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REVISED Er)ITIO]Sr.
COE^ELL'S
a E A M M A E-S C H O O L
GEOGEAPHY:
FOEMIiq"G A PAET
OP A
SYSTEMATIC SERIES OF SCHOOL GEOGRAPHIES.
EMBRACING AN EXTENDED COURSE, AND ADAPTED TO
PUPILS OF THE HIGHER CLASSES IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS.
By S. S. C0R]S"ELL,
COKEESPONDING MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL SOCIETY.
NEW York::
D. APPLETOK AKD COMPANY, 90, 92, AND 94 GRAND STREET.
1869.
PREFACE.
The work now offered to the public has been prepared to meet the wants of
such classes in Geography as need a comprehensive course, embracing the less
prominent as well as the more important localities on the earth's surface, and
exercising the student in every profitable variety of map studies. It may, with
advantage, be placed in the hands of classes that have completed the author's
Intermediate Geography; or, where the saving of time is an object, it may be used
instead of the latter work, as the second Part of the Series.
The chief difference between the Intermediate and Grammar-School is that the
latter, though no more elevated in style, is fuller in both map and descriptive mat-
ter, presenting a greater number of localities to be memorized. The original plan
of the author, which is now so well understood and so generally appreciated as
here to require no argument in its favor, has been strictly adhered to in the pres-
ent work ; which, it is hoped, will be found philosophical in its arrangement, accu-
rate in its details, and every way adapted to the school-room.
Among the more important features of this work are the following : —
First, it contains a comprehensive treatise on Physical Geography.
Second, it presents fully and systematically the Physical Geography of the
United States grouped together in sections, as represented in the Reference Maps,
with descriptions of their most important and interesting natural features.
Third, it suggests an easy method for memorizing the comparative size of all
the countries on the earth.
Fourth, it embraces two sets of Maps of the IJnited States and Europe : the
one containing a careful selection of places, etc., all of which the pupil is obliged
thoroughly to master, by means of systematic lessons ; the other (intended for
reference) being as full as is consistent with distinctness, and accompanied by gen-
eral questions which embody an original, and. It is believed, highly instructive,
series of map exercises.
Fifth, all map questions are placed opposite the maps to which they respect-
ively belong.
Sixth, the pronunciation of names likely to be mistaken is given in the place
where they first occur.
Seventh, it contains a simple and practicable system of Map Drawing, which \
will aid in impressing on the mind of the learner the outlines of countries and
the relative position of places.
In the present edition, the text has been thoroughly revised and brought up
to date. A complete set of New Maps has been introduced, which, we think, leave
nothing to be desired even by the most fastidious and critical. In fine, the Au-
thor has earnestly endeavored to make this Revised Edition in every respect
worthy of the favor which the work has from the very first enjoyed at the hands
of an intelligent pubUc.
New York, May 1, 1868.
LIST OF MAPS
LARGE MAPS.
The Wobld, in Hemispheres, ........
NoKTH America, ..........
British Provinces, ..........
United States, ..........
Eastern States. ..........
Middle States, Maktland, Virginia, and West VmaiNiA,
Southern States, Arkansas, and Tennessee, ......
Western States, .........
Pacific States, Tbrritobies, Ac, .......
United States No. 1— Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine,
United States No. 2— Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut,
United States No. 8— New York, New Jersey. Pennsylvania,
United States No. 4— Delaware, Maryland, VmonnA, West Virginia, North
AND South Carolina, ....
United States No. 5 — Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, Alasama, Mississippi,
United States No. 6— Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, ....
United States No. 7— Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, .....
United States No. 8— Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, . .
United States No. 9— Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, .....
United States No. 10— Nebraska, Kansas, Dakota, Indian TKRBrroRY, &c..
United States No. 11 — California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, &c.,
Mexico and Central America,
West Indies, . . . . . . . . . . .
South America, ..........
Europe, ...........
British Isles, ..........
Part op Europe No. 1— Prance, Spain, Portugal, .....
Part of Europe No. 2 — Prussia, Austria, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Ac,
Part of Europe No. 3— Belgium, Holland, Peussia, the German States,
Asia, ...........
Africa, ............
Oceania, ...........
PAOS
14,15
. 21
24
28,29
31
. 33
35
65
67
68
70
72
76
77
78
82
89
90
190
103
104
107
113
116
SMALL MAPS.
North and South Polar Hegions,
Newfoundland, .
Vicinity of Montreal,
Vicinity of Niagara Falls,
Vicinity of New York,
Vicinity of Philadelphia,
San Francisco and Sacramento, .
Vicinity of Portland, Me.,
Vicinity of Portsmouth, N. H., .
Vicinity of Boston,
Vicinity of Providence,
Part op Maryland and Delaware,
Vicinity of Charleston,
Vicinity of New Orleans,
Vicinity of Detroit, Madison, and St. Paot.,
Vicinity of Cincinnati,
Nicaragua Route,
Route op the Panama Railway,
City of Mexico and its Vicinity,
Cuba, Hayti,
Shetland Islands,
Orkney Islands,
Channel Islands,
Vicinity of London,
Vicinity of Liverpool,
Vicinity of Manchester,
British India, .
Egypt,
Liberia, .
Cape Colony,
Sandwich Islands,
Part of Australia,
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by S. S. Cornell. In the Clerk's Onice of the District Conrt fbr the Southern District of New York.
Enlered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by D. Appleton ft Co., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New Yo:
PAOB
14,16
. 24
25
64
64
67
57
61
61
66
68
•Jo
77
77
77
78
91
91
91
107
118
113
11.3
116
llfi
COENELL'S
GEAMMAE-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHT.
LESSON I.
Mathematical Geography.
Geography is tlie science that describes the surface of the earth.
Division of tlie Snljeet. — Geography is divided into three branches : —
Mathematical, Physical, and Political.
Mathematical Geography treats of the form, magnitude, and mo-
tions of the earth, and of the various imaginary lines on its surface.
Physical Geography treats of the solid and fluid parts of the
earth's surface, the atmosphere, and all animal and vegetable life.
Political Geograbhy treats of the various countries on tile earth's
surface, their people, customs, religion, and government.
Tlie Form of the Earth is nearly that of a globe, or sphere.
Proofs of the Spberieal Form of the Earth. — 1st. The highest part
of a ship is seen first in the distance,
and, as she approaches, the lower part,
or hull.
2d. Persons have sailed constantly in
one direction, either east or west (as nearly
as the diflerent bodies of land would per-
mit), and returned to the place from
which they set out.
i^s 3d. The shadow the earth casts on the
--^^ moon, during a lunar eclipse, is circular.
Extent of the Earth's Snrface. — The earth's surfece contains about
200,000,000 square miles.
The Earth's Axis is an imaginary straight line passing through its
center, around which it turns.
The Poles of the Earth are the ends of the earth's axis, or the points
where the axis meets the surface.
The north pole is the north end of the earth's axis.
The south pole is the south end of the earth's axis.
Eemakk.— The North Pole, or most northerly point of the earth's surfiace, is always
directed toward a particular star, called the North or Pole Star.
Motions of the Earth. — Tlie earth has two motions : — a diurnal, or daily
motion, on its axis ; and an annual, or yearly motion, round the sun.
The Earth turns on its Axis from west to east, once in every
twenty-four hours.
This revolution causes the succession of day and night.
The Earth revolves round the Sun in a nearly circular course,
called its Orbit, in about 365^1^ days.
This revolution causes, in part, the diversity of the seasons.
The Earth's Annual Motion is about 68,000 miles an hour.
The Distanee of the Earth from the Son is about 95,000,000 miles.
The Length of the Earth's Orbit is about 600,0.00,000 miles.
LESSON II.
Mathematical Geography— Continued.
The Compass is used for ascertaining and directing the course of
ships at sea, for surveying land, etc. It is a circular box, containing
a card marked with the
points of direction and
attached to a magnetic
needle, which moves
freely on a pivot, and
always points due north,
or nearly so.
The Cardinal Points of
the Compass are North,
South, East, and West.
Cardinal means chief ; the
cardinal points are the chief
points of direction.
The other Important
Points are North-east,
South-east, North-west,
and South-west. thb mabineb's compass.
Behabe. — Observe in what part of the heavens the sun rises, — that is east ; or where it
sets,— that is west. Now, if you will stand with outstretched arms, so that the right hand
points to that part of the heavens in which the sun rises, and the left to that part where it
sets, before you will be north, and behind yon south. Again,— look at the sun at noonday,
and you will then face the south. If at night, when the stars are visible, you will look at the
Pole Star, you will then face the north.
The Cireles of the Earth. — The surface of the earth is divided by im
aginary circles. There are two kinds of circles ; viz., great and small.
A great circle divides the earth into two equal parts.
A SMALL CIRCLE divides the earth into two unequal parts.
Cireles, how divided. — Every circle, whether great or small, isdivided
into 360 equal parts, called Degrees.
A DEGREE is the three-huudrcd-aud-sixtieth part of a circle.
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.
The sixtieth part of a degree is called a Minute, and the sixtieth
part of a minute is called a Second.
The mark for degrees is ("), for minntes O, and for seconds ("). Thus, twenty-three
degrees, twenty-seven minntes, and thirty seconds, is nsnally written, 23° 27' 30".
MgMiii-
Haps. — A Map is a drawing which
represents, on a plane, the whole or a
part of the earth's surface.
RBHAitK.— A map, being flat, cannot exactly
represent a spherical surfece ; yet it does so near
enough for ordinary purposes.
A map of a particular country may be regarded
as a part cut out of a map of the world. In a map
of the world, the earth is supposed to be divided
into two hemispheres, which are then placed on a
flat surface, with their edges together, and pressed
down till they coincide with it. If the maps of the
hemispheres were placed with their backs in con-
tact and the edges pasted together, they could be
inflated so as to assume a spherical form.
Globes. — The earth's surface is also
^ represented on a sphere, called a Ter-
restrial Globe.
Remabk. — The top of a map is north, the bot-
tom south, the right hand east, and the left hand
west. If this is not the case, the direction of these points is shown by a cross on the map,
having a flower called ./fear de lis at the end that points to the north.
Point to the north ; to the south ; to the east ; to the west. In what direction does
the building you are in, face ?
TERRESTRIAL GLOBE.
LESSON III.
Mathematical Geoffraphy— Continued.
The Lines, or Circles, on Maps, are the equator, meridians, parallels,
tropics, and polar circles.
These lines help us to determine the
relative positions of places, and their dis-
tances from each other.
The equator is a great circle equal-
ly distant from the two poles.
A MERIDIAN CIRCLE is any great
circle pa.'ssing through the two poles.
A MERIDIAN is half of a meridian
circle.
:''i/-<L^ f rm=mB3 The word meridian means mid-day,
or noon. When the sun is directly over
a meridian, it is noon at all places through which that meridian passes.
Remark.— There is but one equator on the earth, but every point on Its surikce has
its own meridian.
A Demisphere is half of a sphere.
Demispbcres of the Earth. — The equator divides the earth into two
hemispheres, Northern and Southern.
Every meridian circle divides the earth into two hemispheres, East-
em and Westera. The cii'cle selected by geographers so to divide the
earth, is 20 degrees west of Greenwich, a place very near London.
The ClTenmferciiee of the Earth is the distance round it.
The circumference of the earth is greatest at the equator, measuring
about 25,000 miles.
The Diameter of the Earth is the distance through its center.
The longest, or equatorial, diameter of the earth extends from
any point on the equator to the opposite point.
The shortest, or polar, diameter of the earth extends from one
pole to the other.
The length of the equatorial diameter is about 7,925 mUes ; that of
the polar diameter, about 7,899 miles.
Remark.— The poles aie about 13 miles nearer than the equator to the center of the
earth.
LESSON IV.
Mathematical Geography— Contintied.
Longitnde is distance, either east or west, from some given meridian,
which is called the First Meridian.
The meridian of Greenwich is most frequently used as the first
meridian.
In the United States, longitnde is sometimes computed fW)m the meridian of Washing-
ton, and in France from that of Paris. Washington is T7° west of the meridian of Greenwich.
Kinds of Longitnde. — There are two kinds of longitude, east and west.
A place is in East Longitude, when it Ls situated east of the first
meridian ; in West Longitude, when it is west of the first meridian.
The greatest longitude a place can have, is 180 degrees, either east
or west.
Longitnde of a Plaee. — Tlie distance, measured in degrees on the
equator, between the meridian of any place and the first meridian, is
called the Longitude of that place.
Places on the first meridian have no longitude.
Longitnde, where mariied on Maps. — On the map of the hemispheres, the
degrees of longitude are marked on the equator ; on other maps, they
are at the top and the bottom. The meridian of Greenwich is marked
with a cipher (0).
Degrees of Longitnde. — Tlie equator is divided into 360 equal parts,
called degrees, — each containing 60 geographic miles. As these di-
visions together mark out the length of the equator, thej' are called
degrees of longitude, or length.
Length of a degree of longitude. — As the earth is about 25,000
miles in circumference, it follows that each degree of longitude at
the equator contains about 69J statute miles ; but north or south from
the equator, a degree becomes shorter and shorter, till at the poles it
is nothing. Tlie length of a degree of longitude, in latitude 60°, is
only 30 geographic miles.
Latitude is distance either north or
south from the equator.
Parallels of latitude are small
circles parallel to the equator.
Kinds of Latitude. — Tliere are two
kinds of latitude, north and south.
A place is in North Latitude, when
it is situated north of the equator; in
South Latitude, when it is south of the
equator.
The greatest latitude a place can have is 90 degrees.
Latitude of a Plaee.^The distance of a place from the equator,
measured in degrees, is called the Latitude of that place.
Places on the equator have no latitude.
Latitude, where marked oh Maps. — The figures denoting latitude are
on the sides of the maps.
PHTSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Degrees of Latitude. — The distance between the poles, measured on
a meridian, is divided into 180 equal parts, called degrees (90 degrees
being north, and 90 degrees south, of the equator). As these divisions
together mark out the breadth of the earth, mejisurcd on each side from
the equator, they are called degrees of latitude, or breadth.
Length of a degree of latitude. — The length of each degree of
latitude is 69J- statute, or 60 geographic, miles.
LESSON V.
Mathematical Geography— Continued.
The Troples are two small circles parallel to the equator, called the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
The Tropic of Cancer is 23|^ degrees north ofthe equator.
The Tropic of Capricorn is 23^ degrees south ofthe equator.
The Polar Circles are two small circles parallel to the equator, called
the Arctic and the Antarctic Circle.
The Arctic Circle is 23|^ degrees from the north pole.
The Antarctic Circle is 23J degrees from the south pole.
Zones. — Zones are belts, or divisions, of the earth, bounded by the
tropics and the polar circles. The word zone memis a belt, or girdle.
The tropics and polar circles divide the earth's surface into five zones.
The portion between the tropics is called the Torrid Zone.
The portions bounded by the polar circles are called Frigid Zones,
the one being the North Frigid, and
the other the South Frigid Zone.
The two intennediate portions, situ-
ated between the torrid zone and the
frigid zones, are called respectively the
North Temperate and the South Tem-
perate Zone.
The Torrid Zone. — In this zone are
the hottest parts of the earth. It has
two seasons — the wet and the dry.
From October to April the dry sea-
son prevails in the northern half of the
torrid zone, and the wet season in the southern half. From April to
October this order is reversed. — The breadth of the torrid zone is 47
degrees, — 23|^ degrees on each side ofthe equator.
Days and nights in the torrid zone. — The days and nights
in the torrid zone are nearly of equal length, — about 12 hours each.
The Frigid Zones are the coldest parts of the earth. They have but
two seasons ; viz., a long, cold winter, and a short summer. While it
is summer in the north fi'igid zone, it I's winter in the south frigid.
The frigid zones are 23^ degrees each in breadth. '
Days and nights in the frigid zones. — The days and nights in
the frigid zones are very unequal in length. At the polar circles the
longest day is 24 hours, but at the poles the days and nights are each
six months long. The days and nights between these two points vary
much in length.
The Temperate Zones. — ^The temperate zones have a medium climate.
They have four seasons — Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
While it is spring in the north temperate zone, it is autumn in the
south temperate ; and when it is summer in the north temperate, it is
winter in the south temperate. — The temperate zones are 43 degrees
each in breadth.
Days and moHTS in the temperate zones. — These are of un-
equal length. In summer the days are more, and the nights less, than
12 hours in length, while in winter this order is reversed.
Kinds of Climate. — The five zones represent three distinct .kinds of
climate ; viz., the coldest, the hottest, and the medium or temperate.
LESSON VI.
Physical Geography.
Physical Geography treats of the solid and fluid parts of the earth's
surface, the atmosphere, and all animal and vegetable life.
The Earth's Surface is composed of land and water; about one-
fourth, or 50,000,000 square mUes, being land, and three-fourths, or
150,000,000 square miles, being water.
The Land, how natnraiir divided. — The land is divided into parts of
diflbrent form, known as continent, island, peninsula, isthmus, cape,
promontory, mountain, hill, plain, and valley. These are called the
Natural Divisions of Land.
Continent is the name applied to the three largest natural divisions
of land.
Rule for describing a continent. — Tell which hemisphere it is
in, and what bodies of water surround it.
Example.— The Western Continent is in the Western Hemisplierc, and is snrronnded
by the Arctic, the Atlantic, the Southern, and the Pacific Ocean.
An Island is a body of land surrounded by water, like a continent,
only not so large.
Rule for describing an island. — ^Tell its direction from the near-
est coast, and what bodies of water surround it.
ExnmpU, — Newfoundland {nu' -fund-land) is east of continental British America, and is
snrronnded by the Strait of Belle Isle, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
1 Penlnsnia is a portion of land extending from some larger body,
and nearly surrounded by water.
Rule for describing a peninsula. — Tell its direction from the
main-land, and what bodies of water nearly surround it.
Example. — South America is south-east of North America, and is nearly surrounded by
the Carribbe'an Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the Strait of Magellan, and the Pacific Ocean.
An Isthmns is a narrow strip which connects a peninsula with the
main-land.
Rule for describing an isthmus. — ^Tell what bodies of water it
lies between, and what countries it connects.
Example.— The Isthmns of Suez (soo'ez) lies between the Mediterranean and the Red
Sea, and connects Africa with Asia.
A Cape is a point of land which projects into the water. A Promontory
is an elevated point of land which projects into the water.
Rule for describing a cape or promontory. — Tell from what
coast, and into what body of water, it projects.
Example.— C&^ St. Eoqne (rofe) projects from the eastern coast of Brazil, into the
Atlantic Ocean.
A Mountain is a very large mass of earth and rock, considerably ele-
vated above the surrounding country.
Rule for describing a mountain. — State the part of the country,
and the country, in which it is situated.
Example.— tioxmi Etna is in the north-eastern part of the Island of Sicily.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
A Bange. — Many mountains joined are called a Range, or Chain.
Rule' for describing a range. — Tell in what country or coun-
tries it is situated, and in what direction it extends.
Excanple. — The Kocky Monntain Eange is in British America and the United States,
extending in a north-westeriy and south-easterly direction.
A Volcano is a mountain with an opening in the top, or side, from
which issue at times fire and smoke. The opening in the top is called
its Crater. — A HUl is a portion of land higher than the surrounding
country, but not so high as a mountain. — A Sbore, or Coast, is the strip
of land which borders upon any body of water. — A Plain is a level tract
of land. — A Valley is a tract of land inclosed between hills or mountains.
The Water, how naturally dlflded. — The water is divided into parts,
variously formed, known as ocean, sea, gulf, bay, strait, passage, sound,
channel, lake, and river. These are called the Natural Divisions of Water.
Ocean is the name applied to the largest natural division of water.
Rbhabk. — As there can be bnton* largest natoral diTision of water on the earth, it fol-
lows that there is, strictly speaking, but one ocean. For convenience of description, how-
ever, the Ocean is divided into five parts, each designated by a particular name ; the Arctic
or Northern, the Antarctic or Southern, the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian.
Rule for describing an ocean. — Tell its direction from the
coasts it washes.
Example. — The Atlantic Ocean is east of America, and west of Europe and Africa.
A Sea is a branch of some larger body of water, partly inclosed
by land.
Rule for describing a sea. — Tell its direction from the coast or
coasts it washes, and then of what body of water it is a branch.
Example. — The Eed Sea is west of Asia, and east of AMca. It is a branch of the In-
dian Ocean.
Kemabk. — There are bodies of water called seas which are really lakes, such as the
Caspian, the Dead, and the Sea of Aral (ar'al) ; these should be described as lakes.
A Frith, or Estuary, is a narrow arm of the sea, into which a river empties. An Arclu-
pelago is a sea interspersed with many isles. A group of Islands is also somettmes called
an Archipelago.
A Gnlf, or Bay, is a branch of some large division of water, extend-
ing into the land. Describe a gulf, or bay, like a sea.
A Strait is a narrow passage connecting two larger bodies of water.
Rule for desceibing a strait. — State between what countries it
lies, and what bodies of water it connects.
Example.— The Strait of Gibraltar lies between Spain and Morocco, and connects the
Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean.
A Sound is a narrow body of water sufiBciently shallow to be sound-
ed ; that is, to have its depth ascertained by a lead and line.
A Channel is a narrow arm of the sea, which generally performs the
office of a strait. — If a sound or a channel performs the office of a strait,
describe it as such ; if not, follow the rule for describing a gulf, or bay.
A Lake is a body of water formed by streams or springs, which is
almost, and sometimes quite, encircled by land.
Rule for describing a lake. — State the part of the country, and
the country in which it is situated, and then what stream, if any,
serves as its outlet.
Example.— Oreat Slave Lake is in the northern part of British America, and Macken-
zie's lliver is its outlet.
Remakk.— Streams wMch empty into a lake are called Inlets, and those which flow
from a lake arc called Outlets.
A River is a stream flowing in an open channel through the land.
Rule for describing a river. — Tell where it rises, in what direc-
tion it flows, and into what body of water it empties.
Example.— The Mississippi Kivcr rises in the northern part of Minnesota, in Itasca
Lake, takes a southerly course, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico.
Remabk.— The Source, or Head, of a river, is the spring or body of water from which
it begins to flow. The Mouth of a river is that part through which it discharges its waters
into some other l)ody of water. Kivers that flow into other rivers are called Branches, Af-
fluents, or Tributaries. Small rivers are called Creeks, Brooks, Kivulets, or Kills.
LESSON VII.
Physical Geography— Continued.
Interior of the Earth. — It is supposed that the interior of the earth
is in a state of intense heat, and that the surface is a comparatively
thin crust, formed by the cooling down of the melted mass within.
The greatest depth reached by man is one mile from the surfitce ;
and, at distances where the heat of the sun ceases to be felt, the tem-
perature is found to increase 1 degree for every 60 feet of depth. If
this rate is maintained, the heat at a depth of 21 miles would be suf-
ficient to melt the most refractory substances.
General Dlstribntlon of Land and Water. — ^There is about three times
as much land in the Northern Hemisphere as in the Southern ; and
two and a half times as much in the Eastern Hemisphere as in the
Western. The earth may be so divided as to throw still more of the
land in one hemisphere, as will be seen from the following Map : —
WATElt IlEMISrUERE.
LAND UKMISPHERE.
The Continents. — There are three vast and detached portions of land
on the globe, which are properly called Continents. These are, the
Old World, or the Eastern Continent, consisting of Europe, Asia, 'and
Africa ; the New World, or the Western Continent, embracing North
and South America ; and Australia, which, with the adjacent islands,
Polynesia, and Malaysia, constitutes the Grand Division known as
Oceania. There is also what is called the Antarctic Continent, ice-
bound and unexplored, the northern coast of which extends somewhat
north of the Antarctic Circle.
Form of the Continents. — While the coast-line of the Eastern and the
Western Continent is quite irregular, it is to be observed that their
general form is triangular. Their northern coasts are broad flats, while
on the south they narrow down to sharp and elevated points.
It will also be remarked that the peninsulas of both the Eastern
and the Western Continent have a southerly direction; the chief ex--
ceptions being Yucatan in North America, and Denmark in Europe.
Bank of the Grand Divisions. — In size, Asia ranks first ; Africa, second ;
North America, third ; South America, fourth ; Oceania, fifth ; and
Europe, sixth. In population, Asia ranks first ; Europe, second ; Africa,
third ; North America, fourth ; Oceania, fifth ; and South America,
sixth.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
LESSON VIII.
PhysictU Geography — Conttnued.
DlTerslty of EleTatlon. — By referring to the Map of the World (pages
14, 16), it will be seen that the land surface of the earth is greatly di-
versified by mountains, table-lands or plateaus, low-lands, plains, and
valleys.
Mountains. — Elevations exceeding 1,000 feet are called Mountains.
^Mountains are generally arranged in groups or chains. Several con-
nected chains are called a System.
Direction of Moontaln Chains. — Nearly all the mountain chains of the
Western Continent extend in the general direction of north and south.
The chief exceptions are found in the Paiirae (^pah-re'ma) and Acaray
{ah-kah-ri') Mountains of Northern South America, and a few minor
ranges that cross the plateau of Brazil.
In the Eastern Continent the chief mountain chains run east and
west, the Mountains of the Moon in Africa forming the chief exception.
Slopes of Hovntain Chains. — Most mountain chains have a more grad-
ual slope on one side than on the other. The gentler slopes of the prin-
cipal chains are toward the Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean, while their
steeper slopes are, for the most part, toward the Pacific and the Indian.
Thus, in America, the Rocky Mountains and the Andes have their
more gradual slope on the eastern side ; the Mountains of the Moon,
in Africa, on the western — all toward the Atlantic. The Alps and the
FOKUS OF KUUNTAINS.
Pyrenees of Europe, and the Himala'ya Mountains of Asia, slope more
gradually toward the north (that is, in the direction of the Arctic
Ocean), than in the opposite direction.
The Highest Moiuitalng. — The highest mountain range in the world
is the Himalaya. Its mean elevation is estimated at from 16,000 to
20,000 feet. Forty of its peaks exceed 20,000 feet in height.
The loftiest monntam in N. America is Mount St. Elias, 17,300 ft,
" " " " S. " " Mt. Aconcagua (oJirkonrkaA'-gtmA), 23,910 "
" " " " Europe " Mt. Elburz {d-boorz'), 18,493 "
" " " " Asia " Mt. Everest, 29,100 "
" " " " Africa " Mt. Kilimanjaro (*8f<-nMiAnvaA-ro'), 20,000 "
" " " " Oceania " Mt. O'phir (Sumatra), 13,&42 "
ElevatioDS, eomparativclf considered. — Though mountains appear to be
enormous elevations on the earth's surface, they are inconsiderable
when compared with the whole mass of the globe. The loftiest peak,
which is less than five and a half miles high, is only about one fifteen-
hundredth part of the earth's diameter.
Utility of Monntalns. — Mountains are of great use to man. They at-
tract the clouds and store up in reservoirs the water received from
them, sending it forth again in streams, from thousands of springs, to
fertilize the soil. They increase the surfiice of the earth, giving va-
riety to its vegetable productions ; and they are the great storehouses
of mineral treasures.
Volcanoes. — ^Volcanoes may be regarded as the great safety-valves
of the globe, giving vent to the gases generated by the heat within.
Some eject boiling mud, instead of lava, and are called Mud Volca-
noes ; others emit water, and are called Water Volcanoes. It is sup-
posed that there arc about 300 volcanoes
on the earth, 200 of which are. on islands.
Volcanoes are either continuously ac-
tive, occasionally active, or extinct. Strora-
boli (strom'bo-le), on one of the Lipari
{lip'ah-re) Isles, is an example of a con-
tinuously active volcano. It is rarely vio-
lent, but emits a constant light, and serves
as a light-house to the mariner in that part
of the Mediterranean. Eruptions are much more frequent in low
than in lofty volcanoes.
Earthquakes. — Earthquakes are convulsions of the earth, most
common in volcanic districts. They frequently precede volcanic
eruptions, and are sometimes so violent as to destroy whole cities. A
Chart beneath the Map of the World, page 14, shows the regions most
frequently visited by earthquakes.
'M
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1
mi
ae
K)>
CnATEK OF VESLVIb'S.
LESSON IX.
Fhysical Geography— Continued.
TaMe-Lands, or Plateans. — Table-lands are extensive tracts consider-
ably elevated above the level of the sea.
A series of table-lands extends along the eastern base of the Rocky
Mountains, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height. The table-lands of
Utah, between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, (na-
vah'dd) have twice that elevation. The immense plateau of Mexico
and Central America exceeds 6,00Q feet in height
In South America arc found some of the highest table-lands on the
globe. The plateau of Quito (ke'to), lying on both sides of the equa-
tor, is 9,000 feet in elevation; that of Pasco (pahs'ko), upward of
11,000; and that of Potosi {po-to'-se), from 12,000 to 13,000.
The table-lands of Europe are comparatively small. Tlie south-
west portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula (Norway and Sweden) con-
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPUY.
stitutes a plateau of moderate elevation. Bavaria is a table-land of
about 2,000 feet in height ; and the central part of the Spanish Penin-
sula consists chiefly of a plateau from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea-level.
Asia contains the most extensive and elevated table-lands on the
globe. The whole of Central Asia is one vast plateau of 3,000,000
square miles, varying in height from 4,000 to 12,000 feet above sear
level. Separated from this immense plateau by the basin of the Ganges,
are the table-lands of Hindostan', with an elevation of 2,000 feet ; and in
South-western Asia is another plateau from 2,000 to 4,000 feet in height.
The greater part of Central Africa is supposed to be an en-rmous
plateau, with a mean height of about 8,000 feet. The Desert of Sa-
hara (sah-hah'-rah) constitutes an immense table-land of small elevation.
In Australia, two plateaus, one on the southern and the other on the
northern coast, spread out to unknown distances in the interior.
Lowland Plains. — Lowland Plains are tracts of land, either having
about the same level as the ocean, or depressed below it, as in the re-
gions around the Caspian Sea. The Dead Sea and the adjacent region
have a depressio'ii of more than ],300 feet below sea-leveh The plains
of the Western Continent exceed in extent those of the Eastern.
Deserts. — Deserts are barren tracts of land, nearly destitute of water
and vegetation. In some desert regions are interspersed small fertile
tracts, well watered and wooded. These are called Oases.
The most extensive deserts are to be found in the Eastern Con-
tinent. Of these, the most important are the Desert of Gobi {go'he)
or Shamo [shah'mo), and the Arabian Desert, in Asia, — and the Sa-
hara, or Great Desert, of Africa.
Islands. — Islands are variously distributed, occurring singly, or in
groups and archipelagoes. It is supposed that they are the tops of
mountains or table-lands, whose base is in the bed of the ocean, and
whose valleys and passes are filled with its waters. Islands form about
one-twelfth of the earth's surface.
Some islands extend along the coasts of continents, of which they
are supposed to be dependencies. Others have been thrown up firom
the bed of the ocean by volcanic action. A third class, called Coral
Islands, have been fonued by myriads of minute insects, inhabiting the
waters of the Torrid Zone and the warmest parts of the North and
South Temperate.
COBAI, ISLAND, INCLOStNG A I.AOOON.
These little creatures, extracting lime from the sea-water, build for
their habitations great masses of coral, forming reefs hundreds of miles
in extent, and circular islands, or Atolls. As they can not live above
the surface of the ocean, they raise their structure only to low-water
mark. Sand, sea-weed, and seeds, are brought to it by cun'ents, and
in process of time it becomes the abode of man.
The Bahamas, in the Atlantic Ocean, and many of the islands of
the Pacific and Indian, are of coral formation.
SECTION or AN INTVBMITTmO aFBDtO.
The rain, einking throngb the rock, fill, the cav-
ity A until It reaches the top of the figaure B the
apring will then How uqUI the water la exhausted.
LESSON X.
Physical Geography— Continued.
The Waters of the Globe — how divided. — As respects position, the waters
of the globe may be divided into two classes; land-inclosed, or conti-
n-ental watere, and land-inclosing, or oceanic waters.
As respects properties, they may be divided into three classes;
salt, mineral, and fresh. Oceanic waters are salt ; continental waters
are, for the most part, fresh.
Springs. — Springs are formed from melted snow, dew, and rain,
which, falling on high elevations of land, sink into the soil. Tlie cav-
ities beneath the surface form reser-
voirs, from which, at a lower level, the
water finds its way again to the surface.
Those springs which continne to
flow at all seasons, are called perennial ;
those that alternately flow and stop,
are called intermitting.
There are also Hot Springs. Tlie
water, descending from the surface to
a considerable depth, becomes heated
by volcanic action. Steam is gener-
ated ; which, if unable to escape, by
its elastic force drives the water up
through crevices in the rocks.
The most remarkable hot springs
known are those of Iceland, called Geysers (ghi'zers). One hundred
of these occur within a circuit of two miles, one of which, the Great
Geyser, every few hours, sends forth an immense stream of boiling
water to a height of from 70 to 100 feet.
Rivers. — Elvers which empty directly into the ocean, or into waters
communicating with it, are called Oceanic Rivers. Those which never
reach the ocean, but fall into lakes unconnected with it, or are ab-
sorbed and lost in swamps or deserts, are called Continental Rivers.
The oceanic rivers are divided into four systems, belonging respect-
ively to the Arctic, the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean.
Sonrces of Rivers. — Most of the large rivers originate in chains of
mountains, because springs are there most abundant; but m some in-
stances they have their source in small elevations in plains.
Descent and Rapidity of Rivers. — Water, like every other fluid, when
left free, seeks the lowest possible level ; hence the course of a river
shows the general slope of the country through vvhich it flows.
The velocity of the current depends on both the volume of water
and the declivity of the channel. A fall of one foot in two hundred
feet prevents a river from being navigable. In general, winding rivers
are less rapid than those whose channel is straight.
Rapids, Cataracts, Cascades. — When the fall of a river is sudden, and
its velocity extremely great, it forms what is called a Rapid ; and when
it rushes over a perpendicular rock, it is called a Cataract, or Water-fall.
When a small stream dashes over a rock, it is called a Cascade.
River-basins. — The entire extent of country drained by a river and
its tributaries, is called its Basin,
The" largest rivers and the most extensive river-basins are found in
the Western Continent. The basin of the Amazon, in South America,
embraces over 2,000,000 square miles ; that of the La Plata {lah
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
plah'tah) in South America, 1,240,000 square miles; and that of the
Mississippi, about an equal number.
Water-sheds. — The margin of land which separates one river-basin
from another is called a Water-shed. This, in some cases, is a mere
ridge-line, like the top of a roof, from which the waters flow in oppo-
site directions.
Months of BiTers, Deltas. — Rivers discharge themselves usually by a
single mouth, but in some instances by several mouths.
Some rivers carry down with them large quantities of earthy mat-
ter, which, as their velocity decreases when they approach the sea, are
deposited, forming triangular banks called Deltas (from the Greek let-
ter delta A, which they resemble in shape).
The Ocean. — The Ocean forms one vast body of water. The great
land-masses, however, are so placed as to divide it into three principal
basins, called respectively the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean.
The Arctic Ocean may be regarded as an extension of the Atlan-
tic, the Arctic Circle forming the boundary line between them. The
Antarctic Ocean, which has the Antarctic Circle for its northern limit,
is connected with each of the three great ocean basins.
The ocean has everywhere a uniform surface, which is called the
Level of the Sea. Some of its branches have a higher level, in con-
sequence of prevailing winds, peculiarity of position, etc.
LESSON XI.
Fhysical Geography — Continued.
Saltness, Color, Density, and Temperatnre of the Oecan. — ^The waters of
the ocean are salt, and bluish gi-een in color, but both the degree of
saltness and the tint differ in different places. Its density increases
from the surface downward.
The mean temperature of the surface of the ocean, for 10° on each
side of the equator, is about 80° Fahrenheit ; at the tropics, it is about
75° ; in latitude 60°, it is about 50° ; and in the Arctic and the Ant-
arctic Ocean, it falls to the freezing point.
Depth. — The bed of the ocean contains a variety of hills, table-
lands, and valleys, similar to the elevations and depressions of the land
surface. The greatest ascertained depth of the ocean is about 8|- miles.
Uovements of the Ocean. — There are three distinct movements of the
ocean ; waves, tides, and currents.
Waves. — The action of the winds on the surface of the ocean pro-
duces waves, varying in height from a mere ripple to billows of from
10 to 20 feet.
Tides. — Tides are elevations and depressions of the ocean which
occur at regular intervals. They are caused chiefly by the attraction
of the sun and moon.
The waters of the ocean gradually rise oy flow, as it is called, about
six hours ; "after remaining stationary about six minutes, they then re-
tire, or ebh, during another six hours, to flow again after a brief repose.
In the open ocean the tide seldom rises more than a few feet, probably
never exceeding five. Tlie highest tides occur in the Bay of Fundy,
where, with certain winds, owing to the peculiar formation of the
shore, they attain a height of 70 feet.
Co-tidal Lines. — The wave of high water, which twice a day visits
the shores of the different continents, is supposed to have its origin in
the Southern Ocean, south-east of Australia. It is thence carried for-
ward into the Indian, the Atlantic, and the Pacific Ocean.
By noting the times at which the same high water reaches different
parts of the coast, a series of lines connecting these points may be laid
down, so as to indicate the course of the tidal wave. These are called
Co-tidal Lines. By examinmg these lines on the Map of the World,
it will be perceived that the tidal wave that passes Tasmania at twelve
o'clock, takes twelve hours to reach Ceylon, and thirteen to arrive at
the Cape of Good Hope ; in twelve hours more, it has passed up the
Atlantic as far as Newfoundland.
Cnrrents. — The ocean is crossed in diff'erent directions by currents
(see Map of the World) flowing like rivers, the neighboring waters
forming, as it were, their banks. There are three prominent causes
that produce these currents ; the unequal heating of the surface of the
ocean, the earth's daily motion, and the obstruction of continents.
Ocean currents are of the greatest importance to navigators, ac-
celerating or retarding the course of ships according to the direction
in which they are sailing.
The Gnlf Stream. — The most remarkable of these currents is the
Gulf Stream. It is distinguished by its superior warmth, its indigo
hue, and its rapidity of movement.
It issues from the Gulf of Mexico (see Map of the World) between
the Bahamas and Florida, and flows in a north-easterly direction as
far as Cape Hattcras. There it separates, one portion setting east
toward ihe Azores, and another following the coast of North America
to Newfoundland. At the Azores, a part of the Gulf Stream turns to
the south-west, and after running along the African coast joins the great
equatorial current, which sets westward across the Atlantic.
The highest temperature of the Gulf Stream is 86°. Its velocity
i^ over a mile and a half an hour. The mild climate of the British
Isles is attributable principally to the warmth of the Gulf Stream,
which washes their shores.
Seas. — With the ocean various seas communicate, either by straits,
like the Baltic and the Mediterranean ; or by wide openings, like the
Yellow Sea and the Arabian. Seas of the former class are called in-
land, and those of the latter may be styled open.
Besides these two classes of oceanic seas, there are other bodies of
water, not connected with the ocean, such as the Caspian and the Sea
of Aral, which, though called seas, are really salt lakes.
The Atmosphere. — The earth is surrounded by a highly elastic fluid,
called its Atmosphere, which extends about fifty miles above its sur-
face. The color of the atmosphere is light blue ; what we call " the
blue sky " is nothing more than the blue air.
The atmosphere is essential to animal and vegetable life, diffusing
the light and heat of the sun and other luminous bodies in all directions.
Density of the Atmosphere. — ^The density of the atmosphere gradually
diminishes, as we ascend above the level of the sea. A perpendicular
column of the whole atmosphere presses on the earth's surface with a
weight of about fifteen pounds on every square inch.
The air on the top of lofty mountains is so rare as to affect the
breathing, prostrate the strength, and make sounds much fainter than
they would be at the level of the sea.
Temperatnre of the Atmosphere. — The temperature of the atmosphere
becomes lower with its height Hence the perpetual snow that crowns
lofty summits. Tlie mercury in the thermometer falls one degree for
every 300 feet of ascent.
10
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
LESSON XII.
Physical Geography— Continued.
Winds. — Wind is air in motion. — ^Winds are called after the point
of the compass from which they come ; marine currents, after the
point to which they tend. An easterly -wind comes from the
east ; an easterly cuiTent, from the west.
Velodty of Winds. — Winds vary much in their velocity and
force. A gentle wind has a velocity of from 4 to 5 miles an
liour; a brisk wind, from 10 to 15 ; a high wind, from 30 to 35;
a violent storm, 60; a hurricane, 80; a violent hurricane, 100.
Use of Winds. — ^Winds have a purifying effect on the atmos-
phere ; they dissipate unhealthy exhalations; they waft our ships ;
they transport vapors from the sea, to moisten and fertilize the
land ; they carry the seeds of plants far and wide, and thus ex-
tend the empire of vegetation.
Trade Winds. — These winds prevail generally in the Atlantic
and the Pacific, between the equator and the 28th degree of
north and south latitude. The heat between the tropics being
greater than on the other parts of the earth's surface, the in-
cumbent air, becoming warmer and consequently less dense, riseb,
and the vacant place is immediately occupied by colder and there-
fore heavier air, which rushes in on both sides fi-om the regions
beyosd the tropics.
Monsoons. — Monsoons are regular periodical winds which sweep
over the Indian Ocean and Hindostan, changing their course accord-
ing to the position of the sun. When the sun is north of the equator,
the south-west monsoon prevails ; when south, the north-west monsoon.
Hnrricanes. — Hurricanes are violent revolving storms, from a fe\v
miles to 500 miles in diameter, which occur most frequently in the
West Indies and the Indian Ocean. In the Chinese Sea, they are
called typhoons or tornadoes ; in other places, they are known as whirl-
winds, waterspouts, landspouts, sand-pillars, white-squalls, pamperos, etc.
Rain. — Eain is water, which, originally taken up into the atmos-
phere in the form of vapor, is returned to the earth in drops. The
average quantity of rain is greatest within the tropics.
Kainy Seasons. — Countries situated within 10° of the equator have
two rainy and two dry seasons during the year ; but, beyond that de-
gree, tropical regions have only one rainy and one dry season, the
former lasting from four to six months. During this period, the rain
commences about noon, and generally continues four or five hours,
after which the clouds vanish, and not a drop falls during the night. In
some parts of the earth, however, within and near the tropics, rain
never falls, and there are other regions where it rains almost incessantly.
Snow. — Snow is vapor congealed and crystallized before its particles
have had time to join together to form a rain-drop.
In the Northem Hemisphere, the region of snow (that is, in which
snow falls at sea-level) embraces most of the United States, with the
countries on the north, all of Europe, and the greater part of Asia.
The elevation of the snow-line (that is, the lowest limit at which
snow remains unmelted throughout the year) differs in dift'erent lati-
tudes. Within the tropics it ranges from 15,000 to 20,000 feet above
sea-level, while it descends to the level of the sea in about latitude 80.
Hail. — ^Rain-drops are sometimes formed in the upper part of the
atmosphere, and in their descent fall through a stratum of air at the
freezing-point, when they assume the form of hail ; if they freeze only
partially, they form sleet. Hail-storms often occur in summer, owing
to the sudden congelation of atmospheric currents; they are most fre-
quent in temperate climates.
Climate. — The term climate signifies the prevailing character of the
weather at any place.
HomsitHAi. LtN>8 coDnect plnces hnving the tame mean annual temperatura. The figures over the extremlUea of each
Isothormal liue in the above Chart show the mean annual temp«rattu% of the ptocea through which it paaaea. OljaeTve
throujjh what grand divisions the line of greatest heat passe*.
The climate of a place is affected by the following circumstances : —
1. Its latitude. 2. Its height above the level of the sea. 3. The posi-
tion and direction of the mountain-chains. 4. Its distance from the
sea. 5. The slope of the country. 6. The character of the soih 7.
The degree of cultivation which it has received, and the density of its
population. 8. The prevalent winds. 9. The quantity of rain that falls.
LESSON XIII.
Physical Geography— Continued.
Metals are very widely diffused over the earth. They are some-
times found pure, but are generally mixed with other minerals, in a
rocky substance called ore. The principal metals arc gold, plat'inum,
silver, iron, copper, zinc, lead, tin, and mercury or quicksilver.
Gold. — This is the most precious of the metals. It is usually found
in grains, or gold-dust, in a pure state.
Gold is extensively diffused throughout the United States. The
Appalachian region extends from the Rappahannock River, in Vir-
ginia, to the coast of Alabama. The California gold region, noted for
its richness, is in the great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
{sahn ho-ah-keen'), nearly 600 miles long by about 50 in breadth.
Gold is also very abundant in Colorado ; and there are rich fields of
this precious metal in I'daho, Montana (mon-tah'na), New Mexico, and
Arizona.
The gold region of Australia, one of the most productive in the
world, occupies the south-eastern part of the continent.
Gold is also found in Mexico and Central America; in South
America, along the base of the Andes and in Brazil ; in Europe, at
Kremnitz in Austria, and other places. It is abundant in Western
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
11
Siberia ; and is found in Africa among the Kong Mountains and in
various pails of the eastern coast. The islands of Malaysia, particu-
larly Borneo, Celebes (sel'e-biz), and Sumatra, also produce gold.
Platinnm. — Platinum, a gi-ayish metal, is found in some of the gold
washings of South America, and in the Ural Mountains is produced in
considerable quantities.
SlWer. — Silver is found in several localities in the western part of
the United States — in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Idaho, and Mon-
tana. The mines of Nevada and Arizona are particularly rich.
Mexico contains the richest silver mines in the world. In South
America, there are very productive mines in Peru, Bolivia, and Chili.
The quantity of silver found in other parts of the world is compar-
atively insignificant. The principal mines in Europe are those of
Schemnitz {shem'nitz) and Kremnitz, in Hungary, and those of Spain.
Iron. — This is the most useful and extensively diffused of all the
metals. It is found in the greatest abundance in the United States
and Europe. In the former, the states most noted for its production
are Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Ken-
tucky, Maryland, and West Virginia. Iron ore is also abundant in
the great mineral region south of Lake Superior, in Tennessee, Georgia,
Missouri, and other states. Iron Mountain, in Missouri, is composed
entirely of iron ore.
Copper. — Copper ranks next to iron in utility, and, though less
abundant, is found in many parts of the earth. It is sometimes ob-
tained in pure masses weighing several tons. The richest and purest
copper mines in the United States, and probably in the world, are
found in Northern Michigan, on the shores of Lake Superior.
The most noted copper region of South America i^in Chili ; the
most noted of Europe is in England.
Zluf. — The countries most noted for extensive zinc mines are Prus-
sia and Belgium.
Lead. — Lead is found in greater or less quantities in all countries.
Those particularly distinguished for the amount of lead annually pro-
duced, are the United States, Great Britain, and Spain. The great
lead mines of the United States lie on each side of the Mississippi
River, in North-western Illinois, South-western Wisconsin, and Iowa;
and in Missouri, south of the Missouri River.
Tin. — This metal is found in but few countries. The most noted
places where it is obtained, are Cornwall, in England, and the island
of Banca, in the East Indies.
Mertnry. — The principal quicksilver mines of the world are those
of California ; of Peru, in South America; of Idria, in Southern Aus-
tria; and of Almaden (ahl-mah-den'), near Cor'dova; in Spain.
Coal. — Coal is particularly abundant in parts of British America
and the United States, in South America, in Great Britain, in portions
of the European Continent, and also in China. It is believed that the
largest coal-fields in the world are those of the United States.
Petrolcnm. — Petroleum, or rock oil, an inflammable bituminous
liquid, is found in various parts of both the Eastern and the Western
Continent. It is particularly abundant in Pennsylvania, West Vir-
ginia, and Canada.
Amber. — This is a resinous substance often made into ornaments.
It is obtained chiefly in Prussia, on the shores of the Baltic, where it is
found in the sand and sea-weed, and also by digging below the surface.
LESSON XIV.
Physical Geography — Continued,
Chief Food-Plants, etc. — The chief food-plants are grains, fruits,
grasses, and tuberous roots. The principal plants that produce ma-
terials for clothing, are cotton, flax, and hemp.
Cotton is most extensively raised in the southern part of the United
States. Flax and hemp are largely cultivated in the United States
and in parts of Europe.
Plants of the Torrid Zone. — This zone is noted for palms, banana.s,
sugar-cane, coffee, cocoa-nuts, spices, yams, rice, m&ize, arrow-root,
cassava-root, etc., together with a great variety of luscious fraits. Its
timber-trees are both numerous and important; the hardest and heavi-
est woods are generally produced here, also most of the dye-woods.
Plants of the Temperate Zones. — In these zones, wheat, barley, oats,
rye, maize, grasses, flax, hemp, the vine, the apple and similar fruit-
trees, flourish ; together with several kinds of berries and a great
variety of garden vegetables. Here are found forest-trees in great
variety, the oak, the hickory, the pine, the elm, the beech, the fir, the
cedar, and the maple.
The warmer regions of the temperate zones produce a great va-
riety of what are called tropical fruits and plants ; such as oranges,
lemons, figs, olives, sugar-cane, cofl'ee, rice, etc.
Plants of the Frigid Zones. — In these zones, all trees, except birches,
beeches, alders, and a few others, almost entirely disappear. Vege-
tation is exceedingly scanty ; but heath, moss-plants, and lichens, are
abundant on the rocks, and grass grows during the summer. Such is
the power of the sun at this season, that plants spring up, blossom,
produce their seed, and die, in about six weeks.
In that part of the Arctic region which borders on the north tem-
perate zone, barley and oats flourish in the valleys. Vegetation ceases
in the northern hemisphere in about latitude 76°, in the southern
hemisphere in latitude 59°.
Perpendienlar Dlstribntion of Plants. — Plants have a perpendicular dis-
tribution, in an order corresponding to their distribution in zones of
latitude. Thus, we find on a high mountain range within the tropics,
the lower part covered with palms, orange-trees, sugar-cane, etc. ; the
middle with oaks, elms, firs, and similar trees; the higher part with
birches, mosses, and lichens.
Animals of the Torrid Zone. — This zone is as full of animal as of vege-
table life ; the influence of heat, light, and abundance of vegetation,
tending to its increase. The minuter beings, — insects, reptiles, birds,
etc., here swarm in great numbers ; together with animals of gigantic
size, such as the elephant, camel, rhinoceros, giraffe, tapir, and hippo-
potamus. Here, too, is the region of numerous animals of prey, the
lion, tiger, puma, and hyena, — the vulture and condor, — ^the rattlesnake
and boa constrictor.
Among the remarkable species of the African tropical regions, not
mentioned above, are the crocodile ot the Nile, the baboon, the go-
rilla, and a great variety of antelopes.
Animals of the Temperate Zones. — The temperate zones are favorable
to herbivorous animals, — as the horse, ass, ox, buflalo, deer, and sheep.
Among the chief beasts of prey, are the wolf, fox, lynx, bear, and otter.
Animals of the Frigid Zones. — Among the most conspicuous animals
may be mentioned the white bear, the moose, the reindeer, the musk-
12
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
ox, the white fox, the polar hare, and the lemming. Seals, whales, and
walruses, inhabit the ocean. Among the birds are sea-eagles, gulls,
cormorants, etc.
LESSON XV.
Political Geography.
Political Geography treats of the various countries on the earth's
suiface, their people, customs, religion, and government.
Bates of Hen, — The human species is divided into five races ; the
Caucasian, the Mongolian, the American, the African, and the Malay.
Namee.
Caucasian, or European,
Mongolian, or Asiatic, .
Est. Number.
450,000,000
600,000,000
Nsmefl.
American, or Indian,
AiHcan, or Negro,
. 40,000,000
Est. Number.
10,000,000
80,000,000
The Caaeasian, or White Race are distinguished by their fair skin, fine
and long hair, full high forehead, regular features, and symmetrical
form. They inhabit South-western Asia (including Arabia, Persia,
and Hindostan), the north of Africa, and most of Europe, and have
extended their dominion to the greater part of the Western Continent,
to South Africa, Eastern and Southern Australia, and New Zealand.
The Mongolian, or Yellow Baee have a sallow olive complexion ; long,
black, straight hair ; a square head, low forehead, broad and flat cheek-
bones, short nose, and eyes small, pointed, and obliquely set.
The Mongolian is the largest of the five races, constituting nearly
one-half of the inhabitants of the earth. Its headquarters are in East-
ern and Central Asia, whence it has penetrated into parts of Europe —
Finland, Lapland, Turkey, and Hungary. The Esquimaux (es'ke-mo)
tribes, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, are also of Mongolian origin.
The Ameriean, op Copper-eolored Race are characterized by long, black,
straight hair, dark and deep-set eyes, high and prominent cheek-bones,
an aquiline nose, and receding forehead. This race includes- all the
native tribes of North and South America, except the Esquimaux.
The African, or Black Bate have woolly hair, a long and narrow head,
low forehead, large and prominent eyes, thick lips, broad and flat
nose, high cheek-bones, and prominent jaws. It consists of the native
tribes of Africa (south of Abyssinia and the Great Desert), of Austra-
lia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia.
The Malay, or Brown Bace are distinguished by a tawny skin ; coarse,
lank, black hair ; a low and broad forehead, large mouth, short broad
nose, and eyes obliquely set. They occupy the Malay Peninsula and
most of the islands of Oceania.
Social Condition. — Mankind is divided, as respects social condition,
into four classes, — Enlightened, Civilized, Half-civilized, and Savage.
Those nations that have made the most progress in art and science,
in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, are called Enlightened.
Those nations that have made considerable progress in the arts
and sciences, in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, though not
so much as the Enlightened, are called Civilized.
Tliose nations whose knowledge of the arts, sciences, and agricul-
ture is very imperfect, whose commerce is limited, and whose manu-
factures are few and inferior, are called Half-civilized,
Those nations that are unacquainted with the arts and sciences,
with agi'iculture, commerce, and manufactures, and depend almost
wholly on hunting and fishing for a subsistence, are called Savage.
Systems of Bellglon. — The principal Systems of religion are the Jew-
ish, Christian, Mohammedan, and Pagan.
The Jewish faith recognizes the Old Testament as the highest
authority in matters of religion, but not the New.
The Christian faith recognizes both the Old and the New Testa-
ment as authority in religious matters.
The Mohammedan faith recognizes one God, and Mohammed as
his " last and greatest prophet," who substituted for the Bible a book
called the Koran.
The Pagan faith does not recognize the God of the Bible, but
substitutes a variety of images, birds, beasts, reptiles, etc.
NamoA. E»t Number.
Jewish, 6,000,000
Christian, 260,000,000
Languages. — There are 860 languages spoken in the world, and
about 6,000 dialects. The language spoken by the greatest number is
the Chinese ; the one most widely spread is the English.
GoTcmment. — Government is that form of rules and principles by
which a nation is governed. The supreme power of a government con-
sists of three parts ; viz., the Legislative, which enacts the laws ; the
Judicial, which determines their application in individual cases; and
the Executive, which puts them in execution.
Forms of Govemment. — There are three distinct forms of government ;
viz., monarchical, aristocratic, and democratic.
A monarchical form of government gives the supreme power to
one person, who may be styled king, queen, emperor, empress, sultan,
etc. When the sovereign is limited in the exercise of his powers by a
Constitution or Council, the government is called a Limited Monarchy ;
when not, it is an Absolute Monarchy.
An aristocratic form of government vests the supreme power
in a few privileged men, styled nobles or chiefs.
A democratic form of government vests the supreme power in
rulers chosen by, and from, the whole body of the people, or by their
representatives assembled in a national congress.
N>me«.
Eit Number.
Molianimedan, . .
. . 160,000,000
Pagan, ....
. . 665,000,000
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
18
Aristocracy may lie comliinea with monarcliy and democracy. In this case, the kins or
qaeen represents the monarchy; the nobles, the aristocracy; and the commons, or repre-
sentatives chosen by tlie people, the democracy. t^««h is the government of Great Britain.
Polltltal DiTlsions of the Eartli. — The political divisions of the earth
are empires, kingdoms, republics, states, cities, towns, etc.
An Empire is a country governed by an Emperor.
A Kingdom is a country governed by a King or Queen.
A Republic is a country governed by men who are chosen by the
people. A union of democratic republics is styled a Federal Demo-
cratic Republic ; such, is the political title of the United States.
A St.ite is a division of country which has an independent govern-
ment for the regulation of its own affairs, and muy or may not be
united with other divisions like itself under a general government.
A Duchy is a country governed by a Duke. A Grand Ducliy is a
country governed by a Grand Duke. A Principality is a country gov-
erned by a Prince. An Electorate is a country governed by an Elec-
tor. A Landgraviate is a country governed by a Landgrave.
Remark. — In Germany,' certain princes formerly elected the emperor, and Elector was
one of their titles. Landgrave signiflea earl or count.
Empires, kingdoms, states, etc., are generally divided into Coun-
tie.?. Parishes, Distncts, Shires, Provinces, Departments, or Cantons.
A Township is a division of a county.
A Village is a small collection of liouses and inhabitants.
A Town is a large collection of houses and inhabitants.
A City is an incorporated town ; that is, a town invested by law
with certain rights and privileges which it did not before possess.
The Capital of a country is the city in wliich the officers or legis-
lature meet to make laws. Tlip Metropolis of a country is its chief
city, or that whicli contains the greatest number of inhabitants.
The chief magistr.\te of a Republic is called President. The
chief officer of a Republican State is called Governor. The chief of-
ficer of a city is called Mayor.
LESSON XVI.
Folltical Geography— Contlmied.
Chief Branehrs of Industry. — The chief branches of industry are acri-
culture, manufactures, commerce, and mining.
igrienltnre is the cultivation of the soil for the purpose of produc-
ing veiretables, fruits, grain, etc. It is carried to great perfection in
the British Isles, also in Central and Western Continental Europe, and
in many parts of the United States.
Mannfattnres are articles made from raw materials by the hand or
machinery ; as, cloth from wool, or linen from flax. Animal, vegetable,
and mineral productions, in their natural state, are called raw materials.
The countries most noted for manufactures, are Great Britain, Holland,
Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United States.
Commerte is the exchange of goods, and is either Foreign or Inland.
Foreign commerce is the trade which one nation cariics on with
another. Inland commerce is the trade between itnlividuals of the
same nation. The countiies most noted for commerce are Great Britain,
the United States, France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Ru.^^sia.
Articles sent out of a country in tlie course of trade are called
Exports. Articles brought into a country in the course of trade are
called Imports.
Minins. — Mining is the business of digging into the earth to obtain
mineral productions ; such as gold, silver, coal, salt, ct3.
Directions for Memorizing the Contents of a Map.
Countries. — Begin at the north-west corner of the map, mention the
countries which are situated along the northern border, next those on
the eastern, then those on the southern, and lastly those on the west-
ern. When there are countries in the interior, mention them last of all.
Capitals and otiier Cities. — Mention the capitals and other cities in the
same order as above, naming those in or near the center last.
Islands. — Begin at the north-west corner of the map, look along the
coast and some distance from it, taking an easterly, southerly, v/esterlv,
and northerly course, and mention the islands as you find them.
Peninsulas and Capes. — Commence at the same corner of the map as
before directed, and look along the northern coast, then the eastern,
next the southern, and lastly the western, and name the peninsulas and
capes in the order you meet with them.
Mountains. — Follow the directions given for memorizing cities.
Seas, Gnlfs, Bays, Straits, Sounds, and Channels. — In mentioning these
divisions, observe the directions given above for capes.
Blvers. — I. Mention first those rivers which empty into bodies of
water on the north, then those which flow into bodies of water on the
east, next those which empty into bodies of water on the south, and
lastly those which flow into bodies of water on the west.
II. Whenever you mention a river, see whether it has any branches ;
if so, name them before passing to the next river in order.
HI. If the river runs a northerly or a southerly course, name its
eastern branches first, beginning with the one nearest the source of the
main river, and then the western branches in like manner.
IV. If the main river runs an easterly or a westerly course, name
its northern branches first, beginning as before directed.
Lakes. — Lakes are to be memorized in the same order as rivers ;
that is, those lakes whose outlets lead into northern bodies of water
first, and so on. Lakes having no outlets mu.'t be mentioned last.
Remark.— rhvficnl'and polilical divisions which are connected only with islands, are
to be mentioned after those situated on, or connected with, the main-land. For example, in
mentioning the straits of North America, Davis Strait should be named after the others, be-
cause it is not connected with the main-land of North America.
To THE Teacher. — It is impossible to give an idea of the relative size of coun-
tries from maps alone. Owing to tbeir diversity of form and irregular outlines,
even were the maps on the same scale, we could not hope to convey any correct
notion of their actual or comparative size. There is but one way of doing thi.s.
