:i:',:;,l '. \ m \ i } i THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS j IN THE 1 I UNITED STATES I THE -EDUCATION OF GIRLS IN THE UNITED STATES SARA A. BURSTALL Scholar of Girt on College, Cambridge, and B.A. Univ. of London Mistress at the North London Collegiate School for Girls ILontJOii SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO NEW YORK : MAC MI LEAN & CO 1894— u^^" ^\ " C'est dans le gouvernement republicain que I'on a besoin de toute la puissance de I'education." Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois. " America is another word for opportunity." Emerson. " We have no established church ; we have established education." J. G. Crosswell (Harvard). TABLE OF CONTENTS PA.GK Preface, etc vii General Introduction 1 Chapter I. — Organization 10 A. General Outlines . ' - -. . ' 10 Local and Central Boards 11 Finance 14 Teachers and Examinations . . . . .16 Kinds of Schools and Relations between them . . 17' Superintendents 23 Politics in the Public Schools 26 B. Massachusetts 26 Early School Law 27 Existing System ; Towns and School Committees . 30 The State Board 31 Some Notes on the Present Law .... 33 High Schools : Boston, Cambridge, Brookline . . 35 C. The High School Board of Minnesota .... 38 D. The Universities 41 E. The University of the State of New York ... 43 Chapter II. — High Schools 46 Organization 47 Daily Routine 50 Home Study 54 Buildings 56 Discipline, marks, etc 61 Examinations ; Relations with tlie Univorsitius . . 66 General Remarks . . " 69 Chai'ter III.— Private Skcondauy Schools . . .72 General Remarks ........ 73 Preparation for College 75 Private Boarding Schools 76 V vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter IV. — Method 77 General Outlines . , 77 The Teaching of Mathematics 81 „ „ „ History 88 „ „ „ Science 97 Chapter V. — University Education for Women . , . 105 General Outlines ' . . .106 Women's Colleges in General Ill Special Institutions — («) The Harvard Annex 118 (6) Vassar 123 (c) Smith 125 {d) Wellesley 126 (e) Bryn Mawr 129 (/) Massachusetts Institute of Technology . . 132 {g) University of Chicago 133 Chapter VI. — The University of Michigan . . . 136 Chapter VII. — Physical Education 146 General Observations 146 The Sargent System at Harvard 148 The Swedish System, Boston Normal College . . . 150 Delsartianized Physical Culture 151 Special histitutions — Women's Colleges — Vassar 152 Wellesley 153 Smith 155 Bryn Mawr 156 Physical Training in tlie Public Schools. . . . 157 Dress 158 Music and Elocution 159 Need of Free Games 159 Chapter VIII.— Co-Education of Bovs and Giuls . . 161 Conclusion 167 List of Institutions Visited 176 BlULIOGltAl'IIY 183 Appendix 191 PREFACE In view of the growing interest in Secondary Edu- cation in the United Kingdom and the important problems awaiting solution, the Gilchrist Trustees decided in the early part of 1893 to send five women teachers to America, for the purpose of studying and reporting upon Secondary Schools for Girls and Training Colleges for Women in different parts of the United States. The Trustees made their in- tention widely known, and invited the governing- bodies of the various women's colleges and associa- tions of teachers to submit to them names of per- sons specially qualified. Out of the list of able and experienced women teachers thus furnished to them, the Trustees, after careful consideration of the qualifications of the numerous candidates, selected the following five and awarded to each of them a travelling scholarship of £100 to enable them to spend two months in the United States in prose- cuting their enquiries : — Miss A. Bramwell, B.Sc. (Lecturer at the Cambridge Training College) ; Miss S. A. Burstall, BA. (Mistress at the North London Collegiate School for Girls); ]\Iiss II. .AI. liughcs PREFACE (Lecturer on Education at University College, Car- diff) ; Miss M. H. Page (Head Mistress of the Skinners Company's School for Girls, Stamford Hill) ; and Miss A. Zimmern (Mistress at the High School for Girls, Tunbridge Wells). The five scholars visited America in the summer of 1893, and submitted to the Trustees carefully prepared reports, one of which — viz. that by Miss Burstall — is pre- sented to the public in this volume. The Trustees have aided in the publication of these reports, be- cause they believe that a knowledge of the educa- tional systems and experiments which have been tried in America cannot fail to be of interest and value to those engaged in teaching in the United Kingdom. R. D. EOBEETS, Secretary to the Gilchrist Trustees. 17, Victoria Street, London, S.W. INTRODUCTION In the following pages I have attempted to state the results of an enquiry into Secondary Education and In- stitutions for the training of women, made by me as one of the Gilchrist Travelling Scholars, during a visit of two months to the chief cities of the United States, in April, May and June, 1893. A list of the cities and in- stitutions visited will be found below. In order to fit myself for this work, I devoted some time to a course of reading in American educational literature. This is abundant, and while travelling in America, I was able, through the kindness of the various school and college authorities, to form a somewhat wide collection of books and pamphlets dealing with the various aspects of the question ; a bibliography of these and other works read is given below. I have thus been able, to some extent, to understand the aims of American educators, and check the observations I made in the schools themselves. I have also quoted from reports and other writings of Americans in order to put their views before English readers. The instructions from the Trustees state that the Report should be framed so as to furnish " information or suggestions that may prove useful to those concerned or interested in similar branches of education in the United Kingdom." To do this properly it has been necessary to follow, as far as possible, the example of ]Mr. Llewellyn Smith, in his Report to the London County Council, and "cover a somcwliat wider ground tlian per- INTRODUCTION haps is usual in official reports." I have, therefore, endeavoured to connect the phenomena of American education with national characteristics, and with social and economic conditions, in order that allowance might be made for any differences between the two countries. I have also been obliged to give some pages to a general account of American education before discussing secon- dary education, for, in the United States, the unity of the system is such that it would be impossible to understand part without considering, at least in outline, the whole. This remark applies especially to the chapter on State organization ; but neither the time nor the resources of the present writer would allow such minute and thorough study as in Mr. Llewellyn Smith's classic work. That which is distant can only be seen in large outline : those who feel so strong an interest in American educa- tion as to desire to examine it more closely and in greater detail, will find ample information, more particularly of a statistical character, in the Annual Reports of the Bureau of Education, and in the circulars published under its authority : these works are accessible to Eng- lish readers, particularly through the pedagogic library of the Teachers' Guild. The great Report drawn up for the French Government by the State Commission (headed by M. Buisson), after months of study in America, and dated 1876, is a mine of information. It can be consulted at the British Museum. Its general plan and arrangement somewhat resemble the present much less complete Report. I am, however, bound to say that my own scheme was completely draAvn up, and in part carried into execution, before I read M. Buisson's admirably lucid and most valuable volume. The table of contents will show the method I have used in attempt- ing to report upon the subject of Secondary Education. Some introductory observations embody the generaliza- tions I have been able to form as to the most character- ISTRODUCTIOX isiic features of American education. The earlier chapters give some account of the organization of the pubHc school system, of the Public High Schools, and of private Secondary Schools. Chapter IV. is devoted to the method of teaching in genei-al, and to the teaching of Mathematics, History, and Science in particular. <^hapter V. deals with Women's Colleges, and Chapter VI. with the University of Michigan. Chapter VII. gives an account of Physical Education in the United States, and Chapter VIII. discusses co-educatiou. The final section, or conclusion, is an attempt to sum- marise such information as is, in my opinion, most worthy of attention in England. In the Appendix will be found a few statistical tables. It is difficult, and indeed almost impossible, to express adequately my thanks to those educators in America without whose co-operation my work would have been in vain. Everywhere the credentials from the Gilchrist Educational Trust, and from Dr. J. G. Fitch, procured for me the most kindly welcome, and the most unweary- ing guidance and help. Even after returning to England I received a considerable number of educational publica- tions ; while, again and again, during my visit, men and women engaged in the full current of professional work turned aside to give me hours of their time in explana- tions and interviews. I must, however, endeavour to make some special acknowledgment of the debt I owe to Dr. Harris, the United States Commissioner of Education. The Bureau at Washington was the first institution I visited : there I received most valuable advice from Dr. Harris as to my further course of study. The books and pamphlets placed at my disposal were of the greatest service to me, more particularly his own works, as the following pages show. The statistics are drawn almost entirely from his I'eports. To his influence I owe my first clear conception INTRODUCTION of American tliouglit on educational matters, and of the lines along which I should work. To the authorities of the Universities and Colleges also I wish to express my sincere thanks, more particularly to President Eliot, of Harvard, President Angell, of the University of Michigan, General Francis Walker, Pre- sident of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and to the Presidents and Officers of the Colleges I visited, for their hospitality and help. Dr. James McAlister, of Philadelphia, and Colonel Parker, of Chicago, Mr. J. G. Crosswell and Dr. Leete, of New York, gave me much in- formation and guidance on the more purely educational questions ; while to Professor George Palmer, of Harvard, and Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer I owe more than I can well say. No one can be more conscious than the writer of the many shortcomings and faults of the following pages. The subject is one of great difficulty, needing the un- divided attention of years — not months — of labour. It has been written in the intervals of professional work by one whose best energies must be devoted to the duties of a teacher. Under such circumstances the writer would plead for some measure of indulgence, especially for possible inaccuracies in matters of detail. S. A. B. North London Collegiate School for Gikls. (Lbc (l:t)uc;ition of 6irls in tbc ^Initcb §t:itcs. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. THE extraordinary enthusiasm for education shown by nearly all classes and sections of the community in the United States is the first fact to be taken into consideration in any discussion of the subject. This feeling, in some sections of the country, rises to the dignity of a conviction— a belief. It shows itself not only in the newspaper press, the reviews, and in the general public interest in educational questions, but in the respect paid to teachers, and even to school houses, and most of all perhaps in the most practical way, — in the enormous sums devoted to educational purposes, both by public bodies and private individuals. To realise this fully, it is necessary to travel in America, to visit the magnificent and costly buildings — occupying often the most important sites of the cities — to know something of the social life of the country, and to study its current literature. It is easy, however, to quote a few illustrations, practical — perhaps mercenary — but of the most common kind. B THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS Harvard University at Cambridge has received on tlie average, for tlie last twenty years, £80,000 per year in gifts. Last year it received £88,000 ; the University of Pennsylvania records £40,000 in gifts during the same year. The sums spent by the local authorities on the public school system are also large, as may be seen in the chapters that follow. It may be noted that even in the "Western State of Kansas, one half of the taxes levied are for school purposes. The reasons for this enthusiasm for education may now be given. The fixst is the democratic constitution of the country : this is well stated in the current Report of the Board of Education of Massachusetts. " The State depends on the common education of the people as the only cause of that unity of ideas necessary to its continued existence. To produce such an education requires public schools in which the children are organized into a community of persons required to labour together for some common end. In no other way can the young be trained into that social state which prepares them to be- come a people, controlled in their civil relations by self-imposed rules." This necessity is well understood in England, and need not therefore be enlarged upon. The second reason is one whicli applies only to the United States ; it is the immense foreign immi- gration. The public school is the only security for a homogeneous nation : this matter is referred to constantly by Americans, both in literature and GENERAL INTRODUCTION conversation. Of late years tlie immigration of Southern European and S/lavonic races, often at a lower stage of culture, Las made the necessity for education more pressing ; only in this way can the children of these varying races and religions become worthy citizens of a united nation. Private and denominational schools are considered only to per- petuate the isolation which already exists among the alien parents of many American-born children. Language is the great instrument of unification ; for this reason English is everywhere compulsory in the American public schools, even when it is a foreign tongue to nearly all the children. In some cities, e.g.^ Cincinnati and Chicago, which have a large German population, local feeling has enforced the teaching of German in addition, but English is still the language of the school. " The mere fact of separate education, especially when promoted by the affluent, tends to the rearing of castes, the creating of a gulf between the rich and the poor, and the laying of foundations for the continuance of those labour troubles that are convulsing this whole land. Great as these mischiefs inevitably are, they will be indefinitely enhanced should we remain a polyglot nation. Language is the great unifier. AVithout a common language we cannot become a nation. Without the execution of our school laws, we cannot attain to a common language, or at least such attainment will be indefinitely delayed." ^ In all schools very great attention is paid to ' Report of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, 1891- 18'J2. THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS English ; a remarkable illustration of this intense zeal for the language of the nation is the fact that English is the only compulsory study at Harvard University. There is a third reason, much more difficult to explain, and not so generally commented upon as the others. The great natural wealth of a new country suddenly opened to the conquest and appropriation of mankind, has tended to give material welfare an undue importance in Ainerica. Education is held to be the best means to restore the balance, and to preserve the ideal and spiritual elements of human life. Commerce and travel have made Europe familiar with American wealth and materialism ; critics here have not fully realised the efforts made in America to elevate and purify the national senti- ment by the influence of education. George William Curtis, in his address to the University of the State of New York, alluded to this in language whose dignity befits the subject.^ "But amid the exulta- tion and coronation of material success, let this University here annually announce in words and deeds the dignity and superiority of the spiritual life, and strengthen itself to resist the insidious invasion of that life by the superb and seductive spirit of material prosperity. . . . The most precious gift of education is not the mastery of sciences, but noble living, generous character, the spiritual delight which springs from I'amiliarity ^ 18iX), University Convom tiou. GENERAL INTRODUCTION with the loftiest ideals of the human mind, the spiritual power which saves every generation from the intoxication of its own success. . . . Agassiz spoke for the scholar in science, when he was besought, for the reward of a fortune, to enter the services of a company, and answered : — ' I have no time to make money.' " This estimate of Education — as a check to materialism — is accountable for a phenomenon in higher education which strikes an English teacher at once, z.e., the tendency to make a subject attrac- tive and simple, and to pay little attention to minute points of scholarship. It is easy to condemn this, and to reproach American schools with superfici- ality, — such a judgment is itself superficial, since it ignores some elements of the problem. AVhen the boys have to be diverted from the maniaJorjnajving inoney, an d the girls from the passion for spendino; it^ it is absolutely nec essary for the teacher jto presen t learni ng in its most allu ring aspect. What is done may be done thoroughly, but, if it is done at all, it miii^t be made enjoyable. It may be said further, that, as a rule, persons who devote themselves to higher education in America have given up much; the natural gifts and industry required for a man to be a good teacher or professor would probably enable him to make a for- tune in business. Thus teachers occupy a position somewhat resembling that of ministers of religion, their work being spiritual, and their reward being in part of an immaterial character. The public school system in America has throi' THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS marked characteristics : it is free, local, and secular. The first comes from the feeling that education is a general public need and must be provided for, not by the parents, but by the public authority ; the second is due to the strength of local influences, and the belief in local government and de -centralization; the third is in accordance with the spirit of the American Constitution,^ and the view of education as a unifying agent in a heterogeneous population. At the same time parents are free to send their chil- dren to a private or denominational school should they wish to do so ; in no public school is any religious instruction given.- As there is so much feeling for education in America, there is a remarkable degree of unity^ to an English observer, among the different parts of the educational system. Although there is a great gap between the secondary schools and the uni- versities, the gap is in some places bridged, and many educators are discussing the best means of filling it up. Teachers pass with comparative free- dom from one kind of work to another. The pre- valence of co-education adds to this unity, and men and women teachers work together much more than is the case in this country. Thus it is impossible to study secondary education for girls, without first studying the educational system as a whole ; public secondary ^ " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of reUgion." Amendment I. ^ In many parts of tlie country Sunday schools are largo and successful, and are attended by all classes and by persons of all ages. They excite much interest and enthusiasm. GENERA L LXTROD I X TION schools are under the same authorities and the same laws as the elementary schools. Not only is there unity, there is an astonishing uniformity over the whole of the United States in organization, methods, courses of study — every- thing. Some districts and schools are, of course, better than others ; some are permeated by a different spirit. But in outward form the uniform- ity over so large an area, with such absolute local freedom of variation, is extraordinary. The Educa- tional Exhibit at Chicago showed this uniformity in a remarkable degree ; the educational literature, reports, school laws, etc., show it also. It is perhaps not too much to say that there is less difference in form between the schools of Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, and Seattle m the State of Washington, than there is between the different girls' high schools in London. The causes of this uniformity may be seen in the chapter on " The Uniformity of American Life," in Mr. Bryce's book.^ To the influences mentioned there — equality, inter-com- munication, deference to the will of the majority, newness of the country — may be added the in- fluence of the many teachers' societies and meetings, by which technical knowledge is disseminated, and of that accessibility to new ideas which is so remarkable a feature of the national character. Thus, whatever is considered best tends to become general, and improvement, when it begins, is rapid. At the present time American educators are dis- Chap. cxii. p. 684. 8 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS cussing the problems of secondary education to a remarkable degree. It appears that they are not satisfied with their own system, feeling that it is in some respects deficient, and more particularly^ that there is not sufficient connection between the secondary schools and the universities. Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, writes, " The specific problem in educational organization, that the American people have to deal with at the present time, is the co-ordinating of the secondary to the superior instruction." Professor Gr. Stanley Hall, of Clarke University, Worcester, Mass., says, " The chief disease to-day of the educational system of America is the isolation between the higher and the lower elements." In the current calendar of Harvard University occurs the following passage, written by President Eliot : "... the most pressing educational work in the United States . . . namely, the work of reforming and uplifting secondar}^ education." A distinguished committee of ten, with President Eliot as chairman, has been recently appointed by the National Educational Association to investigate the courses of study and methods of secondary schools. Its conference took place in December, 1892, and the members have since been engaged in formulating the results. A report has already been issued. There is one other feature of American education in the present day which cannot be ignored, though its bearing on secondary education is indirect ; it is the spread of what is termed " the New Education" GENERAL INTKODUCTION in the elementary schools, ^.e., of the cultivation of j)oicer rather than knowledge on the part of the child. With it may be connected the interest in the principles of Herbart, and the work that has been done in applying these. This takes the form of the " concentration" plan : one or two subjects are taken as the main object of attention, and everything else is related to them. This matter is worthy of further study b}^ English educators. We can at present only allude to this dawning renaissance. Such a realization of the ideals of the masters Froebel, Pestalozzi, and Herbart, is a sure sign of a great future, when, it may be, in a new land free from the traditions and superstitions of the old, in an atmosphere of freedom and equality, shall be developed a truly scientific system of educational practice, based on the study of child nature, and inspired by the enthusiasm for humanity. CHAPTEE I OEGANIZATIOX A. — General Outlines THE Public Scliool system in the United States is universally a system of local control. The National Government has nothing whatever to do with education. Its powers are, in general, limited to those expressly given to it by the constitution, and education is not included in these. ^ There are two institutions in Washington of an educational character, depending on the National Government. They are the Bureau of Education and the Smithsonian Institute. The former collects and diffuses information. The latter somewhat resembles the English Royal Society. The National Government also controls the Military School at West Point and the Naval School at Annapolis. The States of the Union are for many purposes separate commonwealths ; each has its own separate school law. This law has two sources : first, the State Constitution, which is enacted directly by the whole people of the State voting at the polls ; and second, the Acts passed by the Legislature. We give below ^ a clause from the Constitution of ^ BrycG, cliap. iv. pp. 30-31. - Infra, p. 28. 10 ORGAN IZ A TION 1 1 Massachusetts.^ As other examples we may quote the Constitution of Ohio, of 1802, which declares : " Schools, and the means of instruction, shall for ever be encouraged b}^ legislative provision." The Constitution of Michigan, of 1850, devotes a long article to education, ordaining that a system of schools shall be established all over the State, and providing for the government of the State University. Such constitutional provisioiis are general in their purport. The Acts of the State Legislature are more detailed in character, provid- ing for the organization of local boards, fixing the school age, making education compulsory, etc. In the next section will be found some account of the School Law of Massachusetts, which has special enactments respecting High Schools. Subject to the provisions of the school law, the schools are controlled by what would be termed in England the School Board of each district. The Boards are elected locally, levy a local rate, build schools, arrange courses of study, appoint and dismiss teachers, etc. As a rule women are eligible as members, and have the school franchise. The members are, we believe, generally paid for the time actually spent by them on school business. In consequence of the diversity of the methods ^ "The true relation of p^enoral povernniont to ])ublic education througliout the country is not one of dictation or direction of it— not one of interference in any manner with the State and township management — but it sliould be one of aid encourapjemenl to the educational or{i;anization3 already established in the several States." — W. T. Haukis. 12 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS of local government in the different States, it is extremel}" difficult to make any general statement about tliese Boards. Some States liave School Districts, small adminis- trative areas, used only for this purpose. This system does not work well, and the tendency is to abolish it.^ In New England, the townships are in general the units of school organization, and the township sysbem is being adopted in the West. All the States of the Union are divided into counties ; these appear in the school organization in many States, especially in the South. There is often a county superintendent, and sometimes a county school tax. A city, — and this term includes many centres of population that we should call villages, — forms a district in itself, having its own City School Board. These Boards are not always elected directly by the people, but may be appointed by the mayor, or in some other way. In Chicago for instance the Mayor appoints, and the City Council confirm his nomin- ation. - Some of the great cities have small local bodies in each ward, who also take part in the government of the schools. This is the case in Philadelphia, where the system acts very badly. Local Boards as a rule carry on their work by means :''^ Eeport of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Minnesota, p. 20. ^ Only one woman sits on this Board at present. The Mayor endeavoured to appoint another, but the City Council refused confirmation, because, it is said, a woman has no political intluence. ORGANIZATION 1 3 of committees, — one on High Schools, one on Fin- ance, one on Buildings, etc. American educators are not ahogether satisfied with this system of local government of public schools ; it introduces " politics," the bane of American local government,^ into the management of the schools, and thus lowers their efficiency. To this evil influence is attributed the inferiority of the public schools in some of the great cities.^ Local Boards are often also ignorant, narrow-minded, and parsimonious, especially in the poorer rural districts. American feeling is however so strongly in favour of local government, that no great change is likely to be made. Educators rather seek to improve the school law, which in the more enlightened States is extremely minute, and to strengthen the power and influence of the State Boards of Education, which have been established in many States. These Boards have no power of compulsion over the local bodies ; there is, however, often a State school fund which they dispense ; they can thus ensure the school law being carried out locally. They collect and diffuse information, and report to the Legislature. All the States except Delaware have a State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, who gives advice, hears appeals, makes reports, licenses teachers, etc. In some States he also has the power of dispensing ' Bryce, chaps, li. and Hi. See also City School Sysfeuis in the Ujiitcd States, pa^c 15, and the speech of G. W. Curtis, before the National Educational Association, 1891. ■^ Articles in Forum, by Dr. Rice, October to Juno, 1892-3. 14 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS tlie State fund ; lie is the only official in the American s^^stem who can be considered to resemble a Minister of Education. Further details on this subject may be found in M. Buisson's '' Rapport sur F lust ruction primaire^^^ and in one of the Bureau of Education Circulars by Dr. Philbrick, late Superintendent of Schools of Boston, Mass.^ M. Buisson gives elabor- ate tables of the organization in different States ; it is, however, difficult to reduce the varying s^^stems to any such general form. Schools are supported almost entirely by local taxation ; this, like nearly all direct taxation in the United States, is raised by a property tax of so many thousandths (or mils) on the dollar of valu- ation, all property possessed by the inhabitants of a district being assessed by the public authority for the purpose of taxation. It is almost impossible to compare this with the English rate of so many pence in the pound, as that is on rent only. A clearer estimate may be gathered by noting the amount per child raised by local taxation. For the United States as a whole, this amount is given as $17-22 (£3 12.9. Oil). A very wealthy district near Boston, Brookline, raised $35 (£7 Qs. Od.). A poor township among the hills, Mount Washington, Mass., raises $3*90 (IG.s-.). The average for Massa- chusetts is $24-53 (£5 0.s'. lOd.). Chicago spends $17-87 per child (€3 14.v. 7^^.). A Southern State, West Virginia only $8-87 (£1 16s. bd.). Full and elaborate details on this subjects are to be found in ' Sec Library of Touchers' CJuild. ORGAMZATION 1 5 the Reports of the Commissioners of the Bureau of Education. Besides the local tax, there is generally a State fund, often the proceeds of the sale of public lands, and often also a State tax. This is distributed by the State authorities to equalize the burden of tax- ation and provide for poorer districts. The amount and the regulations concerning this fund vary from State to State ; some extracts from the last Bureau of Education Report may be of interest. The following passage is summarized from the report : — In the North Atlantic States two per cent, is derived from permanent funds. A State tax is levied on all property in the State, and distributed in proportion to the number of school children. Its object is to equalize the burden of taxation. It is almost with- out exception devoted to salaries ; funds for building and equipment are raised locally. , Some States grant an appropriation in bulk from the State treasury. The theory of the State tax has now been adopted by nearly all the States of the Union. State moneys furnish the main support of the country schools of the South. The total sums spent on public education in the whole United States for the year 1889-90 was over 28 million pounds ; this was raised from permanent funds, local taxes and State taxes. For the same period the number of pupils receiving elementary instruction is given as 12. V millions in public schools and \\ millions in private schools. The statistics for secondary educa- tion are given in the Appendix. There is nothing in the American system corre- 1 6 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS sponding to the inspections of English public elementary schools by Her Majesty's Inspectors, nor is there anything resembling the Government grant. Nor are there any great public examin- ations affecting secondary schools such as the local examinations of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, the Matriculation of the University of London, the College of Preceptors' Examinations, etc., etc. At first sight the absence of any such external tests in American High Schools strikes an English observer as the most remarkable difference between us and them. American educators indeed are in general opposed to the examination system, except under special circumstances, and with special safeguards. The writer many times asked if there were any demand for local examination by the Uni- versities, and was always answered in the negative. The qualifications of teachers for public schools are not subject to any general regulation. Each district and each school committee does as it pleases. The present writer did not study this question, con- sidering that it belonged rather to the subject of the training of teachers.^ Male and female teachers are both employed in the public schools, by far the greater number being women ; the reason for this is not so much theo- retical as practical, the women receiving lower salaries. Principalships are generall}^ held b}' men, though some primary schools (schools for the youngest children) are under women principals. * See The Tralnhuj of Teachers in the United Sfittcs, by Miss Brumwell and Miss Iliiiihes. ORGANIZATION 17 The percentage of male teachers employed has of late years been declining. This is considered an evil ; the vigour of men is required, it is said, especiall3Mn dealing with boys after 14 years of age. Another evil is that women teachers do not remain long in the schools, as they marry and leave. This causes continual change and a constant flow of inexperienced teachers into the schools. Full details of the percentage of women teachers in different parts are given in the Bureau of Educa- tion Eeport; it is highest in New England and smallest in the South. The last report of the Bureau gives — Number of teachers, males, 125,602 ; females, 238,333 ; total, 363,935. The percentage of male teachers for the yhole United States is 34*5. In New Hampshire it is 9"8, and in Massachusetts, 9"9. The public schools are organized in three grades, Primary, Grammar or intermediate, and High Schools, and are alwaj^s free. Indeed in the United States, the word public school always denotes a free school, the English sense of the term being entirely strange. Some ci±y systems include kindergartens. In rural districts the schools are generally ungraded, the number of pupils being too few to arrange formal courses of study for each year. In the Appendix will be found a tabular statement, taken from the Report of the Bureau of Education, of the number of pupils receiving instruction in the various schools. The Primary school takes children of six to nine years of age, who learn the elements of language, number, and, of course, reading and writing. The Grammar school takes up the Primary school c 1 8 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS children to the age of fourteen or fifteen, many leaving earher to go to work. In this grade grammar, arithmetic, geography, literature, and United States history are taught. In the more progressive cities and districts a regular course of manual training, which begins with kindergarten occupations, and goes on to sewing and cooking for girls, and wood carving and iron work for boys, has been introduced of late years. The teaching of science in the common schools is a sub- ject now exciting great interest in America. Much has been done in some centres ; details will be given later.^ Indeed the enrichino- of the o-rammar school curriculum generally is now one of the most burn- ing educational questions of the da3^ President Eliot of Harvard is the leader of a movement to introduce science, mathematics, and some foreign lan- guage into the grammar schools, time being found by improving the methods of teaching in other sub- jects, and by reducing the time given to arithmetic. As more than 90% of the population receive no further education than that given in the grammar schools, the importance of this reform cannot be overestimated. The grammar school in the higher classes corresponds to some extent with an English Middle School or Higher Grade Board School. The High School is designed to take pupils at fourteen, fifteen, or sixteen ^^ears of ago, and, like our English High Schools, fulfil for them two dijBferent functions, — either prepare ihem for the ' luj'va, pp. 1)8-100. OR GA XIZA TION 1 9 University, or finish their education by giving a broader knowledge and a more thorough training than is possible at an earlier age. It is obvious that this requires bifurcation. In Boston and Cambridge separate High Schools, the English and the Latin, are established, — the latter generally means the scliool which prepares for College ; this custom appears to be spreading. There is also a tendency to estabhsh (for boys at any rate) a third kind of High School, — the Manual Training High School. As a rule boys leave school earlier than girls, in order to take to the practical business of life. Educators hope that b}^ establishing these Manual Training schools they may induce many boys to remain two or three years longer in school, when they will receive not only a practical training, but also a further know- ledge of literature, history, and modern languages. In all High Schools there are varied courses, discus- sion of which will be found in Chapter II. It is remarkable, however, to note how few young people in proportion to the population attend the High Schools. The statistics for the whole of the United States are given in the Bureau of Education Report as follows : — 96"54 % are receiving elementary education. 2-53 /^ „ secondary „ •93% „ higher that is, one pupil in 40 attends a secondary school, and one in 1(J7 a University. Even in Massachusetts, where education is so advanced, we find a city like Cambridge, with TOjOCXJ inhabitants, and two excellent High Schools, 20 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS returning only 753 pupils in attendance ; Boston, with a population of nearly half a million, has only 3,488 pupils attending the public High School. In other parts of the United States the difference is even more marked ; . New York, with 1,2(X),000 inhabitants, has one High School for girls and one for boys, containing 3,000 pupils. ^ In the new city of Seattle, Washington, there are 183 pupils in the High School from a population of 58,000 ; Cin- cinnati has 1,503 pupils out of a population of 300,000 ; Chicago 4,200 with over a million inhabit- ants. Secondary education is therefore either relatively less important than elsewhere, or is given in other institutions than the public High Schools. The latter is certainly true ; it is impossible to say whether the former statement is true or not. It is thus seen that in the United States the organization of schools does not correspond with the theoretical age of leaving school, as in England, where one set of schools is designed for children leaving school at thirteen, and another for those leaving at sixteen, and the first grade secondary schools for scholars remaining till eighteen years of age or later. The American theory is that all children learn the elements of knowledge in the same way, no matter what their later life may be, and that they all go on together year after year, the only difference bei^ig that they drop out of the ranks at different ages. There is nothing in the public school system similar to the English custom ' Approximately-. ORGANIZATION 21 of teacliing modern languages to the children of the wealthier classes at an early age, or of beginning Latin at eight years of age with boys who are going to the University. There are few educational sub- jects on which the American experience may be of more use to English education than this question, whether education should be the same for all in the early years, new subjects being introduced as the years of school life increase, or whether, as with us, the whole scheme of work should be made by con- sidering the age at which the pupil must leave school. Such a question should be a matter of educational technique, and is not dependent on civic or political organization, amount of money available for school purposes, or even on social conditions, though these may determine which system is followed. It is probable that in England the comparative fixity of social lines of demarcation, and not a pedagogic opinion as to what is ideally best, has brought about the existing classification of our schools ; the modern " educational ladder " of scholarships set athwart those lines has brought before practical teachers the difficulties arising from the difference in the cur- riculum of a public elementary school, and that of a school preparing for the University, or even of a middle school. In America, on the other hand, no such system, even if educationally the better, could obtain in the public schools. Although social differ- ences do exist, there is very little fixity of social caste. It is impossible to say, for exam pi <^, at an early period, whether a boy will go to College and enter the ranks of the professions, or whether he may be 22 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS obliged to leave at the age of twelve or fourteen and struggle for bread. Not only are fortunes made quickly, but they are lost easily. It is perhaps hardly necessary to refer to the cases of Presi- dents whose only regular education was received in the public elementary school ; it may be more to our purpose to note that any girl may come in later life to the position of a leader in society, and that educators, in discussing questions of theory, fully allow for this. Thus the American ideal is that all children should receive the same education, beginning with the absolute minimum, and adding as much as may be during the years of childhood, reserving for the High School such studies as can best be dispensed with from the equipment of the human being as such. It is for this reason that foreign languages are kept for the High School, although such a plan may mean that they are never as well known as they would have been if begun at an early age.^ The great advantage of the American system is that promotion is perfectly easy from one grade to another, and that unity is established, there being no real distinction between elementary and secondary education, except the age and state of development of the pupil. Such a system is obviously the simplest, and perhaps the ideally best, if secondary as well as elementary education is to be under public control. But it presupposes an absence of * Brookline, Mass., is tr3'infi: tlio experiment of teaching Freucli, and even Latin, in the grammar school. ORGANIZA TION 23 those social lines of demarcation which make it difficult of adoption in countries in which the principle of equality does not prevail as completely as it does in the United States.