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 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 ' J. 
 
 MAY 1 3 1929 
 
 AR ^ 7 1930 
 
 2, '23
 
 LESSONS^ 
 
 IN THE 
 
 New Geography 
 
 FOR STUDENT AND TEACHER 
 
 BY 
 
 SPENCER TROTTER, M.D. 
 
 Professor of Biology in Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania 
 
 
 BOSTON. U.S.A. 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 1895 . 
 NOV 1906
 
 Copyright, 1894, 
 By spencer TROTTER. 
 
 Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co. 
 Presswork by S. J. Parkhill & Co.
 
 GfF33 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 We live in a world of ideas. The real things of life impress 
 themselves upon our brains, through our senses, and are grouped 
 as so many mental pictures in the various complex relations which 
 they hold to one another. In studying Geography the child very 
 early gains ideas or mental pictures of different scenes and places, 
 and it is of the utmost importance that these pictures be not only 
 true, but /iving- ideas of the things themselves. It should be 
 impressed upon every child thal[Geography is a part of his every- 
 day life, not a mere learning of the names of places, but a living 
 reality .J The imagination — that quality of the brain which enters 
 so largely into child life, peopling its wonderland with fairies and 
 creations of fancy — is the one element needful in gaining the 
 ideas of real things. In proportion as a study stimulates the 
 imaginative faculty does it near the end in view of all study — 
 that of creating a fulness of interest in life and in the lives of 
 every man and woman. 
 
 The purpose of this book is to- bring this conception of Geog- 
 raphy to the teacher's mind. LThe map is a means of gaining 
 clear ideas of the positions of places on the earth's surface in 
 relation to one another. \ We all carry mental maps in our brains. 
 Our sense of right direction is often determined by the early use 
 or misuse of maps. Use the map to call out the perception of 
 
 iii
 
 iv ' PREFACE. 
 
 the relations of a place to other places. Try to make every part 
 of the map a picture alive with the men, the animals, the vegeta- 
 tion, rivers, mountains, cities, and all that goes to make up the 
 real scenes, on any part of the earth's surface. Good illustrations 
 are as useful as maps, and lantern slides are very helpful in the 
 study of Geography, Modeling surface features in sand and clay, 
 as outlined by Redway in his litde book on " Geographical 
 Forms," is both interesting and instructive, but outdoor lessons 
 are more important than schoolroom exercises. 
 
 Geography is a universal study, a band that binds many other 
 studies into a living whole.' It is the central study to which the 
 other studies must necessarily gravitate, because it is the study of 
 the earth, and the earth is the theater of all human thought and 
 action. For example, the expression of the mind of a people as 
 embodied in its literature is largely the result of geographical 
 influences. Who can doubt that the poetry and the art of Greece 
 were the expression of that inspiration which is peculiarly the 
 effect of bright blue skies and sparkling seas; of genial, buoyant 
 air, and softly blended landscapes, or that the brave Sagas of the 
 Norse were born out of the gray mists and tempestuous waves of 
 the northern ocean ? On every literature Geography has left its 
 stamp. So with all study, the purely scientific and economical, 
 as well as the more essentially human studies of history and art, 
 all find a basis, a common groundwork in Geography. 
 
 In writing this book I have been reminded of those early voy- 
 agers who made the study of Geography possible only by sailing 
 around the earth. We all sail around the earth in the sea of our 
 imagination. There are many who can never do it in reality, 
 and if this little book will help them to sail and to see in fancy 
 
 1 See article by Dr. Charles De Garnio in " Educational Review " for May, 1893.
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 the real scenes, the moving and feeling life of the earth, the 
 object for which it was written will be accomplished. 
 
 In connection with the chapters and lessons I have given Usts 
 of books that both the student and teacher will take pleasure in 
 reading, and lind useful in helping them to gain clear conceptions 
 of the various scenes in different parts of the world. I have 
 freely drawn material from several valuable works. I am espe- 
 cially indebted to Dr. D. G. Brinton's "Races and Peoples," 
 Alphonse De Candolle's " Origin of Cultivated Plants," and articles 
 
 on various subjects in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 S. T. 
 
 SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, 
 
 1894.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 Geography in its Relations to Life 
 
 PAGE 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Some Past and Present Aspects of the Earth : 
 
 Lesson L Land and Water ..... 
 
 IL Life and the Earth ..... 
 IIL Conditions affecting the Development of Man 
 
 lO 
 
 21 
 29 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 Climate : 
 
 Lesson I. The Elements of Climate 
 
 IL Climatic Zones ..... 
 
 in. Winds, Ocean Currents, and Rainfall . 
 
 IV. Influence of Climate on Man 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 54 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Plants which have Affected Man : 
 Lesson I. Tea and Coffee . 
 II. Sugar and Spice . 
 
 III. The Grains, or Cereals 
 
 IV. Some Vegetables and Fruits 
 V. Cotton and Flax . . 
 
 vii 
 
 60 
 64 
 66 
 69
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Animals which have Affected Man : 
 Lesson I. Animals of the Chase . 
 
 II. The Domestication of Animals 
 III. Some Special Animal Products 
 
 75 
 78 
 
 85 
 
 Man 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Lesson I. Types or Races of Man .... 
 
 II. Geographical Distribution of the White Race 
 
 III. Geographical Distribution of the Black Race 
 
 IV. Geographical Distribution of the Yellow Race 
 V. Man in America ..... 
 
 VI. Islanders and Coast Peoples 
 
 89 
 
 92 
 
 100 
 
 106 
 
 "5 
 
 125 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Commerce : 
 
 Lesson I. The Beginnings of Commerce 
 
 II. The Era of Discovery 
 
 III. Present Features of Commerce and Civilization 
 
 129 
 134 
 137 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. The Principal States and Cities of the World 
 
 II. Population of the Earth 
 
 III. Forms of Government ....■••■ 
 
 IV. E.xtract from the First Report of the United States Board on Geo- 
 
 graphic Names . . . . • • 
 V. Geographical Distribution of Animals ; a Synopsis of Study . 
 VI. How to read a Weather Map ....... 
 
 147 
 157 
 158 
 
 158 
 160 
 169
 
 LESSONS IN THE NEW GEOGRAPHY
 
 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE.^ 
 
 The varied features of the earth's surface in any piece of land- 
 scape is a thing that rarely fails to strike the eye even of the most 
 casual observer. He may take no mental note of this element of 
 variety in itself, seeing only the stretches of field, the masses of 
 woodland, the broken lines of hills, the winding course of streams 
 that lie within his horizon. These are the broad features of 
 almost every familiar landscape. From any given standpoint 
 commanding such a view of the surrounding country the ground 
 is seen to slope gently down to the lowlands, or fall more or less 
 abruptly into a valley. Water from the rills of hillside springs 
 gathers in the hollows, and wet, marshy land often forms a con- 
 spicuous feature in the near view. This diversified surface — 
 river, marsh, field, forest, hill, and valley — is the home of an 
 infinite variety of living beings. 
 
 Little observation is needed to note that this diversity of life 
 corresponds, in a broad way, with the diversity of surroundings. 
 Aquatic animals, like fishes, crayfish, and many insects, inhabit 
 the waters of ponds, lakes, and streams. Frogs and other am- 
 phibious creatures are denizens of bogs and shallow pools. Some 
 snakes and turtles are aquatic, while others are wholly lovers of 
 the dry land. Birds are found in every situation, — ducks and 
 divers on the lakes and rivers ; herons and bitterns in marshy 
 fens ; gulls and petrels on the open sea ; sandpipers along 
 the shores ; eagles on lofty mountain peaks ; while a host of 
 
 1 An address read before The College Association of the Middle States and 
 Maryland at the meeting held at Swarthmore College, Pa., November, 1892. 
 B I
 
 2 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 species enliven the woods and fields. The haunts of mammals 
 are no less diversified. The tree-loving squirrels, the burrowing 
 ground hog, the mole digging out its long, subterranean galleries, 
 the water-loving beaver and otter, are each and all associated in 
 the mind with their favorite surroundings. 
 
 This idea of the animal and its particular home is by no means 
 new. In that wonderful poem, the one hundred and fourth 
 Psalm, the story is told in a language peculiarly its own : " The 
 cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted ; where the birds make 
 their nests : as for the stork, the fir trees are her house. The 
 high hills are a refuge for the wild goats ; and the rocks for the 
 conies." 
 
 If this diversity of life is so apparent in a limited area, it is far 
 more so when we come to journey over an extended portion of 
 the earth's surface. As the horizon widens, newer and more sig- 
 nificant features rise into view. Lofty mountain ranges, broad 
 seas, trackless deserts, treeless plains, and vast forests successively 
 present themselves as the traveler girdles the earth, north and 
 south, east and west. Climate and vegetation change from one 
 region to another, and it is not a matter of surprise to find corre- 
 sponding changes in animal life. 
 
 Many kinds of animals are limited to particular regions, while 
 others range through wide areas of country under a variety of 
 physical changes. A traveler starting on the Atlantic seaboard of 
 the United States and journeying westward along the fortieth 
 parallel will pass successively through a number of distinct 
 regions, each characterized by certain conditions of climate, vege- 
 tation, and peculiar animals. Quite a number of familiar forms 
 will, however, be found throughout the entire extent of his 
 journey across the continent. 
 
 In bird life alone, the absence of some species, the appearance 
 of others in new regions, and the presence of some throughout 
 a wide area of country, is a marked feature in such a journey. 
 Many familiar eastern species, wrens, thrushes, titmice, wood- 
 warblers, larks, jays, finches, and the like, give place to new,
 
 GEOGRAPllV IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE. 3 
 
 though, in some instances, closely related, forms on the prairies 
 and Great Plains. In the Rocky Mountain region the change 
 becomes still more marked. So in the Great Basin and on the 
 Pacific slope new and strange forms appear, characterizing the 
 several regions over which the traveler passes. 
 
 He will find, however, that some old friends have accompanied 
 him all the way to the shores of the Pacific. The robin greets 
 him in California with the same loud, cheerful call that he heard 
 in the woods of Pennsylvania. The familiar twitter of the barn 
 swallow is heard about the habitations of men from shore to shore 
 of the continent. Other well-known birds appear in every region 
 throughout the land. 
 
 If our traveler cross the Pacific .to Japan, he will find larks, 
 wrens, finches, wagtails, titmice, thrushes, and a host of familiar 
 forms, which he recognizes broadly as belonging to such types, 
 though the species are all entirely different from those he knew in 
 America. Should he sail westward by the shortest route to Eng- 
 land, he would pass the shores of countries widely different from 
 those he left and from one another. The bare hills of China, the 
 wooded mountains of Formosa, the volcanic peaks of the Phil- 
 ippines, the hot, tropical jungles of the Malay Islands, the spice 
 groves of Ceylon, the burning, barren deserts of the Red Sea, pass 
 successively before him. Each is tenanted by strange forms of 
 life — beasts, birds, reptiles, insects, and vegetation totally differ- 
 ent from any he has ever beheld in his journey over half the earth. 
 On reaching England he will again find himself surrounded by 
 many familiar features. He will be surprised to see many species 
 of birds almost, if not quite, identical with those he saw in Japan, 
 separated as they are by the immense land mass of Eurasia, with 
 its vast plains, deserts, and 'mountain-rimmed plateaus. None of 
 the familiar, species of North American birds, however, will greet 
 him in his rambles about Britain. 
 
 We have seen that in an area covered by almost any farm of a 
 few acres there exists a variety of physical conditions each of 
 which is the home of living beings peculiar to it and different from
 
 4 ■ INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 those in other stations. We have followed in imagination the 
 traveler journeying westward over the earth, and have seen with 
 him the varied features of the lands he visited. In the one case 
 the conditions are local, in the other geographical, yet no line of 
 distinction can be drawn between them, for geographical condi- 
 tions are only the more exaggerated and broader features of what 
 we see in any local area. 
 
 We learn from a survey of these conditions how intimately 
 related an animal is to the earth, and how each species is fitted 
 to the special conditions of the region it inhabits. Physical 
 Geography, therefore, forms the basis of a study of distribution. 
 The position of mountain ranges and valleys in relation to each 
 other and to the surrounding country ; the presence of rivers, 
 lakes, prairies, steppes, deserts, and forests ; the relative height of 
 land above the sea level ; the position of an ocean and the direc- 
 tion of its currents ; climate in its broadest sense, including rain- 
 fall, humidity, the prevalence and direction of winds, — all these 
 must be considered in relation to the distribution of life. 
 
 Humboldt laid the present basis of Physical Geography. Carl 
 Ritter enlarged the thought of Geography as the all-important 
 factor in life and human affairs. The multitude of facts collected 
 by Darwin on the cruise of the Beagle, and Wallace in the Malay 
 Archipelago, opened out a broad and suggestive field of thought. 
 Obscure problems became clear in the new light shed upon them. 
 The work of Lyell and other geologists bridged the gulf between 
 the great Present and the infinitely greater Past, showing that the 
 life of to-day in all its varied and obscure forms is the effect of 
 physiographic causes working throughout the earth's history. Time 
 and Place became the fulcra on which thought was levered in turn- 
 ing the great questions of life. Evolution was the word and the 
 light of science. Distribution was the key that unlocked many 
 of the mysteries. 
 
 A new conception of the importance of Geography was at hand. 
 Geography acted upon Biology and History, and they in turn 
 reacted upon Geography. The Geography of our childhood is
 
 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE. 5 
 
 remembered by most of us for its dry-as-dust detail and its enter- 
 taining pictures. Among these pictures none were more attrac- 
 tive than the zones of animal life. Seals, polar bears, and Eskimo 
 struggled with one another in the frigid zone, with a precarious 
 footing on cakes of ice under the conventional arch of an aurora 
 borealis. Horses, cattle, herds of bison, wolves, deer, and bears 
 were seen in all conditions of activity in the landscape of the 
 temperate zone. The real menagerie feeling came out in the 
 picture of the torrid zone. In one corner a dense jungle screens 
 a tiger ever ready to spring upon the approaching antelope. Near 
 by a herd of elephants are browsing. Hippopotami, rhinoceroses, 
 and other creatures appear in the scene, while a herd of zebra 
 or giraffe are invariably scampering off toward the other corner, 
 where a secretary bird is finishing its serpent. 
 
 We learned, too, that the land was divided into continents — 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, North and South America — 
 islands, peninsulas, seaports, capes, and so forth ; that Canton 
 was noted for tea and china, Yokohama for Japanese, Philadelphia 
 for Independence Hall, Rome and Greece for antiquity, and Buenos 
 Ayres for hides and tallow. But we never knew why they were 
 noted for these things, or what part their geographical position 
 played in their history and exports. 
 
 In 1857 P. L. Sclater of the London Zoological Society first gave 
 a definite outline of Zoological Geography. There are powers 
 of dispersal and barriers to dispersal. Animals increase rapidly 
 in any given area unless checked by the presence of enemies or 
 the scarcity of food. In a restricted area the food supply is sure 
 to diminish from the increasing number of individuals. The 
 animal must needs wander in search of new pastures and wider 
 hunting grounds, and in so doing meets with barriers of a various 
 nature which tend to check its advance. Of these barriers high 
 mountain ranges, seas and wide rivers, deserts, deep forests, 
 climate, the ocean, the presence of certain enemies and competi- 
 tors for the same kind of food, are conspicuous. Certain species 
 have greater facilities for overcoming barriers than others, some
 
 6 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 by their ready adaptation to changed conditions, their more varied 
 diet and powers of resistance, others by superior means of loco- 
 motion, as with birds and many mammals. In the lapse of time 
 these two factors, dispersive power and barrier, tend to map out 
 a definite territory or habitat for the animal to the physical con- 
 ditions of which it is more or less adapted. 
 
 Changes of a geological nature now enter into our consideration 
 as factors of the greatest importance in determining the ranges of 
 various animals. Slight changes of level have, at no very remote 
 geological period, caused sea and land to change places with each 
 other, thus raising a barrier in a once continuous area. Climate 
 and vegetation undergo change. The animal, cut off from the old , 
 land mass, diverges more and more from the parent stock, and in 
 time appears as a distinct species. 
 
 The camels of the Old World and the llamas of South America 
 illustrate this fact. Naturalists find abundant fossil remains of a 
 cameloid animal in the Tertiary strata of Western North America. 
 It was long a standing puzzle how two such closely aUied forms as 
 the camels and llamas should exist in so widely separated areas. 
 Here was the solution : The common ancestor of the two species 
 arose in the area of country now forming the western portion 
 of our continent. In the ages that followed, the descendants of 
 this animal wandered in search of food, reaching the south and 
 northwest. What is now the shallow Aleutian bank of the North 
 Pacific was in the middle and later Tertiary a land area continuous 
 with the northwestern and northeastern shores of America and 
 Asia. The climate, too, was decidedly mild and supported a 
 luxuriant vegetation as compared with these latitudes to-day. 
 Sinking of the sea floor is still going on over a wide area in the 
 Pacific, and it was this same subsidence which carried a contin- 
 uous shore line beneath the sea, leaving only the highest points 
 of land, as the Aleutian, Fox, and Kurile chain of islands. Extraor- 
 dinary changes of climate followed, and extinction of animal life 
 occurred over wide areas. The descendants of the camel-like 
 beast that penetrated farthest into the Asiatic continent became,
 
 GEOGKAPIIY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE. 7 
 
 in the long course of time, adapted to a desert life, appearing in 
 the present age as the camels of Bactria, Arabia, and North Africa. 
 Those that wandered south became isolated on the high Andes 
 and, conforming to a mountain life, are to-day the llamas of South 
 America. This is only one of many such suggestive problems that 
 Geography has solved. 
 
 In accordance with the facts of distribution and the presence of 
 certain barriers Sclater mapped out the earth into six great zoolog- 
 ical regions. The great land mass of Europe and Asia north of 
 the Sahara Desert and Himalaya Mountain range is regarded as 
 constituting one natural primary region, Palaearctic or Eurasiatic. 
 Africa south of the desert with Madagascar constitutes a second 
 well-defined region containing numerous highly characteristic 
 species of animals. Tropical Asia south of the great mountain 
 barrier with the Malay Islands as far east as Borneo and Bali 
 forms a third great region. The Australian, a highly peculiar 
 and isolated region, includes the land mass of that name, Poly- 
 nesia, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago to the narrow 
 strip of water separating Lombok from Bali and to the Macassar 
 Straits between Celebes and Borneo. North America to the 
 Mexican highlands is the fifth or Nearctic ; while Central and 
 South America together comprise the Neotropical. The broad 
 features of plant distribution conform quite closely to the faunal 
 regions. 
 
 Here, then, is a natural geography based on the distribution of 
 life. As the animal world has been so largely influenced by Geog- 
 raphy, so man has been shaped, and his destiny hewn out mainly 
 through geographical influences. 
 
 Biology has pointed the way toward a new conception of Geog- 
 raphy and its importance as a point of view for all study — -history, 
 political science, linguistics, archaeology, ethnography, even mathe- 
 matics, and last but not least, commerce. What is more essen- 
 tially geographical than "reciprocity"? 
 
 The New Geography is before us with a new significance, clothed 
 with a perennial interest, for by it we are to see things in their
 
 8 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 
 
 proper relations. The Old Geography is dead, a fossil buried in 
 the drift of a past educational epoch. 
 
 We shall always speak of Europe as distinct from Asia, for it has 
 long borne, in the light of history, a different geographical stamp. 
 In the light of present knowledge, however, Flurope can no longer 
 remain a thing apart from the " land of the rising sun," for the Ural 
 system forms no barrier between them. Even political boundaries 
 are breaking down. Our children will learn about Eurasia, its 
 climate and rainfall, its mountains, tablelands, and deserts, its 
 great plains and river valleys, its widespread animal and plant life, 
 and the influence of all these factors on the destiny of man. 
 
 As we linger over the teacups, let us be reminded that the plant 
 which gives us so many pleasant hours is part of a long and won- 
 derful story. When it grew wild, which was so long ago no one 
 can remember, it must have looked very different from what it 
 does now. Ages' before this plant ever left its native shores it was 
 cultivated by a curious people in the fertile valleys of the Yang- 
 tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho, doubtless making them happier by its 
 genial influence. The climate of these valleys and their ranges of 
 hills must have been peculiarly favorable to the growth of the tea 
 plant, for it will not grow everywhere. The life of this curious 
 race of people is full of interest ; their civilization extends back 
 for centuries and is lost in the dawn of history. What shut them 
 out from the world so long? Great mountain ranges have always 
 barred them off from the desert plateau of Asia. The warm, 
 vapor-laden currents of the Pacific have ever borne in clouds that 
 dropped their rains on the eastern mountain slopes, coursing back 
 to the sea through fertile jiver valleys. Populous cities have stood 
 for centuries on these river banks. Strange fish inhabit the waters ; 
 many birds and be-asts roam through its forests. The land was 
 sufficient in itself — its people stayed at home. At last the outer 
 world, with its fleet of restless navigators, penetrated the shores of 
 this strange country, and China, the Chinese, and the tea trade 
 became factors in the world at large. 
 
 So Geography has linked Biology with History and Commerce,
 
 GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIEE. 9 
 
 since Biology first pointed out the New Geography, and Biology 
 conies to mean more than merely what the microscope has to 
 show. 
 
 Geographies and text books on biological subjects are useful as 
 repositories of facts and for reference, but not as a means of reci- 
 tation in the usual acceptance of the term. Too often they lack 
 the spirit essential to the development of broad thinking and the 
 clear conception of things. Nothing can take the place of direct 
 contact with the real object and of the personality of teacher and 
 student. The true spirit of culture and education is not in the 
 amount of knowledge acquired, but in the attitude of thought 
 toward a subject. Cultivate this attitude of thought. Learn to 
 look for the significance of facts. Never lose sight of the cause 
 and the effect. Facts are the raw material of thought, to be trans- 
 formed within the man and reappear glowing with his personality. 
 
 When you read, read widely. History, travel, poetry, romance, 
 biography, as well as Biology and Geography. Each in some way 
 will light up the mind and help to clear the mists of ignorance. 
 Lastly, as far as lies in your power, come in contact with the liv- 
 ing life of the world. Touch it on every side. Books and study 
 will soon wither the intellect unless the man or woman be alive to 
 all the impressions that come to them from the great world of 
 humanity and nature. 
 
 I have laid down no hard and fast methods of teaching. Indi- 
 vidual experience is the best indicator of method. Let me say 
 one thing, however. The value of Geography as a study lies in its 
 relations with other studies. Political Geography, so called, hinges 
 directly on Physical Geography, and the two should be brought 
 before the youthful mind as essential elements of one great study. 
 This aspect of the subject is History in its widest sense. It is also 
 Natural History. Every shower of rain, every breath of air, every 
 flower, every living thing, holds a lesson for us — in Geography. 
 
 The education of every child is the history of the entire race. 
 The same world, stirring with life, still surrounds us ; we are to 
 feel it, to know it, to grasp its meaning if possible with a living 
 sense of the eternal fitness of things.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 SOME PAST AXD PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Readinc in Connection with the Lessons of this Chapter. 
 
 Works »iarked * are especially icseful. 
 
 *Physiography. — Huxley. 
 
 Elements of Geology. — Le Conte. 
 *Comparative Geography. — Ritter. 
 *Dar\vinism (Chap. XII.). — Wallace. 
 * Humboldt's Cosmos. 
 
 LESSON L — LAND AND WATER. 
 
 Coast Lines. — The coast or shore Une — that Hne which marks 
 the boundary between the great bodies of land or continents 
 and the great bodies of water or oceans — is, and ahvays has 
 been, a scene of wonderful activity in the play of those forces 
 which are so potent in the long process of building up and tearing 
 down the surface features of the earth. We stand u])on sandy 
 beaches beholding the labor of ages, the long and slow piling 
 up of grains of quartz into beds of immense thickness. On bold 
 and rocky coasts we see the results of a grinding and wearing 
 action in cleft and cove and overhanging cliff. The granite rock 
 is mainly a mass of quartz, and the obvious conclusion as to 
 the relations between the rocky headland and the low, sandy 
 beach is that of cause and effect. Ever since the first land 
 appeared the waves of the ocean have ceaselessly battered against 
 
 ID
 
 LAND AND WATER. 11 
 
 its rocky shores, some portions of which, more readily yielding 
 to the disintegrating effect, have gradually worn away. The vast 
 quantity of sand thus formed has been slowly shifted along the 
 coast and spread over the marginal sea bottom. The further 
 action of the waves heaps up this sediment into beaches. 
 
 Wave action is not the only source of sedimentation along 
 the coast line. Rivers draining the land wash immense quantities 
 of mud and sand out into the ocean, which form vast deposits 
 at their mouths. In this way great deltas are formed when the 
 river empties into a bay or gulf but little affected by the tides, 
 such as the Mississippi, the Nile, and the Po. 
 
 This enormous deposit of earthy matter — sand and mud — 
 occurring along the shore line has largely aided in producing 
 the most important relief forms of the continents ; namely, 
 mountain ranges. 
 
 Height and Depth ; Mountains and Sea Bottoms. — From the 
 coast line, as the boundary between land and sea, the surface 
 of the earth gradually rises on the one hand above the sea level, 
 and on the other hand passes below the surface of the water to 
 form the sea bottom. The land may rise more or less abruptly 
 into a succession of hills, finally culminating in lofty mountain 
 ranges, or broad and low plains may extend inland for many 
 miles, gradually rising into some ' height of land.' The sea 
 bottom may slope gently, extending many miles from shore as 
 shoals and shallows. Sooner or later, however, it falls off more 
 or less steeply into great depths, forming in this way a sub- 
 marine bank. 
 
 The bottom of the ocean, like the surface of the land, is 
 traversed by mountain-like ridges, the highest tops of which 
 appear above the surface of the sea as islands. Many islands 
 occur in groups lying off the shores of the continents, like the 
 British Isles, Japan, the Philippines, etc., and have once formed 
 a part of the mainland. 
 
 Mountain ranges stand in a certain relation to the oceans. 
 The great ranges of the earth, as the Himalayas, Rocky Mountain
 
 12 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 system, Andes, and the mountains of East Africa, rise from the 
 lands bordering on the largest body of water, the Pacific and 
 Indian considered as one ocean. The Atlantic appears as a 
 narrow trough toward which the lands on either side slope gently 
 as long plains, broken, in some instances, by smaller, secondary 
 mountain ranges. This is seen in the Appalachian system of 
 North America, the mountains of Brazil, the Ural range of Eurasia, 
 the Kameroons and low elevations of Western Africa. 
 
 The North Polar Area is a basin-like depression toward which 
 the land gently slopes as long plains. The great plains of Russia 
 and Siberia and the Barren Grounds of British America, stretching 
 to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, are instances of this. 
 
 The great rivers of the world taking their rise in the higher 
 mountain ranges traverse these plains and empty into the Atlantic 
 and Arctic oceans. Note the Missouri and Mississippi in North 
 America, the Amazon, La Plata, and Orinoco in South America, 
 some of the larger rivers of Europe, and the Nile, Niger, and 
 Congo in Africa. The Mackenzie, Yukon, and Nelson rivers in 
 British America, and the Dwina, Obi, Yenisei, and Lena in 
 Eurasia, are some of the great rivers emptying into the Arctic 
 Ocean. Comparatively few large streams find their way to the 
 Pacific, because that ocean is nowhere surrounded by extensive 
 plains. 
 
 Permanence of Main Geographical Features. — The large features 
 of the earth's surface — the sites of the present continents and 
 oceans — have always been much the same. Land and sea on a 
 large scale have nowhere and at no time in the history of the 
 earth exchanged places. The great depressions in the crust have 
 from the very beginning been occupied by the oceans as the result 
 of physical laws. Land first appeared above the surface of an 
 ancient ocean, world wide in its extent, by an uplifting process 
 which resulted from the very nature of the earth's genesis and 
 history as a part of the solar system. 
 
 The earth was at one time much hotter than it is now, and its 
 substance much softer and more yielding. Indeed, it is highly
 
 LAND AND WATER. 13 
 
 probable that it started as a cloud of glowing vapors which gradu- 
 ally lost their intense heat and became liquid or molten in char- 
 acter. In this state it must have presented the appearance of a 
 great ball of fused matter like the flux from an iron furnace. 
 Still losing heat, its outer portion slowly hardened until a solid 
 crust was formed of some thirty miles thickness. This crust 
 cooled very unevenly, especially in its under layers, and as a result 
 it shrank more in some places than in others, producing an 
 uneven or wrinkled surface. As cooling went on, the dense atmos- 
 phere of vapor surrounding the earth was condensed into liquid 
 or water, and this water filled up the hollows of the uneven sur- 
 face. In this way the ocean was formed. It is altogether prob- 
 able that this primitive sea spread around the entire earth, not 
 only filling the great depressions of the crust, but even covering 
 the tops of the highest ridges or wrinkles. The surface of the 
 crust was now a sea bottom, and the cooling and shrinking pro- 
 cess still going on in its deep layers, the great wrinkles were 
 finally pushed or lifted above the surface of the ocean and 
 appeared as the first laud. In this way the present broad feat- 
 ures of the earth were, at a very early period, roughly mapped 
 out. This shrinking process took place at a very slow rate, and 
 is still going on in many places, unnodced, however, on account 
 of the extreme slowness of its movement. In some parts the 
 crust is sinking, in others risitig, the one often complementary to 
 the other. This change of level was without doubt true of the 
 Mediterranean region in a past period of the earth's history. It 
 was anciently a land area which slowly sank, letting in the waters 
 of the Adantic Ocean, at the same time leaving scattered rem- 
 nants of the old land mass above the surface in the form of 
 numerous islands and peninsulas. These islands and peninsulas 
 were the highest parts of ancient mountain ranges which were 
 not entirely carried under by the sinking process. To this fact 
 is due the present peculiar features of this remarkable inland sea 
 and their effect on the development and destiny of various 
 nations. As this portion of the crust sank, the present area of
 
 14 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 the Sahara desert, then a sea bottom, probably arose, and its 
 vast deposits of salt help to confirm this fact. So in the Pacific 
 Ocean the entire sea floor has been sinking for thousands of years, 
 while the western part of North America has slowly risen to form 
 the plateau region. Off-shore islands separated from the main- 
 land by shallow straits and seas offer evidence of a submerged 
 shore hne. The coast of Norway is said to be rising, that of 
 Greenland sinking, and this last fact is so well recognized by the 
 natives that they never build their dwellings near the shore. 
 Huts previously built on the edge of the sea now stand partially 
 submerged. 
 
 The Thousand-fathom Line and what it teaches. — Though the 
 continents and oceans have undoubtedly occupied their present 
 positions from the beginning, yet changes in the relations of land 
 and sea have frequently occurred. These changes have been 
 alons the shore line. In his work on " Darwinism " Alfred Russel 
 Wallace devotes some space to the subject of the thousand- 
 fathom line about the continents and its probable significance. 
 In his map he shows by a contrast of color the former much 
 wider extent of the shore lines of the continents as marked by 
 the depth of a thousand fathoms off shore. All within this line 
 to the existing shores of the continents represents, in all proba- 
 bility, iosf land — land that has sunk beneath the waves. The 
 significance of this becomes apparent when we study the Mediter- 
 ranean region in all its past and present relations ; the northern 
 regions of Eurasia and America in relation to the North Atlantic 
 and Pacific areas ; the groups of islands lying off the shores of 
 the continents ; the shores of the Indian Ocean, Australia, and 
 the islands of the Malay Archipelago in connection with their 
 past and present life features. 
 
 It is not within the scope of this book to enter at length into 
 these inviting problems. Bear in mind, however, that it is along 
 the coast lines of the continents that the changes of level have 
 occurred, which, in the course of time, have so greatly modified 
 the surface features of the earth.
 
 LAND AXD WATER. 15 
 
 "I drive my wedges home, 
 And carve the coastwise mountain into caves. 
 
 I with my hammer pounding evermore 
 
 The rocky coast, smite Andes into dust, 
 
 Strewing my bed, and, in anotlier age, 
 
 Relsuild a continent of better men. 
 
 Then I unbar the doors : my paths lead out 
 
 The exodus of nations : I disperse 
 
 Men to all shores that front the hoary main." 
 
 Origin of Mountain Ranges. — The situation of mountain ranges 
 in relation to the oceans is explained in the following way. The 
 shore line, as already stated, is the seat of a vast accumulation of 
 sediment, often many thousand feet in thickness. In past time 
 these enormous beds of sand and clay become hardened or con- 
 solidated throughout their underlying portions from the pressure 
 exerted by the increasing weight of the top layers, and strata of 
 sandstone, shales, and slates were thus formed. The immense 
 weight and pressure of these rock beds induced a greater degree 
 of heat in that portion of the crust included in the area of mar- 
 ginal sea bottoms, and this heat tended to soften the rock mass. 
 As a result of unequal shrinkage a certain amount of lateral pres- 
 sure took place from time to time, causing the crust to bulge at 
 its most pliable point, namely, the marginal sea bottoms, and this 
 bulge finally appeared above the surface of the ocean as new 
 land added along the beaches of the old. Increased pressure 
 upon the edges of these great beds of softened rock, from move- 
 ments in the surrounding portions of the crust, would continue 
 to push the new land higher and higher until it appeared as a 
 mountain range flanking the shores of the ocean. The experi- 
 ment of taking layers of clay in a suitable vessel of water and 
 pressing on the sides of the clay with the. hands gives a similar 
 result. Indeed, 'it is highly probable that mountains originated in 
 this way, as is shown by the following proofs, i. The flanks or 
 sides of mountain ranges consist of immense beds of stratified 
 rocks, and stratified rocks are the consolidated sediments formed
 
 16 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 by water. 2. These stratified rocks contain the fossil remains of 
 marine animals in abundance, showing that at one time they must 
 have formed a part of the sea bottom. 3. The interior or cen- 
 tral core of a mountain range consists of granite-like rocks, mas- 
 sive and dome-shaped, over which the stratified rocks lie like a 
 saddle. Granite, gneiss, and various other crystalline and glassy 
 rocks form the great bulk of the crust underlying the sedimentary 
 or stratified rocks, outcropping here and there upon the surface. 
 They are igneous or fire rocks, having cooled and crystallized 
 from an original highly heated, molten mass. Mountain ranges 
 thus appear as upheaved marginal sea bottoms. 
 
 The Heat of the Earth ; its Cause and Effects. — Geologists 
 now incline to the theory that the earth consists of a densely solid 
 nucleus or central portion between which and the outer crust is 
 a layer of semi-fluid material in a state known as hydmthennal 
 fusion, or fusion in the combined presence of heat and water. 
 This heated, semi-fluid layer is manifested on the surface in 
 various places as the outpouring of lava or melted rock from 
 volcanoes, and the presence of geysers and hot springs. The 
 cause of the internal heat and fusion is not thoroughly known, 
 but is thought to be due largely to the crushing and grinding 
 action of immense masses of rock and in part to a chemical 
 action. 
 
 The effect of the earth's internal heat over large areas is con- 
 spicuous. In Western North America vast fields of lava occur 
 from the overflows of ancient volcanoes. The Pacific Ocean is 
 surrounded by volcanoes both active and extinct, and this in con- 
 nection with the sinking of the sea bottom and the near presence 
 of high mountain ranges, among which many of the volcanoes 
 are situated, throws considerable light on the fact that interior 
 heat is probably the. primary cause of many surface features. 
 Outside of this region the Mediterranean volcanoes, in an area of 
 subsidence, are also remarkable. 
 
 This earth energy finds its primary cause in the attractive 
 power of the sun. The earth has passed, in its long history, from
 
 LAND AND WATER. 17 
 
 a sphere of cloudy vapor through a Ucjuid, into an increasingly 
 contracting solid state. Through all this it has steadily lost heat, 
 and its present activities are only the ghosts of its past giant 
 forces. Like its satellite the moon, it is destined to pass from 
 old age into a cold, dead planet destitute alike of air, water, and 
 life. 
 
 The Action of Water. — The elevating force, converting portions 
 of the primitive sea bottom into a land surface by lifting it above 
 the surface of the ocean, has always had a counteracting agent in 
 the destructive force of water. No sooner was any considerable 
 land surface presented above the sea level than the vapor of the 
 ocean, condensing into clouds, poured as torrents of rain upon the 
 face of the dry earth. Rain soaks through soil, finding under- 
 ground channels which bring the water to the surface again as 
 springs, or, when in excess, runs off the surface in muddy rills. 
 All this water is ultimately gathered into streams flowing from 
 higher to lower levels, and through the large rivers it finally 
 reaches the ocean whence it started. This circulation of meteoric 
 water is attended by a slow but impressive wearing down of land 
 surface. The action of the atmosphere in disintegrating rock 
 into soil still furthei- prepares the way for the destructive action of 
 water. Water itself is not the eroding agent ; the sediment or 
 grains of sand which it carries in suspension is the graving tool 
 sculpturing the face of the earth throughout all ages of time. At 
 a distance we behold the mountains in mass and outline standing 
 against the sky, seeing, as a geologist somewhere expresses it, only 
 the evidence of the uplifting forces of nature. Once among the 
 mountains, we lose -sight of this, seeing only the mighty effects of 
 water, — gorges, chasms and ravines ; bare, jagged cliffs ; torrents 
 and cascades cutting their way still more deeply into the solid 
 rock. Everywhere, dn lowland and highland, by the seacoast and 
 on the tops of mountains, we see the marvelous results of the 
 action of water. 
 
 The varied features of scenery are largely the result of the cut- 
 ting and carrying power of water. Narrow valleys, flumes, caiions, 
 c
 
 18 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 and cataracts are prominent features of the cutting or erosive 
 action of water in all parts of the earth. In the lower reaches of 
 rivers, broad flood plains are formed by the checking of a sedi- 
 ment-laden current as it meets the incoming tide of the ocean. 
 The river spreading out in times of flood, drops its burden of mud 
 over a wide area, leaving broad, marshy flats when it recedes into 
 its main channel. Plains thus grow by the accumulations of mud 
 carried down by rivers as a result of erosion in their upper or tor- 
 rential courses. Deltas are similarly formed by the velocity of 
 the rivers' flow, carrying mud out into a comparatively tideless 
 body of water. These low, marshy regions are peculiarly liable 
 to overflow, as in the case of the Nile, the Mississippi, the Ganges, 
 the Po, the rivers of China, etc. 
 
 In the form of ice, as glaciers, water has sculptured the surface, 
 making a characteristic landscape in many countries. In a past 
 age of the earth, glaciers spread widely over many northern lands, 
 leaving a ' drift ' of bowlders and moraines, billowy hills, river 
 terraces, antl wide mountain valleys as characteristic features of 
 scenery. The effect of the glacial period upon climate and the 
 distribution of life and its probable relations to early man are 
 subjects of extreme interest. 
 
 Action of the Atmosphere. — The chemical action of rain water 
 gradually dissolves the cementing material of rocks, allowing them 
 to fall away as loose masses of sand and earthy matter. In this 
 way soil is formed by the so-called 'weathering' of rock. The 
 effects of frost in breaking up masses of rock are conspicuous in 
 temperate and cool countries. Water penetrating into rock fis- 
 sures expands in freezing, and in this way plays an important part 
 as a disintegrating agent. 
 
 On low, sandy beaches the wind piles up the sand into immense 
 dunes which flank the shore for miles and gradually work inland, 
 frequently encroaching upon, and in some places entirelv obliter- 
 ating forests and fertile lands. The same is true of tlie desert 
 sands, the winds blowing them from deserts over neighboring 
 countries. In this way they gradually encroach upon fertile lands
 
 LAND AND WATER. 19 
 
 and in time completely overwhelm them. This is seen in some 
 parts of Egypt and along the borders of the Sahara, where the 
 desert sands are piled about the bases of the Pyramids and over 
 the vegetation of the Nile Valley. 
 
 Living Matter and its Effects. — The soil of a forest is the accu- 
 mulation of the fallen leaves and rotting tree trunks of centuries. 
 It is known as vegetable mould, and in most places, wherever plant 
 life abounds, forms an important element of the soil. In the 
 presence of water, as on the shores of a lake or in a marsh, and 
 where the climate is sufficiently cool and moist, this vegetable 
 matter is slowly converted into thick beds of a black, mud-like 
 material known as peat. Still further compression and solidifica- 
 tion by overflows of silt and clay bring about a hardening, and 
 this fact throws light on the probable origin of the coal measures 
 in various parts of the world. Peat bogs often form in a com- 
 paratively short period, in some instances entirely hiding impor- 
 tant landmarks. Thus in Europe, old Roman roads have been 
 lost under peat formations. Bog iron ore, the workable form of 
 the metal, results from the presence of organic matter which takes 
 an excess of oxygen, and thus reduces the iron from its higher 
 state of oxidation. It is in this higher, but unworkable state, that 
 iron exists widely diffused through the crust, imparting a charac- 
 teristic red color tp many soils. 
 
 Limestone and accumulations of lime result from the immense 
 deposits of the shells of various marine animals, notably the Foram- 
 inifera and coral polyps. The chalk of France and England is 
 a hardened material almost identical with the lime ooze of the 
 Atlantic sea bottom, and undoubtedly represents an upheaval of 
 this deposit in past ages. The growth of coral polyps has re- 
 claimed lost land over a considerable area in the Pacific, growth 
 taking place at a slightly faster rate than the subsidence of the 
 sea floor. In this way numerous reefs have been formed, on the 
 tops of which islands are gradually built up by wave action. Birds, 
 winds, and ocean currents carry the seeds of plants and disperse 
 them over wide areas. By this means vegetation has sprung up
 
 20 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 and covered many of these islands.' Extensive caves often occur 
 in limestone districts from the dissolving action of underground 
 waters containing carbonic acid. In many places these caves 
 have played an important part as slielters in the early history of 
 mankind. 
 
 Soil and Forests. — The character of the soil often influences 
 the vegetation over wide areas. This results largely from the 
 nature of the combined elements of soil, giving rise to certain 
 mechanical conditions. Thus a soil made up largely of sand is 
 loose, allowing water to percolate freely through its beds, while a 
 clay soil is stiff and lumpy and more or less completely impervious 
 to water. A mixing of these two elements, sand and clay, is un- 
 doubtedly the best soil for plant growth. The stiff loam of our 
 middle prairie lands may possibly have been a factor operating 
 against the growth of a forest. The roots of plants penetrate the 
 soil, thus forming channels along which water finds its way. Earth- 
 worms Hkevvise perform an important part in plowing the soil by 
 bringing the deeper layers to the surface and thus exposing them 
 to the influence of air and sunlight. The roots of plants tend to 
 hold soil together and prevent its too rapid washing by rain and 
 rivers. Marshes are formed in this way, the sod of mud and 
 grass roots being often two and three feet in thickness.^ The veg- 
 etable mould or humus from the decay of plants forms an impor- 
 tant element of soil, and a source of food supply to the seedlings 
 and young undergrowth. 
 
 1 In tropical seas the completion of an island is often due to the growth of the 
 mangrove and cocoanut. The mangrove is a tree of low, marshy seacoasts, and 
 grows out of the water, spreading itself by the formation of adventitious roots, or 
 long branches that strike downward from its limbs and take root in the mud to 
 form new tiees. The conditions of shallow water on the top of a coral reef or 
 a submarine bank are entirely favorable to the growth of this tree, and its form of 
 reproduction is curiously fashioned for dispersal over shallow seas. Mud accumu- 
 lates rapidly about the mangrove roots, and forms a resting place for the cocoanuts 
 that drift about in their tough, buoyant husks. Dry land gradually appears from 
 the growth of mud, and this is soon covered with the tall palms and low mangrove 
 swamps which are so characteristic a feature of tropical shores and islands. 
 