With the map hung up before his class, let the teacher dictate, in round numbers,
the area of the different grand divisions and countries in square miles, till, by re-
peating the numbers after him, each pupil has thoroughly committed them to mem-
ory. Let the teacher then impress these numbers on the minds of his pupils by
making them compare the countries learned, — by asking how many times larger or
smaller one is than another, what two are nearly of the same size, etc. By devot-
ing to this exercise a few minutes after each regular recitation, the absolute and
comparative size of all the countries on the globe can be readily mastered, not only
without difficulty, but with interest and pleasure on the part of the learner.
The following order is suggested : —
Continents and Grand Divisions of the Earth.
The Chief Divisions of North America.
The Political Divisions of British America.
The States of the United States.
Review : compare all the countries learned.
The Chief Divisions of South America.
The Chief Divisions of .Europe.
The Chief Divisions of Asia.
The Chief Divisions of Africa.
Review : compare all the countries learned.
The larger Islands of the West Indies.
Th'' larger Islands of Oceania.
Review: compare all the countries and isl-
ands thus far learned.
EXPLANATION.
The small letters on the fl.igs in this work, are designed to indicate the color of their
stripes, etc. Thus B. Is blue ; Y., yellow ; G., green ; R., red ; and W., white.
I
*S1^^ ^tfra Frig-id Zorf^^/^i
/
■^.■:
W.i'-^AtfCa
(.K\M:I!AI, yrKSTlOSS on TIIK MAI' or THK WORLD.
WJim c'.n ilic Iw.i ii.imispli.Ti'.s rp|)ip.«cii ? Tlif mtirf .mrfa<-e
„r ihr r.irlli ■ Wli:.l i.s sf.lwl.'.I Id dividp lU.' »;lol..- jiUo llie ^
K:isli'iii :iii.l 111!' WoslPin Hi'iuijaplii'ii' '.' Th'- iiieritluui 2"° ., o^
in:it ojtiif fii-ridi.ai oJOreenwhli. Wli.tl ijinn.l ili-vj- ^
«ii.ii lipsv^'iliyi" 'i"di lifiiiiis|)lMMPS y What islaiiil ? <'^^;^>5
Wlial ffninil divi.«i()i\.-i iil' Mm railh Ui> wlinlly ^W
in Ihf VVpf>l.'i-n li.'lMrsphci-.'? Wh.Tl Iwci Wo A,'
wli.illy ill llii' l';;i»l'Mii lli-.mis|iliiMi. ■.' In wliii ,^
l„.nu.^|ili.T.. .lo.v .iivii-ly nil i.C Asim ''•" '•'_^o^>// /^'^■^/■A'
'L'h ll^;l iiii|i(ii-l:iul |inrl ill' Oii':iiii:\ V '/^ v
lliiw i.< llii' AiiUii-rlii- I'.Tjiliiieiil .silu.il-
I'd .' KiiiliM-liy sl.njid V (Viahajii l.Miitl .'
Vn wli;il iliiectioii is Kiuojif /f^
liiijii .Voilli Ami'J-ii'ii V Iviiviipp /^
ti-ojii Sdulli .\-Uieiirii V Kiu-opi
Cnmi Atvii-i V K.iiiuji.e IJuin A.sin .'
Kuio|ii- fiinii AusUhJiii? 1"
wlial (Ihvcliaii is Niutli A hihi-
Lcii Ivoili Afiii:i .' Mortli
Aineiii-ii li-iuu AsiM V Nmlli
Aiju'i-irn f]-oju Kni-iiiif '.' N^.
V
.\niKi-i("i lin.Hi Austi':tli:i ? q
Wlial yT.-linl iliV-Lsiiius .^
pKtiMicI .SIJII.1I1 111' till' ("iliui-
liii ' Wliii'Ji Up wluiUy .-,
luil-Tji nf rilP pqiiator'.' lu ;-
wliHl 2,1 iiics is Soitli .AjiiPi-- .„! : n - -""Vyv V lljlu
u-.\ '.' ihiiojip '.' Asia ■; .Ans-
iTaJia '.' Atiipii ? Soutli A-iiiPi-
ipa ■' WJi:i1 uliuiil ilivLsinns .up
I'liisspil Jiy IliP Tjojiii- I'l' I 'ail:
rrr .' Dy iliP Tiiijiir ol' (.'a]irj- '^\\
11)111.' By till' eniiJitoj' '.' In wlial
/.OKI' is ritp «'rpnlpi- pjui of Sinilli
AiiipHfa *.' Tlip ol-palpi- paii nl'
Noi*tb AniPiifa '.' NVv, ^\^^^^ P'
(.S,v Uft-h.ni.J Cli.iH.) WJ.al Wy'^-'AV.*
VkjiiiLs ]ifi"vail ill llii' iini-th liiiliil zoup .'
hi tlip simtli tiiiiiil /.imp? <1ji wJiidi JN
r ©J 'J
.Si
AND TBi IV
'4
%^
r^'^
>^
tf^
'^
■ijW
?k
K i«
-J*--
.^,
fl,
'tade-Sluci
\
^
LAmpxi-cR 1?
E - A,
[asig«oT:»
fK'f.
I ,A .,A
^.. ^
"t:^
■O.M«%i- W'
,_*....\<-
pi( of
'ilH/l'f '
gOJ-OM IIA
V?-
^^.
.^CS'jj
Br i^M
-t-w-
I *
1/
\
ill what hilitiulr i^ tlic i-efi;ioii hI" Ciiiuis in tlie rA
AUautir / bi tJif Pftiillr ? What is tin- vc^imx -^^
of lJie xiioji.somis'.'
W-hnt pari <»f XorUt Aiueric:i is visited by Piutli-
<[ii:\ke^7 Whril p:uis itl' J>ouTK Aiiieiir:i ? Wlial pail ol' "'^i^^
K.iunjie .' Of A sin .* Of Afwrii ? Of AiistiMli.i .- Wh«1 island
in rhp imrlk AlJantir is noii»<I fiu* its i';(rtlupi;ikps :nnl volriuiopji';
[u M-bal SMJJiPs .ire puHhuiinltPs rare V
STole
• Mnuntaji i
Deserts
(\vaiiCi <
Thf ihfht rurvfd linKg, <vtww^</ dte^ Otx i
indiMtr. the time of
sop-
lejo i2Jo
CChai't Showiaif tlie
DISTRIBUTION Or THt WINDS
„ « fcCTIVt VQLCANpE
: r-
-^^LSoioth Frie-id Z53^
REblON *ipFi
R E G ( U N OF t ^i
"s^NORTH EASTl
Reg)p'l!(.<S!C*<.l,!iii. in terrup*rd^''5a^^'iv Violent^
lc«n!a(i
U A >t3^ e wind?
0-)
F> /"^i a /
, ^J>wj»(}|gf Cipri««
-\ ' Yn ''ttfe — & — ^^v^''*!^" r^v""
■ i i\ : ^^ \M
lABLE WINDS CHI E FLY I NORTH- WESTERiLY
k'
NORTI
W^'
WW
©lEEiD
flON OF THF. ^,o
fimRlElfTS„
In. wiuit directiou do tli^e diief jiioiunadu j.-aii)i;fs tjt'tlio W ostejii Coiiliiieirt ex:teud?
HiTw arp dtp lrrwlaiid.« aiifl pJaiiu* of Uit' worltl sluxwji oji thi- .iuaj> V Iforw,
tlxe de.sfii'ts? TJie momitaiiL** aiul tn])lc-laiul.s V Wiiw? are the pmi-
cipnJ lo-vrlaiids and piaiiis ot'Xottli Amoo-ica V Uefscribp Tiip sui"
fftce of the Tiw^teiaijiiu-t of isfiftlj mul SoiitJi Aiiirj-icH. /z w
wogiip TiihlP'hijids n-iiverst'd btnuountum-raitgeti. ALoir::,"
wiKri idvt^-s arn tliejmjicipallijwjiuid jOainsfrfSoirtii
Ajjifirim ? Jn-vrlmt tlii'ectijaLU.doJiio.**t of l]ip Jiioini -
taiii-jraiig^'s of J'hii-o]je iiuil.Aaia RxieudV
_ WJiflt _i^ t]it' nliiij-aclei- of tlie ^rpm-p.r jiai-i of
tJie suvfn.-i' ol' Asia ? Of A&ica 7 (tf Aiis-
iridi:i .' WJi.nr isthc chflrflrtrar of the siu'-
facf of tlio iiortlienij*art ctf Asia 7 Th*»
i^re.itei* j>arf of Bn.«.sia iii JKiinojie V
"^CUar ^-ajid diTiaioii is jiotpd for its
r>_u TvijHt ivntcjr.s would a jii»r.**ttii
s;iil. iu a voyaiiVfi'iUu^PwViu*h
TO Aiistj-alL^, TJii <'tt>>e td't.TOod-
H<i])p ? Wliat is tJip sailiuii:-
fListajXTi' hptvn^ou tliPSP two
I tinrliflt -vrrttHJ's TN-oiUd :i pei"-
^ .-yiji s;til. jii n Troya^»* fi'tuu
"l^ J^Ci'w York to thp Saiidwirli
^'. Islajiilsr via Tajj** HrmiV
^ Vroiu X oiido.H to Japan.. tj;i
c Capp of ( jood Itoji*" V "Wiflrt
Z run-piittirjWT* alon^tlipvierft-
pni fo:u»l of Soutli Anil 'lien V
Wiiere is tliP pqiiatttrial J Irili:
rnri*eiit7 Howr don.** tlu»
(ii-pat KquatoiHal ('iiiTPtit k^^
lho Atibuitir flow-' Betvrprai
vluit i-oiitiucuts. and iuvimt di-
fOcUojUf does tlip Equatorial Cur-
reut of tlip Judiaji Orean flow'.'
Dpscribp the Giilf Strpajit- Tlu* -Ta •
paji TiuTP-ut .
^Sep Hffht-hiiTtdCfMJf- By wJiat i-aoe
is jnost of A'iiaiiilialtilpd'.' Atost of Aii>-
/ / ^^yhCr /// -^ trnlia ? Jdo.ni of Afi-ica ? TJk^ iuu-d»tu-n
^^Y^y?^ ~by^V part of AfiTJ'a'.' "Wlien* do tlip Esqitbiiaiix:
Jin?? ToTTliat i-aci' do dipy ]>eloiig:? ^Vfiat is
tlip jiircvailuifif race iu tlie V. .S. ? Iu Alexico ?
OjLthe nonst of South AuLPTiin? IViiatis thehiffh-
V est jLOrtheriL hitiludp p\nu- rfafli'*d \fy explorer;*'.' 82
^=^*^ :^0 . btj Ur. Hane. Hovr ^init\' detjrpps is that iroiu th.>
uoith jjolp ? \Vh.at i« tliP lua:liest soutlieru latitude pvpv j-pach-
78° 10*. bif CapfBoss. How niaiw de^iees i.« that fioiu the
south polp?
16
MAP DRAWING.
LESSON XVIII.
MAP DRAWING.
The system of Map Drawing presented some years ago in connec-
tion with this Series of Geograpliics, in a set of Cards adapted to its
Maps, has proved so popul<ar and useful an auxiliary in impressing on
the learner's mind the outlines of difforeut countries and the relative
position of their most important localities, that it is thought not out
of place to give some instruction on the subject in this volume, par-
ticularly appropriate to those who are furnished with the Cards in
question, but designed to bring the exercise within the reach of all,
whether thus provided or not.
The system here set foith, requiring no acquaintance with mathe-
matical terras or geometrical problenip, has been found practicable
and attractive. It may be conmienced even with Primary Classes,
and will train the eye and hand, while it interests the pupil iu the
subject and aids in imparting geographical knowledge.
COPYING FROM THE MAPS.
The simplest exercise is for the pupil, with a map before liim, to
reproduce the country or countries it represents. lie may do this on
Map Drawing Cards, on his slate or ordinary paper, or on the black-
board.
COPYISG ON MAP DKAWIIVG CAttDS.— Each pupil should be furnished
with a set of Map Drawing Cards prepared to accompany this volume,
— of the same size as its maps, and having the meridians and parallels
of latitude laid down on them.
Besides these there are needed, 1. A lead-pencil ; No. 2 or B is
the right grade. 2. A piece of India-rubber. 3. A pen and ink. 4.
A red pencil. 5. A cake of Prussian blue, burnt sienna, and vermil-
ion. 6. A saucer. 7. A small camel-hair pencil. 8. A small flat
brush. 9. A twelve-inch ruler, divided into inches, subdivided into
halves and quartere.
Ontllning. — Having placed before you the man to be drawn, and
selected the corresponding Card, commence the outline with your pen-
cil at the upper left-hand corner. Start with any prominent point of
coast or boundary there ; and, observing between what parallels and
meridians it is situated, make a dot in the same relative position on
the Card. Following the coast or boundary along the top of thp
copy toward the right, locate the next prominent point with a dot in
the same way, and connect the two with a line similar to that which
joins them in the copy.
Proceed in this way from one point to another till you reach the
right si.le of the map, and pursue the same process down this side to
the lower corner. Then go back to the starting-point, work down the
left side, and so along the lower part to the right. By observing this
order, both here and afterward, in filling in, you will avoid soiling
the page by rubbing your hands on lines previously drawn. Coasts
are represerted by continuous lines ; boundaries that separate contigu-
ous states, by dotted lines.
Do not use compasses to measure your distances. Accustom the
eye to this. If you make errors at first, do not be discouraged, for
you will soon improve, and the eye is greatly benefited by the exercise.
Draw slowly and with care. Do not bear on heavily. As each
step is talcen, compare your work whh the model ; if anything is
wi'ong, erase it with rubber and draw it over. Try to avoid mistakes,
however, for the frequent use of rubber soils the paper.
When the outline is finished in pencil, go over it with pen and
ink. If there are islands on the map, they must be taken next and
treated in the same way as the main-land, their positions being fixed
by their distances from the nearest parallels and meridians. Next draw
whatever lakes there may be in the country represented. Then draw
the boundary lines that separate the different states.
Coloring. — Rub the cake of Prussian blue with a little water on your
saucer, and then add more water till you get a veiy light tint. Fill
the flat brush, and draw it once hastily over such parts of the map as
represent bodies of water lying outside of the outline just drawn, —
oceans, seas, bays, or gulfs. There must be no .repainting, or the pa-
per will be blistered and the shade will not be uniform. Be careful
that the brush does not pass over the outline. Minute indentations of
coast may be attended to afterwar<l with the camel-hair pencil. Then
cover with the same light-blue tint lakes within the outline, using the
camel-hair pencil where it is necessary, and giving but one coat.
Having finished the water surface, clean your saucer and brush,
and rubbing the cakes of burnt sienna and vermilion on the saucer,
mix these colors till you produce a tint as near that of the land as pos-
sible. Apply this to the land surface in the mnnner before directed.
Now with your red pencil go over the dotted boundary lines already
drawn.
Filling in. — Next proceed to fill in the details. Were this done
before coloring, there would be danger of the ink's running. Take
one class of things at a time ; and, first drawing all of that class wiih
the pencil to prevent mistakes, go over thcra with ink before proceed-
ing to the next class. Observe the following order : —
PiiVEns. — Commence at the source and work toward the mouth,
locating each prominent point by observing its distance from parallel
and meridian. Rivers are represented by waving lines, which increase
in width as you approach the mouth.
Mountains. — To represent mountains, make a scries of little curves
in the direction in which the range runs. Then draw a number of fine
lines, radiating from these curves,
as m the enjiraving. Ihe lugher -lcMxkr/!il'-i!is^
the mountains are, the heavier these ' '" ''■'''■''''■
lines should be. For mountain mocntains.
peaks, draw a minute heavy circle, and fine lines radiating from it in
every direction, as shown at the right of the above engraving.
Cities and Towns must be located according to capital-mark, 2**;
their distance from parallels and meridians, and their town-makk, ®
position relatively to the rivers already drawn. Denote them by these
characters, distinguishing capitals from other places.
Canals and Railroads may also be introduced, if desired. For
canals draw two parallel lines very close canal, —
together; and for railroads the same, with kailroad, lui i ii i i ii Mii ii iiM ii iiiii im
cross lines at small intervals.
Lrttering. — The names should now bc inserted, as in the model.
Use for this purpose a fine-pointed pen, without any previous pencil-
ing, and allow a little more space for the names than is required in the
model. If necessary, leave out some of the less important places. As
a general thing, you will find it best to use the same arrangement of
names that you find in the map you arc copying.
Adopting tlie Sralr. — The Cards of this Series are specially adapted
to the maps of Cornell's Grammar School Geography, or others on
the same scale. They can be used, however, for copying mnps of any.
size. When there is much difl'crcnce in the scales, instead of locating
MAP DRAWING.
17
a point by its actual distance from parallel and meridian, observe its
latitude and longitude by dividing with the eye the space between the
parallels above and below it, and the meridians on each side of it, and
place it in the same latitude and longitude on the card by making a
similar division of the space there. When you are filling in, follow
the same rule for locating places.
When a map of about the same scale is to be copied, the draw-
ing will be sufficiently correct without going into these calculations.
Length of Lessons. — Do not attempt all this at one sitting, but let
it be divided into a number of exercises, equal to the lessons in the
Map Studies, Map Questions, and Descriptive Geography, on the
grand division or states in question, — so that the Map Drawing may
just keep pace with these throughout the volume.
While, for instance, the map questions and descriptive geography
of North America are being learned, let the map of North America
be drawn, part at a time. The northern coast may constitute one les-
son ; the Atlantic and Gulf coast, a second ; the Pacific coast, a third ;
the islands, a fourth ; the lakes, a fifth; the coloring, a sixth ; the rivers,
a seventh ; the mountains, an eighth ; the locating of the cities, a
ninth ; and the lettering may suffice for several lessons. — Better do a
little well, than a great deal poorly.
COPIDTG ON A SLATE OR PAPER. — When the pupil is not furnished
with Map Drawing Cards, he may use his slate or ordinary paper. In
this case, he had better commence with small divisions of territory,
such as individual states, where it will be sufficiently accurate to
represent the parallels and meridians by straight lines intersecting at
right angles.
Let him first, with the aid of his ruler, lay off" an oblong figure or
square, a little larger than the state he is about to draw. Then let
him locate as accurately as possible (measuring the distances, that he
may have them correct) the parallels and meridians that cross the
state in the map he is copying, and mark their degrees in the mar-
gin. When this is done, the pupil has made his own Map Drawing
Card, and may now proceed with the outline as before directed.
Example in Ontlinlng. — Let it be required to draw a map of Pennsyl-
vania, as represented on the map of the Middle States, page 33.
We commence by ruling off" an oblong figure a Uttle larger than
the outline of the state, and locate the parallels and meridians, taking
care to have them exactly the same distance apart as in the model.
Looking at the model, we find that the most north-westerly point
of the state is near the 42d parallel, and east of meridian 81° about one-
fourth of the distance between 81 and 79. Accordingly, we locate
this point in the con'esponding part of our map, at A.
The next prominent point toward the east is just half way between
the two meridians ; and, measuring with the eye the distance it is
north of 42°, we locate it at B, and connect A B with a slightly wav-
ing line, representing the lake coast. From B we observe that the
boundary runs directly south to • par. 42, and draw it accordingly.
Then we follow the parallel with our outline till we reach a point (D)
about as far west of meridian 75 as A is east of meridian 81.
The next point at which the general direction of the boundary
changes is south of parallel 42, a little less than one-third of the dis-
tance between it and par. 40. Measuring with the eye its distance
east of meridian 75, we locate it at E, and draw the boundary, mak-
ing that part of it which represents the Delaware River a waving line.
The next prominent point is about as far west of meridian 75 as
E is east of it, and somewhat more than half way between 42 and 40.
We mark the point, F, and connect E and F with a waving line, as in
the model. G is next located as far east of meridian 75 as E, and the
same distance north of parallel 40. H and I are next located, and the
boundary continued to these points. From I we run west to a point
(J) as far east of parallel 81 as A is. Then, joining J and A with a
straight line, we have the outline complete.
LESSON m.
MAP DRAWING (CONTINTJED).
COPTEVC OJr THE BLACK-BOARD. — The single-page maps in this vol-
ume are about 10 inches by 8. When copying a map on the black-
board, it will be well to increase the scale.
First lay off" with your ruler an oblong with sides 2, 3, or 4 times
as large as those of the map (as may be required), — that is 20 inches
by 16, 30 by 24, or 40 by 32. Measuring with the inch divisions of
your ruler, mark on the sides of this oblong the points where the par-
allels of latitude and meridians represented
in the map will fall, allowing two, three, or
four inches for one in the model, accord-
ing as you have doubled, trebled, or quad-
rupled the scale. Then draw the parallels
and meridians verj' lightly by connecting
these points, observing that the meridians
are not parallel, but approach each other as
they draw near the poles.
At first it may be well for the teacher
to place meridian lines and parallels on the
board before recitation, the pupil to com-
mence with the outline. After a time he
may do it in the presence of the class, show-
ing them how each step is to be taken ; and
finally he may require them to do it for
themselves.
The aass to follow on their Slates. — The
whole class should be provided with slates,
and with their maps before them should
18
MAP DRAWING.
follow the steps taken successively on the board, different pupils being
called to the board at intervals.
Each Step to be described. — Before locating any point or drawing any
line, the pupil at the board should be required to tell what he is about
to do.
Thus, in beginning the state of Pennsylvania, he should say, " The
most north-westerly point of Pennsylvania is in about latitude 42° N.
and lono-itude 80J^° W. ; " he then locates the point, any error that he
may make being corrected by the class. He then goes on, " The next
prominent point is north-east of this, in about lat. 80° and Ion. ^^\°"
and locates the point B. " Connetting A and B, we have the lake-
shore of the state ; " he then draws the line. So he proceeds, stating
each step as he takes it.
The Scale to be stated. — It will be well for the teacher always to re-
quire the scale of the map to be stated. If the drawing is made on a
Card, the scale can be told by measuring with the ruler an inch on the
scale in the model, and seeing how many miles it embraces. If the
drawing is on the black-board, this number has only to be doubled,
trebled, or quadrupled, as the case may be.
Estimating Dimensions, DJstantes, et«. — The scale being known, the
teacher may put a variety of useful questions on the dimensions of the
state drawn, the distance in a straight line between its principal local-
ities, etc. Thus, measuring in the way directed, we find from the
map on p. 33 that the scale on which the state of Pennsylvania is
drawn on p. 1'7, is 70 miles to the inch. As then it is 2^ inches
broad, the pupil will readily find that the state is about 2} times 70,
say 160, miles in breadth ; and, as its extreme length from east to
west is about 4J inches, that it is about 300 miles long.
In like manner we may determine the distance in an air-line be-
tween any two places. We find with our ruler that from Philadelphia
to Harrisburg is an inch and a quarter ; which makes the direct dis-
tance between these places \\ times 70 miles, or about 90 miles. So,
between Heading and Pittsburgh we find a space of 3 inches, which
makes the distance between them in a direct .line 3 times 70 or 210
miles.
We mav measure the breadth of the state in another way. Tlie
northern boundary is in lat. 42°;. the southern in 39§°. The breadth
is therefore 2^ degrees of latitude. But we have learned that everj'
degree of latitude is equal to 69J miles. Pennsylvania is therefore 2^
times 69 J miles, or about 160 miles — a result which agrees with that
obtained before with the scale of miles.
Different Scales. — Where there is sufficient extent of black-board
for the purpose, several pupils may be called up at once, or a whole
class if there is room, and locate their points and draw their lines si-
multaneously, stating each in turn the steps successively taken. When
this is done, it will be well to have different scholars use difl'erent scales.
A class will soon acquire such facility that this exercise can be
speedily performed. The same state or grand division should be
drawn over and over on different scales till its shape is made perfectly
familiar.
DRAWING FROM MEMORY.
Older pupils, who have had experience in Map Drawing, will find
it an improving exercise to try to draw from memory. This is a severe
test of map knowledge, but it will show the student where he is de-
ficient, and tend to impress upon his muid many important facts which
would otherwise be likely to escape him.
A map should not be drawn from memory till it has been copied
91 819
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.X
B
Vt
V
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52
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3
1
ST
30
f
-^-v
c
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^
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8
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in the manner above described suflBciently often to fix in the mind its
shape and the latitude and longitude of a few of its most prominent
points. It is unnecessary, indeed it is impossible, to follow every mi-
nute indentation of coast or slight change of direction in the boundary.
It is enough to have the general outline correct.
In drawing the state of
Mississippi, for instance,
it will only be neces-
sary to memorize the lat-
itude and longitude of the
points A, B, C, D, E,
and F; to remember
the slight change in the
direction of the eastern
boundary, in lat 32, and
that the Mississippi Riv-
er, the western boundary,
crosses the 91st meridian
a little north of parallel
34 and again a little far-
ther north of parallel 32.
In drawing from mem-
ory, it will be well to take
countries of regular out-
line first ; but in no case
should the exercise be at-
tempted until the pupil
is thoroughly prepared
for it by previously copy-
ing the map^several times, if necessary.
In all cases, after a sketch is made from memory, the pupil should
compare it with the map, and find for himself wherein he has gone
wrong. If his drawing is quite inaccurate, he should make another
attempt, correcting his previous errors.
When he has succeeded tolerably well in this exercise, it will be
well for the student to try what he can do in the way of rapid sketch-
ing, without the aid of parallels or meridians. Let him simply draw
a figure representing as nearly as he can the outline of the country in
question, and then fill in its principal rivers, towns, etc. Here again the
benefit will lie in comparing the sketch thus drawn with the map, and
ascertaining wherein the proportions or the positions of places are faulty.
Example on page 19. — In consequence of its regular outline. South
America is the most easily drawn of the grand divisions. Its outline
is presented on page 19. The pupil would commence at the most
north-westerly point, A. In drawing the outline, he would have to
locate only eleven prominent points, denoted in the figure by A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, H, I, J, and K.
In connecting two points, if the outline does not run in the gen-
eral direction of a parallel or meridian, which will serve as a guide, it
is sometimes an assistance to draw a faint straight line between the
points on both model and copy, so that the deviations from a straight
line may be more clearly shown and more exactly imitated. When the
true outline has been drawn and traced with ink, these lines may be
removed with rubber.
Thus, in the outline on p. 19, the points B and C, C and D, D and
E, F and G, are connected with straight lines to serve as guides in
drawing the outline. Similar lines having been drawn on the model,
the deviations of the coast-line can be more easily imitated.
( nm^m mmmmma i
20
MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA,
SYSTEMATICALLY AEEANGED.
, LESSON XX.
Conotrles. — ^Bound each : — Eussian America (which belongs to the
United States), British America, the United States, Mexico, Balize
(ba-lecz'), Central America, and Da'nish America (Greenland and Ice-
land — describe them separately, as islands).
Model.— The tJnitcd States is bounded on the north by British America, east by the
Atlantic Ocean, south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and west by the Pacific Ocean.
Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — Ottawa, Washington,
Mexico, Balize, — Reykjavik {rike' yah-vik), and Sitka.
Model.— Ottawa Is situated in the south-eastem part of British America.
Important Places in British America and United States. — State the situ-
ation of each : — Halifax, St. John, Quebec, Montreal, Toronto, New
Westminster, — St. Paul, Chicago (she-kaw'go), Cincinnati, Detroit,
Cleveland, Buffalo, Albany, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Balti-
more, Richmond, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans, Galves-
ton, Austin, Brownsville, San Francisco, Portland, Salt Lake City, and
St. Louis.
Important Places in Mexico and Central America. — State the situation of
each: — Chihuahua (che-wah'wah), Monterey (mon-to-ra'), Vera Cruz
(va'rah kroos), Merida (mer'e-dah), Acapulco (ah-kah-pool'ko), Guada-
jaxara {(/wah-dah-lah.-hah'rali), Mazatlan', San Luis Potosi {sahn loo'is
po-to'se), La Puebla (lah pweh'lah), — San Jose {ho-sa'), Managua {mah-
nah'goo-ah), San Salvador, New Guatemala (ffwah-ta-mah'lah), and
Comayagua (ko-mi-ah' gwah).
LESSON XXI.
[Rules for describing the natural dlTlsions of the earth are given on pages 5, 6.]
Islands. — Describe each : — Parry Islands, Southampton, Discoe,
Newfoundland, Anticosti, Prince Edward, Cape Breton {hrit'un), Ber-
muda Islands, West Indies, Revillagigedo Islands (ra-veel-yah-he-ha'do),
Vancouver, Queen Charlotte Isles, Sitka, Kodiac (ko'de-ahk), and Nu-
nivak {noo^ne-vahk').
Peninsnlas. — ^Describe each : — ^Melville, Nova Scotia, Florida, Yuca-
tan, California, and Alaska.
Capes. — Describe each: — Barrow, Bath'urst, Chidleigh {chid'le),
Sable, Cod, Hatteras, Canav'eral, Gracias (gmh'se-ahs), Corrientes, St.
Lucas, Mendocino {men-dose' no), Flattery, Elizabeth, and Prince of
Wales.
Monntain Ranges, etc. — Describe each : — Alleghany, Sierra Madre
(se-er'rah mah'dra). Sierra Nevada (na-vah'dah), Cascade, and Rocky.
— Mt. St. Elias, Mt Fairweather, Mt. Brown, Mt. Hooker, and Mt.
Nelson.
LESSON XXII.
Seas. — Describe each : — Caribbean (kar- rib-he' -an) and Behring.
Gnlfs and Bays. — Describe each : — Coronation, Boothia, Hudson,
James, St. Lawrence, Delaware, Chesapeake, Mexico, Campe'che, Hon-
duras, California, San Francisco, Georgia, Cook's, Bristol, and Baffin.
Straits. — ^Describe each : — Union, Fury, Hudson, Belle Isle, Flori-
da, Behring, — Prince of Wales, Banks, Barrow, and Davis.
Sonnds and Channels. — ^Describe each : — Smith's, Lancaster, and Mel-
ville. — Kennedy, Fox, and McClintock.
Inlets. — Describe each : — Bathurst, Wager, and Chesterfield.
Lakes. — Describe each : — Little Slave, Athabasca, WoUaston, Deer,
Great Slave, Great Bear, Winnipeg, Lake of the Woods, Superior,*
Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and Great Salt.
LESSON XXIII.
Rivers In Russian and British America. — Describe each : — Kouskovim
[koos-ko-veem,'), Kwichpak, Porcupine, — Mackenzie's, Athabasca, Slave,
Peace, Great Fish, Churchill, Nelson, Saskatch'awan, Severn, Assiniii-
boin, Red, Winnipeg, Albany, Rupert's, East Main, Great Whale,
Koksak, St. Lawrence, Ottawa, Saguenay (sag-a-na'), Eraser, and
Simpson.
Rivers In the Inited States and Ifexico. — Describe each : — Hudson,f
James, Cape Fear, Santee, Savannah, Altamaha {awl-ta-mO, haw'), Ala-
bama, Mississippi, Ohio, Cumberland, Tennessee, Missouri, Yellow
Stone, Big Horn, Nebraska, Arkansas, Canadian, Red, Trinity, Colo-
rado (col-o^ah'do), Rio Grande {re'o grahn'da), Pecos (pa'koce), Colo-
rado (West), Gila (he'lah), Sacramento, Columbia, Clarke's, Lewis, —
San Juan {hoo-ahn'), Balsas, and Santiago {sahn^te-ah'go).
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA,
PBOMISOUOnSLY ARRANGED.
LESSON XXIV.
I. Bound North America. Of the countries of North America, which extends
farthest north-west ? Farthest east ? Farthest south ? Wliat river forms part of
the boundary between Mexico and the United States? What lalces in British
America are connected with the Arctic Ocean ? What river is their final outlet ?
What cape is on the northern coast of Russian America ?
II. What strait connects the Kamtchatlia Sea with the Arctic Ocean ? Bafiin
Bay with the Atlantic Ocean ? Hudson Bay with the Atlantic ? What large island
lies in Hudson Bay ? What is the southern part of Hudson Bay called ? M'liat
three rivers flow into James Bay? What four into Hudson Bay? Of these, wliich
is the outlet of Lake Winnipeg? Of what river is the Saguenay a branch ?
III. What island is east of Baffin Bay ? What islands east ol Greenland ?
Where is Upernavili (oo-pur iiA-vik) ? Mt. Hecla ? What mountain range is in Brit-
ish America ? What islands are off the western coast of Russian and British Amer-
ica ? What lakes in British America are connected with Hudson Bay 1 What
lakes are connected by the Winnipeg River ? By the Slave River ?
IV. Jn what direction are the Bermudas from Iceland ? From the Bahamas ?
Washington from Sitka ? Ottawa from Mexico ? Riclimond from San Francisco ?
New Orleans from New Westminster ? Philadelphia from Salt Lake City ? Pike's
Peak from Mt. Fairweather ? What island on the Pacific coast is in the same lati-
tude as Newfoundland ? What islands in the Pacific, west of Mexico ?
V. What country in N. America is crossed by the Tropic of Cancer ? What
two gulfs ? What peninsula ? What point of the United States is nearest to the
Tropic of Cancer ? How far north do the United States extend ? To the i9th par-
allel of iV. latitude. About how far south ?
VI. Of the countries of North America, which is the largest ? U. S. Which,
next in size ? B. A. Which is the smallest ? What is the largest island of North
America? The longest river ? Tlie Mississippi. The largest lake ? The largest gulf?
The largest bay ? The longest range of mountains ? Tlie highest mountain ? St. E.
* The outlet of Lake Superior is the St. Mary's Eiver ; of Lake Michigan, the Strait of
Mackinaw ; of Lake Huron, the St. Clair Eiver ; and of Lake Erie, the Niagara Eiver.
+ The Hudson Kivcr is in the north-eastern part of the United States, flows a southerly
course, and empties Into New York Bay. Describe the other rivers according to tliis model.
-^' ' ' ' - -■ - — ■■■ '■ ■ -J.- , c^
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PioKinj .iTjijjj, >,'•*. * . let---' ^1
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SajiHai™''*'
Soaie ol Miles
Luij^.tiuic West SU iVoui Wasliiue-tou ^O
Q- LongifadB feaAt y
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGUAPHY.
1. Pknnk.
8. Opoepnm.
15. Virpinia deer.
22. Wliite-hcadcd eagle
3. Racoonda.
». American black bear.
16. Elk.
23. Eared owl.
3. Rattlcpiinko.
10. Black wolf.
17. Opogsum monee.
24. JlissiKfippi kite.
1. Wolverine.
11, Bison.
18. FlvjiifT BQiiinol.
26. Walrus.
r>. Wild cat.
12. American fox.
19. Black Fqiiiml.
2C. Crested seals.
r». Raccoon.
13. Musk ox.
20. Canadian porcnpine.
27. Polar bear.
7. Canadian owl.
14. Mustan;j«.
21. Yirj;iniagoat-8uckcr.
28. Greenland wbale.
a. Agave (Mexico).
d. Acacia.
g. Soqnoia ^iirantcai.
J. Magnolia.
ft. Yucca ( " ).
e. norse-clicetnnts.
A. Spnice flrs.
h. Cotton plant.
c. Arrowroot.
/. Arctic flrs.
I. Pine forest.
/. Tobacco.
LESSON XXV.
NORTH AMERICxV
Geograpliiral Position, ctt. — North America lies west of Europe and east
of A.sia. It e.xteiids from about the eiglith parallel of north latitude to the
Arctic Ocean, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The greatest breadth
of North America is 3,000 miles, and the extent of its coast 22,000 miles.
Pliyslfal Fcstares. — The surface of North America is divided into five phys-
ical regions; viz., the Great Northern Plain, the Atlantic Slope, the Great
Valley of the Mississippi, the Mexic'an Table-land, and the Pacific Slope.
The Great Northern Plain, lying north of 50° of north latitude, is a cold
and barren waste, gently sloping toward tlie Arctic Ocean, and contain-
ing numerous lakes and rivers.
Tlie Atlantic Slope extends- from the. Alleghany Mountains to the At-
lantic Ocean, and includes the" region drained by the rivers that flow into
the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, from New Brunswick to Mississippi.
The Great Valley of the Mississippi extends fi-om the Alleghany to tlie
Rocky Mountains. It includes the vast region drained by the Mississippi
Itiver and its tributaries.
The Mexican Table-land extends from Utah to Guatemala. It Separates
the rivers that emjity into the Rio Grande and the Gulf of Mexico, from
those that flow into the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean.
The Pacific Slope extends from the- R»cky Mountains to the Pacific
Oce.in, and includes that part of the United States drained by rivers that
flow into the Pacific Ocean. This slope is traversed lengthwise by several
mountain ranges. The most important of these are the Cascade Range,
and the Sierra Nevada, some of whose snow-clad peaks have an elevation
of about three miles above the level of the sea.
Inhabitants. — The present population consists of Whites, Negroes, In-
dians, and Esquimaux. The Whites arc of European, the Negroes of Afri-
can, and the Esquimaux of Asiatic, descent. The Indians are the aborigines.
History. — The Continent of America is called the "New World," from
its having been discovered comparatively recently. The inhabitants of the
Eastern Continent, or Old World, knew nothing respecting this portion of
the globe, when Christopher Columbus, in the year 1492, made the. voyage
that resulted in the discovery of Guanahani (gwah-nah-hah'ne), or Cat Isl-
and, now called St. Salvador. This remarkable man was a native of Gen'-
oa, in Italy. In his third voyage he discovered a portion of the American
Continent, at the mouth of the Orinoco River.
The first explorer of Continental North America was John Cabot', a
Venetian, who, accomjianied by his son Sebastian, set sail from England
in .June, 1497, and discovered that part of the coast of British America
now called Lab'rador. When North America was discovered, it was a wil-
derness, inhabited by savage tribes subsequently styled Indians.
RUSSIAN AMERICA
CfographiMl Position. — Russian America, an extensive region, the interior
of which is little known, lies in the north-westeix part of North America.
BRITISH AMKRICA AND DANISH AMERICA.
23
Physical Fcatnres — Those port ions of the coast wliich border on Behr-
ing Sea and the Pacific are higli and rocky, but ihe Arc:ic coast is gener-
ally low and marshy. In the south-eastern part there is a mountain range,
of which Mounts St. Elias and Fairweatlier are the loftiest peaks.
Soil, etc. — The soil is sterile, and the climate exceedingly cold. Fur-
bearing aninuils and fish abound. Grain is i)r()duced in the south, in small
quantities; a lew trees, mostly i)iiies and birches, are found on the hills.
Inliabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Esquimaux, Iiidians, and
Russian traders. The country was once a colonial possession of Russia,
but now belongs by purchase to the United States.
Mannfiictnrps and Fxports. — There are no manufactures, the chief employ-
ment of the natives being hunting and fishing. The furs which they take
are sold to the Russian fur-traders. The exports are furs and fish.
SiTiiA, on the Lsland of Sitka, is the capital.
-~ 1^:
THE UOUTU OF THE SAaUENAT BITEB.
LESSON XXYI.
BRITISH AMERICA.
Cenjraplikal Position, etc. — This country comprises all the nortliorn con-
tinental portion of North America except the Russian Possessions, andall
the islands in the vicinity except (ireenland and Iceland. It extends from
the Arctic Ocean on the north to the United States on the si>uth, and from
tlie Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.
now divided. — British America embraces several colonies belonging to
the British crown ; viz., British Columbia, the Iludscm Bay Company's Ter-
ritory, Canada (consisting of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns-
wick, and Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island.
BRITISn COLUHrei A. —British Columbia is an extensive tract, lying be-
tween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The discovery of rich
gold districts along the valley of the Fi-azer River has attracted a large
number of settlers. The soil is good; much of the surface is covered with
dense forests. New Westminster, on the Frazer River, is the capital.
THE DDDSON BAT COMPAM'S TEBRITORT, or Rupert's Land, comprises
a large portion of British America, extending from the Rocky Mountains
to Labrador, and from Canada and the United States to the Arctic Ocean.
That part situated south of Lake Winnipeg is called the Red River Set-
tlement. The residents of this regipn are chiefly emigrants from Scotland,
with some Indians and half-castes. The inhabitants of the other portion
are mainly Indians and Esquimaux.
Physical Features.— The greater part of the surface consists of dense for-
ests, vast swamps, extensive lakes, large rivers, and lofty mountains.
Soil, etc.— In the northern districts the soil is barren ; but in the south
it is toler.ably fertile. The climate is so cold that "wine is often found frozen
in a solid mass; and the bays and lakes are covered with ice during half
the year. Of the fur-bearing animals, which are here numerous, there are
upwards of twenty difi'erent kinds. The seas and lakes abound in morses,
seals, cod, etc. There are indications of mineral wealth in various parts.
Exports. — The inhabitants lieing wlioUy occupied in hunting and fishing,
the chief exports are furs, dried and salted fish, oils, and wajrus-ivory.
YoHK Factory, a settlement on Hayes River, is the capital and chief
trading-station of the teri-itory. Foot- GAiiiiY, in the Red River Settle-
ment, is an important trading-post.
DANISH AMERICA.
Ccograplilcal Position, etc. — Danish America, situated east of British
America, comprises Greenland, Iceland, and some smaller islands.
GREKMiAND (supposed to be an itland, though its northern coast is un-
known) lies between Baflin Bay and tiie Atlantic Ocean.
Physical Features. — A chain of mountains is supposed to extend the en-
tire length of the island. Vast glaciers descend to the shore, and, be-
coming detached, float as icebergs into the adjacent seas.
Soil, etc. — The soil is barren, and the climate is very severe ; July being the
only month hi which there is no snow. Kitchen vegetables are i)roduced
in the southern part. Seals inhabit the surrounding seas, and are of great
im[)ortance to the Greenlaiiders, supplying them with food, clothing, etc.
luhubitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Esquimaux, engaged in
hunting and fishing. Many of them have been converted to Christianity.
The exports (sent chiefly to Denmark) consist of eider-down, skins of seals
and- other animals, whalebone, and fish-oil ; for which the Greenlander re-
ceives various manufactured articles.
ICELAND, situated in the Atlantic, is TOO miles west of Norway, and
200 miles east of Greenland.
Physical Features. — The surface is generally mountainous. About .30
volcanoes have been discovered on this island, the cliief of which is Ileda.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally barren, and the climate is very variable.
The longest day of summer and the longest night of winter last each about
a week;. .The aurora ^^ __^
borealis is seen in Ice-
land in all its 'bril-
liancy. Notreesgrow
on the island; there
are only a few stunted
shrubs and mosses.
Birds are plentiful,
the most valuable of
which is the eider-
duck. The Geysers,
or boiling springs, are
interesting curiosi-
ties.
Inlinbitants, etc. —
The inhabitants are
of the Scandinavian
stock. The island is
ruled by an officer ap-
pointed by the king
of Denmark. Luther-
anism prevails. The
leading pursuit is cod-
fishing.
Exports. — The ex-
ports consist chiefly
of knit stockings, oil.
Is a small town on the south-western coast.
THE CHEAT OET8EB, ICELAND.
fish, suljihur, and moss. -Reykjavik, the capital,
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26
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
BRITISH PROVINCES IN NORTH AMERICA.
LESSON XXXII.
DOMINION OF CANADA.
Geographical Position. — Canada is situated in the south-eastern part of
Uritish America, and embraces the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
GoTernment. — Tlie affairs of Canada are regulated by a Governor-general
appointed by the Hritish crown, a Council selected by the Governor, and
a Parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of Commons. The Sena-
tors are appointed for life by the Governor-general ; the members of the
House are elected by the people. Each province has, besides, a legislature
of its own.
PROVINCE OF ONTARIO.
Gcograpliical Position. — The Province of Ontario, formerly called Canada
West, extends along the upjier part of the River St. Lawrence, and the
great lakes which separate British America from the United States.
Piiysieai Features. — This province is traversed by ridges of table-land, not
high enough to be called mountain ranges. The region between Georgian
Bay and the upper part of the Ottawa Kiver is considerably elevated.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally fertile, though the climate is colder than
that of European countries in the same latitude. Table fruits and various
kinds of grain are among the chief productions. Wild animals, many of
which are valuable for their fur, abound in the forests. Maple-trees are
numerous, from which a considerable quantity of sugar is olitained.
HAKma HAPLB SCOAB IN CANADA.
Inliabitants, etc.— The inhabitants consist chiefly of settlers from Great
Britain and the United States, with their descendants. Some native. In-
dians yet remain on the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. The pre-
vailing religion is Protestantism.
TraTeiing Facilities. — The towns of the province are connected by good
roads. Several lines of railway are completed ; others are in progress.
JIannfactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are receiving considerable atten-
tion. Grain, flour, timber, pot and pearl ashes, furs, and fish, are exported.
Cities. — Ottawa, on the right bank of the Ottawa River, at the en-
trance of the Rideau {re-do') Canal, is the capital of British America.
Kingston, at the north-east extremity of Lake Ontario, is the great
depot of government steamers, and of the boats employed on the Rideau
Canal. It has an excellent harbor, and is the naval arsenal of Great Brit-
ain in this quarter.
ToEONTo, located on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, is extensively
engaged in trade. Hamilton, at the head of Lake Ontario, is an impor-
tant commerci{^l city. It is on the line of the Great Western Railroad,
which extends across the province, from Niagara to the Detroit River.
PROVINCE OF QUEBEC.
Geograplileai Position. — The Pro\ince of Quebec, formerly called Canada
East, extends in a north-easterly direction from the Ottawa River, which
separates it from Ontario, to Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Physical Features. — The surface is diversified with hills, plains, and valleys.
Soil, etc. — In the extreme north, the soil is too barren for cultivation,
but along the banks of the St. Lawrence it is quite fertile. The climate is
very cold, for the latitude. The markets in winter present a strange ap-
pearance ; every thing is frozen. The productions are like those of Ontario.
Natnrai Curiosities. — Eight miles from Quebec are the celebrated Falls of
Montmorency. The Montmorency is a small river, which, in its onward
course to the St. Lawrence, descends a precipice of about 250 feet.
These, and the Falls of Chaudiere, in a river of the same name, 2J miles
above its mouth, are the chief natural curiosities belonging exclusively to
Canada. It has, however, a share in the Falls of Niagara, the most stu-
pendous cataract in the world.
Inhabitants. — A large proportion are French settlers and their descend-
ants, who are engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits and lumbering. Most
of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics.
TraTciing Facilities. — Good roads are found in the settled districts, and
railroads connect the cliief cities with those of the United States ; but com-
merce is carried on mainly by means of lakes, rivers, and canals.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are rapidly increasing. Tlie
leading exports are timber, pot and pearl ashes, furs, and fish.
Cities. — QuEnEo, a strongly fortified city, styled "the Gibraltar of Amer-
ica," is situated partly on a plain, along the left bank of the St. LawrencOt
and partly on a promontory 350 feet in height, — being thus divided into
an Upper and a Lower Town. The principal buildings are in the upi)er and
fortified part of the city. The harbor is accessible to ships of the line, and
vessels of the largest burden can come up to the wharves.
"The Plains, or Heights of Abraham," is the name given to the entire
promontory lying between the St. Charles and the St. Lawrence, at the
eastern extremity of which the citadel of Quebec stands. This spot is
memorable in history for the battle fought in 1Y59, which resulted in the
fall of the two Generals — Wolfe and Montcalm.
MoNTKKAL, the chief emporium of trade between Canada and the United
States, is situated on an island of the s'ame name in the St. Lawrence River.
It is well buOt, and contains many splendid public edifices ; among these is a
Roman Catholic cathedral, one of the finest buildings in North America.
Its extensive wharves surpass those of any other city on the continent.
A tubular iron bridge, nearly two miles in length, crosses the St. Law-
rence at this place.
Three Rivers, one of the oldest towns in Canada, lies on the left bank
of the St. Lawrence, at the junction of the St. Maurice River. The St.
Maurice divides into three channels at its mouth ; hence the name of the
town. Its inhabitants are mostly of French descent.
LESSON XXXIII.
PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
Geographical Position. — New Brunswick extends from the Restigouchfi
River on the north, to the Bay of Fundy on the south, and from the Gulf
of St. Lawrence and Northumberland Strait to the St. Croix (kroi) River.
THE BRITISH PROVINCES IN NORTH AMERICA.
27
Physleal Features. — The surface is varied ; in the eastern part it is gen-
erally level, but along the Bay of Fundy rocky and uneven. But a small
portion has been cleared ; the rest is covered with dense forests.
Soli, ete. — The soil is generally fertile. Potatoes are largely cultivated ;
manganese, iron, and coal abound. The fisheries are exceedingly valuable.
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are of English and Irish descent, and for
the most part Protestants.
JlannfiWtnrcs and Exports. — Manufactures are, of late, receiving attention.
The chief employments are the timber-trade and the fisheries. The exports
are timber, dried fish, gypsum, and grindstones.
Cities. — Frepericton, the capital, is on the right bank of the St. John's
River. The streets are wide, and nmch space is devoted to garden-plots.
St. JonjT, the largest town, stands on a steep slope, separated by a project-
ing rock into two portions. Its fine harbor is defended by several forts.
PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTlA.
Geograpliical Position. — Nova Scotia is a peninsula lying south-east of New
Brunswick, with which it is connected by an isthmus 14 miles wide.
Physical Features. — The surface is diversified and well watered. The
coasts contain many inlets, some of which form excellent harbors.
Soil, etc. — There are some highly fertile districts, but these are of limited
extent ; only a small part of the peninsula is under cultivation. The win-
ters are very severe, the sunnners short and hot. Fogs are frequent along
the coast. Grain and potatoes are the staple crops. The principal resources
of the colony are the timber, plaster, and coal trade, and tlie fisheries.
Inhabitants, etc. — The population is composed mainly of European emi-
grants and their descendants. Protestantism is the prevailing religion.
Manufactures and Exports. — Little attention is given to manufactures.
The leading exports are lumber, fish, coal, gypsum, grindstones, whale and
seal oil, and furs.
Cities. — Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, is situated on the south-
eastern coast. It possesses an extensive dock-yard, and is the principal
naval station of Great Britain in North America.
Liverpool, on the south-eastern coast, about 70 miles from Halifax, car-
ries on a flourishing trade in lumber and fish.
THE ISLAND OF NEWFOUNDLAND.
Geographical Position. — This island, a colony of British America, lies
south-east of Labrador, from which it is separated by the Strait of Belle Isle.
Physical Features. — The eastern part consists principally of low hills, the
western is high and rooky. The interior is hilly, and is interspersed with
small rivers and lakes.
Soil, etc. — The soil is ill-suited to agriculture, but pasturage is abundant.
Tlio climate in the winter is severe ; and during a great part of the year
fogs are prevalent. The fisheries are the chief reliance of the inhabitants.
Cod are taken in great numbers by English, French, and American fisher-
men, on the celebrated Banks of Newfoundland, which lie in the Atlantic,
south of the island, and are over 600 miles in length.
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are chiefly Irish. The Roman Catholic
religion prevails. The colony is ruled by a Governor appointed by the
British crown, and a local legislature.
Manufactures and Exports. — The manufactures are limited to a few arti-
cles of warm woolen clothing. Ship-building is carried on to a small ex-
tent ; but the materials are imported from New Brunswick. The exports
are mainly the produce of the fisheries.
St. John's, the capital of the island, is on the south-eastern coast.
LABRADOR, a large peninsula, is included in the government of New-
foundland. Over a thousand vessels, from the neighboring provinces and
the United States, visit the eastern coast of Labrador every year,
purpose of taking whales, cod, salmon, and herring, which there
The resident inhabitants are mainly fur-traders and seal-catchers,
a Moravian establishment, is the chief settlement.
for the
abound.
Nain,
CATCUIKG SEALS ON TUE COAST OF LABRASOB.
THE ISLAND OF CAPE BRETON.
Geographical Position. — This island, a colony of Great Britain, lies north-
east of Nova Scotia, of which province it foi-ms a part.
Physical Features, etc. — -The surface is broken, and the island is very
irregularly shaped, being almost divided by an arm of the sea, called Bras
d'Or (hrah dor). The soil is fertile, and the climate less severe than on th<
main-land. Fish and coal are the chief exports.
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are mostly emigrants from the Hebrides
and their descendants. Fishing is the leading object of pursuit.
Sydney, the capital, is situated in the eastern part of the island, on Syd
ney Bay. In the vicinity are extensive beds of bituminous coal.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.
Geographical Position. — This insular colony of Great Britain lies east of
New Brunswick, and north of Nova Scotia.
Physical Features, etc. — The surface is level and well watered ; the soil
fertile. The pastures are rich, timber is abundant, and the fisheries arc
extensive. Excellent oysters are found on the coast.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly of French and Scotch de
scent. The chief pursuit is agriculture ; the principal exports are agricul-
tural products, timber, dried and pickled fish.
Charlotte Town, the capital, is situated near the southern coast. Manj
of the inhabitants are extensively engaged in ship-building.
BERMUDA, or SOJIERS ISLES.— This group, consisting of about 300 smal
islands, belonging to Great Britain, is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, 60C
miles east of South Carolina. Many of these isles are so small and barrer
that they have neither inhabitants nor name. The largest of the group is
20 miles long, and 2 in breadth. On the inhabited islands, fruits of botl
temperate and tropical regions are raised.
VANCOUVER ISLAND.— This island is separated from the main-land of
British America by the Gulf of Georgia. Coal, hmestone, and timber, are
said to be abundant. The interior of the island is hilly, the soil well wa-
tered, and the coasts contain several good harbors. Victoria is the capital.
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80
MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE EASTERN STATES,
SYSTEMATICALLY AKEANGED.
LESSON XXXIV.
states.— Bound each: — Vermont, New Hampsbire, Maine, Massa-
cliusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — Montpelier, Concord,
Augusta, Boston, Providence, Newport, Hartford, and New Haven.
Important Piaces in Termont. — State tlic situation of eacli :— St.
Albans (awl'banz), Island Fond, Newbury, Norwich, Woodstock,
Windsor, Bellows Falls, Brattleboro, Bennington, Rutland, Brandon,
Middlebury, Vergenncs, and Burlington.
Important Places In New Hampshire and Maine. — Lancaster, Colebrook,
Dover, Portsmouth, Exeter, Manchester, Nashua, Keene, Lebanon,
Hanover, Haverhill (ha'ver-il), Andover, — Cal'ais, Eastport, Machias
(maich-i'us), Ellsworth, Bangor, Belfast, VVaterville, Rockland, Thom-
aston, Gardiner, Bath, Brunswick, Lewiston, Portland, Saco (saw'ko),
Biddeford, York, Bethel, Andover, Fanuington, Norridgewock, and
Dover.
LESSON XXXY.
Important Places In Hassaehnaetts. — State the situation of each : — Wil-
liamstown, Greenfield, Lowell, Lawrence, Newburyport, Gloucester
(glos'ter), Salem, Lynn, Charlestown, Roxbury, Plymoutli, Barnstable,
Now Bedford, Fall River, Taunton, Worcester (woos'ter), Springfield,
Sheffield, Pittsfield, and Northampton.
Important Places in Rliode Island and Connecticut. — Smithfield, Paw-
tucket, Bristol, Kingston, East Greenwich [green'ich), — Salisbury
(saioh'ber-e), Windsor, Stafford, Stonington, New London, Norwich.
Middletown, Bridgeport, Norwalk, Stamford, Danbury, W^aterbuiy,
and Litclifield.
Islands. — Describe each :— Moose, Jit. Desert, Fox, Nantucket, and
Martha's Vineyard.
Capes. — ^Describe each : — Small Point, Elizabeth, Ann, and Cod.
Honntains. — Describe each : — Green, White. — Washington, Wa-
cbusett (waw-chu'set), Holyoke (liole'rjokc), and Tom.
LESSON XXXVI.
Bays. — ^Describe each : — Passamaquoddy, Macliias, Penobscot, Casco,
Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Buzzard's, and Narragansett.
Lakes. — Describe each : — Memphrema'gog, Eagle, Grand, Schoodic
(nkoo'dik), Chesun'cook, Pemadum'cook, Moosehead, Uraba'gog,
Scba'go,* and Winnipiseogee {win-ne-pe-sok'e).
Rivers. — Describe each : — Otter, Winooski, Lamoille, Missis'qne, St.
Croix {kroi), W. Machias, Union, Penobscot, Mattawamkeag, Piseat'a-
quis, Kennebec, Sandy, Androscoggin, Saco, Piscat'aqua,t Salmon
Falls, Merrimac, Pemigewasset {pem-eje-rvos'set), Winnipiseogee,
Con'toocook, Nashua, Taunton, Blackstone| or Pawtucket, Thames,
Qiiinebaug', Shetncket, Connecticut, Ashuelot (ash'wc-loi), Miller's,
White, West, Deerfield, Westfield, Farmington, and Housatonic
(lioo-sa-ton'ik).
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE EASTERN STATES,
PBOMISOUOfSLY ARKANGKD.
LESSON XXXVII.
I. Mention the Eastern States. By what other name are these states known f
77ie New England •Stalts. What three Eastern States border on Canada? What
three, on New York? What four, on the Atlantic? Which Eastern State bor-
ders on New Brunswick ? Which, on Long Island Sound ? Which, on Lake
Champlain ? Which has the greatest extent of cojjst on the Atlantic ?
II. Of what state is Montpelier the capital ? What is the most southerly place
in Vermont, on the Connecticut ? What is the largest place on Lake Champlain f
JB. Uow far is it from the capital of the state to Burlington ? About 40 milen by
railroad. What five towns in Vermont are on the Connecticut ? What four, on Otter
Creek ? What river foims the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire ?
III. What city is the capital of New Hampshire ? On what river? Sailing
down the Merrimac from Concord, what important places would you find on the
right bank? What, on the left ? In what state is Newburyport ? Mention the
chief seaport of New Hampshire. What manufacturing city is about 12 miles
north-west of Portsmouth ? What manufacturing town la about the same distance
from Portsmouth, south-west ?
IV. Name the largest lake in New Hampshire. What rivers flow into the
Merrimac below the Winnipiseogee ? Among what mountains does the Saco River
rise ? In what lake, the Androscoggin ? The Kennebec ? Why is Augusta called
the capital of Maine ? W^hat seaport is at the head of Penobscot Bay ? What
seaport is on the south-western side of that bay ?
V. What do you suppose has made Portland the largest city in Maine ? Mention
the places on the Androscoggin River. On the Kennebec. AVhat places are situ-
ated opposite to each other on the Saco ? What seaport is situated on the east-
ernmost frontier of the United States ? E. On what island is it, and in what bay ?
What port is near the mouth of AVest Machias River ?
LESSON XXXVIH.
♦ The outlet of Sebago Lake is the Prescnmecnt River.
t The Piscataqua is formed by the Salmon Falls and the Cocheco River.
X The BlackBtone empties into the Providence River, which flows into Narragansett Bay.
I. What rivers flow into the Kennebec? What place is on the Sandy Elver?
Mention the chief lakes of Maine. What bays indent the coast of Maine ? What
capes are near the entrance of Casco Bay ? On what waters would you sail in
going from Eastport to Boston ? See scale of miles, and tell the direct distance
between these places.
II. Of what state is Boston the capital ? What important city in the vicinity
of Boston ? C. What manufacturing city is situated on the north-eastern shore
of Massachusetts Bay? L. What commercial city a few miles north-east of
Lynn ? S. AVhat noted manufacturing places are on the Merrimac, in Massachu-
setts ? What, on the Taunton ? T. and F. R.
III. What river crosses Massachusetts ? What places in Massachusetts are on
the Connecticut ? What mountains are near the Connecticut ? What bays indent
the coast of Massachusetts ? What capes on the coast ? In what part of Mas-
sachusetts is Worcester ? For what is it noted ? For its manufactures. What is
the largest manufacturing city in the western part of Massachusetts ? P.
IV. What cities are alternately the capital of Rhode Island ? What other
state has two places where the legislature meet ? What rivers cross Connecticut
from north to south ? In what state docs the Connecticut rise ? The Housatonic ?
W^hat rivers form the Thames ? What three states border on Connecticut ? What
two, on Rhode Island ? AVhat bays indent the coast of Massachusetts ?
V. What city is situated on Buzzard's Bay ? What manufacturing town a few
miles north of Providence ? On what river is it? AVhat other town on this river,
in Rhode Island ? For what is Smithfield celebrated ? For Us limestone quarrifK.
What city is at the head of navigation on the Thames ? N—Ji. What city is near
the mouth of the Thames ?