^ There is, however, one feature of American school organization which merits in a high degree the attention of all interested in the public control of education ; it is that termed the Su])erintendent System. It is, essentially, the employment by a public Board of an educational specialist, termed Superintendent, who acts as an adviser in technical matters, and supervises the working of the schools. He is to the public educational system what a city architect or engineer is to an English municipality. The Superintendent is always a practical teacher, and is usually a man of long experience and a College graduate. It is our impression that these Superin- tendents have been as a rule Principals, or chief assistants, of High Schools, Normal Colleges, and the like. We are told that women do hold this office, especially in the smaller towns and school districts of Massachusetts, but we did not meet with any such case, nor hear of the office being held by a woman in any great town. This is not surprising when the work to be done is considered. The Superintendent's salary is generally fixed a little above that of the Principal of the chief High School. =^ We quote from Dr. Fitch in reference to the ' Bryce, chap. v. p. G15. "^ KxampUa. Chicago and Pliihulolphia, £L,000. Boston, £800. Brookline, Mass., £700. Cambridge, £000. 24 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS functions of a Superintendent.^ " Within liis own domain, whether a State, a county, or a city, he combines in himself the characters of a minister of pubKc instruction, an inspector of schools, a licenser of teachers, and a professor of pedagogy." The Superintendent visits all the schools under his charge periodically, and is supposed to know how the teach- ing is being done. He may, and often does, examine the pupils by written tests. In some cities promo- tions from grade to grade depend on these examina- tions. Serious breaches of discipline are reported to him, and all cases of expulsion come through his hands, even when the power of actual expulsion rests with the Board. In some cities no teacher can be appointed (except for the High School) unless she has passed the Superintendent's examination, or been licensed by him. This doubtless tends to check the appointment of inefficient teachers who may happen to have political influence.'^ He can report as to incapacity in any particular teacher, but we gathered that the removal of an incompetent teacher was extremely difficult, and in some cases almost impossible. The Superintendent advises teachers as to the best methods of teaching, and for this purpose often issues a manual containing hints on the various subjects in the curriculum, a custom absolutely necessary for inexperienced and untrained students, who have gone ' Note^ on American Schools and Training CoUc(jes,\^A'A. - Tlie training and appoiiitiuent of toachors were not studied by the writer, but will be found in other Eeports. ORGAN IZ A TION 25 straight from the High School to teach Httle children. In addition he regularly holds teachers' meetings, in which he delivers lectures on pedagogy. The Reports issued by Superintendents are ad- mirable, and are most interesting documents ; they contain not only complete accounts of the schools, but also discussions of educational questions, and extracts from the works of prominent authorities on pedagogy, both in Europe and America. To give any account of the relations of a Superin- tendent to his Board is obviously a difficult and delicate matter; the relations of an expert to an elected Board are always delicate and may be difficult. The efficiency of the system of education in a city depends perhaps more on this than on any one thing. We gathered from conversation with persons of experience that, in general, the Boards do defer to the expert on technical questions, such as courses of study, choice of text-books, etc., though the latter offers room for the indirect influence of publishers. When the system works well, the combination of popular control with expert knowledge ensures success, and presents perhaps the best kind of public school system. An example of this may be found in Brookline, Mass., and probably in many other New England cities. But too often political influence brings about the dismissal of an excellent Superin- tendent ; they in general cannot count upon any long tenure of office, and there is never, we believe, a retiring pension. This uncertainty of course tends to keep out men of high abilities, who can secure more permanent appointments, and very often higher 26 TFIE EDUCATION OF GIRLS salaries, under private educational corporations, and in the legal or some other profession. In spite of this, however, the enthusiasm for education which is so remarkable a feature of American social life keeps many men of great ability in the position of Superin- tendents. The writer cannot leave this part of the subject without endeavouring to express her admira- tion of the combination of high ideals with practical knowledge, of sympathy and professional enthusiasm with business habits and common sense, which characterizes many American eductttors holding these important posts. It is difficult, and certainly injudicious, to attempt to draw from the phenomena of American local government of schools any conclusions which can be of use to English educators. The corruption of municipal politics in America is due to special con- ditions affecting that country'-. It is worst in the great Eastern cities, with their large foreign immi- gration. The school system in Boston has been kept " out of politics " by traditional feeling. In New England generally the town system is piu'e ; the West varies, the educational system of some of the larger cities only being affected. American educators desire earnestly to exclude politics from educational matters, and this will probably be effected at no very distant date by that power of public opinion which, when once aroused, is, in America, an almost irresistible force. B. — 3fassachus€tt!^. This State has always had a great iniluence in educational matters, and is even now in some respects ORGANIZA TION 27 in advance of others. The North- West generally has been colonized from New England ; as Mr. Bryce remarks/ the emigration has proceeded along the parallels of latitude ; and, as the people went west- wards, they took their institutions with them. There has also been a direct imitation of New England methods, due largely to the fact that so many educa- tional institutions elsewhere have been, and are, officered by the men and women of New England. Harvard, Yale, Brown, and the other Eastern colleges have also added their influence. It is interesting in this connection to notice how largely the personnel of the new Chicago University, which is intended to be the great University of the West, is recruited from Boston, Cambridge, and New Haven. The educational law of Massachusetts dates from the year 1642, the period of the opening of our Civil War. The General Court or Parliament of the colony then enacted that in every township the local authority should take account of the manner in which parents employed their children, " especi- ally of their ability to read and understand 'the principles of religion, and the capital laws of the coun- try." Five years later, another act made the support of public schools compulsory, and education universal and free. This law of 1647 is naturally regarded with pride by the people of Massachusetts, and is frequently alluded to ; the official pamphlet on the public statutes relating to education declares it to be " the first law of the kind ever passed by any Vol. ii. page 302. 28 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS community of persons, or by any state." It stands as follows : — " Ordinance of 1647." " It beinf? one chiefe object of that ould deluder, Satan, to keepe men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as in former times by keeping them in an unknowne tongue, so in these latter times by persuading from the use of tongues, that so at least the true sence and meaning of the origin all might be clouded by false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers, that learn- ing may not be buried in the grave of our fathers in the Church and Commonwealth, the Lord assisting our endea- vours : It is therefore ordered that every township in this jurisdiction, after the Lord hath increased them to the num- ber of fifty householders, shall then forthwith appoint one within their towne to teach all such children as shall resort to him to write and reade. . . . And it is further ordered that where any towne shall increase to the number of 100 families or householders, they shall set up a grammar schoole, the Master thereof being able to instruct youth so farr as they may be fitted for the universit}'." The third paragraph deals with secondary edu- cation. The University had already been founded at Cambridge, by the law of 1637, and had received John Harvard's name. The State constitution adopted in 1780 contains the following provision, which expresses the American view of the need of education as well, perhaps, as any concise statement could : — " The Constitution of Massachusetts, 1780." "Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused gener- ally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties, and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advautagos of education in the various parts of the country, and among the different orders of tlie people, it shall be the duty of the legislatures and magistrates, in all future periods of the Commonwealth, OR GA NIZA TION 29 to cherish the interest of literature and the sciences and all seminaries of them, especially the University of Cambridge, public schools aud grammar schools in the towns ; to encour- age private societies and public institutions, by rewards and immunities for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a natural history of the country ; to countenance and inculcate the principles of hu- manity, and general benevolence public and private, charity, industry-, and frugality, honesty and punctuality in all their dealings ; sincerity, good humour, and all social affections and generous sentiments among the people." An amendment to the Constitution adopted in 1855, declares that no public money shall be used for sectarian schools. The later history of education in Massachusetts during the eighteenth and part of the nineteenth century is full of interest, especially the part relat- ing to the work of Horace Mann, between 1837 and 1850, in building up a centralized system, and in introducing normal schools. In recognition of his work, and of the importance of education to the Commonwealth, his statue is one of two standing on the steps of the historic Boston State House. It would be, however, beyond the limits of the present subject to enter into the details of the evolution of the existing system.^ It is our business rather to describe the system as it stands, noticing especially the parts relating to secondary education. The great merit of the Massachusetts organization is its combination of local self-government and cen- * See Boone, FAlucatlon in the United Sfdfes, p. 103. G. H. J^lsLTtin, Brief Historical Sketch of the Mass. I*ublic School System, Boston, 1893. 30 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS tralized control. The first principle acts through the township system ; the second through the State Board of Education. Subject to the provisions of the general school law, details of which are given later, the Towns (townships), the lineal descendants of the primitive Teutonic communities, provide the schools and govern them by means of a school com- mittee, elected in a town meeting, one-third being chosen every year. Their powers and duties are as follows : — " The school committee has the general charge and super- intendence of all the public schools of a city or town. It establishes courses of study, selects text books, directs how schools shall be organized, how many schools shall be kept, what shall be the qualification for admission to the schools, the age at which children may enter, and the age to which they may continue ; and has power to regulate the system of classification and distribution of pupils. It selects and con- tracts with the teachers of the public schools, ascertains by examination and otherwise their qualifications for teaching, and their capacity for the government of schools ; and issues certificates of character and acquirements. It dismisses teachers with or without cause stated." ^ The members receive payment for the time they actually give to school work. There are 352 Towns (townships), including 28 cities, and varying from wealth}^ suburban com- munities like Brookline, to poor and lonely moun- tain or sea-coast districts, where the means of the population are inadequate to provide good schools without external aid. Eacli Town is independent, and might vary considerably from its neighbours. ^ Official Abstract, Chicago Exhibition. ORGANIZATION 3 1 But the Massachusetts State law is so detailed, there are so many provisions to induce the Towns to con- form to the best methods in education, that, as a matter of fact, there is a high degree of uniformit}^ This is largely the work of the State Board of Education established in 1837 ; it is remarkable as having little direct control, its functions being chiefly advisory. But its work has nevertheless been of the greatest value in perfecting and develop- ing the Massachusetts system,^ and American educators speak highly of it. It consists of eight members (each holding office for eight years), appointed by the Governor, and of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio. Among the number of those who have served on the Board are, to quote names well-known in England, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks, Thomas Wentworth Higgin- son, and Francis A. Walker. The existing Board includes two women, one being the late head of Wellesle}^ College, Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer. Such a Board is entirely detached from politics ; this quality is, according to Americans themselves, a rare virtue in a public body. The members serve without any payment. The Board has " the general management of all the normal schools of the State, and directs and supervises the education of the deaf, the blind, and the feeble-minded, that are educated at the expense of the State." It prescribes the form of registers to be kept in the schools, and through its Secretary, * J/((.v.v. Board of Education Report. 32 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS a paid official, collects statistical and other infor- mation (the law requires private schools to furnish returns according to a specified form), and diffuses it through the Commonwealth. The Board presents annuall}^ to the Legislature a Report, — " containing a printed abstract of the said returns (from the schools), a detailed report of all the doings of the Board, with such observations upon the condition and efficiency of the system of popular education, and such suggestions as to the most practical means of improving and extending it, as the experience and reflection of the Board dictate." ^ This has influenced the course of legis- lation. The Board also holds in trust the State fund for educational purposes, arising in great part from the sale of public lands. The income from this is divided into two parts ; one moiety supports the normal schools, pays the expenses of the Board, salary of Secretary, etc., the surplus, if any, going to the capital account. The other half is divided by the Board among the poorer Towns, according to certain regulations. This arrangement is obviously one of very great importance, tending as it does to enable poor districts to support such schools as their own unaided efforts would never enable them to enjoy. The Secretary and Treasurer of the Board act as commissioners to invest and manage the fund. Only Towns whose valuation is below a certain ^ Official Abstract, Chicago Exliibitioii. 01^ GA NIZA TION 33 amount are eligible to receive aid from the State fund. They must also complj^ with all the laws as to keeping schools open for a certain number of weeks in the year, etc., etc., and must raise by tax- ation at least a sum of $3 (12.9.), per person between 5 and 15 years of age, in the district, for current school expenses. It is thus seen that the State aid is meant to encourage local effort, and not to super- sede it. Another arrangement has lately come into force to encourage small and poor Towns and cities to unite to pay for a Superintendent, who shall super- vise the schools, instead of having the work done by the school committees, who do not, as a rule, con- sist of persons specially skilled in education. If the Towns concerned vote in town-meeting to adopt the provisions of the new law, form a union, and raise jointly $750 (£150), as salary for a superintendent, the Commonwealth will then grant from the State treasury a warrant for $1250 (£250), of which $750 (£150) shall go to the salary of the superintendent, and the rest to the increase of the teachers' salaries. This provision has been largely adopted, 121 Towns having united for the purpose of supervision. The employment of skilled superintendence is consklered by American educators to be one of the most useful methods of improving the schools of a district. In the whole State .'350 cities and Towns have skilled supervision of schools, employing 135 superinten- dents. The work of the Secretary of the Board of Edu- cation is so important a part of the action for good 34 THE EDUCATIOX OF GIRLS of the State system of Massachusetts, that it re- quires a special note. Besides the work of collecting and diffusing statistical and other information above referred to — in itself a most valuable function, as any one who reads the Annual Reports of the Board may ascertain — the secretar}^ and his agents visit the several towns and cities for the purpose of hold- ing teachers' and other educational meetings, and often give lectures on pedagogics at the Teachers' Institutes, which are meetings under the State law for professional instruction. From 20 to 25 of these are held every year, and they are attended b}'' about 2,000 teachers amluall3^ The secretary also suggests to the Board and to the Legislature im- provements in the present system, and in every possible manner arouses and guides public sentiment in relation to the practical interests of education. Besides the ordinary schools, high, grammar, primary, and in some places kindergarten, the law requires evening schools to be maintained, and to be attended by young persons at work, who do not know how to write in the English language. There are 255 such schools ; every cit}" of 50,000 inhabit- ants is also required to maintain an Evening High School. There is a compulsory attendance law, en- forced more or less thoroughly according to local influences. Several counties (Massachusetts is divided into 14 counties), and the City of Boston, support Truant Schools. The free text-book system has been adopted by law (1S84) in Massachusetts, each school committee purchasing the books, and lending them to the ORGANIZA TION 35 pupils ; it is declared to be an nnqualified success. Any Town may also pay for the conveyance of pupils to school ; this is declared by the secretary of the Board and other persons of experience to be an excellent measure, enabling rural and other dis- tricts to concentrate their resources. An extremely important provision is that enforc- ing sanitary requirements on all schools, public or private, and directing the sanitary inspector, and the local boards of health to ensure the observation of the law. ^Ye have already quoted the law of 1G47, requiring the establishment of a grammar school in Towns of over 100 families. This is of course now obsolete ; its place is taken by the law of 18G8, as follows : — '• Every town ma}'^, and every town containing 500 families or householders shall . . . maintain a High School to be kept by a master of competent ability and good morals, who, in addition to the branches of learning before mentioned, shall give instruction in general history, book-keeping, sur- veying, geometry, natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, the civil polity of this commonwealth and of the United States, and tlie Latin language. Such High School shall be kept for the benefit of all the inhabitants of the town, ten months at least, exclusive of vacation, in each year. . . . And in every town containing 4,000 inhabitants, the teacher or toachers of^ the schools required by this section shall, in addition to tlie branches of instruction before required, be competent to give instruction in the Greek and French lan- guages, astrononi}', geology, rhetoric, logic, intellectual and moral science, and political economy." 164 cities and Towns are required to maintain High Schools, 22I3 cities and Towns actually do maintain them ; there are now altogether 245 High Schools in 36 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS I the State, containing 27,482 pupils, and employing 904 teachers. Any Town not required to maintain I a High School may pay for the tuition of a child who j attends the High School of another Tov/n or city ; two ' small Towns may unite to form a Union High School i District, and have a school between them. In several ! Towns secondary instruction is provided for those ' students who would otherwise be in High Schools, , by the Town's paying for their tuition in academies. The public High Schools of Massachusetts have a i distinguished reputation ; tbey prepare largely for j College, much more so than the High Schools of the ] Middle States. The town of Concord has 10% of its ; children enrolled in the High School. We visited \ the High Schools of two cities, Boston and Cam- bridge, and of one Town, Brookline ; we shall there- fore proceed to give some details concerning these. 