 - See article by J. Gifford on "Salt Tide Marshes of South Jersey;" Science, 
 Vol. xxii. 556,
 
 /,//'■/'; AA'D THE EARTH. , 21 
 
 Forests have an imijortant inlluence on the cHmate and rain- 
 fall of a country. Their canopy of foliage acts as a shelter from 
 the heat of the sun and the washing effects of rain. The immense 
 area of leafage exposed acts as a vast evaporating surface and also 
 radiates heat into the surrounding air, thus equahzing the con- 
 ditions of moisture and temperature. Wy this means prolonged 
 periods of drought followed by heavy downfalls of rain are averted 
 and the perennial flow of springs is maintained. The forest has 
 exerted an important influence on mankind throughout history. 
 It has formed a natural hiding place and shelter, a harbor for the 
 wild animals of the chase, a source of timber supply and of many 
 varieties of food. By no means the least has been its widespread 
 influence upon climate. In the advance of civilization the cutting 
 off of the forests is a menace to the welfare of a country. 
 
 LESSON II. — LIFE AND THE EARTH. 
 
 Life a Part of the Earth's Surface. — The greatest feature of 
 the earth's surface is the life that dwells upon it, and of which 
 man himself forms a part. The multitude of living beings that 
 find a home in the waters of ocean, lake, and river, or on the 
 surface of the land, are, each and all, a part of this wonderful 
 sphere, in every way dependent upon it for their existence. The 
 simplest speck of jelly endowed with this living or vital prin- 
 ciple ; the highest creature, man ; the grass and flowers that make 
 beautiful the face of the land ; the rock masses and minerals of 
 the crust, were all breathed into existence as a part of the earth. 
 The infinite variety of the living beings that people the earth is 
 the result of life having slowly unfolded from the simplest be- 
 ginnings, like a plant from its seed. Life is the earth itself. 
 Without hfe the earth would be a dead sphere ; a world without a 
 history. 
 
 Animal Life. — Two kinds of living beings inhabit the earth, — 
 animals and plants. Some kind of animal is found in evefy part 
 of the earth, from pole to pole, and from the highest mountain
 
 22 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 summits to the deepest depths of the ocean. The wonderful 
 variety of forms is a striking feature of animal life. The animal is 
 fitted to all conditions of existence — the fishes and creatures of 
 the sea to a life in the water ; the land-living or air-breathing 
 forms to the varied states which such a life offers. 
 
 The higher animals, like the backboned creatures, — beasts, 
 birds, etc., — are distributed over the earth in relation to climate 
 and other causes which led in past time to their present geo- 
 graphical distribution. First among these causes was the search 
 for food, brought about by the cutting down of the food supply in 
 the places where they lived, on account of the increasing number 
 of individuals. Wandering over the earth, they met with various 
 checks or barriers in the shape of mountains, deserts, oceans, 
 cUmate, etc., which tended to stop their wanderings .in certain 
 directions, producing in time the present features of animal dis- 
 tribution. 
 
 Vegetation. — Plant life is widely spread over the face of the 
 earth, giving rise to prominent features of various regions. Some 
 regions are covered with vast forests ; others are treeless pasture 
 lands ; others, again, are barren deserts, with little, if any, vegeta- 
 tion. All this is largely the result of climatic conditions, rainfall, 
 etc., as well as topographical features, lay of the land, mountain 
 tops, lowlands, etc. The character of the vegetation differs in 
 various regions. The virgin forests of the tropical zone abound 
 with the most wonderful forms and varieties of plant life. The 
 vegetation of the temperate zone is a strong contrast to this, 
 forests of entirely different trees characterizing the landscape. 
 The Arctic regions are, for the most part, barren wastes, covered 
 here and there with a few stunted alpine shrubs and wild flowers. 
 
 The Air or Atmosphere. — The atmosphere is the gaseous 
 envelope surrounding the solid earth, and extending to the height 
 of many miles. It is literally an ocean of air in which we and 
 all other land animals live, containing a principle without which 
 life could not exist. This principle is a gaseous element called 
 oxygen.
 
 LIFE AND THE EARTH. 23 
 
 Its Relation to the Surface. — The air is the great reservoir 
 into which a large portion of the surface water of the earth passes 
 as vapor to be circulated over the land in the form of clouds. 
 These clouds are carried by currents of air or winds, their vapor 
 falling as rain, to be again returned to the ocean through the 
 rivers. It is also the great distributer and equalizer of the sun's 
 heat, receiving the heat radiated from the earth's surface and 
 modifying the direct rays of the sun passing through its cloudy 
 vapors. The water of the ocean is salt, from the various min- 
 eral matters that are leached out of the rocks by rain water, and 
 carried into it through the rivers ; but by evaporation into the air 
 it becomes fresh, the salt being left behind. Hence rain water 
 and the water of springs, rivers, and many lakes is fresh. 
 
 Its Relations to Life. — Without this atmosphere or air life were 
 not possible. It is the great medium from which animals and 
 plants draw the materials for their existence, and through which 
 the interchange of material between the plant and the animal 
 takes place. The animal breathes in the oxygen of the air to 
 carry on its vital activities. This act of living in the animal pro- 
 duces a waste material called carbonic acid, which the animal 
 throws out in its breath as a gas. This goes into the atmosphere, 
 and is the substance upon which the plant feeds. Its leaves 
 absorb carbonic acid gas, and this is converted into starch, which 
 forms a large part of the plant's substance. The animal, in turn, 
 feeds on the plant, thus getting back material to make good the 
 loss to its body caused by the wasting action of oxygen. The 
 plant also at times gives out oxygen from its leaves into the air. 
 Both plants and animals absorb a great deal of moisture from the 
 atmosphere and throw it off again from their bodies. Animals 
 living in the water get their oxygen from the air, though indirectly, 
 as water always absorbs a certain amount of air, especially when 
 it foams and breaks on the surface. 
 
 We thus see how animals and plants are dependent for their 
 very existence, upon one another and upon the atmosphere. 
 
 Distribution ; Primary Life Areas of the Earth. — The ques-
 
 24 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 tion of the distribution of animals and plants over the earth's 
 surface under the conditions of climate, topography, etc., resolves 
 itself into the consideration of seven primary areas characterized 
 by the number of peculiar forms, of both animals and plants, in 
 each. 
 
 Dr. J. A. Allen has recently summed up his views upon this 
 subject in an exceedingly interesting and valuable paper.^ In our 
 Introductory Chapter the divisions as outlined by Sclater in 1857 
 were briefly alluded to. In the lapse of more than thirty years 
 many facts have been ascertained in both Biology and Geography 
 which shed new hght upon the subject. These are embodied in 
 Dr. Allen's classification of the Ufe areas as follows : — 
 
 " (i) An Arctic Realm, occupying the region northward from 
 about the limit of forest vegetation, or from about the isotherm of 
 32° F. It is characterized by its paucity of life and its homo- 
 geneousness, nearly all its forms of both animal and vegetable life 
 ranging throughout its whole extent. 
 
 " (2) A North Temperate Realm, extending from the northern 
 limit of forest vegetation to the northern border of the palm belt, 
 or between the annual isotherms of 32° and 70° F. 
 
 " (3) An American Tropical Realm, consisting, as the name 
 implies, of tropical America. 
 
 " (4) An Judo- Africa 11 Realm, consisting of Africa (except 
 the northern border), and tropical Asia and its outlying islands. 
 
 "(5) A South American Temperate Realm, embracing extra- 
 tropical South America. 
 
 " (6) An Australian Realm, including not only Australia, but 
 New Guinea, New Zealand, and the various groups of islands to 
 the northward and eastward. 
 
 " (7) A Lemurian Realm, consisting of Madagascar." 
 
 From this it will be seen how closely the life areas conform to 
 climate as well as to the general distribution of the land masses. 
 
 1 "Tlie Geograpliical Origin and Distribution of North American Birds, consid- 
 ered in Relation to Faunal Areas of North America," The Auk, April, 1893.
 
 LIFE AND THE EARTH. 25 
 
 The North Temperate Reahii embraces two regions: (i) the 
 North American Region, consisting of temperate North America; 
 and (2) tlie Eurasia tic Region, consisting of temperate Eurasia. 
 The Hfe forms of these two regions are very similar in many 
 instances. Thus a species of bear, lynx, and wolf are essentially 
 the same in both. The red deer of Europe has its counterpart 
 in the so-called ' elk,' or wapiti, of North America. So with the 
 bison and auroch and several other closely allied forms of animal 
 life. A general similaritv characterizes the broad features of 
 vegetation in the two regions. A zone of deciduous trees, oaks, 
 willows, beeches, birches, etc., with a belt of pines, larches, and 
 other conifers to the north, and a vast assemblage of herbaceous 
 forms, give character to both the North American and Europaeo- 
 Siberian forests. 
 
 The American tropical and Indo-African realms, though under 
 very similar conditions of climate, are strongly contrasted in their 
 life forms on account of their wide separation by the ocean. The 
 South American tropical forest, with its gigantic cinchonas, green 
 hearts, cow trees, and other remarkable forms \ its curious sloths 
 and anteaters ; its hosts of peculiar birds (among them the hum- 
 ming birds), and its general scarcity of large mammals, is strik- 
 ingly opposed to the tropical life of the Old World with its 
 peculiar baobabs, banyans, giant grasses like the bamboo, and 
 other no less remarkable forms of vegetation, and the wonderful 
 development of large mammalia, — elephants, rhinoceroses, buffa- 
 loes, antelopes, zebras, the giraffe, hippopotamus, the man-like 
 apes, leopards, lions, tigers, hyenas, etc. 
 
 Australia and its adjacent islands are especially remarkable for 
 the development of marsupials or pouch-bearing mammals, like 
 the kangaroo, wombat, etc., numerous peculiar birds, and charac- 
 teristic forms of vegetation. Madagascar is the home of most 
 of the existing species of lemur, a group of monkey-like mammals 
 which was once widely spread over the earth. The South Ameri- 
 can Temperate Realm has a life largely derived from the tropical 
 region to the north modified by temperate conditions. These
 
 26 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 last three realms, the Australian, Lemurian, and Temperate South 
 American, have derived their special life features from their pecu- 
 liarly isolated position in relation to the rest of the great land 
 mass reaching back to a very remote period of time. Madagascar, 
 Australia, and the adjacent islands are the result of subsidence 
 which surrounded them by an ocean barrier, while temperate 
 South America is isolated by climate, being cut off from the North 
 Temperate Realm (save along the higher ranges of the Andes) by 
 the tropical zone. 
 
 In a general view of the distribution of vegetation over the 
 earth, we see the effect of climate as a primary cause, giving rise 
 to a series of vegetable zones or belts characterized by the pre- 
 dominance of certain forms. These correspond to the annual 
 isotherms, the great forest regions being the result of the special 
 conditions producing an abundant rainfall. Mountain ranges 
 trending north and south carry temperate conditions far into the 
 tropics, thus aiding the wide dispersal of temperate forms of both 
 animals and plants. We thus recognize an Arctic belt of stunted 
 vegetation extending to 32° F., a temperate forest belt from 32° 
 to 70° F., and beyond this a palm belt of tropical vegetation in 
 general. (See Climate, Isotherms.) 
 
 The North American Region is divided into two Subregions : 
 (i) a Cold Temperate Sub region, and (2) a Warm Temperate 
 Subregion. The Cold Temperate Subregion extends across the 
 continent, reaching from the northern limit of forests southward 
 to about the mean latitude of 43° N. Its southern border is 
 extremely irregular, owing to topographical conditions. The 
 Appalachian Mountain range carries cold temperate features 
 southward along its crest, appearing as a narrow belt penetrating 
 the Warm Temperate Subregion. The influence of the great 
 plains of the Saskatchewan, on the other hand, pushes its south- 
 ern boundary line far to the north. The Warm Temperate Sub- 
 region extends southward from this line to the palm belt or the 
 northern limit of the American tropical realm. It is subdivided 
 east and west as a result of physical conditions into two provinces :
 
 LIFE AND THE EAR 77/. -27 
 
 (i) an eastern or Humid Province, and (2) a western or Arid 
 Province. These subregions and provinces are remarkably well 
 defined by their life forms, both animal and vegetable. Their 
 boundaries are nowhere abrupt, but overlap or pass gradually into 
 one another. 
 
 Certain broad features of flora characterize the subregions of 
 North America. The Arctic Realm to the north is a region of 
 saxifrages. The Cold Temperate Subregion is especially charac- 
 terized by the abundance and variety of asters and goldenrods 
 besides numerous heath-like forms, as the various species of 
 huckleberries. Among forest trees the great variety of oaks and 
 spruces is characteristic. A striking feature of the Warm Temper- 
 ate Subregion is the abundance of magnolias, while tulip pop- 
 lars, horsechestnuts, and locusts are conspicuous trees in the 
 woodland landscape. These forms are all noted for their magnifi- 
 cent blossoms. This subregion is also the center of rice, cotton, 
 and sugar cane growth in the United States. Wheat and maize 
 are grown over both subregions, though the latter attains its best 
 development and highest degree of cultivation in the Warm Tem- 
 perate. The Humid Province is throughout a fertile region, the 
 greater part of its area being under cultivation. West of the looth 
 meridian the eastern edge of the Great Plains forming the North 
 American Plateau, marks the beginning of the Arid Province, 
 characterized by the agave, yucca, and cactus forms of vegetation. 
 
 Sequence of Life. — Living beings present a gradually unfolding 
 series in the history of the earth, from simple beginnings to later 
 complex forms. The oldest stratified rocks contain the remains 
 of single-celled organisms in all respects like the lower forms 
 existing to-day, and throughout the immense lapse of time, since 
 life first began, the strata of the crust bear testimony to this unfold- 
 ing plan of development. The older forms of life were aquatic, 
 like the lower forms of to-day, water being the primitive element 
 of existence. It was not until the atmosphere had parted with its 
 excess of carbonic acid, through the action of the wide-spread 
 vegetation of tlie Carboniferous period, that air-breathing animals 
 appeared.
 
 28 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 In a universal ' struggle for existence,' which is a law of life, 
 living beings strive to fill unoccupied places in the economy of 
 nature, and in time become adapted to new conditions through 
 a change in function and structure. This gives rise to diversity 
 and subsequent ' origin of species.' 
 
 Conditions of Life; Environment. —The earth's surface is the 
 home of life — hence, the conditions of the surface are the con- 
 ditions of life — or its environment. Land, air, water, heat, and 
 sunlight are essential conditions of life. The distinctive feature 
 of living matter is energy in the form of motion, growth, and 
 reproduction. This results from the activity of oxygen, or com- 
 bustion — the never-ceasing attack of that element upon living 
 matter in an effort to form combinations with its elements. Waste 
 of the living organism ensues, necessitating a constant renewal by 
 food. This food is obtained from the surrounding elements, and 
 is an important condition of life. , 
 
 The Unity of Life. — Life, then, is a part of the earth's surface 
 dependent upon its conditions for existence. From the lowest and 
 simplest organism — a mere speck of jelly — up to the highest 
 and most complex, as in man and the higher animals and plants, 
 this unity of life, this dependence upon the same primary condi- 
 tions, forms an essential and conspicuous feature. Furthermore, 
 the most complex animal exhibits in its individual development 
 the same steps as are seen in the long history of life as a whole. 
 Whether we view the individual or the race, each alike begins as 
 a simple germ potent with unseen but marvelous possibilities. 
 
 Intelligence. — Man, as the crowning work of this wonderful 
 thing called ' life,' reflects that intelligence which seems to per- 
 vade all nature. He only, of the countless living beings, has 
 recognized that ' something,' higher and greater than all life and 
 nature, that — 
 
 " divinity that shapes our ends, 
 Rough-hew them how we will." 
 
 The forces of nature have slowly wrought out through the long 
 centuries of time the present aspects of the earth. Not for
 
 CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 29 
 
 themselves alone have these forces operated. The intelligence 
 that manifested itself with the development of man as a part 
 of nature grasps the inheritance of time, the opportunities of 
 environment, rising above the mere blind instincts of tlie animal. 
 Climate and physical forces no longer coerce man into complete 
 subjection. A noted geographer once wrote a work entitled, 
 " The Earth and Man." ^ In view of the intelligence that has so 
 far fitted its home to suit its own purpose, might we not as truly 
 say, Man and the Earth ? 
 
 LESSON III. — CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOP- 
 MENT OF MAN. 
 
 Mountain Walls. — The relative position of mountain ranges, 
 table-lands, plains, and valleys, and the resulting determination of 
 water courses have exerted an important influence in the history 
 and development of man. The preservation of early civilizations, 
 as those of China and India, and in later times that of Rome, 
 though subject to barbarian invasion, was largely due to their 
 position in lowlands flanked by lofty mountain barriers. The 
 Swiss owe their long independence among the nations of Europe 
 mainly to their impregnable position among the ranges of the 
 Alps. So with Greece on her islands and mountainous peninsula. 
 France and Spain have been greatly protected by a mountainous 
 border ; while Austria, lying open to the Black Sea and the plains 
 of Central Europe, has been from time to time the scene of 
 inroads by Asian peoples, as attested by her present relations 
 with Hungary and the Danube countries. The early settlements 
 of North America, as Professor Shaler has shown, owe their pres- 
 ervation in great part to the nearness of the Appalachian ranges, 
 which shielded them from the greater body of savages occupying 
 the region west of these mountains. The Peruvian civilization 
 was developed on the western slopes of tlie Andes under almost 
 temperate conditions of climate, and protected by the snowy 
 
 1 Guyot.
 
 30 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 crests of the range from the savages of the tropical forests to the 
 east. Hardly anywhere do we find a better example than this of 
 a mountain's influence in developing man ; for even the extreme 
 dryness of the region was overcome under the stimulating effects 
 of altitude. 
 
 Mountain walls have had other influences than merely pro- 
 tecting man from man. They are one of the most important 
 regulators of rainfall, and hence determine the fertility of a region. 
 China and India, the northern shores of the Mediterranean, the 
 Pacific slope of Western North America, are examples of this 
 influence. 
 
 The character of mountain ranges themselves has played an 
 important part in more or less completely separating neighboring 
 countries. The Alpine passes have been important factors in his- 
 tory, permitting intercourse among various European peoples. 
 The Himalayas, on the other hand, affected by only a few passes, 
 and those at a great height, have effectually isolated the surround- 
 ing countries from any extended intercourse with one another. 
 
 " Mountains interposed 
 Make enemies of nations, who had else 
 Like kindred drops been mingled into one." 
 
 Continental Irregularity. — The outline or contour features of 
 a continent have played a very important part in the development 
 of nations. The deeply dissected coast line of Europe has greatly 
 affected the history of the various peoples inhabiting the con- 
 tinent. A glance at the map of Europe is sufficient to show how 
 vast an extent of seacoast is presented by its irregular shore line 
 in relation to the entire territory. With the exception of Switzer- 
 land there is not an important country in Europe that does not 
 possess a more or less extended seacoast, and that within tem- 
 perate latitudes. Nearly all the important points of Western 
 Europe are thus within easy reach of the sea. This has had an 
 important influence in the destiny of European nations. The 
 fostering influence of a sheltered body of water like the Mediter-
 
 CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 31 
 
 ranean was an important factor in the development of the early 
 seagoing nations. Phoenicia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Venice, 
 were all nurtured under the protecting headlands and sheltered 
 bays of an irregular shore line. Holland has been reclaimed 
 from the sea. Spain has sent fleets from both Mediterranean and 
 Atlantic shores. The Baltic nations have been seafarers from the 
 days of the Vikings to the present time. The British Isles owe 
 their great human interest in history to the sinking process that 
 gave to the shores of Western Europe their present jagged out- 
 line. 
 
 In like manner Eastern North America was open to the early 
 discoverers through its far- inland-reaching estuaries and navigable 
 rivers. We may thus, for example, trace the history of coloniza- 
 tion along the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 South America and Africa have a comparatively even coast line, 
 no great bays reaching far inland. Many of the rivers of Africa 
 present a series of dangerous rapids for many miles before enter- 
 ing the low coast regions. This is especially the case with the 
 Congo and the Nile. The effect of this upon the inhabitants and 
 the difficulty which civilized man finds in penetrating to the inte- 
 rior is in a large measure the reason why Africa is still a " Dark 
 Continent." 
 
 River Valleys and Garden Spots. — All the great civilizations of 
 history began in fertile river valleys, — Egypt in the fertile valley 
 of the Nile, surrounded on all sides by the desert ; Babylon and 
 the Assyrian civilization in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 The Hindus on the Ganges and the Indus, the Chinese on the 
 Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho, are examples of the river's influ- 
 ence in the development of civilizations. In later times the Tiber 
 and the Po nurtured the germs of great civilizing centers. In our 
 own country the river valleys were the garden spots which invited 
 the first settlers. Even in savage countries the densest popula- 
 tion is along the great rivers. The navigability of rivers, as 
 already alluded to, has been of the utmost importance to the 
 peoples of history.
 
 32 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH. 
 
 The distribution of minerals, plants, and animals, and the con- 
 ditions of climate have been throughout all time among the most 
 important factors in the development of man. These will be 
 further alluded to in later chapters. The great end in view 
 through the operation of these various physical conditions is the 
 evolution of the social state of man. Man and Man as well as 
 Man and the Earth.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Reading in Connection with the Lessons of this Chapter. 
 
 Works iiiarked * are especially useful. 
 
 ♦Humboldt's Cosmos. 
 
 ♦IsLind Life (especially chapters on Climate). — Wallace. 
 
 Tropical Nature. — Wallace. 
 
 Climate and Time. — Croll. 
 ♦Articles on "Meteorology" and " Climate." — Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 ♦Eclectic Physical Geography. — Hinman. 
 
 The Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life. — Elisee Reclus. 
 
 LESSON L — THE ELEMENTS OF CLLMATE. 
 
 Definition. — Climate is the character of the atmosphere 
 dependent upon the condition of two primary factors, tempera- 
 ture and moisture. The condition of these two main elements is 
 influenced by : i, latitude or distance from the equator; 2, alti- 
 tude or height above the sea level ; 3, distance from the sea ; 
 and 4, prevailing winds and ocean currents. From all of these 
 causes arises that diversity of climate which is so marked a feature 
 of the earth's surface. We speak accordingly of a hot or a cold, 
 or of a dry or a moist climate. The word ' climate ' is of ancient 
 origin. It comes from a Greek verb meaning to incline, and was 
 used by the ancients to signify the difference in the length of day 
 and night, resulting from the slanting or inclination of the earth's 
 axis in relation to the plane of its orbit. This fact was recognized
 
 34 
 
 CUM A TE. 
 
 by the ancient geographer Ptolemy (127-15 1 a.d.), who divided 
 the earth's surface, from the equator to the arctic circle, " into 
 chmates or parallel zones, corresponding to the successive increase 
 of a quarter of an hour in the length of midsummer day." 
 
 Latitude or Distance from the Equator. — On those parts of 
 the earth where the sun's rays fall more or less directly downward, 
 
 Fui. I. — Diagram illustrating the result of vertical and slanting rays of sunlight 
 on th'e earth's surface. Parallel rays (i) falling vertically are concentrated on a 
 smaller space of surface, A, B, and consequently exert greater power than the same 
 number of rays falling obliquely (2, 3), which being spread over a larger space, 
 C, B, are diffused and exert less power. 
 
 the temperature of the air is raised. This is the case, as we know, 
 in tropical countries and lands under the equator where the sun's
 
 ELEMENTS OE CUM ATE. 35 
 
 rays are always more or less vertical. Hence the term torrid or 
 hot zone. As we go north or south from the equator, we pass 
 through regions having a temperate climate, because the sun's 
 rays fall slantingly, and consequently with less power. Here the 
 " change of seasons " occurs as a result of the successive changes 
 of position of the earth in its path around the sun. As the earth 
 in its revolution thus brings the places on its surface under differ- 
 ent degrees of slanting rays, it follows that a certain cycle of heat 
 and moisture must result from this changing of the relative posi- 
 tions of the sun and earth. In the tropics, as the sun appears to 
 move northward or southward from the equator, the cloud belt 
 follows, and the "rainy season" is ushered in. This occurs in 
 lands just north of the equator in F'ebruary, and reaches the 
 tropic of Cancer about September. As the sun and its cloud belt 
 pass south again, a second "rainy season" will occur at certain 
 places north of the equator later in the autumn. The rainy season 
 of tropical lands north of the equator corresponds, therefore, with 
 spring and summer in the north temperate regions and the mid- 
 night sun of the long arctic day. The rainy season lasts, in a 
 general sense, from April until October. In countries south of 
 the equator, it is then the " dry season " of the tropics and winter 
 in the southern realm. The rainy and the summer season south 
 of the equator corresponds to the dry season and the winter of 
 the north, from October to April. 
 
 On account of the inclination of the axis, the curvature of the 
 earth cuts off the rays of light from the polar regions for many 
 weeks at one time of the year, while at another, the same cause 
 gives these lands continuous daylight, as the sun is vertical north 
 or south of the equator. The failure of light and heat in the polar 
 regions throughout a greater part of the year makes them ice- 
 locked lands of desolation.^ 
 
 1 The seasonal changes of temperature in the temperate zones are in great part 
 due to the different relative lengths between the day and night, as a result of the 
 relative change of the sun's position. Thus, the more continuous sunlight in the 
 long day of the Northern summer is a factor quite as important as the highly- 
 inclined rays. The cold of winter is likewise the result of a lessened amount of 
 sunlight, due to the short day and long night.
 
 36 CUM A TE. 
 
 Altitude, or Height above the Sea Level. — The air of high 
 mountain regions is much colder ihan that of lower levels and sea- 
 board countries. Even at the equator eternal snow lies upon the 
 crests of the higher ranges. A traveler climbing one of the lofty 
 mountains in the tropics passes through the same zones of vegeta- 
 tion that he would meet in going north from the equator to the 
 pole. In the hot, moist lowlands, at the mountain's base, he is 
 surrounded by a dense forest of luxuriant, tropical growth, palms, 
 creepers, and great climbing vines, orchids, rubber plants, gigantic 
 fern-like forms, brilliant-colored flowers, and all the wonderful pro- 
 fusion of plant life that is so characteristic of tropical scenery. 
 
 Ascending the mountain slope the traveler gradually passes out 
 of the tropical forest into the belt of hard-wood trees, first the 
 evergreen hard woods, as the live oaks and magnolias, and finally 
 the upper deciduous trees of the temperate zone. Still climbing, 
 he reaches the pine belt, — the birches, larches, and pines of the 
 north temperate zone. The cold increases as he goes upward, 
 the trees become stunted, and finally disappear (timber line). He 
 finds himself, at last, in an open, alpine region, like that above the 
 northern limit of trees, the ground covered with mosses, lichens, 
 and short grasses. Above him towers the snowy range, a region 
 of perpetual winter, with only a few arctic wild flowers blossoming 
 along the snow line, 15,000 feet or more above the sea. Altitude, 
 therefore, corresponds with latitude, climate and vegetation pass- 
 ing through the same changes. 
 
 Though the sun's rays pour straight down upon these high moun- 
 tain redons, the climate is cold because there is so little surface 
 off"ered to retain the heat. In the lower regions, near the sea 
 level, the broad surface of land and sea absorbs an immense quan- 
 tity of the sun's heat, which warms the surrounding air by radia- 
 tion, just as a stove warms the air of a room by radiating the heat 
 from its whole surface. The steep and comparatively narrow 
 mountain ranges reaching far up into the sky allow what litde heat 
 is absorbed by their surface to pass rapidly into the surrounding 
 air, which soon dissipates it in space, and becomes increasingly
 
 ELEMENTS OE C/JMA7E.. 
 
 37 
 
 colder as the mountain mass narrows upward. For this reason, 
 the moisture of the air falls upon the mountain summit as snow, 
 which never melts above a certain limit (the snow line), because 
 the conditions of temperature never change. These snow fields 
 
 Fig. 2. — Diagram of vegetation zones of latitude and altitude. W, E, equator 
 (also sea level), i, Zone of Palms (tropical) ; 2, Zone of Hardwood Trees, ever- 
 green and deciduous (sub-tropical) ; 3, Zone of Deciduous Trees and Pines (tem- 
 perate) ; 4, Alpine Zone (arctic and antarctic). 
 
 feed a multitude of torrents that spring from the mountain sides, 
 and go roaring and foaming down to make the great tropical 
 rivers of Asia, Africa, and South America. ' 
 
 Slope Exposure. — The effects of increased temperature con- 
 ditions on the southern slopes of hills and mountain ranges in the 
 northern hemisphere is conspicuous on the development and dis- 
 tribution of vegetation. This is often marked by an early appear- 
 ance of certain species of plants in the spring, and by the higher
 
 38 
 
 CUM A TE. 
 
 elevation reached by certain trees on the southern exposures. 
 Thus on the San Francisco Mountain, Arizona, a peak nearly 
 13,000 feet high, a series of timber zones succeed one another, 
 extending much higher on the southwestern than on the north- 
 eastern slope. Rising from the desert of the Little Colorado, 
 there is first the piiion or nut-pine belt followed by the pine, fir, 
 
 Cv\^\ 
 
 s. w. 
 
 Tt. 
 
 If.B. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Diagram of a mountain, illustrating Slope Exposure (after Merriam). 
 I, Desert; 2, Piiion Zone; 3, Pine Zone; 4, Fir Zone; 5, Spruce Zone; 6, Timber- 
 line Zone; 7, Alpine Zone. R, relative position of sun's rays. 
 
 spruce, and timber-line belts, and culminating in an alpine zone 
 at the summit.^ 
 
 In the southern hemisphere, from the different relative position 
 of the sun, the northern slopes are exposed to greater warmth. 
 
 Distance from the Sea. — In the temperate zone the climate 
 of lands bordering on the sea is less severe and more uniform in 
 character than in the interior of the continents. This results from 
 the f:ict that a great body of water like the ocean retains the sun's 
 
 1 On " Slope Exposure " Dr. C. Hart Merriam, in Bulletin No. 3, United States 
 Department of Agriculture (North American Fauna).
 
 ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE. 39 
 
 heat much longer than does the land. The surrounding air slowly 
 receives this heat and is more continuously warm than the air 
 over inland regions, so that in winter the climate of a seacoast is 
 comparatively mild. In summer, for the same reason, the air 
 over the ocean is not heated so fest as over the land, remaining 
 cooler for a longer period, so that the climatic contrast between 
 summer and winter is not nearly so marked in lands bordering 
 on the sea as in those farther inland. 
 
 The interior regions of North America, Europe, and Asia suffer 
 extreme changes of climate, the mean summer and winter differ- 
 ences of temperature amounting often to ninety degrees or more. 
 
 Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents. — The direction of 
 winds blowing over regions is an important element in determin- 
 ing climate. A wind blowing off the sea usually brings with it 
 large quantities of vapor, which falls upon the land as rain, and 
 also modifies the temperature. Winds blowing over the land are 
 mostly dry, having been deprived of their moisture in crossing 
 highlands and mountain ranges. This is the case with the west- 
 erly winds of the Atlantic seaboard states, blowing, as they do, 
 over an immense area of land and high mountain ranges. 
 
 Ocean currents are even more powerful influencers of climate. 
 The Japan current reaches far into the North Pacific, tempering 
 the climate of the coast of Alaska and British America. Back 
 of the mountain ranges of Alaska, a rigorous northern climate 
 prevails, while its seaward slopes are evergreen, and its harbors 
 always open. 
 
 The Gulf Stream of the Atlandc produces similar effects. 
 Sweeping along the shores of the United States, it spreads north- 
 eastwardly, warming the air over the British Isles, and far up the 
 coast of Norway, quite to the arctic circle. On the western side 
 of the Adantic, the icy arctic current flowing out of Baffin's Bay 
 and the Polar Sea makes Labrador, in the same latitude with 
 Ireland, a land of desolation. Two types of cHmate are found, 
 therefore, according to the situation of a place in reference to the 
 above relations of land and sea, — Oceanic and Continental.
 
 40 CLIMATE. 
 
 From these general considerations of climate we may proceed 
 to examine into the nature of the elements themselves, and, by 
 so doing, gain a clearer view of the question of climate in its 
 relations to man. 
 
 LESSON II. — CLIMATIC ZONES. 
 
 Cause of Climatic Zones. — The unequal distribution of heat 
 and light upon the surface of the earth, as a result of the earth's 
 form, motion, and the inclination of its axis, determines the 
 so-called astronomical zones. The tropical, or torrid zone, 232° 
 north and south from the equator, is the region over some part of 
 which the sun is always shining vertically. The temperate zones 
 lie north and south of this central torrid girdle, while 23!^° from 
 either pole mark the arctic and antarctic circles, enclosing the 
 north and south frigid zones. 
 
 Isothermal Lines. — The astronomical zones, though of theo- 
 retical value to the geographer, are of little practical use to 
 mankind in general, when compared with the isothermal zones. 
 The isotherm is a line drawn through all places having the same 
 mean annual temperature, north or south of the equator. The 
 irregularity of the isothermal line results from the configuration 
 of the land, its altitude, relations to the sea and to ocean currents, 
 to prevailing winds, moisture, rainfall, etc., in fact, to all the 
 conditions that go to make up climate. Follow, for example, 
 the isotherm of 50° F., north, around the earth. Starting in the 
 Pacific Ocean, west of North America, it touches the shores of 
 the continent at Puget Sound, about 50° north latitude, but soon 
 deflects sharply to the south, bending around the high ranges 
 of the Rocky Mountains, and thence across the United States, 
 passing out on the Atlantic Ocean in the neighborhood of New 
 York. Here it meets with the Gulf Stream, and bends north- 
 ward to the British Isles, slowly dropping southward through the 
 continent of Eurasia, cutting the northern shores of the Black, 
 Caspian, and Aral seas. Bending still further south, on the
 
 CLIMATIC ZONES. 41 
 
 Mongolian Plateau, it passes through Korea and into the Pacific, 
 between the northern and southern islands of Japan. It is not 
 to be imagined that these places, traversed by the isotherm, have 
 identically the same character of climate. Their extremes may be 
 widely different, and yet the mean annual temperature be the same. 
 The Isothermal Zones and their Oscillation. — Temperature 
 zones bounded by isotherms, though approximating to the astro- 
 nomical zones, have a far greater influence upon the destiny of 
 races. The tropical zone lies between the isotherms of 70° F., 
 north, and 70° F., south latitude. The isotherm of 70° north fol- 
 lows an irregular line parallel to and somewhat north of the tropic 
 of Cancer. It bends sharply north around the head of the (iulf 
 of California ; skirts the Gulf Coast of the United States ; bends 
 northward with the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ; passes through 
 the Canary Islands ; crosses Africa along the northern edge of the 
 Sahara ; continues through Persia, and sweeping southward along 
 the Himalayas touches the tropic of Cancer at the island of 
 Formosa. The isotherm of 70° south crosses the tropic of Capricorn 
 under the influences of the cold Humboldt current off the western 
 coast of South America ; slopes southward across that continent 
 into the Atlantic, where it cuts the tropic twice by a northward 
 curve ; crosses Africa north of the Cape Colony, and bending 
 northward again touches Capricorn in Central Australia. The 
 thermal equator, in the Pacific, lies south of the true or astronom- 
 ical equator, but sweeps northward along the northern shore of 
 South America ; dips southward in the Atlantic, touching the 
 equator, and bending north enters Africa near the mouth of 
 the Niger, and passes into the Indian Ocean at Cape Guardafui. 
 Sweeping south, it cuts the southern end of Hindustan and crosses 
 the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. On either side of the tropical 
 zone are the temperate zones, bounded north and south by the 
 isotherms of 30° F. The northern isotherm of 30° F. bends 
 northward in the Atlantic considerably beyond the arctic circle, 
 owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, but is otherwise far to 
 the south in the great continental areas.
 
 42 CUM A TE. 
 
 By far the most interesting and important factor in these isother- 
 mal lines and zones is their annual oscillation with the sun. Thus 
 in July, when the sun has moved over Cancer, the isotherm of 70° 
 north moves northward into British America, the North Atlantic, 
 Central Europe, and Siberia, pushing the conditions of the temper- 
 ate zone into the polar realm, and causing the brief arctic summer 
 with its burst of alpine blossoms, its swarms of insect life, and 
 flights of breeding birds. Tropical conditions are, at the same 
 time, carried north into the temperate lands. The warm sunshine 
 of spring quickens the life in seed and bud, calls " the squirrel 
 and the bee from out their winter home," and urges the migrating 
 bird to seek its nesting place in the northern wildwood. The heat 
 of summer whitens the harvest fields and ripens the kindly fruits 
 of autumn. With the waning sunlight of November the leaves 
 loosen and fall from the trees, the birds move south, and the Frost 
 Giant steals noiselessly into the woods and fields of the temperate 
 zone. 
 
 As the isotherms thus oscillate north and south with the sun, 
 we see the cause of the increase and decrease of temperature over 
 the earth, bringing with it the varying seasonal changes. Though 
 the greater or less obliquity of the sun's rays is the essential fac- 
 tor, the irregular curves of the isothermal lines show how vastly 
 important are the physical features of land and sea in deter- 
 mining climate.^ 
 
 1 An isothermal line is to be regarded, not as ■&. fixed line of mean annual tem- 
 perature, but as one that moves north and south in relation to the increase and 
 decrease of heat over the earth's surface from the greater or less slant of the sun's 
 rays. Thus the coast of Alaska, the Central United States, and Lower Lake Region, 
 Newfoundland, the Scandinavian Peninsula, Central Russia, Mongolia, Korea, and 
 Northern Japan have the mean January temperature of 20-' F., while in July the 
 temperature of these places does not correspond in any way. For instance, in 
 July, the coast of Alaska has the same mean temperature as Northern Siberia, and 
 the July isotherm of the Central United States passes through Northern Africa. 
 The annual isotherm is a line drawn to represent the average sum of the mean 
 monthly temperatures taken from observations covering a period of several years.
 
 WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAEXEALL. 
 
 43 
 
 LESSON III. — WINDS, 
 
 OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAIN- 
 FALL. 
 
 Primary Cause of Winds. — The atmosphere is in a state of 
 unstable equiHbrium, heat and moisture being unequally' distrib- 
 uted. It is losing or gaining heat in different regions, since the 
 surface of the earth is heated unequally by the rays of the sun. 
 A portion of land or sea heated above the temperature of the 
 surrounding territory warms, by radiation, the overlying air, caus- 
 ing it to expand. This warm, expanded air has a greater capacity 
 for holding vapor than when cooler and more dense. In conse- 
 quence, it eagerly takes up vapor by the process of evaporation 
 from the surface of the ocean or from the waters of the land. It 
 thus becomes lighter than the surrounding cooler air, since water 
 vapor is lighter than air itself, and takes the place of a certain 
 proportion of air in any given volume. 
 
 In the process of expansion, this warm, vapor-laden air pushes 
 the cooler air immediately above it against the whole mass of the 
 
 E' 
 
 TS 
 
 ^ ^;^55j5j:j5 
 
 55^^^5^^5v^^^??S^^^^^^^^^^5S^p5^5^;;^ 
 
 Fig. 4. — Diagram of Winds. A, B, surface of tlie earth ; C, heated portion of 
 air, expanding upward along line a, b ; D, /?i, level of cooler air, compressed by 
 being squeezed between a, b, and E, E^, the upper atmosphere ; C, Ci, C^, calm 
 areas. Arrows indicate direction of winds. 
 
 overlying atmosphere, causing an increase of pressure in the air 
 thus squeezed which becomes denser and heavier in consequence. 
 If we can imagine this expanded volume of air pushing up in the 
 shape of a mound, then we can see how the dense and heavy air
 
 44 CLIMA TE. 
 
 above will slide down the slopes of the mound on all sides toward 
 surrounding areas of less pressure, simply because it is heavier air 
 and is under the influence of gravity. This movement of the air 
 is a wind blowing some distance above the surface of the earth. 
 Immediately over the surface, however, where the heated and 
 expanded air is much lighter than the cooler and denser surface 
 air surrounding it, a movement of air takes place on all sides from 
 these surrounding denser areas toward the central heated portion. 
 This movement is felt as a sensible 7i'ind or breeze blowing over 
 the surface of the land or sea. Its direction is opposite to that 
 of the upper currents of air. There is no appreciable movement 
 in the warm, expanded area, as the wind, rushing in on all sides, 
 rises as an up-draught just as in the case of a fireplace and its 
 chimney. It is therefore an area of calm. In the surrounding 
 areas of high pressure there is, likewise, no horizontal movement, 
 as the upper, heavier air is always sinking down and taking the 
 place of the surface wind that flows out toward the center. 
 
 As the barometer indicates the pressure of the atmosphere 
 under its various conditions, we know that the warm, moist, and 
 expanding air is an a?'ea of low pressure- or low barometer, while 
 the surrounding heavier, drier, and cooler air constitutes an area 
 of high pressure or high baro/ncfer. A law governing the move- 
 ment of the atmosphere can thus be formulated : Wi?ids always 
 blow from high-pressure areas into lozv-pressure areas. 
 
 Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the Direction of "Winds. — In 
 the northern hemisphere a wind, blowing from latitudes near the 
 equator toward the polar regions, is successively deflected from its 
 original due north direction by the inertia of the earth's rotation, 
 carrying the wind, as it blows, more and more to the east. This 
 imparts a whirling motion to the wind as it sweeps around to 
 enter the polar area. A wind blowing due south on a meridian 
 in high latitudes appears to turn westward as it approaches the 
 equator by being carried eastward on the same meridian. So a 
 wind blowing due west or due east on a given parallel appears to 
 turn toward the north or south, respectively, under the influence
 
 WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINFALL. 
 
 45 
 
 of rotation. (See Diagram.) Winds in the northern hemisphere 
 are thus deflected from their true course by being carried continu- 
 ally eastward on the meridian at which they started. Thus, from 
 the polar area, as a point of observation, winds are turned or 
 deflected toward the right. An originally south wind thus becomes 
 southwest; a north wind, northeast; a west wind, northwest; and 
 
 ^^.__ 
 
 SOUTH 
 
 ^^••ection Of Tioia\'^on 
 
 Fig. 5. — Diagram of a section of Northern Hemisphere, ilhistrating the effect 
 of the earth's rotation in deflecting winds. (Observer at north pole.) P^ wind 
 from the south blowing due north on meridian 3, is carried successively eastward 
 by the earth's rotation, and is apparently deflected or turned to the right, as it 
 advances, appearing as a southwest wind on reaching the position of meridian 4 
 (above parallel C). So a wind blowing due south on meridian 2 is carried east- 
 ward and apparently turned toward the right, thus becoming a northeast wind. A 
 west wind on parallel B, at meridian i, is apparently turned to the right, as the 
 meridian advances eastward along the parallel, owing to the curvature of the earth, 
 and becomes a northwest wind on reaching the position of meridian 2. In like 
 manner an east wind on parallel B, between meridians 3 and 4, is apparently turned 
 to the right, and becomes a southeast wind. 
 
 an east wind, southeast, in the direction from which each blows. 
 In their effort to reach the low-pressure area, they struggle, as it 
 were, against this deflective movement, and keep curving around 
 in an opposite direction, or toward the left. This produces a
 
 46 CLIMA TR. 
 
 whirl about the center of low pressure. Any loAv-pressure area 
 in the northern hemisphere will thus have the winds describing 
 arcs about it from right to left, or against the hand movement of 
 a watch. The reverse of this is true in the southern hemisphere, 
 taking the south pole as the center of observation. Thus, the 
 winds will be deflected to the left, and will describe arcs from 
 left to right, or with the hands of a watch, as they advance into 
 the area of low pressure. As a result of this law, first pointed 
 out by Professor Buys Ballot of Utrecht, if an observer in the 
 northern hemisphere stands with his back to the wind, the center 
 of low pressure will always be to his left, while in the southern 
 hemisphere it will be to his right. 
 