VI. Mention the places in Connecticut, on Long Island Sound. On the Con-
necticut River. On the Thames. What three places lie near the western boundary
of Connecticut ? AVhat two islands in the Atl.mtic, south-east of Buzzard's Bay ?
To what state do they belong ? Of the Eastern States, which is the largest ?
AA^hich, the smallest ? AVhich extends farthest north ? AVhieh, farlhest south ?
32
MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES, MARY-
LAND, VIRGINIA, AND WEST VIRGINIA,
BTBTEMATIOALLT ARRANGED.
LESSON XXXIX.
states. — ^Bound each : — New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Penn-
sylvania, — Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — ^Albany, Trefiton, Do-
ver,* Harrisburg, — ^Annapolis, Richmond^ and- Wheeling.
Important Places Id New Tork.?— State the situation of each : — Roches-
ter, Oswego, Watertown, Ogdensburg, Plattsburg, Whitehall, Saratoga
Springs, Schenectady, Troy, Hudson, Kingston, Poughkeepsie (po-
kip'se), Newbmg, West Point, Sing Sjng, New York, Bing'hamton,
Owego, Ithaca, Elmira, Bath, Olean (o-le-an'), Dunkirk, Buffalo, Lock-
port, Batavia, Gcneseo, Geneva, Auburn, Syracuse,f Hamilton, Rome,
TJtica, — Brooklyn. Jamaica, Oyster Bay, Greenport, and Sag Harbor.
LESSON XL. »
Important Places In New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. — State the
situation of each : — Paterson,J Jersey City,J Newark,^ Elizabeth, New
Brunswick, Atlantic City, Cape Island City, Vincland, Salem, Cam-
den, Burlington, Princeton, — Wilmington, Smynia, Milford, Lewes
(lu'is), Georgetown. '
Eric, Warren, Coudersport {kow'derz-port), Athens, Carhondale,
Scranton, Wilkesban-e (wilks'bar^e), Easton, Pottsville, Reading {red'-
inff), Philadelphia, Lancaster, York, Carlisle, Washington, Pittsburgh,
Alleghany, Newcastle, Meadville, Oil City, Williamsport, Danville,
Lewiston, and HoUidrysburg.
Important Places In Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. — State the situ-
ation of each : — Cumberland, Ilagerstown, Havre de Grace (hav'er de
grass), Easton, Cambridge, Salisbury, Frederick, Baltimore, — ^Win-
chester, Alexandria, Fredericksburg, Petersburg, Portsmouth, Norfolk,
Danville, Lynchburg, Salem, Abingdon, Jefferson ville, Staunton, Char-
lottesville, — Grafton, Romney, Martinsburg, Harper's Ferry, Beverly,
Lewisbnrg, Princeton, Guyandotte [ghi-an-dot'), Charleston, Point
Pleasant, Parkersburg, and Buckhannon.
Islands. — ^Describe each : — ^Long and Staten.§
Capes. — Sandy Hook, May, Henlopen, Charles, Henry, — and Mon-
tauk Point.
LESSON XLI.
Honntains. — Describe each : — Adirondack (ad-e-ron'dak), Catskill,
Blue Ridge, and Alleghany.
Bays. — ^Describe each : — New York, Delaware, and Chesapeake.
Laltcs. — ^Describe each : — Erie, Ontario, Seneca, Cayuga, Owaseo,
Oneida, George, Champlain, Otse'go, and Chautauqua {sha-taw'qua).
Bivers of the Middle States. — Describe each : — Niagara, Genesee, Os-
wego,! Seneca, Black, Oswegatchie, Racket, Saranac, Hudson, Mo-
hawk, — Rar'itan, — Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill, Susquehanna, Che-
nango, Chemung, Conhocton, Tioga, West Branch of Susquehanna,
• Dover is eilnated on Jones Creek.
+ Syracuse Is sitnatcd on Onondaga (pn-on-daw'ga) Lake.
X See small Map of a Part of New York and New Jersey.
% Stalcn Island is snrroundcd by New York Bay, the Narrows, and Staten Island Sound.
I The Oswego is formed by the junction of the Seneca and the Oneida Kiver.
Juniata (jocHne-a/i'ta), Monongahela, Alleghany, Clarion, Conewaiigo
Creek, Oil Creek, and French Creek.
Rivers of Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. — Describe each : — Chop-
tank, Patuxent, Putoraac, Monoc'acy, — Shenando'ah, Rappahannock,
Rapidan, York, Mattap'ony, I'amunky, James, Appomattox, Nottaway,
Meherrin, Staunton, Dan, — Big Sandy, Guyandotte, Great Kanawha,
Greenbrier, Gauley, Elk, and Little Kanawha.
QUESTIONS ON MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES, ETC.,
PKOMI8CrOTI8I.T AEJgANOKD.
/;. LESSON XLII.
I. Name the Nflfrthcm or Middle States. N. Y., N. J., B., and P. To what di-
vision do Maryland, Virginia, and VFcst Virginia belong ? To'the Southern States.
What two Middle States border on Lake Erie ? What three, on tlie Atlantic ?
What two islands, forming part of New York, border on the Atlantic ? L. and S.
What two states border on Delaware Bay ? What two, on Chesapeake I3ay ?
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II. What two cities in New Jersey are opposite New York » ■ H. mid J. C.
What city on Long Island is opposite New York ? Between what rivers is New
York situated ? J7i£ Hudion and the East River. What waters are connected by
the East River? Long Island Sound and y. Y. Bay. What strait is south of
N. Y. Bay ? Describe Long Island Sound. How is Long Branch situated ?
m. Which two Middle States have the most sea-coast ? Which has no sea-
coast? What capes are at the entrance of Chesapeake Bay? Of Delaware
Bay ? Name the principal places on Long Island. On the Hudson Kiver. On
the Mohawk. On the Delaware. On the Susquehanna. On the Potomac. On
the James. On the Ohio, in West Virginia. Where is the Dismal Swamp ?
IV. What is included in the cily
limits of Philadelphia? 77ie entire
county, in which are several towns and
villages. Name some of these places.
Between what two rivers is Philadel-
phia located ? What city in N. Jersey
is opposite Philadelphia ? What two
rivers form the Ohio ? What city is
at their junction ? Wliat ridges trav-
erse part of Pennsylvania ? What is
the largest city in New Jersey ? A\
In Delaware ? IT. In Maryland ? In
Virginia? if. In West Virginia? H'.
V. What rivers empty into Lake
Ontario ? Into the Alleghany River ?
Into the Susquehanna? Into the
Delaware? Into the Potomac? Into Chesapeake Bay? Into the Ohio, from
AVest Virginia ? In what direction is Norfolk from Baltimore? From Petersr
burg? Which is the largest of the Middle States ? Which the smallest ?
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MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
37
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE WESTERN STATES,
SYSTEM ATIOALI-Y AEBANGED.
LESSON XLVIII.
states.— Bound each : — Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio,
Kentucky, Missouri, I'owa, Illinois, and Indiana.
Capital Citifs. — State the situation of each : — St. Paul, Madison,*
Lansing, Columhus, Frankfort, Jefl'erson City, Des Moines {de moin),
Springfield, and Indianapolis.
Important Places In Minnesota, Wlseonsln, and Michigan. — State the situa-
tion of each : — Fond du Lac, St. Anthony, Minneapolis, Shak'opee,
Red Wing, Wabasbaw (toaw' bashaw), Faribault {far-e-bo'), Wino'na,
Manka'to, Breckinridge, Crow Wing, St. Cloud, Monticello.
Superior, Green Bay, Appleton, Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Sheboygan,
Milwaukee, Wau'kesha, Racine (ras-seen'), Keno'sha, Beloit, Janes-
ville. Mineral Point, Prairie du Chien {pra're du sheen), La Crosse,
Galesville, Chippewa Falls, Grand Rapids.
Ontonag'on, Marquette {mar-ket'), Saut St. Mary {soo sent ma're),
Saginaw, Corunna, Port Huron, Pontiac, Detroit, Ann Arbor, Ypsilan'ti,
Monroe, A'drian, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Grand Rapids, Grand Haven.
LESSON XLIX.
Important Places In Ohio and Kentucky. — State the situation of each : —
Toledo, Tiffin, Sandus'ky, Cleveland, Ravenna, Wooster, Canton, Steu-
benville, Zanesvillo, Marietta, Athens, Chillicothe, Portsmouth, Cincin-
nati, Dayton, Springfield, Bellefontaine, Lima, Mt. Vernon, Newark, —
Padu'cah, Henderson, Owenboro, Hawesville, Louisville, Bardstown,
Covington (cuv'ing-tun), Maysville, Pikeville, Barboursville, Glasgow,
Russellville, Hickman, Danville, and Lexington.
Important Places In Mlssonri and Iowa. — State the situation of each : —
Hannibal, Mexico, St. Charles, St. Louis, St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'),
Cape Girardeau {je-rar-do'), New Mad'rid, Hartville, Forsyth, Spring-
field, Carthage, Bolivar, Harrisonville, Independence, Lexington, Wes-
ton, St. Joseph, Glasgovir, Boonville, Heruiann.
Algo'na, Waverly, Cedar Falls, Dubuque (du-booke'), Cedar Rapids,
Davenport, Iowa City, Muscatine, Fairfield, Burlington, Fort Madison,
Ke'okuk, Ottumwa, Oskaloosa, Afton, Council Bluffs, Sioux (soo) City,
Fort Dodge, and Boonesboro.
LESSON L. _.
Important Places In Illinois and Indiana. — State the situation or^ach : —
Galena, Dixon, Rockfort, Wauke'gan, Chicago, Jo'liet, Kankakee [kan-
kaio'lce), Danville, Mt. Carmcl, Shawneetown, Cairo (ka'ro), Kaskaskia,
Salem, Illinois Town, Alton (awl'tun). Jacksonville, Quincy, Carthage,
Rock Island, Peru, Lacon, Peoria, Blooraington, Decatur, Vandalia.
Michigan City, South Bend, Fort Wayne, Richmond, Lawrence-
burg, Madison, New Albany, Evansville, Vincennes (vin-senz'), TeiTC
Haute (ter'reh hote), La Fayette, Logansport, Crawfordsville, Greencas-
tle, and Blooraington.
Islands. — Describe each : — Apostle, Royale {roy'al), and Beaver.
* Madiaon is situated on an isthmas between Laices Mcndota and Mono'na.
Bays. — Kewee'naw, Green, Grand Traverse, and Saginaw.
Strait. — Describe it : — Mack'inaw.
Lakes. — Describe each : — Traverse, Otter Tail, Red, Lake of the
Woods, Rainy, Vermilion, Superior, Michigan, Winnebago, Houghton
(ho'tun), Huron, St. Clair, Erie,* Itasca, Leech, Mille Lacs, Pepin
(pip'in), Peoria, and Big Stone.
LESSON LI.
Rivers that flow toward the Great Lakes. — ^Describe each : — Red River of
the North, Red Lake, Rainy Lake, St. Louis, St. Mary, Menom'onee,
Fox, Wolf, St. Joseph's, Kalamazoo, Grand, Maske'gon, Manis'tee,
Au Sable (o sahbl), Saginaw, Flint, St. Clair, Detroit,! Raisin, Mau-
raee, St. Joseph's, St. Mary's, Sandusky, and Cuyahoga {ki-orho' ga).
Elvers that flow toward the Ohio. — Describe each :— Muskingum, Ver-
non, Scio'to, Miami (nie-ah'me), Wabash (waw'bash), Sugar Creek,
White, Tippecanoe, Embarras, Little Wabash, Big Sandy, Licking,
Kentucky, Salt, Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee.J
Bivers that flow toward the Mississippi. — ^Describe each : — Ohio,§ Big
Muddy, Kaskaskia, Illinois, Kankakee, San'gamon, Salt Creek, Fox,
Spoon, Rock, Wisconsin, Black, Chippewa, St. Croix, Ruin, — Crow,
Minnesota, Cannon, Root, Upper Iowa, Iowa, Red Cedar, Skunk, Des
Moines, Raccoon, Salt, Missouri,^ Chariton, Grand, Nodaway, Boyer,
Little Sioux, Big Sioux, Osage', Gasconade, and Mar'amec.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE WESTERN STATES,
PEOMISOnODSLT ARBANGED.
LESSON LII.
I. What states are classed as Western States ? Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan,
Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illitwis, Indiana, and all the
states west of the Mississippi River except Louisiana and Texas. What state borders
on Lake Huron ? What states border on Lake Superior ? On Lake Michigan ?
On Lake Erie ? On the east bank of the Mississippi ? On the west bank ? On
the Ohio ? What state has the greatest extent of lake coast ?
n. What river separates West Virginia from Kentucky ? Kentucky from In-
diana ? Kentucky from Missouri ? Kentucky from Illinois ? Iowa from Wiscon-
sin ? What lakes are in Minnesota ? What lake is in Wisconsin ? What moun-
tain in Missouri ? Where are the Pictured Rocks ? Where is Mammoth Care ?
in. Name the principal places in Ohio, on Lake Erie. In Wisconsin, on Lake
Michigan. In Illinois, on the Mississippi. In Iowa, on the Mississippi. In In-
diana, on the Ohio. What place on the other side of the river is directly opposite
St.' Louis? Davenport? :Sew Albany? Covington?
IV: Which of the rivers of Ohio belong to the basin of the St. Lawrence ? M.,
SL J., St. M., 8., and C. Which, to the basin of the Mississippi? Name the east-
ern branches of the Mississippi, north of the Ohio. The western branches, north
of the Missouri. The southern branches of the Missouri, in Missouri.
V. What city is the metropolis of Ohio? Ci. Of Kentucky? Lou. Of Mis-
souri ?«.i. Of Wisconsin ? if«7. Oflowa?-D«. Of Illinois ? C/m. 01 Mich-
igan ? D. What places in Iowa are on the Missouri River ? What places in Mis-
souri on that river? Name the principal places in Kentucky. Which is the
largest of the Western States ? Cal.
* The outlet of Lake Erie is the Niagara Kiver.
t The Detroit River runs from Lalie St. Clair to Lake Erie.
X See Map of the United States, for the entire course of this riyer.
I The Ohio is formed hy the Alleghany and Monongahela, in western Pennsylvania.
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40
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
THE UNITED STATES.
LESSON LIX.
Area In eqaare milee, 3,480,000. Popnlation, 82,000,000.
CAPITAL CITY — ■WASHINGTON.
Gengrapbleal Position. — The United
States occupy the central part of North
America, extending from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, and from British America to
tiie Gulf of Mexico and Mexico.
Extent of Coast. — Tlie shore on the At-
lantic, including indentations, measures
0,186 miles, on the Gulf of Mexico 3,407
mOes, and on the Pacific 2,281 miles.
The shore-line of the great northern
lakes is about 3,600 miles.
FLAG OF THE UNITED BTATES.
Comparati?e Size. — The United States are nearly ten times as large as
Great Britain and France combined; and only about one-tenth smaller
than the whole of Europe.
Physical Fcatnrcs. — The surface is divided by the Alleghany and the
Eocky Mountains, into three principal sections ; the Atlantic or Alleghany
Slope, the Pacific or Rocky Mountain Slope, and the Mississippi Valley.
Inhabitants, et«. — The inhabitants consist of Whites, Negroes, and In-
dians. The Negroes number about 4,500,000 ; the Indians, about 400,000.
There is no established church ; all sects are tolerated, and all have equal
privileges. — No other country has increased in population so rapidly and
steadily as the United States.
History. — The first permanent English settlement was made at James-
town, Virginia, in 1607. In 1775, there were thirteen colonies, with a
population of nearly three millions. The inhabitants, feeling aggrieved by
the injustice of the British Parliament in taxing them without their con-
sent, determined to throw off" allegiance to the mother country. Accord-
ingly, on the 4th of July, 1776, they declared their independence. This
gave rise to a seven years' war, which resulted in the acknowledgment of
the independence of the colonies by the British Government in 1788.
The present Constitution was ratified in 1788.
Goremment. — The government is a federal democratic republic. The
legislative or law-making power is vested in Congress, which consists of a
Senate and a House of Representatives. This body meets at Washington,
on the first Monday in December.
The Senate is composed of two members from each state, elected by the
Legislatures of the same for six years. The members of the House of Repre-
sentatives are chosen by the people of the several states every second year.
Each state is entitled to one Representative for every 127,000 inhabitants.
Each territory may send one delegate to Congress, who has the right
to debate on matters pertaining to his territory, but cannot vote.
The executive power is vested in a President, who, with a Vice-Presi-
dent, is elected every four years by Electors chosen either by the people or
by the state Legislatures. The President is commander-in-chief of the
army and navy. With the concurrence of the Senate, he makes treaties,
appoints civil and military ofiicers, levies war, concludes peace, etc.
The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, which sits once a year
at Washington. Each state has its own separate government, consisting
of a Senate and a House of Assembly, a Governor, etc., who regulate all
aifairs except such as belong to the general government. The states are
for the most part divided into counties, and the counties into townships.
How dlTided. — The United States comprise thirty-seven states, ten ter-
ritories, and one district. The states are divided into four sections ; the East-
ern or New England, the Northern or Middle, the Southern, and the Western.
THE STATE OF VERMONT.
Geographical Position. — This state, the most north-westerly of the New
England section, lies between New York and New Hampshire.
Physical Featores. — The surface is generally mountainous and well wood-
ed. The Green Mountains traverse the state from north to south. Hence
the name of Vermont, vert in French signifying green, and mont mountain.
SoU, etc — The soil in the valleys is fertile, and the hills aflTord excellent
pasturage. The climate is cold, but healtliy. The staples are wheat, but-
ter, cheese, wool, maple sugar, and live-stock. Iron, marble, slate, and
granite, are the chief mineral products.
Natnral Cnriositles. — The most noted natural curiosities are Bellows Falls,
on the Connecticut, and Great Falls, on the Lamoille River.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state was settled by the English. The soldiers
of Vermont bore a conspicuous part in the Revolution, and were known
as " Green Mountain Boys." Agriculture is the leading pursuit.
Manafactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are not extensive. Mineral
products, lumber, live-stock, cheese, pot and pearl ashes, and maple sugar,
are exported.
Towns. — MoNTPELiKR, the capital, on the Winooski or Onion River, car-
ries on an active trade. Bitkungton, the most populous and commercial
town in the state, is finely situated on a branch of Lake Champlain. It is
the seat of the University of Vermont. Windsor and Bkattleboro lie on
the Connecticut ; the former is noted for its fine site and beautiful scenery,
the latter for its manufactures. Rutland is an active business center.
Bennington, in the south-western corner of the state, is memorable for
the battle fought there in 1777, in wliich a detachment of Burgoyne's array
was defeated by General Stark. Middlebuht, on important manufactur-
ing town on Otter Creek, is the seat of Middlebury College. Marble is
obtained in great quantities from a quarry near the town.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Geographical Position. — This state lies between Maine and Vermont, and
extends from Canada to Massachusetts.
Physical Featnres. — The surface is hilly and mountainous, except in the
south-eastern part, which is either level or gently undulating. New Hamp-
shire has only 18 miles of sea-coast, and but one good harbor.
The White Mountains proper extend no more than 20 miles, but de-
tached groups of the chain stretch as far south as Connecticut. Mount
Washington is the loftiest peak, and the Notch, where the Saco River makes
its way through the mountains, is an object of great interest to touri.sts. On
account of its magnificent scenery, New Hampshire is often styled " the
Switzerland of America."
LAKE WINNn'ISBOUEE, N
Soil, etc. — The soil is not generally fertile, but the hills aftbrd very fine
pasturage. The climate is severe, yet healthy. The chief productions are
grain, potatoes, butter, cheese, wool, maple sugar, bees'-wax, and honey.
THE UNITED STATES.
41
Granite abounds, and hence New Hampshire is called "the Granite State."
Iron is also found.
Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are chiefly of English descent. The
first settlements were made near Portsmouth, in 1623. The leading in-
dustrial pursuits are agriculture, manufactures, and lumbering.
ManDfactnrcs and Exports. — Manufactures are extensive, chiefly cotton
and woolen goods, leather, and iron. The principal exports are lumber,
live-stock, wool, fish, pot and pearl ashes, and granite.
Jlties, ete.— CoNOOED, the capital of the state and a great railroad center,
lies on the right bank of the Merrimac. Manchester, on the left bank of
the Merrimac, the most important city of the state, is noted for its manu-
factures ; as, also, are Nashua and Exetek. Hanovkk, near the Connecti-
cut, is the seat of Dartmouth College.
DovEK, the oldest town in the state, on the Cocheco River, carries on
extensive cotton manufactures. PoRTSMonTn, the only seaport of New
Ilampsliire, is built on a beautiful peninsula, on the right bank of the Pis-
cataqua, three miles from the ocean.
MT. KATAHDIN, UAINK (THE LOFTIEST SUMMIT IN THE STATE).
LESSON LX.
THE STATE OF MAINE.
Geographkal Position. — Maine, the most north-easterly state in the Union, ■
lies between New Brunswick and New Hampshire, and extends from Can-
ada to the Atlantic. It has a sea-coast of 1,000 miles.
Physical Featares. — -Maine contains numerous detached elevations, but no
mountain range. It abounds in lakes ; nearly one-tenth of its surface is
covered with water.
Soil, etc.— The soil is best adapted to grazing. The most fertile portions
lie in the valley of the St. John's, and between the Penobscot and the Ken-
nebec. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and cold ; the win-
ters are long and severe. Among the most important productions are grain,
potatoes, wool, butter, cheese, bees'-wax, and honey. The great staple is
lumber. The chief minerals are iron, limestone, granite, and slate.
Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are mainly of British descent. A few
Indians still inhabit some of the islands in the Penobscot. The chief pur-
suits are agriculture, lumbering, the coasting trade, and the fisheries.
From its abundance of suitable timber, Maine has become the greatest
ship-building state in the Union.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Maine is not so largely engaged in manufac-
tures as some others of the Eastern States. The fisheries are extensive. Fish,
lumber, butter, cheese, lime, marble, granite, and ice, are the chief exports.
Cities, etc.— Augusta, the capital, is situated on the Kennebec, which
is here crossed by a bridge. Portland, the first city in the state in popu-
lation, wealth, and commerce, stands at the west end of Casco Bay.
Bangok, oa the right bank of the Penobscot, is the greatest lumber
depot in the world. Eastpoet, on Moose Island, is also an important lum-
ber depot.
Belfast, a seaport town, is largely engaged in ship-building, commerce,
and the fisheries. Bath, on the right bank of the Kennebec, ranks seventh
among the cities of the U. S. in the importance of its shipping.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Geographical Position. — This state extends from New York on the west,
to the Atlantic Ocean on the east.
Physical Features. — The north-eastern and middle portions are hilly ; the
south-eastern, level and sandy ; the western, mountainous. Two ridges of
the Green Mountain Range from Vermont traverse the state, and furnish
an abundance of picturesque scenery.
Soil, etc — The soil, though not generally favorable to agriculture, yet by
the industry of the inhabitants, has been made to yield a rich return. The
most fertile portions are the valleys of the Connecticut and the Housatonio.
The climate is severe in winter ; the summers are exceedingly pleasant.
The chief products are Indian corn, oats, potatoes, butter, and cheese. Sien-
ite, granite, marble, and limestone, are the most abundant minerals.
BTatnral Cnriosities. — Among these may be mentioned the Natural Bridge
on Hudson's Brook ; the Ice Hole in Stockbridge, a deep, romantic ravine,
where ice remains the year round ; and an immense rock, of 40 tons, in the
village of New Marlborough, so nicely balanced that a finger can move it.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state was first settled at Plymouth, December
20th, 1G20, by a company of English Puritans, whom religious persecution
had driven to Holland. The leading pursuits are commerce, manufactures,
and the fisheries. In commerce, this state ranks second only to New York.
nanofactares and Exports. — In manufactures, Massachusetts exceeds every
other state in the Union. It produces cotton and woolen goods, leather,
boots and shoes, woodenware, tinware, paper, carpeting, etc. These, with
granite, marble, ice, whale-oil, and fish, are the principal exports.
Cities. — Boston, the capital, is the great metropolis of New England,
and the second commercial city in the Union. It stands at the head of
Massachusetts Bay, near the confluence of the Charles and the Mystic
River. Its wharves and warehouses are on a scale of magnitude surpassed
by no other city of equal population.
Cambridge and Charlkstown are connected with Boston by bridges.
The former is the seat of Harvard University ; the latter contains the cele-
brated Bunker Hill Monument, erected on the site of the battle-field.
SPErNGFiELD, a flourishing city on the Connecticut, contains a U. S. Ar-
senal. Worcester, an important railroad center, lies in a valley surrounded
by beautiful hUls. Lowell and Lawrence are celebrated for the amount
and variety of their manufactures. Lynn is noted for the manufacture
of shoes.
Salem has a good harbor, and is extensively engaged in commerce.
New Bedford, on a branch of Buzzard's Bay, has more tonnage employed
in the whale fishery than any other port in the Union.
IVAIVTUCKET AND MABTHi'S VDiETARD.— These islands, forming part of
Massachusetts, are separated from the main-land by Vineyard and Nan-
tucket Sound. The inhabitants are largely engi^ed in the whale fishery.
RHODE ISLAND.
Geographical Position.- This state lies south and west of Massachusetts.
Physical Features.- On the coast it is level, but in the west hilly. Nu-
merous small streams afford water-power for manufacturing purposes.
Soil, etc.— Along the bay, and on the islands, the soil is fertile. Rhode
Island is noted for fine cattle, apples, and butter. Coal, iron, Umestone,
and marble, are found to some extent.
Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are chiefly of British descent. The
first settlement was made at Providence, in 1086, by Roger Williams. The
42
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
leading objects of pursuit are manufactures, commerce, cattle-rearing, and
the dairy.
Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Rhode Island, in proportion to population,
ranks first among the United States in cotton, and second in woolen, manu-
factures. These, with cattle, butter, cheese, and apples, are the chief exports.
Cities, et«. — Peovidenoe and Newport are the capitals. The former, on
an arm of Narragansett Bay, is the largest city in the state ; it is extensively
engaged in com-
merce and manu-
factures, and is
distinguislied for
its educational in-
stitutions.
Newport is sit-
uated on Rhode
Island, a beautiful
island in Narra-
gansett Bay, from
which the state
received its name.
, .: : , M,.UN«S, NWPOBT, B. I. NcWpOrt is OnC
of the most celebrated watering-places in the Union ; its harbor is among
the best on the coast of the United States.
Pawtucket is noted for the manufacture of cotton goods and ma-
chinery ; BiusTOL, for its good harbor and coasting-trade.
LESSON LXI.
THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT.
Geograpliieal Position.— Connecticut, the most south-westerly of the New-
England States, lies between New York and Rhode Island.
Pliysieai Features.— Much of the surface is hilly. The state is crossed by
a succession of groups and eminences. There is an abundalice of water-
power, though but few of the rivers are navigable.
Soil, ele.— The soil is fertile, and in the eastern part is best adapted to
grazing. The climate, though subject to sudden changes, is remarkably
healthy. The chief productions arc Indian com, oats, potatoes, butter, cheese,
and live-stock. The principal minerals are iron, copper, lead, and marble.
• Inliabitants, ete.— The inhabitants are mainly of British origin. The
chief pursuits are agriculture, manufactures, and the whalc-fisliery.
Mannfactnrcs and Exports.— The manufactures are varied and extensive,
consisting of wooden, copper, iron, tin, and brass ware ; hats, shoes, coaches,
a variety of hardware, combs, buttons, etc. These constitute the principal
exports. The foreign commerce of the
state is carried on mainly through the
ports of Boston and New York.
Cities. — IlAETFonD and New IIaveii
are the capitals. At the former. Trinity
College is located. New Haven, on a
branch of Long Island Sound, is one of
the handsomest cities in the Union, and
the seat of Yale College. It is known as
" the City of Elms."
NoKwicn, on the Thames, and Bridge-
port, on an arm of Long Island Sound,
are extensively engaged in manufactures.
New London, on the Tiiames, throe miles
from its entrance into the Sound, has a
fine harbor, and sends out numerous whalers. Middletown, at the head
of ship navigation on the Connecticut, is the seat of Wesleyan University.
THE FALLS AT NOBWIOH.
NEW YORK.
Geograpliieal Position. — New York, the most northerly of the Middle
States, lies directly west of New England.
Pliysicai Features. — New York presents a great variety of surface. The
eastern part of the state is traversed by tlie Adirondack, Catskill, and
Shawangimk (ahong'gum) Mountains. The western part is generally level
or undulating.
Soil, ete. — The soil is various. The most fertile districts are in the
western part, and the valleys of the Hudson and the Mohawk. The
winter is long and severe in the north, but is much milder in the south-
eastern part.
Wheat is the staple. The other important products are oats, potatoes,
buckwheat, rye, barley, grass-seeds, orchard products, maple sugar, bees'-
wax, honey, dairy produce, wool, and live-stock. Iron ore is abundant,
and salt springs are numerous. Valuable mineral deposits are found.
Natural Cnriosities.— The Falls of Niagara, in a river of the same name,
are about 22 miles below Lake Erie, and 14 miles above Lake Ontario.
The mighty volume of water which is the outlet of the great lakes, is here
precipitated over a ledge of rocks IGO feet in height, forming the grandest
cataract in the world. The Cohoes Falls, in the Mohawk, about two miles
above its mouth, are exceedingly romantic. The Genesee Falls are in a
river of the same name, at Rochester. The Catskill Falls, 180 feet high,
and Trenton Falls, in West Canada Creek, are objects of great interest.
Inhabitants, ete. — The Hudson River was discovered by Henry Hudson
in the year 1G09 ; the first permanent settlements were made by the Dutch
at Fort Orange, now Albany, and New Amsterdam, now called New York
City. The inhabitants consist chiefly of Europeans and their descendants.
The leading pursuits are commerce, agriculture, and manufactures. In
commerce and agriculture this state ranks the first in the Union.
Uannfactsres and Exports.— Though New York is largely engaged in man-
ufactures, she does not equal some of her sister states in tliis respect. The
exports consist mainly of domestic produce.
Cities. — Albany, the capital, stands on the right bank of the Hudson,
145 miles from New York City, in a fovorable position for trade, being
connected by the Erie Canal with the great western lakes, and by the Hud-
son with the ocean. Trot, six miles north of Albany, lies on the left bank
of the Hudson. The transhipment of goods, and manufacture of machinery,
nails, stoves, cars, etc., form the principal business of the place.
New York, the chief commercial emporium of the New World, is situ-
ated on Manhattan Island, at the confluence of the Hudson and the East
River, about 18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean. The island is 13J miles in
length, and its greatest breadth is a little over 2 miles. The wharves on
both sides are crowded with the vessels of all nations. New York contains
a great number of imposing public edifices. It is abundantly supplied with
water brought from the Croton River, a distance of over 40 miles, by means
of an aqueduct which cost $9,000,000.
RoonESTER, on both sides of the Genesee, not far from Lake Ontario,
has an almost unlimited water-power, which is extensively used by flour-
ing-raills and other inanufacturing establishments. Oswego is largely en-
gaged in trade with Canada.
Buffalo is the great entrepot between the northwest and the states of
the Atlantic sea-board. Stracuse is the seat of the most valuable salt
manufactories in the United Statgs. Utica, on the Mohawk, and Poitgh-
KEEPsiE, on the east bank of the Hudson, midway between Albany and
New York, are important trading and manufacturing places.
LONG ISLAND. — This island, forming a part of the state of New York,
is separated ti-om the main-land by a strait called the East River, and by
Long Island Sound.
Physleal Features, ete. — A ridge, nowhere exceeding 300 feet in height,
traverses the island from .east to west. Long Island is important for its
THE UNITED STATES.
43
market products ; the numerous bays that indent the coast abound in fine
fish, oysters, and clams.
Cities. — Bhooklyn, the principal seaport on the island and third city in
the Union in population, is situated at its western extremity, opposite New
York City. It is finely built and contains a U. S. Navy Yard.
STATESf ISLAND. — This island, forming a part of the state of New York,
lies in New York Bay, about sis mUes south-west of New York City.
Physieal Features, ete. — The northern part of the island, called Richmond
Hill, is elevated about 300 feet above the ocean. The villages along the
shores contain many splendid country-seats of New York citizens. The
fisheries on the coast are very valuable.
LESSON LXII.
THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY.
Geographieal Position. — New Jersey occupies a peninsula, situated south
of New York and east of Pennsylvania.
Physical Features. — In the central and northern parts, it is undulating,
hOly, or mountainous. The entire eastern coast, from Sandy Hook to
Cape May, is sandy, and broken here and there by small inlets.
Soil, etc. — In the north, the soil is well adapted both to tillage and pas-
turage. The central and southern sections of the state are light and sandy.
The climate is somewhat milder than that of New York. The chief pro-
ductions are grain, orchard and market products, butter, cheese, cider, and
live-stock. The principal minerals are bog-iron ore, zinc, and marl.
LONG BRANCH, NBW JEBSET.
Natural Curiosities. — The Passaic Falls, in a river of the same name, near
Paterson, are about 70 feet in height. The scenery in the vicinity is re-
markably picturesque.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state was first settled by the Dutch, at Bergen,
in 1614, and the present population embraces many of their descendants.
The chief pursuits are agriculture, manufactures, and mining.
Ilanafattiires and Exports. — The manufactures are varied and important ;
among them are cotton, wool, iron, paper, leather, brick, glass, and earthen-
ware. The leading exports are orchard and market products, and leather.
Cities. — Teentojj, the capital, has abundant water-power from the Falls
of the Delaware, and is becoming one of the first manufacturing places in
the state. Newark is the largest and most flourishing city. It is exten-
sively engaged in the manufacture of paper-hangings, clothing, carriages,
etc. Patersox ranks next to Newark in population and manufactures.
Jersey City, situated opposite to New Y'^ork, and New' Brunswick, on
the Raritan, have considerable trade and manufactures. The former is one
of the greatest thoroughfares of travel in the Union ; the latter is the seat
of Rutgers College. Cape Island City, on Cape Island, is one of the most
celebrated watering-places in the United States ; as also is Atlantic City,
which lies in the south-eastern part of the state, and is connected with
Camden by railroad.
DELAWARE.
Geographical Position. — Delaware, the smallest state in the Union except
Rhode Island, lies south-west of New Jersey.
Physical Featnres. — It is generally level, but in the northern part some-
what hUly. There are no mountains in the state.
Soil, etc — In the north, and along the shore of Delaware Bay, the soil is
rich ; in the southern part, it is light and sandy. The climate is generally
mUd, and highly favorable to agricultural pursuits. The staple productions
are wheat, Indian corn, and butter. Bog-iron, and a fine sand suitable for
the manufacture of glass, are the most important mineral products.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state was first settled in 1627, by the Swedes and
Finns. About one-fourth of the present inhabitants are colored. Manu-
factures and agriculture form the leading pursuits.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — The manufactures of powder, paper, flour,
and cotton, are very extensive. The exports consist chiefly of flour, lum-
ber, sand for the manufacture of glass, and great quantities of peaches.
Cities, etc. — Dover, the capital, situated on Jones Creek, carries on a
considerable trade with Philadelphia, mainly in flour;
Wilmington, the most populous city in the state, is noted for its manu-
factures, and contains a U. S. Arsenal. Newark is the seat of Delaware
College. Lewes, on Delaware Bay, is a place of resort during the bathing
season. It lies opposite the Delaware Breakwater, which was constructed
at an expense of over $2,000,000, as a shelter for shipping in bad weather.
PENNSYLVANIA,
Geographical Position. — ^This state lies south of New York, and west of
New Jersey, from which it is separated by the Delaware.
Physical Featnres. — The great AUeghanian Chain, which passes through
this state in several ridges, forms naturally three distinct regions ; viz., the
eastern, or Atlantic slope; the western table-land, declining toward the
Ohio ; and the mountainous region of the center.
Soil, etc. — ^The soil is generally good, particularly in the valleys. The
climate, though changeable, is exceedingly healthy. Among the varied
productions of this state may be mentioned grain, orchard fruits, potatoes,
butter, wool, and live-stock. Pennsylvania stands first among the states
in abundance of coal, iron, and petroleum.
Inhabitants, ete. — The territory of Pennsylvania was granted to WUliam
Penn, a celebrated English Friend, who made his first settlement in 1682,
where Philadelphia now stands. The population afterward received nu-
merous additions of Germans and Irish. The leading pursuits are agricul-
ture, mining, and manufactures.
JHaDnfaetnres and Exports. — Pennsylvania ranks fourth among the states
of the Union in foreign commerce, and among the first in extent and va-
riety of manufactures. Her exports consist mainly of flour, Indian corn,
lard, butter, coal, iron, and petroleumi
Cities, etc. — Harrisbubg, the capital, is delightfully situated on the east
bank of the Susquehanna, and contains many handsome public buildings.
Philadelphia, the metropolis of Pennsylvania, stands between the Del-
aware and the Schuylkill River, five miles above their confluence. It is
remarkable for the regularity and cleanliness of its streets, the neatness of
its dweUings, and the excellence of its benevolent and educational institu-
tions. The commerce and manufactures of Philadelphia are very extensive.
Easton, situated at the junction of several canals, is the seat of exten-
sive manufactories, and a large inland trade between the coal and iron re-
gions and the eastern markets. Lancaster, a place of considerable trade, is
in the heart of a very fertile and highly cultivated region. Reading is the
third city in the state in population and manufactures. Erie, on Lake
Erie, has an excellent harbor.
44
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
PiTTSBHEGH is Situated at the junction of the Alleghany and the Monon-
gahela, which here unite to form the Ohio. Its commerce is large, and
its manufactures are more extensive than tliose of any other city in the
state except Philadelphia.
THB IXrtHATA KIVER, FEKN8TI,TAKIA.
MARYLAND.
Geographical PosltloD. — Maryland, the most north-easterly of the South-
ern States, is situated south of Pennsylvania.
Physical Features. — Maryland includes three distinct regions: — 1. The
Eastern Shore, which lies east of the Susquehanna River and Chesapeake
Bay ; 2. The part hetween Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac ; 3. The
mountainous district of the north-west. The surface along the bay is level.
Soil, etc — The soil in the valleys of the northern and middle parts, is
highly fertile ; that of the eastern, and part of the western shore, is less so.
The climate in the north is healthy and pleasant ; in the south the winters
are milder, but the summers are hot, moist, and unhealthy. The staples are
tobacco, wheat, and Indian corn. The mineral products are iron and coal.
Inhabitants, etc. — The first settlers were English. Agriculture, com-
merce, and manufactures, engage the attention of the people.
Blannfactnres and Exports. — Among the leading manufactures are cotton
and woolen goods, iron, leather, glass, shot, and powder. The chief articles
of foreign export are flour, grain, pork, and tobacco.
Cities, etc. — Annapolis, the capital, about three miles from Chesapeake
Bay, contains a United States Naval Academy, and a State House in which
the old Continental Congress held some of its sessions.
Baltimore, the metropolis of the state, on a bay which sets up from
the Patapsco River, is pleasantly situated and regularly laid out. It is or-
namented with numerous monuments, and is therefore called " the Monu-
mental City." It is distinguished for being the greatest market for tobacco
in the United States, and the principal flour market in the world. Cum-
berland stands next to Baltimore in population, and is noted for its trade
in coal. Frederick City ranks third in population, and second in wealth
and commercial importance. Haqerstown has considerable trade.
LESSON LXIII.
THE STATE OF VIRGINIA.
Geographical Position. — Virginia lies south of West Virginia and Mary-
land, and north of Tennessee and North Carolina.
Physical Features. — It is divided into three sections: — 1. The tide-water
district, bordering on Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic ; 2. The Piedmont
(peed'mont) district, extending from the head of tide-water on the rivers,
westward to the Blue Ridge ; 3. The valley between the Blue Ridge and
the Alleghanies.
Soil, etc. — In' the tide- water district, the soil is poor, except along the
rivers ; the Piedmont section is well adapted to the growth of Indian com,
tobacco, and cotton ; the valley district is generally fertile.
Along the coast the climate is hot and moist, while it is cool and healthy
in the mountain districts. The staple products are wheat, corn, flax, live-
stock, and tobacco. Coal and iron are abundant ; salt and snlphor springs
are nnmerons.
Katnral Cariosities. — The Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, near its junc-
tion with the James River, about 120 miles west of Richmond, is one of the
greatest natural curiosities in the world. This bridge of limestone rock
spans a chasm 90 feet in width, at an elevation of 215 feet above the creek.
Wier's Cave, about 18 miles north-east of Staunton, is also a noted natural
curiosity. It extends 2,500 feet into the ground, and contains about 20
large rooms, besides numerous passages and galleries.
Inhabitants, etc — Virginia was first settled by the English, from whom
the present inhabitants have mainly descended. The first permanent Eng-
lish settlement in our country was made at Jamestown, 30 miles above the
mouth of the James River, in 1607. The leading pursuit is agriculture.
Bbnafactarcs and Exports. — This state is not noted for manufactures. Its
principal exports are tobacco, flax, com, flour, and oysters.
Cities, etc— RiCHiioxD, the capital of Virginia, on the James, is built on
several hills which command a prospect of great beauty and grandeur.
This city has an abundance of water-power, which is used for the manu-
facture of flour, tobacco, cotton, and ironware.
Norfolk, on the Elizabeth River, eight miles above its entrance into
Hampton Roads, is the chief commercial port of Virginia. Portsmocth,
on the opposite side of the same river, is noted for its fine harbor.
Petersburg, on the Appomattox, is a flourishing town, and esjjorts
large quantities of flour and tobacco. Alexandria, on the right bank of
the Potomac, seven miles below "Washington, is a place of considerable
trade. Ltnchburg, finely situated on elevated ground, is one of the busi-
est and wealthiest towns in the state.
WEST VIRGINIA.
Geographical Position. — This state lies between the Alleghany Mountains
on the east, and the Big Sandy and the Ohio River on the west.
Physical Features. — The eastern part is mountainous, and the western
gradually slopes toward the Ohio and the Big Sandy. Magnificent scenery
abounds.
Soil, etc. — The soil in most parts of the state is susceptible of cultiva-
tion, and the climate is pleasant and healthful. The leading productions
are Indian corn, wheat, and other cereals. Coal, iron, salt, and petro-
leum, are abundant.
Natnral Curiosities. — The Hawk's Nest, on New River, is unsurpassed in
grandeur. It is an immense pillar of rock, rising 1,000 feet perpendicu-
larly on all sides but one, where it is connected by a narrow passage with
the table-land in the rear.
A number of medicinal springs in the southern part of the state are
much frequented ; of these, the White Sulphur are the most celebrated.
Inhabitants, etc— This state, prior to 1862, formed part of the old state
of Virginia, and its inhabitants have mainly descended from the English,
who were the original settlers. The leading pursuit is agriculture.
Mannftctares and Exports.- This state is not, as yet. noted for its manu-
factures. Its chief exports are coal, iron, and petroleum.
aties, etc— Wheeling, the capital, is the most important city on the
Ohio between Pittsburgh and Cincinnati.
Parkersburg, on the Ohio, and Martixsburg, on the line of the Bal-
timore and Ohio Railroad, are active business centers. Charleston on the
Great Kanawha, Morgantown on the West Fork of the Monongahela, and
Grafton on the East Fork of the same river, are places of considerable trade.
Harper's Ferry, at the confluence of the Shenandoah and the Poto-
mac, is noted for its picturesque scenery.
THE UNITED STATES.
46
NORTH CAROLIXA-
GMgnpklta] FhIUh. — This state lies between Yii^inia on the north and
8oath Carolina and Georgia on the south.
Phydcal Fntnts.— Xorth Carolina is divided into three sections: — 1.
The eastern, consisting of a h>w, sandr plain, abounding in marshes and
shallow lakes. 2. The middle section, which is hillr. 3. The western
section, which is mountainous. The coast is skirted bj low sand^ islands,
surrounded by shoals, which render navigation exceedingly dangerous.
The Great Dismal Swamp, partly in this state and partlr-in Virginia,
has an area of over 100,000 acree^ covered mostly with cedar, pine, and
cypress trees.
Sail, etc — Much of the low sandy section, which extends from the coast
aboat 60 miles inland, is covered with vast forests of pitch pine, that fur-
nish, not only lumber, but tar, turpentine, and resin. In the interior, the
aoil is highly favorable to agricultural pursuits. In the summer, the cli-
mate is hot and unhealthy on the coast, but cooler and more salubrious in
the elevated districts. Cotton, rice, and indigo, flourish in the eastern
lowlands; grain, fruits, etc., in the higher grounds. The staples are In-
dian com, tobacco, and sweet potatoes.
This state is rich in minerals, especially gold.
lahakitaats, etc — ^The first English settlement in America was made on
Roanoke Island, near the entrance to Albemarle Sound, in 1585, under the
auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh. Subsequently the colonists became dis-
conraged and returned to England; but in 1&50 permanent settlements
were made by emigrants from Virginia. The leading pursuit is agricul-
ture ; mining and manufactures receive considerable attention.
laaaCutarrs ud Experts. — Cotton, iron, and leather, are manufactured.
Agricultural products, tar, pitch, and turpentine, are the chief exports.
■AEnS TJkS n X MOITH CABOLCU RXS TOMMSft.
Cities, etf. — ^Raixigh, the capital, lies about 6 miles west of the Neuse
River, in an elevated and healthy situation. Wilmixgtox, on the east
bank of the Cape Fear River, is the largest and chief commercial city in
the state. FATkrit\iiiE is the center of an extensive trade ; it has ample
water-power, which is employed in the manufacture of cotton and flour.
Nkwbees, a place of considerable trade, exports lumber, grain, tar,
pitch, turpentine, and rean. BEArroBT has the best harbor in the state.
Cbaelotte, in the west of the state, is rapidly growing, in consequence of
its nearness to the gold mines. A mint is establi^ed here, for coining the
gold. Chapel Hnx, 28 miles from Raleigh, is the seat of the University
of Xorth Carolina.
LESS05 LXIV.
THE STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA.
GcagrapUcal Pasitin. — South Carolina lies between North Carolina and
Georgia ; from the latter it is separated by the Savannah.
Pbysifal Fratarts. — The coast, from 80 to 100 miles inland, is covered
with forests of pitch pine, interspersed with numerous swampy tracts.
Toward the west, the surface rises, forming a very pleasant country, diver-
ged by hin and dale, forest and stream. The coast is skirted by low
islands, on which live oaks, pines, and palmettoes abound, and sea-island
cotton and other articles are rdsed.
MI, etc — South Carolina has ax distinct varieties of soQ: — 1. Tide
swamp, devoted to the culture of rice. 2. Inland swamp ; to rice, cotton,
com, etc 3. Salt marsh; to long cotton. 4. Oak and pine lands; to
long cotton, com, etc. 5. Oak and hickory lands ; to short cotton, com,
indigo, etc. 6. Pine-barrens ; to fruits, vegetables, etc. The climate is like
that of North Carolina, but warmer. Cotton and rice are the staples.
Gold, iron, and lead, are the most important minerals.
labakHaats, etc — ^Among the original settlers, who were mostly English,
were some Scotch, Germans, and French Huguenots. The leading objects
of pursuit are agriculture and commerce.
■aBBfiutans tmi Expatls. — Manufactures are not extenave. The chief
exports are cotton, rice, lumber, and naval stores. More rice is exported
from this state than from all the other states in the Union together.
Cities, etc — CoLnraiA, the capital, is laid out with wide streets, beanti-
fully omamented with trees. The site of the city is elevated, afibrding fine
views of the surrounding country, which is in the highest state of culture.
The South Carolina College is located at this place.
Chaklestox, the metropolis and principal seaport, is situated on a pe-
ninsula between the Ashley and the Cooper River, which unite below the
dty and form a spacious harbor, about seven miles from the Ocean. Many
of the houses are omamented with verandahs reaching from the ground to
the roof, and surrounded by orange-trees, magnolias, palmettoes, etc.
Geobgktows, on the west side of Winyaw Bay, is noted for its coast-
ing trade; Cajtoex, on the Wateree, for the battles fought in its vi-
cinity during the Revolution. HAJCsrEG, a noted cotton mart, on the
Savannah, is connected with Augusta, Georgia, by a bridge.
GEORGIA.
Gcagnphln] Pa^tlM. — ^This state extends from Tennessee and JTorth
Carolina on the north, to Florida on the south, and from the Savannah
River and the Atlantic on the east, to Alabama on the west.
Physiol Featarcs. — Along the coast, the land b low. About 100 miles
back from the ocean, it begins to rise, and in the west of the state becomes
hilly and mountainous. The coast is lined with low islands, which are
covered with rich plantations, and produce sea-island cotton in great
quantities.
Sao, etc — In the north of the state, the vallej^ are exceedingly rich ; in
the south, are the tide and swamp land^ favorable to the growth of rice,
and about 60 miles from the coast pine Lmds, valuable for their timber.
The middle region is well adapted to cotton, tobacco, and grain.
The winters are pleasant, but the summers are very hot. Sickness pre-
vails during August and September. Cotton is the staple. Rice, Indian
com, tobacco, and sweet potatoes, are extenavely ctdtivated. Cofiee,
sugar, and tropical fruits, are produced in some districts. Gold is found
in the north of the state, and iron ore in various sections.
lakabitaats, etc — Georgia was the last settled of the original thirteen
states. The first colony was established by General Oglethorpe, in 1733,
on the site of Savannah. The present inhabitants are engaged chiefly in
agricultural pursuits.
Saaafaetares aad Exp«rts. — ^This state has latterly made considerable ad-
46
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHT.
varices in the establishment of manufactures. Those of cotton and iron
are the most important. The
chief exports are cotton, rice,
lumber, and naval stores.
Cities. — MiLLEDGKviLLE, the
capital, on the west bank of the
Oconee, is built on elevated
ground in the midst of a fertile
cotton country, and is the center
of a considerable trade. Sa-
vannah, the largest and chief
commercial city in the state,
lies on the Savannah Eiver, 18
miles above its mouth. Its
streets are regularly laid out,
and its public squares are much
admired.
Atlanta, the terminus of
four of the principal railroads
in the stiite, is a great business
center, and an important depot
for cotton and grain.
Augusta, 231 miles from the
mouth of the Savannah, is the
depot of a fine tobacco and cot-
ton country. Columbus, on the
PALLS 01- TOCCOA, NBAK CI.AnKSVILLE, OA. ,^j^ ^^^^^ ^f ^^^^ OhattallOOChce,
and Macon, at the head of navigation on the Ocmulgoo, are flourishing
cities ; large quantities of cotton are shipped from these places.
FLORIDA.
Gcograplilcal Position, etc.— This state occupies a peninsula south of Ala-
bama and Georgia, between the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Though
the length of sea-coast is over 1,000 miles, there are few good harbors.
Pliysical Features. — Florida is generally level, there being no mountains
in the state. In the south, dense marshy thickets, called everglades,
cover the surface for a distance of 160 mUes, with an average breadth of
sixty miles.
Soil, ete.— The soil is exceedingly rich on the banks of the rivers ; and,
for the space of thirty miles from the coast, there is scarcely to be seen a
stone weighing more than two or three pounds. As this state approaches
within a degree and a half of the torrid zone, its climate is almost tropical.
It very rarely freezes. The air is pure and free from fogs.
The chief productions are cotton, Indian corn, sugar-cane, rice, and to-
bacco. Tropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, pine-
apples, olives, etc., are abundant. The country teems with game, and the
surrounding waters yield the finest fish. Alligators and mosquitoes abound
on the shores of the inlets and rivers.
Inlia1)itants, ete. — Florida was originally settled by Spaniards, and did
not form part of the Union till 1820, when it was purchased from Spain.
St. Augustine was settled in 1564; so that it is by many years the oldest
city in the United States. The leading pursuit is agriculture, though but
a small part of the state is under cultivation.
Dlaniifaetnres and Exports, — Florida is not a manufacturing state. The
exports consist chiefly of agricultural products.
Cities, etc. — Tallahassee, the capital, is situated on a commanding emi-
nence, about twenty miles north of its port, St. Mark's ; it is regularly laid
out, and contains several public squares. Key West, on an island of the
same name, is the most populous place in the state, being the key to the
northern passage to the Gulf of Mexico. About thirty vessels are annually
wrecked on this part of the coast ; and the sale of what is saved from
them constitutes much of the business of Key West. Salt and sponges are
exported from the island.
Pknsaoola, on Pensacola Bay, is one of the principal seaports of Flor-
ida. Six miles below the city is a U. S. Navy Yard. Appalachioola is
noted for the shipment of cotton. St. Augustine, on Matanzas Sound,
about two miles from the ocean, is distinguished for the mildness and
healthiness of the cUmate, which render it a place of resort for invalids in
winter.
LESSON LXV.
THE STATE OF ALABAMA.
Geograplilcai Position, ete. — This state lies between Tennessee on the
north, and Florida and the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and extends from
Georgia to Mississippi. The length of sea-coast is about sixty miles.
Pbysleal Features. — The Alleghany Range terminates in the northern
part of this state. South of the mountainous district, the surface gradually
declines to the Gulf of Mexico ; the extreme southern i)art is a dead level.
Soil, ete. — In the flats between the low mountains in the north, the soil
is good. The central part of the state consists chiefly of fertile prairies,
and the southern of i)rairies and pine-barrens, interspersed with alluvial
river bottoms of great fertility. The climate is similar to that of Georgia.
Running water is rarely frozen.
Cotton is the great staple. In the amount of cotton annually produced,
Alabama ranks second in the Union. Indian corn, wheat, oats, rice, live-
stock, butter, and sweet potatoes, are jiroduced in large quantities. Sugar-
cane grows in the south-western part of the state. Iron, coal, and marble,
are the chief minerals.
Inhabitants, ete. — This state was settled by the French. Agriculture is
the chief employment of the inhabitants.
Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Cotton manufactures have been introduced
with considerable success. The commerce of the state consists chiefly in
the exportation of articles of domestic produce.
Cities, ete. — Montgomery, the capital, is situated on a high bluff on the
left bank of the Alabama River, and is surrounded by one of tlie richest of
cotton regions. Mobile is the largest city and chief commercial mart of the
state. Steamboats ply between this port and New Orleans, by way of
Lakes Borgne and Pontchartrain.
Tuscaloosa, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Black Warrior,
is noted for its active trade and literary institutions. Florence, at the
head of steamboat navigation on the Tennessee, is the principal shipping
port in the north of the state.
Huntsville, an important placfe, situated a few miles north of the Ten-
nessee, is noted for its handsome buildings. Wetumpka, on the Coosa,
and EuFAULA, on the Chattahoochee, are largely engaged in the cotton
trade.
MISSISSIPPI.
Geograplileal Position.— Mississippi lies between Tennessee on the north,
and the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana on the south, and extends from the
western border of Alabama to the Mississippi.
Pliysieal Features.— In the north, the land is hilly and broken ; in the
eastern and central parts, it is a kind of tal)le-land, descending toward the
Mississippi. In the south, for about 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, it
is mostly level, covered with pine forests and cypress swamps.
Soii ete.— The valleys of the northern and central sections are exceed-
ingly fertile. In the south-east, the soil is mostly sandy, interspersed with
a few fertile tracts. The summers are long and hot, but the winters are
several degrees colder than in the Atlantic states of the same latitude.
Cotton is the great staple. Indian corn, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes,
and a great variety of fruits, together with wool, butter, and live-stock, are
among the chief productions.
Inliabltants, ete.— This state was first settled by the French, at Fort Ro-
salie (now Natchez). Agriculture is the leading pursuit.
THE UNITED STATES.
47
MannfaetBTCs and Exports. — Mississippi is not a manufacturing state. Its
commerce, which is carried on mostly through the port of New Orleans,
consists chiefly in the export of cotton and other agricultural products.
Cities, tte. — .Jackson, the cai)ital, is a thriving place, and ships about
30,000 bales of cotton annually. Natchez, the largest and chief commer-
cial city of the state, stands on a bluff 200 feet high, overlooking the Mis-
sissippi. It contains many handsome buildings, surrounded by gardens
and orange-groves. Holly Springs, in the northern part of the state, is
noted for its educational institutions.
VioKSBtiRO, 400 miles above New Orleans, is an important cotton mart,
exporting 100,000 bales annually. Columbus, on the left bank of the Tom-
bigbce, which is here bridged, is the depot of an extensive region.
I
LOUISIANA.
Geographieal Posldon. — Louisiana extends from Arkansas to the Gulf of
Mexico, and from Mississippi to the Sabine River.
Physical Features. — Tliis state has no mountains ; nowhere is there an
elevation of more than 200 feet. The southern portion of the state, includ-
ing the great Delta of the Mississippi, is not, for the most part, elevated
more than ten feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, and is annually
inundated by the spring floods.
Soil, ett. — The soil is various ; only one-twentieth part of the state is
under cultivation. The richest tract is a narrow belt of land, from one to
two miles in width, on both sides of the Mississippi, extending from 150
miles above, to about 100 miles below, New Orleans. The climate is like
that of Mississippi. Cotton and sugar-cane are the great staples. Nine-
tentlis of the sugar-cane produced in the United States comes from
Louisiana. Fruits, such as oranges, figs, peaches, etc., are abundant.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state, first settled by the French, has still a large
French population. It was bought from France in 1803 by the United
States. Agriculture and commerce form the leading pursuits.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — This state is largely engaged in the mann-
facturo of sugar and molasses. Its commerce .consists in the exportation
of sugar, cotton, and other articles of domestic produce.
Cities, etc. — Baton Koure, the capital, stands on a blnff thirty feet high.
Just above a plain occupied by rich sugar-plantations, splendid villas, and
groves of tropical fruit-trees. NAioniioouES and Alexandbia carry on an
active trade.
mnr obleans, Louisiana.
New Obleans, the great commercial emporium of the South-west, is
about 100 miles above the mouth of the Mississippi; it is built round a
bend in the river, and is hence called " the Crescent City." The Levee,
an embankment bnilt to prevent the river from inundating the city at
high water, forms a continuous quay, four niiles long and one hundred
feet wide.
TEXAS.
Geographical Position. — Texas extends from New Mexico and Indian Ter-
ritory on the north, to the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande.
Physical Features. — The country along the coast, for a distance of about
fifty miles toward the interior, is level ; then comes a strip 200 miles wide,
which is undulating ; and this is followed by a mountainous tract in the
north and north-west. The coast is lined with low islands.
Soil, etc. — There are few countries of the same extent, that have as
little unproductive land as Texas. The climate, free from extremes of
heat and cold, is mild and healthy. Snow is seldom seen, except on the
mountains. Cotton is the great staple; sugar-cane thrives well in the
level country ; tobacco and indigo flourish with but little care. Wheat,
com, and rice, are extensively cultivated. Fruits of almost every kind are
plentiful. Vast herds of buflaloes and wild horses wander over the prairies.
Useful minerals abound.
Inhabitants, etc. — Texas was first settled by the Spanish, in 1C92. It was
formerly a Mexican province, but achieved its independence in 1836. It
remained an independent republic till 1845, when it was admitted as a
state into the Union. Agriculture and the rearing of live-stoct form the
chief pursuits of the inhabitants.
Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Texas has but few manufactures. Cattle and
salt are exported to the West Indies. The chief export is cotton.
Cities, etc — Austin, the capital, is situated on the Colorado, about 200
miles from its mouth. Galveston, the most populous and chief commer-
cial city, situated on an island of the same name, at the mouth of Galveston
Bay,- carries on an extensive coasting trade.
Houston, the second city in the state in commercial importance, lies
on Buffalo Bayou (M'o), about 45 miles from its entrance into Galveston
Bay. Matagorda and Bbownsville are places of considerable trade.
LESSON LXVI.
THE STATE OF MINNESOTA,
Geographical Position. — Minnesota lies west of Wisconsin, and extends
from Iowa to British America.
Physical Features. — Though there are no mountains in the state, yet it
is the most elevated tract between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay.
The surface is mostly covered with prairies, interspersed with numerous
streams and lakes. Parts of the state are densely timbered.
Soil, etc. — The soil in the river valleys is excellent, and the climate,
though somewhat severe in winter, is remarkably healthy. The chief pro-
ductions are corn, wheat, oats, and potatoes. There is but little mineral
wealth in the state.
JVatnral Cnriositics.— -Tlie Falls of St. Anthony, on the Upper Mississippi,
are an object of great interest to travelers. The perpendicular pitch of
these falls is seventeen feet; but, including the rapids above and below,
the entire descent in a mile is estimated at sixty-five feet. An island, at
the brow of the precipice, divides the current into two parts.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state is being rapidly settled by emigrants from
the older portions of the Union and various other parts of the world.