1 Boston has ten High Schools — two for boys, the | Latin and the English ; two, corresponding to these, j for girls, and six mixed High Schools, belonging to 'districts recently incorporated. The Girls' English High School was established in 182G ; public senti- ment was, however, against it, and it was abolished, to be, however, revived at a later date. The Girls' Latin School was established in 1878. We should ] state that, in Boston, the age of admission to the Latin School is low (twelve to thirteen years of age), the course there being five or six, and sometimes ' even seven, years in length. * Cambridge, a city of 70,000 inhabitants, adjoining Boston, has two public High Schools ; one, the Latin, for boys and girls, prepares for College, and the other, ORGANIZATION 37 the English, is for those desiring a general education. There is a third, partly supported by the munificence of a citizen, for manual training (boys only). All have admirable buildings, well situated, beautiful, and perfectly adapted to their purpose. Reference is made to these schools elsewhere ; it is enough to say here that their standing is worthy of the intel- lectual reputation of the city to which they belong. Brookline is a suburban district (population about 7,00(3i near Boston, one of the primitive communities or Towns, governing itself still by a town-meeting or primary assembly, but remarkable for its assimila- tion of all that is best in modern municipal life. Its schools are deservedly famous for their excellence, the wealth and public spirit of the inhabitants hav- ing provided an almost ideal equipment, both in material and personnel. The system is complete in itself, from the Kindergarten to the High School, the latter preparing for College,^ and at the same time being closely related to the lower schools. Children of all classes attend the public schools, which are, of course, co-educational, and private schools hardly exist in the township. Brookline is perhaps the best example of the Massachusetts system of organi- zation ; and the excellence of its schools tends to prove that local government, when administered by cultivated and patriotic citizens, is the best method of school managernent. It is almost impossible to convey in words an im- pression of the admirable character of these Brookline * 45% of tho High Scliool pupils prepare for College. 38 777^ EDUCATION OF GIRLS schools ; they must be visited and studied, and the work done in them examined. Reference is made in the following chapters to details of the work/ and a table of statistics is given in the Appendix. The reports, courses of study, programmes and syllabuses issued by the Superintendent of the School Com- mittee are full of instruction, and might affurd useful suggestions to English teachers : every visitor to America who is interested in education ought to go to Brookline, whatever else may be omitted. This New England Town may indeed be said to afford a standard of what a complete system of public education should be ; the most bitter opponent of public control of education would find it difficult to maintain his opinion after visiting its schools and studying its documents.^ The conditions for such excellence — an enlightened community, the New England enthusiasm for education, wealth, and public spirit — do not often co-exist ; in Brookline they are found in combination, and the result might be a lesson to English educators, even, perhaps, to English statesmen. C. — The High ScJiool Board cf the State of Minnesota. This State, which has been largely colonized from New England, and which contains a very large pro- portion of Scandinavians, has an excellent public school system. The schools of Minneapolis, its capital, are highly praised by Dr. E,ice in his articles » See Chap. IV. pp. 92, 95, 101, and the Index. '•* For an account of Brookline, see New Eiiyland Matjazhw for August, 1893. ORG A NIZA TION 39 in The Forum. "We much regret not having been able to visit its magnificent High School and that of St. Paul. We were, however, able to gain some information in Chicago from persons who had lived in Minnesota, more particularly the Professor of Histor}^ at the Universit}^, and the Superintendent of the State Exhibit at the Exhibition. Through their kindness we obtained a complete set of the State publications on education, and carefully ex- amined the work sent to Chicago by the schools. The State possesses a unique feature in its organi- zation in Avhat is known as the High School Board. Its objects are to bridge over the gulf which too often exists in America between the Universities and the public High Schools, and to encourage the l^oorer districts to provide for secondary education. This Board consists of three members, the Governor of the State, the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, and the President of the State University. The law, which dates from 1881, may be sum- marized as follows : — The Board receives applications for aid from any properly organized free public school in the State, admitting students of either sex ; and, after being satisfied that the school is working properly, grants a sum of $400 (£80) annually from the State treasury. The conditions which the Board by law requires are, first, that there shall be in the school regular courses of study in preparation for the University of Minnesota, and, second, that the school shall be inspected and approved periodically by members of the Board, or by its agents. 40 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS The Board classifies the High Schools into three divisions, according to their excellence, not as mea- sured by the examination results of their pupils, but by their arrangements for complete courses of stud}^, provisions for laboratory work, and for libraries. According to recent statistics, there are 19 in the first class, 30 in the second, and 20 in the third ; total, 69 schools, containing 4,290 pupils. This Board has already, according to the testimony of persons of experience, worked wonders. The classi- fication of the schools appeals to that local feeling and rivalry between one city and another, which are so strong in America. Further, pupils who have satisfactorily passed through the course of stud}- of schools of the First Class, are admitted to the State University without further examination. It should be noted that, in accordance with the law quoted above, an inspector appointed by the Board, who is always a practical teacher, visits the High Schools every year, and makes an elaborate report upon them. There is also a sj^stem of State local examinations for pupils in High Schools who may enter for a few subjects each year, and receive a diploma under the seal of the State, after passing a certain number of subjects. These students must go through four years' regular work in an approved High School in order to obtain the diploma. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction declares that ''no department of the public school system is better su])ported hy public sentiment, and ORGANIZATION 4I none is rendering more appreciable results in educa- tion than the State High Schools."^ One interesting result of the system is that many boys from the High Schools enter the University, take the course in Liberal Arts, and then go into business. A large number of the teachers in these schools are also graduates of the State University, the High School Board having power to insist upon teachers being properly qualified according to their requirements. D. — T]ie Uiiiversities. In America these institutions stand apart from the State system of pubhc education. They do not have, as in England, a wide influence on secondary education by any general system of local examina- tions. (We shall explain later the modifications necessary to make these statements absolutely cor- rect.) They have, however, an indefinite influence on education in the public schools, through the personal prestige of their great men, such as the present head of Harvard, President Eliot, whose opinions carry weight everywhere among teachers. They also affect the curricula of the second ar}^ schools by the requirements of the matriculation examinations. But they do not seem to be as closely connected with secondary education as in England ; ^ the ten- * Report of Superintendent for 1891-2. ' W. T. Harris, in T/ie riacc of Universify Extension in American Education, ^ay 9,: " Secondary education developed not on the basis of the universit}- but on tliat of the ele- mentary scliool. The course of study in tliese institutions 42 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS dency, however, is to bring the Universities into closer relation with education in general. According /to President Gilman, of Johns Hopkins, there are / four kinds of Universities in the United States.^ / The first is the College Universit}^, of which Harvard / is a type ; this is often of colonial foundation,- and / may have received State aid in the past. Many of j these were founded by ecclesiastical bodies, and I some are still more or less denominational. None \^ of the greater ones are as yet open to women. The second is the privately endowed University, such as Cornell, Ithaca, N.Y. ; Johns Hopkins, Balti- more ; and the new University of Chicago. Some of these have been founded by one individual whose J name they perpetuate ; they comprise some of the I wealthiest, best equipped, and most efficient insti- I tutions. Some are open to women, some are not ; the best women's colleges might be included in this \ class. They resemble the first class in their legal status as independent corporations, governed by their own Boards, and generally chartered under the laws of the State in which they are situated. / The third class consists of the State Universities ; \ these have been founded by the States' Legislatures, has been under tlie control of men educated only on ele- mentary methods. . . . Arrested development is the result and mechanical device. ... It produces a flippant, self- conceited frame of mind. . . . Only one in 500 of the poimlation is now enrolled in schools for higher instruction." -P. 8. ^ Cyclopczdla of rolitical Scieuco. Article, ''Universities." 2 Harvard, 1(J37. Yale, IJOl. Columbia, N.Y. , 1754. ORGANIZATION 43 are governed by Regents elected by the people, or nominated by the Legislature or Governor, and are supported partly by a State tax, and partly by the funds arising from appropriations of lands to educa- tional purposes by the Federal Government, when the States were themselves created. None of the original thirteen States have State Universities; these occur in all the Western and in some of the Southern States. They are open to women, and are, as State institutions, wholly undenominational, and, in accordance with the Constitution, secular. The most important of these, on which indeed many of the others appear to have been modelled, is the University of Michigan. As this has many features of interest in connection with the present inquir}^, and as it is not well known in England, we shall devote a separate chapter to some account of it. Its organization will be there described. The fourth class has but one representative, the University of the State of New York. Its chief work is examina- tion ; it is not a teaching university at all. It has, however, special relations with secondary education ; a further account of it is therefore given. E. — The Univer.Kity of the State of New Yorl: This body is an interesting example of an attempt to unify the various institutions for higher educa- tion, in the great and populous State of New York, and to raise the standard of such education by the controlling influence of a centralized organization. It consists nominally of all colleges and academies having State charters : these have, however, no ; 44 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS voice in its government ; tlie University is really a State Bureau of Administration, governed by a Board, known as "the Regents." They are twenty- three in number: — the Governor, Lieutenant-Gover- nor, Secretary of State, and Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of New York [ex ofp-cio)^ with nineteen elective Regents who are chosen by the Legislature as the Senators for the National Congress are. This body is really, in fact, the University.^ The nineteen chairs have been occu- pied by some of the most eminent citizens of New York. The University dates from the period of the Revolution, 1787 ; it was formed largely under French influence, but it had very little effect or influence until the last few years. Its powders are as follows : — The Regents have power to incorporate, and to alter or repeal the Charters of Colleges, Academies, Libraries, Museums, or other educational institutions belonging to the University; to distribute to them all funds granted by the State for their use, to inspect their workings, and to require annual reports under oath of their presiding officers ; to establish examinations as to attainments in learning, and to confer on successful candidates suitable certificates and degrees. They thus have power to do what the University of London does, but as yet tliey only exercise this power to grant Medical Degrees; the institutions themselves grant their own degrees in their own * Among the Eegeuts are Cliaunce}' M. Depow and Whitclaw Reid ; George Wm, Curtis was Chancellor up to liis do;uli. OR GA NIZA TION 45 fashion. The Regents have, however, estabUshed local examinations in the secondary schools, the cer- tificate of which is recognised for" admission to the College, and is required from all law and medical students. These examinations cover 68 subjects, and necessitate more than 500,000 examination papers yearly ; there are 300 secondary schools taking these examinations. The 86 Colleges in- cluded in the University do not, of course, enter for them. The Regents apportion annually an Aca- demic fund of $106,000 (£21,200); part for buying books and apparatus for Academies and High Schools, and the balance on the basis of attendance and the Regents' examinations. They are also trustees of the State Library and State Museum, and have a special organization for assisting cities and villages to obtain free libraries. Furthermore they have taken up the work of University Extension. The University holds a yearly Convocation at Albany, when the teachers and officers of the Col- leges and Academies meet to confer on questions of secondary and higher education. The Regents have also established a property qualification for new institutions desiring charters of incorporation ; they thus hope to check the multiplication of poor and insufficiently equipped colleges and academies. The work of the University will doubtless extend and become more important as years go on ; it is an interesting example of the necessity for those cen- tral controlling and supervising bodies in the public education system, which are a marked feature of the most progressive States of America. CHAPTER II. man schools. TN what follows we refer to the public High -*- Schools, although the private schools resemble these to a much greater extent than might be ex- pected. The general age of entrance is 15 to 16 for pupils entering from the grammar schools of the city ; some come at an earlier age, but few, if any, later. The certificate from the grammar school, or an equivalent entrance examination, is required before admission. This simplifies the work of the High School, for some subjects can be omitted from its curriculum as having been sufficiently studied in the lower school. Arithmetic, grammar, geograph}', and United States history in its elementary parts, are the chief of these. This stratification of sub- jects is one of the greatest advantages of the public school system ; it enables the High School to devote considerable time to advanced Avork, and thus to avoid the waste of energy caused by studying many things at once. The organization of American High Schools is also much simpler than that customary in England. The pupils are arranged in years, the 3'ear begin- ning in September ; admissions at other times are onl}^ allowed if the applicant can produce evidence, HIGH SCHOOJtS ''■-:■■ 47 by examination or certificate, of being' fit to take up the class work at the ])roper point. As a rule the pupils go regularly together to the next year's work ; the backward ones either lose a year, and go over the course again, or leave school. We imagine the latter is the more usual alternative. On completion of the prescribed course — in general one of three or four years — a diploma of graduation is given. The occasion for this is often one of some ceremony, girls wearing a special dress, the best pupils of the year reciting addresses, etc. ; it takes, indeed, the place of the English distribution of prizes. Most High Schools have several courses of study, one of which must be chosen when the student enters. There seems to be little provision for change, probably because there is little demand for it. We give in the Appendix details of the courses in some typical schools. One is generally a com- mercial course, which takes two years ; the course preparing for College takes four years. Many girls choose an English course. Boys in some cities take a course of three years for engineering. As stated above, some cities have separate schools for the various courses. The Manual Training High Schools for boys in Philadelphia and Cambridge, Mass.. seemed to the writer worthy of special study, but as tliey do not concern girls, they are beyond the limits of the present inquiry. The school committee of Boston has decided to open a Mechanic Arts High School for Boys, the land to cost £10,000 and the building £24,(J(JO. Their report states: "For the first time in Boston, the boy who wishes to enter 48 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS the industrial world will have the same opportuni- ties given him for preparation, at the public expense, as have been given so long to those who wish to prepare for a business or professional life." Many pupils leave before graduation, bo^'s espe- cially. This is due to the attraction of practical life. In a mixed school the excess of the number of girls over that of boj's is very striking, in what an Englishman would call the " higher forms." The word form is, however, not used ; the year is spoken of as a clas^. The class divides for lessons, accord- ing to the subjects taken by the individual members. When a school is very large the class for one year may contain 200 or more. It follows, then, that all who learn the same subject cannot be taught to- gether ; they are therefore divided into sections, and the teacher repeats her lesson. Each teacher takes but one or two subjects. All the pupils are, however, kept parallel in their work. In an Eng- lish school the differences between pupils would soon be noticed by the teacher, and, after a few lessons, the class would be re-arranged into different sec- tions, the brighter pupils pushed on faster, while the duller ones would receive more explanation of difficulties. We found no trace of such a gradation in even the best public High Schools ; the whole year went on at the same pace, even when the numbers were so large as to require teaching in sections. We were informed by the suporintendeiit of one city that to go further with one set of pupils than with another, if they were both doing the same course and belonged to the same year, would be considered 48 HIGH SCHOOLS 49 unfair ; it would give the diploma of graduation on easier terms to one pupil than to another, for one would have gone through more algebra, say, or Cicero, than another. This objection was, we think, a sound one according to the American system, in which stress is laid, not on examinations, as with us, but on going through a certain amount of work in the classroom. Nevertheless, English teachers will feel that to keep a large number working at the same rate, in an advanced subject like mathematics, must mean either that some do not understand what they are learning, or that those with special ability do not make the progress they might ; the latter is pro- bably the case. An American teacher would say this did not matter ; such, a boy or girl would go to College and elect to work at advanced mathematics there, and might even go on to post-graduate work. Besides, they might add, " The bright student can get on any way," It should be remembered that there are in America very few open scholarships at the colleges to be won by competition. A student of limited means can always get help, in one form or another, but competition has nothing to do with gaining such aid. It is not, therefore, necessary to look out early for the most gifted boys and girls, to train them to reach the scholarship standard, and the school is not judged by the number of College scholarships its pupils obtain. The result of this difference between American and English High Schools is that there is not, there at the top of the school, a small number of gifted boys or girls doing really advanced work in one or two E 50 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS subjects. It might be said, then, that the standard there must be lower than with us. Such a judg- ment would be both true and false : true as regards the few, but probably false as regards the man3\ Owing to the small number of subjects studied, in comparison with those in an ordinary good English High School for girls, a greater number appear to reach a fair standard than with us. In other words, a larger percentage of girls read the sixth book of Euclid there than here, though our best girls read more advanced mathematics, and take subjects which in America are confined to Colleges. The same rule probably applies to other subjects. The daily routine of an American public High School is confined to the morning only ; the hours are generally from 9 to 1.30. Some schools in small cities begin at 8.30, some go on till 2. There is always a period of rest in the middle of the morn- ing, termed " recess," twenty-five to thirty minutes in length. Daring this time the pupils have lunch, some returning to their homes, but the majority, especially in large cities, either 'bringing what they require or purchasing it at school. The schools vary considerabl}^ as to the custom of a general assembly before the beginning of the morning's work. In some cities public sentiment is opposed to any religious ceremony in schools ; but in such places pupils are called together for literary exer- cises, etc., once a week, or oftener. Even in schools where religious exercises are allowed, they often do not take place every day according to the English custom, but once or twice a week. HIGH SCHOOLS 51 Generally the morning is divided into five periods, and one of these is given to private study. The rule is to have one lesson in each subject studied eijerxj day^ or, it may be, four days a week. This we consider one of the best features of the American High School system, and one most