 Constant and Periodic Winds. — The same movement of air 
 that takes place in any local area occurs on a grand scale between 
 the heated equatorial region as an area of low pressure and regions 
 of high pressure on either side. A constant movement of cold 
 and heavy air blows as surface winds from about latitude 30° north 
 and south toward the equatorial belt of low pressure. These are 
 known as the trade winds} Being deflected from their due north 
 and south course by the rotation of the earth, they appear as 
 northeast and southeast winds. The warm, vapor-laden air of the 
 equatorial region, rising as an upward-flowing current, constitutes 
 a belt of calms? In the higher, denser levels, this air becomes 
 cooled, and flows out on each side toward the northeast and 
 southeast as upper, countercurrents of wind, known as the counter- 
 trades. In the tropical belts of high pressure on either side 
 (about 30° north and south) these cooled " counter-trades " 
 
 1 It was the steady blowing of these winds that so alarmed the shipmates of 
 Columbus on his first voyage, they believing that the wind would carry them 
 farther and farther away from the shores of Spain, and never allow them to return. 
 
 2 The region of the equatorial calms is known to seamen as the doldrums, 
 characterized by cloudy skies, and light, baffling winds. The calms of Cancer, 
 in the North Atlantic, in the neighborhood of the Sargasso Sea, are known as the 
 horse-latitudes, from the fact that vessels carrying deck-loads of horses between 
 New England and the West Indies were sometimes becalmed in this region, and 
 forced to throw some of the horses overboard, as the water supply gave out. (See 
 Maury, " The Physical Geography of the Sea " (8th cd,) , p. 276.)
 
 WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AXP RAINFALL. 47 
 
 descend to the surface, and take the place of the outflowing 
 "trades" moving toward the equator. Cahn belts are thus formed 
 near the northern and southern limits of the tropics. From these 
 high-pressure calm belts the air likewise flows out in the opposite 
 direction as a surflice wind blowing toward the low-pressure polar 
 area in each hemisphere. The low pressure of the air in the 
 polar regions results from the depressing effects of the whirling 
 motion of the winds, for winds approaching the poles move in 
 ever-narrowing circles, from being turned aside by the rotation of 
 the earth. A countercurrent blows as an upper wind from each 
 pole toward the tropical belts of high pressure. 
 
 In the northern hemisphere, from the preponderance of the 
 land masses, these winds become much more variable in character, 
 and further disturbances are induced by the unequal heating 
 of land and water. This gives rise to storms, sudden changes of 
 weather, and to periodic winds blowing on or off shore. Of these 
 periodic winds are the sea and land breezes of coasts, as a result 
 of the difference in the day and night temperature of the air over 
 the land and the water. On a larger scale are the monsoons of the 
 Indian Ocean and coasts of South America, which blow steadily 
 for half the year in one direction, and then blow in an opposite 
 direction for the other half. The monsoons are caused by the 
 change of the sun's position in the heavens, bringing vertical rays 
 over part of the great land mass, thus raising the temperature 
 of the air, and causing a strong wind to set in from the ocean. 
 Between April an;l October, when the sun is almost directly over 
 Southern Asia, that region becomes an area of low pressure, and 
 the moisture-laden monsoon blows steadily and with great force 
 from the southwest. 
 
 Storms. — The rush of the winds around the center of low 
 pressure produces a whirling column of air, somewhat funnel- 
 shaped, its center of lowest pressure being surrounded by belts of 
 increasingly higher pressure toward the circumference from the 
 development of centrifugal force incident to the whirl. These 
 belts of pressure are termed isobars, and the difference between
 
 48 
 
 CLIMA TE. 
 
 them is iht gradient, or slope, from higher to lower pressure levels. 
 On reaching the center the wind rises as an up-going current, 
 which flows out above on all sides. These circling storms of wind 
 are called cyclones, and are usually accompanied by clouds and 
 
 Fig. 6. — Diagram of Cyclonic Movement in Northern Hemisphere, c, area of 
 low pressure, or storm center. The large arrow, pointing northeast, indicates the 
 track of the cyclone under the impulse of the strongest winds. The small arrows 
 fly with the in-blowing winds from right to left, or against the hands of a watch. 
 
 rain. The storm center is an area of calm, of low barometer, and 
 small precipitation, surrounded by an area of heavy cloud sheets 
 and copious rainfall. The nimbus, or rain cloud, extends about
 
 WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINFALL. 49 
 
 it on all sides, fringed by the lofty streamers of cirrus clouds, 
 "mare's tails" and "mackerel sky," the threatening sky of. 
 approaching foul weather. The storm center has a forward move- 
 ment under the influence of the strongest wind, and travels with 
 varying velocity. The cyclonic storms of the northern hemisphere 
 are frequently generated in the ocean area of the tropical zone, 
 and move at first northwestward within the tropics, but on reach- 
 ing the temperate zone turn to the northeast, thus describing 
 a parabolic curve. The typhoons and hurricanes of the East and 
 West Indies belong to this class of storms. A cyclonic storm may 
 embrace an area of several hundred to a thousand or more miles 
 in diameter. As it advances, it grows in dimensions from the in- 
 crease of low pressure produced by the centrifugal force of the whirl- 
 ing winds. The storm dies away as the result of friction ; more air 
 entering the center than can escape at the top causes the whirl to 
 finally lesseji in velocity, and a higher pressure is thus established. 
 
 The high-pressure areas on all sides of a cyclone have the air 
 flowing out from them as a whirl of winds in the opposite direction ; 
 i.e. from left to right. These outward-whirling areas are known 
 as a7iti-cyclones. Their winds, at first cold, grow increasingly 
 warmer as they approach the low-pressure area, and are conse- 
 quently dry, and accompanied by clear or fair weather. 
 
 It has been observed that the most constant areas of low pressure 
 in the northern hemisphere are distributed as follows : To the 
 west-southwest of the Great Lakes in the United States ; the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence ; the Mid-Atlantic area ; an area southwest of 
 Greenland ; one southwest of Iceland, which is the most important 
 of all ; and one over a portion of Northwestern Europe. In these 
 areas nearly all of the great northern storms are bred, and the 
 direction of their path is governed by the surrounding conditions 
 of pressure. For instance, the high winter pressure over North- 
 western America drives a storm, developing in the Rocky Mountain 
 region, eastward across the United States to the Atlantic seaboard. 
 Easterly winds, bringing increased cloudiness and rain from the 
 ocean, blow at first toward the advancing center of depression, which 
 
 E
 
 50 CUM A TE. 
 
 has no sooner passed over a given locality than the wind veers to 
 the west, and clearing weather with a " cold wave " from the area of 
 high-pressure marks the westerly half of the cyclone. The pecul- 
 iar characteristics of the winter and summer climates in Europe 
 and the United States are largely the result of the tracks taken by 
 cyclones under the surrounding conditions of atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The term tvcaihcr relates to the local conditions of temperature 
 and moisture at any given time and place. We speak of hot or 
 cold, wet or dry, fair or foul weather in any locality at any time. 
 It is the condition of the atmosphere of a place from day to day. 
 Places in the path of an advancing storm have increased temper- 
 ature and humidity as characteristics of weather resulting from the 
 southerly and easterly winds blowing from warmer into colder areas, 
 which causes increased condensation of their moisture, and the 
 consequent liberation of a large amount of latent heat. The 
 westerly half or " wake " of the storm is characterized by clear and 
 cold, or cool weather, with dryness or decrease of liuniidity, because 
 the north and northwest winds blowing from colder into warmer 
 areas evaporate, or take up moisture, in increasing quantity. 
 
 Thunderstorms, tornadoes and waterspouts are the result of 
 local disturbances of the atmosphere. Tornadoes are supposed to 
 be due to the formation of a narrow and violent whirl of air gen- 
 erated within the larger whirl of a gentle cyclonic movement. 
 Somewhere in this area the air, becoming highly heated, forms a 
 focus of low pressure, which causes the gentle whirling winds 
 about it to rush in with terrific and destructive force. The im- 
 mense amount of vapor formed is condensed into a heavy, black 
 cloud, which is twisted by the wind into its characteristic funnel- 
 shaped form. The waterspout is a similar phenomenon, occurring 
 at sea. In the same way the air over sandy deserts and dusty 
 roads becomes superheated in places, and rises, while the sur- 
 rounding air rushes in sweeping the sand and dust along in a 
 whirling column. These dust whirls sometimes attain enormous 
 proportions, as in the simooms of the Sahara and Arabian deserts. 
 
 Ocean Currents. — From the unecjual distribution of heat in
 
 WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINFALL. 51 
 
 different parts of the earth, a difference in the specific gravity of 
 the water of the ocean takes place, as a result of which it is thrown 
 into a series of currents in an effort to establish the proper equi- 
 librium. At the e(iuat()r, the heated water of the ocean rises to 
 the surface and flows away north and south, being displaced by 
 colder, deeper, and heavier currents of water flowing in from each 
 side. The position of the land masses in relation to the oceans, 
 and the force and direction of the prevailing winds, modifies the 
 direction of these currents and gives to each great body of water 
 its characteristic circulation. 
 
 A striking feature in oceanic circulation is the northern and 
 southern whirls. In the Atlantic the equatorial current flowing 
 west divides off Cape St. Roque, sending the so-called Gulf Stream 
 northeastward along the American coast, while the Brazil current 
 flows south along the eastern coast of South America. Part of the 
 Gulf Stream flows into the Arctic Ocean, while the other portion 
 flows south along the shores of Europe and Africa to join its par- 
 ent equatorial current. This constitutes a ivJiirl in the North 
 Atlantic, the center of which is comparatively quiet and character- 
 ized by a vast area of seaweed, which has settled there from drift- 
 ing, as a natural result. This is the so-called Sargasso Sea.^ In 
 the South Atlantic there is likewise a whirl with its central Sar- 
 gasso Sea, and so in the North and South Pacific and in the Indian 
 Ocean the same essential features prevail. 
 
 Rainfall. — The primary cause of a fall of rain is the lowering 
 of the temperature of the air below the dew point. This is 
 effecte<l chiefly through the influence of winds. A wind blowing 
 over any considerable extent of ocean gathers up a large quantity 
 of moisture, and whether this falls as rain or not depends largely 
 on the condition of the air of the region into which it flows. If 
 it move into a warmer and drier region, it will take up more mois- 
 ture rather than precipitate it. When a moisture-laden wind 
 blows into a cold region, a f;ill of rain is the result, because the 
 
 1 It was the floating seaweed of this Sargasso Sea that led Columbus to believe 
 that land was not far distant.
 
 52 CUM A TE. 
 
 temperatme of the air falls beluw the point of saturation. A bank 
 of air hangs over the land which is stiller than that over the sea, 
 because its velocity has been diminished by contact with the land 
 surface. A wind off the sea blgwing against this bank of air is 
 forced to rise, in doing which it expands, thereby losing heat, and 
 precipitating its moisture in showers of rain. For the same reason 
 a moisture-laden wind blowing over a range of mountains pre- 
 cipitates its moisture not only by being cooled, but, more copi- 
 ously still, by expanding in rising to higher levels. This same 
 wind after passing the crest of the range will blow down its lee- 
 ward slopes as a dry wind ; dry, not only by loss of vapor, but 
 because it enters lower, warmer levels of air under increasing 
 pressure. 
 
 A volume of air in rising to higher levels expands because 
 it enters regions of less atmospheric pressure. This expansion is 
 marked by a distinct loss of sensible heat which is said to become 
 latent. The reason for this is, that in expanding a certain amount 
 of work is done in pushing aside the surrounding heavier atmos- 
 phere, and the heat originally present is transformed into expansive 
 energy, and so is apparently lost for the time. But the lowering 
 of temperature by this change of energy finally chills the mass of 
 air to its point of saturation, and brings about condensation and 
 the formation of cloud, which is accompanied by a distinct gain of 
 sensible heat. For the same reason a volume of air descending 
 into regions of greater pressure becomes sensibly warmer from the 
 transmutation of its energy into heat.^ 
 
 The formation of cloud, fog, and rain is due in great part to the 
 presence of minute di/sf riiofes," an inconceivable number of which 
 are always floating in the air. Each vapor particle, in forming, 
 collects about a dust mote as a nucleus. If. these dust motes be 
 crowded and in excess of the amount of vapor, the entire body 
 of vapor is divided up into very small particles about each mote, 
 
 1 This liberation of heat in the process of condensation is manifested in the famil- 
 iar fact that the air always grows distinctly warmer just before a fall of rain or snow. 
 
 2 Mr. J. Aitken. See " Dust " by J. G. McPherson, Popular Scie77ce Monthly, 
 Vol. xl. 251.
 
 IV/XDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINEAIJ.. 53 
 
 and, being comparatively light, the whole mass hangs together as 
 fog or clflitd. When, however, the dust motes are fewer and more 
 scattered, a larger amount of vapor collects about each mote, and 
 the particles thus becoming heavier will fall to the earth as df-ops 
 of rain. Under the same condition, but if the temperature of the 
 cloud and the air beneath it be below the freezing point, the watery 
 globules become frozen into ice crystals, and drift down to the 
 earth as siunvflakcs. Were it not for this floating dust, the moist- 
 ure of the air would be precipitated only in the form of dew, and 
 objects on the surface would be in a continual state of dampness. 
 
 Distribution of Rainfall. — From what we have observed it fol- 
 lows that rain is very unequally distributed over the earth's surface. 
 The distribution of the land, the position of mountain ranges and 
 deserts, the prevalence of certain winds, — each exerts an impor- 
 tant influence on the distribution of rain. The equatorial calm 
 belt is a belt of constant rains owing to the enormous evaporation 
 and subsequent precipitation of vapor taking place under the 
 direct rays of the sun. Hence the cloud ring, or belt, which fol- 
 lows the oscillations of the isotherms, and brings the periodical 
 rains of the tropics. North of the tropics is the region of variable 
 rains as it is of variable winds, and the same is true of southern 
 latitudes. The great number of storms and characteristic " changes 
 of weather" in the North Temperate Zone are largely due to the 
 chilling of the moisture-laden anti-trades in their journey toward 
 the polar area. 
 
 The heaviest rainfall in the world is in the region of .the Bay of 
 Bengal, when the southwest monsoon, loaded with warm vapors 
 from the Indian Ocean, strikes the Khasia hills. An annual fall 
 of 600 inches, or about 50 feet, is not uncommon. The great 
 tropical forest regions of Africa and South America are largely the 
 result of the heavy rainfall produced by winds from the Atlantic, 
 precipitating their moisture under the influence of the high moun- 
 tain slopes of East Africa and the Andes. 
 
 The great desert belts of the world are rainless regions, and 
 result from the dry winds which blow over them, deprived of
 
 54 CLIMA TE. 
 
 moisture by the surrounding highlands. The northeasterly stretch 
 of desert across Africa and Asia from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
 the desert plains of the Great Basin in North America east of 
 the Sierra Nevada, the Argentine, and Peru and Chile among 
 the Andes, are examples of rainless regions. 
 
 LESSON IV. — INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON MAN. 
 
 General Considerations. — In the following chapters of this 
 book, especially in the chapter on " ]\Lan," we shall see the form- 
 ative influence which climate has exerted and still exerts in the 
 destiny of races. We cannot fail to note in the broad features of 
 human distribution and development how the extremes of tropical 
 and polar conditions incident to climate have had a retarding 
 effect, stunting the intellectual and physical vigor of the inhabi- 
 tants of these regions, holding man down to the primitive state 
 of savagery. Contrast the life of the indolent native of tropical 
 forests, steeped in a hot, humid atmosphere and surrounded by 
 an abundance of food, with the Eskimo, wrapped in furs, with 
 intellect blunted by Arctic cold and darkness and long weeks of 
 gnawing hunger. And yet each is the result of climate. Even in 
 the Temperate Realm, climate has had a varied influence in the 
 development of nations. Though the great civilizations of the 
 Mediterranean arose under one of the most favorable climates in 
 the world, the man of the north, cradled in the land of wind and 
 frost, — the Teuton, — built up the most enduring civilization, 
 because the climate compelled him to exertion and sharpened 
 his intelligence. Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India, China, and Japan 
 all became great civilizations largely through the influence of 
 climate, as we shall see in a future chapter. The superiority of 
 the white man throughout history is undoubtedly due, in a great 
 measure, to the climatic conditions of his home in the Temperate 
 Realm. To-day, by virtue of this vigor and intelligence bred 
 under the influences of climate, he is enabled to spread over the
 
 INFLUENCE OF CUALITE ON MAN. 55 
 
 earth, accustoming himself ahke to the deadly atmosphere of the 
 tropics and the rigors of an Arctic winter. 
 
 Physiological Effect of Climate and Food. — Color is a normal 
 product of the animal organism, its probable source being the 
 coloring matter of the blood. A surplus of this may be thrown 
 off as so much waste material in the intricate processes of nutri- 
 tion which take place throughout the various tissues of the living 
 body. A large portion of this surplus pigment finds lodgment in 
 the layers of the skin, imparting to it a characteristic color. The 
 liver is undoubtedly largely concerned in the elaboration of this 
 coloring matter from the blood, and we are not surprised to find 
 important modifications of color as a result of special climatic 
 conditions. 
 
 Two broad classes of mankind may be recognized as to their 
 shade of coloring, — the li^^ht and the dark. These vary from the 
 deep chocolate brown or black of the natives of Western Africa 
 to the fair-haired, white-skinned peoples of Northern Europe. 
 Between these extremes are all shades of color, the medium 
 shade being seen best in the yellow, olive, or copper color of the 
 inhabitants of Central Asia and North America. 
 
 This brings us to the question of the geographical distribution 
 of human color, and an approach to its solution, if such a thing 
 be possible in the present state of knowledge. Under a hot, 
 moist climate, the liver is more normally congested, if we can 
 use such an expression, from the dilation of the blood vessels 
 and general relaxation induced, through the nervous system, by 
 the action of the external conditions of heat and moisture. This 
 increased blood supply to the organ means an increased amount 
 of coloring matter, and the question of its ultimate disposal.^ 
 This possible cause of the dark coloring of the skin is borne out 
 by the fact that not only is man darkly colored in the hot, humid 
 forests of tropical Western Africa and South America, but animal 
 
 1 In confirmation of this statement is the fact that abscess of the liver is an 
 extremely rare disease outside of the tropics. The discoloration of the skin, or 
 jaundice, from an excess of bile pigment in the blood, also bears out this idea.
 
 56 CUM A TE. 
 
 life in general presents a wonderful development of color. Cold, 
 dry air has a tendency to contract the blood vessels, and thus 
 diminish the production of color. Exposure to sunlight has also 
 its pecuUar effect upon the skin, producing what we know as 
 ' sunburn,' or ' tan.' 
 
 Taking a broad survey of the distribution of color, we see that 
 the darkest peoples are those inhabiting tropical forest regions 
 where heat and moisture are most pronounced. The white race 
 is disposed in two strongly contrasted groups, — the light and the 
 dark whites. The former are of northern distribution, as the 
 old Saxons, the inhabitants of the Scandinavian Peninsula, etc. 
 The dark whites are essentially southern, natives of the great 
 Mediterranean region, where moisture and temperature are more 
 equally distributed, cloudy skies alternating with bright sunlight 
 and a semi-tropical warmth tempered down by cool mountain 
 winds and sea breezes.^ The inland or continental climate, domi- 
 nating the great land masses of Central Asia and North America, 
 has a peculiar drying effect upon the skin with a medium pro- 
 duction of color through the action of the liver. The inhabitants 
 of these great areas are uniformally of an olive or coppery hue. 
 A radical change of color is not effected, as we very well know, 
 by a change of residence, even through many generations. The 
 African negro in the United States illustrates this fact. Man's color 
 to-day is the result of climatic and other effects extending over 
 vast ages. This, like all other animal characteristics, only became 
 a fixed trait through the lapse of time. The color and character 
 of the eyes and hair, and the modifications of the bones of the 
 skull, have likewise resulted from operations which began thousands 
 of generations back, even in the dawn of the prehistoric. The 
 varying shades of color throughout the peoples of the white race 
 to-day have resulted from ages of widespread intermarriage. 
 
 With such a physical basis to operate on, sexual selection very 
 
 1 The blackest peoples in the world are found among the Hindus, members of 
 the white race who for ages have been subjected to the influence of tropical condi- 
 tions of a most intense character.
 
 INFLUENCE OF CUM ATE ON MAN. 57 
 
 probably stepped in at a remote period, and became a potent 
 cause in fixing color in the various racial types. In the same way 
 the other race characteristics must have become fixed, partly 
 through the intervention of sexual selection, but also largely from 
 the physical nature of the environment acting directly upon the 
 organism. 
 
 The effect of climatic and geographical conditions upon, tem- 
 perament and mental characteristics has undoubtedly played no 
 small part in the development of races and peoples. This fact 
 must underlie the literature and religion of a nation to a greater 
 or less extent, imparting to each a certain tone and cast of 
 expression. The Hindu, impressed by the mighty forms and 
 forces of surrounding nature, — the awful gloom of the Himalayas, 
 the vast solitudes of tropical forests, the unmastered floods of the 
 great rivers, death everywhere and in every shape, — developed 
 a profound philosophy, a nature worship tinged with the melan- 
 choly of future oblivion. Out of the harsh, inhuman desert, 
 where nature seemed to starve man, came the Mohammedan 
 idea of eternal bliss, an unending dream of sensuous delight 
 attained by the faithful after the privations of a desert life. The 
 varied relations of man with man have in like manner wrought 
 their effects on human thought. Thus, the Hebrew conception 
 of a God of justice, meting out good and evil, may have arisen 
 from years of oppression and bondage at a remote period. The 
 North American Indian, starving with cold and hunger, or reveling 
 in abundance, is gathered to his ' Great Spirit,' the munificent 
 bestower of maize, and meat, and the warm sunshine. So, man 
 in all times and places has worshiped that which made the 
 strongest impression on his physical and mental life. 
 
 Food has operated along the same lines as climate. Vegetable 
 food stuffs, as starch-filled roots and fruits of various kinds, form 
 the natural diet of the tropics, requiring less concentrated work 
 by the liver, and producing less bodily heat than a diet of animal 
 matter. The British in India, and the white man anywhere in 
 the tropics, knows by sad experience the dangerous effects of a
 
 58 CLIMA TE. 
 
 long-continued meat diet. On the other hand, the Eskimo hunter 
 and the native of Northern Siberia gorges himself to the full with 
 fish oil and walrus blubber, to make his body glow like a furnace 
 with the burning up of the fat. Starchy or vegetable food and 
 fatty or animal food stand at the two extremes of climate. 
 
 In hot climates the bodily activities are lessened because less 
 internal heat is required to maintain the blood at its normal 
 standard. Tissue changes, including the processes of nutrition 
 and oxygenation, go on at a much slower pace than in cold 
 climates, where a great demand is made upon the heat-producing 
 powers of the body. Heated air draws the blood to the surface, 
 and the increased amount of blood in the skin stimulates the 
 sweat glands to greater activity. The rapid evaporation of the 
 sweat cools the surface and consequently the blood flowing im- 
 mediately beneath its outer layers. With the slower activities 
 of the body there is a diminished excretion or riddance of waste 
 matter from the tissues, which tends to clog the system and thus 
 produces that lassitude and torpor which is so characteristic of 
 a tropical life. The reverse of this is true in cold cUmates, where 
 increased bodily activity means increased waste and its rapid 
 removal through the lungs and kidneys. Cold air drives the 
 blood from the surface and the skin is therefore less active, with 
 its. pores more tightly closed and the production of sweat greatly 
 diminished. 
 
 Increased moisture of the air lessens the rate of evaporation 
 from the surface of the body, and thus tends to elevate the tem- 
 perature of the blood. We are all familiar with the disagreeable 
 feeling resulting from this in warm, damp weather, especially 
 before a coming storm. 
 
 Mountain Climates. — The climate of high altitudes has a pecul- 
 iarly bracing effect upon the bodily and mental conditions, for the 
 following reasons: (i) There is less moisture and less pressure; 
 consequently the air of mountain regions is dry^ and rare. 
 
 1 This, of course, does not apply to the windward slopes of mountain ranges 
 situated near the sea, where the moisture and rainfall are often excessive.
 
 INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON MAN. 59 
 
 (2) Constant and rapid movement of the particles of air in the 
 blowing of strong luinds increases evaporation. (3) The charac- 
 ter of the ground, elevated above the general surfvce and often 
 steeply inclined, produces a cold air from rapid radiation of the 
 sun's heat, while at the same time there is a broader expanse of 
 sunlight. There is also less dust and germs floating in the air 
 of higher altitudes. (4) The presence of ozone in large amount 
 is an important element in the effect of mountain climates. Ozone 
 is a more active state of oxygen resulting from certain peculiar 
 electrical conditions of the atmosphere. Its effect on the system 
 is to increase the activities of the body by producing more rapid 
 tissue changes. 
 
 On the threshold of inquiry, we are thus brought face to face with 
 some of the profound problems of human life and development. 
 We have a glimpse, as it were, through dark doors of some of the 
 possible causes which have been at work moulding and making 
 the different types of men. The increased vigor of a mountain 
 life or a life in the North Temperate Realm is in contrast with 
 the life of the lowlands, the inhabitants of tropical seacoasts, or 
 of the forests of the torrid zone. All this hints at vastly more 
 than merely the broad features of race distribution and develop- 
 ment. The origin of temperament, diversity, personahty, genius, 
 lies hidden in the deeper significance of Geography.^ 
 
 1 See " The Man of Genius," by C. Lombroso, Part II., Contemporary Science 
 Series. In this interesting work the author traces the relations of men of genius to 
 meteorological, climatic, and orographic influences, as well as to the effects of race, 
 heredity, and the opportunities of civilization.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 Reading in Connection with this Chapter. 
 
 The Tropical World. — Hartwig. 
 *Origin of Cultivated Plants. — De Candolle (International Science. Series). 
 
 LESSON I. — TEA AND COPTEE. 
 
 The Tea Plant. — At least one-half of the population of the 
 earth to-day are tea drinkers. This beverage, which gladdens the 
 hearts of so many different peoples throughout the world, is made 
 from the leaves of a low, bushy evergreen shrub, not more than 
 five feet in height, growing in warm, moist climates. The flower- 
 buds, which appear in the crotch of a leaf, open later into a cluster 
 of two or three white, mildly fragrant blossoms. A hght, easily 
 broken, but deep soil, a warm temperature, and an abundance of 
 moisture are essential to the healthy, luxuriant growth of the tea 
 plant. 
 
 The cultivation of the plant is limited to regions presenting an 
 abundant rainfall and a more or less uniform, tropical climate. 
 These conditions are found united in the countries of Eastern and 
 Southeastern Asia, — China, Japan, and the lands bordering on the 
 Indian Ocean. 
 
 The Japan Current. — The Pacific Ocean washes the eastern 
 shores of Asia with a warm stream, the Japan current^ flowing 
 north from the equatorial regions. The sun's rays, falling more 
 
 60
 
 TEA AND COFFEE. 61 
 
 "or less straight down on so vast a body of water as the Pacific 
 presents under the equator, rapidly heat the surface water, which, 
 becoming lighter, flows away on each side, north and south, while 
 deeper currents of colder, heavier water flow in from the Arctic 
 and Antarctic regions to fill its place. This Japan current, called 
 Kuro Siwo or Black Stream by the Japanese from the dark blue 
 color of its water, warms the air of the regions into which it flows, 
 and produces an abundance of moisture. 
 
 Physical Features of the Land and their Effect. — From the 
 southeastern shores of Asia, the warm, vapor-laden air blows over 
 the land. This sooner or later strikes the eastern mountain spurs 
 of the Himalaya, Kuen Luen, and other ranges that everywhere 
 bar off the low-lying coast countries from the high central plateau 
 of the continent. Driven up these eastern slopes, the warm air 
 expands, and, becoming chilled, precipitates its clouds of vapor in 
 showers of rain. The rain soaks through the loose soil, but comes 
 to the surface again in various places as springs. Little rills 
 trickle from these springs down the mountain slopes, joining one 
 another to form the larger brooks that feed the great rivers of 
 China, — the Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho, which flow through 
 fertile and densely populated valleys, carrying the water back to 
 the ocean. 
 
 Geographical Range of Tea Cultivation. — Tea is cultivated in 
 Japan as far north as latitude 39°, on the same parallel as Wash- 
 ington, D.C. Japan is a group of islands lying off the eastern 
 shores of Asia, washed on all sides by the warm waters of the 
 great Kuro Siwo. Tropical conditions of climate are carried be- 
 yond the mere geographical limits of the tropics by this bearer of 
 heat and moisture. At the present day tea is cultivated in Java, 
 Ceylon, India, Australia, Natal on the east coast of South Africa, 
 and in Brazil ; but China, Assam, and Japan are the great tea pro- 
 ducing countries of the world. 
 
 History and Commerce. — Tea has been cultivated in China 
 from the remotest antiquity. So long has it been under cultiva- 
 tion that it has never been known to occur in a wild state within
 
 62 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 the period of history. A wild form reaching the size of a tree in 
 the jungles of Assam is believed to be the original stock from 
 which the tea plant sprang. Some curious legends give the plant 
 as coming from the West into China. 
 
 Tea was carried into Japan by a priest about the beginning of 
 the thirteenth century, and sown in the southern island, the culti- 
 vation spreading north to its present limit. Marco Polo, the great 
 traveler in eastern lands, makes no mention of tea, and it was not 
 until the year 15 17, when the Portuguese navigators first opened 
 trade with China, that tea was brought into Europe. Little was 
 known about it, however, until the Dutch traders of the seven- 
 teenth century learned the habit of tea drinking from the Chinese, 
 a habit which has since spread among all the civilized peoples of 
 the earth. 
 
 The tea gardens of China are generally situated on hill 
 slopes, where the soil is loose, deep, and not easily washed by the 
 rains. The leaves are picked four times during the year : early 
 in April, early in May, in July, and again in August or September. 
 The leaves are dried and roasted, a different process of handling 
 giving rise to the two varieties known as ' black ' tea and ' green ' 
 tea. Tea leaves compressed into blocks form ' brick tea,' much 
 used by the inhabitants of Central Asia, who eat it as a vege- 
 table. Russia imports vast quantities of this ' brick tea ' through 
 the Kalgan Gate of the Great Wall of China. 
 
 The present consumption of tea throughout the world at large 
 probably amounts to some 2,500 millions of pounds yearly, 2,000 
 millions of which, it has been estimated, are consumed in China 
 alone. 
 
 Coffee. — The coffee plant is an evergreen tree growing wild 
 in Abyssinia, the Soudan, and the coasts of Mozambique and 
 Guinea. It is found in well watered mountainous regions, from 
 1000 to 4000 feet above the sea level, and within the tropics. 
 The white, fragrant flowers grow in clusters from the crotches 
 of the leaves. The fruit is a berry, round, fleshy, and much 
 like a cherry in appearance. Each berry contains two hard-coated 
 seeds, the famihar coffee beans of commerce.
 
 TEA AND COFFEE. 63 
 
 Geographical Conditions of Coffee Growth. — The great equa- 
 torial stream llt)\ving westwardly in the Pacific sphts into two 
 streams, one of which, the Japan current, we have already noticed. 
 The other stream flows southward, and part of it enters the Indian 
 Ocean through Torres Strait, between Australia and the island of 
 New Guinea. Flowing across the Indian Ocean, it sweeps south 
 along the African coast as the Mozambique current, bringing like 
 its twin brother, the Japan current, volumes of warm vapor which 
 fall in abundant showers of rain on the highlands of East Africa.. 
 This region is the original home of the coffee tree. 
 
 History and Commerce. — The berries of the wild coffee were 
 probably gathered by the inhabitants of Abyssinia ages before the 
 thought of the cultivation of the plant occurred to any one. It 
 evidently did not reach neighboring countries for a long time, as 
 the Crusaders had no knowledge of it. Its use, as a beverage, 
 appears to have spread from Abyssinia into Arabia early in the 
 fifteenth century. The coffee plant was probably first cultivated 
 in Arabia, the coffee-drinking habit slowly spreading from that 
 country into Egypt, Persia, and Turkey. ^ 
 
 The use of coffee came into Europe from the East in the 
 seventeenth century. In 1690 the Dutch governor of the East 
 Indies obtained a few seeds from Arabian traders and planted 
 them in Java. This was the beginning of the great Java coffee 
 cultivation. One of the first Java plants was sent to Holland and 
 planted in the Botanic Garden at Amsterdam. A few )'oung plants 
 from the seeds of this one were sent later to the Dutch posses- 
 sions of Surinam or Guiana in South America. So successful was 
 the result that the cultivation of coffee rapidly spread into other 
 South American countries and the islands of the West Indies. 
 
 The climate of tropical South America and the West Indies 
 is very similar to that of the lands bordering on the Indian Ocean. 
 An equatorial current flows in the Atlantic Ocean from precisely 
 
 1 The habit of coffee drinking may have received an important impetus by the 
 use of the beverage among the worshippers of Islam for its stimulating and wake- 
 ful effects during their religious devotions.
 
 64 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 the same causes as in the Pacific, and, setting westward, divides 
 into two large streams off the eastern point of South America or 
 Cape St. Roque. The northward flowing stream corresponds to 
 the Japan current of the Pacific, and passing through the Carib- 
 bean Sea and Gulf of Mexico into the North Atlantic is known 
 as the Gulf Stream. The one flowing south along the eastern 
 coast of South America is called the Brazil current, correspond- 
 ing in position and in its effects on the neighboring lands with the 
 Mozambique current of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Brazil has become the great coffee-producing country of the 
 world, and all from the few seedlings of the plant sent to Holland 
 from [ava. Coffee is now grown wherever civilization has spread 
 throughout the tropics. The principal coffee-growing countries 
 to-day are Java, Ceylon, Sumatra, Mauritius, Southern Arabia, and 
 the west coast of Africa in the eastern hemisphere ; while Brazil, 
 Bolivia, Peru, Guiana, Venezuela, Guatemala, Cuba, Jamaica, and 
 the West Indies in general are the principal sources of supply in 
 the western hemisphere. 
 
 LESSON II. — SUGAR AND SPICE. 
 
 The Sugar Cane. — The sugar cane is one of the grasses, and, 
 like the other members of the order, consists of a stalk divided 
 into joints, from each of which springs a long, sheathing leaf. 
 The stalks are about twelve feet in height, and the mature plant 
 flowers in a loose, feathery plume at the top. The outer surface 
 of the joints, in the ripening cane, becomes smooth and hard from 
 the sihca or glassy deposit which they contain, while the interior is 
 filled with a loose, spongy tissue, saturated with a watery juice that 
 becomes thick and very sweet as the plant ripens. 
 
 The canes are cut near the ground and crushed in a mill of close- 
 set iron rollers. The expressed juice is carried into a trough, then 
 into vessels where it is purified by a filtering, heating, and chemical 
 process. After this it is boiled down until it becomes thick, reach- 
 ing the crystallizing point, and a few days later, in the ' curing
 
 SUGAR AND SPICE. 65 
 
 house,' the molasses is drained off from the raw crystalUzed 
 sugar. 
 
 History, Range, and Commerce. — The origin of the sugar cane 
 is not certainly known. The best authorities believe it to be 
 a native of the low regions bordering on the Bay of Bengal and 
 of Cochin China. The name ' sugar ' comes from a root word com- 
 mon to the several languages of the Aryan peoples, and this fact 
 points to a knowledge of its use at a very early period. The boil- 
 ing of sugar was probably carried as a crude art from the Ganges 
 region of India into China early in the seventh century, but it was 
 not until the Arabs had invaded the far East that its refining 
 became an art in the true sense of the word. The Arabs spread 
 it westward, and the cane was cultivated from Persia to Morocco. 
 Later, the Spaniards, in their era of discovery, spread the cultiva- 
 tion of the sugar cane into the islands of the Atlantic and the 
 tropical regions of the New World. 
 
 The cane is essentially a tropical plant, and to-day is exten- 
 sively cultivated in all hot countries near the sea level. About the 
 middle of the eighteenth century the beet root was brought for- 
 ward as a source of sugar, and its cultivation has since grown into 
 a large and important industry. 
 
 The Spices. — The various spices have formed an important ele- 
 ment of commerce from a very early date. The more important 
 ones are natives of the forests of tropical Asia, especially along the 
 coasts, and of the islands of the Indian Ocean. Very early in 
 history the Molucca group became known as the ' Spice Islands,' 
 and toward these the seafaring nations of Western Europe directed 
 their voyages, which led, in part, to the remarkable ' era of dis- 
 covery ' in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Black Pepper is the dried fruit of a climbing shrub growing 
 originally in the forests of the Malabar coast of India, but later 
 introduced into the Malay Peninsula and Islands, Siam, the Philip- 
 pines, and the West Indies. It has long formed an important 
 article of commerce between India and Western Europe, and at 
 one time was largely used as a tribute, the term ' pepper-corn 
 
 F
 
 66 PLANTS IVIHCH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 rents ' lingering to the present day as a survival of the ancient 
 practice. The high price of pepper during the Middle Ages led 
 to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in the endeavor of 
 the Portuguese to find a sea route to the East Indies, in order to 
 obtain control of the spice trade. 
 
 CiunaDiou is the bark of a small tree of the laurel tribe grow- 
 ing wild in the forests of Ceylon. It was not until the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century that plantations of cinnamon 
 were established in Ceylon with any success. Since then its 
 cultivation has spread into the tropical countries of both hemi- 
 spheres. It easily becomes wild again, as birds devour the fruit, 
 and spread the seeds in the forests beyond the limits of culti- 
 vation. 
 
 The Nutmeg is the seed of a httle tree growing wild in the 
 Moluccas and Banda Islands, but also cultivated there, probably 
 from a very early period. It reached Europe through the eastern 
 trade, the Dutch at one time monopolizing its cultivation. It has 
 since spread into the colonies of tropical America, Bencoolen, 
 the Mauritius, and Madagascar. The nutmeg proper is the kernel 
 of the seed, the thin husk-like covering surrounding it forming the 
 ' mace ' of commerce. 
 
 Cloves are the dried, aromatic flower-buds and their cups of 
 a plant originally wild in the Moluccas, but now cultivated in other 
 tropical countries. It formed one of the imp'ortant spices sought 
 by the early Portuguese voyagers who held control of the trade 
 until superseded by the Dutch in their East Indian possessions. 
 Cloves now come into the market from Zanzibar on the east coast 
 of Africa, Amboyna, the Malay Islands, Guiana, and the West 
 Indies. 
 
 LESSON III.— THE GRAINS, OR CEREALS. 
 
 Wheat. — The grains, or cereals, are all cultivated grasses that 
 originally grew wild in various parts of the earth. Wheat has been 
 under cultivation from the most remote historic time, so long, 
 indeed, that there is no record of its ever having been found in
 
 THE GR.irXS, OR CEREALS. 67 
 
 a wild state. This makes the fixing of its original home a matter 
 of great difficulty, for, like many other anciently cultivated plants, 
 its origin is involved in myth and fable. ' However, from its name 
 in ancient languages, from ancient writings, and geographical 
 observations, the best authorities now believe it to have been 
 a native of the plains of Mesopotamia long before the dawn of 
 history. From this region its cultivation spread east into China, 
 and west as far as the Canary Islands, at a very early date. Evi- 
 dence goes far to prove that wheat was cultivated by the Swiss 
 Lake Dwellers during the prehistoric bronze period. It was grown 
 in China 2700 years before the Christian Era, and looked upon 
 as a gift from heaven. Ancient Egyptian monuments and the 
 Scriptures allude to the cultivation of this important grain. The 
 name ' cereal ' comes from the Greek idea that Ceres, the goddess 
 of harvests, bestowed wheat upon the earth. 
 
 Wheat reached the New World in the sixteenth century. Hum- 
 boldt makes two very interesting statements in regard to the 
 introduction of wheat into America : one to the effect that it 
 came into Mexico with some rice brought from Spain by a negro 
 slave of Cortez ; and another, that while in Quito, he saw the 
 earthen vase in which a monk had brought the first wheat grains 
 sown in South America. 
 
 Range and Yield. — To-day wheat is grown throughout the 
 world, except in equatorial regions, from Norway, Siberia, and 
 British America to the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and the 
 Argentine Republic. Requiring an ordinarily fertile and fairly 
 stiff soil with a goodly amount of moisture and sunlight, wheat 
 readily adapts itself, over this wide geographical area, to various 
 local conditions, and presents numerous varieties suitable for the 
 time of year and place of growth. The yearly yield of wheat 
 throushout the world has been estimated at not less than 2200 
 million bushels. 
 
 Thus wheat has come to be the staple food stuff of the civilized 
 world. Only a very few countries have a sufficient surplus to 
 export. In Europe, Russia and Roumania ; in Asia, India ; and
 
 68 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 in America, the United States, the Argentine RepubUc, and Chile 
 are the great exporting countries of the world. 
 
 Rice. — More than one-fourth of the human race depends almost 
 entirely upon rice for its food. The grass from which the rice grains 
 are gathered is a swamp lover, needing an abundance of moisture, 
 and growing in the low, alluvial lands of the tropics, especially 
 in districts liable to be flooded by great rivers. Its original 
 home was probably in the river valleys of China and the low- 
 lying lands about the Bay of Bengal. 
 
 It has probably been under cultivation for over 4000 years, 
 as we read that in 2S00 B.C. it played an important part in the 
 ceremony instituted by the Chinese Emperor Chin-Nong. 
 
 It was probably first cultivated in China, spreading gradually 
 to India and then slowly westward to the Euphrates. It did not 
 reach Syria and Egypt for many centuries after its cultivation on 
 the banks of the Euphrates, and no reference is made to it on old 
 Egyptian monuments. The Arabs carried it still farther westward, 
 into Spain and Italy, but it did not reach the New World until 
 a comparatively late date. Rice is chiefly consumed in the 
 countries where it grows, and its commercial value is unimportant 
 compared with that of other cereals. 
 
 Other Grains. — Rye, oafs, and barley are largely grown through- 
 out the temperate regions, especially to the north, where the 
 climate is better suited to them than to wheat. In some parts 
 of Europe, one or the other of them forms the staple food 
 supply. 
 
 Maize or Indian corn is a native of the warm parts of America, 
 but it has spread since the discovery of the country into other 
 lands. Its cultivation along with that of tobacco, another New- 
 World plant, has penetrated into the heart of the African continent, 
 where it forms an important food of many tribes. To-day not 
 less than 120,000 square miles in the United States are under 
 corn cultivation. The ' corn belt ' of the States does not extend 
 much beyond the 42d parallel of north latitude.
 
 SOME VEGETABLES AND FRUITS. 69 
 
 LESSON IV. — SOME VEGETABLES AND FRUITS. 
 
 The Potato. — The potato is a tuber or enlarged underground 
 portion of the stem of a perennial plant, serving as a storehouse 
 of starch. The plant was originally a native of temperate South 
 America, probably Chile, though cultivated northward along the 
 high ranges of the Peruvian Andes, where the climate of the 
 altitude corresponds to the cooler southern latitude. It was 
 undoubtedly cultivated long before the discovery of the country 
 by Europeans, and it came into the Old World first through the 
 Spaniards, and later through the English in the time of Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. 
 
 The potato is especially useful as a food stuff in cool climates, 
 like the British Isles, where the summer is too short to reap a 
 large harvest of grain. It forms the staple article of diet for the 
 poorer classes of Ireland, and the fliilure of the Irish potato crop, 
 from a peculiar disease caused by a fungus, has several times pro- 
 duced a disastrous famine in that country. 
 
 Sweet Potato. — This plant is in no way related to the common 
 or white potato, but belongs to an entirely different family, that 
 of the morning glories. It is a climbing vine, and the edible 
 part is not a tuber or underground stem, but a true root enlarged 
 as a storehouse of starch and sugar. It is a native of the warmer 
 regions of both hemispheres, but it has never been found wild. 
 Its original home is a matter of uncertainty, as the plant appears 
 to have been cultivated in both hemispheres from a very early 
 period. 
 
 Yams. — Yams are the tuberous rootstocks or underground 
 stems of several species of plants cultivated in tropical countries, 
 and form a staple food supply of many native tribes. The 
 original home is uncertain, the plant to-day being found wild in 
 Asia and the adjacent islands, and a few species in Africa and 
 America. It is cultivated throughout these regions and also in 
 the Pacific Islands. 
 
 Manioc. — The swollen, starch-filled roots of several species
 
 70 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 of spurgewort or euphorbia are used by the natives as food in 
 tropical America and Africa. Besides the starch, the root contains 
 a poisonous principle which is separated from the nutritious part 
 by pounding and heating. In this way the cassava meal or 
 bread of the native tribes is produced. The starch, carefully 
 separated from the other matters of the root and heated until its 
 grains swell up, forms the tapioca of commerce which is shipped 
 in large quantities from South American and West Indian ports. 
 The careless preparation of the manioc by the followers of Stanley, 
 in his journey up the Congo in Central Africa on the Emin Pasha 
 Relief Expedition, was the cause of great loss of life and disaster 
 to the Rear Column. The manioc is found wild in Brazil, and is 
 undoubtedly a native of tropical America, having reached Africa 
 as a cultivated plant since the discovery of the New World. 
 
 The Tomato. — The tomato is the fruit of a plant belonging to 
 the same natural order as the potato. It is -a native of tropical 
 America, probably Peru, as a wild form is found growing on the 
 seashore of that country. It was not known in the Old World until 
 after the discovery of America. The name ' tomato ' is of Ameri- 
 can origin, and its cultivation, at least in Peru, appears to be quite 
 ancient. 
 
 The Banana and Plantain. — Bananas and plantains are the 
 fruits of several closely related plants cultivated throughout the 
 tropical regions of both hemispheres. They form the principal 
 food stuff of an immense number of savage peoples. The number 
 of varieties, both cultivated and wild, found in Asia, points to its 
 original cultivation in that continent, probably in the Malay Archi- 
 pelago. From the fact that the names of the plant are entirely 
 different in the oldest languages, we are led to believe that the 
 culture of the banana reaches back to a remote antiquity in these 
 islands and also in India and China. It spread at a very early 
 date into Africa and the Pacific Islands. It was probably intro- 
 duced into tropical America by the Spaniards and Portuguese very 
 soon after the discovery of the country. 
 
 As a food the banana is second to no other plant in the world.
 
 COTTON AND FLAX. 71 
 
 as it requires little, if any, cultivation. Humboldt estimates that 
 the yield in nutritive niaterial of a given area planted in bananas 
 is 133 times that of wheat, and 44 times that of the potato. 
 
 The Date. — The fruit of the date palm has been used as a food 
 from time immemorial by the peoples dwelling along the borders 
 of the deserts and in the oases of North Africa and Arabia. The 
 date palm is indigenous to the desert regions stretching from the 
 Atlantic Ocean to the Valley of the Indus in India. It also occurs 
 in the Canary Islands, and wherever found appears to be of very 
 ancient cultivation. The tree is found to-day in much the same 
 area of country as it was five thousand years ago as indicated by 
 ancient writings. It is essentially a plant of the warm, dry zone, 
 and has not been successfully cultivated beyond this region. 
 
 The Vine. — The grapevine is of very ancient cultivation in 
 Eastern countries. It is spoken of in the oldest writings, and in 
 Egypt its culture and the making of wine date back five or six 
 thousand years. It grows wild in Western Asia and the Mediter- 
 ranean region — Southern Europe and Northwestern Africa. 
 From all that has been gathered on the subject it seems that the 
 vine grew wild somewhere south of the Caspian Sea and that it 
 was dispersed, probably before the appearance of man, over a 
 considerable area largely through the agency of birds carrying the 
 seeds. Its cultivation reached China a little more than one hun- 
 dred years before the Christian Era. It is cultivated to-day 
 around the world in the temperate zones, between about 50° north 
 and 40° south latitude. 
 
 LESSON v.— COTTON AND FLAX. 
 
 Clothing. — Next to food, clothing is perhaps the most impor- 
 tant element in human affairs. From time immemorial the fibers 
 of plants, and the skins and wool of animals have been woven 
 by most of the peoples of the earth into g;irments for covering the 
 body. Even in the tropics the instinct to cover and decorate 
 some portion of the body seems to be universal, extending through
 
 72 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 all savage tribes. Of the plants used for this purpose, cotton and 
 flax are by far the most important and widespread. 
 
 Cotton. — The fine fibrous down of the seeds of plants belong- 
 ing to the mallow family forms the cotton of commerce. The 
 plant appears to have originated somewhere in tropical Asia, 
 probably in India, as its cultivation and use as a clothing material 
 have existed there for more than 2000 years. It became known 
 to the Greek and Roman world after the conquests of Alexander 
 in the East. It reached China only in the ninth or tenth century 
 of the Christian Era. 
 
 Cotton was found in a state of cultivation by the Spanish dis- 
 coverers of America, but the plant cultivated in America to-day 
 is the Old-World species, introduced at a comparatively late date. 
 The principal sources of supply to the world to-day are the 
 Southern United States and India, though China, Egypt, Africa, 
 Australia, Italy, Greece and Turkey, Brazil, Peru, and the West 
 Indies are all cotton-growing countries. The influence of tlie 
 Civil War in the United States developed the raising of cotton in 
 other countries for a time, in order to supply the demands of 
 trade, crippled by the stopping of the United States export. 
 
 The part that cotton has played in the history and develop- 
 ment of mankind is remarkable. An. advance has been made 
 from the rudest methods of manufacture, over a limited portion 
 of the earth, to the invention of the most complex machinery and 
 the employment of many thousands of persons in various parts 
 of the world. Among the principal materials manufactured from 
 cotton are thread, muslin, and calico. The term ' muslin ' comes 
 from the city of Mosul on the Tigris in Mesopotamia, where the 
 stuff" was first woven. ' Calico ' is from Calicut, a seaport on the 
 west coast of India. 
 
 Flax. — The fibers of the flax plant have been used in the 
 manufacture of clothing and for various purposes of utility from 
 the remotest historic times, and even by prehistoric peoples. 
 
 Bundles of flax have been found among the remains of the Lake 
 Dwellers of Switzerland and of a prehistoric people inhabiting
 
 COTTON AND FLAX. 73 
 
 the country now known as Lonibanly in I'Vance. The material 
 called linen, which is made from flax, is referred to in ancient 
 Scripture. In Egypt and Chaldea the plant was in use apparently 
 at the beginning of history, the mummy cloth of the catacombs 
 being of this material. 
 
 The annual flax is still found wild in the region of the Persian 
 Gulf and the Black and Caspian seas. This probably represents 
 its original home, from which it spread, very early, as a cultivated 
 plant into Egypt, and later into Europe by the western branch of 
 the Aryan peoples. The Finns appear to have carried it to the 
 north of Europe at a very early date, and last of all it reached 
 India through the eastern branch of the Aryans. 
 
 The flax used by the prehistoric peoples of Europe belonged 
 to a perennial species which has been replaced by the annual. 
 To-day flax is grown in all temperate regions. The word //// 
 exists as a root in the Aryan languages of Southern Europe — 
 the Greek, Latin, Slav, and Keltic. It is from this that we get 
 our word ' linen,' the material which is made from flax. The word 
 ' flax ' is of German or Teutonic origin, and other names for it 
 are used in the North of Europe. 
 
 This diversity of names indicates a remote antiquity of culti- 
 vation, for where one people have borrowed the culture of a plant 
 from another, they have usually borrowed the name also. Evi- 
 dence of a varied nature thus goes far to prove that flax has been 
 known to man for a period of time reaching back beyond the 
 dawn of history, considerably more than 5000 years. 
 
 In this short survey of a few of the plants useful to mankind, 
 we have covered a wide extent of the earth's surface, and gone 
 over many centuries of history. The common things of daily life 
 are seen in a new light. Geography appeals to us with a new 
 interest, — that of the earth as the home of man ; how that home 
 has influenced him, and what he has done toward making the 
 home what we see it to-day. 
 
 From every quarter of the globe he has gathered plants for
 
 74 PLANTS WHICH HA VE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 food and clothing, in many cases entirely changing the face of a 
 country. A prairie landscape becomes acres of waving wheat ; 
 the once thickly wooded mountain slope is now a field of tasseled 
 corn. Back of all this, however, we have caught a glimpse of the 
 limitations which the earth has set upon man. Climate is the 
 master hand under which he still works. Strive as he may, climate 
 still directs his doings, and maps out just how far he can scatter 
 the seeds of strange plants, or introduce new animals. 
 
 To meet the requirements of climate man has brought com- 
 merce to his aid ; built seaport cities on every shore throughout 
 the world ; sent his ships to the ends of the earth ; belted the 
 globe with cables, and spanned the continents with railways. 
 To-day we sit at our breakfast tables sipping tea from China 
 sweetened with sugar from the canebrakes of the West Indies. 
 Our rolls are made from wheat grown on the prairies of Dakota. 
 Spices are brought to our table from the Molucca Islands, Ceylon, 
 or tropical America. Flax fibers, maybe from a crop sown in 
 far-away New Zealand, or on the plains of Europe, are spun into 
 white linen for our tablecloths. The things of to-day are our 
 inheritance from the very beginning, because Geography has so 
 directed the course of human events.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 Reading in Connection with the Lessons ok this Chapter. 
 
 Primitive Man. — Figuier. 
 
 Articles on the Various Animals and Animal Products. — Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica. 
 
 LESSON L — ANIMALS OF THE CHASE. 
 
 Primitive Conditions ; Food, Raiment, and Defense. — The 
 various animals with whicli man has been associated in different 
 parts of the earth have, from the remotest time, played an impor- 
 tant part in his history and development. The animal as well as 
 the plant has always been a source of food and clothing, supply- 
 ing these primary needs of man in a variety of ways. According 
 to the distribution of life under the various conditions of climate, 
 different phases of this question of food and raiment present 
 themselves. Thus in the far North, among the Eskimos and the 
 tribes of Northern Asia, the food and clothing are almost entirely 
 of an animal nature, while in the tropics plant life furnishes the 
 main source of these supplies. In the temperate regions a min- 
 gling of the animal and plant products is a striking feature of the 
 food and covering of man. The mingling of these two element 
 has been of undoubted advantage to the nations of the temperate 
 realm. The physiological characteristics of man in the different 
 regions of the earth are largely the result of the difference in kind 
 and use of these two great factors — food and clothing. 
 
 75
 
 76 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 The animal came into relation with primitive man other than as 
 a source of food and clothing. The giant mammalia of the Quater- 
 nary period^ were formidable adversaries in man's struggle for 
 existence, and abundant proof of this long and desperate encounter 
 is seen in the rude weapons of the Stone Age. We may even 
 regard the great carnivora- of the Quaternary as a means in 
 man's development, bending his intelligence toward the fashioning 
 of weapons of defense. 
 
 Geography of the Chase. — From defending himself against his 
 brute foes, man gradually became a hunter. The rude palgeo- 
 liths ^ gave place to the more perfectly fashioned spear and axe 
 heads of the Polished Stone Age, and later, to the various weapons 
 of bronze and iron. The chase took on different features in 
 different parts of the earth. Among the earliest animals of the 
 chase, sought alike for the purpose of food and clothing, was the 
 reindeer, vast herds of which wandered over Central Europe and 
 Asia toward the close of the Glacial Period. So important was 
 this animal to primitive man, as attested by its abundant remains 
 in the cave shelters of various localities, that a distinct " Reindeer 
 Epoch " marks the later Palaeolithic Age. In the temperate and 
 northern lands, various species of deer have always been objects 
 of the chase. Passing from a necessity to a pastime, stag hunting 
 became royal sport in the barbaric civilization of early Europe. 
 "To drive the deer with hound and horn" was a theme of the 
 early bards, and the royal buckhounds are, to-day, a survival of 
 this time-honored sport. 
 
 The North American bison and the auroch of Europe, two 
 closely related species belonging to the ox tribe, have been hunted 
 
 '^Quaternary: the period of time immediately preceding the Present Era 
 characterized by the abundance of large mammalia, and the earliest appearance 
 of man upon the earth. 
 
 2 Carnivora : Flesh-eating mammals — as the dog, cat, bear, lion, etc. 
 
 3 Palasolith is an unpolished stone implement, and comes from two Greek words 
 meaning ancient ■^wii stone. Hence we speak of the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age. 
 
 Neolithic: the age of polished stone implements, from two Greek words 
 meaning neio and stone.
 
 ANIMALS OF THE CHASE. 77 
 
 to the verge of extinction. Tlie bear and the wolf have been 
 hunted in northern lands for the sake of their warm fur, and as 
 foes of man. The flesh of the bear is used as an article of food 
 among various savage peoples. Over many parts of Europe the 
 wild boar has long been an object of the chase, its pursuit, like 
 that of the deer, being first a necessity for increasing the food 
 supply, and degenerating in later times to a mere sport. So with 
 fowling and fishing — the need of food was the first requisite, and 
 what is now a sport with civilized peoples is a downright question 
 of existence with the savage of Northern countries and the settler 
 in new lands. 
 
 The trapping of animals is only another form of the chase, and 
 it is largely practiced by the tribes of Arctic America and Northern 
 Eurasia. It was most likely developed as a necessity, the habits 
 of many of the smaller fur-bearing animals like the beaver, marten, 
 ermine, sable, otter, and others rendering open pursuit impossible. 
 
 The Eskimo, and the Siberian hunters, still pursue the reindeer 
 over the frozen plains of the North ; spear the walrus, seal, and 
 narwhal amid the ice floes of the Arctic Ocean, and defend them- 
 selves with rude but effective weapons from the attacks of the 
 polar bear. In the tropics food and defence, more than cloth- 
 ing, are the principal incentives to hunting. Peculiar methods 
 and weapons have been developed 
 like the deadly blow tube of the 
 South American natives, the pitfall 
 and heavy drop-spear of Africa for 
 killing large animals, such as the 
 elephant and the hippopotamus. 
 Open pursuit is an exception in the 
 
 tropics, the dense cover of vegeta- Primary Arrow-Release. 
 
 tion giving rise to ambuscading and 
 
 stalking methods. The bow and arrow appears to have been 
 largely used among the peoples of the North Temperate re- 
 gions, and by others widely distributed over the earth. Several 
 forms of " arrow-release " are characteristic of different regions.
 
 78 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 The most important of these are the primary, — the primitive 
 method of holding the arrow to the bow string practiced by the 
 majority of savages, — the Mongohan arrow-release of Asian peo- 
 ples, and the Mediterranean arrow-release of the white race. The 
 efficiency of the last two methods gave to these races superiority 
 in early warfare.^ 
 
 Mongolian Arrow-Release. Mediterranean Arrow-Release. 
 
 LESSON II. — THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Primitive Conditions. — The taming of wild animals probably 
 arose at a very remote period as a natural result of the observa- 
 tions of primitive men. In the chase slightly wounded animals 
 must have frequently been taken alive and, more often, the young 
 captured after killing the parents. This led to a partial domes- 
 tication and gradually, through observation, to different uses of 
 various animals. Man's inventive faculties and his powers of 
 observation led him, under stress of surrounding conditions, to 
 the cultivation of wild plants in many parts of the earth. Coupled 
 with these beginnings of agriculture was the domestication of 
 animals. It ^s a striking fact, however, that the majority of 
 domestic animals are natives of the Temperate regions of Eurasia, 
 where the stress of climate and other geographical conditions have 
 been most potent as formative influences in the destiny of races. 
 In this respect the black race is in striking contrast with the 
 white. Surrounded by large animals of many kinds, such as the 
 
 1 Professor E. S. Morse — quoted by Briiiton.
 
 THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS. 79 
 
 zebra, various antelopes, and the elephant, the black man never 
 reached a culture sufificiently high to bring into his service animals 
 equally as serviceable as those that the white man ages ago 
 domesticated. The Negroids of the East and South African grass- 
 lands have herds of cattle, sheep, and goats, but they are the 
 descendants of the animals domesticated centuries ago by the 
 white race in Egypt. Pastoral life, though often rude and 
 barbarous, is a step toward a higher culture. The uncertainty of 
 securing game and the frequent failure of the food supply in the 
 Temperate regions must very early have led man to the cultivation 
 and domestication of those wild stocks of plants and animals, the 
 descendants of which, to-day, form the basis of his wealth and well- 
 being. 
 
 The Dog. — From what the remains of primitive man tell in 
 the Neolithic shell heaps and kitchen-middens of various countries, 
 we are led to believe that the dog was the most anciently domesti- 
 cated animal. Man being first a hunter must have frequently seen 
 wolves running down their prey, and nothing could have been 
 more natural than to train the young of these animals to pursue and 
 capture game. The wolf is an inhabitant of the cold and temperate 
 lands, and the dog appears to have arisen in the same regions. 
 Whether the wolf is the original wdld stock from which the 
 dog sprang, or whether it was a distinct and primitive species 
 which has been lost by crossing and breeding in the long ages of 
 domestication, is a matter of uncertainty. Whatever the case 
 may be, the dog first became the companion of man under the 
 conditions of the chase. With the domestication of other animals, 
 and the abandoning of the hunting for the pastoral life, the dog 
 became the protector of the flocks and the watcher of the household. 
 
 The natives of the tropics did not originally possess the dog, 
 and it is only sparingly found among them to-day. Throughout 
 the vast stretches of Eurasia and North America the various 
 tribes have possessed the dog from a remote antiquity. In the 
 far North the Greenland hunter has his pack of half-savage, wolf- 
 like dogs that drag him in rude sledges over the ice fields, or
 
 80 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 vigorously defend him from the bear. Every Indian village has 
 its troop of dogs. Among the inhabitants of Siberia the dog 
 shares alike in the excitement of the chase and the drudgery of 
 the march. 
 
 The different breeds of dogs iirst arose from natural causes. 
 The wolf-dog guarding the flocks was the companion of the lonely 
 shepherd, and we may look upon our collie of to-day as a survival 
 of this breed. The various hounds and the hunting breeds have come 
 from the earliest dogs of the chase. The mastiff and his kind 
 were watch dogs of the home in half-civilized Europe of early 
 days. 
 
 The Ox, Sheep, and Goat. — The domestication of cattle extends 
 back to a remote period, the remains of the ox having been found 
 in connection with Swiss Lake dwellings of the Neolithic Age. 
 Several wild stocks inhabited Western Europe at the time of man's 
 appearance, and are undoubtedly the ancestors of several existing 
 breeds, as the Scotch and Welsh breeds, the Chillingham cattle 
 and others. In the East the ox appears as a domestic animal 
 with the dawn of history. It was figured on Egyptian monuments 
 two thousand years before the Christian Era. The wealth of the 
 earliest peoples was in their flocks and herds. Pastoral life was 
 undoubtedly the first step in agriculture, man passing from the 
 wandering life of the herdsman to settled village communities. 
 In Japan, India, and Western Africa several breeds of humped 
 cattle have been under domestication from the remotest antiquity. 
 In India the white breed of the humped bull or zebu is held 
 sacred by the Hindus in their worship of Siva. Among the tribes 
 of South Africa several peculiar breeds occur, notably the backleys 
 of the Kaffirs, which are trained to guard flocks like dogs. After 
 the Spanish conquest of America, a number of cattle escaped from 
 the armies, and now countless thousands roam over the pampas 
 of the Argentine Republic. 
 
 The present breeds of domestic sheep appear to have sprung, 
 at a very remote period, from several races inhabiting the high- 
 lands of Central Eurasia. Like the ox, the sheep was a domestic
 
 THE DOMESTICATION OF ANLMAIS. 81 
 
 animal in Central Europe and Asia before the opening of history. 
 Whether any of the existing wild stocks now living in the moun- 
 tainous regions of that continent are the parents of the domestic 
 sheep is a matter of conjecture. The sheep is naturally a mountain 
 lover, and several wild species are to be met with on the lofty 
 ranges of the world. Some magnificent species occur on the 
 Pamir, Thian Shan, and Stanovi ranges, while the " big horn " of 
 the Rocky Mountains in North America, the aoudad of the Atlas 
 range in North Africa ; the moufflon of Corsica and Sardinia, and 
 several other forms are conspicuous animals of their respective 
 regions. 
 
 Like the sheep, the common domestic goat appears to have 
 sprung from some wild ancestor, now lost, which undoubtedly 
 inhabited the lofty mountains of Central Asia. To-day several 
 wild breeds are known, as the Persian wild-goat or Paseng, and 
 the goat-like ibex of the Alps. A number of other domestic 
 breeds are known besides the common form, as the Syrian, 
 Angora, Kashmir, Maltese, the Egyptian or Nubian goat, and 
 the curious Guinea or dwarf goat of Western Africa. Some of 
 these breeds, as the Angora and Kashmir goats, are valuable on 
 account of the abundance and fineness of their wool. 
 
 The milking of such animals as the cow, sheep, and goat must 
 have begun at a very remote period in the history of mankind. 
 Our English word " daughter " comes from an ancient Aryan root 
 meaning " a milker," probably in allusion to her office in the 
 household. Throughout history the various uses of these wonder- 
 fully helpful animals have been one of the mainsprings of advanc- 
 ing civilization, and to-day they have spread with man into all 
 lands. 
 
 The Horse, Ass, and Mule. — Though the ox was in use as a 
 draught animal in many countries in the early ages of history, the 
 horse and the ass gradually took its place in this respect. In 
 the earliest times of their domestication, while the ass bore with 
 the ox the burden of work, the horse appeared in battle and 
 in the chase. In Western Europe there is abundant proof of the 
 
 G
 
 82 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 domestication of the horse during the Pohshed Stone epocli from 
 the rude drawings which have been found of the animal and the 
 relations of its remains to those of man. 'J'he horse of to-day is 
 in all likelihood the descendant of a wild stock domesticated ages 
 ago in Western Asia. On the steppes and among the mountains 
 of that country a horse has recently been found running wild in 
 small herds, which may represent the original stock from which 
 all the domestic breeds of horses have descended. Among the 
 roving tribes of the Kirghiz steppes horses not only perform their 
 ordinary service to man but stand in place of tlie flock as milch 
 animals. The milk of the mares yields, under fermentation, an 
 intoxicating drink called " koumys." 
 
 The ass appears to have come into use as a domestic animal in 
 the East, probably in Syria or Egypt. Its close resemblance to 
 the wild ass of the mountains of Abyssinia makes it appear probable 
 that this was the original source of the domestic breed. Wild 
 asses abound in the mountainous parts of Asia Minor, but they do 
 not bear so close a resemblance to the common form as does 
 the Abyssinian species. In South Africa the peculiar striped 
 group of horses occur — the zebra, the dauw, and the quagga, 
 which have never been domesticated. After the Spanish invasion 
 of America horses ran wild from the armies of Cortez and Pizarro 
 and soon multiplied into herds of many thousands in both conti- 
 nents. Though the horse is not indigenous to America, it is 
 curious to note that the fossil remains of a horse have been found 
 in some parts of this country. The animal appears to have become 
 extinct just before the beginning of the present era.' 
 
 The mule, a hybrid between the mare and the male ass, has been 
 known from very early times. It was in use in ancient Greece 
 and is supposed to have been originally bred by the inhabitants 
 of Mysia and Paphlagonia. The mule combines the good quali- 
 ties of both parents. It is a hardy, sure-footed animal, well 
 adapted for pack and draught purposes in mountainous countries 
 and in hot, drv climates. It enjoys a remarkable freedom from 
 diseases which are often fatal to horses. With these qualities it
 
 yy/A noMF.sriCATioN of animals. 83 
 
 has largely superseded the horse as a beast of burden in many 
 countries, especially the mountainous parts of Southern Europe, 
 France, Spain, and Italy, and in North and South America. The 
 mule has become an important transport animal in military opera- 
 tions, and the " mule battery," the animal bearing the gun, is 
 resorted to in countries where the use of the gun carriage is 
 impossible, as in the Punjab district in India. 
 
 The Pig. — The domestication of the pig is probably of a very 
 early date. Frequent reference is made to the animal in ancient 
 literature, as in the Odyssey, where Circe transforms the companions 
 of Ulysses into swine. 
 
 " Forthwith she smote them with her wand (Hvine, 
 And drave them out, and shut them close in styes, 
 Where thev the head, voice, form, and hair of swine 
 Took, hut the heart stayed sane, as ere the wine 
 Confused them; they thus to tlieir lairs retreat; 
 She food, whereon the brutish herd might dine, 
 Furnished, mast, acorns their famihar meat. 
 Such as earth-grovehng swine are ever wont to eat." 
 
 { Worsley'), Odyssey x., 203, 243. 
 
 The original wild stock of the various domestic breeds is not 
 known, but it was undoubtedly an inhabitant of some portion of 
 Central luirasia. The hog has spread with man to all parts of 
 the earth, and the preparation of its various products — bristles, 
 flesh, lard, etc., forms a vast industry in several countries, notably 
 in the United States, where their export ranks with that of wheat 
 and cotton, and in Servia. 
 
 Fowls. — The various breeds of chickens or barn-door fowls 
 have all undoubtedly descended from a common wild stock — the 
 red jungle-fowl of India. Its domestication was probably begun 
 in Burmah and neighboring countries at a very remote period of 
 andquity, as Chinese tradition says that poultry came from the 
 West about 1400 b.c. Fowls are not referred to in ancient Greek 
 or Hebrew literature, but figure on Babylonian cylinders six or 
 seven centuries before the birth of Christ. Aristophanes refers
 
 84 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 to the fowl as coming from Persia, whicli lielps to confirm the 
 fact of its earliest domestication in the East. The domestication 
 of ducks and geese likewise goes back to very remote times. The 
 wild mallard is probably the original stock of the common duck, 
 while the goose appears to have sprung from several distinct 
 species in different parts of the world, one form in China, and 
 the common form from the wild gray-lag goose of Eurasia. 
 
 The farm of to-day thus affords a study in the history of man- 
 kind, for here are gathered almost all of the animals that he origi- 
 nally domesticated ages before the dawn of history. This very 
 ancient action of man's intelligence has not extended to other 
 animals .within the historic period, but has steadily bent its energy 
 toward the perfection of the original stocks through long centuries 
 of careful breeding. 
 
 Other Domesticated Animals. — In certain regions several 
 animals have been domesticated from the earliest times, but have 
 not spread to any extent from their original centers owing to 
 climate and other surrounding conditions. The domestication of 
 the two species of camel in Central and Southern Asia and North 
 Africa is of extremely ancient origin, so ancient that no wild stock 
 has ever been known. Its wonderful adaptation to the deserts 
 and mountainous table-lands rendered it almost indispensable as 
 a beast of burden in those countries. The two-humped or Bactrian 
 camel inhabits Central Asia from Lake Baikal to China, where it 
 endures a rigorous winter cold. The one-humped Arabian species 
 or dromedary, in use from the Sahara to India, is the 'ship of 
 the desert,' the only means throughout history by which those 
 savage wastes have been penetrated. 
 
 Several species of llama, a form closely allied to the camel, are 
 natives of the lofty Andes ranges from Peru to Patagonia, where 
 one of the species was in use as a beast of burden at the time of 
 the discovery of the continent. 
 
 The use of the elephant in India as a beast of burden and in 
 warfare extends back into the remote ages before history, and it 
 figures conspicuously in the battles of the ancient kings of the
 
 SOME SPECIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 85 
 
 Indies against invaders. Its unwieldy size and difficult manage- 
 ment rendered it useless against the charge of a well-disciplined 
 body of horse, and it gradually passed out of active warfare. The 
 African elephant has been domesticated but once in the history of 
 mankind, and that by the ancient Carthaginians. It was undoubt- 
 edly this species that Hannibal used in carrying the paraphernalia 
 of war across the Alps against Rome, and which the Romans cap- 
 tured and used in their royal sports and military pageants. 
 
 The curious yak, an ox-like animal, has long been in use by the 
 inhabitants of the lofty table-land of Thibet, for the sake of its 
 milk, and long, thick hair, as well as for a beast of burden. In the 
 far north of Eurasia many tribes have had the reindeer under 
 domestication from time immemorial. It stands in the place of a 
 draught animal and beast of burden to these people ; supplies 
 them with milk and flesh, and its skin forms their raiment and the 
 covering of their tents. 
 
 LESSON III. — SOME SPECIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 Leather. — The climatic extremes of the Temperate and North- 
 ern realms very early forced man to protect himself with some sort 
 of covering. The fresh skins stripped from wild animals were un- 
 doubtedly the first covering of the human species. The more or 
 less rapid decomposition of these skins gradually developed an 
 art directed toward their preservation, and we find the iaunino^ of 
 hides and their conversion into leather among the oldest of human 
 arts. \Mien and how man became acquainted with the remarkable 
 property of certain plants for this purpose, can only be conject- 
 ured. That it arose in the Temperate regions is beyond doubt, for 
 there the oak and other tannin-producing plants flourished, and 
 oak bark appears to have been the earliest human agent in tanning. 
 
 The production of leather is a vast industry in many countries 
 to-day, the hides of a great number of animals are used, and there 
 are various curing processes other than tanning, such as faiving 
 with mineral salts, and dressing with oil or shamoying. The skins 
 of nearly all domestic animals are now employed in the manufact-
 
 86 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 lire of leather, besides those of many wild animals, as the walrus, 
 hippopotamus, kangaroo, zebra, seal, porpoise, deer, buffalo, ante- 
 lope, etc. 
 
 Wool. — The wearing of the hairy side of an animal's skin next 
 the body to secure greater warmth must have been the first step in 
 man's intelligence that led to the use of wool as a covering mate- 
 rial. The shearing of sheep and the spinning of wool are as old 
 as the oldest history, and stand out as vivid pictures of the early 
 pastoral and home life of the peoples of Western Asia, Egypt, and 
 Europe. Wool ranks next to cotton as the most important textile 
 fabric, and the history of woolen manufactures in later times 
 abounds with inventions of complicated machines. This, with 
 the perfection of the material through the various processes of 
 cleaning and handling raw wool, and the intelligent breeding of 
 sheep, has been one of the important factors in the advance of 
 civilization. Into whatever region the white man has spread, ex- 
 cept the low tropical countries and arid deserts, the sheep, the 
 spinning wheel, and later the woolen mill have followed. Where 
 once the housewife spun the wool of her goodman's flocks into 
 clothing, as may still be seen in some out-of-the-way mountain 
 homesteads in Scotland and the North, hundreds of thousands of 
 people now find employment in the woolen mills of the world, 
 and Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape of Good Hope annually 
 export their millions of pounds. 
 
 It is curious to note how man's mind has worked toward the 
 same ends in widely different parts of the world. While the rude 
 inhabitants of Europe and Western Asia Avere spinning the wool of 
 their sheep, the Peruvian on the high Andes was making his llama 
 and alpaca wool into wonderful vestments ; the Oriental was 
 using his camel's hair, and the mohair and fleece of two species of 
 goats were being wrought into fabrics in Angora of Asia Minor, 
 and among the mountain vales of Kashmir. 
 
 Silk. — The cocoons and webs of many insects are composed 
 of a fibrous substance which yields a thread in spinning, but the 
 art of using this material was known to only one people for long
 
 SOME SPECIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 87 
 
 ages of history. The cocoon of the silk moth, whose worm or 
 larva feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree of China, was used 
 by the Chinese at a period so remote that, like tea-culture, it is 
 lost in the mists of tradition. The cultivation of the mulberry, 
 the rearing of worms, and the reeling of silk was an industry in 
 China more than two thousand years before Christ. A knowledge 
 of this material spread into Japan through Korea some three hun- 
 dred years before the Christian Era. Somewhat later it reached 
 India, a tradition being that the eggs of the insect and the seeds 
 of the mulberry were brought concealed in the head-dress of a 
 Chinese princess. 
 
 From the valley of the Ganges sericulture slowly spread west- 
 ward into Persia and Asia Minor. Aristotle first makes mention 
 of the silk-worm in Grecian literature, and refers to the spinning 
 of silk in the island of Cos by Pamphile, daughter of Plates. The 
 word " silk "* is of Grecian origin and refers to China, the land of 
 its first culture. 
 
 Raw silk became an important item of trade at the beginning 
 of the Christian Era, increasing in costliness until it was said to be 
 worth its weight in gold. The Emperor Justinian held a monopoly 
 of the silk trade in Constantinople and endeavored to direct it from 
 the road through Persia, whence it reached the West. This was 
 not accomplished, but two Persian monks, who had learned the art 
 of silk culture after a long residence in China, imparted the mys- 
 tery to Justinian. Returning to China they brought back a num- 
 ber of silk-worm eggs concealed in a hollow cane. This was about 
 550 A.D., and marked the beginning of sericulture in the Western 
 world, for literally out of this hollow cane came the silk trade that 
 enriched the civilized world for twelve hundred years. 
 
 Under the Saracen conquest the silk trade and culture spread 
 westward through Europe, ultimately reaching Italy and France. 
 Silk manufacture came into England under the reign of Henry VI., 
 receiving an important impetus in 1585, when the skillful Flemish 
 weavers came over, having fled from the religious troubles with 
 
 * From the Greek Seres, a people of Eastern Asia celebrated for their silks.
 
 88 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN. 
 
 Spain. One hvindred years later the edict of Nantes drove the 
 weavers of France into England, Germany, and Switzerland. 
 
 Efforts were made at an early date to introduce silk culture into 
 the New World, notably by Cortez in Mexico, all traces of which 
 have been lost, and in the settlements of Virginia. This last 
 spread through the Colonies, but was checked by the War of Inde- 
 pendence. In 1838 the culture of the silk-worm reached a mania 
 in the United States through the supposed capabilities of the South 
 Sea Islands mulberry, or mi/liicaulis, as a silk-worm food. Thou- 
 sands of acres were given over to the growth of this plant, but it 
 'soon proved to be a hollow speculation. To-day efforts are made 
 in various places to establish silk culture with little apparent suc- 
 cess. It is not a question of climate but of cheap labor, and 
 China, Japan, Bengal, and the Eastern Mediterranean are the silk- 
 producing countries of the world.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MAN. 
 
 Reading in Connection with this Chaffer. 
 
 * Races and Peoples. — Brinton. 
 
 * Anthropology. — Tvlor. 
 Earth and Man. — Guyot. 
 Herodotus. 
 
 LESSON I. — TYPES OR RACES OF MAN. 
 
 Main Types or Races. — The three original types of mankind 
 are to be met with to-day in our own country, — the Wliite Man, 
 the Black Man, and the Yellotv Man. The white race is the one to 
 which we ourselves belong, and no matter how varied the different 
 peoples of this race may appear, they all present the broad and 
 striking features of the white type. 
 
 The pure-blood black man or negro is known at once by his 
 characteristic features, hair, and coloring. So with the yellow man, 
 as seen in the Chinaman, his peculiar traits are distinctive and 
 unmistakable. 
 
 Every child in his daily walks meets with these three ancient 
 types of man. He knows them all to be men, but very different 
 in appearance. This difference is the result of their long resi- 
 dence and geographical separation in widely different parts of the 
 earth. They are brothers that long ages ago wandered away from 
 their first home and came to dwell in lands so different in character 
 and climate that each, throughout the long years that followed, 
 
 89 
 
 'J*
 
 90 MAN. 
 
 changed under the action of these all-powerful geographical con- 
 ditions. Their peculiar characteristics became fixed by long resi- 
 dence in their different countries, so that to-day we behold the 
 white, the black, and the yellow types of man. 
 
 We can recognize the distinctive traits of these three great types 
 in three well-marked features of each. 
 
 Physical Traits of the Races. — The white man, wherever found, 
 is at once recognized by the following well-marked traits: i. by 
 his white color, varying between darker and lighter shades, or bru- 
 nette and blonde types, but always unmistakably white \ 2. by his 
 wavy hair ; and 3. by his narrow nose. 
 
 The black man is at once the opposite of the white man in the 
 color of his skin and the character of his hair and nose : i. his 
 color is black or dark ; 2. his \v2ax frizzly or crinkled ; and 3. his 
 nose is broad. 
 
 The yellow man is equally distinct from the other two : i. his 
 color is yellow or olive; 2. his hair straight; and 3. his nose 
 medium, neither very broad nor very narrow. 
 
 Culture and Civilization. — Man, no matter what his circum- 
 stances in life, always presents a certain amount of culture. The 
 term 'culture' is used to indicate the possession, by man, of any 
 art no matter how primitive or crude it may be. Weapons ortools, 
 whether they be a bow and arrow or a repeating rifle ; two flat 
 stones for grinding corn or a steam mill with its comphcated 
 machinery ; the crudest ideas about God and Nature, or the high- 
 est ideals of divinity, literature, and science — all these are forms 
 or expressions of culture. These differences in culture among the 
 various peoples imply more or less different states of society, 
 though a people may be highly advanced in one art or conception 
 and have comparative crude ideas of others. Savage and barba- 
 rian are terms indicating comparatively low and primitive states 
 of culture and society, while civilization includes culture in its 
 highest and widest sense and is, therefore, an advanced state of 
 society. 
 
 Social Status of the Races. — The black man stands lowest in
 
 TYPES OR RACES OF MAX. 91 
 
 the social scale and in point of culture. The vast majority of his 
 people are savage, cultivating the arts of life in their lowest and 
 simplest forms. \V'ar and the chase form the principal occupa- 
 tions of these savage tribes, and, though some possess the art of 
 smelting ores and fashioning weapons, often of wonderful design, 
 their condition is relatively low. The religion of the negro is 
 largely material in its nature, being the worship of some animal 
 as a tribe totem, and a belief in the power of departed spirits. 
 The only ideal element, if it can be so called, in this material 
 religion is one of witchcraft and sorcery. 
 
 In the yellow man we see a decided advance in culture over 
 the negro. In a few instances, as in the Chinese and Japanese, 
 he has reached a comparatively high degree of civiHzation. Still 
 his arts are, with some striking exceptions, crude, his ideals far 
 from high, and his religious conceptions of a decidedly material 
 nature. A large portion of his race are barbarians — wandering 
 tribes following their herds and flocks over vast stretches of 
 pasture land without any definite occupation. 
 
 The white man, on the other hand, possesses a culture so far 
 advanced in its development that the term civilization is used to 
 embrace his entire social state. His arts of life are not only far 
 above those of other races, but in thought and imagination he 
 reaches heights unknown to any other race of men, and his 
 religion is of a purely spiritual and ideal character. 
 
 Cause of the Different Social States. — The cause of the differ- 
 ence in culture among the races of mankind is to be found in 
 inherent traits fixed at a very early period by various causes. 
 Among these, conditions of a geographical nature undoubtedly 
 play, and always have played, a very important part. Just how 
 these causes have operated in producing the different physical 
 traits is a very difficult question to determine, but their effect on 
 the social life is much more apparent. This we can see when 
 viewing the distribution of the different races on the earth's 
 surface.
 
 92 MAN. 
 
 LESSON II. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE 
 
 WHITE RACE. 
 
 Reading in Connection with this Lesson. 
 
 A Short History of the English People. — Green. 
 
 * Outlines of Universal History. — Fisher. 
 
 * The Aryan Race. — Morris. 
 
 Land of the Midnight Sun. — -Du Chaillu. 
 Hours of Exercise in the Alps. — Tyndall. 
 Views Afoot. — Bayard Taylor. 
 
 Original Home. — The name Caucasian has been appUed to the 
 white race from the supposition that the purest type of the white 
 man now inhabits the region of the Caucasus Mountains, and that, 
 therefore, this was the original home of the race. Recent studies, 
 however, have thrown more light on the subject, and all the evi- 
 dence brought forward goes far to prove that the purest type is 
 not the man of the Caucasus, nor does that region offer, in any 
 way, the slightest proof that it was the cradle of the white race. 
 There is evidence, moreover, that the original home of the white 
 man was somewhere in the Western Mediterranean region — South- 
 western Europe and Northern Africa. To-day the purest type of 
 the white race is supposed to survive in the Berber peoples, living 
 in the valleys of the Atlas Mountains in Northwestern Africa. The 
 Egyptian peoples belong to the white race, and their civilization, 
 the oldest in the world, is nearest to this region. 
 
 The South Mediterranean Branch of the White Race. — In an- 
 cient times the Libyan group of Hamitic peoples, to which the Ber- 
 bers and other tribes belonged, occupied the entire extent of the 
 northern portion of the Sahara Desert and the present Barbary 
 States, from the Adantic Ocean to the Nile Valley.^ East of this, 
 various Semitic peoples, as the Israelites, ancient Chaldeans, Abys- 
 sinians, Arabs, Bedouins, etc., occupied the country known as Syria 
 
 1 The ancient Egyptians and their existing representatives, the Copts and Fella- 
 heen peoples, also the Somalis, Gallas, Khamirs, and other tribes living in the 
 vicinity of the Red Sea, belong to the Hamitic slock of the white race.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRTRUTTON OF IVIHTE RACE. 93 
 
 Abd-El-Kader ; Semitic stock of 
 white race. (After Quatrefages.) 
 
 and Palestine, Abyssinia, the peninsula of Arabia, and the valley 
 of the Euphrates. In the fertile plains between the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, the land of Mesopotamia, were developed those famous 
 civilizations of history — the Baby- 
 lonian and Assyrian. 
 
 The South Mediterranean peo- 
 ples of the white race have always 
 lived surrounded by the savage 
 landscape of the desert. They 
 have been largely roving and 
 warlike tribes, traders threading 
 with their caravans the wastes of 
 the Sahara and Arabian deserts. 
 Their few fertile oases, river val- 
 leys, and strips of coast line have 
 offered the barest inducements to 
 the development of civilization, 
 
 and yet from among these peoples has arisen not only the culture 
 of the civilized world to-day, but also the most sublime religious 
 ideals — Christianity and Mohammedanism. 
 
 The North Mediterranean Branch of the "White Race. — The 
 Mediterranean Sea long separated the white race into its two 
 primary branches, the peoples of Northern Africa and those in- 
 habiting Southern Europe. At the dawn of history the North 
 Mediterranean branch was far behind the African section in cul- 
 ture and civilization. They were mere wandering hordes, begin- 
 ning to take here and there, in some favored spot, the first steps 
 of a civilization that was destined to spread and to rule the entire 
 earth. The central and important stock of this North Mediter- 
 ranean branch were the Aryan peoples, from which we are de- 
 scended. 
 
 In early times they occupied all of Southern and Central Europe, 
 and Asia to the borders of the high plateau region, probably to the 
 banks of the Oxus flowing north into the Sea of Aral. Some of the 
 most eastern of these peoples very early established the great Per-
 
 94 
 
 MAN. 
 
 sian civilization on the plateau of Iran, while others, pushing across 
 the Hindu-Kush Mountains and spreading over the valleys of the 
 
 Indus and Ganges, in the penin- 
 sula of Hindustan, laid the foun- 
 dation of the ancient civihzation 
 of India. 
 