The leading pursuits are agriculture and lumbering.
manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are comparatively limited, but
increasing. The exports are confined to agricultural products.
Cities. — St. Paul, the capital of the state, an enterprising and busy
place, is situated at the head of steamboat navigation on the Mississippi,
about 3,000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and nine miles by land below
the Falls of St. Anthony. St. Anthony and Minneapolis, located at the
falls, are rapidly increasing in wealth and population.
48
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
WISCONSIN. i
Geographieal Position. — Wisconsin lies north of lUinois, between Lake
Micliigan and the Mississippi Eiver.
Physical Features. — It is mostly level in the southern and central parts,
which consist of prairie and timber land. There are no mountains, prop-
erly so called ; but several ranges of hills diversify the state.
Soil, ete. — The soil of the prairie land is well adapted to agricultural
purposes, as also are the " oak openings," or lands covered with a scat-
tered growth of oak. The pine districts in the north and west are not so
rich. The climate, though severe in winter, is equable and healthy. The
chief agricultural products are wheat, Indian corn, oats, potatoes, butter,
and live-stock. Lead and copper ore abound in the south-western part.
THE UNIVERSITr OF WISCONSIN,
Inbabitants, ete,— This state was first visited and settled by the French.
The population, which has grown with wonderful rapidity, consists chiefly
of emigrants from the eastern section of the Union, and from various parts
of Europe. The leading industrial pursuit is agriculture.
Dlannfattares and Exports.— Wisconsin is not, as yet, extensively engaged
in manufactures. Its commerce consists mainly in the exportation of wheat
and other grains, lumber, and lead.
Cities. — Madisou, the capital, is pleasantly located on an isthmus be-
tween Lakes Mendota and Monona. It is the seat of the University of
Wisconsin. Milwaukee, the most populous city of the state, and the
chief port on Lake Michigan except Chicago, is the commercial mart of a
rich and rapidly improving country.
Racine, at the moutii of the Root River, has one of the best harbors
on Lake Michigan, and ranks second in population and commerce. Janes-
viLLE and Wateetown are finely situated and rapidly growing, having an
abundance of water-power fi-om the Rock River.
MICHIGAN.
Ceograpliical Position. — Michigan comprises two large peninsulas; the
northern situated between Lakes Superior and Michigan, and the southern
between Lakes Michigan and Huron.
Piiysieal Features. — The northern peninsula is much diversified; the
southern is generally level or rolling. Michigan has a lake coast more
than 1,000 miles in length. It is sometimes called " the Lake State."
Soii, etc. — The soil of the northern peninsula is rugged and poor, abound-
ing in lofty forests; that of the southern is generally fertile. Though the
climate is severe in winter, in summer vegetation comes forward rapidly.
The staple products are grain, hay, garden vegetables, wool, butter, cheese,
maple sugar, and live-stock. Fish and minerals abound. Valuable salt-
beds are found along the Saginaw Valley, and the copper-mines on the
shore of Lake Superior are the richest in the world.
Natnral Cariosities. — The shores along Lake Superior are composed of
sandstone, which in some i)laces has been worn by the wind and water
into fancied resemblances of ruined temjdes, castles, etc. The most noted
specimens of this character are the " Pictured Rocks," about sixty miles
west of the Strait of St. Mary. They extend nearly twelve miles, and rise
about 300 feet above the level of the lake.
Inliabitants, ete. — Michigan was first settled by the French, at Detroit,
in 1G70. Tlie leading industrial pursuit in the southern peninsula is agri-
culture ; in the northern, mining.
Dlannfactnres and Exports. — Michigan is eminently an agricultural state.-
Its manufactures are as yet limited, but are rapidly increasing. The chief
exports are wheat and other grains, live-stock, wool, lumber, and copper.
Gties, ete. — Lansing, the capital, situated on both banks of the Grand
River, is the center of an active and increasing trade. Deteoit, tlie com-
mercial emporium and largest city of the state, is admirably situated for
commerce, in which it is extensively engaged. Grand Rapids is the chief
depot for tlie northern country, and lias a large inland trade.
MoNuoK is tlie principal market for the wheat produced in the vicinity.
Adrian contains various mills, and is the center of an active trade. Kal-
amazoo and Ann Aebok are flourisiiing places ; the latter is the seat of the
State University.
LESSON LXVII.
THE STATE OF OHIO.
Ceograpliicai Position. — This state extends from the Ohio River to Mich-
igan and Lake Erie, and from Pennsylvania to Indiana.
Physleal Features. — The central part of the state is a high table-land,
about 1,000 feet above the level of the sea. The surface in general is un-
dulating and agreeably diversified. There are no mountains.
Soii, ett. — Nine-tenths of this state is susceptible of cultivation, and
nearly three-fourths exceedingly productive. The climate is pleasant and
healthy. The staple'products are grain, butter, cheese, wool, orcliard prod-
ucts, maple sugar, tobacco, and live-stock. Ohio ranks first in the Union
in the amount of wool annually produced. Iron, coal, and petroleum, are
abundant in the south-eastern part.
Inliabitants, ete. — This region reihained in possession of the Indians till
five years after the Revolution, when General Putnam, with a company
of New Englanders, made the first white settlement at Marietta. It is
now the third state in the Union in wealth and population. Agriculture
is the leading pursuit. Manufactures and commerce also receive attention.
Manufactures and Exports. — The chief manufactures are those of woolen
goods, iron, and leather. Among the exports, which are sent mostly to
New Orleans or the Atlantic seaboard, we may mention flour, grain, Uve-
stock, wool, cheese, butter, pork, and lard.
Cities. — Columbus, the capital, on the Scioto River, is an active busi-
ness center, being surrounded by a rich and populous country. Cincinnati,
the largest city of the Western States, and hence called "the Queen of the
West," is located in a beautiful valley on the Ohio, and is distinguished
for the extent of its commerce, the variety of its manufactures, and its
literary and benevolent institutions. There are many largo vineyards near
the city, which produce wine equal to that of France.
Cleveland, distant about 200 miles, by water, from Bufliilo, is the great
commercial emporium in the north of the state. Toledo is noted for its
fine harbor and the extent of its commerce. Sandusky, on Sandusky Bay,
three miles from Lake Erie, is an important commercial city, and is exten-
sively engaged in the plaster and lime trade. Dayton and Zanesville are
flourishing places, distinguished for the extent and variety of their manu-
factures. CuiLLicoTnE, noted for its beautiful situation, is the center of
trade for the fertile valley of the Scioto.
THE UNITED STATES.
49
KENTUCKY.
Geographleal Posiflon, — Kentucky lies north of Tennessee, and south of
the Ohio River, which separates it from Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
Physical Features, — The surface in the eastern section is liiEy and moun-
tainous ; in the west, it is generally level.
Soil, etc. — The soil of the greater part of the state is celebrated for its
fertility, and the cUmate is mild and salubrious. The staple products are
Indian corn,- flax, hemp, and tobacco. The other noted productions are
wheat, rye, oats, wool, butter, bees'-wax, and honey. In the amount of
tobacco annually produced, this state ranks second only to Virginia. Coal
and iron are abundant, and salt and mineral springs are numerous.
IVatural Curiosities. — Among the natural curiosities the most noted is tlie
Mammoth Cave, situated about 130 miles south-west of Lexington. This
remarkable cave has been explored for a distance of ten mUes.
Inhabitants, cte. — Kentucky originally formed part of Virginia ; it was
first explored by Colonel Boone and his companions, in 1769. The chief
industrial pursuit is agriculture.
llannfaetgres and Exports. — Kentucky is not extensively engaged in man-
ufiictures ; agricidture is the leading pursuit. Cattle, horses, mules, and
swine, are raised in great numbers, and sent to the Atlantic and Gulf States ;
these, with corn, tobacco, cotton bagging, and hemp cordage, form the
chief exports.
Cities. — Frankfort, the capital, is the center of an active trade. Louis-
ville, on the rapids of the Ohio, is the metropolis. To enable boats to
pass around the rapids, a canal, 2J miles long, has been constructed.
Lexington, the oldest city in the state, is distinguished for its literary
and scientific institutions. Covington, a flourishing city, stands directly
opposite to Cincinnati. Newport is an important and growing place.
A SCENE ON THE KENTUCKY ItlVEB.
TENNESSKE.
Geographical Position. — Tennessee lies south of Kentucky, and north of
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.
Physical Features. — Tliis state is divided into East Tennessee, which is
mountainous, — Middle Tennessee, which is hilly, — and West Tennessee,
which is generally level.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally fertile, particularly in the middle and
western sections, and the climate is mild and genial. The staple products
are Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton. Grain, grass, and fruit, are abun-
dant. Immense numbers of swine and mules are raised. The chief min-
eral resources are iron, copper, and coal.
Inhabitants, etc. — Tennessee was first settled by hardy pioneers, of Eng-
lish descent, from North Carolina, of which colony it originally formed a
part. Agriculture is the leading pursuit.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Tennessee is not noted as a manufacturing
state. The exports are live-stock, fruits, and the staple products.
Cities, etc. — Nashville, the capital, is a handsome city, and the seat of
an active trade ; the Cumberland is here crossed by a magnificent suspen-
sion bridge. Memphis, buUt on a high bluff, is the most important city on
the Mississippi, between St. Louis and New Orleans, and ships large quan-
tities of cotton. Knoxville, at the head of steamboat navigation on the
Holston, and Muhfreesboeo, in a fertile plain ?0 mUes from Nashville, are
important and flourishing places.
LESSOlf LXTIII.
THE STATE OF ARKANSAS.
Geographical Position. — This state lies west of the Mississippi Eiver, an^
extends from Missouri on the north to Louisiana on the south.
Physical Features. — The surface is low and marshy in the east, for a dis-
tance of 100 mUes, undulating in the interior, and mountainous in the
west.
Soil, etc. — Along the rivers, the soil is very fertile ; in other parts, sterile.
The climate is healthy and temperate in the west ; in the east and south, it
is moist and unhealthy. The staple productions are cotton, Indian corn,
and live-stock. The chief mineral resources are coal, iron, copper, lead,
zinc, gypsum, manganese, and salt. Hot springs are numerous along tlie
Washita River. Arkansas is stiU the abode of numerous wild animals,
such as deer, elks, bears, and wolves.
Natural Curiosities. — Sixty miles from Little Rock are the celebrated Hot
Springs, about 100 in number ; they are much resorted to by invalids.
Inhsbitants, etc. — Arkansas was originally settled by the French. The
present inhabitants are engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits.
Manufactures and Exports. — This state is not extensively engaged in man-
ufactures. The staple products form the chief articles of export.
(Sties, etc. — Little Rook, the capital and largest town, is the business
depot of a wide extent of country. Camden, a flourishing place on the
Washita Eiver, ranks next to the capital in population. Van Buben is
the chief commercial emporium. Helena and Batesville carry on a
flourishing inland trade.
MISSOURI.
Gei^raphieal Position. — This state borders on the west side of the Missis-
sippi River, between Iowa and Arkansas.
Physical Features. — North of the Missouri are picturesque hiUs, inter-
spersed with extensive prairies and shady groves ; south of the river, the
surface is hilly and mountainous, except in the south-east, where it is low
and marshy.
Soli, etc. — The soil is generally fertile, particularly along the margin of
the rivers. The climate, though variable, is healthy. The staple produc-
tions are Indian corn, wheat, hemp, and tobacco. Fruits grow in great
profusion. The prairies supply excellent pasturage for immense numbers
of cattle. Missouri is rich in lead, iron, coal, and copper.
Inhabitants, etc. — Missouri was originally settled by the French, but the
present inhabitants consist chiefly of emigrants from the other states in the
Union, and their descendants. The leading industrial pursuit is agricul-
ture. Mining is carried on to some extent.
Manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are increasing. Among the
chief exports are live-stock, pork, flour, lead, and tobacco.
Cities, etc. — Jefferson City, the capital, has a highly picturesque situa-
tion on the right bank of the Missouri. St. Louis, on the west bank of
the Mississippi, about 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri, and 1,200
mUes from New Orleans, is the largest place in the state, and one of the
most important commercial cities in the Mississippi valley. It contains
numerous costly public edifices, and extends along the river for about seven
miles, presenting an imposing appearance.
60
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
St. Odarlks is finely situated on the left bank of the Missouri. St.
Genevieve, on the Mississippi, about 60 miles below St. Louis, is the ship-
ping port for the products of the iron works at Iron Mountain. Large
quantities of copper, load, and white sand, are exported from this place.
Hannibal is rapidly increasing in commercial importance. Independ-
ence, located about five miles south of the Missouri, carries on consider-
able trade, being the place where many of the emigrants, on their way to
Oregon and California, procure their outfit.
HALT OF AH XMISRANT FABTT.
KANSAS.
Geographical Position. — This state lies between parallels 87° and 40° N.
lat., and extends from Missouri to Colorado.
Physical Features. — Kansas, for the most part, consists of rolling prairie ;
there are no mountains in the state.
Soil, etc. — Kansas is one of the finest grazing states in the "West. There
are some sandy plains, but most of the state is unsurpassed in fertility, par-
ticularly the valleys of the Missouri and the Kansas. The climate is mild ;
the winters are short, and but little snow falls. The great staple is Indian
corn. Gypsum and coal are abundant.
Inhabitants. — The eastern part has been rapidly settled by emigrants
from the older states, and the population is still increasing very fast. In
the western part of the state there are several Indian tribes'. Agriculture
is the chief pursuit.
Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Manufactures are as yet limited. The prin-
cipal exports are agricultural products.
Cities. — ToPEKA, the capital, is on the right bank of the Kansas River.
Leavenworth and ATomsoN, on the Missouri, and Lawrence, on the
Kansas, are important business centers. Leavenworth is the metropolis
of tlio state.
NEBRASKA.
Geographical Position. — This state lies between the 40th and the 43d
parallel of north latitude, and extends from the Missouri River westward
to Colorado and Wyoming.
Physical Features. — There are no mountains in Nebraska. The surface
is little else than one vast rolling prairie, here and there diversified by a
picturesque stream, and affording an inexhaustible supply of pasturage.
Soil, etc. — The soil in the eastern part of the state is deep and very fer-
tile ; the western section is, for the most part, unproductive. The climate is
milder than that of the Eastern States situated in the same latitude. The
leading productions are Indian corn, wheat, and other cereals. Coal, iron,
and limestone, are abundant. Salt-springs are numerous in the south-
eastern part.
Inhabitants. — The population is rapidly increasing by immigration. The
chief industrial pursuit is agriculture. Hunting and trapping furnish em-
ployment to many.
Hannfaetnres, etc. — Manufactures have not, as yet, received much atten-
tion. This state, like Kansas, holds an important position as the tliorough-
fare of a large western emigration. Railroads are in course of construc-
tion, which wOl greatly extend its commercial facilities.
Cities, etc — Lincoln, a place recently laid out in the south-eastern part
of the state, is the capital. Omaha, the metropolis of the state, and the
eastern terminus of the great Union Pacific Railroad, is pleasantly situated
on the Missouri River. Nebraska City, on the same river, is largely en-
gaged in transporting freight to the territories.
LESSON LXIX.
THE STATE OF IOWA.
Geographical Position. — Iowa lies north of Missouri, between the Missis-
sippi and the Missouri River.
Physical Features. — The general surface is that of a high, rolling prairie,
there being no mountains in the state. A tract of table-land divides the
waters which flow into the Mississippi from those that empty into the Mis-
souri. The banks of the streams are generally skirted with wood.
Soil, etc. — ^The soU is exceedingly fertile and easily cultivated, except in
the north-east, where it is rugged and rocky. The climate is temperate
and healthful. The staple products are Indian com, wheat, and live-stock.
The lead-mines in the vicinity of Dubuque are among the richest in the
United States. Coal is abundant ; iron ore and copper have been found
in considerable quantities.
Inhabitants, etc. — Iowa was settled by the French, and formed part of
the Louisiana purchase. The present inhabitants consist mainly of emi-
grants from the other states in the Union, and from Europe. Agriculture
is the leading pursuit. Much attention is paid to the production of wool,
and the raising of swine for market.
Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Iowa is not yet extensively engaged in man-
ufactures, though it possesses plenty of coal and an abundance of water-
power. The chief exports are grain, flour, lead, and pork.
THS BOCKT TOWBBB, MBAB DUBCQUE, VPFEB UIBSISSIFFI.
(Sties, etc — Dk8 Moines, pleasantly situated on a river of the same name,
is the capital. Dubuque, on the right bank of the Mississippi, the earliest
THE UNITED STATES.
51
settlement, and now the metropolis of the state, is the great depot of the
mineral region.
Davenport, on the Mississippi, in the neighborhood of some of its
finest scenery, is an important and growing city. Keokttk, a flourishing
town, lies at the foot of what are called the lower rapids of the Mississippi,
immediately above the month of the Des Moines. Burlington, situated
on the Mississippi, and connected with the Illinois shore by a steam ferry,
is a place of considerable trade. Iowa City, formerly the capital of the
state, stands at the head of steamboat navigation on the Iowa Eiver, 80
miles above its mouth.
ILLINOIS.
Geograplii€aI Position. — This state lies south of Wisconsin, and east of
the Mississippi Eiver, which separates it from Iowa and Missouri.
Physical Features. — By far the greater part of the state is a table-land,
from 300 to 800 feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, sloping toward
the south, as the course of the rivers indicates. There are no mountains,
but vast undulating prairies meet the eye, decked with beautiful wild
flowers of almost every hue.
Soil, etc. — The soil is, for the most part, very fertile; the climate is
healthy, and milder than that of the Atlantic States lying in the same lati-
tude. The staple products are Indian corn, wheat, oats, hay, butter, cheese,
and potatoes. Illinois ranks first in the Union, in the production of corn
and wheat.
Lead and coal are the chief minerals, and iron ore is found in many
localities. Salt-springs, from which large quantities of salt are manufac-
tured, are found in the southern part of the state.
Inhabitants, ete. — This state was settled by the French. Agriculture
forms the chief employment of the present population.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Illinois is not distinguished as a manufactur-
ing state. Agriculture is the leading pursuit, and the advantages of the
state in this respect are unsurpassed by those of any other in the Union.
Lead, grain, potatoes, and wool, form important articles of export.
Cities. — Springfield, the capital, stands near the center of the state, on
the border of a large and beautiful prairie. Chicago, the most populous
and chief commercial city, lies on the south-west shore of Lake Michigan,
on both sides of the Chicago River, with an elevation of only about five
feet above the surface of the lake. Chicago has grown with almost incred-
ible rapidity, and is the great shipping depot of an immense region.
Peoria, at the outlet of Peoria Lake, is an important commercial city.
QtjiNOY, in the vicinity of a rich prairie, is actively engaged in trade.
Galena, on the Fevre River, six miles above its entrance into the Missis-
sippi, is the metropolis of the lead region of northern Illinois.
INDIANA.
Geographical Position. — This state lies between Ohio and Illinois, and
extends from Lake Michigan and Michigan on the north, to the Ohio
River.
Physical Features. — There are no mountains in the state. The southern
I)art, near tlie Ohio, is hilly ; and the south-western section is somewhat
rocky and broken. The remainder of the state is generally level, and is
interspersed with extensive prairies and rich bottom-lands, thickly studded
with forests. The general inclination of the surface is toward the Ohio.
Soil, etc. — The soil, for the most part, is fertile, and the climate is healthy
and mild for the latitude. Indian corn is the staple ; in the amount of
wheat produced, Indiana ranks second in the Union. The other leading
products are oats, potatoes, fruits, butter, live-stock, wool, and maple sugar.
Of minerals, coal and iron ore are the most important.
Inhabitants, etc. — This state was settled by the French. In 1800, in con-
nection with the present state of Illinois, it was erected into the territory
of Indiana, and, sixteen years after, was admitted into the Union as an in-
dependent state. Agriculture forms the chief employment.
Ilannfactnres and Exports. — Though this state possesses ample water-
power, it is not as yet engaged in manufactures to any great extent. An
active lake and river trade is carried on. The leading exports are live-stock,
pork, beef, lard, Indian com, wheat, and wool.
Cities, ete. — Indianapolis, the capital and largest city, situated in the
central part of the state, is the terminus of several railroads, and is des-
tined to become a very important city. New Albany, two miles below
the Falls of the Ohio, is more extensively engaged in steamboat-buUding
than any other port on the river.
Evansville, on the Ohio, the southern terminus of the longest canal
in the United States, is the principal shipping point for the grain and pork
of south-western Indiana. Foet Wayne is the business depot of a highly
fertile district. La Fayette, at the head of steamboat navigation on the
Wabash, is the chief grain market in the state. Teebb Hahtk is a busy
railroad center, and Madison is noted for its extensive pork-packing es-
tablishments.
LESSOlf LXX.
THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA.
Geographical Position. — This state lies south of Oregon, and extends west-
ward from Nevada and Arizona to the Pacific Ocean.
Physical Features. — A large portion of the state is traversed by mountain
ranges. The great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin extends
from north to south about 500 miles ; it is bounded on the east by the
Sierra Nevada, and on the west by the Coast Range. On the western
slope of the former are the principal gold mines.
Soli, etc. — The soil in the valleys is exceedingly fertile. The year is
divided about equally into two seasons — the wet and the dry, the former
lasting from the middle of November to the middle of May. Among the
chief agricultural products are barley, wheat, potatoes, and fruits. The
fruits and garden vegetables grow to a remarkable size. Grapes are large-
ly cultivated, and excellent wine is made. Fish are fine and plentiful.
In the abundance of its minerals, particularly gold, California takes the
lead of the other states. The quicksilver mine of New Almaden, about 13
mOes south of San Jose, is probably the richest in the world.
Natoral Cnriosities. — Among the most remarkable curiosities are the hot
sulphur springs, about 90 miles north of Benicia, which eject boiling water
to a height of from 10 to 15 feet. — The Falls of the Yosemite are, as far as
height is concerned, the greatest cataract in the world.
Inhabitants, ete. — California was first colonized by the Spanish. In 1822
it became a province of Mexico, and in 1848 Mexico ceded it to the
United States. The present inhabitants consist chiefly of emigrants from
other parts of the Union, and from the Old World, including 30,000 Chi-
nese. Mining is the leading pursuit.
Of late years this state has made rapid progress in commerce, and it
now carries on an extensive trade, not only with the Atlantic States by
way of Panama, but also with the Old World, by means of steamers that
ply between San Francisco and ports on the opposite side of the Pacific.
Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Manufactures are rapidly multiplying.
Among the leading exports are gold, silver, and wine.
Cities, ete. — Sacramento City, the capital, on the left bank of the
Sacramento River, is a noted commercial port, being accessible to large-
sized vessels. San Feanoisco, the great commercial metropolis of the
Pacific coast, lies on the west side of San Francisco Bay. The entrance
to this city from the ocean is through a strait four miles long, called the
"Golden Gate."
62
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Makysville, the third town of the state in population, and Stookton,
the fourth, are respectively the centers of trade for tlie northern and the
southern mining districts. Bbnicia, situated on Karquenas {har-ke'ndg)
Strait, contains an arsenal, a navy-yard, and large docks for the repairing
of steamers.
OREOON.
Geogiapliical PositloD. — Oregon lies north of California and Nevada, and
extends westward from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean.
Physleal Features. — Mucli of the state is mountainous, but fertile valleys
abound. Three mountain ranges diversity the surface.
Soil, etc. — The soil, except in the eastern portions, is fertile. The cli-
mate is mild for the latitude. Wheat, orchard-fruits, hay, and potatoes, are
the staples. Oregon is noted for forests of gigantic pine and fir trees. Its
mineral resources have not yet been developed, but gold and coal have
been found in various localities. Salmon abound in the Columbia Kiver.
Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants consist chiefly of emigrants from the
different states in the Union, engaged mainly in agriculture and lumbering.
Dlannfactares and Exports. — Manufactures are limited. The leading ex-
ports are lumber, orchard-fruits, live-stock, and flour.
Important Places. — Salem, the capital, — Poetland, the metropolis and
chief commercial town, — and Okkqon Citt, a flourishing place possessing
excellent manufacturing facilities, — are all situated on the Willamette River.
NEVADA,
Geographical Position. — This state is situated south of Oregon and Idaho,
between Utah on the east and California on the west.
Physical Features. — The surface is chiefly an elevated table-land ; its val-
leys are from four to five thousand feet above the level of the sea.
Sou, etc. — The soil is fertile only in the valleys. Timber is scarce, and
there are no large rivers. The climate is pleasant; the atmosphere is pure,
dry, and healthy. Nevada is noted for its rich silver-mines, which form
the chief source of wealth. Gold, coal, iron, and salt, also abound.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly emigrants from the older
states. Mining forms tlie leading pursuit; agriculture and stock-raising
also receive attention. There are few manufactures ; the leading export
is silver.
Important Places. — Carbon Citt, near Carson River, is the capital.
ViEGiNiA, the commercial metropolis, is an important depot of supplies for
the mining regions.
LESSON LXXI.
WASHINOTON TERRITORY.
Geographical Position. — Washington lies between British Anxerica and
Oregon, and extends from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean.
Physical Features. — Much of the surface is mountainous. The territory
is crossed by the Coast and the Cascade Range ; several peaks of the latter
are covered with perpetual snow.
Soil, etc. — Most of the region east of the Cascade Mountains is sterile
and nearly destitute of wood ; but west of this range the soil is fertile, and
forests of gigantic firs, spruces, and cedars, abound. The climate is re-
markably mUd for so high a latitude. Nowhere are fish more plentiful.
Gold and coal have been found in some localities.
Inhabitants, etc.— The population of Washington and the other territories
consists mainly of emigrants from the states, who are rapidly increasing in
number, and native Indians, who are fast diminishing. Manufactures,
as in all newly-settled regions, are limited. Lumber is the leading article
of export from Washington.
Important Places. — Olympia, the capital, stands at the head of Puget
Sound. Steilaooo», Walla Walla, and Vancouvee, are important
places.
IDAHO TERRITORY.
Geographical Position. — Idaho lies east of Washington Territory and
Oregon, and west of Montana and Wyoming.
Physical Features, etc. — The surface is mountainous. The Bitter Root
and Rocky Mountains form the eastern boundary. The valleys are fertile
and well watered. Many thousands of acres are covered with " bunch-
grass," affording excellent pasturage. Gold and silver are found in abun-
dance, and mining operations are carried on in various parts.
SIINQIU AT WORK.
Important Places. — Boisb City, on a river of the same name, is the cap-
ital. Among the principal places are Idaho Citt, Lbwiston, and Flobencb.
MONTANA TERRITORY.
Geographical Position.— Montana lies between Dakota on the east and
Idaho on the west, and extends from British America to Wyoming.
Physical Features, etc — The surface is generally mountainous. Along
the streams that form the Missouri, the country is an undulating prairie.
The climate is mild for the latitude. The soil in the south, along tlie
river- valleys, is productive. The streams are fringed with forests of fir,
pine, and cedar. The chief minerals thus far discovered are gold and
silver. The Great Falls of the Missouri, which belong to this territory, are
the grandest in N. America, except the Falls of Niagara.
Important Places.— Virginia City, an important mining town, is the cap-
ital of Montana. Bannock City, noted for its rich silver-mines, is situated
on the Jefferson River, not far from its source in the Rocky Mountains.
DAKOTA TERRITORY.
Geographical Position.— Dakota Territory lies east of Montana and Wyo-
ming, and west of Minnesota and Iowa.
Physical Features, etc.— The Black Hills extend into the south-western
part ; the rest of the territory is mostly level, and well supplied with lakes
and ponds. "The climate is healthy, and the soil is well adapted to agricul-
ture and pasturage. The valleys of the Missouri and the Red River of the
North are highly productive. Furs are obtained in large quantities.
Dakota is as yet very sparsely settled ; about one-fourth of the inhabit-
ants are Indians, many of whom are engaged in farming and stock-raising.
Important Places.— Yankton, on the left bank of the Missouri River,
about 65 miles west of the Iowa line, is the capital. Most of the settle-
ments are in the south-eastern part of the territory.
THE UNITED STATES.
53
INDIAN TERRITORY.
Geographieal Position, etc. — Indian Territory lies south of Kansas and
nortli of Texas. This tract has been set apart by the government for the
permanent residence of those Indian tribes that formerly occupied some
of the south-western states. The United States have several military posts
in the territory, but exercise no control over it, except when it may be
necessary to preserve peace on the frontier.
Some of the removed tribes have made considerable advances in agri-
culture, and have established schools and churches ; while others have be-
come indolent and intemperate, and are fast diminishing in numbers.
Tah-le-qdah, the capital of the Cherokee nation, is the principal place.
WYOMINa TERRITORY.
Gfosraplileal Position, etc.— Wyoming, fonnerly part of Dakota Terr
and still attached to it for tlie purposes of government, lies between
tana on the north and Colorado on the south.
itory,
Men-
LESSON LXXII.
TERRITORY OF NEW MEXICO.
Geograplileal Position. — New Mexico lies between Texas and Arizona, and
extends from Colorado on the north to Mexico and Texas on the south.
Pliysleal Features. — The surface is a high table-land, traversed by stupen-
dous mountain-ranges and broken ridges. The great valley of the Rio
Grande, about 20 miles in width, crosses the territory from north to south.
Owing to the elevation of the surface, the climate is temperate for the
latitude.
The soil is mostly barren. In the river-valjeys, agriculture is pursued to
some extent. The vine thrives in the southern part. Gold, silver, copper,
and other minerals, are abundant.
Inhabitants, ete. — The population consists chiefly of wandering Indian
tribes, Mexicans, and eraigrimtg from dift'ei-ent parts of the Union.
Santa Ft, the capital, is on the great western overland route from St.
Louis, from which it is about 1,000 miles distant.
ARIZONA TERRITORY.
Geographical Position. — Arizona lies east of California and west of New
Mexico, and extends from Mexico to Utah.
Physical Featnres. — The territory is crossed by several minor mountain-
ranges. Much of the soil is sterile, but the climate is, in most parts, de-
lightful. Arizona is rich in minerals, particularly silver. Mining is the chief
pursuit of the white inhabitants, among whom are a number of Mexicans.
Some of the Indian tribes reside in villages, and are engaged in agriculture.
Important Places. — Prescott, the capital, is situated in the neighborhood
of a rich mining district, near the centei* of the territory. La Paz, on the
Colorado River, and Tucson, on the Santa Cruz, are among the chief towns.
UTAH TERIIITORY.
Geographical Position, — Utah extends westward from Colorado to Ne-
vada, and southward from Idaho to Arizona.
Physical Featnres. — The greater part of Utah is mountainous and barren,
but peculiarly adapted to the raising of stock. The section lying west of the
Colorado valley is called the Great Basin ; all the rivers of this region ter-
minate within its limits, in lakes that have no visible outlets.
In fertile spots that are capable of being watered, grain and garden vege-
tables are cultivated with success. The inhabitants are mostly Mormons.
Agriculture is the chief pursuit ; manufactures receive some attention.
Commerce is confined chiefly to traflio with overland emigrants, and with
the miners of Idaho, Nevada, and Colorado, who here obtain supplies of
provisions and live-stock.
Important Places. — Salt Lake Citt, on the Jordan River, not far from
Great Salt Lake, is the capital of the territory. Provo City, on the east
shore of Utah Lake, is an important and growing place.
nUNTINQ THE BUFrALO.
The surface is mountainous. The south-western part of the territory
is traversed by the Rocky Mountains, the north-eastern part by the Black
Hills. Fremont's Peak is on the boundary between Wyoming and Idaho.
But little is known about the soil or resources of this territory. Few
settlers have as yet found their way to it. Fort Laramie, on the north
fork of the Platte or Nebraska River, is the principal place.
COLORADO TERRITORY
Geographical Position. — Colorado lies between Kansas on the east and
Utah on the west, and extends from Wyoming to New Mexico.
Pliysical Featnres, ete. — The Rocky Mountains traverse Colorado fi-om
north to south. Near the center of the territory is Pike's Peak, one of the
loftiest summits in the United States. The cultivation of the soil is con-
fined chiefly to tracts near streams, which can be watered. The mountain
regions are densely wooded, but on each side of them are vast plains
almost treeless. Colorado is particularly noted for its rich gold-mines,
which lie in the central parts of the territory, among the mountains.
Valuable mines of silver have also been discovered.
Some manufacturing is done at mills, breweries, and tanneries; but
mining is the chief pursuit, and gold is the principal article exported.
Important Places. — Golden City, situated near the eastern base of the
Rocky Mountains, is the capital. Denver, on the right bank of the South
Platte, is the largest place and the commercial emporium. Colorado City,
on an affluent of the Arkansas, is a depot for the neighboring mines.
THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
This district, situated on the north-east side of the Potomac River, has
an area of 60 square miles. It was ceded by Maryland to the Federal
Government, and is set apart as the site of the Capital of the United
States. It contains Washington, the capital in question, and the city of
Georgetown.
Washington is finely located between the Potomac River and its east-
ern branch. Among the many public buildings may be mentioned the
Capitol (a superb edifice, in which Congress meets), the President's House,
the Smithsonian Institute, the Treasury Buildings, and the Patent-Office.
Georgetown, separated from Washington by a small creek, is one of
the greatest shad and herring markets in the United States.
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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPUr AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
59
NEW YOEK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA.
LESSON LXXVIII.
PHYSICAL GEOaKAPHY.
Surface. — As regards surface, the states represented on Map No. 3
may be divided into three distinct regions ; viz., the Atlantic plain,
adjacent to the coast, the central mountainous district, and the north-
western section, partly plateau and partly undulating, with a general
slope toward the great lakes and the Ohio. The Atlantic plain gradu-
allv increases in width, from a few miles in south-eastern New York,
where it is narrowest, to 125 miles in southern I'ennsylvania.
"■ Monntains. — The Appalachian system of mountains traverses Penn-
sylvania in a north-easterly direction, in two principal ranges, nearly
parallel. The more easterly of these, distinguished as the Blue Ridge,
passes through north-western Jersey, crosses the Hudson, constituting
its grand and picturesque Highlands, and finally runs into the Taghan-
ie chain. The western range approaches the Hudson higher up in the
bold Catskills. — In Pennsylvania the Appalachian range attains its
greatest width, about 200 miles.
The Adirondacks, a detached group in northern New York, con-
tain Mt. Marcy, 5,467 feet high, the loftiest summit in the state.
RlTcrs. — The rivers of this section belong to three different systems,
— the Atlantic, the St. Lawrence, and the Mississippi. Of the first
class, the Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna are the largest ; the
numerous streams of northern and north-western New York belong
mostly to the second class ; while the Alleghany and Monongahela,
with their branches, form the third.
Lakes. — New York is noted for its fine lakes. South of Lake On-
tario we have one series, and on the western slope of the Adirondacks
another, both belonging to the St. Lawrence system. Connected with
this system, also, are Lakes George and Champlain : the former is fa-
mous for its beauty; the latter, with the Riohelieu River, Whitehall
Canal, and Hudson River, forms an unbroken water connection be-
tween Canada and the metropolis of the state.
Lake Ontario, though the smallest of the five great lakes, consider-
ably exceeds in size the whole state of Connecticut. It is navigable in
all parts for the largest vessels.
Coal Regions. — Pennsylvania contains the most productive coal-
fields in the U. S., inexhaustible in their supplies of both anthracite
and bituminous coal. The principal anthracite or hard coal region
lies between the Delaware and the Susquehanna, about the upper
waters of the Schuylkill and Lehigh Rivers. Bituminous or soft coal
abounds in the western part of the state, in the neighborhood of
Pittsburgh ; also near Blossburg, in the northern part.
Its abundance of coal has enabled Pennsylvania to take the lead
in the manufacture of iron, which has added much to the wealth and
prosperity of the state.
Great Cities. — In this section are the three largest cities of the
U. S., — New York, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn. New York owes its
greatness to its commerce, being the depot, not only of its own state,
but of the northern part of the Mississippi basin, with which it is con-
nected by railroad, and also by the great lakes, the Erie Canal, and the
Hudson River. Manufacturing industry and an extensive inland com-
merce have made Philadelphia the second city in the Union.
LESSON LXXIX.
Questions on Map of U. S. No. 3.
Latitude. — Between what degrees of latitude is New York situated ? Between
40^° and 45° N. lat. What do we find in the same latitude on the Pacific coast ?
Oregon and the northern part of California. What countries on the coast of
Europe are in the same latitude as New York ? The northern part of Spaiji and
Portugal. What European city is in nearly the same latitude as N. Y. ? Naples.
Longitnde. — Between what degrees of longitude is New York ? Incliuling Long
Island, it lies between 72° and about 80' ]V. Ion. What states extend farther east?
What countries on the coast of South America lie in the same longitude as New
York ? 7Vie western part of Venezuela, and the United States of Colombia.
Exereise with .Seale of Miles. — What is the length of New York on the parallel
of 42' ? What is its extreme breadth ? What is the length of N. Jersey ? What,
of Pennsylvania ? What, its breadth ? What is the distance in a direct line be-
tween New York and Philadelphia ? Between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh ?
General Qnestions. — Where is Barnegat Inlet ? Sodus Bay ? Grand Island ?
Chestnut Ridge ? Laurel Ridge ? Broad Mountain ? Where are the Thousand
Isles ? Schooley's Mountains ? Bald Eagle Mountains ? Where is Titusville ?
Oil City ? Mention the lakes that lie west of the Adirondacks. Mention those
east of the Adirondacks. On what lake is Cooperstown?
REFERENCE TABLE OF PRINCIPAL RAILROADS.
Plattsbnrff & Montreal
New Yorlt & Harlem
Hudson River
New York & Erie
Buffalo Div. of N. Y. & Erie
N'wcstern Div. of N. Y. & Eric
New YorK Central
N. Y., Athens, & Schcnoctady Uiv. .
Auburn Bivision
Syracuse, Binghamton, & N. Y
Oswego & Syracuse
Buffalo, Niairara Falls, & Lewiston.
Buffalo & Erie
Black Kivcr & Utica
■Rome. Watertown, & Ogdcnsburg. .
Ogilcnsburg & Lake Champlain
Rensselaer & Saratoga
Troy & Boston
Albany & Susquehanna
N. Jersey, Philadelphia & Trenton..
Camden & Amboy
Northern of New Jersey
Central of New Jersey
Morris & Essex
Delaware, l.ackawanna, & Western .
Lehigh Valley
Lackawanna & Bloomsburg
Philadelphia & Erie
North Pennsylvania
Behidere, Del., & Flemingtou
Phil., Wilmington, & Bait
Phil. & Baltimore Central
Catawissa
Pennsylvania Central
Bald Eagle Branch
Western Pennsylvania Br
Alleghanv Vallev
Pittsburgh & Connellsville
Philadelphia & Reading
Lebanon Valley Branch
Reading & Columbia
East Pennsylvania
Cumberland Valley
Schuylkill & Susqiiehanna
Raritan & Delaware Bay
Camden & Atlantic
W. Jersey, Millville & Glassboro, C.
Northern Central
, Plattsbnrg .
, New York.
Coming
Honicllsville.. .
Albany & Troy,
Schenectady , ..
Syracuse
Buffalo.,
Utica
, Rome
Ogdensburg. . .
, Troy
.Albany
, New York
,! South Amboy.
.New York
Montreal
Alb'y & Troy, via White Plaint'
Albany & Troy
Dunkirk
Buffalo
Buffalo, via Roci.eater
Athens
Rochester, viaAubum
Binghamton
Oswego
Lewiston
Erie
Boonville
Ogdensbnrg, via Waurtowo . .
Rouse's Point
Rutland, via Saratoga
North Adams
Ilarpersville
Philadelphia
Easton
Scranton
Philadelphia .
Tyrone
Blairsville Int.
Pittsburgh
Philadelphia .
Reading
May
, Harrisbnrg
. Auburn
, Pott Monmouth
, Camden
Baltimore.
Piermont
Easton, via Somerville
via Morristowu
Great Bend
Scranton
Northumberland
Lrie, via Sunbur^' . •
Bethlehem
Mannnkachunk
Baltimore
Rising Sun
Williamsport, via Tamaqua. . .
Pittsburgh
Sunbury, via WUlianiFporl
.Mlegliany City
Brady's Bend
Uniontown
Pottsville. via Reading
Ilarrisburg
Columbia
AUentown
Hagerstown
Cotiiinbia
Philadelphia
Atlantic City
Cape May
Canandaigua
157
150
459
112
M
298
41
104
80
35
28
88
.35
112
118
as
48
120
tiO
ISO
120
SO
451
.M
98
98
57
187
355
120
67
09
73
98
40
36
74
59
94
60
84
.32S
TABLE OF CHIEF NAVIGABLE RIVERS.
The St. Lawrence (length 770 miles) is navigable for ships to Montreal, and by the
aid of canals to Ltike Ontario 770 miles.
" Hudson (length .300 miles) is navigable for large ships to Hudson (117 miles),
and for steamboats to Troy 151 **
" Raritan (length 33 miles) is navigable for steamboats to New Brunswick 15 ''
" Delaware " 30O " " " " Trenton 75 "
" Monongahela (length 300 miles) is navigable for steamboats to Fairmouut 150 "
" Alleghany " 300 " ■ " " " Olean 260 "
Voyages, Travels, ete. — What railroad connects Troy and Buffalo ? Philadel-
phia and Pittsburgh ? New York and Dunkirk ? By what two railroads can one
go from New York to Albany ? What railroads would one take in going from
Philadelphia to Saratoga Springs ? In going from Poughkeepsie to Trenton Falls ?
60
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
DELAWAEE, MARYLAND, YIEGINIA, W. YIE-
GINIA, N. & S. CAROLmA.
LESSON LXXX.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Snrfaec. — We now cross Masou and Dixon's line (the boundary be-
tween Pennsylvania and Maryland), so called from two eminent Eng-
lish mathematicians by whom it was drawn.
West of the Atlantic plain, which here widens toward the south,
the Appalachian Mountains traverse this section, as they do Pennsyl-
vania, in several parallel ranges, forming a belt from 80 to 100 miles
wide. They attain their greatest height in North Carolina, where Mt.
Mitchell rears its head 6,732 feet above the level of the sea, — the
loftiest peak east of the Rocky Mountains. It belongs to the Black
Mountains, a group so called from the dark foliage of the firs and other
evergreens that cover their sides.
Bivers. — The rivers of these states belong to the Atlantic and Mis-
sissippi systems, the Appalachian Mountains forming the watershed.
Those of North and South Carolina rise in the easternmost range, or
Blue Ridge ; but most of the streams north of these states have their
source in one of the more westerly ranges, and make their way through
the Blue Ridge in picturesque gorges.
Rapids or falls occur in these rivers where they descend from the
highlands on their way to the coast, and to this point they are mostly
navigable. Many of the rivers of Carolina, however, have their mouths
so obstructed by sand-banks as to be inaccessible to large vessels.
itianttc Coast. — The Atlantic coast, in the northern part of this sec-
tion, is indented with numerous bays, abounding in fine fish and
oysters. In all parts, it is lined with a chain of low sandy islands,
cutting off a series of shallow sounds. The inlets that connect these
with the ocean are constantly changing, the old ones filling up with
shifting sands, and new ones being opened by the beating of the surge.
The Hatteras Banks, which enclose Pamlico Sound, extend far out
into the ocean, terminating in Cape Hatteras, the most dangerous
point to navigators on the coast. The names of Cape Lookout and
Cape Fear, projecting farther south-west from the same sandy de-
posit, show that the danger is not confined to this point.
Many of the islands off the South Carolina coast are cultivated,
and produce the famous sea-island cotton.
Swamps. — Much of the country adjacent to the coast consists of
swamp-land interspersed with small lakes. Dismal Swamp, an exten-
sive tract of this character, lies in south-eastern Virginia and the north-
eastern part of North Carolina. It is covered with a black soil con-
sisting of vegetable matter, and produces a thick growth of reeds,
ferns, and aquatic trees. Cedars and cypresses abound.
ProdDCtions. — The .climate of this section, removed alike from ex-
tremes of heat and cold, is in- the highest degree genial and favorable
to agricultural pursuits. In the north we have the great tobacco-
bearing region, in the south that of rice, — while Indian corn and wheat
flourish in almost every part.
From the North Carolina coast we obtain our chief supplies of
turpentine and resin, made from the sap of the long-leaved pines which
there abound. Their straight trunks rise without a limb from twenty-
five to thirty feet, at which height they branch out, nearly excluding
the light of day with their thick evergreen foliage.
LESSON LXXXI.
Questions on Map of U. S. JVo. 4.
Latitnde. — Between what degrees of latitude are Virginia and W. Virginia ?
Between 36^° a7id altout 40|° JSf. lal. What countries on the coast of Europe are
in the same latitude ? The central and souOiern parts of Sjmin and Portugal.
What country in western Asia ? Asia Minor. What city on the Pacific coast is
in nearly the same latitude as Richmond ? San Francisco, in California.
Longitude. — Between what degrees of longitude is Vu-ginia ? Between about
75J° and 83J° W. Ion. What island of the West Indies lies in the same longi-
tude ? Cilia. What South American city is in nearly the same longitude as Wash-
ington ? Lima (le'mah), in Peru.
Exercise with Seale of Miles.— What is the length of Virginia along the south-
ern boundary line ? Of Delaware from N. to S. ? Of N. Carolina, from E. to W. ?
Of S. Carolina ? Of West Virginia, from N. to S. ? What is the distance in a
direct line from Baltimore to Wheeling ? From Richmond to Charleston ?
Islands, Monntains. — What island is near the entrance to Albemarle Sound ?
For what is it memorable ? For having been the siie of the first English settlement
in America. What island is off the mouth of the Cape Fear River? Where is
Edisto Island ? Where are the Kittatinny Mountains ? The Greenbrier Mounts
ains ? The Peaks of Otter ? Where is Mitchell's Peak situated ?
Bays, Sonnds, etc.— How is Pocomoke Bay situated ? Raleigh Bay ? Onslow
Bay ? Long Bay ? Winyaw Bay ? St. Helena Sound ? Port Royal Entrance ?
What inlet leads into Pamlico Sound? What bay projects from the coast of
South Carolina? Where is Hilton Head ? Lexington? Lake Drummond ?
REFERENCE TABLE OF PRINCIPAL RAILROADS.
Delaware
Baltimore & Ohio
" " (Wash. Branch)
Winchester & Potomac
North-weetem Virginia ■ .
RUhmoud, Fredericksburg, & Potomac.
OranKe & Alexandria
Alexandria, Loudoun, & Hampshire
ManaF-eas Gap
Virginia Central
Richmond & PeterBhurg
Richmond & DanWlle
Peternhurg & Weldon
Norfolk cfc PeterslHirg
Seaboard & Roanoke
Petersburg & Lynchburg (S. S.)
Virginia & Tennessee.
Wilmington Crisfleld
Baltimore W'heeling, viu Cumberland. . . .
'* [Washington
Harper's Ferry . ; Winchester
Graflon Parkershurg
Richmond Acquia Creek
Alexandria Lynchburg
" Leesburg
Manassas June . Mount Jackson
Richmond Covington
" Peterslnii^
" . . Greensboro
Petersburg Weldon
" Norfolk
Weldon Portsmouth
Petersburg Lyncliburg
Lynchburg (Bristol. Tenn
Weldon.
Wilmington..
Goldsboro
Raleigli & Gaston (Raleigh iWeldon
WUmington & Weldon t,t..,.,,.„ tt,i„.„,
" " Manchester
Wilmington, Charlotte, & Rutherford .
North Carolina
Atlantic & North Carolina
Western (N. C.)
North-eastern
Cheraw & Darlington
South Carolina
" " Columbia Branch
Charlotte & South Carolina
Greenville & Columbia
Spartanburg & Union
Blue Ridge
Charleston & Savannah
Salisbury
Charleston . . . .
Cheraw
Charleston —
Branchville . . .
Columbia
Wilmington
Kingeville, via Florence, S. C. .
SandHilL
Charlotte, via Ralelgb
Morehead City
Head of Road
Florence
Spartanburg • . •
Anderson
Charleston
Augusta
Columbia
Charlotte
Greenville. . . .
Alston
Walhalla
Salkehatchie .
135
3Til
40
32
IM
76
171
38
\n
206
22
18<J
64
81
80
12.3
204
97
162
171
no
223
95
78
102
40
137
68
109
14t
68
.33
m
TABLE OF CHIEF NAVIGABLE RIVERS.
The Potftmac flength 550 miles) is navigable for ships of the line to Washington.. 300 miles.
" Rappahannock (length 125 miles) is navigable to Fredericksburg 85 ^^
" York (length 40 miles) is navigable for large vessels. 4U
" James '" 500 " " " steamboats to Richmond 110 |^
" Chowan " 60 " " " sloops. •■•■•■;; ,^ \\
" Roanoke" 260 " " " steamboats to Weldon. 160
" Tar " 200 " Sf'"'™,'"'''' ' U i§^ u
" Neuse " 800 " " " Waynesborougli 120
" Cape Fear (length 300 miles) is navigable for steamboats to Fayetteville 125 '|
" Great Pedee is naviirable for small vessels • ■ ; ■ • •1'*' -
" Santee (length 150 miles) is navigable for steamboats to Columbia & Camden.
" Savannah '' 450 Augusta 230
Travels, Toyages, etc.— By what railroad are Baltimore and Wheeling con-
nected ? What is the distance ? Through what states and places does this rail-
road run ? What is the distance by railroad from Baltimore to Washington ?
What railroad connects Weldon and Portsmouth? Lynchburg and Bristol?
Goldsboro and Morehead City ? Charleston and Augusta ? Harper's Ferry and
Winchester ? On what waters would you sail in going from Savannah to Wash-
inn-ton ? From Portsmouth to Baltimore ? How far is the Potomac navigable ?
P . . E N J N
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64
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
AEKANSAS, LOUISIANA, TEXAS.
LESSON LXXXIV.
PHTSICAI. aEOGRAPHT.
Snrface. — The surface of these three states, for a distance of from
tifty to one hundred miles along the Mississippi and the Gulf coast, is
flat and for the most part swatnpy. This tract is succeeded by a belt
of undulating country from 100 to 200 miles wide, which in north-wcst-
cni Arkansas gives way to mountains, and in western Texas rises to a
table-land extending with a gradual ascent toward the Kocky Mountains.
BlTcrs. — No section of the Union is better supplied with large and
navigable streams. They all belong to the Mississippi or Gulf system,
and owing to the slope of the country have mostly a south-easterly
course. While they afford great facilities for commerce during nine
months of the year, many of them, in consequence of long-continued
droughts, become so low in summer that they cannot be ascended
by very large vessels.
The Bed River. — The Red River is the southernmost of the great
tributaries of the Mississippi. It rises in north-western Texas, in the
barren table-land known as EI Llano Estacado, or " the staked plain,"
at a lieight of 2,450 feet ahove sea-level.
For the first sixty miles, the banks rise from 500 to 800 feet di-
rectly from the water's edge, forming a wild and apparently endless
gorge, and precipitous ravines whose bottom is hidden by the shadow
of the walls that bound them. Several other rivers rising in the
plateau and mountains of western Texas have woni for themselves
similar passes, or canons (kan'yuns) as they are called.
The chief drawback to the prosperity of the upper valley of the
Red River is the Great Raft, commencing about thirty miles above
Shrevcport. It consist* of an immense mass of trees and driftwood,
brought down b}' the current and lodged here for a distance of VO miles,
obstructing navigation and causing tlie water to overflow the valley.
BayoDS. — In these states, the word bayou {bi'o) is much used.
Bayous are streams not fed by springs, but flowing from some river
or lake. The Atchafalaya, for instance, issuing from the Mississippi
just below the mouth of the Red River and conveying a portion of its
waters to the Gulf, is a bayou.
Delta of tbe Mississippi. — The delta of the Mississippi consists entirely
of alluvium, or deposits made by the current on the borders of the
river, wliich are thus raised higher than the surrounding country.
The interior is a swamp covered with trees, of which only the tops
.•ire visible during the floods. The mouths of the Mississippi are un-
dergoing constant changes, old channels filling up and new ones form-
ing. Ships of the largest class have difficulty in getting over the bars.
Climate.' — The climate, except in the low and swampy districts,
while it is warm, is healthy and delightful. In Texas it is quite cool
for the latitude, the summer heats being tempered by refreshing breezes
from the Gulf. North winds prevail in this state during November,
December, and January, driving away the unhealthy exhalations which
arise from newly-broken soil.
Prodnctions. — We have here the great sugar region of the United
States, embracing the fertile river-bottoms of Louisiana (particularly
south of latitude 31°) and parts of Texas. Cotton is also produced
here in great perfection and abundance, together with various tropical
fruits. The mesquite grass of western Texas retains its greenness
throughout the winter, and affords the best pasturage for cattle in the
world.
LESSON LXXXV.
Questions on Map of U. S. JVb. 6.
Latitude. — Between wliat degrees of latitude is Louisiana situated ? Between
29° and 33° N. lat. What lies in the same latitude on the Pacific coast? The
northern pari of Loteer California, one of the departments of Mexieu. What coun-
try on the Atlantic coast of Africa is in the same latitude as Louisiana ? Morocco.
What city in Africa is in about the same latitude as New Orleans ? Cairo.
Longitnde. — Between what degrees of longitude does Louisiana lie ? Betueen
about 88|° atid 94^°. What states in the northern part of the Union lie in the
same longitude ? The western part of WiMonsin and the raxlern jmrt of Minnesota.
What city of Yucatan is in nearly the same longitude as New Orlciins ? Merida.
What three capitals in the U. S. are in nearly the same longitude ? J., S., and M.
Important Places. — How is Point Isabel situated ? Indianola? Goliad'? Bon-
ham ? Port Caddo ? In which two of these states is there a place called Bas-
trop ? Where is Thibodeaux (tiho-do') ? Vidalia ? Oceola ? Which is farther
north, Austin or New Orleans? {See Small Map.) What is the upper part of
New Orleans called? What place on the river just above New Orleans? What
place opposite ?
Lal(eg, Bays. — How is Lake Maurepas (mo-re-paJi') situated ? Lake Catahoula ?
Lake Bistineau {bis4in-o') ? Lake Washa ? What two lakes lie on the western
boundary of Louisiana ? What lakes in the southern part of Louisiana ? Men-
tion some of the bays on the coast of Louisiana. On the coast of Texas.
General Qnestlons. — Where is Pea Ridge ? How are the Boston Mountains
situated ? What are the principal branches of the Brazos River ? Of the While ?
Of the Red ? What two states does the Red River for a short distance separate ?
What rivers empty into Galveston Bay ? Mention the principal islands on the
Texas Coast. Where is Marsh Island ? Dernier Island ? Teche (tesh) River ?
REFERENCE TABLE OF PRINCIPAL RAILROADS.
Mexican Gnlf
N. Orleans. Opelousas. & Great Western.
Baton Konge. Grospe Tete. & Opcloneas. .
Vicksbnr^, Shrevcport, & Texas
West Feliciana
Clinton & Port Hudson
Memphis & Little Rock
Buffalo Bayou. lirazos. & Colorado
Houston & Texas Central
Houston Tap & Brazoria
Galveston & Houston .lunction
Washington County
New Orleans...
Baton Eonge...
Vicksbnrg
Bayon Sara
Port Hudson . . .
Memphie
Harrlsbui^
Houston
Brenham. .
Proctorsville
Brashcar
OpcloUsas. in progress..
Marshall, in progress. . .
Woodville
Clinton
Madison
Columbia.,
MiUican
Columbia
Galveston
Hempstead
80
40
175
80
60
60
26
TABLE OF CHIEF NAVIGABLE RIVERS.
The Mississippi flength S.lfifl miles) is navigable for large ships to Memphis (890
miles), and for large steamboats to St. Paul 2,070 miles.
" White (length 800 miles) is navigable for steamboats aW ||
" " " !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! iso "
" 800 "
" " " to Camden 300 '•
" " "to Shrevcport 6(X) "
" " " 250 "
" " " 200 "
(. H 4. QQ It
" " " to Wasiiington .3(10 "
" " " to Austin aiO "
" " " 100 "
Big Black '
400 "
St. Francis '
450 "
Arkansas '
2,000 "
Washita
600 "
Hed
1,200 "
Atchafalaya '
WO "
Teche
200 "
Trinity '
5.50 "
Brazos '
9.50 "
Colorado '
000 "
Nueces '
350 "
Travels, Voyages, Ht, — What railroad connects Brashcar with New Orleans ♦
What place is on this road ? On what waters would you sail in going from Brash-
ear to New Orleans ? Which is the shorter route ? On what waters would you
sail, and what courses would you take, from Brashcar to Galveston ?
Sailing from Austin to Galveston, through what river, bay, and gulf would you
pass ? What places would you pass on the Colorado ? How far and to what city
is the Mississippi navigable for large ships ? How far and to what city, for large
steamboats ? Which is the longer river, the Arkansas or the Red ? The Colo-
rado or the Brazos ? On what waters would .you sail in going from Little Rock to
Alexandria ? From Corpus Christi to Camden, Ark. ?
J L
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66
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
IOWA, ILLINOIS, MISSOURI.
LESSON LXXXYI.
PH7SICAI. &EOGBAPHY.
SnrfHfe. — These three states form part of our great western prairie-
land. Except in portions of Missouri, tlie surface is a succession of
rolling prairies, destitute of timber, but crossed by streams whose
baiilvs are skirted with woods. Covered with high grass, interspersed
with beautiful wild flowers, these prairies by their vastness awaken a
feeling of sublimity like that produced by viewing the ocean.
The banks of the Mississippi and Illinois, in parts of their course,
consist of bluffs. In Missouri, the Missouri River is bordered on the
north bv level and fertile bottom-lands, on the south by bluffs from
one to three hundred feet high. From the Great Swamp in the south-
eastern corner of the state, the surface gradually rises to the Ozark
Mountains in the south-western part.
Rivers. — An abundance of navigable waters affords excellent facili-
ties for inland commerce. Illinois has Lake Michigan, the Wabash,
the Ohio, and the Mississippi, on its borders; Missouri and Iowa are
partially bounded by the Mississippi and Missouri, and are traversed
by their numerous tributaries.
The Mississippi River, called by the Indians Miche Sepe, "the Great
Father of Waters," presents, with its numerous branches, a net-work
of navigable rivers of vast extent, more important than any other river-
system in the world. It is a clear stream in the upper part of its
course, but loses this character below the mouth of the Missouri, from
wliich it receives vast amounts of mud.
The bends in the Mississippi are remarkable. In some places, after
sailing 25 or 30 miles from a certain point, a boat is brought within a
mile of it again. During heavy floods, the water occasionall)' bursts
through such a tongue of land, and forms what is called "a cut-off"."
The Mississippi, like other great rivere of the West, is constantly
bringing down trees from banks undermined by its waters. As they
are swept along, the roots sometimes become fixed in the bottom, the
tops pointing down-stream and swaying with the current. These
" snags " or " sawyers," as they are called, are very dangerous to boats
asceiKling the river, especially at night.
Tlie DHssonri River is the largest tributary in the world; indeed it
has some claim to be considered the main stream, being greater in
l)oth length and volume than the part of the Mississippi above its
mouth. It is a rapid, turbid stream, — its name, in the Indian language
from which it comes, meaning Mud River. The basin of the Missouri
embraces 519,400 square miles.
Agrienltnrai and Dllaeral Resources. — The prairie-land of these three
states is a magnificent agricultural region, having a deep soil, unsur-
passed for the production of wheat and Indian corn.
It is also favored with great mineral wealth. Bituminous coal is
found in nearly every county of Illinois, and on both sides of the
Missouri River below the mouth of tlie Osage. A great coal-field
also extends from central and southern Iowa into northern Missouri.
The iron of a large district about Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain
in Missouri is unsurpassed in quality as well as quantity ; and the
most productive lead-region on the continent lies on both sides of the
Mississippi, where IlUnois, Iowa, and Wisconsin meet.
LESSON LXXXVII.
Questions on Map of U. S. No. 7.
Latitude. — Between what degrees of latitnde is riinois situated ? Belieeen oT
and 42^° jV. lot. Wliich extends farther north, Illinois or Pennsylvania ? Illi-
nois or Massachusetts ? What city near the Atlantic coast is in very nearly the
same latitude as Chicago ? Providenee. What European city is in about the
same latitude as St. Louis ? Lisbon, the capital of Portugal.
I.ong;itnde. — Between what degrees of longitude does Illinois lie? Between
87i° and uboai 91 1°. Which extends farther west, Wisconsin or Illinois ? Which
of the great lakes lies in the same longitude as lUinoig ? & Which of the Gulf
states is in the same longitude ? M. What department of Mexico ? Y.
Exercise witll Scale of lUies. — What is the distance in a direct line from
Chicago to St. Louis ? From Chicago to Dubuque ? What is the length of
Illinois ? What is its greatest breadth ? What is the distance in a straight line
from thfe northern to the southern boundary of Iowa ? Of Missouri ?
Important Places. — How is Ottumwa situated ? Marengo ? Tipton ? Potosi ?
Ironton ? Palmyra ? Princeton ? Nauvoo ? By whom was Nauvoo founded ?
By the Mornionx ; it once contained over 15,000 iuhalitants. What is the most
southerly place in Illinois ? In Iowa ? In Missouri ? What important railroad
center in western Missouri ? K. C. On what river is Kansas City ?
Rivers. — What is the principal tributary that the Mississippi receives from
Iowa? What arc the two principal tributaries that the Mississippi receives from
IlUnois ? Which of these rises in Wisconsin ? What rivers form the Illinois ?
REFERENCE TABLE OF PRINCIPAL RAILROADS.
Niune.
Chicaao & North-wentem (consolidated).
Milwaukee Division
Wisconsin Division
Madison Division
Galena Division
Jlockford Division
Western Uniob
Cliicago, Burlington, & Quincy
Galesburg, Peoria, & Lcwiston Branch..
Chicago, Kock Inland, & Pacific
Muscatine & Oskaloosa Branch
Chicago, Alton, & St. Louis
Illinois Central
Chicago Division
Peoria & Bureau Valley
Peoria, Pekin, it Jacksonville
Toledo, Peoria, & Warsaw
Toledo, Wabash, & Western
St. Louis, Alton, & Terre Haute
Ohio & Mississippi
St. Louis & Iron Mountain
Pacific & Missouri Kiver
South-west Pacific
North Missouri
Haonibal & St. Joseph
Burlinston & Missouri River
Des Moines Valley
Dubuque & Sioux City
Dubuque South-wcstem .-.
Chicago.
Kenosha . .
Racine
Chicago. .
Peoria
Chicago...
Wilton....
Chicago...
Cairo
Peoria.
Toledo, O...
E. St. Louis.
Cincinnati . .
St. Louis
Pacific
«t. Louis....
Hannibal
Burlington . .
Keokuk
Dubuque —
Omaha. Neb
Milwaukee
Fort Howard, Wis..
Madison, Wis
Frecport
Uockford
Port Bvron
E. Burlington
Qnincy
Galesburg
Kellogg, Iowa
Washington
E. St. Louis
Dnnleith
Chicago
Bureau
Virginia
State Line
Keokuk, Iowa
Terre Haute, Ind...
E. St. Louis
Pilot Knob
Leavenworth, Kan.
Little Piney
Macon
St. Joseph
Chariton
Des Moines
Iowa Falls
Cedar Rapids
'i»4
85
242
irs
121
'.S
181
210
2liS
5.3
315
50
EHO
4M
US
47
11
111
4flO
189
340
87
809
89
170
2(16
l.SO
1112
14.S
79
TABLE OF CHIEF NAVIGABLE RIVERS.
The Iowa (length 300 miles) is navigable for steamboats to Iowa City
" Red Cedar " " " " " "
Des Moines
' 4B0
Missouri
' Xim
Osage '
' 400
Gasconade '
' wa
Maramec '
- ISO
Rock
' S30
Illinois
' 400
Kaskaskia *
' 300
2.50
to Great Falls 2.575
200
fiO
100
225
80 miles.
fiO "
to Ottawa.. .
to Vandulia.
160
Travels, Voyages, ctr. — What two important places are connected by the
Chicago and North-western Railroad ? By the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad ?
By the Pacific and Missouri River Railroad? AVhat is the distance by r.iilioad
from Chicago to Omaha? From Cincinn.iti to St. Louis? From St. Louis to
Leavenworth ? Through what places docs the Illinois Central run ? The Hanni-
bal & St. Joseph? The St, Louis, Alton, and Terre Haute?
How far is the Missouri navigable for steamboats ? The Illinois ? To what
place ? What is the length of the Osage ? The Rock River ? On what waters
would you sail in going from Peoria to Kansas Cit,y ? From Des Moines to Mt.
Carmel, 111. ? From Iowa City to Jefferson City ? From Topeka to Paducah ?
Council ]
lOMAH^miTY
. desmI5Tn'es
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rUYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
73
NEBKASKA, KANSAS, DAKOTA, INDIAN TERR..
WYOMING, COLORADO, NEW MEXICO.
LESSON XCII.
PHYSICAL GEOORAPHY.
Surface. — The western part of this section embraces several ranges
constituting the Rocky Mountain System, from the eastern base of
which the land gradually slopes toward the Mississippi, with a slight
southerly inclination.
In the eastern part there are do mountains; the country is mostly
rolling prairie, not thickly wooded, but containing some timber, par-
ticularly along the river-banks. This prairie-land gradually rises toward
the west to an elevated plateau, which, as it approaches the mountains,
becomes dry and sandy, forming an immense barren tract sometimes
called the "Great American Desert."
H Llano Estacado. — Of this sterile character is the vast region (nearly
as large as the state of New York) called " El Llano Estacado," the
staked plain, extending from western Texas into the south-eastern part
of New Mexico.
This region was so called because, having no other landmarks, the
Mexicans who had occasion to cross it drove stakes in the ground to
mark out their route. It is entirely destitute of trees, and during much
of the year of water also, a scanty growth of grass being all the vege-
tation it contains.
The Rocky llonntains. — The Rocky Mountains constitute the great
natural feature of this section of our country. Traversing the western
portion of the United States and British .America, they form part of
the great chain which, under different names, extends from near the
Arctic Ocean to the Strait of Magellan. Their length is not far from
3,000 miles, and their height ranges between 10,000 and 16,000 feet.
Fremont's and Pike's Peak, named after the persons by whom they
were first explored, are the highest summits of the Rocky Mountains
in the United States. The latter is noted for the rich deposits of gold
found in its vicinity.
The ascent of Pike's Peak is very difficult Two immense gorges
extend from the summit almost to the base. The top is covered with
blocks of coarse granite, and has an area of about sixty acres. It af-
fords one of the grandest of views, extending nearly a hundred miles
in every direction, and embracing the sources of four great rivers, —
tlie Nebraska, the Arkansas, the Rio Grande, and the Colorado.
Rivers. — On glancing at the Map of this section, the eye is at once
struck with the numerous rivers wending their way from the mount-
ains or the adjacent table-land, in an easterly or south-easterly course,
ultimately to swell the waters of the Mississippi. Most of them, how-
ever, are useless for purposes of navigation, being shallow at all times,
and in the dry season little more than a succession of pools. Even
the Nebraska, or Platte, which is 1,200 miles long, can be forded, ex-
cept during floods, in almost every part.
The Yellowstone And Arkansas are exceptions to this general rule.
The former is the largest, though.not the longest, affluent of the Mis-
souri. It is not far from 1,000 miles in length, and is navigable for
about three-fourths of its course.
The Arkansas is, next to the Missouri, the chief tributary of the
Mississippi, and, being unobstructed by falls or rapids, can be ascended
during nine months of the year a distance of 800 miles.
Manvaises Terres. — Mauvaises Terres (mo-vaze' tare), bad lands,is the
name given to a peculiar valley in western Nebraska, about 90 miles
long by 30 in width, abruptly depressed from one to three hundred
feet below the level of the adjacent table-land. The face of the valley
looks as if it had sunk away from the surrounding country, leaving
thousands of rugged and gigantic columns standing, which in the dis-
tance look like the walls of a ruined city. There are no trees or
shrubs, and in summer not a breath of air to relieve the heat reflected
from its ash-colored rocks.
Gold Deposits. — New Mexico and Colorado abound in mineral treas-
ures. The gold deposits in Colorado are for the most part found in
"lodes," — that is, in veins between walls of granite, mixed with quartz,
copper, and iron pyri'tes. They are thought to have had their origin
far down in the earth, and to have been thrown up by some convulsion
of nature through crevices in the granite rocks.
Hnnting-gronnds.— Tlie prairies of this section have been justly called
"the paradise of the hunter and trapper." Herds of buffaloes, still
large, though rapidly diminishing, wander over the plains. The Mis-
souri has at times been backed up, as by a dam, by the multitude of
these animals crossing the river.
LESSON XCIII,
Questions on Map of U. S. Ko. lO.
Latitnde. — Between what degrees of latitude is Kansas situated ? Wliat city
on tiie Atlantic coast is in about the same latitude as Leavenworth ? Baltimore.
Between what degrees of latitude is Nebraska situated ? What states on the At-
lantic coast lie in the same latitude? What states on the Pacific coast? How
many degrees is Golden City north of Santa Yd 1
Longitude. — Between what degrees of longitude is Colorado ? Between 102°
and 109° W. Ion. Between what meridians does New Mexico lie ? What lake in
British America lies in the same longitude as eastern Nebraska ? Lake Winnipeg.
What place in Mexico is in nearly the same longitude as Omaha ? V. C. What
is the longitude of Santa Fc ?
Exercise with Scale of Bliles. — What is the distance in a direct line from Fort
Riley to Santa Fe ? From Omaha to Yankton ? From Fremont's Peak to Pike's
Peak ? What is the length of Nebraska from cast to west ? The breadth of
Kansas from north to south ?
Monntalns and Passes. — Where are the Wind River Mountains ? What pass is
near them ? What pass is situated south-east of this ? What pass is on the
southern boundary of New Mexico ? El Poko. By which of these passes will the
Union Pacific R. R. cross the Rocky Mountains ? By Bridger's Pass. Describe the
situation of the Moro Peaks. The Witchita Mountains. The Sierra de San Juan.
Rivers. — Name the different forks of the Kansas River. In what lake does the
Yellowstone rise ? What river embraces the Black Hills between its North and
South Fork ? Which is the longest tributary of the Missouri ? Of the Arkansas ?
Of the Red ? What river rises near Santa F6 ? What rivers traverse New Mexico ?
What rivers rise in the Sierra de San Juan ?
Indian Tribes. — In what part of Indian Territory are the Cherokees located ?
The Creeks? The Seminolcs ? The Choctaws? What tribe is in the south-
western part of the territory ? Where is the Cherokee agency ? What other tribes
besides those laid down on the map are found in Indian Territory ? The Osages, Ca-
manches, Kioways, Pawnees, and Arrapahoes.
Railroads. — What great railroad runs west from Omaha ? The Union Pacific
Railroad. Beside what river does this road run for some distance ? What road
is it to meet ? J%e Central Pacific Bailroad, from San Francisco. What places
in Kansas are connected by a railroad following the Kansas valley ? Wyandoil
and Bawrence.
General Qnestions. — In what part of Colorado are most of the settlements ? In
what part of Dakota ? Of Nebraska ? Of Kansas ? Where is Fort Washita ? Fort
Atkmson ? Fort Lyon ? Fort Craig ? Fort Hall ? Fort Randall ? Kearney City ?
74
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
CALIFORNIA, OREGON, NEVADA, WASHINGTON,
IDAHO. MONTANA, UTAH, ARIZONA.
LESSON XCIV.
PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHT.
Snrface. — ^We have here that portion of the United States which
belongs to the I'acific Slope. It is the most elevated part of the
Union, several settlements in Utah being a mile above sea-level, while
some of the towns of Nevada are higher than the top of Mt. Mitchell,
the loftiest summit in the Atlantic States.
Soil. — Most of this section is dry and barren, its mountains and
desert table-lands being but occasionally interspersed with fertile strips
bordering the rivers and lakes. The region along the Pacific, however,
west of the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range, is of an entirely
different character, containing some valleys of remarkable fertility.
Slonntains. — Besides the Rocky Mountains and their various spurs
and outlying ridges, which traverse Idaho and Montana, there are
three important ranges farther west, — ^the Coast Range (parallel to the
Pacific, from 25 to 50 miles inland), the Cascade Mountains, and the
Sierra Nevada.
The Cascade Bange is so called from the rapids in the Columbia River,
where it makes its way through these mountains in a bed only 150 yards
wide. Among its very lofty peaks are Mounts Hood and Jefferson in
Oregon (the former, 14,000 feet high), and in Washington founts
Baker, Ranicr, and St. Helen's — ^the last-named a volcano.
The Sierra Nevada (snowy chain), which may be regarded as a con-
tinuation of the Cascade Range, is about 70 miles in width, the greater
p;irt of which is occupied by the western slope. The eastern slope is
only five or six miles wide, and terminates in the Great Basin. The
rains and snows of the Sierra Nevada are confined almost entirely to
its western slope ; hence, on its eastern side, it gives rise to no im-
portant rivers.
Mount Shasta, a peak of the Sierra Nevada, is among the loftiest
mountains in the United States. It is covered with perpetual snow
for a considerable distance from its summit, and can be seen in every
direction for more than a hundred miles.
The Great Basin. — The Great Basin is a vast sterile triangular tract,
from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level, bounded on the north by the
basin of the Columbia River, on the south-east by that of the Colo-
rado, and on the west by the Sierra Nevada. It embraces Nevada
and parts of Utah and California.
The Great Basin has a system of lakes and rivers of its own, not
communicating with the ocean. Most of its lakes have no visible out-
let, and its rivers either empty into these lakes or are lost in the sand.
The surface is in some parts covered with wild sage, and in others with
a saline or alkaline crust
Lakes. — ^The largest lake of this section is Great Salt Lake, 70 miles
long by 30 in width. Its waters, like those of Lake Mono in eastern
California, are so salt that no fish can live in them, and the human
body is supported with great case on their surface. In hot weather,
a thick crust of salt is left on the shore by evaporation. Great Salt
Lake resembles the Dead Sea in Palestine ; but instead of being de-
pressed 1,300 feet below sea-level, like the latter, it has an elevation
of about 4,000 feet.
Pyramid Lake, in the western part of Nevada, is so called from a
remarkable pyramidal rock, 600 feet high, which forms an island near
its eastern shore ; it is elevated nearly a mile above sea-level.
Mammoth Tree Groves. — Gigantic firs are found in various parts of
California, Oregon, and Washington ; but the Mammoth Tree, or Se-
quoia Gigantea, surpasses them in size, and indee<l all other trees in
the world. It is found only in California, on the western slope of the
Sierra Nevada, between latitude 34° and 41°. Only seven Mammoth
Tree groves have as yet been discovered.
Many of these enormous Sequoias, which are supposed to be 2,000
years old and upward, are 30 feet across and 300 feet in height; one
or two of thera, which have fallen, must even have been a third larger
than this. Dancing-parties are held on the stump of one of them
which has been cut down, and through the hollow trunk of another,
as it lies on the ground, a person can ride seventy -five feet erect on
horseback.
BDneral Wealth. — Most of this section, except Utah, is noted for its
mineral treasures, particularly the precious metals, which, despite all
difficulties, have attracted thousands of immigrants.
LESSON XCV.
Questions on Map of XT. S, No. 11,
Latltnde. — Between what degrees of latitude is California situated ? Between
about 32i° and 42' N. lat. What states on the Atlantic coast lie in the same lati-
tude? M., R. l, a, N. r., JV. J., D., M., v., N. a, and S. C. What sea in the
eastern continent lies in the same latitude ? M. What city in British America is
in neariy the same latitude as Olympia f Q. What European capital ? Berne.
LoDgitnde. — Between what degrees of longitude is California situated? Between
about 114i° and 124^° W. Ion. Which has the greater longitude, the most west-
erly point of California or that of Washington ? What lake in British America
lies in the same longitude as Great Salt Lake ? Great Slave Lake.
Hoimtaing. — Name two mountains in the southern part of California. Near
what town is Mt. Shasta ? What mountain in Califoniia is between the coast and
the Eel River ? Where is Mt Whitney ? Silver Mountam ? To what chain do
these two mountains belong ? •
Where are the Wahsatch Mountains? The Blue Mountains? The Three
Tetons ? The Salmon River Mountains ? What mountains traverse Arizona ?
Central Nevada ? Name three lofty peaks in Washington. Name two in Oregon.
What mountain is near Utah Lake ? What mountains are in the south-eastern
part of Nevada ? Where is Mt. San Francisco ?
Bivers. How far is the Columbia River navigable ? For large vesseh, to the
rapids at Dalles, 140 miles ; atidfor steamboats, above the rapids, to Wallula. Uow
far is the Willamette navigable ? To Portland. The Sacramento ? To Sacramento
City. The San Joaquin ? To Stockton, ISO miles from San Francisco. The Colo-
rado ? For steamboats of liffht draught, about 600 miles. Name the chief branches
of the Columbia. Of the Colorado.
Lakes. — ^What lakes does the Jordan River connect ? Of which of these is it
the outlet ? Which has ihe greater elevation, Utah Lake or Great Salt Lake ?
What other lakes are in Utah ? What lake is on the boundary between Nevada
and California ? Mention four other lakes in Nevada. Mention four in Califor-
nia. Wliat is the largest lake in Montana ? In Washington ?
Kallroads.— What railroad is to meet the Union Pacific Railroad, and thus
form a link in the chain of communication between the Atlantic and the Pacific?
The Central Pacific R. R. What is to be the western termmus of this road ? -San
Francisco. Wliat places are connected by the San Francisco and San Jose R. R. ?
8. F. and S. J. By the California Northern ? MarysvUle and Oroville.
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80
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
MEXICO, BALIZE, AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
TnK FLAG or "ItfEXICO.
LESSON CIV.
THE KEPUBLIC OF MEXICO.
Geographical Position, ete. — Mexico
lies cliiefly between the Gulf of Mexico
and the Pacific Ocean. Its greatest
length is about 2,000 miles, and its
breadth about 1,000. It is divided into
several states and territories.
Pliysieal Features. — The surface is
greatly diversified by mountain ranges
and lofty peaks, some of which are vol-
canoes. The interior is an elevated
table-land, sloping to the coasts, which
are generaUy low.
Soil, ete. — The soil in most parts is
very fertile. The climate is hot and sickly on the coasts, but more hfealthy
and agreeable in the interior. On the table-lands of the Sierra Madre, the
climate is cold ; on the slopes of the mountains, it is temperate. •
The productions, like the climate, vary at different elevations. Indian
corn and the banana are the staple products. The mag'uey, a variety of
the agave, or American aloe, furnishes a beverage called pulque {pull'ka),
of which the inhabitants are very fond. The cochineal insect, valuable for
the red dye which it affords, abounds on a species of the cactus plant.
Minerals are abundant, particularly gold and silver. Horned cattle are
numerous, and supply hides, etc., in great quantities.
Inhabitants, etc.— Nearly one-half of the inhabitants are Indians ; the re-
mainder are divided between the Creoles, or people descended from Euro-
pean parents (almost wholly Spanish), and the Mestizoes, or mixed races.
Tillage and mining form the chief pursuits ; in the greater part of Mexico,
manufacturing industry is scarcely known. The religion is that of the
Roman Catholic Church.
Traveling Fadiities. — Moat of the roads are poor. The only two good
carriage-roads lead from the capital to Vera Cruz. Mules are generally
used for the transport of both passengers and merchandise.
Mannfaetnres and Exports. — The chief articles manufactured are brandy,
sugar, olive-oil, paper, glass-ware, gunpowder, and soap. Bees'-wax is ex-
tensively collected in some parts. Of tlie exports, metals, cochineal, hides,
cattle, dyewoods, and medicinal herbs, are the most important.
Cities, ete. — Mexico, the capital, is situated in a vast plain of carefully
cultivated fields, inclosed by lofty mountains, about two miles from Lake
Tezcuco. The city is in the form of a square, and is inclosed by high
walls. It is noted for its numerous churches, convents, and squares. .
GuADALAXARA, situated near the Rio Grande de Santiago, is, next to
the capital, the largest and most interesting city. The natives of this
place manufacture jars of scented earth, which are in much request. La
Pdebla, a large city, lying about eighty miles south-east of Mexico, is
noted for its numerous churches, and its manufactures of soap, glass, iron,
and steel. The chief seaports of Mexico are Tampico, Vera Cbuz, Aoa-
PULCO, Mazatlan, and Guatmas.
YUCATAN. — This peninsula, a state of the Mexican Confederation, lies
between the Bay of Oampeche and the Caribbean Sea.
Physieai Features. — It is mostly level, and dc^cient in regular supplies
of water. In summer, the land is generally inundated to such an extent
as to interfere with agricultural operations.
Soil, ete. — The soil is poor, except in the south ; the climate is hot and
unhealthy. The chief products are logwood and mahogany. Maize, cot-
ton, rice, tobacco, cocoa-nuts, and sugar-cane, are sources of wealth to the
inhabitants. Cattle are numerous.
Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants are chiefly whites, though there are
numerous Indians. Agriculture forms the leading pursuit. There are no
manufactures of any note. Dyewoods, mahogany, salted meat, and hides,
form the leading exports.
Cities, ete. — Mekida, the capital, is situated about thirty miles from the
northern coast. It is connected with its port. Sisal, by a good road ; its
trade is inconsiderable. Campeche, about ninety miles south-west of
Merida, is the principal seaport of Yucatan.
BALIZE, OR BRITISH HONDURAS.
Geographical Position. — Balize, or Belize, is situated south of the penin-
sula of Y'ucatan, and west of the Bay of Honduras.
Surface, etc. — The coast is low and swampy, but the interior is hilly.
The soil is poor, and the climate, during the wet season, between the
months of June and September, is unhealthy. Forests are abundant, and
supply large quantities of mahogany and other timber. Wild animals,
birds, and turtles, are numerous.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Indians and nsgroes. Tlio
country is a colonial possession of Great Britain.
IHannfactnres and Exports. — No articles of any note are manufactured.
The chief exports are mahogany and other hard cabinet woods, cochineal,
tortoise-shell, sarsaparilla, and cocoa-nuts.
Balize, the capital of the colony, is situated on a river of the same
name.
CENTRAL AMERICA.
Geographical Position, etc.. — Central America lies between Mexico and the
Isthmus of Panama. It includes the Republic of Guatemala, the State of
Honduras, and the Republics of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and San Salvador.
Physical Features. — ^Lofty table-lands extend along the western coast,
from which the country descends in terraces. In the east are extensive
plains. There are numerous volcanoes along the Pacific coast.
Soil, ete. — The soil is generally rich. The climate varies according to
the elevation ; on the coast plains, it is hot. Indigo, cotton, sugar, cocoa,
mahogany, and logwood, are among the most important products. Indian
corn rice, beans, and plantains, are raised in abundance in some parts, and
form the staple food of the inhabitants. Cattle are numerous, particularly
in Nicaragua and Honduras. Birds of brilliant plumage are plentiful, and
minerals are abundant.
Inhabitants, etc. — About one-fourth of the inhabitants are whites, one-
half Indians, and the rest mixed races. Agriculture forms the leading pur-
suit, but it is rudely conducted. The religion is Roman Catholic.
Mannfacturcs and Exports. — Little attention is paid to manufactures. The
chief exports are indigo, tobacco, cofibe. Brazil-wood, cochineal, and hides.
Cities. — New Guatemala, th6 capital of the Republic of Guatemala, is
situated on a high plain about forty-five miles from the Pacific coast. The
houses are built only one story high, from fear of earthquakes.
CoMATAGTiA, the capital of Honduras, is situated 180 miles east of the
city of New Guatemala. Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, is situated
on the south bank of Lake Managua, about fifty miles south-east of Leon.
San Salvador is the capital of the Republic of San Salvador. This
city was abnost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1854; and, for a
time, the government was removed to Cojutepeque (lo-7u>o-ta-pa'ka). San
Josfi, situated in the interior, is the capital of Costa Rica.
THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY extends along the coast of Central America,
from Cape Honduras to the River San Juan. It is inhabited by a race of
Indians, who have always succeeded in maintaining their independence of
Spanish power. They regard their country as an independent state, under
the protection of the British Government.
THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS.
81
THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS.
LESSON CV.
Geographleal Position. — The West Indies comprise a number of islands,
extending between Nortli and Soutli America, and separating the Gulf of
Mexico and the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic.
How Divided. — Except Ilayti, which is independent, St. Bartholomew,
which is a Swedish colony, and several islands that are owned by Vene-
zuela, all the West Indies belong to Great Britain, Spain, Franco, Holland,
and Denmark. They are divided into the Bahama Isles, the Greater An-
tiltes, the Leeward Islands, the Windward Islands, and the Lesser Antilles..
The Leeward and Windward Islands are often classed together as the Car'-
ibbee Isles.
THE BAHAMA ISLES.
Geographical Position, etc. — This group lies south-east of Florida. They
number about 500 ; but many of them are uninhabitable coral roQks. The
surface of the islands is generally low and level.
Soil, etc. — The soil is light and sandy ; the climate, pleasant. The chief
article cultivated is cotton. Cattle and sheep are raised. Guinea and In-
dian corn, vegetables, and tropical fruits, grow on some of the islands.
Inliabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Creoles and negroes. The
exports are cotton, dye-woods, mahogany, turtles, fruits, and cotiee. Nas-
sau, on the island of New Providence, is the capital.
THE GREATER ANTILLES.
Geographical Positioc, etc. — The Greater Antilles lie between the Carib-
bean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, .and comprise the four large islands,
Cuba, Ilayti or San Domingo, Porto Rico, and Jamaica.
THE ISLAND OF CUBA.
Geographical Position. — Cuba, the largest of the West India Islands, lies
south of Florida, at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico. A mountain
range extends midway of the island, nearly its whole length.
Soil, et«. — The soil is fertile, and the climate warm, but generally healthy.
Tobacco, cotton, sugar, coffee, and various kinds of fruits, are produced in
abundance. Mahogany, cedar, ebony, etc., are found in the mountain districts.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Creole whites, blacks and
mulattoes (both slaves and free), Spaniards, and other foreigners. The
island belongs to Sj)ain, and is under the government of a Captain-General,
appointed by the crown. The whites are Roman Catholics.
Traveling Fatilltics. — Several i-ailroads have been constructed.
IMannfaetnres and Exports. — The manufactures are coarse woolens, straw
hats, cigars, etc. Tlic chief articles exported are sugar, coffee, molasses,
spirits, tobacco, cigars, wax, honey, copper ore, hard wood, etc.
Cities. — Havana, the capital and chief commercial city, is situated on a
fine harbor in the northern part of the island. Matanzas, an important
seaport, is situated on the northern coast, about fifty miles east of Havana.
THE ISLAND OF HAYTI, OR SAN DOMINGO.
Geographical Position, etc. — This large
island lies between Cuba and Porto Rico.
Tlie center is traversed by mountain
ranges.
Soil, etc. — The soil is fertile ; the cli-
mate is hot, and unhealthy to foreigners.
Among the leading products are coffee,
tobacco, cotton, cocoa, sugar, bees'-wax,
cochineal, and ginger. Mahogany, satin-
wood, logwood, etc., fonn important ar-
ticles of export.
FLAG OF llAVTI.
Inhabitants, etc. — Hayti formerly belonged to France and S[)ain ; the
former holding the western part of the island, and the latter the eastern.
It is now divided into two independent states, governed by free blacks.
The western part is called the Republic of Hayti, the eastern Dominica.
Port au Pkince, on the Bay of Gonaives, is the capital of the former, and
the principal seat of foreign trade. San Domingo, on the southern coast,
is the capital of the Dominican Reiiublic.
THE ISLAND OF PORTO RICO.
Gccgraphicai Position, etc. — Porto Rico lies east of Hayti, from which it
is separated liy Mona Passage. It is beautifully diversified with woods,
hills, and valleys, and well watered by small streams from the mountains.
The soil is rich and fertile ; the climate is unusually line.
Sugar, coffee, maize, and rice, are the staple products. St. John, the
capital and chief seaport, is situated on a small island off the northern coast.
THE ISLAND OF JAMAICA.
Geographical Position, etc. — Jamaica lies in the Caribbean Sea, south of
Cuba. It is well watered, and has many excellent harbors. The Blue
Mountains traverse
the island from east
to west. In the val-
leys the soil is fer-
tile, and the climate
hot. Sugar, molas-
ses, rum,indigo,cof-
fee, arrow-root, and
tropical fruits, are
the chief products.
Inhabitants, etc.
— By far the greater
part of the inhabitants are blacks.
The chief articles manufactured are a steamer RECErvraa coal at KraesTON.
sugar and rum, which, with mo-
lasses, coffee, cotton, and fruits, form the leading exports. Spanish Town,
on the west bank of the Cobre (ko'hra), is the capital. Kingston, the chief
commercial city, is connected with the capital by a railroad. Steamers
plying between Aspinwall and New York often stop at Kingston for a sup-
ply of coal.
THE CARIBBEE ISLES.
Geographical Position, etc. — The Caril)beo Isles extend from Porto Rico
to South America. Those north of the 15th parallel of N. lat. are called
the Leeward Islands ; and those south of that line, the Windward Islands.
Hurricanes of great violence are of frequent occurrence in the neighbor-
hood of these islands.
The Virgin Isles, a small group lying eact of Porto Rico, belong to
Great Britain ; as, also, do Barbuda, Antigua, Dominica, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent, Barbadoes, Grenada, Tobago, and Trinidad.
Dominica is of volcanic origin. Barbadoes, the oldest colony of Great
Britain, exports sugar, molasses, tamarinds, arrow-root, aloes, and ginger.
Trinidad, the largest of the Caribbee Isles, lies near the South American
coast. It exports cocoa, coffee, cotton, sugar, molasses, and hides.
Guadeloupe and Martinique belong to France. The former is divided
into two parts, by a river communicating at each end with the sea. Its
chief productions are sugar, coffee, cocoa, cloves, olive-oil, rum, ginger,
logwood, and tobacco.
THE LESSER ANTILLES.
The Lesser Antilles lie west of Trinidad, along the northern coast of
South America. Margarita, Tortuga, Orchilla, and Los Roques, belong to
Venezuela ; Buen Ayre, Curaf oa, and Oruba, to Holland.
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MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
83
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA,
SYSTEMATICALLY ARKANOEU.
LESSON CVI.
Conntries. — Bound each : — United States of Colombia, Venezuela (ven-
es-we'lah), British Guiana (ghe-ah'nah), Dutch Guiana, French Guiana,
Brazil', Uruguay (oo-roo-gwi'), Argentine {ar'jen- teen) Confederation, Pata-
gonia, Chili, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador {ek-wah-dore'), and Paraguay {pah-
rah-ffwi').
Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — Bogota (bo-go-tah'), Caracas
{Tcah-rali kalis), Georgetown, Paramaribo, Cayenne (ki-en'), Rio Janeiro
(ri'o ja-ne'ro), Montevid'eo, Buenos Ayres {lo'nos a'riz), Santiago, Sucre
(jsoo'kra), Lima (le'mah), Quito {ke'to), and Asuncion {ah-soon'ae-ovm).
Important Places in the F. S. of Colombia and Venezuela. — State the situation
of each: — Chagres, Aspinwall, FAnmna. (pan-a-mah'), Carthagena, Santa
Martha (sahn'tah mar'tah), Morapox (mom-poh), Socor'ro, Pasto {pahs'to),
Popayan {po-pah-yahn), Buenaventura {bwa-nah-ten-too'rah), — Maracay-
bo (mah-rah-ki'bo), Merida, Truxillo, Valencia {va/i-len'sAe-ah), Porto Ca-
bello, La Guayra {lah gwirah), Cumana (koo-mah-nah'), Barcelo'na, and
Angostura (ahn-goa-too'raK).
LESSON CVII.
Important Plaees in Brazil. — State the situation of each : — Obidos {o-be'-
doce), Santarein (sahn- tah-ren''), Macapa {mah-kah-pah'), Para (pah-rah'),
Maranhani', Caxias {kah-she ahs), Parnahiba {par-nah-eba/i), Natal {nah-
tahl ), Oeiras (o-a'e-rahs), Pernambuco (per-nahm-boo'ko), Bahia (bah-e'ah),
Porto Seguro {sa-goo'ro), Diaraantina (de-ah-mahn-te'nah), Ouro Preto
oo'ro pra'to), Sao Paulo {sown' ptjw'lo)* Dester'ro, Porto Alegre (ah-la'gra),
Cuyaba (koo-yah'bah), Matto Grosso {maht'to gros'ao), and Villa Boa {veeV-
lali ho'ah).
In Crngnay and the Argentine Confederation. — Jraldonado (mahl-do-nah' do\
Colonia (ko-lo'ne-ah), — Salta (sa/il tah), Tucunian {too-koo-mahn'), Corrien'-
tes, Santa F6 {sahn'tah fa\ Parana {pah-rah-nah'), Mendo'za, Catamarca
(kah-tah-mar kah), and Cor'dova.
In Chili and Bolivia. — Caldera {kahl-da'rah), Copiapo', Coquimbo {ko-
keem'bo), Qnillota {keel-yo'tah), Valparaiso {vahl-pah-ri'io), Talcahuana
(tahl-kah-wah'-nah), Concepcion {kon-sep-se-oirn'), Valdivia, San Carlos
{nahn kar'loce), — Tupiza (too-pe'sah), Cobija {ko-le'hah), Potosi {po-to'se),
Cochabamba {ko-ehah-iahm'bah), and La Paz {lah pahz).
LESSON CVIII,
Important Plaees in Pern, Ecnador, and Paraguay. — State the situation of
eacli : — Iluamanga {wah-mahng'gah), Cuzco {koos'ko), Puno {poo'-no), Are-
qnipa {ah-ra-ke'pah), Callao {kahl-lali'o), Pasco (pahs'-ko), Truxillo, Caxa-
marca {kah-hah-mar'kah), — Loja {lo'hah), Cuenca {kioen'kah), Guayaquil
{gwi-ah-keel'), Riobamba {re-o-bahm'bah), — and Villa Rica {veel'yah re'kah).
Islands. — Describe each : — Margarita, Trinidad, Joannes {zho-ahn'nes),
South Georgia, Falkland {fawk'land) Islands, Terra del Fuego {fwa'go),
Hermit, Desolation, Adelaide, Wellington, Chiloe {cheel-o-a'), Ju'an Fer-
nan'dez, St. Felix, and Galapagos (gal-a-pa'giis).
Peninsulas and Isthmuses. — Describe each: — St. Joseph, Tres Mon'tes,
and Isthmus of Panama.
Capes. — Describe each: — Gallinas {gahl-ye'nahs). North, St. Roque
{roke), Frio {fre'o), St. Antonio, Blanco, Horn, Tres Montes, and Blanco.
Honutain Ranges, el«. — Describe each : — Parime {pah-re'ma), Acaray {ah-
kah-ri'), Brazilian Andes, Vulcan, Andes, Geral {zha-rahV), Cordillera
* Sonnd Hw ae in now.
Grande {kor-dil-la rah grahn'da). — Mt. Aconcagua (ah-kon-kah'gitah), Mt.
Ulimani {eel-ye-mah'ne), Mt. Sorato {so-rah'to), Mt. Cliuquibamba {choo-ke-
bahm'bah), Mt. Chimborazo {chim- bo-rah'zo), Mt. Pichincha {pe-ehin'chah),
and Mt. Cotopaxi {ko-to-pax'e).
LESSON CIX,
Gulfs and Bays. — Describe each: — Darien, Venezuela, All 4^aint8, San
Matias {sahn mah-te'ahs), St. George, Pefias {pen'yahs), Guayaquil, Cho'-
co, and Panama.
Strait. — Describe it : — Magel'lan.
Lakes. — Describe each : — Maracaybo, Patos {pah'toce), Porongos {po-
ron'goce), Mirim {me-reen''), Aullagas {owl yah' gah»), and Titicaca {te-te-
kah'kah).*
Rivers. — Describe each : — Atrato {ah-trah' to), Magdale'na, Cauca {kow'-
kah), Orino'co, Ventuari {ven-too-aK re), Caroni {kah-ro-ne), Cassiquiare
{kahs-se-ke-ah'ra), Guaviare {gwah-ve-ah'ra), Meta {ma iah), Essequibo {es-
se-ke'bo), Surinam {soo-rin-am).
Amazon, Putumayo {poo-too-mi'o), Japura {hah-poo'rah), Negro, Bran-
co, Tunguragua {toon-goo-rah' gwah), Huallaga {icahl-yah' gah), Ucayale(oo-
ki-ah'la), Javary {hah-tah're), Purus {poo'roos), Madeira, Beni {ba-ne'),
Mamore {mah-mo-ra), Guapore {gwah-pora), Tapajos {tah-pah'zhoce),
Xingu {shing-goo'), Tocantins {to-kahn-teens ), and Araguay {ahr-ah-gwi ).
Parnahiba, San Francisco, Parahiba {pah-rah -e'bah), Rio de la Plata
{re'o da lah plah'tah), Uruguay, Parana, Paranahiba {pah-rah-nah-e'bah),
Grande {grahn'da), Paraguay, Pilcomayo {pil-ko-mi'o), Vermejo {ver-ma-
ho), Salado {sah-lahdo), Colorado, Negro, and Dulce {dool'sa).
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA,
PROMISCnOtJSLY ARRANGED,
LESSON ex.
I. How is South America bounded ? How far north does S. Ameriea extend ?
12J degrees north of the equator. Do any of the other grand divisions extend as
far south as S. America ? What city on Lake Erie is in about the same longitude
as Quito ? Buffalo. What countries of S. America lie wholly north of the equator ?
Which lie partly north and partly south of the equator ?
II. What is the most southerly country of S. America ? The most easterly ?
The most northerly ? The most westerly ? What is the most noted eastern cape
of S. America ? St. R. Southern ? Western ? Northern ? From what island
docs Cape Horn project ? Hermit Island. What rivers form most of the boundary
of Paraguay ? In what direction is Buenos Ayres from Santiago ? Lima from
Bogota ?
m. What city in the Argentine Confederation is opposite Santa F^ ? On what
river are these cities situated ? In what country is Cochabamba ? Mendoza ?
Angostura ? Popayan ? Cuzco ? On what river is Angostura ? Asuncion ? Obi-
dos ? Coirientes ? Of what river is the Cauca a branch ? What river connects the
Orinoco with the Rio Negro ? C. In what country is the source of the Amazon ?
IV. What mountain ranges are in Brazil ? What rivers form the Rio de la
Plata ? P. and tj. What rivers loi-m the Madeira ? What is the south arm of
the Amazon called ? The Para River. What island is at the mouth of the Ama-
zon ? In what direction are the Falkland Islands from Patagonia ? Terra del
Fuego from the Falkland Isles ? What lake is partly in Bolivia and partly in Peru ?
V. Of the countries of S. America, which border on the Caribbean Sea ? Which,
on-the Atlantic Ocean? On the Pacific Ocean? Through what countries do the
Andes extend ? What is the largest country of S. America ? Tlie smallest ? F. O.
The longest mountain range ? The longest river ? The largest city ? Rio Janeiro.
AVhat seaports are on the coast of the United States of Colombia ? Of Venezuela ?
Of Chili ? Of Peru ? Of Brazil ?
* The ontlet of Lake Titicaca is the Deeagnadero (det-ah-gwah^da'TO) River, which con-
nects it with Lake Aullagas.
84
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
ANTMilLS AND PLANTS OP 80CTH AHEBICA.
1.
Brazilian porcnpine.
9. Peccaries.
16. Brazilian eagle.
2.
Great ant-bear.
10. Little ant-eater.
17. Boa-constrictor.
3.
Llama.
11. American monkeys.
18. Ocelot.
4.
Alligator.
12. Jaguar.
19. Armadillo.
B.
Tapir.
13. Toucans.
20. Soa-lcopard.
6.
ChinclnUa.
14. MaCTws.
21. Hawk'B-bill turtle.
7.
Capybara. 8. Puma.
15. Condor.
23. Penguins.
a.
Wild convolvulus.
e. Pampas grass.
i. Great fan palms.
b.
Victoria rei;ia.
f. Sn<:ar-cf.ne.
j. Varieties of cactne.
c.
Branch of cocoa-tree.
7. Chili pines.
k. Bamboo.
a
Orchid (acinetum).
h. Sago palm.
I. Chilian julxea.
LESSON CXI.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Geographical PosKion, ete. — South America, a vast peninsula, occnpies the
southern half of the Western Continent. Its length from north to south
is about 4,000 miles, and its greatest breadth is about 3,000.
Physical Features. — Three great mountain systems diversify the surface :
viz., the Ande.s, which stretch along the western coast ; the Parime Mount-
ain.s, which extend along the southern border of Venezuela ; and the Bra-
zilian Andes, consisting of two ranges running parallel to the coast of
Brazil, with several diverging chains.
Between the Andes and the mountain systems of Venezuela and Brazil,
extends a vast plain. This plain may be divided into three parts, — the
Kegion of the Llanos, or savannahs (level grassy tracts), which occupy
most of the basin of the Orinoco ; the Region of the Selvas, or forest plains,
in the lower part of the basin of the Amazon ; and the Kegion of the Para-
jjas, or prairies, of the Argentine Confederation.
Inhabitants, History, et«. — Most cif the inhabitants are descendants of the
native Indians, either half-civilized or still in a savage state. The ruling
people are the descendants of Europeans, mostly Spaniards and Portuguese.
Nearly the whole of South America, for about three centuries before the
present, was under the control of European Governments.
Spain had a great part of the northern and almost all the western coast,
besides large tracts in the interior ; Portugal held the present emjjire of
Brazil. The different colonies established their independence in the course
of the first quarter of the present century.
The political divisions of South America are the United States of Co-
lombfa, Venezuela, British, Dutch, and French Ouiana, Brazil, Uruguay,
the Argentine Confederation, Patagonia, Chili, BoHvia, Peru, Ecuador,
and Paraguay.
THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA.
Geographical Position. — This country
occupies the north-western part of South
America, between the Pacific Ocean and
Venezuela. It extends westward to Costa
Rica in Central America, including the
Isthmus of Panama.
Physical Features. — Several chains of
tlie Andes overspread a large portion of
the country. East of these are extensive
plains.
Soil, etc. — The soil is exceedingly fer-
tile. The climate is not and unhealthy, except on the elevated table-
land. In the ujjlands, wheat and other grains are produced ; in the river
basins and along the coasts, coffee, cotton, cocoa, indigo, sugar, and to-
bacco, with various medicinal herbs and tropical fruits. The Llanos .afford
pasturage for immense herds of cattle and horses, and the forests are rich
OF fULO.MBIA.
SOUTH AMERICA.
86
in (lye and cabinet woods. Gold, silver, platina, and rock salt, are abun-
dant. About fifty miles north of Bogota are emerald-mines, which supply
a great part of the world with this precious stone.
Natural Cnrlosities. — Near the city of Bogota is the celebrated Cataract
of Teqncndama {ta-ken-dah'mah), in the river Bogota — a branch of the
Magdaleni. Its height is about 570 feet, and the width of the stream 86
feet. The Natural Bridges of Icononzo {e-Tco-nov! zo) are also much celebrated.
Inhabitants, ettt — The population is composed of whites, Indians, ne-
groes, and mixed races. Agriculture is in a rude state. The farmers are
occupied chiefly in raising live-stock. The Roman Catholic church prevails.
Trareling Facilities. — In the mountainous districts there are no roads, and
travelers are carried in a kind of basket-chair on the backs of porters. In
other parts, mules form the chief means of conveyance. Steamboats now
ply on the Magdalena, and a railroad spans the Isthmus of Panama.
Manafaetiires and Esporls. — Manufactures are of the simplest kinds. Com-
merce receives attention. The chief exports are hides, specie, and bullion.
Cities. — Bogota, the capital, is situated in a fertile plain on the Bogota,
nearly 9,000 feet above the level of the sea. The houses are built low, from
fear of earthquakes, and constructed of sun-dried bricks, whitewashed, and
covered with tiles. Churches and convents cover nearly half the city.
Carthagena is the chief seaport and naval arsenal of the republic. It is
connected with the Magdalena by a canal. Popatan lies in a fertile plain
near the Cauca River. The inhabitants are chiefly mulattoes and negroes.
THE REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA.
Geograpbleal Position. — Venezuela lies between the U. S. of Colombia on the
west and Guiana on the east, and extends from Brazil to the Caribbean Sea.
Physical Features. — The greater part of the surface is a vast plain. There
are some mountain ridges in the south and west.
Soil, etc. — The soil is very productive. The climate is warm. The year
is divided into two seasons, tlie wet and the dry. All the tropical prod-
ucts grow here luxuriantly. Animals and insects are numerous, and pearl
oysters are found along the coast.
Inhabitants, etc. — The population may be divided into three classes, —
whites, Inditins, and mixed races. The whites are engaged chiefly in agri-
culture and commerce. The religion is that of the Roman Catholic church.
TraTclIng Facilities. — There are no good roads or bridges. Traveling
and inland commerce are carried on by means of mules and llamas.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are few and simple ; the exports
consist of tropical plants, together with cattle and the articles they yield.
Cities, etc. — Cakaoas, the capital, lies in a valley, about 12 miles from its
port, La Guayra. Maraoaybo, on Lake Maracaybo, carries on an active trade
with the interior. La Guayba and Ccmana are seaports on the Caribbean
Sea. Angostura is the chief place of trade in the valley of the Orinoco.
LESSON CXII.
THE COLONIES OF GUIANA.
Geographical Position, etc. — Guiana lies east of Venezuela, along the At-
lantic, between the mouth of the Orinoco and that of the Oyapok. It con-
sists of three colonies, belonging to France, Holland, and Great Britain, —
called respectively, French, Dutch, and British Guiana.
Physical Features. — Along the coast, the land is low and flat. It is level
for some distance inland, but in the south is hilly and mountainous.
Soil, et*. — ^The soil is very rich, and vegetation is luxuriant. The cli-
mate is hot. On the coast there are two winters, or rainy seasons, and
two dry seasons, during the year. Valuable woods, spices, and tropical
plants, abound. Insects are numerous.
Inhabitants, ete. — The interior is inhabited chiefly by Indians ; the coasts,
by European settlers, negroes, and mixed races. Tlie leading pursuit of the
settlers is the cultivation of sugar and coffee. In French Guiana, the people
are Roman Catholics ; in British and Dutch Guiana, Protestants.
TraTelIng Faeilltiesi — The chief mode of traveling is by boats on the vari-
ous rivers. In some sections, canals are in course of construction.
Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Manufactures are few and unimportant. The
exports are coffee, sugar, rum, molasses, indigo, fruits, and spices.
Cities, etc. — Georgetown, the capital of British Guiana, lies on the east
bank of the Demerara (dem-er-ah'ra), one mile above its mouth. The
streets are traversed by canals. Paramaribo, the capital of Dutch Guiana,
is located on the west bank of the Surinam, about six miles above its mouth.
Cayenne, the capital of French Guiana, is situated on the island of Cay-
enne, near the coast. It is noted for its trade in Cayenne pepper.
THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL.
Geographical Position, etc. — This vast
I mpire comprehends the eastern, and
much of the central, part of S. America.
It has a coast line 3,700 miles in length.
Physical Features. — The northern part
of Brazil consists chiefly of a vast plain,
traversed by the Amazon and its tributa-
ries. The shores of the eastern coast are
low, but gradually rise to the mountainous
region, which runs parallel to the coa^t
from 20 to 150 miles inland. The water-
courses are lined with almost impenetrable forests.
Soil, Climate, etc. — The soil is fertile, and vegetation exceedingly luxuriant.
The climate is mild and agreeable, except in the north. As in all other re-
gions south of the equator, the order of the seasons is the reverse of ours ;
December, January, and February, are tlieir hottest months.
The banana forms the principal food of the Indians, and the flour of the
cassava-root is much used by the i>oorer classes. Other tropical produc-
tions are abundant. The forests swarm with wild animals, and birds of the
richest plumage ; the plains afford pasturage for thousands of wild cattle.
The diamond-mines of Brazil are exceedingly valuable.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants consist of whites (chiefly of Portuguese
descent), negroes, mixed races, and savage tribes of Indians. Among the
whites, the Roman Catholic church prevails.
TraTclIng Facilities. — All goods are transported on the backs of mules or
horses ; scarcely any part of the empire b passable for carriages.
FLAG or BBAZIL.
BNTltANCE TO THE BAY OF RIO JANEIRO.
Mannfactnres and Exports.— Manufactures are yet in their infancy. The
exports are sugar, coffee, cotton, hides, horns, tallow, jerked beef, cabinet
and dye woods, drugs, gold, and diamonds.
Cities. — Rio Janeuso, on the west side oi the Bay of Rio, is the capital
86
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
and principal seat of the foreig:n commerce of the empire. The houses arg
generally built of granite. Fountains, fed by a magnificent aqueduct, are
numerous. The environs of the city are exceedingly picturesque. Paba
exports considerable quantities of cocoa, caoutchouc ijcoo' chook) or India
rubber, Isinglass, rice, and drugs.
Peknambuco is an important commercial city. Bahia, a large and
flourishing seaport, lies on the east side of the Bay of All Saints.
THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY.
Geograpliieal Position. — Uruguay lies north-east of the Rio de la Plata,
and extends from the Uruguay Kiver to the Atlantic.
Physical Features, ete. — Along the coast, it is level and almost destitute
of trees ; in the center, mountainous ; and in the rest of the territory, un-
dulating. The soil is good ; the climate, though damp, is liealthy. Cattle
and horses form the wealth of -the inhabitants. Traveling facilities are
lew and inferior.
Inhabitants, ete. — Most of the inhabitants are Indians, — some civilized,
and others in a savage state. The whites are mostly Roman Catholics.
Alannfactores and Exports. — Manufactures are unimportant. The exports
are hides, beef, butter, hair, and feathers.
Cities, ete. — Moute- Video, the capital, has a good port on the left side
of the La Plata, and is the chief city of the republic. Mai.donado, on tlie
same estuary, 60 miles east of the capital, is a well-fortified seaport town.
LESSON CXIII.
THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
Gco^raphieal Position. — The Argen-
tine Confederation lies south of Bo-
livia, and north of Patagonia.
Physical Features. — In the north and
west, it is mountainous ; in the central
and southern parts are vast pampas,
or prairies.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally good,
but very little of it is under cultiva-
tion. In the mountainous regions and
on the coast, the climate is mild. The
fruits and plants of both temperate and tropical climes are produced ;
but cattle, horses, and mules, are the chief dependence.
Inhabitants, ete. — The population consists mainly of Spaniards, Creoles,
native Indians, and negroes. The shepherds of the pampas lead a wander-
ing life, capturing wild cattle by means of a lasso, which they use with
great dexterity. The religion is Roman Catholic.
Traveling Facilities. — The roads are better than in most parts of South
America. The rivers afford great facilities for transportation.
Manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of
coarse woolen stuiFs, leather, and turned wares. Hides, horns, horse-hair,
wool, ostrich-feathers, and salted meats, are the chief exports.
Cities. — Buenos Atkes, the capital, on the south-west side of the Rio
de la Plata, about 150 miles from its mouth, carries on an extensive trade
with the United States and Great Britain. Mexdoza, situated on a high
plain at the foot of the Andes, is the chief seat of the trade between Chili
and the Argentine Confederation. Parana, on the Parana Elver, is an
Important city.
PATAGONIA.
Geographical Position, etc. — Patagonia embraces the southern extremity
of South America, south of Chili and La Plata. The western part (which
is claimed by Chili) is traversed by the Andes ; the eastern consists of a
succession of terraces.
Soil, tU, — Little is known respecting the soil in the interior. Along
the eastern coast, it is sterile ; on and near the Rio Negro, it is adapted to
wheat and other grains. The climate is cold. Water-fowl and seals ft-e-
quent the rocky shores.
IKDIAN8 OF PATAGONIA.
Inhabitants. — The country is thinly inhabited by Indian tribes, who are
as barbarous as the country is desolate. They lead a wandering life, their
habitations consisting of a Iramework of stakes covered with the skins of
animals.
THE REPUBLIC OF CHILI.
Geographical Position.— Chili extends from the Desert of Atacama on the
north to Patagonia on the south, and from the Andes to the Pacific.
Physical Features. — The land is low on the coast, level in the central
parts, and broken and elevated as it approaches the Andes. ChiU has an
extensive coast, which affords several good harbors.
Soil, etc. — The soil of the midland vales is rich ; in other parts, it is sandy
and dry. The climate is temperate and healthy. In some parts of north-
ern Chili, years pass without rain, but dews are frequent and heavy.
Earthquakes often occur, and volcanoes are numerous. Indian corn,
wheat, and other grains, are extensively cultivated. Mmerals are abun-
dant, i)articularly silver and copper.
Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants are chiefly Spaniards, mestizoes, and
Indians. Agriculture and mining form the leading pursuits. The Roman
Catholic church prevails.
Traveling Facilities.— These are. as yet, few and imperfect. A railroad is
in progress from Valparaiso to the capital, a distance of 70 miles. The
tracks through the ravines are pass-
able only by mules.
Hannfactnres and Exports. — Tlie chief
manufactures are earthenware jars,
hempen cloths, cordage, soap, tallow,
leather, and brandy. The leading ex-
ports are metals, hides, wheat, jerked
beef, wool, and hemp.
Cities, etc. — Santiago, the capital, lies
at the foot of the Andes, on the river
Maypocha {mi-po' chah). The houses
are built low, from fear of earthquakes.
Valparaiso, on the Pacific const, is the chief seaport of Chili, and one of
the most flourishing seats of trnde on the western coast of S. America. Co-
QuiMBo, on the Coquimbo River, about a mile from the Pacific, is noted for
its trade in minerals and chinchilla-skins.
THE REPUBLIC OF BOLIVIA.
Geographical Position. — Bolivia lies north of the Argentine Confederation,
between Peru and Brazil. Part of its western frontier borders on the Pacific.
Physical Featnres. — The western part is traversed by ridges of the Andes;
in the east are extensive plains. The coast district is a sterile desert. The
great plateau containing Lakes Titicaca and Aullagas, is over 12,000 feet
above the level of the Pacific.
Soli, Climate, etc. — The soil is for the most part fertile ; the climate varies
FLAG OF CHILI.
SOUTH AMERICA.
SI
iiccoriling to tLe eloviition and distance from the e(iiiator. Id the high-
lands, Indian corn, wlieat, and other grains, are cultivated; in the lower
districts, various tropical fruits and plants. Cinchona-trees, from which
Peruvian bark is obtained, are numerous.
Inliabitants, ett, — Nearly three-fourths are eitlier Indians or mixed races.
Some of the native tribes are intelligent and industrious, while others are
still in a savage state. Agriculture and mining form the chief pursuits.
The white inhabitants are Roman Catholics.
Traveling Farilitles. — Roads are few and poor. Wheeled vehicles are
not used. Goods are transported on the backs of mules and horses.
Manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are few. Cotton goods, cloths
of llama and alpaca hair, glass-wares, leather, silver, and hats of vicuna
wool, are made to a limited e.xtent. The leading articles of export are
precious metals, wool, hats, and Peruvian bark.
Cities. — Sucre, the capital, lies in a fine valley upon the table-land of
the interior, about 9,500 feet above the level of the sea. It has a large and
handsome" cathedral. Cochabamba is situated in a rich and well-culti-
vated district, on the south side of a spur of the Andes. La Paz, on a
small tributary of the Beni, is the chief city, and carries on an extensive
trade.
LESSON CXIV.
THE REPUBLIC OF PERU.
Geographical Position, — Pei-u lies south of Ecuador and west of Brazil
and Bolivia.
Pliysieal Features. — It embraces three distinct regions : the mountainous,
or central district ; the narrow plain between the Andes and the ocean ; and
tlie great plains, which extend eastward from the Andes to the interior
of Brazil. Volcanoes are numerous.
Soli, etc. — The soil is fertile in some parts; the climate varies according
to the elevation. On the coast it is uniformly hot, and no rain ever falls,
though dense mists are of frequent occurrence.
Grains and rice flourish in the temperate districts; the warmer valleys
yield abundant crops of tropical fruits. The mountain region abounds in
minerals. The coca-plant, which is used instead of tobacco, is much cul-
tivated both in Peru and Bolivia. Guano, which is extensively used as a
manure, lias been largely exported from the little group of the Chincha
Islands, lying oft" the coast, about 150 miles from Lima.
Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are like those of the other South Amer-
ican states. The whites do not equal one-seventh of the entire population ;
they are mainly Romhn Catholics. The Indians of Peru are the descend-
ants of r.aces that had attained considerable civilization before the discovery
of the New World. Agriculture is the chief employment ; mining receives
some attention. Internal trade suffers much from the want of good roads.
Mannfaetnres and Exports.— Coarse cotton and woolen cloths, leather
cloaks, and jewelry, are manufactured to some extent. The exports con-
sist of gold and silver, chinchilla-skins, Peruvian bark, cotton, copper ore,
hides, guano, sugar, and the wool of the vicuna, alpaca, and sheep.
Cities.— Lima, the capital and largest city, is situated on the small river
Rimac (re-mai:'), about six miles from its port Callao, on the Pacific. Like
most Spanish cities, Lima has a large square in the center, where all the
streets terminate. Cczco, on a tril)utary of the Ucayale, is the chief city
in the mountain region, and the second in the country in population.
AuEyon-A is one of the best-built cities in Soi.th America.
THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR.
Gesgraphical Position.— Ecuador lies between tlie U. S. of Colombia and
Peru, and extends from Brazil to the Pacific Ocean.
Physical Features.- The western part is traversed by the Andes, and the
eastern forms part of the great central plain of South America.
Soil, etc. — The soil is fertile. Tlie climate on the coast is hot, wliile in
the table-lands it is that of perpetual spring, though this country lies in
the center of the torrid zone. The productions are similar to those of the
United States of Colombia. Turtles abound in the Amazon.
Inhabitants, etc. — Indians and mestizoes form the bulk of the population.
The white inhabitants are Roman Catholics. Agriculture and mining are
the chief employments.
Traveling Facilities. — The roads are poor. Inland commerce is carried on
by means of mules. The torrents and chasms are spanned by rope bridges.
Manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are confined chiefly to the
weaving of cotton cloth, and the making of quilts, carpets, and pottery.
Cities.— QriTo, the capital, lies nearly under the equator, on a slope of
the volcano of Pichincha, at an elevation of 9,000 feet above the sea.
A SOUTU AMERICAN FOEEST.
Owing to the inequalities of the ground on which this city is constructed,
its streets are uneven ; and so numerous are the crevices of the mountain
that many of the houses are built on arches.
Guayaquil, the chief seaport, lies on the west bank of the Guayaquil
River. The harbor is good, and large ships can ascend to the town.
THE REPUBLIC OF PARAOUAY,
Geographical Position. — Paraguay, an inland peninsula of South America,
lies south of Brazil, between the rivers Parana and Paraguay.
Physical Features. — It is generally level. A mountain chain traverses
the center of the country, forming a water-shed for several small streams.
Soil, etc.— The soil, particularly in those tracts tliat are inundated during
the rainy season, is very fertile ; the climate is moist and temperate. Grain,
rice, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and yerha mate, or Paraguay tea, are among
the cliief products. Various drugs, such as sarsaparilla, rhubarb, jalap,
nux vomica, and Peruvian bark, are abundant.
Inhabitants, etc. — Most of the inhabitants are Indiars, partially civilized ;
the whites, however, are the ruling people. The latter are mostly Roman
Catholics. Agriculture and the raising of cattle form the leading pursuits.
TraTeling Facilities. — The Paraguay River affords the chief means of
transportation and travel.
Manufattnres and Exports. — There are no manufactures of note; among
the chief exports are liides, tallow, horns, horses, and Paraguay tea.
Cities, etc. — Asunxiox, or Assumptiox, the capital, lies on the left bank
of the Paraguay, and carries on considerable trade, chiefly in tea, hides,
and timber. Vii.ia Rica ranks next to the capital in importance.
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MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
91
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
SYSTEMATICALLY ABKANGED.
LESSON CXX.
Conutrics. — Bound each : — Scotland, England, Wales, and Ireland.
Capital Cities. — State the situation : — Edinburgh, London, Dublin.
Important Places in Seotland, — State the situation of each : — Thurso,
Inverness', Aberdeen', Montrose, Dundee, Perth, Dunfermline {dum-fer'-
lin), Lcith, Haddington, Kelso, Hawick (kaw'wik), Gretna Green,
Dumfries, Kilmar'nock, Paisley (paze'le), Glasgow, Dumbar'ton, Green-
ock, Falkirk (fawl'kirk), and Stirling.