worthy of imita- tion. As the form system does not prevail, and as the various courses of study have to be fitted to- gether in the time-table, the system somewhat re- sembles that of University College, London, or any similar institution. At a given hour a certain number of lessons are going on, attended by the pupils whose courses of study include those subjects; the others sit in special study halls, each at his or her own desk, or in the school library, doing private work. It should be noticed here that many of the pupils are only 15 years of age, and that they study in as orderly a manner as the older ones. At the close of a lesson period electric bells sound all over the building, the lessons stop, and from three to five minutes are allowed for the change of classes. The teacher usually remains in the same room, and the pupils move about freely and without super- vision. Conversation is allowed during the change. Again and again we saw this process carried on, always in an admirable way ; the pupils went about their business quickly and in an orderly manner ; we could never detect, even by close observation, any undue levity or waste of time, and the buzz of con- versation was no annoyance. It should also be re- membered that in some cases as many as 7(.)0 young people were moving about all over a large building 52 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS simultaneously. At the close of the prescribed three or five minutes, the electric bells sounded again and absolute silence and order instantly followed. It is a general rule to send any pupil, who may be late to a lesson, immediately to the principal, to get from him a written excuse, if reasonable cause can be given ; if not, he deals with the matter as a breach of order. At ''recess" the whole building is free to the V pupils. In a mixed school the boys go to the basement and the plaj^ground adjoining, while the upper floors are reserved for the girls. The princi- pal is in charge during this time ; he stands in the centre of the buildings, generally on the staircase, or walks about. The teachers all retire to the teachers' room, eat their own lunch, and rest until the bell sounds. The theory of this is that, as the principal does not teach as many hours as the rest of the staff, and as he has greater authority, he should be on duty during " recess." In some schools there is a lady Vice-Principal, and she is responsible for the girls during the same interval. The girls often dance during some part of this time. In one school we saw them using the great assembly hall for this purpose, but we did not meet with any case of open-air games for them except in private schools. "VVe repeatedly questioned teachers as to whether / any difficulties arose from allowing so complete a measure of freedom during recess, over a large building, to several hundreds of girls, but they unanimously declared — many of them after years of experience — that no evil results followed. " We HIGH SCHOOLS 53 trust our young people," they said, " and they be- come worthy of our trust." At the close of the morning's work, we observed in several schools an excellent custom of formal dismissal. The boys and girls march out from their class-rooms, separately, to music ; the girls generally dress in the cloak-rooms or " wardrobes " adjoining the schoolroom, the boys march to the basement. We also observed some admirable marching from the assembly hall after prayers, and the most careful observation of a teacher accustomed to such work failed to detect any talking, or other symptom of disorder, on such occasions. The week consists of ^nq days, Saturday being a whole holiday. The school year is about forty weeks long ; the summer vacation begins in June, and ends in the beginning of September ; private schools close early in June, and open about Sep- tember 20th. There are two short vacations of about a week at Christmas and Easter. When the year is divided into terms, these are reckoned irrespective of vacations. There are three public holidays — Thanksgiving Day, some Thursday in late autumn, appointed by the President of the United States by proclamation ; Washington's birthday, February 22nd ; and Memorial Day, May 30th, to commemorate the soldiers who fell in the war of 1861-1865. In the school session before these last two holidays, patriotic exercises are held in many schools, as lessons in civic duties and privi- leges. It should be remarked that a teacher's duties in the public schools cease with the morning session. 54 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS unless there is a teachers' meeting ; the principal, however, and the staff of his office generally remain. Parents who wish their girls to learn music make arrangements privately; no such lessons, except class singing, are given in connection with the public High Schools. Drawing is a regular school subject, generally optional, and is given with the other lessons in the morning. Needlework and cooking, if taught at all, belong to the lower school (the grammar school). It would be contrary to the spirit of the American public school S3^stem to have backward pupils return in the afternoon for special teaching ; the school is free, and therefore it would be considered unjust to give one pupil more teaching than another. Such special help, if necessary, must be provided by the parents. The amount of time given to home lessons varies in different schools. For High School pupils, about three hours a da}'' is probably the average ; many teachers state that such is their expectation. Most schools arrange for at least one study period each morning in school. In the Cambridge High School, one lesson at least is to be learnt at home — probably two, but here two stud}?- hours are given in school each day, the period being from S'SO to I'SO. Thus the time spent on preparation is more than three hours, but then much of it is taken during the school time. There is an excellent plan in the Boston Girls' High and Latin Schools ; home lessons are not prepared for every class lesson, one or two lessons being given every day, for which there is HIGH SCHOOLS 55 nothing done out of class. The principal informed us that this plan was adopted to prevent over-work. In the High School, Ann Arl)or, where the strain of preparing for the University of Michigan is felt somewhat severely, the students are considered fortunate if they get their work done in four hours. The rules of the Board of Education of the public schools of San Francisco require that the total time for home study shall not exceed three and a half hours daily ; at least, one hour a day is there re- quired to be set apart for study in school. An inquiry was recently held there as to whether the parents considered there was too much home w^ork set ; 59% replied in the affirmative, 41% were satisfied with the existing rule. It was impossible for the writer to inquire as to whether there is over- work in American schools, and even if time had allowed of inquiry, it would ^ have been difficult to obtain definite results; one j^oint may be mentioned however, — the great con- sideration for the health and comfort of girls and of women teachers, shown by botli principals and superintendents. Again and again, on explaining some English custom, we were told that it could not be adopted because it would involve too great a strain on the health of girls or teachers ; this is one reason given for not having many examinations, r and for making those they have of less importance than with us. Several principals complained of the injury to girls' studies and health, caused by social engagements, parties, Sunda^^-school work, and church work. xy 56 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS AVe have already alluded to the large sums devoted to school buildings in America, and to the consequent magnificence of many of these. A remarkable case which is often quoted is that of the city of Duluth, on Lake Superior, which has a popu- lation of 35,000. It has recently erected a High School building costing $300,000 (£60,000), with a tower and wings, and finished inside with polished hardwood. As a rule, school buildings are entirely detached from other houses, standing in the centre of what is called a " lot," and often at the corner of two streets ; there is thus ample provision for light and air. The fioor space is generally much greater than that in English schools ; not only are separate desks the rule, but there is a broad passage-way all round the room between the desks and the wall, in all the newer buildings. The corridors and staircases are very wide, and this is perhaps one cause of the ease of movement of large numbers. To an Englishwoman the ventilation is, in general, deficient, though much attention is sup- posed to be given to the subject, and many systems of artificial ventilation are used. Some schools, e.g.^ the Cambridge English High School, are admirably ventilated. The heating is to English ideas exces- sive, the standard being 70° ; the temperature, however, often rises above this. We cannot but attribute to this cause much of the pallor of girls and women teachers, and the languor of tlu'ir move- ments. In one school in a largo Eastern city, on a day early in April, the writer was obliged to go out HIGH SCHOOLS 57 into the open air at every interval between lessons, in consequence of the heat and closeness of the atmosphere. This was, however, a building of the older style, containing 1,700 pupils. The schoolrooms are well furnished, the desks and chairs being of excellent types. We noticed a particularly good form of chair for such lessons as involve the use of a book. It resembled a Windsor arm-chair with a cane or wood seat, and a movable flap on the right arm sufficiently large to hold the note-book. These chairs are much used in the American college lecture halls, and in schoolrooms for small divisions, for which they are very con- venient. All schoolrooms are surrounded with blackboards fixed to the wall ; they begin at a convenient height from the floor (twenty inches for little children), and are four to five feet high. It might be thought that this would make the room dark and dull, but such is not the case, for the rooms are well lit, and the wall space above the blackboard tinted in light colours, and often ornamented with pictures and busts. Besides this, the board itself is covered with drawings and written work. The appearance of the rooms is pleasant, and, to a visitor, the mass of written matter on the walls peculiarly interesting and suggestive ; it must be even more useful to the j)upils themselves, as they see a record of the whole lesson which appeals to the eye, and thus makes a deeper impression than is possible when old work lias to be rubbed out to make way for the new. What is put on the blackboard is almost entirely 58 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS the work of the pupils ; the amount of space makes it possible for the teacher to draw illustrations for her lessons at convenient times, and these illustra- tions remain till wanted, — sometimes for several days. "We saw some admirable maps, diagrams, abstracts, and analyses, etc., the work both of teachers and pupils. Frequently in a mathematical lesson ten or fifteen pupils would be working algebra or geometry at the board at one time ; this was done quickly and simply with quiet self-reliance. It formed a con- venient method of ascertaining whether the pupils knew their work or not. The writer cannot speak too strongly of the value of this simple device of a continuous blackboard ; most English schools have much to learn from America in this respect. Dr. Fitch, in his Notes on American Schools and Training Colleges, highty recommends the American black- board system. In the Girls' Latin School at Baltimore, we saw blinds which pulled up from the bottom of the window, as well as ordinary blinds falling from the top; thus the light could be exactly regulated. It is difficult to give any general account of a typical High School building. We did not meet with any example of the English type of school- rooms opening from a great hall, or of tiers of rooms opening into corridors, as in the Cit}^ of London School for boys. The American type is a square building, three or four stones high, with a corridor in each story down the middle, and rooms opening from each side of it. There is often a second HIGH SCHOOLS 59 corridor crossing this at right angles, the staircase being near the intersection of the two corridors. At the corners of the building are large study halls, with windows in the two adjacent sides, and smaller rooms opening out on the inner sides to the cor- ridors. Each of these large halls is devoted to one class {i.e., year), every pupil having a separate desk there. These halls are occasionally used for lessons, but the system of having several different lessons going on simultaneously in a large hall, with or without curtains, seems absolutely unknown in American High Schools, whether public or private. We did not see a proper gymnasium in any public school ; there is generally a room in the basement devoted to physical exercises, but it is often low, dark, and dull-looking. At the top of the square block of building is the assembly hall, used for prayers and other formal meetings of the whole school. This hall is often large, but seldom lofty, and lacks the beaut}^ and dignity of our well-known school halls. The Nor- mal College, New York, and the Girls' High School, Brooklyn, wdiich each contain nearly 2,000 pupils, have separate lofty halls, adjoining the schoolrooms, which resemble an English concert hall, but except for size they are not impressive. The assembly hall of the Girls' High School, Boston, is however so exquisitely and suitably decorated that the writer feels obliged to describe it in full. When the school house was built in 1870, some members of the American Social Science Associa- tion offered to contribute and place in the hall 60 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS various casts from antique sculpture and statuar}^, if the city would fit up the hall to receive them. This was done. The walls of the hall (62 feet square) are divided by Doric pilasters into panels, painted a soft neutral tint. These form the background for various statues or busts. Above an architrave has been constructed for a series of slabs from the Parthenon. There are ten statues and eleven busts : they include the Venus of Milo., the Diana of Gabii, and the Polyhymnia from the Louvre ; the Pudicitia and Demosthenes of the Vatican, and busts of Jupiter, Pericles, and the Young Augustus from the same gallery, and other famous works. It is impossible to imagine any more beautiful or suitable decoration for a school hall : its austere beauty must needs have an ethical influence on the pupils. The princi- pal of the school occasionally after prayers gives a short address to the girls to lead them to appreciate these masterpieces of art. In two other schools we saw casts of the Parthe- non Frieze used as decoration for a large room : one was in the Bryn Mawr School at Baltimore (private), the other the Lincoln School at Brookline, Mass. (public elementary). In the latter case it was the gift of a citizen to a school attended chiefly by the poorest children of the district, in order that they might have the highest ideal of beauty placed before them in their school lives. Further details on school houses and fittings are to be found in the Bureau of Education Circular, "City School Systems in the United States." The discipline of American schools, both elomen- HIGH SCHOOLS 6 1 tary and secondary, cannot be too highly approved. It is the more admirable as it seems to bo entirely a matter for the pupils. There are very few rules, no sj^stem of small punishments, no elaborate supervision by teachers ; the young people govern themselves. As before stated, we again and again watched for such small breaches of order as habitu- ally occur even in good schools in England, but none were noticed. The degree of attention in class was occasionally inadequate, but the pupils always seemed to know their work, and were pro- bably attending, even while seeming not to do so. During the whole time of our visiting schools, we never heard a teacher reprove a pupil for disorder. Dr. Harris, in his Report on the Public School of the District of Columbia (i.e., Washington), states that he " went into 300 rooms, and never once heard a teacher reprove a pupil for disorder." Much more might be said on this point ; it is enough to repeat that the discipline is excellent. The writer repeatedly questioned American teachers as to how this admirable result w^as secured. They attributed it first of all to the national character, and second to the s^^stem of trusting the pupils. Mr. Bryce alludes to the optimism which is so marked a feature of American social life ; it is none the less prominent in the schools. We subjoin an extract expressing American opinion, from the Calendar (Prospectus) of the Cam- bridge High School : — " It is presumed that pupils in this scliool mean to con- duct themselves honourably and bccomiuyly, a presumption 62 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS justified by tlie commendable behaviour of nearly- all. It is the aim of the school to strengthen the sense of propriety, dut3^, and honour by trusting it. Boys and girls at school are citizens as fully as they can ever be (see Sect. I., Art. XIV., Const. U.S.) ; it becomes them, therefore, in school and elsewhere now, as throughout their lives, to practise the duties, cultivate the graces, and displaj^ the loyalty of good American citizenship. Only in cases of conspicuous failure in conduct will a deportment record be kept." The head master states officially, "I am convinced that an 5'- system of discipline which does not strengthen the self-directive faculties is unsatisfactory. Self-control is the ultimate object of all training, phj'sical and intellectual as well as moral, This is to be attained not by a policy of repression, but by granting a large degree of liberty. Artificial standards, un- natural restrictions, are unwise, because the^^ do not prepare for what comes after school. They unnecessarily irritate the pupil, and in the end do him no good. Sternness and severity are not so much needed as firmness tempered by kindness, and a prompt recognition of every honest effort to correct a fault." The present Superintendent of Philadelphia in- formed the writer that discipline has been softened and improved by icomeii's teaching : it was once harsh and severe. Other authorities state that a more mihtary and rigid system prevailed till a few years ago. This strict system tended, it is said, " to sap vitality and prevent pupils from working for themselves." The Superintendent of Brookline, Mass., who has had a wide experience in other cities, states in his last Keport : — "Still another gratifying tcndenc}' is the attempt to apply in school-management the theory of self-government, to do away as much as possible with the necessity for authority and repression. An appeal is made to the highest motives, HIGH SCHOOLS 63 such as honour, manly pride and courtes}', until these are incorporate in the school. This idea that a school should train the young for their social duties in a free republic is not new. Hosts of teachers are applying this principle and are working toward high ideals of character. Schools thus conducted constitute the only safeguard of a nation where there is the largest degree of individual freedom consistent with the common good." One teacher of experience said to the wTiter, " Young America takes school seriously, and goes to school as to business." It should be remembered that the young people in the High School have gone through eight years' regular training in the elementary school, where the discipline is more strict, though equally kindly. The fact that the public High School is free also tends to make attendance a privilege. If the pupils are not prepared to conduct themselves properly in school, they are warned that expulsion will follow. Although the number of cases of expulsion is, as far as we could learn, comparatively small, we believe it is larger than in England, where it is only used in very exceptional cases. The rules about attendance are in America extremely strict : Pupils who do not attend the public schools regu- larly are dismissed ; this is the easier, as, in most cities, the number applying for admission to the High Schools is in excess of the accommodation. In one case, Ann Arbor, absence for two days without due cause (to be late counts as half one absence), in four weeks, means dismissal from the school. It is probable that the rigorous rules as to attendance exclude from the school those who are nob in 64 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS i earnest, and thus help to keep up the standard of j disciphne and efficiency. The private schools seem I able to be much more rigorous than might be ex- | pected, in consequence of the high standard set by , the public schools. They generally require parents to pay the fees for a whole year on the entry of a pupil ; they, with other educational institutions, demand " certificates of honourable dismissal '^ from | pupils who come to them from other schools. They 1 seem also indifferent to the withdrawal of girls who I cannot or will not keep np with the class. The principal of one private school in Baltimore which j prepares for College, informed the writer that seven- : teen pupils had withdrawn betw^een September and April, because they found the Latin too difficult. It is, of course, impossible for a stranger to judge I of this matter fully in a few weeks of observation ; ' the above remarks are only put forward tentatively. ; Difference of national characteristics and of public j sentiment affect school discipline ver}^ largely. "We ■ were informed by the Professor of Ethics at one | of the great American Universities, that it w^as an > American principle to leave the individual perfect ! freedom of choice, and that this was the only way to ; train young people to true morality and self-control, j Even if, under this system, some of the weaker ; members succumbed to temptation, it is considered j better to allow this to happen than to restrain all, i and thus make it impossible for them ever to learn ] true