 The Western Aryans. — The 
 Aryans had come from the West 
 as wild, wandering tribes, meet- 
 ing, battling, and mingling with 
 the South Mediterranean peo- 
 ples. While the Persians and 
 Hindus started their career of 
 civilization in the regions where 
 
 Hindu of Calcutta, Aryan. (After Qua- ^. ^^-j^ ,^1^-^^^ ^,^g ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^f 
 
 " " the Aryans began a slow west- 
 
 ward movement back again, barred from further progress to the 
 East by the great mountain wall of Central Asia — the Pamir, or 
 " roof of the world," as it was known to the Persians. 
 
 Spreading into the Balkan Peninsula and the isles of the ^Egean 
 Sea, some of these wild tribes, after long years of struggle, devel- 
 oped a culture which in later time became the source and inspira- 
 tion of the entire civilized world — the Grecian Civilization. In 
 the mountainous peninsula of Italy the Latin-speaking peoples 
 developed later into the great Roman Civilization. 
 
 Reaching to the western shores of Europe the Aryans became, 
 in time, broken into numerous distinct peoples, speaking different 
 lansuages and distributed over a wide area of country. The 
 Keltic peoples occupied the extreme western portion and are seen 
 to-day in the Irish, the Welsh, the Scotch Highlanders, and the 
 inhabitants of Brittany in France. The Teutonic peoples spread 
 over Central Europe. In Roman history the barbaric Goths and 
 Vandals belonged to this, people, also the Angles, Saxons, Norse- 
 men, and Franks, who later became the present nations of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark, Germany, Holland, England, 
 and America.
 
 95
 
 96 MAN. 
 
 The Latin-speaking peoples, who estabhshed the civilization of 
 Rome, and several other tribes have become extinct, the living 
 descendants of the ancient Italian group being seen to-day in the 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, French and other less prominent 
 nations. 
 
 Another Aryan group pushing north over the plains of Russia 
 were the Slavonic peoples, seen to-day in the modern Russians, 
 Poles, and the inhabitants of Servia, Bulgaria, etc. 
 
 Language. — The common ancestry of all these Aryan nations 
 of to-day is traced largely through words used in the different 
 languages. Many words in Latin, Greek, the Sanscrit of the 
 ancient Persians and Hindus, German, French, Spanish, Italian, 
 and Anglo-Saxon have, without doubt, been derived from a com- 
 mon root or original word, of which they still show unmistakable 
 traces.^ 
 
 While the two main branches of the white race show their 
 relationship by physical traits and the capability of entertaining 
 high spiritual ideals and of reaching advanced stages of culture, 
 the different peoples of a stock or subdivision indicate their 
 relationship largely through language and customs. 
 
 Geographical Considerations. — The present distribution of the 
 nations and peoples of the white race is part of history. Through 
 all this history geographical conditions have played a very im- 
 portant part. The fertile valley of the Nile, surrounded on all 
 sides by the desert, and favoring agricultural pursuits, early invited 
 some of the wandering tribes of the region permanently to settle 
 here. Thus were laid the foundations of a civilization the germ 
 of which was only slumbering in the brains of these higher types 
 of mankind. 
 
 The peculiar geography of Hindustan, a peninsula guarded 
 from the barbarian hordes of yellow men on the north by the 
 giant mountain wall of Central Asia, undoubtedly favored the 
 development and continuance of the Indian civilization. 
 
 So with Rome in its infancy. The peninsula of Italy was its 
 
 1 See " Chips from a German Workshop," by Max Miiller.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WHITE RACE. 97 
 
 guardian, and the lofty ranges of the Alps and Apennines kept 
 back for centuries the barbarian invaders, allowing the seeds of 
 one of the greatest civilizations to come to perfection. 
 
 The little nation of Switzerland has held its own against heavy 
 odds in the rugged and almost unreachable fastnesses of its 
 mountain home. 
 
 The vast steppes of Russia, traversed by such great rivers as 
 the Volga, the Don, the Dnieper, Dniester, and others, bordered 
 on the southeast by the Black and Caspian seas, and on the north- 
 west by the Baltic, offered peculiar conditions for the develop- 
 ment of a great nation in the immense territory of grass-covered 
 plains, wide water-courses and endless reaches of forest. 
 
 The supremacy of England to-day is largely the result of its 
 being an island separated from the continent by a strait, narrow 
 indeed, yet broad enough to develop a distinct and characteristic 
 nation of people. If Ireland had not been a separate island, the 
 Irish question would probably not be agitating the nation to-day. 
 From the fact of its being a group of islands Great Britain, in large 
 part, owes her supremacy as a naval power, and as a conqueror 
 in distant lands. 
 
 These examples are only a few of the many instances in man's 
 history of the effect of geographical surroundings and their im- 
 portance in influencing the destiny of nations and peoples. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Caucasus to-day represent a few peoples 
 that have found a refuge in these mountain valleys. The whole 
 broad region of Europe and Northern Africa has for ages been the 
 home of the white race. Its cradle was probably somewhere in 
 the Western Mediterranean region at a time, ages ago, when the 
 Mediterranean Sea was much smaller than it now is, and when two 
 strips of land extended between Europe and Africa ; one from the 
 southern shores of Spain, and the other from the southern shores 
 of Italy. In these parts the sea bottom now presents high ridges 
 covered by comparatively shallow water, not more than 1200 feet 
 in depth, while on either side of the ridges a depth of 13,000 feet 
 has been reached. Evidently the islands of Sicily and Malta are 
 
 H
 
 98 MAN. 
 
 the exposed tops of a sunken chain of mountains that stretched 
 from Italy into Africa. You must bear in mind that geology, 
 which is largely the study of the past history of the earth and its 
 relation to the present, has solved many more wonderful problems 
 than this one of a lost land connection.^ 
 
 The climate of this Mediterranean region must have been in 
 every way favorable to the development of the white man, and it 
 was largely the cause of at least one of his present physical traits 
 — the ivhite skin. To-day we find two distinct types in reference 
 to color — the blonde and the brunette, but there are endless 
 varieties resulting from the mixture of the two. The pure blondes 
 occur mostly in the northern peoples; the dark whites or bru- 
 nettes, in the south, and this we should expect on geographical 
 grounds. 
 
 From all the evidence thus far gathered, a geographical name 
 has been proposed for the white race, that of Eiirafrican, as best 
 indicating the land of its early development and the scene of 
 some of its greatest achievements. 
 
 1 At the time of the very earliest appearance of man, probably in the early 
 Quaternary, the present continent of Africa was separated by a sea from its north- 
 ern portion, which formed a part of what is now Southwestern Europe. (The 
 Atlas Mountains belong, genetically, to the same system as the mountains of Eu- 
 rasia.) The Northern Ocean reached much farther south, covering what is now 
 the low plains of Northern Europe and Asia. The peninsulas of Arabia and 
 Hindustan were then islands, which later became a part of the main land through 
 alluvial deposits. (See map.) It seems highly probable, from the evidence so far 
 gathered, that the three great races of history — the white, yellow, and black — 
 have occupied their present "areas of characterization " from an extremely remote 
 period, and under the influence of peculiar geographical (orographical) condi- 
 tions. The peoples of the white race, as seen by a study of the map on page 95, 
 have always occupied a position between the black peoples on the South and the 
 yellow men of Asia to the Northeast. By reference to the map on the opposite 
 page (99), illustrating Quaternary geography, it will be seen how these areas of 
 race characterization were isolated from one another. The present site of the 
 Sahara Desert was a sea separating the ancient land masses of Eurafrica and Aust- 
 ■ africa. The present Caspian Sea, in an area of depression below the sea level, and 
 its neighboring salt lakes are the "evaporating lees" of that ancient northern 
 ocean that once largely cut off a land mass of Asia to the East from the other land 
 areas.
 
 / 
 
 99
 
 100 MAN. 
 
 LESSON III. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE 
 
 BLACK RACE. 
 
 Reading in Connection with this Lesson. 
 
 Through the Dark Continent. — Stanley. 
 Hunting in South Africa. — Baldwin. 
 * Tropical Africa. — Drummond. 
 The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland. — Bent. 
 Lost in the Jungle. — Du Chaillu. 
 Country of the Dwarfs, etc. — Du Chaillu. 
 The various recent works on Africa. 
 
 Home of the Black Race. — The Continent of Africa south of 
 the Sahara Desert is, and ahvays has been, the home of the black 
 man. In this territory he is divided up into numerous tribes, each 
 occupying some definite region and, though differing in many ways 
 from one another, all possessing the unmistakable traits of the 
 race. These traits have, without doubt, been largely developed 
 by a long residence in the hot, moist climate of the tropical forests 
 of Western Africa. The more or less unifo rm c onditions of the 
 tropics, supplying an a5undanQe_oX food, with little, if any, effort 
 i n cultivation, has been an important element in kg^pi"g the black 
 man in a state of savagery. His needs are few ; warfare, hunting, 
 fishing and the rudest kind of agriculture have always been his 
 main .pursuits, and his culture h as dev eloped^ only so_Jar._as these 
 needs required. 
 
 The Physical Geography of Africa. — The western half of Africa, 
 from the northern borders of the Sahara to beyond the Congo, 
 is a dense forest region. Eastward the land gradually rises 
 into the great plateau of the continent — open, grass-covered 
 steppes and pasture lands, broken with patches of woodland. 
 From this elevated region rise lofty mountains and the snow-clad 
 summits of extinct volcanic peaks as Ruwenzori, Kenia and Kili- 
 manjaro, 20,000 feet above the sea. This highland is continued 
 northward on the east into the mountains of Abyssinia. To the 
 southward it becomes lower but spreads out, so that South Africa,
 
 BffABnjiiK \ 
 
 K^^. 
 
 .W 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 50«/ii-'^ 
 
 N 
 
 ca" 
 
 ^3&# 
 
 Cori-i^' 
 
 A/^e^ 
 
 i/Z>:5 
 
 
 #Sw4fij/^|| 
 
 t^ /,.ffp^* 
 
 ,x 
 
 Ethnic Chart of Austafrican Race. (After Brinton.) 
 
 lOI
 
 102 MAN. 
 
 beyond the Zambesi River, is a mountainous and hilly country 
 interspread with grass-covered plains, belts of forest, and arid 
 deserts. 
 
 In the high portions of eastern equatorial Africa a group of 
 remarkable fresh-water lakes or inland seas occurs — Victoria, 
 Albert, and Albert Edward Nyanza, Tanganyika, Nyassa, Bangweolo, 
 and many others of less importance. These lakes are the feeders 
 of gigantic water-courses that traverse the continent north, west, 
 and east. The Nile flows north from the Nyanza group, empty- 
 ing into the Mediterranean Sea. The Congo flows westwardly 
 into the Atlantic, while the Zambesi, rising in the mountains of 
 the south central part of the continent and receiving the Shire, an 
 important tributary from Lake N3'assa, empties into the Indian 
 Ocean. South of the Zambesi the Limpopo River likewise empties 
 into the Indian Ocean, while still farther south, the Orange or 
 Gareep River pursues a westerly course to the Atlantic. 
 
 The great forest region of the West coast is drained by a re- 
 markable river, the Niger, emptying into the Gulf of Guinea ; 
 while still farther north, the Senegal flows into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 African Zoology. — The African Continent is the home of a 
 vast number of large and peculiar animals, many of them being 
 found nowhere else on the earth. Two large, man-like apes, the 
 gorilla and the chimpanzee, are found in the dense forests of the 
 western part. Great herds of antelope, of many kinds, roam over 
 the pasture lands of East, Central, and South Africa. Zebra and 
 giraffe, the two-horned rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, a species of 
 elephant, the lion, the leopard, and several species of hyena are 
 some of the characteristic animals. All these are being driven 
 farther and farther into the heart of the continent before the 
 steady advance of the white man. The ' big game ' of Africa is 
 destined, before many years, to disappear from the face of the 
 earth. 
 
 Bird-life is here remarkably rich in peculiar forms. The ostrich 
 roams over the open lands and desert tracts of the entire conti- 
 nent. The curious secretary bird, feeding upon serpents, the
 
 
 .■•s^^^- 
 
 Relief Sketch. Map of Africa (Lambert's projection).
 
 GEOGKAriUCAL DISrRIBUTrOX OF BLACK RACK. 103 
 
 guinea hen, bee-eaters, sun-birds, weaver birds, kingfishers, parrots, 
 and a host of other more or less remarkable forms, besides flocks 
 of water-fowl, swarming along the great rivers, add to the wonder- 
 fully rich and peculiar life of this strange land. 
 
 Among reptiles, the crocodile of the various African rivers is the 
 most remarkable. Fishes are found in great abundance, and in- 
 sect life reaches a wonderful development in variety and numbers. 
 
 African Landscapes and Vegetation. — The features of an 
 African landscape tlepend largely upon the character of the vege- 
 tation in the different parts of the continent. Throughout the 
 desert region the date palm forms a characteristic feature. South 
 of this dry belt the date disappears, and the elTect of the tropical 
 rains coming in from the Atlantic marks the great forest region 
 with its rich and varied forms of plant life. Here occur the bao- 
 bab, the giant cotton trees, the oil and sago palms, the golden- 
 flowered laburnum, and the papyrus plant of the river shores and 
 swamps. Among food i^l ants the papaw, ground nut, manioc, 
 pigeon pea,'l^ustard~ai:)ple, plantains, and tamarinds are con- 
 spicuous. 
 
 TiTthe higher, more open regions of the eastern and southern 
 portions of the continent the heaths are found in great abundance, 
 also the euphorbias, mimosas, and many singular tribes ; while in 
 the arid desert tracts occur curious fleshy plants like the aloes and 
 melons. In every part the vegetation forms a striking feature of 
 the African landscape. 
 
 African Tribes and Peoples. — O ver this great r egion, with its 
 remarkable animal_a nd plant life, the black race is distributed, 
 being broken up into numerous tribes in the different parts of the 
 continent. Three main branches of the race are recognized : the 
 true Negroes, the Negroids, and the Negrillos or dtvarfs. 
 
 The true negroes inhabit the dense forests of Guinea and Sene- 
 gambia in the west, extending eastward through the Soudan or 
 "Land of the Blacks" to the Nile Valley. They consist of nu- 
 merous tribes scattered throughout this region, which is divided 
 into various kingdoms. Hunting, fishing^jilling th£_s oil and war -
 
 104 
 
 Af.LV. 
 
 
 fare are the princip al occ upations^ cif_theae. . peoples and some of 
 them, like^tHe Fans of Guinea, are cannibals. The western part 
 of this region and the Guinea coast were for years the seat of the 
 
 slave trade, whence 
 thousands of negroes 
 were shipped across 
 the sea to America. 
 
 The Nep-oid peo- 
 ples are probably the 
 result of a mixture 
 between the true ne- 
 groes and some of 
 the Semitic members 
 of the white race in- 
 habiting North and 
 East Africa. This 
 mixing of the two 
 opposite races along 
 their line of contact, 
 the middle Nile Val- 
 ley and northern bor- 
 ders of the Soudan, 
 must have been begun at a remote period and kept up closely for 
 a long time, as the Negroids are now a well-marked branch, split 
 up into numerous tribes. The tribes inhabiting Nubia, the high 
 grass-lands of East-central Africa (the great lake region and upper 
 Nile basin), the immense territory embraced by the water-sheds 
 of the Congo and Zambesi ; the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, and 
 numerous other peoples of the Bantu group in the south all belong 
 to this Negroid stock. They differ quite markedly from the true 
 negro, being in many ways more advanced, and when inhabiting 
 the open grass country they lead a more or less pastoral life. 
 
 The Negrillos or dwarfs are a little people. Some tribes dwell 
 in the dense forests on the northern side of the Congo. They are 
 expert elephant hunters, and engage also in hunting, constructing 
 
 A Negro Type, Ouali Serere. (After Quatrefages.)
 
 GEOGRAPirrCAl. niSTRlBUTION OF BLACK RACE. 105 
 
 pitfalls tor game, etc. In South Africa these little folk are again 
 found as the Bushmen, one of the lowest tribes of mankind, dwell- 
 ing on the borders of the great Kalahari Desert ; and the Hotten- 
 tots, somewhat larger in stature and much more intelligent, being 
 probably the result of a mixture of Bushmen with some of the 
 Negroid peoples of the region. 
 
 The Kalahari region is not a desert in the general sense of the 
 word, but a waterless waste of country overgrown with thickets 
 of mimosa and camel's thorn which send their roots deep down 
 into the soil in search of water. The Bushmen are very expert 
 in finding the presence of water, often at a considerable distance 
 below the surface. They feed on siiakes Jiz ards, insects, an d 
 roots, and build grass huts_for shelter. over night. 
 
 Effect of Arab Invasion. — The Arab of the white race has long 
 held sway over a wide portion of Africa. He carried the creed 
 of Islam, or Mohammedanism, into many of the native tribes, 
 and through his influence populous cities arose in several negro 
 kingdoms. Prominent among these is Timbuctoo, on the banks 
 of the Niger, built of sun-dried bricks and containing a popula- 
 tion of 20,000 souls. The influence of the Arab, however, was 
 not for good. As a trader in slaves and ivory, he has spread 
 terror over a vast extent of country. Tribe after tribe has fallen 
 into his hands, and the net-work of well-worn paths leading from 
 the interior to the shores of the Indian Ocean, on the Zanzibar 
 coast, are continually traversed by long caravans of wretched 
 captives loaded down with ivory. 
 
 The Future of Africa. — To the European the climate of many 
 parts of Africa is deadly in the extreme. It is especially so in 
 the low river valleys and along the coast where dense vapors 
 abound, loaded with malaria and the fever poison from decaying 
 vegetation. Until this element is overcome by long residence 
 and gradual acclimatization the condition of Central Africa must 
 remain much as it is to-day, and has been for centuries. In the 
 South, colonization by the white man has advanced rapidly. 
 The only possible hope of checking the Arab slave-hunting raids
 
 106 MAN. 
 
 in the interior is from the gradual extermination of the elephant. 
 When this is accomplished, the question of ivory from this source 
 will be at an end and one of the main causes of the slave trade 
 removed. 
 
 Geographical Name of the Race. — The black man is distinctly 
 a native of the southern half of the African Continent. The term 
 Austafrican race has, therefore, been proposed, the word ' aust,' 
 from austral, meaning south, indicating the land of his birth, 
 characterization, and present distribution. 
 
 LESSON IV. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE 
 
 YELLOW RACE. 
 
 Reading in Connection with this Lesson. 
 
 Central Asia. — Bayard Taylor. 
 
 Japan. — l]ayard Taylor. 
 
 Tent Life in Siberia. — Kennan. 
 
 Land of the White Elephant. — Vincent. 
 
 Roof of the World. — • Gordon. 
 
 A Social Departure. — Duncan. 
 
 Home of the Yellow Race. — The great land mass of Asia east 
 of the O-xus or Amu River and the Ural river and mountain range 
 is the home of the Yellow or Asian race. From time immemorial 
 the yellow man has occupied this area of the earth, and its pecu- 
 liar physical conditions must have set their stamp upon him at a 
 very early period, for we find him at the beginning of history 
 occupying this same region with the same physical characters of 
 form and feature that we see to-day. Like the black man, the 
 yellow man has remained much the same in intellectual develop- 
 ment and culture as when he first appeared on the historic scene. 
 The great and often rapid changes toward a higher culture that 
 mark the career of the white man, are as strikingly absent in the 
 yellow as in the black race, though the yellow man under pecu- 
 liarly favorable conditions early reached a form of civilization which 
 has not advanced beyond a certain step in centuries. The reasons
 
 I07
 
 108 MAX. 
 
 for this arrested development are to be fouiul largely in the geo- 
 graphical surroundings of the yellow race which, though totally 
 unlike those of the black race, have had a somewhat similar effect 
 in checking any tendency toward advancement of culture. It is 
 a striking fact that any elevation in the members of either race has 
 come from contact with the white man and his broadening influ- 
 ence. This is especially true in later years of the more civilized 
 Chinese and Japanese. 
 
 Physical Geography of Asia. — The surroundings of the yellow 
 race, except in a few favored river valleys and tropical coast 
 regions, are largely of a forbidding character. Two prominent 
 features mark the geography of Asia : to the south is a series 
 of mountain-rimmed plateaus of great elevation ; and stretch- 
 ing north of this highland, to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, 
 is a vast expanse of level plain, consisting of extensive marshes, 
 forests, and grass-covered steppes. These two features are 
 known as the Central Asian Plateau and the Great Siberian 
 Plain. 
 
 The Central Asian Plateau. — East of Persia or Iran the land 
 mass of Asia rises into that lofty ridge, the Pamir or ' roof of the 
 world,' 15,000 feet above the sea. Running westward from the 
 southern corner of this is the great Hindu-Kush range, connected 
 by numerous ranges with the Elburz Mountains south of the 
 Caspian Sea, and so on through the Caucasus with the mountain 
 ranges of Europe. Eastward from the Pamir two great mountain 
 ranges extend to the Pacific Ocean. The one to the north is the 
 Thian Shan, continued northeastwardly to the Sea of Okhotsk by 
 such broken ranges as the Siansk, Altai, Khinghan, Stanovi, and 
 numerous others. 
 
 The great mountain wall to the south, reaching quite to the 
 J]ay of Bengal, is the far-famed Himalaya range, containing 
 throughout its length some of the most remarkable mountain 
 peaks on the earth. Among these is Mount Everest, 29,000 feet 
 above the sea, and as far as known, the highest peak in the world ; 
 Kanchinjinga, near the village of Darjeeling, and many others
 
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 ^' a 
 
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 GEOGKArillCAI. DISTRIBUTION OF YELLOW RACE. 109 
 
 almost as high.^ These two great ranges, the Himalaya and 'I'hian 
 Shan, inclose a triangular table-land of immense height, its base 
 reaching far to the northeast. The southern portion of this 
 tabledand is much higher than the northeastern and is separated 
 from it by a range of mountains running nearly parallel with the 
 Himalayas — the Kuen Luen range. This high, southern portion, 
 lying between the Himalayas and Kuen Luen ranges, is the 
 Plateau of Thibet. Across its surface, from west to east, runs 
 another high range of mountains parallel with the others — the 
 Karakorum.2 The northeastern portion of this table-land, between 
 the Kuen Luen and Thian Shan, is the great Mongolian Plateau 
 traversed by numerous mountain ranges and divided into two 
 portions — the desert region of Eastern Turkestan to the west, 
 and the Shamo or Gobi desert to the northeast. 
 
 Lowlands. — On all sides of this elevated plateau the land falls 
 away : to the south and east into the tropical peninsulas of Hindu- 
 stan, Farther India, and the lowlands of Southern China ; to the 
 west into Turkestan and the depression about the Caspian Sea ; 
 while to the north it passes into the great Siberian Plain. This 
 vast expanse consists of stretches of pine forests interspersed with 
 open country in the south, while to the north the characteristic 
 tundras or marshy lands, broken here and there by low, straggling 
 mountain ranges, extend to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Drainage. — Numerous large rivers rise in the mountains of the 
 central plateau region and flow in all directions toward the sea. 
 To the south, in Hindustan, the Ganges, and its great tributary 
 the Brahmaputra empty into the Bay of Bengal, while the Indus 
 flowing southwestwardly empties into the Arabian Sea. From 
 the eastern spurs of the mountain region flow the two great rivers 
 of China — the Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang Ho, emptying into the 
 Pacific. Farther to the north, from the Mongolian Plateau, the 
 Amur River flows eastward into the Pacific. The Oxus and 
 Jaxartes, rising in the neighborhood of the Pamir, flow north- 
 
 ' The highest niountain is now thought to be DeocUiunga, one of the Himalayas, 29,002 
 feet. - The Karakorum Mmintaiii range does not reacli across I'hibct as an unbroken chain. 
 The range bearing this name is, in reahty, a gigantic spur of the Himalayas jutting out from 
 the Pamir, and as such is known as the Karakorum Himalayas.
 
 110 MAN. 
 
 westwardly into the Sea of Aral, while northward across the 
 Siberian Plain from the northern mountain ranges those great 
 water ways, the Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena, flow into the 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of this great region is one of extremes, 
 burning hot in summer, and in winter cold almost beyond de- 
 scription. Along the low eastern and southern coast lands and 
 peninsulas of Asia a tropical climate prevails throughout the year. 
 
 Peoples of the Asian Race. — The great Siberian Plain reaches 
 westward into Europe and extends on the south to the shores of 
 the Black Sea, and northwestwardly to the Baltic, embracing all of 
 Russia, and the lowlands of Central Europe. This geographical 
 feature is of great importance when we consider the distribution 
 of the Asian race. 
 
 The race, as a whole, presents two primary and well-marked 
 geographical divisions, into one or the other of which all the differ- 
 ent tribes and peoples fall. These divisions are known as the 
 Sinitic and Sibiric branches. 
 
 The Sinitic Branch. — The Sinitic branch comprises the inhabi- 
 tants of High Asia, from the Pamir eastward across the Plateau of 
 Thibet, also those of China and the peninsula of Farther India, 
 The religion of nearly all these peoples is that of Buddhism, a 
 material and mystical belief in which the higher faculties of the 
 mind are developed, but not a spiritual worship in the true sense 
 of the word. 
 
 The inhabitants of the lofty, mountain-rimmed Plateau of Thibet 
 form an isolated group, partially civilized, leading a pastoral rather 
 than an agricultural existence, but mainly given over to a religious 
 life. Buddhism finds its most devoted followers among these peo- 
 ples, thousands of them leading the life of monks and lamas, or 
 priests, in the holy city of Lhasa and the monasteries scattered 
 here and there in the fastnesses of the mountains. 
 
 The Chinese have reached a rather advanced state of civiliza- 
 tion that is largely the result of their geographical surroundings. 
 The fertile valleys of the Hoang Ho and Yang-tse-kiang — streams
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DrSTA'/BUTWAr OF YELLOW RACK. Ill 
 
 flowing from the hill country and mountainous regions through low 
 flood plains to the sea ; the temperate and tropical climates of the 
 northern and southern portions ; and the high mountainous deserts 
 barring China off from the rest of the continent, have all tended 
 to foster the conditions of culture 
 leading to civilization. China was 
 long excluded from the rest of the 
 world by its peculiar position. The 
 people were for a long time averse 
 to foreign intercourse, but this feel- 
 ing gradually gave way to the out- 
 side influence exerted by the white 
 man. To-day the Chinaman, with 
 his oblique, almond-shaped eyes, his 
 yellow skin and straight pig-tail, his 
 shuffling gait and " Pigeon Eng- 
 lish " talk, is in lands far away from 
 the Celestial Empire. His arts 
 and products are in every country, 
 
 and Peking, Nan-King, Canton, and Hong-Kong are marts and 
 cities of the world. The great wall of China was built, 214 b.c, 
 in order to protect the country from the once frequent inroads of 
 the barbarian hordes of Mongolia that several times threatened 
 the life of the empire. 
 
 The inhabitants of the several countries forming the peninsula 
 of Farther India — Burmah, Siam, Annam, Cochin China, Tonquin, 
 and Cambodia — belong to the Sinitic branch of the yellow or 
 Asian race. Some of these people show traces of admixture with 
 peoples of the other two races, though the Asian traits predominate. 
 They have reached a certain degree of civilization, and this is es- 
 pecially true of the Burmese and Annamese. 
 
 The Sibiric Branch. — The terms ' Sinitic ' and ' Sibiric ' in- 
 dicate roughly the geographical relations of the two main branches 
 of the Asian race. The first is derived from the old Greek name 
 for China, the Chinese being the typical members of this group. 
 
 Young Japanese girl — Asian type. 
 (After Quatrefages.)
 
 112 
 
 JILLV. 
 
 Sibiric is derived from the name ' Siberia,' this great territory 
 being the center of distriliution of the various peoples comprised 
 under this head. 'I'he Sibiric peoples are spread north of High 
 Asia from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea and the Baltic. At 
 one end of this extensive area, on a group of islands lying off the 
 eastern shores of Asia, are the Japanese peoples, the most highly 
 civilized of the Asian race. At the southwestern corner, in the 
 neighborhood of the Black Sea, is the great Ottoman Empire, occu- 
 pying the country known to-day as Turkey and in ancient times as 
 Asia Minor. Six distinct groups of this Sibiric branch are more 
 or less clearly defined as to their geography. 
 
 T. The /<T/>a//ese group already mentioned, which, according to 
 tradition, appear to have come to the islands from the mainland 
 at a remote period, and to have displaced a ruder race, the Anios, 
 
 a remnant of which still in- 
 habits the northern islands 
 of Japan. The inhabitants 
 of the peninsula of Korea 
 are closely related to the 
 Japanese, belonging to the 
 same group of peoples. 
 
 2. The Arctic group of 
 peoples comprise numer- 
 ous rude, barbarous tribes 
 living in Kamchatka and 
 Northeastern Asia, between 
 the Arctic Ocean and the 
 Pacific. The Chukchis, the 
 Kamchatkans, the Koraks, 
 with their herds of rein- 
 deer, the Namollos of East Cape, the Ghiliaks of Saghalien Island, 
 and the Anios of Northern Japan belong to this group. 
 
 3. The Finnic peoples, as the present Finns and Lapps of Fin- 
 land and Lapland in Arctic Europe ; the Samoyeds, and other 
 tribes inhabiting Northern Siberia, the regions about the great 
 river vallevs and Lake Baikal. 
 
 Chukchis 
 
 ■Asian type— Arctic group. (.After 
 Quatrefages.)
 
 GKOGRArinCAl. DlSTRfBUTlOX OF YELLOW RACE. 113 
 
 4. The Tiith^uisic grouij inhabiting the country known as Man- 
 churia, from China north to Kamchatka, and from the Yeni- 
 sei Valley to the Pacific. This 
 
 group consists of two peoples — 
 the Manchus, a somewhat superior 
 triiie, who gained possession of the 
 Chinese throne about two hundred 
 years ago, and still continue to 
 govern the great empire, and the 
 Tungus, a ruder people, living to 
 the north in the great wilderness 
 of swamp, mountain, and forest. 
 
 5. The Mongolic group, whose 
 
 original home was in the desert 
 
 Maudchon — Asian type. 
 Quatrefages.) 
 
 (After 
 
 wastes of the Mongolian Plateau, 
 south of the Altai Mountains, and 
 
 extending eastward to Manchuria. The group comprises the pres- 
 ent warlike and roving Kalmucks — the true herdsmen of the 
 Steppes — extending from Lake Baikal to the Volga River in Rus- 
 sia, and the present inhabitants of Mongolia. The Mongolian has 
 played an important part in the history of the past. In barbarian 
 hordes, under such fomous leaders as Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, 
 and Baber, he has from time to time swept the continent of Asia, 
 leaving ruin in his wake. The last-named leader once held India 
 under the empire of the Great Mogul (Mongol). 
 
 6. The Tataric ^ group found their original home in Turkestan, 
 north of the Pamir. From this point, at an early date, they spread 
 as barbarians east, west, and south. At the fldl of Rome they 
 swept westward into Europe under Attila, the "scourge of God." 
 Of their descentiants to-day we have the Turks, a Mohammedan 
 people ruling Turkey in Asia and Europe ; the Cossacks and Kir- 
 ghis of the Steppes ; the inhabitants of Bulgaria and Hungary in 
 
 1 Frequently, but incorrectly, spelled Tartar. It is derived from the Chinese 
 word ta-ta. Tu-kiu, another Chinese name, is tlie origin of our word, " Turk." 
 (Brinton.)
 
 114 • MAN. 
 
 Europe, and other less prominent peoples. Turkish dominion, 
 embraced under the Ottoman Empire, includes also Syria and 
 Egypt. It recognizes the Sultan as its head, and as the political 
 power of the entire Mohammedan world. 
 
 Effect of Geographical Features in the History of Asiatic Peo- 
 ples. — The white race, as we have already seen, occupies only a 
 small portion of Asia' proper — the peninsulas of Arabia and Hin- 
 dustan and the plateau of Iran or Persia. Between Persia and 
 Hindustan lie the two small countries of Afghanistan and Beloo- 
 chistan, peopled by branches of the Indian stock. The civiliza- 
 tion reached by these Asiatic members of the white race, though 
 inferior to European culture, is vastly superior to any civilization 
 of the Asian race. While Mohammedanism prevails in Persia 
 from its close geographical relations with Arabia, a nature wor- 
 ship, called Brahminism, and Buddhism are the religions of India. 
 Buddhism had its origin in India, spreading then.ce to Farther India, 
 Thibet, Central Asia, and China, so that the religion of the Asian 
 peoples had its source in the white race. To-day the votaries of 
 Buddha far exceed in numbers any other religious sect in the world. 
 
 The decision of the question of supremacy in the East between 
 the powers of England and Russia lies largely in geographical 
 conditions. England's empire in India and Russian power on the 
 frontiers of Afghanistan are separated by the Hindu-Kush and out- 
 lying ranges, and, if war be the issue, the Khyber Pass must 
 largely decide the result. 
 
 The destiny of Asia lies in the hands of the ever-conquering, 
 all-possessing white race. Russia or England will decide the fate 
 of the Turkish Empire and its Sultan, and all because the plains 
 and rivers of Russia reach to the Black Sea, and ships from the 
 Mediterranean may enter its domain through the Dardanelles and 
 the Bosphorus. The Russian Government is now laying one of 
 the greatest railroads of modern times across the wastes of Sibe- 
 ria from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, and the barbarians 
 of Asia are destined to disappear before this greatest of civilizing 
 influences.
 
 MAN IN AMERICA. 115 
 
 LESSON v.— MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 ReadiiNg in Connection with this Lesson. 
 
 The Ancles and the Amazon. — Orton. 
 
 A Thousand Miles' Walk Across South America. — Bishop. 
 
 * Concjuest of Peru. — Prescott. 
 
 * Conquest of Mexico. — Prescott. 
 
 * Nature and Man in America. — Shaler. 
 Our Arctic Province. — Elliott. 
 
 The Red or American Race. — The white, the black, and the 
 yellow races are the races of history. With the discovery of 
 America a new race appeared upon the scene. Men of a red or 
 coppery color, with straight or wavy hair and inediufu nose, leading 
 for the most part a savage life, though, in some instances, possess- 
 ing a culture hardly inferior to that of many of the white peoples. 
 The peoples of this Red or American race became known to the 
 world as Indians, a name which they still hold, from the fact that 
 Columbus, when he landed on the now historic island of the 
 Bahama group, believed that he had reached India by sailing 
 westward around the earth. 
 
 Broken into numerous tribes and peoples throughout the entire 
 extent of both North and South America, the red man every- 
 where presents the same physical features which at once dis- 
 tinguish him from the other races. His origin is obscure. He 
 has been an inhabitant of the American Continent long enough 
 to have had his peculiar race traits indelibly fixed by the 
 geographical conditions of the country and climate. The red 
 man undoubtedly came from Eurasia at a very remote period, 
 probably in that first general migration from the original home 
 which carried man to all parts of the earth, and brought about 
 the different races as we have already noticed. By what route 
 he came it is difficult to determine, some authorities believing 
 that it was from Asia by way of Behring Strait, others from Europe
 
 Relief Sketch. Map of North America (Lambert's projection).
 
 MAN IN AMERICA. 117 
 
 at a time when more or less of a land bridge existed between 
 Europe and Arctic America and Greenland. Some writers, from 
 some points of resemblance in his features, have claimed for him 
 a descent from the Asian race. However this may be, the red 
 man or Indian of to-day is both physically and geographically 
 a distinct race — the Americaii. 
 
 Culture. — The North American Indian leads the life of a 
 savage hunter. Throughout the continent, when first discovered, 
 the various tribes practiced a number of rude arts, pottery, the 
 fashioning of weapons and implements of the chase, and the 
 cultivation of maize and tobacco about their wigwams. In 
 Central and South America remarkable civilizations had developed 
 among some of the tribes, and cyclopean ruins of wonderful 
 design show that architecture had reached a high degree of 
 perfection. 
 
 Although the largest number are savages, an ideal religion has 
 always existed among them, the worship of a ' Great Spirit' being 
 almost universal throughout the various tribes in both North and 
 South America. 
 
 Physical Geography of the American Continents. — The general 
 outline of the land mass of the Western Hemisphere naturally 
 divides it into two large continents connected by a third, much 
 narrower, portion. The first of these, or North America, is 
 characterized by regions of widely different aspect. By far the 
 largest area is forest-clad, a vast wooded land in the eastern half 
 stretching, at the time of the discovery, from the northern limit 
 of trees in the far northwest to the mouth of the Mississippi 
 River. West of this is the region of the great plains, rolling, 
 grass-covered prairies, dry and treeless, except in the lower river 
 valleys. To the west these plains gradually rise into a great 
 plateau region, crowned by the lofty ranges of the Rocky Moun- 
 tain system. Between this and the Sierra Nevada ranges to the 
 west hes the Great American Desert, a dry, alkaline region 
 covered with sage-brush and coarse grass. On the Pacific slope 
 a forest region again prevails.
 
 Relief Sketch. Map of South America (Lamberfs projection).
 
 MAN IN AMERfCA. 119 
 
 Arctic America, north of the forest limit, is a barren stretch 
 covered with a stunted vegetation. To the extreme north the 
 land is broken into an archipelago of numerous islands separated 
 from Greenland by Baffin's Bay and the narrow channels leading 
 toward the North Pole. The Rocky Mountain system stretches 
 from Alaska in the extreme northwest to the highlands of Mexico. 
 The coast lands of Mexico are low and tropical in character, and 
 this condition becomes more and more pronounced as we travel 
 southward. The mountain ranges become insignificant, and in 
 the peninsula of Yucatan, in Guatemala, in Nicaragua, and on 
 the Isthmus of Panama the vegetation, scenery, and climate are 
 wholly tropical. 
 
 In that part of the Atlantic Ocean known as the Caribbean 
 Sea, between the Gulf of Mexico and the northern shores of 
 South America, lie a great number of volcanic and coral islands 
 known as the Greater and Lesser Antilles, or the West Indies, 
 comprising the islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, the Bahamas, 
 Windward and Leeward Islands, Trinidad, and numerous others. 
 
 The Isthmus of Panama joins Central America with the north- 
 west corner of the South American Continent, and the low moun- 
 tain ridges almost immediately rise into the lofty chain of the 
 Andes, stretching along the western or Pacific side to Cape Horn. 
 In this great Cordilleran or Andes chain is to be found some of 
 the grandest scenery in the world. A magnificent tropical vegeta- 
 tion covers the mountain slopes and valleys, while rising thou- 
 sands of feet into the air tower numerous volcanic peaks, many 
 of them active and covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 The eastern portion of South America, like the western portion 
 of Africa, is low and covered with a dense tropical forest, a result 
 of the moisture-laden trade winds of the Atlantic. This forest 
 region is of vast extent, stretching from the eastern base of the 
 Andes to the Atlantic, and south to the Rio de la Plata. South 
 of this great river the open, grass-covered plains or pampas reach 
 to the narrow, mountainous end of South America, known as Pata- 
 gonia, ending at the Straits of Magellan. This narrow strip of
 
 120 MAN. 
 
 water separates the continent from the Ibland of Tierra del P'uego, 
 at the southern termination of which is Cape Horn, jutting out 
 between the icy waters of the South Atlantic and South Pacific 
 oceans. 
 
 Rivers. — In the eastern wooded region of North America the 
 low ranges of the Appalachian Mountain system run north and 
 south. These act as a water shed to numerous streams flowing 
 into the Atlantic Ocean, on the one hand, and into the great 
 Mississippi system of drainage on the other. In the same way 
 the Rocky Mountains part the streams flowing east into the 
 Mississippi from those going west toward the Pacific. The Missis- 
 sippi is the great central drain of the continent, flowing into the 
 Gulf of Mexico. East of its source a remarkable chain of fresh- 
 water lakes occurs, finding an outlet to the Atlantic through the 
 St. Lawrence River. 
 
 North of the source of the Mississippi is a low range of hills 
 called the ' Height of Land,' separating streams that flow north 
 into Hudson Bay from southward flowing waters. 
 
 A number of large lakes are scattered through the northern 
 portion of the continent, and several rivers of considerable size 
 flow into the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 In South America three great rivers rise in the Eastern Andes 
 and flow through the low, tropical forests to the Atlantic. The 
 one farthest north is the Orinoco. The Amazon, the largest 
 stream in the world, flows across the continent at about its broad- 
 est part, while to the south is the great La Plata. These three 
 rivers are very near one another at their head waters, and the 
 Amazon and Orinoco are connected by a stream called the Cassi- 
 quaire. Only a few mountain torrents flow into the Pacific on the 
 western side of South America, the steepness of the slope leaving 
 but a narrow fringe of level coast land. 
 
 Tribes and Peoples of the American Race. — The peoples of the 
 American race fall very naturally into seven geographical groups. 
 I. The Arctic Group, comprising the Eskimo tribes and the in- 
 habitants of the Aleutian chain of islands, stretching from the
 
 MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 121 
 
 southern coast of Alaska almost to Kamchatka. The Eskimo 
 peoples are spread from Icy Bay in Alaska eastward across Arctic 
 America into Cireenland. They are for the most part seafaring, 
 engaged in hunting the walrus, seal, narwhal, polar bear, and other 
 arctic animals. They depend on their packs of dogs to carry 
 them in sledges over the land-ice and frozen seas of their desolate 
 home. Unlike many of the Northern Asiatic tribes, they have not 
 domesticated the reindeer which, along with the curious musk 
 sheep, abound in this re- 
 gion, but they hunt these - --«.-<««>--- 
 animals for their skins and 
 flesh. Their ' kayaks ' or 
 sea-canoes, made of seal 
 skins stretched over frames 
 of wood or bone, are models 
 of skillful workmanship, as 
 are also their various hunt- 
 ing and fishing implements, 
 made of wood, bone, and 
 ivory. They live in snow 
 houses, and it is interesting 
 to note that the arch or 
 dome- shape of these dwell- 
 ings was an idea of their 
 own. 
 
 2. The North Athtntic 
 Group comprises all the In- 
 dian tribes of North Amer- 
 ica from the Atlantic west 
 to the Rocky Mountains, 
 
 and south of the Arctic peoples. In other words, they oc- 
 cupy the vast territory drained by the rivers flowing into the 
 Atlantic Ocean, either directly, or through Hudson Bay. and the 
 Gulf of Mexico. The eastern stocks, like the i\.lgonkin and Iro- 
 quois tribes, have long since disappeared. The Northern or 
 
 Gray Eagle — Apache — American type. 
 (After Quatrefages.)
 
 122
 
 MAN IN AMERICA. 123 
 
 Athapasca stock, known among its members as Tinneh, " people," 
 and by the Algonkins as Chepewyans, or " pointed skins," from 
 the shape of the skin robe which they wore, was at one time 
 widely dispersed from Hudson Bay to the Arctic Ocean, and 
 west ah-nost to the mouth of the Yukon River in Alaska. Some 
 of their tribes that wandered south are the present Apaches 
 and Navajos of the southwestern United States. The Dakota 
 stock, better known to-day as the Sioux tribes, at one time 
 spread from Lake INIichigan to the Rocky Mountains, and from 
 the Saskatchewan River on the north to the Arkansas River 
 on the south. The now civihzed Choctaws, Cherokees, Chick- 
 asaws, Creeks, and Seminoles formerly occupied the present area 
 of the Gulf States, from the Mississippi to the Atlantic. The 
 Creeks are thought to be the descendants of the curious people 
 called ' Mound Builders,' who have left their strange earth-works 
 in the Ohio Valley. The ' Plain's Indians ' of to-day, outside 
 of the Sioux tribes, are mostly descended from two stocks — the 
 Caddoe and the Shoshonee. Of the former are the Pawnees 
 and Kioways ; of the latter, the Utes and Comanches. Most of 
 the Plain's Indians are expert horsemen, having domesticated the 
 descendants of the horses that ran wild after the Spanish invasion 
 by Cortez. 
 
 3. The North Pacific Group includes various tribes from Mount 
 St. Elias, on the north, to Mexico and I,ower California. In the 
 north they have always been mostly hunters and fishers, but, in 
 the south, such tribes as the Pueblo Indians and the Cliff Dwellers 
 of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona reached a considerable 
 degree of culture, the evidence of which is seen in their remark- 
 able stone dwellings, pottery, and clothing. 
 
 4. The Mexican Group includes the famous Aztec civilization, 
 remains of which are still seen^n the wonderful ruins of architect- 
 ure, and in the manufactures and implements which they used. 
 
 5. The Central American Group of people living between the 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Isthmus of Panama are known as 
 the Mayas. They are to-day degenerate descendants of a once
 
 124 
 
 JlAiV. 
 
 highly cultured people, who have left striking evidence of their 
 architectural skill in the numerous ruins of monuments and fortifi- 
 cations scattered throughout the region. 
 
 6. The S0U//1 Atlantic Group comprise the formei; inhabi- 
 tants of the West Indian Islands, the forests of the Orinoco, 
 Amazon, and La Plata, known as Caribs, Tupis, Arawaks, etc., 
 and the tribes descended from them. Belonging to this same 
 group are the roving peoples of the pampas, the Indians of Pata- 
 gonia, and the natives of Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 7. The South Pacific Group, or the 
 ancient dwellers along the Andes 
 Mountains, had reached a remarkable 
 civilization at the time of the Spanish 
 Conquest. These people were the 
 Incas or Qquichua tribes of Peru.^ 
 They cultivated various plants ; had 
 a system of canals for carrying water ; 
 built temples of wonderful design and 
 structure and domesticated the llama, 
 a peculiar animal of that mountainous 
 region. From the wool of this crea- 
 TeresaCapac- Peruvian. (After jure they wove various cloths, and this 
 
 Quatrefages.) , r ^i 1 • r i 
 
 same wool forms the basis of the 
 material known to-day as ' alpaca.' They were skillful workers in 
 gold and various metals, and in pottery of the finest character ; 
 understood the embalming or mummifying of the dead, like the 
 ancient Egyptians, and possessed advanced forms of worship and 
 government. All this splendor of civilization was cut short by the 
 bloody conquest of the Spaniards under Pizarro. 
 
 South of the great Peruvian civilization, in the mountains of 
 Chile, lived the Araucanians, a warlike and hunting people, related 
 to the tribes of the pampas, though of superior intelligence in 
 consequence of contact with the Incas. 
 
 1 The term Inca referred to the rulers. Qquichua was the language spoken.
 
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 H 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 (U 
 
 o 
 • •— ^ 
 
 -a 
 
 •a 
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 O., 
 
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 oi
 
 ISLANDERS AND COAST PEOPLES. 125 
 
 LESSON VI. — ISLANDERS AND COAST PEOPLES. 
 Reading in Connechon with this Lesson. 
 
 The Malay Archipelago. — Wallace. 
 Coral Islands. — Dana. 
 Among Cannibals. — Lumholtz. 
 
 Island Geography. — From the southeastern shores of the 
 Malay Peninsula a chain of islands extends almost to Australia. 
 Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Java, and its group of smaller islands, 
 the Moluccas or Spice Islands, Timor, Ceram, New Guinea, and 
 a host of smaller ones are all more or less mountainous and vol- 
 canic islands with low, coral-fringed shores and covered with a 
 luxuriant tropical vegetation. Immediately to the north of these 
 lie the Philippines and Formosa, of much the same character, 
 while south of the peninsula of Hindustan is the island of Ceylon. 
 In the Indian Ocean, east of Hindustan, are two small groups, 
 the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Off the east coast of Africa 
 is the large island of Madagascar with its outlying groups, the 
 Mauritius, Seychelles, and Comoro islands. South and east of 
 the island continent of Australia lie Tasmania and New Zealand, 
 while a vast area of the Pacific Ocean north and east of this is 
 dotted with a multitude of islands and island clusters, or archi- 
 pelagoes, the entire region being known as Polynesia or Oceania. 
 Among the more noted of these island groups are the Salomon, 
 Caroline, Ladrone, Pelew, Marshall, Gilbert, Sandwich or 
 Hawaiian Islands, Samoa or Navigators, Fiji, Friendly, Society, 
 and Low Archipelago, besides hundreds of other less noted and 
 conspicuous islands and clusters. Many of these islands are 
 coral formations, built on sunken volcanic mountain ridges, and 
 rising out of a deep sea. They are mostly covered with a luxu- 
 riant tropical vegetation. 
 
 These islands are all inhabited by peoples which, though very
 
 126 
 
 MAN. 
 
 different in many respects from one another, all possess certain 
 physical traits, which point to a common origin and a more or less 
 close relationship, though now separated by wide stretches of 
 ocean. 
 
 Physical Traits of Island Peoples. — These physical traits are 
 a dark shade of color, wavy or frizzly hair, and medium or narrow 
 nose. Some of these peoples show a decided likeness to certain 
 Asiatic types, while others resemble the black peoples of the 
 African continent. Based on these physical characteristics and 
 their relationships, we can divide them into three main branches 
 or stocks, — the Negritic, Malayic, and Australic. 
 
 Distribution. — \.'\\\q. Negritic stock includes the inhabitants 
 of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, the tribes inhabiting 
 Malacca and the Philippines, the Papuas of New Guinea, and the 
 natives of the Fiji and Loyalty islands. New Caledonia, New 
 Hebrides, etc. The physical aspects of many of these peoples 
 are strikingly like some of the black tribes of Africa. Some, like 
 the Papuas, are low in the scale of development, unacquainted 
 
 with even the bow and arrow. 
 Others, again, like the Fiji Island- 
 ers, have reached a considerable 
 degree of culture. 
 
 2. The Malayic stock includes 
 the Malays of the Malay Penin- 
 sula, or Malacca, and Sumatra ; 
 the natives of Java ; the Dayaks 
 ,\ \ '^^ or ' head hunters ' of Borneo ; 
 
 the Macassars of Celebes ; the 
 ,^ '^ Tagalas of the Philippines ; the 
 
 ~ '" ^- Hovas of Madagascar; and the 
 
 Javanese — Island type. (After Qua- Polynesians, Micronesians, and 
 trefages.) Maoris, spread over that vast 
 
 expanse of coral sea from the Sandwich Islands, on the north, to 
 New Zealand, on the south. Though rude and savage by nature, 
 many being cannibals, some have attained a remarkable degree
 
 ISLANDERS AND COAST PEOPLES. 127 
 
 of culture. Arts of various kinds have reached more or less per- 
 fection ; a belief in many gods, or polytheism, is prevalent, and 
 evidences of ancient architectural skill are seen to-day on several 
 of the islands, notably on Easter, Tonga, Pitcairn, and the 
 Carolines. 
 
 3. The Australic stock consists of two widely separated groups, 
 — the natives of Australia and Tasmania, and the Dravidians or 
 ' hill peoples ' of India. The inhabitants of Tasmania have dis- 
 appeared entirely before the white race, and the native Australians 
 of pure blood are fast following them in this respect. The Austra- 
 lian is of the lowest grade of culture ; a roving, ungoverned, 
 naked savage, unacquainted with the bow and arrow, using as 
 weapons the spear and a curious crooked club for throwing at ob- 
 jects, called the ' boomerang.' He is a cannibal of the most 
 cruel kind, with a religion full of sorcery, witchcraft, and curious 
 rites. 
 
 The Dravidians, though physically related to the Australians, 
 are as widely different from them in other respects as they are 
 widely separated geographically. The present ' hill tribes ' of 
 India are of Dravidian blood, their ancestors being the original 
 inhabitants of the peninsula of Hindustan, occupying the soil at 
 the time of the Aryan invasion, some four thousand years ago. 
 
 Means of Dispersal of the Island Peoples. — The question of 
 how this great island region was peopled is exceedingly interest- 
 ing. At a very early period, the inhabitants of Southern Asia, a 
 people in all probability resembling the present Malays of the 
 Malay Peninsula, spending much of their time at sea fishing and 
 voyaging in their rude boats, gradually extended their voyages to 
 distant islands. By this means all the islands came in time to be 
 peopled, each group holding its own people, which sooner or later 
 differed more or less from the other islanders, owing to various 
 conditions of the different islands themselves, and the cutting off 
 of frequent intercourse by the wide stretches of sea between them. 
 To-day the Polynesians, and many of the other island peoples, are 
 largely aquatic, being expert swimmers, spending a great deal of
 
 128 Af.LV. 
 
 their time in the water, and often making in their canoes voyages 
 of many thousand miles. The Malay pirates have long been a 
 terror to ships sailing in East Indian waters, and the lascars, or 
 East Indian sailors, that help to make up the crews of ships in 
 many parts of the world, belong to this Malay stock. 
 
 Peoples of the black race from the east shores of Africa have 
 undoubtedly, at a remote period, reached some of the islands in 
 the Indian Ocean, and, mixing with the tribes there, have produced 
 the negro traits which we see in certain islanders to-day. 
 
 It was undoubtedly in some such way, by longer and wider 
 voyages from the shores of the mainland and its adjacent islands, 
 that man came in time to people the entire island region of the 
 Pacific, and, coming under new and peculiar geographical condi- 
 tions, to form a more or less distinct island race.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 Reading in Connection with this Chapter. 
 
 * History of Civilization. — Buckle. 
 Applied Geography. — Keltic. 
 
 The Discovery of America. — Fiske. 
 
 * The American Commonwealth. — Bryce. 
 
 * The Influence of Sea Power upon History. — Mahan. 
 
 Lesson I. — THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE. 
 
 What is Commerce? — Commerce is the exchange of commodi- 
 ties between different peoples. Trade and traffic are terms mean- 
 ing the same thing. The essential feature of commerce is the 
 possession of certain things by a people in a land where these 
 things are native or manufactured, and the need for these same 
 things by peoples dwelling in lands where they do not naturally 
 exist. These last peoples must, however, possess things needed 
 by the others, in order to effect a trade. 
 
 It is plain to be seen, from what we have already learned, that 
 geography is, after all, the essential element of commerce. 
 
 Money as a Medium of Exchange. — A unit of value or medium 
 of exchange has existed from earliest times among the various 
 tribes and peoples of the earth. Many of the commodities form- 
 ing the wealth of peoples were difficult to transfer, and this led in 
 the course of time to the use of money as representing a fixed 
 standard of value. 
 
 K 129
 
 130 COMMERCE. 
 
 Various articles have been used for money throughout history. 
 The wealth of the early pastoral peoples was in their flocks and 
 herds. The current value of anything was represented by the ox 
 or sheep. Our word ' pecuniary,' in use to-day, comes from the 
 Latin word pecus, meaning a flock. Among many savage tribes 
 various articles are still in use as money. The Fiji Islanders use 
 the tooth of the sperm whale ; the natives of India use cowrie 
 shells. Among some of the Indian tribes of North America, the 
 skins of wild animals were for a long period a medium of ex- 
 change, and certain kinds of clay and ochre, used in the manufoct- 
 ure of pipe bowls and for decorating the body with paint, formed 
 articles of standard value. 
 
 All this gives us a picture of how, in the early history of civil- 
 ized peoples, money came to be established as a medium of ex- 
 change. As man's occupation passed from the life of a hunter to 
 that of a shepherd, the skin of an animal gave place to the animal 
 itself, and later to a standard of value representing the animal. 
 
 Gold and Silver. — A substance durable and lasting, easily trans- 
 ported, and capable of being divided became in time the needed 
 requisite for a basis of money. From the rare kinds of stones, 
 shells, and earths it passed to metals. Iron appears to have been 
 used at a very early period for this purpose. Tin, copper, lead, 
 and alloys of metals were in use at different periods of history by 
 various peoples. Finally, gold and silver came into use, and gradu- 
 ally spread over the greater part of the earth. Smelting, or the 
 process of separating the pure metal from its ore, and making it 
 into a piece, was an art easily practiced by the more advanced 
 peoples. The value of an ox or sheep was given by weighing the 
 gold or silver. Every 'piece ' must, therefore, have a given weight. 
 For a long period the gold and silver were weighed out at the time 
 of barter, but, as Aristotle, the old Greek philosopher, long ago 
 writes, the piece was " afterwards determined in value by men 
 putting a stamp upon it, in order that it may save them from the 
 trouble of weighing it." In this way our present systems of coin- 
 age and exchange have arisen.
 
 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE. 131 
 
 Ancient Routes of Commerce. — Water ways and river valleys 
 formed natural highways of commercial intercourse at an early 
 period. The ancient centers of civilization were in river valleys, 
 and undoubtedly a traffic existed in the most ancient times along 
 the lower Nile, and in the Euphrates and Tigris, to the Persian 
 Gulf. These early traders without doubt coasted along the shores 
 of Arabia and Africa in the Red Sea, and may have reached even 
 the western shores of India at a very early date. These earliest 
 centers of civilization, the Egyptian and Chaldean, in their fertile 
 river valleys, were separated by the sandy wastes of the desert. 
 Any communication between them must lie across this desert and 
 be carried on by means of slowly moving caravans of camels. 
 Famines occurred from time to time, and led to the storing up 
 of large quantities of grain or ' corn ' in the granaries of Egypt 
 and the cities of Mesopotamia for time of need. In sacred writing 
 the famine is mentioned that sent the sons of Jacob down into 
 Egypt from Palestine for corn. The transaction with Joseph was 
 made in silver coinage. 
 
 Arab Traders. — The Arabs, leading a wandering life along the 
 edges of the deserts, early became the carriers for the more civil- 
 ized nations about them. With their caravans of camels they 
 carried merchandise across the wild and desert tracts of country 
 between one city and another. The civilizations of the Nile and 
 the Euphrates valleys were thus brought into contact, and the 
 goods of each exchanged. In the Bible mention is made of one 
 of these merchant caravans, the Ishmaelites, that carried Joseph 
 into Egypt from the land of Canaan. 
 
 The Phoenicians. — When the Israelites crossed the Jordan into 
 the land of Canaan after their forty years of wandering in the 
 wilderness, they conquered and drove out the nations occupying 
 the land. Among these were a people of the Semitic stock of the 
 white race, known as the Phoenicians, who, after having been driven 
 out, established themselves on the narrow strip of coast bordering 
 on the Mediterranean Sea and shut off from the rest of Palestine 
 by a series of low mountain ranges. With little chance for devel-
 
 132 COMMERCE. 
 
 opment on land in so narrow a territory, these Phoenician people 
 developed a seafaring life, and became the first sailors known to 
 history. They built the famous cities of Tyre and Sidon, and 
 their fleets of vessels became carriers for the civilized world at 
 that time. Probably at first creeping along the shores in boats 
 propelled by oars, they later hoisted sail and stood out into the 
 Mediterranean. When King Solomon built the great temple at 
 Jerusalem, he contracted with Hiram, king of Tyre, who fitted out 
 a fleet of ships that sailed to a distant land called Ophir, and 
 brought back costly woods, rich perfumes, oils, fruits, spices, pre- 
 cious metals, curious birds, ivory, and apes. This fleet was prob- 
 ably fitted out on the shores of the Red Sea, and, sailing through 
 what are now the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, passed into the Indian 
 Ocean. Whether they sailed to the west coast of India and some 
 of its islands, or southward along the African coast, we are left to 
 conjecture. The discovery of ancient ruins of undoubted Semitic 
 origin, in connection with long-abandoned gold workings, in 
 Mashonaland, south of the Zambesi, points to this region as the 
 possible land of Ophir. To whatever place they sailed they must 
 have kept close to shore, for they would hardly dare lose sight of 
 land on so adventurous a voyage. 
 
 Sailing westwardly along the Mediterranean shores, these Phoe- 
 nician navigators established a famous colony on the African 
 coast, near the present Cape Bon, which later grew into the great 
 city of Carthage. 
 
 Carthage. — The Phoenicians disappeared from history after the 
 conquest of the East by Alexander. That great conqueror sighed, 
 as his horses stood drinking on the banks of the Indus, to think 
 " that there was no more world to conquer," little dreaming of 
 the great Indian civilization, with all its magnificence and splen- 
 dor, that lay almost within his reach. Other great seaports had 
 arisen along the Mediterranean. Alexander founded on the west- 
 ern side of the Nile delta the city that to the present day bears 
 his name. The Mediterranean became a highway of trafiic. 
 Athens, Corinth, and Argos rivaled one another in splendor and
 
 THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE. 133 
 
 commercial enterprise. Fleets of ships carried merchandise and 
 treasures from one land to another. Foremost among these were 
 the fleets of Carthage. The Carthagenians established the colo- 
 nies of Carthagena and Barcelona on the shores of Spain, and had 
 steered their ships through the ' straits,' between the Pillars of 
 Hercules, out into the Atlantic. On the Atlantic coast of Spain 
 they founded the seajiort of Cadiz. One of their boldest naviga- 
 tors, Hanno, sailed southward along the western coast of Africa 
 as far as the Eight of Biafra. Carthage fell under the Roman 
 power one hundred and forty-six years before the birth of Christ, 
 and the great city was razed to the ground. Corinth and Athens 
 fell under the same power, and Rome held the commerce of the 
 world. 
 
 Venice. — .'\mong the numerous tribes inhabiting Italy in 
 Roman times were a people called the Veniti, living in the valley 
 of the Po. They were an agricultural people, but largely engaged 
 also in various commercial enterprises. The Po flows into the 
 Adriatic Sea, or that portion of the Mediterranean between the 
 Italian and Balkan peninsulas. At its mouth it forms a delta con- 
 sisting of numerous islands, between which the v^arious channels of 
 the river wind in their flow toward the sea. The barbarian hordes 
 of the north, under Alaric, had spread terror over the plains of 
 Italy, and when Attila with his savage bands of Huns swept west- 
 ward, the Vefiiti fled with their goods to the islands of the delta, 
 where they could effectually guard the various water ways sur- 
 rounding their island home from barbarians unlearned in the 
 handling of boats. Such was the beginning of the great city of 
 Venice, which for more than a thousand years dazzled the world 
 with her splendor and held the commerce of land and sea. 
 
 The Crusaders spread the glory of Venice far into the east, and 
 brought back fabulous accounts of Oriental wealth and splendor. 
 They thus did more to bring the east into commercial relations 
 with the west than could possibly have been done by any other 
 means at the time. Venetian travelers, like Marco Polo, made 
 • visits to the far east, reaching even China, or Cathay as it was then
 
 134 COMMEKCE. 
 
 called, and brought back glowing accounts of strange lands and 
 peoples. 
 
 Venice, under the influence of her developing conamerce, be- 
 came the great center of finance, and the distributor of trade to 
 all the nations of Western Europe. Bookkeeping and banking 
 reached a high degree of perfection in Venice. Other cities of 
 Italy followed in her steps and became rival commercial powers. 
 Among these were Genoa, Florence, Naples, and even fallen Rome. 
 Venice still held her own, however, and continued to command 
 the commerce of the world. 
 
 LESSON II. — THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 
 
 The Middle Ages. — The period of history usually called the 
 Middle or Dark Ages covered about a thousand years, from the 
 fall of Rome to the discovery of the New World. During all this 
 time Venice from her early start and her peculiar geographical 
 position, at the head of the Adriatic, held the key of commerce. 
 The rest of civilized Europe, however, profited by this. Art and 
 culture developed to a surprising degree under the influence of 
 the wealth which Venice spread abroad. Notwithstanding the in- 
 roads of the Moors or Saracens from Northern Africa into South- 
 ern Europe, or the influence of the feudal system in the north, 
 civilization, with all its attendant features, steadily advanced. Inven- 
 tion, manufacture, painting, letters, were all developed in the va- 
 rious cities of Southern Europe, and gradually spread into those 
 of more northern parts. New ideas succeeded old ones, and 
 among them new notions as to the shape of the earth and other 
 geographical questions took a foremost place in men's minds. 
 Some of the old Greek philosophers held the belief that the earth 
 was round, but this idea died out with the fall of Greece under 
 the Roman power, and throughout the long centuries that followed 
 men clung to the ancient idea that the earth was a flat surface. 
 The Mediterranean was the known sea. Beyond the ' straits ' 
 few had dared lose sight of land.
 
 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 135 
 
 " Illusion dwells forever with the wave. 
 I know what spells are laid. Leave me to deal 
 With credulous and imaginative man; 
 For, though he scoop my water in his palm, 
 A few rods off he deems it gems and clouds. 
 Planting strange fruits and sunshine on the shore, 
 I make some coast alluring, some lone isle, 
 To distant men, who must go there or die." 
 
 Voyages of Discovery. — Such legends as those of the Golden 
 Fleece and of the Land of the Hyperboreans, behind the north wind, 
 had fired the imaginative mind of ancient Greece, and lured her 
 sailors westward. By this means geographical knowledge was 
 widened, and new settlements sprang up on distant shores of the 
 Mediterranean. With the perfecting of the mariner's compass, 
 about the beginning of the fourteenth century, a new era was at 
 hand. Navigators dared venture out of sight of land with reasona- 
 ble hopes of keeping to a given course and returning again to the 
 port from which they had set sail. Italy was no longer alone the 
 seafaring nation. Other nations of Europe joined in the new 
 enterprise of voyaging and discovery. France, Spain, Holland, 
 and England, under the advantages given to seagoing by the com- 
 pass, had their ships upon the ocean, and before many years the 
 Adantic was being explored. In 1330 the Canary Islands were 
 discovered, and a few years later the islands of Madeira. In 1431 
 the x'\zores, lying still farther west, were sighted. 
 
 Foremost among these voyagers were the Portuguese, who, see- 
 ing the advantages to be gained by a control of the commerce of 
 the East Indies, bent their energies toward the discovery of a sea 
 route in that direction. In i486 Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese 
 navigator, sailing southward along the African coast, reached the 
 land's end. From the tempests and high-running waves which his 
 vessel encountered, he called it the ' Cape of Storms,' but it gave 
 such promise of a sea route to India that on his return King 
 John II. of Portugal called it the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa in Italy, conceived 
 the idea that the earth was round, and that by sailing westward he
 
 136 • COMMERCE. 
 
 could reach India and China. His memorable voyage in 1492 
 from the port of Palos in Spain resulted in the discovery of the 
 New World. His landfall was one of the Bahama Islands, but he 
 believed that he had reached India. From this mistaken idea the 
 entire island region is known to this day as the West Indies, and 
 the inhabitants of America are called Indians. Though Columbus 
 made four voyages to the New World, he never found out his mis- 
 take, and died in the belief that he had reached the East Indies. 
 
 In 1497 the Portuguese sailor, Vasco da Gama, doubled the Cape 
 of Good Hope, reaching Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa, 
 and later the port of Calcutta, thus opening the eastern sea route 
 to India. 
 
 Ferdinand Magellan (or Magalhaens) of Spain, firmly impressed 
 with the idea that the earth was round, sailed westward in 15 19. 
 He passed through the straits separating Tierra del Fuego from the 
 main continent of South America, which bear his name to-day. 
 He was killed in the Ladrone Islands, fighting with the natives, 
 but his mate, Sebastian del Cano, took command of the vessel and 
 still sailing westward reached Spain again at the end of three years, 
 his being the first ship to sail around the earth. 
 
 Colonization and Development of Trade. — The Portuguese, from 
 their peculiar position, occupying, like the ancient Phoenicians, 
 a comparatively narrow territory on the shores of an almost 
 unknown ocean, were the leaders in these voyages of discovery. 
 They were the first to open trade with China, obtaining Macao 
 as a settlement in 1537. Holland, like Portugal, was a maritime 
 country. Her inhabitants naturally developed a. seagoing life, 
 and the Dutch soon followed in the wake of the Portuguese to 
 the East Indies. They established a colony on the island of 
 Java in 1575. 
 
 The East and the West were developing at the same time, 
 under the hands of these seafaring nations of the Atlantic coast 
 of Europe. Spain sent her fleets of armed ships into the Carib- 
 bean Sea, holding Central and South America in her power. To 
 this day Spanish power antl influence form the largest political
 
 PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 137 
 
 element in these countries. Under Cortez and Pizarro she 
 claimed the great Aztec and Inca civilizations as her own. 
 
 France possessed herself of immense territories in North 
 America following the valleys of two great rivers, the Mississippi 
 and the St. Lawrence. She thus gained possession of water ways, 
 the sources of which lay in the same region, but whose parted 
 waters, flowing away at right angles to each other, brought them 
 finally to the ocean, east and south, a full quarter of the compass 
 apart. 
 
 The finding of gold in the New World was a powerful incentive 
 to discovery and settlement, but a missionary spirit was also 
 abroad. Foremost in the work of colonization were the Jesuits 
 of France and Spain. War and Christianity forced themselves, 
 hand in hand, into the wilderness and into the ancient culture 
 of the New World, from Canada to Peru. Traces of this early 
 colonization of America by the two great powers survive to-day 
 in the French and Spanish names of many places. 
 
 Other nations made settlements along the Atlantic coast. The 
 Dutch, at the mouth of the Hudson and in Surinam or Guiana 
 in Northern South America. Great Britain had become, from 
 her pecuhar geographical position as an island, a nation of seamen. 
 Under the Cabots she had explored the coast of Labrador, and 
 in the age of Elizabeth she began her career as a naval power, 
 which remains to-day one of the strongest features in her history. 
 From her colonies founded under Elizabeth sprang the greatest 
 republic the world has ever known, — Our own United States of 
 America. 
 
 LESSON IIL— PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE AND 
 
 CIVILIZATION. 
 
 Development of Resources in Different Countries. — The re- 
 sources or wealth of a country are its natural products, — mineral, 
 vegetable, and animal. From a very early period man has devel- 
 oped these native products in the various regions of the earth
 
 138 COMMERCE. 
 
 which he inhabits, by mining, cultivation of the soil, and breed- 
 ing of animals. Many of the useful plants and animals have been 
 introduced by him into new countries when the climate and other 
 conditions of life permitted. This we have already seen in the 
 cultivation of some of the common food and clothing plants. The 
 manufacture of the crude or raw materials into substances and 
 articles of use form the various industries of a people. Products, 
 either raw or manufactured, sent from countries where they are 
 native, or can be made to the best advantage, to lands where they 
 do not occur or cannot be worked up with profit, constitute the 
 exports of a country, and those foreign articles received in return, 
 constitute its imports. This interchange lies, as we have already 
 seen, at the basis of commerce. 
 
 The mineral resources form an important feature in the wealth 
 of many countries. Iron is the most useful and widespread of 
 metals, occurring as an ore or earth which requires to be smelted 
 in order to extract from it the pure metal for use. The smelting 
 of iron forms a primitive industry of numerous savage tribes to-day, 
 and it was in use among many of the inhabitants of Europe ages 
 before the dawn of history. Copper occurs native or nearly pure 
 in some regions, and in many others is found more or less abun- 
 dantly in combination with other substances. The metal copper 
 fused with //;/ forms the alloy known as bronze, a material in use 
 by many primitive peoples, both in Europe and America, long 
 before the use of iron. The Greeks and Romans drew their 
 supply of copper mainly from the island of Cyprus in the Eastern 
 Mediterranean, from which the name ' copper ' and its scientific 
 term cuprum are derived. Lead is also of quite ancient use, and 
 occurs in various parts of the world, principally in combination 
 with sulphur, as an ore called ' galena.' Gold and silver are the 
 two most important precious metals, their workable ores forming 
 a substantial basis of wealth in many countries. We have already 
 learned that they have been known from a very ancient time. 
 The thirst for gold was, as we have seen, an important element in 
 the discovery of new countries, especially in the Western Hemi-
 
 PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 139 
 
 sphere. Salt is a widespread mineral substance, used by mankinds 
 as a necessary element of food. It exists either in rock masses, 
 which must be mined out, or as a crust- like surface deposit in 
 places that were once covered by the sea. The use of salt goes 
 back to a great antiquity. It was carried long distances, and the 
 earliest commercial routes are supposed to have been ' salt roads.' 
 One of these routes extended from the salt deposits of llie Sahara 
 into Egypt. 
 
 Vegetable products, being mainly dependent upon climate, are 
 widely different in different parts of the earth. The forests of the 
 temperate zone yield various woods useful for building and other 
 purposes. Lumbering is, therefore, an important industry in these 
 regions. Mahogany and ebony grow in the tropical forests of both 
 hemispheres. The tropical forests likewise yield a vast number 
 of peculiar oils, gums, resins, india rubber, and coloring materials, 
 useful in the arts of civilized peoples. The distribution of the 
 more important food plants we have already considered. Plants 
 yielding substances from which various drugs are extracted abound 
 in tropical forests. All these products, found native or wild in the 
 different countries, are developed by man as commercial enter- 
 prises. 
 
 Coal is the result of the plant life of past ages and occurs in beds 
 of great extent and thickness in various parts of the earth. It 
 forms the main fuel substance of most civilized countries, and its 
 mining is among the most important industries. 
 
 Animal products, such as wool, feathers, silk, hides, tallow, etc., 
 are developed in almost every land. Open and extensive pasture 
 lands and grassy mountainous regions, especially in temperate 
 regions, form the natural home of the grazing animals, as cattle, 
 sheep, and horses, the kinds most useful to man. The skins and 
 furs of wild animals are an important resource in the development 
 of a new country. In the early history of North America the 
 Hudson Bay Company, an English enterprise, planted outposts 
 and trading houses in the northern wilderness for this purpose, 
 and they formed an important element in discovery and settle-
 
 140 COMMERCE. ■ 
 
 ment. The manufacture of silk from the silk-worm is a peculiar 
 Chinese industry which has spread to other countries, where the 
 climate and the growth of tlie mulberry tree, on the leaves of 
 which this worm feeds, permit its introduction. The fossil 
 remains of animals form in some places immense deposits of 
 bone earth, which is useful as a fertilizer to enrich the soils of 
 crop-growing lands. The same is true of the vast quantities 
 oi guano, or the accumulations of sea-bird droppings on various 
 oceanic islands. The sea has also yielded up its harvests to man. 
 Fishing forms the main industry of many coastwise peoples in 
 northern regions, and the pursuit and capture of whales in the 
 oceans of both the Northern and the Southern hemispheres, for 
 the valuable whalebone and sperm oil, are peculiar to certain 
 seaports on both sides of the North Atlantic and also on the 
 Pacific coast of North America. 
 
 Location of Commercial Centers. — The cities of the world 
 have developed mainly as the result of two causes : i, protection 
 of groups of peoples, and 2, as centers of commercial activity. 
 The former became seats of government, centers of power, as 
 well as centers of commerce, and were located in positions that 
 commanded a more or less extensive surrounding territory. The 
 latter were located with a special view to the shipping facilities, — 
 good harbors, easy access to the sea. Nearly all the great cities 
 of the world are located on some river, usually not far from its 
 mouth, commanding, on the one hand, the interior of a country 
 with its native products, and, on the other, the commercial high- 
 way of the ocean. In the settlement of every country, this has 
 always been the leading feature. The river, bay, or estuary was 
 an inviting harbor, and setdements grew up along its banks. As 
 an illustration of this, we have only to recall the early colonies 
 of our own country, — Jamestown, the Delaware settlements, the 
 Dutch at the mouth of the Hudson, etc. Ancient history is full 
 of similar illustrations. The Byzantine Empire, with its center 
 Byzantium, was founded by Greek traders six hundred years B.C., 
 on a bay of the western shore of the Bosphorus, the strait leading
 
 PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 141 
 
 from the Mediterranean through the Sea of Marmora into the 
 Euxine or Black Sea. Here was a vantage point both in 
 commerce and warfare, that has remained a power to the present 
 time. More than three hundred and twenty years after Christ 
 the city of Constantinople arose on the ruins of Byzantium. 'I'he 
 city forms the center of Turkish rule to-day, surrounded as it is 
 by the nations of the white race. 
 
 Commercial Relations between Different Countries. — The 
 present commercial relations of the various countries of the earth 
 are the result of the past conditions. Geography still plays the 
 most important part, but the advance of civilization has overcome 
 many obstacles which at an earlier day were hindrances and 
 barriers to the full development of commerce. For long years 
 the vast expanse of the ocean ; the dreary wastes of the desert ; 
 the awful solitudes of the mountain ranges, rising into regions of 
 perpetual snow ; the savage men and savage beasts of almost 
 unknown lands ; the impenetrable forests, marshes, and deadly 
 climate of the tropics, — all tended to separate more or less 
 widely the various countries of the earth from one another. 
 With the advance of civilization, two important discoveries have 
 taken place, which have largely altered the face of the earth in 
 relation to commerce. These two discoveries are steam and 
 electricity, and their application through various machines to the 
 multitude of human needs. Railroads and ocean cables girdle 
 the earth as a network, bringing distant lands into almost daily 
 contact and communication. New York, San Francisco, London, 
 Melbourne, Buenos Ayres, Calcutta, Zanzibar, and all the great 
 cities of the world flash messages to one another around the earth. 
 The locomotive has become the great agent of civilization. Its 
 whistle and roar wake echoes in places that a few years ago 
 resounded only to the cries of savages and wild beasts. The 
 Atlantic and Pacific shores of North America lie within a five 
 days' journey of each other. The great Siberian railway will soon 
 reach across Eurasia from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. 
 The heart of ' Darkest Africa ' is being penetrated by a railroad
 
 142 COMMERCE. 
 
 laid along the banks of the Congo. In the sacred land of Pales- 
 tine, a railway has been built from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and this 
 great civilizer stands to-day before the Holy City, the greatest 
 conqueror that has ever compassed her time-worn walls. 
 
 The ocean has become the highway of commerce ; its once 
 trackless waste is traversed by paths leading to and from every 
 seaport of the world. Fast-going steamships are afloat, carrying 
 the merchandise of nations. In every port the ships of all nations 
 lie, loading and unloading their various cargoes. 
 
 " Yon deep Imrk goes 
 
 Where Traffic blows, 
 From lands of sun to lands of snows ; — 
 
 This happier one, 
 
 Its course is run 
 From lands of snow to lands of sun." 
 
 Navigation has become a science. The invention of instruments 
 to determine the position of any point on the earth's surface was 
 second only to the discovery of the compass in its importance to 
 the world. The imaginary lines surrounding the earth are real 
 lines on a map or chart, and are of the utmost value to navigators, 
 travelers, and students of geography. They tell exactly the loca- 
 tion of every spot on the earth, whether land or sea, enabling the 
 mariner, tossing on a trackless waste of waters thousands of miles 
 from any shore, to know exactly where he is. A transatlantic 
 steamer falls in with a wreck floating in mid-ocean. Mid-ocean is 
 a very big place, but if the steamer's log reports from the captain's 
 observations at the time, — Latitude 45° 26' N. ; Longitude 32° 
 18' 23" W., — by referring to the chart or map every one knows 
 the exact spot where the derelict was seen. Latitude and longitude 
 are reckoned by observations on the position of certain of the 
 heavenly bodies, — sun, moon, and various stars, in relation to one 
 another and to the earth, and on the particular time of day. This 
 is done through the use of an instrument called the sextant. 
 Time or longitude is calculated from the meridian of Greenwich, 
 The earth's rotating on its axis from west to east brings the sun
 
 PRESE.VT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 143 
 
 over the meridian of every place on its surface once in twenty- 
 four hours. It is then tweh'e o'clock, midday, at that particular 
 place. In twelve hours the sun will be on the same meridian, only 
 exactly on the opposite side of the earth, and it will be twelve 
 o'clock, midnight, at the place in question. 
 
 Steam runs the plow and reaps the harvest in many lands. The 
 wheat that to-day is growing on a Dakota prairie is cast in a few 
 weeks into the bins of a Liverpool warehouse. The long-horned 
 steer grazing over the range of a Texas ranch, in a single week 
 finds himself on the crowded cattle deck of an Atlantic Liner 
 rolling in mid-ocean on his way to the English market. This 
 bringing of the ends of the earth together has introduced many 
 complex problems into civilization and commerce. The influence 
 of a labor cheaper in one country than in another sends the raw 
 materials of the latter to be manufactured by the former, and sent 
 back again at a much less cost than it would take to make the 
 articles in the country where the material was produced. The 
 United States ships raw cotton to England, for example, to be 
 made into garments which are sent back and sold cheaper than 
 they could be if made at home. The importance of commercial 
 intercourse between countries is a powerful influence in promoting 
 peaceful relations. The growing tendency is not war, but arbitra- 
 tion and peace principles. 
 
 One more fact of importance. The races of mankind have 
 come into closer contact through the wide spreading of commer- 
 cial intercourse. The benefits to the less-advanced peoples will 
 be great, if they are morally and physically able to fall in with the 
 march of civilization. But the rights of each and every man as a 
 member of the great human family, no matter to what race he 
 may belong, must be respected, and it becomes the duty of the 
 more highly enlightened peoples, the men and women of the white 
 race in all parts of the world, to help their less-favored brethren 
 and sisters to a knowledge of the best way to live. " Man," the 
 poet has said, " must rule the empire of himself." In the long 
 years of his struggle with nature he has overcome many obstacles,
 
 144 COMMERCE. 
 
 and now beholds himself master of the world. There will always 
 be some high ideal to be attained, some ' best thing ' in life to be 
 reached, and these can only be reached by man's mastery of him- 
 self. 
 
 The study of geography has, after all, revealed man in his true 
 light, — that of a being overcoming his surroundings, itnd attaining 
 high places through perpetual struggle.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. The Principal States and Cities of the World. 
 II. Population of the Earth. 
 
 III. Forms of Government. 
 
 IV. Extract from First Report of United States Board on 
 
 Geographic Names. 
 V. Geographical Distribution of Animals. — A Synopsis of 
 Study. 
 VI. How to read a Weather Map.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 i. the principal states and cities of the 
 
 worLd. 
 
 Adapted from Bartholomew's Geographical Statistics. 
 Arranged alphabetically. 
 
 The pupil should locate each country on the map, the situation of 
 its principal towns, and its foreign possessions. The teacher should 
 question, with the use of a good wall atlas, as to these points, endeav- 
 oring also to bring out the fact of geographical position in relation to 
 commercial advantages. 
 
 Argentine Republic. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Buenos Ayres, Cordova, Rosario, La Plata, 
 Mendoza, Panama, Tucuman, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Wool, hides, sheepskins, tallow, live animals, maize, 
 wheat, flax, salted meat. 
 
 Mineral Products. — Copper, silver, coal, salt, alum, sulphur, and 
 
 gold. 
 
 Austria-Hungary. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Toiuiis. — Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Trieste, Lamberg, 
 etc. 
 
 Exports. — Agricultural produce, timber, sugar, fancy wares, live ani- 
 mals, wool, glass, leather, silks, cottons, wine, etc. 
 
 Belgium. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Liege, etc. 
 Exports. — Cotton, woolen and linen thread, cereals and rice, ma- 
 
 147
 
 148 APPENDIX. 
 
 chinery, coal and coke, stones, wool, wrought iron, glass, sugar, hides, 
 zinc, oil seeds, resin, candles, vegetables, etc. 
 
 Bolivia. — South America. 
 Principal Towns. — Sucre, Potosi, La Paz, Cochabamba, etc. 
 
 Brazil. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Rio de Janeiro, Bahia (San Salvador), Recife 
 (Pernambuco), etc. 
 
 Exports. — Raw cotton, sugar, India rubber, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, 
 
 gum, hides, etc. Logwood, mahogany, rosewood, and brazilwood grown 
 
 in the forests. 
 
 British Empire. — British Isles. 
 
 Great Britain (England, Wales, Scotland, and outlying islands) and 
 Ireland. 
 
 Principal Toivns. — London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, Bir- 
 mingham, Dublin, Leeds, Sheffield, Edinburgh, Leith, Belfast, Bristol, 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, etc. 
 
 The British Empire. 
 
 Countries under British Ride in Europe. — Great Britain and Ireland, 
 Heligoland, Gibraltar, Malta. 
 
 /;/ Asia. — Cyprus, British India, Ceylon, Andaman and Nicobar 
 Islands, Straits Settlements and Malay Protectorate, Upper Burma, 
 North Borneo, Hong-Kong, Labuan Island, Aden, Perim, and Mosha, 
 Kamaran Island, Keeling and Christmas Islands, Socotra Island. 
 
 1)1 Oceania. — New South Wales, Norfolk Island, Victoria, Queens- 
 land, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and 
 Dependencies, Fiji Islands, Rotumah Island, Lord Howe Island, Her- 
 vey or Cook Islands, New Guinea, and other islands. 
 
 In Africa. — Cape Colony and Dependencies, Natal, Zululand, 
 Bechuanaland, Matabeleland to the Zambesi, Walfisch Bay, Sierra 
 Leone and Gambia River, Gold Coast and Lagos, Niger Districts, 
 St. Helena and Ascension, Imperial British-East Africa, Somali 
 Coast, Tristan d' Acunha, Mauritius and Dependencies, New Amster- 
 dam, and St. Paul. 
 
 In North Anierica. — Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Ber- 
 mudas, Bahamas, Jamaica, Turk and Caicos Islands, Cayman Islands, 
 British Honduras, Barbadoes and Leeward and Windward Islands of 
 the West Indies.
 
 PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OE THE WORLD. 149 
 
 /;/ Soitth America. — Trinidad, British Guiana, Falkland Islands, 
 South Georgia. 
 
 Principal Towns of British India. — Calcutta, Bombay, Madras. 
 Hyderabad, Cawnpore, Lahore, Lucknow, Benares, Delhi, Agra, Ran- 
 goon, etc. 
 
 Of Australasia. — Melbourne (Victoria), Sydney (New South 
 Wales), Adelaide (South Australia), Brisbane (Queensland), Hobart 
 Town (Tasmania), Perth (West Australia), Auckland (New Zealand), 
 
 etc. 
 
 Of British America. — Montreal, Toronto, Quebec, Halifax, Ottawa, 
 St. John, Winnipeg, Victoria, etc. 
 
 Bulgaria. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Tmuns. — Sofia, Varna, Shumla, Rustchuk, Sistova, 
 
 Plevna, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Corn, wool, tallow, hides, butter, cheese, flax, and 
 
 timber. 
 
 Central America'. 
 
 Republics and Capitals. — Guatemala (Capital City — Guatemala), 
 Salvador (San Salvador), Nicaragua (Managua), Honduras (Tegu- 
 cigalpa), Costa-Rica (San Jose). 
 
 Chile. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Punta Arenas (Straits of Magellan), Concepcion, 
 
 Talca, Santiago, Valparaiso, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Nitre, copper bars and ores, silver ores, corn, flour, 
 
 leather, and guano. 
 
 China. — Asia. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Peking, Nanking, Shanghai, Foochow, Ningpo, 
 
 Amoy, Canton, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Tea, silk, silk manufactures, and sugar. 
 
 Dependencies. — Manchuria, Mongolia, Thibet, Jungaria, Eastern 
 
 Turkestan. 
 
 Colombia. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Panama, Cartagena, Socorro, Medillin, Bogota. 
 
 Congo Free State. — Africa. 
 Principal Stations. — Banana, Borna, Matadi, Lukunga, Leopold- 
 ville, Bangala, and Stanley Falls.
 
 150 APPENDIX. 
 
 Denmark. — Europe. 
 
 Defwiark Proper. — Copenhagen, Islands in the BaUic, Jutland, 
 Faroe Islands. 
 
 Dependencies. — Iceland, Greenland, West Indies (St. Croix, St. 
 Thomas, and St. John). 
 
 Exports of Denmark Proper. — Wheat, barley, bacon, hams, flour, 
 butter, eggs, hides, skins, corn meal and oil cakes, horses and cattle. 
 
 Ecuador. — South America. 
 Principal Towns. — Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba. 
 
 France. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Toivtis. — Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Nantes, 
 Rouen, Havre, Nice, Brest, Toulon, Orleans, Calais, Boulogne, Ver- 
 sailles, etc. 
 
 Colonies and Dependencies in Asia. — Indian Possessions, Cochin- 
 China, French Tonquin. Cambodia and Annam under French pro- 
 tection. 
 
 In Africa. — Algeria, Senegambia, Gaboon and Gold Coast, Congo 
 Region, Reunion, etc. 
 
 In Ajnerica. — Guiana or Cayenne, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Pierre, 
 etc. 
 
 /;/ Oceania. — New Caledonia, Marquesas Islands, Tahiti, Gambler, 
 and other islands. 
 
 Tunis, in North Africa, is a French Protectorate. 
 
 Products and Exports. — Silks, dress stuff's, leather goods, jewelry, 
 wines and spirits, cereals, perfumes, chemicals, etc. 
 
 German Empire. 
 
 Principal Towns . — Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig, 
 Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, Bremen, Strasburg, Potsdam, etc. 
 
 Protectorates in Africa. — On the slave coast, on the Cameroon River, 
 coast of Damaraland and Namaqualand, territories of several negro 
 chiefs in East Africa, portion of Zanzibar coast. 
 
 In Oceania. — A portion of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, 
 and other islands. 
 
 Prodncts and Exports. — Agricultural produce, woolen and silk manu- 
 factures, sugar, leather wares, cotton stuffs, coal, machinery, chemicals, 
 wines, etc.
 
 PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OE THE WORLD. 151 
 
 Greece. — Europe. 
 Principal Towns. — Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Hermopolis, Corfu, 
 Zante, Larissa, Argos, Pyrgos. 
 
 Products. — Raisins, olive oil, lead, hides, wine, figs, gallnuts, etc. 
 
 Haiti. — West Indies. 
 Chief To%un. — Port au Prince. 
 
 Exports. — Mahogany, logwood, coffee, cocoa, sugar, honey, and gum. 
 Haiti and St. Domingo are on the same island. 
 
 Hawaii or Sandwich Islands. — Pacific Ocean. 
 Chief Town. — Honolulu. 
 Exports. — Sugar, rice, bananas, hides, wool, and coffee. 
 
 Italy. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Naples, Milan, Rome, Turin, Palermo, Genoa, 
 Florence, Venice. Bologna, Leghorn, Messina, Verona, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Olive oil, hemp, oranges and lemons, sulphur, chemical 
 products, shumac, wine, almonds, and stones. 
 
 Colonial Possessions. — A strip on the Red Sea from Assab Bay to 
 
 Massowah. 
 
 Japan. — Asia. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Silk, tea, tobacco, coffee, rice, copper, camphor, wax, fish, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Korea. — Asia. 
 
 Chief Town. — Seoul. 
 
 Liberia. — West Africa. 
 
 Chief Town. — Monrovia. 
 
 Exports. — Coffee, cocoa, sugar, wax, ginger, palm oil, indigo, hides, 
 
 ivory, gold dust, etc. 
 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Island in Indian Ocean east of Africa. 
 France regulates the foreign relations of the country. 
 Exports. — Cattle, india rubber, hides, horns, coffee, lard, sugar, 
 vanilla, wax, gum, rice, and seeds. 
 
 Mexico. — America. 
 Principal Toiuns. — City of Mexico, Monterey, Vera Cruz, Puebla, 
 Campeche, Colima, Oaxaca, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, etc.
 
 152 APPENDIX. 
 
 Exports. — Minerals, mahogany, dye woods, cattle, vanilla, coffee, 
 cocoa, cochineal, tobacco, drugs, etc. 
 
 Montenegro. — Europe. 
 Chief Towns. — Cittigne, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Shumac, flea-powder, smoked sardines, smoked mutton, 
 hides, skins, and furs. 
 
 Morocco. — North Africa. 
 
 Chief Towns. — Fez, Morocco, etc. 
 
 Ports. — Tangier, Tetuan, Rabat, El Araish, Casa Blanca, etc. 
 Exports. — Maize, beans, peas, oil, wool, dates, fowls, eggs, carpets, 
 slippers, goatskins, leather, grain, cattle, ostrich feathers, etc. 
 
 Netherlands (Holland) . — Europe. 
 
 Chief Towns. — Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, etc. 
 
 Colonies. — Java (Batavia the capital), east and west coast of Suma- 
 tra, coast possessions in Borneo, Celebes. Moluccas, New Guinea, and 
 other East Indian Islands. Several West Indian Islands — Curacao 
 Aruba, St. Martin, etc. Surinam or Dutch Guiana in South America. 
 
 Exports. — Butter, butterine, oxen and sheep, cheese, gin, sugar, 
 
 iron and steel goods, woolen and cotton manufactures, silk stuffs, and 
 
 ribbons. 
 
 Orange Free State. — South Africa. 
 
 Mainly a grazing country, being too dry for agriculture. 
 
 Chief Town. — Bloemfontein. 
 
 Exports. — Wool, ostrich feathers, hides, diamonds, etc. » 
 
 Paraguay. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Asuncion, Villa Rica, etc. 
 
 Products. — Sugar, rum, cotton, woolen cloths, and leather. 
 
 Persia. — Asia. 
 
 Principal Tl^w;/^. ^Tabriz, Teheran, Ispahan, Astrabad, etc. 
 Exports. — Silks, carpets, hides, tobacco, opium, gum, wool, dates, 
 cereals, rice, etc. 
 
 Peru. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Lima, Callao, Arequipa, Cuzco, Chiclayo. 
 Exports. — Guano, nitrate of soda, sheep and alpaca wool, sugar, 
 silver, and chinchona.
 
 PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OF THE WORLD. 153 
 
 Portugal. — Europe. 
 Portiiml and the Azores and Madeira Islands. 
 Principal Towns. — Lisbon, Oporto, Funchal (Madeira). 
 
 Colonial Possessions. 
 
 In Africa. — Cape Verde Islands, Guinea, Prince's and St. Tliomas's 
 Islands, Ajuda, Angola, Benguela, Mozambique, Congo Districts, etc. 
 
 In Asia. — Goa, Daman, Diu, etc. (India). Timor (Indian Archi- 
 pelago). Macao (China). 
 
 Exports. — Wine, cork, cattle, copper ore, fruits, oil, and salt. 
 
 Roumania. — Europe. 
 Principal Towns. — Bukarest, etc. 
 Exports. — Wheat, barley, maize, rocksalt, and cattle. 
 
 Russia. — Europe. 
 
 Russia Proper, Poland, Finland, Caucasus, Trans-Caspian, Central 
 Asia, and Siberia. 
 
 Principal Towns. — St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Riga, Khar- 
 koff, Odessa, Astrakhan, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Grain, wool, hemp, rape and linseed, cordage and twine, 
 tallow and stearine, bristles, oil-seed cake, tar, etc. 
 
 San Domingo. — West Indies. 
 
 CJnef Town. — San Domingo. 
 
 Exports. — Lignum vita;, logwood, mahogany, coffee, fustic, tobacco, 
 
 and cocoa. 
 
 Servia. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Belgrade, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Live animals, grain, cereals, hides, prunes, etc. 
 
 Siam. — Asia. 
 
 Principal Town. — Bangkok. 
 
 Exports. — Rice, gums, teak, sandalwood, rosewood, aloeswood, 
 pepper, sesame, skins, birds' nests, etc. 
 
 South African Republic. 
 (Transvaal.) 
 Chief Town. — Pretoria. 
 
 Exports. — Wool, cattle, hides, grain, ostrich feathers, ivory, butter, 
 gold, etc.
 
 154 APPENDIX. 
 
 Spain. — Europe. 
 
 Spain Proper, tlie Canary and Balearic Islands. 
 
 Principal Toivns. — Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Malaga, 
 Cartagena, Cadiz, Palma (Canaries), etc. 
 
 Exports. — Wine, oranges, raisins, grapes, olive oil, cattle, esparto 
 grass, cork, copper ores, iron ores, lead, salt, quicksilver, etc. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. — Europe. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Stockholm, Upsala, Kalmar. etc. 
 
 Exports. — Wood and timber, oats, iron bars, butter, live animals, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Christiania, Bergen, Stavanger, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Timber, cod, cod oil, herrings, minerals, ice, etc. 
 
 Switzerland. — Europe. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Geneva, Basel, Bern, Lau.sanne, Ziirich, Luiern, 
 etc. 
 
 Manufactures and Exports. — Silks, cottons, linen, woolens, lace, 
 thread, watches, machinery, ice, cattle, cheese, etc. 
 
 Turkish Empire. 
 
 Turkey in Europe, beside the immediate provinces, includes East 
 Roumelia as a self-governing province, and Bulgaria as a tributary prin- 
 cipality, also Bosnia, etc. 
 
 Tripoli, in North Africa, is a Turkish province. 
 
 Principal Towns. — In Europe. — Constantinople, Salonica, Adriano- 
 ple, Philippopolis. etc. 
 
 In Asia. — Smyrna, Damas, Bagdad, Aleppo, Beirut, Mosul, Jeru- 
 salem, Trebizond, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Tobacco, cereals, fruits, silk, opium, mohair, cotton, 
 coffee, skins, wool, oil seeds, valonia, carpets, etc. 
 
 Egypt. — Africa. 
 ( Turkish Protectorate . ) 
 Principal Towns. — Cairo, Alexandria, Damietta, Rosetta, Port 
 Said, Suez, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Cotton and cotton seed, beans, wheat, sugar, maize, rice, 
 gum, hides, wool, ivory, ostrich feathers, etc.
 
 PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OF THE WORLD. 155 
 United States of America. 
 
 States. Capitals* and Chief Towns. 
 
 Alabama Montgomery,* etc. 
 
 Arkansas Little Rock,* etc. 
 
 California Sacramento,* San Francisco, etc. 
 
 Colorado Denver,* Colorado Springs, etc. 
 
 Connecticut Hartford,* New Haven, etc. 
 
 Delaware Dover,* Wilmington, etc. 
 
 District of Columbia . . Washington * (Capital of U.S.). 
 
 Florida Tallahassee,* Jacksonville, etc. 
 
 Georgia Atlanta,* Savannah, etc. 
 
 Idaho Boise City,* etc. 
 
 Illinois Springfield,* Chicago, etc. 
 
 Indiana Indianapolis,* etc. 
 
 Iowa Des Moines,* etc. 
 
 Kansas Topeka,* etc. 
 
 Kentucky Frankfort,* Louisville, etc. 
 
 Louisiana Baton Rouge,* New Orleans, etc. 
 
 Maine Augusta.* Bangor, etc. 
 
 Maryland Annapolis,* Baltimore, etc. 
 
 Massachusetts .... Boston,* Worcester, etc. 
 
 Michigan Lansing,* Detroit, etc. 
 
 Minnesota St. Paul,* Minneapolis, etc. 
 
 Mississippi Jackson,* Vicksburg, etc. 
 
 Missouri Jefferson City,* Kansas City. St. Louis, etc. 
 
 Montana Helena,* etc. 
 
 Nebraska Lincoln,* Omaha, etc. 
 
 Nevada Carson City,* etc. 
 
 New Hampshire . . . Concord,* Portsmouth, etc. 
 
 New Jersey Trenton,* Newark, etc. 
 
 New York Albany.* New York, Troy, Buffalo, Roches- 
 ter, Syracuse, etc. 
 
 North Carolina . . . . Raleigh,* etc. 
 
 North Dakota .... Bismarck,* etc. 
 
 Ohio Columbus,* Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Oregon Salem,* Portland, etc. 
 
 Pennsylvania .... Harrisburg,* Pittsburg, Philadelphia, etc. 
 
 Rhode Island .... Providence,* Newport, etc.
 
 156 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 States 
 
 South Carolina 
 South Dakota 
 Tennessee 
 Texas . . 
 Utah . . 
 Vermont . 
 Virghiia . 
 Washington 
 Wisconsin 
 Wyoming 
 
 Capitals* and Chief Towns. 
 
 Columbia,* Charleston, etc. 
 Pierre,* etc. 
 Nashville,* etc. 
 Austin,* Galveston, etc. 
 Salt Lake City.* 
 Montpelier,* etc. 
 Richmond,* etc. 
 Olympia,* Tacoma, etc. 
 Madison,* Milwaukee, etc. 
 Cheyenne,* etc. 
 
 Territories. 
 
 Alaska Sitka.* 
 
 Arizona Phoenix,* Tucson, etc. 
 
 Indian Territory . . . No organized Territorial Government. 
 
 New Mexico .... Santa Fe,* etc. 
 
 Oklahoma Guthrie.* 
 
 Uruguay. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Montevideo, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Cattle, preserved meats, skins, hides, tallow, wool, hair, 
 guano, bone dust, ostrich feathers, etc. 
 
 Venezuela. — South America. 
 
 Principal Towns. — Caracas, Tocuyo, Maracaybo, La Guayra, etc. 
 Exports. — Coffee, sugar, corn, cocoa, cotton, hides, tobacco, indigo, 
 bark, tallow, dyewoods, timber, copper ores, and gold. 
 
 Zanzibar. — East Africa. 
 
 Chief Towns. — Zanzibar (on an island off the coast), Mombas, 
 Quiloa, etc. 
 
 Exports. — Ivory, caoutchouc, hides and skins, cloves, orchilla, 
 cocoanuts, gum-copal, seeds, etc.
 
 POPULATION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 157 
 
 II. — POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS. 
 From Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for January, 1891. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 Africa . . . 
 
 America, N. 
 America, S. . 
 Asia . . . 
 Australasia . 
 Europe . . 
 Polar Regions 
 
 Total . 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles. 
 
 11,514,000 
 6,446,000 
 6,837,000 
 
 14,710,000 
 3,288,000 
 
 3>555.ooo 
 4,888,800 
 
 51,238,800 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 1 27,000,000 
 
 89,250,000 
 
 36,420,000 
 
 850,000,000 
 
 4,730,000 
 
 380,200,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 1 ,487,900,000 
 
 Number of 
 
 Inhabitants per 
 
 Square Mile. 
 
 II. O 
 13.8 
 
 5-3 
 
 57-7 
 
 1.4 
 
 106.9 
 
 0.7 
 
 29.0 
 
 POPULATION OF THE EARTH ACCORDING TO RACE. 
 Estimate by John Bartholomew, F.R.G.S. 
 
 Race. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Race. 
 
 Number. 
 
 White .... 
 Black .... 
 
 610,500,000 
 150,150,000 
 630,000,000 
 
 American . . 
 
 Islanders . . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 15,000,000 
 35,000,000 
 
 Asian .... 
 
 1,440,650,000
 
 158 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 III. — FORMS OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Absolute Monarchies. — China, Madagascar, Morocco, Persia, Russia, 
 Siam, Turkey. 
 
 Limited Monarchies. — Austria-Hungary, Belgium, British Empire, 
 Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hawaii, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portu- 
 gal, Roumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Norway. 
 
 Republics. — Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, 
 Costa Rica, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nica- 
 ragua, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, San Domingo, 
 Switzerland, Transvaal, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela. 
 
 IV. — EXTRACT FROM THE FIRST REPORT OF THE 
 UNITED STATES BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. 
 
 Letters. 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 Example. 
 
 a 
 
 ah, a as in father 
 
 Java, Banana, Somili, Bari. 
 
 e 
 
 eh, e as in meti 
 
 Tel el Kebir, 0161eh Me- 
 
 
 
 dina, Levuka, Peru. 
 
 i 
 
 English e; /as in ravine; the sound of ee 
 
 
 
 in beet. Thus, not Feejee, but .... 
 
 Fiji, Hindi, 
 
 o 
 
 as in mote. 
 
 
 u 
 
 double 0, as in hoot. 
 
 All vowels are shortened in sound by doub- 
 
 
 
 ling the following consonant 
 
 Yarra, Tanna, Jidda, Bonni. 
 
 
 Doubling of a vowel is only necessary where 
 
 
 
 there is a distinct repetition of the single 
 
 
 
 sound 
 
 Nuulua. 
 
 ai 
 
 English / as in ice 
 
 Shangliai. 
 Fuchau. 
 
 au 
 
 orv as in ho7v. Thus, not Foochow, but 
 
 ao 
 
 is slightly difterent from above 
 
 Nanao. 
 
 ei 
 
 is the sound of the two Italian vowels, but 
 is frequently shirred over, when it is 
 
 
 » 
 
 scarcely to be distinguished from ey in 
 
 
 
 the Enc^lish they 
 
 Beirut Beiliil. 
 
 b 
 
 English b. 
 
 
 c 
 
 is always soft and nearly the sound oi s\ 
 
 
 
 the hard c is given by /& 
 
 Celebes. 
 
 ch 
 
 is always soft, as in church 
 
 Chingchin.
 
 GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. 
 
 159 
 
 Letters. 
 
 d 
 f 
 
 g 
 h 
 
 kh 
 gh 
 
 Jj 
 
 n J 
 ng 
 
 P 
 
 q 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 y 
 
 Sounds. 
 
 English (^ 
 
 English/; ph should not be used for the 
 
 sound of f. Thus, not Haiphong, but . 
 is always hard (soft^ is given by 7) . . . 
 is always pronounced when inserted. 
 English j. Dj should never be put for this 
 
 sound 
 
 English k. It should always be put for the 
 
 hard c. Thus, not Corea, but .... 
 
 the Oriental guttural 
 
 is another guttural, as in the Turkish . . 
 
 as in English. 
 
 has two slightly different sounds, as in 
 
 finge7\ singer. 
 as in English, 
 should never be employed ; gu is given by 
 
 kw 
 
 as in English 
 
 is always a consonant, as in yard (Kikuyu), 
 and therefore should not be used for the 
 vowel i. Thus, not Mikindany, but . . 
 
 English z 
 
 Accents should not generally be used, but 
 where there is a very decided, emphatic 
 syllable, or stress which affects the sound 
 of the word it should be marked by an 
 acute accent 
 
 Example. 
 
 Haifong, Nafa. 
 Galapagos. 
 
 Japan, Jinchuen. 
 
 Korea. 
 Khan. 
 Dagh, Ghazi. 
 
 Kwangtung. 
 
 Sawdkin. 
 
 Mikinddni. 
 Zulu. 
 
 Tongatdbu, Galdpagos, 
 Palawan, Sarawak.
 
 160 APPENDIX. 
 
 v. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 A Synopsis of Study.* 
 
 Reading Matter. — Works by Alfred Russell Wallace — " Darwinism," 
 " Island Life," and '' Geographical Distribution of Animals." Also 
 ''The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals" — by 
 Angelo Heilprin. International Science Series. 
 
 1. Geographical Distribution and Diversity of Species. — General 
 facts and observations. 
 
 a. Popular idea — diversity of animals due to diversity of climate 
 and vegetation, animals distributed in zones or regions of latitude — 
 e.g. arctic, temperate, and tropical zones, etc. 
 
 b. Incorrectness of this idea seen by comparing the animals of equa- 
 torial Africa and South America, South Africa and Australia, Europe 
 and temperate America. 
 
 c. Incorrectness of idea proved also by widely ranging animals — as 
 opossums; crows found in all parts of the world but South America; 
 sloths found only in that continent ; antelopes found only in Asia and 
 Africa ; lemurs only in Madagascar and adjacent regions ; birds of 
 paradise only in New Guinea. 
 
 2. The Causes of Dispersal. 
 
 a. Original home of an animal or its 'center of development.*' 
 
 b. Increase of individuals is enormous and causes rapid diminution 
 of food-supply in a restricted area — (^e.g. a, bird living 5 years and 
 producing 10 pairs of young would increase, if unchecked, to 100,000,000 
 in 40 years — IVallace). 
 
 c. This necessitates the enlarging of an animaPs range in order to 
 obtain more food, and establishes a wandering habit . 
 
 d. Accidental causes of dispersal — driftwood, floating ice, winds, 
 etc. 
 
 3. Barriers Limiting an Animal's Range. — An animal in wandering 
 meets with various barriers that tend to check its further progress — 
 two kinds, physiographic and organic. 
 
 a. Mountain ranges separate species, e.g. Andes, Alps, Pyrenees, etc. 
 
 b. Rivers and arms of the sea. 
 
 c. Islands. 
 
 * This synopsis is intended especially for the teacher.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DTSTKIBUrWN OF ANIMALS. 161 
 
 d. Isothermal lines {heat zones). 
 
 e. Deserts and forests. 
 
 We have to consider what facilities different classes have in over- 
 coming barriers, and what barriers are most effectual. 
 
 4. Mammals. — Ability of many to roam over whole continents, 
 checked only by food and climate.- 
 
 a. Elephant lives on both plains and mountains ; ascends Adam's 
 Peak, Ceylon. 
 
 b. Tiger swims arms of the sea ;^ has great powers of dispersal, can 
 endure the cold of North China and Tartary as well as the heated jun- 
 gles of Bengal. 
 
 c. Rhinoceros and lion are widely dispersed, area of land and food 
 only limiting their possible range. 
 
 d. AjDes, monkeys, lemurs, and many small animals leading arboreal 
 lives are much more restricted. 
 
 e. Open country essential to some animals, e.g. antelopes, zebra, etc. 
 
 f. High mountains for goats and ibex. 
 
 g. Rivers for beaver, etc. 
 
 //. Climate limiting a mammaPs range; more often due to change of 
 veg-etation as the result of climate than to climate itself. 
 
 i. Monkeys limited to equatorial belt of forest 30'^ wide ; due largely 
 to food (fruit). One monkey inhabits Himalayas above snowline 
 (altitude 11.000 feet). 
 
 j. Many northern animals bounded by isotherm of 32° — polar bear 
 and walrus. 
 
 /'. Fossil remains of elephants and rhinoceros found imbedded in ice 
 proves their once colder habitat. 
 
 I. Valleys and rivers as barriers. — Their humidity, etc. Monkeys 
 and birds (trumpeters) on the Amazon. 
 
 ;//. Arms of the sea are barriers. Few mammals can swim very wide 
 areas of water, but many swim well for short distances, e.g. jaguar, 
 bear, bison, deer, rodents, etc. ; pig's ability to swim. 
 
 71. Ice floes and drift timber. 
 
 o. Bats, seals, and cetaceans have very great facilities for dispersal. 
 
 5. Birds. — Though possessing greater powers of dispersal (flight), 
 they are as strictly limited as mammals. 
 
 a. Petrels, gulls, and sliore birds wide rangers. Most species con- 
 fined to one or other ocean. 
 
 M
 
 162 APPENDIX. 
 
 b. Smaller perching birds much more limited. 
 
 c. Dispersal of birds by winds ; American birds in Europe, etc. 
 
 d. Barriers to birds. — Narrow seas and straits often effectual bar- 
 riers ; forest country ; mountain ranges rising above woody country ; 
 great rivers. 
 
 e. Migration of birds — regular, compared with the irregular periodi- 
 cal movements of some mammals {e.g. lemming, antelopes, etc.). 
 Movements of fishes more like birds. 
 
 f. Migration in Europe. — Constancy of appearance ; routes. The 
 nightingale ; wide range ; antiquity- of migrations ; past conditions of 
 land; the Mediterranean a dangerous crossing. 
 
 g. India and China — birds come in autumn from Europe and West- 
 ern Asia. 
 
 h. North America. — Migrations mostly eastern ; many more migra- 
 tory and many less resident species than in Europe, significance of this. 
 Wood warblers and orioles ; cliff swallow ; bobolink, its range has in- 
 creased with extension of wheat and rice growth. 
 
 /. South temperate America. — 
 
 j. Habit of wandering in birds exaggerated. Why? Instinct; Gla- 
 cial period ; nesting site, more or less regular in many species. 
 
 k. Importance of food. — Winged insects and caterpillars, signifi- 
 cance. 
 
 6. Reptiles and Batrachians. — With exception of marine forms, 
 reptiles are scarcely more fitted for crossing ocean and seas than are 
 mammals. 
 
 a. Reptiles on oceanic islands. 
 
 b. Several groups differ considerably in dispersal and overcoming 
 powers — snakes most dependent on climate, not found above 62^^ in 
 North America ; nor on mountains to any great height (Alps 6000 
 feet). Different stations of snakes. 
 
 c. Lizards, tropical as a rule, but go farther north and reach higher 
 altitudes than snakes (10,000 feet in Alps). Dispersed over the ocean 
 probably in egg state to some extent, as they inhabit islands where 
 there are no snakes or mammals. 
 
 d. Batrachians (frogs, etc.). — Wider ranging than reptiles; deserts 
 and oceans are barriers to them, as dryness and salt water are fatal. 
 
 7. Fishes, Fresh-water and Marine. — 
 
 a. Temperature is a barrier. 
 
 b. Depth of water a barrier.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 163 
 
 c. Limited migration. 
 
 d. Dispersal by winds. 
 
 e. Eggs carried by birds. 
 
 8. MoUusca: Marine, Fresh-water, and Land. — 
 
 a. Marine mollusca. — Many kinds drift in mid ocean; probably only 
 limited by temperature, presence of certain enemies, and scarcity of 
 food. Slow-moving forms, as whellv and cockle, range widely, as their 
 young are free swimming. 
 
 b. Fresh-water mollusca. — We would suppose them to be limited to 
 particular river basins, but they are widely dispersed. Eggs become 
 attached to feet of aquatic birds. Salt water fatal to them. 
 
 c. Land shells. — A more difificult problem ; very sensitive to salt 
 water, and not in places much frequented by aquatic birds, still are 
 widely dispersed over globe and in most oceanic islands, possessing 
 remarkable vitality, e.g. snail glued down to tablet in British Museum 
 for four years. Darwin's experiment shows that when they form a 
 membrane over mouth of shell, can resist sea water for some time (14 
 days). Attached to feet of wading birds which wander inland. Even 
 though it should only occur once in a thousand years, a few snails 
 carried to a distant island would by these means eventually stock it. 
 
 9. Dispersal of Insects. — Winged insects have varied means of dis- 
 persal over globe ; many can fly immense distances ; many carried far 
 out to sea by storms, e.g. hawk moths 250 miles from tropical shores ; 
 Darwin caught a locust 370 miles from nearest land. ' Tropical insects 
 in the London docks. Great vitality of insects, e.g. beetles in strong 
 spirit and in boiling water. Barriers to insect — presence or absence 
 of certain forms of vegetation ; parasitic and mimicking species de- 
 pend on presence of other animals ; enemies to the several stages of 
 insect existence form a barrier. 
 
 10. Distribution affected by Changed Conditions of Earth's Surface. — 
 
 a. Physical geography — contour and relief; depth of water; posi- 
 tion of desert, lake, and forest ; ocean currents ; climate ; winds, etc. 
 — very important. 
 
 b. Relations of land and water to each other — area of water three 
 times that of land. Elevation and subsidence. Large masses of land 
 have probably been more isolated. Shallow parts of ocean are mostly 
 in the vicinity of land ; significance of these facts.
 
 164 APPENDIX. 
 
 c. Continental areas. — Land mass almost continuous, consists only 
 of three masses : i , American ; 2, Asia-African ; 3, Australian. 
 
 d. Slow process of upheaval has always produced land close to con- 
 tinental areas. 
 
 e. Present isthmuses small and insignificant compared with countries 
 they unite : Suez a desert barrier ; Panama a more effectual connection. 
 
 /. Asia : Himalayas a great transverse barrier. 
 
 g. Africa : Great Sahara Desert, transverse barrier. 
 
 h. Europe and Asia cannot be separated zoologically. 
 
 /'. Recent changes in continental areas : Sahara was under water at 
 a very recent period ; sea shells, identical with living Mediterranean 
 species, found abundantly as high as 900 feet ; deposits of salt abun- 
 dant ; a species of fish found in inland salt lake, identical with one in 
 Gulf of Guinea. 
 
 j. Mediterranean has suffered subsidence in parts ; submerged banks 
 300 to 1200 feet, other parts 13.000 feet deep. 
 
 /'. Remains of African elephant, of a fossil elephant, and two species 
 of hippopotamus found in Sicilian caves ; in Malta, three species of 
 fossil elephant ; significance of these facts. 
 
 /. Many shells and corals of West Indies and Pacific coast are iden- 
 tical ; some living fishes also ; significance. 
 
 1 1 . Glacial Epoch. — Effect on existing species ; evidence of ' drift.' 
 
 a. Many fossil animals and plants show that, previous to glacial 
 epoch, the climate of Central Europe was much warmer than now, and 
 a temperate climate extended into Arctic regions, allowing a magnifi- 
 cent vegetation to flourish within 12 degrees of pole. 
 
 b. Gradual refrigeration of climate taking place. life forms were 
 driven southward or exterminated, e.g. mammoth, reindeer, etc. 
 
 c. Evidences of the etTect of Glacial epoch upon life, seen in recent 
 remains of shells with living arctic representatives ; in arctic and 
 alpine plants. White Mountains and Labrador ; Pyrenees and Scotland 
 and Scandinavian Peninsula ; in changes of vegetation, e.g. prehistoric 
 Denmark. Old forests, peat bogs, kitchen-middens. 
 
 d. Cause of glaciation (Wallace, " Island Life," Croll, " Climate and 
 Time "). 
 
 12. Organic Barriers. — Complex effects. 
 
 a. Goats in island of St. Helena, destroying forests. 
 
 b. Swine in Mauritius, exterminating the dodo. Swine kill poison- 
 ous serpents.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 165 
 
 c. Cattle often prevent growth of trees ; effect on insects and birds. 
 
 d. Effect of Paraguay fly ; effect of South African tse-tse fly on dif- 
 ferent animals. 
 
 e. Cats and clover (Darwin). 
 
 f. General conclusions ; hypothetical case (Wallace). 
 
 13. Zoogeography. — Food, climate, and physical character of land 
 of utmost importance in making an animal what we see it. 
 
 a. Native country or habitat. 
 
 b. Diversity ; how produced. 
 
 c. Early types were fewer ; present types more numerous. 
 
 d. Effect of surrounding conditions and power to wander, the two 
 great factors in producing diversity ; different parts of the earth char- 
 acterized by different animals as a result of these two factors. 
 
 e. Earth divided accordingly into zoological regions. 
 
 '/". The animals of a particular country are collectively called its fa7t}ia. 
 
 g. We would suppose all animals closely allied to inhabit the same 
 or continuous areas of country, and vice versa. 
 
 h. Certain widely distributed animals are not found in certain coun- 
 tries, e.g. bears and deer not found in tropical or South Africa. 
 
 /. Certain closely allied animals are found widely separated, e.g. tapirs, 
 anthropoid apes, and camel tribe. These are problems to be consid- 
 ered ; their solution found in the two factors and in the past history of 
 the earth and its inhabitants. 
 
 j. Importance of geology, physical geography, and the study of fos- 
 sils or paltcontology. 
 
 k. Most important class of animals in determining regions are mam- 
 mals ; then birds ; other groups follow. 
 
 /. Primary divisions dependent on great barriers — mountain range, 
 ocean, desert, climate (isotherms). 
 
 14. Palgearctic or Eurasiatic Region. — {North Temperate Realtn.)* 
 
 a. Barriers. 
 
 b. Characteristic animals — almost entire family of moles ; peculiar, 
 carnivores ; camels ; deer ; yak ; chamois ; saga-antelope and addax ; 
 
 * The Arctic Realm. — Now includes the northern portion of both the Eurasiatic 
 and North American regions. The animals given are those peculiarly character- 
 istic of each region — and not those ranging throughout the North Temperate^ 
 Realm.
 
 166 . APPENDIX. 
 
 peculiar rats ; dormice; tailless hares. Peculiar genera and species of 
 birds numerous. 
 
 c. Several sub-regions characterized by certain peculiar species. 
 Local barriers. 
 
 15. Ethiopian Region. — {Tndo-African Realm.) — Africa south of the 
 Atlas Mountains and the islands of the Madagascar* group. 
 
 a. Characteristic animals — peculiar apes, gorilla, and chimpanzee ; 
 lemurs, hippopotamus and giraffe strictly peculiar ; such highly char- 
 acteristic groups as hyaenas ; several cats ; hyrax ; rhinoceros (two 
 horned) ; zebra and numerous antelopes. 
 
 b. But no bears, moles, camels, deer, sheep, goats, or wild cattle. 
 
 c. Peculia genera and species of birds numerous — bee-eaters, horn- 
 bills, shrikes, crows, starlings, cuckoos, and the peculiar plantain-eaters ; 
 the Guinea-hen and secretary bird highly peculiar. 
 
 d. Altogether a very isolated and peculiar region. 
 
 16. Oriental Region. — {Indo-Africau Realm.) — India, China, and 
 Malay islands as far as, and including, Java and Borneo. 
 
 a. Barriers. 
 
 b. Rich and varied animal life. — Orang-outang; distinct family of 
 lemurs ; remarkable insectivore (flying lemur) ; peculiar carnivora 
 (civets, weasels, etc.) ; peculiar dolphin found in Ganges and Indus; 
 peculiar deer-like form (chevrotain) ; buffalo and zebu; rhinoceros 
 and elephant, etc. Numerous peculiar birds. 
 
 17. Australian Region. — Australia and Polynesia; one of the best 
 defined regions, including Australia and the adjacent islands as far 
 east as the Sandwich and Marquesas groups. The island continent of 
 Australia is in the track of the southern desert zone ; no inland moun- 
 tain chain ; interior a parched desert. 
 
 a. Highly characteristic mammals. — Marsupials and monotremes ; 
 rats, mice, and bats the only other mammals. 
 
 b. Marsupials diversified to fill every position in economy of Nature 
 — carnivorous, insectivorous, herbivorous, etc. 
 
 c. Birds highly peculiar — no true finches, woodpeckers, vultures, 
 nor pheasants ; but many parrots, birds of paradise, lyre birds, mound- 
 makers, cassowaries, brush-tongued paroquets strictly peculiar ; pigeons 
 and kingfishers remarkably developed. 
 
 * Dr. J. A. Allen separates Madagascar as a distinct Le7nurian Realm,
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 167 
 
 i8. Nearctic Region. — {North Temperate Realm. ^ — North America 
 to the highlands of Mexico. Northern part now included in Arctic 
 Realm. 
 
 a. Characteristic animals — star-nosed mole; peculiar weasels; 
 raccoon ; peculiar seals on coast ; prong buck, musk sheep, and Rocky 
 Mountain goat ; musk rat, pouched rats or gophers, prairie dog, and 
 chipmunk; Canada porcupine and white-footed mouse. 
 
 b. A number of distinct birds — wood warblers, wrens, finches, etc. 
 
 c. Subregions — local barriers. 
 
 19. Neotropical Region.* — South and Central America; richest in 
 peculiar forms of any region in the world ; isolated. 
 
 a. Characteristic mammals — two families of tailed monkeys ; blood- 
 sucking bats ; chinchilla and cavy ; tree porcupines ; sloths, armadillos, 
 and ant-eaters i^Edoitata) ; marsupials, (opossums) ; one mole-like 
 form ; llama and several deer, the only ruminants ; peccary and tapir 
 the only non-ruminating hoofed mammals. 
 
 b. Birds highly peculiar — humming birds, ant thrushes, trumpeters, 
 toucans, puff birds, jacmars, etc. 
 
 c. Relations of Nearctic and Neotropical regions ; significance. 
 
 20. Geological Distribution. — Study of the geological history of 
 animals (fossils) reveals their relations to tijiie, as geographical dis- 
 tribution reveals their relations to place. 
 
 a. Many problems of distribution can only be solved by a survey of 
 past conditions. 
 
 b. Origin of existing species ; immense lapse of time since their first 
 appearance. 
 
 c. Animals change with changing physical conditions ; great length 
 of time required. 
 
 d. Rapid multiplication a cause of dispersal over newly raised areas 
 of land. 
 
 e. Most radical difference between species dependent on degree of 
 isolation by most effectual barrier. 
 
 /. Spread of species follows geological change ; extreme slowness of 
 the movement. 
 
 * Dr. Allen's classification divides South America into two distinct realms, the 
 American Tropical and the South American Temperate.
 
 168 APPEND rx. 
 
 21. Divisions of Time. — Geological history divided into eras, ages, 
 periods, and epochs, each determined by certain great changes that 
 have taken place in physical geography, climate, and forms of life. 
 
 a. Each great division of time recorded in a rock fonnatioii or rock 
 system; the life remains fovuid in each are termed xX.'s, fossils. 
 
 b. Each division is characterized by the dominance of some particular 
 class of life forms, e.g. age of fishes ; age of coal plants. 
 
 c. Each age has gradually merged into the succeeding one ; in one 
 age, the life of the next begins to appear. 
 
 d. Each class does not die out, but its species become changed 
 according to laws already pointed out, and in succeeding ages new 
 types appear higher than those of preceding age, more complex in 
 structure (ascending series). 
 
 22. Dynamics. — Great rock beds of earth's crust as we see them 
 to-day have resulted from the ceaseless action of ocean, rain, rivers, 
 ice, wind, and frost upon ancient land areas which have appeared and 
 disappeared from time to time owing to certain internal conditions 
 producing upheaval (elevation) and sinking (subsidence) of crust. 
 
 a. These same geological processes are going on to-day ; have always 
 been going on very slowly. 
 
 b. Sudden revolutions have occurred in earth's history, causing great 
 destruction of life ; life was not entirely extinguished. 
 
 c. Then, as now, shells lived in ooze of sea bottom or were cast up 
 on ancient beaches ; leaves and branches of trees and bodies of animals 
 were carried down by rivers and buried in the mud of lakes and seas. 
 
 d. Their remains have been deposited in the mud or sand, which in 
 the long lapse of time has become hardened into rock (shale, slate, 
 sandstone, limestone, etc.), and are preserved to the present day as 
 fossils. 
 
 e. Generally only the hard parts of animals are preserved (shell, 
 bone) ; often only their impressions or casts. 
 
 f. Kind of fossils found depends on: i, kind of rock; 2, country; 
 3, age. 
 
 23. Chronology. — Five great eras of geological history, each em- 
 bodied in a corresponding system of rocks — 
 
 a. Eozoic (dawn of animal life), seen in Archsan or Primary rock 
 system.
 
 HOW TO READ A WEATHER AfAP. 169 
 
 b. Palaeozoic (old life) — Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages ; 
 rocks of transition series. 
 
 c. Mesozoic (middle life) — Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ; rocks 
 of Secondary series. 
 
 d. Cenozoic (recent life) — Tertiary and Quaternary periods and 
 deposits. 
 
 e. Psychozoic (rational life), — present system of sediments. 
 
 VI. — HOW TO READ A WEATHER MAP. 
 
 This map represents the data collected by the Weather Bureau at 
 Washington, D.C., from points all over the United States for a certain 
 day in May, i8 — .- A synopsis of the weather, accompanying the map, 
 was stated thus : " The storm has moved rapidly during the past twenty- 
 four hours, and is now central over the Lakes Erie and Ontario Dis- 
 trict. An area of high barometer, with clear and cooler weather, 
 occupies the Northwest, following after the storm. Generous showers 
 have occurred over nearly all the country during the past three days, 
 in many localities the fall being very heavy." 
 
 Explanation. — The heavy black lines are isobars ; the dotted lines, 
 isotherms. Arrows fly with the wind, and the signs of the ring in their 
 shafts indicate states of the weather, thus : Q Clear ; Partly Cloudy ; 
 Cloudy ; Rain ; © Snow. Horizontal lines colored pink (not 
 shown in this map) indicate warmer., io° or more. Similar lines col- 
 ored purple (on this map horizontal lines showing a faintly shaded 
 area) indicate colder, \o° or more. Close set vertical lines (shown on 
 map) indicate a rainfall of \ inch or more. The isobars indicate the 
 pressure in tenths of an inch as shown by the figures at their ends. 
 The isotherms represented are those of 50°, 60", and 70° F. A con- 
 siderable area of cold is indicated on the map in the storm's wake inci- 
 dent to the anticyclone in the Northwest. 
 
 This storm developed in the Rocky Mountain Region, and was one 
 of the most disastrous in many years. It swept eastward over the 
 United States passing out onto the Atlantic in a rather narrow path.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abyssinia, 62, 93, 100. 
 Abyssinians, 92. 
 Adriatic Sea, 133. 
 ^gean sea, 94. 
 Afghanistan, 114. 
 Africa, future of, 105. 
 
 physical geography of, 100. 
 
 western, loo. 
 African landscapes, 103. 
 
 tribes, 103. 
 
 zoology, 102. 
 Agave, 27. 
 Air, 22. 
 Alaric, 133. 
 Alaska, 39. 
 
 Albert Edward Nyanza, 102. 
 Albert Nyanza, 102. 
 Aleutian islands, 120. 
 Alexander, 132. 
 Algonkin, 121. 
 Allen, Dr. J. A., 24. 
 Alloys, 130. 
 Alpaca, 86, 124. 
 Alpine passes, 30. 
 Alps, 29, 97. 
 Altai, 108. 
 Altitude, 36. 
 
 vegetation zones of, 36. 
 Amazon, 12, 120. 
 Amboyna, 66. 
 America, 14, 94. 
 
 American continents, physical geogra- 
 phy of, 117. 
 American Indian, culture, 117. 
 American race, 115. 
 
 tribes and peoples of, 120. 
 
 American tropical realm, 24, 25. 
 
 Amu river, 106. 
 
 Amur river, 109. 
 
 Andaman islands, 125, 126. 
 
 Andes, 12, 29, 53, 119. 
 
 Angles, 94. 
 
 Animals, domestication of, 78. 
 
 Anios, 112. 
 
 Annam, iii. 
 
 Annamese, iii. 
 
 Anteaters, 25. 
 
 Antelope, 25, 102. 
 
 Antilles, Greater and Lesser, 119. 
 
 Anti-trades, 53. 
 
 Apaches, 123. 
 
 Apennines, 97. 
 
 Appalachian system, 12, 26, 29, 120. 
 
 Arabia, 63, 64, 93. 
 
 Arabiarf sea, 109. 
 
 Arab invasion, effect of, 105. 
 
 Arabs, 65, 68, 92, 105. 
 
 Arab traders, 131. 
 
 Aral, sea of, 93, no. 
 
 Araucanians, 124. 
 
 Arawaks, 124. 
 
 Archipelago, 14. 
 
 Arctic America, 119. 
 
 Arctic belt, 26. 
 
 Europe, 112. 
 
 group, 112. 
 
 ocean, 12. 
 
 realm, 24. 
 Areas of low pressure, 49. 
 Argentine republic, 67. 
 Argos, 132. 
 Aristotle, 87, 130. 
 Arizona, 123. 
 Arkansas river, 123. 
 
 171
 
 172 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Arrow-release, 'jj. 
 Aryan peoples, 93. 
 Aryan words (Flax), 73. 
 Aryans, western, 94. 
 Asia, destiny of, 114. 
 
 ethnic chart of, 107. 
 Asia Minor, 82, 87, 112. 
 Asian race, 106. 
 
 Asia, physical geography of, 108. 
 Asiatic peoples, effect of geographical 
 
 features in the history of, 114. 
 Ass, 82. 
 Assam, 61. 
 
 Assyrian civilization, 31, 93. 
 Asters, 27. 
 
 Athapasca stock, 123. 
 Athens, 132. 
 Atlantic ocean, 12. 
 Atlas mountains, 92. 
 Atmosphere, 22. 
 
 action of, 18. 
 
 relation to life, 23. 
 
 relation to surface, 23. 
 Attila, 113, 133. 
 Auroch, 25, 76. 
 Austafrican, 106. 
 
 Austafrican race, ethnic chart of, loi. 
 Australia, 14, 61. 
 Australian realm, 24, 25. 
 Australians, 127. 
 Australic stock, 127. 
 Austria, 29. 
 
 Azores, discovery of, 135. 
 Aztec civilization, 123. 
 
 Bab-el-Mandeb, 132. 
 
 Baber, 113. 
 
 Babylon, 31. 
 
 Babylonian civilization, 93. 
 
 Buckleys, 80. 
 
 Bahama islands, 119, 136. 
 
 Balkan peninsula, 94, 133. 
 
 Baltic nations, 31. 
 
 Baltic sea, 114. 
 
 Bamboo, 25. 
 
 Banana, 70. 
 
 Banda islands, 66. 
 
 Bangweolo, 102. 
 
 Banking, 134. 
 
 Bantu group, 104. 
 
 Banyan, 25. 
 
 Baobab, 25. 
 
 Barbarian, 90. 
 
 Barbary States, 92. 
 
 Barcelona, 133. 
 
 Barley, 68. 
 
 Barren grounds, 12. 
 
 Beaches, 11. 
 
 Bear, 25, 77. 
 
 Bear, polar, 77, 121. 
 
 Bechuanas, 104. 
 
 Bedouins, 92. 
 
 Beeches, 25. 
 
 Belooehistan, 114. 
 
 Bencoolen, 66. 
 
 Bengal, bay of. 53, 65, 68, 108, 109. 
 
 Berber peoples, 92. 
 
 ' Big game,' of Africa, 102. 
 
 Bight of Biafr.i, 133. 
 
 Birches, 25. 
 
 Bird-life, Africa, 102. 
 
 Bison, 25, 76. 
 
 Black sea, 29, no, 114. 
 
 Black Stream, 61. 
 
 Black race, home of the, 100. 
 
 Blondes, 98. 
 
 Blow tube, 77. 
 
 Bog iron ore, 19. 
 
 Bolivia, 64. 
 
 Book-keeping, 134. 
 
 ' Boomerang,' 127. 
 
 Borneo, 125. 
 
 Bosphorus, 114, 140. 
 
 Bow and arrow, 77. 
 
 Brahmaputra, 109. 
 
 Brahminism, 114. 
 
 Brazil, 61, 64. 
 
 current, 64. 
 
 mountains of, 12. 
 Breeze, sea and land, 47. 
 British America, 12, 39. 
 British isles, 11, 31. 
 Brittany, inhabitants of, 94. 
 Bronze, 138. 
 Brunettes, 98. 
 Buddhism, no, 114. 
 Buffaloes, 25. 
 Bulgarians, 96, 113.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 173 
 
 Burmah, iit. 
 Burmese, iii. 
 Bushmen, 105. 
 Byzantine empire, 140. 
 Byzantium, settlcn>ent of, 140. 
 
 Cabots, the, 137. 
 
 Cactus, 27. 
 
 Caddoe, 123. 
 
 Cadiz, 133. 
 
 Calcutta, 136. 
 
 ' Calico,' 72. 
 
 CaHcut,72. 
 
 Cahns, belt of, 46. 
 
 Cambodia, iii. 
 
 Camel, 84. 
 
 Camel, Bactrian, 84. 
 
 Canaan, 131. 
 
 Canada, 137. 
 
 Canary islands, discovery of, 135. 
 
 Canons, 17. 
 
 Canton, iii. 
 
 Cape Bon, 132. 
 
 Cape Horn, 120. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 66, 67, 135. 
 
 ' Cape of Storms,' 135. 
 
 Cape St. Roque, 64. 
 
 Carboniferous period, 27. 
 
 Caribbean Sea, 119, 136. 
 
 Caribs, 124. 
 
 Carnivora, Quarternary, 76. 
 
 Caroline islands, 125, 127. 
 
 Carthage, 31, 132, 133. 
 
 Carthagena, 133. 
 
 Carthaginians, 85. 
 
 Caspian sea. 98, 108, 109. 
 
 Cassava meal or bread, 70. 
 
 Cassiquaire, 120. 
 
 Cataracts, iS. 
 
 Cathay, I33. 
 
 Caucasus, inhabitants of, 97. 
 
 mountains, 92, 108. 
 Celebes, 125. 
 Celestial empire, iii. 
 Central America, 119. 
 Central American group, 123. 
 Central Asian plateau, 108. 
 Ceram, 125. 
 
 ' Cereal,' 67. 
 
 Ceres, 67. 
 
 Ceylon, 61, 64, 66, 125. 
 
 Chaldea, 73. 
 
 Chaldeans, 92. 
 
 Chalk, 19. 
 
 " Change of seasons," 35. 
 
 Chase, animals of the, 75. 
 
 geography of the, 76. 
 
 (primitive conditions), 75. 
 Chepewyans, 123. 
 Cherokees, 123. 
 Chickasaws, 123. 
 Chile, 68, 124. 
 Chillingham cattle, 80. 
 Chimpanzee, 102. 
 China, 29, 61, 67, 68, 87. 
 
 great wall of, 62, iii. 
 Chinaman, in. 
 Chinese, 31, no. 
 Chin-Xong, 68. 
 Choctaws, 123. 
 Christianity, 93. 
 Chukchis, 112. 
 Cinchonas, 25. 
 Cinnamon, 66. 
 Civilization, 90. 
 
 Aztec, 123. 
 
 Grecian, 94. 
 
 Indian, 94, 96. 
 
 Persian, 94. 
 
 Peruvian, 29. 
 
 Roman, 94. 
 Cliff dwellers, 123. 
 Climate, continental, 39. 
 
 definition of, 33. 
 
 elements of, 33. 
 
 influence on man, 54. 
 
 moral effects of, 57. 
 
 oceanic, 39. 
 
 physiological effect of, 55. 
 Climates, effect of hot and cold, 58. 
 
 mountain, 58. 
 Climatic zones, cause of, 40. 
 Clothing, 71. 
 Clouds, 23, 52. 
 Cloves, 66. 
 Coal, 139. 
 Coast line, Africa, 31. 
 
 Eastern North America, 31.
 
 174 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Coast line, South America, 31. 
 
 Western Europe, 31. 
 Coast lines, 10. 
 Cochin China, 65, iii. 
 Coffee, 62. 
 
 conditions of growth, 63. 
 
 drinking, 63. 
 
 history and commerce, 63. 
 Coinage, 130. 
 Colonization, 136, 137. 
 Color, distribution of, 56. 
 
 (human), 55. 
 Colorado, 123. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, 135. " 
 
 Comanches, 123. 
 Commerce, 129. 
 
 ancient routes of, 131. 
 Commercial centres, location of, 140. 
 Commercial relations, 141. 
 Comoro islands, 125. 
 Congo, 12, 31, 103, 104. 
 Constantinople, 87, 141. 
 Continental irregularity, 30. 
 Copper, 130, "138. 
 Coral polyps, 19. 
 Cordilleran chain, 119. 
 Corinth, 132. 
 ' Corn belt,' 68. 
 Corn, Indian, 68. 
 Cortez, 67, 82, 88, 123, 137. 
 Cossacks, 113. 
 Cotton, 27, 72. 
 Cow tree, 25. 
 Creeks, 123. 
 Crocodile, 103. 
 Crusaders, the, 63, 133. 
 Cuba, 64. 
 Culture, 90. 
 Cuprum, 138. 
 Cyclones, 48. 
 
 anti-, 49. 
 
 paths of, 49. 
 Cyprus, 138. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dakota stock, 123. 
 Danube countries, 29. 
 Dardanelles, 114. 
 
 Darjeeling, 108. 
 
 Dark Ages, 134. 
 
 " Darwinism," 14. 
 
 Date, the, 71. 
 
 Dayaks, 126. 
 
 Deer, 25, 76. 
 
 Defense (primitive conditions), 75. 
 
 Delaware settlements, 140. 
 
 Deltas, II, 18. 
 
 Denmark, 94. 
 
 Deodhunga, 109. 
 
 Desert belts, 53. 
 
 Desert, Great American, 117. 
 
 Desert sands, 18. 
 
 Diaz, Bartholomew, 135. 
 
 Distribution, 23. 
 
 Dnieper, 97. 
 
 Dniester, 97. 
 
 Dog, the, 79. 
 
 Domesticated animals, other, 84. 
 
 Domestication of animals (primitive 
 
 conditions), 78. 
 Don river, 97. 
 Drainage, Asia, 109. 
 Dravidians, 127. 
 ' Drift,' 18. 
 Dromedary, 84. 
 Drop-spear, 'j'j. 
 " Dry season," 35. 
 Duck, 84. 
 Dunes, 18. 
 Dust motes, 52. 
 Dust whirls, 50. 
 Dutch, 62, 63, 66, 136, 137. 
 Dwarfs, 104. 
 Dwina, 12. 
 
 B. 
 
 'I 
 
 Earth's crust, rising of, 13. 
 
 sinking of, 13. 
 Earthworms, action of, 20. 
 East Africa, 12, 53. 
 East Cape, 112. 
 Easter island, 127. 
 Eastern question, 114. 
 Eastern Turkestan, 109. 
 Ebony, 139. 
 Edict of Nantes, 88. 
 Egypt, 19, 31, 63, 68, 73, 114. 
 Elburz mountains, 108.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 175 
 
 Electricity, 141. 
 Elephant, 25, 84. 
 
 African, 85, 102, 106. 
 Elizabeth, age of, 137. 
 England, 94,97, 114, 135. 
 Environment, 28. 
 Eskimo, 54, 77, 120. 
 Euphrates, 31, 68, 93. 
 Eurafrican, 98. 
 
 race, ethnic chart of, 95. 
 Eurasia, 14. 
 
 ethnic chart of, 107. 
 Eurasiatic region, 25. 
 Euxine, 141. 
 Everest, Mount, 108. 
 Exports, 138. 
 
 Fans, 104. 
 
 Farther India, no. 
 
 Feudal system, influence of, 134. 
 
 Fiji islands, 125, 126. 
 
 natives of, 126. 
 F'inland, 112. 
 Finnic peoples, 112. 
 Finns, 112. 
 Fishing, 77, 140. 
 Flax, 72. 
 Fleece, Angora, 86. 
 
 Kashmir, 86. 
 Flemish weavers, 87. 
 Flora, North America, 27. 
 Florence, 134. 
 Flumes, 17. 
 Fog, 52. 
 Food, effect of, 57. 
 
 (primitive conditions), 75. 
 Foraminifera, 19. 
 Forests, 20. 
 Formosa, 125. 
 Fossil remains, 16. 
 Fowl, jungle, 83. 
 Fowling, 77. 
 Fowls, 83. 
 
 France, 29, 135, 137. 
 Franks, 94. 
 French, 96. 
 Friendly islands, 125. 
 
 G. 
 
 Ganges, 18, 31, 87, 94, 109. 
 
 Garden spots, 31. 
 
 Gareep river, 102. 
 
 Gautemala, 64, 119. 
 
 Genghis Khan, 113. 
 
 Genoa, 134. 
 
 Geographical considerations, 96. 
 
 Geographical features, permanence of, 12. 
 
 Germany, 94. 
 
 Geysers, 16. 
 
 Ghiliaks, 112. 
 
 Gifford, J., 20. 
 
 Gilbert islands, 125. '' 
 
 Giraffe, 25, 102. 
 
 Glacial period, 18, 76. 
 
 Glaciers, 18. 
 
 Gneiss, 16. 
 
 Goat, 81. 
 
 Gobi, desert of, 109. 
 
 Gold, 130, 138. 
 
 Golden fleece, 135. 
 
 Goldenrods, 27. 
 
 Goose, 84. 
 
 gray-lag, 84. 
 Gorilla, 102. 
 Goths, 94. 
 Gradient, 48. 
 Granite, 10, 16. 
 Great Britain, 137. 
 Great Lakes, 31. 
 Great Mogul, the, 113. 
 Great plains, 27. 
 ' Great Spirit,' 117. 
 Greece, 29, 31. 
 Greenhearts, 25. 
 Greenland, 14. 
 Greenwich time, 142. 
 Guano, 140. 
 Guatemala, 119. 
 Guiana, 63, 64, 66, 137. 
 Guinea, 62, 103. 
 
 coast, 104. 
 
 Gulf of, 102. 
 
 Gulf of Mexico, 119, 121. 
 Gulf States, 123. 
 Gulf Stream, 39. 
 Guyot, 29. 
 
 ^
 
 176 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hamitic stock, 92. 
 
 Hannibal, 85. 
 
 Hanno, 133. 
 
 Hawaiian islands, 125. 
 
 ' Head hunters,' 126. 
 
 Heat of earth, 16. 
 
 Height and depth, 11. 
 
 ' Height of land,' 120. 
 
 High Asia, no. 
 
 ' Hill peoples,' 127. 
 
 Himalayas, 11, 30, 61, ig8, 109. 
 
 Hindu-Kush mountains, 94, 108. 
 
 Hindus, 31, 94. 
 
 Hindustan, 94, 96. 
 
 Hippopotamus, 25, 102. 
 
 Hoang-Ho, 31, 61, 109, no. 
 
 Hog, products, 83. 
 
 Holland, 31, 94, 135. 
 
 Hong-Kong, in. 
 
 Horse, the, 81, 82. 
 
 fossil remains of, 82. 
 
 Horsechestnuts, 27. 
 
 Hot springs, 16. 
 
 Hottentots, 105. 
 
 Hovas, 126. 
 
 Huckleberries, 27. 
 
 Hudson bay, 120, 121. 
 
 Hudson Bay Company, 139. 
 
 Hudson, settlements at mouth of, 140. 
 
 Humboldt, 67, 71. 
 
 Humboldt current, 41. 
 
 Humming birds, 25. 
 
 Hianus, 20. 
 
 Hungary, 29. 
 
 inhabitants of, 113. 
 
 Hurricanes, 49. 
 
 Hydrothermal fusion, 16. 
 
 Hyena, 25, 102. 
 
 Hyperboreans, 135. 
 
 Ice action, 18. 
 
 Icy bay, 121. 
 
 Imports, 138. 
 
 Incas, 124. 
 
 India, 29, 61, 67, 87. 
 
 Indian corn, 68. 
 
 Indian ocean, 12, 14, 63. 
 
 20. 
 
 Indians, 115. 
 
 of Patagonia, 124. 
 Indian tribes (Map), 122. 
 Indo-African realm, 24, 25. 
 Indus, 31, 94, 109. 
 Industries, 138. 
 Insect-life, 103. 
 Intelligence, 28. 
 
 Invention, development of, 134. 
 Iran, plateau of, 94, 108. 
 Ireland, 97. 
 Irish, 94. 
 Iron, 130, 138. 
 Iron ore, 138. 
 Iroquois, 121. 
 Ishmaelites, 131. 
 Islam, 105. 
 
 Island geography, 125. 
 Island peoples, branches of, 126. 
 distribution of, 126. 
 means of dispersal of, 127. 
 physical traits of, 126. 
 
 Islands, 11. 
 
 Islands, growth of tropical 
 
 Isobars, 47. 
 
 Isothermal lines, 40. 
 
 Isothermal zones, 41. 
 their oscillation, 42. 
 
 Israelites, 92, 131. 
 
 Isthmus of Panama, 119. 
 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 
 
 Italian group, 96. 
 
 Italians, 96. 
 
 Italy, 68, 94, 96, 133. 
 
 Ivory, 105. 
 
 Jamaica, 64. 
 Japan, n, 61, 87. 
 
 current, 39, 60. 
 Japanese group, 112. 
 Jamestown, 140. 
 Java, 61, 63, 125, 136. 
 Javanese, 126. 
 Jaxartes, 109. 
 Jerusalem, 132. 
 Jesuits, 137. 
 Jordan river, 131. 
 Justinian, 87. 
 
 123.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 177 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaffirs, 80, 104. 
 
 Kalahari desert, 105. 
 
 Kalgan gale (Great Wall of China), 
 
 Kalmucks, 113. 
 
 Kamchatkans, 112. 
 
 Kameroons, 12. 
 
 Kanchinjinga, 108. 
 
 Kangaroo, 25. 
 
 Karakorutii, 109. 
 
 Kayaks, 121. 
 
 Keltic peoples, 94. 
 
 Kenia, 100. 
 
 Khasia hills, 53. 
 
 Khinghan, 108. 
 
 Khyber pass, 114. 
 
 Kilimanjaro, 100. 
 
 King John II., 135. 
 
 Kioways, 123. 
 
 Kirghis, 113. 
 
 Kirghiz steppes, 82. 
 
 Koraks, 112. 
 
 Korea, 87. 
 
 Koreans, 112. 
 
 " Koumys," 82. 
 
 Kuen Luen, 61, 109. 
 
 Kuro Siwo, 61. 
 
 Labrador coast, exploration of, 137. 
 
 current, 39. 
 Ladrone islands, 125, 136. 
 Lake Baikal, 112. 
 Lake Michigan, 123. 
 Lamas, no. 
 Land, formation of, 13. 
 " Land of the B.acks," 103. 
 Language (Aryan), 96. 
 Lapland, 112. 
 La Plata, 12, 119. 
 Lapps, 112. 
 Larches, 25. 
 Lascars, 128. 
 
 Latin-speaking peoples, 94, 96. 
 Latitude, 34. 
 
 Latitude and longitude, 142. 
 Lava, 16. 
 Lava fields, 16. 
 N 
 
 62. 
 
 Lead, 130, 138. 
 
 Leather, 85. 
 
 Lemur, 25. 
 
 Leniurian realm, 24. 
 
 Lena, 12, no. 
 
 Leopard, 25, 102. 
 
 Letters, development of, 134. 
 
 Lhasa, no. 
 
 Libyan group, 92. 
 
 Life, 21. 
 
 animal, 21. 
 
 areas, 23. 
 
 conditions of, 28. 
 
 plant, 22. 
 
 sequence of, 27. 
 
 unity of, 28. 
 Lime formations, 19. 
 Limpopo river, 102. 
 Linen, 73. 
 Lion, 25, 102. 
 
 Liver, influence on color, 55. 
 Living matter, 19. 
 Llama, 84. 
 Locusts, 27. 
 Lombardy, 73. 
 Lombroso, C, 59. 
 Lost land, 14. 
 Low archipelago, 125. 
 Lower California, 123. 
 Lowlands, Asia, 109. 
 Loyalty islands, 126. 
 Lumbering, 139. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macao, 136. 
 Macassars, 126. 
 ' Mace,' 66. 
 Mackenzie, 12. 
 Madagascar, 24, 25, 66, 125. 
 Madeira islands, discovery of, 135. 
 Magellan, Ferdinand, 136. 
 Magnolias, 27. 
 Mahogany, 139. 
 Maize, 68. 
 Malabar coast, 65. 
 Malay archipelago, 14. 
 Malayic stock, 126. 
 Malay islands, 66. 
 peninsula, 65.
 
 178 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Malay pirates, 128. 
 Malays, 126. 
 Mallard, 84. 
 Malta, 97. 
 Mammalia, 25, 76. 
 Man, black, 89, 
 
 red, 115. 
 
 white, 89. 
 
 yellow, 89. 
 Manchuria, 113. 
 Manchus, 113. 
 Manioc, 69. 
 Manlike apes, 25. 
 Manufacture, development of, 134. 
 Maoris, 126. 
 Marco Polo, 62, 133. 
 Marshall islands, 125. 
 Marshes, growth of, 20. 
 Marsupials, 25. 
 Mashonaland, 132. 
 Mauritius, 64, 66, 125. 
 Mayas, 123. 
 Mediterranean region, 13, 14, 30, 97. 
 
 sea, 30, 131, 132. 
 
 volcanoes, 16. 
 Medium of exchange, 129. 
 Merriam, Dr. C. H., 38. 
 Mesopotamia, 67, 93. 
 Mexican group, 123. 
 Mexico, 67. 
 Micronesians, 126. 
 Middle Ages, the, 134. 
 Milking, 81. 
 
 Mississippi, 11, 12, 18, 31, 137. 
 Missouri, 12. 
 
 Mohammedanism, 93, 105, 114. 
 Moisture, 33. 
 Molucca islands, 65, 66. 
 Money, 129. 
 
 of savage tribes, 130. 
 
 origin of, 130. 
 
 piece of, 130. 
 
 weighing of, 130. 
 Mongolia, 113. 
 Mongolian, the, 113. 
 
 plateau, 109. 
 Mongolic group, 113. 
 Mohair, 86. 
 Monsoons, 47. 
 Moors, 134. 
 
 Morocco, 65. 
 
 Morse, Prof. E. S., 78. 
 
 Mosul, 72. 
 
 Mound builders, 123. 
 
 Mountain climates, 58. 
 
 ranges, 11. 
 
 ranges, origin of, 15. 
 
 walls, 29. 
 Mountains, 11. 
 Mount St. Elias, 123. 
 Mozambique, 62. 
 
 current, 64. 
 Mulberry, 87. 
 
 South Sea islands, 88. 
 Mule, 82. 
 
 " Mule battery," 83. 
 Mummy cloth, 73. 
 Musk sheep, 121. 
 ' Muslin," 72. 
 
 N. 
 
 Namollos, 112. 
 Nan-king, iii. 
 Naples, 134. 
 Narwhal, 77, 121. 
 Natal, 61. 
 
 Nations of Europe, 94. 
 Navajos, 123. 
 Navigation, 142. 
 Navigators islands, 125. 
 Negrillos, 104. 
 Negritic stock, 126. 
 Negroes, 103. 
 Negroid peoples, 104. 
 Negroids, 79, 103. 
 Nelson river, 12. 
 Neolithic, 76, 79, 80. 
 New Caledonia, 126. 
 New Guinea, 24, 125. 
 New Hebrides, 126. 
 New Mexico, 123. 
 New Zealand, 24, 125. 
 Nicaragua, iig. 
 Nicobar islands, 125, 126. 
 Niger, 12, 102. 
 Nile, II, 12, 18, 31, 102. 
 
 valley, 19, 92, 96, 103, 104. 
 Norsemen, 94. 
 North American plateau, 27, 117.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 179 
 
 North American region, 25. 
 North Atlantic, 14. 
 
 group, 121. 
 North Pacific, 14. 
 
 group, 123. 
 North polar area, 12. 
 North temperate realm, 24, 25. 
 Norway, 14, 67. 
 Nubia, 104. 
 Nutmeg, 66. 
 
 Nyanza group of lakes, 102. 
 Nyassa, 102. 
 
 Oaks, 25. 
 Oats, 68. 
 Obi, 12, no. 
 Oceania, 125. 
 Ocean cables, 141. 
 
 currents, 39, 50. 
 
 formation of, 13. 
 Off-shore islands, 14. 
 Ohio valley, 123. 
 Okhotsk, sea of, 108. 
 Ophir, 132. 
 Orange river, 102. 
 Orinoco, 12, 120. 
 Ottoman empire, 114. 
 Ox, the, 80. 
 Oxus, 93, 106, 109. 
 Oxygen, 22. 
 Ozone, 59. 
 
 Pacific ocean, 12, 14, 16, 19. 
 
 Pacific slope, 30, 117. 
 
 Painting, development of, 134. 
 
 Palasolith, 76. 
 
 Pali«olithic age, 76. 
 
 Palestine, 93. 
 
 Palm belt, 26. 
 
 Pamir, 94, 108. 
 
 Pampas, tribes of, 124. 
 
 Papuas, 126. 
 
 Patagonia, 119. 
 
 Pawnees, 123. 
 
 Peat, 19. 
 
 ' Pecuniary," 130. 
 
 Peking, iii. 
 Pelew islands, 125. 
 Peninsulas, 13. 
 Peoples, African, 103. 
 
 Keltic, 94. 
 
 Slavonic, 96. 
 
 Teutonic, 94. 
 Pepper, black, 65. 
 ' Pepper-corn rents,' 65. 
 Persia, 63, 65. 
 Persians, 94. 
 Peru, 64, 72, 124, 137. 
 Philippines, 11, 65, 125. 
 Phcenicia, 31. 
 Phoenicians, the, 131. 
 Pig, the, 83. 
 " Pigeon English," in. 
 Pillars of Hercules, 133. 
 Pines, 25. 
 Pitcairn, 127. 
 Pitfall, 77. 
 
 Pizarro, 82, 124, 137. 
 Plains, 12. 
 
 Plains, growth of, 18. 
 Plain's Indians, 123. 
 Plain, the Great Siberian, 108, 109. 
 Plantain, 70. 
 Plateau, Central Asian, 108. 
 
 of Thibet, 109. 
 Po, II, 18, 31. 133. 
 Poles, 96. 
 
 Polished Stone Age, 76. 
 Polynesia, 125. 
 Polynesians, 126, 127. 
 Portugal, 135, 136. 
 Portuguese, 62, 66, 96, 135, 136. 
 Potato, sweet, 69. 
 
 the, 69 
 Products, animal, 139. 
 
 vegetable, 139. 
 Province, arid, 27. 
 
 humid, 27. 
 Ptolemy, 34. 
 Pueblo Indians, 123. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quartz, 10. 
 
 Quaternary geography, 99. 
 period, 76.
 
 ISO 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Qquichua, 124. 
 Quito, 67. 
 
 R. 
 
 Races, physical traits of, 90. 
 
 social status of, 90. 
 Railroads, 141. 
 
 Raiment (primitive conditions), 75. 
 Rain, 17, 23, 52. 
 Rainfall, 51. 
 
 distribution of, 53. 
 " Rainy season," 35. 
 Realms, 24. 
 Red man, characteristics of, 115. 
 
 origin of, 115. 
 Red race, 115. 
 Reindeer, 85. 
 " Reindeer epoch," 76. 
 Religion, 91. 
 Resources, development of, 137. 
 
 mineral, 138. 
 Rhinoceros, 25, 102. 
 Rice, 27, 68. 
 Rivers, 12. 
 
 African, 102. 
 
 American, 120. 
 
 Asian, log. 
 River valleys, 31. 
 River terraces, 18. 
 Rocky mountains, 11, 117. 
 Roman roads, lost, 19. 
 Rome, 29, 31, 96. 
 Roumania, 67. 
 Russia, 12, 67, 97, no, 114. 
 Russians, 96. 
 Ruwenzori, 100. 
 Rye, 68. 
 
 Saghalien island, 112. 
 Sahara desert, 14, 19, 92. 
 Salomon islands, 125. 
 Salt, 139. 
 
 deposits, 14. 
 ' Salt roads,' 139. 
 Salt water, 23. 
 Samoa islands, 125. 
 Samoyeds, 112. 
 
 Sandwich islands, 125. 
 Saracen conquest, 87. 
 Saracens, 134. 
 Sargasso sea, 51. 
 Saskatchewan plains, 26. 
 Saskatchewan river, 123. 
 Savage, 90. 
 Saxifrages, 27. 
 Saxons, 94. 
 
 Scotch highlanders, 94. 
 Sea bottoms, 11. 
 Sea, distance from, 38. 
 
 of Marmora, 141. 
 
 route, the eastern, 136. 
 Seal, 77, 121. 
 Sebastian del Cano, 136. 
 Sedimentation, 11. 
 Seminoles, 123. 
 Semitic stock, 92. 
 Senegal river, 102. 
 Senegambia, 103. 
 Sericulture, 87. 
 Servians, 96. 
 Sextant, 142. 
 
 Sexual selection, effect of, 56. 
 Seychelles, 125. 
 Shaler, Prof. N. S., 29. 
 Shamo, 109. 
 Sheep, 80, 81. 
 Shire river, 102. 
 Shoshonee, 123. 
 Siam, 65. 
 Siamese, in. 
 Siansk, 108. 
 Siberia, 12, 67, 109. 
 Siberian railroad, 114. 
 Sibiric branch, the, ill. 
 Sicily, 97. 
 Sidon, 132. 
 Sierra Nevada, 117. 
 Silk, 86. 
 
 Silk moth (silkworm), 87. 
 Silver, 130, 138. 
 Simooms, 50. 
 Sinitic branch, no. 
 Sioux tribes, 123. 
 Siva, 80. 
 
 Slave trade, 104, 105. 
 Slope exposure, 37. 
 Sloths, 25.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 181 
 
 Smelting, 130. ^38- 
 
 Snowflakes, 53. 
 
 Social states, cause of different. 91. 
 
 Society islands, 125. 
 
 Soil, 18, 2Q. 
 
 Soudan, 62, 103, 104- 
 
 South Africa, 100. , 
 
 South America, physical geography of, 
 
 South American temperate realm, 24, 25 
 
 South Atlantic group, 124. 
 
 South Atlantic ocean, 120. 
 
 South Pacific group, 124- 
 
 South Pacific ocean, 120. 
 
 Spain, 29, 31. 68, I3S. 136, I37- 
 
 Spaniards, 65, 124- 
 
 Spanish, 96. 
 
 invasion, 82, 123. 
 
 Sperm oil, 140- 
 
 Spice islands, 65. 
 
 Spices, the, 65. 
 
 ISeTlE-in Pasha Relief Expdt.), 70. 
 
 Stanovi, 108. 
 
 Steam, 141- , , 
 
 Steppes, herdsmen of the, 113. 
 
 St. Lawrence river, 120, 137. 
 
 Stone age, 76. 
 
 Storms, 47- 
 
 Straits of Magellan, 119- 
 
 Stratified rocks, 15- 
 
 Subregion, cold temperate, 26. 
 
 warm temperate, 26. 
 
 Su<Tar cane, the, 27, 64. 
 
 Su^ar, history, range, and commerce, 65 
 
 Sultan, 114- 
 Sumatra, 64, 125. 
 Sun burn, 56. 
 Sun's rays, 34- 
 Surinam, 63, i37- 
 Swiss, 29. - 
 
 lake dwellers, 67, 72. 80. 
 
 Switzerland, 97. 
 Syria, 68, 92, ii4- 
 
 T. 
 
 Tagalas, 126. 
 Tamerlane, 113. 
 Tanganyika, 102. 
 Tanning, 85. 
 
 Tapioca, 70. 
 Tasmania, 125. 
 
 natives of, 127. 
 Tataric group, 113- 
 Tea, black, 62. 
 
 'brick,' 62. 
 
 green, 62. 
 
 conditions of growth, 61. 
 
 consumption of, 62. 
 
 gardens, 62. 
 
 history and commerce, 61. 
 
 plant, 60. 
 
 range and cultivation, 61. 
 Temperate forest belt, 26. 
 Temperature, 33. 
 Teutonic peoples, 94- 
 Thian Shan, 108. 
 Thousand-fathom line, 14. 
 Thunderstorms, 50. 
 
 Tiber, 31. 
 Tiger, 25. 
 Tigris, 31, 72.93- 
 Timbuctoo, 105. 
 Timor, 125. 
 Tierra del Fuego, 120. 
 natives of, 124. 
 
 Tin, 130. 138- 
 Tinneh, 123. 
 Tomato, the, 70. 
 Tonga island, 127. 
 Tonquin, in- 
 
 Tornadoes, 50. 
 
 Torres Strait, 63. 
 
 Torrid zone, 35. 
 
 Totem, 91. 
 
 Trade, 129. 
 
 development of, 130. 
 
 Traffic, 129. 
 Trapping, 77- 
 Trinidad, ii9- 
 Tulip poplars, 27. 
 
 Tundras, 109. 
 Tunguisic group, ii3- 
 
 Tungus, 113- 
 
 Tupis, 124. 
 
 Turkey, 63, 112. 
 
 Turkish dominion, 114- 
 
 Turks, 113- 
 ryphoons, 49. 
 
 Tyre, 132.
 
 182 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ural range, 12. 
 
 river, 106. 
 Utes, 123. 
 
 V. 
 
 Valleys, 17. 
 Vandals, 94. 
 Vasco da Gama, 136. 
 Vegetable mould, 19. 
 Vegetation, 22. 
 
 African, 103. 
 Vegetation, distribution of, 26. 
 Venezuela, 64. 
 Venice, 31, 133, 134- 
 Veniti, 133. 
 Victoria Nyanza, 102. 
 Vikings, 31. 
 Vine, the, 71. 
 Volcanoes, 16. 
 Volga river, 97, 113. 
 Voyages of discovery, 135. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wallace, A. R., 14. 
 
 Walrus, 77, 121. 
 
 Water, action of, 17. 
 
 Waterspouts, 50. 
 
 Weather, 50. 
 
 Weapons, bronze and iron, 76. 
 
 Welsh, 94. ■ 
 
 Western Africa, 100. 
 
 Western Europe, 30, 31. 
 
 Western Hemisphere, 117. 
 
 West Indies, 64, 65, 66. 
 
 Whalebone, 140. 
 
 Whaling, 140. 
 
 Wheat, 66. 
 
 Wheat range and yield, 67. 
 White skin, 98. 
 White Race, cradle of, 97. 
 White race, geographical distribution of, 
 92. 
 
 North Mediterranean branch of, 93. 
 
 original home, 92. 
 
 South Mediterranean branch of, 92. 
 Willows, 25. 
 Winds, 18, 23. 
 
 Buys Ballot's law of, 46. 
 
 constant, 46. 
 
 counter-trades, 46; 
 
 effect of earth's rotation on, 44. 
 
 periodic, 46. 
 
 prevailing, 39. 
 
 primary cause of, 43. 
 
 trade, 46. 
 Wolf, 25, 77, 79. 
 Wombat, 25. 
 Wool, 86. 
 
 Yak, 85. 
 
 Yang-tse-kiang, 31, 61, 109, no. 
 
 Yams, 69. 
 
 Yellow race, home of the, 106. 
 
 Yenisei, 12, no. 
 
 valley, 113. 
 Yucatan, 119. 
 Yucca, 27. 
 Yukon, 12, 123. 
 
 Zambesi river, 102, 104. 
 Zanzibar, 66, 105, 136. 
 Zebra, 25, 82, 102. 
 Zebu, 80. 
 Zulus, 104.
 
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 Central Western States. P.tcific States, New York, Ohio, The C.reat Lakes, V^ashington 
 (State), *Palestine (each to x 12 in.). For the graphic representation by the pupil of 
 geographv, geology, history, meteorology, economics, and statistics of all kinds. 2 cents 
 each; per hundred, fi 5° 
 Those marked with Star (*) are also printed in black outline for use in teaching history. 
 
 Redway'S Manual of Geography. I. Hints to Teachers; II. Modern Facts and 
 Ancient Fancies. 65 cts. 
 
 Redway's Reproduction of Geographical Forms. I. Sand and ciay-ModeiUng; 
 
 11. Map Drawing and Projection. l\iper. 30 cts. 
 
 Roney's Student's Outline Map of England. For use in English history and 
 
 Literature, to be filled in by pupils. 5 cts. 
 
 Trotter's Lessons in the New Geography. Treats geography from the human 
 
 point of view. Adapted tor use as a text-book or as a reader. In press. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, 
 
 BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.
 
 READING. 
 
 Badlam's Suggestive Lessons in Language and Reading, a manual for prf- 
 
 iiiarv tfaclitrs. Plain and practical; bi in.y a transcript of work actually done in the 
 school room. $1.50. 
 
 Badlam's Stepping-Stones to Reading. — A Primer. Supplements the 283-page 
 
 book above. Boards. 30 cts. 
 
 Badlam's First Reader. New and valuable word-building exercises, designed to follow 
 the above. Boards. 35 cts. 
 
 Bass's Nature Stories for Young Readers: Plant Life, intended to supple- 
 ment the first and second reading-books. Boards, yo cts. 
 
 Bass's Nature Stories for Young Readers : Animal Life. Gives lessons on 
 
 animals and their habits. To follow second reader, Boards. 40 cts. 
 
 Fuller's Illustrated Primer. Presents the word-method in a very attractive form to 
 the youngest readers. Boards. 30 cts. 
 
 Fuller's Charts. Three charts for exercises in the elementary sounds, and for combin- 
 ing them to form syllables and words. The set for ?i.25. Mounted, $2.25. 
 
 Hall's How to Teach Reading. Treats the important question: what children should 
 and should not read. Paper. 25 cts. 
 
 Miller's My Saturday Bird Class. Designed for use as a supplementary reader in • 
 lower grades or as a text-book of elementary ornithology. Boards. 30 cts. 
 
 Norton's Heart of Oak Books. This series is of material from the standard imagin- 
 ative literature of the English language. It draws freely upon the treasury of favorite 
 stories, poems, and songs with which every child should become familiar, and which 
 have done most to stimulate the fancy and direct the sentiment of the best men and 
 women of the English-speaking race. Book I, (jh pa»es, 25 cts.; Book 11, 26<S pages, 
 45 cts.; Book III, 308 pages, 55 cts.; Book IV, 370 pages, 60 cts.; Book V, 378 pages, 
 65 cts. 
 
 Smith's Reading and Speaking. Familiar Talks to those who would speak well in 
 public. 70 cts. 
 
 Spear's Leaves and FlOV/ers. Designed for supplementary reading in lower grades 
 or as a text-book of elementary botany. Boards. 30 cts, 
 
 Ventura's Mantegazza's Testa. A book to help boys toward a complete self-develop- 
 ment, ;fi,oo. 
 
 Wright's Nature Reader, No. I. Describes crabs, wasps, spiders, bees, and some 
 imivalve mollusks. Boards. 30 cts. 
 
 Wright's Nature Reader, No. II. Describes ants, flies, earth-worms, beetles, bar- 
 nacles ar.d star-fish. Boards. 40 cts. 
 
 Wright's Nature Reader, No. III. Has lessons in plant-life, grasshoppers, butter- 
 flies, and birds. Boards. 60 cts. 
 
 Wright's Nature Reader, No. IV. Has lessons in geology, astronomy, world-life, 
 
 etc. Boards. 70 cts. 
 
 For advanced s7ipplementary reading see our list 0/ books in English Literature. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, 
 
 BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.
 
 Number. 
 
 White's Two Years with Numbers. Number Lessons for second and third year 
 pupils. 40 cts. 
 
 AtWOOd'S Complete Graded Arithmetic. Present a carefully graded course in 
 arithmetic, to begin with the fourth year and continue through the eighth year. Part I. 
 200 pages. Cloth. 40 cts. Part II. 382 pages. Half leather. 75 cts. 
 
 Walsh's Mathematics for Common Schools. Special features of this work are 
 
 its division into half-yearly chapters instead of the arrangement by topics; the omission, 
 as far as possible, of rules and definitions; the great number and variety of the problems; 
 the use of the equation in solution of arithmetical problems; and the introduction of the 
 elements of algebra and geometry. Parti. 2 iS pages. 35 cts. Part. II. 252 pages. 40 cts. 
 Part III. 365 pages. Half leather. 75 cts. 
 
 Sutton and Kimbrough's Pupils' Series of Arithmethics. 
 
 Pri.m.akv Book. Embraces the four fundamental operations in all their simple relations. 
 
 So pages. Boards. 22 cts 
 Intermediate Book. Embraces practical work through the four operations cancellation, 
 
 factoring and properties of numberS; simple and decimal fractions, percentage and simple 
 
 interest. 128 pages. Boards. 25 cts. 
 Lower Book. Combines in one volume the Primary and Intermediate Books. 208 
 
 pages. Boards, 30 cts. Cloth. 45 cts. 
 Higher Book. A compact volume for efficient work which makes clear all necessary 
 
 theory. 275 pages. Half leather. 70 cts. 
 
 SafEord's Mathematical Teaching. Presents the best methods of teaching, from 
 primary arithmetic to the calculus. Paper. 25 cts. 
 
 Badlam's Aids to Number. For Teacliers. First Series. Consists of 25 cards for 
 sight- work with objects from one to ten. 40 cts. 
 
 Badlam's Aids to Number. For PupHs. First Series. Supplements the above 
 with material for slate work. Leatherette. 30 cts. 
 
 Badlam's Aids to Number. For Teachers. Second Series. Teachers' sight-work 
 
 with objects above ten. 40 cts. 
 
 Badlam's Aids to Number. For Pupils. Second Series. Supplements above with 
 material for slate work from 10 to 20. Leatherette. 30 cts. 
 
 Badlam's Number Chart. n x 14 inches. Designed to aid in teaching the four 
 fundamental rules in lowest primary grades. 5 cts. each; per hundred S4.00. 
 
 LuddingtOn's Picture Problems. 70 cards, 3 x 5 inches, in colors, to teach by pic- 
 tures combinations from one to ten. 65 cts. 
 
 Pierce's Review Number Cards. Two cards, 7x9, for rapid work for second and 
 third year pupils. 3 cts. each ; per hundred ^2.40. 
 
 Howland'S Drill Card. For rapid practice work in middle grades. 3 cts. each ; per 
 
 hundred $2.40. 
 
 For advanced 'ivork see our list of books in JMathemaiics. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, 
 
 BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Hyde's Lessons in EngliS'i, Book I. For the lower grades. Contains exercises 
 for reproduction, picture lessons, letter writing, uses of parts of speech, etc. 40 cts. 
 
 Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II. For Grammar schools. Has enough tech- 
 nical grannnar for con\;ct use of language 60 cts. 
 
 Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II with Supplement. Ha.s, in addition 
 
 to the above, i iS pages of technical grammar. 70 cts. 
 Supplement bound alone, 35 cts. 
 
 Hyde's Advanced Lessons in English. For advanced classes in grammar schools 
 and hign schools. 60 cts. 
 
 Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II with Advanced Lessons. The Ad- 
 vanced Lessons and Book 1 1 bound together. 80 cts. 
 
 Hyde's Derivation of Words. 15 cts. 
 
 Mathews's Outline of English Grammar, with Selections for Practice. 
 
 The application of principles is made through composition of original sentences. 80 cts. 
 Buckbee's Primary Word Book. Embraces thorough drills in articulation and in 
 the primary difficulties of spelling and sound. 30 cts. 
 
 Sever's Progressive Speller. For use in advanced primary, intermediate, and gram- 
 mar grades. Gives spelling, pronunciation, definition, and use of words. 30 cts. 
 
 Badlam's Suggestive Lessons in Language. Being Part i and Appendix of 
 
 Suggestive Lessons in Language and Reading. 50 cts. 
 
 Smith's Studies in Nature, and Language Lessons, .a. combination of object 
 
 lessons with language work. 50 cts. Part I bound separately, 25 cts. 
 
 Meiklejohn's English Language. Treats salient features with a master's skill and 
 with the utmost clearness and simplicity. $1.30. 
 
 Meiklejohn's English Grammar. Also composition, versification, paraphrasing, etc. 
 For liigh schools and colleges, go cts. 
 
 Meiklejohn's History of the English Language. 78 pages. Part in of Eng- 
 lish Language above, 35 cts. 
 
 Williams's Composition and Rhetoric by Practice. For high school and col- 
 lege. Combines the smallest amoiuit of theory with an abundance of practice. Revised 
 edition. Si.oo.- 
 
 Strang's Exercises in English. Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and Style for 
 criticism and correction. 50 cts. 
 
 Huffcutt's English in the Preparatory School. Presents as practically as pos- 
 sible som; of the advanced methods of teaching English grammar and composition in the 
 secondary schools. 25 cts. 
 
 Woodward's Study of English. Discusses English teaching from primary school to 
 high Collegiate work. 25 cts. 
 
 Genung's Study of Rhetoric. shows the most practical discipline of students for the 
 maknig of literature. 25 cts. 
 
 GOOdchild's Book of Stops. Punctuation in Verse. Illustrated. 10 cts. ^ 
 See also our list of books for the study of English Literature. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, 
 
 BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.
 
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