In England. — State the situation of each : — Berwick, Newcastle,
York, Hull, Norwich {nor'rij), Yarmouth, Ipswich, Colchester (kole'-
ches-ter), Greonvfich (ffrin'ij), Chatham, Canterbury, Dover, Brighton,
Portsmouth, Southampton, Exeter, Plymouth.
Bath, Bristol, Cheltenham, Hereford {her'e-furd), Shrewsbury,
Chester, Birkenhead, Liverpool, - Preston, Lancaster, Carlisle, Leeds,
Bradford, Bolton, Manchester, SheSiold, Nottingham, Leicester (les'ter),
Wolverhampton, Birmingham, Cambridge, Oxford, — Newport, and
Doufflas.
LESSON CXXI.
Important Places In Wales. — State the situation of each : — Bangor,
Merthyr Tydfil, Swansea (swon'se), I'embrokc, and Cannar'then.
In Ireland. — State the situation of each : — Londonderry, Colerainc',
Belfast, Armagh [ar-mah'), Dundalk [dun-daiok'), Drogheda {droh'lie-
da), Kingstown, Wicklow, Wexford, Waterford, Queensto wn, Cork, Ban-
try, Killar'ney, Limerick, Galway (gawl'way), Westport, Sli'go, Done-
gal, Carrick, Athlone', Kilkenny, Cash 'el, Tippera'ry, and Clonmel'.
Islands. — Describe each : — Orkney, Hoy, Mainland [see Small Map),
— Wight, — Channel {see Small Map), Alderncy (awl'der-ne), Guernsey,
Serk, Jersey, — Lundy, Hol'yhead, Anglesea {ang'rfl-se), Man, Arran.
Hebrides, Islay {i'la), Jura, Col'onsay, lona. Mull, Statla, Tiree
{tir-e'), Hum, Skye, — Barra, South Uist (wisl), North Uist, Lewis, —
Rathlin, Valcntia, Arran, and Achil (ak'il).
LESSON CXXII.
Capes.— Describe each: — Wrath, Dunnet Head,* Duncansby Head,
Kinnaird's Head, Flamborough Head, Spurn Head, St. Alban's Head,
Start Point, Lizard Point, Land's End, Ilartland Point, — Mal'in Head,
Clear, Miz'eu Head, Slyne Head, Erris Head, and Telin Head.
Monntains. — Describe each : — Grampian Hills, Chev'iot Hills, —
Slievebloom. — Ben Ne'vis, Ben Lo'mond, Snowdon, and Cad'er-Id'ris.
Firths t and Bays. — Describe each : — Pentland, Dornoch, Moray,
Tay, Forth, the Wash, Mount's, Barnstaple, Carmarthen, St. Bride's,
Cardigan, Morecarabe, Solway, Lnce, Clyde, Lorn, — Dundrum, Dun-
dalk, Long Island, Bantry, Kenmare', Dingle, Tralee', Galway, Clew,
Sligo, and Donegal.
Straits and Sounds. — Describe each : — Dover, Menai (men'i). Jura,
Sleat, the Little Minch, and the Minch.
LESSON CXXIII.
Cbanncls. — Describe each : — English, Bristol, St. George's, and
North.
Lakes. — Describe each : — Loch Ness, * Lomond, Windermere, —
Lough Neagh (na), f Erne, Allen, Gara (ffah'ra), Mask, Corrib, Derg,
and Killarncy.
Bivcrs. — Describe each : — Spey (spa), Dec, Tay, Tweed, Tyne,
Wear, Tees, Ilumber, Ouse (ooz), Swale, Ure, Aire, I'rent, Nen, Ouse,
Wensum, Orwell, Stour, Tliames (iemz), Avon, Severn, Wye, Dec,
Mersey, Kibble, — Boyne, LifFey, Slan'ey, Barrow, Nore, Suii- (shure),
Blackwater, Lee, and Shannon.
* Capes are Bometimes called Heada, and Foinit. \ Friths are called Firths in Scotland.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.
LESSON CXXIV.
I. What seaport of France is in nearly the same longUiide ai5 London? Havre.
Which is farther east, London or Edinburgh V What places are in the vicinity
of London? On which side of the
Thames is Lambeth ? Greenwich ? In
what direction is Wallham Abbey
from London ?
II. Which extends farther west,
Ireland or Portugal ? What place in
Scotland is farthest north ? Faitlicst
east ? What place is on the outlet of
Loch Ness? What canal connects
Loch Ness with the western coast ?
What islands are off Land's End ?
The Sci/li/ (si/'le) Isles.
III. On what waters would a per-
son sail in going from London to
Hull ? Fiom Hull to Edinburgh ? From Glasgow to Dublin ? From Dublin to
Liverpool ? What is the longest river of Scotland ? T/ie Forth, 170 miles. To
what place is it navigable ? S. The longest river of England ? The Tliames, 215
mUes. To what place is it navigable ibr large vessels ? L. To what place is the
Shannon navigable ? To Limerick. What is its length ? 225 miles.
IV. How are the Shetland Islands situated ? North-east of the Orkney Is/amis.
Name some of the principal of the Shetland Islands. (See Small Map.) How many
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ inhabitants do the Hebrides contain ?
fL,^v7iliVl^ojrR■■vlA^cIlK.sT^^^ ^^ ^iowHOO.OOO. For what is Valeu-
tia Bay noted ? J/or being tlie east-
ern iermiiivs of the Atlantic Tele-
graph. What bay is the western
terminus ?
V. Which is the largest lake in
Scotland? L. In England? W. In
Ireland ? JV. What is the loftiest
mountain in Great Britain ? &ii N.
In Wales ? Ml. 8. What place is
at the mouth of the Mersey, opposite
Liverpool ? On what river is Man-
chester ? Of what river is the Irwell
a branch ?
VI. Mention some places in the vicinity of Manchester. What ports are oiipo-
site the Isle of Wight ? What is the northernmost point of Ireland called ? What,
the southernmost ? What five bays are between Cape Clear and the mouth of
the Shannon ? Mention some places on the eastern coast of Ireland. On the
southern coast. On the western coast.
* Lakes are called Lochu (lohi) in Scotland, and Loughs (foks) in Ireland.
t The outlet of Loui;Ij NeUKh is tlic Bauu Itiver, which empties into the North Channel.
92
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPnY.
LESSON CXXV.
E U K O P E.
Geographical Position, etc. — Europe, one of the grand divisions of the
Eastern Hemisphere, hes west of Asia and north of Africa. Its greatest
length is 2,400 miles, and its extreme breadth 2,300.
Pliysieai Fcatnrcs. — The mountain chains of Europe may bo divided into
four systems : tlie Scandinavian, wliich traverses Norway and Sweden ;
the Alps, of which most of the mountains of Franco, Germany, Austria,
Turkey, and Italy, are branches ; the Pyrenees, between Franco and Spain,
to which several parallel chains that traverse Spain belong ; and the Car-
pathian, which stretches through the north-eastern part of Austria. A
vast plain extends from western France through Belgium, Holland, north-
ern Germany, Prussia, and Russia, to the foot of the Ural Mountains. The
surface of Europe is everywhere well watered.
Inliabitants. — About nine-tenths of the population belong to the Cauca-
sian race. They are divided into three principal families : the Teutonic
or German, inhabiting the northern and central parts of the continent, —
the Slavonic, found in the eastern portion, — and the Celtic, in some small
parts in the west. The south of Europe is occupied by a race in which
these three great families are blended. The rest of the population belong
to the Mongolian race ; these are the Finns and Laplanders, — tlie Samoiedes
and Kalmucks, in Russia, — the Turks, — and the Magyars, of Hungary.
The chief political divisions of Europe arc Norway, Sweden, Russia,
ANIMALS AND PLANTS OK EUROPE.
10. Goose. 19. Red deer.
11. Pig. 20. Ibex.
12. Sheep. 21. ChamoiB.
13. Goat. 22. Shrimp.
14. Bull. . 2.3. Lobster.
15. Ass. aj. Craw-fish.
16. Wolf. 25. Muscles.
17. Boar. 26. Crab.
18. Browu bear. 27. Prawu.
g. Corsican pine.
h. Cypress.
i. Oak.
Turkey, Greece, Austria, Italy, Franco, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Holland,
Prussia, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland.
THE KINGDOM OF NORWAY.
Geograpiiieai Position. — Norway, the most northerly country of Europe,
occupies the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula.
Pliysieal Featnres. — The surface is mountainous, abounding in romantic
scenery ; the coast is deeply indented by numerous^on/*, or salt-water inlets.
Soli, cte. — The soil is generally poor ; in some places it is so shallow as
not to admit of being plowed. The winters are long and cold, and the
summers warm, but of short duration. Vegetation is extremely rapid, on
the return of summer. Rye, barley, oats, and potatoes, are the chief agri-
cultural products. Fruit-trees are not common. Tlie rivers, seas, and
lakes, abound with fish. Iron and copper are the most abundant minerals.
Inliabitants, etc. — The Norwegians are of Gerraano Celtic origin. Their
chief pursuits are raising cattle, mining, and fishing. Lutheranism prevails.
Traveiing Facilities. — There are no railroads, canals, or public coaches, in
the kingdom. Stations have been established about ten miles apart, at
which the neighboring farmers are obliged to furnish travelers with horses
and drivers for a sum fixed by government. Few of the rivers are navigable.
Mannfactnrcs and Txports. — Manufactures are few, and limited chiefly to
useful articles for domestic and agricultural purposes. The exports are
iron, copper, fish, timber, cod-liver oil, turpentine, and horses.
EUROPE.
93
Cities. — CiiiiisTiANiA, tlie nominal capital, at the head of Christiania Bay,
is tlie chief seat of foreign trade. Bekgen, on the western coast, derives
its chief importance from being the entrep6t of the Norwegian fisheries.
THE KINQDOM OF SWEDEN.
Geograpliieal Position. — Sweden occupies the eastern and larger portion
of the Scandinavian Peninsula.
Pliyslcal Featnres. — The country is mostly level, abounding in lakes and
small rivers. One-fourth of the surface is covered with forests of beech,
oak, fir, pine, birch, etc.
Soil, etc. — The soil is not generally good, and only a small part of the
country is under cultivation. During the winter, which lasts about seven
months, the ground is covered with snow. The products resemble those
of Norway, except that here a surplus of corn is raised, while in Norway
there is not enough for home use.
Natural Curiosities. — There are several interesting cataracts, the most
noted of which are the Falls of Trolhoetta (trol-hef to), in the Kiver Gota,
about fifty miles from Gottenburg.
Inliabitants, ete. — The inhabitants are styled Swedes. They are of the
same origin, and speak a different dialect of the same language, as tlie Nor-
wegians. The leading pursuits are the rearing of live-stock, mining, and
commerce. The prevailing religion is that of the Lutheran church.
Traveling Fatlllties. — These are similar to those of Norway, with the ad-
dition of canals, by which water communication is maintained from the
Baltic Sea to tlio Strait of Cattegat, across the southern part of Sweden.
Dlannfactiires and Exports. — Manufactures are not extensive. The exports
are mainly timber, grains, and the produce of the mines.
Cities, etc. — Stockholm, the capital of Norway and Sweden, which are
united under one government, is built on some small islands, at tlie entrance
of Lake Ma'lar. Its situation is extremely picturesque, and it is the chief
commercial emporium of Sweden. Gottenbdbg, at the mouth of the Gota,
ranks second in commercial importance. Caklsorona, situated on some
small islands off the southern coast, is the naval arsenal of Sweden.
LESSON CXXVI.
THE EMPIRE OF RUSSIA (EUROPEAN).
Geograpliical Position, etc. — This vast
empire occupies the eastern jjortion of
Europe. Its length, from the Black Sea to
the Arctic Ocean, is about 1,700 miles.
Pliysieal Features. — Tlie country is
chiefly a plain. The Ural Mountains, in
the eastern part, divide Russia in Europe
from Russia in Asia.
Soil, et«. — In the north the soil is
marshy and poor, and there may be said
to be only two seasons, tlie heat of sum-
mer being immediately followed by the
In the south, the land is tolerably fertile, and
EnSSIAN MEKCUANT FLAG.
frost and snow of winter,
the climate temperate.
Forests are numerous, and furnish timber, pitch, potash, and turpentine,
in abundance. Fur-beaiing animals abound along the borders of the Arctic
Ocean. Corn, rye, and barley, are among the important products. Fruits
flourish in the south, and cattle are numerous in every part of the empire.
The most extensive iron-works of Russia are near Lake Onega.
Inbabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chieily of the Slavonic race. Tar-
tars inhabit the south-eastern part of the empire. Agriculture and com-
merce are the leading pursuits. The Greek church prevails.
Traveling Facilities. — Much attention has been given of late to the con-
struction of railroads. By means of canals, the seas, lakes, and rivers of
the empire are united in a complete system of internal navigation.
Dlanufactarcs and Exports. — Manufactures are on the increase; among
the most important articles are glass, metal-wares, hempen fabrics, and
leather. The foreign trade of Russia consists in the exchange of her native
products, such as tallow, hides, grain, iron, hemp, furs, and timber, for the
luxuries and finer manufactures of other countries.
Cities, etc.- — St. PETEnsBtino, the capital and chief commercial city, is
buUt partly on islands at the mouth of the River Neva, and partly on the
adjacent main-land. Communication between diflierent parts of the city is
kept up in summer by bridges of boats ; and on the ice, in winter.
Moscow, situated on the River Moskva, is a large city, and the center
of a great inland commerce. Warsaw, the ancient capital of Poland, has
lost much of its importance since the downfall of Polish independence,
though it is still the great seat of trade for Russian Poland.
Archangel, on the right bank of the Dwina, is the chief seaport of
northern Russia ; and Odessa, on the north-western shore of the Black Sea,
is the principal emporium of the .south. AsTEAcnAN, on an island in the
Volga, is the center of the maritime commerce of Russia with western
Asia, and the chief seat of the fisheries of the Caspian Sea and the Volga.
LAPLAND, a cold and barren country of northern Europe, belongs partly
to Russia and partly to Sweden; its boundaries are not very definite.
In winter, the cold is excessive ; the summers are hot and very short.
In the parts north of the Arctic Circle, the sun is constantly visible for a
number of weeks about midsummer, and invisible for the same period about
Christmas. The Laplanders live chiefly in tents, and are clothed with skins
of reindeer and other animals. Herds of reindeer constitute the wealth of
the inhabitants. With a couple of these animals attached to a small sledge,
a Laplander will travel fifty or sixty miles a day.
TlIE CAUCASIAN PROVINCES. — This name is applied to the countries be-
tween the Black and the Caspian Sea, including Caucasus, Daghestan (dah-
gMs-tahn'). and Circassia, in Europe, and Georgia, in Asia. These prov-
inces are under the dominion of Russia, except Circassia, which, though
claimed by Russia, is in fact independent. The Circassians are regarded
as the finest type of the human family. Georgia will be treated of among
the countries of Asia, to which, geographically, it belongs.
THE EMPIRE OF TURKEY (ETJKOPEAN).
Geographical Position.— European Turkey occupies part of the most east-
erly of the three great peninsulas of southern Europe.
Physical Featnres. — A chain of mountains traverses the central part of
Turkey, from which a diverging branch passes south into Greece. The
other principal mountains are the Caqiathian, on the northern frontier,
and the Dinaric (de-n&r'ie) Alps in the north-west.
Soil, etc. — The Foil is exceedingly fertile; but only a small portion is
cultivated. The climate in the north is changeable, while in the south it
is generally mild and pleasant, though not warm for the latitude. Rice,
cotton, tobacco, hemp, flax, and barley, are cultivated in the central and
northern districts; grapes, figs, olives, oranges, and other fruits, are plenti-
ful in the south. Turkey is noted for its opium and rhubarb.
The southern base of the Balkan Range is remarkable for the abundance
of its roses, fi-om which the celebrated attar, or otto, of roses is distilled.
Inhabitants, ete. — The Turks, though but a small part of the population,
are the ruling people. Tlie rest of the inhabitants are mostly Greeks, Ar-
menians, and Jews. The Turks spend much of their time in the bagnios
(ban'yoze), or baths. They sit, eat, and sleep, on the floor, on cushions, or
sofa mattresses and carpets. The women, when they appear in the streets, are
so muffled and veiled that they cannot be recognized. The Turks are Mo-
hammedans; most of the other inhabitants belong to the Greek church.
Traveling Facilities. — Very few of the roads are passable for cari-iages ;
horses or mules are generally employed for the conveyance of both passen-
gers and goods. There are neither canals nor railroads.
94
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHT.
ManDfactares and Exports. — The manufactures of Turkey are chiefly car-
pets, silks, and goat-skin morocco. The cliief exports consist of these ar-
ticles, together with leeches and various drugs and fruits.
Cities. — Constantinople, the capital of both European and Asiatic Tur-
key, is built on a tongue of land on the west side of the Strait of Bosporus,
and on a bay known as " the Golden Horn."
Adeianople, the second city of Turkey in population, lies near the Ma-
ritza, in one of the most fertile plains in the world. Its mosques and pub-
lic baths are numerous. Salonica, at the head of the Gulf of Salonica, is,
next to Constantinople, the most important commercial city.
THE KINGDOM OF GREECE.
Gpograpliiral Position, etc.— This small kingdom lies south of Turkey. The
southern part forms a peninsula called the Morea, which is connected with
northern Greece by the Isthmus of Corinth.
Physleal Features. — The surface is mountainous, interspersed with valleys.
Soil, etf. — The soil is fertile in the valleys, and the climate is warm and
delightful. The winter is short. The chief productions are grain, rice,
cotton, figs, dates, pomegranates, citron, oranges, honey, etc. Slieep and
goats are numerous. The fiesh of goats is used for food, and their skins
are made into vessels for holding wine, oil, honey, and other liquids.
Inhabitants, ett. — The inhabitants are the mixed offsiiring of the descend-
ants of the ancient Greeks, and the various nations of Slavonic origin. A
large portion of them are shepherds. The Greek church prevails.
Travelinft Facilities. — These are similar to those of European Turkey.
There are few roads in the interior of the country.
Mannfaftnres and Exports. — Manufectures are few ; the exports are mainly
currants, cotton, olivo-oil, valonia (a species of acorn used by tanners),
drugs, and dried fruits.
Cities, ete. — Athens, the cajiital, situated in a small plain near the Gulf
of Egina, is celebrated chiefly for the numerous remains of its former works
of art. The principal of these is the Acropolis, or citadel, which crowns
the summit of a lofty hill in the midst of the city. Athens is also noted as
having been the birth-place of the most illustrious sages, jdiilosophers, war-
riors, and i>oets, of ancient times. Patius, on the Gulf of Patras, is the
principal seat of the foreign trade of Greece.
LESSON CXXVII.
THE EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA.
Geograpliital Position, ete. — This ex-
tensive empire is situated in central Eu-
rope, and extends from Germany, Prus-
sia, and Russia on the north, to Italy
and Turkey on the south. Its princii>al
divisions are Bohemia, Moravia, the
Archduchy of Au.stria, Styr'i.a, Illyria,
Tyr'ol, Galicia or Austrian Poland, Hun-
gary, Transylvania, Banat (hah-nahf),
Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, and the Mil-
itary Frontier.
Pliysleal Features. — The surface is consideralily diversified. It is traversed
l)y the Alps, the Carpathian Mountains, and other ranges. In Slavonia
and Hungary are extensive plains and marshes.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally good. The climate is cool and clear in
the north, but moist, warm, and frequently cloudy in the south.
Grain, flax, hemp, rice, olives, vines, hops, tobacco, and a great variety
of fruits, are among the chief agricultural products. Hungary produces
more wine than any other country in Europe, except France. I^ecches are
numerous in the marshy districts of the empire. In minerals, Austria
ranks among the richest countries of Europe.
ADSTBIAN USBCHANT yLAQ.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants belong to three principal families ; the
German, Slavonian, and Hungarian or Magyar. Agriculture, mining, and the
raising of sheeji, form the leading pursuits. The religion is Roman Catholic.
Traveiing Facilities. — Commodious roads have been constructed across
upward of sixty of the mountain passes of the empire. Besides these, there
are numerous other highways and several railroads.
Jlannfactnres and Exports. — Silk, wool, cotton, glass, flax, and paper, are
among the chief articles manufactured ; but Austria is not noted as a man-
ufacturing country. The leading exports are corn, wine, wool, minerals,
timber, hides, porcelain, glass, leeches, and cattle.
Cities, ete. — Vienna, the capital of Austria, situated on an arm of the
Danube, is the great center of inland commerce, and the chief manufactur-
ing city of the empire. Pkague, the capital of Bohemia, with its numer-
ous domes, turrets, and spires, looks like an oriental city.
Trieste, situated near the head of the Adriatic Sea, is the chief seat of
the foreign commerce of the empire. Ship-building is here extensively
carried on. Lemberg, the capital of Galicia, is noted for its January Fair,
which lasts six weeks. Furs are brought from Siberia and Tartary, and
exchanged for hardware and woolen and cotton goods.
Buda, the capital of Hungary, on the western side of the Danube, com-
municates by a handsome suspension-bridge with Pesth, its chief commer-
cial city. The Legislative Assembly of Hungary meet at Presbckg, on the
left bank of the Danube, thirty-five miles below Vienna.
THE RIALTO, VEMICE.
THE KINGDOM OF ITALY.
Geographiral Position, etc. — Italy occupies the great central peninsula of
southern Europe. It was formerly divided into several seiiarate kingdoms,
duchies, etc. ; but at present all these, except the States of the Church,
which are ruled by the Pope, and the Republic of San Marino {mah-re no),
are united under one government, known as the Kingdom of Italy.
Physirjil Features. — Tlie country is generally mountainous, though there
are some level districts in the north and west. The Apennines traverse
the peninsula from north-west to south-east.
Soil, el*. — The soil is remarkable for its fertility, and the climate is warm
and delightful. Wlieat, corn, rice, cotton, silk, olives, and a great variety
of fruits, are among the principal productions. In the south, the sugar-
cane, orange, and fig, are cultivated. Iron, lead, sulphur, alabaster, lava,
and marble, are found in considerable quantities.
Inhabitants, etc.— The Italians are not one of the primitive tribes of Eu-
rope, but a mixed race, descendants of Greeks, Germans, Gauls, etc. Ag-
riculture is the leading pursuit. The religion is Roman Catholic.
Traveling Facilities. — The principal roads are well built and kept in good
order. The important cities are connected by railroads. In the north are
numerous passes over the Alps, by which, with the aid of mules, commu-
nication is carried on with France, Switzerland, and Germany.
EUROPE.
S?
Manufaetnres and Exports, — The manufactures of Italy, if we except silk,
straw hats, artificial fl<3wers, and musical instruments, are not extensive.
The chief exports are raw silk, kid and lamb skins, olive-oil, straw hats,
wines, fruits, coral, anchovies, sulphur, cheese, and perfumery.
Cities, ete. — Florence, the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and the
chief city of Tuscany, lies in a delightful valley, on both sides of the river
Arno. It is celebrated for its collections of paintings and statues.
Naples, delightfully situated on a bay of the same name, is the most
populous city of Italy. In its vicinity are Mount Vesuvius, and the an-
cient'buried cities of Ilerculaneuni and Pompeii {pom-pa ye).
Milan lies in the midst of the plain of Lombardy, on a branch of the
Po. It is noted for its cathedral, one of the grandest specimens of archi-
tecture extant, and for being the greatest book-mart in Italy. Venice, for-
merly for many centuries the first commercial city of the world, is built
on 72 small islands, which are joined by 309 bridges. The chief tliorough-
farcs are canals ; and communication between different parts of the city
is carried on by means of light boats, called gondolas.
Turin, formerly capital of the Kingdom of Italy, is situated in a de-
lightful valley on the left side of the River Po. As regards literary and
scientific institutions, it ranks first among the Italian cities.
Genoa, an imjiortant naval station and the chief commercial city of
Italy, stands near the head of the gulf of the same name. Leghorn is a
busy seajx)rt on the Mediterranean coast; ship-building is extensively car-
ried on at this place.
SICILY, the largest island of the Mediterranean and an important part
of the Kingdom of Italy, lies south-west of the Italian peninsula, from which
it is supposed to have been separated by some convulsion of nature.
The climate is very warm, and the cold in winter ia never so severe as
to affect the verdure. The sulphur-mines of Sicily are numerous and im-
portant. The principal objects of culture are different kinds of grain, the
vine, and the olive.
The most interesting natural feature of Sicily is Mt. Etna. This vol-
cano, entirely isolated from other mountains, has the form of an immense
cone. Its base is about 87 miles in circuit, and its height is nearly 1 1 ,000 feet.
Palermo, the chief city of the island, is the residence of the military
commandant, and contains an arsenal and ship-yard.
n; ^»^$.;:.^,v's^_ : 4^>^^'
JJOnNT ETNA, SICrLY.
SARDIBflA, the second island of the Mediterranean in size, lies 120 miles
west of Italy. Its forests are extensive, and furnish excellent timber for
ship-building. The climate is unhealthy. Agriculture is conducted in the
rudest manner. Cheese, made of the milk of sheep and goats, is largely
exported. Sardinia forms part of the Kingdom of Italy.
TIIE STATES OF THE CHURCH, called also " the Papal States," and " the
Pontifical States," form a narrow strip of territory on the western coast,
about midway of the Italian peninsula. They are not included in the
Kingdom of Italy, but are under the dominion of the Pope.
R( ME, the capital, is situated on both sides of the Tiber, sixteen miles
above its mouth. It is the residence of the Pope, and is noted for the
number and splendor of its churches. St. Peter's Cathedral covers nearly
five acres, and is the most magnificent ecclesiastical structure in the world.
Near it is the Vatican, a palace belonging to the Pope, having more than
four thousand apartments.
SAN MARINO, a small but ancient republic, having an area of only 22
square miles, lies in the eastern part of Italy, near the Adriatic. It con-
sists of a craggy mountain about 2,200 feet in height, on the top of which
the town of San Marino is situated.
FLAO OF FRAMCB.
LESSON CXXVIII.
THE EMPIRE OF FRANCE.
Geographical Position. — France, an
important empire of western Europe,
extends from the English Channel on
the north to the Mediterranean Sea
on the south, and from Germany,
Switzerland, and Italy, to the Atlantic.
Fbysiral Featnres. — The surface is
mountainous in the eastern and south-
ern [larts, and Jevel or undulating in
the north and north west.
Soli, et«. — The soil is exceedingly
fertile, and the climate mild and agree-
able. Grain is generally grown on the higher grounds; but
maize is everywhere common. Madder, from which a dye is obtained, is
cultivated in some districts. The beet-root, used in the manufacture of
sugar, is extensively raised. Bees and the silk-worm are reared in the
south. The forests furnish excellent timber for ship-building. Silk, wool,
wines, olive-oil, and a great variety of fruits, are among the most important
products. The chief minerals are iron, coal, and salt.
Inhabitants, et«. — ^France is inhabited by a mixed race, in which. the
Celtic element predominates. In the parts bordering on the Rhine, the
people are mostly of German descent. More than half the inhabitants are
engaged in agricultural pursuits, of which the culture of the vine forms an
important feature. The French are, for the most part, Roman Catholics.
Traveling Faeilitles. — The high-roads are numerous and good. Railroads
connect Paris with tlie most important towns on the English Channel and
6n the Belgian frontier. Rivers and canals afford facilities of communica-
tion for a distance of more than 8,000 miles.
Slannfaetures and Exports. — In extent and variety of manufactures, France
ranks second only to Great Britain; in the beauty of her silk fabrics, she
holds the first rank. The leading manufiictures and exports are woolens,
linens, laces, hardware, cotton fabrics, paper, gloves, wine, brandy, and a
great variety of fancy articles. Commerce is extensively carried on.
Cities, ete. — Paris, the capital, lies on both banks of the Seine, and on
two islands in that river. 111 miles above its mouth. It extends for about
five miles along the river, and is surrounded by walls, entered by gates.
Its pirblic structures are numerous and magnificent. Paris is the second
city ill Europe in poi>ulation, and in scientific, literary, and educational
establishments, it surpasses all other cities in the world. Twelve miles
west of Paris is Vkusmllrs, noted for its magnificent palace.
Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, an important commercial city, com-
municates regularly by stoam-packcts with New York and various European
ports. Lyons, at the junction of the Rhone and the Saone, is the second
city in France in commercial impwtance. and the chief seat of the manu-
facture of silks, velvets, etc. Marseilles, on the east side of the Gulf of
96
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Lyons, is extensively engaged in the exportation of wines, fruits, and other
productions of southern France. Calais, a fortified seaport on the Strait
of Dover, owes its importance chiefly to its proximity to England.
Bordeaux, on the left bank of the Garonne, is the great emporium of
tiie wine-trade, and the chief port on the Bay of Biscay. Nantes, on the
right bank of the Loire, carries on considerable trade with northern Ger-
many, Sweden, Denmark, and Knssia.
CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean, west of the Italian peninsula,
belongs to France. The soil is fertile, but very badly cultivated. The
rearing of live-stock is the chief branch of industry. Timber is abundant,
bees are numerous, and most of the fruits common in southern France
grow upon the island. Beautiful coral is found on the southern coast, and
forms an important article of export.
Ajacoio (ah-yaht'cho), the capital, is noted as the birth-place of Na-
poleon Bonaparte.
FBE?iCH COLONIAL POSSESSIONS. — The chief colonial possessions of
Franco are : — Tlic territory of Algeria, in northern Africa ; the island of
Bourbon, in the Indian Ocean ; St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal, in
western Africa ; the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon (mik-eh-lon'),
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; the islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, in
the West Indies ; French Guiana, in South America ; Pondichcrry and a
few other settlements, in Ilindostan ; the Marquesas (mar-ka'»as) Isles and
the island of Tahiti (tah-he' te), in Polynesia; and New Caledonia, in Aus-
tralasia.
THE KINGDOM OF SPAIN.
Geegnphical Position. — This kingdom
occupies tliC greater part of the most
westerly of the three peninsulas of
southern Europe.
Pbysieal Features. — The interior of
Spain consists of high table-lands sur-
rounded by mountains. In the south
and south-east are plains, which slope
gradually toward the Mediterranean.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally fertile,
but there are extensive waste lands.
In the nortli, the climate is temperate ;
the apple-tree flourishes, the hills are
clothed with forests, and the valleys yield rich harvests of grain. The
high plateaus of the center are destitute of trees, and the climate is noted
for its dryness. In the warm regions of the south, the fig, the olive, the
vine, and sugar-cane, are cultivated. Fruits are abundant.
iDhabitants, ete. — The Spaniards are a mixed race, derived mainly from
the Celts, Goths, Romans, and Arabians. There are about 50,000 gypsies in
diiferent parts of Spain. Agriculture and the rearing of sheep form the
leading pursuits ; great attention is paid to the culture of the grape. The
inhabitants are mostly Roman Catholics.
Traveling FatUitics. — Travehng facilities are exceedingly limited. Wheel-
carriages are but little used, and mules furnish the chief means of transport.
There are several canals, though but few that are adapted to navigation.
Manafaetares and Exports. — Among the leading manufactures are silks,
leather, fire-arins, saltpetre, and gunpowder. The exports are wines, bran-
dies, oil, fruits, wool, sOk, bariUa, quicksilver, lead, and salt. Neither
agriculture, commerce, nor manufactures, are in a flourishing condition.
Cities, ete. — Madkid, the capital, is situated near the Manzanares (mahn-
thah-nah'ren). It is nearly eight miles in circuit, and is surrounded by
walls. The palace of the Escurial, twenty-seven miles north-west of the
city, contains splendid mausoleums of many of the sovereigns of Spain ;
also, a fine collection of paintings, a large library, and a college.
Baecelona, on the Mediterranean coast, is the second city in the king-
dom in population, and is an important manufacturing and commercial
SPANISH MERCnANT PLAO.
place. Malaga, on the Mediterranean coast, about 250 miles south of
Madrid, is noted for tlie export of wines, raisins, figs, and other fruit.
Cadiz, on the island of Leon, is an important commercial city. Seville,
on the left bank of the Guadalquivir, is noted for its trade in oranges.
GiBEALTAB, On a mountainous promontory, is a strongly fortified sea-
port and belongs to Great Britain. It is a station for the English packets
connected with the Indian and Mediterranean trade.
THE BALEABIC ISLES consist of Minorca, Majorca, Ivif a (e-ve'saJi), and
some smaller islands lying east of Spain, to which country they belong.
They yield an abundance of grain and fruit.
Palma (pahl'mah), the capital of the Balearic Isles, is situated on the
island of Majorca. Poet Maiion {mah-hone'), on the island of Minorca,
has one of the best harbors in the Mediterranean.
SPANISH COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.— The chief of these are as foUows :—
A part of the Philippine Isles ; the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico, in the
West Indies; and Ceuta (su'td), a fortress in Africa, on the south side of
the Strait of Gibraltar.
ANDOBBA. — ^This small independent state comprises three wild and pic-
turesque valleys, situated on the southern side of the central Pyrenees. It
is subject to the s])iritual jurisdiction of the Bishop of Urgel (oor-heV), in
Spain, to whom it pays annually about ninety dollars ; while it renders to
Fi-ance double that amount, for certain pri^•ileges which it enjoys from her
protection.
THE KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL,
Ceograpliieal Position. — This small kingdom of south-western Europe oc-
cupies about one-sixth of the Iberian peninsula.
Physical Features.— The surface is agreeably diversified, and gradually
slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean.
Soil, etc. — The soil is rich, and the climate mild and healthy. The i)ro-
ductions are like those of Spain. The vine flourishes in the northern prov-
inces; the olive, orange, citron, and other fruits, in the southern. Iron
pre and fine marble and building-stones abound.
InliaUtants, ete. — ^The inhabitants are of the same lineage as those of
Spain, and belong to the Roman Catholic church. Agriculture is in a
backward state. The making of wine forms the chief branch of industry.
TniTeling Facilities. — These are poor. There are no canals or railroads
at present in the kingdom, and the navigation of the rivers is sometimes
prevented by low water occasioned by drought.
Manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are not extensive. The ex-
ports are mainly wines, salt, cork, drugs, and various kinds of fruit.
Qtles. — Lisbon, the capital, on the right bank of the Tagus, stands first
in commercial importance ; and Opobto, noted for its trade in port-wine,
ranks second. Coimbea, on the high-road between these cities, is noted
for its University, — the only one in Portugal.
PORTCGCESE COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.— Portugal possesses the Azores,
Madeira, and Cape Verde Isles ; some small settlements on the coast of Sene-
gambia, in Africa, together with Mozambique (mo-zam-bee¥) ; three small
islands in the Gulf of Guinea ; and a few settlements in the East Indies.
LESSON CXXIX.
THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM.
Gei^raphical Position.— This small kingdom of western Europe lies be-
tween France and Holland.
Physical Features. — Belgium is mostly level. The coasts are low, requir-
ing dikes to protect theni from the sea. The country is well watered.
Soil, etc— The soil is not naturally fertile, but the industry and skill of
the inhabitants have rendered it very productive.
EUROPE.
97
ANTWERP CATHEDRAL, BELOICM.
Tho climate is cool and moist. The cliief products are grain, hemi),
fla.x", hops, beet-root, cbiccory, clo.ver, and tobacco. Coal and iron abound.
Inhabitants, ete. — The Belgians are in pai-t Flem-
ings, of German origin ; and in part Walloons,
descendants of tho ancient Belgas. Agriculture,
commerce, and manufactures, fonn the leading
pursuits. The Roman Catholic church prevails.
Traveling Fadlitivs. — Excellent roads, canals,
and railroads, are numerous.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are
the chief source of wealth. The ex-
ports are agricultural products, and a
great variety of manufactured goods, —
sue! I as laces, fine linens, paper, hard-
ware, etc.
Cities, etc. — Bbdssels, the
capital, situated on the Sen-
ne, is celebrated for its lace,
considered tho finest in the
world, and for its carriages.
Nine miles south of Brussels
is tlie field of Waterloo, mem-
orable for tlie great battle
fought there in 1815.
GuKNT, an important man-
ufacturing city, situated in a fertile plain at the confluence of tho Lys and
the Sclieldt, ranks next to Brussels in po])nlation. Antwerp, on the right
bank of the Scheldt, is the great eini)orium of Belgian commerce.
Liege, on the left bank of tho Mouse, in the vicinity of ricli coal-mines,
is the chief seat of the iron-works of Belgium. Ostend, on tho Nortli Sea,
is an important seaport.
THE KINGDOM OF HOLLAND.
Geograpliieal Position. — Holland, or
the Kingdom of the Netherlands, lies
north of Belgium, and west of Prussia.
Pliysieal Features. — The face of the
country is low and fiat, intersected by
numerous canals. Being below the
level of high sea-tides, it is protected
either by sand-hanks thrown up by
the sea or by artificial dikes.
Soli, ete. — The soil is fertile, and
the climate mild and humid. The
winters, liowever, are generally se-
vere. The productions are similar to those of Belgium. Fine cattle and
horses abound. Immense quantities of butter and cheese are made.
Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants, who are called Dutch, beh)ng mostly
to the German stock; there are, also, numerous Jews. More attenti(m is
paid to the rearing of live-stock and to the d:iiry, than to tillage. Protest-
antism prevails.
TraTelins Facilities. — The internal trade is carried on mainly by means
of canals, which in Holland serve the purposes of roads elsewhere.
Maanfactnrcs and Exports, — The chief manufactures are linens, velvets, pa-
per, leatlier, earthenware, and gin. Butter and cheese are largely exported.
0tles. — The Hague, one of the handsomest cities on the Continent, is
tho capital. Amsterdam, the largest city and chief commercial emporium,
stands at the confluence of the Amstel and a branch of the Zuider Zee; it
is built on piles, and intersected by numerous canals. Rotterdam, on the
Jleuse, ranks second in size and commercial importance.
DCTCU COLONIAL POSSESSIONS.— The chief foreign possessions of Hol-
FLAG OP n m.T.A Vn
land are Java, parts of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, with several small
islands in Oceania ; some ports on the coast of Guinea, in Africa ; Dutch
Guiana, in South America ; and the islands of Buen Ayre, Cnra^oa, and
Oruba, in the West Indies.
THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA.
Geograpliieai Position. — Prussia lies in central Europe, extending from
Russia on tho east to Holland and Belgium on the west, and from Den-
mark, the North, and the Baltic Sea, to the South German States, Saxony,
and Austria.
Physical Features. — The surface is generally level ; forests abound.
Soil, etc. — Along the Rhine,' Vistula, Oder, and Elbe, the soil is fertile ;
in other parts, it is less productive. The climate is mild ; in the western
part it is warm enough for the vine to flourish. The chief productions are
grain, hemp, flax, hops, tobacco, and beet-root. Sheep, swine, and bees,
are extensively raised. Mines of copper, iron, and lead, are worked. Am-
ber is found on the shores of the Baltic.
Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants are chiefly Germans, but in some parts
of eastern Prussia tliey are mostly of Slavonic origin. Jews are numerous
in tlio cities. About three-fourths of the inhabitants are engaged in agri-
culture. Protestantism prevails.
TraTcliug Facilities. — Railroads extend in every direction. Canals are
not numerous ; but the rivers afford great facilities for inland navigation.
HanDfaetnres and Exports. — The leading manufactures are linen and woolen
fabrics ; the chief exports are com, timber, wool, and manufactured goods.
Cities, ete. — Berlin, the capital, on both sides of the Spree, contains
many splendid edifices, besides the Royal Library and University. Bkeslau
is the second city in i)opulation and importance. Dantzio and Stettin are
the chief seats of foreign commerce. Cologne, on tho left hank of the
Rhine, is noted for its grand cathedral.
Frankfort, the center of a largo inland trade, and formerly the capital
of the Germanic Confederation, stands on the right bank of the Main.
LESSON CXXX.
THE KINGDOM OF DENMARK.
Geographical Position, etc. — This kingdom lies north of Prussia, between
the Baltic and the North Sea. It comprises the peninsula of Jutland, and
a group of islands lying in the Baltic. The duchies of Sleswick and IIol-
stein, which formerly belonged to Denmark, now form part of Prussia.
Physical Featnres. — The surface is almost a perfect flat. In some parts,
the coast is protected from inundations of tho sea by dikes.
Soil, ete. — The soil near the coasts is good, hut in the interior there are
large tracts covered with heath. The climate is humid, but mild for the
latitude. Wheat and oats are extensively cultivated. Geese, ducks, and
other birds, are numerous ; their feathers form an important article of traflSc.
Peat is the principal fuel, — there being no coal except what is imported, and
but few forests. The pastures of Denmark are its chief source of wealth.
Inhabitants.— The inhabitants (called Danes) belong to the Teutonic, or
German, family of nations. Agriculture is the leading pursuit. The re-
ligion is that of the Lutheran church.
Traveling Facilities. — The roads in Zealand and other islands are good,
but elsewhere poor. Railroads have been introduced to a limited extent.
Mannractares and Exports. — As Denmark contains neither iron, coal, nor
water-power, its manufactures are few. Cheese and butter are made in
abundance, and distillation and brewing are extensively carried on. Tho
exports are agricultural products, live-stock, fish, beer, and brandy.
Cities, ete. — Copenhagen, the capital and largest city, is situated partly
on the eastern coast of Zealand, and partly on the adjacent island of Amak.
Elsinork, on the island of Zealand, 25 miles north of Copenhagen, is a
98
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
small commercial town, where all merchant-ships passing into or out of
the Baltic (except Danish or Swedish) formerly paid toll.
Oden'se, the capital of the island of Funtn, is tlie second city of the
liiiigdom in population.
THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION.
TIio North German Confederation, formed in 1806, consists of twenty-
two states, including the kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony, the duchies of
Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, and Brunswick, the Saxes or Saxon duchies, and
the three free cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubeck.
The objects of the Confederation are mutual defence against foreign
foes, and the maintenance of internal security and peace. Its alfairs are
regulated by an assembly composed of representatives from the several
states. Each state exercises a sovereign and independent power over its
own territory, and has its own capital city.
THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. — Saxony, next to Prussia, is the most im-
portant state of the North German Confederation. It lies between Prus-
sia on the north and Austria on the south.
The rearing of cattle forms an important branch of industry ; and im-
mense flocks of sheep are raised, tlio wool of which is largely exported.
Mining occujnes a great part of the inhabitants, there being more tlum
five hundred mines in active operation. Manufactures are extensive. The
people are mostly Lutherans.
Dhesdbn, the capital, lies on both banks of the Elbe. It is noted for its
china and porcelain ware, its gallery of paintings, and the beauty of its en-
virons. Leipsio is the great emporium of the book-trade.
9IECKLENBIIRG AND OLDENBURG.— Mecklenburg borders on the Baltic,
and Oldenburg on the North Sea. Tlie surfece of these grand-duchics is
flat. Except in parts of Oldenburg, where there are tracks of barren
heath, the soil is fertile, producing good crops of wheat, beans, etc.
BRUNSWICK lies inland, surrounded mostly by Prussian territory. The
surface is hilly. Valuable mineral products abound. Manufactures and
commerce are in a flourishing state. Bbunswiok, the capital, is an im-
portant railroad center and the seat of an active trade.
THE FREE CITIES.— IIambueg, situ-
ated on the north bank of the Elbe,
about seventy miles from its mouth, is
the great seaport of Germany, and one
of the most important commercial cities
in the world.
Bremen, on both sides of the River
Weser, is second only to Hamburg as
a seat of German commerce. It is a
noted place of embarkation for emi-
grants to America.
Lubeck, situated on the Trave, a few
miles from the Baltic, carries on an extensive transit trade.
THE SOUTH OERMAN STATES.
Geographical Position, etc. — The principal South German States are the
grand duchy of Baden and the kingdoms of Wurtemburg and Bavaria.
Their territories, which are contiguous, lie north of Switzerland and Tyrol,
between Austria on the east and France on the west.
Physical Features. — The surface is hilly or mountainous. Extensive
forests abound, among which the Black Forest, covering four-fifths of the
surface of Baden, is particularly noted.
Soil, etc — The soil is for the most pwt fertile, and the climate mild and
healthy. Various kinds of grain, hops, flax, and fruits are among the most
important agricultural products. "Wood is a staple, and is largely exported.
Inhabitants, et«. — The inhabitants belong to the Teutonic race. The
FLAO OF UAMBUBO.
leading branches of industry are agriculture and cattle-rearing. Manufac-
tures are important, among which the n^aking of wine, and in Bavaria the
brewing of beer, may be specially mentioned. Commerce receives atten-
tion. Protestantism prevails in Wurtemburg; the Roman Catholic church,
in Baden and Bavaria.
Cities.— Cablskuue is the capital of Baden, and Stcttqaed of Wurtem-
burg. Munich, the capital of Bavaria, lies on the west bank of the Isar
(e'zar), a branch of the Danube. It is celebrated for its literary institu-
tions aud splendid galleries of paintings and sculpture.
NuKEMBEEO, the sccoud city of Bavaria in point of population, is noted
for the manufacture of wooden clocks, toys, jewelry, and mathematical
and musical instruments ; watches were invented at this place.
THE REPUBLIC OF SWITZERLAND.
Geoj;rapliical Position.— Switzerland, a small inland country of central
Eurojjc, lies east of France, between Germany and Italy.
FALLS OF SCHAFFUAUSEN.
Physical Featnres. — Lofty mountains and vast glaciers, beautiful lakes
and smiling valleys, alpine streams and glittering water-falls, diversify the
scenery.
Soil, etc. — The soil is fertile in the valleys. The climate is cold on the
mountains, temperate on the plains, and hot in the valleys. Flax and
hemp are extensively raised, but the wealth of Switzerland consists in its
excellent pastures, which support immense numbers of cattle. The vine
grows in the valleys. Mineral springs are numerous.
Natural Curiosities. — The Falls of Schaft'hausen in the Rhine, and the
Cataract of Staubbach, are much celebrated. The latter has a peri)en-
dicular fall of eight hundred and fifty feet.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are mainly of Teutonic and Celtic
origin. The raising of cattle and making of butter and cheese are the
chief pursuits. Manufactures receive considerable attention. The people
are partly Protestants and partly Roman Catholics.
Traveling Facilities. — These are generally good. Excellent roads lead
across the mountains. Steamboats ply on the principal lakes.
Mannfactnres and Exports.- The making of watches, nmsical boxes, and
jewelry, is extensively carried on. These articles, with cattle, cheese, but-
ter, silk-stuflfs, and ribbons, are the leading exports.
Cities, etc. — Bebne, on a small peninsula formed by the River Aar, is
the capital. Geneva, at the foot of Lake Geneva, is the most populous
and chief manufacturing city of Switzerland; about 100,000 watches,
chiefly gold, are annually made in this city. Basle, or Basel, at the great
bend of the Rhine, is noted for its trade, its manufacture of ribbons, and
its numerous literary and scientific institutions. Zueioh, at the foot of a
beautiful lake to which it gives name, is celebrated for its schools and for
having given birth to many illustrious men.
EUROPE.
99
FLAa OF GREAT BRITAIN.
LESSON CXXXI.
THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN
AND IRELAND.
Geographical Position.— This kingdom
consists of the two hirge ishinds of Great
Britain and Ireland, and a number of
smaller ones in their vicinity.
GoTemment. — The form of govern-
ment is an hereditary limited monarchy.
The legislative power is shared between
the Sovereign and two Houses of Par-
liament, — the House of Lords, and tlie
House of Commons, consisting of dele-
gates elected by certain classes of the
people.
BRITISH COLONIAL POSSESSIONS. — Colonial possessions of
the British Empire are found in every quarter of the globe, as follows : —
In America : British America, Balize, British Guiana, the Bermudas,
several of the West India Islands, and the Falkland Isles.
In Europe : the town of Gibraltar in Spain, and the islands of Heligo-
land in the North Sea, and Malta and Gozo {got'zo) in tlie Mediterranean.
In Asia: British India, including Ceylon and Singapore, Aden in Ara-
bia, and the island of Hong Kong off the coast of China.
In Africa : various settlements on the western coast, including Sierra
Leo'ne, also Capo Colony, British Caffraria, Natal (nah-tahl'), and the
islands of Ascension, St. Ilele'na, and Mauritius (jnau-risfi'e-iis).
In Oceania : Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, Norfolk
Island, and Labuan {lah-boo-ahn'), an island in the Malay Archipelago.
SCOTLAND.
Gcographieal Position. — Scotland occupies the» northern portion of the
Island of Great Britain.
Physical Featnres. — Two-thirds of the surface is mountainous. The
northern part is called the Highlands ; the southern, the Lowlands.
Soil, etc. — The soil in some of the valleys, and on the eastern coast, is
fertile ; but in the mountainous districts it is barren. The climate is humid.
The staple crop is oats ; wheat and other grains are also cultivated. Slieep
and cattle are reared in great numbers. Coal, iron, and lead, abound.
Natnral Curiosity. — In the small island of Staffa, one of the Hebrides, is
tlie remarkable Cave of Fingal. It is 237 feet long, from 20 to 50 feet
broad, and from 60 to nearly 100 feet in height.
Inhabitants, etc — The Highlanders are of the Celtic race, and speak what
is called the Gaelic dialect ; the Lowlanders are a mixed people, like the
English. The chief pursuits are manufactures and commerce ; the fisheries
are an important branch of industry. The established church is Protestant.
Traveling Facilities. — Excellent roads extend through almost every part
of the United Kingdom ; canals and railroads are numerous.
Mannfactnres and Exports. — Cotton and linen goods are among the lead-
ing manufactures. There are also extensive iron-works. The principal ex-
ports are manufactured goods, agricultural produce, and cattle.
Cities, etc. — EDiNBURGir, the capital, is noted for its castle and univer-
sity; Glasgow, on the Clyde, for being the largest city of Scotland, and
the principal seat of manufactures and commerce ; Dundee, for its linens ;
Paisley, for its shawls; and New Aberdeen, for its extensive trade in
agricultural products.
ENGLAND.
Geographical Position. — England occupies the southern and larger part
of tlie Island of Great Britain.
Physical Featnres. — The surface is undulating, with low mountain chains
in the north and west.
SoU, etc. — The soil, though not naturally fertile, has been made exceed-
ingly productive by the industry of the inhabitants. The climate is humid
and milder than in the same latitude on the Continent. Wheat is the chief
agricultural product; garden vegetables are next in importance. Coal,
iron, copper, salt, tin, and limestone, are abundant.
Inhabitants, etc. — The English are chiefly descendants of the ancient Sax-
ons. Agriculture and mining are pursued ; but manufactures and commerce
are tlie chief sources of wealth. The established church is Protestant.
llannfactnres and Exports. — In the amount and variety of her manufactures,
and the extent of her commerce, England stands unequalled. Of the manu-
factured goods, those of cotton, wool, and iron, are the most important.
Cities, etc — ^London, the capital of England and metropolis of the Brit-
ish Empire, lies on both sides of the Thames, sixty miles from its mouth.
It contains many splendid buildings, and is the largest and wealthiest, as
well as the chief commercial, city in the world. Liverpool, at the mouth
of the Mersey, is the great port of the cotton-manufacturing district, and
carries on an immense trade with aU parts of the world.
Mancuester is noted for its cotton manufactures ; Leeds, for woolen
goods ; York, for its fine cathedral ; Sheffield, for cutlery ; Nottingham
and Leicester, for hosiery and lace ; Birmingham, for hardware ; Kidder-
minster, for carpets ; Greenwich, for its National Observatory ; Cam-
bridge and Oxford, for their universities.
THE PRINCIPALITY OF WALES. — Wales occupies the western part of the
island. It is mountainous and well watered, and abounds in picturesque
scenery. Barley and oats are the chief grains raised. Iron, coal, and other
minerals, are abundant. The inhabitants are chiefly of the Celtic race,
descended from the ancient Britons. Woolen goods constitute the chief
manufactures, and, with mineral produce and cattle, are the leading exjiorts.
Merthtr Tydfii, the largest town, lies near extensive coal and iron
mines. Swansea carries on an active trade, and is frequented as a water-
ing-place. Menai Strait, which separates the island of Anglesea from
Wales, is crossed by a remarkable tubular suspension bridge.
IRELAND.
Geographical Position. — Ireland is an island, lying west of Great Britain.
Physical Features. — The central part consists chiefly of vast plains, al-
most encircled by detached groups of mountains.
Soil, etc. — The soil is fertile in some parts, in others barren. The climate
is more moist than that of England. Wheat, barley, and oats, are the
principal crops next to potatoes, which form the cheif food of the
peasantry. Dairy farms are numerous. Great numbers of cattle are raised
for exportation. The leading minerals are marble, granite, iron, and copper.
Natnrai Curiosities. — Among these, the Giant's Causeway, on the north-
ern coast, is the most remarkable. It is composed of about 40,000 pillars
of dark-colored basalt, from one to thirty feet high.
Inhabitants, etc — Most of the inhabitants are of the Celtic race ; they
depend for subsistence chiefly on the culture of the soil. The Roman Cath-
olic church prevails.
Hanuractures and Exports. — The chief manufactured article is linen. Cot-
ton goods are made near Belfast, and Irish poplin (a fabric of silk and
worsted) is manufactured in Dublin. These, with dairy and agricultural
roduce, form the leading exports.
Cities, ete. — Dublin, the metropolis, on both sides of the Liffey, is dis-
tinguished for the magnificence of its edifices, which make it one of the
finest cities in Europe. Six miles south-east of Dublin is Kingstown, its
seaport. Cork is the chief emporium of southern Ireland ; Queenstown
is its seaport. Limerick, on the Shannon, is noted for its coasting-trade,
and the manufacture of lace and fish-hooks. Belfast, the second city in
population, is distinguis^hed for its linen and cotton manufactures ; Water-
ford, for its fine quay and harbor.
r
GENERAL QUESTIONS ON FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORtUGAL.
101
GENERAL QUESTIONS
ON THE MAP OF A PART OF EUROPE NO. 1.
LESSON CXXXII.
Latitnde> — Between what degrees of latitude does France lie ? Between
about 423° and 51° N. lat. Which of the New England States are in the
same latitude as southern France? What place in Maine is in nearly the
same latitude as Bordeaux? Ea^tport. Between what degrees of latitude
is Spain ? Between aboiit 36° and 43|° Jf. lat. What part of Spain is in
the latitude of Virginia?
Longltode. — Between what degrees of longitude do Spain and Portugal
lie ? Between ahout 9J° W. and 3^° E. Ion. Which has the greater west
longitude, Madrid or Dublin ? Lisbon or Dublin ? Between what de-
grees of longitude is France ? Between about 4i° W. and H\° E. Ion. What
part of France does the meridian of Greenwich cross ? What Spanish port
is in nearly the same longitude as Paris?
Exerdse with Scale of SHIcs. — Using the scale of miles as a measure, what
do you find to be about the extreme breadth of Portugal? What is the
shortest distance in a direct line from the Gulf of Lyons to the Bay of Bis-
cay ? From Cape Finisterre to Cape Creux (hruh) ? What is the length
of France, from Dunkirk to the Pyrenees ?
Coast LincSt — What is the length of the coast line of France, including
indentations? About 1,500 miles. On what two bodies of water is the
greatest portion of this coast ? On what body of water has Spain the
greatest extent of coast ? What is the general character of the Spanish
coast? It is rocky, but not very elevated.
Boundaries. — Is France separated from Belgium by a natural or an arti-
ficial boundary? From what countries is France separated by natural
boundaries ? What lake forms part of the boundary between France and
Switzerland? What mountains form part of this boundary ? What three
rivers form part of the boundary between Spain and Portugal ? Which
of these is on the north of Portugal ?
Seaports of Franee. — What is the northernmost town of France ? What
is there remarkable in the history of Dunkirk ? It was sold by Charles II.,
of England, to Louis XIV., king of Franee. What seaport of France is
nearest to England ? How far is Calais from Dover, in England? Twenty-
six miles. Who held possession of Calais for more than two centuries?
The English. What is the next seaport to Calais on the English Channel?
How is Cherbourg (sher'burg) situated? For what is Cherbourg noted?
Ear its strong defences and breakwater. What is the westernmost place in
France ? For what is Brest noted ? For being the strongest port of Franee,
and having one of the best harbors in Europe. How is Bayonne (bah-yon')
situated? What were first made there? Bayonets. Name the principal
ports on the Gulf of Lyons. How is Nice situated? To what kingdom
did Nice formerly belong ? To Sardinia.
LESSON CXXXIII.
Seaports of Spain. — Name the principal ports of Spain on the Bay of
Biscay. How is La Corufia {lah ho-roon'yah), or Corun'na, situated ? For
what events is Corunna celebrated ? The Spanish Armada sailed from
this port in 1688 for the subjugation of England ; and near it the French
were defeated in 1809 by the English under Sir John Moore, who was mor-
tally wounded.
What port is on the south-western coast, east of the mouth of the
Guadiana? Palos (pah'loce). For what is Palos celebrated ? It was from
this port that Columbus sailed on his memorable voyage, August 3, 1492.
What port is on the Isle of Leon ? Name the tliree chief naval arsenals
of Spain. Cadiz, Cartagena, and Ferrol.
Important Places In Franee. — In what direction is Lille {leel) from Calais?
From what does Lille derive its importance? From being the chief seat of
the thread and cotton manufactures of France. How is Amiens {am'e-em)
situated ? Of what manufactures is it the seat ? Of extensive woolen man-
ufactures. How is Caen (*«>»') situated?
For what are Bordeaux, Rheims (reemz), and Dijon (de-zhm'') noted?
For their trade in wines. Which of these places is farthest north? In
what direction is St. Etienno from Lyons? For what is St. Etienne noted?
For the manufacture of hardware and ribbons. In what part of France
are Nismes (neem) and Avignon {a-veen-yOn?') ?
Important Places in Spain. — What places in Spain are celebrated for their
universities? Madrid, Seville, Salamanca, Valladolid', and Santiago.
Which of these places are on branches of the Douro ? What places are
memorable for sieges, and battles between the French and English, in the
Peninsular War ? Salamanca, Saragassa, Badajos {bad-a-hoce'), St. Sebas-
tian, Vitoria, etc.
How is Cor'dova situated ? By whom was Cordova founded ? By the
Romans. For what is it noted? For having given birth to Seneca, Lucan,
and other distinguished men; aha, for having been for several centuries the
splendid capital of the Moors in the West — at which time it contained 300
mosques and nearly a million of inhabitants.
Important Plaees In Portugal. — What places in Portugal are north of the
Douro River? How is Santarem (sahn-tah-renf') situated? What sea-
ports are on the southern coast ? Lagos {lah'goce) and Faro {fah'ro). In
what direction is Lisbon from Cadiz ? From Madrid ? Oporto from Bar-
celona ?
LESSON CXXXIV.
Islands. — How are the SciDy Islands situated ? What group lies off the
north-western coast of France? Which is the largest of the Channel
Islands? For what are the Channel Islands noted? For their fine breed
of cattle. On what island is the city of Cadiz ? Name two islands of the
Balearic group, besides Majorca, Minorca, and Iviga. Formentera {for-
men-ta'rah) and Cabrera (kah-bra'rah).
Capes. — Mention six capes on the coast of Spain. Which of these pro-
ject into the Mediterranean? For what is Cape Trafalgar' memorable?
For a famous victory gained over the combined French and Spanish fleets
by the English under Lord Nelson, who was Hlled in the action. Where
is Cape La Hague {lah hayg) ?
Mountains. — In what part of France are the Cote d'Or {Icote dor) Mount-
ains ? The Auvergne {o-vayrn') Mountains ? Where is Mt. Blanc ? Wliat
is the highest peak of the Pyrenees? Mt. Maladetta, 11,168 7%e< high.
What five mountain chains traverse Spain ? Mention the loftiest mountain
in Spain. Mt. Mulahacen (moo-lah-ah-then'), a peak of the Sierra Nevada,
ll,658/ee< high.
BlTers. — What river of Belgium rises in France? The Meuse (muze).
What is the length of the Seine ? 497 miles, for 350 of which it is navigable.
Name some of the branches of the Seine. Of the Rhone. Of the Loire.
What is the length of the Loire ? 645 miles. With what rivers is it con-
nected by canals ? With the Seine and Saone.