self-government. j In accordance with these ethical principles, the | system of prizes is banished ; there are in some schools ' HIGH SCHOOLS 65 a few special prizes, but there is nothin^^ correspond- ing to the system prevalent in many English schools. IMirks are used to some extent in most schools, but the best authorities seem to disapprove of what they term the percentage system, /.e., the estimating a scholar's position by the percentage of marks obtained. They prefer a scale of credits by letters (A = very good, B = good, and so on), similar to that used in the detailed individual reports of our Cam- bridge Local Examinations. Again and again we found a superintendent expressing this view in his report. Dr. Brooks, of Philadelphia, says, '' to train a pupil to recite for a recitation mark, is to give him an absolutely wrong idea of education, and tends to destroy his taste for study and knowledge." The superintendent of Ann Arbor says, " I believe no pedagogical principle is better established than that the most fruitful motive of a student's efforts is internal — not external — interest in the subject mat- ter of study, rather than the teacher's will, honour prizes, or high per-cents. The normal condition of mind growth is freedom — voluntary activity. More- over, the good teacher will do her best work under conditions of freedom — freedom as to methods, quantity of subject matter presented in a given time, form of pupils' acquisitions, and all the details of inciting and impressing her pupils. I trust we are for ever done with the repressing influences of the examination for promotion. ... I deem it worthy of mention here that the High School (as well as most of lower grades) has abandoned the percentage method of recording standings, using F 66 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS instead only four grades of scholarship, denoted b}' letters. We have long observed that many pupils are accustomed to rate themselves by their percent- age record, rather than by their conscious power and attainment. We believe that artificial incentives of any kind are likely to break down the ethical spirit in 3^outh which is the chief element in genuine character and high attainment. Scholarship honours in some degree seem inevitable in school management, but they should never be regarded by pupil or teacher as the highest motive of study." The teacher's estimate is considered by some authorities the best criterion of a pupil's progress. " The examination paper still attacks learning on its intellectual side, the marking system on its moral." ^ Some schools send home monthly reports to the parents in a book, keeping a counterfoil in their own register ; the Cambridge High and Latin Schools, and the Brearly School, New York, have ■ excellent forms for this purpose, — concise, simple, and clear. There is a very strong feeling against examina- tions among American educators. The principal of an excellent High School told the writer that he considered them the " bane of teaching " ; the super- intendent of Philadelphia, in his last annual report, strongly deprecates any encouragement of the examination system. The superintendent of Cam- bridge (Mass.), takes the same view. ''After an added experience of ten years, I would state ^ G. N. Palmer in Andorer lievieir, Nov. lSb5. HIGH SCHOOLS positively that I do not believe in written examina- tions, the results of which are to determine, or to be a factor in determining, the fitness of jnipils for promotion. These examinations set up a low and alluring end for study— the attainment of examina- tion marks— and they dissipate that natural desire for knowledge, which is the source and inspiration of all true learning and of all real joy in study." i Even promotion examinations given by the teachers themselves, or by the superintendent, are considered injurious by many of the most eminent authorities.^ Thus the pubUc High Schools do not send in their pupils for University examinations such as the Harvard examination. Although this is an excellent examination, only 69 girls, nearly all from private schools, have passed it since 1881. Its syllabus, we may add, somewhat resembles that of the Matriculation Examination of the University of London, but it is probably not quite so difficult, as it can be taken in two parts. The public High Schools prepare for College to some extent : this means that their students have to pass a matriculation examination somewhat below the standard of the Harvard examinations. Even in this matter, however, the feeling is so strongly against examinations, that many Colleges admit » This speech is quoted by tlie Cambridge superintendent from Dr. Wliite, Cam. School Report ' I^ostori Uoport, pp. 18, 19, 25, 20. Washuujfon lie port. p. 34. Forum, Dr. Rice (March, LS1)3) : " Regular examina- tions for promotions are now looked upon as unscientilic pedagogy." 68 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS "on certificate," as it is termed, from good schools. This system originated, we believe, in the Uni- versity of Michigan : we give some account of it in Chapter VI. It means that a College recognises, as an exemption, a certificate from the principal of a good school that his pupil has satisfactorily gone through a certain course, including the subjects required for matriculation. There is a very strong divergence of opinion on this point among American educators ; those who approve of it consider that the teacher, after know- ing and working with a pupil for j^ears, is a better judge of his fitness for College than an examiner who has read a few papers. On the other hand, so great an authority as President Eliot, of Harvard, considers the certificate system essentially bad. " The method of admission on certificate which has grown out of this relation between State Universities and secondary schools is so full of perils both for the schools and the university, that Harvard University has no desire to enter on any such policy."^ Harvard refuses to admit "on certificate," and so does Bryn Mawr, one of the most distinguished of the women's Colleges. As we have noticed in Chapter I., in speaking of the High School Board of Minnesota, and the Regents of the University of the State of Ne\\- York, there is a tendency to introduce examinations in the State system, as a moans of securing ^ Annual lieport of the President to Treasurer of Harvard University, 1891-1892. HIGH SCHOOLS 69 efficiency, and of raising tlie standard of attain- ment. Every properly fitted school in America possesses an excellent library, which is largely used by the pupils. There seems usually to be a librarian on the staff, who is expected to help the students to use the books, during the study hours before alluded to, and at home. As is explained in the Chapter on Method, pupils are expected to get up subjects for themselves ; this they do in great part through the school library. The Encydopcedia Britannica and the Centiwy Dictionary are found in many such libraries ; that of Washington, containing 5,600 vols., is open to pupils from 2 to 3.30 each day, under charge of the librarian. At the Ann Arbor High School, Michigan, the library consists of 4,480 vols., and is supplied with the best magazines and periodicals. '' The library is made an important adjunct to the school in its regular work, especially in studies in history, the sciences, and literature. An experienced librarian is in attendance to furnish pupils with books, or to guide them in the work of research." We frequently entered these school libraries, and found the students working there very much as readers do in the British Museum. The risk of injury or loss does not seem to be so much considered, if only a number of pupils can bo induced to use the books. The report of the Cam- bridge High School, which has a very fine library, states : " The books are easily accessible, for closed cases have been abandoned, and pains taken to make their use inviting and easy. It is better to 70 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS let books get mixed a little, or even to risk an occasional loss, than to set guard on them so that it becomes hard, if not disagreeable, to get at them." In the great University Library at Harvard, there is an excellent plan which miglit be adopted in schools possessing a library. The professors each draw U]) a list of books useful in the courses they are giving ; the librarian selects these from the library and places them together, each set on separate shelves, in an alcove round a table, the name of the course and the professor being placed on the alcove. The students can go and work at the tables, using the books as they please daring the day, and can take any books home between 5 p.m. and 9 a.m. next morning. The writer saw this arrangement in working order, and was much impressed by its usefulness. By such means students can be trained to use a library who would otherwise never learn to depend on themselves. We do not propose to enter into any details regarding the number of pupils in a given school. Local conditions govern this matter : a small town will have a small High School, a large city may have one great school with 2,000 girls, as in New York or Philadelphia, or may have several High Schools iu different parts of the city, as Boston does. There the 3,488 pupils are distributed among ten schools. The public schools have usually larger numbers than ours, and the classes are larger. Boston even has an average of 31*3 girls to a teacher iu the Latin School, and 34*0 in the English High School. This will seem to English teachers too largo for HIGH SCHOOLS tlioroiiglmess, especially in teaching such subjects as Latin and mathematics. Probably one reason why the private schools do so much of the work of preparing for College is that the classes in them are smaller. The idea of economy is probably the reason for the existence of such great city schools as those of New York and Philadelphia. " A mammoth school," says one authority, " can never be a good school." Whether this be so or not, it certainly'- seems to the writer that the very large schools in America are inferior to the smaller, particularly in that spirit of freedom, and that happiness and self-activity, which is the especial merit of American schools. The High School of Brooklyn, with its fine staff of teachers, is a marvel of organization. But even there, as it seemed to us, something was lost by the necessity of excessive attention to those details of discipline necessary when dealing with 1,800 girls under one roof. It may be a mere coincidence, but the most ideal schools we visited were those whose numbers were comparatively low. In some cities the Girl's High School is also a normal school, girls taking the High School course, with a few lessons in pedagogy as a preparation for the work of teaching in the public schools. This system is gradually becoming obsolete, and the best authorities do not approve of it, a separate and nc^rnial school with a purely professional course being preferred. However, a very large number of girls in a public High School look forward to teaching in the elementary schools of the city; probably this is one reason of the large numbers seeking admission. OF TSX '^ CHAPTER III. PRIVATE SECOXDARY SCHOOLS. ON this subject it is very difficult to make any general statements ; such schools naturally differ much more inter se than the public schools. Their special function is, according to high educa- tional authority, to make experiments, to explore new paths in education, or rather, to vary the meta- phor, to act as a nurser^^ ground in which variations which naturally arise may be cultivated and tested, thence to be transplanted to the regular gardens of the public schools. A particularly interesting example of this func- tion is a private school for girls in New York. Here the principles of Herbart and Rein, his disciple, are being put into practice ; the whole curriculum is arranged according to the " concentration " theory, and the lessons are illustrated by excellent sets of diagrams. The organization of the school deserves careful study, but it does not seem possible to give a clear account in writing. The system must be seen to be appreciated. One peculiarity is that the staff is largely male, the chief posts being held by men of high University rank. Private schools .may be divided into two classes. The first consists of Ehnieutanj schools, founded hy^ various religious bodies, es[)ecially the E/oman Cat ho- PR/VA TE SECOXDAR Y SCHOOLS lie Church, and known as_ ,imrQchial schook. Thcse. present features of special iutt'.re.st. but are outside the"scope of the priSLMii iiHjuiiy. Tln' sicoimI clas.s are the prrvate~^econdar^_^clK)^ls^_corresj30iK^ those in Jiinglancl ; Americans, however, include in tMs categtnymch schools as are not conduct rd i!. Smith College was founded in 1875 by Miss Sophia Smith, with the object of establishing an institution for the higher education of 3^oung women, which should give them means and facilities for education equal to those in Colleges for young men. It has three courses of study: the classical, leading to the degree of B.A. ; the scientific, to that of B.Sc. (Bachelor of Science) ; and the literary, to that of B.L. (Bachelor of Literature). Art and music are also studied. It is difficult to describe these courses without giving elaborate details, as so many sub- jects are required. Electives are allowed, especially in the later years, to be selected from a very complete list, which contains the usual academic subjects, art, and music. The number of students is 696, ten being gradu- ates. The faculty numbers thirty-four, with nine non-resident lecturers. The tuition fee is $100 (£20), and that for board and residence $250 (£50). The students have no domestic work except " the care of their own rooms." There is a fair provision for scholarships, loans, etc., for meritorious students. Northampton is a large village among the hills of the Connecticut Valley, beautifully situated and pic- 126 7 HE EDUCATION OF GIRLS turesquely built, its streets shaded with large trees. The college buildings stand in the centre of the village, scattered about over a small park. There is one very large building, containing the chapel, reci- tation rooms, etc., and a special science building, very well equipped, with good chemical and bio- logical laboratories. Many of the college students engage in teaching after their college course is over ; the phrase, " a graduate of Smith," is quoted in speaking of a woman on the staff of a High School, as if it con- veyed a special qualification. From this and other indications we infer that the College takes a high place in public estimation. Wellesley College. Wellesley College was established in 1875 by Henry Durant, at AVellesley, fifteen miles west of Boston, on a fine estate of 300 acres, including a large lake, Lake Waban. The College has always been intended not simply to give a liberal education, but to aid in the formation of character. The in- fluences of the natural beauty of the surroundings, and of the art treasures, accumulated in great part by the founder himself, are looked upon as the means to this end. So also is the general spirit of the college life. As the Calendar states : " The Col- lege is undenominational, but distinctly and posi- tively Christian in its influence, discipline, and instruction. The systematic study of the Bible is required. Daily services are held in the chapel. The Sunday services are conducted by ministers of UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN 1 27 different denominations." The students show great interest in philanthropic and missionary work, su])- porting two special missionaries. The students' Christian Association numbers 460. Distinguished persons visiting the College give lectures from time to time on subjects of general interest, more par- ticularly theology and social reform. The main building (475 ft. by 510 ft., and five storeys high), which accommodates more than 300 students, and contains a large chapel, library, dining hall, laboratories, lecture rooms, etc., stands on a hill by the side of Lake Waban. In the grounds is another hall, accommodating more than 100 students, and six cottages, holding from fifty to ten students, so that those for whom life among a large number is unsuitable, can live in comparative retirement. There is also a fine School of Art (a special gift), with studios, and the nucleus of an art collection. The music building is near, with its thirty-eight music rooms, and a hall for concerts. The site of the College is ideal ; the various buildings, grouped among lawns and fragments of the original forest, and crowning the natural elevations of the ground, form a beautiful whole, different from anything we associate with Colleges in England, but with a charm and grace peculiarly its own. The President's Report gives an interesting ac- count of the work of the alumnsB (old students) during the thirteen years which have passed since the first class graduated from the College. "Of these 734 graduates, 540 have engaged in educa- tional work, 134 have married, *J3 ha\e died, VI hold 128 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS the medical degree and are practising physicians, 15 are trained librarians, 9 have engaged in foreign, and 11 in home missionary work. Many of the whole number are in conspicuous positions of re- sponsibility." The whole number of students at the date of the last report (1892) is 700 ; a large number who ap- plied for admission w^ere debarred for want of room. The officers of the College number 92, 77 being en- gaged in teaching. Wellesley is remarkable for having had from the beginning a woman for its President, and its staff is composed almost entirely of women. B}^ the munificence of a special bene- factor, the teachers enjoy what is termed a " Sab- batical Year " ; that is, they can spend each seventh year in study or rest. Most come to England for this purpose. Students are admitted on examina- tion, or "on certificate." The college courses are two : Classical and Scientific, leading respectively to the degrees of B.A. and B.Sc. So much required work and so much elective, amounting to fourteen to sixteen hours a week, is the rule. The proportion of students obtaining a degree is unusually high. In 1891 there were 123 graduates. Very few students do post-graduate work at Wellesley, only ten appearing, out of 700, in the last list. Although the College has no large endowment, the fees are low, tuition being $150 (£30), and board and residence amounting to $200 (£40) ; music and art are extras. There is considerable provision for scholarships and loans for girls who would other- wise be unable to obtain an education. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN 129 The writer spent a day and a night at Wellesley College, and had some opportunity of seeing tlip life of the place, and formed a very favourable impres- sion of it. The relations between the authorities and the students seemed particularly cordial and friendly ; the girls, in spite of the somewhat long hours of work, were bright and happy-looking, and the atmosphere of refinement and kindliness was peculiarly delightful. The College has had from the beginning a fine library, which now contains between 40,000 and 50,000 volumes, and it has an endowment which provides for its increase. The room itself resembles the library of one of our old English Colleges, and contains an interesting series of portraits and auto- graphs of distinguished men, Americans and Eng- lish. The College also possesses a valuable and unique collection of books and MSS. in the North American Indian languages (the Powell Library). The laboratories are inadequate to their purpose, but the rapid growth of the College has somewhat strained its resources. It needs a science building where the laboratory work could be carried on more thoroughl}^, and which could be isolated from the dwellings. Doubtless before long public munifi- cence will provide for this and other pressing re- quirements of an institution which is doing such admirable work for so large a number of young women. Bryn Mawr^ near rhiladeJphia. This College, although it is only eight years old, having been opened in the aut imn of 1885, has 130 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS already taken a very high place among the women's Colleges. It has laid itself out to give advanced in- struction, and has thus a large number of graduate students, three of them being certificated students of Girton College, two wranglers, and one who took a first class in the classical tripos. This fact gives English people a convenient standard from which to estimate the character of the instruction given at Bryn Mawr. The faculty consists of men and women of very high standing, including graduates of the great German Universities, Zurich, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, Cambridge (England), a dis- tinguished Newnham student, and the onl}^ woman who has taken the D.Sc. in mathematics at the University of London. There are 38 instructors, and 194 students, 32 being graduates, doing post- graduate work. Several of these are Fellows of the College; their position is of special interest (there not being anything to exactly correspond to it in our English Colleges). One of the fellowships — that in Greek — is held by the Girton student of classics mentioned above.^ The regulations state: — " The most distinguished place among- graduate students will be held by the Fellows, who must reside in the College during the academic j-ear. Nine fellowships, of the value of five hundred and twenty-live doHars each, are awarded annually. They are open to graduates of Bryn Mawr College, or of any other College of good standing." Undergraduates are required to pass the Bryn Mawr entrance examination, which appears to be nearly equivalent to the Matriculation Examination ^ Another is held in mathematics by a Girton student (1894). UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN I3I of the University of London. The only exemption allowed is the Harvard certificate in equivalent, or a certificate from a College or University of acknow- ledged standing. Private schools prepare the ma- jority of students. In the current calendar the pro- portion from private schools is 79-8 per cent. ; other Colleges and Universities send 9'8 per cent., and High Schools only 8 per cent. ; the rest (2*4 per •cent.) were prepared by private study. The course for the B.A. degree requires some English, science — or science and history — and philo- sophy. This only occupies part of the time; the rest must be given to the " Group " selected by the student. The group system is borrowed from the course at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. It is intended to allow some degree of specialization, with provision for width of view by combining sub- jects. Five groups are arranged as follows : 1. Any language with any language. 