 
 " of cracking when steel is worked too cold in the building yard. 
 " But looking at this question from an economical point of view, 
 " it must be settled whether the shipbuilder is expected to erect 
 " furnaces sufficient for the annealing of a large number of plates, 
 " and devote attention to the careful issue of an operation on a
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbtiildijig. 317 
 
 " metal to which he is a stranger, or is the anneah'ng to be done 
 " by the steel manufacturer ? Experience teaches that the anneal- 
 " ing of cast steel gun barrels, cannon, &c., in furnaces of from 
 " 10 to 18 ft. long, with charges of from ^\ to 7 tons, takes five 
 " to seven clays. Assuming that ship plates from ^ to ^ iti. thick? 
 " in sizes up to 30 ft. long and 6 ft. wide, will require only half- 
 " day firing, and a day and a half cooling down, the annealing of 
 *•' 300 tons of plates per week would entail such an extension 
 " of plant and labour as materially to affect the price of the steel, 
 " independent of which the annealed plate always has a rougher 
 " surface, unsightly to the eye, and decidedly to be avoided in 
 " a ship's skin. Annealing of large masses therefore being im- 
 " practicable, the builder must have furnaces which cannot be 
 " overheated, or he must work the steel cold. In order to settle 
 " both points I have conducted a number of experiments with 127 
 " plates of all thicknesses of the quality usually supplied to ship- 
 " builders. Collecting opinions on the Clyde and in England, I 
 " found that in the different yards, the same steel in one yard, 
 " heated simply to a temperature touchable by hand, in the other 
 " yard to a cherry red, was reported to yield the same results, and 
 " that therefore a low temperature, say of molten lead, would be 
 " sufficient for all purposes. Operating with j)lates, equal to a 
 " breaking strain of 38 tons, and an elasticity modulus of 21 tons, 
 " the dipping into a bath of molten lead made no difference in the 
 " strength of the steel, while it worked well in punching or bend- 
 " ing, and I therefore conclude that while this heat could not 
 " possibly hurt a good material, it may serve to let down the 
 " temper of« hard steel, while the expense of a lead bath, involving 
 " scarcely any consumption of that metal, would be only a trifling 
 " increase to the plant of a building yard, the more so since the 
 *• heat communicated by molten lead is instantaneous, though 
 " limited to an unvarying temperature, while a coal furnace is 
 " less certain, and the heating of one plate takes from eight to 
 '•' ten minutes." 
 
 The toughening effect produced on a mass of steel when it 
 is heated and then plunged into a bath of oil, has also been 
 made the subject of experimental enquiry. When the steel is 
 brought to a bright red heat and suddenly plunged into cold 
 water, the effect produced, as is well known, is to harden the 
 material and to render it brittle ; but the clfect of an immersion
 
 3i8 Steel Plates for Shipbtdldifig. Chap. XV i. 
 
 in a bath of oil is to increase its tenacity as well as to harden it. 
 Mr. Anderson, of the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, has introduced 
 this mode of toughening the large masses of steel used for gun 
 tubes, &c. The process is conducted as follows : — The mass of 
 steel is placed in a furnace heated with wood, special precautions 
 being taken to prevent the direct access of cold air to the lower 
 part of the block or tube, and to secure uniformity of temperature 
 throughout the mass. When the steel arrives at a brio;ht red heat 
 and has acquired a uniform temperature^ it is drawn out of the 
 furnace and immersed in a large tank containing oil, the tank 
 being suiTOunded by a water space. By means of the water in 
 this space the temperature of the oil is kept from rising greatly 
 when the steel is immersed, and a constant supply of cold water 
 and withdrawal of the heated water are kept up, in order to render 
 the cooling as uniform as possible. The operation of cooling 
 usually lasts about 12 hours. Full particulars of the operation will 
 be found in Mr. Ede's interesting and valuable little book before 
 referred to,* from which the preceding description has been drawn. 
 He observes, tliat " this operation has in many respects the cha- 
 " racter of annealing yet it is something more ; for it is quite 
 " certain that a different change of the particles takes place, as it 
 " leaves the steel in an intermediate state between hard and soft ; 
 " and when mild cast steel is required in this particular state, it 
 " can only be accomplished by a slow process of cooling in oil, or 
 " some other liquid of the same conducting quality, and which 
 " requires as high a temperature to convert it into vapour." It is 
 probable that the last-named characteristic of oil, — the very high 
 temperature at which it becomes vaporized — is that which consti- 
 tutes the principal difference in the effect produced by it on the 
 steel from that produced by water ; for the water is so rapidly con- 
 verted into steam when the heated steel is immersed in it, and the 
 heat is thus abstracted so suddenly from the steel, as to render 
 its cooling very rapid, and consequently to reduce the toughness. 
 Mr. Ede remarks on this point : — " It must not be imagined that 
 " the oil penetrates into the pores of the steel and causes it to be 
 " more tough ; because if it were possible for the oil to enter the 
 " pores, it would then lessen the strength of the attraction of 
 " cohesion between the particles, and the tenacity of the steel 
 
 * London, Tweedie, Strand.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. 
 
 3^9 
 
 ** would be in a measure destroyed. The effect is not in the 
 " least owing to the penetrating quality of the oil ; but the effect 
 " is owing to its imperfectly conducting quality, which causes the 
 " steel to part with its heat so slowly, and the elevated tem- 
 " perature it demands to be converted into the vaporous state. 
 " A covering of coal is also formed round the steel by the burned 
 " oil, which greatly retards the transmission of heat. This slow 
 " rate of cooling is necessary to favour a uniform degree of con- 
 " traction, and give the steel a much longer time for the re- 
 " arrangement of its particles, and to make the strain more uniform 
 " throughout the body of the steel." The writer also states that 
 the effect produced on steel by this operation, is to increase the 
 tensile and compressive strengths, to render it harder and more 
 elastic, to enable it to stand a much heavier blow from a hammer, 
 and to make it less liable to be worn or indented than when 
 received from the tilt or annealed in the usual way. Mild cast 
 steel can be turned, bored, planed, slotted, chipped, or filed with 
 well tempered tools, after it has thus been treated. 
 
 In order to give some more definite idea of the effect produced, we 
 subjoin a table of the residts of an experiment made at Woolwich, 
 with which we have been favoured by Mr. Anderson, of Woolwich 
 Arsenal, and which may be taken as a fair average of hundreds 
 of similar testings. The length of the part operated on was 
 2 inches : — 
 
 Tests of Steel, Toughened in Oil. 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 Elongation per 
 
 
 Permanent 
 
 Treatment of specimen. 
 
 applied in 
 tons per 
 
 
 Elasticity. 
 
 elongation 
 
 
 
 
 per inch. 
 
 
 sq. inch. 
 
 Visible. 
 
 Permanent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 inch. 
 
 inch. 
 
 inch. 
 
 inch. 
 
 1 
 
 13-98 
 
 -004 
 
 •001 
 
 •003 
 
 •0005 
 
 Tested in the soft state (as receivedj \ 
 
 15-46 
 
 •005 
 
 -003 
 
 •002 
 
 •0015 
 
 1 
 
 34-79* 
 
 
 ■372 
 
 
 -186 
 
 
 15-01 
 
 •003 
 
 
 •003 
 
 
 Tempered in oil at a low heat and 
 then tested 
 
 20-01 
 25-01 
 32-52 
 
 •0035 
 •00425 
 
 •009 
 
 •0035 
 •00425 
 
 -6645 
 
 
 51-17** 
 
 
 •28 
 
 
 •14 
 
 
 15-01 
 
 •0025 
 
 
 -0025 
 
 
 
 19-78 
 
 -003 
 
 
 -003 
 
 
 Tempered in oil at a high heat and 
 then tested j 
 
 25-01 
 32-06 
 
 •0035 
 •005 
 
 •0665 
 
 •0035 
 •0045 
 
 •00025 
 
 32-29 
 
 •006 
 
 •0015 
 
 •0045 
 
 -00075 
 
 
 33-66 
 
 •0085 
 
 •0035 
 
 •005 
 
 -00175 
 
 
 53-78* 
 
 
 -225 
 
 
 •1125 
 
 * BreakiiiiT wcig-ht.
 
 3^0 Steel Plates for Shipbuilding. Chap. XVI. 
 
 Mr, Kirkaldy has also made experiments on the effect produced 
 on steel by cooling in oil, and has given the results in his very 
 valuable work. He concludes from these experiments that the 
 strength is greatly increased ; that the higher the steel is heated 
 (without injuring it by "burning") the greater is the increase of 
 strength ; and that a highly converted or hard steel receives a 
 greater increase in strength and liardness from the operation than 
 a soft steel does. He also considers that the material is tousfhened 
 as well as hardened. Perhaps the most interesting portion of 
 these experiments, from a shipbuilder's point of view, is that con- 
 nected witli steel plates. On this part of the subject J\Ir. Kirkaldv 
 remarks that steel plates which have been hardened in oil and 
 then riveted together, are fully equal in strength to an unpierced 
 plate not treated in this manner ; the loss of strength due to the 
 riveting, being more than counterbalanced by the increased strength 
 due to the hardening. Mr. Kirkaldy states that these are to be 
 considered as mere preliminary experiments, and from their limited 
 number it would, perhaps, be hardly proper to receive the above 
 stated deduction as conclusive ; although the interesting nature of 
 the statement is such as to well merit further experiments in order 
 to test its general applicability. 
 
 There is a point in connection with j)unching steel plates, which 
 is deserving of attention. Mr. Sharp, the gentleman previously 
 referred to, in the Paper read by him at the Institution of Naval 
 Architects, says : — " It was suggested to me that steel plates might 
 " be punched with holes sufficiently taper to do away with the 
 " necessity of countersinking the holes with a drill, and also tliat 
 " this method of punching would injure the plates much less than 
 " that generally adopted. In order, therefore, to test it, a steel 
 " plate \ in. thick was taken and cut in two. One piece was 
 " punched across the middle with holes |^ in. diameter, the punch 
 " and die used being of the usual proportion, the clearance being a 
 " bare ^ of an inch ; the otlier piece was punched with the same 
 *' punch, but the die had a clearance of y^g^ of an inch, being | in. 
 " diameter, the holes formed being taper. The plates were then 
 " cut on a planing machine into strips, and, when tested, gave the 
 *' following results : —
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates fo7^ Shipbuildijig. 
 
 321 
 
 Tests of Steel Plates, witli Punched Holes of different Tapers. 
 
 No. of 
 Plate. 
 
 Diame- 
 ter of 
 Punch. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Die. 
 
 Net width 
 across solid. 
 
 Net section 
 in sq. inch. 
 
 , , Load per 
 
 'f^^^ sq.in.^net 
 
 ^^^^- section. 
 
 Average load 
 per sq. inch. 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 in. 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 I 
 
 in. 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 \ bare, 
 f bare. 
 
 in. 
 1-75 
 1-6562 
 1-8593 
 1-8125 
 
 0-8476 
 0-8022 
 0-9007 
 0-8779 
 
 tons cwt. 
 27 6 
 26 7 
 23 7 
 22 18 
 
 32-208 
 32-847 
 25-924 
 26-0849 
 
 i 32-527 
 1 26-004 
 
 Thickness of plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ^^ 
 
 Pitch of boles If 
 
 Plates not annealed after being punched, 
 
 " from which it will be seen that the ultimate tensile strength 
 " of the strips with ordinary holes averaged 26 tons per square 
 •' inch of net sectional area, whereas that of the strips with the 
 " more taper holes was 32-527 tons per square inch, showing a 
 " difference of 25 per cent, in favour of the taper punching. 
 
 " The fractures of the strips with taper holes showed .much 
 '• tougher and more fibrous than the others, and it was observed 
 " that it took much less power to punch them." 
 
 Experiments made at Chatham for the purpose of ascertaining 
 to what extent the fact referred to above could be usefully applied 
 in punchiug steel and iron showed that while there was no ad- 
 vantage in the increased clearance in iron, but rather a dis- 
 advantage, there was an appreciable gain in steel. The gain in 
 ^-inch Bessemer steel plates when the clearance was increased 
 from jJg to j^e of an mch is shown in the following table : — 
 
 FuKTHER Tests of Steel Plates, with Punched Holes of different 
 
 Tapers. 
 
 Thickness 
 
 of 
 
 Plate. 
 
 inch. 
 •50 
 
 •49 
 
 •495 
 
 -495 
 
 •50 
 
 •49 
 
 •495 
 
 •495 
 
 Sectional 
 
 area 
 
 after 
 punching. 
 
 sq. inch. 
 1-08 
 1-024 
 
 1-029 
 1-029 
 •99 
 -98 
 1-039 
 1039 
 
 Breaking 
 strain per 
 square inch 
 of this area. 
 
 tons. 
 22-222 
 26-123 
 26^239 
 24^538 
 27-777 
 27^295 
 24-891 
 29 • 461 
 
 Two |-inch holes. Die f'g-inch larger than punch. 
 
 Die TB"!^^'^ larger than punch. 
 
 These experiments appear to show that much of the injury 
 which is done in punching Bessemer steel is due to the strain 
 
 Y
 
 322 Steel Plates for Shipbtiildiiig. Chap. XVI. 
 
 at the under side of the hole. Indications of this may be found 
 on close examination in minute cracks round the hole. A little 
 increase in clearance removes these, and gives the good result 
 above indicated. A similar result is obtained by riming or en- 
 larging the hole after punching, as shown by some of the earliest 
 experiments recorded in this chapter. 
 
 This curious fact is analogous to what may be observed in 
 the cold bending test of both iron and steel, but particularly the 
 latter, viz., that if tbe piece has been sheared, and the ragged 
 edge is left on, the piece will break sooner when the ragged edge 
 is upward in bending tban when it is downward. This disadvan- 
 tage may be removed by merely filing off the edge. 
 
 Mr. Krupp says with regard to the treatment of cold cast-steel 
 boiler-plates : — " In working the plates cold, all sharp turns, corners, 
 "and edges must be avoided or removed. The surfaces of cuts 
 " and rivet-holes must, before bending and riveting, be worked and 
 " rounded off as neatly as possible, so that no rough and serrated places 
 " remain after cutting and punching." He also recommends as a gene- 
 ral rule that the plates should be thoroughly and equably annealed 
 at a dark-red heat after every large operation, and that they should 
 certainly have such annealing at the conclusion of all operations. 
 
 The directions given by him as to bending hot are as follows. 
 " The plates should be heated, preparatory to bending, to a heat 
 " not exceeding a bright cherry-red. Also the greatest possible 
 " portion of the surface should be heated, and not merely the edge, 
 " and even, where practicable, the whole plate should be equally 
 " heated. By this means the strains which arise from local heating 
 " and cooling, and which are much greater in cast-steel plates, on 
 " account of their higher absolute and reflex density, than in iron 
 " are, by the general heating of the plate, more equably distri- 
 *' buted. The thickest and toughest plates can be broken by local 
 " heating, bending, and cooling. 
 
 " Bends which cannot be completed in one, or at most in two 
 " immediately consecutive heatings, must be made gradually and 
 " equably over the whole extent to be operated on." 
 
 In bending, for example, to an angle of 90°, the whole plate 
 should first be bent through about one-third of the angle, then 
 through another third, and finally to the complete angle. 
 
 " After the whole of these operations, the plate is to be equably 
 " annealed at a dark-red heat, which will thus equalize the strains 
 " caused by the previous working."
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbuildiitg. ^22 
 
 We have in a previous part of this chapter referred to the 
 reduction in the scanth'ngs of steel-built ships now permitted by- 
 Lloyd's Committee, which reduction must not exceed one-fourth 
 the thickness prescribed for iron ships. In the steel ships pre- 
 viously built the reduction made in the thickness of the plating, 
 &c., has been, in most cases, about one-third the thickness used in 
 iron ships, or, in other words, the thickness of iron and steel have 
 been nearly in the inverse proportions of their tensile strengths. 
 In some ships the reduction made has amounted to about one-half 
 the thickness of iron for a ship of the same dimensions, but this 
 has been found to exceed the limits of safety. 
 
 In considering the amount of reduction which may be made 
 in a steel-built ship, it is not sufficient to take account simply 
 of the tensile strength of the material. As Mr. Scott Eussell has 
 ably pointed out, thin plating is more liable to failure from a com- 
 pressive than from a tensile strain ; and experience proves that 
 the skin plating and the bulkheads of a steel ship are, when 
 thin, very apt to be buckled or crumpled up under compression. 
 The necessity for supplying proper local strength to the various 
 parts of the structure should also regulate the proportioning of 
 the thicknesses. For instance, in ships which often have to take 
 the ground, it has been found that a thickness of plating amply 
 sufficient to supply the required longitudinal strength, is alto- 
 gether inadequate to supply the necessary resistance to the pene- 
 tration of the bottom by stones or other hard substances ; and in 
 other vessels accidents have occurred through the side plating- 
 being broken in by striking a pier-head, or some floating body. 
 The countersinking of the rivet-holes in thin steel plates is difficult, 
 and the rivets have but comparatively little hold. It is also found 
 that with the ordinary frame-space it is difficult to get the bottom 
 plating fair when thin steel plates are used, the plates springing 
 inwards between the frames, and the lines of the framing being 
 distinctly shown by projections on the plating. With very thin 
 plates there is the additional objection of the proportionally great 
 reduction in thickness caused by corrosion on the inside and out- 
 side of the bottom. Attempts have been made to obviate this by 
 galvanising the plates of some vessels with a very small draught 
 of water, but the results of these experiments are not known. 
 These are some of the considerations which, with those given pre- 
 viously depending on the quality of the material, prevent the 
 
 Y 2
 
 3^4 
 
 Steel Plates for Shipbjiilding. Chap. XV I. 
 
 reduction in tlie thickness of the steel used in shipbuilding from 
 being carried to a greater extent than it is at present. 
 
 The following outline specification will give an idea of the 
 scantlings which have been considered sufficient for vessels built 
 in Liverpool during the late American war, designed for running 
 the blockade. The vessel referred to is a paddle-steamer of 30 feet 
 breadth of beam, and 1070 tons burthen, 0. jM. : — 
 
 Keel-plates 
 
 Centre keelson-plates, vertical 
 
 , , horizontal . . 
 Keel-angles 
 
 Frame-angles 
 
 Angles for bilge-keelsons, gunwales, 
 fore and aft bulkheads, engine 
 and boiler bearers and beams . . 
 Angles for reversed frames . . 
 Bulkhead stiffening bars 
 
 Beams, bulb 
 
 , , angles for 
 
 Bulkheads, transverse 
 
 , , fore and aft 
 
 , , top and bottom plates 
 
 Floors, after body 
 
 , , fore body 
 
 Material. 
 
 Cast steel 
 Puddled steel . . 
 
 Iron 
 
 Bessemer steel 
 Puddled steel . . 
 
 Bessemer steel 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 bare, and 
 
 inches. 
 
 1 
 
 i, tapering to tV 
 
 3 X 3 X § bare. 
 :4 X 2J X -^ 
 . 4x3x-ft. 
 
 3 X 3 X -rV 
 
 3 X 2i X -^ and 2J X 1\ 
 
 2J X 2J X i. 
 
 6x.^. 
 
 21 X 21 X fg. 
 
 f.to^. 
 •I 
 
 TS- 
 
 Outside Plating of Bessemer Steel. 
 
 Eow No. 1 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 ll,orsheer-strake 
 Butt-straps 
 Liners 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 Amidships. 
 
 Fore and aft. 
 
 inch. 
 
 to 
 
 3-2' 35' 32 
 
 ai» 32' Wi.
 
 Chap. XVI. Steel Plates for Shipbiiilding. 
 
 325 
 
 Bulwark plating . . 
 Inside of paddle-boxes 
 
 Amidships. 
 
 ■o • n -1 I fBessemer ) 
 
 Beams : engine and boiler < , , > 
 
 , , paddle . . . . , , 
 
 Stiifening plates for 6"! 
 
 frames amidships . . / " 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 inch, 
 gtoi 
 
 On comparison witli the scantlings required by Lloyd's Eiiles 
 for a ship of the same dimensions, it will be found that the re- 
 ductions of thickness made in this vessel amount to about one- 
 half for outside and bulkhead plating, floors, frame and reversed 
 angle-irons, &c.
 
 326 Rivets and Rivet - Work. Chai'. X V 1 1 . 
 
 CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 KIVETS AND RIVET-WORK. 
 
 In a structure such as an iron ship, where the connection of the 
 various parts is almost entirely made by riveting, it is most im- 
 portant that the dimensions and positions of the rivets should be 
 governed by a knowledge of the true value of rivets and riveted 
 work. Numerous experiments have been made with the object 
 of ascertaining the best dispositions and proportions of rivets in 
 the joints of wrought-iron plates, among which those recorded by 
 Mr. Fairbairn, Mr. Clark, and Mr. Doyne are the most valuable. 
 Up to the present time, however, our information on this subject 
 is for from being perfect or satisfactory, as no complete set of 
 experiments has been made which would fairly represent the 
 practice of different builders, or enable a comparison to be made 
 between the various modes of riveting ; the size, pitch, and ar- 
 rangement of rivets ; and the breadths of laps in joints. We are 
 consequently compelled in arranging the fastenings of an iron 
 ship to avail ourselves to the utmost of the few facts which have 
 been proved by experiment, in order to make all the details 
 of the structure conduce, as much as possible, to uniformity of 
 strength. 
 
 In Chapter X., when describing the various arrangements of 
 outside plating and its fastenings, we briefly noticed some of the 
 features of punching and riveting which are common to all 
 riveted work, and referred to those which are specially connected 
 with the shell of a ship. In this chapter we propose to treat of 
 riveted work generally, apart from any particular portion of the 
 structure, and shall not scruple to repeat where necessary some 
 of the statements previously made. 
 
 Rivets are generally made from the best quality of u-on which 
 is procurable, such as Lowmoor, Bowling, and other irons of the 
 highest class. The mean tensile strength of rivetriron is given 
 by ]\Ir. Clark as 24 tons per square inch of sectional area, and 
 by Mr. Fairbairn's table in his treatise on Iron as 26-33 tons.
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet -Work. 
 
 3^7 
 
 while from the summary of the results of Mr. Kirkaldy's experi- 
 ments it is found to be 25*98 tons. 
 
 Eivets were formerly made by hand, the bar-iron being cut 
 into lengths while cold, and then heated in a furnace. After 
 being heated the pieces were dropped into holes drilled in a cast- 
 iron block, the depth of the holes being so much less than the 
 length of the pieces as would allow the latter to project suffi- 
 ciently above the sm*- 
 
 face of the block 
 to have the heads 
 formed. This opera- 
 tion was effected by 
 beating down the 
 projecting parts of 
 the pieces with a few 
 blows from a heavy 
 hammer. Rivets are 
 now made by ma- 
 chinery, several ma- 
 chines having been 
 patented by different 
 makers. The sim- 
 plest of these is 
 the Oliver machine, 
 which is represented 
 in the annexed en- 
 graving (Tig. 237). 
 A is a spring-beam 
 made of hickory or 
 lancewood, B a ham- 
 mer caiTying a suit- 
 able die, C a foot- 
 board which acts 
 
 Fig. 237. 
 
 agamst the beam, and lowers the hammer on to the rivet, and D a 
 lever for driving the rivet out of the lower die when finished. These 
 machines are exclusively used for making rivets in some shipbuilding 
 establishments, that of Messrs. Laird for example. Each machine 
 is capable of making from 3^ to 4 cwt. of |-inch rivets 1\ inclies 
 long per day. Steam rivet-making machines of a larger and more 
 elaborate nature are now, hoAvever, in use. In employing these,
 
 328 
 
 Rivets and Rivet - Work. c h a p. x v 1 1 . 
 
 the bars of iron i'roiu whicli the rivets are to be made are gene, 
 rally heated in furnaces placed near the machine, and then cut 
 into the required lengths by shears attached to it. These lengths 
 are then placed, either by hand or by mechanism, into dies fixed 
 either in a horizontal disc, or in the rim of a vertical wheel, and are 
 thus brought under another die which descends upon the projecting 
 portion of the length and flattens it out into a head. The motion 
 given to the horizontal disc, or the vertical wheel in which are 
 fixed the dies by which the rivet-shank is held, is of such a cha- 
 racter as to bring the fixed dies consecutively under the die which 
 forms the head, and there allow them to remain at rest while 
 that operation is being performed. The desired form of head 
 regulates, of course, the form of the die.* 
 
 The common form of rivet-head employed for shipbuilding is 
 that shown in Figs. 238 to 240, and is known as a "pan" head; 
 but hemispherical or " snap " heads are also used in some cases, 
 especially for machine-riveting. In the outside plating, deck- 
 stringers, &c., where the holes are punched, it is very desirable 
 that the rivet should be formed with a conical enlargement under 
 the head (corresponding in amount with the dies used with the 
 
 * The following is a brief description of a rivet-making macliine in use at the 
 Works of Palmer and Co. (Limited), Jarrow-on-Tyne. It was made by the patentees, 
 Messrs. Brown, of Hylton, near Sunderland, who are large manufacturers of rivets, 
 the cost being 350L The rods are heated in a small fui-nace placed near the machine, 
 and are drawn out by hand and fed into the shears attached to the machine, by 
 which they are cut off to the required lengths, correctness being ensured by means of 
 a stop which can be shifted into any position required. As soon as a length is sheared 
 off the rod, it drops into a trough along which it is led to a vertical wheel. In the 
 rim of the wheel there are 16 circular recesses or dies, each of which is brought in 
 turn, by the revolution of the wheel, under a die moving vertically. The short lengths 
 of rivet-iron having been guided into these recesses in the rim of the wheel, are driven 
 down into them by a workman when they are not properly lodged, after which they 
 are brought under the vertical die and have the heads formed. Both the vertical die, 
 and the dies fixed on the wheel can be changed when it is desii'ed to make a different 
 form of rivet from that previously manufactured. It should be added that a stationary 
 ring of iron within the rim of the wheel immediately beneath the vertical die, prevents 
 the short lengths of iron from being forced in by the pressm-e which flattens out the 
 end of the bar into the head ; and that after the head has been formed, the finished 
 rivet is driven out of the recess in the wheel by means of a punch working radially 
 from the centre of the wheel. The wheel is moved through a quarter of a revolution 
 between the time of the descent of the vertical die and the action of the radial punch. 
 The rivets fall into a trough when they are completed, and a small stream of 
 water is made to play upon them in order to cool them. Two men and a boy work 
 the machine ; the boy puts the cold rods into the furnace, one of the men feeds the 
 heated rods into the shears, and the other works the lever which regulates the 
 machine and drives the short lengths down into the dies. When in full work, 
 the machine will make 50 rivets per minute.
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 329 
 
 punch), as shown in Fig. 142, p. 196, in order that the countersink 
 formed in punching may be completely filled. This form is arrived 
 at by a corresponding countersink being made in the dies in which 
 the rivet-shank is held, and the pressure of the die which forms 
 the head also serves to form the cone under the head. In beam- 
 work, and the riveting of frames and reversed angle-irons, &c., the 
 rivet-shank is generally of uniform diameter throughout. The 
 length allowed for forming the rivet-head varies from two to tw^o 
 and a half diameters, the thickness of the head is usually from 
 two-thirds to seven-eighths the diameter, and the diameter of the 
 head ordinarily approximates to one-and-a-half times the diameter 
 of the shank. When a conical form is given under the rivet-head 
 an additional length of about \ inch is usually allowed in making 
 the rivet. 
 
 It has been proposed recently to do away with the pan-head, 
 and to have the rivet-head formed by a continuation of the cone 
 which generally exists under the ordinary rivet-head. It will be 
 obvious that the proposed kind of rivet, if formed with a suitable 
 taper, would hold the plates together as effectively as that which 
 is now employed ; but that in the contraction consequent on cooling 
 the rivet-head would require to be hammered into the hole to ensure 
 its being filled, and that the laying up of the rivet-head, on which 
 some builders so much insist, and which is required by the Liverpool 
 Rules, would be rendered impossible with the proposed form of head. 
 
 Having thus briefly described the process of manufacturing 
 rivets, we pass to the consideration of the various modes of forming 
 the rivet-point, or, in technical language, of " knocking-down " the 
 
 rivet. The first mode, which is r n r n 
 
 known as " countersunk " riveting, ^1- -^^ ^J^- J-^ 
 
 IS illustrated in l ig. 2db, and is ^- .^ 1 [ ] { £ 
 
 very largely employed in iron ^^^w_ \////A h, \ \_4m 
 shipbuildino- for outside and deck V ^ 
 
 . Fig. 238. ^ I "^ 
 
 plating, and other work where a ' Fig. 239. 
 
 flush surface is required. A second form of point known as the 
 " snap " point is shown in Fig. 239, and this kind of riveting is 
 very commonly employed in the work in the interior of a ship, 
 such as the riveting of the reversed frames and floor-jalates to the 
 frames, the fastenings of keelsous, stringers, bulkheads, beam- 
 knees, &c., and the construction of made beams. The snap-point 
 is sometimes formed on snap-lieaded rivets, and nearly always so in
 
 33© Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 machine-riveting. The more common case is, however, that shown 
 in the sketch where the rivet has a pan-liead and a snap-point. 
 
 Bt s A third form of rivet-point is sliown in Fig. 2-iO, 
 J^ and is known as the conical or hammered point. 
 I^W This description of riveting is often used instead 
 1 1 of snap-riveting for the work in the interior of a 
 ^"^^y^ ship, especially where the diameter of the rivet 
 Fig. 240. exceeds | inch, as snap-rivets of larger diameter 
 would require very heavy hammers to be used in order to knock 
 down the points quickly. Conical-point rivets are thought by 
 many builders to be especially adapted for bidkhead and other 
 watertight work, as they are supposed to draw the joints closer 
 than they would be drawn by snap-pointed rivets. An objection 
 has been made to the use of conical points on the ground that 
 the great amount of hammering they have to undergo tends to 
 injure the iron and make it crystalline ; bat their general use, 
 especially in boiler-work, removes much of the force of this objection. 
 In some parts of the interior of an iron ship where the space 
 in which the work has to be performed is very confined, a mode of 
 ^^— >^^ riveting is adopted whicli differs from the preced- 
 
 ^^^ ^^^^ i^g- -^^ ^^ illustrated in Fig. 241, and the rivet- 
 
 .' ■] i^^ H point, which is conical, is that shown on the 
 
 V/M.'/'^'-^ \^/"///k under side of the sketch. It will be remarked 
 
 ^^-^ that the hole is much more countersunk under 
 
 '^'s- 2«. the head of the rivet than is usual with conical- 
 
 pointed rivets, although not as much as is common at counter- 
 sunk points. The rivet-head is nearly conical, and the shank is 
 conically shaped under the head in order to fill the countersink. 
 The object of the arrangement seems to be to make up for the re- 
 duced size of the rivet-head by increasing the cone under the head, 
 and thus preventing any reduction in the holding power of the rivet. 
 For countersunk points it is usual to have the length of the 
 rivet about one diameter greater than the length of the hole if 
 the rivet passes through two thicknesses, but when it passes through 
 three thicknesses an additional \ inch is allowed. The allowance 
 usually made for forming a snap-point is a length of one and a 
 quai'ter times the diameter of the rivet, or, as other builders prefer 
 to put it, about \ inch more than the allowance for a countersunk 
 point. In knocking down a snap-point the workmen roughly beat 
 the point into shape with their hand-hammers, and the formation
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 331 
 
 of the point is completed by means of a cup-shaped die, held by one 
 riveter and struck with a heavy hammer by the other. The depth 
 of a snap-point is usually equal to the thickness of the rivet-head, 
 and the shoulder around the hole is about -f^ inch or \ inch. 
 Conical or hammered points are made entirely by the workmen with 
 their hand-hammers. The allowance of length made for forming 
 a conical point is in many yards the same as for a snap-point, but 
 some builders allow one-fourth the diameter more for a conical than 
 for a snap-point. On the Clyde it is customary to allow from \\ 
 to If inch for all sizes of rivets for both snap and conical points. 
 
 In order to illustrate more fully the foregoing statements, we 
 have given the following particulars of the riveted work of the 
 ' Northumberland,' built at the Millwall Iron Works. Eivets with 
 countersunk points were employed for the bottom plating up 
 to the armour-shelf, the deck-stringers and tie-plates, the inner 
 bottom, the bulkheads of the wing and shaft passages, shell-rooms 
 and magazines, and the middle-line bulkhead aft. Snap-pointed 
 rivets were used in the made beams, the transverse plate-frames, 
 the transverse watertight bulkheads, the plating behind armour, 
 the flat keelson-plate, and a large portion of the web-plates of the 
 inner bottom. Conical-pointed rivets were employed in the middle- 
 line bulkhead forward, a small portion of the web-plates of the 
 inner bottom, the butts and angle irons of the vertical keel and 
 keelson plates, the reversed or continuous frames, and the beam- 
 knees. The following table shows the lengths and sizes of the 
 rivets used at the Millwall Iron Works for riveting together two 
 plates of the various thicknesses therein named. The thicknesses, 
 diameters, and lengths are all given in sixteenths of an inch. 
 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Rivets. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Plates. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Lengtli with 
 
 countersunk 
 
 point. 
 
 Length with 
 snap point. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 5.
 
 33^ 
 
 Rivers and Rivet- Work. 
 
 Chap. XVII, 
 
 The proportion of tho diameter of the rivet to the tliickness of 
 the phites it passes through, is a subject requiring some attention. 
 Both Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules give tables of the diameters 
 of rivets required for various tliicknesses of plating up to 1 inch, and 
 in order to contrast their regulations with each other, and witli the 
 practice of H.M. Dockyards we have compiled the following table, 
 in which the thickness of the plates and the diameters of the rivets 
 are given in sixteenths of an inch. 
 
 Table of Diameters of Eivets for Plates of different thicknesses. 
 
 
 
 Diameter of Rivett 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 ■I'bickncss 
 of I'lati'8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lloyd's Rules. 
 
 Liverpool 
 Kuk'S. 
 
 H.M. 
 
 Dockyards. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 1.3 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 ]5 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 k; 
 
 1(5 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules may be regarded as representing 
 the practice of private shipbuilders, and it will be seen tiiat the 
 ino.st marked differences between the diameters required by the 
 two sets of Rules are foniid in those given for the thickest plates, 
 where the Liverpool Rules require much larger rivets than Lloyd's. 
 The practice of H. M. Dockyards agrees more nearly with the 
 Liverpool than with Lloyd's Rules, and in this case also the thickest 
 plates have larger rivets than Lloyd's require, although not as 
 large as those which are required by the Liverpool Rules. It need 
 hardly be added that heavier plates than those provided for in the 
 preceding table would not be employed in the construction of most 
 merchant ships. For plates of more than 1 inch in thickness used 
 in H. M, Ships, for flat keels, &c., it is usual to have the diameter of 
 the rivet about ^-inch or j-^^-inch greater than the thickness of the 
 ])lates. In cases where two plates, or a plate and angle-iron, 
 of dififerent thicknesses are riveted togethei-, it is usual to estimate 
 the diameter of the rivet from the greater tliickness.
 
 Chap. XV 1 1 . Rivets and Rivet - Work. 333 
 
 Mr. Fairbairn gives a table * in his work on ' Iron Ship- 
 building- ' founded on his experience in iron construction, in which 
 he states that for plates from ^ to f inch the diameter of the 
 rivet should be twice the thickness of the plates, and that for plates 
 from \ inch to | inch the diameter should be once and a half times 
 the thickness. 
 
 All the preceding regulations and information apply to the 
 riveting of two thicknesses only. If there are more than two 
 thicknesses the diameter of the rivet is increased, the usual 
 increase being \ inch. In many cases the increase in diameter 
 is governed by the breadth of iron in the lap, or by the breadth 
 of an angle-iron flange ; but where these considerations do not 
 come in, a still greater increase is often made with advantage. 
 
 Having thus considered the proportions usually adopted for the 
 diameters of rivets, it may not be amiss to notice some considera- 
 tions partly of a practical and partly of a theoretical character, 
 which, in some measure, fix the maximum and minimum diameters 
 that may be employed. In iron shipbuilding nearly all the rivet 
 holes are punched, and it is found, that, as a rule, it is not 
 practicable to punch a plate with a punch (of ordinary temper) of 
 less diameter than the thickness of the plate, nor even with a 
 diameter equal to the thickness. This practical consideration 
 therefore fixes approximately the minimum diameter of the rivet, 
 although it is obvious that by drilling holes instead of punching 
 them, this objection might be removed, and smaller rivets might 
 be used if it were considered desirable. This, however, is not the 
 case, and in practice the diameter of the rivet is hardly ever less 
 than eleven-tenths of the thickness of the plate. In determining 
 the maximum diameter of the rivet for a certain thickness of plate, 
 we must avail ourselves of two experimental facts to which we shall 
 refer more particularly hereafter. The first fact is that the shearing 
 strengths of rivets are proportional to the sectional areas ; and the 
 second that the single shearing strength of a |-inch rivet made of 
 Lowmoor or Bowling iron is, as nearly as possible, 10 tons. It 
 consequently follows that for a rivet of d inches diameter, the 
 shearing strength would be determined by the proportion : — 
 Shearing strength : 10 tons ','. A" \ (5^)"; 
 
 whence we have 
 
 Shearing strength (in tons) — — „— dr. 
 
 * Also pnhlished in his ' Useful Information for Engineers.'
 
 334 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 Now it is desirable to proportion the diameter d of the rivet to 
 the thickness t of the plate, in such a manner that the rivet shall 
 shear before the piece of iron between the rivet hole and the plate 
 edge, known as the " bearing surface," is torn out. In iron ship- 
 building it is customary to have the rivet-hole at least its own 
 diameter clear of the plate edge, and consequently in tearing out 
 the bearing surface the sectional area of the fracture would be ap- 
 proximately equal iol dt. Supposing the strength of the iron to 
 be 18 tons per sq. inch of sectional area (which is a very fair value 
 for the strength of the best iron plate when punched), we obtain 
 
 Strain required to shear out the bearing surface (in tons) =18x2d< = 36d<. 
 
 In order therefore that the rivet shall shear before the bearing 
 surface is torn out, we must have the shearing strength of the 
 rivet less than the shearing strength of the bearing surface or, 
 substituting the values found above, we must have 
 
 ICO ' 
 
 —jr- d - less than 36 d t, 
 
 Or, d less than 2 40 t. 
 
 It thus appears that the maximum diameter of the rivet, for iron of 
 this quality, should not much exceed twice the thickness of the 
 plate. It will be evident from the preceding investigation that 
 a variation of the strengths of the irOn in the plate and rivet 
 would give a different result. This does not, however, in the least 
 affect the principle of the investigation, and it is proper to add that 
 the values used in the calculation are such as are known to be very 
 fair ones for iron of good quality. It may be of interest to state 
 that the conclusions thus independently arrived at were confirmed 
 by a reference to Mr. Fairbairn's experiments recorded in the first 
 series of ' Useful Information for Engineers.' In the experiments 
 numbered 22, 23, and 25 respectively, the thickness of the plates 
 was • 22 inch, the diameter of the rivets was ^ inch, and the breadth 
 of the lap three diameters. The diameter of the rivets was thus 
 rather more than two and a quarter times the thickness of plates, 
 and in all three instances fracture took place by the shearing out 
 of the bearing surfaces. In the other experiments this result was 
 avoided by increasing the breadth of the lap, but it is obvious that 
 a decrease in the diameter of the rivet would have been equally 
 effective. It will be remembered also that Mr. Fairbairn in his 
 table fixes the maximum diameter of the rivet at twice the thick- 
 ness of the plates.
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work, 335 
 
 M. Dupuy de Lome gives some calculations of the theoretical 
 proportions for riveting in his Report on iron shipbuilding previously- 
 referred to, and M. de Freminville has republished them in his 
 recent work on practical shipbuilding. In these calculations a 
 maximum value is obtained for the diameter of tlie rivet, from 
 the consideration that its tensile strength should at least equal the 
 pressure required to punch out the hole, into which the rivet point 
 is beaten. The final result arrived at is, that the diameter may 
 be made four times the thickness ; but as shown by the preceding 
 investigation, and by the experiments above referred to, this would 
 make tlie shearing strength of the rivet far greater than that of 
 the bearing surface, and the plate edge would be torn. 
 
 The question of the proper pitch of rivets, i.e. their distance apart 
 from centre to centre, requires some consideration. Originally in 
 boiler-making |-inch rivets were generally used, and the pitch was 
 2 inches, thus giving 18 rivets to a yard; hence "a yard of 
 rivets " usually means 18 rivets. Mr. Fairbairn's table, previously 
 referred to, gives the following pitches of rivets as the best 
 that can be adopted in the joints of steamtight and watertight 
 work. For j^inch and ;J-inch plates the pitch should be three 
 diameters of the rivet, or six thicknesses of the plates ; for ^^g-inch 
 and j^g-inch plates, two and. a half diameters, or five thicknesses ; 
 and for ^-inch, ^§-inch, and j^-inch plates, two and two-third 
 diameters, or four thicknesses. We have previously given Lloyd's 
 and the Liverpool Rules for the pitch of rivets, but for convenience 
 we may repeat them here. The pitch required by Lloyd's is not 
 less than four diameters nor more than five, except in the riveting 
 of the frame angle-irons to the reversed frames and bottom plating 
 where the pitch required is nine diameters. The Liverpool Rules 
 give eight diameters as the pitch of the rivets in the framing, and 
 four diameters as the pitch for other work, in seams and butts, 
 except in the butts where treble riveting is required, when the 
 rivets in the rows farthest fi-om the butts may have a pitch of eight 
 diameters. It thus appears that the Liverpool Rules, requiring 
 a smaller pitch and a larger rivet than Lloyd's, would considerably 
 increase the amount of the fastenings in a ship. Mr. Price, the 
 Chief Surveyor at Sunderland for the Liverpool Underwriters, 
 states* that in a ship of 1149 tons there would be 12 per cent. 
 
 * In a paper in the ' Transactions of the Institution of Engineers in Scotland for 1866.'
 
 2)^6 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 more rivets if built according to the Liverpool Rules than if built 
 according to Lloyd's, in addition to the greater diameter of the 
 rivets used. Both the Rules give a considerably greater pitch 
 than that given by Mr. Fairbairn ; and it appears probable that 
 the difference is accounted for by his table having been principally 
 based on boiler work. It may be added, that since the stiffness 
 of plates increases very rapidly with an increase of the thickness, 
 it is probable that the pitch of the rivets might be made greater 
 in proportion to their diameter as the plates become thicker. 
 ]\[r. Fairbairn 's table, on the contrary, gives a smaller pitch for 
 the thicker plates. 
 
 The general practice of shipbuilders is in accordance with tlie 
 regulations of Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules, but it has been 
 thought desirable to test experimentally what pitch of rivets would 
 secure watertightness in a joint. Mr. Samuda made experiments 
 having this object, on a box about 33 inches square, of which the 
 top and bottom were formed of |-inch plates, and the sides and ends 
 of an angle-iron 6 by 4 by |- inches having a reversed angle-iron 
 4 by 4 by I inches riveted to the upper edge. The rivets used 
 were |-inch, their pitch in the bottom plate being eight diameters, 
 and in the top plate four diameters. All the joints of the plates 
 and angle-irons were carefully caulked, and the box having been 
 filled with water, a pressure of about 10 lbs. to the sq. inch 
 was obtained by means of a pipe leading to a reservoir about 23 
 feet above the box. It was then found that the box was perfectly 
 watertight, and no indications of a leak were observed where the 
 pitch of the rivets was eight diameters. 
 
 Other experiments have since been made in H.M. Dockyard at 
 Chatham on a tank specially constructed for the purpose. The 
 length of the tank was about 8 feet, its breadth 5 feet, and its 
 depth 3 feet 8 inches. The ends were formed of f-inch plates 
 lap-jointed as is usual in bulkheads, with a frame of angle-iron 
 4 by 3^ by | inches connecting the plates with the sides, top, 
 and bottom of the tanlv. The rivets used in the ends were |^-inch, 
 the pitch in one end being from four to five and a half diameters, 
 and the pitch in the other end from six to eight diameters. 
 The riveting of the 4-inch angle-iron frame was performed with 
 1-inch rivets, having a pitch of eight diameters. The plating in 
 the top, bottom, and back was |-inch thick, and the rivets were 
 1-inch. In both the top and bottom there were three strakes of
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 337 
 
 plating lap-jointed, and at the centre of the length of the middle 
 strake there was a single riveted butt. The back was formed 
 of one plate, and fitted with a watertight man-hole. One seam 
 of the top and bottom plating was single-riveted, and one seam 
 double riveted, the pitch of the rivets being varied from four to 
 eight diameters. The |-iuch rivets used had snaj)-points, and the 
 1-inch had countersunk points. The front of the tank was 
 arranged and riveted similarly to the top and bottom, but the 
 plates forming it were put together out of place, and when the 
 riveting had been completed the front was secured, by means of 
 1-inch nut and screw bolts having a pitch of four diameters, to 
 the flange of an angle-iron frame worked on the edges of the 
 tank.. The experiments conducted with this tank were made 
 under pressures varying from 5 lbs. up to 20 lbs. to the sq. inch. 
 The results were as follows : — 
 
 I. With 5 lbs. pressure, a very slight leak was observed in 
 the riveting of the butt of the front where the pitch 
 was about four and a half diameters ; and another slight 
 leak was observed at the end where the pitch was eight 
 diameters. 
 II. With 10 lbs. pressure, these two leaks slightly increased, 
 and the butt of the bottom plating commenced to leak, 
 the pitch of the rivets at the new leak being about five 
 and a quarter diameters. 
 
 III. With 15 lbs. pressure, the leaks above described increased, 
 
 but no additional leaks were observed. 
 
 IV. With 20 lbs. pressure, the leaks were all increased, and 
 
 when the pressure had been kept up for an hour and 
 a half, the end in which the pitch of the rivets was from 
 six to eight diameters became very leaky. 
 
 No leak was observed in the end where the pitch did not 
 exceed five and a half diameters, and hence it is fair to conclude 
 that tlie leak in the butt of the front plating, which began under 
 a pressure of 5 lbs., was due to defective workmanship. On the 
 whole, we may infer from these experiments, that within the 
 limits of these thicknesses of plating, and under a continued 
 pressure of from 10 to 20 lbs. per sq. inch, the pitch of from 
 four to five and a half diameters is required for watertight work; 
 and that the pitch of from six to eight diameters is too great 
 
 z
 
 338 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvil. 
 
 for a watertight joint under a pressure of 5 lbs. to the sq. inch. 
 These experiments clash in their results with IMr. Samuda's, but 
 having been conducted on a larger scale, and in a manner more 
 corresponding to the actual construction of a ship, may, we venture 
 to think, be regarded as more conclusive. It appears therefore 
 that the general practice of iron shipbuilders in adopting a pitch 
 of from four to five diameters, is probably not far removed from 
 the best arrangement, and it certainly has the merit of being safe. 
 We now come to the consideration of the practical part of the 
 operations of punching and riveting. When the work has been 
 fitted and the fastenings marked, the holes for the rivets are 
 usually punched, care being taken to punch from the faying- 
 side, the operation of punching being conducted in the manner 
 previously described in Chapter X. for outside plating. It is un- 
 necessary to repeat the description there given, but it may bo 
 added that in cases in which the holes cannot be conveniently 
 punched at the machine, a portable screw press, known as a 
 " bear," is employed to punch them, or the holes are drilled, 
 after the work is in place. According to Mr. Clark the pressure 
 required to punch a hole 1 inch in diameter in a |-inch plate 
 amounts to 46 tons.* As the surface to be sheared in punching 
 a hole very nearly equals the product of the circumference of the 
 hole by the thickness of the plate, it seems probable that the 
 pressure required to punch a hole cZ inches in diameter in a plate 
 i inches thick would be found from the proportion : — 
 
 Pressure required : 46 tons : : d" x <" : ^" x 1", 
 
 18 4 
 Whence we have, as the required pressure, —^ d t tons. 
 
 This investigation is of no practical importance as there is always 
 a considerable surplus of power in the punching machines em- 
 ployed, and in plates exceeding l|^-inch in thickness it is a very 
 common practice to drill the holes. Drilled holes are almost 
 
 * In the ' Practical Mechanics' Journal for 1853 ' there is given an elaborate table 
 of the resiilts of experiments made by IVIr. Jones at the Great Western Steam-ship 
 Works, Bristol, on the pressures required to punch holes of various sizes in plates of 
 various thicknesses. Mr. Jones gives about 60 tons as the pressure required to punch 
 a hole 1 inch in diameter in a j-inch plate, this result differing considerably from that 
 obtained by Mr. Clark. The experiments made were very numerous, the thicknesses 
 of the plates and the diameters of the holes punched varying from \ inch to 1 inch. 
 The tabulated record of the results will well repay a careful study, but need not be 
 given here.
 
 Chap. XVII 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 339 
 
 always adopted in thick keels and garboards where the rivets used 
 are of laro-e diameter. It will be remembered that we have 
 previously stated the arguments adduced by the advocates of the 
 substitution of drilled holes for punclied holes, and have noticed 
 the more extended use of drilling machines ; but as punching is 
 now, and seems likely to remain, the common and almost universal 
 practice of iron shipbuilders, it may be well to add a few remarks 
 on the subject here. 
 
 It has been established by direct experiment that when a row 
 of holes has been punched in a plate, the tensile strength of the 
 iron left between the holes is considerably reduced, whereas with 
 drilled holes the strength remains almost unaltered.* This is still 
 more strikingly the case when holes are punched in steel plates as 
 shewn in the preceding chapter. In iron plates the reduction in 
 strength made by punching is considerable. For example, with 
 the pitch of rivets usually adopted for watertight work the tensile 
 strength of the iron taken along a section through a row of rivet 
 holes has been found to be from 16 to 18 tons per sq. inch of sec- 
 tional area, whereas for the unpunched plate it has been upwards 
 of 22 tons per sq. inch. It will be obvious that the large factors 
 of safety employed in proportioning the scantlings of the various 
 parts of ships, and other wrought iron structures, render these ex- 
 perimental facts comparatively unimportant in relation to the con- 
 sideration of the ultimate or breaking strengths. But with regard 
 to the arrangement and proportions of butt fastenings, where the 
 principal object aimed at is the preservation of continuity of 
 strength, it becomes absolutely necessary to take into account the 
 reduction of strength caused by punching, in order to arrive at a 
 
 * Mr. W. H. Mayiiard, who has made experiments upon punched and drilled bars 
 cut from the same plate, parallel to each other, states that the holes were about 1 inch 
 in diameter, and drilled in two of the bars, the other two being punched so as to leave 
 exactly the same section of metal in the plate as in the case of those drilled, viz., 
 about 1-.5 square inches at the part reduced ; and that the results were as follows 
 showing a mean of 19 per cent, in favour of the drilled plates : — 
 
 
 
 Drilled bar 
 
 Punched bar 
 
 
 Difference 
 
 
 
 
 broke with a 
 
 broke with a 
 
 Difference in 
 
 per cent, in 
 
 
 
 
 tensile strain in 
 
 tensUe strain in 
 
 tons. 
 
 favour of drilled 
 
 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 
 iron. 
 
 
 
 Ist, 
 
 30^ 
 
 26 
 
 4J 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 2nd, 
 
 31J 
 
 26 
 
 5i 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 Mean, 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 o 
 
 19 
 
 
 'A 2
 
 34° Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 correct result. It may be added, tliat although this is not eom- 
 moidy dune in arranging butt fastenings, in the investigations of 
 riveted work given further on in this chapter we shall take this 
 redu(;tion of strength into account, and assuming the tensile strength 
 of the plate iron lengthwise to be 22 tons per sq. inch before being 
 punched, shall, in most cases, take 18 tons as the strength of the 
 iron left between the holes, after the punching has been performed. 
 When the punching or drilling has been completed, the various 
 parts of the work are fixed in position and temporarily secured, 
 either by nut and screw bolts, or, as is far more commonly the 
 case, by means of pins and cotters, or forelocks. When these 
 operations have been completed and the work " closed," the riveting 
 is commenced. Each "set" of riveters consists of two riveters, a 
 " holder-up," and one or two boys. The rivets are heated in a 
 portable hearth placed as near as is convenient to the work. The 
 blast required is nearly always supplied by hand-bellows attached 
 to the hearth, which are so constructed as to keep up a continuous 
 blast, and are worked by one of the boys. In the construction of 
 one or two large ships the rivet-hearths have been put in com- 
 munication with a blowing-engine and the hand-bellows dispensed 
 with ; this can, of course, only be done under special circumstances, 
 and in the cases referred to the vessels were built close alongside 
 of the machine-sheds, so that the communication with the blowing- 
 engine was readily effected. The rivets are, in some instances, 
 put into holes in a plate placed in the fire, by means of which the 
 heads are in some measure protected from the great heat, while 
 the points are brought to the required temperature ; but, in other 
 cases, the rivets are simply put into the fire, the plate being dis- 
 pensed with. The heads should be made moderately hot in order 
 to be made to bear fair on their work. Tiie shank is brought 
 nearly to a welding heat, and then the rivet is taken or thrown by 
 one of the boys to the holder-up, who places it in the hole, and, 
 after having driven the head well up by a few heavy blows, holds 
 upon it with a large hammer or a tool called a " dolly." The 
 riveters immediately commence their Avork by striking a few 
 blows around the rivet in order to bring the plates into close 
 contact, and then beat down the point. If the hole is counter- 
 sunk, any superfluous iron wdiich may remain after the coun- 
 tersink is filled is cut off, and the riveters then strike again. If 
 the rivet has a snap-point, the riveters beat it down roughly to
 
 c HAP. XV 1 1 . Rivets and Rivet - Work. 341 
 
 shape, and then finish it by means of a cup-shaped die, as pre- 
 viously explained. If the point is conical, the riveters complete 
 the operation with their hammers. When the point has been 
 roughly finished, the riveters hold their hammers on the point, one 
 behind another, while the holder-up strikes a few blows on the 
 head. In some yards all rivet heads are " laid-up," i. e. are beaten 
 all round the edge in order to make them fit closely to their work ; 
 but in other yards only the rivets in watertight work, or in some 
 cases but a portion of them, are thus treated. After this has been 
 done the dolly or hammer is replaced, and a few more blows are 
 struck on the plates and the rivet point by the riveters. It is 
 generally found that the adjacent rivet last put in requires dressing 
 up after the new rivet is knocked down. The hammers used by 
 the riveters vary from 2 to 7 lbs. in weight, according to the cha- 
 racter of the work, and the size of the rivets. The holding-up 
 hammers weigh from 10 to 40 lbs. The dolly weighs from 10 to 
 30 lbs., and consists of a short bar of iron which the workman 
 holds in his hand. It is especially suited for light work, and can 
 only be used in places where the holder-up can gain access to the 
 rivet head ; but for the heaviest work, and in places difficult of 
 access, the holding-up hammer is employed. 
 
 The preceding description assumes that the holes in the two 
 or more thicknesses through which a rivet passes are coincident, 
 but in practice it is often found that holes are partially " blind," 
 as described in Chapter X., and illustrated by Fig. 143, p. 197. 
 The manner in which the workman usually gets over this difficulty 
 by the use of a steel drift punch,* has been previously explained, 
 and its evil effects have been noticed. It will be sufficient, there- 
 fore, to add, that in cases where the drift punch will not make the 
 hole good, it must be " rimed " out with a rimer, and if this will 
 not suffice a "rose-drill" must be employed. 
 
 Hand riveting is necessarily adopted for the greater part of the 
 work of an iron ship, and in the groat majority of yards it is ex- 
 clusively emjiloyed. Machine riveting is, however, employed in 
 some yards for such parts of the work as can be conveniently 
 brought to the machines, as for instance, frames and reversed 
 frames when put together before being hoisted, beams, &c. It 
 becomes necessary, therefore, to give a brief sketch of the process 
 
 * A scTFiitud (liitl puucli, suggested by Mr. Willing, is being tried in H. M.s 
 dockyards.
 
 342- Rivets and Rivet-Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 of macliine riveting. Riveting machines were, we believe, intro- 
 duced by Mr. Fairbairn. Mr. Clark gives a description of those 
 used in the construction of the Conway tubular bridge, where they 
 were found particularly useful. In these machines the piston was 
 48 inches in diameter, but had only a 9-inch stroke, working hori- 
 zontally. The end of the piston terminated in a cup-shaped die, 
 and was pressed against a corresponding die iixed on the head of a 
 cast-iron pillar which sprang from the base of the machine. The 
 steam was used at a pressure of 40 lbs. per sq. inch, and exerted a 
 pressure of 32 tons upon the rivet. Other machines — including 
 several hydraulic machines — have been patented and brought into 
 use, but we need only add with respect to their construction that the 
 principle of having a moveable die on the end of the piston rod, and 
 pressing it against a fixed die, is common to all, or nearly all, of 
 them. The work to be riveted is temporarily secured by means of 
 cotters and pins, and is brought into the position required for riveting 
 by means of cranes. The rivets are placed in the holes by hand ; 
 when this has been done and the rivet head placed in the fixed 
 die, the steam is let into the cylinder, and the die on the piston 
 is pressed forward upon the red hot rivet point and squeezes it 
 into form. As stated previously, the rivets used for machine rivet- 
 ing generally have snap-heads, and the points are also snap-shaped. 
 Considerable discussion has taken place as to the superiority of 
 the riveted work done by machines over that done by hand. Mr. 
 Stephenson had specimens of both kinds of work planed down 
 through the centre of the rivets, and it was found that the quality 
 of the work was very nearly the same in both. There can be little 
 doubt that, with proper care, rivets closed by the machines must 
 fill the holes and make sound work, whereas in hand riveting 
 much depends on the skill and strength of the workman. Experi- 
 ments were made in the construction of the Conway bridge which 
 showed that holes made purposely untrue were completely filled 
 by rivets closed by the machine, and the fact that the work can 
 be performed so much more rapidly than it can be by hand, gives 
 an additional advantage to machine work, as the rivet cools after 
 the point is formed, the joints are drawn closer by the contraction 
 of the rivet, and the friction of the surfaces is greatly increased. 
 Mr. Fairbairn states that 12 rivets can be put in per minute, and 
 that the machine saves time and labour in the proportion of 12 to 1. 
 Mr. Grantham gives a description of Messrs. Garforth's riveting
 
 Chap XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 343 
 
 machine, and says that the makers state that 6 rivets can be put 
 in per minute, while 20 livets per hour is the work of a set of 
 riveters. One advantage of hand riveting, pointed out by Mr. 
 Chirk, consists in the close contact into which the plates are 
 brought by occasional blows struck on the plates, and the conse- 
 quent prevention of the oozing away of the rivet in thin laminae 
 between the plates, as sometimes happens with machine riveting 
 unless the plates are struck around the rivet hole before the rivet 
 point is formed. On the wliole, machine riveting seems to make 
 better and cheaper work than hand riveting; but as before re- 
 marked, it can only be used for such work as can be brought to 
 the machine, and nearly all the riveting is still done by hand.* 
 
 Before leaving the subject of riveting machines, it may be 
 well to state that a compressed air machine is now coming into 
 use for riveting purposes. The air engine is mounted upon wheels 
 for convenience in moving it about, motion being given to a small 
 piston by means of gearing driven by a belt from a steam-engine 
 shaft. The air which is in this way compressed is led off by 
 elastic tubes to hand machines, in each of which a small piston is 
 driven at a very high velocity. This piston strikes upon a die at 
 the end of the hand machine, and by its intervention beats up the 
 rivet point. The die is, of course, moveable, and fitted to suit any 
 required size of rivet. We have timed a machine of this description 
 at Messrs. Forrester's Works, Liverpool, and have satisfied ourselves 
 that with two rivet fires, or a small heating furnace, and the rivets 
 quickly served, four rivets a minute can be knocked down in straight- 
 
 * Mr. Robert Harvey, of Cook's Engine Works, Glasgow, in a letter to the 
 ' Engineer' of September 17, 1858, reasons as follows in favour of steam-riveting : — 
 " It is admitted on all hands that hammering iron when nearly cold has a tendency 
 " to destroy, more or less, its fibrous character ; thus, a crystalline character must be, 
 " to a certain extent, assumed in all rivets worked by hand in the usual manner, and 
 " hence, besides aiming at economy by the use of steam for riveting, it is very de- 
 " sirable that the rivets should be finished in as short a time as iDOSsible, and without 
 " that succession of blows so destructive to the texture of the iron, and without which 
 '• hand-riveting cannot be effected ; and, further, the conical form of the head generally 
 " given to hand-work does not present the same strength as the semicircular head 
 " which the steam-riveting die gives such a facility for producing, and these being 
 " finished red-hot, the contraction which takes place brings the plates more closely 
 " together. The strong form of the head makes this contraction peculiarly efficient, 
 "so that the 'nip' between the heads goes largely to make up for the weakening 
 " eflected by the piece bitten out by the punch. I have frequently planed up to the 
 " centre of the rivets portions of plates so riveted together, and in most cases have 
 " only been able to detect the rivet from tlie plate by moistening the surface with an 
 " acid, which at the same time revealed the beautiful compressed rose-like form of the 
 " head."
 
 344 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 forward work. One man is required to work the portable part of the 
 machine, which weighs 23 lbs., and another to hold up behind. 
 
 The following information with respect to the number of rivets 
 which are put in for a day's work may prove of interest. Mr. 
 Grantham states that a set of riveters can put in 100 rivets in. a 
 day's work of ten hours, and will increase the number to 140 if 
 employed on piecework. From information obtained from various 
 sources we conclude that from 130 to 150 rivets may now be consi- 
 dered as a fair average day's work of a set of riveters, when allowance 
 has been made for the various sizes of the rivets, and the different 
 positions of the work. It also appears that on piecework the men 
 can earn a day and a half s pay per day. In order to supply more 
 definite information on this matter, we have given the following 
 tables, of which the first represents the practice of one of the largest 
 private firms, and the second that of H. M.'s dockyards. 
 
 Position of Rivets. Biameter of Rivets and description \ ^^ ^^l„ ^ 
 
 ' of Points. ! d^y.,„^,.k. 
 
 In outside plating . . . . | 1-ineli, countersunk. 
 In bulkheads, &c f-incb, snap. 
 
 85 to 90 
 180 
 In made beams, &e. .. |-incb, snap. I 200 
 
 In beam ends 1-incli to |3-incb, hammered. 50 
 
 In deck i^latiug, &e. .. ^inch, countersunk. ' 140 
 
 The average week's wages received in private yards, when on 
 day work, are 28 shillings for each riveter, from 18 to 24 shillings 
 for the holder-up, and 6 shillings for each boy. The prices per 
 hundred allowed vary in different yards, and, of course, are always 
 governed by the sizes and positions of the rivets. At the present 
 time the riveters on the Clyde, who are nearly always on taskwork, 
 take the work at about the following prices: — |-inch rivets in 
 frame and reversed angle-irons at from 5 to 6 shillings per hun- 
 dred ; f-inch rivets in beam work at from 3 to 4 shillings per 
 hundred ; rivets in outside plating (averaging |-inch rivets) at from 
 7 to 8 shillings per hundred. The average price per hundred may 
 be taken at from 5s. 6ci to 6^. ^d., and it must be stated that the 
 Clyde prices are now very low,* and cannot be taken as the fair 
 average of those given in private yards. In the Royal dockyards 
 the rivets are allowed for per dozen instead of per hundred, and a 
 
 This was written in April, 1868.
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 345 
 
 set of riveters consists of two shipwrights at 27 shilL'ngs per week 
 for each, one holder-iip at 1 8 shillings, and two boys, each of whom 
 receives 7 shillings per week. In the following table a detailed 
 statement is given of the prices at present allowed per dozen rivets, 
 number of rivets for a day's work, &c. 
 
 Description of W^ork. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Rivets. 
 
 Number 
 
 of Rivets for a 
 
 day's work. 
 
 Kate per 
 dozen. 
 
 
 in. 
 
 48 
 
 s. d. 
 3 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 66 
 
 2 8 
 
 Riveting of bottom plating, &c ' 
 
 7 
 B 
 
 80 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 •t 
 
 116 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 g 
 
 150 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 67 
 
 2 7 
 
 Riveting of bulklieatls, topsidcs, 
 stringers, &c., ' 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 87 
 J 22 
 
 2 
 1 5 
 
 
 i 
 
 160 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 188 
 
 11 
 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 2 1 
 
 Riveting of beams, carlings, frames, 
 etc., out of place .. , ' 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 100 
 147 
 
 1 9 
 1 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 190 
 
 11 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 230 
 
 9 
 
 It will be seen that the number of rivets in a day's work is just 
 now less in H. M.'s dockyards than in private yards, but it should 
 be remembered that this is in part explained by the fact that the 
 average length of the day's work in the Eoyal yards is considerably 
 less than 10 hours, which is the recognised length of the day in 
 private yards, that the supervision is much more stringent, and 
 that the prices never rise. 
 
 One of the most important features of riveted work is the 
 shearing strength of rivets under various circumstances. This 
 matter has been made the subject of experiment by Mr. Fairbairn, 
 T>Ir. Clark, and others, and the conclusion arrived at by all exjieri- 
 menters has been, that the shearing strength is directly proportioned 
 to the area of the section sheared through. In his work on the 
 ' Britannia and Conway Bridges,' Mr. Clark gives the full details 
 of the experiments made on the shearing of rivets, and rivet-iron, 
 and points out the fact that while a rivet passing through the lap 
 of two plates has to be sheared once only, a rivet passing through
 
 346 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 three thicknesses — united by a " chain-joint," as shown in section iu 
 Fig. 243, page 353, — would require to be sheared twice, and, gene- 
 rally, if n be the number of plates combined by a pin or rivet, and 
 the pin that unites them fails, it must be sheared in n-\ places. These 
 considerations are based upon the assumption that the pin or rivet 
 is well fitted in all the holes, for if the hole is not filled and the 
 pin can be inclined in the hole, the strain ceases to be uniformly 
 distributed over the section of the pin, anil the effective shearing 
 strength becomes reduced. In shipbuilding, the principal applica- 
 tion which can be made of these experimental results consists in 
 the use of double butt-straps for keelsons, stringers, deck plating, 
 and other work in the interior of a ship, by which means the 
 shearing strength of the butt fastenings is very nearly doubled. 
 The same consideration enters into the strapping of sheer and 
 other strakes when worked in two thicknesses. In bridge con- 
 struction, however, the pins or rivets pass through several thick- 
 nesses of plates, and then the importance of these experimental 
 facts is fully recognised and acted upon. 
 
 Sir Charles Fox has made an important and interesting dis- 
 covery with respect to the size of pins used for connecting the flat 
 links of the chains of suspension bridges, which has relation to this 
 question of shearing. He communicated the results of his expe- 
 riments to the Koyal Society in 1865, and as they are applicable, 
 in some measure, to the arrangement of some of the details of 
 iron-ship construction, we propose to give a brief account of them 
 here, taken from a reprint from the Society's ' Proceedings.' 
 
 Chains for suspension bridges are now usually composed of 
 several flat bars of equal thickness throughout, placed side by 
 side, and having the ends swelled edgeways so as to form heads, 
 
 O 
 
 Fig. 242. 
 
 through holes in which pass the pins that couple the bars together. 
 A sketch of one of these links is given in Fig. 242. The rule 
 commonly employed in determining the size of the pins, before 
 these experiments were made, was to make the cross section of the 
 pin at least equal to the sectional area of the smallest portion of 
 the link. This rule was based on the consideiation that about the 
 same force is required for shearing, as for breaking wrought-iron
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet- Work. 347 
 
 by extension. In the manufacture of the chains for the great sus- 
 pension bridge over the Dnieper at Kieff, it was considered very- 
 desirable to determine experimentally whether or not they were 
 well proportioned, and accordingly a proving machine was pre- 
 pared for the purpose of testing them. The links were 12 feet 
 long from centre to centre of the pin-holes, 10 J inches wide by 
 1 inch thick in their body or smallest part, with a head at each 
 end also 1 inch thick swelled out to 16^ inches in width, so as to 
 allow for pins ^\ inches in diameter. The cross sectional area of 
 the pins was 15*9 sq. inches, or rather more than 50 per cent, in 
 excess of the cross-sectional area of the link at its smallest section, 
 thus giving them upwards of one-third more section than would be 
 required by the ordinary rule. The iron in the links was of a very 
 high quality, its tensile strength being about 27 tons per sq. inch, 
 so that the strain of 270 tons would have been required to break 
 the link at its smallest section. When proved in the machine, 
 however, it was found that with the 4^-inch pins a strain of about 
 180 tons only Avas required to break the link, and the head tore 
 across in the widest part, in wake of the centre of the pin-hole. 
 This unexpected result led to the belief that the size of the heads 
 Avas insufficient, and a few experimental links were prepared with 
 the heads 2 inches wider than before, but these were found to 
 require no additional force to tear them asunder, and it became 
 obvious that fracture arose from some other cause. It was ob- 
 served, on attempting to adjust the piece broken off to the position 
 it occupied before the fracture took place, that while the fractured 
 surfaces came into contact at the outside of the head, they were 
 a considerable distance apart at the edge of the pin-hole. This 
 proved that the various portions of the head had been subject to 
 very unequal strains during the application of the tensile force. 
 Upon careful examination it was found that the j)iii-hole which 
 originally was round had become pear-shaped, and that the iron 
 in the bearing surface of the hole, which during the application of 
 the load was in a state of compression, had become considerably 
 thickened, while the other portion of the iron around the hole, 
 being subject to tension, had been thinned down. Fracture com- 
 menced in the thinned part of the head, and when it had once 
 commenced, the same strain would obviously suffice to rend through 
 the head, if its application were continued, no matter what the 
 width of the head might be. It thus became evident, that there
 
 )48 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 was a certain area of the semi-cylindrical surface of the hole 
 having a bearing on the pin, proportionate to the transverse section 
 of the body of the link, quite essential to its having equal strength 
 in all its parts ; and that any departure from this proportion must 
 bring about, either waste of iron \\\ the body of the link, if the pin 
 were of insufficient size, or waste of metal in the heads of the links 
 and in the pins, if the latter were larger than necessary for obtain- 
 ing the fixed proportion of areas. This is the statement of the 
 prhiciple put forward by Sir Cliarles Fox in the paper above 
 referred to, and additional experiments fully proved the truth of 
 the deductions made from tlie former experiments. The links 
 used in tliese further experiments were of exactly the same dimen- 
 sions as tliose previously broken, but the pins and pin-holes were 
 increased in diameter to 6 inches, and consequently the bearing 
 surfaces were increased from 7 to 9*4 sq. inches. By this altera- 
 tion the fo]"ce necessary to produce fractui-e was brought up to 
 nearly 240 tons, and from subsequent experience it has become 
 evident that had the pins been increased to 6^ inches diameter, 
 and the bearing surface to 10-2 sq. inches, the proper proportion 
 would have been arrived at, while with the 6-incli pins about an 
 inch of the body of the links was wasted. From these experiments 
 it appears that in order to obtain the full efficiency of a link the 
 area of the semi-cylindrical bearing surface must be a little more 
 than equal to the transverse sectional area of the smallest part of 
 the body. In order to make allowance for the fact that the iron in 
 the head of a link is never quite as strong as that in the body. Sir 
 Charles Fox states that he would make the diameter of the pins 
 two-thirds the width of the body of the link. He also considers it 
 desirable to have the sum of the widths of the iron on both sides 
 of the hole 10 per cent, greater than the wadth of the body. As 
 the pins are of much greater diameter than is required for the 
 shearing strength, he states that they might, with advantage, be 
 made hollow, and of steel. 
 
 At the commencement of this description it was observed, that 
 the principle thus experimentally proved was applicable to some 
 parts of iron ship construction. As a case in point we may refer 
 to the balanced rudder of the ' Bellerophon,' illustrated in Fig. 87, 
 p. 120. In this ship there is no sole piece forged on tlie loAver end 
 of the stern post, the flat keel plates being continued aft in place 
 of it. In order to steady the rudder-heel a large pintle is fitted.
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets mid Rivet -Work. 349 
 
 which passes through a hole in the keel-plates, and is secured by 
 a nut hove up underneath. In determining the diameter of this 
 jiintle it would, but for the principle stated above, have been con- 
 sidered suiBcient to make the shearing strength of the pintle equal 
 to the breaking strength of the keel-plates at the weakest section ; 
 but taking into consideration the necessity for increased bearing 
 surface, as set forth by Sir Charles Fox, it was deemed imperative 
 to add considerably to the diameter which would have been re- 
 quired merely to give the necessary shearing strength, and the 
 present diameter was adopted. The bearing surface was also 
 increased in this case by means of a collar riveted to the plates. 
 