What is the principal river of Spain ? T. How long is the Tagus? 640
miles. To what place is it navigable ? To Abrantes {ah-brahn'tes), in Por-
tugal. What is the principal river of Spain that empties into the Mediter-
ranean ? Name some other Spanish rivers that flow into the Mediterra-
nean. The Cuadalaviar {gwah-dah-lah-ve-ar), Juear (hoo'kar), and Se-
gura {sa,-goo'rah).
Voyages, etc. — On what waters would you sail in going from Lisbon to
Seville? From Port Mahon to Nantes ? From Nice to Bordeaux ? With
what port is Lyons connected by railroad ? M. What city is the great rail-
road center of France? Paris. With what five places on the English Chan-
nel is Paris connected by railroad? Dunkirk, C, B., D., and H.
102
GENERjt QUESTIONS ON AUSTRIA, TURKEY, ITALY, ETC.
GENERAL QUESTIONS
ox THE MAI' OF A PART OF EUROPE NO. 2.
LESSON CXXXV,
Latitndr. — Between what degrees of latitude do Turkey and Greece
extend? Between about 304° and 48° N. lat. Wliat part of the eastern
coast of North America is embraced within these parallels ? That part
wliich extends from Pamlico Sound, N. C, to the Bay of Chaleur, New
BrunswicTc. What city of California is in nearly the same latitude as
Athens ? San Francisco.
LoDgitnde. — Between what degrees of longitude does Turkey lie ? Be-
tween 10° and 20J° E. Ion. What country of southern Africa is in about
the same longitude ? Cape Colony. What city of Denmark is in about the
same longitude as Rome? Copenhagen. Between what degrees of lon-
gitude is Austria situated? Between about 8j° and 26|° E. Ion.
Exercise with Scale of Miles.— What is the distance from Florence to
Vienna in a direct line ? From Constantinople to Rome ? What is the
extreme length of Austria from east to west ? Of Switzerland ? What is
the length of Sardinia ?
Bonndarles. — What two rivers form part of the boundary between Tur-
key and Austria ? What river and lake bound Switzerland on the north ?
What mountains he on the boundary between Austria and Bavaria? The
Bohmer Wald (bo'mer wahlt*). Between Austria and Saxony? The Erz
Gebirge (ertz ga-beer geh.) Between Austria and Prussia? The Eiesen
Ocbirge {ree'zen ga-beer yeK).
DlTlsions of Austria. — In what part of Austria is Bohemia ? What divi-
sion of Austria is south-east of Bohemia ? In what part of the empire is
Galicia, or Austrian Poland? What name is given to a strip of southern
Austria, bordering on Turkey ? The Military Frontier. What divisions
border on the :Military Frontier ? T., B., S., C, /., and D. In what part
of the empire is Hungary ? Styria ? The Tyrol?
Important Places in Austria. — What is the capital of Bohemia? P. On
what river is Prague ? What is the capital of Moravia ? B. What place
is 12 miles south-east of Brunn ? For what is Austerlitz celebrated ? For
the great victory gained there by Napoleon over the Austrians and Russians,
in 1805. Wliat is the chief city of Galicia ? L.
What is the principal place in Transylvania? Klavsenlurg. In Hun-
gary ? P. In Slavonia ? E. In Croatia ? Agram (og-rom'). In Illyria ?
T, the chief seaport of Austria. In Styria? Gratz (grets), an important
manufacturing and commercial city. In the Tyrol ? Innspruck (ins'-
prooh), on the Bin, t/ie seat of a university and the center of an active
trade. What seaport south-east of Trieste ? Fiume (Je-oo'ma). How is
Schemnitz situated ?
LESSON CXXXVI.
DiTlsions of Turkey. — What is the north-eastern part of Turkey called ?
What division is south-west of Wallachia? What division is south of the
Balkan Mountains? In what part of Turkey are Thessaly and Albania?
Bosnia and Herzegovina (hert-seh-go-ve'nah ) ? What division is east of
Bosnia ? Which of these divisions has the greatest proportion of Turks in
its population ? P. Where is the republic of Monte-negro (mon-ta-na'gro) ?
Important Places in Tnrkcy.— What places in Turkey are on the right
bank of the Danube 1 On the left bank ? What places are on the coast
of the Black Sea? On what strait is Gallipoli (gahl-lip'o-le)! For what
is it noted ? For the manufacture of morocco. Near what river is Adri-
anople ? How is Bosna Serai {bos'nah ser-i) situated ? Shumla {shoom'-
lah)'i Varna? Yassy?
* d bas almost the sonnd ofu \afUr.
Important Places in Greece. — What hamlet and plain are about 18 miles
north-east of Athens? Marathon. For wliat is this spot memorable ? For
the victory of Miltiades over the army of Xerxes. What places are on the
Gulf of Lepanto? What place of considerable trade is south of Corinth?
Nauplia. For what is Navarino {nah-tah-re no) noted ? For a victory
gained by the English, F-ench, and Russian fleets over the Turhs.
Important Places In Italy. — How is Brescia (bresh'ea) situated ? Padua ?
Parma? Mod'ena? Mention some places in Italy that lie on the Adriatic.
Name the chief seaport of the States of the Church. Civita Vecchia (che-
ve-tah vek'he-ah). In what direction from Rome is it? What place is
on the Strait of Otranto? On the Gulf of Taranto?
Important Places in Sicily and Sardinia. — What is the chief city of Sicily ?
What place in the north-eastern extremity of the island rivals Palermo in
commercial importance? What seaport midway of the eastern coast?
What is the present condition of Syracuse ? It is now a pla^e of no im-
portance, though once a powerful and magnificent city. Wliat is the cap-
ital of the island of Sardinia ? How is Cagliari {hahl yah-re) situated ?
Important Places in Switzerland. — On what lake is Zurich situated ? On
the Lake of Zurich. On what lake is Lucerne ? On the Lake of Lucerne.
What place is on Lake Constance ? Where is Lausanne {lo-zahn') ? For
what is Lausanne noted ? For its beautiful situation. How is Neuchiitel
{nush-ah-teV) situated ? On the north-western shore of the Lake ofNeuchdtel.
LESSON CXXXVII.
Islands. — What does the Grecian Archipelago include ? All the islands
between the main-land of Greece and Asia Minor. Mention some of them.
Which is the largest? N. Mention the Ionian Isles. Corfu (kor-foo'),
Paxo, Santa Maura, Cephalonia, Zante, and Cerigo {cher'e-go). What
political division do these islands form? A republic.
Which of the Ionian Islands is farthest north ? How is Cerigo situ-
ated ? What is the capital of the Ionian Republic ? Corfu. What group
of volcanic islands lies north of Sicily ? The Lipari {lip'a-re) Isles. For
what is Stromboli (strom'bo-le), an island of this group, noted ? For con-
taining an active volcano, called " the light-house of the Mediterrunean."
Where is Elba ? Who resided on this island during part of 1814 and 1815 ?
Mountains.— What is the highest peak of the Alps? Mt. Blanc. To
what country does Mt. Blanc now belong ? F. What is the highest peak
of the Apennines? Mt. Corno. In what part of Italy is Mt. Corno?
What is tlie highest peak of the Carpathian Mountains ? Mt. Lomnitz.
Where is Mt. Lomnitz? Mount Ossa? Mt. Pelion?
Seas, Gulfs, Straits. — At wliat strwt does Italy approach Turkey the
nearest? What branch of the Mediterranean extends north-west from the
Strait of Otranto ? What seas and straits wash the eastern and southern
shores of Turkey ? What gulfs indent the coast of Turkey ? Of Italy ?
Lakes. — What L.ike is in Hungary, south-east of Vienna? NeusiedUr
(noi'seed-ler) Lake. What is tlie largest lake in Hungary ? Balaton (bah'-
lah-ton) Lake. Wliat is the largest lake in Italy? G. What lake is
north-west of Lake Garda ? Lake Coma, celebrated for its beauty and the
elegant villas that cover iU shores. What lake is partly in Switzerland and
partly in Italy ? Lake Maggiore (mahd-jo'ra).
Rivers.- What is the largest river of Austria and Turkey ? Of Italy ?
Name three rivers of Switzerland. Mention some of the rivers of southern
Turkey. What river flows through the Tyrol ? Through the States of the
Church ? Through Transylvania ? What rivers rise in the north-eastern
slope of the Carpathian Mountains? On wliat river is Lemberg ?
Voyages.— Sailing from Leghorn to Trieste, through what bodies ot
water would you pass ? From Venice to Constantinople ? From Con-
stantinople to Vienna ? In what German state does the Danube rise ?
How many navigable tributaries does it receive ? 60. How long is the
Danube ? 1,725 miles. How far is it navigable ? To Dim, in Wurtemburg.
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GENERAL QUESTIONS ON BELGIUM, HOLLAND, PRUSSIA, AND GERMANY.
105
GENERAL QUESTIONS
ON THE MAP OF A PART OF EUROPE NO. 3.
LESSON CXXXVIII.
Latitude. — Between what degrees of latitude does Holland extend ? Be-
tween about 51i° and, 53|° N. lat. What is the latitude of the extreme
northern boundary of Prussia ? What parallel pas.ses through the northern
part of Luxemburg ? Which is in higher latitude, Berlin or Amsterdam?
Dresden or Brussels ? What island in the New World is in the latitude
of Bavaria ? Newfoundland.
Longitade. — Between what degrees of longitude is Belgium situated ?
Between about 2^° and G° E. Ion. What island in the Mediterranean is in
about the longitude of Saxony? About how many degrees is Dresden
east of Ghent ? What countries on the Map does the meridian of 10° E.
Ion. pass through?
The North German Confederation. — Of what does the North German Con-
federation consist? Of twenty-two states, including the kingdoms of Prus-
sia and Saxony, the duchies of MecMenhurg, OldenbxLrg, and Brunswick,
the Saxes or Saxon duchies, and the three free cities of Bremen, Hamburg,
and Lubeck. Of what are Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubeck, respectively the
capitals ? Of small republics of the same name.
How is Saxony situated ? What country bounds it on the south-
east? Bound Mecklenburg. Bound Oldenburg. What river forms part
of the eastern boundary of Oldenburg ? How is Brunswick situated ?
Name the four Saxon duchies. Saxe Meiningen {sax mi'ning-en), Saxe
Cobnrg-Gotha (go'td), Saxe Weimar (wi'mar), and Saxe Altenburg (ahV-
ten-burg). North and west of what kingdoms do these duchies lie?
What German states were incorporated in Prussia after the war of
18Gf> ? The kingdom of Hanover, the electorate of Hesse (hess) Cassel, the
duchy of Nassau, the free city of Frankfort on the Main, and the landgra-
vidte of Hesse Hamburg. What duchies before included in Denmark were
annexed to Prussia? Sleswick and Holstein (JuiV stine). What has been
the consequence of these annexations? Prussia has become one of the most
powerful countries of Europe.
The Sonth German States. — Name the South German states. TTie king-
doms of Wur'temburg and Bavaria, the duchy of Baden {bah' den), part of
the grand duchy of Hesse Darmstadt (darm'stahf) south of the Main, and
the principality of Liechteiutein (leek' ten-stine). Which of these is the
largest? Bavaria. Which is the smallest? L.
Bound Bavaria. What name is given to that part of Bavaria which
lies west of the Rhine? Bound Wurtemburg. Bound Baden. What sep-
arates the two parts of Hesse Darmstadt ? A strip of territory belonging to
Prussia. To what does the northern part of Hesse Darmstadt belong ? To
the N. German Confederation. How is Liechtenstein situated? On the
east bank of the Rhine, a few miles south of Lake Constance.
LESSON CXXXIX.
Capitals. — What is the capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg ? How
is it situated 2 What is the capital of Oldenburg? Of Mecklenburg Schwe-
rin (shtm-reen) ? Of Mecklenburg Strelitz ? Neu Strelitz (noi stra'lits).
Of Brunswick ? Of Saxony ? Of Saxe Meiningen ? Of Saxe Coburg-
Gotha ? Of Saxe Weimar ? Of Saxe Altenburg ? Of Hesse Darmstadt ?
Of Bavaria? Of Wurtemburg? Of Baden ? Carlsruhe {larls'roo).
Important Places In Belgium. — How is Ghent situated ? What seaport
has Belgium ? On what water is it ? What flourishing commercial city
is on the railroad between Ghent and Ostend ? Bruges {bru'jiz). What
place is nine miles south of Brussels ? For \yhat is Waterloo famous ?
How is Charl&roi (shar-leh-rwah') sitnatei'i Mechlm (niek'Un)^ Liege?
Na'mur ?
Important Plaees in Holland. — Wliat is the chief literary city of Holland ?
Leyden, noted for its university. How is Leyden situated ? What place
is on the same river, a little h"gher up ? U., actively engaged in trade and
manufactures. How is Haarlem (har'lem) situated? With what places
does it communicate by railroad? Where is Zutphen ?
Important Places In Prnssia. — What places in Prussia are on the Rhine ?
For what is Cob'lentz remarkable ? For being the most strongly fortified
place in Prussia. What place on the western frontier is connected with
Cologne by raSroad? Aix-la-Chapelle {ahes-lah-shali-peV), noted for its
mineral waters. What city in the south, on the Moselle ? Treves, the old-
est city of Germany.
For what is Dusseldorf famous ? For its school of painting. How is
it situated? Where is Hanover ? What place is on the Havel, south-west
of Berliu ? For what is Potsdam noted? For the palace of Sans-Souci, a
favorite residence of the King of Prussia. What places are on the Oder?
Important Places In Saxony. — What city of Saxony is the, chief seat of
the porcelain manufacture? M. How is Meissen {mice' sen) situated?
From what does Freiberg derive its importance ? From being the center
of a rich mining district. How is Cliemnitz {kem'nits) situated ? For
what is it noted ? For its cotton manufactures.
Important Places In Bavaria. — What places in Bavaria are on the Dan-
ube? Of these, which is nearest to Austria? For what is Ratisbon
celebrated ? For having been the seat of the German Diet. What place,
one of the most ancient cities of Germany, is in the north-western part of
Bavaria, on the Main ? What is the principal city of Rhenish Bavaria? S.
LESSON CXL.
Important Plaees In Wurtemburg and Baden. — What city in Wurtemburg
is at the head of navigation on the Danube ? U. For what is Ulm mem-
orable? For the surrender of nearly 30,000 Austrian troops to Napoleon,
in 1805. How is Heilbronn situated? Where is Baden-baden? For
what is it celebrated? For being the m,ost beautiful and piopular watering-
place of Germany. Which is the most important commercial town of
Baden? Mannheim {mahn'hime). How is Heidelberg situated? For
what is it noted ? For its university.
Ishtnds and Mountains. — What Island lies at the entrance to the Zuider
Zee? What island lies in the North Sea, north-west of the mouth of the
Elbe? To what country does Heligoland belong? What two islands lie
off the western coast of Sleswick ? Where are the Hartz Mountains ?
What mountains separate Bavaria from Bohemia ? Saxony from Bohemia ?
Is the section represented in the Map mostly mountainous or level ?
Blvers. — What tributaries has the Scheldt ? Name some of the branches
of the Elbe. AVhat great river rises in Baden ? What river forms the
western boundary of Baden ? What is the principal river that crosses
Saxony ? Describe the Spree. The Havel.
How long is the Rhine? ^dO miles. How far is it navigable? For
vessels of 200 tons, to Mentz; for smaller vessels, to Schaffhausen (shahf-
hoto'zen). What is the length of the Weser? 250 miles. Of the Elbe?
550 miles. How far is the Elbe navigable ? To the mouth of the Moldau,
in Bohemia. How long is the Oder? 5hQ miles. How far is it navigable ?
For vessels of 50 tons, to Breslau.
Voyages, etc. — On what waters would one sail in making a voyage from
Cologne to Bremen? From Bremen to Hamburg? From Lubeck to
Frankfort on the Oder ? From Rotterdam to Antwerp ? Name some of
the rivers that have railroads running along their banks. With what
Prussian port is Berlin connected by railroad ? With what free city ?
With what places in Saxony ?
General Questions. — How is Cuxha'ven situated ? To what republic does
it belong ? How is Mentz situated ? Between what waters does Sleswick
lie ? Holstein ? AVhat bays on the Map are tributaries of the Baltic ?
Where is the DolLirt? With what water is this gulf connected ? Where
is Lake Muritz ? The Black Forest ?
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PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGKAPHY.
ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF ASIA AND ACSTBAUA.
1. Slriped liycim.
8. Indian rlilnoci'ros.
15. Omitborhynclms.
2. lyccpard.
9. Bornean eun-bear.
Ifi. Anslraliau porcnpiue
3. TiRcr.
10. Wombat.
17. Rorqual.
4. Zebu, or Indian ox.
11. Syrian wild asses.
18. Sea-bear.
5. Cobra.
13. Yak.
19. Sea-clephant.
6. Peacock
13. Tasmanian wolf.
20. Sea-lion.
7. Indian elephant.
14. Kangaroo.
a. Japanese lilv.
/. Cocoa-nnt palm.
k. Siberian pines.
b. New Zealand panax.
{/. Wine-palm.
/. Australian tree-ferns.
c. Jangle.
/(. Ban van.
m. Cedars of Lebanon.
d. Screw-pine.
(. Dcodoms cedar.
n. Norfiillj Island pine.
e. Bamboo.
j. Cabbage palms.
0. New Zealand cypress.
LESSOJf CXLVI.
ASIxV.
Geographical Position, ete. — Asia occupies the eastern portion of the East-
ern Continent. Its length, from Bohriiig Strait to Bab-el-Mandeb, is about
0,700 miles; and its breadth, from the south-eastern extremity of China
Proper to the Ural Mountains, is about 3,800 miles.
Physical Features. — The northern and north-western parts consist of vast
plains ; the central part is an elevated table-land. Tlie mountain chains
run mostly east and west. The river systems of Asia surpass those of any
other portion of the Eastern Continent.
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants belong to three distinct races, — the Cauca-
sian, the Mongolian, and the Mala3^ The Hindoos. Arabs, and Persians, are
branches of the Caucasian race ; the Chinese and Tartars, of the Mongolian.
Politital DiTislons. — The chief political divisions of Asia are Siberia, the
Chinese Emjjire, India (including Anani, Siam, Birmah, and Hindostan),
Beloochistan, Arabia, Turkey, Georgia, Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and
the Empire of Japan.
SIBERIA.
Geograpiiical Position, ete. — This immense territory, belonging to Euro-
pean Russia, occupies the entire northern part of the Asiatic Continent.
It is a vast plain, sloping northward toward the Arctic Ocean.
Soil, etc.— Tlie soil is sterile, and the climate intensely severe. Metals
(chiefly gold, iron, and silver) and furs are the principal products.
TniTeliBg FaeUlties.— These are very few. The rivers furnish the chief
moans of transpt)rt.
Iniiabitants, etc.— The inhabitants consist of various tribes of Mongol
descent, and of exiles from European Russia, banished for political or other
offences. The latter are under the charge of a military force, and occupy
the country near the Ural Mountains. Mining and hunting form the chief
pursuits. The religion of the native tribes is Paganism ; that of the Rus-
sian settlers, the Greek Church.
Jlannfactnres and Exports.— At Irknt.sk there is an imperial factory of
woolens for the clothing of the troops; and, in some of the mining dis-
tricts, there are imperial founderies. Tobolsk has some tanneries and man-
ufactories of soap. The exports are furs, leather, and metals.
Important Places.— Iuktitsk, the provincial capital of eastern Siberia, on
the right bank of the Angara, is the handsomest town in the territory, and
the center of such refinement as Siberia possesses. Tobolsk, on the Irtish,
is the provincial capital and chief emporium of western Siberia.
THE CHINESE EMPIRE.
Geograpiiical Position, etc.- The Chinese Empire lies south of Siberia. It
embraces an area of five millions of square miles, in which are included
Mongolia, Mantchooria, Corea, China Proper, and Thibet.
ASIA.
109
FLAO or CHINA.
MONGOLIA MD IIAKTCHOORIA, taken together, are frequently called
Chinese Tartary. They are for the most part made up of elevated plains,
hounded by mountain ranges. A great part of Mtmgolia is sterile, forming
the Desert of Gobi, about 1,200 miles long and over 500 miles wide.
The Mongolians live in tents, which, as the pastures fail, they remove
ten or fifteen times a year, going north in sprmg and south in autumn.
Their flocks consist of horses, camels, black cattle, sheep, and goats.
In the south-western part of Mongolia, sometimes called Chinese Tur-
kestan, considerable trade is carried on by means of caravans.
COBEA is only nominally a part of the Chinese Empire. Its king, who
has absolute authority over his own subjects, is obliged to pay an annual
tribute to the emperor of China. The prevailing religion is Buddhism.
Klngkitao is the capital.
•
CHINA PROPER.
Geograplileal Position. — China Proper
forms the south-eastern part of the
Chinese Empire.
Physical Features. — Most of the coun-
try consists of a succession of river-
valleys, divided by ranges of high land.
In the north-east is an extensive and
fertile plain.
Soil, etc — The soil is fertile and
highly cultivated ; the climate is cold
in the north, but mild in the south. The tea-plant is the most noted
of the native productions. Eice is the staple grain. Sugar-cane, cot-
ton, liemp, tobacco, rhubarb, indigo, the varnish-tree, the camphor-tree,
the tallow-tree, and cinnamon, are among the most common trees and
siirubs. Olives, oranges, pine-apples, etc., are abundant. The mulberry
is extensively reared for the support of the silk-worm.
Inhabitants, etc — The Chinese are of Mongolian origin. Their religion
is Buddhism, a species of Paganism held by more than one-tliird of the
human race. Agriculture and manufactures form the leading pursuits.
Trade, both inland and maritune, is extensive.
Traveling Facilities. — The roads are narrow. Traveling and traffic are
carried on chiefly by means of rivers and canals. The Imperial Canal runs
through the eastern part of China, for a distance of about 700 miles.
Mannractnres and Exports.— The Chinese have great skill in the manufac-
ture of silks, cotton goods, earthenware, artificial flowers, and papers of
fine tissue, in the carving of ivory, tortoise-shell, and mother-of-pearl, and
in the arts of embroidery and dyeing. Silk and nankeen fabrics, por-
celain, lacquered wares, ivory articles, and immense quantities of tea, are
exported.
Important Places. — Pkkin, the capital of the empire, lies in a sandy
plain, about 60 miles south of the Great Wall of China, and 100 miles
from the sea.
Nankin, on the right bank of the Yang-tse-kiang, is one of the prin-
cipal seats of the silk, paper, and cotton manufactories of China. Shang-
HAi, NiNGPO, Foooiiow, Amoy, and Canton, are free commercial ports.
Canton, on the Canton River, about 70 miles from its mouth, and Shang-
hai, on the Woosung River, 14 miles from the sea, are the chief commer-
cial emporiums.
THIBET, a region of central Asia Included in the Chinese Empire, and
situated west of China Proper, is but imperfectly known. The chmate is
cold. The people are engaged mainly in rearing sheep and goats. The
fine hair of the latter, which is used in making Cashmere shawls, is largely
exported.
Lassa, the capital, is distinguished for being the residence of the Grand
Lama, and is usually crowded with noble personages from various parts
of Asia, who come to offer him costly presents.
LESSON CXLVII.
INDIA.
India comprises two large' peninsulas in sonthem Asia; Indo-China
(called also India beyond the Ganges and Farther India) and Hindostan.
mCO-CHINA, OR INDIA BEYOND THE GANGEa
Geographical Position and Divisions. — Indo-China, the more easterly of the
two great i)eninsulas of India, is divided chiefly into three states ; viz., the
Kingdom of Siam and the Empires of Anam and Birmah. Besides these,
there are some small states in the Malay Peninsula, and the Provinces of
Tenasserkn, Pegu, and Aracan. These provinces belong to Great Britain.
Physical Features. — The peninsula is diversified by long river-valleys, and
a succession of mountain-chains.
Soil, etc. — The soil is fertile ; the climate is hot and moist, but generally
healthy. Forests are numerous and yield much valuable timber, among
which are many woods used as dyes and perfumes. Rice is the chief crop ;
cotton, indigo, tobacco, and the sugar-cane, are extensively raised. Marble,
amber, also sapphires and other gems, are found in various parts.
Inhabitants, etc — The inhabitants, except those of the Malay Peninsula,
resemble the Hindoos and Chinese. Their religion is Buddhism. Agri-
culture is pursued, though in a very imperfect manner. Here, as indeed
throughout Asia, much of the labor is performed by women. The houses
are generally constructed of bamboo and matting, covered with thatch, and
resting several feet above the ground on a foundation of piles. There are
few if any roads ; the rivers afibrd the chief means of communication.
Mannfactnrcg and Exports. — A few silk and cotton goods are woven.
Dyeing is practised to some extent. The people of Birmah excel in gilding
and the casting of bells. Among the leading exports are timber, embracing
a variety of ornamental woods, raw sUk, cotton, ivory, gums, cardamom-
seeds, and edible birds' nests.*
Important Places. — Hufe, the capital of the Empire of Anam, situated
about ten miles from the China Sea, is noted for its fortress, which is con-
sidered the strongest in Asia, Bangkok, the capital of Siam, on the Mei-
nam, is a large city, and the chief trading port of the kingdom.
Mandelay, the capital of Birmah, lies on the Irrawaddy, about six
miles north of Ava. Rangoon, on the Irrawaddy, is the chief commercial
city of the Birman Empire. Maulmain {mawl-mine') is the chief town of
the Tenasseijm Provinces. Singapore, on an island of the same name at
the extremity of the Malay Peninsula, belongs to Great Britain. It is one
of the principal commercial emporiums of the East.
HINDOSTAN.
Geographleai Position, etc — Hindostan embraces the more westerly of the
two peninsulas of India. Its area nearly equals one-third that of all Europe.
Divisions. — The chief divisions of Hindostan are the British Territories,
the Protected States, and the Independent States.
The British Territories are controlled by a Governor-General, who
is subject to the sovereign of Great Britain. They comprise the Presiden-
cies of Bengal in the north, Madras in the south-eastern, and Bombay in
the south-western, part of the peninsula. (See Small Map of British India.)
The Protected States, situated mainly in the central part of Hin-
dostan, retain their own forms of government, though they are under the
protection or control of the British.
The Independent States are Nepaul and Bootan (loo-tahn'), which
lie along the southern slope of the Himalaya Mountains.
Physical Features. — The northern part is a vast plain; the central and
southern portions consist x)f lofty plateaus bordered by mountains. The
Malabar coast is high and bold ; the Coromandel coast is low and sandy.
• Nests of a species of swallow, eaten by the Chinese.
110
PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Soil, etc. — There are some barren tracts in the interior table-lands, that
are deficient in water ; but the valleys of the Ganges and the Indus are
exceedingly fertile. In the central and southern parts, the heat is very
great, and the year is divided into two seasons — the wet and the dry. The
woods and jungles abound in ferocious animals, birds, and insects.
The vegetable and mineral productions of India are rich and varied.
Cocoa-nuts, pomegranates, citrons, dates, tamarinds, pine-apples, bananas,
and many other tropical fruits, grow in great profusion. Indigo and opium
are extensively cultivated. Diamonds and other precious stones are found.
One of the most remarkable productions is the banyan, or Indian fig-
tree, whose branches extend to the earth, take root, and form new trunks.
A banyan-tree has been known to have more than 8,000 trunks, and to
cover seven acres of ground.
InhaUtants, ete. — About six-sevenths of the inhabitants are included
under the general name of Hindoos ; the remainder consist of various for-
eigners settled in India. Among the native tribes, Brahminism and Moham-
medanism prevail. Agriculture, unskillfully conducted, forms the leading
pursuit. Carpets, shawls, and silk fabrics, are extensively manufactured.
Traveling Facilities. — The
roads are mere tracks ; stages are
almost wholly unknown. Steam-
ers have been introduced on
some of the rivers. A railroad
connects Calcutta with Delhi.
Madras and Surat are also ter-
mini of important railroads.
Slannfaetnres
and Experts. —
Among tlio man-
ufactures, cotton Ji
and silk fabrics
and Cashmere
shawls are the
most important.
The leading ex-
ports are indigo,
opium, cotton,
wool, silk, drugs,
perfumes, and precious stones. The commerce of India is considerable.
Important Places. — Calcutta, the capital of thb Bengal Presidency and
of British India, on the Hoogly, is the seat of an immense trade. The
English live in one quarter of the city, and the natives in another. Be-
nares, the holy city of the Hindoos, on the Ganges, is a noted place of
resort for pilgrims from all parts of India, and is celebrated for its trade in
diamonds.
Madras, the capital of the Madras Presidency, is the chief commercial
city on the eastern coast. Bombay, the capital of the presidency of the
same name, on Bombay Island, carries on a trade second only to that of
Calcutta. PoNBicnBERY, 80 miles farther south, is the capital of the
French possessions in India. Goa, on the Malabar coast, is the capital of
the Portuguese possessions.
HOSqCB OF JUMNA, DELHI.
LESSON CXLVIII.
BELOOOHISTAN.
Geograpbleal Position. — Beloochistan is situated in southern Asia, south
of Afghanistan, between Persia and Hindostan.
Physical Features. — The surface is rugged and elevated.
Soil, ete. — The soil is deficient in water and barren ; the climate among
the mountains is cool, but in the plains and deserts, hot. In the plains of
the north-east, rice, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, and indigo, are riused.
The camel is the chief beast of burden.
Inhabitants, etc — The inhabitants consist chiefly of Beloochees and Bra-
hooees. They dwell principally in rude tents, made of goats' or camels'
hair. Their religion is Mohammedanism. Agriculture is but httle attended
to. Trade is carried on mainly by means of caravans.
Important Places. — Kelat, the capital, stands on an elevated plateau
about 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Khan of Kelat is the
principal native ruler, but many of the tribes are independent of his con-
trol. GuNDAVA is the usual winter residence of the Khan.
ARABIA.
Geographical Position. — Arabia is a peninsula in south-western Asia.
Physical Features. — The coasts are low ; the interior forms a series of
high plateaus, mostly, desert. Tliere are no rivers or forests.
Soil, ete. — In some of the valleys, the soil is fertile. The climate is gen-
erally hot, and the driest in the world. Among the useful plants, cofiee
holds the first place ; olives, almonds, filberts, dates, tamarinds, and vari-
ous gums and drugs, are produced in abundance. The Arabs raise a sort
of millet, which forms their chief food ; the other grains, except oats, are
also cultivated. The Arabian horse and camel are much esteemed.
Inhabitants, etc — The Arabs are divided into two classes, the dwellers
in the towns, and the Bedouins (hed'oo-eens), or inhabitants of the desert,
who live in tents and lead a wandering life. Both are Mohammedans.
Arabia is not subject to one sovereign ; the people are divided into numer-
ous independent tribes, each governed by its own sheik or chief. The lead-
ing occupation is the raising of camels, horses, goats, sheep, etc.
Traveling Facilities. — Travelers who wish to cross the deserts join in
caravans, and pay tribute to the various tribes through whose territory
they pass, that they may not be attacked on the route. A single caravan
is sometimes composed of hundreds of men and camels.
nannfactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are almost wholly unknown,
except as a domestic pursuit for the women. The exports are coffee, dates,
gum-arabic, myrrh, aloes, and various drugs.
Important Places. — Mecca is celebrated as the birth-place of Mohammed,
and is supported by the 4)ilgrims who resort to it in caravans from every
part of the Mohammedan world. Muscat is the largest city, and the chief
emporium of trade between Arabia, Persia, and India. Medina is noted
for having been the burial-place of Mohammed. Aden, on the southern
coast, belongs to the British, and is used as a depot for coal, which is sent
there in immense quantities for the India steamers.
TURKEY IN ASIA.
Geographical Position, etc. — Turkey in Asia lies north of Arabia ; with
Turkey in Europe, it constitutes the Turkish or Ottoman Empire.
Divisions. — The chief divisions of Asiatic Turkey are, 1. Asia Minor, or
Anatolia, in the north-western part ; 2. Ai-menia, in the north-eastern
part ; 8. Syria, in the southern part, between the Euphrates and the Med-
iterranean. The southern part of Syria is called Palestine, or the Holy Land.
Physical Features.— The surface of Asia Minor is mountainous, with high
table-land in the interior, and rich plains on the coast. In Armenia, there
is a succession of high mountain-chains and elevated valleys ; in Syria, the
western part is mountainous, and the eastern an elevated plain.
Soil, etc. — The soil is generally very fertile; the climate is cold and
damp in the mountainous regions, but warm and dehghtful in the valleys.
Grain, cotton, coffee, tobacco, and deUcious fruits, are abundantly produced.
The date-palm furnishes an important article of food.
Inhabitants, etc — The population is of a mixed character, embracing
Turks, Greeks, Syrians, Jews, Arabs, Armenians, etc. Mohammedanism is
the prevailing religion. Agriculture receives but little attention. In Asia
Minor, considerable care is bestowed upon the rearing of live-stock.
Traveling Facilities. — These are limited ; there are few regular roads.
ASIA.
Ill
Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Manufactures are not extensive. Among
them are caps of silk and gold thread, — silk sashes and cords, — silk-gauze
shirts, veils, and cloaks, — slippers, tassels, turbans, divan covers, etc. The
exports are raw silk, cotton, goats' hair, raisins and otlier dried fruits, dye-
woods, drugs, and some articles of native manufacture.
Important Places. — Smyrna, a noted seaport of Asia Minor, is the chief
emporium of western Asia. It presents a fine appearance from the sea,
but its houses are only one story high, and its streets are narrow and dirty.
Teebizond is a fortified port on the Black Sea, largely engaged in trade.
Bagdad, on the Tigris, is noted for its manufactures of red and yellow
leather. Damascus, situated in a fertile plain in Syria, is surrounded by a
dilapidated wall. Jerusalem, a city of Palestine, is interesting chiefly
from having been the scene of the most important events narrated in
Scripture history.
GEORQIA.
Geographieal Position, ete. — This country lies south of the Caucasus Mount-
ains. It is under the government of Russia.
Pliysical Features, etc — The surface is hilly; much of it is covered with
forests. The soU is fertile. The chief productions are wheat, maize, flax,
and hemp.
Inliabitants, ete. — The population is composed of Georgians, Armenians,
Jews, and Turks. The prevailing religion is that of the Greek Church.
Agriculture and the rearing of cattle are the chief sources of support.
The Georgians are a handsome race ; the women are noted foe their beauty.
Tif us, the capital, an important seat of trade, is noted for its hot baths.
LESSON CXLIX.
PERSIA.
Geograpblcal Position. — Persia lies between Asiatic Turkey and Afghan-
istan.
Plijrsieai Features. — ^The interior of Persia is an elevated plateau, a large
portion of which is desert. Water is scarce.
Soil, etc — The soil of the table-lands is barren, but that of the valleys is
very fertile. In the north, the climate is cool ; in the south, the heats of
summer are almost insupportable. Hemp, silk, cotton, tobacco, rice, corn,
and various fruits, drugs, and gums, are produced. In the north-eastern
part are some mines of turquois (tur-heez'), — a gem peculiar to Persia.
Inliabitants, etc — The Parsees, descendants of the ancient Persians, are
few in number. Turks, Tartars, Armenians, Arabs, etc., compose the bulk
of the population. Jews are numerous in all the towns. The prevailing
religion is Mohammedanism. Manufactures and commerce are the chief
pursuits.
Traveling Faeilities. — The roads are mere mule-tracks ; land commerce
is carried on chiefly by means of caravans.
Manufactures and Exports. — Silk fabrics, shawls of goats' hair, and leath-
er, form the most important articles of manufacture. Among the exports
are dates and other dried fruits, asafojtida, opium, safiron, pearls, tur-
quoises, and various articles of native manufacture.
Important Places. — Teheran, the capital, lies on an elevated plain, 70
miles south of the Caspian Sea. Ispahan, situated in a fine plain, contains
the best artisans in Persia, and is the seat of an important inland trade.
Busuuse, on the Persian Gulf, is the chief seaport.
TURKESTAN.
Geographieal Position, ete. — Turkestan lies west of the Chinese Empire.'
It is divided into several independent states, in each of which the ruler is
styled Khan. The principal Khanats are Khokan in the east, Bokhara in
the south, and Khiva in the center.
Physical Features. — The greater part of Turkestan is an immense plain,
with a gradual slope toward the Sea of Aral.
Soil, ete. — The soil in some of the valleys is fertile ; the climate is sub-
ject to great extremes. Cotton, silk, wool, corn, and fruits, are among the
chief productions. In the south-eastern part are mines of rubies, and a
blue stone called lapis lazuli.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly of Tartar origin. Some of
the tribes attend to the raising of flocks and hunting, others to agricul-
ture. Mohammedanism prevails.
manufactures and Exports. — There are few manufactures ; some silk and
cotton stuffs are made in the towns, also sabers, knives, and other weapons.
The chief exports are hides, horses, furs, and wool.
Important Places. — Kiiokan, the capital of the khanat of Khokan, lies
on the south side of the Silion River. Bokhara, the capital of the khanat
of the same name, is the most celebrated seat of learning in Asia.
AFGHANISTAN,
Geographieal Position, etc — Afghanistan, a country of central Asia, lies
south of Turkestan. Most of the surface consists of rocks and mountains.
Soil, etc — The soil and climate much resemble tlione of Turkestan. To-
bacco is extensively raised, and madder is also an important product.
Sheep and goats are abundant, producing a fine wool used in the manufac-
ture of shawls. Agriculture is in a rude state.
Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants consistof Afghans proper, and numer-
ous other races. The religion is Mohammedan.
Blanufactures and Exports. — The manufactures are confined chiefly to
cotton and woolen stuffs, fire-arms, and saddlery. Horses are reared in
great numbers, and exported to India. The transit trade is carried on by
means of camels and horses.
Important Places. — Cabul, the capital, is famous in the East for the
vegetables and fruits with which its markets abound. Herat is the chief
emporium of the trade between Persia and Hindostan.
THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN.
Geographical Position. — The Empire of Japan consists of several islands
situated east of the Chinese Empire.
Soil, et«. — Their interior has not been explored by Europeans. The soil
is said to bo sterile, but carefully cultivated. The climate is subject to
great extremes of heat and cold. The islands are rich in minerals.
Inhabitants, etc — The Japanese resemble the Chinese, and belong to the
Mongolian race. Their religion is Paganism. They are noted for their
works in iron, copper, and steel, and their skill in the art of japanning.
Agriculture is carried to a high degree of perfection.
The Japanese,
^ ^^s^S^ -^p^^__- previous to 1854,
_ .-^s __ ^r-^V=^:i Iiid no dealings
i=ES : 1 7=?^- with any for-
eigners except
the Chinese and
Dutch, and even
to these nations
opened but one
of their ports,
Nagasaki. They
have now opened
two ports, Ha-
KODADi, on the
island of Jesso, and Simoda, on Niphon, for the accommodation of foreign
vessels.
Important Places. — Jedo, the capital, a large and densely populated city
on the Island of Niphon, is the residence of the military emperor. Miaco,
in the southern part of the same island, is the chief seat of learning, the
principal manufacturing city, and the residence of the spiritual sovereign.
JAPANESE BOAT.
112
MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS.
STUDIES ON THE MAP OF AFRICA,
BT8TBMATI0ALLT' ARRANGED.
LESSON CL.
Coantrles. — Bound each : — Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, Barca,
Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, Country of the Somau'lics, Zanguebar
(zahnff-ffha-bar'), Mozambique [mo-zam-beek'), the Zoolu Countiy, Na-
tal [nah-tahV), Caffraria, Cape Colony, Country of the Hottentots, and
Country of the Cimbebas (sim-ba'baz) and Damaras (da-mah'raz).
Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone (se-er'rah le-o'ne), Senegambia, Sa-
hara {sah-hah'rah), Fezzan (fez-zahn'), Soudan (soo-dahn'), Kordofan
(kor-do-fahn'), Ethiopia, Country of the Becbuanas (bet-choo-ak'naz),
Trans- Vaal (vahl) Kepublic, and Orange River Republic.
Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — Morocco, Algiers, Tu-
nis, Tripoli, Cairo (^/Vo), Khartoom', Gon'dar, Zanzibar, Mozambique,
Pieterraaritsburg (pe'ter-niahr'itz-burg), King William's Town, and
Cape Town.
St. Felipe de Benguela (fa-le'pa da hcn-ga'lah), St. Paul de Loan-
do, St. Salvador, Benin (ben-een'), Abeokeuta, Abomey {ab-o-ma'),
Coomassie, — Monrovia, Free Town, Mourzouk (moor-zoolc'), — Sego,
Timbuctoo, Sackatoo, Kouka (koo'kah), Masena {mak-sa'nah), Wara
(wah'rah), Cob'be, El Obeid {el o-ba'eed), — Portchefstrom, and Bloem-
fontein (bloom-fon-tine). {See Map of Cape Colony.)
LESSON CLI.
Important Places In the Barbary States, Egypt, and Jfnbia. — State the situ-
ation of each : — Tangier {tahnjeer'), Slogadore, Mequinez {mek'e-nez),
Fez, — Oran {o-rahn), Constantino {kon-stahn-teen'), — Kairwan {kire-
loahn'), — Mesurata {mes-oo-rah' tah), — Bengazi {ben-gah' ze), Derne {der'-
neli), — Alexandria, Suez, Siout {se-oot'), Es'neh, — Ipsarabool {ip-sahm-
bool), Derr, Suakin {swah'kin), Sennaar {sen^nar'), New Dongola, and
Berber.
In Abyssinia and Eastern AMta. — State the situation of each : — Mas-
souah {mas' soo-ali), Ankobar, — Ber'bera, — Magadoxo, Mombaz, Quiloa
{ke'lo-ah), Kazeh {kah'zeh), — Quilimane {ke-le-mah'na), and Sofala {so-
fah'lah).
In Sontbern and Western Africa. — State the situation of each : — Gra-
ham's Town, Simon's Town,— Loango, Cape Coast Castle, Ehnina (e^-
me'nali), — Timbo, Bathurst, and St. Louis,
LESSON cm.
Important Places In Sahara and Central Africa.— State the situation of
each :— Air {ah-eer'), Tisheet {te-sheet'), Taudeny {iow'de-ne), Tibesty
{te-bes-te'), — Boussa (600'saA), Kano {kah'no), — and Sesheke(sa-«/ia')i;a).
Islands.— Describe each: — Soc'otra, Seychelle {sa-shel) Islands,
Amirante {am-e-rant') Islands, Cosmoledo {kos-mo-la'do) Islands, Zan-
zibar, Com'oro Islands, Madagascar, Mauritius {maw-rish e-us), Bour-
bon, St. Helena, Ascension, Cape Verde Islands, Canary Islands, Ma-
deira, and Azores.
Capes. — Describe each: — ^Bon, Guardafiii {gwar-dah-fwe'), Corri-
entes, Agulhas {ah-gool'yahs), Good Hope, Frio {fre'o), Lopez, Pal-
mas {pahl'mahs), Verde, Blanco, — ^Ambro, and St. Mary.
LESSON CLIII.
nonntalns. — Describe each : — Atlas, Black, Moon, Snow, Cameroons,
Kong, — Mt. Atalanta, Mt. Ke'nia, and Mt. Kilimanjaro {kil-e^mahn-
jah-ro).
Gnlfs and Bays. — Describe each : — Cabes {kahb'es), Sid'ra, Sofala,
Delago'a, and Guinea.
Channel. — Describe it : — Mozambique.
Lakes. — Describe each : — Dembea {dem'be-dh), ~Batti {baht'te),
Nyassa {ne-uhs'sah), Shirwa, Dibbie, Tchad {chahd), Fittre {fit'tra),
Albert Nyanza {ne-ahn'zah), Victoria Nyanza, Tanganyika {tahn^gahn-
ye'kah), Dilolo {de-lo'lo), and Ngami {rCgah'me).
Blvers. — ^Describe each : — Nile, Blue, White, — Haines, Mato'ni,
Zambezi {zahm-ba'ze), Limpo'po, — Orange, Black, Swakop {swah'kop),
Nourse, Coanza {ko-ahn'zah), Congo, Gaboon', Niger, Chad'da, Gam-
bia, Senegal {sen-e-gawl), — Yeoo {ya-oo), and Shary {shah' re).
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF AFRICA,
PROMISCUOUSLY AKEANGBD.
LESSON CLIV.
I. Bound Africa. What countries of Africa border on the Mediterranean
Sea? On the Red Sea? On the Indian Ocean and Mozambique Channel ? On the
Atlantic ? What is the most southerly country of Africa ? The most northerly ?
The most westerly ? The most easterly ? What mountains lie on the northern
boundary of Upper Guinea ? On the western boundary of Zanguebar f
II. What three cities are situated at the mouths of the Nile ? {See Map of
Egypt.) By what is Suez connected with Alexandria ? What laiics are south-
east of Alexandria? On which side of the Nile are Benisouef {ben-e-meef) and
Minieh {me'tie-yeh) ? Where are the Pyramids ? Where are the ruins of Thebes ?
Where is the Nubian Desert ? The Libyan Desert ?
rH. What rivers cross Liberia ? {See Map of Liberia.') What lies south-east
of Liberia ? What settlements are in Maryland ? What cape is on the coast ?
What mountains north of Maryland ? What islands are west of Senegambia ?
West of Lower Guinea ? West of Morocco ? To what country do the Canary
Isles belong ? The Madeira Isles ? What city is the capital of the Madeira Isles ?
Funclial. To what country do the Azores belong ?
IV. What cape projects from the north coast of Madagascar ? From the south
coast ? What mountains are in Madagascar ? What place is the capital ? Ta-
nanarivo (tajt-nah-nah-re-voo'). What two islands lie east of Madagascar, and
to what countries do they belong? What islands lie in Mozambique Channel?
What islands lie north-east of Madagascar ?
V. What rivers form most of the northern boundary of Cape Colony ? {See
Map of Cape Colony^ What mountains in the southern part ? Mention some
of the towns of Cape Colony. What bays indent the coast ? What countries
lie between the Indian Ocean and the country of the Bechuanas ? Which of
these border on the Indian Ocean ? Where is Palmerston ? Smithfield ?
VL What lakes arc in Ethiopia ? By whom and when were they respectively
discovered? What two noted peaks belong to the Mountains of the Moon?
Where is the Kalahari Desert ? What countries of Africa have no sea-coast ?
What countries of Africa are in the torrid zone ? In the north temperate ? In
the south temperate ? What is the longest river of Africa ? The largest city ? C
VIL Between what degrees of latitude does Africa extend ? Between abotU
37° N. lot. and 35° S. lat. What capital city in the United States is in about the
same latitude as Fez ? Columbia, in South Carolina. Between what degrees of
longitude does Africa lie ? Between about 11^° W. and 5\Y E. Ion. What coun-
try of Europe extends about as far west as Morocco ? Ireland. How does Africa
compare in size with South America ? It if nearly as large again as S. Ameriea.
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PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
1 nippopotamuB
9 Great African King
Id 'iablo antelope
2 Cape buflfalo
fisher
17 Genisbok
3 Luiti
10 GiraffLS
18 Ohtrieh
4 Jackal
11 Zebras
l'» t.nu
|> Gorilla
12 African cli pi ant
20 African iLinoceroB.
<) Lemur
13 SpniiKbok
21 B.ib\roiis>-a
7. Baboon.
14. Uartcbeeste.
22. Vlacke vark.
8. Chimpanzee.
15. Arabian camel.
23. Crocodile.
a. Papyrus. <l.
Encephalartos corridus. /. Date pnlm (phoenix), t. Strelitzia an
b. Water lilies. e.
Acacia girafljr, or camel- g. Eupliorbia
gnsla.
c. Livistoiiia.
thorn. /'• Guinea oil
-palm. j. Muea.
LESSON CLV.
AFRICA.
Geographlfal Position, ctt. — Africa lies south-west of Asia, from which it
is separated by the Suez Canal and the Red Sea. Its greatest length from
north to south is about 5,000 miles; and its greatest breadth, 4,800.
Pliysieal Features^ — Although much of Africa is yet unexplored, it is
known that it contains more desert land than any of the other grand di-
visions. It is supposed that the surface rises in terraces from the coast,
forming in the interior an immense plateau.
Inhabitants, etc. — Africa, except the northern part and some settlements
on the coast, is inhabited by negro tribes, whose religion is Pagan and
their condition barbarous. The inhabitants of northern Africa belong
chiefly to the Caucasian race. Respecting the past history and present
condition of the interior of Africa, we know very little.
Politifal DiTls'ions. — The chief divisions of Africa are Morocco, Algeria,
Tunis, Tripoli (together called the Barbary States'), Egypt, Nubia, Abys-
sinia, the Country of the Somaulies, Zanguebar, Mozambique, the Zoolu
Country, Natal Colony, Caffraria, Cape Colony, the Hottentot Country,
the Country of the Bechuanas, the Trans-Vaal Republic, the Orange River
Republic, Cirabebas, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Scneganibia, Sahara,
Soudan, and Ethiopia.
Tlie boundary lines of many of those divisions are very indefinite.
THE EMPIRE OF MOROCCO.
Geographical Position, etc. — Morocco, the most important of the Barbary
States, occupies the north-western extremity of Africa. The surface is
mountainous, interspersed in some parts with fine plains and valleys. The
soil is celebrated for its fertility ; and the climate, in the higher regions and
on the coast, is mild and healthy. .Fruits are plentiful ; and grain, sugar-
cane, cotton, and tobacco, are raised in considerable quantities.
Inhabitants, etc.— These are chiefly Moors, Jews, Berbers, and Arabs.
The prevailing religion is Mohammedan. Agriculture is rudely conducted.
There is some trade with Arabia and the negro tribes south of the Great
Desert. Traveling facilities are very inferior. Inland commerce is carried
on by means of caravans. The chief manufactures are carpets, cloth caps,
leather, earthenware, and silk fabrics; the exports are frnit, wax, olive-oil,
wool, carpets, hides, skins, gum, indigo, salt, leather, and leeches.
Important Places.— Morocco, the capital, is surrounded by a wall thirty
feet in height, and contains many beautiful mosques. Tangier carries on
an active trade with the Spanisli ports. Mooadoee is the chief seaport.
Fez is celebrated for its trade in red and yellow morocco.
THE COLONY OF ALGERIA.
Geographical Position, etc.— Algeria, a colony of France, extends along
the Mediterranean for about 600 miles. The surface is mountainous. The
only good soil is in the valleys between the mountains and the coast. Tlie
climate is temperate and healthy. The productions are like those of Mo-
AFRICA.
116
rocco, with the exception of sugar-cane and cotton. The coral and sponge
fislieries on the cosu-t, are valuable. Iron, copper, and lead, are the chief
minerals.
Inhabitants, etc. — Tliese are mainly Berbers, Jews, Moors, Turks, Arabs,
and negroes, together with some French and other European settlers.
The French are Roman Catliolics; the natives, Mohammedans. Some
attention is paid to agriculture, mining, and manufactures. The chief
manufactures are linen, woolen, and silk fabrics, saddles, carpets, hard-
ware goods, and coarse pottery. Among the exports are coral, skins, bones,
horns, wool, wax, oil, ostrich -feathers, and barks for tanning purposes.
Important Places, — Algiers, on a bay of the same name, is the capital.
Co^JSTANTiXE carries on an active trade in tlie products of Central Africa.
TUNIS.
Geographical Position, etc.— Tunis lies east of Algiers. The interior is but
little known, tliere being few facilities for travel. The soil is fertile; the
climate, temperate and healthy. The chief productions are grain, olives,
tobacco, and tropical fruits.
Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants consist of Arabs, Jews, Turks, and
Moors, — mostly Mohammedans. Agriculture is neglected. The manu-
factures are red woolen caps, embroidery, leather, boots, slippers, soap, and
essences. Oil, wood, sponges, red caps, soap, and essences, form the chief
exports.
Important Places.— Tunis, the capital and largest commercial city, stands
on a gulf of the same name. Kairwan is noted for its manufactures.
TRIPOLI.
Geographical Position, ete. — Tripoli, including Barca and Fezzan, lies be-
tween tlie Mediterranean Sea and the Great Desert. In the eastern part
are extensive tracks of sand ; in the south, the surface is mountainous ; in
tlie west, diversified. The soil is generally fertile. From May to Septem-
ber, the heat is intense. The iiroductions are like those of Tunis.
Inhabitants, etc. — The towns are inhabited chiefly by Moors and Jews ;
the i-ural ]jopulation consists of Ai'abs. Religion, Mohammedan. Travel-
ing facilities are inferior. Among the leading manufactures are carpets,
cloaks, articles made of goats' hair, leather, potash, and coarse earthenware.
The chief exports are dates, olives, rock salt, and manufactured goods.
Important Places. — Tripoli, the capital, on tlie Mediterranean coast, car-
ries on considerable trade with the interior of Africa.
FEZZAN is ruled by a sultan, who pays an annual tribute to thePashaw
of Tripoli. Tlie people are a mixed race, of Arabic'and negro extraction.
MouRzoDK, the capital, is a great rendezvous for caravans.
EGYPT.
Geographieai Position, ete. —Egypt
lies between the Mediterranean Sea
and Nubia. Its great natural feature
is the River Nile. The valley of this
river is very narrow, being shut in by
high rocks, beyond whicJi the country
Is mostly a desert.
Soil, etc. — The valley of the Nile is
rendered exceedingly fertile by the an-
nual inundations of the river. The cli-
mate of Egypt is hot and dry. Grain,
cotton, rice, indigo, and various drugs and fruits, are among the chief
productions. Beans and dhourra (a kind of grain) are extensively cultivated.
Inhabitants, etc. — Most of the inhabitants (called Fellahs) are of Arabic
descent ; the remainder are Copts, Turks, Greeks, Jews, etc. They are an
ignorant and degraded people. The prevailing religion is Mohammedan-
ism. Agriculture forms the leading pursuit.
G
.1
FLAG OF EGYPT.
Antiqnities.— Along the Nile are many specimens of ancient art, — pyr-
amids, temples, statues, obelisks, sphinxes, and caves hewn in the rocks.
Trareling Facilities. — Roads and canals have recently been constructed,
and a railroad has been built between Alexandria and Cairo.
9Iannfactnres and Exports. — The chief manufactures are linen goods, car-
pets, silk handkerchiefs, jewelry, and pottery. The leading exports are
cotton, rice, wheat, rose-water, indigo, senna, dates, opium, coftee, gums,
porous earthenware jars, matting, and carpets.
Important Places. — Cairo, the capital, is the largest city in Africa.
Alexandria, about 100 miles from Cairo, is a celebrated seaport. Dami-
ETTA, on the east branch of the Nile, is largely engaged in trade.
NUBIA. — Nubia, a large country under the dominion of Egypt, lies be-
tween it and Abyssinia. The surface, soil, and climate, are like those of
Egypt. The chief productions are dhourra, barley, cotton, indigo, senna,
coftee, and dates. Ebony-trees are numerous.
Inliabitanfs, etc — The Nubians, who, as a people, are superior to the
Egyptians, belong partly to the Caucasian, and partly to the negro, race ;
they are mostly Mohammedans. Slaves constitute the chief article of traf-
fic. The only manufactures are a few domestic articles ; the exports dre
chiefly the products received from Central Africa.
Important Places. — Khartoom, the capital, is the rendezvous for slave
caravans and the residence of the viceroy. Suakin, on the Red Sea, has a
good harbor, and is an important station for pilgrims on the way to and
from Mecca.
LESSON CLYI,
ABYSSINIA.
Geographical Position, etc. — Abyssinia, a inountainous'and well-watered
country, lies south-east of Nubia. It is divided into several states, respect-
ing which but little is known. Tlie soil is remarkable for its fertility. The
climate is intensely hot in the valleys. Cotton, flax, coffee, and teff, a
plant from which bread is made, are cultivated.
Iniiabitants, etc. — The inliabitants comprise difliferent tribes, many of them
barbarous. Their religion is a corrupt Christianity. Leather, coarse cot-
ton and woolen goods, sword-blades, spear-heads, etc., are the only manu-
factures. The chief exports are gold-dust, ivory, and slaves.
Important Places. — Goxdak. the capital, is about 20 miles trom Lake
Dembea. Ankobar, 300 miles from Gondar, is nest to it in hnportance.
EASTERN AFRICA.
Geographical Position. — Eastern Africa embraces the countries on the
coast, between Abyssinia on the north and the Zoolu Country on the south.
Divisions, etc.— The chief divisions of Eastern Africa are, 1. The Coun-
try of the Somaulies, oocupie(J by numerous tribes. 2. Zanguebar, which
is partly .subject to the Sultan of Muscat, partly to native princes; it ex-
ports rice, sugar, gums, elephants' tusks, and ostrich-feathers. 3. Mozam-
bique, which is claimed by the Portuguese ; it exports ivory, slaves, gold,
and coffee.
Important Places. — Berbera, in the Country of the Somaulies, is noted
for its annual fair. Zanzibar is the capital, and Mag ado so the chief port,
of Zanguebar. Mozambique, Quilimane, and Sofala, are the chief settle-
ments on the coast of Mozambique. They are in the possession of the Por-
tuguese, who have made Mozambique their capital.
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
Divisions, etc. — The chief divisions of Southern Africa are, 1. The Zoolu
Country, lying south of Mozambique. 2. Natal, a colony of Great Brit-
ain; it produces cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, and various fruits. 3. Caf-
fraria, partly under the dominion of the British, and partly under the con-
55
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PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
LESSON CLX.
OCEANIA, OK OCEANICA.
Geograpliieal Position, etc — Oceania, one of the Grand Divisions of land
on the globe, comprises Australia and most of the islands of the Pacific
Ocean. It is divided into Polynesia, Australasia, and Malaysia.
POLYNESIA.
Gronps. — The principal groups of Polynesia are the Bonin, Sandwich,
Marquesas, Low Archipelago, Society, Cook, Friendly, Navigator, Feejee,
Caroline, and Ladrone Islands.
Those which lie south of the equator are called the South Sea Islands,
and those on the north are embraced under the name of Micronesia.
Soil, ett. — In the mountainous islands, the soil is exceedingly fertile.
The climate is warm, and vegetation rich. Tropical fruits and flowers of
brilliant hues abound. Palms, cocoa-nut trees, and tree-ferns flourish.
The bread-fruit is an important article of native diet. The chief minerals
are gold, diamonds, copper, lead, coal, tin, and rock salt. The principal
animals are orang-outangs, monkeys, kangaroos, Malay tapirs, etc. Black
swans and birds of paradise are among the birds.
Inbabitants, et«. — Polynesia is inhabited by tribes of a light-brown color,
allied to the Malay race ; they are in a savage condition, except where
Christianity and civOization have been introduced by missionaries.
THE SANDWICH ISLES, the most im-
portant group of Polynesia, lie in the
North Pacific Ocean, 1,800 miles west
of Cahfornia.
Surface, etc. — In Hawaii, the largest
island of Polynesia, there are several
active volcanoes. The climate is mild
and salubrious. Wheat is raised in the
uplands ; in the valleys, cofl'ee, sugar,
cotton, tobacco, arrow-root, cocoa,
bread-fruit, yams, etc., are produced.
Inhabitants, etc — The natives have
embraced Christianity and made considerable advance in civilization. The
commerce of the islands is extensive, constant communication being main-
tained with San Francisco. The chief exports are sugar, coffee, whalebone,
and whale-oil.
Honolulu, the commercial emporium and capital of the group, is situ-
ated on the island of Oahu.
SOCIETI ISLES. — This group, in the South Pacific Ocean, consists of
Tahiti, which is about 32 miles long, and a number of smaller islands.
All the islands are more or less mountainous; the soil is fertile. The
principal commerce consists in the exportation of pearl-shells, sugar, cocoa-
nut oil, and arrow-root, by the foreigners settled there. The chief occu-
pations are agriculture (rudely conducted), fishing, and canoe-building.
Papieti (pah-pe-a'te), a village on the coast of Tahiti, is the capital of
the islands. The entire group is under the protection of France.
TDE CABOLINE ISLMDS are divided into numerous groups, extending
from east to west, over a space of about 2,000 miles. Their climate is mild,
and the inhabitants are skillful navigators.
THE LIDRONE ISLANDS, about twenty in number, of which only five are
inhabited, lie north of the Caroline Group. They present a beautiful ap-
pearance, their mountains being covered with perpetual verdure. The
chief productions are cotton, indigo, rice, sugar, and plantain. The Caro-
line and the Ladrone Islands belong nominally to Spain, and form part of
the government of the PhOippine Islands.
AUSTRALASIA.
This division of Oceania includes the Australian Continent and numer-
ous islands situated in the adjacent waters.
AUSTRALLA..
Geographical Positioo. — Australia lies south of the equator, between the
South Pacific Ocean on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the west.
Divisions. — Australia is divided into five colonies, belonging to Great
Britain ; viz., Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,
and Western Australia.
Physical Features. — The greater portion of the interior is yet unexplored ;
those parts that have been visited, are dry and barren plains. The most
elevated mountain range of this country extends along its eastern coast.
Soil, etc — In the eastern, south-eastern, and south-western parts, there
are large tracts of fertile land. The climate is, in general, dry and healthy ;
in the north, it is intensely hot. Both the vegetable and animal produc-
tions present the most striking contrast to those of other parts of the world.
The native trees are all evergreens; and the forests consist chiefly of aca-
cias, gum-trees, and gigantic ferns. Many of the food-plants of Europe
have been introduced, and are now cultivated with success.
Inhabitants, etc — The aborigines belong to the negro family. The whites,
consisting chiefly of British settlers and their descendants, are rapidly in-
creasing, owing to the discovery of gold-mines in the south-eastern dis-
tricts. The leading pursuits of the settlers are mining and the production
of wool.
Exports. — The chief exports are gold, wool, tallow, and hides.
Cities. — Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is rapidly advancing
in population and commercial importance. Melboukne, the capital of Vic-
toria, lies near the mouth of the Yarra Yarra River.
PAPUA, or NEW GUINEA, lies north of Australia. The interior of the
island is supposed to be mountainous. The inhabitants are partly Malays
and partly Papuan negroes. Fine woods, medicinal barks, pearls, birds-of-
paradise, etc., are brought from this island by traders.
NEW ZEALAND, a colony of Great Britain, comprises North, Middle, and
South Island, with several small adjacent isles.
The interior of the islands is hilly, and in parts mountainous. The soil
is fertOe ; the climate, mild and damp. European fruits and vegetables are
successfully cultivated. There are no wild animals or noxious reptiles.
The chief minerals are copper, sulphur, and iron.
The natives belong to the Malay race. Most of them still retain their
barbarous customs. The chief exports are wool, flax, timber, and the
produce of the whale fishery. Auckland, on North Island, is the capital.
VAN DIEIIEN'S LAND. — This island, a colony of Great Britain, is situ-
ated south of Australia. The surface is mountainous, and the soil not
very fertile. The climate is colder than that of Australia. Sheep form
the most important source of wealth. The leading exports are wool,
whalebone, and whale-oil.
HoBAKT Town, the capital of the colony, lies on the southern coast.
MALAYSIA, OR THE ASIATIC ARCHIPELAGO.
This division of Oceania consists of a range of large islands lying di-
rectly south-east of Asia. They are sometimes styled the East Indies.
The sou is very fertile, and the climate warm. The larger islands pro-
duce sugar, coffee, tobacco, indigo, cotton, and valuable timber, while the
smaller ones yield spices and aroniaties. Rice is everywhere extensively
cultivated ; sago is raised in the eastern islands. The natives of Malaysia
are chiefly of the Malay race.
THE PHILIPPINE ISLES, about 1,000 in number, lie in the northern
part of Malaysia. They belong, for the most part, to Spam.
OCEANIA. — GENERAL REVIEW.
119
The surface of the larger islands is mountainous. The climate is moist,
but not warm for the latitude. More than half the population are Malays ;
the remainder are Papuan negroes, Chinese, European and other settlers.
Coarse earthenware, hats made from the fibers of cane, mats, cigar-
cases, and rope, are the chief articles of native manufacture. Kice, sugar,
hemp, cigars, rope, and sapan-wood, are the chief exports. Manila, the
capital of the Philippine group, is the seat of an extensive trade.
THE MOLUCCAS, OR SPICE ISLANDS, are subject to the Dutch. They are
celebrated for their spices, particularly nutmegs and cloves.
JAVA, a large island, situated between the Java Sea and the Indian
Ocean, is the chief seat of the Dutch power in the East. The southern
part of the island is elevated. Volcanoes are numerous. Tlie soil is rich,
and is noted for the variety and abundance of its productions. Cotton,
sugar, rice, and coffee, are raised in large quantities, and form the leading
exports. The climate is hot.
Tlie Javanese belong to the Malay race, and are superior to the other
nations of Malaysia. Their religion is Mohammedan; agriculture is the
chief pursuit. Batavia, on the northern coast, is the capital of tlie Dutch
settlements in the East Indies, and their great commercial emporium.
SUMATRA lies in the Indian Ocean, immediately under the equator.
The western side is mountainous; the eastern spreads out into plains.
The soil is fertile; the climate, Lot and moist. The natives are chiefly
Malays. The staple production is pepper, which, with camphor, benzoin,
cinnamon, ebony, rattans, sandal-wood, aloes, and sago, is largely exported.
BORNEO. — This immense island, which exceeds in size the united areas
of our Eastern and Middle States, lies in the center of Malaysia. The
shores are low; the interior is supposed to be mountainous and well-
watered. Among the many vegetable productions are maize, rice, yams,
sago, coffee, cotton, pepper and other spices, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, and
gutta-percha. The mineral products are of the richest kind, comprising
gold, diamonds, platinum, tin, antimony, copper, and iron.
The inhabitants consist of aborigines (sometimes called Dyaks), Malays,
Chinese, and Boogis from Celebes. The northern and the north-western
coast, comprising the territory of Borneo Proper, are under the control of
Great Britain ; most of the remaining coast belongs to the Dutch.
The leading exports are camphor, gold, diamonds, edible birds'-nests,
and trepang (a gelatinous substance found adhering to rocks, esteemed a
great luxury by the Chinese).
CELEBES, an irregularly shaped island, lies east of Borneo. Dense
forests clothe the mountain sides. The well-known Macassar oil is ex-
tracted from the badeau-tree. Celebes is divided chiefly among indepen-
dent nations, of whom the Boogis are the principal; the Dutch possess
the settlement of Macassar, on the south-western coast. The leading ex-
ports are edible birds'-nests, hides, cotton, tortoise-shell, and spices.
OENEH^L. re:^ie"w.
Continents and Grand Divisions.
J)i what hemhpf
ere and in wlial zones
are (he following ?
Eastern Cont. ?
Africa ?
Antarctic?
North America?
Western ?
Oceania ?
Australian ?
Europe ?
Asia?
South America ?
Oceans.
What coasts do they wash ?
Pacific?
Antarctic ?
Atlantic ?
Arctic ?
Indian ?
Important Seas.
Wliat coasts do they indent, and of what
bodies of water are
they branches ?
Mediterranean ?
North ?
Caribbean ?
Yellow ?
Japan ?
Irish ?
A( riatic ?
Cliina ?
Pvod?
Baltic ?
Celebes?
Okhotsk?
Marmora ?
Ionian ?
Kaintchatka?
Kara ?
White?
Azov?
Black ?
Arabian ?
Adriatic ?
Beliring?
Important Gul& and Bays.
Wliat shores do they indent, and to what
bodies of water are
they tributary?
St. Lawrence ?
Naples ?
Chesapeake ?
Persian ?
Biscay ?
Panama ?
Tonquin ?
Dublin ?
Bothnia ?
Guinea ?
Guayaquil ?
Honduras ?
San Francisco?
Bengal ?
Venezuela ?
Hudson ?
Lyons ?
Taranto ?
Baffin?
Galway ?
Passamaqnoddy '
Trinity ?
Valentia ?
Siam?
Massachusetts ?
Fundy?
Genoa?
Delaware ?
Penobscot ?
Campeehe ?
Georgian ?
Mexico?
Finland ?
Greon ?
California?
Tampa ?
TehHante])ec ?
Casco ?
Australia ?
Carpentaria ?
Important Lakes,
Where are the following lakes?
Superior ?
Tlticaca ?
Baikal ?
Tchad?
Geneva ?
Constance ?
Huron ?
Erie?
Great Slave ?
Onega?
Ladoga ?
Michigan 1
Ontario ?
Winnipeg ?
Albert Nyanza ? Nyassa ?
Important Navigable Rivers.
Wliere docs each rise, and through what
country or countries does it flow ?
Hudson ?
Ganges ?
Mississippi ?
Volga?
Penobscot ?
Po?
St. Lawrence ?
Connecticut?
Danube ?
Wisconsin ?
Yang-tse-kiang ?
Detroit ?
Elbe?
Shannon ?
Tennessee?
Indus ?
Illinois ?
Loire ?
Wabash ?
San Joaquin ?
White (Ark.) ?
Alabama ?
Rhine ?
Delaware ?
Vistula?
Cumberland ?
Don?
Alleghany ?
Amoor? ■
Mobile ?
Kennebec?
Ottawa ?
Weser ?
Thames ?
Missouri?
Nile?
Kentucky ?
Irrawaddy ?
Kansas?
Oder?
Forth ?
Red?
Columbia ? Sacramento ?
Muskingum ? Arkansas ?
Important Conntries.
Bound each, and state in what zone or
zones it is situated.
France ?
United States?
Brazil ?
Egypt?
China?
England ?
Important
To what range
Pike's?
Maladetta ?
Illimani ?
Fremont's ?
Sorato ?
Marcy ?
Chimborazo ?
Washington ?
Shasta?
Elburz ?
Arabia ?
Prussia ?
Hindostan ?
Mexico ?
Cape Colony ?
Russia?
Honntain Peaks.
does each bclmig ?
Cotopaxi ?
Hood?
Lomnitz ?
Aconcagua ?
Everest ?
Blanc ?
Kilimanjaro ?
Mitchell?
Como?
Popocatapetl ?
Important Forts.
In what zone and on what water is each 'l
Halifax ?
Baltimore ?
Vera Cruz ?
London ?
Marseilles ?
Melbourne ?
Elsinore ?
New Bedford ?
Sydney ?
Nagasaki ?
Amsterdam ?
Alexandria ?
Cape Town ?
Venice ?
Amoy ?
Buenos Ayres ?
Naples ?
New York?
Acapulco ?
Havana ?
Genoa ?
Honolulu ?
Boston ?
New Orleans?
Rio Janeiro ?
Hull?
Singapore ?
Tangier ?
Oporto ?
Shang-hai ?
Calcutta ?
Valparaiso ?
Oliarleston?
Snlem?
Aberdeen ?
Aspinwall ?
Canton?
Rotterdam ?
Palermo ?
Montevideo ?
Providence ?
Matanzas ?
Tripoli?
Lisbon?
Lubec ?
Smyrna ?
Bangkok ?
Adelaide ?
Ningpo ?
Portland ?
San Francisco ?
Dundee?
Brighton ?
Newburyport ?
Bordeaux ?
Savannah ?
Galway ?
Matanzas ?
Dublin ?
Monterey ?
Pernambuco ?
Bristol ?
Port Mahon ?
Ostend?
Tunis?
Newport ?
Brooklyn ?
Pensacola ?
New London ?
Olympia?
Havre ?
Waterford ?
Pondicherry?
Batavia ?
Southampton ?
Brest ?
Panama ?
Nantucket ?
Leith ?
Simoda?
Constantinople ?
Bremen ?
Mobile ?
Portland ?
Monrovia ?
Trieste ?
Bombay ?
Hamburg ?
St. John's?
Limerick ?
Newcastle ?
Callao ?
Belfast?
Belfast (Me.)?
Philadelphia?
Cork?
Galveston ?
Sacramento ?
Bahia?
Liverpool ?
Stettin ?
Antwerp ?
Quilimane?
Madras ?
Leghorn ?
Marblehead ?
Norfolk ?
Londonderry ?
Key West?
Jersey City ?
Wilmington (N.C.)?
Toulon ?
Barcelona ?
Para?
Dover ?
Dantzic ?
Salonica ?
Mozambique ?
Colombo ?
Auckland ?
Cronstadt?
Toronto ?
GEOGRAPHICAL TABLES,
Arranged alpJiabetically, with the Pronunciation of the Froper Namest and Statistics of Area, Population, etc.
In compiling the following Tables, recourse has been had to the most recent authorities. The numbers given in connection with many of the natural and political
divisions of South America, Asia, and Africa, are simply estimates ; a blank indicates that we have not sufficient information even to form an estimate.
Pronunciation. — In the second column the word is rc-spelled in such a way as to indicate its pronunciation. Sound ay like a in fate ; a like a in cat ; & like the
obscure sound of a in Florida ; eh like e in met ; j like i in pin ; 6 like o in ^o / 6 like o in not ; 5 almost like u in fur ; oo as in soon ; do like oo in took ; ow like
ow in now ; gh like g in go ; n' like the nasal n in the French language.
Australian,
Eastern,
Western,
Africa,
Asia,
Europe,
North America,
Oieaiiia,
South America,
Continents.
aws-tra'le-5n,
cast'em,
west'ern,
Sq. Miles. Population.
8,000,000 ], 100,000
35,Ba-),000 1,011,000,0110
14,000,000 65,150,000
Giand Divisions.
af're-ki,
a'she-ii,
u'rup,
amehr'e-kS,
o-she-ali'ne-S,
11,400,000
15,8011,000
3,823,1)00
8.000.(XK)
4,.5U0,0()0
70,000,000
635,000,000
285,00i),0a0
4«,BO0,(KX)
81,000,(100
a-mehr'e-ka, 6,000,000 18,650,000
Chief Political Divisions of the World : Countries,
States, etc.
Abvssinia,
Afehnnistan,
Alabama,
AlH^eria,
Anam,
An!?ola,
All halt,
Arabia.
Arjcntine Confed.,
Arizona,
Arkansas,
Ashantee,
Asia Minor,
Austria,
Baden,
Balize,
Barbary States,
Barcaj
Bavana,
Bechuauas, Coun-
try of,
Belgium,
Beloochistan,
Ben^ela,
Benin,
Birmah,
Bohemia,
Bolivia,
Bootan,
Brazil,
British America,
British Columbia,
British Empire,
British Ouiaua,
Brunswick,
Caffraria,
Calirornia,
Canada. Dom. of.
Cape Colony,*
Central America,
Chili,
China Proper,
Chinese Empire,
Cimbebas, Coim-
try of,
Circassia,
Colombia, United
States of,
Colorado,
Columbia, Dis. of,
Connecticut,
Corea,
Costa Rica,
Bahomey,
Dakota,
Delaware,
Denmark,
Dutch Guiana,
Ecuador,
ab-is-sin'e-jl,
ahr-«ahn-i8-tahn',
al il-bab'mi,
al-jo're-S,
a-nam',
ani;-'i;o'ht,
ahn'nahlt,
S-ra;be-S,
ar'jen-teen,
Ar-e-zo'nS,
ar-kan'siis,
fi-shan'te,
a'she-S mi'nor,
aws'tre-a,
bab'den,
ba-leez',
bar'ber-e,
bar'kS,
ba-va're-S,
bet-cboo-ah'naz,
bel'je-um,
bel-oo-chis-tahn',
ben-f^a'lah,
ben-con',
bir'mah,
bo-he'me-2,
bo-liv'e-S,
hoo-tahn',
brS-zir,
a-mehr'e-kS,
ko-Uim'be-3,
em'pire,
ehe-ah'nah,
brunz'wik,
kaf-fra're-S,
kal-e-for'ne-a,
kan'S-da,
kape kol'o-ne,
a-mehr'e-kS,
chil'le,
chi'nS,
chi-neez',
sim-bataz,
ser-kash'e-a,
ko-lom'be-5,
kol-o-rah'do,
ko-lum'be-il,
kon-net'e-kut,
ko-re'S,
kos'tah re'kah,
dah-ho'ma,
d«-ko'tS.
del '5- ware,
den'mark,
ghe-ah'nab,
ek-wah-dor'.
280,000
225.000
50,722
90,0(10
240,000
1,026
835,000
820,000
121,000
52,200
90,000
270,000
239,000
5,904
18,600
675,000
49,500
29,330
11,400
150,000
200,000
20,000
450.000
64„500
3,004,500
2,980,000
225,000
8,900,000
76,000
1,425
20.000
189,000
390 40O
200.000
218,000
170,000
1,300,000
5,000,000
175.000
40,000
480,000
106,475
fiO
4,670
80,000
21.800
21.000
152.000
2.120
15,900
37,440
240,000
3,000,000
6,000,000
96-1,201
2,900,000
1.3,400,000
2,000,0.10
19.3,016
io,ooo,o;)o
754,000
15,000
4.35,450
3,000,000
4,500,000
32,573,030
1,429,199
19,0
15,500,000
1,000,01)0
4,774,464
4,941,000
2,000,000
5,000,000
4,703,525
1,700,000
6.065,000
3,400,000
80,000
200,000,000
1.36,000
293,388
.393,5.34
3,072,000
267.000
2.220.000
1.209,000
387.63.3,000
400,000,000
650,000
2,363,000
52,000
75,080
460,147
2,000,000
215.000
200,000
25,000
112,216
1,608,100
61,000
1,040,400
Egypt,
England,
Ethiopia,
Farther India,
Fezzan,
Florida,
France,
French Empire,
French Guiana,
Galicia,
Georgia (Asia),
Georgia (U. S.),
Greece,
Guatemala,
Guinea,
Hesse Darmstadt,
Hindostan,
Holland,
Holstcin,
Honduras,
Hottentot Country,
Hudson Bay Terr.,
Hungary,
Idaho,
Illinois,
India,
Indiana,
Indian Territory,
ludo-China,
Iowa,
Ireland,
Italy,
Japan,
Kansas,
Kentucky,
Kirgheez Country,
Kordofan,
Labrador,
Liberia,
Liechtenstein,
Lippe Detmold,
Loango,
Louisiana,
Maine,
Mantchooria,
Marjiand,
Massachusetts,
Mecklenburg
Schwerin,
Mecklenbtu^ Strc-
litz,
Mexico,
Michigan,
Minnesota,
Mississippi,
Missouri,
Mongolia,
Montana,
Moravia,
Morocco,
Mozambique,
Natal Colony,
Nebraska,
Nepaul,
Nevada,
New Brunswick,
New Hampshire,
New .Tersey,
New Mexico,
New York,
Nicaragua,
North Carolina,
N. German Confed.
Norway,
Nova Scotia,
Nubia,
Ohio,
Oldenburg,
Oman,
Ontario, Prov. of.
Sq. Miles.
Population.
ing'glitnd,
c-tlie-o'pe-i.
175,000
3.000,000
51.200
20,000,000
2,500,000
4,000.000
in'de-il.
9(KI,000
22,000,000
fez-zalm',
188.000
100,000
flOr'e-da,
50,270
140,424
Ihuice,
2Of.800
37,472,700
em'pire.
351.000
41,000,000
glie-ah'iiah.
27,560
19,800
:il-lish'e-il.
29,000
4,.597,470
, or'jc-il,
or'je-J,
12,800
300.000
58,000
l,0.'->7.663
greece.
18,.50O
1,096,800
gwali-ta-mah'lah
48.100
985,000
L'hln'e,
liess dann'staht.
650.000
1,700
564,475
hin-{loo-stau'.
1,250.000
130,000.000
hol'liliid.
13.650
3,7:55,700
hol'sline.
3.230
554.610
hon-doo'nts.
43.700
350,000
hot't en-tot.
173,000
liud'sun.
1.900,000
hnng'gS-re,
i'dil-ho.
82.K00
90,000
9,900.785
26,000
11-le-noy',
65,410
1,711,931
In'dc-ii,
2,150,000
152,000.000
in-de-an'jt.
a3.810
1,.350.812
In'de-an.
71.000
110,000
in'do-chi'na.
900.000
22,000.000
i'o-wil.
65.040
674,913
ire 'land,
82,.'i00
5,672,000
It'a-le,
119.500
26,783,000
ja-pan',
kan'sas,
270,000
25,000,000
78.420
11!>,.395
ken-tuek'e.
37.080
l.LIS.O&l
kir-gbecz'.
300.000
2,200.000
kor-do-fahn'.
100,000
500,000
lab'ra-dor.
170.000
5,000
li-bc'rc-a.
25,000
250,000
leek'teii-stine.
53
7.994
lip'peli dct'molt.
425
111,336
lo-ang'go,
loo-c-ze-an'a.
46,430
708.002
main.
31,760
629.248
man-cboo'rc-a.
600,000
1,.330,000
ma're-land.
11,120
687,0)9
mas-sa-chu 'setts
7,800
1,231,000
niek'len-burg
shwa-reen'.
\ 4,845
552,012
mek'len-burg
Btra'lits,
!■ 707
99,000
mex'e-ko,
830.000
8,000,000
mish'e-gan,
56.2-!0
756.890
min-ne-so'ta.
83.5.30
189.923
mis-sis-sip'pe,
47.150
792,205
mis-soo're,
67.380
1,182,012
mon-go'lc-a.
2,200.000
mon-tah'na.
153..300
30.000
mo-ra've-a.
10.239
1,867,094
mo-rok'ko.
222,500
7,500,000
nio-zam-beek'.
nah-tahl'.
22.000
2.50.000
ne-bras'kS,
76.930
35.000
ne-paul'.
5.3,000
2,000,000
na-vah'dS,
85.450
70.000
brunz'wik,
27,700
2.34.000
hamp'shlr,
9,280
326.073
jer'ze.
8,320
672.017
mex'e-ko,
124.500
148,616
york.
47,000
3,884,520
nik-ar-ah'gwah,
kAr-o-li'na,
46.200
2,57,000
50,700
992, ()22
jer'man,
160,240
29,248..3.3:5
nor'wa.
12,3,400
1,328.500
no'va sko'she-a.
18.700
3:51,000
nu'be-a.
320.000
500.000
o-hi'o.
39,960
2,8:59,511
ol'den-burg,
2,472
301,812
o-mahn'.
on-ta're-o.
140,000
1,396,000
Orange River Ee-
public,
Oregon,
Palestine,
Papal Statoe,
Paraguay,
Patagonia,
Pennsylvania,
Persia,
Peru,
Portugal,
Prussia,
Quebec, Prov. of.
lieuss (older line),
Kcuss (vounger line),
Rhode Island,
Russia (.•\Eiatic),
Russia (European),
Russian America,
Russian Empire,
Sahara,
San Salvador,
Saxe Altcnburg,
Saxc Coburg-Gotha,
Saxe Meiningen,
Saxe Weimar,
Saxony,
Scliaumburg Lippe,
Schwarzburg Ru-
dolstadt,
Scliwarzbutg Son-
dershaueeu,
Scotland,
ScnegamDla,
Siani,
Siberia,
Sierra Leone,
Sleswick,
Som.iulie9' Country,
Soudan,
South Carolina,
South German
States,
Spain,
States of the Church,
Sweden,
Switzerland,
Syria,
Tennessee,
'Texas,
Thibet,
Trans-vaal Rep'c,
Transylvania,
Tripoli,
Tunis,
Turkestan,
Turkey (Asiatic),
Turkey tEuropean),
Tuscany,
Tyrol,
United States of
America,
United States of
Colombia,
Upper HcBse,
Uruguay,
Utah,
Venezuela,
Vermont,
Virginia,
Waldeck,
Wales,
Washington Terr.,
West Virginia,
Wisconsin,
Wurtembutg,
Wyoming,
Yemen,
Zanguobar,
Zoolu Country,
Sq. Miles. PopulalloD.
Or'ange,
30.000
Or'e-gon,
101.400
69,465
pal'cs-tine.
11.000
pa'pai.
4.5,30
700.000
pah-rah-gwi'.
m.OdO
1,000.000
pat-a-po'ne-a.
300,000
120,000
pen-sil-va'ne-a.
46,000
2,900,215
pcr'Bhe-a,
4.50.000
9,000,000
pe-roo',
400.000
2,500,000
port'u-gai,
prush'a,
Kwc-bek',
85.800
3,988,000
1:5.5.000
2.3,590,550
210,000
1,111,000
nice.
145
4:5,924
ruco.
.320
86,472
rode i'land,
1..300
174.620
rush'il,
5.600,000
9.000,000
nisli'a.
2,142,.'i00
65,800.000
rush'an.
480.000
54.000
rush'an.
8.000.000
75,000,000
sah-hah'rah.
2,700.000
1,000,000
san sal-va-dor'.
9,000
3!)4,00O
saks al'ten-burg
510
141.8:59
saks co'burg-gd'
ta, 702
161,527
saks mi'niiig-en.
956
178.065
saks wi'niar.
1,403
280.201
saks'o-ne.
5,776
2,813.994
shOwm'burg lip'pch, 171
31,382
sbwahrts'burg
roo'dol-staUt,
[ 371
73,752
shwarts'burg i o™
son-ders-hOw'zen, \
66,189
skot'iand.
30,000
3,153,500
sen-e-gam'be-a,
250,000
si'am.
295.000
3,600.000
si-bc're-a.
5,600,000
9,0»10,(K)0
se-er'iah le-o'ne
232
44,601
slcs'wik,
3,000
400,486
Bo-maw'leez,
soo-dahn'.
1,900.000
14,000,000
tir-o-U'ntt,
29,380
703,708
jer'man,
44,500
8,524,400
Spain
183,000
15,752,600
4.550
700.000
Bwe'dcn,
170,100
3,857.(100
Bwits'ei-iand,
16.000
2,510,500
Bir'c-a,
60.000
2,000.000
ten-ucs-se',
45,000
1,109.S01
tex'is.
2.37,.500
0(M.215
tibet.
750.000
10,000,000
trans-vahl',
40,000
tran-sil-va'ne-a.
23,078
1,926.797
trip'o-le,
105,000
1,600.000
tu'nis.
70.000
2.500,000
toor-kes-tahn'.
420,000
5.000,000
tur'ke.
680,000
16.000.000
tur'ke,
203,000
15,725,000
tus'ka-ne,
8,586
1,801.875
tlr'rol,
11,084
851,018
a-mehr'e-ka.
3,480,000
32,000,000
ko-lcm'be-S,
480,000
2,303,000
hess,
1,270
252,427
oo-roo-gwi'.
70,000
260.000
u'tah.
108,000
60.273
ven-ez-we'lah,
427,000
1,419,300
ver-mont',
10.210
315,098
vir-jin'e-a.
40,810
1,216,400
wol'delj.
433
59,143
walez.
7.400
1,140,000
wosh'ing-tnn,
70,000
42,594
vir-jin'e-i.
20,.510
376,090
wis-kon'sin.
53,920
778,714
wur'tem-burg,
7,528
1,748,328
wi-o'ming.
86,000
yem'en,
zahng-gha-bar',
zoo'lu,
y
ISLANDS, MOUNTAINS, OCEANS, LAKES," AND RIVERS.
121
Some of the Chief Islands of the World.
Andaman,
An^rlesea,
Anticosti,
Anti^a,
Azores,
Bahamas,
lialearic,
Barbadoes,
Bermudas,
Borneo,
Bourbon,
Canary,
Caudia,
Cape Breton,
Cape Verde,
Caroline,
CelebcB,
Ceylon,
Chtloe,
Cook,
Corsica,
Cuba,
Cura9oa,
Cyprus,
Dominica,
Elba,
Falkland,
Faroe,
Fecje,
Floris,
Formosa,
Friendly,
Funen,
Great Britain,
Greenland,
Guadeloupe,
Hainan,
Hayti,
Hebrides,
Iceland,
Ionian,
Ireland,
Jamaica,
Java,
Jesso,
Joannes,
Juan Fernandez,
Kinsiu,
Kurile,
Lad rone.
Long, •
Loo Choo,
Madasascar,
Madeira,
Mai dive,
Malta,
Man,
Marijarita,
Marquesas,
Martba's Viney'd,
Martinique,
Mauritius,
Nantucket,
Navijrator's,
New Britain,
New Caledonia,
Newfoundland,
New Geonria,
New Guinea,
New Hebrides,
New Zealand,
Nicobar,
Niplion,
Nova Zembla,
Orkney,
Pelew,
Philippine,
Porto Rico,
Prince Edward,
Rhode,
Rhodes,
Sai^halien,
Sandwich,
Santa Cniz,
Sardinia,
Shetland,
Sicily,
SikolE^,
Society,
Socotra,
Solomon,
South Shetland,
Spice
Spitzbergen,
Staten.
St. Helena,
Sumatra,
Sumbawa,
Tasmania,
Terra del Fuego, -j
Timor,
Tobai:^o.
Trinidad,
Vancouver's,
Van Diemen's,
Wight,
Zealand,
Area in
Sq. Milci
an-aa-oan',
3,000
ang'g'1-se.
270
an-te-kos'to.
2,B00
ahn-te'gah.
108
az-orz',
2.038
b;Vha'mSz,
4.500
bal-e-Ar'ik,
bar-lia'doze,
1,750
108
ber-mu'diiz,
22
bor'ne-o.
286,000
boor'bnn,
890
kjl-na're.
2,980
kan'de-a,
4.300
kape brit'un,
3.100
kape verd,
1,C80
kAr'o-Ime,
450
eel'e-biz.
71,791
Be 'Ion,
24,664
cheel-o-a'.
4,000
kOOk,
1,200
kor'ee-ka.
8,300
ku'bS,
42,380
ku-rahso',
250
ei'prus.
4,500
dom-e-ne'kah.
280
el'bii.
97
fawk'iand,
6,000
fa'ro.
510
fe'jo,
ao3-t
flo'iis.
6,000
for-mo'sa,
15.000
frend'le.
2,600
fu'nen,
1,123
brit'Sn,
88.000
grcen'iand.
800.000
gaw-da-loop',
ni-nabn\
B.34
12.000
ha'te,
29.400
heb're-deez.
3.180
ice'iand.
38.400
i-o'ne-an,
1.090
ire'lfind.
32.500
. a-ma'ka.
5.400
, ah'vah.
50.000
yes'po,
62.500
zho-ahn'nes,
6,000
ju'an fer-nan'dez,
Ke-oo'se-oo\
CO
28.000
koo'ril.
3.070
ladione',
1,200
long,
1,450
100 choo.
1,200
mad-a-gas'kar,
240,000
ma-de'ra.
400
mal'divc.
2,100
mawl'tah,
98
man,
280
mar-cah-re'tah,
450
mor-ka'sahs.
2,800
mar'thSz vin'yjrd
120
mar-tin-eek',
380
maw-risli'e-ue,
708
nan-tuk'et.
60
nav'e-ca-turz,
2,650
nu brit'Sn,
4,200
nil kal-e-do'ne-a,
8,107
nu'fund-iand,
36,000
nujor'je-S,
4,600
nu gbin'e,
nu heb're-deez.
275.000
3.B00
nu ze'iand.
99,500
nik'o-bar,
1,400
ne-fon'.
110,000
no'va zem'bia,
22,000
ork'ne.
600
pe-lew'.
260
fll'ip-pin.
120.000
por'to re'ko,
3.740
prince ed'ward.
2,130
rode,
37
rodez,
420
sah-eah-le'en,
47.500
eand'wich.
6,000
Ban'takroos,
78
ear-din'e-a.
9.200
shet'iand.
1..30O
sis'e-!e.
10.500
se-kokf.
17.300
so-si'e-te.
2,000
eok'o-tra.
1.000
eol'o-mun.
8.000
fhet'iand.
4.000
spice,
38.300
ppitz-ber'gen,
23,000
Btat'en,
60
hel-e'na.
47
Boo-mah'trah,
128,000
Boom-baw'wah,
4.000
taz-ma'ne-a.
25,000
tehr'rah del I
fwa'go, J
50,000
te-more'.
8,000
to-ba'go.
180
trin-e-dad'.
2.000
van-koo'verz,
16.000
van de'menz,
25.0t)"
wife.
130
ze'iand.
2,840
Some of the Chief Uoontains of the
World.
[K indicates a Volcano.] Height, of
loftiest 6um-
mit in feet.
Aconcama,
Adirondack,
Alleghany,
Alps,
Altai,
Andes,
Antisana, V.,
Apennines,
Ararat,
Atlas,
Balkan,
Ben Nevis,
Blanc,
Blue Ridge,
Brazilian Aiides,
Brown,
Buckley,
Caracroons,
Cantabrian,
Carpatliiau,
Cascade,
Catsldll,
Caucasus,
Cevennes,
Chimborazo, T^
Chuquibaniba,
Cibao,
Coast, •
Colima, V.,
Cordillera do I
Ciib.i, j
Cotopaxi, K,
Dhawalagliiri,
Dovrc Field,
Edgecombe,
E^mout,
Elbrooz,
Elburz,
ErobuB, v.,
Etna, v.,
Everest,
Fairweather,
Fremont's Peak,
Grampian,
Green,
Ilecla, r.,
Himalaya,
IlindooKooab,
Hood,
Hooker,
UUmaui,
Kenia,
Kilimanjaro,
Kiolcn,
Kong,
Kuncuinginga,
Long's Pcali,
Mansflcld,
Marcy,
Jlaiiua Kea, V.,
Manila Loa, K,
Mitchell,
Moon,
Ophir,
Orizaba, F.,
Parime,
Pichincha, V.,
Pike's Peak,
Popocatepetl, V.,
Pyrenees,
Rocky,
Shasta,
Sierra Madre I
(Mox.), f
Sierra Morcna,
Sierra Nevada I
(Cal,), f
Sierra Nevada I
(Spain), f
Sinai,
Snow,
Snowdon,
Sorata. K,
Spanish Peaks,
St. Elias,
St, Helen's, Fi,
Taunis,
TeneriflTe Peak,
Tolima, V.,
Tupungato,
Ural,
Vesuvius, K,
Washington,
WeUington,
White,
ah-kon-kah'gwah,
ad-c-ron'dak,
al'le-ga-ne,
alps,
ahl-ti',
an'deez,
ahn-te-sah'nah,
ap'en-ninez,
Ar'a-rat,
at'las,
bahl-lvahn',
ben ne'vis,
blank,
blue ndgc,
bra-zil'yan an'deez,
brown,
buk'lo,
kam-er-oonz',
kan-ta'brc-an,
kar-pa'the-an,
kas-kadc',
kats'kil,
kaw'ka-sus,
Ba-ven',
chira-bo-rah'zo,
choo-ke-bahm'bah,
Be-bah'o,
coast,
ko-le'mah,
kor-dil-la'rah da I
koo'bah, (
ko-to-paks'c,
da-wol-a-gher're,
do'vrc li-cld',
ej'kum,
eg'mont,
el-brooz',
el-boorz',
ehr'c-bu9,
et'na,
cv'er-est,
fai^-^vetll'er,
l^c'monts,
gram'pc-an,
green,
Eok'ia
him-a-la'ya,
hiu'doo koosh,
hSud,
hOSk'er,
ccl-ye-mab'ne,
ke'ne-a,
kil-e-mahn-jah-ro',
kyfl'lcn,
kong,
koon-chin-jing'gah,
longz peak,
manz'lield,
mar'sc,
mDw'nah ka'ah,
mOw'nah lo'ah,
mit'chel,
moon;
o'fir,
o-re-sah'bah,
pah-ro'ma,
pe-chin'chali,
pilcts peak,
po-po-kah-ta-petT,
plr'c-neez,
rok'e,
Bhas'ta,
BO-ehr'rah 1
mah'dra,
mo-ra'nah,
na-vah'da.
Bi'na,
Bno,
Buo'dun, '
so-rah'tah,
epan'ish peaks,
saint e-li'a.s,
Baint hel'enz,
taw'rus.
ten-er-if,
to-le'mah,
toopoong-gah'to,
n'rai,
vesu've-ns,
wosh'ing-tun,
wel'ling-tun,
white.
23,910
6,379
6,775
15,810
11,063
2:3,910
19,140
9.523
17,323
11,400
9.000
4,308
15,810
, 4,260
5,755
15,090
0,775
13,760
10,998
8,779
14,390
3,804
18,493
6..561
21,421
21,000
8,000
10,750
12,000
7,900
18,875
28,073
8,152
10(000
8,039
14,095
18,.<93
13,400
10,874
29,100
14,000
13,570
4,363
4.430
5,110
29.100
20,230
14,000
15,700
21.181
20,000
20,000
8,070
5,000
28,173
12,500
4,279
5,379
13,587
13,175
6,732
20,000
13,800
17,380
10.500
15,9,36
14,500
17,884
11.103
15.690
14,390
17,884
5,500
16,000
11,058
7,497
lo.aio
3,571
21,286
11.000
17.900
12,000
12.869
11,946
18.270
22,4,50
5,397
3.948
6.2&S
6,510
Sq. Milea.
Cwl-yah'gahB,
2,000
bi'kahl.
14,000
kon'stanco,
200
dem'be-a.
1,400
e're.
7,800
je-ne'va.
82
great boar.
10,000
great Bait,
2,000
great slave,
hu'run.
12,000
20,400
la-do'ga.
6,330
mish'c-gan,
nik-ar-ah'gwah.
23,000
4,000
o-ne'ga.
3,.30O
on-ta'rC-o,
6,900
saint klare.
850
su-pe're-ur.
82,000
chahd.
19,000
te-te-kah'kah,
3,000
vahn.
2,000
wa'ner.
2,120
wet'ter,
800
win'ne-peg,
6,500
Antarctic,
Arctic,
Atlantic,
Indian,
Pacific,
Oceans.
ant-ark'tik,
ark'tik,
at-!an'tik,
In'de-Sn,
pa-slf'ik,
Extent In dq, mlfl,
inclndini; neaa con-
nected nitli them.
20,000.000
2,000,000
80,000,000
25,000,000
70,000,000
Some of the Chief Lakes of the World,
with their estimated area.
Aullagas,
Baikal,
Constance
Dembea,
Erie,
Geneva,
Great Bear,
Great Salt,
Great Slave,
Huron,
Lado^,
Michigan,
Nicaragua,
Onega,
Ontario,
St, Clair,
Superior,
Tchad,
Titicaca,
Van,
Wener,
Wetter,
Winnipeg,
Chief Bivera of the World.
Alabama,
Albany,
Alleghany,
Amazon,
Amoo,
Amoor,
Angara,
Araguay,
Arkansas,
Blue Nile,
Brahmapootra,
Br.azos,
Bug,
Cambodia,
Cape Fear,
Cauca,
Chattahoochee,
Churchill,
Clarke's,
Coanza,
Colorado (S, A,),
Colorado (Tex,),
Colorado (of the
West),
Columbia,
Congo,
Connecticut,
Coosa,
Cumberland,
Danube,
Delaware,
Des Moines,
Dnieper,
Dniester,
Don,
Donro,
Drave,
Duck,
Duna,
Dwina,
East Main,
Ebro,
Elbe,
Essequibo,
Euphrates,
Flint,
Gambia,
Ganges,
Garonne,
Gila,
Glommen,
Godavery,
Grand.
Great Kanawha,
Great Pedee,
Green (Ky,),
Guadalquivir,*
Guadiana,
Guaviare,
Hoang-Ho,
Hudson,
Humboldt,
Illinois,
Indighirka,
Indus,
Iowa,
Irrawaddy,
Irtish,
Tshin,
Jamea,
Japura,
Jjivary,
Kama,
Kansas,
Kaskaskia,
Kennebec,
Kentucky,
Lena,
Lengt
h in Miles,
al-a-bab'ma.
380
awl'ba-ne.
&10
al'le-ga-ne.
400
am'a-zon.
4,000
ah-moo',
1,300
ah-moor'.
2,200
ahng-gah-rah'.
900
abr-.ah-gwi'.
1,000
ar-kan'E-as,
2,000
blue uilc.
800
brah-ma-poo'trS,
1,500
brah'zos.
950
boog.
340
kam-bo'de-3.
1,800
kape fear.
300
k6w'kah.
600
chat-ta-Iioo'cho,
550
church'il,
750
klarks.
500
ko-ahn'zah.
500
kol-o-rah'do.
800
"
900
It
1,100
ko-Inm'be-a,
1,300
kong'go.
1,200
kon-uet'e-kut.
410
koo'sa,
350
kum'ber-iand.
600
dan'ube,
1,725
dcl'a-ware.
800
dc moin.
400
ne'per.
1,230
necs'tcr,
600
don.
1,000
doo'ro.
400
drave.
S60
duck.
250
du'nS,
400
dwi'na.
330
east main,
400
e'bro.
aio
elb.
550
cs-se-lce'bo.
420
u-fra'teez.
1,800
flint.
300
gam'be-S,
650
gan'jeez.
1,500
gah-ron',
he'lah.
381
450
glom'mcn.
280
go-dah'ver-e.
700
grand,
ta-naw'wa.
800
400
pe-dee'.
450
green.
300
gaw-dal-lcwiv'er,
280
gaw-do-an'a.
380
gwah-vo-ah'ra,
450
ho-ang-ho'.
2,000
hud'sun.
300
hum'bolt.
SiO
il-le-noy',
in-de-gbir'ka,
400
7.50
in'dus.
1,650
l'o-w8.
300
Ir-ra-wod'de,
1,200
ir'tish.
1,700
ish-een'.
700
jamez.
450
hah-poo'rah.
1,000
hah-va-ro'.
460
kah'inah.
1.400
kan'sas.
1,200
kas-kas'ke-S,
■ 300
ken-ne-bek'.
200
ken-tuk'e,
300
le'na.
2,400
Lewis,
Loire,
Mackenzie's,
Madeira,
Magdalena,
Mamore,
Meinam,
Meta,
Mezene,
Minnesota,
Mississippi,
Missoun,
Murray,
Nebraska,
Negro (Brazil),
Negro (Arg. Con.'
Nelson,
Neuse,
Niemen,
Niger,
Nile,
North Platte,
Nueces,
Obe,
Ocmulgee,
Oconee, •
Oder,
Ohio,
Oka,
Olenek,
Orauge,
Orinoco,
Osage,
Ottawa,
Paraguay,
Parana,
Paranahiba,
Parnahiba,
Pearl,
Penobscot,
Pctchora,
Pilcoinayo,
Platte,
Potomac,
Pruth,
Purus,
Putumayo,
Red,
Republican Fork
of Kansas,
Rhine,
Rhone,
Rio dc la Plata,
Rio Grande
(N, A.),
Rio Grande
(Brazil),
Roanoke,
Rock,
Sabine,
Sacramento,
Salado,
San Franciaco,
Sangamon,
San Joaquin,
Saskatcnawan,
Savannah,
Seine,
Senegal,
Severn (Eng.),
Severn (N. A.),
Shannon,
Smoky Hill Fork
of Kansas,
Songarl,
South Platte,
St. Francis,
St. John's (N.B.),
St, Lawrence,
Surinam,
Susqueharmah,
Tagus,
Tallapoosa,
Tapajos,
Tennessee,
Thames,
Theiss,
Tigris,
Tobol,
Tocanting,
Tombigbec,
Toungouska,
Trinity,
Fcayale,
Ural,
Uruguay,
Vermejo,
Vistula,
Volga,
Wabash,
Washita,
Weser,
White (Ark.),
Willamette,
Wisconsin,
Xingn,
Yang-tse-kiang,
Yazoo,
Yellow Stone,
Yenesei,
Zambezi,
Length
In Mile;.
lew'ia.
900
Iwahr,
630
mak-ken'zees.
2,000
mah-da'rah.
2,000
mag-da-le'nS,
mah-mo-ra'.
900
500
ma-nahm'.
800
ma'tah.
600
mez-ane'.
400
min-ne-Bo'tS,
450
mis-sis-sip'pe.
3,160
mis-soo're.
3,096
mur're.
1,280
ne-bras'ka.
1,200
na'gro.
1,200
660
nel'sun.
300
neuse.
860
ne'men,
400
ni'jer.
S,E00
nile.
8,000
plat.
800
nwa'ces.
350
o'be.
2,000
ok-mul'ghe,
800
o-ko'ne,
280
o'der.
600
o-hi'o.
960
o'ka.
660
o-la-nek'.
800
Or'anj,
1,000
o-rono'ko.
1,600
o-sage',
450
ot'ta-wS,
460
pah-rah-givl'.
1,600
pah-rah-nah',
2.000
pah-iah-nah-e'bah.
500
par-nah-e'bali.
700
pearl.
260
pe-nob'skot.
275
pctch'o-ra.
900
pil-ko-mi'o.
1,000
plat.
• 1,200
po-to'mak.
650
prooth.
860
poo'roofl.
400
poo-too-mi'o.
700
red.
1,200
- kan'Bas,
600
rine.
960
rone,
534
re'o da lah plah'tah
, 200
re'o grahn'da.
■2,000
"
600
ro-an-oke'.
260
rok.
330
Bah-been',
600
eak-ra-men'to.
400
eah-lab'do.
1,000
Ban fran-sis'ko.
1,400
sang'ga-mon,
sahn no-ah-keen'.
200
350
Bas-katch'a-wawn,
1,300
Ba-van'na,
450
sane.
414
sen-e-gawl',
1,000
sev'ern.
210
*'
350
Bban'nun,
22a
kan'sas,
600
Bon-gah-re',
800
plat.
600
saint fran'ais.
450
saint jonz.
450
eaint law'rence.
770
Boo-ri-nam',
200
Bus-que-han'na,
450
ta'guB,
540
tal-ia-poo'sa.
250
tah-pah'zhoce.
500
ten-nes-BC',
1,200
temz.
215
tice.
500
to-bol''.
1,160
600
to-kahn-teena'.
1,100
tom-big'be.
600
toon-goos'kah.
1,500
trin'e-te,
550
oo-ki-ah'Ia,
600
u'rai,
1,800
oo-roo-gwi'.
80O
vehr-ma'ho.
760
vis'tu-ia.
530
voi'ga.
2,000
waw'bash.
550
wosh'e-taw,
600
we'ser.
380
white.
660
wil-lah'met.
225
wis-kon'sin.
360
Bhing-goo',
1,300
yahrig-tse-ke-ahng'.
2,500
yah-zoo'.
290
yel'lo stone,
750
yen-a-sa'e.
2,800
Z'vhm-ba'ze,
1,400
122
STATISTICAL TABLES.
TABLE I.
BnOWTNO TIIB PBIKCIPAl. AOKICTLTtTRAL STATISTICS OF THE tTTJTTED STATES, ACOORDTNa TO THE CESStTS OF 1860.
STATES AXD TER-
RIIORIES.
Alabama
Arkansas
tOalifornia
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa.
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
MicUii^an.
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
New Hampsliirc.
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania.
Kbode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Vermont
Virginia
AVi^iConsin
Coluofjla, Dlst. of
DaUota
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
Utah
AVashingtoa
PE0DBCT3 OF AGRICtTLTCEE.
A«:re» of
iaiproTed
,885,724
,'J33,S18
,463.084
,830,807
637,065
651,213
,083,753
,098,374
'243. 183
793,792
405,463
641,203
,707,103
704,103
003,267
153,513
;470,296
058,330
,063,735
,340,371
,307,034
941,411
,333.403
,517,331
,633,394
890,414
,46),293
333,128
,573,060
,79.3,337
,630,731
,33.3.1.37
437,831
,716.167
17,474
2,115
118,739
14.132
149,374
77,219
81.869
Valni of
Live Jstock.
1,218,444
a57.601
5,928,470
62,4Ul
912,941
2,S0S
2,544,913
23,S37,023
1J,S43,20T
8,449,403
194,173
7,394,309
82,303
233,870
6,103,430
119,783
8,330,303
2,130,993
037,923
4,237,536
233,963
l."0i.313
8,031,103
4,743,706
15,119.047
826,776
13,042,163
1,131
1,235,611
5,4,39.203
1,473,345
437,0)7
13.139,977
15,637,453
12,760
945
147.857
8,631
434,309
884,893
60,219
163,110,720',$l,OS9,339,91t[173,104,'J24
$43,411,711
22,096,977
85.385,017
11,311,079
3,144,706
5.55;3,356
88,373,734
73,301,235
41,355,539
23,470,293
8,333,450
61,803.337
21,540,940
1.5,437,033
11,607,833
]3,7.;7,714
23,711,771
• 3,613,841
41,891,693
53,6.13,673
10,934,637
16.134,693
103.830,390
81,139,893
80,334,319
5,9! 6,253
0:),073,736
2,013,014
23.9M,463
69.211.433
43.82.3,447
]6,3H,9S9
47,803,049
17,807,373
109,649
89,116
1,138,771
177,633
4,499,7ir.
1..316,707
1,099,911
Wboit,
bu8h«U oH
Indian Corn, Oata,
busbela ot buaheia ct
83.226.282
17,823..388
610,708
2,059,835
8,892,337
2,834,891
80,770.293
115,174,777
71,583,919
42,410,036
6,1.39,737
64,043,6.38
16,853,745
1,.516,071
13,444,922
2,157,063
12,444,676
2,941,953
29,057,083
72,892.157
1,414,633
9,723,336
20,061.049
89,073,.5&4
73,543,190
76.123
23,196,831
461.497
15,063,606
52,039,936
16,5:19,703
1, .333,411
88,319.999
7,517,.3O0
81,840
20,369
1,433,039
460
709,304
90,433
4,713
633?r93,740
Rice,
Iba ot
493,465
10,831
2,140
223,704
52,507,652
682,1791
475,268
l,043,006i
1,.522,218
1,046,910
46,899!
1,231,317,
15,320,029 . .
5.317,831 ..
e,887,645i . .
88,825; . .
4,617,029;..
89,377 6,381,257
2,988,939 .
8.959,2931 .
1,180,075
4,030,980
2,170,003
221,2-35
•8,680,870
1,829,283
4.1)39,132
85,173,134
2.731,860
15.409,234'
885,673!
27,837,147
244,453
900,974119,100,52
7,093,976
2,207,814
933,889
8.0:30.267
10,158,720
11,059,260
29.543
2,540
74,503
1,082
7,24«
eaaii
1.34.33 4
172,043,185
40,.372
26,001
Tobacco,
Iba o£
Cotton,
bales of
400 iba.
157,107,03
282,914
989,980
8,150
6,000,183
9,099
828,815
919,818
6,88.3,262
■ 7,993,073
803,168
20,:549
108,120,840
39,940
1,083
88,410,965
8,233,193
121,0991
88.908
159,141
25,036,196
18,061
140,485
B,764,.3S2
S2,a30.250
25,092,531
405
8,181,.385!
705
104.412
43,443,097
07,914
]2,2«
123,963,ffl2
87,.340
15,200
10
8.036
989,955
867,393
65,153
701,840
1,482
61
777,738
1,202,507
41,188
145^514
7,041
10
434,209,401
851.412
228,194
431,463
Wool
tba. o£
775,117
410,382
2,083,109
885,896
60,201
69,171
946,227
1,989,067
2,553,818
660,858
24,746
2,829,105
290,847
1,495,000
491,611
877,267
8,960,883
20,388
065,959
2,069,778
1,100,222
Butter,
Iba o£
6,023,478
4.067,556
8,095,035
7,620,912
1,430,502
408,855
6,489,765
28,032,551
13,300,651
11,953,666
1,093,497
11,716,609
1,444,742
11,687,781
6,265,295
8,297,986
15,503,432
2,907,673
6,000,610
12,704.887
6,900,704
12,72-
19
ISO
5,818,702
849,2.30 10,714,447
0,454,474 103,09-,';30
683,473| 4,73,^495
10,003,9274 48,513,102
219,ni2r 1,000,157
4,732.522! 58,653,011
90,r99l 1,021,707
427,102 8,177,934
1,405.C36; 10,017,737
1,493.7381 RS50,6S3
8,118,950 1.\900,.309
2.010,019! 18,404,722
1,011,9.33
100
8,303
S30
40O,C«
74,705
19,019
13,011,328
18,835
2.170
842,,341
7,700
13,259
810,0;6
153,092
00,254,913, 459,0Sl,O72
Hay,
tons oC
Cane Sasar,
bbdaof
1,000 Iba
111
1,167
606
402
Cane
Molasses,
gals. o£
85,116
486,367
546,749
18,489,772
10,016
22,805
12,494
198
2
6,090
19,083,890 230,982 14,968,996
2,880
408,863
Sorghnm
Molasaes,
gala ot
06,658
115,604
662
896
1,613
10.3,490
806,589
881,049
1,211.612
87,666
856,705
907
86,908
14,178
1,427
796,111
Honey,
IbaoC
616
268.475
779,076,
sisl
22,749,
20!
51.041
706.668
112,412,
'221,276'
19,864|
20!
28,497
47.2i33
806,827
12.276
62.730
66.187
11.3,020
903.915
1.846,808
1,224.489
917.,S77
16.944
1,768.692
2,35,4*1
814.6^5
193.364
09.126
769.282
84.2S0
708.287
1,6S0.9S8
120.142
180.925
2,869.751
2,066,969
1,409,601
821
1,402.128
6.261
526.077
1,519.890
694.273
212.150
1,481.091
207,294
510
1,960
26,475
6,848
5,256
6,749,128, 28,»66,35f
TABLE II.
THE MONEYS OF DirFEP.ENT COUNTRIES, -WITH TnEIIt PAR VALTTB IW FCDISSAL OUKEKNCT.
Great Britain..
Dominion of }
Canadfi (
France. ,
Moneys.
Bel^um
Germany . '
Saxony . . .
Brunswick
and
Hanover
Holland
Hamburg
and
Lubeck
Bremen ...
Denmark . .
1 pound
1 shillini;
1 guiueii*
1 crown*
1 pound
1 louls d'or*
1 gold napoleon
I silver napoleon . . . .
1 crown
1 franc
1 S'>U
1 franc
1 gold loopolil
ID thaler piece
1 tJorin
1 august d'or
1 specie thaler
1 rix dollar*
1 double george d'or.
1 single georgo d'or..
1 thaler.
I grosch
1 thaler
I tioria
Valao In
F.donil
Money.
Sweden....
Norway . . .
Kussia
Prussia
1 zwanziger
ll) florin piece
1 florin, or guilder. . .
1 Flemish pound....
1 rix dollar.
1 marc banco
1 marc current
1 rix dollar
86 groat piece
1 .specie dollar
1 rix dollar
I marc
1 ri.x d(ill:ir
1 .specij dollar
1 marc
! imtterial*
1 ruble
1 ffold frederick . . . . ,
I thaler ,
1 florin
ft ct].
4 S4
24.2
5 00
1 12
4 00
4 56
3 63
93
1 OS
18.6
00.9
13.6
4B5
7 80
40
3 73.8
92
69
7 47.6
3 73.8
67
02.8
97
48.5
IG.I
4 00
40
2 62.5
84
85
28
78.75
89.37
1 05
52.5
08.75
1 On
1 06
21
7 S3
75
8 91
69
22.75
Pnissla
Switzerland.
Money
Spain.
Portugal .
Azores ..
Sardinia..
Venico ..
Sicily....
Tuscany .
Rome ,
Naples .
Greece .
Turkey .
Malta ..
Moxica .
Cuba..
St. Domineo
IT.S.Colombia.
Ecuador,ChiU,
Peru . ,
Buenos Ayres
Brazil
;{
China
Japan
Cape Good Hope
1 pro^ch
1 livre
1 Geneva livrc*
1 doubloon.
I pi3tole*
1 dollar
1 real plate.
1 pistareea.
1 cross pisturecn
1 half joe*
1 milreo
1 cruzado
1 milreo
1 lira
llira
1 ounce
I tare
1 crown.
I jiezsa
1 soldo di pezza
1 lira
10 scudi piece
1 scudo, or ci-own . . .
1 paolo
30 ducat piece
1 drachme.... a
1 pi;istro
i scudo*
I doubloon
1 dollar
1 dollar
1 real
1 dollar
1 dollar.
1 00
93
4 80
82.8
silver coin (1200ree8) 99.4
1 dollar
1 moidore*..
1 milree.
Valuo in
Fcdor:il
Mon..y.
$ Ctl
1 03.3
27
21
15 83
8 97
1 00
10
13
16
8 63
1 13
45
83.5
18.0
10
2 40
08
1 05
90
045
16
10 00
1 00
10
24 00
16.6
05
40
15 60
1 00
1 00
13.5
33.83
1 tiel.
1 mace
1 tael
1 m.ace
1 ri.\ dollar..
1 43
14.3
75
07.5
31.8
* Vatae established by Custooi'llouse regulation and commercial usage.
TABlLli: III.
BHOWmO THE POPTTLATION OP SOME OP TDE MO.'iT IMPORTANT CITIPS,-
UNITED STATES, ACCURDINO TO THE CENSUS OP 1860.
-THOSE IN TIIE
Aberdeen 73.794
Adrianoplo 140.000
Albany C3,:a)7
Alexandria SO.OOO
Alleghany 23,702
Amsterdam 262,691
Antwerp 122,663
Baltimore /212.418
Bangkok 40;).0;X)!
Barcelona 189,918,
B.ata\ia lia:M)
Belfast, /re 119,213
Benares 500.0JOi
BEKLlNn867) 703.4.37,
Birmingham 335, 798,
Bumbay -SOftOOOl
Bordeaux 102.750;
Boston |177.840
Bremen 70.692
Breslaa (1807) 181.378
Bristol ira.(>8D
Brooklyt! 260.661
BiinssELS 187.153
Buffalo a3..30l
Cadiz 71..331
Cairo 230.000
Calcutta 41.3.000
Cambridge, Mass. . . 26,060
Canton 1,000.000
Cashmere 200.000
Changchow 1,000.000
Charleston 40.523
Charlestown 25,1163
Chicago 1110.973
Cincinnati 171.000
Cleveland 43.417,
Cologne (1867) 119.516!
Constantinople... 713.000
Copenhagen .^ 15.3. 143
Cork T.... 78.893!
Dacca 200,000
Damascus 113.IXX)!
Dantzic (1867) 87.506
Delhi 25(1.(XK)
Detrgit 4.3.619
Dresden (1867) 1 .33.971
Dublin 318,437
Dundee 90.435
Edinburgh 175.138
EtORENCE 114.:%3
Poochow KIO.OIKI
Genoa 127.986
Ghent 1*1.441
Glasgow 4.32.265
Hague 87.319
Halifax 26.000
Hamburg (1867) .... 22.3,763
Ilangchow 600.000,
Hartford 29.153'
Havana 181,315!
Havre 74.336
Hull 98,994
Hyderabad 200.000
Ispahan 150.000'
.Tkdo 1,500.000
Jersey Citv 29.326'
King-te-cli'iang 1,000.000
Konigsbcrg 101.507
Lahore ISO.IXX)
La Puobla 70.600
Leeds 228,187
Leghorn 83.543
Lcipsic (1807) 91.598
Liege 102,888'
Lille l."1.827
Lisbon 224,063
Liverpool 484.8.37
London 3.007..3.36
Louisville ft<.033
Lowell 36..837
Lucknow 200.000
Lyons 318.803'
Madras 720,0001
Madrid S98,4':6
Manchester a38,855i
Masdelay 800,0001
Manila 140.000|
Marseilles 260,910,
Mklboi.-rne 108,2341
Memphis 29.633!
Me.xico 20.3.000!
Miaco 6110,0001
Milan 196.109
Milwaukee 45.346
Mobile 29.258
Montreal 90.333!
Morocco 100.000
Moscow 351.637
Munich (1867) 170.000,
Nagpoor 11.3.000
Naiichang ,360,000
Nankin 400,000
Nantes 113.635
Naples 418,968
Newark 71,941
Newcastle..... 109,291
New Haven .39,367
New Orleans M68,675
New York »8K.lili9
Ningpo 250.0(0
Odessa 118.970
Oporlo 86.357
Palermo ]67,«35
Paris 1,696,141
Palna 2ttJ.139
Pekin 1.800.000
Peslh 131.705
Philadelphia 1665.539
Pitlsbunjh 49.217
Portland; J/« 26..343
Portsmouih, b'ng. . 94.546
Prague 142.588
Providence : . 50.6I'6
Quebec 61.100
Richmond 37.910
Rochester 48.204
Rome 210.70!
Rotterdam 115.354
Roiien 102.ftl9
Roxbury 25.137
Salem 22,252
San Francisco 56.803
Savannah 23.292
Sevdle 118.298
Shanghai 190,000
Sheffield m3,1.37
Smvrna 1.30.000
Sodchow 700.0(10
St. Louis 060.773
Stockholm 1.33,361
St. Petersburg . . . 646,000
Strasburg 82.014
Sural 157.000
Sydney 100.0(0
Svracuse, A'. T.... 28.119
Tientsin 700.0(10
Toulon 84,987
Toulouse 113.239
Troy 89.335
Tunis 1.30,000
Turin 180..520
Utica 23.539
Valencia 107,703
Venice 118.173
Vienna 578.336
Warsaw 102,805
Washington 61.132
Wilmington, Del... 21.268
Worcester. 24,960
^
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