2. Any science with any science. 3. Mathematics with Greek and Latin. 4. Mathematics with Physics. 5. History, with Political Science. The College is situated near Philadelphia (10 miles distant), in grounds of forty acres. There is a main building devoted to lecture rooms, etc., and a separate science hall and gymnasium. The students reside in three separate halls, each with its own kitchens, dining-room, etc., and each under the charge of a mistress. The President of the College is a man, but the Dean of the Faculty — a woman — has, of course, a very large share in the manage- ment of the College. The fee for tuition is $100 132 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS (£20), for board $150 (£30); room rent varies, ac- cording to the room or rooms taken — from $125 (£25) to $250 (£50). Thus the total charge is from £75 to £100. There is a fine library, on which £600 is spent annually for books. 172 periodicals are taken. It includes the library of M. Arniaud, of Paris, the eminent Assyriologist. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This magnificent institution, perhaps the most remarkable in Boston, was founded in 1861 and opened in 1865. It is a University of Industrial Science. The greater part of its work is outside the scope of the present inquiry, the great majority of its graduates beii^g men preparing for the various engineering professions. It is, however, open to women, who there study architecture, history, and economics, and above all science. The designer of the Woman's Building at the Chicago Exhibition received her training here. The Institute occupies a large number of buildings, the two most important being the "Rogers" and the " Walker " buildings^ — prominent architectural features of the best quarter of Boston. In them are the large labora- tories, fitted in the most complete manner ; 625 students can be accommodated at once in the chemi- cal section. Central and fundamental in its curriculum are thorough introductory courses in Mathematics, Chemistry, and Physics. There are twelve com- plete courses, each of four years' duration, by which the degree of B.Sc. is given ; man}^ women have UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN 1 33 prepared tlieraselves to be teachers of science, the degree having a very high value. A rigid matricu- hition examination is required. The work in sani- tary science, which is in great part under the direction of a lady, Mrs. Ellen H. E-ichards, is fol- lowed by women who intend to teach domestic science in schools. The equipment for the study of history and economics is very elaborate ; what are termed " laboratory methods" are largely used, i.e., the students do original work for themselves in the library ; there are two courses in statistics. The President of the institution, we may remark, is Genei*^! Francis A. Walker, the economist. University of Chicago. This University is a striking example both of the American enthusiasm for education and of the munificence of their wealthy men towards it. As Chicago hopes (it is said) to be one day the greatest commercial centre of the United States, perhaps of the world, she must needs have a great University to maintain intellectual and spiritual ideals against the influence of materialism. Such an institution is now being actually established by the continued force of a group of wealthy and eminent citizens and of the body of deans and professors, who have been brought together from all the great Universi- ties of the world. Its history deserves a note, as illustrating the power of voluntary and private effort in education. In 1889 the American Baptist Education Society decided to establish a well equip- 2)ed College in Chicago ; subscriptions poured in, the 134 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS work developed, and in 1890 a charter was obtained for a University. John D. Rockefeller took so pro- minent a part in the movement, giving a very large proportion of the endowment (now more than £1,000,000 sterling), that liis name now stands as^ that of the founder. Two-thirds of the trustees and the president must be Baptists, but there is no other religious test or limitation ; four blocks on one of the parks on the south, side were obtained ^ occupying about twenty-four acres, and buildings- of grey stone in the English University style, some- what resembling the new part of Caius College, Cambridge, have been erected. When complete the University will Le as beautiful (and more endur- ing) than the White City of tlie World's Fair. The president is William R. Harper, Ph.D., late Pro- fessor of Semitic languages at Yale ; the staff num- bers 189 already. No "instruct ok J\s> required ta lecture more than thirty-six weeks per year (ten to twelve hours a week). There are now ^ about 700 students, but as the buildings are finished more will come ; women are admitted on equal terms, there is a special hall of residence for them, and a woman as dean ; 23% of the students are women. Fellowships are given liberall}^ The session has four quarters, each of three months, and a student is usually only allowed to take three quarters in the year ; the courses are complete in themselves, and thus a student can earn his or her living during part of the year^ and in time complete the whole work for a degree. The University extension work is of great interest; ' June, 1893. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION FOR WOMEN 1 35 the faculty numbers fifty, who lecture in Illinois and the neighbouring States; sociological work and University settlements are also to be founded. The eminence of the names on the list of profes- sors shows clearly that the University of Chicago is intended to be one of the great educational institu- tions of the United States ; — to see this University in the making, not by fiat of the State, but by indi- vidual effort, not across the mists of tradition and antiquity, but in the clear daylight of the modern world, was as remarkable an experience as could well fall to the lot of an inquirer. CHAPTER VI THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN THIS University may be taken as a type of the State Universities, wliicli are the only insti- tutions of higher education in America, that form part of the State system. It is by far the largest and most important of all these ; indeed the statistics for it and for the University of Minnesota, in the Bureau of Education Report, stand out conspicu- ously in respect to the number of students, wealth, and equipment. The State Universities which have been established in all the Western, and some of the South Western States, are modelled to a consider- able degree on this University. It is also noteworthy as one of the first great institutions to open its doors to women, and it has thus had an important influence on the whole question of women's education. The system of admitting " on certificate " from IJigh Schools to the Universities also originated here ; on these grounds the writer has deemed it advisable to devote a chapter to this institution, which touches at several points the subject of the present inquiry. When the Congress of the United States, after the conclusion of the War of Independence, laid down an Ordinance for the Government of the 136 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 1 37 North- West Territory, it declared : — " Religion, morality, and knowlecJge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall for ever be en- couraged." Michigan was one of the districts formed from this territory ; in accordance with the Ordinance, a certain amount of land was reserved for the purpose of maintaining a University. This is the origin of the University of Michigan, and the sentence quoted above is placed upon the walls of its chief building. The original plan as drawn in 1817 was remark- ably broad, though its language was pedantic. In what was termed the "Catholepistemiad," or Univer- sity of Michigania, the President and Professors of the University were to have the entire direction of collegiate, secondary, and lower education. This plan was however not carried out, but the educa- tional system of Michigan has always been charac- terized by a remarkable degree of unity. In 1837 the newly settled district had grown populous enough to be admitted as one of the States of the Union ; and the University proper was founded in the i^ame year. Many of the men who framed its first constitution were from New England, them- selves College graduates, and were zealous for higher education. One of them, Isaac E. Crary, had made a study of Cousin's famous Report on the Prussian System of Education, and the University of Michigan was from the first modelled on the German system. Its government is by a Board of Regents ; there are now eight of these elected by 138 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS popular vote for terms of eight years, as provided in the Constitution of the State. For many years the only resources of the University were the public lands already referred to ; these had been mis- managed, and the work of the University was thereby limited. In 1867 the State Legislature voted money from the public treasury ; in March, 1893, the Legislature increased this grant to one-sixth of a mil on each dollar of taxable propert}^, which gives an income of £40,000, on the present valuation. This shows clearly the close bond between the State and the University. The number of students in all departments is 2,778 (in 1893). No charge is made for tuition, the only fees being the matriculation and incidental expenses (library, etc.) ; persons who do not reside in the State are required to pay rather more than Michigan students. There are no dormitories ; the students live where and how they please. The reasons given for this are, first, that the University has not then to deal with questions of internal discipline, and second, that the aggregation of young people in large numbers under one roof is an artificial condition and has injurious influences. The University of Michigan in this resembles those of Germany or Scotland. It has six departments, to all of which women are admitted on equal terms. They are: — 1. General Department, /.e., Literature, Science, and the Arts. 2. Medicine and Surgery. 3. Law. 4. Pharmacy. 5. Homeopathic Medical College. G. Dental Surgery. It is unnecessary to enter into details as to the courses of study ; 1,491 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 1 39 students are entered for the General Department, some of these stud^ang for special sul)jects and others working for a degree. About one-half of the degree course consists of required subjects, and the rest of optional. The system of admission ''on certificate" from the High Schools, as the German Universities receive students from the Gymnasia, originated in Michigan, and is often termed " the Michigan Method." It was begun in 1870, and is considered to have been very successful. The schools which appeal for this privilege must fulfil three conditions ; their courses of study must be those prescribed by the University, they are periodically inspected by some member of that University, and they receive the privilege of sending up pupils " on certificate," only for a speci- fied time (three years). If their pupils are found to have been insufficiently prepared, the privilege is withdrawn. The faculty have approved of 110 schools, nearly all public High Schools in the State of Michigan : the result of this diploma system are stated to have been as follows : — 1. The bond between University and High School has been strengthened ; graduates of the University have taught in greater numbers in the schools, and the principals of these latter have been consulted by the University about changes of programme. 2. Local interest in secondary educati5 ^ o o o o rC ^ n C) M VJ (D CD ci a > > S 2 ^^ sec o ^o Pnf^ O > "-. O v. V) m JJi 'j: . . tn m ... ;>H ;>H ;>< >i ;h ^ ^ >H >H ^;z;^ m o ^ O S O O 5 .X '^D _ ^ >~ , — I '^ ■^ -J^ '• IS ^ r^. r^. \1 ci d > o X ^ ■;::: — K w X o tHOICC^iOOD-OOOO ^Ol t^3 G CO a ^ O 7:W .o hr r; 5 a — o ^ -5 "^ 'Z if .2 1 o o ib 3Tc c m > .^ o ^- .ti — < ■TJ r^ 3 ^Sp^ ^ rt 2 o ci B o o o -M :3 'o ^ o cI o '-'2 . ■^ -"^ ~ o ^3 W Ph i^ <1 S tn CO ^ Cfi if) d H ;2; ^ ^ 12; o o o ^W ^ ^Ph 1=3 :: o ^- O o o pq 177 ;?. >5^ CD "-^ S "^ .2 g^ S o Si? ^1 CO o o o 1) f:^ M a o fcD .2 O 5| 4 ?^ fcC O O) O) o O O ^ >H r^ r^ r^ r^ r^ CO S High School chusetts Ir of Technolo Board of Ed Office, e Club. ^ d • CO CO CO CO CO CO w w 178 preparing e. Build- well de- la attending ee chap. v. ibridge of of the 1 1 © a si _ p. » Is iJD ce (0 (jj o ^ ^ o o o tc cd 0^ "fl t2 ''-I '^ o i2 -^1 a O cS P is o 1 CO CO r- o ' ^ lil en CO . • xn M c/5 o H Ph ^ ^ ^12; >H K-l kH ^ & a O o 1 1 i' 1 11 1 B O |5 i" DO 1— 1 c3 3 <1 1 |1 ^ -+J £C u |W ^^eo g S\ w ^ ^ hW CO i- 05 O r— ( Ol CO '-tH uO o !>• CO C5 1- CO ^ '^ Ttl ^ 'tl '^ '^ -# -^ ^ d . o 0) .u> , fcO Oi >> -r! B o 1 £ O OT .M O) r/> o "5 J2 ^ O m i 179 ^ , " -g 2 a a o 15 11 ■g-5 1 s 'r: 1 g 1 i p^ o o CO •r; M it 03 (D P> 2 <^ ^ X! ':3 •::: Ph O) W'^ < 1— I PUEH i ''" 1 • J ^^ . , . q3n:3 P • V: Tfi • Ul CO CO t^ 0) o o iD H ^^ !z; ^ P^ d ^ &D 5^ Tc _i=! 0) "rS"© S >^ '3 .2 ^ ^a^ ^ ^r^ ^ 0)- bn 1' M '-+3 1 1— 1 0^ 1 CO t— 1 Ph HI ^ fid s ^• o T-J CM CC '^ XO t^ CO C5 ^ lO 10 iO lC' lO lO \o lO 10 10 CCCD ;^ >i >5 i F fl t>5 o 1 1 <1 7a M ^ ^ 75 -U -4^ a» -2 7J ci M 1 180 1 ! lumbia Col- ents obtain egrees. )u's college. 1 ; very large. preparing ge. school. ;d technical magnilicent C/2 Johns Hop- on ; niagni- , great niedi- a o O O rt bp « CJ T^ ■P> ^^^ 2i;:5 2c^ _0 .Uh > > r- ;j > O ^« 2S|-^g H H ^ ,Sl^p^^ P^pq H O 2^-: •£ 3 c3 . ... 73 CO . O-TJ = 6 o O O O O j .-H pq > OPq ^o^ P p Ev (M CO -i^ iO O C^ X CD O —1 CO ;?- o o o ;o o o o O L- L- L- 6 ^aj 'm ^ 2 •^ © o^ >i ^ (D ■^ ,C> ^ 'o O 0) o 5 .5' '3 ^ cS u > "S o CO 1 1^ a fl 181 1 82 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS In the educational exhibit at the World's Fah\ a special study was made of the following States and institutions (the order represents roughly the degree of attention given to each) : — Massachusetts, Minne- sota, California, Illinois, Washington (Seattle Exhi- bition), Pennsylvania, Hampton (Va), Ohio (especially Cincinnati and Cleveland), Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, West Virginia, and Florida. BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Works Dealing with the Subject Gexerally. R. G. Boone : Education in the United States. (Inter- national Education Series, New York, 1890.) J. Bryce : The American Commonwealth. (2nd Edition, London, 1889.) F. BuissON : Rapport sur I'Instruction primaire aux Etats Unis. (Paris, 1878.) J. G. Fitch : Notes on American Schools and Training Colleges. (London, 1890.) Memorandum on the Working of the Free School System in America. (Education Department, London, 1891.) S. Jex-Blake : A Visit to some American Schools and Colleges. (London, 1867.) Marie Loizillon : Rapport sur I'Education des Enfants aux Etats Unis. (Paris, 1883.) J. Rice : Forum, for October, 1892, to June, 1893. Articles on American Education. (New York.) IL Reports and Circulars of Public Bodies and Insti- tutions Arranged by States and Cities. Bureau of Education. 1. Reports of the Commissioner of Education. For 1888-1889. 2 vols. (Washington, 1891.) „ 1889-1890. 2 vols. ( „ 1893.) 2. Circulars of Information of the Bureau. H. B. Adams : The Study of History in American Schools and Colleges. (Washington, 1887.) F. W. Blackmar : Federal and State Aid to Higher Edu- cation in the United States. (Washington, 1890.) 183 1 84 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS Florian Cajori : Teaching and History of Mathematics in the U.S. (Wash., 1890.) J. P. Campbell : Biological Teaching in the Colleges of the United States. (Wash., 1891.) E. M. Hartwell, M.D. : Physical Training in American Schools and Colleges. (Wash., 1886.) A. McLaughlin : History of Higher Education in Michi- gan. (Wash., 1891.) J. D. Philbrick: City School Systems of the U.S.A. (Wash., 1885.) 0. H. Wead: Aims and Methods of the Teaching of Physics. (Wash., 1884.) Co-Education of the Sexes in the Public Schools of the U.S.A. (Wash., 1883.) Smithsonian Institute. __ - Title and Eeports, for 1891, 1892. (Wash., 1892.) District of Coluinhia, Washington. Report of the Commissioners of Education upon the Public Schools of the District of Columbia. (1892.) Report of the Board of Trustees of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia, 1891-2. (1892.) Course of Study for the Public Schools of the District of Columbia. (1892.) Guide to the Student in Botany ; W'^ashington High School, by E. S. Burgess. The Catholic University of America, official announce- ments. (1892.) Catalogue of the Mount Vernon Seminary. School Magazine of „ ,, Catalogue of Norwood Institute. School Magazine of „ California, San Fi'ancisco. Board of Education of San Francisco. Report and Bye- laws for 1892. Revised Course of Study for the Public Schools. (1892.) Illinois, Chicago. Annual Report of Board of Education of the City of Chi- cago for 1890. (1891.) BIBLIO GRA PHY 1 85 Rules and Recjulations of Board of Education. Course of Study for Hi^h Schools. (18U1.) ''AVhite and Blue." Hyde Park High School Magazine for 18JJ-2-93. Quarterly Calendar of the University of Chicago (official), 1892 and 181)3. Programmes of Courses in History, Economics, Natural Science, etc., of University of Chicago. (1892.) Current Topics, non-official magazine of University of Chicago. Jan. to Oct., 1893. Course of Study in Cook County Normal School, 1893. TJvhana. Catalogue of the University of Illinois. Maryland, Baltimore. Johns Hopkins University Circular. March, 1893. Calendar and Regulations of the Woman's College of Baltimore, 1893. Calendar and Regulations of the Girls' Latin School. (1892.) Calendar of Bryn Mawr School. 1893. Massachusetts^ Boston. Annual Report of the Board of Education of Massachu- setts for 1891-2. (1893.) The Public Statutes of Massachusetts relating to Public Instruction, with Annotations and Explanation. (1892.) Brief Descriptive Sketch of the Mass. Public School Sys- tem. J. W. Dickinson. (1893.) Nature Study in the Public Schools of Mass. A. C. Boy- den. (1893.) Calendars of the State Normal Schools. 1892, 1893. Report of School Committee of Boston. (1893.) Report of Superintendent of Public Schools. (1892.) Manual of the Public Schools of Boston. (1893.) Course of Study, Boston Latin Schools. (1891.) Description and Dedication of the Girls' High School House. (1872.) Calendar of the Normal School of Gymnastics. 1892-3. 1 86 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS Programme of the Mass. Institute of Technology for 1892- 1893. (1892.) Catalogue of Miss Brown's School, Boston. ,, Lasell Seminary, near Boston. Report of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, Boston. Brookline. Town Records and Reports of the Town Officers of Brook- line for 1892. (1892.) Report of the School Committee of Brookline for 1892, for 1893. (1892-3.) Courses of Study issued by the School Committee of Brookline. 1892, 1893. Cambridge. Annual Report of the School Committee, 1891. (1892.) Appendix to Cambridge School Report. 1890. Report of the Cambridge Manual Training School for Boys. (1892.) Annual Report of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College. 1891-1892. (1893.) Harvard University Catalogue. 1892-3. (1892.) Papers used at the Harvard Examination for Women. 1888, 1890, 1891, 1892. Report (1891-2) and Courses of Study (1892-3) of the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women. (1892.) Northampton. Official Circular of Smith College for 1892-3. (1893.) Wellesley. Wellesley College President's Report. (1892.) „ „ Legenda. ,, ,, Calendar. Dana Hall Circular. Michigan^ Ann Arbor. Thirty-sixth Annual Report of the Board of Education. (1892.) Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools. (1892.) Catalogues. Ann Arbor High School. 1891-2, 1892-3. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1S7 Calendar of the University of Michigan. 1892, 1893. University Record. April, 1892. University of Michigan. 1893. „ ,, ,, Commemoration Oration. 1887. By James P. Angell. (1888.) * Minnesota^ Minneapolis. Laws of Minnesota relating to the Public School System. (1891.) Seventh Biennial Report of the State Superintendent. (1891, 1892.) Manual of the High School Board, 1891. (1891.) Calendar of the University of Minnesota. Report of the Board of Regents of University of Minne- sota for 1891 and 1892. (1892.) Seventh Biennial Report of State Normal School Board for 1891 and 1892. (1892.) Neic Yoi'k, Albany. of the University of the State of New Regents' Bulletins. Gr. W. Curtis. An Address delivered at the University Convocation. 1890. (1890.) Regents' Examinations. (1890.) Academic Syllabus. (1891.) Books and Apparatus. (1891.) Report of University Convocation of 1891. (18 .) „ 11. S. Sherwood. Origin, History, and Present Organization of the Universitv. (1893.) Regulations of Library and Examinations Department. (1893.) University Law. (1893.) Brooklyn. Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction to the Board of Education of the City of Brooklyn for 1892. (1893.) Publications 1 York: — No. 1. » 2. ') 4. )) 5. »> 6. 11 8. 1 88 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS Course of Study in Mathematics for Primary and Gram- mar Grades. Brooklyn Board of Education. (1893.) Examination Papers for Graduation from the Grammar Schools, and for Teachers' Certificates. (Dates vari- ous.) Catalogue for 1893-94. Pratt Institute. (1893.) Neio York. Board of Education of City of New York. 1891. (1892.) Reports of the College of the City of New York. 1891- 1892, 1892-1893. Twenty-second Annual Report of the Normal College. (1893.) Catalogue of Columbia College. 