 Keverting to the consideration of the shearing strength of 
 rivets, we will first direct attention to Mr. Clark's experiments on 
 the shearing strength of rivet-iron. These experiments were made 
 with a lever working in a slot in a block of cast-iron. The |-inch 
 bars which were to be sheared were introduced through a hole in 
 the side of the block, and the lever was pressed down upon them 
 by weights suspended at the end. This served to determine the 
 force required for a single shear, and when that for a double shear 
 was required the inner end of the bar was introduced into a hole 
 in the cheek on the side of the slot opposite to that where the bar 
 was entered. As the mean result of these experiments, IMr. Clark 
 gives 24-15 tons per square inch of sectional area sheared as the . 
 single shearing force, and 22-1 tons as the double shearing force, 
 for rivet-iron of which the mean tensile strength was 24 tons. 
 These experiments are hardly applicable to cases in which the 
 strengths of riveted work have to be considered, for in such cases 
 the rivets are put in hot, and beaten down to fill the hole and 
 form the point, consequently the strength of the iron is in some 
 measure reduced, whereas in all the experiments with the lever 
 machine the bar-iron was as strong when sheared as when it came 
 from the manufacturer. We have also to consider the tension 
 produced by the contraction of the rivet in cooling, which probably 
 further reduces its shearing strength by subjecting the iron to a 
 considerable stress before the shearing strain commences. It is 
 also to be observed, on the other hand, that this tension pro- 
 duces great friction between the surfaces of the plates, and thus 
 increases their resistance to separation. We shall refer more fully 
 hereafter to this subject, but it is mentioned here to illustrate 
 the statement that it would not be proper to regard the shearing
 
 3 5 o Rivets and Rivet- Work. Chap. XV 1 1 . 
 
 strengths of bar-iron determined by Mr. Clark as the shearing 
 strengths of rivets when in place. Mr. Clark himself records other 
 experiments (made with the view of avoiding any anomaly arising 
 from the use of the lever machine), which will illustrate the truth 
 of this. He tested the actual shearing strengths of a |-iuch rivet 
 passing through two and three thicknesses of plates respectively, 
 and found the sin<2:le shearin<2: force to be 20*4 tons and the double 
 shearing force 22*3 tons per square inch of sectional area sheared. 
 It will thus be seen that the shearing strengths obtained, including 
 friction, were for a single shear less than, and for a double shear 
 nearly the same as, the strengths obtained for bar-iron ; and con- 
 sequently the strength of the iron, apart from the friction, must 
 have undergone great reduction. In another j)lace Mr. Clark gives 
 16 tons as the single shearing strength of a 1-inch rivet, and states 
 that for a double shear the force required would be nearly double, 
 thus incidentally confirming the foregoing view. 
 
 Mr. Doyne has also made experiments on the shearing strength 
 of rivets, and appears to have employed actual riveted work for 
 the purpose of determining the strengths. He states that the 
 average shearing strengths, drawn from experiments made with 
 rivets of different sizes and under different circumstances, are 
 18*82 tons per square inch of sectional area sheared for a single 
 shear, and 17*55 tons for a double shear ; which are equivalent to 
 14*78 tons for a single shear of a 1-inch rivet, and 27*56 tons for 
 its double shear. The tensile strength of the iron in the rivets 
 experimented upon is not stated. 
 
 ]Mr. Maynard has also made experiments upon this subject, 
 and has published the following as the results, observing that 
 his experiments were made to test Nvhat difference in value, if any, 
 there was between rivets in punched holes and similar rivets in 
 drilled holes. 
 
 ^-inch EiVETS in Drilled Holes. 
 
 Single shear = 26 toes per sq. in. Double shear == 39'2 tons per sq. in. 
 
 Do =26*4 do. Second experiment failed. 
 
 ■|-incli EivETS in Punched Holes. 
 
 Single shear = 27*2 tons per sq. in. Double shear = 45*6 tons per sq. in. 
 
 Do. = 26'0 do. Second experiment failed. 
 
 Mr. Maynard says : " I considered the above as conclusive that 
 " rivets in drilled holes, subject to shearing strain, were about
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet- Work. 351 
 
 " 4 per cent, weaker than rivets in punched holes under similar 
 " strain ; and think that the sharp edges of the drilled plates have 
 " a greater tendency to snip o£f the rivets than the rounded edges 
 " of punched holes. The rivets appeared cut off cleaner by the 
 " drilled plates than by the punched." * 
 
 Carefully conducted experiments on the shearing strength of 
 rivets have also been made by the Author's desire in H. M. 
 Dockyard at Chatham, with the sanction of the Board of Admi- 
 ralty and the Controller of the Navy,- and have been so arranged 
 as to fairly represent the pitches of rivets, breadths of lap, &c., 
 used in shipbuilding. The chances of error were reduced by 
 making the experiments in duplicate, and by having one, two, and 
 three rivets respectively in the la]is. The residts of these experi- 
 ments agree with those of both the preceding sets in showing that 
 the shearing strength of the rivets is proportional to the sectional 
 area. The rivet-iron was either Lowmoor or Bowling, and the 
 mean shearing strength of a |-inch rivet passing through two 
 plates was 10 tons, and the mean of the double shearing strengths 
 of a f-inch rivet passing through three plates was about 18 tons. 
 This would be, for a 1-inch rivet, single shear 17^ tons, double shear 
 32 tons. These are the values which will be employed in the 
 investigations which are given hereafter. It will be remarked 
 that in these experiments, as in those of Mr. Doyne and Mr. 
 Maynard, friction is included in the shearing strengths given ; \h& 
 differences in the results obtained in the three cases are no doubt 
 chiefly due to differences in the quality of the rivet-iron, that 
 used by Mr. Maynard apparently having been of a very superior 
 quality. 
 
 As previously stated, rivets are nearly always put in when they 
 are at a high temperature, and Mr. Clark gives some valuable 
 information with respect to their contraction in cooling, and the 
 consequent closeness of the joints in riveted work. He states that 
 the contraction is about Yff.^oo^^^ ^^ ^^^ length for a decrease of 
 temperature of 15° Fahrenheit, and the strain thus induced is about 
 
 * It must be observed that these experiments are confined solely to the value of tlie 
 rivet, and not of the plate, which latter, Mr. Maynard admits, is stronger when drilled 
 than when punched (see foot-note on p. 339). In comparing the strength of punched 
 and drilled work together, on the whole. Mi'. Maynard considers, 1st, Tliat drilled 
 plates are stronger than punched by 19 per cent. ; 2nd, That rivets are weaker in 
 drilled holes than in punched by 4 per cent. ; 3rd, That the difference is in favour of 
 drilled work by 15 per cent.
 
 352 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 one ton per square inch of sectional area. Thus, if a rivet were 
 closed by a machine at a temi)erature of 900°, the strain resulting 
 from its cooling would greatly exceed the tensile strength which 
 the iron can endure without stretching, and there would conse- 
 quently be a permanent elongation in the length of the rivet; 
 while the resulting tension on the plates when the rivet had cooled 
 would approximate more or less nearly to the tensile strength of 
 the rivet-iron. When rivets are more than (3 or 8 inches in length 
 the head is frequently drawn off by the cooling of the rivet, and 
 Mr. Clark remarks that the explanation of this iiict is not very 
 obvious as the contraction is always in proportion to the length 
 of the rivet, and there is consequently no reason why a long bar 
 should be injured more than a short one by a proportionate exten- 
 sion. This was proved to be the case by experiments made with 
 rivet-bars 8 feet long, which were inserted in some castings of 
 great strength, and it was found that in all cases these rivets re- 
 mained perfectly sound after cooling, having undergone a per- 
 manent extension proportional to the temperature. The explana- 
 tion Mr. Clark gives, as being the most probable, of the breaking 
 off of the heads of long rivets on their cooling, is that the head is 
 somewhat damaged by hammering ; and he also states that it was 
 found that the various portions of the length of the bars experi- 
 mented upon had stretched very irregularly in cooling, thus showing 
 that, in all probability, the cooling had been unequal at different 
 parts of the length. There can be no doubt that a long rivet 
 passing through a number of thicknesses of plates will become 
 less distressed in cooling than if it passed thi'ough fe^ver thick- 
 nesses, owing to the closing together of the plates. One other 
 matter mentioned by Mr. Clark deserves especial attention, as it 
 is of great importance in the putting in of the large rivets or bolts 
 in stems and stern posts. In the construction of some of the beams 
 of the tubular bridge, most of the 12-inch rivets which were used 
 brolce at the head in cooling, and it \\as found that in order to 
 prevent this breaking, the centre part of the rivet had to be cooled 
 previously to its being put in, the head and point alone remaining 
 red-hot. 
 
 The close union of the plates due to the contraction of the rivets 
 is not only beneficial in respect of making good joints, but is also 
 useful in preventing oxidation at the joints, as the rust is entirely 
 superficial ; it also adds considerable strength by causing friction at
 
 Chap. XVII 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 353 
 
 the surfaces in contact. We have now to advert more fully to this 
 friction induced by the cooling, and the consequent contraction of 
 the rivets in a joint. Mr. Clark gives a very interesting account 
 of some simple experiments made by him to determine its amount. 
 Three |-inch plates were riveted together with a single |-inch rivet, 
 the hole in the centre plate being oval, and very much larger than 
 the rivet. Weights were then suspended from the centre plate until 
 it slipped, and the motion commenced abruptly under a load of 5*59 
 tons. The experiment was repeated with the addition of a -^-incli 
 plate riveted on each side between the rivet-head and point and the 
 f-inch plates, thus making the rivet-shank 2|^ inches long ; 4*47 
 tons caused the plates to slide. A repetition of this experiment 
 gave 7"94 tons as the weight required to cause the ])lates to slip, 
 the difference being due to the faulty character of the rivet in the 
 previous experiment. In the next experiment a |-inch rivet was 
 put through two j^g-inch plates with large holes, a j'^g-inch washer 
 being placed on each side next the rivet-head and point respect- 
 ively. This combination supported 4-73 tons before it gave way. 
 Mr. Clark supposes that he is warranted in inferring from these 
 experiments that the tubes in the Britannia bridge would not 
 deflect more than they do at present, if all the holes were much 
 too large for the rivets, so as not to be in contact anywhere except 
 at the heads, because the strain of 4^ tons, which was the smallest 
 weight that occasioned sliding in the experiments, is a greater 
 strain than any of the rivets in the tubes 
 sustain. He also supposes that it is possible 
 by judicious riveting to make the friction 
 nearly counterbalance the weakening of the 
 plate from the punching of the holes, and to 
 bring the strength of a riveted joint up to 
 the strength of the solid plates united. We 
 are unable to concur in these views for reasons 
 which will presently appear. 
 
 Experiments of a more detailed descrip- 
 tion, and more closely resembling the work 
 found in practical shipbuilding, have since 
 been made by the Author's directions in 
 H. M. Dockyard at Pembroke. In tliis case 
 three plates were united by what is known as 
 a "chain-joint" — that is, the ends of the two outer plates over 
 
 2 A 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 243.
 
 354 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 lapped the end of the middle pLite — as shown in Fig. 243. The 
 connection of the plates was made by three rivets passing through 
 the lap, the rivet-holes in the outer plates being filled by the 
 rivets, but the bearing surface of the holes in the middle plate 
 being; slotted out as shown in the sketch. It will thus be obvious 
 that when a tensile strain was brought upon the middle plate, the 
 amount of the friction could be measured by the force just able 
 to produce a sliding motion. The breadth of the lap was three 
 diameters, the rivets were a diameter clear of the edges of the 
 plates, 'and their pitch was four diameters. There were two sets 
 of experiments made with iron plates and rivets, and in each set 
 two experiments were made with rivets having heads and points 
 snap-shaped ; two others with rivets having pan-heads and 
 conical points ; and the remaining two with rivets having counter- 
 sunk heads and points. The experiments were made in duplicate 
 in order to reduce the chance of error. The first set of experi- 
 ments was made with ^-inch plates, 8|^ inches wide, the rivets being 
 |-iuch. The results were as follows : — 
 
 
 Friction per rivet. 
 
 Description of rivet. 
 
 1st 
 Experiment. 
 
 2nd 
 
 Experiment. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Snap heads and points 
 
 Pan-heads and conical points . . . . 
 Countersunk heads and points 
 Mean of the three 
 
 Tons. 
 
 5-14 
 5-26 
 4-56 
 
 Tons. 
 4-21 
 4-81 
 3-74 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4-67 
 
 50 
 
 4-15 
 
 4-61 
 
 The second set of experiments was made with plates 11 inches 
 wide and |-inch thick, the rivets used being 1-inch. The following 
 results were obtained under the above-stated conditions of pitch of 
 rivets, lap, &c. : — 
 
 
 Friction per rivet. 
 
 Description of rivets. 
 
 1st 
 Experiment. 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Snap heads and points 
 
 Pan-heads and conical points 
 
 Couutersunk lieads and points 
 Mean of the three 
 
 Tons. • 
 5-84 
 6-87 
 4-56 
 
 Tons. 
 5-Gl 
 7-24 
 4-09 
 
 Tons. 
 
 5-7 
 
 7-0 
 
 4-3 
 
 5-6 
 
 In addition to these experiments with iron plates and rivets.
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work, 
 
 355 
 
 two other sets of experiments were made with steel j)lates and 
 rivets of exactly the same dimensions as those used in the former 
 experiments^ the pitcli of rivets, breadth of lap, &c., being in each 
 case identical vvith those previously given. With |-inch plates 
 and |-inch rivets the results obtained were as follows : — 
 
 Description of rivet. 
 
 Snap heads and points 
 Pan-heads and conical points . . 
 Countersunk heads and points 
 Mean of the thi-ee 
 
 Friction per rivet. 
 
 1st 
 Experiment. 
 
 Tons. 
 3-86 
 4-79 
 3-63 
 
 2nd 
 Experiment. 
 
 Tons. 
 4-09 
 4-79 
 3-43 
 
 Tons. 
 3-98 
 4-79 
 3-53 
 41 
 
 With |-inch plates and 1-inch rivets the following results were 
 obtained : — 
 
 
 Friction per rivet. 
 
 Description of rivet. 
 
 1st 
 T;xpenment. 
 
 2nd n,„„„ 
 Experiment. ^^^"• 
 
 Snap heads and points 
 
 Pan-heads and conical points 
 
 Countersunk heads and points 
 
 Mean of the three 
 
 Tons. 
 6-43 
 5-49 
 514 
 
 Tons. 
 
 5-49 
 
 None made. 
 
 4-91 
 
 Tons. 
 
 5-96 
 5-49 
 5-02 
 5-49 
 
 It thus appears that rivets with pan-heads and conical points have 
 the advantage over both the other descriptions of riveting. The 
 only exception to this is found in the second set of the experi- 
 ments with steel plates and rivets, but as only one experiment was 
 made the result cannot be relied on. It also becomes evident that 
 countersunk riveting causes much less friction than the other 
 systems. On comparison, it will be seen that in nearly all cases 
 steel plates and rivets give less friction than iron, the only excep- 
 tions being the cases of rivets with snap-heads and points, and 
 those with countersunk heads and points, in the second sets of 
 experiments. The former of these exceptions is scarcely worth 
 notice, as the difference is so small. The use of larger rivets 
 with the same pitch, &c., gives an increase in the friction, but no 
 law of increase appears to be conformed to. 
 
 Although these experiments do not give any definite idea ol 
 the probable amount of friction winch would result from the use 
 
 2 A 2
 
 356 Rivets and Rivet - Work. Ch ap. xv 1 1 . 
 
 of rivets having different diameters and pitch, they yet serve to 
 show how much the strength of a riveted joint is increased by the 
 friction caused by tlie contraction of the rivets. Some engineers 
 have been inchned to prefer putting in the rivets cold on account 
 of the supposed injury done to the strength of the iron or steel in 
 the neighbourhood of the hole, by its being brought to a great 
 heat by the red-hot rivet, and then often cooled suddenly. The 
 preceding experiments on the value of the friction obtained by 
 hot-riveting seem to show that the additional strength thus secured 
 in a joint, either wholly or partly, counterbalances the loss of 
 strength (if any*) in the material around the hole from the cause 
 in question, and consequently justify the almost universal practice 
 of shipbuilders of working their rivets hot. It is true that a 
 certain amount of contraction would be developed by what is called 
 cold-riveting ; but its amount would probably be much less than in 
 the case of hot-riveting, and in the absence of experiments, it is 
 not possible to assign its value. 
 
 In his prefatory remarks to the description of the experiments 
 on friction Mr. Clark observes, "we have seen that in riveting 
 " two plates together to resist a tensile strain, the sectional area 
 " of the rivets should be equal to that of the plates themselves, 
 " if Ave depend solely on the shearing of the rivet ; but as rivets 
 " are usually closed in a red-hot state, it is evident that the short- 
 " ening of the rivet as it cools down must tend to draw together 
 " the plates united, and before they can slip on each other the 
 " friction thus induced must be overcome simultaneously with 
 " the shearing of the rivet itself ; hence the value of the rivet is 
 " greater than the value determined above by the amount of friction 
 " produced by its contraction in cooling^ The value here referred 
 to as " determined above " is the shearing strength found by Mr. 
 Clark's experiments described previously. It will be obvious, how- 
 ever, from the remarks made with respect to the experiments con- 
 ducted by Mr. Doyne, and at Chatham on the shearing strengths of 
 rivets, that the values thus obtained, although less than the shear- 
 ing strengths found by Mr. Clark's experiments on bar-iron, include 
 
 * We say " if any," because experiments of Mi. Kii-kaldy with steel plates appear 
 to show that there is no such loss. At page 71 of liis useful volume, he says of 
 certain experiments, that they are " sufficient to show that the hot rivets do not 
 reduce the strength by aifecting the hardness of the plate." It would seem, however, 
 that these experiments were made witli plates which had been tougliened in oil.
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 357 
 
 frictiou also. It would consequently be improper to arrange the 
 fastenings of a wrouglit-iron structure on the assumption that 
 the shearing strengths of the rivets (determined hy experiments 
 on rivet-bars), and the friction of the surfaces, might be treated 
 as acting conjointly but independently. In the investigations on 
 riveted work which are given in this chapter we shall therefore 
 assume that friction is included in the values which are employed 
 for the shearing strengths of the rivets. 
 
 There are passages in Mr. Fairbairn's works which agree with 
 this view. In his ' Useful Information for Engineers ' he says : — 
 " From these facts it is evident that the rivets cannot add to the 
 " strength of the plate, their object being to keep the two surfaces 
 " of the lap in contact, and being headed on both sides the plates 
 " are brought into very close union by the contraction or cooling 
 " of the rivets after they are closed. It may be said that the 
 " pressure or adhesion of the two surfaces of the plates would add 
 " to the strength ; but this is not found to be the case to any 
 " great extent, as in almost every instance the experiments indicate 
 " the resistance to be in the ratio of their sectional areas, or 
 " nearly so." 
 
 It may be of interest to consider how far the shearing strength 
 of the rivet is actually reduced in working and cooling. We are 
 enabled to do this, approximately, if we assume Mr. Clark's results 
 to hold with respect to the shearing strength of rivet-iron, the 
 Chatham experiments to hold with respect to the shearing strength 
 of rivets when in position, and the Pembroke experiments to hold 
 with respect to friction. Taking first the case of a |-incli rivet, 
 we find from Mr. Clark's data that the bar-iron would require a 
 force of 19'5:2 tons for a double, shear, and from the Chatham 
 experiments we have 18 tons as the double shearing force of a 
 |-inch rivet, including friction. The mean value of the friction 
 caused by a f-inch rivet is found from the Pembroke experiments 
 to be 46 tons, and hence it seems fair to consider that the double 
 shearing strength of the rivet amounts to about 13^ tons, or about 
 6 tons less than the double shearing strength of the bar from which 
 it was made. Considering similarly the case of a 1-iuch rivet, we 
 have 34'7 tons as the strength of the bar for a double shear, and 
 32 tons as the double shearing force of the rivet, including friction, 
 the mean value of which is found to be 5 '6 tons. The double 
 shearing strength of the rivet is thus about 264 tons, showing a
 
 3 5 8 Rivets and Rivet- Work. Ch ap. xv 1 1 . 
 
 . reduction from the strength of the bar of about 8 tons. As far as 
 these two cases go the reduction is thus about proportional to the 
 diameters of the rivets, but it would, of course, be improper to 
 infer from two instances only that this is the general law of 
 reduction. It is important to observe, however, that what we 
 conjecture to be the principal cause of this loss of shearing strength 
 in the finished rivet — viz. the interior stress of the iron due to the 
 contraction — would obviously be projjortional to the diameter. 
 
 We nevertheless give these two cases rather as indications of 
 the fact that a great reduction really exists, than as measures of its 
 amount. In addition to the loss of strength from the cause just 
 mentioned, there is probably a further reduction due to the manipu- 
 lation which the rivet has to undergo in being manufactured and 
 put in. The whole question, including the dependence of the 
 value of the rivet upon the extent of the frictional surface per 
 rivet, obviously requires further experimental investigation.* 
 
 We propose to conclude this chapter with a brief consideration 
 of the principles which should regulate the arrangement of butt- * 
 fastenings. We have previously illustrated (in Chapter X.) most 
 of the modes of riveting butts which have been practised, and 
 need not repeat the descriptions there given, but will proceed at 
 once to state the experimental facts which have been determined 
 with regard to a few modes of fastening. Tlie amount of experi- 
 mental knowledge which we possess on this subject is extremely 
 limited, and is principally due to the researches of Mr. Fairbairn 
 which are recorded in the Philosophical Transactions for 1850, and 
 since published in the first series of his * Useful Information for 
 Engineers.' Mr. Clark gives some of the results of the experiments 
 on riveted work made during the construction of the Britannia and 
 
 * The following is a theoretical and not unreasonable view of the matter : — The 
 shearing strength and the tensile strength of rivet-ii-on are nearly the same, and con- 
 sequently the strain required to break a rivet is about the same whatever be its 
 dii-ection. When, therefore, two plates are riveted together, and a force is applied 
 along the plates to separate them, the force tending to rupture the rivets is the 
 resultant of the tension upon them and the strain tending to shear them. These two 
 forces are at right angles to one another ; hence, if B is the breaking strain of the 
 rivet, T its tension, and S the shearing straia, the rivet will break when the following 
 equation is satisfied : — 
 
 B2 =:, S2 + T2, 
 
 or when S = ^W - T2. 
 Now, taking friction into account, and putting F for its co-efiScient, and therefore FT 
 for its amount ; also calhng the strength of the joint P, the equation of rupture is, 
 
 P == S + FT = VB2 - T-' + FT.
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 359 
 
 Conway bridges, but does not enter into the subject at any length. 
 
 In the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for i860, 
 
 an account is published of exj)eriments conducted by Mr. Mumford 
 
 by the direction of Lloyd's Committee in order to test some 
 
 arrangements of butt-fastenings, and it will be remembered that 
 
 the conclusions deduced from those experiments were given in 
 
 Chapter X. It will be sufficient, therefore, to state here with 
 
 respect to the latter experiments, that it was considered that single 
 
 riveting was proved to be too weak for the butt-fastenings of iron 
 
 ships, and that double chain-riveted butts Ave re stronger than 
 
 double zigzag-riveted butts.* Mr. Fairbairu's experiments were 
 
 made with single-riveted and double-riveted joints, and tlie final 
 
 results at which he arrives are as follows : — 
 
 Taking the strength of the plate as 100 
 
 The strength of the double riveted joint would be 70 
 
 And the strength of the single riveted joint 56 
 
 It should be stated that the strength of the plate here taken 
 
 is that of a cross section where it is unpunched, and that Mr. 
 
 Fairbairn gives the following relative values of the strength of 
 
 the plate through a row of rivet-holes in the joint, and of single 
 
 and double riveted joints respectively : — 
 
 Taking the strength of the plate as 100 
 
 The strength of the double-riveted joint would be 97 
 
 And the strength of the single-riveted joint 76 
 
 One very important fact to be borne in mind is that the total 
 sectional strength of the rivets in the lap, or on one side of the 
 butt, should be made equal to the sectional strength of the plate 
 taken through a line of rivet-holes. The rule on which calculations 
 for the pitch and number of rivets in a butt or lap joint are usually 
 made for Admiralty work is based on this consideration. It will 
 be observed that this equality of strength is not fully attained 
 in the plan employed by Mr. Fairbairn and others in bridge 
 construction, and recommended by some writers for ship construc- 
 tion, viz., " that the collective areas of the rivets should be 
 " equal to the sectional area of the plate taken through the line 
 " of rivets." This principle is based upon the suj^position that 
 
 * In 1855 a set of experiments was made at Woolwich dockyard in order to test the 
 strengtlis of riveted joints, as compared with joints welded on Mr. Bertram's jjlan. 
 The information given with respect to tliese experiments is wanting in detail, and tlie 
 tabulated results show great discrepancies iu tlie quality of the iron in the plates, so 
 that it is impossible to put them to any practical use.
 
 360 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 the sttearing strength of the finished rivet is about equal to tlie 
 breaking strength of the punched plate — a supposition which 
 the Admiralty experiments do not fully bear out. Those experi- 
 ments give a somewhat higher value to the strength per square 
 inch of the finished rivet than to the punched plate. 
 
 In the use made by Mr. Fairbairn of the deductions from his 
 experiments one feature claims esiJecial notice, viz., the statement 
 that the comparison of the strength of the joint with the strength 
 of the unpunched plate may be safely taken as the standard value of 
 joints. This comparison would be strictly correct in the case of a 
 plate-tie which is unpierced except at the butts and ends, and 
 requires to be specially strengthened at these parts. But in a 
 ship, and most other wrought-iron structures, where the plates are 
 necessarily pierced by holes which receive the fastenings of the 
 frames and other stiffeners, it would evidently be worse than 
 useless to make the butts as strong as the unpierced plates ; for 
 in order to secure uniformity of strength, it is only necessary to 
 make the butts as strong as the unavoidably weakest section of 
 the plates. The assumption that it is desirable to bring up the 
 strength of the butt to the strength of the unpunched plate has 
 been the basis on which most novel proposals for butt-fastenings 
 have rested, but, as we shall see more clearly in the following 
 examples, the present practice of iron shipbuilders supplies amj)le 
 strength if the fastenings are well arranged. Mr. Fairbairn, how- 
 ever, in advocating the adoption of quadruple chain-riveting for 
 the butts of outside plating, says, "it is to be hoped that vessels 
 " will not in future be built at a loss of one-third of the longi- 
 " tudinal tenacity as at present." * As he speaks immediately 
 before this of his knowledge of the custom of double riveting the 
 butts, and expresses his opinion that this system of fastening is 
 comparatively weak, it seems fair to conclude that he has applied 
 the comparison made by him between the strength of the un- 
 punched plate and the double -riveted joint to an actual ship, 
 without taking into account the lines of unavoidable weakness 
 caused by the holes which receive the fastenings of the outside 
 plating to the frames. This is obviously incorrect, for, as remarked 
 above, in providing for the due strength of a single strake, the 
 
 * In a paper on " The Strength of Iron Ships," in the ' Transactions of the Insti- 
 tution of Naval Arcliitects for I860;' also printed in the second series of 'Useful 
 Information for Engineers.'
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 361 
 
 strength of the butts need only be brought up to the strength 
 of the weakened sections of the plates, in order to preserve 
 uniformity of strength. If the maximum strength of the plat- 
 ing were required to be attained, it might be considered de- 
 sirable to increase the strength of the weakened sections at the 
 frames by the use of broad liners such as are now fitted at bulk- 
 heads, and then the strength of the butts would require to be 
 brought up to the strength of the unpunched plates. But as 
 vessels are at present constructed, it would be a waste of both 
 materials and workmanshij) to make the strength of the butts 
 greater than that of the weakened sections. These remarks upon 
 Mr. Fairbairn's statements are not intended to detract in the least 
 from the undoubted value of his experiments, and the general 
 correctness of his deductions, but to point out what, in our esti- 
 mation, is an error into which he, in common with many other 
 writers on the subject, has fallen, in urging the adoption of treble 
 and quadruple systems of riveting in iron ship construction. We 
 do so because we hold it to be of great importance that shipbuilders 
 should not be urged into the use of unnecessary iron, or of super- 
 fluous labour. 
 
 Coming now to the consideration of the manner in which butt- 
 fastenings should be arranged, it may be well to commence with 
 the simplest case, that of a plate -tie which is unpierced except 
 at the butts and ends. In this case, which will serve as an intro- 
 duction to shipbuilding examples, it is desirable, as previously 
 remarked, to make the strength of the butt approximate as closely 
 as possible to the strength of a section of the unpmiched plate. 
 By a proper proportioning and disposition of the fastenings this 
 result can be very nearly attained. , In a paper on ' Wrought-iron 
 Beams' in the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers for 
 1855, Mr. Barton makes the following remarks : — " There is no 
 " necessity for any serious loss of strength if a judicious mode 
 " of connecting the 
 " bars is adopted. The 
 " author devised the 
 " method illustrated 
 "in Fig. 244, and 
 " tested it severely by 
 
 1 . . . Fiff 244 
 
 " employmg it m con- 
 
 " necting bauds for lifting stone instead of using chains for the
 
 J 
 
 6 2 Rivets and Rivet- Work. Chap. X V 1 1 . 
 
 " purpose ; and he found that when fracture took place it occurred, 
 " either at some distance from the joint, or where the small rivet- 
 *' hole was placed, sliowing that the full strength of the section, 
 " with the exception of tliis small rivet-hole was obtained by this 
 " arrangement." In this case the plates are lap-jointed, but in 
 the following case of the fastenings of a plate-tie (which my friend 
 and assistant Mr. Barnaby worked out in detail), the plates are 
 butt-jointed, although the principle on which both arrangements 
 are based, is that the butt shall be as strong as the unpunched 
 plate, with the exception of one rivet-hole. The investigation of 
 the latter case is given in the fuller detail, because the method 
 of calculation here emjiloyed is identical in character with that of 
 the investigations of the cases taken from actual practice which 
 follow. The plates united to form the tie are |§ inch thick and 
 24 inches wide, with double butt-straps each -^^ inch thick, riveted 
 with 1-inch rivets arranged as sliown by a in Fig. 245, it being 
 obvious that the use of extra thickness in the butt-straps must in 
 this case be resorted to, because the strength of the straps through 
 the line of holes next the butt has to be made equal to the strength 
 of the j)late through the single rivet-hole. The ordinary rule ob- 
 served in shipbuilding is carried into effect here, all the rivet-holes 
 being a diameter clear of the edges and butts. The tensile strength 
 of the unpunched plate is assumed to be 22 tons per square inch 
 of section, and it hence follows that we have — 
 
 Breaking strength of the unpunched tie = 24" x jg" x 22 tons - 330 tons. 
 
 The butt may be fractured by breaking either the plate, or the 
 butt-straps, and shearing the rivets. There are altogether ten 
 modes of fracture which we prgj^ose to examine, commencing with 
 those in which the 'plate is broken, observing that although the 
 plates or straps might break in other ways, these ten modes appear 
 sufficient for the present investigation, as they apparently comprise 
 all the weakest cases. In these investigations we shall take the 
 double shearing strength of a 1-incli rivet at 32 tons, this value 
 being obtained from the data previously given in this chapter. 
 Tlie simplest mode of fracture is that illustrated by h in Fig. 245 
 where the plate has been broken through the single rivet-hole. As 
 there is only this one hole in the breadth of the plate it will be 
 fair to assume that the iron in the line of fracture retains its full 
 strength of 22 tons per square inch. The effective breadth of the
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet -Work. 
 
 363 
 
 plate is reduced by the rivet-hole to 23 inches, and we conse- 
 quently have for Mode I. : — 
 
 Breaking strength = 23" X jg" x 22 tons = 316 tons. 
 
 A second mode of fracture is shown by c in 
 Fig. 245, where the plate has been broken 
 across two rivet-holes, and the single rivet 
 
 Fig. 245. 
 
 has been sheared twice. In this case also it may be fairly assumed 
 that the tensile strength of the iron in the line of fracture is 
 almost unchanged by the punchiug of the two holes. The effective 
 breadth of the plate is reduced to 22 inches by the two rivet-holes, 
 and we thus obtain for Mode II. : — 
 
 Breaking strength of plate = 22" x |§" x 22 tons = 303 tons. 
 Added for double shear of one rivet = 32 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 335 , , 
 
 A third mode of fracture is given in d in Fig. 245, where the 
 plate has been broken through three rivet-holes, and three rivets 
 have been sheared twice. In this case the tensile strength of the 
 iron in the line of fracture may be considered to have been reduced 
 by punching the holes to 20 tons per square inch. The effective 
 breadth of the plate is 21 inches, and we have for Mode III. : —
 
 364 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 Breaking strength of plate = 21" x |g" x 20 tons = 203 tons. 
 Added for double shear of three rivets := 9tj , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 359 , , 
 
 A fourth mode of fracture is illustrated by e in Fig. 245, where 
 the plate has been broken through the row of rivet-holes nearest 
 the butt, and the remaining six rivets on that side of the butt 
 have been sheared twice. Here, as the pitch of the rivets is about 
 four diameters, it will be proper to take 18 tons as the tensile 
 strength of the iron in the line of fracture. The effective breadth of 
 the plate is reduced to 19 inches, and we obtain for Mode IV. : — 
 
 Breaking strength of plate = 19" x |g" x 18 tons - 214 tons. 
 Added for double shear of six rivets = 192 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 40(3 , , 
 
 A fifth mode of fracture consists in shearing twice the eleven rivets 
 on one side of the butt, and this gives for Mode V. : — 
 Breaking strength = 11 x 32 tons — 352 tons. 
 
 Before proceeding to consider the other cases of fracture in which 
 the stra2)s are broken across, it may be well to state that we shall 
 assume 18 tons per square inch to be the tensile strength of the 
 iron in all the lines of fracture, the breadth of the straps being 
 proportioned in such a manner as to bring all the rivets within a 
 diameter of the edges, as before described. A sixth mo'le of frac- 
 ture is illustrated by / in Fig. 245, where the straps have been 
 broken across the single rivet-hole, and the remaining ten rivets 
 on that side of the butt have been sheared twice. Kemembering 
 that there are double straps each -^^ inch thick, and that the 
 effective breadth of the straps along the line of fracture is 2 inches, 
 we obtain for Mode VI. : — 
 
 Breaking strength of straps = 2 x 2" x {^' x 18 tons = 41 tons. 
 Added for double shear of ten rivets = 320 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 3G1 
 
 A seventh mode of fracture is shown by g in Fig. 245, where 
 the straps have been broken through two rivet-holes, and the eight 
 rivets between the fracture and the butt have been sheared twice. 
 The total breadth of the strap at this part is 8 inches, and its effec- 
 tive breadth is consequently 6 inches, thus giviug for Mode VII. : — 
 
 Breaking strength of straps = 2 x 6" x •^" X 18 tons = 122 tons. 
 Added for double shear of eight rivets = 256 , , 
 
 Total brcakmg strength = 378 , ,
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets mid Rivet - Work. 
 
 3^5 
 
 An eighth mode of fracture is given in 7i Fig. 245, where the 
 straps have been broken through three rivet-holes and the five 
 rivets nearest the butt have been sheared twice. The total breadth 
 of the strap is here 12 inches, and the effective breadth 9 inches ; 
 we thus obtain for Mode VIII. : — 
 
 Breaking strength of straps = 2 x 9" X fg" x 18 tons = 182 tons. 
 Added for double shear of five rivets =160 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength — 342 , , 
 
 Another mode of fracture is shown by k in Fig. 245, where the 
 straps have been broken through the five holes nearest the butt. 
 The effective breadth of the strap is here 19 inches, and we obtain 
 for Mode IX. :— 
 
 Breaking strength = 2 x 19" x fg" x 18 tons = 385 tons. 
 
 The remaining mode of fracture is illustrated by I in Fig. 245, 
 
 where the straps have been broken as in Mode VIII., and the plate 
 
 has been broken through the line of holes nearest the butt. We 
 
 thus have for IMode X. : — 
 
 Breaking strength of straps, as in Mode VIII. = 182 tons. 
 ,, ,, plate, as in Mode IV. ..=214 ,, 
 
 Total breaking strength = 396 , , 
 
 It will be seen from these results that in all the various modes 
 of fracture, except the first, the breaking strength is greater than 
 the strength of the unpunched tie-plate, and that the strength of 
 the butt is, consequently, less than the strength of the tie by one 
 rivet hole only. 
 
 Passing now from the consideration of plate-ties, we proceed to 
 investigate a few cases of butt fastenings taken from actual prac- 
 tice. The first case is illustrated by 
 Fig. 246, which represents the manner 
 in which the butt of a stringer-plate a 
 (36 by f inches) is secured in an 
 iron-clad frigate. In this ship the 
 beams are covered with J inch plating, 
 marked b in the sketch, and the 
 stringer a is worked upon it. The 
 butt straps are double, each being 
 -^Q inch thick, the upper strap coming 
 directly upon the stringer and extend- 
 ing across the whole width, and the lower 
 one being worked below the ^ inch plating and extending from the 
 
 
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 e 
 
 Fig. 246.
 
 S(^6 Rivets mid Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 edge of the angle-irou c to the edge of the stringer. The rivets 
 used are i-inch, those in the outer rows having a pitch of about 
 five and a half diameters, and the intermediate rivets being omitted 
 in the rows nearest the butts. This arrangement is adopted in 
 order to allow the edges of the strap to be efficiently caulked, and 
 yet to keep the shearing strength of the rivets from becoming 
 much greater than is required. The weakest section of the stringer 
 is that through a line of rivet and deck-fastening holes in wake of 
 the beams, and the strength of the butt should be made, as nearly 
 as possible, equal to the strength of the stringer at the beams. As 
 there would be about nine holes for rivets and deck-fastenings * in 
 each beam, and an equal number of rivets is required in the row 
 of rivet-holes furthest from the butt in order to make a watertight 
 joint, the equality of strength is at once obtained, so far as the 
 stringer-plate is concerned. It is still necessary, however, to 
 examine how the strength of the fastenings is proportioned to the 
 strength of the stringer. The effective breadth of the strinjrer 
 through the line of rivet-holes furthest from the butt is reduced to 
 29^ inches, and the effective sectional area to 18^ sq. inches. 
 Assuming, as before, the strength of the punched plate to be 18 tons 
 per sq. inch, this gives a breaking strength for the stringer-plate 
 of 328^ tons. There are twenty-three rivets on each side of the 
 butt, and taking the double shear of a |-inch rivet at 18 tons, 
 the strength of the butt fastenings will equal 414 tons. It appears 
 therefore that tlie fastenings are considerably stronger than the 
 plate in this case, the result being principally due to the additional 
 strength obtained by the use of double butt straps. The pitch of 
 the rivets in the outer rows is fixed by the consideration that the 
 edge of the strap is to be made watertight, but if it were consi- 
 dered desirable to reduce the shearing strength of the butt fasten- 
 ings, some of the rivets in the middle rows might be omitted ; and, 
 in point of fact, double-riveting would have been nearly sufficient. 
 It will be obvious that in this case there is no necessity for calcu- 
 lating the breaking strengths corresponding to any other modes of 
 fracture, as they would require either the plate or the straps to 
 be broken through a line of rivet-holes, and a row of rivets to 
 be sheared, thus giving greater breaking strengths than either 
 
 * Our remarks in Chapter IX. will show that we do not consider this a good 
 arrangement, as the deck fastenings should be brought out up on the deck plating 
 between the beams.
 
 Ch A p. X V 1 1 . Rivets and Rivet - Work. 367 
 
 of the preceding calculations. It will also appear that since the 
 united thickness of the butt straps equals the thickness of 
 the stringer, that fracture will always take place across the plate 
 rather than across the straj)s ; we shall revert to this matter 
 further on. One other feature of this arrangement claims atten- 
 tion, viz., the working of double straps at the stringer butt, when 
 the double shear of the rivets might be secured by working a 
 single strap upon the stringer, and making the :^-inch plating 
 serve as the lower strap. It is evident, however, that the single 
 strap would require to be thicker than that now fitted in order to 
 give sufficient strength ; and that if the ;^-inch plating were made to 
 serve as a strap to the stringer-butt its own strength and efficiency 
 would be lost, and the full benefits which now result from the use 
 of a stringer that is butt-strapped independently would not be 
 attained. 
 
 The method wliich should be pursued in arranging the butt 
 fastenings of a stringer may be briefly indicated here. Having 
 settled the pitch of the rivets in the beams, the area of the 
 unavoidably weakest section adjacent to the butt becomes known. 
 The diameter of the rivets is, of course, determined from the 
 thickness of the plate in accordance with the tables previously 
 given. The number of rivets required on each side of the butt 
 may then be determined, from the consideration that the shearing 
 strength of the rivets should at least equal the breaking strength 
 of the stringer at the beam. Supposing, for instance, that W tons 
 is the breaking strength of the stringer at the beam, and S is the 
 shearing strength of each rivet in the butt fastenings (either for a 
 single or a double shear, according as single or double butt-straps 
 
 are employed), then the minimum number of rivets required will 
 
 w 
 be ^. In placing the rivets care must be taken not to have the 
 
 section of the stringer through the row of rivet-holes farthest from 
 the butt weaker than the section at the beam. Ordinary stringer- 
 butts, of course, do not require to be caulked, and can conse- 
 quently be either double or treble riveted according to the number 
 of rivets required and the breadth of the stringer. If, as in the 
 case given in Fig. 246, the butt has to be caulked, the rivets 
 nearest the edges of the straps must be sj)aced close enough for 
 watertight work; but this is a special case as before stated. In 
 determining the thickness of the butt-strap which is required, it 
 is only necessary to avoid any arrangement which would allow the
 
 368 Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 butt to separate by the fracture of the strap rather than by the 
 breaking of the phite. In considering this point it is, of course, 
 necessary to take account of the manner in which the shearing 
 strength of the rivets in the butt acts, in more efficiently assisting 
 either the j^late or the strap. In the case illustrated in Fig. 246, 
 it wiU be remarked that the butt might be separated by breaking 
 the stringer across the line of rivet-holes farthest from the butts 
 without shearing any rivets ; whereas if the straps broke through 
 this row of holes the other two rows of rivets would have to be 
 sheared before sej)aration took place. Hence the united thielvness 
 of the straps in this case might be made less than the thickness of 
 the stringer without reducing the strength of the butt. The con- 
 verse is true with respect to the butt fastening shown in Fig. 152, 
 p. 206, where the strap is required to be thicker than the plate, in 
 order to give the proper strength. This will be obvious to the 
 reader if he follows out a similar mode of reasoning to that given 
 above. In practice, single butt-straps to stringers and tie-plates 
 are usually of the same thickness as the plates they connect, and 
 when double butt-straps are employed, each strap is about -^ inch 
 thicker than the half-thickness of the plates. The foregoing con- 
 siderations show, however, that in arranging work it is very desirable 
 that the special circumstances of each particular case should be 
 carefully regarded. 
 
 The preceding method of investigation is also applicable to 
 deck tie-plates, clamp or spirketing plates, and other of the longi- 
 tudinal pieces of a ship's frame, where it is only necessary to con- 
 sider the strength of a single tie. But when it is desired to properly 
 arrange the butt fastenings of outside or deck plating, it becomes 
 necessary to take into consideration, not merely the butted plate, 
 but some portion of the adjacent plating, and to investigate the 
 amount of strength obtained from the edge riveting in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the butt. The portion of the adjacent strakes of 
 plating which has to be included in the calculation of the breaking 
 strengths, varies, of course, with the shift of butts adopted. For 
 example, with two passing strakes between consecutive butts in the 
 same transverse section, it would be necessary to take into account 
 the streng-th of the strake on each side of the butted strake ; and 
 Avith four passing strakes between consecutive butts, two strakes 
 on each side of the butted strake would requii-e to be included in 
 the calculations. It may be remarked here that, until recently, it
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 369 
 
 has been the general practice to consider the arrangement of butt 
 fastenings as requiring to be determined from the consideration of 
 the butted strake only; but, as we shall see from the following 
 examples, this is not the correct method. It will be observed 
 also that the arguments for the adoption of treble and quadruple 
 riveted butts have been based upon experiments made with two 
 plates either lap or butt jointed, which cannot be considered as 
 applicable to assemblages of plating where the butts are carefully 
 shifted. These considerations, added to those previously stated 
 with respect to the unavoidable lines of weakness at the frames 
 and beams, serve to show that double riveting gives sufficient 
 strength to the butts of outside and deck plating, when the ordinary 
 shifts of butts are followed. The following examples of the method 
 of calculation which, in our opinion, fairly includes all the required 
 considerations, and may be safely applied in practice, are taken 
 from the outside plating of one of the iron-clad frigates of the 
 navy, and of a iirst-class ocean mail steam-ship. The first case is 
 illustrated in Fig. 153, p. 207, and is taken from the ' Hercules,' 
 as built. The sketch shows an inside view of four strakes of the 
 bottom plating, those marked a and c being outside strakes, and 
 those marked h and d inside strakes. All the plates are | inch 
 thick, and the rivets are 1 inch in diameter. The butt-straps to 
 outside strakes are |^-inch thick, and those to inside strakes are 
 W inch. The diagonal shift of butts is adopted, and there are con- 
 sequently two passing strakes between consecutive butts in the same 
 frame space. The butts A B of the outside strake c, and C D of 
 the inside strake h are those of which the strengths of the fasten- 
 ings are to be investigated. As before remarked, it will be neces- 
 sary in making the calculations to take into account the strength 
 of the strake on each side of the butted strake. Thus in investi- 
 gating the proportionate strength of the butt A B, it will be neces- 
 sary to consider the strakes h, c, and d ; and in dealing with the 
 butt C D the strakes a, b, and c must be taken into account. The 
 strakes a and c are each 3 feet 6 inches broad, the strake J is 4 feet 
 1 inch broad, and cZ is 4 feet. The frame marked w in the sketch 
 is a watertight plate-frame, and consequently the pitch of the 
 rivets which secure the bottom plating to it is less than that of 
 the rivets in the bracket frames /, /. It is evident, therefore, that 
 the weakest sections of the plating would be at the frames such as 
 w, unless special means were used to compensate for the loss of 
 
 2 B
 
 37° Rivets and Rivet -Work. Chap. xvii. 
 
 strength resulting from the closeness of the rivets. This compen- 
 sation can be made by the use of broad liner pieces under the 
 frames w^ similar to those marked e, e, which serve as butt-straps to 
 the weakened sections in the manner previously explained when 
 describing bulldiead connections. By this means the weakest 
 sections of the plating are brought into the lines of rivet-holes in 
 wake of the bracket frames /, /, at which the liners are not 
 designed to add to the strength of the section. As previously 
 remarked, the strength of the butt must be at least as great as the 
 strength of the section through the line of rivet-holes at the frames 
 /,/; or, in other w^ords, the section through the butt must be at 
 least as strong as the weakest section, in order that uniformity of 
 strength may be preserved. In considering the modes of frac- 
 tiu-e which are possible to the three plates that have to be taken 
 in connection with each butt, we may for convenience arrange them 
 in the following order : — 
 
 I. The plates may be broken down through the line of rivet- 
 holes at the bracket frame nearest to the butt of which 
 the fastenings are under consideration. The supposed 
 lines of fracture in each case are marked E F. 
 
 II. The adjacent plates to that which is butted may break 
 along the line E F as before, and the butt fastenings on 
 one side of the butt, together with the edge fastenings 
 between the butt and the line E F, may be sheared. 
 III. The second mode of fracture may be varied by the butt- 
 strap being broken down the line of rivet-holes nearest 
 the butt, instead of the fastenings on one side of the butt 
 being sheared. 
 
 IV. The second mode of fracture may also be varied by break- 
 ing the butted plate down through the row of rivet-holes 
 marked K L, and shearing the edge fastenings between 
 the lines EF and KL. 
 
 V. The plates on each side of the butted plate, and the butt- 
 strap may be supposed to break along the line G H, which 
 passes down through a line of rivet-holes in the butt. 
 
 VI. The preceding mode of fractui'e may be varied by the butt 
 fastenings on one side of the butt being sheared instead 
 of the butt-strap being broken along the line G H. 
 
 The tensile strength of the unpuuched plate will be assumed to
 
 C HAP. XV 1 1 . Rivets and Rivet - Work. 371 
 
 be 22 tons per sq. inch, and that of the punched plate for all 
 except the two last modes of fracture will be taken at 18 tons. In 
 the last two modes there are so few holes in the lines of fracture 
 that it will be fair to assume that no allowance need be made for the 
 reduction caused by punching. The single shearing strength of a 
 1-inch rivet is taken at 17^ tons. All these values have been 
 ascertained to be the average strengths by the experiments pre- 
 viously referred to. 
 
 We will first calculate the breaking strengths of the butt A B 
 and the plates 5, c, and d for the supposed modes of fracture. 
 
 Mode I. — Total breadth of plates, 6, c, and d . = 139 inches. 
 Eivet-holes in line E F . . . . = 27 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth . . . = 112 , , 
 Breaking strength = 112" x %' X 18 tons . . = 1764 tons. 
 
 Mode II. — Total breadth of plates h and d . . = 97 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture . . = 19 , , 
 
 .•. Effective breadth 
 
 . = 75 
 
 Strength of plates 6 and d = 78" x I" x 18 tons = 1228 tons. 
 Added for shear of rivets = 36 x 17J tons . . = 610 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1868 , , 
 
 Mode III. — Total breadth of strap to c . . . . = 31 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture . . . = 8 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth . . . . = 23 , , 
 
 Strength of the strap = 23" x I" x 18 tons . . = 362 tons. 
 
 Strength of h and d, as above = 1228 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 20 x 17J tons = 355 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1945 , , 
 
 Mode IV. — Total breadth of plate c . . . . = 42 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line K L =12 ,, 
 
 .-. Effective breadth . . . . = 30 , , 
 
 Strength of plate c = 30" X I" x 18 tons . . = 472 tons. 
 
 Strength of h and d, as above = 1228 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 12 x 17| tons = 213 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1913 , , 
 
 Mode V. — Total breadth of plates b and d . . = 97 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture . . . = 8 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth . . . . ^ 89 ,, 
 
 Strength of plates b and fZ = 89" x g" x 22 tons = 1713 tons. 
 Strength of strap to c (as in Mode III.) . . . = 362 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 2075 , , 
 
 2 B 2
 
 372 Rivets and Rivet- Work. Chap, xvi i . 
 
 Mode VI. — Strength of h and d, as above = 1713 tons. 
 
 Added for shear of butt fastenings = 16 X 17? tons = 284 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1997 , , 
 
 For the butt C D, and the plates a, h, and e we find the follow- 
 ing values for the breaking strengths : — 
 
 Mode I. — Total breadth of plates a, 6, and c . . = 133 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line E F = 26 , , 
 
 .-. Eflfective breadth . . . . = 107 , , 
 Breaking strength . = 107" x i" x 18 tons . . = 1685 tons. 
 
 Mode II. — Total breadth of plates a and c . . . = 84 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in lino of fracture . . . = 16 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth = 68 , , 
 
 Strength of plates a and c = 68" x |" x 18 tons . = 1071 tons. 
 Added for shear of rivets = 44 x 17^ tons . . . = 782 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1853 , , 
 
 Mode III. — Total breadth of strap to 6 . . . . = 49 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture . . . = 12 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth = 37 , , 
 
 Strength of strap to & = 37" x |g" x 18 tons . . = 541 tons. 
 
 Strength of a and c, as above = 1071 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 20 x 17| tons = 355 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1967 , , 
 
 Mode IV. — Total breadth of plate h =49 inches. 
 
 Rivet-holes in line K L =12 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth = 37 , , 
 
 Strength of plate 6 = 37" x J" x 18 tons . . . = 583 tons. 
 
 Strength of a and c, as above = 1071 , , 
 
 Added for sliear of rivets in edges = 12 x 17^ tons = 213 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1867 
 
 Mode V. — Total breadth of plates a and c . . . = 84 inches. 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture . . . = 10 , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth =74 , , 
 
 Strength of plates a and e = 74" x |" x 22 tons = 1424 tons. 
 Strength of strap to h (as in Mode III.) . . . = 541 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1965 
 
 Mode VI. — Strength of a and c, as above = 1424 tons. 
 
 Added for shear of butt fastenings = 24 x 17^ tons = 427 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 1851 
 
 If the strengths at the lines E F are taken as unity for each
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 zn 
 
 butt, we may put the results of the preceding calculations in the 
 followins: form : — 
 
 strength by Mode II. 
 , , III. 
 , , IV. 
 ,, V. 
 , , VI. 
 
 Butt A B. 
 
 059 
 102 
 084 
 176 
 132 
 
 Butt C D. 
 
 099 
 167 
 108 
 166 
 098 
 
 From this table it can be readily seen exactly how much stronger 
 the butt fastenings are than the section of the plating through the 
 line E F. The above may be regarded as a well-arranged system 
 of fastening, as it makes the plating at the butt stronger, under 
 every circumstance of fracture, than the weakest section of the 
 plating ; but at the same time does not give, in any case, a very 
 great margin of strength in favour of the fastenings, nor involve 
 excessive weight or labour. 
 
 The second example of this method of calculation is based 
 upon the sketch of bottom plating given in Fig. 247, which is 
 taken from the Cunard liner 
 * Samaria,' lately built by 
 Messrs. Thomson of Glas- 
 gow. This case may be 
 regarded as a favourable 
 instance of the highest class 
 of merchant-ship construc- 
 tion (excepting in so far as 
 the use of one passing strake 
 only is concerned), but must 
 not be taken as an illus- 
 tration of the average ar- 
 rangement of iron ships, as 
 the care here taken in 
 arranging the fastenings is 
 very often almost entirely 
 wanting. In order to avoid 
 repetition, the possible lines 
 of fracture are marked with 
 the same letters in this sketch as in Fig. 153, p. 207. Here the 
 strakes a and c are inside strakes, and h and d are outside strakes. 
 
 1 
 
 £ 
 f 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 |-| 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 JO 
 
 „.— c 
 
 a 
 
 ° V" 
 
 
 
 o -/- 
 
 
 
 if l°o 
 
 
 ; L 
 
 » 
 
 fi— 
 
 Ikic 
 
 o°c 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 = iii'„ °„ 
 
 o ^0°o° 0°C. 
 
 o 
 
 °o°o°o°o 
 
 i ° ' 1 
 
 
 
 
 c. 
 
 
 L\a 
 
 e 
 
 - 
 
 e 
 
 
 :^° 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 0^ 
 
 „° 
 
 = 
 
 ° .-, 
 
 ,%^l! 
 
 ° n°0°0°0° 
 
 » 
 
 o",",".^ 
 
 °'SM^'h° 
 
 -e 
 
 
 :« 
 
 
 
 = d 
 
 c._. 
 
 \ L\D 
 
 ° ' 
 5 "H 
 
 °j 
 
 
 =■; 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 L 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Fig. 2«
 
 374 Rivets a7id Rivet -Work. Chap. XVII. 
 
 The plates and butt-straps are f inch thick, and the rivets are | inch 
 in diameter. The breadth of the strake a is 3 feet, that of 5 2 feet 
 8 inches, that of <? 3 feet 6 inches, and that of cZ 3 feet 1 inch. The 
 brick arrangement of butts is adopted, and there is consequently 
 only one passing strake between two consecutive butts in the same 
 frame space. It will be necessary, therefore, to take into account 
 the strength of one-half the breadth of the strake on each side of 
 the butted strake in making the calculations of the breaking 
 strengths. The lines marked e e are drawn at the middle of the 
 various strakes, and it will be observed that fracture is supposed 
 to begin at them. The same values will be employed for the 
 strengths of punched and unpunched plates as were used in the pre- 
 ceding calculation, and the single shearing strength of a |-inch 
 rivet will be taken at 13f tons. The modes of fracture being 
 arranged and numbered as before, we obtain the following breaking 
 strengths for the butt A B and the strake b, together with the 
 strakes a and c out to the lines e e. 
 
 Mode I. — Total length of the line E F =71 inches. 
 
 Rivet-holes in ,, „ ....= 9/5,, 
 
 .-. Eifective length = 61jg ,, 
 
 Breaking strength = 61,V x ^" x 18 tons . . . = 834 tons. 
 
 Mode II. — Total length of the line of fracture of a and c = 39 niches. 
 Rivet-holes in ,, „ „ = 4j| , , 
 
 .-. Effective length = 34,^ , , 
 
 Strength of a and c = 34f5" xf" X 18 tons . . . .= 462 tons. 
 Added for shear of rivets = 19 x 13| tons = 260 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 722 , , 
 
 Mode III. — Total breadth of strap to & =22 inches. 
 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture = 5J , , 
 
 .•. Eifective length = 16| , , 
 
 Strength of the strap = IGJ" x f x 18 tons . . . . = 226 tons. 
 
 Strength of a and c, as above = 462 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 6 x 13§ tons . . . = 82 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 770 , , 
 
 Mode IV.— Total breadtli of plate h =32 inches. 
 
 Rivet-] loles in line K L = 7| , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth =24^,, 
 
 Strength of plate h = 24^ x |" x 18 tons =326 tons. 
 
 Strength of a and c, as above = 462 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 2 x 13| tons. . . = 27 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 815 , ,
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 375 
 
 Mode V. — Total lengtli of line of fracture of a and c = 39 inches. 
 Kivet-holes in „ „ „ = If , , 
 
 .-. Effective length = 37J , , 
 
 Strength of a and c = 37^' x |" x 22 tons =615 tons. 
 
 Strength of strap to h (as in Mode III.) = 226 , ., 
 
 Total breaking strength = 841 , , 
 
 Mode VI.— Strength of a and c, as above = 615 tons. 
 
 Added for shear of butt fastenings = 13 x 13§ tons . . = 178 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 793 , , 
 
 For the butt C D and the plates h, c, and d, we obtain the fol- 
 lowing breaking strengths : — 
 
 BIoDE I.— Total length of the line E F = 76| inches. 
 
 Kivet-lioles in „ =10^^,, 
 
 .-. Effective length = 66/5 , , 
 
 Breaking strength = 66^" X. |" x 18 tons . . . . = 897 tons. 
 
 Mode II. — Total length of the Line of fracture of 6 and d = 34.| inches. 
 Rivet-holes in „ „ „ = m ,, 
 
 .-. Effective length = 29j^ , , 
 
 Strength of h and d - 29|^" x f x 18 tons =401 tons. 
 
 Added for shear of rivets = 27 x 13§ tons = 369 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 770 , , 
 
 Mode III. — Total breadth of strap to c =42 inches. 
 
 Rivet-holes in line of fracture = 9| , , 
 
 .-. Effective breadth = 32| , , 
 
 Strength of strap = 32§" x |" x 18 tons = 437 tons. 
 
 Strength of h and d, as above = 401 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 6 x 13§ tons . . . = 82 , , 
 
 Total breaking strength = 920 , , 
 
 Mode IV. — Total breadth of plate =42 inches. 
 
 Kivet-holes in line K L 
 
 — Oj 
 
 .-. Effective breadth =33^,, 
 
 Strength of plate c = 33J" x f " x IS tons = 449 tons. 
 
 Strength of h and d, as above = 401 , , 
 
 Added for shear of rivets in edges = 2 x I33 tons . . . = 27 , , 
 
 877 ,, 
 Mode V. — Total length of line of fracture of h and d . . = 34.| inches. 
 Rivet-holes in „ „ „ . . = 1| , , 
 
 .-. Effective length = 32| , , 
 
 Strength of h and d = 32:|" X f x 22 tons = 540 tons. 
 
 Strength of strap to c, (as in Mode HI.) = 437 , , 
 
 977 ,,
 
 31^ 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Mode VI. — Strength of 6 and d as above = 540 tous. 
 
 Added for shear of butt fasteninars = 21 x 1.3? tons . . — 287 , , 
 
 827 
 
 Assuming as before that the strengths of the unavoidably weak 
 sections E F are taken as unity for each butt, we arrive at the 
 following results : — 
 
 Butt A 15. 
 
 Butt C D 
 
 Breaking strength by Mode II. 
 
 , , ni. 
 
 , , IV. 
 , , V. 
 , , VI. 
 
 •865 
 •923 
 •977 
 l^OOS 
 •950 
 
 •858 
 [•026 
 
 •978 
 [•089 
 
 •922 
 
 From this table it will be seen that the butt fastenings in this 
 ship are, on the whole, fairly arranged, but it will be remarked that 
 for both the butts of the inside and outside strakes there are 
 modes of fracture for which the breaking strengths are more than 
 one-tenth less than those required to separate the plates along the 
 unavoidable weak sections E F. The strength of the ship is thus 
 made less than it would be if the butt fastenings were brought 
 up to a strength a little above that along the lines E F, which 
 result might be arrived at by increasing the number of the rivets 
 in both the butts, and the thickness of the straj) to the butt 
 A B ; or, which would be much better, by avoiding the brick 
 fashion shift of butts, and increasing the number of passing 
 strakes as in the ' Hercules.' 
 
 It may be well here to call attention to the fact that in the 
 preceding calculations we have neglected the shearing strength 
 of the rivets in the frames adjacent to the butts, which would 
 tend to increase the breaking strengths corresponding to some 
 other modes of fracture. We have only taken account of the 
 fastenings of the plating to the frames in so far as the plating 
 is weakened by the holes punched to receive these fastenings ; 
 but it must be remembered that the breaking strengths of those 
 modes where the lines of fracture cross transverse frames, will be 
 increased by the assistance rendered by the shearing strength of 
 the rivets in the frames, or the breaking across of the frames 
 themselves. In the modes of fracture taken in the preceding 
 calculations the breaking lines do not cross the frames, and con- 
 sequently no account is taken of the strength of the frames or
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet - Woi^k. 2>11 
 
 their fastenings. A further small correction should also in 
 strictness be made on account of the reduction which the 
 plates undergo in countersinking the holes ; and it would be 
 desirable in many cases to include this reduction in similar 
 calculations. 
 
 In cases such as the preceding, where the butt fastenings of 
 plates forming portions of assemblages of plating have to be 
 arranged, the following order of procedure may be observed 
 advantageously. The shift of butts, sizes and pitches of rivets in 
 the frames and plate edges, and breadths of plating having been 
 determined on, the strength of the unavoidably weakest section 
 may be readily found. As the number of rivets in the edges of the 
 plates between the frame and the butt is known, their shearing 
 strength may be calculated, and hence the number of rivets may be 
 found which is required on each side of the butt in order to bring 
 the total breaking strength by Mode II. up to a little more than 
 the strength of the section at the frames. Fracture by Mode II. is 
 selected as the basis of the calculation, as it will be seen from the 
 preceding tables to give the least total breaking strengths. When 
 the number of rivets has been determined their positions have to 
 be fixed, and will be governed by the breadth of the strake and the 
 number of rivets required. In a butt of outside plating it is, of 
 course, always necessary to have the rows of rivets next the butt 
 spaced for watertight work, in order to obtain a good caulk of the 
 butt joint. In deck plating, when the work is made watertight, 
 the edges of the straps are caulked, and consequently the rows of 
 rivets farthest from the butt are placed so as to make a watertight 
 joint. These and other considerations having been taken into 
 account and the positions of the butt fastenings settled, it becomes 
 necessary to try whether the arrangement gives sufficient breaking 
 strengths by the other modes of fracture. It will be obvious that 
 a very fair approximation to the provision of the necessary breaking 
 strength by Mode Y. may be made by Having a rather less number 
 of rivet-holes in the lines G H than in the lines E F. With respect 
 to the thickness of butt straps required, we need only refer to the 
 remarks previously made with respect to stringers and tie-plates, 
 and to call attention to the ordinary practice of shipbuilders as 
 described in Chapter X. No general investigation or expression 
 can be given which would much facilitate the process of arranging 
 the fastenings, but it is hoped that by the aid of the foregoing
 
 3/ 
 
 78 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 explanations and examples the reader may be able to work out the 
 details of any case that may occur in practice. 
 
 It was stated at the commencement of this chapter that the 
 amount of experimental knowledge at present possessed with respect 
 to the best forms and proportions for riveted work is extremely 
 limited. The results of most of the experiments which have been 
 made have been given in a condensed form in the preceding pages, 
 and their applicability to actual practice in shipbuilding has been 
 discussed. The calculations which have been given are of a simple, 
 practical character, and are founded on, what in our opinion are, the 
 most reliable experiments, both as regards the mode in which they 
 have been conducted, and their resemblance to the actual propor- 
 tions, pitches, &c., used in practice. The method of calculation is, 
 confessedly, an approximate one, but being founded on experimental 
 facts and conducted on intelligible principles, it tends to make the 
 arrangement of butt fastenings sufficiently accurate for all practical 
 purposes at present. While it has been considered necessary to 
 point out what are thought to be errors in the views put forward 
 by previous writers on iron construction, it is desired to give the 
 strongest testimony to the value of the experiments and information 
 which their works afford, of which we have availed om-selves 
 so largely. We need only add a further statement of the opinions 
 previously expressed with respect to the necessity and desirability 
 of a complete set of experiments on the various kinds of riveted 
 work, and a hope that such experiments may shortly be made. 
 
 In order to aiFord as detailed information as can be possibly 
 required, with respect to the sizes and pitch of rivets used in the 
 construction of the large iron-clad frigates of the Koyal Navy, we 
 have given the following table of the particulars of the riveting of 
 the 'Hercules.' 
 
 Table of the Sizes and Pitches of Eivets employed in the ' Heecules.' 
 
 Description of work. 
 
 Flat keel-plates 
 
 Thickness of iron. 
 
 inches. 
 Outer 1^ 
 Inner 1 
 
 13 
 
 Butt straps to ditto * . . . 
 
 Keel angle-irons to flat keel [I (; ^ 6 x 1 to 1 & IJ pbte 
 
 plates ( * ^ 
 
 Ditto to vertical keel . . ' ditto to f , , 
 
 Breadth 
 of lap. 
 
 Pitch Size 
 
 of rivets, of rivets. 
 
 20 
 
 inches. 
 5J 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 
 inches. 
 
 li 
 
 li 
 
 Treble chain riveted.
 
 Chap. XVI I. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 379 
 
 Table of Sizes and Pitches of Kivets — continued. 
 
 Description of work. 
 
 Butt straps to vertical keel) 
 (double)* f 
 
 Angle- irons on the upper edge 
 of vertical keel to the keel- 
 plate 
 
 Ditto to the inner bottom 
 
 Transverse frames to short! 
 frame angle-irons . . . . j 
 
 Watertight frames to ditto . . 
 
 Transverse frames to vertical) 
 keel .. .. .. .. ../ 
 
 Ditto to longitudinals . . 
 Ditto to continuous ti'ans-) 
 verse angle-irons . . ..) 
 
 Outside bottom plating to the I 
 frames ) 
 
 Edges of the outside bottom! 
 plating t 
 
 Thickness of iron. 
 
 inches. 
 
 ■re 
 
 3 J X 3 J X -^ to f plate 
 
 ditto to J , , 
 
 5Jx4x-^t0TJ, ,, 
 
 4 X 3| X jg to jg , , 
 5ix4x^iof 
 
 3ix3|xT^to|&7s ,, 
 
 5 J X 3^ X -j^ to fg , , 
 
 5ix4x^tol 
 ditto to I, \l, & 
 
 1^0 1 
 
 1 ,. i 
 i ,. I 
 
 i .> ii 
 
 13 13 
 
 TB " IS 
 
 :: 
 
 Transverse frames behind |^i/ 3J x 3J x J (double) ") 
 
 aimour J \ to 10 x 3J X J frame 
 
 Longitudinals to angle-irons I 
 
 on outer edges ] 
 
 Ditto to ditto on inner ditto 
 
 4x3Jxfg to I &T^ plate 
 
 3 X 3 X I to ditto 
 
 Butt straps to longitudinals t J to ^-^ plate, -j^ to J 
 
 Ditto to watertight ditto + | -m^ i 
 
 Inner bottom to continuous! Vi m ^ , ^ „ ^ 
 
 Ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto to butt straps § . . 
 Transverse bulkheads to edge") f 4J x 2J x J T-ir 
 strips /j\ to J, fg & I ,, 
 
 ("Same thickness as the 
 
 ^ to I plate, -^ to fg 
 
 ditto 
 
 'ron 
 
 Ditto to butt straps | 
 Ditto to stiffeners . . 
 
 plates. 
 3Jx3x^to ■)! 
 
 Ditto to inner bottom 
 Ditto to vertical portion ( 
 
 of the inner bottom . . 
 Ditto to frames before and) 
 
 abaft double bottom .. ../j 
 Wing passage bulkheads tollf 
 
 edge strips (it 
 
 Ditto to butt straps § ■• \ 
 
 J, fg, &i plate 
 3^x3|x|to|&75 
 \ 4x4xitoJ&f 
 
 *tof 
 
 Jtof 
 Ho I 
 
 Breadth 
 of lap. 
 
 Pitch 
 of rivets. 
 
 1 inches. 
 
 inches. 
 
 1 18 
 
 4 1 
 
 .. 
 
 5 to 5i 
 
 
 5 to 5J 
 
 
 6to6J 
 
 
 4* : 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 
 5| 
 
 
 5 
 
 ■■ 
 
 6i 
 
 6* 
 
 7 
 
 5* 
 
 6* 
 
 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 4to5 
 
 H 
 
 4 to 5 
 
 H 
 
 4to5 
 
 5J 
 
 4to5 
 
 H 
 
 4 to 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 8f 
 
 3* 
 
 8* 
 
 3* 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 4| 
 
 3Jto4J 
 
 5* 
 
 3* 
 
 
 5to6 
 
 .. 
 
 3§to4J 
 
 •• 
 
 3^0 4 
 
 3* 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 3* 
 
 11* 
 
 8* 
 
 3Jto4 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Size 
 of rivets. 
 
 inches. 
 
 u 
 
 * Treble-chain riveted. t The butt fastenings have been described in Chapter .\. 
 
 J Double butt-straps, double-chain riveted. § Double-chain riveted. {| Siugk'-ri\ cted.
 
 38o 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Table of Sizes and Pitches of Ritets — contmued. 
 
 Description of work. 
 
 Wing passage bulkheads to^ 
 
 stiffeners / 
 
 Lower-deck stringer-plate to) 
 
 beams .. f 
 
 Do. to butt straps * 
 Ditto to strips on the in- 
 tercostal plates between the 
 
 frames 
 
 Main-deck beams 
 
 Main-deck stringer to gutter) 
 
 angle-irons J 
 
 Ditto to beams 
 
 Ditto to butt straps * . . 
 Plating on main-deck (,|-inch)") 
 
 to beams / 
 
 Ditto ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto ditto to butt straps t 
 
 Ditto (|-inch) to beams . . 
 
 Ditto ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto ditto to butt straps J 
 Upper-deck stringer to gutter! 
 
 angle-irons / 
 
 Ditto to beams 
 
 Ditto to butt straps 1| 
 Ditto steel plating (|-in.) 
 
 to beams ' 
 
 Ditto ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto ditto to butt straps^ 
 Ditto steel plating (i -in.) I 
 
 to beams / 
 
 Ditto ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto ditto to butt strapsT[ 
 Ditto steel plating (|-in.)) 
 
 to beams / 
 
 Ditto ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto ditto to butt straps ^ 
 Magazine bulkheads to stif- 
 feners 
 
 Ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto to butt straps ** . . 
 
 Plating on platforms to beams 
 
 Ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto to butt straps f . . 
 Shaft passage bulkheads to 
 
 stiffeners 
 
 Ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto to butt straps ** . . 
 Bilge-keel angle-irons to bot- 
 tom plating jf , 
 
 Thickness of iron. 
 
 inches. 
 3Jx3Jx^ to J«S;f plate 
 
 I plate to ^ angle-iron 
 ditto to I & I , , 
 
 ^ plate to I angle-iron 
 
 3 X 3 X ^ to 7g plate 
 
 3 X 3| X I to f plate 
 
 5x4xtB to I & jg plates 
 
 Breadth, 
 of lap. 
 
 Pitch 
 of rivets. 
 
 indies. 
 
 inches. 
 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 6J 
 
 12J 
 
 3Jto4 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 .. 
 
 5 
 
 
 3J 
 
 36 
 
 7J 
 
 ]2|&8^ 
 
 4 
 
 
 71 
 
 4| 
 
 H 
 
 8i 
 
 4 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7&4 
 
 3§ 
 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 7i 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 
 n 
 
 4i 
 
 H 
 
 8^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 n 
 
 4 
 
 3f 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 n 
 
 3J 
 
 3 
 
 5i 
 
 2J 
 
 .. 
 
 5to6 
 
 4| 
 
 3^ 
 
 H 
 
 31 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 Si 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 3| 
 
 4 
 
 3i 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 * Double butt strap, riveted as in Fig. 246, page 365. Main deck stringer double riveted in the 
 battery. t Double riveted. J Double and single riveted. || Treble chain riveted. 
 
 ^1 Double chain riveted. ** Single riveted. ft Tap-rivtts clenched on the inside.
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 381 
 
 Table of Sizes and Pitches of Eivets — continued. 
 
 Description of work. 
 
 Thickness of iron. 
 
 inches. 
 
 5 X 5 X I to I plate 
 
 ditto to jg , , 
 
 ditto to I , , 
 
 ditto to f , , 
 
 (two thicknesses) 
 
 3 
 
 3^ X 3A X i to two 
 
 Armour shelf: — 
 Angle-iron on outer edge tol 
 
 shelf plate J 
 
 Ditto to bottom plating 
 Ditto on inner edge tol 
 shelf plate I 
 
 Ditto ditto to skin plating | 
 
 Covering plate to shelf . . . . j 
 Plating behind armour tol ( 
 
 frames )j I thicknesses of f plate 
 
 Ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto to butt straps * 
 
 Ditto the two thicknesses 1 
 to each other j 
 
 Ditto to longitudinal) If 12x3^x1 to two 
 
 girders ) l\ thicknesses of 
 
 Plating above armour (before 
 and abaft the battery) to 
 frames 
 
 Ditto to edge strips 
 
 Ditto to butt straps t 
 Ditto to armour plates $ 
 
 Platform beams 
 
 Lower deck beams 
 
 Breadth 
 of cap. 
 
 Pitch 
 of rivets. 
 
 Size 
 of rivets. 
 
 inches, i inches. 
 5i 
 
 7x3ix7B| 
 or4x3ixfJ 
 
 plates! 
 to J plate 
 
 17 
 
 16* 
 
 k plate to armour 
 J plate to ^ or fj 
 angle-iron 
 plate to i angle-iron 
 
 5 
 9 
 
 ■or 5J 
 
 5i ■ 
 
 5 
 6 to 7 
 5 to 6 
 
 5 
 4 to 5* 
 
 * There are edge-strips to the outer thickness only : the butts are treble-riveted for both thicknesses, the 
 rivets being arranged so as to clear the amiour-bolts. f Double riveted. 
 
 J Double-tap riveted at the edges, and treble at the butts. 
 
 We will conclude the present chapter with a few remarks upon 
 the use of steel rivets in shipbuilding. 
 
 It is not without reason that great distrust of steel rivets is at 
 present felt by shipbuilders. They undoubtedly require very care- 
 ful manufacture and still more careful working, and in spite of both 
 they have in many cases proved treacherous. Mr. Barber has 
 stated publicly that " when steel rivets have been used, the heads 
 " have been known to fly off when the vessel has bumped against 
 "a pier-head, or been suddenly struck by a barge or a heavy 
 " floating body." No case of this kind has come under our o^vn 
 notice, but we have frequently known steel rivet heads to fly off 
 during the building of the ship, with the jar occasioned by knocking 
 down other rivets in the same frame space, or by the caulking ; and 
 when there has been occasion to cut out rivets of this material 
 during repairs, the heads have cracked off with a readiness quite 
 unknown in good iron-riveted work. It is not intended by this
 
 382 
 
 Rivets and Rivet- Work. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 to imply that the heads of iron rivets never fly off at all ; on the 
 contrary it is well known that the heads of small countersunk iron- 
 rivets frequently fly off when over-hammered ; but steel rivets have 
 hitherto been found much more liable to this defect. 
 
 The following table gives the results of the tensile strength 
 tests of the rivet steel used in some parts of the ' Penelope ' and 
 ' Inconstant ' at Pembroke Dockyard. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 No. of 
 specimen. 
 
 
 Proof strain. 
 
 Breaking strain. 
 
 Average. 
 
 inch. 
 
 No. 
 
 tons 
 
 cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 tons. cwta. 
 
 qrs. lbs. 
 
 tons. cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 9 2 6 
 
 6 15 
 6 16 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 13 
 
 
 
 6 15 3 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 6 12 
 
 3 14 
 
 34 • 59 tons per sq. inch. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 18 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 19 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 1 26 
 
 11 15 
 
 12 9 
 
 2 0] 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 11 9 
 
 2 14 
 
 11 17 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 11 13 
 
 2 14 
 
 38 '64 tons per sq. iuch. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 12 7 
 
 2 Oi 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 11 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 11 2 2 
 
 15 18 
 15 12 
 
 14 
 3 14 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 
 15 5 1 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 14 19 
 
 2 14 
 
 34 • 57 tons per sq. iuch. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 14 18 
 
 1 14 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 15 2 
 
 
 
 Average 35 • 93 tons 
 per sq. inch. 
 
 The rivet-steel employed by Mr. Kirkaldy in his experiments 
 appears to have been about equal to the best of this steel, as he 
 gives the mean breaking strength as 38-59 tons per sq. inch, and 
 the mean shearing strength as 2848 tons ; the shearing strength 
 being, therefore, about 26 per cent, less than the tensile strength. 
 Mr. Ku'kaldy's experiments with this rivet-steel appear to have 
 proved the fact, which might have been inferred from the relation 
 between the tensile and shearing strengths of the material, that, in 
 steel, larger rivets are required for a given thickness of plate than 
 are required in iron. For example, in experimenting with riveted 
 plates, "lO-inch thick connected by rivets '-iS-inch in diameter, 
 several experiments failed from the shearing of the rivets, although 
 they were larger than those used for iron plates of the same 
 thickness. 
 
 The chief things to be attended to in working steel rivets are, 
 first, to heat them sufficiently and yet to avoid raising them above
 
 Chap. XVII. Rivets and Rivet -Work. 383 
 
 a cherry-red heat ; and, secondly, to knock them down and finish 
 them off as quickly as possible. When the rivet has not been suffi- 
 ciently heated, or the riveters have not been expert, they have had 
 gi-eat trouble in cutting off the burr, and in doing so have often 
 broken away part of the countersunk point with tlie burr. On the 
 other hand, if the rivets are heated much above a cherry-red heat, 
 they cannot be properly knocked down, as they waste away under the 
 blows of the hammer. If great care is not taken, the rivet may be 
 over-heated to an extent not sufficient to prevent its being knocked 
 down, but sufficient to greatly deteriorate the quality of the finished 
 rivet. It is advantageous to have plain knockdown or conical 
 points to steel rivets in preference to snap-points, as a burnt or 
 over-heated rivet is then more easily detected by the crack round 
 the edges. 
 
 In comparing the advantages and disadvantages of steel rivets 
 for steel work, there are other important considerations to be borne 
 in mind, viz., that it is impossible, even under the best supervision, 
 to ensure that every rivet shall be brought to its proper heat, and 
 have its point knocked down before it has become cold ; and that 
 under these circumstances, the efficiency of the rivet is dependent, 
 in a great measure, on the rivet-boy, who cannot be expected to 
 show a large amount of judgment in the matter. It is to these 
 considerations, in all probability, that the present prohibition of 
 the use of steel rivets by Lloyd's Committee is due ; and although 
 we have felt bound, in the Government service, to make a limited 
 and guarded use of steel in the" form of rivets as well as of plates, 
 we are not at all disposed to complain of the course which the 
 Committee has taken.
 
 384 On Testing h'on and Steel. Chap. XVIII. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ON TESTING IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 The quality of the iron and steel employed for shipbuilding pur- 
 poses is obviously of primary importance, and the establishment 
 of tests for these materials possesses corresponding interest. Lloyd's 
 Rules merely provide that iron shall be of good malleable quality, 
 capable of bearing a longitudinal strain of 20 tons per square inch, 
 the material being guaranteed to the extent of having the manu- 
 facturer's name or trade-mark stamped upon it. The same rule 
 applies to steel, but ueither the minimum nor the maximum strain 
 for it is fixed. The surveyors of the Committee exercise their own 
 judgment and discretion in testing these materials. The Liverpool 
 Committee's surveyors do the same, but their instructions direct 
 that all iron plates (steel not being yet provided for in the Liver- 
 pool Rules) shall be of the best quality, branded with the maker's 
 name, tough and malleable, the sheared edges to be free from rip, 
 the surface free from flaws and blisters, and the punching reason- 
 ably free from cracks upon the convex side. The absolute mean 
 breaking-strain must be 20 tons per square inch of the original 
 section, and 24 tons per square inch of the broken section ; and 
 all brittle or coarsely crystalline iron has to be rejected. Angle- 
 irons have to be free from veins and cracked holes, and rivet-iron 
 has to be free from cracks and veins when laid up and finished. 
 
 These instructions point clearly enough to what is, we believe, 
 the practice of the surveyors of both Committees, viz., that of 
 limiting the tests of material chiefly to a general examination 
 of plates and angle-irons, to tests of tensile strength, a careful 
 scrutiny of the punchings, and a more or less close observation of 
 the parts of the ship as the work proceeds. 
 
 In Her Majesty's Service, and in the case of ships built for that 
 service by private shipbuilders, the materials undergo a more 
 searching and rigid examination. The iron is supplied from the 
 
 * Part of this chapter was read to the Association of Foremen Engineers in the 
 form of a Paper by the Author.
 
 Chap. XVIII. On Testing Iron and Steel. 
 
 ^"^5 
 
 manufacturers subject to the following tests, which are carried 
 out in the same manner, as nearly as possible, in the various 
 establishments both public and private under the supervision of 
 Admiralty officers : — 
 
 PLATE lEON (FIUST CLASS). 
 B.B. 
 
 Tensile Strain per I Lengthways 22 tons. 
 
 square inch ( Crossways 18 „ 
 
 Forge Test {Ilof). 
 All plates of the First Class, of one inch in thickness and under, should lie 
 of such ductility as to admit of bending hot, -without fracture, to the following 
 angles : — 
 
 Leugihways of the grain 125 degrees. 
 
 Across 90 „ 
 
 Forge Test {Cold). 
 All plates of the First Class should admit of bending cold without fracture, 
 as follows : — 
 
 Witli the Qrain. 
 
 1 in. and |§ of an i 
 
 nch in thickness to an 
 
 angle of 15 degi-ees. 
 
 i ., 
 
 \% 
 
 , , , , 
 
 20 
 
 f ,. 
 
 i^ 
 
 » . > > 
 
 25 
 
 S> TB '> 
 
 h 
 
 1 > It 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 TB > ' 
 
 I 
 
 > > >> 
 
 50 
 
 TB " 
 
 \ 
 
 >. .1 
 
 70 
 
 tI .. 
 
 under 
 
 Across the Qrain. 
 
 90 
 
 1 in., % 
 
 \, and j^^ of 
 
 an incli in thickness to 
 
 an angle of 5 degrees. 
 
 f and \\ 
 
 
 , , , , 
 
 10 
 
 g. ^. and 
 
 I 
 
 , , , , 
 
 15 
 
 T^ .. 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 > > > » 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 TB " 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 .. 
 
 30 
 
 TB ' » 
 
 under 
 
 > > > > 
 
 40 
 
 PLATE lEON (SECOND CLASS). 
 
 Lengthways 20 tons. 
 
 Crossways 17 „ 
 
 Tensile Strain per 
 square inch 
 
 Forge Test (JJot). 
 All Plates of the Second Class of one inch in tliickness and under, should 
 be of such ductility as to admit of bending hot, without fracture, to the 
 following angles : — 
 
 Lengthways of the grain 90 degrees. 
 
 Across 60 „ 
 
 Forge Test (Cold). 
 All Plates of the Second Class should admit of bending cold without 
 ti-actme, as follows : — 
 
 2 c
 
 386 On Testing Iron and Steel. Chap. XVIII. 
 
 With the Grain. 
 
 1 in. and jji of an inch in thickness to an angle of 10 degrees, 
 
 i ,, li! ,. .. in 
 
 f ,. li ., ,. 20 
 
 I, h " i - . . 30 
 
 1^ .. i ,. ,. 45 
 
 ^ ,. i ,. ., 55 
 
 (^ , , luider , , , , 75 
 
 Across the Grain. 
 
 f in. and |J of an inch in thickness to an angle of 5 degrees. 
 I, .V - i ,, ,, ■ 10 ,, 
 
 ,^ ., i ,, ., 15 ,, 
 
 {s ,. I .. .. 20 ,, 
 
 t\ . , under , , , , 30 , , 
 
 Plates, both hot and cold, should be tested on a cast-iron slab, haying a 
 fair surface, with an edge at right angles, the corner being rounded off with 
 a radiiis of 1 an inch. 
 
 The portion of plate tested, for both hot and cold tests, is to be 4 feet in 
 length, across the grain ; and the full width of the plate, with the grain. 
 
 The plate should be bent at a distance of from 3 to 6 inches from the edge. 
 
 It is intended that all the Iron shall stand the Forge Tests herein named, 
 when taken in four-feet lengths, across the gi-ain ; and the whole width of the 
 plate, along the grain, whenever it may be necessary to try so large a jDiece ; 
 but a smaller sample will generally answer every purpose. 
 
 All plates to be free from lamination and injurious surface defects. 
 
 One plate to be taken indiscriminately for testing from every thickness of 
 plate, sent in per invoice, provided they do not exceed fifty in number. If 
 above that number, one for every additional fifty, or portion of fifty. 
 
 Where plates of several thicknesses are invoiced together, and there are 
 but few plates of any one thickness, a separate test for plates of each thickness 
 need not be made ; but no lot of i^lates of any one tliickness must be rejected 
 before one of that lot has been tested. 
 
 Before describing in detail the manner in which these tests 
 are practically applied, it is desirable to mention that we have 
 found it necessary, at the Admiralty, to add to the above con- 
 ditions a rigid stipulation with reference to the weight of iron ma- 
 terials. Since the introduction of armour-plated ships, and in view 
 of the urgent necessity for carrying the utmost weights of armour 
 and armament without exceeding a defined draught of water, it 
 has become of great importance that the maximum weight of 
 the angle-irons, plates, &c., entering into the construction of such 
 vessels should be known with certainty ; and for this reason the 
 Admiralty have laid down the rule that the actual weight shall 
 not exceed the weight due by calculation to the nominal dimen- 
 sions. At the same time it is, of course, important that the actual 
 weight should not fall sufficiently below the due weight to con-
 
 Chap. XVIII. On Testi7ig Iron and Steel. 387 
 
 siderably reduce the strength ; and the lower limit is consequently 
 fixed at 5 per cent, below the calculated weight for plates and 
 angle-irons of \ inch thick and upwards ; and at 10 per cent, for 
 those below \ inch. The standard weight of iron plates is taken 
 at 10 lbs. per square foot for every \ inch in thickness, or 480 lbs. 
 per cubic foot. In the case of angle-iron, it is presumed that the 
 weight per foot of length should equal the weight of a plate a foot 
 long of the same nominal thickness as the angle-iron, and of a 
 breadth equal to the sum of the breadths of the angle-iron flanges, 
 less the thickness ; thus a piece of 3 by ?i\ by \ inches angle-iron, 
 1 foot long, would be equal in weight to a piece of plate 1 foot 
 long, 6 inches broad, and \ inch thick ; its maximum weight would 
 consequently be 10 lbs., and its minimum weight 9^ lbs. 
 
 It has not been found in practice that any great difficulty 
 exists in conforming to these conditions in the manufacture of 
 plates and angle-irons. In cases where the thickness was yery 
 small, some difficulty was experienced when the limit of 5 per 
 cent, was fixed for all thicknesses, and therefore it was made 10 
 per cent, for all thicknesses below \ inch, as previously stated. 
 That the difficulty must increase as the thickness diminishes is 
 obvious from the fact that the percentage of weight and thickness 
 being the same in all cases, the actual limits must continually 
 approach equality as the thickness is reduced. In a 1-inch plate, 
 for example, the maximum thickness allowed is 1 inch, and the 
 minimum ^| inch, the limits of thickness being ^ inch apart. 
 In a ;^-iuch plate, if the maximum thickness allowed is \ inch, or 
 1^ inch, and the minimum ^ inch, the limits are only ^^ inch 
 apart. It is clear, therefore, that it must be very difficult to con- 
 form strictly to the rule formerly laid down in the manufacture of 
 very thin plates. As a matter of fact, however, this consideration is 
 of but little moment, as the quantity of thin iron employed in ship- 
 building is small, and it is not any great disadvantage to waive, as 
 is now done, the application of the 5 per cent, rule in these excep- 
 tional cases, substituting a limit of 10 per cent, for it. In iron 
 plate and angle-iron of the thickness ordinarily used in shipbuild- 
 ing the manufacturers can, with proper care, readily conform to 
 the 5 per cent, limits assigned, and as a rule do conform to them. 
 Such difficulties as are found to occur, usually exist where the 
 manufacturer is paid by weight, and when the inducement natu- 
 rally is to pass the superior limit. Where private shipbuilders 
 
 2 c 2
 
 388 
 
 0)1 Tcsiiiic Iron and Steel. 
 
 Chap. XVIII. 
 
 make their own iron for ships building for the Admiralty this 
 indueemeut does not exist. The judicious enforcement of the rules, 
 however, soon results in the removal of all grounds of complaint 
 in this respect. In order to furnish examples of the extent to 
 which iron and steel plates have been found to vary from the pre- 
 scribed weights Avheu proper care has not been taken in the 
 manufacture, we have given the following tables, Avhich are records 
 of the dimensions and weights of plates actually supplied to the 
 dockyards by manufacturers. 
 
 Iron Plates. 
 
 No. of 
 Plates. 
 
 Length. 
 
 ft. 
 12 
 13 
 12 
 13 
 13 
 19 
 21 
 20 
 19 
 12 
 11 
 
 10 10 
 9 7 
 7 7.1 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 2 
 2 
 
 17 10 
 13 G 
 
 15 
 6 
 8 
 12 
 12 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 
 
 
 7 
 3 
 2 
 
 7J 
 9| 
 2 
 3 
 
 8 Hi 
 12 8 
 12 11 
 4 9i 
 10 11 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 8 Hi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 111 
 
 2J 
 2i 
 2i 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 lU 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 llf 
 101 
 
 5i 
 9" 
 8 
 
 9i 
 
 lU 
 
 ll 
 
 10 
 
 9i 
 
 3 
 
 U 
 111 
 
 3 
 11 
 
 01 
 
 •^2 
 »2 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 G 
 
 Thickness. Actual Weight. 
 
 Estimated 
 Weiglit. 
 
 letlis of in. ! cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 IG 
 
 4 
 20 
 20 
 26 
 
 
 
 7 20 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 2 4 
 
 12 
 4 
 4 
 14 
 18 
 14 
 4 
 
 20 
 3 14 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 I 10 3 12 
 
 I 17 24 
 
 15 1 8 
 
 [824 
 
 263 1 
 
 cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 3 1 1 
 5 2 1 
 1 17 
 3 16 
 3 12 
 
 15 
 2 12 
 
 6 
 12 1 
 
 
 4 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 7 
 
 10 
 5 
 
 14 
 6 
 
 23 
 8 
 2 
 
 24 
 6 
 7 
 2 
 
 12 
 5 
 
 21 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 15 26 
 8 1 13 
 
 247 2 8
 
 Chap. XVIII. 
 
 On Testing Iron and Steel. 
 
 389 
 
 Steel Plates. 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Plates. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Bi« 
 
 adth. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Actual Weight. 
 
 Estimated- 
 AVeight. 
 
 
 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 lethsof in. 
 
 owls. qrs. lbs. 
 
 cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 5 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 7 3 8 
 
 7 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 11 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 J J 
 
 12 3 24 
 
 11 2 22 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 4 
 
 3 
 
 llf 
 
 , , 
 
 15 20 
 
 14 24 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 4 
 
 3 
 
 111 
 
 J 9 
 
 14 20 
 
 13 11 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 6 
 
 3 
 
 li 
 
 
 9 24 
 
 8 3 6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
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 lOi 
 
 J J 
 
 7 2 8 
 
 6 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 8 
 
 3 
 
 o' 
 
 5 
 
 5 2 8 
 
 5 15 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 2i 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 J , 
 
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 5 19 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 0' 
 
 3 
 
 lU 
 
 'e 
 
 15 2 24 
 
 14 3 9 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 2 
 
 3 
 
 Hi 
 
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 9 1 16 
 
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 1 
 
 11 9i 
 
 3 
 
 101 
 
 ,, 
 
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 6 10 
 
 
 
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 3 
 
 9 
 
 J , 
 
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 8 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
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 3 
 
 111 
 
 
 14 2 8 
 
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 3 
 
 10 
 
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 6 1 24 
 
 
 
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 12 4i 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 2 4 
 
 3 10 
 
 
 
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 4 
 
 J » 
 
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 7 3 24 
 
 
 
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 9i 
 
 
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 , J 
 
 6 2 12 
 
 5 3 20 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 41 
 
 3 
 
 IH 
 
 , , 
 
 14 1 4 
 
 13 16 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 5 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 , J 
 
 8 1 20 
 
 7 4 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 lOJ 
 
 > I 
 
 8 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 224 2 8 
 
 205 2 18 
 
 
 AVe now proceed to consider in detail the means by which the 
 various tests are applied. 
 
 When parcels or lots of iron plates are delivered into the 
 building yard they are spread out and examined with the object 
 of first ascertaining if the manufacturer's name and the brand of 
 quality are duly stamped uj)on each plate, and then of searching 
 for surface defects, such as blisters, flaws, laminations, or bad 
 places caused by dirt or cinders getting between the rolls during 
 the rolling of the plates, any one of which, if considerable, would 
 cause the overseer to reject the plate. This surface examination 
 being completed, each plate is raised from the ground, and, being 
 either hung by one edge or otherwise suitably supported, is tapped 
 over Avith a small hammer ; if it everywhere gives out a clear 
 ringing sound the plate is considered to be solid, but if a heavy 
 and dull sound be given out, it is presumed that the plate is 
 laminated or otherwse defective. If this test is audibly decisive 
 against the plate, it is at once rejected ; but if the equality of the
 
 390 Oil Testing Iron and Steel. Chap, xviii. 
 
 k . . 
 
 plate appears doubtful, a fiirtlier test is resorted to. This consists 
 in sup])orting the plate at its four cornei's, strewing the upper sur- 
 face with sand, and lightly tapping over the under side ; wherever 
 the plate is sound the sand will be driven up off the plate by each 
 tap of the hammer, but if it is blistered or laminated at any place 
 the sand will not there be moved. 
 
 The plates which the foregoing tests show to be satisfactory are 
 next carefully measured and weighed, their actual weights being 
 compared with those due to their dimensions and specified thickness. 
 They are weighed in lots not exceeding 5 tons, and if found to be 
 either above the maximum or below the minimum limit, are rejected. 
 The next step is to test the tensile strength of the plates. For 
 this test, and for the hot and cold forge tests likewise, plates are 
 taken from the number of those which have thus far proved satis- 
 factory, in the proportion of one to every fifty plates. If there 
 are many more tlian fifty but not a hundred plates of the same 
 thickness, the lot is divided into two, and a plate is taken in- 
 discriminately from each. If there are several thicknesses of 
 plates in the same invoice the same system is carried out, but 
 those of each thickness are treated as a separate lot — unless their 
 number be small. From the plates thus indiscriminately taken 
 two pieces are cut out, one with and the other across the grain. 
 
 , ™ In some cases four pieces 
 
 * ' ' I are cut for tensile tests, 
 
 two with and two across 
 
 ' — / \ i the grain. The pieces cut 
 
 ^2- ^^- out are carefully trimmed 
 
 and filed do\vn to the form shown in Fig. 248, having a parallel 
 brealth for not less than 6 inches, and a breaking section of not less 
 than one square inch — except in the case of thin plates, where the 
 latter condition is waived, as the breadth of a piece of thin plate of 
 one square inch section would be too great to break without tearing. 
 In the Eoyal Dockyards these sample pieces for testing are never 
 punched out, under existing orders, but are cut from the plate by 
 sawing or drilling. Wherever punching is resorted to for the purpose, 
 as it often is in private establishments, it is very necessary to 
 leave a surplus width for planing and filing down, in order that 
 the part to be broken may not be weakened by the injury which the 
 iron sustains in immediate proximity to a punched hole. In the case 
 ot butt-straps, it is not, of course, always possible to have a parallel
 
 Chap. XVIII. 
 
 On Testing Iron and Steel. 
 
 391 
 
 length of so mucli as 6 inclies, as the fibre runs with the width 
 of the strap. If in filing clown the sample to its width the exact 
 square inch of section is net secured, the actual section is carefully- 
 gauged and measured to two places of decimals, and the proper 
 allowance is made. Two centre-punch marks are struck upon each 
 sample at 6 inches apart, for the purpose of showing the elonga- 
 tion that takes jilace under the strain. 
 
 The most usual form of machine employed for testing the 
 samples of plate is constructed on the principle illustrated by 
 Fig. 249. It consists, as will be seen, of a 
 steelyard of which the long arm carries the 
 breaking weiglits, and the short arm pulls 
 upon the sample to be broken. In the machine 
 shown in the sketch the fulcrum is suspended 
 from a hydraulic machine, a, set in motion by 
 hand, and the lower end of the sample, s, is 
 connected with a base plate. Should a consider- 
 able amount of elongation take place before the 
 sample is fractured the fulcrum can be moved 
 up by means of the hydraulic machine and the 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 249. 
 
 steelyard be always kept in a horizontal position. In some testing 
 machines the fulcrum of the steelyard is fixed, and the lower end 
 of the sample is shackled to, and fixed in position by a bolt which 
 is screwed into a base plate, and which can consequently be tight- 
 ened up at pleasure should a large amount of stretching throw the 
 lever out of a horizontal position. When this occurs the weight is 
 taken by means of a winch while the sample is readjusted. In 
 other machines a small hydraulic press is substituted for this screw 
 bolt, and answers the same purpose. The scale suspended at the 
 extremity of the long arm serves to support the weight by means 
 of which the tensile strain is partly produced. At first sufficient 
 weights are placed on the scale to give a strain of about 10 tons 
 ])er isquare inch of the sample's section, this weight being gradually
 
 392 On Testing Iron and Steel. Chap, xvili. 
 
 increased by about a ton at a time until a sti-ain of about 18 to 19 
 tons is reached if the sample be tested with the grain, or about 
 IG tons if it be tested across the grain. After these tensions are 
 obtained, small weights, such as rivets, &c., are very gradually 
 added, the lever being kept as nearly level as is practicable not- 
 withstanding the increasing lift put upon the fulcrum by the 
 hydraulic, or the stretching of the sample if the fulcrum is fixed. 
 This process goes on until the sample breaks. When this happens 
 the contents of the scale are carefully weighed, and the breaking- 
 strain is calculated from the result and recorded in a " test-book " 
 kept for the purpose, together with a statement of the elongation 
 and the appearance of the fracture. In order to illustrate the 
 arrangement of this record, we have given opposite a specimen 
 page, taken from the test-book of an Admiralty surveyor. It will 
 be observed that the tabular form also includes columns giving the 
 percentage above or below the estimated weight, and the particulars 
 of the hot and cold forge tests to be described hereafter. In some 
 test-books two additional columns are used besides those given in 
 this table, in order to record the percentage of crystal in the 
 fracture and the angles to which the samples are bent in the hot- 
 forge tests, instead of giving this information in the column headed 
 " Kemarks." The date of the trial, and the name of the manu- 
 facturer of the iron are also recorded. 
 
 The calculation of the actual strain exerted upon a sample in 
 a machine such as that illustrated by Fig. 249 is, of course, a 
 simple enough operation, but to prevent mistakes it may be well 
 to give a few words of explanation. The tensile strain put upon 
 the sample is obviously composed of three parts : — 
 
 I. The strain put upon it by the leverage of the steelyard 
 
 itself 
 II. The strain produced by the weight of the scale-pan. 
 III. The strain produced by the weights in the scale. 
 
 For example, in a certain machine the lengths of the arms of 
 the steelyard are in the proportion of 28 to 1, and it is found 
 that a weight of 9215 lbs. suspended from the short arm will 
 exactly balance the steelyard, without the scale. The weiglit of 
 the scale is 227 lbs., and if W lbs. be the weight placed in tlie 
 scale when the sample breaks, we shall obviously have : — 
 
 The strain of the steel-yard iu lbs = 9215 
 
 , , scale pan in lbs = 227 X 28 
 
 , , weight in the scale iu lbs. = W x 28
 
 Chap. XVIII. On Testing Iron and Steel, 
 
 393 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 II 
 
 ■■2 £ 
 
 ||| 
 
 ■2-i s 
 
 - a> 
 
 hole of this iron was re- 
 d for not standing the 
 hery tests ; it was seamy, 
 of very interior quality. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
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 Bmltliery tests were satisfac- 
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 394 ^'^ Testing h^oii and StccL chap, xviii. 
 
 If the area of the sample's section be A square iuclies and the 
 breaking strain be B tons per square inch we obtain B A for 
 the total breaking strain in tons. Hence we have the equation — 
 
 ■R A = 9215 + (227 + W) 28 
 '^ ^ 2240 
 
 -r. ^ 9215 + ( 227 + W) 28 
 -^ 2240 X A 
 
 If the breaking strain per square inch of the iron deduced 
 from the breaking strain of the sample does not come up to the 
 required standard, the lot of plates represented by the sample is 
 rejected ; but it should be understood that before the surveyor 
 makes the foregoing tests, he sees the testing machine tried, and 
 ascertains for himself the true amount of the weight that has to 
 be allowed for the leverage of the machine and scale-pan. In 
 some yards the lever can be balanced by means of a sliding 
 weight, and then the strain on the sample is caused only by the 
 weights in the scale. 
 
 The tensile strength of angle-iron is tested in exactly the same 
 manner as that of plate-iron, except that it can only be tried with 
 the grain, the flanges usually being too narrow to admit of a piece 
 being cut out of sufiScient size to test the strength across the 
 grain. The piece with the grain is cut from one of the flanges, 
 planed and prepared, as far as possible, like the plate samples, and 
 broken by the same machine. All angle-u'on is required to stand 
 a strain of 22 tons per square inch, and if the breaking strain falls 
 below this the lot is rejected. Owing, however, to the continued 
 rolling of angle-iron in one direction into gi-eat lengths, a high 
 longitudinal strength is usually developed in it, the larger bars 
 generally standing from 25 to 26 tons per square inch, while the 
 smaller exceed 30 tons. 
 
 Eivet-iron is sometimes subjected to a tensile test by the sur- 
 veyors, especially when the rivets are manufactured on the esta- 
 blishment and a piece of the bar-iron from which they are made 
 can be obtained. The mode of testing is similar to that described 
 above. 
 
 We have next to consider the forge-tests to which plate-iron, 
 angle-iron, rivets, and armour-bolts are subjected. The object of 
 these tests is to ascertain the fitness of the iron for undergoing 
 the various bending, twisting, hammering, and other more or less
 
 Chap. XVIII. Oil Testing Iron and Steel. 395 
 
 distressing processes to whicli the material is subjected, both hot 
 and cold, while being worked up into the various parts of a ship. 
 
 We have already described the extent to which iron plates 
 under test have to be bent, both hot and cold, and also given the 
 sizes of the pieces thus tested, and the degree of sharjmess of 
 the angle of the cast-iron block or slab over which they are bent. 
 As a matter of fact, the full sizes prescribed for the samples thus 
 tested have not, for various reasons, been insisted upon in all cases, 
 especially when there have been good independent reasons for 
 having confidence in the quality of the material. Under such 
 circumstances the Admiralty are content to test pieces of plate 
 about 2 feet by 18 inches, or even less, resorting to the trial of 
 pieces of the full width of the plate and 4 feet long when this 
 seemed desirable. The sample pieces cut from the plate, after 
 having their edges planed, are secured one by one to the cast-iron 
 slab, about 3 or 4 inches from its edge, and are then bent down 
 by moderate blows from a large hammer. The surveyor has to 
 exercise great care in attending to this operation, for the result 
 may be greatly affected by humouring and coaxing on the part of 
 the hammer-man. By striking the u*on in the direction of the 
 fibre the workman can make an inferior iron bend with less symp- 
 toms of distress than a better iron may exhibit when used more 
 roughly. The same leniency may be shown to the iron by bending 
 it under a steady pressure instead of by blows. The blows should, 
 therefore, be delivered not too lightly, and about square to the 
 surface, and the first signs of fracture should be observed and 
 recorded. In order to measure the angle through which the 
 sample has been bent, it is usual to remove it from the slab. 
 Should it be found that the required angle has not been obtained, 
 the piece of plate is replaced on the slab, and the operation of 
 bending is continued. Particular care is required, in order to 
 ensure that the workman does not place the sample so that it shall 
 project further over the edge of the slab than it did during the 
 first part of the operation ; because if this is done the sample may 
 be bent through an additional angle without any further strain 
 being brought upon the material — in fact, the requii-ed angle is 
 then obtained by virtually increasing the radius of the corner of 
 the slab on which the sample is bent, by means of the additional 
 projection given to the plate. The surveyor has, therefore, to take 
 every precaution to ensure the sample being replaced in, as nearly
 
 396 On Testing h'on and Steel. Chap. XVlll. 
 
 as possible, its original position after the measurement of the 
 angle has been made, before he allows the bending to be completed. 
 By careful piling of tlie iron — as the author has ascertained by 
 many experiments — plates can be produced of almost equal duc- 
 tility both lengthwise and crosswise of the plate ; but as they are 
 usually manufactured the fibre runs chiefly with the length of the 
 plate, and therefore the strength and ductility are generally greater 
 lengthwise than crosswise. The tensile and forge tests, in fact, 
 require this. It is for this reason, however, all the more necessary 
 to i)ay particular attention to the transverse tests ; and experience 
 shows that where samples broken under the tensile strains have 
 exhibited a gi*anulated structm-e with large grains or crystals, the 
 samples bent cold across the grain rarely stand.* When, on the 
 contrary, the fracture of the samples torn asunder by tensile strain 
 exhibits a fine fibrous structure of light grey appearance, the iron 
 is generally of good quality and stands the cold test well. 
 
 In carrying out the hot tests, pieces of similar dimensions are 
 employed. They are heated until they assume an orange colour, 
 and are then bent down to the prescribed angles in the same way 
 as in the cold test. Great care is taken that the samples are not 
 over-heated in the fire. The results of both the hot and cold forge 
 tests are recorded in the surveyor's test-book in the manner shown 
 by the table given on p. 393. 
 
 The forge tests to which angle-iron is subjected are usually hot 
 tests only. The amount of rolling ^hich iron in this form under- 
 goes, generally secures, as we have already said, ample longitudinal 
 strength, and the important thing to be further ascertained is the 
 quality of the iron to withstand the necessary smithing operations, 
 which are often very distressing in ship-work. For this purpose 
 short pieces (say from 12 to 24 inches long) of the angle-iron are 
 heated and treated as follows : — One piece has the flanges closed 
 together with the hammer as shown by a, Fig. 250 ; another piece 
 is opened out and hammered flat as in h ; another piece, or this same 
 
 * The expression "across the grain," or "across the fibre," in this connection has 
 sometimes been misunderstood. It has been said that as the fibre or grain is sup- 
 posed to run, and usually does run, chiefly along the plate, this fibre or grain must 
 be broken across when the plate is broken across, and that when the jilate is frac- 
 tuied along its length, the fibre or grain must also be broken along and not across. 
 There is no doubt much force in these representations ; still it is obviously convenient 
 to speak of breaking the iron across the grain when a narrow jnece of plate cut off the 
 cud of a plate is broken across, and this is the sense in which the phrase is used in 
 the Admiralty instructions.
 
 Chap. XVI ii. Oil Testing Iron and Steel. 
 
 597 
 
 d 
 
 Fig. 250. 
 
 piece, has the flanges turned back upon themselves as in c ; and an- 
 otlier piece has the flanges turned inwards as in d. Both the last- 
 named tests are well calcu- 
 lated to try thoroughly the 
 quality of the iron, and to 
 develop indications of any 
 "reediness," or looseness of 
 structure that it may possess. 
 Sometimes the hot tests are 
 conducted in the manner 
 illustrated in Fig. 251, a 
 piece of angle-iron is cut 
 nearly in two as shown by 
 a; one-half is then heated 
 and beaten out flat as in h; 
 and the end is then doubled 
 
 over as in c. The other haK of the bar is then heated, 
 and the flanges are curled inward or outward as the 
 surveyor directs. These tests being satisfactorily past^ 
 the lot to which the tested piece belongs is usually 
 accepted, but in some cases a piece is first broken 
 across cold to exhibit a fractured section. 
 
 Eivets are first examined as to the correctness of 
 their shape according to the pattern, and having been 
 found correct are duly heated. The head is then 
 flattened out very thin, as shown by a Fig. 252, and 
 the iron should stand this test ^vithout cracking at the 
 edges. The rivet shank is then heated and flattened 
 a punch is driven through it, bringing it to 
 the form shovNOi by h. No cracking should 
 take place in the neighbourhood of the punched 
 hole. Another rivet is bent cold under a 
 hydraulic press or hammer to the form given 
 in c, and should stand this without fracture. 
 Another rivet is nicked on one side and 
 similarly bent, that the nature of the fracture 
 may be observed. When a piece of the bar 
 from which the rivets are made can be pro- 
 cured, it is well to bend it double when cold, 
 and then to bend the doubled portion a second time at right angles 
 
 Fig. 251. 
 
 out, and
 
 398 On Testing I }^on and Steel. Chap, xviii. 
 
 to the former bend. It is also well to nick a piece of the iron on 
 one side with a chisel, and to bend it slowly over an anvil until it 
 breaks ; and having nicked a second piece all round, to break it 
 suddenly by means of a smart blow. In the latter case the section 
 should show a fine crystalline appearance, the crystals being very 
 minute ; in the former case it should present a very fibrous appear- 
 ance, tlic fibres being fine and silky. 
 
 Armour-plate bolts are made of the best Lowmoor, Bowling, or 
 other highest class iron, and are tested by being doubled cold 
 under the hammer. In some cases this test is replaced by the 
 folIo^^^ng : — A length of the bar iron from which the bolts are 
 made is taken, and, the ends being supported, a heavy weight is 
 let fall upon the middle, thus bending the bar down very suddenly 
 and severely testing the iron. It is also usual to test the tensile 
 strength and ductility of the bar, the breaking strengths per square 
 inch being recorded both for the original and for the reduced 
 sections. As a very satisfactory example of the ordinary tests for 
 armour bolts we give the following particulars of the trials recently 
 made of the bars used in manufacturing the fastenings of one of 
 the iron-clads of the Eoyal Navy. A bar of 2^-inch bolt-iron broke 
 under a strain of 113 tons 18 cwt., giving a strength of 23*2 tons 
 per square inch of the original section ; but before fracture took 
 place the bar was elongated 4 inches on a length of 2 feet 10^ 
 inches, and the diameter of the breaking section was onh' 1]^ inches, 
 thus giving a strength of 38*63 tons per square inch of the reduced 
 section. A bar of l|-inch iron was also tested, and after stretching 
 3 inches on a leng-th of 2 feet 10 inches, it broke on a strain of 
 54 tons 10 cwt., the diameter of the breaking section being 1^ inches. 
 This gives a strength of 22*66 tons per square inch of the original 
 section, and of 44*41 tons per square inch of the reduced section. 
 In both cases the forge tests were very satisfactory. 
 
 Recently experiments have been made to test the strength of 
 armour bolts of various kinds under impact, at the Atlas Works 
 (Sir J. Brown and Co.), and the Cyclops Works {Messrs. Cammell 
 and Co.), Sheffield, and at the Millwall Ironworks. It has been 
 considered desirable to make the experiments resemble actual 
 practice as much as possible, and for this purpose the bolts have 
 been inserted into holes in armour plates, their heads being counter- 
 sunk in the ordinary manner, and the nuts have been hove up on 
 their ends underneath a block of iron which is so arranged as to
 
 Chap. XVIII. 
 
 On Testins: Iron and Steel. 
 
 399 
 
 transmit the strain caused by impact directly to the nuts, as it 
 would be if a ship's side were struck- by projectiles. The bolts 
 were tested by letting fall heavy weights from heights varying 
 from 20 to 30 feet. The results were carefully observed, and 
 are recorded in the Eeport of the Special Committee on the 
 Gibraltar Shield. In some cases the bolt heads were drawn through 
 the armour plate, and in others the bolts were fractured ; but the 
 amount of " work " applied to the bolt in each case being given, 
 affords a comparative measure of the work done in breaking it. 
 The account of the experiments given in the Eeport is well worth 
 a careful study, but the subject is referred to in this connection only 
 on account of its relation to a new mode of testing armour bolts, 
 and consequently will not be treated at greater length. 
 
 We now come to speak of the Admiralty tests for steel plates, 
 angle-bars, &c. The test of weight is identical with that already 
 described for ii-on, the slight difference existing between the weight 
 of iron and steel not being recognised in this test. The tensile and 
 forge tests which the material has to withstand are as follows : — 
 
 Tensile Strain per I Lengthways 33 
 
 square inch [ Crossways 30 
 
 The tensile strength is in no case to exceed 40 tons per squaxe inch. 
 
 Forge Test (//oO- 
 All plates of one inch in thickness and under, should be of such ductility 
 as to admit of bending hot, without fracture, to the following angles : — 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Lengthways of the grain 140 
 
 Across the grain 110 
 
 Forge Test {Cold). 
 All plates should admit of bending cold, without fracture, as follows : 
 
 With file Grain. 
 
 
 Across the 
 
 (?) 
 
 ain. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Degrees 
 
 inch in thickness to an angle of 30 
 
 1 inch 
 
 in thieL 
 
 ness to an an 
 
 gle of 20 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 5 ' ' 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 f ,, 
 
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 30 
 
 60 
 
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 70 
 
 1 
 
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 75 
 
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 50 
 
 80 
 
 1 , , 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 85 
 
 ll . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 , , and under , , 90 
 
 \ inch and un( 
 
 ler 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 Plates, both hot and cold, should be tested on a cast-iron slab, having a 
 fair surface, with an edge at right angles, the corner being rounded off with 
 a radius of 5 an inch.
 
 400 On Testing Iron aiid Steel. Chap, xviii. 
 
 The portion of plate tested, for both hot and cold tests, is to be 4 feet in 
 length, across the gi-ain, and the full width of the plate, with the grain, 
 except in cases where the Officers are satisfied with a smaller sample. 
 
 The plate should be bent at a distance of from 3 to 6 inches from the 
 edge. 
 
 All jjlates to be free from lamination and injurioits surface defects. 
 
 One plate to be taken for testing from every invoice, provided the number 
 of plates does not exceed fifty. If above that number, one for every additional 
 fifty, or portion of fifty. Plates may be received, but may not be rejected, 
 without a trial of every tliickness on the invoice. 
 
 The pieces of plate cut out for testing are to be of parallel width from end 
 to end, or at least 6 inches of length. 
 
 The edges should be drilled or sawn, and not punched, in cutting the 
 sample from the plate. 
 
 These tests are carried out in the same way for steel plates as 
 for iron plates, but a few additional precautions have to be taken 
 in order to arrive at correct results. For example, in testing a 
 sample of which the tensile strength exceeds the maximum strength 
 allowed, care must be taken that the person manipulating the 
 weights does not press heavily upon them as he places them in the 
 scale, and thus cause a considerable increase in the strain brought 
 upon the sample above that due to the weights in the scale. This 
 result may also be attained by allo\ving the strain to be brought 
 upon the sample suddenly after the steelyard has been readjusted, 
 in order to bring it back to the horizontal position from which it 
 has been moved by the elongation of the sample. This, of course, 
 need only be guarded against in testing machines where the 
 fulcrum is fixed, as in machines similar to that shown in Fig. 249 
 the fulcrum can be gradually elevated as the sample elongates. 
 In other machines, however, it is necessary to bring the strain 
 upon the sample very gradually after the readjustment of tlie steel- 
 yard is completed, or else the apparent breaking strength of the 
 sample will be less than its real strength. The tests for angle- 
 bars are the same in both cases, observing that angle steels are 
 sometimes further tested by spreading a piece out flat, heating it, 
 punching a small hole in one corner, and enlarging this hole to 
 about 2 inches diameter, which the material is expected to stand 
 without cracking round the hole. Steel rivets are also tested in 
 the same way as iron rivets. 
 
 It will be observed that in the description of the tests to be 
 applied to steel, it is provided that the pieces of plate cut out for 
 testing are to be of parallel width for at least 6 inches in length as
 
 Chap. XVIII. On Testing Iron and Steel. 
 
 401 
 
 shown in Fig. 248, This provision, which is also carried out in 
 testing iron plates, is of great importance. Before it was uniformly- 
 enforced by the Admiralty, it 
 
 had been the practice on some 
 
 occasions to reduce the sample 
 
 to the, required section by 
 
 means of a circular arc as shown 
 
 by Fig. 253. But this arrangement, by limiting the possibility of 
 
 fracture to one part only, obviously gives a weak sample unfair 
 
 chances of passing the tests, as will appear from the table on the next 
 
 page, of the results of a series of trials of samples of steel cut from 
 
 Fig. 253. 
 
 
 / 
 
 n^- 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 254. 
 
 the same plates and reduced in width as shown in Fig. 254. Eight 
 cases were taken, each case being tested by three experiments for 
 each mode of reduction. The breaking section in each case was 
 reduced to a breadth of 1 inch, the reduction from the extreme 
 breadth of the samples (2^ inches) being made in one set of plates 
 by circular arcs, and in the other set by parallel reductions. The 
 lengths of the reduced parts were varied from 8 inches to 1 inch 
 by successive deductions of 1 inch, and the sketches in Fig. 254 
 show the extreme cases of the longest and shortest reductions 
 respectively. The forms of the circular arcs are shown in ticked 
 lines, and those of the parallel reduction by drawn lines. 
 
 It will here be seen that throughout these experiments, which 
 were conducted with extreme care, the same material broke at a 
 less strain when trimmed down to a parallel breadth for a consi- 
 derable distance, than when reduced to the same breadth at one 
 place only. By comparing the samples reduced to a parallel 
 breadth for a length of 8 inches with those similarly reduced for a 
 length of 1 inch only, it will be seen that the apparent strength 
 rose from an average of 19^ tons to an average of 21| tons ; or if 
 we compare the former with the case of the shortest circular 
 reduction we find it increasing from 19;^ tons to an average of 
 about 23| tons. These experimental facts illustrate the import- 
 ance of properly preparing the samples of steel plates for tensile 
 tests in order that reliable results may be obtained for the compa- 
 
 2 D
 
 402 
 
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 Chap. XVIII. On Testing Iron and Steel. 403 
 
 rison of the strength of different samples. Similar experiments 
 have also been made with iron plates, which show that the same 
 care is necessary in the preparation of the samples, and that a 
 shdrter reduction, or a circular reduction, will give higher results 
 than those obtainable with a longer, or a parallel reduction re- 
 spectively. 
 
 It may not be uninteresting if, before concluding this chapter, 
 we give a brief account of the mode of testing armour plates 
 approved by the Admiralty and practised at Portsmouth. The 
 sample plate to be tested is fixed on wdod backing, and a 68-pounder 
 gun is brought to within 30 feet of it, loaded with 13 lbs. of powder, 
 and a certain number of ordinary cast-iron shot are fired at any 
 selected part of the plate. The number of shot fired varies with 
 the thickness of the plate — thus for a 10-inch plate 13 shots would 
 be fired — the rule observed in taking aim being that successive 
 shots shall overlap each other. Careful observations are made of 
 the cracks, and the damage done to the back of the plate, and 
 according to the amount of the injury the plate is placed in 
 classification, three classes of plates being accepted. 
 
 It is not om- intention to discuss here the various chemical pro- 
 cesses which are in use for testing the quantity -of carbon, phos- 
 phorus, sulphur, &c., in pig-iron, as this subject is fully treated in 
 Dr. Percy's well-known and invaluable work on ' Iron and Steel.' 
 It is worthy of observation, however, that Professor Eggertz's beau- 
 tiful system of colour testing, is now largely used in the iron and 
 steel works of this country ; and looking to the extent to which the 
 quality of steel is affected by variations in the proportions of carbon 
 contained in it, we have no doubt that this and similar tests 
 will become much more general as the employment of steel is 
 extended. 
 
 2 D 2
 
 404 Lloyd's and tJic Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules for iron shipbuilding. 
 
 In the previous chapters of this work frequent reference has been 
 made to the rules laid down by Lloyd's Committee, and also by the 
 Liverpool Underwriters, for the regulation of the details of iron 
 shipbuilding. If this volume were of an historical, and not of 
 a practical nature, we should here trace with pleasure the extent 
 to which this comparatively modern art has been fostered by these 
 regulations, and more especially by the enlightened exertions of 
 Lloyd's Committee,* and of Messrs. Martin and Ritchie, its chief 
 shipbuilding oflScers. But as this would be inconsistent with the 
 object of our work, we shall confine ourselves to such a reference 
 to the subject as will suffice to illustrate its practical aspect.! 
 
 We give in an Appendix the latest edition of the revised rules 
 
 * Under tlie very able chairmanship of Mr. Chapman. 
 
 t In the fourth volume of the ' Tranmctions of the Institution of Naval Archi- 
 ' tects,' Lloyd's revised rules were printed, and prefaced by an interesting introduc- 
 tion from the pen of ]Mr. Ritchie, from which we extract the following remarks : — 
 "In the year 1838, the Committee of Lloyd's Register classed the first iron vessel 
 ' ' that had ever been guaranteed as ' fit for the safe conveyance of dry and perishable 
 " ' cargoes.' This barque was appropriately named the Ironsides ; she was 271 tons 
 " register, was built at Liverpool, by jMessrs. Jackson and Gordon, for Messrs. 
 " Cairns & Co. She was launched on 17th October, 1838, and was built of angle-iron 
 " and plate-iron, much in the same manner as iron ships are now built. She performed 
 " her first voyage to Rio de Janeiro and back without damaging any cargo. She was 
 " classed by the Committee of Lloyd's Register after careful consideration on the 
 " 15th November, 1838, as ' built of iron,' with no letter. From this date until 1844 
 " the Committee of the Register Book continued to class iron ships by the designation 
 " ' built of iron,' but with no letter. From 1844 till 1854 the Committee improved 
 "the classification by marking them a 1, 'built of iron,' but this character was 
 " limited to six years. However, before the termination of this six years' classifica- 
 " tion the number of iron ships had so increased, and the demands for some kind of 
 " higher class, based on admitted rules, was so general, that the Committee of Lloyd's 
 " Register considered it necessary to form a code of rules for their own guidance, and 
 " for that of the builders of iron ships ; but having in vain solicited the assistance 
 " and concurrence of the iron shipbuilders throughout the country to form such rules, 
 " they in 1854 apix)inted a special Committee, composed of the members of their 
 " Board most conversant with shipbuilding, who, with the assistance of their own 
 " sm-veyors (by collating the scantlings of u-on ships already classed) compiled their 
 " celebrated Rules and Table of Scantlings for ships of six, nine, and twelve years' 
 " grade, and which, when confirmed by the General Committee, was prefaced as 
 " follows : —
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 405 
 
 of Lloyd's Committee, but the following comparisons are based 
 upon the Eules for 1867, which differ from those of the present 
 
 ' Considering that iron shipbuilding is yet in its infancy, and that there are 
 ' no well understood general rules for building iron ships, the Committee have 
 ' not deemed it desirable to frame a scheme compelling the adoption of a parti- 
 ' cular form or mode of construction, but that certain general requirements should 
 ' be put forward having for their' basis thickness of plates and substance of frame, 
 ' showing a minimum in each particidar to entitle ships to the character a for a 
 ' period of years ; subject, however, to certain periodical surveys ; and also to a 
 ' continuation of such character, should their state and condition justify it on 
 ' subsequent examination. For the purpose of attaining this object, the follow- 
 ' ing rules and the accompanying table of dimensions have been formed.' 
 " These rules the Committee amended in 1857 by extending the room and _space of 
 " the frames in twelve-year ships from 16 inches to 18 inches, but increasing the 
 " thickness of the plating in all grades one-sixteenth of an inch throughout. And 
 "in 1861 the rules and tables of scantlings were limited to vessels whose extreme 
 " length did not exceed seven times theu- extreme breadth, or ten times their depth of 
 " hold. At the time the Committee drew up the first rules, in 1854, they felt that a 
 " classification of six, nine, and twelve years, although it might approach the truth 
 " as to the probable comparative durability of the various kinds of timber of which 
 " wooden ships so classed were allowed by their rules to be built, yet these characters 
 " could not correctly indicate the durability of vessels built of metal, which only 
 " deteriorated by the wasting of the surfaces, and whose durability depended on 
 " different laws from that of timber. But it was considered that these rules of 
 " classing would serve until more experience was gained, not only on the durability 
 " of iron when subjected to the continued action of sea-water and the corrosive 
 " products of various cargoes, but also on unascertained points in the construction of 
 " iron ships which could not be premised from the most complete knowledge of 
 " wooden ships. And the result has been that the experience gained during the 
 " following nine years induced the Committee in 1863 to reconsider these rules ; and 
 " with this view they submitted certain i^reliminary suggestions on the subject to the 
 " now numerous iron shipbuilding establishments throughout the country, and to 
 " their own intelligent and experienced staff of surveyors. In reply they received 
 "valuable suggestions from twenty-four • shipbuilding firms, and from twenty-eight 
 " sui'veyors, and these were in the first place referred to the two principal surveyors, 
 ' ' Messrs. Martin and Ritchie, and their opinions having been modified and perfected 
 ' ' by the Special Committee were finally reported on to the General Committee, who 
 " decided that the designation of class by years should be abolished, and the mono- 
 " grams ^^ /^ y^ be for the future used in their places to designate the grada- 
 " tions of probable diurability in such vessels, and indicate the length of time which 
 " might intervene between the special surveys upon which such vessels should retain 
 " their characters dependent on their continued efliciency. And in addition to this 
 " important change the rules for the construction of iron ships have been altered in 
 " the following particulars. The tonnage which is to regulate the strength of the 
 " various parts of the vessel is to be that below the tonnage deck only, and not 
 *'to include the tonnage represented by a poop, or forecastle, or of a spar-deck 
 " when intended for cabin accommodation alone. The skeleton of all ships, that is 
 " to say, the keel, stern, sternpost, floors, frames, beams, keelsons, and stringers 
 " of the /^ /sS. ^\ class are to be the same, but the thickness of the outside 
 " plating may be various." 
 
 " The space of the frames in all grades is increased from 18 to 21 inches, and 
 " under certain conditions to 24 inches, and consequently the spacing of the beams is 
 " increased ; and further to reduce the weight aloft, the plates of the beams, and the 
 " outside plating from the lower part of the sheer-strakes, to three-fifths the depth of 
 " holds above the upper side of keel, may be thinner ; and also to relieve the ends of
 
 4o6 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 year only as respects some regulations for the measurement of 
 tonnage. In order to illustrate the improvements which experience 
 has shown to be necessary we will here mention the principal 
 diiferences of detail between the rules of 1862 and the rules as 
 now enforced ; observing that while in 1862 the table of dimensions 
 was limited in its application to those ships whose length on upper 
 deck did not exceed seven times their breadth, or ten times their 
 depth of hold, provision is now made in an additional section in the 
 rules for ships which exceed these limits. 
 
 The sizes of keel, stem, and sternpost, are in both years 
 regulated by the tonnage, and are the same for all grades. The 
 only alteration from their dimensions of 1862 is a slight increase 
 in the moulding for all vessels under 600 tons, the siding remaining 
 the same. In 1862 hollow plate keels alone were mentioned, the 
 thickness required being stated. Both hollow, and flat plate keels 
 are now mentioned, the thickness for both being the same as that 
 required for hollow keels in 1862 and the minimum breadth 
 required being also stated. 
 
 The dimensions required for the frames are exactly the same 
 in both years, as are also the requirements that wherever the 
 frames are butted they shall have 4 feet lengths of corresponding 
 angle-iron fitted back to back to cover and support the butts, or if 
 welded the welds shall be perfect, with not less than 4 feet shift. 
 The spacing of the frames in 1862 was 18 inches from centre to 
 centre for all grades of classification ; it is now increased to 21 
 inches, but if double frames be fitted extending from the keel to 
 the upper part of the bilge for half the vessel's length amidships, 
 the spacing may be further increased to 23 inches in vessels under 
 ] 000 tons, and to 24 inches in vessels of 1000 tons and upwards. 
 In 1862 there was a table of thicknesses of floor-plates for each of 
 
 '• the ship from unnecessary weight, the floor plates and the outside plating aloft 
 " may be reduced for one quarter the length of the ship, forward and aft. The 
 '■breadth of stringer-plates is_to bo increased in proportion to the length of tlie 
 " vessel, and rules are added for increasing the strength of the sheer-strakes, beara- 
 " stringers, and bilge keelsons, in ships exceeding in length seven times their breadtli 
 " or ien times their depth. And it is now made requisite that the iron, of which all 
 " ships shall hereafter be built, must be capable of sustaining a tensile strain of 20 
 " tons per inch. 
 
 " It should be borne in mind that, although the mode of constructing iron ships, 
 " primarily intended by these rules, is the original and ordinary one of vertical frames 
 " and longitudinal plating, the Committee do not hesitate to admit into the Register 
 " Book, and into the same classes, vessels otherwise constructed if of equal strength ; 
 " and have classed ships with longitudinal frames, or with diagonal frames, and 
 " many with double or cellular bottoms for water-ballast, &c."
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 407 
 
 the three grades, viz., 12 years, 9 years, and 6 years grade ; they 
 are now reduced to one table for all grades, this table corresponding 
 almost identically with that for the 9 years grade in 1862. In 
 1862 the depth of the floor- plate at the middle line was j^ropor- 
 tional to the vessel's depth ; it now depends upon the depth and 
 breadth conjointly. The two rules would correspond in those ships 
 of which the depth is two-thirds the breadth. In 1862 the floor- 
 plates were required to extend beyond the bilge keelsons, and not 
 to be less in depth at the bilge keelsons than the moulding of the 
 frames; the floor-plates are now required to extend to a per- 
 pendicular height up the bilges of twice the depth of the floors 
 amidships from the upper side of the keel at the middle-line, and 
 not to be less moulded at their heads than the moulding of the 
 frames. A reduction is now allowed in the thickness of the floor- 
 plates at the extremities of the ship ; in 1862 no such reduction 
 was allowed. The sizes of the reversed angle-irons are the same in 
 both years. The rules of 1862 require double angle-irons in the 
 way of all keelsons ; the present rules require them in way of all 
 keelsons and stringers in hold. The height to which the reversed 
 angle-iron is carried on the different frames is the same in both 
 years, but a slight alteration has taken place in the wording of the 
 rules ; — wherever in 1862 the reversed angle-iron was required to 
 extend to the middle or lower deck beam-stringer, it is now required 
 to extend to above the middle or the lower deck beam-stringer 
 angle-iron, and the butts of the reversed angle-irons are to be 
 secured with butt- straps. 
 
 Middle line keelsons, if of single plate standing on the top of 
 the floors, are required in both years to be in thickness the same 
 as the garboard strake, and in depth two-thirds the depth of the 
 floors, and to have double angle-irons at top and bottom, but the 
 angle-irons are somewhat larger now than in 1862 for ships under 
 400 tons ; above this they are the same. If box keelsons be adopted 
 the rules in both years require the plates to be the same thickness 
 as the floor-plates, and to be in depth two-thirds the depth of the 
 floors ; now the breadth is also given, viz., two-thirds of the depth. 
 In both years the intercostal middle-line keelson is required to be 
 of the same thickness as the floor-plates, and riveted to vertical 
 angle-iron on all the floor-plates at each end. In 1862 the keelson 
 was required to extend from the upper edge of the keel to above 
 the upper edge of tlie floors sufiiciently high to be riveted between
 
 4o8 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap, xix, 
 
 double angle-irons extending all fore and aft ; it is now required 
 to extend from the upper edge of the keel to above the upper edge 
 of the floors sufficiently high to be riveted to bulb iron .bars of the 
 same strength as the beams ; or to extend only to the top of the 
 floors, deeper bulb iron bars or bar of other form but equal 
 in strength, being let down and riveted to it ; in each case the bulb 
 iron is to be fitted between double angle-irons extending all fore 
 and aft, and riveted also to double reversed angle-irons on the top 
 of the floors. Several additional forms of keelson not mentioned 
 in 1862 are also now authorized. With reference to bilore keelsons 
 the requirements are the same in both years, viz., bilge keelsons at 
 the lower turn of the bilge in all vessels, double angle-iron stringers 
 at the upper turn of the bilge in all ships of 500 tons and upwards, 
 and intercostal side keelsons in ships of 1000 tons and upwards. 
 Keelsons in both years are required to be continuous and not 
 stojjped at bulkheads. 
 
 Several alterations have been made in the rules for outside 
 plating. In 1862 the plates were required to be not less than 
 9 feet in length ; they are now required to be not less than 5 spaces 
 of fi'ames, the fore and after hoods being exceptions in both cases. 
 In 1862 the minimum shift of butt was one frame space, it is now 
 two spaces of frames. In 1862 the relative thickness of the plating 
 was regulated as follows : — the distance from the keel to the sheer- 
 strake was divided into three parts, viz., the garboard strakes, from 
 the garboard to the upper part of the bilge, and from the upper part 
 of the bilge to the sheerstrake, each of these portions being, for the 
 most part, covered with plating -^ inch thinner than that in the 
 portion next below it, and the sheerstrake being of the same thickness 
 as the plating in the middle portion. The upper portion, viz., from the 
 upper part of the bilge to the sheerstrake, is now subdivided into two 
 portions, the plating in the uppermost of these being reduced in 
 most classes of ships by ^ inch, the sheerstrake being as before, 
 of the same thickness as the plating in the portion next above the 
 garboard strake. The thickness of the plating differs also according 
 to the grade in which the ship is to be classed. In 1862 ships of 
 the 9 years grade were to have plating j^g inch less in thickness, 
 and ships for the 6 years grade -^^ inch less in thickness than that 
 required for the highest or 12 years grade. Now the ^ and /^ 
 grades correspond nearly to the 12 years and 9 years grades 
 respectively of 1862, except in ships of 1000 tons and upwards
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Ii'on Shipbuildiiig. 409 
 
 where there is generally a reduction of ^^^inch or j^-incli in the 
 plating. The breadths of the garboard and the sheerstrake are 
 now given ; in 1862 they were not given. In 1862 no reduction 
 in thickness at the extremities was allowed, except in the sheer- 
 strake and the strake next below it which could be reduced ^ inch 
 in vessels of 1000 tons and under, and -^^ inch in vessels above 
 1000 tons, for one-quarter of the vessel's length from each end. 
 The plating may now be reduced -^ inch in vessels under 1200 
 tons, and ^g inch in vessels of 1200 tons and upwards, for one- 
 quarter of the length from each end, from the upper edge of the 
 sheerstrake doAMi to a perpendicular height above the upper side 
 of the keel of three-fifths the depth of hold. In screw vessels, 
 however, no reduction is to be made in the plating abaft, below the 
 lower part of the rudder trunk. The rules in both years recom- 
 mend that the sheerstrake be an outside strake, and require that 
 all butt straps shall be fitted with the fibre in the same direction as 
 the fibre of the plate. In the rules of both years reductions are 
 allowed in raised quarter-decks, poops and forecastles, and upper 
 declvs in vessels with three decks, and in spar decks, in the parts 
 and according to the proiDortions stated hereafter. 
 
 As regards beams, the rule in 1862 required the beams to be 
 formed of bulb or any other approved iron plates, with angle-irons 
 riveted on the upper edge ; the rule now requires the beams to be 
 made of H-iron, T-bulb-iron, or bulb-plate with double angle-irons 
 riveted on the upper edge. The present rule also states that where 
 no deck is laid the angle-irons may be of the same size as the 
 reversed angle-irons on the frames. With reference to the spacing 
 of the beams, detailed information will be given in the subsequent 
 part of this chapter. 
 
 The rules relating to riveting are the same in both years, but 
 the amount of lap required in the outside plating has been increased 
 from that required in 1862, viz., from 5 to 'q\ diameters for double 
 riveting, and from 3 to 3^ diameters for single riveting. If double 
 riveting is adopted where single is allowed both rules allow a 
 reduction of j"g inch in the diameterof the rivet provided that in no 
 case the diameter be less than f inch. The present rule requires 
 the holes to be punched from the faying surfaces of the plates. 
 
 There is no difference between the rules of 1862 and those now 
 enforced as regards the construction of bulkheads ; the thickness of 
 the plating, the dimensions and spacing of the stiffeners, and the con-
 
 41 o Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 nection to the side remaining the same. The rules of 1862, how- 
 ever, require all ships to have a watertiglit bulkhead at each end ; 
 they now require only the foremost one (or collision bulkhead) for 
 sailing sliips. The rules of 18G2 require a sluice cock, or valve to 
 be fitted at the limbers on each side of the middle line, at each water- 
 tight bulkhead, to be worked from the deck above : the rules now 
 require the same when a pump is not fitted to each compartment. 
 
 In 1862 there was no provision made for double bottoms. At 
 present a vessel is noted as having a " Double Bottom " if the 
 inner bottom is carried forward to the fore bulkhead as usually 
 fitted, and to an equal distance from the after part of the ship, and 
 constructed as required by rules ; or a ship may be noted as "Part 
 Double Bottom " provided the inner bottom extends to at least 
 one-half the length. 
 
 The thickness of the deck planking is the same in both years ; 
 but while in 1862 planks over 6 inches wide were to have two 
 bolts in each plank in every beam, one of which might be a short 
 screw bolt, both bolts must now be put through in all planks over 
 8 inches wide. The rules of 1862 state that if the planksheers and 
 waterways are of wood the material must not be inferior in quality 
 to that required for wood ships of the same grade. The rules now 
 state that the waterways if of wood are to be fastened with screw 
 bolts, with nuts on the under side of the stringer plates. 
 
 In both years the stringer plates are required to be of the 
 same thickness as the floor plates. In 1862 the breadth was 
 required to be not less than three times the depth of the beam ; it 
 is now as follows, viz., for the upper deck stringer in vessels with 
 one or two decks, or the middle deck stringer in vessels with three 
 decks, one inch for every seven feet of the vessel's entire length, 
 for half her length amidships, tapering to three fourths the midship 
 breadth at the extremities. Stringer-plates on the beams below 
 the above mentioned decks may be reduced in width to three-fourths 
 the midship breadth above named, being continued right fore and 
 aft, and riveted by an angle-iron to the reversed angle-irons on the 
 frames. Now, as in 1862, it is required that all upper deck- 
 stringers, and those of the middle deck in vessels with three decks, 
 shall be fitted home and riveted to the outside plating by means 
 of an angle-iron, and that the middle-deck stringer shall have an 
 extra angle-iron riveted to the reversed angle-irons and to the 
 stringers. The rules of both years require all vessels to have
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 411 
 
 tie plates ranging all fore and aft upon each side of the hatchways 
 on each tier of beams, to be half the breadth of the stringer-plates, 
 and of the same thickness. The rules of 1862 require plates of 
 the same dimensions to be fitted from side to side diagonally where 
 practicable. The rules at present require diagonal tie-plates to be 
 fitted from side to side on the upper and middle decks in vessels 
 with three decks, and on the upper deck in vessels with one or two 
 decks, wherever the arrangements of the deck will permit them. 
 Hatchways and mast holes must now be properly framed, the 
 latter having mast partners at each tier of beams, except the orlop 
 beams, the plating of which is not to be less in thickness than that 
 required for stringers, and the united breadths of the plates are not 
 to be less than three times the diameter of the mast. At the decks 
 where the mast is wedged, an angle-iron of the same size as the 
 main frames is to be riveted to the plates round the mast holes. 
 There was no corresponding rule in 1862. 
 
 The rules of 1862 required that the plans of all vessels intended 
 to be built, of which the length, measured from the fore part of stem 
 to the after side of post on the range of the upper deck, exceeded 
 seven times their extreme breadth or ten times their depth in hold, 
 should be submitted to the Committee for approval, with full 
 particulars of the arrangements for giving the vessel sufficient 
 additional longitudinal strength, either by doubling or thickening 
 the sheerstrake, and increasing the size of the stringer-plates, or 
 otherwise. In the new rules the additional strength reqmred is 
 stated for ships exceeding the above-mentioned limits, and includes 
 the strengthening of sheer-strakes, stringer-plates, and keelsons in 
 hold, as will be seen further on in this chapter. 
 
 The rules of both years require the rudder to be made of best 
 hammered iron, those of 1862 also requiring that where practicable 
 the rudder shall ship and unship without docking. The size of the 
 main piece at the heel is the same in both years, but the head is 
 now enlarged in all ships. 
 
 The rules now, as in 1862, require that vessels intended for 
 classification shall be surveyed five times as follows, viz. : — 1st. On 
 the several parts of the frame when in place and before the plating 
 is wrought ; 2nd. On the plating during the process of riveting ; 
 3rd. When the beams are in and fastened and before the decks are 
 laid ; 4th. When the ship is complete, but before the plating is finally 
 coated or cemented ; 5th. After the ship is launched and equipped.
 
 412 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. XIX. 
 
 The rules laid down by the Liverpool Underwriters which were 
 first promulgated in 1862, also exercise considerable influence upon 
 the construction of many iron ships and therefore deserve con- 
 sideration. We have given the latest edition of these rules in the 
 Appendix, and here propose to briefly enumerate the alterations 
 which have been made in them since their first issue, and then to 
 state the principal difierences which exist between Lloyd's and the 
 Liverpool rules as now enforced. 
 
 The system of classification of the Liverpool rules has remained 
 almost unaltered since their promulgation, but the times of the 
 periodical surveys have been slightly changed. Thus in 1862 
 a ship built under survey was required to be thoroughly surveyed 
 once in every three years, and a ship not built under survey once 
 in every two years, provided they were in this country; and all 
 vessels not built under inspection but surveyed not less than 
 four years after the date of launching, were requu-ed to be 
 subsequently surveyed once in every three years. Under the 
 present regulations all ships classed for 20 years are to be surveyed 
 once in every four years ; ships built under survey aud classed under 
 20 years are to be surveyed once in every three years ; and ships 
 not built under survey and classed under 20 years are to be 
 surveyed once in every two years. The periods for which ships 
 are classed vary from 10 to 20 years. The rules as published in 
 18t)2 contained the scantlings of ships intended to be classed for 
 20 years, and this arrangement has been conformed to in the present 
 rules, but some particulars are given as to the reductions permitted 
 in steamers intended to be classed in the lower grades. 
 
 Bar, side-bar, and flat-plate keels liave always been recognised 
 in these rules, but in the latest issue information has been given 
 with respect to the butt- strapping of the centre plate of a side-bar 
 arrangement, and of the flat-plate keelsons usually adopted in con- 
 nection with it, which was not supplied in the rules for 1862. 
 The regulation with respect to the row of rivets connecting the side 
 bars with the centre plate has also been added, as well as that which 
 states that the double reversed scarphiug angle-iron is to be riveted 
 to the flat-plate keelson in addition to its being riveted to the 
 floors. The angle-irons connecting the floors with the centre 
 plate have been increased in size from the dimensions of the 
 reversed angle-irons to those of the fra^ies. The regulations with 
 respect to bar and flat-plate keels remain unaltered.
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 413 
 
 The rules having reference to the sizes and construction of 
 the frames, the arrangements of their scarphing angle-irons, and 
 the fitting and ending of the reversed angle-u'ons, are almost 
 identical in the two editions, the only point requiring notice being 
 that in ships having two tiers of beams, and not exceeding 16 feet 
 depth of hold, the reversed frames are now ended at the upper 
 bilge stringer and the gunwale alternately, instead of at the main 
 and lower deck stringers as was formerly required. The spacing 
 of the frames is unchanged, except that now in ships of 1000 tons 
 the frames may be 24 inches apart for one-fifth of the vessel's 
 length from each end, which is a provision not made in the rules of 
 1862. The depth and thickness of the floors which were originally 
 given have been retained, but intermediate dimensions have been 
 introduced in the table. A reduction of ^ inch is now allowed 
 in the thickness of the plates for one-fifth of the vessel's length 
 from each end in floors which exceed ^^inch in thickness. It is 
 also provided that the depth of the floors shall be increased in 
 spar-deck ships. The two latter provisions have been added in the 
 present rules. The rule which governs the depth will be given 
 hereafter. 
 
 In the rules for 1862 the only middle-line keelsons recognised 
 were box-keelsons, double centre plate with top and bottom plates, 
 and upright or single centre-plate keelsons. In the present rules 
 fuller information is given with respect to these three keelsons, 
 and in addition intercostal middle-line keelsons are admitted for 
 ships of 1200 tons and under. The particulars of butt-strap|)ing 
 for keelsons now given were not furnished by the rule of 1862. 
 The regulations of 1862 with respect to the hold-stringers are 
 nearly identi(!al with the present rules, but it will be seen that the 
 depth of the lower hold now governs the position of the stringer, 
 whereas in 1862 depth in hold was the measurement on which 
 the rule was for the most part based. One very important alter- 
 ation has been made in the present rules from those of 1862, viz., 
 the omission of the hold-stringer then required in ships with a 
 depth of hold exceeding 23 feet, which was constructed of the same 
 form as the middle-line keelson, but formed of plates having one- 
 half the thickness and two-thirds the depth of those used at the 
 middle line.* Centre keelsons may now be reduced at their ends 
 
 * " There is no doubt that this stringer is generally in the neutral part of the ship's 
 side. This is inevitable. It is not designed for other than lateral strains, such as
 
 414 Lloyd' s and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 tx) two-thirds the sectional area amidships, as explained hereafter. 
 This was not allowed by the rules of 1862, Both rules require 
 the longitudinal ties to be kept up through the bulkheads. 
 
 Very important alterations have been made in the rules with 
 respect to outside plating. In 1862 the thickness of plating was 
 governed by the length of the ship or the depth in hold, and the 
 plating was of uniform thickness from the garboard strake to 
 the sheer strake. Now, the thickness is based upon the depth 
 in hold, the ship's length being disregarded, and variations in 
 the thickness are given for the different grades of classification 
 for 20, 18, and 16 years respectively. The thicknesses now given 
 for the higher grade are identical with those of 1862, but inter- 
 mediate dimensions are introduced. The same regulations as to 
 length of plates and shift of butts are retained, but it is now 
 required that in vessels of 1200 tons and over, three strakes of 
 plates in the bilges shall be increased -^ inch in thickness over 
 half the vessel's length amidships. Other rules are now given for 
 the plating of ships of excessive proportions which were not given 
 in the rules of 1862. A reduction of about -j^ inch was allowed in 
 the thickness of outside plating forward and aft in the rules for 
 1862, but in the present rule the reduction allowed is stated to 
 be about one-sixth of the total thickness. In both cases the taper 
 commences at one-fifth of the vessel's length from each end. The 
 reductions now allowed for poops, forecastle, &c., are identical with 
 those previously specified. 
 
 As regards beams the dimensions given in 1862 have been re- 
 tained in the present rules, but intermediate breadths of vessels 
 have been introduced in the table. It is also now provided that 
 for one-fifth of the vessel's length from each end the thickness 
 of the beams may be reduced ^ inch. This is an addition to the 
 rules of 1862. The regulations for the spacing of beams are nearly 
 identical for the two years, and the same may be said of the 
 requirements for hatch, forecastle, and poop beams, and the di- 
 mensions of beam-knees. One addition made in the present rules 
 
 " result from working in a rolling sea, lying in tiers in docks, and especially for 
 " working in and out of docks. Yet, in vessels of greater depth than those into wliich 
 " it is first introduced, it will be higher above the said axis, and to that degree 
 " becomes available for longitudinal strain. It is generally of a limited length as 
 " compared with the other stringers in the smaller vessels into which it is put, seldom 
 " being carried into the ends." — Mr. John Price, Chief Surveyor of the Liverpool 
 Committee, Sunderland, in a discussion at tlie Institution of Engineers in Scotland.
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Ii'-on Shipbtiilding. 415 
 
 is that lower-deck beams are recommended to be one-eightli of 
 the depth deeper, besides being ^^ inch thicker than the upper- 
 deck beams, and in cases where the scantlings of the lower-deck 
 beams are increased a proportional reduction is permitted in the 
 upper-deck beams. Solid flanged beams are now recognised in 
 the rules, but were not mentioned in the rules for 1862. 
 
 The present regulations with respect to the diameters, spacing, 
 and arrangement of rivets are almost identical with those of 1862, 
 the only important additions being that the particulars of treble- 
 riveted butts are now given, and that the work is now specified in 
 which the rivets are required to be conically formed under the 
 head, whereas in the former rules the requirement was made for 
 all work. The maximum thickness of the rivet-head is now fixed 
 at two-thirds the diameter. No change has been made with respect 
 to the quality of iron and the character of the workmanship, 
 except the omission in the present rules of the regulation formerly 
 made that drifting unfair holes would be considered bad work. 
 
 Important alterations have been made in the rule with regard 
 to bulkheads. In 1862 only a collision bulkhead was required, but 
 it was added that two years additional would be granted to ships 
 which were thoroughly bulkheaded. In the present rules the 
 collision bulkhead is still required for all ships, and for steamers 
 bulkheads must be fitted at each end of the engine and boiler 
 space, and at the fore end of the shaft-tube. The paragraph with 
 respect to two years additional being granted has been omitted. In 
 other respects the rules for the two years are nearly identical. 
 
 The regulations at present enforced with regard to decks only 
 differ from those of 1862 in allowing a thickness of upper deck of 
 3^ inches in vessels up to 700 tons instead of 500 tons, and fixing 
 the thickness in larger vessels at not less than 4 inches, without 
 adding the remark made in the rules of 1862 that the decks may 
 be made 4^ inches with advantage. The paragraph with respect 
 to spar-deck vessels has been added to the present rules. 
 
 With regard to beam-stringers and deck-ties the rules for the 
 two years differ considerably. The present table is much more 
 elaborate than that j^reviously given, although nearly all the di- 
 mensions given in 1862 are still retained. The reduction now 
 allowed in the hold' and orlop beam stringers at the ends was not 
 allowed in 1862. The regulation with respect to upper -deck 
 stringers of ships of and over twelve depths in length have also
 
 4i6 Lloyd's atid the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 been added in the present rules. In the rules of 1862 no mention 
 was made of the continuous stringer angle-iron now required to 
 be fitted inside the frames, nor was any rule given for the arrange- 
 ment of the upper-deck stringer in ships having a break at the 
 after part of the deck, as is now the case. In other respects 
 the rules agree. 
 
 The present regulations mth regard to excessive proportions 
 differ from those of 1862 in omitting the requirements which were 
 formerly made for vessels of 10 and 11 depths in length. For 
 vessels of 12, 13, and 14 depths in length the regulations are 
 almost identical, but while the present rules require that ships 
 above J 2 depths in length and exceeding 1500 tons shall have 
 the plating from the keel to the upper part of the bilge increased 
 ^ inch in thickness for one-half the vessel's length amidships, the 
 rules of 1862 only required one strake above, and one strake 
 below the bilge to be doubled for half their length amidships. 
 The regulation now made with respect to the working a thicker 
 plate instead of doubling the sheer-strake was not given in the 
 rules of 1862. The notes attached to Tables 2 and 5 have been 
 added in the present rules, and include further regulations with 
 respect to excessive i^roportions. 
 
 No alterations have been made in the rules with regard to wind- 
 lasses, rudders, masts, spars and sails, and painting and cementing. 
 
 In the present rules two additional paragraphs are given having 
 respect to the extension of the character of vessels, and the form 
 of survey for the extension of class. Rules are also given for com- 
 posite ships, but these do not fall within the limits of this work. 
 
 Having thus briefly reviewed the alterations made in the Liver- 
 pool rules since their first appearance, we proceed to indicate the 
 principal differences between Lloyd's and the Liverpool rules as 
 at present enforced. The nomenclature adopted in the Liverpool 
 rules differs somewhat from that -of Lloyd's rules. In a ship with 
 two decks they are denominated in Lloyd's rules upper and lower 
 deck respectively ; in the Liverpool rules they are called main and 
 lower deck respectively. If a vessel has three decks, they are 
 upper, middle, and lower decks in Lloyd's, and upper, main, and 
 lower decks in the Liverpool rules. If the floors are divided at 
 the middle line by a vertical plate, this plate is termed in Lloyd's 
 rules a centre-plate keelson, or a centre through-plate keelson, 
 according as it is only of the depth of the floors, or extends above
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 417 
 
 or below tliem ; in tlie Liverpool rules it is denominated a centre- 
 plate keel. The classification is also differently arranged under 
 the two sets of rules. The gross tonnage is the basis of Lloyd's 
 scantlings, subject to certain exceptions, while dimensions are the 
 principal basis of the Liverpool rules. 
 
 Lloyd's Committee class all vessels /\, subjecting them to 
 special periodical survey, the vessels retaining their grade only so 
 long as these surveys show them to be in a fit condition to carry dry 
 and perishable cargoes to all parts of the world. Degrees of strength 
 and probable durabihty are indicated thus, ^ /^ ,^* \^ /^ 
 denote vessels built in accordance with the rules. /^ denotes 
 vessels considered entitled to the /\ character, but which have not 
 been built in accordance with the rules. The Liverpool Committee 
 propose to class ships on their general merits, for a specific period, 
 having special reference to the quality of the materials, to the 
 character of the workmanship, to the arrangement and size of 
 the parts where the principal strains are experienced, and to the 
 equipment. The latter Committee will class in red all vessels 
 submitted to the inspection of their surveyors while building, for 
 periods varying from ten to twenty years. The Committee will 
 also class in black ships already built but not submitted to the 
 inspection of their surveyors while building, for periods, varying 
 according to their merits, from ten to twenty years. Lloyd's 
 Committee require that vessels shall be surveyed every four, three, 
 or two years respectively, according as they are classed y^, /^, 
 or /^. The Liverpool Committee require that vessels having 
 certificates for twenty years shall be surveyed once in every four 
 years, and that vessels having certificates for less than twenty 
 years shall be surveyed once in every three or two years re- 
 spectively, according as the vessel has a red or black certificate. 
 Lloyd's rules require the whole of the iron to be of good mal- 
 leable quality, capable of bearing a longitudinal strain of 20 tons 
 per square inch, and to have the manufacturer's trade-mark, or 
 his name and the place where made, legibly stamped upon it in 
 two places. The Liverpool rules require all iron to be tough and 
 malleable and branded "best" with maker's name, and to bear an 
 absolute mean breaking strain of 20 tons per square inch, or 24 
 tons per square inch of broken section, the rule thus taking ac- 
 
 * See foot-note, p. 404. 
 
 2 E
 
 41 8 LloycVs and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 count of the ductility of the iron. Both rules specify that the 
 iron shall exhibit tlie ordinary properties of good material, and 
 also that the workmanship shall be of the best description and well 
 executed. 
 
 The following is a detailed comparison of the two sets of rules, 
 framed chiefly with reference to the differences that exist between 
 them : — 
 
 The Liverpool rule states that the form of keel must be either 
 that of the centre plate or that of a bar ; Lloyd's rule mentions 
 the same forms. When bar-keels are adopted, the scantling in 
 both rules is regulated by the tonnage of the vessel, but the 
 Liverpool rule requires a larger scantling than Lloyd's for ships 
 under 1500 tons, the same for ships from 1500 to 2500 tons, and 
 smaller for ships above 2500 tons. When the garboard strake^ 
 are thicker than those required by the rule, Lloyd's rule allows 
 a proportionate reduction in the thickness of the keel, but the 
 garboard strakos must in this case extend to the bottom of the 
 keel. In both rules the thickness of the centre plate depends 
 upon the tonnage, but a somewhat thicker plate is required by the 
 Liverpool rules than by Lloyd's. The Liverpool rules state that 
 the butts of the centre plate are to be secured by double butt- 
 straps treble chain-riveted, each strap being two-thirds the thick- 
 ness of the centre plate ; Lloyd's rules give no directions on this 
 ' point. Lloyd's rule requires the side bars to be of such a thick- 
 ness as, together with the centre plate, shall make up the thickness 
 of a solid keel ; the Liverpool rule gives the sizes for ships of 
 various tonnages ; but although put in a different form the rules are 
 nearly identical. If the centre plate extend only to the top of the 
 floors, both rules require a flat keelson-plate to be worked on 
 the top of the floors, riveted to double reversed angle-irons on the 
 upper edges of the floors, and to the centre plate by short fore and 
 aft angle-irons underneath. The Liverpool rule requires plates 
 of less thickness than Lloyd's, but of greater width, except in 
 ships under 200 tons where the breadth is greatest as reqiured by 
 Lloyd's. The angle-irons on the upper edge of the centre plate 
 ^re largest as required by Lloyd's rule. If the centre plate extends 
 above the floors to form a keelson, both rules require that it 
 shall be riveted by two fore and aft angle-irons to two flat 
 keelson-plates, one on each side, each being of the same thickness 
 and half the width of the single plate mentioned above : the size
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 419 
 
 of the angle-irons required by the two rules is about the same as 
 regards sectional area, but they are thickest in the Liverpool rules. 
 The Liverpool rules state that the butts of the iiat keelson-plates 
 are to be double chain-riveted, the butt-straps being worked on 
 the upper side of the plate. 
 
 When flat keel-plates are used, both rules require the centre 
 plate to be connected to them by two continuous angle-irons, the 
 sectional area of the angle-irons required by the two rules being 
 about the same for similar ships. Lloyd's rules, as we have seen, 
 give the breadth and thickness of hollow or flat keels ; the Liver- 
 pool rules do not. 
 
 Both rules require stems and stern-posts to be of the same 
 dimensions as bar-keels. The Liverpool rule requires that pro- 
 peller posts shall be double the thickness of, and the same breadth 
 as, bar-keels ; also that the feet of the stem and stern-post shall 
 be extended to form part of the keel for a distance not less than 
 four and a half feet ; the rule also allows that the stem may be 
 gradually reduced in sectional area one-fourth, from the load-line 
 upwards. Lloyd's rule requires the stern-posts and the after end 
 of the keel in steam-vessels to be double the thickness of, or 
 twice the sectional area of, the adjoining length of the keel (the 
 siding in no case to be less than that given for bar-keels) ; and 
 to be tapered into the adjoining length of the keel. Lloyd's rules 
 require the scarphs of keel, stem, and stern-posts to be in length 
 eight times the thickness given for bar-keels. The Liverpool rule 
 gives the actual lengths for ships of various tonnages, but the two 
 rules are nearly identical. 
 
 The sizes of the frames and reversed angle-irons are regu- 
 lated in Lloyd's rules by the tonnage, and in the Liverpool rules 
 by the depth of hold, but for well-proportioned ships the sectional 
 areas required by the two rules are nearly identical. When frames 
 are butted, Lloyd's rules require that the covering piece shall be 
 not less than four feet long. The Liverpool rules require that 
 they shall be four feet long in vessels up to 900 tons, and six 
 feet long in vessels over 900 tons, but the pieces to connect the 
 heels of the frames across the middle-line, where bar-keels are 
 used, are to be not less than four feet long. The Liverpool rules 
 require the reversed angle-irons to extend to the upper part of 
 the bilge and the gunwale alternately in vessels of under 12 feet 
 depth of hold, while Lloyd's rules require no reversed angle-irons 
 
 2 E 2
 
 4-10 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 above the upper part of the bilge in vessels under 300 tons. In ships 
 above 300 tons the rules are nearly identical. Lloyd's rules now 
 require, as we have seen, double reversed angle-irons in the way 
 of all keelsons and hold-stringers, while the Liverpool rules require 
 them in the way of all keelsons, hold and beam stringers, except 
 where great closing bovil would be necessary in the double angle- 
 iron. The maximum limit allowed for the spacing of the frames by 
 the Liverpool rule under any conditions is 21 inches from centre 
 to centre for ships under 1000 tons ; while Ijy Lloyd's rule this 
 may be increased to 23 inches under the conditions already 
 specified. For ships of 1000 tons and upwards both rules allow 
 the spacing throughout the ship to be increased to 24 inches under 
 certain conditions, and the Liverpool rules allow of this spacing 
 being adopted for one-fifth the vessel's length from each end 
 without any double frames being fitted. With reference to floor- 
 plates, Lloyd's present rule, as previously stated, makes the depth 
 of floor-plate at the middle line to depend upon the breadth and 
 depth of the ship, viz., the depth in inches to be two-fifths the 
 sum of the breadth and depth ; the Liverpool rule makes it to 
 depend upon the breadth alone. The depths at the middle line 
 are given for various breadths of ship obtained evidently from 
 the following rule : — Depth in inches equal to two-thirds the 
 breadth of the ship. The rules would correspond for those ships 
 whose depth w^as two-thirds their breadth. For spar-deck ships, the 
 Liverpool rules also require an increase of f inch in the depth of 
 tlie floor-plate for each foot of height of the spar-deck. The 
 thickness is by Lloyd's rules made to depend upon the toimage, 
 but by the Liverpool rules on the breadth only. A table of 
 thicknesses is given in each case, the Liverpool rule requiring a 
 somewhat less thickness of floor-plate than Lloyd's for ordinary 
 proportioned ships. Both rules allow a reduction in the thickness 
 of the floor-plates at the extremities of the ship. Lloyd's rules 
 require the outer ends of the floor-plates to be carried up the 
 bilge to a perpendicular height of twice the depth of the floors 
 amidships from the upper side of the keel ; the Liverpool rules 
 say they must be carried well up into the bilge, and be half the 
 centre depth at the lower turn of the bilge. Lloyd's rule gives no 
 intermediate moulding. 
 
 Both rules require for middle line keelsons either a box keelson, 
 a single plate with double angle-iron at the top and bottom, or an
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron SJiipbuilding. 421 
 
 intercostal middle line keelson with a bulb iron bar on the upper 
 edge riveted to two fore and aft angle-irons ; the Liverpool rule also 
 recognises a double centre plate keelson with top and bottom 
 plates, and limits the application of the intercostal middle line 
 keelson to vessels of 1200 tons and under. A deeper and thicker 
 keelson is required by the Liverpool rules than by Lloyd's. The 
 angle-irons are similar in size. Li box keelsons the thickness is 
 nearly the same in both rules. The particulars of the butt strap- 
 ping of keelson work are given in the Liverpool rules but not in 
 Lloyd's. 
 
 The Liverpool rule requires all vessels to have double angle- 
 iron stringers botli at the upper and the lower turn of the bilge ; 
 Lloyd's rule requires the lower one only for vessels under 500 tons. 
 Lloyd's rule requires, as already stated, a side intercostal keelson 
 to be fitted to all vessels of 1000 tons and upwards as far forward 
 and aft as practicable ; the Liverpool rule requires the same for 
 all vessels over 32 feet beam, to extend for two-thirds of the 
 vessePs length when practicable. The Liverpool rule requires in 
 vessels of 15 feet depth of the lower hold an extra stringer between 
 the upper bilge stringer and the lower deck beams, and in vessels 
 above 16 feet, but under 18 feet in depth, a bulb-iron of the size of 
 the lower-deck beams to be secured between the angle-irons form- 
 ing the side stringers, and a bulb-iron to be riveted between the 
 angle-irons on the upper or the lower bilge stringer. The sectional 
 area of the centre keelsons at the extremities may be reduced to 
 two-thirds the area amidships, the reduction only extending to the 
 heel of the fore and main masts, and not exceeding in length one- 
 third the length of the vessel when taken together. Both rules 
 require keelsons, stringers, &c., to be continuous as far as practicable. 
 
 Both rules now require outside plates to be not less in length 
 than five spaces of frames. The thickness of the plating is, in the 
 Liverpool rules, made to depend upon the depth of hold of 
 the ship ; in Lloyd's, upon the tonnage. The Liverpool rule, in 
 most cases, provides for a thinner plating than Lloyd's. In the 
 Liverpool rule the plating is arranged in four divisions, the gar- 
 boards, bilge and bottom, sides, and sheer-strakes. There are also 
 three classes of ships 20j 18, and 16 years respectively for which 
 the thickness is varied. The thickness of plating between the gar- 
 board and sheer-strakes is uniform in vessels of the highest class, but 
 for the 18 and 16 year class the side plating is ^ inch thinner than
 
 42,2 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 the bilge and bottom plating. For vessels of 1200 tons and upwards 
 special regulations are made as before stated. Lloyd's rules divide 
 the distance from the garboard strake to the sheer-strake, as we 
 have seen, into four parts, the plating in each part being generally 
 jij inch thinner than that in the part next below it, that in the 
 lowest being ^^ inch thinner than the garboard strake. A reduction 
 in thickness is allowed in the plating at the extremities in all 
 ships by the Liverpool rules, and over a portion of the plating by 
 Lloyd's rule. Butt straps are required by both rules to be of the 
 same thickness as the plates they connect, and no butts in adjoining 
 strakes may be nearer than two spaces of frames. The Liverpool 
 rule requires a shift of 3 feet between the butts of the upper-deck 
 stringer and of the sheer-strake. There is no rule in Lloyd's for 
 this. Lloyd's rule gives the breadth of the sheer-strakes and the 
 garboard strakes, the Liverpool rule does not. When the united 
 lengths of the poop and forecastle do not exceed three-fifths of the 
 entire length of the upper-deck, Lloyd's rules allows a reduction of 
 one-fourth from the thickness which would be required for the 
 same parts in the range of the upper-deck in ships with two decks, 
 the outside plating, beams," stringer-plates upon beams, angle-irons 
 on stringer-plates, and flat of deck ; in raised quarter-decks a reduc- 
 tion of one-fifth in the same parts is allowed. The Liverpool 
 rules allow the following reductions — the sides of the poop and fore- 
 castle to be one-third lighter than the shell plates amidships ; the 
 poop beams to be one-third, and the forecastle beams one-fourth 
 lighter than the scantling given in the table for beams ; the poop 
 and forecastle stringers to be one-third lighter than lower-deck 
 stringers. Li vessels with three decks, Lloyd's rules allow a 
 reduction of one-sixth from the dimensions given for such parts in 
 the range of the upper-deck in vessels with two decks, in the 
 scantling of beams, the flat of deck, and the plating, but not in 
 the dimensions of the sheer-strakes. In the way of spar decks 
 Lloyd's rules allow a similar reduction of one-fourth in all beams, 
 stringers, plating, and flat of deck. The Liverpool rules also allow 
 a reduction of one-sixth in the scantling of the material above the 
 main deck of spar deck vessels. 
 
 With regard to beams, Lloyd's rule requires them to be in 
 depth \ inch for every foot of the length of the midship beam, and 
 to be in thickness ^ inch for every incli in depth. The Liverpool 
 rule gives the dimensions of the beams and of the angle-irons for the
 
 Chap. XIX. Rtdes for Iron Shipbuilding. 423 
 
 upper edge for various breadths of ship, but these dimensions are 
 obtained by the same rule as Lloyd's, and therefore for these 
 breadths the rules are identical. Lloyd's rule requires the two 
 sides of the angle-iron on the edges of the beam to be not less 
 in breadth than three-fourths the depth of the plate, and to be in 
 thickness ^ inch for every inch of the two sides of the angle-iron. 
 The Liverpool rule allows the beams to be reduced ^ inch in 
 thickness for one-fifth of the vessels length from each end. The 
 Liverpool rule requires a beam on alternate frames at all main decks. 
 Lloyd's rule requii-es a beam on alternate frames at the upper 
 (or main) deck in vessels with one or two decks, and on the 
 uftper and middle (or main) decks in vessels with three decks. 
 Vessels of 12 feet to 13 feet depth according to Lloyd's, or 11 feet 
 to 13 feet by the Liverpool rule, are to have lower-deck (or hold) 
 beams, at least one to every eighth frame. Vessels from 13 feet to 
 15 feet deep are requu^ed by both rules to have lower-deck beams 
 on every fourth frame, and vessels of 15 feet to 18 feet are to have 
 lower-deck beams on every second and fourth frame alternately. 
 Vessels of 18 feet and upwards are required by both rules to have 
 lower-deck beams on every alternate frame. Vessels over 24 feet 
 in depth are required by Lloyd's to have orlop beams on every 
 sixth frame ; the Liverpool rule requires the same in vessels over 
 17 feet in depth of lower hold. In vessels over 18 feet in depth of 
 the lower hold, the Liverpool rule requires orlop beams on every 
 fourth frame. Both rules require stringer-plates on orlop deck 
 beams. The Liverpool rule requires the lower-deck beams to be 
 Jg inch thicker, and one-eighth of the depth deeper than the 
 upper deck beams. 
 
 With reference to riveting, the Liverpool rule requires a larger 
 rivet than Lloyd's rule for a given thickness of plate in nearly 
 every instance ; there are two thicknesses, however, viz., ^q inch 
 and 1^ inch for which the rules correspond, and one, viz., j% inch 
 for which Lloyd's rule requires the larger rivet, Lloyd's rules 
 require the rivet points to be slightly convex; the Liverpool 
 rules say they* must be perfectly fair with the surface of the plat- 
 ing, except the keel rivets which are to project slightly. The 
 Liverpool rule requires the rivets to be laid up round the head. 
 Lloyd's rule requires a lap of 5^ times the diameter of the rivet 
 for double riveting, and 3^ times for single riveting. The Liver- 
 pool rule requires the same lap for double riveting of the edges,
 
 4^4 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 but a breadth of 6 diameters for butts. The comparison between 
 the two systems of riveting is furtlier discussed in Chapter XVII. 
 
 Both rules require a collision bulkhead to be fitted forward in 
 all ships, and in steam ships a similar bulkhead must be fitted aft 
 in addition to the engine-room bulkheads. The Liverpool rules 
 require bulkheads to be stiffened on both sides with angle-irons 
 4 feet apart, one set horizontal and the other vertical. Lloyd's 
 rules require but one set of smaller angle-irons placed vertically, 
 and two feet six inches apart. The thickness required for the 
 plating of bulkheads is about the same in both rules, \ inch being 
 the minimum. The required connection to the side is the same in 
 both rules. 
 
 The Liverpool rules make no mention of double bottoms. 
 Lloyd's, as we have seen, now make provision for them. 
 
 Lloyd's rule requires the ceiling to be not less than 1^ inches 
 or greater than 3 inches in thickness. The Liverpool rule gives 
 no dimensions, but states that the ceiling in the flat of hold is to 
 be laid in hatches. 
 
 The thickness of the wood deck as required by the Liverpool 
 rule is \ inch more than is required by Lloyd's, for all vessels 
 under 1000 tons. For ships above 1000 tons the rules agree. 
 The Liverpool rule requires lower decks of ships above 500 tons 
 to be 3 inches thick, and in decks laid with East India teak it 
 allows a reduction of one-sixth in the thickness. 
 
 With reference to stringer plates, the Liverpool rule requires 
 a much wider stringer than Lloyd's rule, the disproportion being 
 greatest in the smallest ships, and decreasing with the size, till in 
 the largest ships the sizes approximate to an equality. The thick- 
 ness required by both rules is about the same, but in some places 
 the Liverpool stringers are thinner than Lloyd's. The angle-irons 
 required by Lloyd's rule are about the same for the smaller ships, 
 and greater for the larger ships than is required by the Liverpool 
 rule. Lloyd's rules allow the principal deck stringer to taper for 
 one-quarter the length of the vessel at each end, to three-quarters 
 its breadth in midships. The Liverpool rule allows the main 
 deck stringer to be reduced one-fourth in width and one-sixteenth 
 inch in thickness, the tapering to commence at one-fifth the length 
 of the vessel from the ends. Special regulations are made for ships 
 exceeding 12 depths in length, or having a break in the after end 
 of the upper deck. Lloyd's rule requires the lower deck and orlop
 
 Chap. XIX. Rules for Iron Shipbuilding. 425 
 
 stringers to be three-fourths the midship breadth, of the principal 
 deck stringer, the breadth to be continued all fore and aft. The 
 Liverpool rules allow a reduction not exceeding one-third, to be 
 made in the width of the stringers on the orlop deck beams ; and 
 Lloyd's rules also allow a reduction in the width of the hold beam 
 stringers, it being provided in each case that such reduction must 
 be fully compensated for. The Liverpool rules allow the thick- 
 ness of these stringers to be reduced -jig inch for one-fifth of their 
 length from each end. 
 
 With regard to the tie-plates, Lloyd's rule gives them nar- 
 rower than the Liverpool rule, except for the smallest ships. The 
 Liverpool rule requires double angle-irons on the upper side of 
 the main deck tie-plate. Lloyd's rule, as we have seen, requires 
 in addition that diagonal tie-plates shall be fitted ; the Liverpool 
 rules make no mention of diagonal tie-plates. 
 
 We have also seen what Lloyd's arrangements are for hatch-* 
 ways and mast holes ; the Liverpool rule requires mast partners 
 at decks where wedged to be plated over twice the width of the 
 hole cut out of them, and to take three beams in length. 
 
 In ships of which the depth is less than five-eighths the breadth, 
 the Liverpool rule requires the tie-plates and stringers to be in- 
 creased in strength ; Lloyd's rule requires for ships over ten 
 depths in length, a thicker sheer-strake or a doubling strake 
 9 inches broad, increased to 12 inches if the ship exceeds eleven 
 depths in length. For vessels over twelve depths in length Lloyd's 
 rule requires a thicker sheer-strake (or a doubling strake 18 inches 
 broad), the principal deck stringer to be increased in thickness or 
 width, and a bulb plate riveted between the double angle-irons at 
 the lower part of the bilges. The Liverpool rule requires that 
 such vessels shall have the sheer-strake doubled for half the length. 
 In ships above thirteen and not exceeding fourteen depths in 
 length Lloyd's rule requires the sheer-strake to be doubled over 
 its whole breadth. The Liverpool rule requires that in such 
 vessels the sheer-strakes shall be doubled for two- thirds of the vessel's 
 length amidships, and the sheer-strakes, upper-deck stringers, and 
 ties treble-riveted for half the length amidships. In ships above 
 1000 tons the main-deck stringers and the sheer-strakes must be 
 treble-riveted for half the length amidships. All vessels of 1200 
 tons and above, are to have three strakes of plates at the bilges 
 increased -j^ inch in tliickness for half the length . amidships, and
 
 42,6 Lloyd's and the Liverpool Chap. xix. 
 
 iu all ships of 1500 tons and above, and exceeding twelve depths 
 in length, a further addition of ^ inch is to be made in the thick- 
 ness of all the bilge and bottom plating for a similar length. Ships 
 of and over thirteen depths in length are to have -j^ inch in thick- 
 ness added to the tabulated thicknesses of plating in addition to 
 the previous requirements, excepting the bilge and bottom plating 
 of ships of 1500 tons which have been increased in accordance with 
 the preceding regulation. In place of doubling the sheer-strake a 
 single thickness of plate, one and a half times the thickness of the 
 sheer-strake, may be worked. In ships above 1000 tons the main- 
 deck stringers and the sheer-strakes must be treble-riveted for 
 half the vessel's length amidships. Vessels exceeding twelve 
 depths in length and more than 1500 tons are required to have 
 the plating from the keel to the upper part of the bilge increased 
 ^ inch in thickness for lialf the vessel's length amidships. 
 ' In both rules the size of the main piece of the rudder is regu- 
 lated by the tonnage. In general the size as required by Lloyd's 
 would be greater than that required by the Liverpool rule, except in 
 the case of the rudder heads in steam-ships which would be largest 
 by the Liverpool rule. 
 
 The Liverpool rule states that all the surfaces of iron shij)s 
 are to be properly painted with good oil paint, and that cement is 
 to be laid in the bottom so as to cover the frames and rivet-heads, 
 to be raised in the centre to the height of the limber holes, and 
 extend to the upper part of the bilges. There is no special rule on 
 this subject in Lloyd's. 
 
 The Liverpool rules do not name periods at which ships building 
 for classification shall be surveyed ; but they state that their surveyors 
 are to have free access at all times to vessels which hold a certi- 
 ficate from the Committee,- and the same rule probably holds in 
 the case of vessels building for certification. 
 
 From the foregoing comparison of the two sets of rules it will 
 be seen that considerable differences still exist, not only between 
 the scantlings enforced by the two Committees, but also between the 
 principles upon which the arrangements laid down have been deter- 
 mined ; and it is not at aU surprising that in both respects each set 
 of rules has been subjected to the criticism of builders, who not 
 unfrequeutly have to produce ships for owners who desire to class 
 their ships under either Committee, or under both. An able and 
 elaborate discussion upon this subject took place in 1866-67 at the
 
 Chap. XIX. Rtdes for Iron Skipbuilding. 427 
 
 Scottish Shipbuilders' Association (now incorporated with the Insti- 
 tution of Engineers in Scotland) with the view of bringing about 
 an assimilation of the two systems, but not, as has been seen, with 
 a thoroughly satisfactory result. It was sho\Mi, however, from 
 evidence furnished during the debate, that both Committees were 
 in the habit of making limited concessions to owners and builders 
 who desire to class under both sets of rules ; and the last edition of 
 the Liverpool rules undoubtedly affords many evidences of a sub- 
 stantial approximation to the rules of Lloyd's, while still retaining 
 characteristic differences. Omng to the descriptive character of 
 the present work we shall not here enter upon a fuller investiga- 
 tion of this large and important question ; but we may do so in a 
 future volume. 
 
 It is only necessary to add, that Lloyd's Committee alone have 
 issued rules and regulations for ships built of steel. They have been 
 previously given in Chap. XVI., but for convenience it may be 
 here stated that they are to the following effect : — That ships built 
 of steel of approved quality, under special survey, will be classed in 
 the Eegister Book with the notation " experimental " against their 
 characters. In all cases, however, the specifications for the ships 
 must be submitted to the Committee for approval. A reduction 
 will be allowed in the thickness of the plates, frames, &c., of ships 
 built of steel, not exceeding one-fourth from that prescribed for 
 iron ships. In no case, however, are the rivets to be made of 
 steel, nor will any reduction be allowed in the sizes of rivets from 
 those prescribed for ships of the same tonnage, built of iron. In 
 other respects the rules for the construction of iron ships will apply 
 equally to ships built of steel.
 
 428 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF WORK. 
 
 In this chapter we propose to give a brief outline of the general 
 methods of proceeding with the work of building iron ships 
 practised on the ]\Iersey, the Clyde, the Thames, and the Tyne, 
 and in the Royal dockyards. The descriptions given are based 
 upon the methods practised by some of the principal firms on each 
 river ; but it will be obvious that, as most shipbuilders have peculiar 
 methods of performing some portion of the work, it would be 
 impossible to frame any general description which would include 
 all these special cases. The information here brought together 
 may, we think, be relied on as affording the means of comparing 
 generally the different systems of conducting the work. We shall 
 have o(?casion to indicate the advantages claimed for, and the dis- 
 advantages urged against, the various modes of building, and in 
 order to avoid repetition, we will in the first place describe the 
 system of shipbuilding usually practised on the Mersey, and after- 
 wards point out in succession the principal differences between that 
 system and the systems pursued in the other yards enumerated 
 above. The precedence has been given to the Mersey system on 
 account of the fact that iron shipbuilding was first extensively 
 practised on that river. 
 
 THE MERSEY SYSTEM. 
 
 The order in which the work is usually conducted on the 
 Mersey is as follows : — A model of the ship on a scale of \ inch to 
 a foot is prepared immediately after the drawings have been 
 received, and on the model the general arrangement of the edges 
 and butts of plating, the directions of the longitudinal work, deck- 
 lines, &c., are drawn. That no confusion may occur in ordering 
 the plates from the manufacturers, and that a correct account may 
 be given to the workmen, it is customary to mark the strakes, in 
 order, alphabetically, and to number the j^lates in each strake. 
 The lengths of the plates used are regulated by the specification,
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 429 
 
 averaging, as before stated, about 10 feet. The lengths of the 
 frames, reversed angle-irons, &c., are taken from the body plan 
 on the mould-loft floor. The dimensions, actual weights, and 
 particulars of the results obtained by the testing of both plates 
 and ano-le-irons are recorded in an order book, and in cases where 
 the plates have a peculiar shape there is a rough sketch given of 
 the form to which they must be brought by the manufacturer. 
 A margin of about 1 inch in length and \ inch in breadth is 
 allowed in the dimensions recorded in the order book above tlie 
 net dimensions of plates on the broadside of an iron ship ; but 
 forward and aft where there is considerable curvature and twist 
 a greater margin is given. Floor plates are usually ordered to the 
 required taper, and afterwards bent to the proper curves. When 
 centre plate keelsons are adopted, each of the floors is in two 
 separate pieces, as previously explained. In ships with bar keels 
 each floor is usually made up of two pieces welded together, the 
 welds of adjacent frames being placed on opposite sides of the 
 middle line in order to give a good shift. 
 
 The laying-off of the ship is proceeded with simultaneously 
 with the preparation of the model, and when it has been completed, 
 the lines to which the angle-iron frames are to be bent are trans- 
 ferred to boards prepared for the purpose, and rased in. There 
 are two boards, each being large enough to take the midship section 
 of the ship, the fore body being transferred to one and the after 
 body to the other. In order to show the lines more clearly, the 
 upi^er surfaces of these boards are covered with a composition of 
 lamp-black, size, and water. The name commonly given to these 
 boards by the workmen is the " scrive " or " scriveing " boards, but 
 we shall refer to them as the " blackboards " throughout the 
 following description. In addition to the lines to the outside of the 
 frames, the position^ of plate edges, diagonals, level lines, heights of 
 floors, beam-ends, &c. (which answer for bevilling spots), are marked 
 upon the blackboards, which are then removed to a place appro- 
 priated for the purpose situated near the furnace in which the 
 angle-irons are heated. The levelling blocks or bending slabs on 
 which the frames are bent are made of cast iron, the upper surface 
 being straight and out of winding, and perforated with holes placed 
 at intervals of about 6 inches. The line to which the frame is to 
 be bent is transferred from the blackboard to the slab by means of 
 a soft iron bar, known as " set " iron, (about 1;^ by f inch) which
 
 430 Systems of Work. chap. xx. 
 
 is bent to the line on tlie board, lias the bevilling spots, &c., marked 
 on it, and is then removed to the slab, on wliich the curve is drawn 
 and the spots are marked. Iron pins are tlien fixed in the holes in 
 the slab which are near the outside of the line, and small blocks 
 and wedges of iron are prepared to fill in the spaces between the 
 pins and the curve. When the angle-iron is sufficiently heated it 
 is drawn out of the furnace and placed on tlie slab, being gradually 
 brought to the required curve and bevillings by means of levers, 
 heavy hammers, iron wedges, &c. The bevillings are given out on a 
 separate board, as in wood shipbuilding, and are applied to the back 
 of the angle-iron. Care has to be taken in bringing the flanges 
 to the correct bevilling to avoid striking too heavily, as the angle- 
 iron, even when of good quality, is liable to open at the root 
 under very heavy blows. The backs of the flanges are also liable 
 to become hollowed while the bevilling is being performed unless 
 special care is taken to keep them straight, which, it will be obvious, 
 is an essential condition for good work, for otherwise the flange 
 would not fit accurately against the plating.* 
 
 The bending and bevilling having been completed, the angle- 
 iron is allowed to cool, and is then taken to the blackboard and 
 tried to its curve, any unfairness or alteration of form which may 
 exist being corrected. The plate edges and other stations before 
 enumerated, are notched in on the frames, and the rivet holes 
 for the fastenings of the outside plating are marked, the pitch 
 varying from six to eight diameters, according to the space between 
 the plate edges. The spacing of the rivets for the reversed angle- 
 irons is regulated by the positions of the rivets in the outside plating. 
 
 * The above metliod is that ordinarily adopted in preparing the frames of an iron 
 ship, but in some of the French dockyards ( according to M. de Freminville's hook, 
 published iu 1862), a different plan is followed. Instead of keeping one flange of tbe 
 angle iron in a transverse plane and bevilling tbe other t« fit against the outside 
 plating, tlie French twht the angle iron itself, keephig the flanges at right angles to 
 each other, and thus leave only the edge at the junction of the two flanges in the 
 transverse plane. Professor Eaukine proposed the same method in a paper published 
 in the ' Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1SG5,' being rm- 
 acquainted, apparently, vdth the French system. The advantages claimed for twist- 
 ing as compared with bevilling are, tliat the inner arm of the angle-iron stands 
 everywhere at right angles to the plating, and thus gives greater support to it; tliat 
 the material in the angle-iron is less damaged, and that the labour required is less. 
 It would, of course, be necessary to bend the beam arms to fit against the frames, but 
 this is thought to be no serious disadvantage, as the sti'inger stiffens the beam arms. 
 This part of the subject has already been discussed in Chapter VIII. The floor 
 plates would also require to be twisted.
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 43 1 
 
 the rule observed being that no two rivets shall come in the same 
 transverse section of the angle-iron frame, as its strength would 
 otherwise be seriously reduced. The average pitch of the rivets in 
 the reversed bars also, is from six to eight diameters. The holes in 
 the frames should be punched from the back in order that the 
 countersink obtained by puncliing may assist in keeping the rivet 
 in place. The holes in the frames which receive the rivets in the 
 plate edges are generally drilled after the ship is framed and 
 the plate edges faired and marked in. When the punching has 
 been completed the frame is again tried to the curve on the board, 
 and any alteration of form caused by punching is corrected. 
 
 While the frames are being prepared, the keel is proceeded 
 with and temporarily put together on blocks alongside the slip or 
 the dock where the ship is to be built. This course is adopted 
 whatever may be the character of the keel, whether bar, side bar, 
 or flat plate. When the keel is made ready, the frame stations are 
 painted upon it, and it is taken to pieces and removed to the 
 permanent blocks in the dock or slip, where it is put together 
 again, and riveted up. The fore and after ends of the keel have 
 been previously prepared so as to scarpli with the stem and stern 
 post respectively, and it is usual to make the moulds for the stem 
 and stern post at as early a stage of the work as possible, in order 
 that they may be forged, and that no time may be lost in waiting 
 for their completion. The work amidships is often well advanced, 
 however, before the sternpost is got in place. The details of the 
 keel arrangements, and of the connections of the stem and stern- 
 post with the keel, which are commonly adopted on the Mersey, 
 are of an identical character with those previously described, and 
 need not be repeated here. It may be stated, however, that it is 
 usual to drill all holes in connection with bar keels, and in all 
 work where three thicknesses come together the holes are drilled 
 in the middle thickness and punched in the outer thicknesses in 
 order to ensure their being well filled by the rivets. 
 
 While the frames and keel of the ship are in progress, beam 
 moulds, with the round-up and lengths marked on them, are given 
 out to the workmen to guide them in making the beams. The 
 processes of bending and straightening the beams are performed by 
 means of screw presses worked by hand, or by hydraulic presses, 
 the beams being cold. In forming the beam knees the ends are the 
 only parts put into the fire, and tho plan adopted in nearly all
 
 43^ Systems of Work. Chap. xx. 
 
 instances is that illustrated by Fig. 99, page 146, the beam-arm 
 being split up for a short distance, the lower part turned down, and 
 a piece of plate welded in. The moulding of the frames determines 
 the number of rows of rivets which may be employed in connecting 
 the beam -knee with the frame, double or treble zigzag riveting 
 being preferred for this purpose. In setting off the fastenings 
 in the knees, templates are used. These templates are put in place 
 at the ship, and the holes are arranged so that they may clear the 
 holes in the other flanges of the frame angle-irons, two rivets being 
 usually put in the upper part of the beam-arm above the line of the 
 weld made in forming the knee. The templates are then removed 
 to the beams, and tlie positions of the holes are transferred to the 
 knees. After the holes have been drilled or punched in the knees, 
 the beams are put in place, set fair to the beam-line, and fixed, and 
 then the holes are drilled through the frames. It is usual to punch 
 the holes for the deck fastenings indiscriminately in the flanges at 
 the upper edge of the beams, without regard to the positions of the 
 edges of the deck planking ; this, of course, tends to make bad 
 work, and should not be practised. 
 
 When the keel has been fixed in position on the permanent 
 blocks, the process of framing is commenced, the frames amidships 
 being first put up, and the work being continued forward and aft 
 simultaneously. Before any frames are hoisted, staging is erected 
 at the topsides, and the sheer or gunwale harpins are suspended 
 from it, ready to receive the frames when raised in place. When 
 raised, the frames are shored, stiffened by cross-spalls, and 
 temporarily secured at the keel ; when a considerable number has 
 been put up the other harpins and ribbands are fixed in place and 
 the frames faired. Stages are then made around the ship (without 
 being secured to any part of her) at different heights for the 
 purpose of proceeding with the plating, the latter operation being 
 commenced as soon as the frames are set fair and fixed in place. 
 In the mean time the floor plates are prepared from the lines got in 
 on the blackboard, and, having been bent to form, are put in place, 
 and have the holes for the fastenings to the frame angle-irons 
 marked. They are then taken out of the ship, the holes in the 
 upper edges for the fastenings of the reversed bars are set off, and 
 all the holes are punched. The floors are then fixed in place and 
 temporarily secured. The reversed bars are also prepared while 
 these operations are proceeding, and are bent, bevilled, punched
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 433 
 
 and faired in a similar manner to the frame angle-irons. In taking 
 account of the holes for tlie rivets securing the reversed angle-iron 
 to the frame and floor plate, it is usual to employ a light batten, 
 which is bent around the line of holes after the frame and floor 
 plate are fixed in place, and then transferred to the reversed bar. 
 When the preparation of the reversed angle-irons is completed they 
 are put in place, and the riveting up of both the floors and reversed 
 bars to the frames proceeds simultaneously. It is a very common 
 practice in ships with a continuous centre-plate keelson to run the 
 reversed angle-irons across the middle line, as shown in Fig. 73, 
 page 80, the butts of adjacent frames being on opposite sides of, 
 and not less than 6 feet from the centre keelson. Before getting 
 the beams in, it is usual to work a strake of plating at or near the 
 beam ends, and to shore the ship at this part. The A^'hole of the 
 work connected with the construction of the vessel is thus progressing 
 simultaneously. It should be stated, however, that wlien the ship 
 is properly faired, the spots notched on the frames at the plate 
 edges, heights of deck, &c., are faired through and corrected 
 by means of battens, and the lines are then marked in on the 
 frames. 
 
 In plating a ship, tlie inside strakes are first worked, and the 
 position and shift of butts are made to correspond with the arrange- 
 ments previously made on the model, the foreman in charge of the 
 work usually having a duplicate of the model to guide him in 
 regulating the plating. The diagonal shift of butts, illustrated by 
 Fig. 134, page 190, is that generally preferred, but the shifts shown 
 in Fig. 133, page 189, and Fig. 136, page 191, are also frequently 
 employed. In Chapter X. we gave a brief description of the opera- 
 tion of plating, but it may be convenient here to more fully illustrate 
 the details of the process, notwithstanding the fact that some of the 
 statements previously made will be repeated. The lowest strake of 
 the bottom plating is generally an inside strake, and is, in most cases, 
 the first strake put on, the Avork being continued upwards, and the 
 two inside strakes upon which an outside strake laps being fixed 
 in place before it is worked. As soon as the inside strakes are 
 riveted to the frames, the harpins which were originally placed in 
 wake of the outside strakes are removed, and the ship is shored 
 under the inside strakes, thus leaving the space free for Avorking the 
 outside strakes. In taking account of the bottom plating, templates 
 are generally used, the most common form of template consisting 
 
 2 F
 
 434 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 of a light batten mould of which the outside dimensions are a little 
 greater than those of the plates. Cross battens are fixed on the 
 templates at intervals corresponding to the frame space, and when 
 the templates are put in place at the sliip, these battens cover the 
 frames. For a plate of an inside strake it is only necessary to 
 take account of the edges and butts on the battens forming the 
 frame of the template, and of the positions of the rivet-holes in the 
 frame angle-irons on the cross battens. The positions of the holes 
 are marked upon the template by means of a wood plug with 
 a hollow end, or a hollow cylinder, which is dipped in whiting, 
 and put through the holes from the inside, thus marking the 
 outlines. When the account has been taken the template is taken 
 down and laid on the plate, and the positions of the lines and 
 rivet-holes are transferred to it. The method of transferring the 
 positions of the holes requires some notice, as in many cases bad 
 work is caused by carelessness in this respect ; full particulars of 
 the operation will be given further on. The edges of the plate are 
 next sheared, and the butts planed to the lines obtained from 
 the template, after which the positions of the rivets in the edges 
 and butts are set off. In setting off the edge riveting of inside 
 strakes, templates are used which have the positions of the holes 
 marked upon them. As the frame space and the pitch of the rivets 
 in the edges are constant quantities, this mode of setting off the 
 fastenings is a very good one, the only care required being to make 
 the edge fastenings work in well with the butt fastenings of 
 adjacent strakes. This can be readily done if two templates are 
 employed, the first having the edge fastenings arranged to suit the 
 frame spaces in which a butt comes, and the second being adapted 
 to frame spaces in which there is no butt of the adjacent strakes. 
 Templates are also used for setting off the butt fastenings. The 
 centres of the holes are generally bored through the templates, and 
 in order to transfer their positions to the plates, a sharp pointed 
 centre punch is driven through the template. After the holes have 
 been punched the plate is curved by passing it through the rolls, 
 the proper curvature being secured by the use of section moulds 
 made to the frames nearest the butts, the backs of the moulds 
 being out of winding. In some portions of a ship's bottom the 
 amount of curvature is so small as to render this operation 
 unnecessary ; but in other portions special care is required, as 
 will be explained more fully hereafter. When the plate has been
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 435 
 
 sheared, planed, punched, and curved as above described, it is put 
 in place, and temporarily secured by means of cotters and pins. 
 
 In working a plate of an outside strake a similar template is 
 used, and when put up in place, in addition to having the positions 
 of the butts and edges of the plate, and of the rivet-holes in the 
 frames marked upon it, account has to be taken of the rivet holes 
 in the edges of the inside plates which it overlaps. In marking 
 the positions of the holes upon the template the same method is 
 adopted as is explained above for the plates of an inside strake. 
 When the holes have been marked the template is removed and 
 laid on the inside of the plate, and the holes are then transferred 
 from tlie inside of the template to the inside of the plate. This is 
 done by means of a " marker " or " reverser " of the form shown in 
 Fig. 255. The end of the marker is forked, in order that it may 
 
 Fig. 255. 
 
 be put on over the edge of the template t, and have the hole a in 
 the upper part brought exactly over the outline of the hole marked 
 on the template. On the lower limb of the marker there is a 
 projecting plug h vertically under the hole a, and the template t 
 is chocked up at such a height above the plate f as to allow the 
 lower part of the plug to just clear the surface of the plate when 
 the hole a is brought well with the outlines marked on the template. 
 When the marker has been placed in this position the workman 
 presses down the plug h on the plate, and as the plug has been 
 previously dipped in whiting it marks the position of the hole to be 
 punched. Both the hole and the plug on the marker are, of 
 course, of the same diameter as the rivets used. The plates of the 
 outside strakes are punched from the inside on account of the fact 
 that it is the faying surface ; but the holes for the edge riveting in 
 the inside strakes require, for a similar reason, to be punched from 
 the outside, while the holes for the rivets securing all plates to the 
 frames, and those for the butt fastenings, should always be punched 
 from the inside. The remaining operations involved in the pre- 
 paration of a plate of an outside strake, — punching, shearing, 
 planing, &c., — are identical with those described above for an 
 inside strake, and when they have been completed, the plate is tem- 
 porarily secured in place by cotters and pins. The liners between 
 
 2 F 2
 
 43^ Systems of Work. Chap. xx. 
 
 the frames aiirl the outside strakes are fitted after tlie plates are 
 prepared and fixed. Wooden templates are used in preparing the 
 liners, being put in place in order to have the positions of the rivet- 
 holes marked, and then transferred to the liners. The holes are 
 punched in the liners. AATien the curvature of the frames is at all 
 considerable the liners are bent to the form required. After their pre- 
 paration is completed the liners are driven in between the plates and 
 angle-irons by the workmen, and fixed in their proper positions. 
 
 With comparatively light plates, wood templates are often 
 dispensed with, and the plates themselves are put up and marked, 
 but the ordinary practice is that given above. In cases where 
 a plate has a large amount of twist, such as boss plates, &c., special 
 means are employed to ensure accuracy in taking account of it. 
 The common plan is to take four iron rods about f inch in diameter, 
 to cut them to the lengths of the edges and butts of the plates, 
 and to weld them at the corners. The frame thus formed is put 
 up in place at the ship, and bent to the shape required to give a 
 correct account for the plate. Short pieces of angle-iron are then 
 bent to the curve of the frames, and a bed is formed which has 
 these angle-irons for its transverse framing, their ends being placed 
 well with the twist given by the iron frame. The plate is heated 
 and bent to the form of the bed or brake, after which it is put up 
 in place and fitted, the holes being drilled. All difficult twisted 
 plates with considerable curvature are thus worked, and the hon 
 in the plates requires to be of very superior quality in order to 
 stand the bending. The various processes of marking, bending, 
 punching, &c., are performed by workmen known as "platers," 
 each being assisted by from 4 to 6 " helpers," the number of the 
 latter being regulated by the weight of the plates, averaging about 
 one man to every cwt. 
 
 The edges and butts of bottom plating are generally double- 
 chain riveted, but in some cases treble-chain riveting is employed 
 for butt-fastenings. The pitch of the rivets in the edges is from 3^ 
 to 4 diameters. It is usual to joggle the butt straps to the outside 
 plates in order to receive the edge fastenings of the adjacent plates, 
 as shown in the section given in Fig. 145, page 202. The liners to 
 the outside strakes are of the breadth of the frame angle-irons, on 
 all except the bulkhead frames, where they extend to the adjacent 
 frames before and abaft. The object of this arrangement has 
 been pointed out in Chapter XI.
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 437 
 
 While the plating is being proceeded with, the work in the 
 interior of the ship is also advancing, the riveting of the reversed 
 angle-irons and floor-plates being completed, the beams being got 
 in and fastened, the deck and hold stringers being fitted and 
 fastened, &c. The usual mode of fitting deck stringers consists in 
 laying the plate upon the beams and taking account upon it of 
 the curve of the edge, positions of scores, rivet holes, &c. As the 
 weight of the stringer plates is not usually very great, and they are 
 easily moved and placed, this is found to be the best mode of 
 procedure, no moulds being required to be made. The transverse 
 watertight bulkheads are also built in the ship, but are delayed as 
 long as is consistent with the progress of the work, in order to allow 
 free access to every part of the hold. The plates, butt straps, 
 stifieners, &c., of the various bulkheads are prepared, fitted, and 
 punched outside the ship, in readiness for being put together, 
 and when the work is sufficiently advanced they are put in place and 
 riveted. The ordinary bulkhead connections described in Chapter 
 XI. are generally adopted, and the outline of the bulkhead plating 
 is obtained from the section marked on the blackboard. In ships 
 having a double bottom it is usual to secure the bulkheads to deep 
 plate frames (moulded about 9 inches) ; and these frames are bent 
 to the form required, put in place, and secured to the inner skin by 
 double angle-irons, before the bulkhead plating is put in place. 
 The taking account, fitting, &c., of all these portions of the work 
 is performed by platers, who have the assistance of helpers as 
 before stated. 
 
 After working about three-fourths of the outside plating of a 
 ship, men are set to work at closing up the joints, riming out unfair 
 holes, &c., preparatory to the riveting being commenced. The 
 riveting is generally done by piece-work, a set of riveters being 
 composed of two riveters, a holder-up, and two boys. The rivets 
 used in the outside plating are of a conical form under the head, 
 and the heads of all the rivets in the ship are laid up. Care is 
 taken that the holes are well filled, and the points of the rivets 
 flush with the sm-face of the plates. All rivets are examined by 
 the foreman of riveters before being paid for, and in order to try if 
 the surfaces of the plates are brought close, and to test the tightness 
 of the rivets, the following course is adopted : — Kivets are marked 
 in different parts of the ship, and the rivet on each side of a marked 
 rivet is cut out. Screw-bolts of the size of the rivets are then placed
 
 43^ 
 
 Systems of Work. 
 
 Chap. XX. 
 
 in the holes and hove up as tightly as possible, in order to try if 
 the rivet between them can be loosened, which will only be the 
 case if the work was not properly drawn together when the rivets 
 were put in. Eiveting machines are not used in most of the 
 principal yards on the Mersey. When the riveting has been 
 advanced to some extent the edges (when not planed) are chipped 
 fair and cleaned, and then the caulking of the edges and butts is 
 commenced. In caulking a lajD-joint the edge of the plate is first 
 fullered with a tool, then it is split with another tool, and lastly the 
 splitting tool is reversed, and the split part 
 of the edge is driven in against the plate 
 which it overlaps, as shown by a in Fig. 
 256. The caulking of a butt-joint differs 
 from that of a lap-joint in requiring the 
 butts to be first chij^ped smooth, then split 
 on both sides of the butt, and afterwards 
 fullered off, as shown by h in Fig. 256. 
 The closeness of the joints is tested before 
 they are caulked, by trying to insert a sharp 
 instrument (usually a thin steel blade) at 
 various parts. The caulking being found 
 satisfactory, a painter follows, and thus 
 marks the work as complete, while oxida- 
 tion of the finished portions is prevented. At Liverpool it is 
 customary to give the bottoms of iron ships three good coats of red 
 lead paint before launching, the rivet-heads being cemented flush 
 before the second coat is applied. 
 
 Mg. 256. 
 
 THE CLYDE SYSTEM. 
 
 We now come to the description of tlie method of con- 
 ducting the work of shipbuilding pursued on the Clyde. The 
 laying-off of the ship having been completed, the whole of the lines 
 representing the outside of frames, the inside of floors, the positions 
 of side keelsons, edges of outside plating, deck heights, diagonals, 
 &c., are, in most cases, transferred from the mould-loft floor to 
 a similar floor in tlie workshop near the bending slabs. Battens 
 are used for the purpose of transferring the lines and stations, and 
 in order to facilitate the work, the fore and after bodies are di-awn 
 on different parts of the floor. The plan oi" having a fixed floor
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 439 
 
 instead of portable boards (such as are used on the Mersey, and 
 sometimes employed on the Clyde) is thought to ensure greater 
 accuracy in the preparation of the frames, and to render it per- 
 fectly safe to cut them to their lengths before they are put up. 
 The arrangement of the butts of the outside plating, &c., is usually 
 made on an expansion drawing prepared from the fair lines on 
 the mould-loft floor, the disposition of the edges being made on the 
 floor itself, and transferred to the expansion drawing. No model 
 is used for this purpose, as is always the case on the Mersey. The 
 same method is adopted on the Clyde as on the Mersey for 
 distinguishing the strakes and plates, the former being marked 
 alphabetically and the latter numbered. On the Clyde, however, 
 all the dimensions are taken from the mould-loft floor, or the 
 expansion drawing, and tabulated before the plates are ordered, and 
 the positions of the butts are also recorded. It is usual to allow 
 a margin of about 1 inch in length and from ^ to | inch in breadth 
 above the net dimensions of the plates. A copy of the record is 
 supplied to the foreman of the yard, so that he need not refer to 
 the expansion drawing for the purpose of fixing the positions of the 
 butts, &c. A similar arrangement is carried out with the deck 
 stringer and tie plates, bilge stringers, keelsons, &c., and the frame 
 and reversed angle-irons, the lengths of the latter being obtained 
 from the body plan on the floor. The dimensions and particulars 
 of the materials required are recorded in an order book. The 
 diagonal shift of butts is usually adopted, but in many ships, on 
 both the Mersey and the Clyde, the brick arrangement of butts is 
 followed, of which a sketch is given in Fig. 183, page 189. 
 
 When the operation of transferring the lines and stations from 
 the mould-loft floor to the floor in the workshop (or to the black- 
 boards) has been completed, the preparation of the frames is com- 
 menced. An expansion batten is applied to the line on the floor 
 representing the moulding edge of the frame, and all the holes for 
 the rivets in the outside plating (except those in the edges) as well 
 as those for the fastenings of the reversed bars, are marked on the 
 batten. It is then laid on the angle-iron bar, and the positions 
 of the holes are transferred from the batten to the angle-iron. 
 The holes are punched previously to the frame being bent, and 
 the operations of bending and bevelling are performed in a way 
 similar to that previously described. After it has become cold the 
 angle-iron is placed on the floor and tried to the line, any adjust-
 
 440 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 meiit ^^•lucll may be necessary being made. The head and heel of 
 the frame are then marked for cutting off, and the edges of outside 
 plating, heights of decks, ribbands, &c., are notched in the bar. 
 
 While the frame angle-irons are being prepared, the floor- 
 plates are moulded, bent, &c., at another part of the floor, and 
 when ready are brought to the frames, and have the holes which 
 have already been punched in the angle-irons marked upon them, 
 and the holes for the fastenings of the reversed angle-irons, side 
 keelsons, &c., set off, as well as the positions of the watercourses. 
 They are then removed to the machine, and the holes are punched. 
 It should be stated that the mode of demanding the floor-plates 
 and arranging the welds of the pieces forming each floor is generally 
 similar to that described for the Mersey system. In some yards, 
 however, the floor-plates are made in three pieces, the welds on 
 each side being placed at the lower turn of the bilge, and having 
 no shift on adjacent frames. When the floors are thus made, only 
 the floor-arms are bent to the required curves on the slabs, the 
 centre piece of each floor being moulded and chipped to the slight 
 curve required. The reversed bars are also taken account of and 
 bent while the other work is advancing, the operations being con- 
 ducted similarly to the corresponding operations described above for 
 the frame angle-irons. The positions of the holes in the reversed 
 angle-irons are transferred from the floors and frame angle-irons 
 either by means of expansion battens, or by laying the reversed 
 bars upon the frames and floor-plates, when fixed in position on 
 the floor. The holes in the fore and aft flanges of the reversed bars 
 to receive the fastenings of the ceiling are often punched before the 
 bending is performed, but the holes in the other flanges are never 
 punched until after the operation of bending is completed. 
 
 During the time occupied in preparing the frames the keel- 
 work is being proceeded with. Bar-keels are most commonly 
 adopted, and it is usual to put them together on the blocks, to 
 rivet the scarphs, and to prepare and fix the stem and stern- 
 posts, before any frames are raised. No difflculty is experienced 
 in carrying on the work in this order as the stems are simply con- 
 tinuations of the bar-keels, and the sternposts are very simple 
 forgings. The keel, &c., having been fixed, and the frames, re- 
 versed bars, and floor-plates got ready, the putting together of 
 the framing is begun. The frames are laid across the keel near 
 their stations, and the riveting up is readily performed.
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 44 1 
 
 The beams are usually made of bulb-iron, with double angle- 
 irons riveted to the upper edge, and the common mode of forming 
 the knees is that given in Fig. 100, p. 146, the end of the beam 
 being turned down, and a piece of plate welded on to form the 
 upper corner. It is considered that this mode requires much less 
 time for its performance than the method given in Fig. 99, p. 146. 
 When beams of the Butterley pattern, or other beams with a solid 
 upper flange are employed, the beam-knee is formed by splitting 
 the end, turning down the lower part, and welding in a plate, 
 in the ordinary manner. Machine-riveting is sometimes employed 
 for beam -work, care being taken that the work is properly closed 
 and the holes made fair before the rivets are put in. The holes 
 for the deck fastenings are usually drilled by hand after the beams 
 are in place, as this method is considered to be less expensive, 
 and to ensure a good disposition of the fastenings in relation to 
 the edges of the planks. In wake of stringer and tie plates the ' 
 deck fastenings are brought upon the plates, and clear of the beam- 
 flanges. The bending of the beams is usually performed by Kennie's 
 machine, the beams being worked cold, but in some cases the 
 beams are heated and bent on the slabs. This operation, together 
 with the forming of the knees, and the riveting of the beam angle- 
 irons, is conducted simultaneously with the preparation of the 
 frame and reversed angle-irons, and of the floor-plates. The beams 
 are cut to the lengths and bevellings given on a board prepared for 
 that purpose, the length in no case being taken from the ship. 
 The positions of the fastenings are set off on both the frames and 
 the beam-knees by means of templates having the holes marked on 
 them, which are prepared by the draughtsman. All the holes are 
 usually punched in both frames and beam-knees. In some yards, 
 instead of giving out the lengths on the beam-board, the beams are 
 brought to the frames at the same time as the floor-plates, and 
 the frame angle-irons, floor-plates, and beams having been fixed 
 in their proper positions on the floor, the stations of the rivet-holes, 
 and the lengths of the beams are marked -by from the frames, 
 the holes in the latter having been punched previously. Should the 
 vessel not exceed from 500 to 600 tons burthen, the beams are 
 always riveted to the frames before they are raised, and the same 
 course is often adopted in ships of 900 tons burthen. For large 
 ships it is a common practice to rivet either the upper or the main 
 deck beams to the frames before they are erected, and to put in the
 
 442- Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 remaining tiers of beams after the frames have been raised. The 
 reason for this difference is, that for large ships the weight of 
 the beams added to that of the frames would render it necessary to 
 have an additional number of purchases, in order to prevent an 
 undue strain being brought upon any part of the frame while it 
 is being raised ; and even if the power of the tackles were suffi- 
 ciently great, there would still be the risk of straining the frames 
 by the surging of the ropes. In all cases the frames are laid 
 across the keel and riveted together before being erected, and in 
 many instances the beams are attached to them also, as above 
 stated. This is considered to give greater facilities for performing 
 the riveting than are afforded by the contracted spaces left 
 between the frames after they are raised. 
 
 The transverse bulkheads are put together and fitted to the 
 frames before they are erected, the fitting and punching of the 
 plates and stiffening bars being performed either at the ship's side 
 or in the workshop, and the various parts being marked and num- 
 bered in order to enable them to be readily put together in the 
 ship, when the work is sufficiently advanced. It is a very common 
 practice on the Clyde to arrange the plates in the bulkheads with 
 the greatest length vertical. ' 
 
 The sheer and bilge harpins having been firmly shored and 
 secured in their respective positions, and the riveting of the frames 
 having been completed, the frames are raised, each frame being 
 horned and plumbed in order to ensure the correctness of its 
 position before it is secured. Immediately after the frames have 
 been erected, the other ribbands and harpins are put up and the 
 frames are faired. The work in the interior of the ship is then 
 commenced, such as centre and side keelsons, intercostals, &c. 
 The stringer-bars for the several decks are set and bevelled during 
 the time that the frames are being hoisted and fixed, and the 
 moulds which are made for this purpose are preserved for cutting 
 the stringer-plates and trimming the wood waterway. Sometimes the 
 stringer-plates themselves are put in place and marked, this mode 
 being always adopted when the plate has to be scored out between 
 the frames. The work on the various decks is also proceeded 
 with as soon as the framing of the ship is sufficiently advanced. In 
 raising the frames different modes of procedure are adopted, some 
 builders commencing amidships and working forward and aft 
 simultaneously, while others begin at one extremity of the ship
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 443 
 
 and work either forward or aft as the case may be ; the latter plan 
 is that most commonly adopted. The stern framing and plating 
 abaft the transom frame are very often fitted together on the 
 ground, the holes marked and punched, butt-straps prepared, &c., 
 and afterwards put together and riveted up in place. In some 
 small vessels the whole of the stern work has been riveted together 
 on the ground before being hoisted. Bounded gunwales are very 
 generally adopted at the stern, the frames being turned inwards and 
 connected with the poop-beam on the transom-frame. This makes 
 a very strong and simple arrangement of the stern framing. 
 
 The working of the bottom plating is commenced as soon as 
 all the frames are faired and fixed, and the hold keelsons, beams, 
 deck-stringers, &c., put in place and riveted. The methods of work 
 are usually of an identical character with those adoj^ted on the 
 Mersey. The templates in common use are formed of light wood 
 battens, like those previously described, and are used in a similar 
 manner. Sometimes templates formed of light strip-iron are used 
 for taking the length and breadth account of plates, and in other 
 yards iron templates are also employed in marking the positions 
 of the holes, movable pieces of zinc being attached to the edge 
 and cross bars of the template for the purpose. Some builders 
 employ a patent template consisting of a sheet of fine wire-gauze 
 attached to a square frame of strip-iron. The merit of this tem- 
 plate is thought to consist in dispensing with the use of a reverser ; 
 for when the positions of the holes have been marked upon the 
 template in the usual manner they can be transferred to the plate 
 by means of a stiff brush (of circular section) which penetrates the 
 openings in the gauze, and marks the holes upon the plate. In 
 very many cases, however, templates are altogether dispensed with, 
 and the plates themselves put up in place and marked, this practice 
 having been followed in some yards with plates of which the weight 
 was. half a ton. 
 
 The edges and butts of the plates from the garboard out to 
 the round of the bilge are usually double riveted, the rivets being 
 placed either zigzag or chain fasliion; the latter arrangement is 
 now preferred, especially for butts, for which it is sometimes 
 adopted when the edges are double-zigzag riveted. From the 
 bilge to the sheer-strake the edges are often single riveted and 
 the butts double riveted. The sheer-strake is double riveted 
 throughout. Below the light water-line the rivet-points are left
 
 444 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 well rounded, but above this line they are flush with the surface 
 of the plates. The heads of all rivets are laid-up in watertight 
 Avork. A " set " of riveters consists of 2 riveters, 1 holder-up, 
 and 1 boy in most cases, but sometimes 2 boys are employed. 
 The processes of riveting and caulking are conducted similarly to 
 those previously described. 
 
 From the preceding remarks it will be seen that the principal 
 differences between the Clyde and Mersey systems of shipbuilding 
 consist, in the substitution on the Clyde of an expansion drawing 
 for a model in taking account of the plating and disposing tiie 
 butts ; the use of a fixed floor instead of portable boards on which 
 the curves for the frames, &c., are drawn ; and the modes of pre- 
 paring the frame and reversed angle-irons, and the floor-plates, 
 forming the beam-knees, and putting the frames and beams to- 
 gether. In other respects the modes of conducting the work at 
 the two ports are almost identical. The shipbuilders who adopt 
 the Mersey system (with more or less important variations) con- 
 sider that by erecting the frame angle-irons and fairing them by 
 harpins and ribbands previously to the floor-plates and reversed 
 angle-irons being attached, and then riveting these plates and 
 angle-irons in place, while the frame angle-irons are firmly secured 
 to the harpins and ribbands, they avoid uncertainty as to the fair- 
 ness of the frames. They are also of opinion that their mode of 
 procedure admits of the work being proved and corrected at 
 different stages before finally riveting it together, and allows the 
 different portions of the work, framing, plating, &c., to be carried 
 on simultaneously, thus diminishing the chances of error, and the 
 time requii-ed for the construction of the ship. It is also urged 
 that the practice of punching the holes in angle-irons before they 
 are bent is objectionable, either on account of the iron breaking 
 in wake of the holes, or of the holes being made oval by the 
 bending, especially where sharp curves are required. To these 
 objections the advocates of the Clyde system reply that the holes 
 in the angle-irons can be punched with greater ease before the 
 bars are bent, and that with careful workmanship the breaking 
 of the angle-iron or distortion of the holes may be avoided ; while 
 the readjustment of the bars to the curves, which has to be per- 
 formed when, as on the Mersey, the holes are punched after the 
 bars are bent, is rendered unnecessary. They are also of opinion 
 that with good supervision, and the employment of skilled work-
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 445 
 
 men, the Clyde system can be carried out without the occurrence 
 of serious errors, and that vessels can be built more quickly and 
 cheaply by this method. There is, doubtless, a considerable 
 amount of truth in the remarks made by the advocates of both 
 systems, and there are advantages and disadvantages attaching to 
 both metliods ; but it must, we think, be admitted that if it were 
 possible to rely upon every operation being accurately performed, 
 both in laying-ofif the vessel, and in fitting and riveting the work, 
 the Clyde system would be the better of the two. To what extent 
 this correctness is attained in practice, is a question the answer 
 to which depends, almost entirely, on the character of the work- 
 manship, and the strictness of the supervision. 
 
 THE THAMES SYSTEM. 
 
 We next propose to give a brief outline of the method of con- 
 ducting the work practised in the principal yards on the Thames. 
 In its general character the Thames system of shipbuilding ap- 
 proaches the Mersey system, but there are some important differ- 
 ences which we will presently point out. The arrangement of the 
 framing and plating is made on a half-block model of the ship, to 
 a scale of \ inch to a foot, on which are drawn the edges and butts 
 of the outside plating, the butts of stringers, &c. The strakes and 
 plates are distinguished, as on the Mersey, by being marked alpha- 
 betically and numbered, respectively. The dimensions of the 
 plates are usually written on the model. Simultaneously with 
 the preparation of the model the laying-ofif of the vessel is pro- 
 ceeded with, and as soon as the body-plan is completed the widths 
 of the plates are checked with the widths obtained from the 
 model, previously to the iron being ordered. A margin of about 
 1 inch in length and from ^ to 1 inch in breadth is allowed above 
 the net dimensions in preparing the specifications for the plates. 
 The girths of the sections are also taken in order to guide the 
 draughtsman in demanding the angle-iron for the frames and 
 reversed bars. The particulars of the plates and angle-irons re- 
 quired are recorded in an order book, in the same manner as on 
 the IMersey. The moulds which are used to guide the workmen 
 in bending the frames, are generally made on the principle of a 
 skeleton or spider mould, so that one mould serves for several 
 sections. It will be seen that this constitutes a very important
 
 446 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 difference from the plan pursued on the Mersey of having portable 
 boards as previously described. In getting in the curve to which 
 a frame is to be bent, the mould is laid upon the bending slab, and 
 spots are transferred from the mould with a piece of chalk, from 
 six to eight sections being transferred to the slab at one time. 
 The angle-irons, having been heated, are bent to the curves given 
 by the chalk-marks, the operations of bending and bevelling being 
 conducted in the manner before described. 
 
 Another skeleton mould is prepared on the mould-loft floor, 
 and lines representing the upper and lower edges of the floors are 
 marked upon it. If the vessel has a bar-keel the mould must be 
 made to take the whole breadth of the floor ; but if a centre-plate 
 keelson is adopted, a half-mould only will be required. This also 
 differs from the Mersey system, in which the lines for the upper 
 edges of the floors are got in upon the blackboards. 
 
 The setting off and punching of the holes in the frames are 
 conducted in exactly the same manner as on the Mersey, but the 
 holes which come in the plate-edges are usually punched by a 
 " bear " after the ship is in frame, instead of being drilled, as 
 they are on the Mersey. After the holes have been punched, the 
 frames are again placed on the bending slabs, and readjusted to 
 the curves. This operation does not require the reheating of any 
 angle-irons, except those of the largest size. 
 
 While the frame angle-irons are being bent, the keel-work 
 is being arranged and proceeded with, either in a workshop or 
 some other convenient place, where the various parts are fitted 
 together, and temporarily secured. When the preparation has 
 been completed, the keel is taken to pieces and removed to the 
 permanent blocks in the slip or dock, where it is finally put to- 
 gether and has the stations of the frames marked upon it from 
 a room-and-space batten. Staging is then erected around the slip 
 or dock, being hung from standards, and a gunwale harpin is 
 prepared, put in place, shored, and stiffened by cross-spalls at about 
 every sixth frame. The stations of all the frames are marked on 
 this harpin in the usual manner. The frame angle-irons are next 
 hoisted into place, fixed at their respective stations, and secured 
 at the heads and heels. When a sufficient number has been 
 put in place they are regulated at the bilges, and made fair by 
 other ribbands and harpins which are secured to the frames by 
 screw-bolts and plates.
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 447 
 
 The account for the floor-plates is next taken, the plates being 
 usually sheared to the taper given by the floor-mould and then 
 bent on the slabs, after which they are put into place, and have 
 the rivet-holes in the frames marked on them. The reversed bars 
 are also bent, and the positions of the rivet-holes in the frames 
 and floor-plates are transferred to them by means of a batten on 
 which there are secured sliding pieces of zinc, which can be made 
 to coincide with the holes when the batten is bent to the required 
 curve. As the punching of the holes is completed, the floor- 
 plates and reversed bars are put in place and riveted, the fairness 
 of the frames being ensured by the harpins and ribbands previously 
 fixed. A person known as a " liner " generally acts in conjunction 
 with the foreman in charge of the work, his duties consisting prin- 
 cipally in seeing that all measurements are set off at the ship in 
 accordance with the instructions furnished from the mould-loft, 
 and that all lines required for plating are correctly transferred 
 from the block-model to the frames ; he also superintends the 
 getting in of all shee];-lines. 
 
 The beams are prepared by means of a beam-mould on which 
 the lengths are marked, and the bevellings of the beam-knees are 
 usually given on a beam-arm board. Sometimes the beam-arm 
 board is dispensed with, and the bevellings of the knees are then 
 marked upon the beam-mould itself ; but in this case the breadth 
 of the mould should not be less than the depth of the beam in 
 order to afford good guidance in taking the bevellings. In some 
 cases the beams of small vessels are bent cold to their round-up, but 
 in others the beams are heated before being bent. The mode of 
 forming the beam-knees generally adopted is similar to that prac- 
 tised on the Mersey, but some builders prefer the Clyde method 
 shown in Fig. 100, p. 146. The rivet-holes for the fastenings in the 
 beam-knees are generally punched in the frames before they are 
 raised, and drilled through the knees after the beams are in place ; 
 sometimes, however, the beam-knees are first punched by means of 
 a " bear," and the holes in the frames drilled after the beams are 
 in place. Double-zigzag riveting is generally employed in beam- 
 knees. The holes for the deck-fastenings are either drilled or 
 " beared " in the beam-flanges after the beams are in place. 
 
 It is usual on the Thames to lay-off the midship portion of 
 the ship first, and to give out moulds for the frames, &c., of that 
 part, so that the work of building may be proceeded with while the
 
 44^ Systems of Work. Chap. xx. 
 
 extremities of the ship are being laid-off and the moulds prepared. 
 Without, however, waiting for the framing to be completed, the 
 platers commence fitting the outside plating, decks, stringers, &c., 
 amidships. The process of plating is conducted similarly to that 
 described for the Mersey, and the sliifts of butts adopted are the 
 same. The arrangements of the riveting of the edges and butts 
 of the outside plating are generally in accordance with Lloyd's 
 Eules. The ordinary batten template is very commonly employed 
 in taking account of the plates, but there are two other descrip- 
 tions of templates sometimes used, which require to be noticed. 
 The first has been patented, and consists of a frame formed of 
 light longitudinal battens with cross battens attached, the pins 
 which secure the ends of the cross battens to the longitudinal 
 battens being capable of motion in slots, so that the cross battens 
 can be placed at a considerable inclination, and a moderate amount 
 of curvature can thus be given to the longitudinal battens. By 
 tliis and other arrangements, the edge of the template can be 
 brought to the curve of the plate to be taken account of, and 
 the cross battens nearest the ends can be fixed to the bevels 
 of the butts. In order to take account of the holes in the frames 
 and edges, pieces of zinc with holes cut in them are attached to 
 the cross and longitudinal battens, and can be fixed directly 
 over the holes which are to be transferred, when the template is 
 in place at the ship. By this arrangement no reverser is required, 
 as the holes can be marked directly upon the plate. The great 
 difference between this and the ordinary form of template consists 
 in the fact that the curve of the edge of the plate is taken off, 
 and that the positions of the holes are taken account of by means 
 of the moveable pieces of zinc. The second kind of temjDlate is 
 a modification of the first, as a somewhat similar mode is adopted 
 for taking account of the curvature of the plate-edges, but the 
 positions of the holes are marked upon the battens, as upon the or- 
 dinary template, and transferred to the plate by means of a reverser. 
 The latter form of template is now most generally used, only it 
 is usual to have the longitudinal or edge-strips of wood, and the 
 cross-bars of very thin strip-iron. 
 
 The bulkheads are, upon the Thames, prepared outside the 
 ship, as is done on the Mersey and Clyde, but in this case it is 
 usual to fit the plates next the ship's side, by means of a template 
 which is made to the form of the sides after the frames are fixed
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 449 
 
 ill place. When it is thought that the work is sufficieiitly ad- 
 vanced, the bulkheads are put together in their respective positions 
 and riveted. 
 
 While this work is progressing in the amidship portiop of the 
 vessel the framing of the extremities is being proceeded with ; 
 the stem and sternpost are put in place ; the beams, stringers, &c., 
 are fixed and fastened, and the outside plating is gradually com- 
 pleted. The remainder of the work of riveting, caulking, &c., is 
 conducted similarly to that previously described. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the principal difference between the 
 Mersey and Thames systems of shipbuilding consists in the use of 
 frame and floor moulds on the Thames, instead of the blackboards 
 employed on the Mersey. It should, however, be stated, that 
 some of the shipbuilders on the Thames use a large blackboard, 
 to which one side only of each body plan is transferred from the 
 mould-loft floor. The curves to which the frames are bent, are 
 transferred from the board to the slab by means of iron templates 
 or set-irons instead of wooden moulds. The reason why only one 
 side of each body plan is di-awn on the blackboard instead of both 
 sides as is done on the Mersey, is that on the Thames the floor- 
 plates are fitted in place at the ship after the frames are fixed, and 
 the board is used simply to regulate the bending of the frames 
 and putting the bulkheads together ; while on the Mersey the floor- 
 plates are moulded from the board, and consequently the complete 
 sections are required. 
 
 THE TYNE SYSTEM. 
 
 The system ol shipbuilding practised on the Tyne may be 
 regarded as a combination of the Clyde and Mersey systems, as 
 it includes some of the more important features of each. The 
 arrangement of the butts and edges of outside plating, &c., is 
 drawn on a model of the ship made on a scale of \ inch to a foot. 
 Xfter the ship has been laid-off on the mould-loft floor, the 
 breadths of the strakes of plating are transferred from the model 
 to the floor, and the lines of the plate edges are faired ; so that the 
 correct breadths of the plates being obtained from the body plan, 
 and their lengths being taken from the model, they can be ordered 
 from the makers. The margin allowed above the net dimensions 
 of the plates in preparing the specification is about 1 inch in length 
 
 2 G
 
 45° Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 and \ iuch in breadth for the plating near the extremities of a ship, 
 and \ ineli in length and \ inch in breadth for the plating amid- 
 ships ; all the particulars of form, dimensions, kQ., are recorded 
 in an order-book. The same mode of distinguishing the various 
 plates and strakes is adopted as is employed on the Mersey, the 
 latter being lettered and the former numbered. An expansion 
 drawing of the plating is prepared from the model, and given to 
 the foreman in order to guide him in placing tlie butts. Deck 
 l)lans are also j^repared showing the position of the stringer-plates 
 and angle-irons, tie-plates, &c., the butts of this work being always 
 shifted with the butts of the outside plating. This practice is also 
 adopted at all the other ports, and, as before remarked, is essential 
 to the proper construction of an iron ship. After the disposition 
 of the butts and edges, and the laying-off of the ship has been com- 
 pleted, the lines and stations are transferred to a fixed floor or board 
 near the bending slabs, the method of transferring the lines being 
 conducted in a manner similar to that pursued on the Clyde. The 
 process of bending and bevelling the frames is conducted similarly 
 to that on the Mersey, a piece of " set " iron being used in trans- 
 ferring the curves from the boai'd to the slab. When the frames 
 have cooled they are tried to the lines on the board ; if any adjust- 
 ment is necessary it is performed, and the heights of decks, posi- 
 tions of plate edges, ribbands, &c., are all notched in upon them. 
 The holes in the frames are then set off, and both the holes in the 
 plate edges and those Tor the fastenings in tlie beam-knees, are 
 punched before the frames are put up. It will be seen therefore 
 that in the preparation of the frame angle-irons the Mersey system 
 is followed, except in the use of a fixed floor (similar to that used 
 on the Clyde), and the practice of punching the holes for the edge 
 riveting of the plates, and those for the beam -arm fastenings before 
 the ship is in frame. 
 
 During the time that the frame angle-irons are being punched 
 the reversed angle-irons, floor-plates, and beams are being pre- 
 pared. The reversed angle-irons are marked, bent, and punchecl 
 in the manner previously described for the Mersey system, but the 
 operations are performed before the frames are raised. The floors are 
 prepared from the lines drawn on the board, are fitted to the frames, 
 have the holes marked upon them, and are punched. The frame 
 and reversed angle-irons and the floor-plates are riveted together 
 at the side of the slip, near their stations in the ship, before the
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 45 1 
 
 frames are raised, this modification of the Clyde system being 
 adopted because it is considered that when the frames are laid 
 across the keel, the keel work is liable to be made unfair while the 
 riveting of the frames is being performed. It should be added, 
 that the keel work is proceeded with while the frames are being- 
 prepared, and the stem and sternpost are also completed. When 
 the scarphs, &c., of the keel have been fitted, the holes drilled or 
 punched, and the other work performed, it is fixed in position on 
 the blocks and riveted, the stem and sternpost also being put in 
 place and secured. 
 
 In raising the frames it is usual to commence with the after 
 or transom frame, and when this frame has been fixed in its true 
 position and shored, the second harpin down from the top- 
 side is put up. The after end of the harpin is secured to the 
 transom frame, and its fore end is suspended from the standards 
 which support the staging. The work of erecting the frames 
 is then continued, the frame next the transom frame being 
 first raised, and the framing being gradually brought forward. 
 Cross-spalls are fixed to the alternate frames, the middle line 
 being cut in each cross-spall. The stations of the frames are 
 also marked on the harpin and on the keel, so that they can 
 be accurately fixed in their proper positions, and the middle line 
 can be plumbed down from the cross-spalls to the keel in the usual 
 manner. When the number of frames put up has advanced the 
 framing to the fore end of the piece of harpin first fixed, another 
 piece is put up and the work is continued until all the frames are 
 erected. It should be stated that in some cases the topside harpin, and 
 another which comes just at the bilge, are put up before the frames 
 are raised. When the framing is completed, the remaining rib- 
 bands and harpins are put in place, and the frames are set fair. 
 
 The beams are, in the mean time, bent to their round-up (the 
 bending being performed while the beams are cold), and the beam- 
 knees are either welded to the central part of the beam, or formed 
 by riveting on a piece of plate to the side of the beam after the 
 end has been split and the lower part turned down, as shown in 
 Fig. 101, p. 146. This mode of forming the beam-knee differs 
 from the plans adopted on the Clyde and the Mersey. When the 
 beams are made of bulb-iron with double angle-irons on the upper 
 edge, the riveting is performed by hand, as it is considered that 
 when the riveting machine is used, the round-up of the beam is 
 
 2 G 2
 
 45^ Systems of Work. Chap. xx. 
 
 increased while the riveting is being performed, and the beam has 
 to be again put into the beam-bending machine and brought to its 
 correct form. The holes for the deck fastenings are drilled in the 
 beam flanges before the beams are put in place. 
 
 The bulkheads are lined off upon the board, and the account is 
 there taken for fitting and punching the plates and stiffeners, but 
 moulds are made at the ship to the bulkhead frames after they are 
 in place. Moulds are also made at the ship for the stringer-plates 
 and angle-irons as soon as the beams have been got in. 
 
 When the frames have been fixed and faired the work in the 
 interior of the ship (keelsons, stringers, &c.) is at once begun, 
 the beams are put in and fastened, and the work on the decks is 
 proceeded with, simultaneously with the working of the outside 
 plating. The lengths of the beams are always taken from the ship, 
 and the holes in the frames for the knee fastenings are mai-ked on 
 the mould when in place, and thence transferred to the beam-knee. 
 These holes are usually punched in the knees. This mode of taking 
 the lengths differs from the methods adopted on both the Mersey 
 and the Clyde. The operation of plating is conducted similarly to 
 that previously described, except that instead of using a " reverser " 
 to transfer the positions of the holes from the template to the plate, 
 it is usual for the workman to drive a small centre punch through 
 the template at the centre of each of the holes marked upon it, 
 and thus to make an indent in the plate (on which the template is 
 laid) which determines the centre of the hole to be punched. The 
 position of the hole is then marked on the plate with a plug of 
 which the end has been dipped in whiting. It will be obvious 
 that this method is not as accurate as that previously described, 
 for the workman has to trust to his eye both in determining the 
 centre of the hole marked on the template, and in driving the punch 
 squarely through the template, while in placing the plug so that 
 the point thus fixed may be the centre of the hole marked on the 
 plate there is a further chance of incorrectness. It should be added, 
 that for plates not exceeding 5 cwt. in weight, the usual jjractice 
 is to put them up in place, and to mark the positions of the holes 
 directly upon them. In marking the holes on plates which have 
 a considerable curvature, a " reverser " is sometimes employed. 
 
 The spacing of the rivets, sliifts of butts, modes of punching, 
 &c., are similar to those previously described, the lengths of the 
 plates used varying from 8 feet to 10 feet 6 inches. Lloyd's Rules
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 453 
 
 are usually conformed to iu the riveting of the butts and edges, 
 chain riveting being generally adopted. In all watertight work 
 the rivet-heads are laid up, and all the rivet-points are made flush 
 with the surface of the outside plating, as it is considered that they 
 are more quickly oxidized if left rounded. In the keel work, 
 however, the rivet-points are a little rounded. The operations of 
 riveting and caulking are here performed in a manner sinwlar to 
 that described for the Mersey system, great care being taken in 
 testini? the closeness of the work and the tis-htness of the rivets 
 before the caulking is begun. 
 
 The practice on the Tyne, like that on the Clyde, is to lay-off 
 and expand the stern plating, to prepare the stern frames, and to 
 fit the whole of the stem work together before putting it in place ; 
 and in some small vessels the whole of the stern framing and 
 plating is riveted together in the workshop before being raised. 
 
 From this brief description it will be seen that the Tyne 
 method differs somewhat from all the systems previously described, 
 although, as before remarked, it resembles both the Mersey and 
 Clyde systems in some particulars. As these resemblances and 
 differences have been pointed out in passing, it is unnecessary to 
 ao:ain state them here. 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF THE ROYAL DOCKYAEDS. 
 
 The last system of shipbuilding which we propose to describe 
 is that practised in the Royal dockyards, and it will be assumed 
 that the bracket-plate arrangement is (as is now almost universally 
 the case) adopted in the construction of the imaginary vessel of 
 which we shall trace the progress ; while, in order to represent the 
 general practice as far as possible, we shall suppose her to be 
 armour plated. Directly the drawings are received the laying off 
 is proceeded with, and, as soon as the midship section has been got 
 in upon the mould-loft floor, demands are prepared from it for the 
 framing and plating of that portion of the length amidships, of 
 which the transverse form does not differ materially from that 
 of the midship section. By this means a supply of materials is en- 
 sured by the time that the laying off is comj^leted, and the work of 
 building can be at once commenced. In the mean time a model 
 of the ship is prepared on a scale of \ inch to a foot, and the posi- 
 tions of the edges and butts of tlie bottom plating and armour
 
 454 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 plates, the longitudinal frames, deck heights, and transverse 
 frames are marked upon it. It is found desirable to have the 
 model pivoted at the ends in order to give facilities for draw- 
 ing these lines upon it. The disposition of the butts of the flat 
 and vertical keel plates, keel angle-irons, and gutter plate is first 
 arranged on a separate drawing, and the demands for the plates 
 and angle-irons are made from it. Other expansion drawings are 
 also made from the model, one of which shows the arrangement of 
 the bottom plating up to the armour shelf, and another that of the 
 skin-plating behind armour. The lines for the edges of the bottom 
 plating are first determined on the model, and the longitudinal 
 frames are made to follow the plate lines, so that the holes for the 
 fastenings of the continuous angle-irons on the outer edges of 
 the longitudinals may be brought, as nearly as possible, to the 
 centre of the strake of plating. In arranging the butts of the bottom 
 plating and of the longitudinal plates and angle-irons, regard is 
 had to the positions of the butts of the keel work, previously deter- 
 mined on, and care is taken that the butts of the longitudinal 
 framing are well shifted with each other, and with the butts of 
 the outside plating. A drawing is prepared showing the. arrange- 
 ment of the butts of the longitudinals, similar to that given in 
 Fig. 93, p. 130. The diagonal disposition of butts is now followed 
 for the bottom plating, there being two passing strakes between 
 consecutive butts. The edges of the plating and stations of the 
 longitudinals are transferred from the model to the body plan 
 on the floor, and, the lines having been faired, the laps of the 
 plating are marked. In demanding the plates for the bottom 
 the breadths are taken from the body plan. For plates in the 
 midship part of the ship the allowance made over the net length 
 is about 1 inch, and over the breadth from i to f inch. Care is 
 taken to allow for the curve in the edges and the bevelling of the 
 butts in plates with a considerable amount of twist. The longi- 
 tudinal plates and angle-irons are also demanded from the dimen- 
 sions taken from the floor, the breadth of the longitudinals being 
 decreased towards the extremities, as previously explained. In 
 tapering the longitudinals it is usual to reduce the breadths in such 
 a manner as to give sufficient depth at the extremities of the 
 double bottom to allow men to enter for the purpose of making 
 repairs or painting. 
 
 The moulding of the short transverse plate and bracket frames
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 455 
 
 is, of course, regulated by the breadths of the longitudinals, and 
 when these have been determined and the inside lines of the frames 
 faired, the dimensions of the plates and angle-irons can be obtained 
 from the floor, and the demands prepared. It is usual to make an 
 expansion drawing of the continuous transverse frames and the 
 deep frames behind armour, showing the positions of the scarphs 
 and butts, similar to Fig, 94, p. 131, and from the lengths taken 
 from the floor in preparing this expansion the angle-irons ^re 
 demanded. An expansion drawing is also prepared of tbe inner 
 bottom, the disposition of the butts and edges is made upon it, the 
 butts being shifted with those of the longitudinals and the bottom 
 plating, and the demands for the plates are made out from the 
 dimensions thus obtained. A similar course is followed with 
 the plating and angle-irons in the wing passage bulkheads. 
 
 In arranging the plating behind armour it is first necessary to 
 fix the positions of the butts and edges of the armour plates, and 
 this is usually done on a separate expansion drawing. The edges 
 of the armour plates being fixed, the positions of the longitudinal 
 girders behind armour are known, and these determine the posi- 
 tions of the edges of the inner thickness of skin-plating, as the 
 edge fastenings are made to work in as fastenings in the girders. 
 The edges of the outer thickness of skin-plating are shifted from 
 those of the inner thickness and kept clear of the armour bolts. 
 The butts of both thicknesses are well shifted with each other and 
 with the butts of the armour. A sketch showing the character 
 of this disposition is given in Fig. 137, p. 192. 
 
 An expansion drawing is also prepared showing the disposition 
 of the light plating above the armour belt in the unprotected 
 portions of the ship. The dimensions for this expansion are taken 
 from the floor, and the demand for the plating and light angle-iron 
 frames is prepared in a manner similar to that described above. 
 As the ship advances dispositions and demands have to be made 
 also for the plates and angle-irons in bulkheads, engine and boiler 
 bearers, rudder work, &c., as well as demands for beams and the 
 materials required for the various decks. Kecords of all demands 
 are kept in an order-book, together with estimates of the weights 
 of plates and angle-u'ons. 
 
 The moulds for the stem and sternpost are prepared at as early 
 a stage of the work as possible, in order to give time for the manu- 
 facture, the sternpost especially being in many cases a cause of delay.
 
 45^ Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 On this account the engineer's drawing, showing the height of 
 screw-shaft, &c., is required at an early stage of the work. 
 
 As soon as the materials have been received the preparation of 
 the flat and vertical keel plates, and transverse and longitudinal 
 framing is commenced. Sectional moulds are given out from the 
 loft to guide the workmen in flauging the flat keel i)]ates, and for 
 the plates forward and aft where there is a considerable amount of 
 twist, the sectional moulds are connected by light battens, in order 
 that their correct application may be ensured. The flat keel plates 
 are flanged under a hydra qHc press, having been first heated in 
 a furnace placed near the press. In some private yards the flang- 
 ing is performed by special plate-bending machines. The putting 
 together of the keel work is conducted in the manner explained 
 in Chap. VII. (p. 123), the foreman in cliarge of the work being 
 guided by the expansion drawing prepared at the mould-loft. In 
 the construction of most of the ships built in the Royal dockyards, 
 it has been necessary (on account of the slip or dock being either 
 occupied or under repair) to fit the keel together on temporary 
 blocks in the workshops or by the side of the dock. In such cases 
 it is also usual to rivet up the flat keel plates in such lengths as 
 can be conveniently removed to the permanent blocks. 
 
 The short transverse plate and bracket frames are prepared 
 from moulds which give the curves of the inner and outer edges, 
 the bevelling of the ends, and the moulding of the brackets. Amid- 
 ships one mould will, of course, serve for several frames, but in 
 general a separate mould is made for each frame, and is accom- 
 panied by a bevelling board by which the preparation of the short 
 frame angle-irons is regulated. The laps of the bottom plating are 
 marked upon the moulds, and the joggles for the continuous 
 longitudinal angle-irons are cut out. In putting a bracket frame 
 together, the brackets are moulded and cut to shape, the short 
 frame angle -iron is bent and bevelled, and the holes for the rivets 
 securing it to the brackets are punched, their positions having been 
 set off so as to clear the holes in the other flange ; these latter 
 holes, which receive the fastenings of the bottom plating, are for 
 the most part drilled, a few being punched before the frame is put 
 together in order to allow the bottom plating to be secured when 
 first put up. The brackets are then put in position on the angle- 
 iron and the holes are marked and punched. The holes for the 
 rivets in the upper edges and ends of the bracket plates are set off
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 45 7 
 
 upon them and punched, and the short connecting angle-irons are 
 marked from the brackets, punched, and temporarily secured by 
 cotters and pins. In a watertight frame, the frame angle-irons are 
 forged staple fashion to the form given by the mould, the holes are 
 set off and punched in the angle-iron, and being marked on the 
 plate, are punched in it also. A similar course is followed with 
 the lightened plate frames. The frame angle-irons and short con- 
 necting bars are riveted to the brackets and plates before the 
 frames are put in place, machine riveting being generally adopted. 
 
 The longitudinals are prepared from moulds given out from 
 the mould-loft, on which the scores for the continuous trans- 
 verse angle-irons are marked or cut out, and the positions of 
 the butts of the continuous longitudinal angle-irons, and of the 
 bottom plating are marked, together with the stations of the trans- 
 verse frames. The holes for the fastenings in the continuous and 
 short angle-irons on the edges of the longitudinal, in the short con- 
 necting angle -irons on the transverse bracket and plate frames, and 
 in the butts of the longitudinal plates themselves, are then set off 
 and punched, and the frames are 'ready to go in place. A 
 separate mould is made for each length of the longitudinals. The 
 continuous angle-irons on the outer edges are bent cold to the 
 curves required in the midship part of the ship ; but forward and 
 aft they require to be heated and bent on the slabs to the curves 
 given by the moulds for the longitudinals. The holes in both 
 flanges of these angle-irons are punched before the bars are put in 
 place. The short angle-irons on the inner edges are taken account 
 of, put in place on the longitudinals, and are riveted, after the 
 longitudinals are fixed in the ship. 
 
 Separate moulds are also prepared for the continuous trans- 
 verse angle-irons, and for the deep frames behind armour. The 
 moulds are usually made so that one edge shall give the curve of 
 the frame adjacent to that given by the other edge, one mould thus 
 serving for two frames. The edges of plating, positions of butts 
 and scarphs, &c., are marked upon these moulds, and spiling lines 
 with check measurements are given out with them, together with 
 spread battens showing the proper breadths at the heights of 
 the longitudinals and decks, so that accuracy may be ensured 
 if the moulds should warp. When all the brackets or plate frames 
 corresponding to any section have been prepared as far up as the 
 longitudinal next below the armour shelf, they are fixed in their
 
 45 8 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 proper relative position on the floor of the workshop, and, allo\\ - 
 ance being made for the longitndinals, the correctness of the form 
 of the section is tested by means of the spread battens and moulds. 
 The continuous transverse frames are bent in tlie usual manner on 
 the slabs, and completed as will be described hereafter. The deep 
 reversed frames behind armour are bent and bevelled, and the holes 
 are set off and punched in the outer edge of the transverse flange to 
 receive the fastenings of the double angle-irons. These angle-ii-ons 
 are bent and bevelled, and, being brought to the frames, have the 
 holes marked upon them. They are next taken to the press and 
 punched, and then fixed in place on the frames. The riveting 
 machine is used in preparing these frames, and care is taken in 
 setting off the lioles to avoid bringing them into the same sec- 
 tions of the angle-iron with the holes which receive the fastenings 
 of the skin-plating behind armour. 
 
 The process of framing is commenced as soon as a portion of 
 the keel has been fixed on the blocks, and the riveting and caulking 
 have been sufficiently advanced. The stations of the transverse 
 frames are marked upon the' vertical keel plate from a batten given 
 out from the mould-loft. As soon as these operations are com- 
 pleted a- tier of short transverse frames is put up amidships, and 
 temporarily secured to the vertical keel, the heads being fixed to 
 a ribband which is afterwards put up and shored. When this 
 has been done the fitting of the plates of the lowest longitudinal 
 is proceeded with, they having been previously prepared from the 
 moulds given out from the mould-loft as described above. When 
 put in place the longitudinals are temporarily secured by cotters 
 and pins, the butt straps are prepared, and the continuous angle- 
 irons on the outer edges are fixed. A portion of the length of the 
 lowest longitudinal having been completed, another tier of trans- 
 verse frames is put up, and a ribband is fixed and shored near 
 their heads ; then another longitudinal is fitted and fixed ; and 
 so on until the longitudinal is reached which forms the upper 
 boundary of the double bottom, and is usually situated at the foot 
 of the wing passage bulkhead. This longitudinal has to be made 
 watertight, and the manner in which this has been accomplished 
 has been previously illustrated in Fig. 84, p. 114, and Fig. 88, p. 
 1'25. Previously to completing this watertight work, the frames 
 behind armour have to be hoisted in and the continuous transverse 
 angle-irons put in place. The latter are in some cases put in and
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 459 
 
 have the holes in the brackets and plates marked npon them, the 
 butts fitted and the holes set off for the fastenings, and are then 
 taken out and have the holes punched. In other cases the holes 
 have been drilled in place, but the former plan is thought to be the 
 cheaper, and is that adopted in recent ships. In getting the frames 
 behind armour into position it is usual to put up one or two at each 
 end of a length of the sheer ribband, and to secure the ribband to 
 the inside of the frames in order to avoid having to hoist the frames 
 in over the ribband, as would require to be done if it were put on 
 the outside. When the ribband has been fixed, the other frames 
 which come upon it are put in, brought to their stations, and 
 secured. The fairing of a portion of the framing is then completed, 
 cross-spalls being fitted to every fourth or fifth frame, and ribbands 
 being put up on the outside of the frames. The lower ends of the 
 vertical frames are scarphed with the continuous transverse angle- 
 irons, and it is usual to punch the holes for the fastenings in either 
 the frame or the angle-iron before it is put in, and to drill them 
 through the unpunched thickness in place. 
 
 Between the armour shelf and the longitudinal next below it 
 the transverse framing is formed by lightened plates with angle-irons 
 on the edges, as shown in Plates 4 and 5. These frames are pre- 
 pared from moulds made in the mould-loft, and are completed, 
 with the exception of cutting the heels, in the same manner as the 
 other short transverse frames. In order, however, to secure accu- 
 racy in the armour shelf-line, the moulds are put up in place, and a 
 fair line is got around the ship by means of battens, the lower ends 
 of the frames being afterwards cut to the lengths thus obtained. 
 
 While the framing amidships has been thus advancing, the keel 
 is being extended both forward and aft, the transverse and 
 longitudinal framing is being put in place in wake of it, and 
 the preparation of the remainder of the framing is being proceeded 
 with. Simultaneously with this the riveting up of the various 
 parts of the frame and the connecting angle-irons is being per- 
 formed, and, as soon as possible, the working of the bottom plating- 
 is commenced on the midship part where the framing is most 
 advanced. The only points requiring notice with respect to the 
 mode of plating adopted, are, that the harpins and ribbands on the 
 bottom are always placed between the edge of an inside strake and 
 a longitudinal, so that they need not be removed until the outside 
 strakes of plating are worked ; that the lines for the plate edges are
 
 460 Systems of Wo7'k. Chap. XX. 
 
 got in upon the frames by a draughtsman from an account furnished 
 from the mouhl-loft ; and that a thin blackboard is used for taking 
 account of the plates instead of a batten template. It has been 
 previously explained that most of the holes in the frame angle-irons 
 for the fastenings of the bottom plating are drilled in place, a few 
 only of the holes between the plate edges being punched previously 
 in order to allow the plating to be temporarily secured when first 
 put up. The holes for the edge fastenings are always drilled in the 
 frame angle-irons. The positions of the holes are transferred to 
 the plates by means of reversers similar to that previously described. 
 It is the practice, as far as possible, to complete the riveting of 
 the framing and the bottom plating, together with the fitting 
 of the drain pipes in the double bottom, before the inner skin is 
 worked. The disposition made at the mould-loft is conformed to 
 in working the inside plating, and the mode of taldng account of 
 the plates is very similar to that described for outside plating. The 
 plating is flush-jointed both at the edges and butts, and the strips 
 are worked below it. The holes for the fastenings are drilled in 
 the continuous transverse frames, and punched in the plates. The 
 riveting and caulking of the plating in both the inner and outer 
 bottoms are performed in the manner before described. 
 
 The armour shelf having been completed for a portion of the 
 length amidships, the working of the skin-plating behind armour 
 and of the longitudinal girders is commenced. The lines for the 
 plate edges are got in on the frames from an account furnished by 
 the mould-loft draughtsman, and the holes for the fastenings are 
 drilled in the frame angle-irons and longitudinal girders and 
 punched in the plates. The disposition previously made is carried 
 out by the foreman, who is guided by the expansion drawing, and 
 the butt fastenings are arranged so as to clear the armour bolts. 
 The taking account of the plates, punching, &c., are conducted 
 similarly to the processes described above. 
 
 Simultaneously with this the beams are being j^ut in, the deck- 
 lines having been previously got in upon the frames. It is usual 
 for the T-bulb and H-iron beams to be supplied to the dock- 
 yards by the makers, with the knees formed and the proper round- 
 up. For this purpose the makers are furnished with sketches of 
 the beam having the figured dimensions marked upon them, with 
 beam moulds giving the round-up of the decks, with check battens 
 marked from the mould-loft floor in order to test the lengths, and
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 46 1 
 
 with batten moulds showing the bevel of the beam-knees and the 
 inside curves of the beam-arms. The usual allowance made over 
 the true length taken from the floor is | inch on each beam-arm, 
 the additional length being allowed on the outer edges of the 
 arm, and the true lengths taken from the floor being conformed to 
 in making the moulds for the inside curves of the knees. When 
 made beams are adopted, the plate welds are carefully shifted 
 in adjacent beams, the beam webs are bent to their proper round- 
 up on the slabs, and have the knees formed by splitting the ends 
 and welding in pieces as shown in Fig. 99, p. 146, or by welding 
 the knees on. The holes for the fastenings in the beam angle- 
 irons are then set off and punched, the angle-irons are bent to 
 the curves, brought to the beam-plates, have the holes marked, 
 are taken to the press, and are punched, after which they are 
 temporarily secured to the beam-plates by cotters and pins until 
 the riveting is performed. The riveting of made beams is usually 
 done by the machines. In taking account of the beams the 
 lengths of the beams and bevellings of the knees given from the 
 mould-loft are conformed to, being tested at the ship previously to 
 cutting the beams. The outer edge of the beam-arm is accurately 
 fitted against the transverse flange of one of the double angle- 
 irons on the deep reversed frames, as shown in Plate 4. The holes 
 for the fastenings in the beam-arms are usually set off and punched 
 before the beams are put in, templates being used for setting off 
 the fastenings ; the holes in the frames are di'illed after the beams 
 are in place. The holes for the fastenings of deck planking and 
 plating are always drilled in the beam flanges after the beams 
 have been fixed. The deck planking is now fastened to the beams 
 only in cases where there is no iron deck. 
 
 The work in the hold is also being proceeded with during this 
 time. As soon as the inner bottom has been sufficiently advanced 
 the bulkheads are fitted and fastened. A sketch is prepared for 
 each bulkhead from the dimensions taken from the mould-loft floor, 
 and on it the disposition of the plating and stiffeners is made. The 
 plates and angle-irons required for the bulkheads are also demanded 
 from these sketches. The bulkheads are fitted together outside 
 the ship, the holes for the fastenings are marked and punched, the 
 strips and stiffeners fitted, &c., and the various pieces marked in 
 order to facilitate the putting together in place. In building the 
 bulkheads in the ship the midship part is first put up, and the ends
 
 4^2 Systems of Work. Chap. XX. 
 
 of the plates coming on the inner bottom are cut to the lengths and 
 curves taken from the ship. The fitting of watertight doors, shiice 
 valves, &c., can be proceeded with as soon as the riveting of the 
 bulklieads is completed. The bulkhead connections are usually 
 similar to those described for the ' Hercules ' in Chap. XI. 
 
 The work on the different decks is commenced directly the deck 
 framing is completed for a portion of the length. Plans of the 
 decks are prepared from the mould-loft floor, and the dispositions 
 of the butts and edges of the deck stringers and plating are made 
 upon them, the demands for plates and angle-irons also being 
 prepared from these drawings. No moulds are used in fitting the 
 stringer-plates, except in places where great care is needed, as for 
 instance where the frames behind armour are run up through the 
 stringer which comes upon the upper edge of the armour belt, as 
 described in p. 122. In nearly all instances the stringer-plates 
 themselves are put in place and marked, and this course is thought 
 to be both cheaper and more expeditious. The deck plating is also 
 laid upon the beams, and the holes for the fastenings to the beam 
 flanges are marked upon it, alter which the plates are removed to 
 the press, and the holes are punched. In recent ships the fasten- 
 ings of the deck planking have been brought out upon the plating, 
 clear of the beams, and it is usual to set off the holes upon the 
 plates and to punch them, care being taken in setting them off to 
 allow for the strakes of planking and to make good fastenings. 
 
 Meanwhile the armour plating of the midship portion of the 
 ship is being performed, having been commenced as soon as the 
 skin plating behind armour has been completed for a sufficient 
 length. We shall give a full description of the operations con- 
 nected with armour plating in another chapter ; but it may be 
 remarked here that the system followed in the dockyards of 
 advancing the framing of the midship portion of the ship before 
 that of the extremities, allows the armour plating of the broadside 
 in wake of the central battery, and the construction of the armour 
 bulkheads at the ends of the battery, to be proceeded with 
 simultaneously with the framing of the bow and stern, which is in 
 nearly all cases delayed by the necessity for allowing a consider- 
 able time for the manufacture of the stem and sternpost. 
 
 The framing and plating of the unprotected portions of the 
 vessel above the armour belt are commenced as soon as possible, 
 the mode of conducting the work requiring no special remarks
 
 Chap. XX. Systems of Work. 463 
 
 as full particulars of the arrangements have been already given in 
 Chap. VII. The remainder of the work in completing the framing 
 and plating, putting on the armour in the belt, and finishing the 
 bow and stern, is conducted in a manner similar to that described 
 above. The various fittings in the hold, watertight flats, engine 
 and boiler bearers, shaft passages, magazines, chain lockers, &c., 
 and the works connected with the decks and topsides, the gun- 
 nery arrangements, ports, &c., are completed as the ship advances. 
 The rudder and its fittings are generally prepared and fitted in 
 place before the ship is launched. 
 
 From the preceding description it will be evident that no com- 
 parison can be made between this mode of conducting the work and 
 the systems previously described, as they had reference to trans- 
 versely framed ships while the iron-clads of the navy have com- 
 bined transverse and longitudinal framing and a double bottom. 
 It will be observed, however, that in respect of fitting the keel 
 work on temporary blocks, riveting up the framing in place and 
 proceeding with the plating while this is being done, getting in the 
 beams, and some other details, the dockyard system approaches 
 that adopted on the Mersey. It may be of interest to state that in 
 the ships built for the navy by Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead the 
 continuous transverse angle-irons and the deep frames behind 
 armour have been prepared from blackboards in a manner similar 
 to that described for ordinary transverse frames, only the double 
 angle-irons have been riveted to the deep frames before they 
 were put up. The short transverse frames have been prepared from 
 Avood batten-moulds, and the frame angle-irons and bracket plates 
 have been fitted before being put in place. In the preparation of 
 the keel work the ordinary course has been followed, the plates 
 and angle-irons being fitted, punched or drilled, &c., on temporary 
 blocks erected near the slip. The keel has then been removed to 
 the permanent blocks and riveted, the general mode of proceeding 
 with the framing of the vessel previously described (by first putting 
 up and securing a tier of short transverse frames, then working 
 a longitudinal, then fixing another tier of frames, and so on) being- 
 carried out. In the construction of the ' Audacious ' and ' Invincible ' 
 Messrs. Napier of Glasgow have adopted a different course, as they 
 first put up the continuous transverse angle-irons and faired them 
 by ribbands worked upon the inside, and then brought on the 
 bracket and plate frames, and the longitudinals.
 
 464 Arfuour Plating. Chap. XXI. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 ARMOUR PLATING. 
 
 It is proposed in this chapter to give an account of the ordinary 
 modes of working and fastening armour-plates. The allied topics 
 connected with the processes of the manufacture of armour-plates, 
 and their distribution on the hulls of iron-clad ships would, while 
 affording very interesting subjects for discussion, hardly fall within 
 the limits of a treatise like the present, but may be more fully 
 treated of in a future volume. Neither will any attempt be made 
 to describe the almost innumerable projects which have been 
 brought forward for improving the armour and the fastenings. 
 The remarks made will, for the most part, be confined to the 
 armour-plating of iron-built ships, and it will be assumed that 
 the armour is supported by wood-backing worked upon the skin- 
 plating carried by the vertical frames. While the information 
 given will thus be of a strictly practical character, it has been 
 considered desirable to afford the means of tracing the progress of 
 armour-plating since its introduction into the ships of the Koyal 
 Navy, and for that purpose we have given at the end of this 
 chapter a reprint of a paper by the Author of this work published 
 in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1866, 
 "On the ' 13ellerophon,' 'Lord Warden,' and 'Hercules' Targets." 
 A disposition of the edges and butts of the armour-plating 
 is usually made on the model of the ship on which the arrange- 
 ment of the outside plating, &c., is drawn. In most cases the 
 positions of the ports determine the positions of the butts of 
 the strake of armour next below the port-sill, the butts being 
 kept as clear of the ports as is possible. The arrangement of the 
 butts in the other strakes of plating is regulated by those first 
 determined on, the brick-fashion shift of butts being generally 
 followed, but in some ships special dispositions have been made. 
 The butts of the armour are nearly always placed over the vertical 
 frames, as they are considered to be best supported when so 
 situated. In the Koyal Dockyards it is customary to prepare
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Platmg. 465 
 
 an expansion drawing of the armour-plating, the dimensions being 
 taken from the mould-loft floor. This drawing guides the foreman 
 in charge of the work, and is of use to the draughtsman in record- 
 ing the dimensions of the several plates. In demanding the plates 
 the breadths are carefully checked from the lines on the floor, and 
 where there is considerable curvature and twist in a plate, as for 
 instance under the counter of a vessel, special means are adopted 
 in order to obtain a correct account of the dimensions and form. 
 The practice in the Government service in such cases is to make a 
 set of moulds representing sections of the outside of the ship, and to 
 fix them in their proper relative positions so as to obtain an accu- 
 rate representation of the ship's side in wake of the plating to be 
 taken account of. The slight expense of materials and workman- 
 ship thus involved is found to be more than compensated in the 
 accuracy with which the plates can be specified for. Drawings 
 of the various plates are prepared, showing their forms and having 
 the figured dimensions, thickness, and estimated weights marked on 
 them, together with the distinguishing letter and number by which 
 each plate is known. These drawings are forwarded to the manufac- 
 turers, and accompanied by printed forms on which are given the 
 numbers and particulars of the plates ordered. In preparing 
 the specifications for armour plates at the extremities of a ship it 
 is usual to allow a margin of about f inch on each edge and butt 
 above the net dimensions ; but for the plates amidships the allow- 
 ance made is not so great, as they have only a moderate amount 
 of curvature and twist. The ordinary dimensions of the plates 
 used are a length of from 15 to 16 feet and a breadth of from 
 3 to 4 feet, but the dimensions of many of the plates necessarily 
 vary greatly from these. 
 
 It has been previously explained that the disposition of the 
 butts and edges of the skin-plating behind armour is regulated by 
 that of the armour-plating, and an example of such a disposition 
 with two thicknesses of skin-plating has been given in Fig. 137, 
 p. 192. With one thickness of skin-plating the disposition is, of 
 course, more readily made, but in all cases the same considerations 
 regulate the arrangements, viz., to keep the edges of the skin- 
 plating clear of the armour-bolts, and to shift the edges and butts 
 of the thicknesses with each other, and with those of the armour. 
 The butts of the skin-plating are commonly placed in the middle 
 of the frame space, and the armour-bolts pass through the lines of 
 
 2 H
 
 4^6 Armour Plating. Chap. XXI. 
 
 the butts, the butt-fastenings being arranged previously in such a 
 manner as to clear the bolts. In some ships the butts have been 
 placed as close to the frames as was compatible with the allowance 
 of space required for the butt-straps, and the armour-bolts have 
 been tlms made to clear the straps ; in others of the iron-clads the 
 butts of the skin-plating have been placed on the frames ; and in 
 some sliijDS the butts of the inner thickness of skin-plating have 
 been brought upon the frames, and those of the outer thickness 
 placed between the frames. In all recent ships longitudinal girders 
 have been worked upon the skin-plating in wake of the armour, 
 their positions being to some extent governed by those of the edges 
 of the armour-jjlates, from which they are usually distant about 
 12 inches. They have an average spacing of about 2 feet between 
 the girders, being about the same distance apart as the vertical 
 10-inch frames inside the skin-platiug. It has been previously 
 remarked that the positions of these girders determines the dis- 
 position of the edges of the inner thickness of the skin-plating, as 
 the edge fastenings are made to work in as fastenings in the 
 girders. The wood backing is worked between the girders, there 
 being usually two strakes of backing between each pair of girders. 
 This is now the usual arrangement of the protected portion of 
 the side of an u-on-clad ship, but it will be remembered that in the 
 earlier ships there are two thicknesses of wood backing with two 
 continuous longitudinal girders (as shown in the section of the 
 ' Warrior ' given in Plate 3), and that in the ' Northumberland ' 
 class there is only one thickness of backing and no longitudinal 
 girders. In both these cases it was considered very desirable to 
 arrange the edges of the strakes of wood backing so that they 
 might clear the armour-bolts, in order to prevent the liability to 
 leakage through the holes which would otherwise have existed. 
 With the present arrangement the same result is accomplished, 
 but in ordinary cases no care is needed in arranging the breadths 
 of the strakes of backing to clear the bolts, as they generally 
 fall about 3 inches outside a girder and are consequently the 
 same distance clear of the edge of a strake of backing. 
 
 Having thus briefly sketched the process of disposing the butts 
 and edges of the armour and skin-plating, wood backing, &c., we 
 pass to the illustration of the practical operations connected with 
 armour-plating. In the preceding chapter an account has been 
 given of the manner in which the skin-plating and the longitudinal
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Plating. 467 
 
 girders are usually prepared and secured. When these operations 
 are completed, the positions of the armour-bolts are marked upon 
 the plating, so that all fastenings may be kept clear of them. 
 Amidships the positions of the bolts can be easily set off as there 
 is comparatively little curvature in the side, and the positions rela- 
 tively to the girders are known. But at the bow and stern greater 
 care is required, and the ordinary method adopted is to make a 
 light batten-mould to the dimensions of the plate, to set off upon 
 the mould the positions of the bolts, and, having put the mould 
 in place at the ship with its outer surface in the position which 
 the outside of the plate will occupy when it is fixed, to square 
 in the positions of the bolts from the mould to the skin-plating. 
 As the midship framing is nearly always advanced considerably be- 
 yond that of the extremities, the working of the wood backing and 
 the armour-plating is usually begun amidships, the lowest strake of 
 armour resting upon the shelf being the first put up, and the work 
 being continued upwards and toward the extremities simultaneously, 
 as the construction of the ship progresses. When the working of 
 the skin-plating and girders is suflSciently advanced, the fitting 
 of the wood backing is commenced. In some of the earlier ships 
 the rivets in the skin-plating were snap-pointed, and great care 
 was taken to accurately fit the backing over the rivet-points ; but 
 in some of the later iron-clads the rivet-points have been counter- 
 sunk, and consequently the labour and expense of fitting the 
 backing over them have been avoided. lu all cases great care is 
 required in order to make the backing bed fairly upon the surface 
 of the plating, and fit well upon the edge-strips and stringers. All 
 the faying surfaces of the backing are thickly coated with red 
 lead, waterproof glue, or some other approved material, and all the 
 joints are caulked and made watertight after the backing bolts 
 have been driven. The ordinary fastenings in the backing consist 
 of through-bolts with deck-heads sunk into the wood, secured upon 
 the inside of the skin-plating by nuts hove up on screw-threads 
 cut on the ends of the bolts. In order to prevent leakage through 
 the bolt-holes, hempen grummets saturated with paint are placed 
 between the nuts and the plating, and are compressed and made 
 to fit tightly around the bolt by the heaving up of the nuts. The 
 backing bolts are usually disposed so that there may be one in every 
 frame space, and they are placed on opposite edges of the strake al- 
 ternately, care being taken to keep them clear of the armour-bolts. 
 
 2 H 2
 
 468 Armotir Plating. ' Chap. XXI. 
 
 The backing having been fitted, bolted, and caulked, is made 
 fair, and the preparations for taking account of the plating are 
 commenced. It may be remarked here, that in general the plates 
 are supplied to the shipbuilder planed to the sizes given in the 
 demand or specification ; but when the builders of the ship make 
 their own armour-plates, they often leave the edges rough until 
 the plates are to be worked, when they are lined to about 1 inch 
 greater length, and \ inch greater breadth than the net dimensions, 
 and are either planed or slotted down. In order to render the 
 following description of the method of taking account of an armour- 
 plate as clear as possible, it will be assumed that the plate is of the 
 ordinary dimensions, and that the curve and twist required are 
 about the average amount, say 9 inches curvature lengthwise, or 
 " bend," and 2 inches crosswise, or " dish," with a corresponding 
 amount of twist. It will also be supposed that the ordinary case 
 met with in practice is that under consideration, one of the butts 
 and one of the edges of the plate requiring to be fitted against 
 plates already in place. In taking account of such a plate five 
 moulds would be made — two of these would be sectional moulds 
 made to the butts, and two others would be sectional moulds made 
 to the edges of the plate to be fitted ; the remaining one would 
 consist simply of three battens nailed together and 'fitted against 
 the butt and edge of the plates already in place. The edges of the 
 sectional moulds are all fitted to the backing, either close to 
 the plates already fixed, or along the lines got in for the plate- 
 edges and butts. In some cases the backs of all four moulds are 
 planed out of winding in order to obtain the means of checking 
 their correct application to the plate ; but only the backs of the 
 sectional moulds made at the butts are usually so planed. The 
 ends of the moulds are cut to the bevelling of the butts and 
 edges respectively, and marks are put upon them to distinguish 
 the lower from the upper, and the fore from the after ends. It 
 is also usual to mark a straight line upon the longitudinal sec- 
 tional moulds before they are removed from the ship's side, in 
 order to check their accuracy before they are used, as the light 
 mould stuff is very liable to warp by exposure ; this precaution 
 is especially requisite when the back edges of the moulds are not 
 out of winding. If the plate were a " shutter-in " of a strake both 
 butts would require to be fitted against plates already in place, 
 and a light batten-mould would be made for the purpose. If the
 
 Chap. XXI. Armo2ir Plating. 469 
 
 — • 
 
 plate were the last to be put on a broadside it would, most pro- 
 bably, require to be fitted to the edges and butts of four plates, 
 and a batten-mould would be made to the outline of the space 
 it had to fill. In both these cases the four sectional moulds would 
 be made as described above. 
 
 Before being bent, the plates are heated in reverbatory fur- 
 naces constructed in such a manner as to prevent the flame from 
 impinging upon and damaging the plate-edges. In order to allow 
 the plates to be moved easily, it is usual to lay them upon low 
 iron carriages which are made to travel on rails and can be 
 readily drawn out of, or pushed into the furnaces ; in some cases 
 these carriages form a portion of the furoace bottom. In most 
 workshops there are special arrangements made for convepng the 
 plates from the furnaces to the bending machines or the cradles ; 
 and the- latter are usually placed as near as possible to the 
 furnaces in order to reduce as much as possible the time and 
 cost of the conveyance of the plates. Unless proper attention 
 is paid to all the details of the process of heating the plates it is 
 impossible to obtain the ductility and softness necessary for bend- 
 ing. The conclusion arrived at by the Iron Plate Committee was, 
 that from good red heat to bright red were the safest limits of 
 temperature, and that with proper precautions the quality of the 
 iron will be rather improved than otherwise by the heating of 
 the plates, on account of the annealing effect produced. Great 
 care needs always to be taken that the heating is done gradually, 
 in order to secure greater uniformity of temperature throughout 
 the mass than would otherwise be obtained ; and the temperature 
 of the furnace must never be raised so high as to injure the iron. 
 It is usual to keep the furnace-door closed during the whole time 
 occupied in heating a plate, and to allow the damper to remain 
 in one position. The time which the plate is kept in the furnace 
 depends, of course, upon its thickness and upon the temperature 
 of the furnace when the plate is put in. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances, from 3 to 5 hours may be taken as a fair average of the 
 time occupied by the operation, but in every instance the appearance 
 of the plate is that which guides the workmen in determining when 
 it is sufficiently heated. It should be added that the work of taking 
 account of the plate and making the moulds, is usually performed 
 during the time that the heating is being proceeded with. 
 
 There are two modes of bending armour-plates now in general
 
 470 
 
 Armour Plating. 
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 use ; the first by hydraulic pressure, and the second by what is 
 known as the "wedge and tup" or "cradle" system. When the 
 first method is adopted, powerful hydraulic presses are employed, 
 and the curvature and twist required in the plates are given by 
 means of cast-iron blocks, known as '■'■ packing," the sectional forms 
 of these blocks being such as to approximate to the curves to 
 which the plates have to be bent. When placed in the press, the 
 lower surface of the plate rests upon a cast-iron slab carried by 
 the piston, the upper part of the slab being curved concavely to 
 the form to which the plate is' to be brought. The packing is 
 then piled upon the plate and the upper surface of the blocks 
 being pressed against the framing at the upper part of the ma- 
 chine, when the piston is forced upwards, the plate is gradually 
 bent down until it fits against the curved edge of the slab beneath 
 it. It may be remarked that the outer surface of the plate is 
 that which is generally placed lowest in the press, and that the 
 packing for plates of ordinary curves and twists can be selected 
 from a stock kept at hand, those required in extreme cases being 
 the only ones specially prepared. 
 
 The cradle system of bending is that most generally adopted 
 both in the private and Royal yards. A sketch of a cradle with an 
 
 Fig. 257. 
 
 armour plate fixed in it is given in Fig. 257. The sides are formed 
 of vertical bars of which the lower ends are secured to a cast-iron 
 slab, and the upper ends are stiffened by longitudinal plates. The 
 vertical bars are pierced by numerous holes, and the longitudinal 
 bars marked a can be shifted up and down and secured in the most 
 convenient position. The cradle is placed near the heating 
 furnaces in most yards, and arrangements are made to facilitate
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Plating. 471 
 
 the conveyance of the plates from the furnaces to the cradle, as 
 remarked above. In preparing the cradle for bending a plate it is 
 first necessary to determine the position in which the plate is to be 
 placed. Two bars are then procured, of which the upper edges fit 
 the curves of the sectional moulds made at the butts of the plate. 
 These bars or packings are usually about 6 by 2^ inches, and are 
 of sufficient length to span the breadth of the cradle. A large 
 number of them is kept in stock, and it is possible, in most cases, 
 to select bars which will serve the purpose ; but when this cannot 
 be done the bars are bent to the required shape. The two bars 
 selected to fit the sectional moulds are next put in the positions 
 which the ends of the plates will occupy in the cradle, the moulds 
 are applied upon them, the back edges brought out of winding, and 
 the bars are wedged up as shown in the sketch. The longitudinal 
 sectional moulds made to the plate edges are then applied upon the 
 cross bars in the proper positions (determined by the other sectional 
 moulds), and the remainder of the cross packing bars can then be 
 put in place and wedged, their upper edges being kept close to the 
 edges of the longitudinal moulds, and the curves of the various bars 
 being so adjusted as to give a fair surface on Avhich to bend the 
 plate. These preparations having been completed, and the plate 
 being sufficiently heated, it is drawn out of the furnace and con- 
 veyed to the cradle, where it is placed in the position previously 
 determined. Two strips of plate-iron (about 5 inches wide and 
 1 inch thick) are then placed upon the armour plate near the 
 edges, and the upper cross bars shown in the sketch are put in 
 place ; as their lower edges bear upon the strips, the heated plate, 'p, 
 is preserved from being indented by them when the workmen drive 
 in the wedges shown between the cross bars and the plates marked 
 a. By means of these wedges the plate is gradually forced down 
 upon the bed formed by the cross bars, beginning at the middle of 
 the length, and working out towards the ends. Care is always 
 required to bring the plate well down on each cross bar, as it would 
 otherwise require considerable adjustment afterwards. The whole 
 of the operation must be performed as quickly as possible, as 
 the difficulty of bending the plate increases very rapidly with the 
 diminution of the temperature. It is worthy of remark that the 
 inside of the plate is that bearing upon the jsacking bars, as 
 this is a point on which the advocates of the cradle system lay 
 some stress.
 
 472' Arnioiir Plating. Chap. xxi. 
 
 With respect to the comparative merits of these two modes of 
 bending, various opinions are entertained. For ordinary curves and 
 twists it appears that the bending can be performed more cheaply 
 by hydraulic pressure, when the operation is conducted by men 
 who have mastered the working of the machine ; but for jjlates 
 having considerable curvature and twist the cradle system is 
 generally preferred. The latter mode of bending is also more 
 readily understood by the workmen, and less is left to their skill 
 and judgment than is the case with the hydraulic press. It is 
 also wortliy of remark that in tin's, as in many other instances, the 
 men are sometimes prejudiced against the use of the press on 
 account of the reduction made by its adoption in the amount 
 of manual labour required. 
 
 The work of bending can be done much more expeditiously with 
 the cradle, but the plates generally require to be adjusted at the 
 press after cooling, and this considerably reduces the difference 
 between the times occupied by the two methods ; in some instances 
 no adjustment is required, but these cases are exceptional. When 
 l)lates are bent by hydraulic pressure they leave the press finished. 
 In order to afford a more definite idea of the times occupied in 
 bending a plate by the two methods, the following examples 
 are given, the particulars being taken from actual practice. A 
 plate 15 feet 6 inches long, 3 feet 6 inches broad, and 5J inches 
 thick, to which an ordinary amount of curvature and twist is to be 
 given, would require 8 workmen, including a leading man, to be 
 engaged for 10 hours in bending it by the press ; whereas it might 
 be bent in the cradle in from 15 to 25 minutes by 16 men and a 
 leading man, and would afterwards occupy the men at the press 
 about 6 hours in its adjustment. An allusion was made above to 
 the effects supposed to be produced on the material by the two 
 methods of bending. The advocates of the cradle system state, 
 that as the wedging is all done on the upper surface of the plate, 
 the curvature and twist are obtained almost entirely by the com- 
 pression of the material between the centre of the thickness of the 
 plate (or the neutral axis) and the lower surface. They consider 
 that by this method the extension of the material on the other 
 side of the neutral axis is considerably less than it would be if the 
 pressure were applied on the inside of the plate, as is done in the 
 press ; and think that a deterioration in the material in the outer 
 portion of the plate is of much greater importance than any which
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Plating. 4^3 
 
 may occur in the inner portion. While there may be some truth 
 in this yiew, especially in the case of plates which have to be 
 bent to sharp curves, it hardly appears to have sufficient weight 
 to lead to the preference of one mode of bending before the other. 
 The principal reasons which determine the practice of various ship- 
 builders are rather those connected with the time occupied and 
 the cost of workmanship involved in bending, than any injury done 
 to the material in the armour plates. 
 
 Before leaving this part of the subject, it may be well to call 
 special attention to the necessity which exists for the exercise 
 of the greatest care in ensuring accuracy of form in the plates 
 before they are removed from the press ; for, should they not be 
 found to fit the ship's side when put in place, it would be necessary 
 to take them back to the press to readjust them, and in all pro- 
 bability the edges would require to be re-planed, as an alteration in 
 the curvature would affect their bevelKng. 
 
 After being bent to the required form, the plate is lined to the 
 proper shape by means of the batten-mould previously described. 
 The positions of the armour bolts are then marked upon the plate, 
 it is taken to the machine shop, the edges and butts are planed, 
 and the holes drilled and coimtersunk. In some cases the edges and 
 butts of the plates have been chij)ped and filed by hand, but this 
 can hardly faU to be a more expensive and less satisfactory mode of 
 performing the work than by the use of planing machines. When 
 there would be considerable curvature in the length of a plate, 
 if the edges were made to coincide exactly with the lines got 
 in upon the model, it is usual to plane the edge in two straight 
 lengths which are so arranged as to approach the curve as nearly 
 as possible, and to bring the angle which is thus formed in the edge, 
 directly over or under the butt of the plates in the adjacent strake. 
 In a few of the earlier iron-clads the edges of the armour plates 
 were tongued and grooved (as shown in Plate 3), as it was thought 
 probable that greater resistance would thus be offered to the turn- 
 ing up of the edges when the plates were struck, and that a stronger 
 connection would be made. The experiments conducted by the 
 Iron Plate Committee showed, however, that this was a mistake, 
 and that the arrangement rather caused mischief than otherwise. 
 In later ships therefore the plate edges are plain, as sho^vn ia the 
 section of the ' Bellerophon ' in Plate 4. 
 
 When the preparation of the armour plate is completed it is
 
 474 Armour Plating. Chap. XXI. 
 
 conveyed to the'ship and put in place. If the butts and edges are 
 found to fit against those of the plates already worked, and to 
 coincide with the linos got in for the breadth and length, the bolt 
 holes are bored through the wood backmg and drilled through the 
 skin plating. The plate is then taken down and any little fairing 
 of the wood bacldng which may be required is performed. The 
 holes in the skin-plating are rimed through from the inside in order 
 that they may be a little larger than the bolts, so that the screw- 
 threads may not be injured when the bolts are driven. 
 
 This is the mode of conducting the work most commonly 
 practised ; but in some yards it is the custom to first set off the 
 positions of the armour bolts upon the skin-plating, after having 
 lined in the plate edges, &c., and then to drill a small hole 
 (about \ inch) through the skin. The backing is next worked and 
 the holes previously drilled are continued out through it, care being 
 taken to make them square to the side. The mould or template 
 for the armour plate is then put in place, the positions of the 
 bolt-holes are marked upon it and transferred to the plate. When 
 the holes have been drilled and countersunk, and the edges and 
 butts planed, the plate is put up and the holes are rimed to their 
 full size in the backing and skin-plating. Any slight inaccuracy 
 which may occur in marking or transferring the centres of the 
 holes is corrected by the process of riming ; and it is thought that 
 this method ensures a greater exactness in the positions of the 
 holes in the skin-plating relatively to the fastenings. The method 
 adopted in taking the account for bending the plate is similar to 
 that described above. 
 
 A thick coating of tar, paint, waterproof glue, or some other 
 material, is put on over the surface of the backing, and, the faying 
 side of the plate having also been coated, it is put up in place and 
 temporarily secured by shores while the fastenings are being driven. 
 It may be added that waterproof glue is* now used for coating the 
 backing and the plates of all the ships of the Royal Navy, and 
 that it is usual either to slightly warm the plates, or to thin 
 down the glue, in order to increase the adhesion of the plates to 
 the side. 
 
 Having thus briefly illustrated the common methods of taking 
 the account of, bending, and fittiug armour j)lates, we turn to the 
 consideration of the modes of fastening. In nearly all cases 
 the fastenings consist of conical-headed bolts countersunk in the
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Plating. 475 
 
 plates. Great objections have been made to this arrangement on 
 account of the reduction in the strength of the plates supposed to 
 be caused by the bolt-holes. The Iron Plate Committee consider, 
 however, that the experiments made at Shoeburyness prove that 
 with soft iron, such as is preferred for armour plates, the reduction 
 in strength is not at all serious. This experimental proof, of course, 
 removes the basis on which have rested most of the ingenious but 
 expensive propositions for attaching armour without the use of bolts 
 passing through the plates. The two methods of fastening now in 
 use in ships such as we are considering, which have the armour 
 worked upon wood backing, are screw-bolting and through-bolting.* 
 Screw-bolting has been almost universally adopted in the French 
 iron-clads, of which the greater number are wood-built, and has 
 also been employed in some ships built for foreign Governments in 
 this country, among others in the iron-built Italian turret-ship 
 ' Affondatore.' On the French bolts the screw-thread is raised 
 above the shank, as shown in Fig. 258 instead of being cut into it 
 
 Fig. 258. 
 
 in the usual manner ; the heads are countersunk in the armour, 
 and the points are screwed into the wood timbering or backing. In 
 order to allow the bolts to be screwed in, square projecting portions 
 are formed upon the heads upon which spanners can be fitted, and 
 when the bolts have been hove up, the countersunk holes in the 
 armour are cemented flush with the surface. No screw armour 
 bolts are used in the ships of the Royal Navy except in places 
 where through-bolting is impracticable (as, for instance, in wake 
 of waterways and other work in the interior), and the screw-bolts 
 used are of a different pattern from the French, having a much 
 
 * In the construction of the irou-clads of the United States Navy, where the 
 armour has been made up of several thicknesses, the plates are connected together by 
 means of tluough-rivets, and the fastenings to the side consist either of through-bolts 
 clenched upon rings inside the ship, or of conical-pointed bolts driven partly thi-ough 
 the timbering of the side. These arrangements are of a special character, and are, 
 therefore, only mentioned in passing, not having been adopted in this country or in 
 France.
 
 476 
 
 A7'mour Platinz. 
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 finer thread. A trial was made at Slioeburyness in 1864 upon 
 what is known as the " small plate " target, of which the fastenings 
 were composed of screw-bolts on the French pattern. In their 
 Keport the Committee stated that this mode of fastening proved 
 a most marked success, and recommended that further experiments 
 should be made in order to test the general applicability of this 
 mode of fastening. The great objections to screw-bolting are 
 thought to consist in the facts that the bolts are torn out of the 
 wood by a less strain than is required to fracture them ; that there 
 would be great difficulty experienced in getting the bolts out after 
 they had been in place for a considerable time ; and that in an iron- 
 built ship the plates would be simply secured to the wood backing. 
 Through-bolting is the kind of fastening generally employed in 
 this country, and undoubtedly gives greater strength to the structure 
 
 than screw-bolting, as it better 
 combines the various parts, A 
 sketch of an armour bolt, similar 
 to those used in the ships of the 
 Navy, is given in Fig. 259. The 
 head is countersunk about half 
 through the armour, the ordinary 
 rule observed being as follows: — 
 DejDth of countersink equal to 1 ^ 
 times the diameter of the bolt, 
 and the diameter of the head at 
 the surface of the plate, equal 
 to 1^ times the depth of the 
 countersink. Upon the end of 
 
 Fig. 259. 
 
 the bolt a comparatively fine thread is cut, it having been found 
 that bolts with fine threads will stand much better than those 
 mth coarse threads, as would be anticipated from the greater 
 sectional area of the bolts left in wake of the thread when it 
 is fine. There are, of course, limits to the fineness, on account 
 of the liability to strip the thread which is experienced when 
 it becomes very shallow. Threads cut in the lathe, or chased, 
 are preferred to those made by a die, as they can be run out 
 gradually, or made to "die out." The part of the bolt on 
 which the screw-thread is cut is usually made about \ inch 
 less in diameter than the shank, in order to give facilities for 
 driving the bolt without enlarging the hole in the wood backing
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Plating. 477 
 
 to such an extent as to render the fastenings comparatively slack 
 when driven. There are two nuts on each bolt similar to those 
 marked a and h in the sketch, the latter being intended to serve as 
 a lock or preventer nut to a, and to secure it from being loosened 
 by the impact of projectiles. It will be remarked that between the 
 nut a and the skin-plating there is interposed an arrangement 
 known as the " elastic cup-washer." This has been introduced since 
 the construction of the earlier iron-clads in which the nuts were 
 screwed up on simple iron plate-washers. Experience has shown 
 that unless some elastic substance is placed between the nuts and 
 the skin-plating, the ordinary through-bolts are very liable to be 
 broken under the great strain suddenly brought upon them when 
 the side is struck. In nearly all cases fracture has taken place in 
 the screw-thread, where the weakest section of the bolt is found, 
 and the nuts and bolt-ends have been scattered on the inside, thus 
 greatly increasing the probability of casualties occurring. The 
 elastic cup- washers have been introduced for the purpose of sup- 
 plying sufficient elasticity to enable the material in the bolts to 
 withstand these sudden strains, and the results of the experiments 
 made at Shoeburyness prove that the object aimed at has been 
 satisfactorily attained. Before describing this kind of washer, it 
 may be well to state that other washers, formed of cork and other 
 materials, have been tried, but have not been found as efficient. 
 The cup-washers are arranged as follows : — A hexagonal wrought- 
 iron cup, c, is put on over the point of the bolt in the same 
 manner as a common plate-washer ; within this cup and around 
 the bolt a washer, d, of vulcanized india-rubber is fitted, its 
 thickness being rather less than the depth of the cup ; upon the 
 washer d a plate-washer, e, is placed, and when the nuts are screwed 
 up it forms a loosely-fitting cover to the cup-washer c, thus pro- 
 tecting the india-rubber washer d from the action of the atmos- 
 phere, and forming a base on which the nut a bears. The washer 
 c serves to prevent the lateral extension of the india-rubber when 
 it is compressed by the heaving up of the nut a, and the hex- 
 agonal* shape of the cup is adopted in order to prevent the india- 
 rubber washer from rotating during the process of screwing up. 
 The elasticity of the washer d becomes available when the side 
 is struck and prevents the bolt breaking, while the elastic force 
 due to the compression of the india-rubber, is, so to speak, stored 
 in the washer, and tends to keep the nuts tight even when they
 
 478 Armotir Plating, Chap. XXI. 
 
 have beeu shaken by the blows on the side. Another advantage 
 of this arrangement is, that when the bolts are not driven exactly 
 sqaare to the skin-plating tlie india-rubber readily accommodates 
 itself to the inclination of the bolt, and forms a fair as well as a 
 yielding surface on which the nut bears by means of the washer e. 
 The strain is thus made very nearly uniform at all parts of the 
 nut, a result which it is hardly possible to attain with the common 
 pi ate- washers, even with the most careful workmanship. It may 
 be of interest to state, that experiments made on the ' Bellerophon ' 
 target at Shoeburyness show that with elastic cup-washers the 
 preventer nuts similar to h might be dispensed with ; in practice, 
 however, these nuts are usually fitted, as the strength of the 
 fastenings is undoubtedly increased by this means. 
 
 Before describing the manner in which through-armour bolts 
 are made watertight, it may be well to call attention to a few facts 
 connected with the operation of driving the bolts. It is usual to 
 give a " drift " to the bolts of from \ inch to \ inch, that is, to have 
 the diameter of the holes in the wood backing less than that of the 
 bolts by these amounts. It has been previously explained that 
 the diameter of the bolt in wake of the screw-thread is made less than 
 that of the other part of the shank in order that the latter may fit 
 tightly. In driving the bolts it is usual to employ a " monkey," 
 similar to that shown in Fig. 260, which generally consists of an 
 
 ^^= ^ ^r^ — ^ 
 
 ^==^^=.^=0 
 
 Fig. 260. 
 
 iron bar about 40 inches long by 3 inches square, made to traverse 
 on two guide rods by the workmen pulKng on ropes attached to 
 each side. This machine is employed also in driving all the longest 
 bolts in a wood ship, and is found to strike a smarter blow than a 
 maul with less manual labour. After a bolt has been driven, 
 a hempen grummet saturated with red lead is threaded on the 
 point upon the skin-plating, the washers are put on, and tfie nuts 
 screwed up. The pressure thus brought upon the grummet forces 
 it closely against the plating and around the bolt ; the elasticity of 
 the india-rubber washer afterwards tending to keep it in position 
 and to keep the bolt-holes watertight, even when the nuts have 
 been loosened. These hempen grummets are in general use in
 
 Chap. XXI. Armour Plating. 479 
 
 H. M. Service, but if it were deemed preferable they might be 
 dispensed with, the india-rubber washer being formed as shown in 
 Fig. 261. The hole in the cup-washer would then fciz:::^ 
 require to be enlarged to admit of the introduction | | 
 
 of the lower part of the washer, marked a a, and h 
 when the compressive strain caused by screwing up 
 the nuts Avas brought upon the washer, the latter 
 would be pressed against the bolt and plating, and 
 the hole made watertight. No special appliances Fig. 26i. 
 
 are used for screwing up the nuts, but the workmen simply employ 
 a spanner with a moderate length of leverage, as this is considered 
 to ensure sufficient tightness. 
 
 The preceding description applies to the ordinary through- 
 armour bolt, but there is another kind of bolt, proposed by 
 Major Palliser, which well deserves consideration. The great 
 feature of the proposal consists in reducing the diameter of the 
 shank of the bolt for a portion of the length to about an equal size 
 with the smallest diameter in wake of the screw-thread. An ordi- 
 nary plate- washer is fitted under the nut, and the screw-threads on 
 the bolts are much finer than those usually employed. This plan 
 is an application of the well-known principle that a screwed bolt is 
 much less liable to break under a suddenly applied strain, if a 
 j)ortion of the shank is reduced to an equal sectional area with the 
 iron left uncut at the tlu*ead. By this reduction a comparatively 
 long space of uniform strength with the unavoidable weak section of 
 the bolt in wake of the thread is provided, and the bolt-stretching 
 freely in this space performs an amount of work equivalent to the 
 suddenly-applied strain. If, on the other hand, the bolt shank is 
 of uniform diameter, and a screw-thread is cut on a portion of the 
 length, there is scarcely any elongation, and the bolt usually breaks 
 off at the thread, unless some arrangement, such as an elastic 
 washer, is made to prevent it* Major Palliser has made numerous 
 
 * Mr. Chalmers has pioiDosed another kind of armour bolt which would be in 
 accordance with the principle above stated. The bolt woidd be made of two half- 
 roimd pieces of iron with a piece welded in between them for the head, and a thin piece 
 (about \ inch thick) welded in at the point in wake of the screw-thread. A slot 
 would thus be left at the centre of the bolt extending from the under side of the head 
 to the bottom of the screw, and this it is proposed to fill in with wood. Other pro- 
 posals have been made having the same object in view. Mi-. Crampton proposes to 
 turn down the bolt at several portions of the shank, and thus allow it to fill the hole 
 at many parts while the weakened sections would admit of elongation taking place. 
 Mr. Paget, Mr. Hughes of the Millwall Ironworks, and Mr. Parsons, have proposed to 
 reduce the sectional area of a portion of the length by bormg out a hole in the centre.
 
 4^0 Armojir Plating. Chap. xxi. 
 
 experiments with bolts in order to test this principle, and a record 
 of the results of those experiments, and of the trials of this kind of 
 fastening made at Shoeburyness, will be found in the Transactions 
 of the Institution of Naval Architects for 18G7. Experiments 
 have also been made at Chatham dockyard with reference to 
 Major Palliser's proposal, the particulars of which are given in a 
 paper by Mr. Barnaby in those Transactions for 18CG. The follow- 
 ing are the results deduced from the latter experiments : — 
 
 1. That iron bolts of good quality and of uniform diameter, 
 
 subjected to a steadily increasing strain, before breaking 
 elongate about one-fifth of their original length. 
 
 2. If the diameter is not uniform, but is decreased through a 
 
 portion of the length, then the reduced part elongates 
 about one-fifth of its length before breaking, and the larger 
 portion scarcely stretches at all. • 
 
 3. If this reduced part is very short, as in the thread of a screw, 
 
 the strain required to break the bolt is the same per square 
 inch of the unstretched section as in the previous cases, 
 but there is scarcely any elongation before rupture. 
 
 4. If the whole length of the bolt is made to the reduced dia- 
 
 meter of the screw-thread, so that the thread projects from 
 the bolt, the breaking strain (gradually applied) is the 
 same as before ; but, as the bolt will stretch one-fifth of 
 its length before breaking, it becomes thereby less liable 
 to rupture by a sudden blow, because the work done in 
 producing rupture is proportional to the work performed, 
 i. e. to the weight or strain applied multiplied by the 
 elongation. 
 
 From the preceding remarks it will be seen that IMajor Pal- 
 liser's plan would prevent the bolt from being broken under the 
 jarring strains suddenly brought upon the nuts by the impact of 
 projectiles, by means of the elongation of the bolt itself. The bolt 
 would thus be permanently increased in length, and consequently 
 reduced in sectional area in the stretched part, although it would 
 not be broken. With the elastic washer arrangement the requisite 
 elasticity is given to the fastenings without altering the lengths or 
 the sectional areas of the bolts, and the fitting of new washers after 
 an action would restore the efficiency of the bolts ; whereas bolts on 
 Major Palliser's plan would either require to be replaced or be
 
 Chap. XXI. Armottr Platmg. 481 
 
 reduced in strength. The proposed kind of bolt has the practical 
 disadvantage of being made to fill the holes and to be watertight, 
 only by some special arrangement. The method of doing this 
 proposed by Major Palliser consists in putting on a metallic casing 
 around the reduced portion of the bolt, in order to bring it up to 
 a uniform diameter throughout. This plan is, of course, attended 
 with a certain amount of expense, and requires great care to be exer- 
 cised in order to ensure its success, Watertightness is not required 
 in the fastenings of armour plating on land fortifications, and this 
 kind of bolt can therefore be employed without being cased. It 
 has been used in the shields for Gibraltar and Malta, but on the 
 occasion of the first trial the bolts gave way to such an extent as 
 to lead the Committee to consider it unfair to the structure to 
 proceed with the trial. Major Palliser attributes the failure of the 
 bolts to the method of manufacture, as he considers that the iron 
 in the head of a bolt is considerably injm-ed by being " upset " or 
 "jumped" in order to form the head. It should be stated also 
 that a part of the original proposal made by Major Palliser con- 
 sisted in the manufacture of the bolts by drawing them down under 
 a hammer from bars of the diameter required for the heads, this 
 plan being adopted in order to avoid upsetting the iron in the 
 heads. The opinions of those who have superintended the manu- 
 facture of armour bolts are, however, in most cases opposed to this 
 view, and it is considered by these gentlemen that experimental 
 proof has been obtained that the ordinary mode of forming the 
 heads does not materially, if at all, weaken the bolts. It may be 
 interesting to add, that before the second trial was made on the 
 Gibraltar shield new bolts manufactured on IMajor Palliser's plan 
 were substituted for those which had failed, and other changes 
 were made. Full particulars of these will be found in the Eeport 
 of the Special Committee, who consider that the trial proved that 
 the alterations adopted had considerably assisted the bolts, and had 
 effected a marked improvement. It seems, however, that this im- 
 provement was partly due to the precautions taken against the 
 bolts being sheared, to the adoption of a different quality of iron 
 in the manufacture, and to the lengthening of the reduced portion 
 of the bolt-shank. Further trials are required in order to decide 
 the comparative merits of the Palliser bolt, and the ordinary bolt 
 with the elastic cup-washer ; but at present it is considered prefer- 
 able to adopt the latter in the armour fastenings of the ships of the 
 Eoyal Navy. 2 i
 
 482 Armour Plating. Chap. XXI. 
 
 The question of the proper diameters of armour bolts required 
 for different thicknesses of plating is still very unsettled. At first 
 the bolts and nuts employed were comparatively small, and the 
 fastenings were few in number ; but the trials conducted by the Iron 
 Plate Committee have shown the desirability of increasing both the 
 size and number of the fastenings. In order to afford information 
 of the present practice of H. M. Service on botli these points, the 
 following particulars of the armour fastenings of the ' Hercules ' 
 are given. The 6-inch plates are secured with 2|-inch bolts, the 
 diameter of the heads being ?>\ inches ; and the 8-inch and 9-inch 
 plates are fastened with 3-incli bolts with heads having a diameter 
 of 4^ inches. The holes in the plates to receive the bolt-heads 
 are countersunk one-half througli the plates ; the nuts, &c., are of 
 the ordinary pattern described above, with elastic washers. The 
 bolts are 9 inches in from the plate edges, and 1 foot in from the 
 butts ; but in order to give additional support to tiie butts, another 
 bolt is introduced at about 16 inches from each butt on the centre 
 line of the plate. There are two bolts in each plate between every 
 two frames, and as the frame space is 2 feet, this is also the distance 
 between the fastenings on each edge. The centre of the plate is 
 thus left unsecured and unpierced, the arrangement of the fasten- 
 ings being such as best resists the tendency of the plate edges to 
 turn outwards when the side is struck. 
 
 Reference has been made to the small-plate target in which the 
 French screw-bolt fastenings were tried by the Iron Plate Com- 
 mittee. The plates used were smaller than those employed in this 
 country (about 5 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 6 inches), their thicknesses 
 being 4| inches and Oj^y inches respectively. The bolts were only 
 1^ inch diameter, and were arranged very differently from those 
 of the ' Hercules.' They were placed in three rows, one of which 
 came on the centre line of the plate, and the other two 5 inches in 
 from the edges. The bolts in the outer rows were opposite each 
 other, and those in the middle row were placed midway between 
 them. The trial was considered favourable to this mode of fasten- 
 ing ; but, as remarked above, further experiments were thought 
 necessary in order to determine whether it was generally appli- 
 cable, and it is not without serious drawbacks for iron-built armour- 
 clads. Even in the case of wood-built vessels there will probably 
 be gi-eat difficulty in getting these screw-bolts out after they have 
 rusted and wasted in the timber.
 
 Chap. XXI. Armotir Plating. 483 
 
 111 the preceding part of this chapter the various processes 
 connected with the preparation and fixing of armour plating have 
 been fully described, and it need only be added, in conclusion, that 
 after the bolts have been driven the edges of the plates are caulked 
 in the same manner as the butt joints of bottom plating, illustrated 
 by Fig. 256, p. 438. The bolt-heads are also chipped fair with the 
 surface of the plates, and any slight projections at the edges and 
 butts of adjacent plates are chiselled away. As soon as these opera- 
 tions are completed, it is customary to lay on a good coat of paint 
 in order to preserve the surface of the plating from oxidation. 
 
 ON THE ' BELLEEOPHON/ ' LOED WAEDEN,' AND ' HEECULES ' 
 
 TAEGETS.* 
 
 The object I have in view in tliis Paper is to place before the Institution a 
 siraple record of facts concerning the latest adopted forms of naval structures 
 intended to resist shot and shell. I propose to describe the manner in which 
 the targets above named were constructed, and the princij)al reasons why 
 their several forms of construction were successively adopted. My sole 
 object in submitting the Paper is to contribute definite, and perhaps useful 
 information to the Institution, believing, as the originators of the Institution 
 always have believed, that the bringing together of exact facts, and the recoi-d 
 of actual experience, are among the best and most valuable functions of a 
 scientific body like ours. 
 
 If we neglect the smaller iron-clad vessels of our na"V"y, such as the 
 * Scorpion,' ' Wyvern,' ' Enterprise,' ' Favourite,' and some other vessels of 
 hke tonnage, and if we neglect also the wooden frigates which are plated 
 with ii-inch armour only — and we may without disadvantage neglect aU these 
 in studying the development of our iron-clad fleet with a view to future 
 action — we may say that ' five different, or rather modified, systems of con- 
 struction have been successively adopted in Her Majesty's iron-plated ships, 
 these systems being known by the names of the five ships, ' Warrior,' ' Mino- 
 taur,' ' Bellerophon,' ' Lord Warden,' and ' Hercules.' We might, in strictness, 
 neglect the ' Lord Warden ' system, as it is essentially associated with wooden 
 hulls, the construction of which, for receiving armour-plating and powerful 
 engines, will no doubt soon cease in this country, if it has not already ceased. 
 But as there are features of construction which are not without interest in 
 the ' Lord Warden ' system, I have given it a place in the present Paper. 
 
 Permit me, however, first to remind you of the features of construction 
 adopted in the ' Warrior's ' and ' Minotaur's ' sides. 
 
 Neglecting the small floating batteries built during the Eussian war, the 
 ' Warrior ' was the fii'st iron-clad ship designed in this country. In construct- 
 ing her side to resist shot and shell, her designers had before them a most 
 difficult and obscui-e problem to solve, and it is gratifying to know that they 
 
 * From the Trimsactions of the Institution of JS'aviil Architects for 18GG, vol. vii 
 
 2 I 2
 
 484 
 
 Armour P latino-. 
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 solved it with marked success. I am of opinion, that it could not then by 
 possibility have been better or more happily solved; for the 'Warrior' 
 target remained unequalled long after other minds had been brought to bear 
 upon the problem, and after other targets had been built in the expectation 
 of surpassing the original structure. 
 
 The 'Warrior's' side and the ' Warrior ' target (for the two structures are 
 alike), were composed, as most of you doubtless Icnow, of a series of vertical 
 
 iron frames 10 inches deep, and about 
 2 feet apart, covered with a skin-plating 
 nine-sixteenths of an inch thick, against 
 which were placed two thicknesses of 
 teak, the inner 10 inches thick, and the 
 outer 8 inches, the whole being faced 
 with a 4^ -inch armour plate. A section 
 of the target is given in Fig. 262. 
 
 There were also embodied in this 
 target two subordinate, but neverthe- 
 less important, components or features, 
 which I request you particiilarly to ob- 
 serve, viz., the double skin-plating 
 above and below the line of ports, and 
 the external stringers upon the iron 
 fi-ames between the ports. These por- 
 tions of the structure, which I shall 
 refer to again hereafter, were no doubt 
 introduced with a very careful regard, 
 both to the structui-al strength of the 
 hull, and to its resisting power when 
 struck by shot and shell. 
 
 I regret that I have not time to 
 detail the nature and results of the 
 trials to which this well-constructed 
 target was subjected on more than one 
 occasion. I must however state, that it was signally superior to all others that 
 had been tried up to March, 1862 ; and I must also express my strong con- 
 viction that the ' Warrior ' target was not, as some have supposed, a lucky hap- 
 hazard combination of jDarts, or a mere attempt to imitate a wooden ship's 
 side in connection with an ii-on hull ; but, on the contrary, a highly skilful 
 and scientific construction, carefully designed in view of the objects which 
 had to be accomplished. It was, and is, and will remain, a remarkable illus- 
 tration of the ability which is brought to bear in this country upon even the 
 most novel and difficult meclianical problems as soon as their solution is felt 
 to be necessary. 
 
 The ' Jlinotaiu' ' target differed from the ' Warrior ' mainly in the reduction 
 of its wood backing, and in an increase of equivalent weight in the armour. 
 A single layer of 9-inch teak and armour plates bh. inches thick were used in 
 this, the frames and skin- plating remaining about the same. A section of 
 this target is given in Fig. 263. For a long time it was supposed that this 
 target had proved much inferior to that of the ' Warrior,' and there were not 
 wanting persons to pubhcly, and strongly and repeatedly, censure the depar- 
 tm-e that had been made from the * Warrior ' system. I must confess that I
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 Armour Plating. 
 
 485 
 
 Fig. 263. 
 
 was never able to join in that censure myself, and when it became my duty to 
 consider, with the Controller of the Navy and his officers, how the ' Belle- 
 rophon' might best be built in this respect, we ven- 
 tured to adhere to the reduced thickness of wood 
 backing and the increased thickness of armour, not- 
 withstanding the outcry against them. I am happy 
 to be able to state what, perhaps, many gentlemen 
 present may not yet have heard (for it is ill news that 
 flies apace, and not good news), viz., — that all the 
 gloomy and disparaging comparisons which were drawn 
 between the 'Warrior' and 'Minotaiu-' targets have 
 recently proved to be in error, it having been discovered 
 that what is known as " 2 A " powder was used with 
 two out of three rounds of 150 lbs. cast-ii'on spherical 
 shot, which vrere fired from the lOHnch gun, at the 
 'Minotaiu-' target, the effect of using this powder 
 having been to raise the striking velocity of the shot 
 from 1,620 feet to 1,7M feet per second. The change 
 in the powder was made (I know not how or why) 
 immediately after the first round, and invalidated all 
 the comparisons that were made in and after the 
 report of the trial. The ' Minotaur,' ' Agincoui-t,' and 
 ' Northumberland ' are now known to possess much greater strength than has 
 been supposed, and are in all i^robability at least equal to the ' Warrior ' in 
 that respect. When the great cost of these large ships and the time which 
 has been required for buildmg them are considered, it must be highly satis- 
 factory to the coimtry to learn that no mistake was made in designing their 
 armour, and that they are really as stout and strong as their designers proposed. 
 I have now to describe to you the ' Bellerophon ' target, of which a section 
 is shojm by Fig. 264 ; and in order to make the principles of its construction 
 clear, I must mention the two points in reference 
 to which the ' Warrior ' and ' IVIinotaur ' tai'gets 
 appeared to me susceptible of improvement. 
 It seemed, first, that a gi-eat addition to the 
 general stability and strength of the structure 
 might be secured if the strong vertical ii"on 
 frames of the shij) were crossed horizontally by 
 other frames of approximately equal strength, and 
 spaced like the vertical frames ; and, secondly, 
 that the risk of shot or shell passing through 
 the structure, between the frames, would be 
 greatly reduced, and the resistance of the frames 
 much more effectually elicited, wherever a shot 
 or shell might strike, if the skin of the ship 
 were considerably thickened. In other words, 
 it appeared highly desirable to extend, through- 
 out the entire structure, that double skin- 
 plating, and those external frames or stringers, 
 which had ah-eady been introduced, as we saw 
 a minute ago, in the weakened portions of the 
 ' Warrior ' target. 
 
 Fig. 264. 
 
 These features constitute the characteristic merits — for
 
 4t^6 Armour Plating. Chap. XXI. 
 
 they proved on trial to be merits — of the ' Bellerophon ' target ; and it is a 
 pleasui-e to me, and not by any means a subject of regret, to know that the 
 germs of these improvements may be tnaced in the structiu'e designed by 
 my predecessors. By virtite of these "sve secnre many important objects. 
 The combined horizontal and vertical 10-inch frames, coimected by the 
 doubled skin of 4 -inch iron, constitute an enormously strong and rigid 
 structui'e, eminently well adapted to sustain the armoiir xmder all circum- 
 stances, while both the doubled skin and the external stringers (to which we 
 fitted butt-straps in the ' Bellerophon ' herself), increase the longitudinal 
 strength of the shiji to a most unusual extent. 
 
 It will complete the general description of the ' Bellerophon ' target when 
 I state that the armour was 6 inches thick, and the teak 10 inches ; and that 
 instead of forming the external frames or stringers of a plate and two angle- 
 irons, as was done in the ' "Warrior,' we formed them of one large angle-iron 
 10 by 8^ inches. 
 
 You are now in a position to imderstand the true reasons that existed for 
 riveting external stringers to the outside of the ' Bellerophon's ' skin-iilating, 
 and you cannot fail to see how little the adoption of that arrangement had to 
 do with the notion of giving direct support to the armour plates. I mention 
 this because it has been sujaposed, and stated jDublicly on many occasions, 
 that these edge plates were adopted in imitation of a quite different system, 
 and with a view of rigidly backing up the armour. This, however, is wholly 
 a mistake ; for much as I, for one, should like to banish the teak from our 
 iron-clads, and to make their hulls of u-on throughout, I am of opinion that 
 a rigid iron backing has many disadvantages. In fact, so far were we from 
 valuing these edge plates as direct armour supports, that we caused them to 
 be reduced in depth behind one of the plates of the target, and to a large 
 extent in the ship also, exj^ressly in order to keep them from too immediate 
 contact with the armour ; and we did so because it appeared undesii-able to 
 bring the force of a blow so directly and fully upon that portion of the hull 
 proper of the ship which is immediately in front of the shot, as these plates 
 would otherwise tend to bring it, especially if placed closer together. We 
 put armour upon a ship to protect the hull, which we require to preserve 
 from the blow as effectually as possible. A very rigid backing, in direct 
 contact with the skin of the ship, must obviously transfer much of the shock 
 of a shot to that skin; whereas a moderately yielding backing allows the 
 force to expend itself upon the armour which is put there to receive it, and 
 thus protects the skin from its violence. This is a very important jDoint, and 
 one upon which too hasty opinions may easily be formed. I have given the 
 most careful consideration to the matter, and have seen many corroborations 
 of the soimdness of the views here expressed. There is one test which is 
 easily applied, but which is usually applied in a manner the very reverse of 
 what it should be. It is this: wherever you see an armour jilate that is 
 supported by close rigid edge-plates striick upon a line of support, you will 
 find that the armour plate is comparatively but httle injured, and on removing 
 it from its backing you will find that the edge plate has scored more or less 
 deeply into the back of the armour plate. Now what does this point to? 
 To the fact that the edge jolate has been driven back with violence upon that 
 which supports it, viz., that very skm of the ship which you desire to preserve 
 intact. If the external frames or stringers of the ' Bellerophon ' had been 
 situated within a few inches of each other, I should have considered this
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 Armour Plating, 
 
 487 
 
 circumstance so serious as to desti-oy all prospect of success in carrying out 
 the plan ; but with the frames 2 feet apart it is not so, as the isolated edge 
 plate of ^inch iron buckles up under the blow before it can injure the skin. 
 I will only add on this head that in expressing the foregoing views I am not 
 neglecting the consideration that closely situated edge plates must tend 
 gi'eatly to distribute the blow : I am well aware of that fact : but the answer 
 to it is that the time allowed for distributing the force is very short, and that 
 so far as they distribute it at all, they distribute the blow iipon and over the 
 skin of the ship, which we wish to preserve, and take it for that purpose from 
 the armoui", which is employed expressly to receive it. 
 
 I now pass to the consideration of the ' Lord Warden ' target, shown in 
 section in Fig. 265, concerning which a very few words will suffice. In the 
 first instance the 'Lord Warden' was to have been an ordinary wooden 
 frigate's side, plated with dj- 
 inch armour plates, and there- 
 fore affording but little scoj)e 
 for even attempts at improve- 
 ment. There was, however, 
 room for one change which 
 appeared desirable, viz., the 
 solidification of the frame in 
 the wake of the armour. I 
 am aware that there are dis- 
 advantages attending this ; but 
 the advantage, in the case of 
 an armour-plated ship, ap- 
 pears to me to far outweigh 
 them. The advantage con- 
 sists in this, that by the simple 
 device of filling the timbers 
 in solid — for which purpose 
 no very gTeat weight of timber 
 is necessary — you at once 
 more than treble the depth of 
 the side through which a shot or shell must penetrate in order to let water into 
 the ship. If you will consider the case of an ordinary wooden iron-clad frigate, 
 between wind and water, you will observe that, so soon as you have pene- 
 trated the armour and outer planking, the water is perfectly free to pass 
 down through the openings of your frames, and sink the ship, even before 
 the frames themselves are materially injured. But fill in the openings, and 
 thus make the frame solid, and you at once become protected from such a 
 catastrophe until the entire solid side— plating, outer planking, frames, and 
 inner planking— are all successively pierced. I consider this to be an ample 
 reason for solidifying the frames in the wake of the armour-plating of wooden 
 frigates ; and that was accordingly done in the case of the ' Lord Warden,' 
 and of her sister ship the ' Lord Clyde.' Had this not been done, there 
 would have been but 9 inches of plank between the inside of the ship and the 
 armour ; but with the filhngs fitted, we have a thickness of about 2 feet 7 
 inches of solid timber behind the armour. 
 
 After the armour for these ships was ordered, and during the progress 
 of the hulls, it became highly desirable to add, if practicable, to the strength of 
 
 Fig. 265.
 
 4^^ Armour Plating. Chap. XXI. 
 
 the side in the wake of the battery deck, and we found that by modifying 
 other weights, we could carry an extra li inch of iron plating, for a depth 
 of 10 feet entirely around the ship. The questions then arose : — in what 
 form, and in what manner can this additional ii'on be best applied ? — 
 observing that, as the ai'mom- was already manufactured, the thickness of the 
 solid plates could not be increased. Should the extra plate be put inside the 
 main armour jjlate and in contact with it ; or on the fi'ames of the ship 
 behind the planking ; or on the fi'ames of the ship, but inside ; or inside of 
 the imicr planking ? In my opinion there was but one proper place for it, 
 viz., where it was placed, between the fi-ames and outer planking of the ship. 
 I am not aware that any one ever thought it wise to place it outside of that 
 planking, in immediate contact with the tliick armour ; but there were some, 
 I believe, who considered that it would have been better to jilace it inside of 
 everyfhing, on the inner planking. But how such a notion can have possessed 
 any mind I cannot imagine ; for consider what would be the consequence of 
 jDlacing an inch-and-a-half plate in that position ! A blow fi'om a shot capable 
 of peueti-ating the outer armour and the wooden side, would obviously be free 
 to strii) such a i:)late from its fastenings, and di'ive it bodily, or in fragments, 
 across the deck among the crew, to their gi-eat destruction. There would be 
 nothing but the bolt-points to prevent this. Of course, the case would be 
 very different if the inner plate could be supported by iron frames ; but the 
 use of these was in this instance out of the question, as the whole weight at 
 our disposal was insufficient for both frames and plating, and there were 
 also other objections to the use of ii-on frames, in addition to the tliick 
 wooden side. 
 
 There was really but little choice, therefore, of a position for this addi- 
 tional plate. Its obvious and natural place was ujjon the oiitside of the 
 frames of the ship, and this position j)ossessed an important advantage, which 
 I will briefly explain. 
 
 A shiji's side has to resist both shot and shell, and one of the most imi^or- 
 tant things to guard against is, the explosion of a shell witliin the wood 
 backing. When the ' Warrior ' was designed it was very improbable that any 
 shell would pass completely thi'ough the 45-inch armoui- and exjilode in the 
 backing, and therefore a great depth of wood backing was ixnobjectionable on 
 this ground; but as i\Ir. Whitworth, Su- William Armstrong, and others, 
 improved theii- shells, this contingency became probable, and hence it ajjpeared 
 to me most important so to adjust the thicknesses of the backing and annour, 
 that a shell, which was large and powerftd enough to pass through the 
 ai-mouT, should be too large to bui-y itself within the backing, and explode 
 there. If this were not regarded, it is ob'sioiis that a single shell might strip 
 several armour plates from a shij)'s side, and expose her to speedy destruc- 
 tion. In the ' Bellerophon ' target this was carefully regarded, as it is not to 
 be expected that a shell large enough to break through a 6-inch armour plate 
 would be less in length than the thickness of the backing, viz., 10 inches : 
 and the importance of the precaution was signally illustrated, for the shell 
 that did penetrate the plate was stopped by the stout ii-on skin before it got 
 within the armoiu-, and consequently exploded harmlessly backward through 
 the hole wliich it had made. By placing the extra iron plate of the ' Lord 
 Warden ' upon the frames of the sliip, as before described, the same object is 
 accomplished there also, so that a shell jiiercing the 42-inch plate may en- 
 coimter the l^-inch plate before it has space to bury itself.
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 Ar7nour Plating. 
 
 489 
 
 In the ' Hercules ' target (illustrated in section by Fig. 266), which I will 
 now briefly describe, the same principle of construction has been cai-ried 
 out. In the * Hercules ' herself, 
 
 provision has been made for 9-inch y;-}'i.7/v)'y^S:^\'^) v.._.^^o' ^|| 'ly\ 
 armoui" at the water-hne, and for 
 wood backing, varying fi-om 10 to 
 12 inches. It was considered that 
 in this case also it was out of the 
 question to suppose that a shell 
 which could penetrate a 9-inch plate 
 would be of less than 12 inches in 
 length, and consequently in this 
 case also it was presumed that the 
 armour plate, the backing, and the 
 skin of the ship must all thi'ee be 
 pierced, before a sheU could do any 
 serious injury to the structiu'e. 
 
 The arrangement of frames, skin- 
 plating, external girders, and ar- 
 mour jDlates of the ' Hercules ' target, 
 resemble those of the ' Bellerophon ' 
 (although differing somewhat in 
 dimensions), but there is a fiu-ther soiu-ce of strength in the former, which 
 the 'Bellerophon' did not possess, viz., a second wood backing, su^Dported 
 by a second series of frames and skin-plates. This part of the construction 
 was adopted, not for its supposed excellence as a shot-resisting arrange- 
 ment in the abstract only, but as a means of making good use of the wing 
 bulkheads. These wing bulkheads in the 'Warrior,' 'Bellerophon,' and 
 other ships, serve the treble jouriDose of acting as a second line of defence 
 against splinters and debris, of serving to stop the flow of water from an 
 injm-ed place in the side to the hold of the ship, and of enclosing a passage, 
 by means of which access to the ship's side can be obtained conveniently, for 
 effecting repairs, and for other purposes. In the case of the ' Hercules,' 
 where we had to provide for resisting the shot of 20-ton guns, it was con- 
 sidered that such a bulkhead would not be required all the time the ship had 
 to withstand guns of moderate size and jpower ; and that, against larger guns, 
 it would be a more effectual defence if placed nearer to the side, and made 
 to support additional teak logs, placed between it and the skin proper of 
 the ship. For this, and for other reasons, which I cannot dweU upon, the 
 'Hercules' target was constructed as you see it upon the drawing, and 
 although it was actually penetrated at Shoeburyness, by two 600-lb. projec- 
 tiles, fired with 100 lbs. of powder in each case, striking in succession upon 
 nearly the same spot, it is no doubt proof to any single shot fii'ed from any 
 gun that exists in the world. 
 
 Fig. 266.
 
 ( 491 ) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 LLOYD'S EEGISTER OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN SHIPPING. 
 
 KULES FOE THE BUILDING AND CLASSIFICATION OF SAILING 
 AND STEAM VESSELS BUILT OF IRON. 
 
 All vessels will be classed A so long as on careful annual and periodical 
 special surveys they are found to be in a fit and efficient condition to carry 
 dry and perishable cargoes to and from all pai'ts of the world. 
 
 Differences of construction, as regards tliickness of plating, strength, and 
 probable durability, &c., will be indicated by the letters A b and c placed 
 inside the letter A, — thus, y^ /^ ^\. 
 
 ^\ /b\. "^^^^ denote that the vessels have been built in accordance with, 
 or equal to, the Kules and Table G. 
 
 j^ will denote vessels which are considered entitled to the A character, 
 but which have not been built in accordance with the Eules. 
 
 All vessels to be subject to occasional or annual survey when practicable. 
 
 To entitle ships to retain theii' respective characters in the Eegister Book, 
 the following Special Siu'veys must be held periodically : — 
 
 Survey No. 1. — The vessel to be placed on blocks of sufficient height in a 
 dry dock, or on ways ; the limber boards, and ceiling equal to one strake fore 
 and aft on both sides removed, with both surfaces of outside plating ex- 
 posed.* 
 
 Survey No. 2. — The vessel to be placed on blocks of sufficient height in a 
 dry dock, or on ways ; the limber boards, and ceiling equal to three strakes 
 fore and aft on both sides removed, with both surfaces of outside plating 
 exposed.* 
 
 Survey No. 3 by two Surveyors, one to be an Exclusive Officer 
 OF THE Society. — The vessel to be placed on blocks of sufficient height in a 
 di-y dock, or upon ways ; proper stages to be made and the hold to be cleared. 
 
 * In cases where the inner surface of the bottom plating is coated with cement or asphalte, 
 if a sufficient quantity of ceiling be removed to enable the coating to be carefully inspected, 
 and tested by beating or chipping, and the coating be found sound and good and adhering 
 satisfactorily to the iron, the removal of such coating will be dispensed with. Ships which 
 have undergone the above examination will be noted in the Register Book thus (s.s.iVb. 1-68), 
 (s.s.iVo. 2-68), (s.s.iVo.3-68) ; and if not submitted to such survey, will be liable to have their 
 characters suspended.
 
 492 Lloyds Register of Shipping. App. 
 
 the close ceiling in the hold to be removed, so that the rivets and plates of 
 keel, and flat of bottom, may be thoroughly examined ; coal bunkers of steam 
 vessels to be cleared, the whole of the frames, stringers, hooks, floor plates, 
 keelsons, engine and boiler bearers,* ends of beams, watertight bulkheads, 
 rivets, and inner surface of the plating to be exposed ; f all oxidation to be 
 removed by being cut or beaten off the several parts above named, also from 
 the outside plating, rivets, keel, stem, sternpost, and rudder, so as to com- 
 pletely lay bare all the surfaces of iron ; the planksheers and waterways, if of 
 wood, to be scraped briglit : and when the vessel is so prepared, the Surveyors 
 are to ascertain, by drilling, the thickness of the plating, also the condition of 
 all the parts of iron above named, and of the jilauksheers, waterways, flat of 
 decks and tlieii' fastenings ; such parts as may be found defective, or less than 
 tlu'ce-foiu'ths of the required siibstance by Eule, are to be removed and re- 
 placed with proper materials, equal in substance and quaUty to the original 
 construction. 
 
 Whenever the bottom plating is to be cemented, a survey is to be held 
 prior to the cement being laid. 
 
 Every ship classed j^ must be submitted to a special j)eriodical survey 
 every /ottr years : — the first survey according to No. 1 ; the second according 
 to No. 2 ; the third according to No. 3 ; and afterwards according to No. 1 and 
 No. 3 alternately at intervals of four years. 
 
 Every ship classed /^ must be submitted to a special periodical survey 
 every three years, as per Nos. 1, 2, and 3, afterwards Nos. 1 and 3. 
 
 Every shiiD classed /^ must be submitted to a sjDecial periodical survey 
 every two years, as per Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and afterwards Nos. 1 and 3. 
 
 EULES FOE THE BUILDING OF lEON SHIPS. 
 
 Length, breadth, and depth. — The scantlings given in Table G are intended 
 for sliips, the length of which, measured from the fore part of the stem to the 
 after i^ai't of the sterniDost, on the range of the upper deck, does not exceed 
 seven times then* breadth, or ten times their depth of hold, taken from the 
 upper part of floors to the top of the upper-deck beams. For shiiDS which 
 exceed these proiDortions, see Section 16. 
 
 Tonnage. — In flush-decked vessels having either one, two, or thi'ee decks 
 (not being spar or awning decked), the tonnage under the ujiper deck, tuithout 
 ahateme7it of the tonnage of the sjmce for the creiv, or for the proiJelUng -power of 
 steam vessels, is to regulate all the scantlings of the hull, and also the equip- 
 ment of the vessel. 
 
 In vessels having a raised quarter deck, or a poop, or top-gallant forecastle, 
 or deck houses, or awning deck, or spar deck, the total tonnage below the 
 tonnage deck is to regulate the scantlings of the hull; but the register 
 tonnage, as cut on the main beam of saihng vessels and of steam vessels, ivith 
 the addition of the tonnage of the space required for propelling 2>ower, is to 
 
 * Whenever the engines and boileis are taken out for repair, the engine and boiler bearei's, 
 with tlie Hoor-plates, keelsons, rivets, &c., under them may, at the request of the Owners, be 
 surveyed in anticipation of the above rule. 
 
 t See note on previous page.
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 493 
 
 regiilate the equipment, also the size of the main piece of rudder and v.-indlass, 
 and the keel and keelsons and their number, and the scantling of the stringer 
 plates on the upper and lower deck beams, and the requirements as to double 
 riveting. 
 
 1. Qualify of Iron and Workmanship. Maker's Name.— The whole of the 
 iron to be of good malleable quality, capable of bearing a longitudinal strain 
 of twenty tons per square inch, and all plate, beam, and angle iron to he legibly 
 stamped in TWO places with the manufacturer's trade mark, or his name and 
 the place where made, which is also to be stated in the report of survey. 
 The workmanship to be well executed, and submitted to the closest inspection 
 before coating or painting : any brittle or inferior article to be rejected. (It 
 is not intended to i^revent the coating of the plates inside in the way of the 
 frames.) 
 
 2. Keel, Stem, Stern, and Propeller Posts. — The keel, stem, stern, and 
 propeller posts are to be either scarphed or welded together, and to be in size 
 according to Table G {see also page 492) ; if scarphed, the length of scarphs to 
 be eight times the thickness given in the table for keels ; and the sternposts 
 and after end of keel, for screw-propelled vessels, to be double the thickness 
 of, or twice the sectional area of, the adjoining length of keel (biit the siding 
 in no case to be less than the tliickness of the keel given in Table G), and to 
 be tai^ered fair into the adjoining lengih of keel. "V\Tiere the gai'board-strakes 
 are thicker than required by the Eules, and extend to the bottom of the keel, 
 the thickness of the keel may be proportionably rediiced, but such reduction 
 not to exceed one-third of the requisitions of the Pule. Where the keel and 
 keelsons are made of several thicknesses of plates, the plates that form the 
 keel to be in thickness, taken together, the same as is required for a solid keel, 
 as per Table G ; and the butts of the several plates of which the keel is formed 
 to be carefully shifted from each other, and from the butts of the garboard- 
 strakes, which in all cases must also be shifted, so as not to be opjDosite, or 
 nearer to each other than two spaces of frames. For thickness and breadth of 
 hollow or flat-plate keels, see foot-note of Table G. 
 
 3. Frames. — The frames to be of the dimensions set forth in Table G ; to 
 be in as great lengths as possible, fitted close on to the upper edge of the keel, 
 and in all cases to extend to the grmwale ; and when butted on the keel 
 (except when double frames, or centre through-plate keels, are adopted) and 
 wherever elsewhere butted, to have not less than four-feet lengths of corre- 
 sponding angle-iron fitted back to back to cover and support the butts and 
 receive the plating. If welded together, the welds to be perfect, with not 
 less than four-feet shifts. 
 
 Spacing. — If single frames be adopted, the space from centre to centre is 
 not to exceed 21 inches all fore and aft ; but provided an additional frame, 
 for half the vessel's length amidships, be fitted at opposite sides of each floor- 
 plate, across the keel, and extended to upper part of bilges and riveted through 
 floor-plates and main frames, also through the outside plating as required for 
 main frames, the space may be increased to 23 inches in ships under 1000 
 tons, and to 24 inches in ships of 1000 tons and upwards. 
 
 4. Floor-Plates. — The floor-plates to be in depth at middle line according 
 to the following rule, viz. : — To the vessel's depth, measured from the top of 
 keel to the top of upper or spar deck beams amidship, add the extreme breadth 
 of the vessel ; two-fifths of that sum in inches, to be the depth of the floor- 
 plates at middle line ; their tliickness to be as given in Table G ; but at each
 
 494 Lloyd's Register of Shipping. App. 
 
 end of the vessel, for one quarter of lier length, they may be reduced in 
 thickness one-sixteenth of an inch where the plates are less than ten-sixteenths, 
 and two-sixteenths of an inch where the i^lates are ten-sixteenths and iipwards. 
 The floor-plates to extend up the bilges to a perpendicular height of twice the 
 depth of floors amidships from upper side of keel at middle line, and not to 
 be less moulded at their heads than the moulding of the frames. A floor-plate 
 to be fitted and riveted to every frame, and to be extended across the middle 
 line : but where a vertical centre plate is adopted at middle line, then the 
 floor-plates are to be efficiently connected to it on each side by double vertical 
 angle-irons. 
 
 Watercourf.es. — Watercoiu'ses are to be formed through all the floor-plates 
 on each side of middle line, so as to allow water to reach the pumps freely. 
 
 5. lieversed Angle-Iron. — Eeversed angle-ifon on frames to be in size as 
 per Table G. All vessels, of whatever size, to have reversed angle-iron riveted 
 to every frame and floor-plate across the middle line to the height of ujijier 
 part of bilges, and to have double reversed angle-iron in way of all keelsons 
 and stringers in hold ; and, in addition, all vessels of 300 tons and upwards to 
 have reversed angle-iron extended from bilges to the upper-deck beam stringer 
 on alternate frames, and vessels of 800 tons and upwards to have reversed 
 angle-iron extended on every frame from bilges to above lower-deck or hold 
 beam stringer angle-iron if the vessel has two decks or tiers of beams, and to 
 above the height of middle-deck beam stringer angle-iron if the vessel has 
 three decks or tiers of beams. The rivets for securing the reversed angle- 
 iron to the frames and floor-plates to be in diameter equal to those specified 
 in the Table for the outside plating, and not to exceed eight times their own 
 diameter apart. Butts of reversed angle-iron to be secured with butt-straps. 
 
 6. Middle Line Keelsons. (See also page 492). — The middle line keelson, 
 if of single plate, and standing above the floor-plates, to be of the same thick- 
 ness as the garboard-strakes, and to be two-thu'ds of the depth of floor-jilates, 
 well fitted and riveted thereto ; and an angle-iron of the size as per Table G, 
 to be fitted on each side both on the top and the bottom, extending all fore 
 and aft ; the lower angle-irons to be riveted to the double reversed angle-irons 
 on the top of floors. If a box keelson be adopted, it is to be formed with a 
 foundation plate, the plating to be of the thickness as per Table G, the depth 
 not to be less than two-thirds of the dej^th of floor-plates, and the breadth of 
 the box two-thirds its depth. 
 
 If an intercostal middle line keelson be adopted, it is to be of the same 
 thickness as the floor-plates (see page 493), and to be riveted to vertical angle- 
 iron on all floor-plates at each end, the plates to extend from upper edge of 
 keel to above the upper edge of floor-plates, sufficiently high to be riveted to 
 bulb-iron bars, of the same strength as the beams, or to deeper biilb-iron bars 
 let down, or bars of other form, but of equal strength, between double angle- 
 irons, of the dimensions given in Table G, extending all fore and aft, and the 
 said double angle-irons of keelson are to be riveted to double angle-irons on 
 top of all floor-plates. 
 
 Where flat-plate keels are used, the intercostal keelson plates and centre 
 through-plates to be fitted close down on and connected to the keel by double 
 angle-irons of the dimensions given in Table G, riveted all fore and aft to the 
 keel and keelson. 
 
 If the middle line keelson be formed of a centre through-plate, extending 
 from the lower edge of the keel to the top of the floors, it must not be less in
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 493 
 
 thickness than that required in Table G for intercostal keelsons. To strengthen 
 the floor-plates ti'ansversely at their intersection at the middle line, in addition 
 to the double vertical angle-iron riveted to their ends and to the centre plate 
 keelson, there is to be a flat keelson plate, of the same thickness as the 
 garboard-strakes, and not less than three-fourths the breadth given in Table G, 
 riveted to double reverse angle-irons on the upper edge of floors, and to two 
 fore and aft angle-irons on the upper edge of the centre through-plate of the 
 keelson. But should the centre through-plate keelson be extended up above 
 the upper edge of the floors, then it is to be riveted by two fore and aft angle- 
 irons, of the size as per Table G, to two flat plates, one on each side of the 
 middle line, to be well riveted to the double reverse angle-irons on the upper 
 edge of the floors. In all cases the centre plate keelson to be extended to the 
 stem and sternpost, and connected thereto where practicable. 
 
 7. Bilge Keelsons. — The bilge keelsons to be fitted and secured in an efficient 
 manner, and to extend all fore and aft, and placed at lower turn of bilges, 
 according to the form of the bottom. 
 
 Intercostal Side Keelsons. — In ships of 1000 tons and upwards, an inter- 
 costal keelson to be fitted on each side, as far forward and aft as practicable, 
 and to be placed about midway between the middle line keelson and the 
 bilge keelson, ynih. double angle-iron riveted on the top of floor-plates. {See 
 also page 492.) 
 
 Stringers. — All vessels of 500 tons and upwards to have fitted between the 
 bilge keelsons and the hold beams, at the upper part of the turn of bilge, 
 strong angle-irons, as stringers, extending all fore and aft, riveted back to 
 back and to the reversed irons on the frames, the size of them not to be less 
 than those used for the middle line keelson. (See also i^age 492.) 
 
 In all cases the middle line, side, and bilge keelsons, and ivhere practicable, 
 the stringers, are to be carried fore and aft, without being cut off at the bulk- 
 heads, the latter being made watertight around them ; and where such parts 
 of the ship are necessarily separated, the longitudinal strength to be efficiently 
 maintained to the satisfaction of the Surveyor. 
 
 8. Fluting. — No plates to be less in length than five spaces of frames, 
 except the fore and after hoods. No butts of outside plating, in adjoining 
 strakes, to be nearer each other than two spaces of frames. In vessels under 
 1200 tons, the plating may be reduced from the thickness shown in Table G, 
 one-sixteenth of an inch forward and aft, for a distance not exceeding one 
 quarter of the length of the vessel from each end, below the upper edge of main 
 sheerstrake, down to a perpendiciilar height from upper side of keel of 
 three-fifths the internal depth of hold ; and in ships of 1200 tons and upwards, 
 a reduction of two-sixteenths will be allowed ; the plates next abaft and next 
 afore the quarter length of the vessel, to be of an intermediate or graduated 
 thickness, between that required in midshiiD and the reduction allowed at the 
 ends. In screw-propelled vessels, however, no reduction is to be made in 
 the plating at the after end, below the lower part of the rudder trunk. 
 
 Butt Strajis. — All plates are to be well fitted, and secured to the frames and 
 to each other ; the butts to be closely fitted by planing or otherwise, and to be 
 united by butt-straps, of not less than the same thickness as the plates, and 
 of sufficient breadth for riveting, as described hereafter, and to be fitted with 
 the fibre of the iron in the same direction as the fibre of th§ plates to wliich 
 they are riveted ; the space between the plating and the frames to have solid 
 filling or lining pieces, closely fitted in one length, and of the same breadth as 
 the frames.
 
 496 Lloyd's Register of Shipping. App. 
 
 Shecrstrake. — It is recommended that in all cases the sheerstrake be an 
 outside sti'ake, so as to admit of the butt-straps or lining pieces being extended, 
 in one piece, from the foreside of the frame next afore the butts to the aftside 
 of the frame next abaft the butts, or to admit of doubling the sheerstrake 
 where it may be requii'ed. — For breadth of sheerstrake see foot-note in Table G. 
 
 9. Reductions allowed in raised Quarter decks, Poops, Forecastles, &c. — In 
 raised qiiarter decks, a reduction of one-fifth from the tlaickness required by 
 the Table G for such parts in the range of the iipper deck in ships with two 
 decks will be allowed in the outside plating, beams, stringer-plates upon 
 beams, angle-iron on stringer-plates, and flat of deck. 
 
 Poops and Top-galhint Forecastles. — In full poops and toii-gallant forecastles 
 a reduction of one-foui"th from the dimensions required by the Table G for 
 such parts in the range of the upper deck in ships with two decks will be 
 allowed in the outside plating, beams, stringer-plates upon beams, angle-iron 
 on stringer-plates, and flat of deck, but in no case need the oiitside plating 
 exceed six-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. The united lengths of poop and 
 forecastle are not to exceed three-fifths of the entire length of the upper 
 deck.* All frames are to extend to the stringer-iilates of poop and forecastle. 
 
 Where the poop or forecastle is constructed in a rounded form at the 
 gunwale, the beams may be of plain angle-iron, not less in dimensions than 
 the sizes requu-ed in Table G for the main frames ; a beam to be properly 
 riveted to every alternate main frame, with a scarph not less than four feet in 
 length. The breast beams are to be double, and the roimded gunwale is to 
 be plated and properly constructed in all respects to the satisfaction of the 
 Sui'veyor. 
 
 In vessels with three decks (viz., upper, middle, and lower deck), a re- 
 duction of one-sixth from the dimensions given for such pai-ts in the range of 
 upper deck in ships \\ith two decks will be allowed in the scanthng of beams, 
 flat of deck, and plating, hut not in the dimensions of sheerstrake. 
 
 Spar Decks. — In vessels having three decks or tiers of beams, where the 
 space under the upper deck is to be used only for the accommodation of crew 
 and passengers, or to enclose the engine openings of steam vessels, the scant- 
 lings are to be regiilated as defined at page 492. The total depth of hold in 
 spar-decked sliips must not exceed thirteen-sixteenths, nor be less than 
 twelve-sixteenths of the shiji's extreme breadth. In sj^ar decks a reduction of 
 one-foui'th from the dimensions required by the Table G, for such parts in 
 the range of the upj)er deck in ships with two decks, will be allowed in the 
 dimensions of all beams and stringers, and thickness of plating, and flat of 
 deck ; but all frames are to extend to the stringer-jolates of spar deck. 
 
 Deckhouses or other erections are allowed on spar decks, but only to the 
 extent of one-tenth of the total superficial area of the spar deck, and are not 
 to exceed seven feet in height. They are not to be placed nearer to either of 
 the ends than one-fifth of the entire length of the vessel. 
 
 Vessels to winch tliis rule applies, as regards an entire spar deck, will be 
 noted in the Eegister Book thus : — " S}>ar-decked." 
 
 10. Beams. — Beam-plates to be in depth one-quarter of an inch for every 
 foot in length of the midship beams, and to be in thickness one-sixteenth of 
 an inch for every inch in depth of the said beams, and to be made of H-iron, 
 
 * Parties desirous of making any alterations in the length or construction oi poops and 
 forecastles, may submit tlicir plans for the Committee's consideration and approval.
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 497 
 
 T bulb-iron, or bulb plate "svith double angle-irons riyeted on upper edge ; 
 the two sides of each of these angle-irons to be not less in breadth than three- 
 fourths the depth of beam plate, and to be in thickness one-sixteenth of an 
 inch for every inch of the two sides of the angle-iron ; or the beams may be 
 composed of any other approved form of beam iron, eqiaal in strength. Where 
 beams below the upper or middle deck (including orlop beams) have no deck 
 laid upon them, the angle-irons on their upper edges are required to be of the 
 dimensions of the angle-iron of the reverse frames. All beams to be well and 
 eflBciently connected or riveted to the frames, with bracket ends or knee-plates ; 
 each arm of knee-plates at ends of beams not to be less in length than twice 
 and half the depth of beams, and to be in thickness equal to the beams. The 
 beams to be placed over each other, and jjillared where practicable. 
 
 Upper-deck beams in vessels with one or two tiers of beams, and the 
 upper (or spar deck) and middle-deck beams in vessels with three tiers of 
 beams, to be fastened to alternate fi-ames. 
 
 Vessels of 12 feet and imder 13 feet depth of hold, or where the tonnage 
 (see page 492) exceeds 200 tons, shall be requii'ed to have as many hold 
 beams as may be practicable or convenient, fastened to at least every eighth 
 frame. Vessels not being of a depth to requii-e hold beams are to have a 
 double angle-iron stringer riveted to reverse fi-ames extending all fore and aft 
 about midway between bilge keelson and deck beams. 
 
 Vessels of 13 feet depth and under 15 feet, to have hold beams fastened to 
 every foui-th frame. 
 
 Vessels of 15 feet depth and under 18 feet, to have hold or lower-deck 
 beams fastened to every second and fourth frame, alternately. 
 
 Vessels of 18 feet depth and above, to have hold or lower-deck beams 
 fastened to every alternate frame, and the same number of middle-deck 
 beams, where such are required. 
 
 AH vessels having two decks (viz., upper and lower deck), and exceeding 
 24 feet in depth from the top of floor-plates to the upper side of upper-deck 
 beams, and vessels with three decks (viz., upper, middle, and lower deck), 
 and exceeding 24 feet in depth to the upper side of middle-deck beams, and 
 where the depth from under side of lower-deck beams exceeds 15 feet, such 
 ships to have orlop beams fastened to every sixth frame ; also to have stringer- 
 plates and angle-iron on their ends, all fore and aft, e<jiial in strength to the 
 requii-ement at Section 15 ; but, in the case of flush-deck ships, a depth of 25 
 feet will be allowed, provided the lower hold does not exceed 16 feet in depth 
 from the under side of lower-deck beams. Shoixld a house be constructed on 
 such flush-deck sliip for lodging crew or for store-room, the same not to 
 extend witliin 10 feet of the sterniDost. 
 
 When the spaces between beams exceed two spaces of firames, a knee 
 or bracket plate is to be riveted to alternate frames and to the stringer-plate 
 at underside. 
 
 Depth of Hold for Space of Beams. — For the arrangement of beams the 
 depth of hold is to be measiu-ed amidship from the top of the floor-plates to 
 the top of the upper-deck beams in vessels with two decks, and to the top 
 of the middle-deck beams in vessels with three decks. 
 
 Where a deviation fi-om the foregoing Eules as applying to beams takes 
 place in way of engine-rooms or hatchways, or where no deck is intended to 
 be laid, and the above-named spaces would materially interfere with the 
 stowage of cargo, and where partial or entire bulkheads with horizontal 
 
 2 K
 
 498 Lloyds Register of Shipping. App. 
 
 stringers between them, or larger beams are substituted for ordinary beams 
 in wider spaces, a sketch with all particulars must bo submitted through the 
 resident siu'vcyor, for the Committee's consideration. The middle deck to be 
 a perfect deck laid and cauUced. 
 
 11, IlivcU and Bivctlng.—T\\Q rivets to be of the best quality, and to be 
 in diameter as per Table G. {See also page 492.) The rivet-holes to be re- 
 gularly and equally spaced and carefully punched opposite each other from 
 the faying siu-faces in the laps and lining pieces or butt-straps, and to be 
 countersunk all through the outer plating ; the rivets not to be nearer to the 
 butts or edges of the plating, lining pieces to butts, or of any angle-ii'on, than 
 a space not less than their own diameter, and not to be further apart from 
 each other than four times their diameter, or nearer than three times their 
 diameter, and to be spaced through the frames and outside plating, and in 
 reversed angle-ii-on, a distance equal to eight times their diameter apart. 
 When riveted up they are completely to till the holes, and their points or 
 outer ends are to be roimd or convex, and not to be below the surface of the 
 plating through which they are riveted. All vessels to have all edges or 
 horizontal joints of outside plating double-riveted from the keel to the height 
 of upper part of bilges, all fore and aft ; but vessels of 700 tons and above, in- 
 tended for the highest grade, are to have all edges or horizontal joints of 
 outside plating double-riveted thronghovt* The stem, sterniDost, keel, edges 
 of garboard-strakes and sheerstrakes, and butts of outside plating,* and butts 
 of floor-plates, breasthooks, transoms, and plates of beams, also butts of 
 keelsons, stringers, shelf-plates, and all longitudinal ties, to be double-riveted 
 in all vessels. The overlaps of jDlating, where double-riveting is required, 
 not be less than five and a half times the diameter of the rivets ; and where 
 single-riveting is admitted, to be not less than three and a quarter times the 
 diameter of the rivets. If double-riveting be adopted where single-riveting is 
 allowed by the Eules, the diameter of the rivets may l)e reduced one-sixteenth 
 of an inch below that prescribed by the Eules, provided that in no case the 
 diameter be less than five-eighths of an inch. The butts and edges of outside 
 plating to be truly fitted, carefully caulked, and made watertight. 
 
 12. Bulkheads. — Steamers, in addition to the engine-room bulkheads, to 
 have two watertight bulkheads, built at a reasonable distance from the ends, 
 to extend from the keel and outside plating to the upper deck in vessels with 
 two decks, and to the middle deck in vessels with three decks (otherwise 
 called " tonnage deck ") ; but the aftermost bulkhead will not be required to 
 extend to tliis height if it be continued above the load water-line, and be con- 
 nected to a watertight platform or deck of iron extending from its upper part 
 entkely round the after part of the vessel, thus rendering the lower after body 
 a watertight compartment. The bulkhead is to be made watertight where a 
 screw shaft passes throiagh. And in the construction of vessels propelled by 
 machinery care must be taken that the engine and boiler bearers are projjerly 
 constructed (and where they may interfere with the longitudinal strength of 
 the vessel they must be extended a sufficient distance beyond the bulklieads 
 of the engine and boiler sj^ace, to compensate for such interruption) ; and 
 after the machinery and boilers are fitted, then as many hold or lower-deck 
 beams are to be introduced as may be practicable; and knee or bracket 
 
 The above requirement as regards double-riveting does not itpply to poops or forecastles.
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 499 
 
 plates are to be added and riveted to the stringer-plates, and to alternate 
 frames which have no beams in the said space ; and the vessels are to be 
 otherwise made secure where necessary in the engine-room to the satisfaction 
 of the Sui'veyors. In sailing-ships the foremost or collision bulkhead only 
 will be required. All plating of bulkheads to be of the thickness prescribed 
 in Table G ; and when fitted between two frames at each side of the vessel, to 
 be strongly riveted through them ; or if attached only to one frame, then 
 to have brackets or knee-plates riveted horizontally against the side plating of 
 the vessel and to the bulkheads, foreside and afterside alternately, near the 
 middle of the outside plates, and to be slrongly riveted thereto. Lining pieces 
 between these frames and outside plating in way of bulkheads, are to be plates 
 extending in one piece from the foreside of the frame afore, to the aftside of 
 the frame abaft the bulkhead frames. The bulkheads to be supported 
 vertically by angle-irons (of the dimensions given in Table G) not exceeding 
 two feet six inches apart ; and to be efficiently connected and riveted to- 
 gether and to the corresponding floors, beams of the several decks, and the 
 frames. All such bulkheads to be caulked and made thoroughly watertight. 
 
 Sluice (Jocks. — Where a pump is not fitted in each compartment, a sluice 
 cock, or valve, is to be fitted at the limbers on each side of middle line, at 
 each watertight bulkhead, so as to allow water to be shut off, or to reach the 
 pumps when required ; the same to be worked from the deck above. 
 
 Double Bottoms.— To entitle a vessel to be noted in the Eegister Book as 
 having a " Double Bottom," the inner or second bottom must be efficiently 
 constructed, with the plating carried forward to the fore bulkhead, as usually 
 fitted, and to an equal distance from the after end of the ship ; the plating 
 not to be less in thickness than that given in Table G for jDlating of bulkheads, 
 excepting the flange plate, which must be one-sixteenth thicker. The double 
 bottom must be efficiently connected to the outside plating and frames of the 
 main body of the ship. The butts and edges may be single-riveted. " Man 
 holes " must be constructed, or i^rovision made for the removal of a portion of 
 the plates so as to enable the inner surface of outside plating, the frames, 
 floors, keelsons, and rivets to be thoroughly examined, and coated when re- 
 quired. The upper side of the plating must be protected with wood planking 
 as ceihng. 
 
 Should a smaller portion of the ship be constructed as above, such sliip 
 may be marked " Part Double Bottom," provided such portions extend to at 
 least one-half of the length. 
 
 13. Ceiling. — The wood ceihng or lining is not to be less than Ih inch, nor 
 more than 3 inches in thickness in any case, and is to be so fastened to the 
 reversed angle-irons or frames that it may be easily removed for survey and 
 painting. 
 
 14. Decks, Wateriuays, and Flanksheers. — The flat of upper deck to be 
 fastened by screw-bolts from the upper side, with nuts at the under side of 
 the angle-ii'on of the beams ; where the planks exceed six inches in width 
 there must be two bolts in each plank in every beam, one of which may be a 
 short screw-bolt, provided the planks do not exceed eight inches in width, in 
 which case both bolts must be put through. The waterways, if of wood, to 
 be fastened with screw-bolts with nuts at under side of stringer -plates. 
 
 15. Stringers 07i ends of Beams. — All vessels to have stringer-plates (of the 
 thickness given in Table G) upon the ends of each tier of beams. {See also 
 page 492.) Those upon the ends of upper-deck beams in vessels vnih one or 
 
 2 K 2
 
 500 Lloyds Register of Shipping. App. 
 
 two decks or tiers of beams, and on ends of middle-deck beams in vessels with 
 three decks or tiers of lieams, to be in width one inch for every seven feet of 
 the vessel's entii'e length, for half her length amidship, and from thence to the 
 ends of the vessel they may be gradually reduced to three-fourths the width 
 amidsliip — in no case, however, is the width to be less than eighteen inches 
 amidship. The stringer-plates are to bo fitted home and riveted to the out- 
 side plating at all ujiper decks, and at the middle deck in vessels having tlii-ee 
 decks, with angle-iron of the dimensions given in Table G : the middle-deck 
 stringer-plate to have an additional angle-iron extending all fore and aft 
 inside of the frames, riveted to the reverse angle-iron on the frames, and to 
 the stringer-plate. Stringer-plates on ends of beams below the upper deck in 
 vessels with two decks, or below middle deck in vessels with three decks, may 
 be redi;ced in width to three-fourths the midship breadth above named, this 
 breadth is to lie extended all fore and aft, and to have an angle-iron of the 
 dimensions given in Table G, extending all fore and aft, riveted to the reverse 
 angle-iron on the frames, and to the stringer-plates. In cases where no deck 
 is laid, and the width of stringer-i^late on ends of hold beams is objected to, it 
 may be reduced, provided such reduction be fully compensated for. The 
 objectionable practice of cutting through the stringer-plates for the admission 
 of wood rough-tree stanchions will not be allowed. 
 
 Tie-jjJutvs. — All vessels to have tie-plates ranging all fore and aft upon 
 each side of the hatchways on earh tier of heavis, and in addition thereto the 
 beams of the upper and middle decks in three-decked or spar-decked ships, 
 and of the upper deck in vessels of one or two decks, miist have the tie-plates 
 fitted from side to side diagonally, whenever the arrangements of the deck 
 will admit of them ; the tie-plates are to be in width once and a half the 
 depth of beams, and of the thickness requu-ed for stringer-plates, and to be 
 well riveted to each other, and to the beams, deck-hooks, and transoms ; and 
 all butts to be properly shifted. Upon hold beams where no deck is to be 
 laid, or where tie-plates would interfere with stowage of cargo, an angle-iron 
 of the dimensions given in Table G for angle-iron on beam stringers, jilaced 
 at middle line, extending fore and aft wherever practicable, and well riveted 
 to all beams, deck-hooks, .and transoms, will be admitted in lieu thereof. 
 
 All hatchways and the mast-holes of sailing sliips are to be properly framed 
 to receive half beams where required, and the latter to have mast partners at 
 each tier of beams (except at orlop beams) the plating of wliich is not to be 
 less in thickness than is required for stringer-plates, and the united breadths 
 of the plates not to be less than three times the diameter of the masts. The 
 said plates are to be well riveted to each other, and to the beams, and angle- 
 iron carlings ; and at the decks where masts are to be wedged, an angle-iron 
 of the dunensions required for the main frames of the ship is to be jjroperly 
 fitted and riveted to the plates round the mast-holes. The skylights and 
 mast-holes of steam vessels mi;st be properly seciu-ed to the satisfaction of the 
 siirveyors. 
 
 16. In the following cases additional longitudinal strength beyond that 
 stated in Table G will be required, viz. : — 
 
 ,'^/u'ps above 10 depths. — Ships above 10, and not exceeding 11 depths 
 in length, to have the main sheerstrake increased in thickness one-sixteenth 
 of an inch amidships, for three-fourths the length of ship; or to have a 
 doubling strake not less than 9 inches broad, for the same distance amidships. 
 
 Ships (ihove 11 depths.— Bhi^B above 11, and not exceeding 12 depths in
 
 App. Rtiles and Regitlatio7ts. 501 
 
 length, to have the main sheerstrake increased in thickness two-sixteenths of 
 an inch amidshij^s, for three-fourths the length of ship ; or to have a doubling 
 strake not less than 12 inches broad, for the same distance amidships. 
 
 Ships above 12 c^e^ji^'/is.— Ships above 12, and not exceeding 13 depths in 
 length, to have the main sheerstrake increased in thickness two-sixteenths of 
 an inch amidships, for three-fourths the length of ship ; or to have a doubling 
 strake not less than 18 inches broad, for the same distance amidships ; and 
 the stringer-plate upon ends of upper-deck beams, in vessels with one or two 
 decks, or on ends of middle-deck beams, in vessels with three decks, is to be 
 increased two-sixteenths of an inch in thickness for half the ship's length 
 amidshijDS, or be proportionately increased in width for the same distance, and 
 the vessels to have a bulb-plate of the dimensions required for beam plates, 
 placed between and riveted to the double-angle iron keelson, at lower part of 
 bilges, for half the length of the ship amidships. 
 
 In all the above cases, the doubling j^lute is not to be of less thickness than 
 the strake next below the sheerstrake, arid fitted at the upper edge of the sheer- 
 strake. 
 
 Ships above 13 depths. — In ships above 13, and not exceeding 14 depths in 
 length, the main sheerstrake to be doubled its entii-e breadth for three-fourths 
 the length of sliip amidships, the doubling is not to be of less thickness than 
 the strake next below the sheerstrake and fitted upon the edge of the same, 
 and to extend in one or two breadths of plating to the upper edge of sheer- 
 strake. The stringer-plate on ends of beams and the bulb-plate between the 
 angle-irons at bilges to be as is required in the preceding case. 
 
 Ships above 14 depths, or 7 breadths. — In cases of ships which exceed 14 
 depths or 7 breadths in length, the builders are to submit to the Committee, 
 through the resident Surveyor, their plans for giving the vessel sufficient 
 additional strength longitudinally. The depth for the foregoing purpose 
 in spar-decked ships is to be taken from the under side of the " tonnage " or 
 middle deck to the top of the floor-plates. 
 
 17. liudder. — The main piece of rudder to be in size according to Table G, 
 of the best hammered iron, and the plating of it to be carefully stayed and 
 riveted. (5'ee page 492.) 
 
 Windlass. — The windlass, for cdl grades, if of wood, is to be comjDOsed of 
 the woods comprised in hne No. 1 of the Table A ; namely, English, African, 
 and Live Oak ; Adriatic, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French Oak ; 
 East India Teak, Morung Saul, Greenheart, Morra, and Iron Bark. 
 
 18. Surveys ivhile building. — Vessels intended for classification to be sur- 
 veyed as follows, viz. : — 
 
 1st. On the several parts of the frame, when in place, and before the 
 plating is wrought. 
 
 2nd. On the plating during the progress of riveting. 
 
 3rd. When the beams are in and fastened, and before the decks 
 are laid. 
 
 4th. When the ship is complete, but before the plating is finally 
 coated or cemented.' 
 
 5th. And lastly, after the ship is launched and equipped. 
 
 For Equipment, see Sections 32, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, and 76 of Lloyd's 
 Kegulations for Wood Ships and Table No. 22, which are not appropriate to 
 this volume.
 
 502 Lloyds Register of Shipping. App. 
 
 SHIPS NOT BUILT UNDEK SUEVEY. 
 
 19. In cases of shii^s not surveyed while buikling for wliich a character 
 may be required, application must be made to the Committee in writing, 
 who will direct a special examination to be made by two Surveyors of the 
 Society (one of whom shall lie an exclusive officer), for wliich purpose the 
 vessel is to be placed on high blocks in a cby dock or upon ways ; the hold to 
 be cleared and proper stages made ; the rivets and plating of keel, and flat of 
 bottom thoroughly examined ; the close ceiling in the hold to be removed, and 
 coal bunkers of steam vessels to be cleared ; the whole of the fi-ames, stringers, 
 hooks, floor-plates, keelsons, engine and boiler bearers, ends of beams, water- 
 tight bulkheads, rivets, and inner siu-face of the plating exposed to view ; * 
 all oxidation to be removed by being cut or beaten off the several parts above 
 named, also from the outside plating, rivets, keel, stem, stempost, and rudder, 
 so as to completely lay bare all the surfaces of ii-on ; the planksheers and 
 waterways, if of wood, to be scraped bright ; and when the vessel is so pre- 
 l^ared, the Surveyors are to ascertain, by drilling, the thickness of the plating, 
 also the condition of all the parts of iron above named, and of the planksheers, 
 waterways, flat of decks and their fastenings; and send a detailed report 
 thereon, and on the dimensions and quality of the materials and workmanship, 
 to the Committee, who vrill then assign the vessel such character as the facts 
 may appear to them to warrant, and define the periodical Siu'veys to which 
 they shall respectively be subjected; but in no such case will a higher 
 character than /^ be allowed. 
 
 JIeji. — The foregoing Rules have been framed for Iron Ships built with vertical frames 
 and Icngitiidinai plating. Parties desirous of constructing vessels varying from the Rules, 
 must submit their plans with specifications, for approval. 
 
 EULES FOE THE SUE^^EY OF lEON SHIPS CLASSED FOE 
 PEEIODS OF YEAES. 
 
 All vessels to be subject to occasional or annual survey when practicable, 
 and every tWrd year to be specially surveyed in dry dock or laid on blocks ; 
 with both sui'faces of outside plating exposed ; f and whenever the engines or 
 the boilers of ii'on steam shijis are taken out, the vessel shall be submitted to 
 a particular and special survey. 
 
 CONTINUATION OF lEON SHIPS TO THE CHAEACTEE A. 
 
 20. If, on the termination of the period of original designation, or if at any 
 subsequent jDeriod, not exceeding one-half the number of years assigned 
 
 * In cases where the inner surface of the bottom plating is coated with cement or asphalte, 
 if a sufficient quantity of ceiling be removed to enable the coating to be carefully inspected, 
 and tested by beating or chipping, and the coating be found sound and good, and adhering 
 satisfactorily to the iron, the removal of such coating will be dispensed with. 
 
 t In cases where the inner surface of the bottom plating is coated with cement or asphalte, 
 if a sufficient quantity of ceiling be removed to enable the coating to be carefully inspected, 
 and tested by beating or chipping, and the coiting be found sound and good, and adhering 
 satisfactorily to the iron, the removal of such coating will be dispensed with, tihips which 
 have undergone the above examination will be noted in the Register Book thus {t.s. ) ; and 
 if not submitted to such triennial Survey, will be liable to have their character susjiended.
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 503 
 
 originally, or on Eestoration, an owner shall wish to have his sliip remain or 
 be replaced on the letter A, he is to send a written notice thereof to the 
 Secretary, and the Committee shall then direct a special survey, as follows, to 
 be held by not less than two competent persons, to be appointed by the 
 Committee, one of them to be a Sm-veyor, the exclusive servant of the 
 Society. 
 
 SUEVET. 
 
 The vessel to be j)laced on high blocks, in a dry dock, or upon ways, and 
 proper stages to be made, so that the rivets and plates of keel, and flat of 
 bottom, may be thoroiighly examined; the whole of the ceiHng or lining 
 inside to be entirely removed ; coal bunkers of steam vessels to be cleared, so 
 as to expose the whole of the frames, stringers, hooks, floor-plates, keelsons, 
 engine ',and boiler bearers, ends of beams, watertight bulkheads, rivets, and 
 inner surface of the plating, to view ; the hold to be cleared ; all oxidation to 
 be removed by being cut or beaten off the several parts above named, also 
 from the outside plating, rivets, keel, stem, sternpost, and rudder, so as to 
 completely lay bare all the surfaces of iron ; * the planksheers and waterw^ays, 
 if of wood, to be scraped bright : and when the vessel is so prepared, the 
 Surveyors are to ascertain, by drilUng, the thickness of the plating, also the 
 condition of all the parts of iron above named, and of the planksheers, water- 
 ways, flat of decks and their fastenings ; and upon the Owner consenting to 
 remove and replace with proper materials, equal in substance and quaUty 
 to the original construction, such parts as may be found defective, or less 
 than three-fourths of the required substance by Eule, such vessel, upon the 
 repairs and efficiency beuig reported to the Committee, may be Continued on 
 the letter A for a term of years not exceeding one-half the number of years 
 assigned origiaally, or on Eestoration, subject to occasional or annual survey 
 when practicable. The period of Continuation will, upon all occasions, com- 
 mence from the time the shij) may have gone off the letter A, without regard 
 to the date when the survey for this purpose may be held. 
 
 EESTOEATION OF lEON SHIPS TO THE CHAEACTEE A. 
 
 21. If, at any age of a vesstl, an Owner be desirous to have his ship Ee- 
 stored, such Eestoration, on his application to the Committee, and consenting 
 to the special sui'vey hereinafter described, to be held by two Surveyors, one 
 of whom shall be an exclusive servant of the Society, and performing the 
 repaii-s thereby found requisite, will be granted for a period not exceeding 
 two-tliirds of the time originally assigned, the same to be calculated from the 
 date of such reiDairs. 
 
 Survey and Requisites for Restoration. 
 The vessel to be placed on high blocks, in a dry dock, or upon ways, and 
 proper stages to be made, so that the rivets and plates of keel, and flat of 
 
 * In cases where the inner surface of the bottom plating is coated with cement or asphalte, 
 if a sufficient quantity of ceiling be removed to enable the coating to be carefully inspected, and 
 tested by beating or chipping, and the coating be found sound and good, and adhering satis- 
 factorily to the iron, the removal of such coating will be dispensed with. Ships which have 
 undergone the above examination will be noted in the Kegister Book thus {t, s. ) ; and if 
 not submitted to such triennial Survey, will be liable to have their character suspended.
 
 504 Lloyd's Registei^ of Shippi7ig. App. 
 
 bottom, may be thoroughly examined; the whole of the ceiling or lining 
 inside to be entirely removed ; coal bunkers of steam vessels to be cleared, 
 the boilers to be taken out, and also tlie engines (unless it shall be shown by 
 previous survey that the removal is unnecessary), so as to expose the whole 
 of the frames, stringers, hooks, floor-plates, keelsons, engine and boiler bearers, 
 ends of beams, watertight bulkheads, rivets, and inner surface of the i^lating, 
 to view ; the hold to be cleared ; all oxidation to be removed by being cut or 
 beaten off the several parts aljove named, also from the outside plating, rivets, 
 keel, stem, sternpost, and rudder, so as to completely lay bare all the surfaces 
 of iron ; * the planksheers and waterways, if of wood, to be entifely removed, 
 and also the flat of upper deck, except imder special circumstances, to be 
 sanctioned by the Committee in each case : and when the vessel is so pre- 
 pared, the Surveyors are to ascertain, by driUing, the thickness of the plating, 
 also the condition of all the parts of iron above named, and of the beams and 
 their fastenings ; and upon the Owner consenting to remove such parts as 
 may be found defective, or objected to, or less in thickness than hereinafter 
 admitted for repairing such vessel, and replace them with jiroper materials 
 equal in quality and substance to that required in the Table G for the nine 
 years' gi'ade in those originally classed 12 A, and equal in quality and sub- 
 stance to that requii-ed in the Table G for the sis years' grade in vessels 
 originally classed 9 A or 6 A, such vessel, upon the repairs and efficiency 
 being reported to the Committee, may be restored to the letter A, for a term 
 of years not exceeding two-thirds the number of years assigned originally, 
 subject to occasional survey. 
 
 Ii'on ships wliich have been Eestored tmder the foregoing Rule shall be 
 entitled to Continiiation thereon, subject to the same conditions of survey and 
 examination as are i^rescribed for shijis proposed to be Continued at the 
 expiration of the period first assigned to them ; but, in like manner, the term 
 of such extended continuance to be limited to a period not exceeding one- 
 half the number of years for which the ship may respectively have been 
 restored, without reference to the period originally assigned to them. 
 
 22. Vessels not surveyed while building will be classed A from year to 
 year only, but for a i:)eriod not exceeding six years. {See also Section 19.) 
 
 23. On the expiration of the terms assigned to shiiDS classed A, they mil 
 l)e liable to lapse (like ships built of wood). 
 
 24. One year will be added to the character of all ships of the A class built 
 imder a roof which shall project at each end beyond the length, and on each 
 side beyond the breadth, a quantity eqiial to one-half the breadth of the 
 vessel. 
 
 IRON SHIPS ALREADY CLASSED A 1. 
 
 Iron ships, built prior to the promulgation of the Rules will be allowed to 
 remain in the Register Book classed Al from year to year, subject to annual 
 survey, until the exiiiration of six years from their date of build, and then be 
 examined to determine the period to which they may be entitled under the 
 
 * hi ca-ses whi.Mc the iuiier surface of the buttorn plating is coated witli cement or asjihalte, 
 if a sullicient quantity ot ceiling be removed to enable the coating to be carefully inspected, 
 and tested by heating or chipping, and the coating be found sound and good, and adhering 
 satislactorily to the iron, the lenioval ol' such coating will be dispensed witli.
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 505 
 
 Eules ; and if, on such examination, it shall be found the ships are entitled to 
 the 9 or 12 years' grade, it will be in the option of the owners either to adopt 
 such period resi3ectively, or continue the vessel A 1 from year to year, as 
 above, until the expii'ation of the extended jDeriod ; but if it shall be found 
 that the term of years for which a vessel would have been entitled to remain 
 on the A character has expired, she will be classed M, if entitled thereto, 
 unless specially surveyed for Continuation or for Eestoration. 
 
 By order of the Committee, 
 
 George B. Seyfang, Secretary. 
 
 No. 2, White Lion Court, Cw)ihill, London, 
 1st July, 1868.
 
 TABLE G.— 
 
 Table of Minimum Dimensions of Frames, Plating, Kivets, Keels, Keelsons, 
 
 All plates, auJall beam aud angle-iron, used iu ships intended lor classification, are to be stamped 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 veel, Stem, 
 and Stern- 
 post for all 
 Grades.* 
 
 Distance 
 of Frames 
 
 from 
 Moulding 
 
 edge to 
 Moulding 
 
 edge all 
 
 fore and 
 alt for all 
 
 Grades. 
 
 
 THICKNESS OF OUTSIDE PLATES.f 
 
 
 
 iarboard Strakes* 
 and Single Plate 
 Middle Line Keel- 
 sous standing 
 upon floors. 
 
 From the Gar- 
 buard to the 
 upper part of 
 liilge, and the 
 Sheerstrakes.* 
 
 From npixT pul of bilge 
 to a pen*"><l>eulnr height 
 from upiM-r side of keel of 
 three-hlilis the internal 
 depth of hold, measurwl 
 from the upper side of 
 upper deck in all SUiiB, 
 wliether spar-<lecke<l or 
 otherwise. 
 
 From three - fifths the 
 depth of hold tmeaiJUred 
 from Uie upper side of 
 upijor dock in all Shijtf, 
 whether spar-derkud or 
 otherwise) I.. lu«. r id..- 
 of Shnr.-ii,.k._-, 
 
 A 
 
 /9k 
 
 /^ /KV 
 
 ^ 
 
 /^ 
 
 A 
 
 /^ 
 
 100 
 
 and under 
 200 
 
 Inches. 
 
 tjxU 
 
 ill 
 
 ii4 
 
 HI 
 
 • '•a c> 
 
 ^11 
 ■a ■''. •" 
 
 C 4) (1) 
 
 a^ 'S 
 =:-"§ 
 
 s la 
 
 o Co- 
 
 lit! 
 
 S c o 
 3°=° 
 
 ■3 cr- a •= 
 
 §•3 ■= .5 
 
 liss; 
 is|§ 
 
 3 >03 2 
 S — 3 
 
 leths of 
 an inch. 
 
 8 
 
 lettis of 
 
 au inch. 
 7 
 
 leths oflieths of 
 an inch, an inch, 
 
 7 G 
 
 letbs of uti 
 inch. 
 
 G 
 
 leths of an 
 inch. 
 
 5 
 
 16ths of an 
 inch. 
 
 G 
 
 leths of an 
 inch. 
 
 5 
 
 200 
 
 and under 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 and under 
 400 
 
 6ix2 
 0^x21 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 s - 
 
 7 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 10 : 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 400 
 
 and under 
 500 
 
 6Jx2| 
 
 10 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 G 
 
 
 500 
 
 and under 
 GOO 
 
 600 
 
 aud under 
 7 00 
 
 700 
 
 and under 
 
 800 
 
 7x2i 
 
 7x2f 
 
 7ix2| 
 
 n 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 11 10 
 
 10 1 9 
 
 9 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 ' 
 
 
 12 ; 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 
 800 
 
 and under 
 900 
 
 7^x3 
 
 12 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 y , 8 
 
 
 900 
 
 and luider 
 1000 
 
 8x3 
 
 13 12 
 
 i 
 
 1. 1 11 
 
 11 10 
 
 10 
 
 » 
 
 
 1000 
 
 and under 
 1 200 
 
 8Jx3 
 
 13 ' 12 
 
 12 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 1200 
 
 and under 
 1500 
 
 1500 
 
 and under 
 2000 
 
 9x8 
 10x3 
 
 14 13 
 
 13 12 
 
 12 11 
 
 11 
 
 ! lu 
 
 
 14 ! 13 
 
 13 12 
 
 12 11 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 
 2000 
 
 and under 
 2500 
 
 12x3 
 
 15 14 
 
 14 13 
 
 1 
 
 13 ; 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 2500 
 
 and under 
 3000 
 
 12x3i 
 
 15 14 
 
 14 13 
 
 13 ' 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 3000 
 
 aud under 
 3500 
 
 12x3J 
 
 IG 15 
 
 15 14 
 
 14 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 JIkm.— The Scantlings of the above Table are intended for ships, the length of which, measured from the lore 
 their breadth or ten times their depth of hold, taken from the upper part of floors to the top of the upper-deck beams.
 
 IRON SHIPS. 
 
 Stems, Sternposts, Floor - plates, Beams, J Bulkheads, Stringers, &c. 
 
 legibly in two places with the manufacturer's trade mark, or his name and the place where made. 
 
 i^ Thick- 
 ness of 
 Stringer 
 Plates upon 
 
 Beams, 
 
 Flo.>r Plates, 
 
 Hooks, 
 
 Crutches, 
 
 and Box or 
 
 Intercostal 
 
 Keelsons 
 
 for all 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Thickness 
 of Plates 
 for Bulk- 
 heads for 
 all Grades. 
 
 16ths of aniieths of an 
 inch. ! inch. 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 of Angle 
 
 Iron for all 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Inches. 
 2ix2ixfg 
 
 3x2|x^ 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 of Reversed 
 Angle Iron 
 on Prames, 
 Bulkheads, 
 
 and Box 
 Keelsons, for 
 all Grades. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 2ix2ix- 
 
 •^i ^ -^-l ^Td 
 
 •-!1 V 93 X -6- 
 
 21x21x^1, 3§x3x 
 
 3^ X Zj X jg 
 
 2fx2§xfg 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 of Angle 
 
 Iron on 
 
 Beam 
 
 Stringers, or 
 
 Keelsons, for 
 
 all Grades. 
 
 Inches. 
 3x3 Xfg 
 
 3x3xA 
 
 4 X 3 X ,6j 
 
 RUDDER 
 for all Grades. 
 
 Diame- 
 ter at 
 
 the 
 Head. 
 
 Diame- 
 ter at 
 the 
 Heel. 
 
 Inches. 
 3 
 
 Inches. 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 4i 
 
 Thick- 
 ness 
 of 
 Wood 
 Flat 
 of 
 Upper 
 Deck. 
 
 Inches. 
 2i 
 
 2i 
 
 Main 
 Piece 
 
 of 
 Wind- 
 lass. 
 
 Inches. 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 100 
 
 and under 
 
 200 
 
 and under 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 and under 
 400 
 
 400 
 
 and under 
 500 
 
 3fx2fx7g 
 
 3-K2iy.f. 
 
 4 J xSjX-jij 
 
 4| I 2i 
 
 3i 
 
 18 
 
 500 
 
 and under 
 600 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 4x3x-^ 
 
 3x21x^1; 
 
 4ix3ix75 
 
 2f 
 
 3* 
 
 19 
 
 600 
 
 and under 
 Too 
 
 41x3x^1 
 
 3x23x1 
 
 4f X 3f X fs 
 
 5 3 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 700 
 
 and under 
 800 
 
 9 6 
 
 4ix3xA 
 
 3x3x^^5 
 
 5x4xA 
 
 4f X 3 X. j^'g 
 
 3ix3xv. 
 
 5x4ix^ 
 
 5x3x-^ 
 
 3ix3x, 
 
 5x4|XT«g 
 
 0X82 ^TS 
 
 3ix3x- 
 
 5ix4^Xi 
 
 5ix3^xjo 
 
 4x3ixt1; 
 
 6x5Xi 
 
 6 X 4 X ll" 
 
 4Jx3ixfg 
 
 eixoixM 
 
 6} X 4 X 1 
 
 4ix3ix|Q 
 
 6^ X 5i X \'i 
 
 6i X 4 X 
 
 U X M X (" 
 
 6^ X 5i X l-l! 
 
 3i 
 
 21 
 
 3i 
 
 800 
 
 and under 
 900 
 
 900 
 
 and under 
 1000 
 
 51 3 
 
 23 
 
 1000 
 
 and under 
 
 1200 
 
 6 1 31 
 
 24 
 
 1200 
 
 and under 
 1500 
 
 6i 3i 4 
 
 7i 
 
 '4 
 
 3| 
 
 8 41 
 
 25 
 
 1500 
 
 and under 
 2U0O 
 
 27 
 
 2000 
 
 and under 
 2500 
 
 28 
 
 2500 
 
 and under 
 3000 
 
 30 
 
 3000 
 
 and under 
 3500 
 
 part of the stem to the after jiart of the sternpost, on the range of the upper deck, does not exceed seven times 
 {For ships which exceed these proporlums, see Section 16. See also exceptions in Section 9.) 
 
 [NCiTES.
 
 5o8 
 
 Lloyd's Register of Shipping. 
 
 App. 
 
 11 RIVETS. 
 
 DiAMETEK OF KlVETS KEQUIRED 
 
 FOR 
 TlIICKXi:SS OK I'LATIS 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 of an Inch. 
 
 ■6 
 
 4 
 
 of an Inch. 
 
 5 6 7 
 Tir TC TXT 
 
 8 9 10 
 TTT TB- TT 
 
 Notes to Table G. 
 
 * Hollow or flat-keel pUtes and garboard-strakes, and main sheerstrakes, are not to be less in breadth 
 than as follows, viz. : — In ships under 500 tons, 2 ft. ; In ships 500 and under lOuo tons, 2 ft. 6 in. ; in ships 
 1000 tons and upwards, 3 ft. When hollow or flat-plate keels are adopted, their thickness should not be 
 less than one and a half that of the garboard-strake. {For keels of other forms, see Section 2.) 
 
 f Plating.— No plates to be less in length tliau five spaces of frames, e.xcept the fore and after 
 hoods. No butts of outside plating in adjoining strakes to be nearer each other than two spaces of frames. 
 In vessels under 12U0 tons the plating may be reduced from the thickness shown in Table, one-sixteenth of 
 an inch forward and aft, for a distance not exceeding one quarter of the length of the vessel from each end 
 below the upper edge of main sheerstrakes, down to a perpendicular height from upper side of keel of 
 three-fifths the internal depth of hold, including the height of the spar-deck in spar-deck ships ; and in 
 ships of 1200 tons and upwards, a reduction of two-sixteenths will be allowed ; the plates next abaft and 
 next afore the quarter length of the vessel to be of an intermediate or graduated thickness, between that 
 required amidships and the reduction allowed at the ends. In screw-propelled vessels, however, no 
 reduction is to be made in the plating at the after end below the lower part of the rudder-trunk. 
 
 Burr Strai's. — All plates are to be well fitted, and secured to the frames and to each other ; the butts 
 to be closely fitted by planing or otherwise, and to be united by butt-straps, of not less than the same 
 thickness as the plates, and of sufficient breadth for riveting, as described hereafter, and to be fitted with 
 the fibre of the iron in the same direction as the fibre of the plates to which they are riveted ; the space 
 between the plating and the frames to have solid filling or lining pieces, closely fitted in one length, and of 
 the same breadth as the frames. It is recommended that in all cases the sheerstrake be an outside strake, 
 so as to admit of the butt-straps or lining pieces being extended, in one piece, from the foreside of the 
 frame next afore the butts to the aftside of the frame next abaft the butts, or to admit of doubling 
 the sheerstrake where it may be required. {For breadth of slieerstrake see note * dbove.) 
 
 J Beams.— Beam-plates to be in depth one quarter of an inch for every foot in length of the midship 
 beams, and to be in thickness one-sixteenth of an inch for every inch in depth of the said beams, and to be 
 made of H iron, T bulb-iron, or bulb-plate with double angle-irons riveted on upper edge ; the two sides 
 of each of these angle-irons to be not less in breadth than three-fourths the depth of beam-plate, and to be 
 in thickness one-sixteenth of an inch for every inch of the two sides of the angle-iron ; or the beams may 
 be composed of any other approved form of beam-iron equal in strength. Where beams below the upper 
 or middle deck (including orlop beams) have no deck laid upon them, the angle-irons on their upper edges 
 are required to be of the dimensions of the angle-iron of the reverse frames. All beams to be well and 
 efficiently connected or riveted to the frames, with bracket ends or knee-plates; each arm of knee-plates 
 at ends of beams not to be less in length than twice and a half the depth of beams, and to be in thickness 
 equal to the beams. The beams to be placed over each otlier, and pillared where practicable. 
 
 J Floor-Plates. — The floor-plates to be in depth at middle line according to the following rule 
 viz. : — To the vessel's depth, measured from the top of keel to the top of upper or spar-deck beams amid- 
 ships, add the extreme breadth of the vessel ; two-fifths of that sum in incites, to be the depth of the floor- 
 plates at middle line — their thickness to be as given in Table ; but at each end of the vessel, for one quarter 
 of her length, they may be reduced in thickness one-sixteenth of an inch where the plates are less than 
 ten-sixteentbs, and two-sixteenths of an inch where the plates ai e ten-sixteenths and upwards. The floor- 
 plates to extend up the bilges to a perpendicular height of twice the depth of floors amidships from upper 
 side of keel at middle line, and not to be less moulded at their heads than the moulding of the frames. A 
 floor-plate to be fitted and riveted to every frame ; and to be extended across the middle lice, but where 
 a vertical centre plate is adopted at middle line, then the floor-plates are to be efficiently connected to it 
 on each side by double vertical angle-irons. Watercourses are to be formed through all the floor- 
 plates on each side of middle line, so as to allow water to reach the pumps freely. 
 
 Stiusgeb and Tie-plates. — All vessels to have stringer-plates (of the thickness given in Table) 
 upon the ends of each tier of beams. Those upon the ends of upper-deck beams in vessels with one or two 
 decks or tiers of beams, and on ends of middle-deck beams in vessels with three decks or tiers of beams, to 
 be in width one inch for every seven feet of the vessel's entire length, for half her length amidships, and 
 from thence to the ends of the vessel they may be gradually reduced to three-fourths the width amidships 
 — in no case, however, is the width to be less than eighteen inches amidships. The stringer-plates are to
 
 App. Rules and Regulations. 509 
 
 8 
 of an Inch. 
 
 Rivets to be i of an inch larger in 
 ^°'^"' j diameter in the stem, stempost, and 
 
 I . . keel. 
 
 be fitted home and riveted to the outside plating at all upper decks, and at the middle deck in vessels 
 having three decks, with angle-iron of the dimensions given in Table : the middle-deck stringer-plate to 
 have an additional angle-iron extending aU fore and aft inside of the frames, riveted to the reverse angle- 
 iron on the frames, and to the stringer-plate. Stringer-plates on ends of beams below the upper deck in 
 vessels with two decks, or below middle deck in vessels with three decks, may be reduced in width to 
 three-fourths the midship breadth above named, this breadth is to be extended all fore and aft, and to have 
 an angle-iron of the dimensions given in Table, extending all fore and aft, riveted to the reverse angle- 
 iron on the frames, and to the stringer-plates. In cases where no deck is laid, and the width of stringer- 
 plate on ends of hold beams is objected to, it may be reduced provided such reduction be fully com- 
 pensated for. The objeciionable practice of cutting through the stringer-plates for the admission of wood 
 rough-tree stanchions will not be allowed. All vessels to have tie-plates ranging all fore and aft upon each 
 side of the hatchways on each tier of beams, and in addition thereto the beams of the upper and middle 
 decks, in three-decked or spar-decked ships, and of the upper deck in vessels of one or two decks, must 
 have the tie-plates fitted from side to side diagonally, wherever the arrangements of the deck will admit 
 of them ; the tie-plates are to be in width once and a half the depth of beams, and of the thickness 
 required for stringer-plates, and to be well riveted to each other, and to the beams, deck-hooks, and 
 transoms— and all butts to be properly shifted. Upon hold-beams where no deck is to be laid, or where 
 tie-plates would interfere with stowage of cargo, an angle-iron of the dimensions given in Table for angle- 
 Iron on beam-stringers, placed at middle line, extending fore and aft wherever practicable, and well 
 riveted to all beams, deck-hooks, and transoms, will be admitted in lieu thereof. All hatchways and the 
 mast-holes of sailing ships are to be properly framed to receive half beams where required, and the latter 
 to have mast partners at each tier of beams (except at orlop beams), the plating of which is not lo be less 
 in thickness than is required for stringer-plates, and the united breadths of the plates not to be less than 
 three times the diameter of the masts. The said plates are to be weU riveted to each other, and to the 
 beams, and angle-iron carlings ; and at the decks where masts are to be wedged, an angle- iron of the 
 dimensions required for the main frames of the ship is to be properly fitted and riveted to the plates 
 round the mast-holes. The mast-holes and sky-lights of steam vessels must be properly secured to the 
 satisfaction of the Surveyors. 
 
 II Rivets axd Riveting.— The rivets to be of the best quality, and to be in diameter as per Table ; 
 the rivet-holes to be regularly and equally spaced and carefully punched opposite each other from the 
 faying surfaces, in the laps and lining pieces or butt-straps ; and to be countersunk all through the outer 
 plating; the rivets not to be nearer to the butts or edges of the plating, Uning pieces to butts, or of any 
 angle-iron, than a space not less than their own diameter, and not to be further apart from each other 
 than four times their diameter, or nearer than three times their diameter, and to be spaced through the 
 frames and outside plating, and in reversed angle-iron, a distance equal to eight times their diameter apart. 
 \Vlien riveted up they are completely to fill the holes, and their points or outer ends are to be round or 
 convex, and not to be below the surface of the plating through which they are riveted. All vessels to 
 have all edges or horizontal joints of outside plating double-riveted from the keel to the height of upper 
 part of bilges, all fore and aft ; but vessels of 700 tons and above, intended for the highest grade, are to 
 have all edges or horizontal joints of outside plating double riveted throughout* The stem, stempost, 
 keel, edges of garboaid-strakes, and sheerslrakes, and butts of outside plating,* and butts of floor-plates, 
 breast-hooks, transoms, and plates of beams, also butts of keelsons, stringers, shelf-plates, and all longi- 
 tudinal ties, to be double-riveted in all vessels. The overlaps of plating, where double-riveting is 
 required, not to be less than five and a half times the diameter of the rivets ; and where single-riveting is 
 admitted, to be not less in breadth than three and a quarter times the diameter of the rivets. If double- 
 riveting he adopted where single-riveting is allowid by the Rules, the diameter of the rivets may be 
 reduced one-sixteenth of an inch below that prescribed by the Rules, provided that in no case the diameter 
 be less than five-eighths of an inch. The butts and edges of outside plating to be truly fitted, carefully 
 caulked, and made watertight. 
 
 LLOYD'S REGISTER OF SHIPPING, LONDON, 
 2nd July, 1866. 
 
 The above requirement as regards douhk-riveting does not apply to poofs and forecastles.
 
 5IO Liverpool Underwriters Registry App. 
 
 LIVERPOOL UNDERWRITERS' REGISTRY FOR IRON 
 
 VESSELS. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1862. 
 
 CONDUCTED BY A JOINT COMMITTEE OF UNDERWHITERS, SHIPOWNERS, AND SHIPBUILDERS. 
 
 1. Durahility of Iron Ships. — Experience has shown thcat Iron Ships are 
 much more durable than was at first supi^osed. By the use of cement inside, 
 and by careful attention to the outside coating, a well-constructed Ii-on Ship 
 can be reckoned upon to last, in fii'st-class condition, for a period of at least 
 twenty years : wear and tear of equipment, and of the wood used in their 
 construction, must in all cases be exceiDted. 
 
 2. System of Vlassification. — The Committee propose to class ships on their 
 general merits, having special reference to the quality of the materials, to the 
 character of the workmanship, to the arrangement and size of the parts where 
 the principal strains are experienced, and to the equijjment ; a system of 
 classification which is considered preferable to one based mainly on tables 
 of scantling. 
 
 3. Class — Bed Certificate. — The Committee, continuing the classification 
 adopted by the Liverpool Underwi-iters' Association for the last six years, will 
 class in EED, for periods varying from ten to twenty yeai-s, all Ii'on Vessels, 
 whether Steamers or Sailing Ships, which have been, or may be, submitted to 
 the inspection of the Sui'veyors of that Association or of this Committee diu'ing 
 construction, and be built and completed to theii* satisfaction. 
 
 4. Black Certificate. — The Committee will also class in BLACK ships already 
 built, but not inspected by their Surveyors wliile building, for periods varying 
 according to then* merits, from ten to twenty years fi-om the date of launching, 
 but subject to survey as hereafter mentioned. 
 
 6. Benerval of Certificate. — When the period originally assigned to a shi]i 
 shall have expired, the Committee will renew her Certificate for such a period 
 as they may consider her entitled to. 
 
 6. Equiiitnent. — Character of equipment will be denoted by numerals, 1, 2. 
 
 7. Surveys. — A thorough Survey will be requii'ed once in every foiu' years 
 for vessels with a Certificate for twenty years, and once in every tliree years for 
 vessels with a Red Certificate for less than twenty years. Vessels with a Black 
 Certificate for less than twenty yeai's to be surveyed every two years. When 
 vessels are abroad at the time they become due for survey, they must be 
 thoroughly examined on their retnrn to the United Kingdom. The Surveyors 
 are at all times to have fi'ee access to examine vessels holding a Certificate 
 from this Committee ; and in case of defects reported by them not being made 
 good, the classification of the ship shall be revised. 
 
 8. Beference in case of complaint. — Any dispute shall be referred to tlu-ee 
 Engineers or Shipbuilders, one to be chosen by the Shipowner, one to be 
 chosen by this Committee, and a third to act as umpire, to be chosen by the 
 other two. 
 
 9. Extension to other Borts. — The Committee do not debar themselves from 
 the co-operation of other Ports in this system of classification, should it meet
 
 App. for'- Ii^on Vessels. 511 
 
 with the approval of shipowners and shipbuilders elsewhere ; and they will 
 hold themselves open to any arrangement which the requirements of the case 
 may call for. 
 
 10. Powers in regard to the above Clauses. — The above clauses shall be 
 subject to such alterations as the Committee may from time to time deem 
 desirable. 
 
 TABLES OF SCANTLING, &c. 
 
 1. The following Tables indicate the character of the arrangements, the 
 quality of the materials, the class of workmanship, and the least scantling 
 which may be adopted in order to ensure the Twenty Years' Classification. 
 The scantling for Ships differing from these Tables must be submitted to the 
 Committee, who reserve to themselves the power of making such alterations in 
 theii" Eules, and of permitting such deviations from them as they may see fit. 
 
 2. Keels. — The form of Keel may be either that of the centre jjlate or that 
 of a bar. If a centre iDlate be adopted, the thickness to be as per Table 1, the 
 butts to be secured by double butt-strips, each of a thickness equal to two- 
 thirds that of centre jDlate, and to be treble-riveted ; the uj)per part may form 
 a centre keelson above the floors, with a horizontal plate on each side of a 
 width not less than two-thirds the depth of floors at centre line and the same 
 thickness as the floors. The butts of the horizontal plates to be double- 
 riveted ; the strips to be put on the upper side. Double angle-irons of size as 
 per Table 5 must be riveted to the upper edge of the centre plate ; the part 
 below the floors should project to form a keel not less than the depth given for 
 bar keels, and must have a double row of rivets to fasten the garboard-strake 
 plates ; also an intermediate row to hold the side plates which form the keel 
 proper. In all cases when this kind of keel is adopted, the floor ends at centre 
 line are to be riveted to the centre jDlate with double angle-irons of the size 
 given for frames the full depth of the floors, the ends of these angles to be 
 joggled over the reverse bar and frame and riveted through them. 
 
 Also at the upper edge of floors a scarphing angle-iron, the size of angles 
 for reverse bars, is to be passed through centre plate and riveted to horizontal 
 plate and to floors at both sides, and to scarph on each side, ia vessels ixnder 
 1000 tons 2 feet, and in vessels over 1000 tons 3 feet. 
 
 In vessels where the centre plate is finished fliish with the tops of floors 
 the horizontal plates must be m one width, and that width not less than one 
 and one-thii-d depth of floors at centre, and must be secui'ed to centre plate by 
 fore and aft angles underneath, of the size as per Table 2. 
 
 In vessels where the centre plate is secured to a flat garboard-strake plate 
 or flat keel, it must be secured thereto by two continuous longitudinal angle- 
 irons of the size per Table 5, the floors being notched at bottom corners to 
 admit them. 
 
 Bar keels may be of any scantling not less than per Table 1. 
 
 8. litems and Stemposts. — To be of size per Table 1. Stems above the 
 load line may be gradually reduced one-foui-th in sectional area. Propeller 
 posts to be double the thickness and of the same breadth as bar keels. Eudder 
 gudgeons to be forged on the sternposts. 
 
 The feet of stems and sternposts to be extended so as to form part of the 
 keel, not less than four and a half feet long. 
 
 4. Frames and Reverse Frames. — All frames and reverse frames to be in
 
 512 Liverpool Underwriters Registry App. 
 
 size as per Table 2, and spaced so as not to exceed 21 inches from centre to 
 centre tlu-oughout in vessels under 1000 tons. In vessels of 1000 tons, and 
 above, the frames may be spaced 21 inches ft-om centre to centre for one-fifth 
 the vessel's length fr'om each end, or may be spaced throughout so as not to 
 exceed 24 inches from centre to cenfre, provided a double frame of the same 
 size as the frames be carried from the centre line to the upper tm-n of bilge, 
 and be properly secured to floors and shell of vessel, for three-fifths the vessel's 
 length amidships. 
 
 Lining pieces under frames to be in one length and thickness, and the 
 breadth of the frame. 
 
 All frames should be in one length, but when butted they must have 
 scarph pieces same size as frames, 4 feet long, in vessels up to 900 tons, 
 and 6 feet long in vessels above 900 tons, with a good shift of butts. 
 Lapping pieces to connect heels of frames across centre line, where bar keels 
 are used, to be not less than 4 feet long, and of the same size as frames. 
 
 Eeverse frames to be riveted on every frame, and to be carried to upper 
 turn of bilge and gunwale, alternately, in vessels imder 12 feet in depth 
 of hold ; in vessels with two tiers of beams, and not exceeding 16 feet depth of 
 hold, to be carried to upper side of the upper bilge stringer and gun- 
 wale, alternately; and in vessels with three decks to the main and upper 
 deck alternately. 
 
 Double reverse angle-irons to be fitted on the frames in way of all keelsons, 
 hold and beam stringers. Where much closing bevel is required at the ends 
 of vessels, the pieces requiring closing may be left out, and the keelsons or 
 stringers fastened with double rivets to the single reverse frames only. 
 
 5. Floors. — Floors of a depth at centre and thickness as per Table 3, are to 
 be riveted on every frame, and to be half the centre depth at lower turn of 
 bilge, are to be carried well up into the bilge, and to be finished the deptli 
 of the moulding edge of the frames. A reduction of one-sixteenth of an inch 
 in tliickness may be made for one-fifth the vessel's length from each end in 
 floors which exceed sis-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. 
 
 In spar-deck vessels the floors are to be increased three-eightlis of an iach 
 in depth for each foot in height of this deck. 
 
 Limber holes are to be cut on each side in floors and intercostal plates, so 
 as to allow the water to flow freely to the pumps. 
 
 All vessels to have breakwaters or wash plates fitted between floors. 
 
 6. Beams. — Beams to be of bulbed iron, with strongly bulbed lower edge, 
 with double angles on top edge of size per Table 3, or of bulbed T-iron, or of 
 any other approved form, to be in depth as per Table 3, and to be spaced as 
 follows : — 
 
 All mam decks to have a beam upon every alternate frame. Vessels 11 
 feet to 13 feet in depth must have one lower-deck beam on every eighth 
 frame. Vessels from 13 to 15 feet in depth, one on every fourth frame. 
 Vessels 15 to 18 feet in depth, one on every second and fourth frame alter- 
 nately. Vessels from 18 to 24 feet in dej^th, one on every alternate frame. 
 Vessels over 17 feet in depth of lower hold, to have orlop beams on every 
 sixth frame. Vessels exceeding 18 feet depth of lower hold, to have orloj) 
 beams, one to every fourth frame. In all cases where orlop beams are used, a 
 stringer, same size as the one on the lower deck, is to be riveted upon orlop 
 beams and to reverse frames with angle-iron same size as lower-deck 
 stringer.
 
 App. for Iron Vessels. 513 
 
 It is recommended that lower-deck beams be made one-sixteenth of an 
 inch thicker and one-eighth of the depth deeper than upper-deck beams. In 
 cases where the scantling of the lower-deck beams is increased, a proportionate 
 reduction will be permitted in the upper-deck beams. 
 
 Hatch beams and fore-and-afters in upper deck to be one-sixth deeper 
 than upper-deck beams. Poop beams to be one-third and forecastle beams 
 one-fourth hghter than upper-deck beams, and to be spaced over them. 
 Beam knees to be 22 times the depth of the beams. 
 
 When solid flanged beams are used, the section must be submitted to the 
 Committee for approval. 
 
 7. Stanchions for Beams. — Stanchions of size per Table 4 to be fixed to 
 every beam amidshij^s for one-third of the vessel's length, and to alternate 
 beams forwaixl and aft, and to be secured to the beams under which they are 
 placed, by at least two rivets. When a bulb-iron forms part of the centre 
 line keelson, the hold stanchions must be made to stride the bulb, and be 
 riveted through the angle-ii'ons on the top of the floors. 
 
 8. Plates. — Thickness of plates to be as per Table 2. Sides of poop and 
 forecastle may be one-third lighter than shell plates amidships, but need not 
 exceed six-sixteenths. Gunwale or sheer strakes to be one-eighth of an inch 
 thicker, and garboard-strakes to be one-sixteenth of an inch tliicker than shell 
 plates amidships. 
 
 No openings for side hghts or ports to be cut in the sheer-strakes without 
 compensation. Bulwark plates need not exceed five-sixteenths of an inch in 
 thickness. 
 
 No plate to be less than five spaces of frames in length, with the exception 
 of those at the extreme ends of the vessel. 
 
 When double strakes are used, the doubling plates are to be of the same 
 thickness as the strake next adjoining. 
 
 Vessels of and over 1200 tons to have three strakes of plates in the 
 bilges increased one-sixteenth in thickness over half the vessel's length 
 amidships. 
 
 9. Butts and Seams of Plating.— A\\ butts in garboard-strakes, shell plating, 
 stringers, and scarphs of keels to be two clear spaces between frames apart. 
 Butts in the garboard-strakes must not be opposite each other. Butts upon 
 upi)er-deck striager-iDlates must not be nearer than 3 feet to butts of sheer- 
 strake. 
 
 Butt-strips to have graia of ii"on ia the same direction, and to be of the 
 same thickness as the plates which they connect together. 
 
 Butts to be closely fitted either by planing or jumping ; when jumped, 
 the ridge formed by jumping to be chiselled off the inside, in order that the 
 butt-sti-ips may fit closely. The ridge outside to be hammered into the joint. 
 
 All butts and seams to be chipped fair and caulked tight. 
 
 All seam and butt holes must be punched from the surfaces which are 
 placed together so that the taper of the holes shall be in opposite directions. 
 
 The holes to be punched fan-, and opposite each other ; unfair holes will 
 render the piece of work badly punched liable to rejection. Where holes 
 cannot be truly punched, they must be drilled through fair. Every hole 
 recpiiriug to be countersunk must be countersunk quite thi-ough the plate. 
 
 Breadth of lap in seams for double- riveting to be 5j times the diameter of 
 the hole punched, and in the butts to be six diameters of the hole punched. 
 
 10. Hold Keelsons and Stringers. — The centre keelson, if standing above 
 
 2 L
 
 514 Liverpool Underwriters Registry App. 
 
 floors, may be either box-form with top, bottom, and two side plates, the 
 inside width of the box to be two-thirds the dejith of the side pLates, the 
 angle-irons to be all outside, and of size per Table 5. Or doiible centre plate, 
 with top and bottom plate. Width of top plate to be two-thirds the depth of 
 centre plates. The depth and thickness of side plates for box keelsons, and of 
 centre plates for centre-plate keelsons, also angle-irons for the latter to be in 
 accordance with Table 5 ; or a single centre plate Mith top plate may be used 
 provided the plates be one and a half times the tliickness given in the 
 Table ; the vertical plate to be fitted with double butt-strips, and the butt- 
 strips of the top plate to be treblc-rivetcd. 
 
 Or a centi-e line intercostal keelson may be adopted in vessels of 1200 
 tons and under, provided the intercostal plates be of the tliickness given in 
 Table 1 for centre-plate^ keels, and each plate be secured to the floors, and 
 each other by double angle-irons on their fore and after ends ; of the size 
 given in Table 2 for reverse frames ; the intercostal plates to stand above the 
 floors to a height equal to the largest flange of the angle-irons for keelsons, 
 per Table 5, two of which angle-ii'ons are to be riveted, one on either side, to 
 the intercostal plates with a biilb-u-on of the size required for lower-deck 
 beams between them. 
 
 This keelson not to be adopted in vessels over ten depths in length with- 
 out proportionate increase of strength ; particulars to be submitted to the 
 Committee. 
 
 An intercostal keelson is to be pvit at half floor, in vessels exceeding 32 
 feet beam, for two-thirds of the vessel's length where practicable, to be 
 fastened to side of floors, and to project above floors to form a keelson, with 
 double angle-irons riveted to the upper edge, of size as per Table 5. The 
 half floor intercostal plates to be the same thickness as floors. 
 
 All vessels to have two bilge stringers, one at lower and one at upper tiu-n 
 of bilge, formed of doiible angle-ii'ons of size per Table 5. 
 
 Vessels exceeding 15 feet in lower hold to have a side stringer of double 
 angle-irons, size as per Table 5, between the upper bilge sti'inger and the 
 lower-deck beams. Vessels exceeding 16 feet and xmder 18 feet in depth of 
 lower hold to have a bulb-iron, size of lower-deck beams, secured between the 
 angle-irons which form the side stringers, and to have a bulb-ii'on riveted 
 between the angle-irons of either upper or lower bilge stringers for two-thii'ds 
 of the vessel's length, same size as lower-deck beams. 
 
 All keelsons to extend fore and aft as far as practicable, and to be con- 
 tinued through the bulkheads, or if stopped at the bulkheads to be connected 
 therewith to the satisfaction of the Surveyor. 
 
 The centre keelson may be reduced at ends to two-thhds sectional area, 
 per Table 5 ; the reduction to extend from heel of fore and of mizen mast, 
 and not to exceed one-thii'd length of vessel when taken together. 
 
 11. Beam, Stringer and Deck Ties. — Stringer plates are to be laid upon the 
 ends of each tier of beams and riveted thereto through both beam angles, and 
 are not to be less in width and thickness than per Table 5. Main-deck 
 stringer plates may be reduced in width one-fourth at ends of vessel, and one- 
 sixteenth of an inch in thickness ; this reduction to begin at one-fifth the 
 vessel's length from each end. 
 
 Hold and orloj) beam -stringers may be reduced one-sixteenth of an inch 
 in tliickness for one-fifth of their length from each end. 
 
 In vessels of and over twelve depths in length, the upj^er-deck stringer
 
 App. for Iron Vessels. 515 
 
 and tie plates may be reduced as follows : — At each end for a distance equal 
 to one-tenth of the vessel's length, two-sixteenths of an inch ; for a further 
 distance on each side, equal to one-fifth of vessel's length, one-sixteenth of 
 an inch. 
 
 Stringer plates must in no case be reduced below six-sixteenths of an incli 
 in thickness. 
 
 Stringer plates on upper deck, and in vessels with three decks on main 
 and upper decks, to be fitted and riveted to shell plates \nW\ angles as per 
 Table for keelsons. A continuous angle-ircyi of the size for stringers, per 
 Table 5, to be fitted to inside of fi-ames uj^on all beam stringers below upper 
 deck, whether the stringers are carried to shell plates or not ; and also on the 
 upper-deck stringer when the frames are carried thi-ough the stringer to form 
 bulwark stanchions. All stringer and tie plates to extend fore and aft where 
 practicable, and not to be stopped at bulkheads. 
 
 If desired, stringers on orlop-deck beams may be diminished in width not 
 exceeding one-thii'd, if proportionately increased in thickness ; angle-iron on 
 gunwale stringer to be formed round the scupper holes, and if butted at 
 scuppers to be otherwise strengthened. 
 
 Poop and topgallant forecastle stringers and ties may be one-third hghter 
 than lower-deck stringers. When the upper deck, aft, is raised so as to form 
 a " break," the deck ties and stringers are to be continued on the raised 
 portion as they would have been had no " break " occui-red in the deck Kne, 
 and the deck stringers are to be made to scarph with the raised portion to the 
 satisfaction of the Suiweyors. The foremost plate of the " break " must 
 project into and form part of the bulwark for half the length of the plate, so 
 as to afford a scarph of 3 to 4 feet in length. 
 
 Tie plates, ranging all fore and aft, of size per Table 5, to be laid upon 
 each tier of beams on both sides of hatches, and riveted to both angle-irons of 
 the beams, and at ends of vessel to stringer plates. Ties on main deck to 
 have double angle-irons, of size per Table 5, riveted on their upper sides, 
 ranging all fore and aft, and with the tie plates riveted to beams and to 
 stringer plates at ends of vessel. 
 
 On the hold beams of vessels imder 600 tons, and on orlop-deck beams 
 where no deck is laid, two angle-ii'ons, back to back, on each side of hatch- 
 ways, same size as for keelsons, and riveted through and thiyugh and to the 
 beams, may be substituted for tie plates. 
 
 ]\Iast partners at deck, where wedged, to be plated over twice the width of 
 the hole cut out of them, and to take three beams in length. 
 
 12. Bulkheads. — One " Collision Bulkhead" must be placed at a reasonable 
 distance from forward, subject to the approval of the Surveyor. Bulkheads to 
 be stayed on both sides with angle-irons four- feet apart, same size as frames, 
 one set vertical and one*set horizontal. In steamers a bulkhead must be 
 fitted at each end of the engine and boiler space, and one at the fore end of 
 the screw stern pipe. 
 
 All bulkheads to be well riveted either between a double frame, or if to a 
 single one, to be well and strongly secured by brackets. 
 
 All lining pieces in way of bulkheads to extend from frame forward to 
 frame abaft, and to be made perfectly tight. 
 
 Bulkheads to be one-third lighter than shell plates, and to be fitted with 
 sluice valves or cocks, or to have a pmnp in each compartment. 
 
 13. Bivets and Bivetiiu/. — Eivets to be in accordance with Table 6. 
 
 2 L 2
 
 5 1 6 Liverpool Underwriters Registry App" 
 
 All vessels to be double-riveted in bottom, bilges, and sbeer-strake, and all 
 vessels above 600 tons to be double-riveted tlironghout. 
 
 Vessels above 1000 tons to be treble-riveted in the main-deck stringers 
 and sheer- strakes for half the vessel's length amidships. 
 
 All double or treble riveting in butts of plates to be in parallel rows, or 
 what is termed chain riveting. All butts to be double or treble riveted, as 
 per Eules. 
 
 Rivets to be four diameters apart, from centre to centre, longitudinally in 
 seams and vertically in butts, except in the butts where treble-riveting is 
 requii'ed, when the rivets in the row farthest from the butt may be .spaced 
 eight diameters apart, centre to centre. Eivets in framing to be eight times 
 their diameter apart, from centi'e to centre, and to be of the size required for 
 shell plating. 
 
 Eivets in bar keels, stems, and sternposts, to be one-eighth of an inch 
 larger than in the butts of garboard-strakes. 
 
 Iron decks to have their butts treble-riveted amidships, for one-half the 
 vessel's length. 
 
 Eivets in the seams of sheer and garboard strakes may be of the size 
 required by Table 6 for the strakes of plating adjoining them, but the rivets 
 in the biitts of the sheer and garboard strakes must be of the size required by 
 Table 6 for jDlates of equal thickness. 
 
 Eivets in shell plating, in deck ties and stringers, in centre plate and in 
 flat keels and keelsons are to have theii" necks bevelled under theii- heads, so 
 as to fill the coimtersink made in punching, and their heads must be no 
 thicker than two-thirds the diameter of the rivet. 
 
 14. lludder, Budder Heads and Fins. — Eudder frames to be forged sohd. 
 Eudder heads and pins not to be less than the diameters given in Table 1. 
 Eudder heads of screw steamers in all cases to be one inch larger in diameter 
 than as given in Table 1. 
 
 15. Quality of Iron and Character of Worhmansliip. — All plates to be of the 
 best quality (branded best, with maker's name), tough and malleable, the 
 sheared edges to be free fi-om rip, the surface free from flaws and blisters, 
 and the punchings reasonably free from crack upon the convex side. The 
 absolute mean breaking strain to be 20 tons per square inch. Brittle or 
 coarsely crystalline ii'on to be rejected. The strain per square inch of broken 
 section to be 24 tons. 
 
 Angle-irons to be free from veins and cracked holes. Care to be taken 
 that the iron be not burned in the bending furnace. Eivet iron to be free 
 from cracks and veins, when laid up and finished. Eiveted seams, butts, 
 frames, floors, keelsons, stringers, and ties to be laid up quite close, so as to 
 prevent the introduction of the thinnest knife used for trying riveted work. 
 
 Each rivet to fill the hole and be laid up cl»se roimd the head, and 
 when finished to be flush and fair, neither projecting above nor sinking below 
 the surface of the part through which it passes. Keel rivets must project 
 slightly. 
 
 Details not specified to be approved by the Surveyors. 
 
 16. Excessive Proportions. — Vessels whose dejDth is less than five-eighths of 
 theii- breadth to have their upper-deck longitudinal deck-tics and stringer- 
 plates increased in width one-tenth for half the vessel's length amidshiijs. 
 When the depth is less than half the breadth, the plans to be submitted for 
 the approval of the Committee.
 
 App. for Iron Vessels. 517 
 
 Vessels exceeding 12 depths in length to have their sheer-strakes doubled 
 for half the vessel's length amidships. 
 
 Vessels above 13 depths, and not exceeding 14 depths in length, to 
 have their sheer-strakes doubled for two-thirds the vessel's length amidships, 
 and to have the sheer-strakes and upper-deck stringers and ties treble-riveted 
 for half the length amidships. 
 
 In place of doubhng the sheer-strake, a single thickness of plate may be 
 used, when practicable, provided it be once and a half the thickness of the 
 plate required by Table 2, with treble-riveted butts and butt-strips one- 
 sixteenth of an inch thicker than the plates which they connect together. 
 
 Plans of all vessels exceeding 14 depths in. length to be submitted for 
 the approval of the Committee. 
 
 17. Vessels above 12 dei)ths in leng-th and exceeding 1500 tons, to have 
 the plating fi-om keel to upper part of bilge increased one-sixteenth of an inch 
 in thickness for half the vessel's length amidshiiDs. 
 
 Other scantlings which depend on excessive proportions are included in 
 Tables 2 and 5. 
 
 18. The dimensions referred to above are to be taken as follows : — 
 Length, to be taken between the perpendiculai-s. 
 
 Breadth, to be the extreme breadth. 
 
 Depth of hold is to be taken from the ujDperside of floors to underside of 
 main deck, in vessels of two tiers of beams, and to imderside of spar-deck in 
 vessels of more than two tiers of beams. • 
 
 19. Becks. — For vessels up to 300 tons the upper decks are to be not less 
 than 3 inches thick, thence to 700 tons, 32 inches. Above 700 tons, decks 
 are not to be less than 4 inches. Lower decks, in vessels above 500 tons, to 
 be 3 inches. 
 
 AU decks should be fastened with galvanized screw-bolts and nuts. 
 
 Poop decks should be fastened with galvanized wood screws. 
 
 "Waterways, margin planks, and plank sheers to be made of teak or green- 
 heart, or other approved wood. 
 
 Deck planks may be of pine, and mtist be free from sap, rot, and shakes, 
 reasonably free from knots, and caulked perfectly watertight. Upper, fore- 
 castle, main, poojD, and quarterdeck planks not to be more than 6 inches wide. 
 
 Decks laid with East India teak may be one-sixth less in thickness. 
 
 Ceiling in flat of bottom to be laid in hatches. 
 Spar-deck Vessels. — Vessels whose depth is equal to or exceeds three-fourths 
 of their breadth, and which are constructed with three tiers of beams, may be 
 classed as spar- decked, and will be allowed a reduction of one-sixth in the 
 scantling of material above the main deck. 
 
 For floors of spar- deck vessels, see Section 5. 
 
 20. Windlasses. — "Windlass to be suflBciently strong, and fii-mly secured 
 with bitts at decks. All windlass spindles to be in one length. Diameter of 
 windlass spindles to be in accordance with Table 1. 
 
 21. Masts, Spars, and Sails. — All saihng and steam vessels to have a full 
 and complete set of masts, yards, sails, &c. ; sufficient in size and strength, 
 and of the best quality. Vessels under 600 tons to have one spare lower 
 yard, and one spare topmast ; above 600 tons, to have a spare topsail yard in 
 addition. All vessels to have one complete suit of sails, and sailing and 
 auxihary steam vessels at least one spare foresail, foretopsail, and forctopmast 
 staysail.
 
 5 1 8 Liverpool Underwriters Registry App. 
 
 Iron masts to be made according to Table 7. 
 
 Heel of the mast to be properly supported in all vessels. 
 
 Angle-irons when used, to nm the whole length. Seams to be single- 
 riveted. The butts in masts in way of wedging-deck to be treble-riveted, 
 remainder double. 
 
 Yards of steel to be as per Table 7. The seams single-riveted, the butts 
 for one-tliii-d the length in the middle treble-riveted, remainder double. 
 
 Angle-irons, when used, to run the whole length. 
 
 Yards of iron to be one-thii'd heavier than steel yards. 
 
 22. Painting and Cementing. — All the surfaces to be properly painted with 
 good oil paint. 
 
 To prevent wear from wash of bilge water in the bottoms of iron vessels, 
 fresh Portland cement is to be laid on so as to cover the plates, frames, and 
 rivet-heads. The cement is to be raised in the centre to the level of the 
 limber holes, and to be taken up to upper part of bilge. 
 
 23. Extension of Character. — All vessels which may have comj^leted the 
 term of years originally assigned to them, and all vessels for which a class is 
 sought, but wliich are of an age beyond the term for which their scantlings 
 would have originally entitled them, may, by tmdergoing the following survey, 
 obtain such class or extension of class as the Coromittee may, on the Eei)ort of 
 Siu'vey, consider then- actual condition entitles them to. 
 
 Form of Survey for Extension of Class. — The vessel to be placed in dry 
 dock, all «eiling to be removed, and both surfaces of plating and the wood- 
 work of hull to be thoroughly exposed by chipping and scraping ; in this 
 condition an inspection is to be made, and holes bored in the plating, stringers, 
 and floors, and in such other parts as may be directed, but in no case to be 
 less than one hole for every ten tons register tonnage. 
 
 SCANTLING FOE STEAMERS. 
 
 The Committee having been requested to indicate the reductions fi'om the 
 Scantling for vessels of the Twenty Years' Class, which would be permitted 
 for steamers intended to class for lower grades, publish the following for the 
 guidance of owners and builders : — 
 
 STEAMERS TO CLASS EIGHTEEN YEARS. 
 
 30, The following reductions from the scantling for the Twenty Years' 
 Class will be permitted for Steamers intended to class Eighteen Years : — 
 Plating. — A reduction of one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness in the 
 
 sheer-strake, in the garboard-strake, and in the side plating. 
 Stringers on Beams. — A reduction of one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, 
 
 and of one-twelfth in width of the lower-beam stringers. 
 Ties on Beam,s. — One-thii'd reduction in width and one-sixteenth of an inch 
 
 in thickness. 
 Floors. — A slight reduction, either in moulding depth, or thickness. 
 Keelsons. — A reduction, not exceeding two-sixteenths of an inch, in the 
 
 total thickness of the centre plate or plates, and a shght reduction in 
 
 the angle-irons. 
 Bilge Keelsons.— A reduction of one-fifth in breadth of one flange of the 
 angles, and a reduction of two-sixteenths of an inch in thickness.
 
 App. 
 
 for Iron Vessels. 
 
 519 
 
 STEAMERS TO CLASS SIXTEEN TEARS. 
 
 31. The following reductions from the Scantling for the Twenty Years' 
 Class will be permitted for Steamers intended to class Sixteen Years : — 
 
 Plating. — A reduction of one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness in the 
 
 sheer-strake and in the garboard-strake ; a reduction of two-sixteenths 
 
 in the side, and of one-sixteenth of an inch in the bottom and bilge 
 
 plating. 
 Eiveting. — Single -riveting permitted in seams of side plating from bilges 
 
 upwards. 
 Striyigers on Beams. — A reduction in width of one-twelfth in lower-beam 
 
 stringers, and of one -sixteenth of an inch in thickness in both upper 
 
 and lower beam stringers. 
 Ties on Beams. — One-third reduction in width and one-sixteenth of an inch 
 
 in thickness. 
 Frames. — A shght reduction in size or thickness. 
 Floors. — A slight reduction either in moulding depth, or thickness. 
 Keelsons. — A reduction not exceeding two-sixteenths of an inch in the 
 
 total thickness of centre plate or plates, and a slight reduction in 
 
 the angle-irons. 
 Bilge Keelsons. — A reduction of one-fifth in breadth of one flange of the 
 
 angles, and a reduction of two-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. 
 
 32. In the sixteen and eighteen years' classes, as in the twenty years' 
 class, the Committee will take into consideration any compensation which 
 may be offered for deviations from the approved scantling. 
 
 W. W. EuNDELL, Secretary. 
 Liverpool, Septemher, 1866. 
 
 33. The above regulations will also apply to Sailing Vessels intended to 
 class for these grades. 
 
 W. W. EuNDELL, Secretary. 
 Liverxjool, September 10, 1867. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 250 
 
 500 
 
 750 
 
 1000 
 
 1500 
 
 2000 
 
 2500 3000 
 
 Thickness of Centre Plate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Keels 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 T6 
 
 TO 
 T6 
 
 i^ 
 
 Is 
 
 12 
 
 Tti 
 
 11 
 
 1.1 
 
 Ts 
 
 Size of Side Plates for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Centre Plate Keels . . 
 
 6x|| 
 
 7x|f 
 
 8 xji 
 
 9x1^. 
 
 lOxlJ 
 
 12x11 
 
 12 xU 
 
 13x1^ 
 
 Size of Bar Keels, Stems 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Sternposts, in inches 
 
 6x2 
 
 7x2 
 
 8 x2i 
 
 9 x2i 
 
 lOx 3 
 
 12 X 3 
 
 12 X 3 
 
 13 X 3 
 
 Length of Scarphs in Bar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Keels, in inches .. 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 Diameter of Kudder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Heads, in inches . . 
 
 3* 
 
 4* 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6i 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 ^ 
 
 Diameter of Kudder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Heels and Pintles 
 
 2 
 
 2i 
 
 2f 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 3i 
 
 4 
 
 4i 
 
 Diameter of Windlass 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spindles 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 5i 
 
 6 
 
 KoTE. — Uuddcr Heads in Screw Steamers, in all cases, to be one inch larger in diamcltr.
 
 520 
 
 Liverpool Underwriters Registry 
 
 App. 
 
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 LINE EEELSONS. 
 
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 (STEAMERS AND SAILING 
 
 VESSELS) 
 
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 THE TWENTY YEARS' 
 
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 ;T!ll|i 
 
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 17 !! IT 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ;; 
 
 
 300 
 SOfi 
 
 310 
 
 
 33 
 
 i»t 
 
 1 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •03 34) 
 
 ■S4 
 
 
 54 21 
 
 E4 31 
 
 S4 21 49) 101 
 
 4fl) 10) 45 171 
 
 48 171 
 
 
 ITt 48 IT) 
 
 4S IT) 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 11 
 
 6X4 
 
 810 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •03 241 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aS 
 
 IS vii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •63 34{ 
 
 •a4 
 
 
 ■G4 31 
 
 84 31 
 
 St 21 49) 101 
 
 49) 19) 49) 19) 
 
 45 17)1 4 
 
 17) 45 17)- 46 17) 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 S X B 
 
 880 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •64) 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 326 
 
 m 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •SO 35 
 
 •SO) 31) 
 
 •80) 91, 
 
 BB) 31)1 SB) 211 
 
 S3 IBl 63 10, 
 
 83 19| 4 
 
 la 47 IN 47 IB 
 
 47 18 
 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 C X S 
 
 S30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 340 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 SflO 
 
 -" " 
 
 " ; ;• 1 ,0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '.'.'. \ "... 
 
 y... , "..'.. !'7o'36l*70 Sb'I'OO si+'BO aiS'60 2il: CO 2W 
 
 GO 211' B 
 
 131, B6 19|l 55 101 BO IB 
 
 60 18 'jr. 12 
 
 a X5 
 
 360 
 
 lOl 1 U 1 Ut 1 12 
 
 121 i 13 i 131 ~i4 141 1 15 j 161 1 16 | 161 | 17 
 
 17* 
 
 ~18 
 
 181 1 19 1 191 1 20 1 21 1 22 1 23 1 24 ! 26 i 26 1 27 1 28 28 1 30 1 31 
 
 32 ~ 
 
 33 i 34 36 1 36 1 37 ! 
 
 
 
 • i«sin,,B:» m 
 
 
 b«.lot>.,fibcT.bl*.,fs™n.lr„K. S«a«pri.vbl.^f«r«««l«-proportlon^«cti<m.l6<,n,ln. F.ir Ihr 16 yt^'gr^. . reduction IrMo-rrSlMnmr. 1. pmnltW or or..^-rf»lccntl, of «n Inth Ir. lh!Ane« .0^ kot Ihe 18 y«r.- g 
 
 radBarrdo 
 
 lot. in B Idth Ls perroiUra of one twrlfth in Lowtt be»m Stringer*. »tul o 
 
 on^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BraOfi. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■op-rmll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rr 
 
 c
 
 App. 
 
 for Iroji Vessels. 
 
 521 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Beams and Flooes. 
 
 
 ♦Depth of Beam 
 
 Size of Angles 
 
 Centre depth of 
 
 
 Breadth of 
 
 upon alternate 
 
 for each side of 
 
 Floors upon 
 
 Thickness, 
 
 Vessel. 
 
 Frames, 
 
 upper Edge of Beams, 
 
 every Frame, 
 
 in inches. 
 
 
 in inches. 
 
 in inches. 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 
 12 feet 
 
 3J 
 
 2 X 2 X 4-16ths 
 
 8 
 
 3-16ths 
 
 15 feet 
 
 4 
 
 2 X 21 X 4-16ths 
 
 10 
 
 4-16ths 
 
 I7A feet 
 
 4i 
 
 2i X 2i X 5-16ths 
 
 12 
 
 5-16ths 
 
 20 feet 
 
 5 
 
 2| X 2i X 5-16ths 
 
 13J 
 
 5-16ths 
 
 21 feet 
 
 5i 
 
 2J X 2J X 5-16tlis 
 
 14 
 
 5-l(jtlis 
 
 22 feet 
 
 5i 
 
 2i X 2S X 5-16ths 
 
 14J 
 
 6-16ths 
 
 23 feet 
 
 5f 
 
 2i X 2f X 5-16ths 
 
 15 
 
 6-16ths 
 
 24 feet 
 
 6 
 
 2f X 2f X 5-16ths 
 
 16 
 
 6-16ths 
 
 25 feet 
 
 6i 
 
 2f X 2f X 5-16ths 
 
 16i 
 
 6-16ths 
 
 26 feet 
 
 6J 
 
 2f X 2f X 6-16ths 
 
 17* 
 
 7-16ths 
 
 27 feet 
 
 6f 
 
 2f X 2| X 6-16tlis 
 
 18 
 
 7-16ths 
 
 28 feet 
 
 7 
 
 3 X 2| X 6-16ths 
 
 181 
 
 7-16ths 
 
 29 feet 
 
 7i 
 
 3 X 2f X 6-16ths 
 
 19 
 
 8-16ths 
 
 30 feet 
 
 7* 
 
 3 X 3 X 6-16th3 
 
 20 
 
 8-16ths 
 
 31 feet 
 
 7i 
 
 3 X 3i X 6-16ths 
 
 20i 
 
 8-16ths 
 
 32 feet 
 
 8 
 
 3 X 3i X 6-16ths 
 
 21" 
 
 8-16ths 
 
 33 feet 
 
 8i 
 
 31 X 31 X 6-16ths 
 
 21J 
 
 9-16ths 
 
 34 feet 
 
 8* 
 
 31 X 3i X 6-16ths 
 
 22| 
 
 9-16ths 
 
 36 feet 
 
 9 
 
 3i X 3J X 7-16ths 
 
 231 
 
 9-16ths 
 
 37 feet 
 
 H 
 
 31 X 3J X 7-16ths 
 
 24^ 
 
 9-16ths 
 
 39 feet 
 
 9f 
 
 3J X 3A X 7-16ths 
 
 25| 
 
 10-16ths 
 
 40 feet 
 
 10 
 
 3i X 3^ X 7-16ths 
 
 261 
 
 10-16ths 
 
 42 feet 
 
 lOA 
 
 3^ X 3| X 7-16ths 
 
 271 
 
 10-16ths 
 
 44 feet 
 
 11" 
 
 3| X 3f X 8-16ths 
 
 281 
 
 10-16tbs 
 
 46 feet 
 
 11* 
 
 3f X 3f X 8-16ths 
 
 30" 
 
 ll-16ths 
 
 48 feet 
 
 12 
 
 4 X 3f X 8-16ths 
 
 32 
 
 ll-16tbs 
 
 * The full depth and thicliness of the beams to be carried over 3-5ths of vessel's length amidships, and 
 may be reduced thence to ends l-16th of an inch in thickness. 
 
 • TABLE IV. 
 
 Stanchions fob Beams. 
 'twixt deck stanchions. 
 
 6 feet between decks . . . . . . 2^ inches diameter. 
 
 7 ,, ,, 2f ,, 
 
 8 ,, ,, 22 ,, 
 
 9 feet bold 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 
 LOWER HOLD STANCHIONS. 
 
 3 inches diameter. 
 
 In vessels with three tiers of beams, stanchions between middle and 
 lower-deck beams, to be of a diameter intermediate between those of the 
 upper and lower stancliions.
 
 522 
 
 Liverpool Underwriters Registry. 
 
 App. 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 DIAMETER OF RIVETS, IN SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH. 
 
 10 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 18 19 
 
 THICKNESS OF PLATES, IN SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH. 
 
 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 16 
 
 Lengtli. 
 60 
 
 72 
 78 
 84 
 90 
 96 
 
 72 
 76 
 80 
 84 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 20 
 24 
 26 
 28 
 30 
 32 
 
 Length. Diameter. 
 
 60 15 
 
 64 16 
 
 68 17 
 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 Masts. 
 
 Body. 
 Tbickness. 
 
 Head. 
 
 Yards of Steel. 
 
 Thicknesses. 
 To Anns. Arms. 
 
 middle 
 plates. 
 
 Ts and \ 
 
 ■u and i 
 
 ^and i 
 
 /g and i 
 
 H 5 •" 
 
 Angle Irons. 
 
 3 X 2i X -^ 
 
 3x3x1 
 
 3x4 
 
 3x4 
 
 5x3 
 
 5x3 
 
 X i 
 
 X h 
 
 X i 
 
 Angle Irons. 
 
 £t^( 
 
 /2i 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 All angles in masts and yards to extend the whole length. 
 
 When angle-irons are omitted in masts and spai's the following com- 
 pensations are required : — • 
 
 An addition in the plating of one-sixteenth of an inch in thickifess be- 
 yond that given in the Table. 
 
 The thickness of the jDlates at the partners to be continued to the heel of 
 the mast. 
 
 Lower masts to be composed of not less than three plates in cu'cum- 
 ference. 
 
 Butt-strips to be one-sixteenth of an inch thicker than mast plates ; to 
 have the fibre of the iron in the direction of the mast or spar ; and to be wide 
 enough to admit of treble or quadruple riveting in way of caps, trusses, and 
 partners. No butts at these parts to be less than treble-riveted. 
 
 Laps of seams in all lower masts, bowsprits, topmasts and large yards to 
 be wide enough to admit of double-riveting. 
 
 All yards to be doubled (in thickness of jilating) in the way of truss hoops 
 and over centre. 
 
 All topmasts to be doubled in way of lower-mast cap. 
 
 All bowsprits to be doul)led where resting at knight or stem heads. 
 
 All lower masts to be doubled in way of wedging.
 
 ( 5^3 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 BAR-KEELS. 
 
 ^Achilles,'' the — 
 
 weight of hull per 100 feet of length, 134. 
 stealer in outside plating of, 186. 
 Admiralty code of tests — 
 for iron plates, 385. 
 for steel plates, 399. 
 ^Aerolite,' the — 
 
 cutting away arrangements to iron masts of, 
 269. 
 'Affondatore,' the — 
 deck plating of, 175. 
 folding topsides of, 244. 
 screw armour-bolts of, 475. 
 '■Agincourt,' the — 
 
 planing and bending the stem of, 55. 
 weight of hull per 100 feet of length, 134. 
 thrust-bearer of, 287. 
 chain plates of, 289. 
 Alleyne, Mr., his patented process for welding 
 
 beams, 145. 
 Anderson, Mr., introduced the process ot 
 toughening steel gun-barrels, &c., in oil, 
 at the Arsenal, Woolwich, 318. 
 Angle-iron, Admiralty tests for, 394, 396. 
 Angles of bending for testing iron and steel 
 
 plates, 301, 385, 399. 
 Annealing steel plates — 
 modes of, 309, 315. 
 benefits resulting from, after punching, 310, 
 
 313,314. ■ 
 objections made to, 315. 
 'Annette,' the — 
 keel of, 42. 
 
 detailed specification of, 91. 
 comparison with a transversely framed ship, 
 
 91, 92. 
 butt-fastenings of outside plating of, 200. 
 Architecture, naval, contrasted with land, 1. 
 Armour-holts — 
 
 modes of testing, 398. 
 
 ,, setting-off positions of, 467, 474. 
 French screw, 475. 
 of American ships, 475. 
 ordinary thiough, with elastic cup-washers, 
 
 476. 
 operation of driving, 478. 
 Major Palliser's, 479. 
 
 kinds of, proposed by Mr. Chalmers, Mr. 
 Crampton, Mr. Paget, Mr. Hughes, and 
 Mr. Parsons, 479. 
 Chathcun expeiiments on Major Palliser's, 
 
 480. 
 results of trials at Shoeburyness on Pal- 
 liser's, 481. 
 
 Armour-holts — 
 
 diameters and disposition of — 
 
 in the ' Hercules,' 482. 
 
 in small plate target, 482. 
 Armour plates — 
 
 Admiralty tests for, 403. 
 disposition of edges and butts of, 464. 
 preparation of demands for, 465. 
 skin-plating behind, 184, 191, 455, 460, 
 
 465, 484, 485, 488, 489. 
 longitudinal girdei's behind, 99, 114, 184, 
 
 455, 460, 466, 484, 485, 486, 489, 
 wood backing to, 466, 484, 48S, 489. 
 taking account of, 468. 
 heating of, 469. 
 bending of, by hydraulic pressure, 470. 
 
 , , - the " cradle " system, 470. 
 comparison of the two modes of bending, 
 
 472. 
 drilling and planing of, 473. 
 edges were formerly grooved and tongued, 
 
 473. 
 fixing and bolting of, 462, 474, 478, 483. 
 fastenings of (see Armour Bolts). 
 Armour shelf in iron-clad ships, 104, 114, 126, 
 
 127, 128, 460. 
 Ash, Mr., his patented plan for bulkhead con- 
 nections, 227. 
 
 Baching, wood — 
 
 behind armour plates, 466, 484, 486, 489. 
 
 fastenings of, 467. 
 'Bahiana,' the, strengthening of bilges of, 6. 
 Balanced rudders — 
 
 of ' Great Britain,' 252. 
 
 of American Monitors, 252. 
 
 of ' Invincible' class, 252. 
 
 of ' Bellerophon,' &c., 252. 
 
 of ' Hercules,' 255. 
 Ballast, water, arrangements for, 96, 110. 
 Barher, Mr. — 
 
 on the use of steel for shipbuilding, 314. 
 
 on steel rivets, 381. 
 Bar-keels — 
 
 rabbeted and plain, 19. 
 
 connections with middle-line keelson plates, 
 22. 
 
 middle-line keelsons employed with, 23, 26. 
 
 connections of the various lengths, 24. 
 
 sometimes replaced by keels made up of 
 several thicknesses of plates, 24. 
 
 connections with bar-stems, 48. 
 
 connections with bar stern posts, 56.
 
 5'M 
 
 Index. 
 
 BAR-KEELS. 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL. 
 
 Bar-keels — 
 
 Beams — 
 
 arrangements of fioor-plates with, 79. 
 
 mode of stiaightening, 155. 
 
 work in connection with, 431, 440. 
 
 • pillars to — 
 
 Bamahy, Mr. — 
 
 their importance, 12, 155. 
 
 his proposed method of fitting — 
 
 ordinary connections between decks, 156. 
 
 deck -stringers and tie-plates, 164. 
 
 hinged, 157. 
 
 deck-pkiting, 175. 
 
 in hold, 1 58. 
 
 his arrangement of butt-fastenings for plate- 
 
 girders under, where pillars cannot be fitted, 
 
 ties, 3G2. 
 
 158. 
 
 his account of the results of experiments 
 
 paddle and spring, 278. 
 
 made at Chatham with reference to 
 
 Bearers — 
 
 Palliser bolts, 480. 
 
 engine and boiler, importance of, 236, 289. 
 
 Bar-stems — 
 
 thrust, construction of, 287. 
 
 rabbeted and plain, 48. 
 
 'Bellerophon,' the — 
 
 connections with bar-keels, 48. 
 
 details of keel, 37, 
 
 , , vertical keelson-plates, 49. 
 
 details of bilge keels, 43. 
 
 , , side-bar keels, 49. 
 
 stem of, 53. 
 
 flat-plate keels, 49. 
 
 stern post of, 69. 
 
 of iron-clad frigates with ram bows, 51, 53. 
 
 longitudinal framing of, 110. 
 
 manufiicture of large, 54. 
 
 calculation of breaking strengths of a longi- 
 
 Bar stern posts — 
 
 tudinal, 111. 
 
 connections with bar-keels, 56. 
 
 arrangements of watertight longitudinals. 
 
 connections with side-bar keels, 57. 
 
 li4. 
 
 Barton, Mr., on the butt-fastenings of plate- 
 
 armour shelf of, 114. 
 
 ties, 361. 
 
 double bottom of, 1 14. 
 
 '■BariLon,' the, stern post connections of, 66. 
 
 transverse framing in double bottom, 115. 
 
 Beams — 
 
 watertight divisions of double bottom, 116. 
 
 importance of strength obtained by the use 
 
 framing behind armour, 116. 
 
 of, 135. 
 
 framing before and abaft double bottom, 
 
 wood, used in early iron ships, 136. 
 
 116. 
 
 wood, still sometimes employed, 136. 
 
 bow framing of, 117. 
 
 iron, first employed in steam-ships, 137. 
 
 stern framing of, 119. 
 
 comparative weights of iion and wood 
 
 framing of unprotected parts of upper 
 
 beams, 137. 
 
 works, 122. 
 
 various sectional foi-ms now in use, 1 38. 
 
 order in which the work of building was 
 
 statement of principles which should regu- 
 
 conducted, 123. 
 
 late the proportions and forms of sec- 
 
 endings of longitudinal frames, 129. 
 
 tions, 140. 
 
 weight of hull per lOo feet of length, 134. 
 
 bad forms of section often cause weakness, 
 
 battery beams otj 149. 
 
 12. 
 
 diagonal deck -framing at extremities, 152. 
 
 generally of unifonn depth except at the 
 
 deck-plating of, 172. 
 
 knees, 141. 
 
 skin-plating behind armour, 1 84. 
 
 rules for sectional forms and depths of, 142. 
 
 butt-fastenings of outside plating, 205. 
 
 made, manufacture of, 142. 
 
 watertight bulkheads of, 215. 
 
 Butterley, patent welded, manufacture of, 
 
 watertight doors to bulkheads on lower 
 
 145. 
 
 deck, 232. 
 
 bulb and H-iron, manufacture of, 145. 
 
 topsides of, 240. 
 
 modes of bending and preparing, 145, 154, 
 
 balanced rudder of, 252. 
 
 431, 441,447,451, 460. 
 
 iron masts of, 263. 
 
 knees to, modes of forming, 146. 
 
 riding bitts of, 277. 
 
 connections of ends — 
 
 chain plates of, 290. 
 
 in early iron ships, 148. 
 
 target, 485. 
 
 on lower and battery decks, 149. 
 
 Bending, modes of — 
 
 at principal hatchways, 150. 
 
 large stems, 55. 
 
 in oi-dinary merchant ships, 150. 
 
 beams, 145, 431, 441, 447, 451. 
 
 in ii-on-clads to deep frames behind 
 
 bottom plates, 434, 436. 
 
 armour, 151. 
 
 armour-plates, 469. 
 
 diagonal airaugement of half-beams, at ex- 
 
 and bevilling of frame angle-irons, 429. 
 
 tremities, 151. 
 
 angles of, for testing iron and steel plates, 
 
 dispensed with, for the most part, in ships 
 
 301, 385, 399. 
 
 built on Mr. Scott Russell's longitudinal 
 
 Bessemer steel — 
 
 system, 152. 
 
 its manufacture, 298. 
 
 ordinary arrangements of, 152. 
 
 te=ts of its tensile .strength, 299. 
 
 half, in wake of hatchways, nia.it-holes, &c.. 
 
 its dnctihtyas oompared with " Best-Best " 
 
 153. 
 
 iron, 301.
 
 Index. 
 
 525 
 
 • BESSEMER STEEL. 
 
 BULKHEADS. 
 
 Bessemer steel — 
 
 Bow framing — 
 
 undeistood to have commended itself to 
 
 strengthened with breasthooks, 85. 
 
 Lloyd's surveyors, 302. 
 
 of ships built on the longitudinal system, 
 
 rather dearer than puddled steel, 302. 
 
 94. 
 
 the best material for angle-bars, 302. 
 
 of the 'Northumberland,' 107. 
 
 Chatham experiments on tensile strength 
 
 of the ' Bellerophon,' 117. 
 
 of, 303. 
 
 of the ' Hercules,' 133. 
 
 comparison of effects produced by punching 
 
 Boicman, Mr., keel designed by, 22. 
 
 and drilling, 30(5. 
 
 Bow rudders, 258. 
 
 effect produced by falling weights on, 307. 
 
 Box— 
 
 its use in Government service limited to 
 
 keelsons, 23, 26, 45, 46. 
 
 upper-deck plating, longitudinal frames, 
 
 beams, 139, 278, 280. 
 
 &c., 308. 
 
 stringers on beam ends, 168, 243. 
 
 fracture of ' Hercules' ' stringer-plate, 308. 
 
 catheads, 292. 
 
 etfect produced by annealing after punch- 
 
 Bracket-plate system of fi-aming — 
 
 ing, 309. 
 
 introduced into the ' Bellerophon,' 110. 
 
 ditto, compared with effect produced by 
 
 characteristic features of, 110. 
 
 drilling, 311. 
 
 description of the ' Bellerophon's ' framing. 
 
 much injured by punching, 305, 30G, 314. 
 
 110. 
 
 want of experience in annealing, 315. 
 
 contrasted with the framing of the ' North- 
 
 experiments on plates with punched holes 
 
 umberland' class, 115. 
 
 of different tapers, 32 1 . 
 
 simplifies the work of building, and renders 
 
 '^Best " Iron, Admiralty code of tests for, 385. 
 
 it less costly, 115. 
 
 "Best-Best" Iron — 
 
 double bottom subdivided in, 116. 
 
 used for mast-plating, 264. 
 
 order of conducting the work of building 
 
 Admiialty code of tests for, 385. 
 
 a ship, 123, 458. 
 
 Bilges, strengthened by doubling plates, 5, 7, 
 
 ciin-ied out in the ' Hercules,' ' Monarch,' 
 
 8, 87. 
 
 ' Captain,' ' King William,' and other 
 
 Bilge keels — 
 
 ships, 124. 
 
 their usefulness, 43. 
 
 some details of the ' Hercules' ' framing, 
 
 of ' Great Britain,' 43. 
 
 124, 126, 128, 129, 131, 133. 
 
 M. Dupuy de Lome on, 43. 
 
 ditto of the 'Captain's' framing, 125, 126, 
 
 of iron-clads, 43. 
 
 129, 130. 
 
 of the Indian troop-ship ' Malabar,' 44. 
 
 ditto of the ' Invincible's ' framing, 127, 
 
 directions in which they should be fixed, 
 
 132. 
 
 45. 
 
 diminishes the weight of hull, 134. 
 
 Bilge keelsons, 46. 
 
 Bracket-plates — 
 
 'Birkenhead,'' the — 
 
 to beam ends, 149. 
 
 keel of, 21. 
 
 horizontal, to bulkhead frames, 223. 
 
 side keelsons of, 45. 
 
 Breasthooks — 
 
 stem of, 48. 
 
 at bows of transversely-framed ships, 85. 
 
 stern post of, 56. 
 
 at bow of ' Northumberland,' 107. 
 
 framing of, 74. 
 
 longitudinal frames act as powerful, 94, 
 
 floor-plates of, 76. 
 
 118. 
 
 beams of, 142. 
 
 deck -stringers converted into, 170. 
 
 beam -end connections of, 148. 
 
 'Brick' arrangement of butts of outside plating. 
 
 stringer arrangements of, 166. 
 
 189. 
 
 outside plating of, 211. 
 
 Bridge construction, theory and practice of, 1, 
 
 bulkheads of, 214. 
 
 14, 345. 
 
 topsides of, 237. 
 
 Brown and Har field, Messrs,, their riding-bitts. 
 
 Bitts, around masts, 276. 
 
 277. 
 
 riding, 277. 
 
 , Messrs., of Hylton, their rivet-making 
 
 'Black Prince,' the — 
 
 machine, 328. 
 
 weight of hull per 100 feet of length, 134. 
 
 'Bruiser,' the, her collision with the ' Haswell,* 
 
 butt-fastenings of outside plating, 205. 
 
 215. 
 
 Blockade-runner — 
 
 Bulb-iron — 
 
 connections of stem with flat-plate keel, 50. 
 
 for keelsons, 26, 30, 46. 
 
 outline specififation of a steel-built, 324. 
 
 for beams, 139, 145. 
 
 Body-post of screw steamers, 58, 64. 
 
 Bulkheads, watertiaht — 
 
 Bollard heads, 291. 
 
 introduced by Mr. Charles Wye Williams, 
 
 Bow framing — 
 
 213. 
 
 ordinary of ships built on transverse system. 
 
 give increased safety and structural strength, 
 
 83. 
 
 135, 213. 
 
 with cant frames, 83. 
 
 usually transverse, 213. 
 
 with diagonal breasthooks, 84. 
 
 sometimes longitudinal, 213,
 
 526 
 
 Index. 
 
 BULKHEADS. 
 
 CAST STEEL. 
 
 Bulkheads, watertight — 
 
 Butt-fastenings — 
 
 usual dispositions of, in merchant ships, 
 
 examples of calculations of strengths, 111, 
 
 214. 
 
 362, 365, 371, 374. 
 
 importance of collision, and stuffing-box, 
 
 Butts, disposition of — 
 
 215. 
 
 requires great care, 14, 180. 
 
 usual disposition of, in iron-clads, 215. 
 
 in side-bar keel of Queen,' 29. 
 
 no absolute rule can be given for positions. 
 
 in flat-plate keel of — 
 
 215. 
 
 ' Northumberland,' 35. 
 
 require careful stiffening and good con- 
 
 ' Hercules,' 38. 
 
 nections, 11, IS. 
 
 ' Captain,' 40. 
 
 arrangements of plating and stitTeners of. 
 
 in longitudinal frames of — 
 
 216. 
 
 ' Hercules,' 129. 
 
 example of — 
 
 ' Captain,' 130. 
 
 for a small ship, 217. 
 
 in transverse framing of ' Hercules,' 131. 
 
 for a large merchant ship, 217. 
 
 in made beams, 143, 145. 
 
 for a French ditto 221. 
 
 of deck plating, 170, 174. 
 
 Mr. Slackrow's proposals for, 220, 222. 
 
 of outside plating — 
 
 in the iron-clads of the Navy, 220. 
 
 how made, 185, 188, 428, 439, 445, 
 
 connections with outside plating — 
 
 449, 454. 
 
 early methods, 222. 
 
 examples of, 189. 
 
 usual methods, 223. 
 
 rules for, 192. 
 
 use of brackets, 223. 
 
 of bulkhead plating, 216. 
 
 connections in ships with double bottoms, 
 
 of iron masts, 264. 
 
 225. 
 
 Butt-straps — 
 
 broad plate liners to bulkhead frames, 226. 
 
 arrangements of, to outside plating, 203. 
 
 proposed plans for connecting — 
 
 breadths of for double and treble riveting, 
 
 Mr. Hodgson's, 226. 
 
 207. 
 
 Mr. Rae's, 227. 
 
 advantage of using double, 346. 
 
 Mr. Ash's, 227. 
 
 Butts— 
 
 connections of upper edges, 228. 
 
 usual modes of fitting, 194. 
 
 watertight work on — 
 
 planing-machines now very often employed 
 
 where keelsons, &c., pass through, 102, 
 
 for fitting, 195. 
 
 105, 228. 
 
 mode of caulking, 438. 
 
 testing of, 235. 
 
 
 watertight doors to — 
 
 Calculation of relative strengths — 
 
 sliding in frames, 230, 232, 233. 
 
 of flat-keel plate and butt-strap — 
 
 hinged to ditto 232. 
 
 of ' Hercules,' 39. 
 
 sluice-valves to, 234, 
 
 of Captain,' 41. 
 
 preparation of, 437, 442, 448, 452, 461. 
 
 of ships built ou transverse and longitudinal 
 
 partial, the employment of, 89, 236. 
 
 systems, 92. 
 
 Butterley Company's beams, 139, 145. 
 
 breaking strengths of No. 6 
 
 Butt-fastenings — 
 
 longitudinal in ' Bellerophon,' 111. 
 
 of longitudinal ties require careful ari'ange- 
 
 breaking strengths of butt- 
 
 ment, 10, 164. 
 
 fastenings — 
 
 of keel-work, 20, 29, 33, 38, 41. 
 
 of plate-ties, 362. 
 
 of longitudinal frames, 99, 102, 111. 
 
 of stringer-plate, 365. 
 
 of deck-stringers and tie-plates, 164, 365. 
 
 of outside plating of ' Hercules,' 371. 
 
 of deck-plating, 170-174, 368. 
 
 of ditto of ' Samaria,' 374. 
 
 of outside-plating, 200, 205, 368. 
 
 Cant-frames at extremities, 83, 151. 
 
 of mast-plating, 261, 264. 
 
 'Captain,' the — 
 
 single riveting for, 1 1, 200. 
 
 details of keel, 40. 
 
 double-zigzag riveting for, 200, 205, 359, 
 
 longitudinal framing of, 125. 
 
 373, 443. 
 
 watertight longitudinals of, 125. 
 
 treble- zigzag riveting for, 205. 
 
 armour shelf of, 127. 
 
 double-chain riveting for, 200, 205, 359, 
 
 endings of longitudinals, 129. 
 
 369, 436, 443. 
 
 disposition of butts of longitudinals, 130. 
 
 treble-chain ditto, 200, 205, 361, 436. 
 
 lower-deck stringer, 167. 
 
 quadruple-chain ditto, 205, 361. 
 
 stealers in outside plating, 1 87. 
 
 other arrangements, 206, 365. 
 
 long plates used in, 193. 
 
 experimental researches on, 358. 
 
 butt-fastenings of outside plating, 205. 
 
 Mr. Fairbairn's conclusions with respect to, 
 
 bulkhead connections, 225. 
 
 and remarks thereon, 359. 
 
 Cast steel — 
 
 of plate-ties — 
 
 tests of tensile strength of plates, 313. 
 
 Mr. Baiton's arrangement, 361. 
 
 tests of plates annealed and unannealed afcer 
 
 Mr. Barnaby's ditto 362. 
 
 punching, 314.
 
 Index. 
 
 CAST STEEL. 
 
 527 
 
 DIAGONAL. 
 
 Cast steel — 
 
 costs nearly twice as much as Bessemer 
 
 steel, 314. 
 Mr. Krupp's remarks oa the treatment of, 
 
 a22. 
 
 Catheads, 292. 
 Caulking — 
 
 of butts and laps of outside plating, 438. 
 , , edges of armour plating, 483. 
 
 Chain plates, modes of fitting, 289. 
 Chain riveting — 
 
 introduced by Mr. Fairbairn, 202. 
 
 compared with zigzag, 202. 
 
 for eds;es of outside plating, 200, 202, 436, 
 
 44^3, 
 for butt-fastenings, 200, 205, 359, 369, 
 436, 443, 
 Chatham experiments — 
 
 on Bessemer steel plates, 303, 321. 
 on pitch of rivets in watertight work, 336. 
 on shearing strengths of riveted work, 351. 
 with reference to Palliser armour-bolts, 480. 
 'China,' the — 
 keel of, 27. 
 side keelsons of, 46, 
 details of framing and plating, 88. 
 stringer arrangements of, 166, 
 topsiiies of, 239. 
 Clamp-plates — 
 
 used to give longitudinal strength, 5, 15, 
 
 88, 89. 
 connections with deck-stringers and beams, 
 
 148, 166. 
 arrangements of butt-fastenings of, 368. 
 Clark, Mr. — 
 
 his writings on bridge construction, 1, 345. 
 his description of Roberts' punching ma- 
 chine, 198. 
 his remarks on zigzag and chain riveting, 202. 
 his statement of tensile strength of rivet- 
 iron, 326. 
 his statement of pressure required to -punch 
 
 a 1-inch hole in a |-inch plate, 338. 
 his description of a riveting machine, 341. 
 his experiments on the shearing strengths 
 
 of rivet-iron and rivets, 349. 
 on the contraction of rivets in cooling, 351. 
 on the friction of riveted joints, 352, 356. 
 Classification — 
 
 of systems of framing, 73. 
 Lloyd's system of, for iron ships, 405, 41 7. 
 the Liverpool ditto ditto 412, 417. 
 Clinker arrangement of outside plating, 181. 
 Clyde, the, system of shipbuilding practised on, 
 
 438. 
 Collision bulkheads, importance of, 215. 
 'Colombo,' the, middle-line keelson of, 46. 
 'Columbian,' the, ditto , 46. 
 
 Comparison — 
 
 between the ' Annette' and a transversely - 
 framed ship of the same dimensions, 91, 
 92. 
 of weights of hull of ships built on the 
 bracket-plate system with those of 
 other ships, 134. 
 
 Conical-point or boiler riveting, 330, 341. 
 ' Connaught,' the, bilge strengthenings of, 6. 
 Co7inecting-pieces of stern frames, 60, 65. 
 Connections of — 
 
 bar-keels with keelson-plates, 22, 
 
 lengths of bar-keels, 24. 
 
 bar stems with keels, 49. 
 
 bar stern posts with keels, 56. 
 
 floor-plates with centre-plate keelsons, 79. 
 
 beam ends with the side in wood and iron 
 ships compared, 135. 
 
 beam ends in iron ships, 148. 
 
 pillar-heads to beams, 156, 158. 
 
 pillar-heels, 156-158. 
 
 deck-stringers with outside plating, 161, 
 166. 
 
 bulkheads with the hull, 222. 
 Construction, ship, primary considerations of, 3. 
 Cotters and pins, for temporarily securing 
 
 riveted work, 340, 342, 435. 
 Countersunk — 
 
 riveting, 196, 329, 340. 
 
 heads to armour-bolts, rule for, 476. 
 Covers — 
 
 ventilating, to iron lower masts, 266. 
 
 watertight, to manholes in iron flats, 283. 
 Cradle for bending armour-plates, 470. 
 Qross-straps on floors with side-bar keels, 28. 
 Cross-trees, mode of fltting to iron masts, 265. 
 Cutting-away arrangements for iron masts — 
 
 Messrs. Finch and Heath's, 269. 
 
 Ml'. Lamport's, 269. 
 
 Mr. Roberts', 270. 
 
 Daft, Mr., his plan for outside plating, 185. 
 Beck-houses, 294. 
 Decks — 
 
 their importance as regards structural 
 
 strength, 135. 
 framing of {see Beams), 
 stringers on (see Stringers), 
 tie-plates on (see Tie-plates), 
 iron upper, great importance of, 159. 
 adoption of complete or partial iron upper, 
 
 when great longitudinal strength is re- 
 quired, 159. 
 an-angemenls of plating in ordinary iron, 1 70. 
 particulars of iron — 
 
 of the ' Warrior,' 171. 
 
 of the 'Northumberland,' 172. 
 
 of the ' Bellernphon,' 172. 
 
 of the 'Hercules,' 174, 
 
 of the ' Aftondatore,' 175. 
 arrangements of iron, proposed by Mr. 
 
 Barnaby, 175. 
 planking of, and its fastenings, 177. 
 , , mode of caulking, 179. 
 
 works on, how proceeded with, 437, 442, 
 
 448, 452, 462. 
 'Defence,' the — 
 
 iron masts of, 262. 
 
 watertight scuttles fitted to iron flats, 282. 
 Diagonal — 
 
 frames in iron ships, 73. 
 
 bow framing of the ' Persia,' 84.
 
 528 
 
 Index, 
 
 FAIRBAIRN, MR. 
 
 Diagonal — 
 
 ties on transverse frames, 86. 
 
 half-beams at extremities of decks, 151. 
 
 tie-plates on decks, 160. 
 
 arrangement of butts of outside plating, 190. 
 
 stays of the ' Pacifico,' &c., 295. 
 ^Dictator,' the, keel of, 2 1 . 
 Disposition of butts (see Butts). 
 Doors, watertight, to bulkheads — 
 
 sliding, 230, 232, 233. 
 
 hinged, 232. 
 Double bottom — 
 
 advantages of, 95, 97, 110. 
 
 adopted in the bracket-plate system, 110. 
 Double-ricetiiig — 
 
 zigzag, for edges of outside plating, 200, 
 202, 373, 443. 
 
 zigzag, for butts, 200,205, 359,373,443. 
 
 chain, for edges, 200, 202, 436, 443. 
 
 chain, for butts, 200, 205, 359, 369, 436, 
 443. 
 
 for butts of mast-plating, 261. 
 Doubling-plates — 
 
 to sheer-strakes, 7, 8, 10, 161. 
 
 at bilges, 5, 7, 8, 87. 
 
 on iron masts at wedging decks, 267. 
 'Dover,' the — 
 
 keel of, 19, 20. 
 
 side keelsons of, 45. 
 
 hollow stem of, 48. 
 
 hollow stern post of, 56. 
 
 frames of, 74. 
 
 floor-plates of, 76. 
 
 beams of, 142. 
 
 outside plating of, 180, 182. 
 
 topsides of, 237. 
 
 rudder of, 247. 
 Doyne, Mr., his experiments on the shearing 
 
 strengths of riveted work, 350. 
 Drifting unfair holes, evil effects of, 198, 341. 
 Drift keels (see Bilge keels). 
 Drilling — 
 
 sometimes adopted instead of punching, 198. 
 
 machines, the use of, advocated, 199. 
 
 reduces the strength of steel plates less than 
 punching, if annealing is not practised, 
 306, 312. 
 
 also preferable to punching as regai'ds its 
 eiiect on the strength of iron plates, 
 339. 
 
 reduces the shearing strengths of the rivets 
 a little as compared with punching, 350. 
 Dupuy de Lome, M., his remarks — 
 
 on wood keels, 18. 
 
 on bilge keels, 43. 
 
 on framing of early ships, 74. 
 
 on iron and wood beams, 137. 
 
 on plating of early ships, 182. 
 
 on rudders of ditto, 248. 
 
 his investigation of the proportion of di- 
 ameters of rivets to thickness of plates, 
 335. 
 Dynamical tests — 
 
 of iron and steel plates, 307. 
 
 of armour-bolts, 398. 
 
 'Earl de GrcyMnd Ripon,' the keel of, 24. 
 Early iron ships — 
 wood keels of, 18. 
 hollow-iron keels of, 19, 21. 
 thin-plate ditto, 24. 
 hollow-iron stems of, 48. 
 
 , , stern posts of, 56. 
 
 frames of, 73. 
 floor- plates of, 76. 
 beams of, 136, 142. 
 beam-end connections of, 148. 
 deck-stringers of, 165. 
 outside plating of, 180, 208. 
 watertight bujkheads of, 214, 222. 
 topsides of, 237. 
 ruilders of, 247. 
 Ede, Mr., on the treatment of steel, 309, 318. 
 Edge riveting — 
 
 of outside plating, single, 200, 443. 
 
 double, 200, 202, 373, 
 
 436, 443. 
 of mast-plating, 261. 
 Eggertz, Prof., his system of colour-testing for 
 
 iron and steel, 403. 
 'Euphrates,' the, made beams of, 1 45. 
 Expansion drawings of outside of ship, use of, 
 
 186, 439, 450, 454, 
 Experiments, results of^ — 
 
 on tensile strength and ductility of — 
 
 Bessemer steel plates, 299, 303, 305, 
 309. 
 
 puddled ditto, 299, 300. 
 
 cast ditto, 313. 
 
 steel toughened in oil, 319. 
 on angles of, bending cold, of Bessemer steel 
 
 plates, 301. 
 on the strength of Bessemer steel and iron 
 
 plates to resist sudden blows, 307. 
 on the comparative effects of punching and 
 
 drilling, on Bessemer steel plates, 306, 
 
 307. 
 ditto on puddled ditto, 312. 
 ditto on iron plates, 339. 
 on the effect produced by annealing after 
 punching on Bessemer steel plates, 310, 
 
 311. 
 ditto on puddled steel plates, 313. 
 ditto on cast ditto, 314. 
 on the effect of increased taper in punched 
 
 holes in steel plates, 321. 
 on the pitch of rivets in watertight work, 
 
 336. 
 on pressures required to punch holes in iron 
 
 plates, 338. 
 on the diameters of pins for suspension- 
 bridge chains, 347. 
 on the shearing strengths of rivets and 
 
 riveted work, 349. 
 on the friction of riveted joints, 353. 
 on the strengths of ditto, 358. 
 on armour-bolts under impact, 398. 
 on Palliser bolts, 480. 
 
 Fairhairn, Mr., his comparison of a ship to a 
 girder, 2.
 
 Index. 
 
 FAIRBAIRN, MR. 
 
 529 
 
 GARBOARD STRAKKS. 
 
 Fairhairn, Mr. — 
 
 his remarks on the relative weights of iron 
 
 and wood beams, 137. 
 his remarks oa the strengths of different 
 
 sectional forms of beams, 140. 
 his advocacy of iron upper decks, 159. 
 his proposal for cellular stringers to upper 
 
 decks, 169. 
 his remarks on drilled and punched holes, 
 
 198. 
 his remarks on butt-fastenings of outside 
 
 plating, 200, 205, 360. 
 introduced chain-riveting, 202. 
 his remarks on reduction in thickness of 
 
 plating at the extremities of a ship, 
 
 210. 
 his statement of the tensile strength of 
 
 rivet-iron, 326. 
 his remarks on the proper diameter of 
 
 rivets, 333. 
 his remarks on the pitch of rivets in watei-- 
 
 tight work, 335. 
 introduced riveting machines, 342. 
 his remarks on riveting machines, 342. 
 his remarks on the fi-iction of riveted joints, 
 
 357. 
 his experiments and remarks on the strengths 
 
 of riveted joints, 359. 
 Fastenings of — • 
 
 deck planking, 178. 
 butts of plating {see Butt-fastenings). 
 Finch and Heath, Jlessrs., their parting joint 
 
 for iron masts, 269. 
 Flat-plate keels — 
 
 of merchant ships, with continuous centre- 
 plates, 30. 
 of merchant ships, with intercostal keelsons, 
 
 30. 
 of ships of the Royal Navy, 31. 
 dispositions and fastenings of butts of, 33, 
 
 35, 38, 40. 
 combined with bar-keels, 42. 
 of longitudinally framed ships, 42. 
 their connections with solid stems, 49. 
 
 , , , , stern posts, 59. 
 
 arrangements of floor-plates with, 80. 
 work in connection with, 123, 456. 
 Flat-plate keelsons — 
 with bar-keels, 27. 
 with side-bar keels, 25, 28, 29. 
 with flat-plate keels, 30, 31, 32. 
 Flexibility in skin-plating — 
 most injurious, 11. 
 
 prevented by bracket-plate framing, 115. 
 Floor, fixed or movable, used for taking account 
 
 of, and bending frames and floor-plates, 
 
 &c., 429, 438, 449, 450. 
 Floor-plates — 
 
 of early iron ships, 76. 
 present aiTangements of — 
 
 with bar-keels, 79. 
 
 with hollow-plate keels, 79. 
 
 with side-bar keels, 79. 
 
 with flat-plate keels, 80. 
 the preparation of, 432, 440, 447, 450. 
 
 Flush an-angements of out-;ide plating, 180, 
 
 185. 
 Forge tests — 
 
 examples of, for Bessemer steel plates, 301. 
 Admiralty code, for plate iron, 385, 394. 
 
 , , for steel, 399. 
 
 of angle-bars, 396, 400. 
 of rivets, 397. 
 of armour-bolts, 398. 
 Forging, mode of — 
 a large stem, 54. 
 a large stern post, 63. 
 Forquenot, M., his designs for ocean mail 
 
 steamships, 160. 
 Forrester, Messrs., their compressed-air riveting 
 
 machine, 343. 
 Fox, Sir Charles, on the pins of suspension- 
 bridge chains, 34* 
 Frames, transverse — 
 of early iron ships, 73. 
 present arrangements of ordinary, 77. 
 preparation ot; 429, 439, 445, 450, 
 longitudinal — 
 
 in ships built on Mr. Scott Russell's 
 
 system, 90, 93. 
 in ships built by Messrs. Palmer, 96. 
 of the combined transverse and longi- 
 tudinal system, 98, 102. 
 of the bracket-plate system, 110, 124, 
 
 129. 
 preparation of, 457. 
 short tiansverse — 
 
 of the combined transverse and longi- 
 tudinal system, 100, 106. 
 of the bracket-plate system, 115, 116. 
 preparation of, 456. 
 continuous transverse and behind armour — 
 of iron-clad ships, 99, 106, 116, 131. 
 preparation of, 457. 
 Framing, systems of — 
 the transverse, 73. 
 
 the longitudinal of Mr. Scott Russell, 89. 
 the combined transverse and longitudinal, 98. 
 the bracket-plate, 110. 
 of bow and stern (see Bow and Stern 
 
 Framing), 
 of decks (see Beams), 
 of mast-holes, 272. 
 of hatchways, 153, 274. 
 process of, with ordinary transverse frames, 
 
 432, 442, 446, 451. 
 process of, with bracket-plate framing, 123, 
 458, 463. 
 Freminville, M. de, — 
 
 on watertight bulkheads, 222. 
 on French method of preparing frame 
 angle-irons, 430. 
 Friction rollers, with balanced rudders, 254. 
 of riveted joints, 352. 
 
 Garhoard strakes — 
 
 with bar-keels, 19, 42. 
 with hollow-iron keels, 20. 
 with thin-plate keels, 24. 
 with side-bar keels, 25, 29. 
 
 2 M
 
 530 
 
 Index. 
 
 GARBOARD STRAKES. 
 
 IMPERADOR, IMPERATRIZ. 
 
 Gnrhoard strakes — 
 
 with flat-plate keels, 30, 32, 38, 40, 42. 
 
 shifts of butts of, 29, 35, 38, 188, 192. 
 Garfoi-th, Messrs., their riveting machine, 342. 
 Girder, comparison of a ship to a — 
 
 principally due to Mr. Faii-bairn, 2. 
 
 is not strictly accurate, 3. 
 
 is not sufficiently regarded, 159. 
 Girders, longitudimd, behind armour, 99, 114, 
 
 184,' 455, 460, 466, 484-486, 489. 
 Girders, imder beams where pillars cannot be 
 
 fitted, 158. 
 Grantham, Mr., his remarks — 
 
 on wood keels, 18. 
 
 on the Oakfarm Company's keel, 20. 
 
 on the ' Peisia's ' bow framing, 84. 
 
 on Lamb's patent for plating, 184. 
 
 on the fitting of Witt-joints, 194. 
 
 on the riveting of outside plating, 200. 
 
 on iron masts, 259, 260. 
 
 on riveting-machines, 342. 
 ^ Great Britain,' the, bilge keels of, 43. 
 
 balanced rudder of, 252. 
 'Great Eastern,' the, keel of, 42. 
 
 framing of, 93. 
 
 stern framing of, 95. 
 
 saved by her double bottom, when ashore, 
 95. . 
 
 deck beams of, 138. 
 
 deck framing of, 152. 
 
 construction of the upper deck of, 177. 
 
 bottom plates used in, 192. 
 
 longitudinal bulkheads of, 213. 
 
 bulkhead connections of, 226. 
 Grounding, examples of injuries caused by, 14. 
 Gunwales — 
 
 arrangements of (see Topsides). 
 
 rounded, 241. 
 Gutter-plates {see Flat-plate keelsons'). 
 Gutter watei-ways, 160, 239, 242, 244. 
 
 ITalf-heams — 
 
 diagonal arrangement of, at extremities, 151. 
 
 in wake of hatchways, &e., 153. 
 Hanging rudders, ordinary modes of, 251. 
 Harland and Wolff, Messrs. — 
 
 their mode of forming beam-knees, 147. 
 
 adopt iron upper decks, 160. 
 
 their watertight deck-fastenings, 179. 
 
 use quadruple- chain riveting for butts, 
 206. 
 Harvey, Mr., on the advantages of machine- 
 riveting, 343. 
 ' Hasfrell,' collision between the ' Bruiser ' and, 
 
 215. 
 Hatchways, framing of, 153, 274. 
 'Hector,' the — 
 
 weight of hull per 100 feet of length, 134. 
 
 iron masts of, 263. 
 Heel-ropes to rudders, 251. 
 Henderson, JMi., his description of an iron 
 
 collier built without frames, 73. 
 'Hercules,' the — 
 
 details of keel of, 37. 
 
 bilge keels of, 44. 
 
 * Hercules,' the — 
 
 stern post of, 71. 
 
 longitudinal frames of, 124. 
 
 wing-passage bulkheads of, 124. 
 
 watertight longitudinals of, 124. 
 
 annour shelf of, 126. 
 
 endings of longitudinals of, 129. 
 
 disposition of butts of longitudinals of, 129. 
 
 transverse framing of, 131. 
 
 ari'angenients of butts and scarphs of conti- 
 nuous transverse frames, 131. 
 
 framing of unprotecteil parts of upper 
 works, 133. 
 
 bow and stern framing of, 133. 
 
 beam-end connections of, 151. 
 
 lower-deck stringer of, 168. 
 
 details of deck-plating of, 174, 
 
 skin-plating behind armour of, 184. 
 
 shift of butts of ditto, 191. 
 
 riveting of bottom plating of, 207. 
 
 details of outside plating of, 212. 
 
 watertight bulkheads, 215, 220, 225. 
 
 topsides of, 244. 
 
 balanced rudder of, 255. 
 
 framing of mast-hole of, 273. 
 
 boiler hatch of, 275. 
 
 mast-steps of, 284. 
 
 fracture of steel stringer plate of, 308. 
 
 calculation of strengths of butt-fastenings of 
 bottom plating, 371. 
 
 table of sizes and pitches of rivets in, 378. 
 
 armour-bolts of, 482. 
 
 target, 489. 
 'Himalay I,' the, details of outside plating of, 
 
 211. 
 Hodgson, Mr. — 
 
 of Liverpool, his design of a collier without 
 frames, 73. 
 
 his patented plan for bulkhead connections, 
 226. 
 Hold-beams — 
 
 sectional forms of, 139. 
 
 connections with side, 149. 
 Hold stanchions, connections of heads and heels, 
 
 158. 
 Hold-stringers, 47. 
 Hollow iron keels — 
 
 of early iron ships, 19, 21. 
 
 the Oakfarm Company's, 20. 
 
 the ' Nevka's ' and ' Dictator's,' 21. 
 
 sometimes filled with wood, 21. 
 
 outside a flat garboard, 21. 
 
 given by Mr. Murray, 22. 
 
 arrangements of floor-plates with, 79. 
 
 stems, 48. 
 
 stern posts, 56. 
 
 Holyhead mail-boats, the, bilge-strengthenings 
 
 of, 6. 
 Hdchinson, Mr., on the advantages of drilling, 
 199. 
 
 'Iberian' and 'Illyrian^ iron upper deck of, 
 
 160. 
 'Imperador ' and ' Impcratriz,' bilge sti-ength- 
 
 enings ot^ 6.
 
 Index. 
 
 531 
 
 INCONSTANT. 
 
 KING WILLIAM. 
 
 'Inconstant,' arrangement of outside plating of 
 the, 184. 
 shift of butts of outside plating of the, 191. 
 Indian troop-ships — 
 
 built on bracket-plate system, 36. 
 bilge-keels of, 44. 
 connection of stem with keel, 50. 
 stern posts of, 59. 
 breasthooks at bows, 85. 
 made beams of, 145. 
 Intercostal keelsons, middle-line — 
 importance of, 7, 17, 26. 
 with bar-keels, 22, 26. 
 with flat-plate keels, 30. 
 
 side, 46, 47. 
 
 'Invincible ' class, the — 
 armour shelf of, 128. 
 alterations in framing of, 128, 132. 
 beam-end connections in battery of, 149. 
 skin-platiug behind armour- of, 184. 
 balanced rudders of, 252. 
 Iron-clads — 
 
 For details of, see ' Achilles,' ' Agincourt,' 
 Armoar, ' Bellerophon,' ' Captain,' 
 ' Defence.' ' Hercules,' ' Invincible,' 
 ' King William,' ' Lord Warden,' 
 ' Minotaur,' ' Monarch,' ' Northumber- 
 land,' ' Penelope,' ' Pervenetz,' ' Resist- 
 ance,' TuiTet-ships, ' Warrior.' 
 Iron decks, upper — 
 
 great importance of, 159. 
 the adoption of complete or partial, 159. 
 not successful without deck-planking, 177. 
 ordHiary an-angements of plating, &c., 170. 
 details of, in several iron-clads, 171-174. 
 Mr. Barnaby's proposal for, 175. 
 Iron niasts {sec Masts). 
 Iron Plate Committee — 
 
 their remarks on the heating of armour- 
 plates, 469. 
 their conclusions with respect to grooving 
 
 the edges of armour-plates, 473. 
 their remarks on the use of through-armour- 
 bolts, 475. 
 ditto, on the use of French screw armour- 
 bolts, 476. 
 their trial of the small-plate target, 476, 482. 
 Iron plates — '■ 
 
 quality of, used in shipbuilding, 384. 
 Admiralty tests for " Best " and " Best- 
 Best," 385. 
 Iron topsides, 237, 239. 
 'Istrian,' the, iron upper deck of, 160. 
 
 Jensen, Mr., his remarks on the longitudinal 
 system, 93. 
 
 'John Garrou:,' the, bad workmanship in, 182. 
 
 Jones, Mr., his experiments on pressures re- 
 quired in punching, 338. 
 
 Keels, wood — 
 
 of early ii'on ships, 18. 
 
 evils resulting from through-bolting of, 18. 
 , bar — 
 
 rabbeted and plain, 19. 
 
 Keels, bar — 
 
 middle-line keelsons used with, 22, 23, 26. 
 connections of lengths of, 24. 
 , , with stems, 48. 
 , , with stern posts, 56. 
 
 arrangements of floor-plates with,' 79. 
 
 , hollow iron — 
 
 of early iron ships, 19, 21. 
 Oakfarm Company's patent, 20. 
 arrangements recently adopted, 21. 
 
 , , of floor-plates with, 79. 
 
 , thin-plate, substituted in some cases for 
 
 bar-keels, 24. 
 
 , side -bar — 
 
 ordinary aiTangements of, 25, 27, 29. 
 
 with flat plate under, 25. 
 
 keelsons used with, 27. 
 
 with cross-straps on floors, 28. 
 
 made up of several thicknesses, 28. 
 
 with I-shaped keelson, 30. 
 
 connection with stems, 49. 
 
 , , stern posts, 57. 
 
 arrangements of floor-plates with, 79. 
 
 , flat-plate — • 
 
 of merchant ships, 30. 
 
 of iron-clads, 31, 32, 37, 40. 
 
 with external bar-keel, 42. 
 
 of longitudinally-framed ships, 42. 
 
 connections with solid stems, 49. 
 
 , , stern posts, 59. 
 
 arrangements of floor-plates with, 80. 
 
 , side, bilge, or drift — 
 
 in early ships, 43. 
 
 arrangements recently adopted, 43. 
 
 directions in which they should be fixed, 45. 
 
 , work connected with the preparation of, 
 
 123, 431, 440, 446, 451, 456. 
 Keelsons — 
 
 should be made c»tinuous, 9, 10, 47. 
 middle-line — 
 
 wood used in early iroQ ships, 18, 19. 
 intercostal, importance of, 7, 17, 26. 
 with bar-keels, 22, 26. 
 , , with flat-plate keels, 30. 
 , , bulb-iron on, 26, 30, 46. 
 
 box, 23, 26, 46. 
 
 I-shaped, with bar-keels, 23, 26, 45. 
 , , with side-bar keels, 30, 81. 
 continuous plate, with side-bar keels. 
 
 25, 27. 
 continuous plate, with flat-plate keels, 
 
 30, 31, 32, 37,40. 
 flat-plate, or gutter, with bar-keels, 27. 
 , , with side-bar keels, 
 
 25, 28, 29, 80. 
 flat-plate, or gutter, with flat-plate 
 keels, 30, 31, 32. 
 side or sister — 
 
 wood, used in early ships, 45. 
 iron, ditto, 45. 
 
 iron, now employed, 46. 
 'King William,' the — • 
 
 built on bracket-frame system, 36. 
 
 stem of, 54. 
 
 stern post proposed for, 65. 
 
 2 M 2
 
 sr- 
 
 Index. 
 
 KING WILLIAM. 
 
 MAST. 
 
 ' King William,' the — 
 
 Longitudinal system of framing — 
 
 stern post fitted to, 71. 
 
 Mr. Scott Russell's descri|ition of, 89. 
 
 balanced rudder of, 252. 
 
 the ' Annette ' built on the, 90. 
 
 Kirkaldy, Mr. — 
 
 the ' Great Eastern ' built on the, 93. 
 
 on toughening steel in oil, 320. 
 
 compared with transverse framing, 91-93. 
 
 on tensile strength of rivet-iron, 327. 
 
 advantages claimed for, 93. 
 
 on rivet-steel, 382. 
 
 objections made to, 95. 
 
 Krupp, Mr., on the treatment of cast steel, 
 
 bow and stern framing of ships built on 
 
 322. 
 
 the, 94. 
 
 
 deck-framing of ships built on the, 152. 
 
 Laird, Messrs. — 
 
 butt-fastenings of outside plating of ships 
 
 their practice of strengthenins; bilges, 3. 
 
 built on the, 201. 
 
 For details of work in ships built by, 
 
 bulkhead connections of ships built on the. 
 
 see ' Birkenhead,' ' Captain,' ' Dover,' 
 
 225. 
 
 ' Malta,' ' Nun,' ' Queen,' ' Scorpion,' 
 
 Longitudinal ties — 
 
 and ' VVivern.' 
 
 should be continuous, 9. 
 
 their mode of welding beam-knees, 147. 
 
 in transversely-framed ships, 86. 
 
 iron topsides introduced by, 237. 
 
 ^Lord Warden,' the — ■ 
 
 Oliver rivet-making machine used by, 327. 
 
 chain-plates of, 290. 
 
 their mode of building ships with bracket- 
 
 target, 487. 
 
 plate framing, 463. 
 
 Lower-deck beams — 
 
 Lartih, Mr., bis patented plan for outside 
 
 sectional forms of, 139. 
 
 plating, 183. 
 
 connections with side, 149. 
 
 Lamport, Mr. — 
 
 Luke, Mr., his influence on merchant ship- 
 
 on the cost of iron masts, 2(i0. 
 
 building, 17. 
 
 on mast-heads, 266. 
 
 Lung ley, Mr. — 
 
 on mast-heels, 268. 
 
 keel of the ' Roman ' built by, 25. 
 
 on cutting-a way arrangements, 269. 
 
 his plan of watertight flats and trunks, 117, 
 
 Laps of plate edges — 
 
 216. 
 
 breadths required for various kinds of 
 
 
 riveting, 203. 
 
 
 objections to in bulkheads, 218, 
 
 Machines — * 
 
 mode of caulking, 438. 
 
 used for bending beams, 145. 
 
 Laurie, Jlr., on the cost of iron masts, 260. 
 
 , , straightening beams, 155. % 
 
 Letty, Mr., his remarks on arrangements of 
 
 planing, 195, 473. 
 
 plating, 208. 
 
 punching, Mr. Roberts', 198. 
 
 'Limenia,' the, deck-houses of, 294. 
 
 drilling, proposed multiple, 199. 
 
 Liners, plate, to outside strakes — 
 
 rivet-making — 
 
 on ordinary frames, 1^, 183, 194, 436. 
 
 the 'Oliver,' 327. 
 
 on bulkhead frames, 226. 
 
 ordinary forms of steam, 327. 
 
 Liverpool Underwriters' — 
 
 Messrs. Browns', 328. 
 
 liules for iron ships, 510. 
 
 riveting — 
 
 differences between present Rules and those 
 
 introduced by Mr. Fairbairn, 342. 
 
 of 1862, 412. 
 
 ordinary forms of, 342. 
 
 differences between present Rules and Lloyd's 
 
 Messrs. Forresters' portable, 343. 
 
 Rules, 416. 
 
 testing, common arrangement of, 391. 
 
 Lloyd's — 
 
 for bending armour-plates, 470. 
 
 Regulations for steel-built ships, 302, 427. 
 
 Mac Intyre, Mr., his design of the ' Rouen,' 97. 
 
 Rules for iron ships, 491. 
 
 Mackrow, Mr. — 
 
 differences between present Rules and those 
 
 stern frame of ' Pervenetz ' designed by, 72. 
 
 of 1862, 405. 
 
 his proposal for floor-plates of flat-bottomed 
 
 differences between present Rules and the 
 
 ships, 81. 
 
 Liverpool Underwriters' Rules, 416. 
 
 his description of the ' Paramatta's' bulk- 
 
 Longitudinal frames — 
 
 heads, 217. 
 
 act as side keelsons, 47. 
 
 his proposals for bulkheads, 220, 222. 
 
 distribute the transvei-se strength of bulk- 
 
 Made beams — • 
 
 heads, 93, 224. 
 
 sectional forms of, 138. 
 
 in ships built — 
 
 of early iron ships, 142. 
 
 on Mr. Scott Russell's system, 90, 93. 
 
 of the ' Northumberland,' 143. 
 
 by Messrs. Palmer, 96. 
 
 of Indian troop-ships, 145. 
 
 on the combined transverse and longi- 
 
 'Malabar,' the, bilge keels of, 44. 
 
 tudinal system, 98, 102. 
 
 'Malta,' the, keel of, 19. 
 
 on the bracket-plate system, 110, 124, 
 
 Mast — 
 
 129. 
 
 holes, fiamiug of, 272. 
 
 the preparation of, 457. 
 
 steps, 283.
 
 Index. 
 
 533 
 
 Masts, iron, lower — 
 
 Napier, Jlessrs. — 
 
 advantages gained by the use of, 259. 
 
 hollow-iron keelsons adopted by, 46. 
 
 weight and cost of, 260. 
 
 the mode of building ships with bracket- 
 
 usual arrangements of plating and riveting 
 
 plate framing practised by, 463. 
 
 in, 261. 
 
 For details of woik in ships built by, see 
 
 sections of, which have been built, 261. 
 
 ' China,' ' Colombo,' ♦ Malabar,' 'Persia.' 
 
 particulars of the ' Bellerophon's,' 263. 
 
 Mr. J. R. 
 
 ' Monarch's,' 263. 
 
 his plan for stem frames of shallow-draft 
 
 practice of H.M. Service, 264. 
 
 vessels, 60. 
 
 arrangements of heads, 264, 266. 
 
 introduced present plan of plating simul- 
 
 trestle-trees and cross-trees to, 265. 
 
 taneously with Jlr. Scott Russell, 183. 
 
 ventilating covers to, 266. 
 
 his rule for the thickness of outside plating. 
 
 fittings of, 266. 
 
 208. 
 
 doubling plates at wedging decks on, 267. 
 
 'Nemesis,' the, keel of, 23. 
 
 arrangements of heels and step-plates, 267. 
 
 'Nevka,' the, keel of, 21. 
 
 , , fot cutting away, 269. 
 
 'Northumberland,' the — 
 
 weights of masts and tittiugs for a sloop-of- 
 
 details of keel, 32. 
 
 war of 1100 tons, 271. 
 
 , , of stem, 51. 
 
 Materials — 
 
 mode of bending the stem of, 55. 
 
 regulations for quality of, 384, 385, 399. 
 
 stern post arrangements of, 61. 
 
 preparation of demands for, 429, 439, 445, 
 
 welding of body post of, 64. 
 
 449, 453, 465. 
 
 breasthooks at bows, 85, 107. 
 
 Maynard, Mr., his experiments on the effects of 
 
 longitudinal framing of, 102. 
 
 drilling and punching, 339, 350. 
 
 watertight work at bulkheads where longi- 
 
 ^Megasra' the — 
 
 tudinals pass through, 102. 
 
 wood beams of, 136. 
 
 armour shelf of, manufactme, bending, and 
 
 details of outside plating of, 182, 211. 
 
 arrangements, 104. 
 
 topsides of, 238. 
 
 transverse framing of, 106. 
 
 3Iersey Iron Works, mode of bending stems at, 
 
 alterations in the framing from that of the 
 
 55. 
 
 'Warrior,' 107. 
 
 , system of shipbuilding practised on 
 
 bow framing of, 107. 
 
 the, 428. 
 
 stern framing of, 108. 
 
 Middle-line keelsons (see Keelsons). 
 
 partial inner bottom of, 109. 
 
 Milwalf Iron Works — 
 
 framing of, compared with the ' Belle- 
 
 mode of bending stems at the, 55. 
 
 rophon's,' 115. 
 
 manufacture of made beams at, 143. 
 
 made beams of, 143. 
 
 table of diameters, &c., of rivets used at, 
 
 diagonal deck-framing at stei-n of, 151. 
 
 331. 
 
 details of deck-plating of, 172. 
 
 details of the ' Aflbndatore ' and ' North- 
 
 butt-fastenings of outside plating, 206. 
 
 umberland ' built at {see ' Affondatore ' 
 
 middle-line bulkhead forward, 107, 220. 
 
 and ' Northumberland '). 
 
 watertight work on wing-passage bulkheads 
 
 'Minotaur,' the — 
 
 of, 230. 
 
 mode of bending stem of, 55. 
 
 pai-ticulars of the rudder of, 250. 
 
 watertight doors fitted to bulkheads of, 
 
 , , riveted work in, 331. 
 
 230, 233. 
 
 'Nun,' the, suspended by the ends, 2. 
 
 target, 484. 
 
 
 Model, block, used in disposing butts and edges 
 
 Oakfann Company's patent keel, 20. 
 
 of plating, &c., 186, 42'^8, 445, 449, 453. 
 
 Oliver rivet-making machine, 327. 
 
 'Monarch,' the, iron lower masts of, 263. 
 
 'Orontes,' the — 
 
 bilge keels of, 44. 
 
 keel of, 25. 
 
 Monitors, American — 
 
 connection of keel with stem, 49. 
 
 wood beams of iron-built, 137, 
 
 , , stern post, 58. 
 
 balanced rudders of, 252. 
 
 Outside plating {see Plating). 
 
 armour-bolts of, 475. 
 
 1 
 
 Monkey used for driving armour-bolts, 478. 
 
 'Pacifico,' the, deck-house of, 294. 
 
 Moulds, use of, in preparation — 
 
 Paddle-heams, 278. 
 
 of transverse frames, floors, &c., 445. 
 
 Palliser, Major — 
 
 of bracket-plate and longitudinal frames, 
 
 armour-bolts proposed by, 479. 
 
 &c., 456. 
 
 experiments made at Chatham with re- 
 
 Mumford, Mr., the experiments on riveting 
 
 ference to his proposal, 480. 
 
 conducted by him under the direction 
 
 trials of his bolts at Shoeburyness, 481. 
 
 of Lloyd's Committee, 202, 359. 
 
 Palmer, Messrs. — 
 
 ' Munster,' the, bilge strengthenings of, 6. 
 
 adopt flush plating in some cases, 181. 
 
 Murray, Mr., forms of hollow-iron keels given 
 
 For details of ships built by, see ' Rouen ' 
 
 by, 21. 
 
 and ' Sentinel.'
 
 534 
 
 Index. 
 
 PANTING. 
 
 PUNCHING, 
 
 "Panting" in fore compai-tments, sometimes 
 
 Plating, outside and bottom — 
 
 occurs, 12. 
 
 behind armour in iron-clads {see Skin- 
 
 ^Paramatta,' the, bulkhead arrangements of,2 17, 
 
 plating). 
 
 Partial bulkheads — • 
 
 of upper works in iron-clads, 185. 
 
 in longitudinally-framed ships, 89. ' 
 
 Dart's patent, 185. 
 
 in ordinary vessels, 236. 
 
 usual mode of making the disposition of 
 
 in iron-clads, 2o6. 
 
 butts and edges, 186, 188. {See Butts.) 
 
 Pembroke experiments on friction of riveted 
 
 stealers in, 186. 
 
 joints, 353. 
 
 at the extremities, 188. 
 
 ^Penelope,' the — 
 
 shifts of butts of, 189. 
 
 bilge keels of, 44. 
 
 ordinary dimensions of plates used, 192. 
 
 stem of, 54, 55. 
 
 rules for fitting and securing, 193. 
 
 stern post arrangements of, 67. 
 
 description of the process of working, 193, 
 
 weight of hull per 100 feet of length, 134. 
 
 433. 
 
 watertight-door to bulkhead of, 232. 
 
 butts should be planed or carefully fitted, 
 
 'Pera,' the, stern frame of, 58. 
 
 194. 
 
 ^Persia,' the — 
 
 description of the process of punching, 195. 
 
 keel of, 19. 
 
 evil etfects of drifting " half-blind " holes. 
 
 diagonal bow-framing of, 84. 
 
 198, 341. 
 
 'Pervenetz,' the, stern fi-ame of, 72. 
 
 drilling adopted by some builders, 199. 
 
 Phillips, Mr., his patented sectional form of 
 
 riveting of edges of, 200, 202, 436, 443. 
 
 beams, 139. 
 
 butts ot; 200, 205, 369, 373, 
 
 Pillars to beams — 
 
 436, 443. 
 
 the importance of a good arrangement of, 
 
 , , to frames, 200, 223, 226. 
 
 12, 155. 
 
 butt-straps to, 203. 
 
 ordinary connections between decks, 156. 
 
 breadths of laps and butt-straps, 203, 207. 
 
 hinged, in wake of capstan-bars, &c., 157. 
 
 rules for thicknesses of, 208, 209. 
 
 in hold, 158. 
 
 different an-angemenls possible for a given 
 
 Pins of suspension-bridge chains. Sir Charles 
 
 total weight of, 209. 
 
 Fox's discovery with respect to, 34G. 
 
 reductions in thickness at extremities, 210. 
 
 Pintle-holts to rudders of early iron ships, 247. 
 
 details of the — 
 
 Pintles in rudder-fi'ames — 
 
 'Birkenhead's,' 211. 
 
 as usually arranged, 248, 250. 
 
 'Megaira's, 211. 
 
 as sometimes arranged, 251. 
 
 ' Himalaya's,' 211. 
 
 Pitch, of rivets — 
 
 ' Queen's,' 87. 
 
 in frames and outside plating, 200. 
 
 ' China's,' 89. 
 
 in ed2;es of outside plating, 200. 
 
 ' Warrior's,' 212. 
 
 in bulkhead frames, 223, 226. 
 
 'Hercules',' 212. 
 
 rules for, and common practice, 335. 
 
 calculations of strengths of butt-fastenings. 
 
 experiments on for watertight work, 336. 
 
 371, 374. 
 
 Planing — 
 
 , skin, behind ai'mour — 
 
 mode of, rabbeted stems for iron-clads, 54. 
 
 arrangements of, 184, 484, 485, 488, 489. 
 
 very desirable for butts of plating, 195. 
 
 disposition of butts and edges of, 191, 455, 
 
 of edges and butts of armour-plates, 473. 
 
 465. 
 
 Planking, deck — 
 
 mode of working, 460. 
 
 almost universally adopted, 177. 
 
 , bulkhead, arrangements of, 216, 217. 
 
 required over iron upper decks, 177. 
 
 , mast, arrangements of, 261, 264. 
 
 ordinary arrangements of fastenings for, 178. 
 
 Price, Mr. — 
 
 Messrs. Harland and VVolflf's, 179. 
 
 on Lloyd's and the Liverpool Rules for 
 
 caulking of edges of, 179. 
 
 riveting, 335. 
 
 Plating, deck — 
 
 on the Liverpool Rules of 1862 for hold- 
 
 ordinaiy arrangements of, 170. 
 
 stringers, 413. 
 
 of the 'WaiTJor,' 171. 
 
 * Prince of Wales,' the, siispended by the ends, 2, 
 
 of the 'Northumberland,' 172. 
 
 Puddled steel — 
 
 of the ' Bellerophon,' 172. 
 
 its manufactui-e, 298. 
 
 of the 'Hercules,' 174. 
 
 tests of its tensile strength, 299, 300. 
 
 of the ' AH'ondatore,' 175. 
 
 generally more ductile than Bessemer steel, 
 
 Mr. Barnaby's proposal for, 175. 
 
 301. 
 
 /Mi^ciV7yi ^,11^/ K^*4-n^ 
 
 rather cheaper than Bessemer steel, 302. 
 experiments on the effects produced by 
 
 flush arrangement in early ships, 180. 
 
 clinker, 181. 
 
 punching and drilling, 312. 
 
 dimensions, thicknesses, &c., in early ships, 
 
 experiments on the effects produced by 
 
 • 182. 
 
 annealing after punching, 313, 
 
 ordinary plan, 183. 
 
 Punching — 
 
 Lamb's patent, 183. 
 
 description of the operation, 195.
 
 Index. 
 
 5ZS 
 
 Punching — 
 
 Reductions — 
 
 forms of punches used, 195. 
 
 made at the extremities — ■ 
 
 countersink obtained by, 196. 
 
 in dimensions of stringers, 163. 
 
 from the faying side, importance of, 196. 
 
 in thickness of outside plating, 210. 
 
 " half-blind " holes caused by carelessness, 
 
 allowed and made in scantlings of steel 
 
 197. 
 
 ships, 302, 323, 427, 
 
 evil effects of" drifting " bad holes, 198, 341. 
 
 'Resistance,' the — 
 
 machines, use of, 198. 
 
 weight;,of hall per 100 feet of length of, 134. 
 
 drilling sometimes substituted for, 199. 
 
 long plates used in, 193. 
 
 reduces strength of steel plates more than 
 
 iron masts of, 262. 
 
 drilling unless annealing is practised, 
 
 Reversed angle-irons — 
 
 306, 312. 
 
 introduced very early into iron frames, 73. 
 
 steel plates should be annealed after, 309. 
 
 remarks on the strength gained by using, 82. 
 
 followed by annealing, compared with dril- 
 
 arrangements now adopted, 82. 
 
 ling for steel plates, 311, 313, 314. 
 
 preparation of, 432, 440, 447, 450. 
 
 steel plates are less distressed when in- 
 
 Reverser, used in plating an iron ship, 435, 
 
 creased taper is given in, 321. 
 
 Rigidity — 
 
 iron plates are not benefited similarly, 321. 
 
 of stem-framing in screw steamers, modes 
 
 pressures required in, 338. 
 
 of securing, 61, 70, 108, 119. 
 
 reduces strength of iron plates more than 
 
 of skin-plating most desirable, 11, 13. 
 
 drilhng, 339. 
 
 of skin-plating secured by bracket-plate 
 
 gives a little greater shearing strength to 
 
 framing, 115. 
 
 than drilling rivets, 350. 
 
 Ritchie, Mr., his Introduction to Lloyd's revised 
 
 
 Rules, 404. 
 
 
 Riveted work — 
 
 Quadruple-chain riveting — 
 
 of the ' Northumberland,' particulars of. 
 
 advocated by Mr. Fairbairn for butts of 
 
 331. 
 
 outside plating, 205, 360. 
 
 the shearing strengths of rivets in, 345, 
 
 adopted by Messrs. Harland and Wolff for 
 
 349. 
 
 the sheer-strakes of long ships, 206. 
 
 the friction of the joints in — 
 
 ^ Queen,' the — 
 
 Mr. Clark's experiments, 353. 
 
 bilge strengthenings of, 6. 
 
 the Pembroke ditto, 353. 
 
 details of keel of, 29. 
 
 beneficial effects of, 355. 
 
 side keelsons of, 46. 
 
 Mr. Clark's deductions from his experi- 
 
 stern post connections of, 57. 
 
 ments, and remarks thereon, 356. 
 
 particulars of the framing and plating of, 86. 
 
 Mr. Fairbairn on, 357. 
 
 connections of hatch-beams to sides, 150, 
 
 ari'angement of butt-fastenings in (see Butt- 
 
 upper-deck plating of, 159. 
 
 fastenings). 
 
 stringer arrangements of, 168. 
 
 calculations of strengths of butt fastenings, 
 
 topsides of, 239. 
 
 111, 362, 365, 371, 374. 
 
 mast-hole framing of, 272. 
 
 table of sizes and pitches of rivets in ' Her- 
 
 
 cules,' 378. 
 
 
 Rivet-holes — ■ 
 
 Rae, Mr., his patented plan for bulkhead con- 
 
 form of punched, 196. 
 
 nections, 227. 
 
 mode of countersinking, ] 96. 
 
 /irtm-6o(rs of iron-clads — • 
 
 punched compared with drilled, 198. 
 
 the ' Northumberland's,' 52, 107. 
 
 " half-blind" and "blind," 197, 341. 
 
 the ' Bellerophon's,' 53, 118. 
 
 drifting, the bad effects of, 198, 341. 
 
 Randolph and Elder, Messrs., special arrange- 
 
 riming and drilling of bad, 341. 
 
 ments in ships built by, 294. 
 
 Riveting, arrangements of — 
 
 Rankine, Mr. — 
 
 single, 11, 200,443. 
 
 his remarks on T-iron beams of uniformly 
 
 double-zigzag, 200, 202, 205, 359, 373, 
 
 strong section, 141. 
 
 443. 
 
 his remarks on the use of pillars to beams. 
 
 double-chaiu, 200, 202, 205, 359, 369, 
 
 155. 
 
 436, 443. 
 
 his proposal to twist frames instead of 
 
 treble-zigzag, 205. 
 
 bevilling them, 430. 
 
 treble-chain, 200, 205, 361, 436. 
 
 'Recruit,' the — 
 
 quadruple-chain, 205, 360. 
 
 keel of, 24. 
 
 special, 206, 365, 
 
 side keelsons of, 45. 
 
 importance of good, 326. 
 
 framing of, 76. 
 
 , description of the operation of hand, 340. 
 
 floor -plates of, 77. 
 
 machines, description of common forms of. 
 
 wood beams to upper deck of, 136. 
 
 342. 
 
 lower-deck stringer of, 166. 
 
 machines, Messrs. Forresters' portable, 343. 
 
 topsides of, 238. 
 
 comparison between machine and hand, 342.
 
 S3^ 
 
 hidex. 
 
 SECTIONAL FORMS. 
 
 Eiveting — 
 
 countersunk, 196, 329, 340. 
 snap, 329, 340, 342. 
 conical or hammered, 330, 341. 
 care required in working steel rivets, 382. 
 Rivet-iron — 
 
 tensile strength of, 326. 
 sheaiing strength of, 349. . 
 
 Rivets — 
 
 manufacture of — 
 by hand, 327. 
 by Oliver machine, 327. 
 by steam rivet-making machines, 327. 
 heads of— 
 
 common forms, 196, 328, 330. 
 allowance of length for, 329. 
 proposed form, 329. 
 
 often worn down by the action of bilge- 
 water, 13, 94. 
 points of — 
 
 countersunk, 196, 329, 340. 
 snap, 329, 340, 342. 
 conical or hammered, 330, 341. 
 in confined parts of ship, 330. 
 allowances of length for forming, 330. 
 table of sizes, lengths, &c., of, used at the 
 
 Millwall Ironworks, 331. 
 diameters of — 
 
 for various thicknesses of plate — 
 
 table of, 332. 
 Mr. Fairbairn on, 333. 
 investigation of the maximum and 
 
 minimum diameters, 333. 
 M. Dupuy de Lome, on, 335. 
 pitch of — 
 
 rules for and common practice, 200, 335. 
 experiments on, for watertight woik, 
 336. 
 number of, for a day's work in private and 
 
 Pioyal Dockyards, 344. 
 shearing strengths ot^ — 
 
 Mr. Clark's experiments on, 349. 
 Mr. Doyne's ditto, 350. 
 Mr. Maynard's ditto, 350. 
 the Chatham ditto, 351. 
 reduced by working, &c., 357. 
 their contraction in cooling, 351. 
 the friction produced by this contraction, 
 
 352. 
 table of sizes and pitches of in ' Hercules,' 
 
 378. 
 the employment of steel, 381. 
 Admiralty tests for, 394, 397. 
 Rivet-steel, tensile and shearing strengths of, 
 
 382. 
 Roberts, Mr. — 
 
 his punching machine, 198. 
 his plan for heeling and cutting away iron 
 masts, 270. 
 
 , of Millwall, his tell-tale anangement for 
 
 wateitight doors and sluice-valves, 235. 
 Rochussen, Mr., on the treatment of steel, 315. 
 'Roman,' the — 
 keel of, 25. 
 floor-plates of, 79, 
 
 'Rouen,' the — 
 
 framing of, 97. 
 Rudder posts — 
 
 arrangements of, 56, 58, (iD, 65. 
 .sometimes dispensed with when balanced 
 
 ruddei-s are fitted, 69. 
 Rudders — 
 
 of early iron ships, 247. 
 
 present mode of forming, 248. 
 
 description of process of making ordinary, 
 
 249. 
 modes of hanging ordinary, 247, 250, 251. 
 heel -ropes to, 251. 
 balanced, of ' Great Britain,' 252. 
 
 of American monitors and ' Invincible' 
 class, 252. 
 
 of ' Bellerophon ' and ' King William,' 
 252. 
 
 of ' Hercules,' 255. 
 bow, 258. 
 Rides for iron shiphuilding — 
 Lloyd's present, 491. 
 the Liverpool Underwriters' present, 510. 
 statement of differences between Lloyd's 
 
 Rules for 1862, and the present Rules, 
 
 405. 
 ditto, between Liverpool Rules for 1862, 
 
 and the present Rules, 412. 
 ditto, between Lloyd's and the Liverpool 
 
 Rules, 416. 
 
 for steel shipbuilding — 
 
 Lloyd's, 302, 427. 
 Russell, Mr. Scott — • 
 
 his description of the longitudinal system of 
 
 framing, 89. 
 his reply to objections to the system, 96. 
 his modes of connecting wood beams to iron 
 
 frames, 136, 
 his advocacy of iron upper decks, 137, 159. 
 his plans for deck-stringers on wood beams, 
 
 166. 
 his introduction of present plan of plating 
 
 simultaneously with Mr. J. R. Napier, 
 
 183. 
 his adoption of sitigle-riveting for butts, 200. 
 his opinion orf the arrangement of watertight 
 
 bulkheads, 215. 
 his arranfjements of bulkhead connections, 
 
 225, 226. 
 
 'Samaria,' the, calculation of strengths of butt- 
 fastenings of bottom-plating of, 373. 
 
 'Samphire,' the, saved by her watertight bulk- 
 heads, 215. 
 
 Samuda, Mr., his experiments on the pitch of 
 rivets for watertight work, 336. 
 
 'Santiago,' the deck-houses of, 294. 
 
 'Scorpion,' the — 
 
 iron plating originally fitted on deck of, 
 
 178. 
 hinged topsides of, 244. 
 
 Scuttles, watertight to iron flats, 282. 
 
 Seaton, Jlr., his patent for skin-plating, 183. 
 
 Sectional forms of beams — 
 which have been used, 138.
 
 Index. 
 
 SECTIONAL FORMS, 
 
 537 
 
 Sectioiutl forms of beams — 
 
 remarks on the proper arrangements of, 140. 
 ' Sentinel,' the — 
 framing of, 96. 
 stringer arrangements of, 169. 
 rounded gunwale of, 241. 
 ' Serapis,' the — 
 
 made beams of, 145. 
 hatchway framing of, 274. 
 Sharp, Mr., his experiments on, and sugges- 
 tions for the treatment of stee), 309, 
 310, 320. 
 Shearing strengths — 
 
 of rivet-iron, Mr, Clai'k's experiments on, 
 
 349. 
 of rivets in riveted work — 
 
 Mr. Clark's experiments, 350. 
 Mr, Doyne's ditto, 350. 
 Jlr. Maynard's ditto, 350. 
 Chatham ditto, 351. 
 of rivet-steel, Mr. Kirkaldy's experiments, 
 382. 
 Sheerstrakes — 
 
 increased in thickness or doubled to give 
 
 longitudinal strength, 7, 8, 10, 161. 
 butt-strapping of, 10, 204, 443. 
 should be connected with deck-stringers, 
 161. 
 Shields, Annour — 
 
 for Gibraltar and Malta, experiments on 
 Palliser bolts in, 481. 
 Shifts of butts of plating — 
 
 how arranged, 185, 188, 428, 439, 445, 
 
 449, 454. 
 the brick fashion, 189. 
 the diagonal, 190. 
 with three passing strakes, 190. 
 with four ditto, 191. 
 behind armour in 'Hercules,' 191. 
 Side-har keels — 
 
 ordinary arrangements of, 25, 27, 29. 
 with flat plate under, 25. 
 middle-line keelsons used with, 27. 
 made up of several thicknesses, 28. 
 with cross-straps on floors, 28. 
 with I-shaped keeli-on, 30. 
 connections with stems, 49. 
 
 , , stern posts, 57. 
 
 arradgements of floor-plates with, 79. 
 Side, or sister keelsons — 
 in early ships, 45. 
 forms now employed, 46. 
 Single-frames of early iron ships, 73. 
 Single riveting — 
 
 for laps of outside plating, 200, 443. 
 
 for butts, adopted by Mr. Scott Russell in 
 
 longitudinally- flamed ships, 200. 
 for butts, often a source of weakness, 11, 
 
 201. 
 for edges of mast-plating, 261. 
 Skin-plating behind armour — 
 
 arrangements of, 184, 484, 485, 488, 489. 
 disposition of butts and edges of, 191, 455, 
 
 465. 
 mode of woiking, 460. 
 
 Sluice-valves to watertight bulkheads, 234. 
 Snap riveting, 329, 340, 342. 
 Sole or keel piece — 
 
 to stern frames of screw steam-ship, 60, 63, 
 
 68, 71. 
 substitute for, in ' Bellerophon,' 69. 
 Spacing of frames — 
 
 in early iron ships, 74. 
 
 in transversely framed-ships, 78. 
 
 transverse, in ' Warrior,' 99. 
 
 , , ' Northumberland,' 106. 
 
 , , ' Bellerophon,' 116. 
 
 of beams in ordinary ships, 152. 
 
 , f in iron-clads, 153. 
 Spencer, Mr.,4iis design of the ' Sentinel,' 96. 
 Spirketing-i)lates {see Clamp-plates). 
 Spring-beams of paddle-steamers, 278. 
 Stanchions, hold, modes of securing, 158. 
 Stealers, in outside plating, 186. 
 Steel, — 
 
 definitions of, 297. 
 
 superior ductility and tensile strength of, 
 
 297. 
 cannot yet be trusted as much as iron, 297. 
 kinds of, used in shipbuilding, 298. 
 Bessemer (see Bessemer Steel). 
 Puddled {see Puddled Steel). 
 Cast (see Cast Steel). 
 Lluvd's regulations for ships built of, 302, 
 
 "427. 
 benefited by annealing after punching, 309, 
 
 313, 314. 
 modes of annealing, 309, 315. 
 drilling injures plates less than punching 
 
 without annealing, 306, 312. 
 punched holes should have greater tapei" in, 
 
 320. 
 on the treatment of — 
 
 Mr. Sharp, 309, 310, 320. 
 Mr. Ede, 309, 318. 
 Mr. Kochussen, 315. 
 Mr. Krupp, 322. 
 toughening by cooling in oil, 317. 
 reductions in .scantlings of ships built of, 
 
 302, 323, 327. 
 tor rivets ; caution required in the use of, 
 
 381, 382. 
 for rivets ; tensile and shearing strengths of, 
 
 382. 
 Admiralty code of tests for, 399. 
 Stems — 
 
 hollow-iron, of early ships, 48. 
 solid-bar — 
 
 rabbeted and plain, 48. 
 connections witli bar-keels, 48. 
 
 , , keelson plates, 49. 
 
 , , side-bar keels, 49. 
 
 flat-plate keels, 49. 
 of iron-clads — 
 
 details of ' Northumberland's,' 51. 
 
 , , ' Bellerophon's, ' 53. 
 mode of forging, bending, and planing, 
 54. 
 Step-plates to iron masts, 267. 
 Steps of masts, 283. 
 
 2 N .
 
 538 
 
 STERN-FRAMES. 
 
 Index. 
 
 Stern-frames — 
 
 usually forged in one, 58. 
 of large screw-ships, 59, 61, fi7. 
 special arrangements of, 65, 66. 
 connecting pieces of large, 60, 65. 
 sole or keel pieces of, 60, 63, 68, 69, 71. 
 Stem-framing — 
 
 of transversely framcd-ships, 83, 443, 453. 
 of longitudinally-framed ships, 94. 
 of ' Northumberland,' 108. 
 of ' Bellerophon,' 119. 
 of ' Hercules,' 133. 
 Stei~n posts — 
 
 hollow-iron, of early ships, 56. 
 solid-bar, their connections wjth — 
 
 bar-keels, 56. 
 
 side-bar keels, 57. 
 thin-plate, not successful, 58. 
 now used are always solid forgings, 58. 
 of sailing ships and paddle-steamers, 58. 
 and their connecting pieces usually forged in 
 
 one, 58. 
 connections with flat-plate keels, &c. — ■ 
 
 of Indian troop-ships, 59. 
 
 of ' Northumberland,' 6 1 . 
 
 of ' Penelope,' 67. 
 
 of ' Bellerophon,' 69. 
 
 of ' King William,' 71. 
 
 of ' Hercules,' 71. 
 ordinary connections of heads of, 58, 61. 
 special connections of heads of — 
 
 proposed for ' King William,' 65. 
 
 adopted in ' Barwon,' 66. 
 
 , , ' Bellerophon,' 69. 
 , , ' King William,' 71. 
 , , * Hercules,' 7 1 . 
 advantages of large siding in, 68, 70. 
 mode of forging, planing, welding, &c., large, 
 
 63. 
 Stiffeners — 
 
 to bulkheads, 216. 
 to iron masts, 261. 
 Stop-waters in watertight work, 104, 106, 229. 
 Strength of iron ships — ■ 
 
 practical considerations on the, 1. 
 longitudinal, especially required at top and 
 
 bottom, 8, 159. 
 longitudinal, continuity most essential, 9, 
 
 1G4. 
 longitudinal, provisions for, in transversely- 
 framed ships, 86, 159, 160. 
 longitudinal, cases of deliciency of, and 
 
 account of strengthenings adopted, 4, 6, 
 
 7, 9, 10. 
 transverse, use of reversed angle-iron in 
 
 giving, 82. 
 transverse, bulkheads give a large amount 
 
 of, 135, 213. 
 Strengths of butt-fastenings of riveted work — 
 experiments on the, 358. 
 remarks on the, 359. 
 
 calculations of the, 111, 362, 365, 371, 374. 
 Stringers — 
 
 box on beam emls, 168, 243. 
 
 deck, act as horizontal knees to beams, IjiJ. 
 
 Stringers — 
 
 deck, give longitudinal strength, 160. 
 
 are made more efficient by working 
 
 gutter waterways, 160. 
 should be connected with outside. 
 
 plating, on upper decks, 161. 
 rules for, and remarks on, 161. 
 continuity of strength most essential 
 
 in, 10, 164. 
 butts should be shifted with those of 
 outside plating, 14, 164, 189, 
 450. 
 Mr. Barnaby's proposal for, 164, 
 in early ships, 165. 
 worked along inside frames, 166. 
 connected with outside plating, 166. 
 
 , , clamp plates, 108. 
 
 calculation of strengths of butt-fasten- 
 ings, 365. 
 general mode of arranging butt- 
 fastenings, 367. 
 'Sentinel's' arrangement of upper- 
 deck, 169. 
 Jlr. Fairbairn's proposal for cellular, 
 to upper-deck, 169. 
 
 , hold, 47. 
 
 Stuffing-box bulkheads — 
 the importance of, 215. 
 the construction of, 220. 
 ' Sultan Mahmoud,' the, stern ti-ame ol', 58. 
 Systems of framing — 
 the transverse, 73. 
 
 the longitudinal, Mr. Scott Russell's, 89. 
 the combined transverse and longitudiiiiil, 
 
 98. 
 the bracket-plate, 110. 
 
 shipbuilding — 
 
 the Mersey, 428. 
 
 the Clyde, 438. 
 
 the Thames, 445. 
 
 the Tyne, 449. 
 
 the Royal Dockyards, 453. 
 
 Tables— 
 
 of thicknesses of keel-plates, garboards, &e. 
 
 of the ' Northumberland,' 32. 
 of scantlings of framing and plating — 
 
 of the ' Queen,' 87. 
 
 of the 'China,' 88. 
 
 of the 'Annette,' and a transvei'sely- 
 fi-amed ship of the same dimensions, 
 91. 
 of scantlings of longitudinal frames — 
 
 in the ' Warrior,' 98. 
 
 in the 'Northumberland,' 102. 
 
 in the ' Bellerophon,' 1 10. 
 of weights of hull per 100 feet of length 
 
 for iron-clads, 134. 
 of thicknesses of outside plating — 
 
 of the ' Himalaya,' 211. 
 
 of the 'Warrior,' 212. 
 
 of the 'Hercules,' 212. 
 of weights of masts and fittings of a slooji 
 
 of war, 271. 
 of tests of iron and steel plates <scc Tests).
 
 hidex. 
 
 TRESTLE-TREES. 
 
 539 
 
 Tahlcs— 
 
 of diametere, lengths, &c., of rivets used 
 
 at the Millwall Works, 331. 
 of diameters of rivets for plates of different 
 
 thicknesses, 332. 
 of sizes and pitches of rivets in the ' Her- 
 cules,' 378. 
 of estimated and actual weights of iron and 
 
 steel plates supplied to the Dockyards, 
 
 388. 
 Target — 
 
 the " small-plate," 476, 482. 
 the ' Warrior,' 484. 
 the ' Minotaur,' 484. 
 the ' Bellerophon,' 485. 
 the ' Lord Warden,' 487, 
 the ♦ Hercules,' 489. 
 'Tasmaniu,' the, side-bar keel and cross-straps 
 
 ou tlcors of, 28. 
 Tiiylcrson, Messrs., keel adopted by, 22. 
 Templates, used tor taking account of plates, 
 
 433, 443, 448, 452, 460. 
 Tensile strengths — 
 tests of [see Tests'), 
 of rivet-iron, 326. 
 of rivet-steel, 382. 
 required by — 
 
 Lloyd's for iron used in shipbuilding, 
 3S4. 
 
 Liverpool Rules for ditto, 384. 
 
 Admiralty code for ditto, 385. 
 
 , , steel-plates, 399. 
 
 Test-hooli, specimen page of, kept by Admiralty 
 
 sm-veyors, 393. 
 Testing of watertight work, 11, 235. 
 Tests, of tensile strengths — 
 
 of Bessemer steel plates, 299, 303, 305, 
 
 309. 
 of puddled steel plates, 299, 300. 
 of cast steel plates, 313. 
 of steel toughened in oil, 319. 
 of punched and drilled Bessemer steel 
 
 plates, 306, 307. 
 of punched and drilled puddled steel plates, 
 
 312. 
 of punched and drilled iron plates, 339. 
 of Bessemer steel plates, annealed after 
 
 punching, 310, 311. 
 of puddled ditto, 313. 
 of Ciist ditto, 314. 
 
 of steel plates, with punched holes of dif- 
 ferent tapers, 321. 
 of steel plates, with different shaped samples, 
 
 402. 
 of plates, angle-bars, and rivet-iron, usual 
 
 mode of conducting, 390, 400. 
 of armour bolts, 398. 
 machines used for, 391. 
 shape of samples for, 390, 400. 
 Admiralty code of — 
 
 for iron plates, 385. 
 
 for steel plates, 399. 
 ibrge — 
 
 of iron and steel ])lates, mode of coiv- 
 ducting, 394, 400. 
 
 Tests, forge — 
 
 examples of, for Bessemer steel plates, 
 
 301. 
 of angle-bars, 396. 
 of rivets, 397. 
 of armour-bolts, 398. 
 colour, Piofessor Eggertz's system of, 403. 
 dynamical, of iron and steel plates, 307. 
 
 , , of armour-bolts, 398. 
 record of, kept by Admiralty surveyors, 
 
 392. 
 weight, for iron and steel required by Ad- 
 miralty, 386. 
 Thames, the, system of shipbuilding practised 
 
 on, 445. 
 Thames Iron Works — 
 
 naode of bending stems at the, 55. 
 stern-frames forged at, 58. 
 For details of ships built at, see ' Paramatta,' 
 ' Pera,' and ' Pervenetz.' 
 Thickness of outside plating — 
 in early ships, 182. 
 rules for and remarks on, 208. 
 reductions made at extremities, 210. 
 TAin-plate — 
 keels, 24. 
 stern-posts, 58. 
 Thrust-bearers of screw-steamers, 287. 
 Tie-plates — 
 
 diagonal, on transverse frames, 86. 
 on decks — 
 
 prevent racking, 160. 
 not equal to stringer-plates in useful- 
 ness, 161. 
 rules for dimensions, &c., of, 162, 163. 
 Mr. Barnaby's proposal for, 164. 
 arrangements of butt-fastenings of, 368. 
 Mr. Barton's arrangements of butt-fasten- 
 ings of, 361. 
 Mr. Barnaby's ditto, with calculations of 
 strengths, 362. 
 Topmasts and Tvpgallaritmasts, iron and steel, 
 
 270. 
 Topsides — 
 
 of early iron ships, 237. 
 ii'on, arrangements commonly adopted, 239. 
 wood, ditto, ditto, 241. 
 
 hinged, of turret-ships, 244. 
 Totighening of steel in oil, 317. 
 Towing-bullards, 291. 
 Transverse bulkheads [see Bulkheads). 
 Transverse frames — 
 of early iron ships, 73. 
 ordinary, present an-angements of, 77. 
 strength given by reversed angle-irons to, 82. 
 preparation of, 429, 439, 445, 450. 
 short, in iron-clads, 100, 106, 115, 116. 
 continuous and behind armour, in iion-clads, 
 
 99, 106, 116, 131. 
 preparation of, in iron-clads, 456, 457. 
 Treble-riveting — 
 zigzag, 205. 
 
 chain, 200, 205, 361, 436. 
 for butts of mast-plating, 261. 
 Trcstlc-trces to iron masts, 265. 
 
 2 N 2
 
 540 
 
 Index. 
 
 TURRET-SHIPS. 
 
 ZIGZAG RIVETING. 
 
 Turret-ships — 
 
 deck-plating of, 175. 
 
 hinged topsides of, 244. 
 'Tijne,' the, wreck of, 219. 
 Tyne, system of shipbuilding practised on the, 
 449. 
 
 ' Ulster^ the — 
 
 bilge strengthenings of, 6. 
 
 keel of, 28. 
 Upper decks, iron {see Iron decks). 
 
 Valves, sluice, to watertight bulkheads, 284. 
 Vernon, Jlr., on the weights of iron masts, 260. 
 Vertical framimj in ships built on the longi- 
 tudinal system, 89, 93, 95, 96. 
 
 kcel-plates — 
 
 examples of with flat-plate keels, 31, 32, 
 
 37, 42. 
 watertight work on, 39, 42. 
 'Victoi'ia,' the, keel of, 42. 
 'Viper,' the, heels of pillai-s drawn out of 
 
 sockets, 156. 
 'Vulcan,' the, early iion ship, 25. 
 'Vidcaji,' the, transport, — 
 
 beam-end connections of, 148. 
 topsides of, 238. 
 
 ' Warrior,' the — 
 keel of, 31. 
 bilge-keels of, 43. 
 longitudinal framing of, 98. 
 transverse ditto, 99. 
 
 framing before and abaft armour of, 100. 
 wing-passages of, 101. 
 plating on the floors of, 101. 
 differences between her transverse framing 
 
 and that of the ' Northumberland,' 107. 
 deck -plating of, 171. 
 skin-plating behind armour of, 184. 
 fastenings of butts of outside plating of, 205. 
 details of outside plating of, 212. 
 topsides of, 243. 
 target, 484. 
 Washers, elastic, for armour-fastenings, 477. 
 Watertight — 
 
 bulkheads {see Bulkheads). 
 
 covers to manholes in iron flats, 283. 
 
 decks or flats, at extremities of iron ships, 
 
 108, 117. 
 ditto, Mr. Lungley's plan for, 117, 216. 
 deck fastenings, 179. 
 doors to bulkheads, 230. 
 scuttles to iron flats. 282. 
 work — 
 
 on vertical keel-plates of iron-clads, 39, 
 42. 
 
 on bulkheads, 102, 105, 228. 
 
 on longitudinal frames, 114, 124, 125. 
 
 on deok-stringers, 167. 
 
 Watei-tight, work — 
 
 modes of testing, 11, 235. 
 
 pitch of rivets for, 336. 
 Watertightness, mode of securing at armour 
 
 bolt-holes, 478. 
 Weakness in iron ships, cases of — 
 
 Atlantic paddle-steamer, with insulllcieut 
 
 longitudinal strength, 5. 
 ocean paddle-steamers, ditto ditto, 6, 7, 
 ships with the longitudinal ties broken at 
 
 bulkheads, 9. 
 ships with single-riveted butts, and only 
 
 one or two passing strakes, 10. 
 ship built for India trade, without proper 
 
 rigidity in the skin-plating, 11. 
 ditto, with improperly constructed beams, 
 
 12. 
 ship with ill-arranged bulkhead connections, 
 
 and hold-beams, 13. 
 ship with badly disposed butts of plating, 
 
 &c., 14, 
 ship without intercostal middle-line keelson 
 
 injured by grounding, 15. 
 Weights — 
 
 of hulls of ships built on the combined 
 
 transverse and longitudinal, and the 
 
 bracket-plate systems, 134. 
 relative, of iron and wood beams, 137. 
 
 , , of iron and wood lower masts, 260. 
 of masts and fittings of a sloop of war, 271. 
 tests of, for iron and steel plates, 386. 
 Welding, mode of — 
 
 two parts of the ' Northumberland's ' body 
 
 post, 64. 
 plates and angle-irons in ' Northumber- 
 land's ' made beams, 1 44. 
 Williams, Mr. C. W., introduced watertight 
 
 bulkheads into iron ships, 213. 
 Wing-passage bulkheads — 
 
 of iron-clads, 101, 109, 114, 124, 213, 489. 
 watertight work on, 229. 
 watertight doois to, 233. 
 ' Wivern,' the, iron plating originally fitted on 
 
 deck, 178. 
 Wood — 
 keels, 18. 
 keelsons, 18, 19. 
 bilge-keels, 44. 
 side-keelsous, 45. 
 beams, 136. 
 
 deck-planking, and its fastenings, 177. 
 topsides, 237, 241. 
 
 Yards, iron and steel, 270. 
 
 Zigzag riveting — 
 
 for beam-end connections, 151, 432. 
 for edges of outside plating, 200, 202, 443. 
 for butt-fastenings, '2u0, 205, 359, 373, 443. 
 compared with chain-riveting, 202. 
 
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