1892-93. „ Barnard College. 1892-93. The Year Book. Brearley School. 1892-93. The Normal College Echo. School Magazine. 1802-93. Calendars of Dr. Sachs' Collegiate Institute. 1892, 18 Poughkeepsie. Vassar College Calendar. 1892-93. Ohio, Cincinnati. Annual Report of the Public Schools of Cincinnati for 1892. (1893.) Pennsylvania, Ph ilacleJph ia. Seventy-fourth Annual Report of Board of Public Educa- tion of the City of Philadelphia for 1892. (1893.) Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Schools of the City of Philadelphia for 1892. (1893.) Report of the Manual Training Schools, Philadelphia, 1893. University of Pennsylvania Bulletin. April, 1893. Catalogue of the University of Pennsylvania for 1892-93. (1893.) Ogontz Mosaic. 1892-93. Calendar of Friends' Schools, at 15th and Race Streets. (1893.) Programme of Bryn Mawr College. 1892-93. Calendar of Swarthmore College. 1892-93. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 89 Virgin ia, Ila mpton. Catalogue of the Hampton Institute. 1801-92. General Armstrong's Work for Negro and Indian, from New England Magazine. (Boston, June, 1892.) The Southern Workman. (Hampton, Nov., 1592.) Washington, Seattle. Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Seattle. 1893. West Virginia, Charleston. School Law of the State of West Virginia. 1891. Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of West Virginia. 1889-90. (1890.) III. Miscellaneous Works: Pamphlets and Periodicals. W. G. Hale : The Art of Reading Latin. (Boston, 1892.) Aims and Methods of Classical Study. (Boston, 1892.) W. T. Harris, LL.D. : Lectures on the Philosophy of Education, given at Johns Hopkins University, Session 1893. {Educational Times for July, 1893. London.) Place of University Extension in American Educa- tion. (Philadelphia, 1892.) The Function of the Study of Latin and Greek in Education. (Pamphlet.) The Study of Natural Science ; its Uses and Dan- gers. Morality in the Schools. (Pamphlet.) German Instruction in American Schools. (Pam- phlet.) B. A. Hinsdale: Topics in the Educational History of the U.S.A. (Ann Arbor. No date.) President Eliot on Popular Education. (Pamphlet.) W. S. Jackman : Nature Study for the Common Schools. (New York, 1892.) The Relation of Arithmetic to Elementary Science. (Pamphlet.) C. F. King : Methods and Aids in Geography. (Boston 1889.) 190 THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS J. MacAlister: Physical Training in Education. (Pam- phlet.) Syllabus of U.S. History and Civil Government. (Philadelphia, 1887.) The Study of Modern Literature in the Education of our Time. (Pamphlet.) Gr. H. Palmer : The New Education. {Andover Review^ Nov. 1885.) Possible Limitations of the Elective System. {An- dover Review^ Dec. 1886, Jan. 1887.) The Glory of the Imperfect. (Boston, 1891.) G. A. Wentworth : The New Plane and Solid Geometry. (Boston, 1892.) Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, at its meet- ing in Philadelphia, 1891. (1891.) In Brooklyn, 1892. (1892.) Educatio7ial Review for 1893. (New York.) New England Magazine for May, 1893. „ „ „ Aug., 1893. (Boston.) Popular Science Monthly for May, 1893. (New York.) APPENDIX TABLE Shewing Percentage of Students in each Subject to whole numher of Students in Public Secondary Schools for whole United States, 1889-1890. Total number of Students in U.S.A., 202,963. Branch of Study. Total No. of Pupils. Percentage of Pupils. Latin .... 70,411 34-69 Greek . . 6,202 3-05 French . . 11,858 5-84 German . 21,338 10-51 Algebra . 92,150 45-39 Geometry . 43,294 21-33 Physics . 46,184 22-21 Chemistry 20,503 10-10 General History 55,427 27-31 No. of Pupils in whole U.S.A. 202,963 MASSACHUSETTS SCHOOL LAW. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, Shewing Increase in the Prescribed or Optional Studies to be taught in Public Schools since 1647. 1647. In Elementary Schools. Reading and Writing required. 1789. Grammar Elementary Grammar To fit for the University. English Language, Arithmetic, Orthography, and Decent Be- haviour added. To teach Latin, Greek, and English Languages. 191 ig: APPENDIX 1826. 1850. 1857. In Elementary Schools. „ Hio-li Elementary „ High 1860. „ Elementary 1862. „ 1870. „ 1876. „ 1881. „ 1885. In all Schools Geography added. Histor}^, Algebra, Geometry, Book-Keeping, Surveying, E-hetoric, Logic, Latin, and Greek. Physiology and Hygiene made optional. United States History added. Algebra made optional. Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Botany, Astronomy, Geology, Civil Polity, Political Economy, Intellectual and Moral Science, and French added. Vocal Music and Drawing made optional. Agriculture made optional. Drawing required. Sewing made optional. Calisthenics, gymnastics, and Military Drill optional. Physiology and Hygiene re- quired. WELLESLEY COLLEGE. Number of Students electing Work in Various Subjects, 1892. English Literature . . . 218 German 190 History 121 Greek 86 History of Art 75 French 74 Latin 64 Botany 53 Chemistry 50 Mathematics 44 Philosophy 36 Elocution 30 Zoology 28 Political Economy. ... 22 Pedagogics 20 Geology 16 Philology 16 Physiology 15 Physical Astronomy ... 14 Rhetoric 13 Bibliography 11 Domestic Science .... 11 Physics 9 Italian 7 Hebrew 5 Entomology 3 i APPENDIX 193 BROOKLINE, MASS. SUMMAKV OF STATISTICS. Number of ChiUlreii in town between 5 and 15 years of ase, May 1st, 1892 2,156 Valuation of scliool buildings antl i;;ronnds, May 1st, 1891 ". . . $4(>l,509-76 Approximate value of other property, as desks, pianos, books of reference, etc $1G,048-(K) Assessed valuation of real and p >rsonal estates of Brook line. May 1st, 1892 $58,080,r,(XHX) Amount expended for support of da}' schools, in- cluding repairs $82,G84-nH Additional amount exp(Mided for text-books and supplies $ 1,(318-G7 Total expenditure for tlie schools for the year, in- cluding text-books and supplies $87,857-01 Cost of instruction per pupil, -(-supplies (books, etc.) . . $88*28 Whole number of different pupils enrolled in all the schools for the 5'ear, including Kindergartens. . . . 2,378 Average whole number for the 3'ear 1,936 Percentage of attendance in all the schools, based on the average whole number 91 Number of pupils over 15 years of age 250 „ ., ,, between 8 and 14 years of ag(,' .... 1.338 ,. ., ., under 5 3'ears of age 184 ., „ „ in the High School ......... 7*2^ ., „ „ „ Grammar Schools 46-6^ ,, „ „ „ Primary Schools 34-1^ „ „ „ „ Kindergartens 12-1^ Average number of pupils to each teacher — in High School 25 „ Grammar Schools 43 „ Primary Schools II „ Kindergartens 23 \umber of teachers in High Schools 7 ,!, „ „ „ Grammar Schools 2(1 ., „ „ „ Primary Schools 21 „ „ „ „ Kindergartens 13 .Si>ecial Teachers— drawing, 2; music, 2; sewing, 3; cooking, 2; carpentry, 2; i)hysical culture, 1 ; French, 1; sub- stitute teacher, 1 14 Total number of teachers in day schools . . ? -^l O i94 APPENDIX WELLESLEY COLLEGE. Curriculum of the Classical Course. (Required Subjects.) (B.A.) Freshman Year. Sophomore Year. Junior Year. Senior Year. Req. No. la * 1-1 15 1 IS Greek ... 4 Latin ... 4 English . . 1 Mathematics 4 Bible (History of the Jewish Church) . 2 *15 Eng. Literature \\ Rhetoric . . 1 Chemistry . . o( Elocution . . 1 History of the Jewish Church . . 2 8 Logic ... 2 Rhetoric . . 1 History of 2 European or Civilization 3 Physics . . 3 Bible ... 2 11 or 12 Rhetoric . 1 Psychology 3 Bible . . 2 • 6 1 * The figures represent the required number of Exercises per week : when the required subjects do not amount to the required number of Exercises, the time must be filled up with Electives, the list of which includes the usual subjects. APPENDIX TO-, D x O o Q 1 1 . «5 o » (M CO -^ '^ Tjl Ol Cil Ph t-^ O O PM 1 (Some Alternatives allowed according to the College Course for which pupils are preparing.) o o w o m t— 1 ^3 i: 5 - English and History . 4 French or German . 2 Latin . . 4 Greek . . 5 Algebra and G eometry 3 Pliysical Training & Singing . 2 Total. . . 20 Class III. Age 15-16. English and History . 4 French or German . 2 Latin . . 4 Greek . . 5 Algebra . 3 Physical Training & Singing . 2 3 O H Class IV. Age 14-15. English and History . 5 Latin . . 5 French or German . 3^ Elementary- Science . \ Algebra . 4 Physical Training & Singing . '2 a H English and History . G Latin . . 5 Geography 2^ Elementary Science . \ Arithmetic 3^ Objective Geometry \ Physical Training & Singing . 2 1 1 7 > i 5 English and History . G Latin . . 5 Geography 2 Elementary Science . .^ {Arithmetic 4 Objective Geometry \ Phy.Hical Training & Singing . 2 Total hours 20 196 APPENDIX SUMMABY OF STATISTICS OP Public and Piuvatk Secondary Schools in the United States, 1889-1890. Number of Schools in 1889-90. Public. Private. Including Academies. 2526 1632 Number of Secondary ( Male . . . Instructors \ Female . . Total . . Number of Secondary fMale . . . Students. \ Female . . Total . . Number of Coloured /Male . . . Secondary Students \ Female . . Total . . No. preparing/ Classical f Male . . . for College ( Course \ Female . . Total . . No. preparing/ Scientific /Male . . . for College \ Course /Female . . Total . . No. of Students who have i ,-^ , qraduated or completed ] -p '^ ^ i" ' ' their studies (1889-90) (-^^"^^16. . Total . . Number of Volunie^i in Library . . , Value of ground, buildings, and appar- atus Amount o/ State and Municipal Aid . 3,597 5,280 3,272 3,937 9,120* 84,451 116,351 7,209 47,534 47,397 202,963* 94,931 2,512 3,397 f not I given 5,933 7,984 6,915 11,220 5,429 14,899 6,946 7,374 16,649 6,326 3,323 14,320 9,649 7,692 14,190 961,2(;8 $37,521,576 21,882 956,832 $19,171,542 $4,354,092 * Note.— The Figures in the Total Columns do not always represent the addition of the other numbers (Male and Female), as the School Officials in some cases return Totals only. APPENDIX 197 PUPILS. General Si'mmaky ui Ai.i, Guaoks, Puhlmj and Pkivate, fou THE \Vii..i.|.: ITmtki> States, 18S9-90. Pupils receiving Elementary Instruction ; — Public 12,494,233 Private 1,516,300 Pupils receiving Seconrlary Instruction :— Public 221,522 Private 1 I5,4.S1 Pupils receiving Higher Instruction : — In Universities and Colleges for Men only and Co-educational — Public (State Universities) . . . 7,071 Private 39,060 Total 10,131 In Colleges for Women only- Private 11,992 Pupils in Normal Schools : — Public 26,775 Private 8,189 Total 31,964 Pupils in Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges . 6,349 „ „ Schools of Medicine, Law, and Theology . 35,806 WASHINGTON HIGH SCHOOLS. Thijke Coukses of Study Outlined. — 189-2-3. Year. FinsT. Second, Third. Fourth. Academic. English. History. Algebra. Latin. Zoology. Hi English. English tory. Greek. Geometry. Latin. Physics or Chemistry. Tri(jonometr ij and Surveyinij or History. Latin. English, (rerman. Greek. Botamj or Chem- ist r ij and Mineralogy or Advanced Physics. Latin. English. Advanced Botany or Chemistry or Physics. Greek. Geoloyy.' llistor y and Political Eco- nomy. Analytical Geu- m e t r y a n d Colleye Alge- bra. Scientific. Business. English, History. Algebra. German. Zoology. English. English His- tory. Geometry. German. Physics or Chemistry. Trigonometr y and Surveying or History. German. English. Botany ovChem- i s t r y an d Mineralogy or Advance d Physics. German. English. Advanced Botany or Chemistry or Physics. Greek. Geology. History and Political Eco- nomy. Analytical Geo- m e t r y and College Alge- bra. English. Business Arith- metic. Book-keeping. Penmanship. Shorthand. Typewriting or Mechanical Drawing. English. Book - keeping and Business Practice. Commercial Law and Com- mercial Geo- graphy. Shorthand and Type-writing. Mec han i c al Drawing. Pupils taking this course will attend the Business High School. Each year of this course is complete in itself. {„.) I']U-ctive studies an; italicised; all others are prescribed. (b) Not more than four studies may be pursued at one time. APPENDIX SMITH COLLEGE. 199 LITERARY COURSE (B.L.). F/A'.ST YEAH. SECOND YEAR. JUNIOR YEAR. SENIOR YEAR. FALL TERM. IIOITKS. Hours. Hours. Hoc: RS. jrenk or Latin n Freneh 2 French or Pyschology 3 ^'rench or German .) German ■; P.jlitical German* •1 Rhetoric Rhetoric ;; Economy 8 ilhetoric 1 Mechanics Rhetoric Sty It 1 2 iistorical i 1 of Prose English, [2 and Verse 2 Pros'! English History- 1 i Literature 2 lygiMie 1 Biblical Stud:> ' 1 ^ectures on the College and Biblical 1 Stnrly WINTER TER M. rreek or Latin B French 2 French or Ethics 3 French or German 2 German 2 Political German 4 Old English 1 Logic n Science 2 Ihetoric English English Bible Study 1 Verse 1 Literature 2 Literature 2 'nglish Biblical Study 1 Literature 2 liblieal Study 1 Elocution 1 SUMMER TERM. rreek or Latin 8 French 2 French or Evidences of ^r»*nch or German 2 German 2 Christianit}' 2 Gf-riiian 1 Tfistory 2 En-lisli Biblical Study 1 Ihetoric; Old Kn-lish H LiK-rature 2 Vfi-se 1 Bible Study 1 Biblical Study 1 Inglish Literature 2 Elocution 1 * Till' Studt-nt will fake iluiing this year tlie language nt)t oft'nred at ntrance. N. 13.— Elective work for each j'ear must be seh-ctt'd, umler advice of the llass Officers, from the studies offered in the Classical Course. k INDEX. Academies in New England, 73. Admission on Certificate, G8. Age of entering Women's Colleges, 112. Algebra, 82-4. American Enthusiasm for Educa- tion, 2. " American Girton," The, 118. American Ideal of University Edu- cation, 105-7. American Opinion on School Dis cipline, Gl-3. American School System criticised, 173, 174. Ann Arbor — Seat of University of Michigan, 142. Arithmetic, 81, 82. Art in Women's Colleges, 124, 125, 127. Astronomy, 87, 103. Attendance at School, 63. Bifurcation, 19. Blackboards, 57. Boards : Local, their functions, 1 1 ; State Boards of Education, 13; Local Boards : their defects, 13 ; When they work well, 25 ; Functions in Massachusetts, 30 ; State Boards in Massachusetts, 31 ; High School Boards of Min- nesota. 39, 40 ; Central Boards, necessity for, 1G7 ; Methods of Election, H'>[). Boarding Schools for Girls, 75, 76. Boating at Wellesley, 154. Boston. High School system, 36 ; Girls' High School Hall, 60; Number of pupils per teacher in High Scliools, 70; Co-Educa- tion in, IGO. Botany, 102, 103. Boys and Girls in School, com- pared, 163, 164, Brookline. Excellence of Schools, 37, 38, 92, 95 ; Science teaching, 100 ; Statistics, Appendix. Brooklyn High School, 71. Bryn Mawr. Admission, 68 ; Gen- eral account, 29 ft. scq. BiiiLlings — School, 56, 57; com- pared with English, 58, 59 ; Women's Colleges, 113, 116. Bureau of Education, 10. Cambridge High Schools, 37. Chemistry, 100, 101. Chicago, 12. Chicago University, 27, 133, 134, 135 ; Social life in, 166. Cities, Great, Schools injured by Politics, 73, 74. City Organization, 12. "Civics," 90, 91. " Class," 48. Co-Education, 160 ft. scq. ; in Uni- versity of Michigan, 141 ; at 200 INDEX 201 Colleges, 105, 106. tf. &cq.^ and Appendix. College and University, Distinction between. lOG. " Concentration " tlieory, 96, Conveyance of pupils to School in Massachusetts, 35. Cook County Normal School, Chicago, 96, 98, 99. Corsets forbidden, 158. Curriculum of Public Schools, 17, 18, 47, and Appendix : Private Schools, 76. College, Appendix. Daily Routine: High Schools, 50-52 ; Women's Colleges, 113. Delsarte System, 151, 152. Degrees, 110, 121, 125, 128, 131. Disciphue in High Schools, 52, 53, its excellence, 61-64, 170. Drawing, 54. " Duties of a Citizen," 90. Elections (mimic) in Schools, 92. " Electives " at College, 107. Elementary Education : Statistics 19, and Appendix. Elocution, 159. English Language compulsory, 3. Equality, intluence of social equal- ity on Education, 21. Evening Schools, Massachusetts, 31. Examinations, 16, 44, 45 ; feeling against, 66-68, 140 ; unimportant at College, 110. Fellowships for Women : Bryn Mawr, 130, 172 ; Chicago, 172. Fees in Private Schools, 75 ; Women's Colleges, 122, 124, 125, 128, 131. Hag, National, in Heliosis, 171. Finance: cost per child, 14; School Tax, how raised, 14 ; Amount spent, 15 ; Appendix, 6. Free Schools, 6 17. Free Text Books, 79, Freedom of Discipline, 52, 63. Funds, State of, 13, 15 ; in Mass- achusetts, 32, 33 ; in Michigan, 137, 138. Furniture, School, 57. Games not encouraged, 160. Geometry, 84-87. German influence on University Education, 137 ; on physical training, 147. Girton Students in American Colleges, 130. Grammar, an Elementary subject, 46 ; see Appendix, School courses. Grammar Schools, 17; 18. Greek Art in Schools, 60. "Group" system at Johns Hop- kins', 108 ; Bryn Mawr, 131. Gymnasia, 59, 153, 156. Gymnasium costume, 158, Halls in Schools, 59. Harvard : Wealth, 2 ; influence, 27, 41 ; Origin, 28 ; Examination for Women, 67 ; Admission, <(>% ; Influence on Science Teaching, 104 ; Curriculum Elective, 108, 1U9 ; Physical Training at, 148. Harvard Annex, its History, work, and Importance, 118 (t. acq. Health of School Girls, 55-6. Women at College, 153-5. Herbart, 9, 72. High Schools, 46 ct seq.; Age of Entry, 18 ; Functions, 19 ; in Massachusetts, 36 ; Admission r 202 INDEX to, 46 ; Comparison with English, Michigan University, 136 et. seq. 49, 50; High School for Girls, Minneapolis High School, 101. not public, 73, see also Appendix. Minnesota, Secondary Education Higher Grade Board Schools. in, 39, 40. Equivalent for, 18. Military Drill for Girls, 147, 158. History Teaching, 88 et. seq. ; Museums at Vassar. Important in U.S.A., 89 ; Uni- Music, Vocal, in Public Schools, 54, versal History, 90 ; Illustrations 159; W^omen's Colleges, 124, 125, for Teaching, 96 ; Use of dia- 127. grams in Massachusetts Insti- tute, 97 ; Criticism of American National Government in Educa- methods, 93, 94. tion, 10. Holidays, 53. Needlework, 54. Home Work, 54, 55. Nervous Tension of American Life, 148. Kindergartens, 17. " New Education," 8, 9, 98. New England, township system. Laboratories, 100, 101. 27; Influence on U.S.A. in Languages, Foreign, 22 and Ap- Education, 27. pendix. New York, Private Schools for Lectures at College, excessive ■ Girls, excellent, 72, 74. number, 115. Newspapers in School, 93. Libraries in Schools, 69, 80. Normal Schools, 71. Local Boards of Education, 11 Number of Pupils, see Appendix, et. seq. 15, 20, 70. Mann, Horace, 29. Organization of Public Education, Manual Training, 18,19. 10 et. seq. Marks, 65, 66. Original Work in History, 94, 95. Massachusetts. School Law, 27, Overwork, 55 ; in Women's Col- 28, 35, and Appendix; State leges, 115, 116. Board, 31, 34 ; School Finance, 14 and Appendix. Parochial Schools, 73. Massachusetts Institute of Tech- Parthenon Frieze in Schools, 60. nology, 112, 132, 133 ; History Patriotism, Teaching of, 53, 91, at, 97. 171. Mathematics, 81 et. seq. Philadelphia System, 12. Matriculation, 112 ; "on Certifi- Physics, 100, 101. cate," 139. Physical Education, 146 et. seq. Medical Women and Physical Politics, Influence of, in Public Training, 149. Educational System, 13, 26, Mechanics, 87. 168. Method, 77 et. seq. Post Graduate Work, 108, 172. INDEX Pratt Institute High School, 92, 93. Primary Schools, 17. Private Schools, 72 ct. seq. ; their Function, 72 ; East and West compared, 73; Preparation for College by, 75, 131 ; Statistics, see Appendix. Private Study in Schools, 80. Public School, Meaning of Term, 17 ; Classiticatiou, 17. Puritanism and Athletics, 146. Reading and Writing, 99. " Eecess," 50. " Recitation," 77, 170. Recitation Method Discussed, 78, 79. •' Regents " of a University, 43, 4i, 137. Religious Exercises in Public Schools, 50. Religious Influences in Women's Colleges, 114. 126. 127. Research, Universities open to Older Women for. 172, 173. Reports on Pupils, GG. Salaries low for Women Teachers, IG. Sanitary Science, 133. Sanitary Inspection of Schools, 35. Sargent System of Physical Train- ing, 148-150. School Law, Sources, 10 ; Com- pulsory Subjects in Massachu- setts, Appendix. School Year, 53, Schoolrooms, 70, 71, 99. Science in Common Schools, 13, 98, 99, 100 ; Teaching of, 97 et. seq. ; in Women's Colleges, 103, lOi. Secondary Education Statistics, 19 and Appendix; Comparison of English and American, 20, 21. Sectarian Schools, G, 22, 73. Self-reliance in American Schools, 81. Smithsonian Institute, 10. Social Life in Women's Colleges, IIG, 117, 122, 125, 129; in University of Michigan, 141-5. Southern States, School Finance, 14, 15. Specialization at College, 107. State Boards of Education, 13, 31, 39, 40, 1G7. State Universities, 43, 136 Statistics, see Appendix. Superintendents' Work and Quali- ficatious, 23-6 ; State Superin- tendents, 13 ; Rules for, in Massachusetts, 33 ; Excellence of System, 169. Swedish System of Gymnastics, 150, 151, 154. Taxation for School Purposes, 14. Teachers, 16, 17 ; Social Position, 1, 5 ; Men required in Public Schools, 17 ; Licence to Teach, 24 ; Removal, 24 ; Teachers' Institutes, 34 ; Representation of Teachers on Public Boards, 168. Teaching, General Method, 78 et. seq. Temperature, 56, Text-Books, 35, 77, 79. " Town" (township) System, 30-3 ; for Statistics see Appendix. Town and County Councils in Education, 168. Trigonometry, 87. Universities, couuectiou with 204 INDEX Secondary Education, 8, 40, 41, 67, 68, 139 ; Classiticatiou of, 41, 42, 105 ; University of the State of New York, 43-5; Curriculum, 106, 107 ; Those open to Women, 41, 42, 111; Co-Education in, 165. Uniformity in Schools of U.S.A., 7. Unity in American Education, 6,22. Vassal, 123-5, 152, 153, 95. Ventilation, 56. Wellesley, 126 t;f. secy., 153-5. Women's Colleges, Legal Status, 42; Curriculum, 107 and Appen- dix ; Classification, 111 ; Daily Routine, 112-3; Criticism of, 116-8 ; Physical Training, 152-9. Women as Heads of Schools, 16 ; of Colleges, 128 ; Teachers in Public Schools, 16, 17 ; Consider- ation for Health of Women Teachers in public schools, ho ; influence on discipline of W^omen. Teachers, 62 ; Women admitted to University of Michigan, 141. BuUer & Xaui.er, The Sfiwood Printing Worka. Frouic. ;uia LouJou. RETURN EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY LIBRARY 2600 Tolman Hall 642-4209 LOAN PERIOD 1 'MONOGf^APH 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-hour books must be renewed in person Return to desk from which borrowed DUE AS STAMPED BELOW n-Ti-rr\ nimi'^'^pr l^vi- 9>'^1Sa9 AUT0-DibLnK7.bL r ' n ^ \ ^ '? ^JJHX)l200i tO-P JAN 2 7 200-J MAY 3 1993 TO-DISCHARGE lAViug -333 ED-P APR 1 B94 ^l^^ / // FORM NO. DD10 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720 w S9303 IS THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY