^cfiJWyiMAR^^S^ti $^".' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/cornellsgrammarOOcornrich REVISED Er)ITIO]Sr. COE^ELL'S a E A M M A E-S C H O O L GEOGEAPHY: FOEMIiq"G A PAET OP A SYSTEMATIC SERIES OF SCHOOL GEOGRAPHIES. EMBRACING AN EXTENDED COURSE, AND ADAPTED TO PUPILS OF THE HIGHER CLASSES IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS. By S. S. C0R]S"ELL, COKEESPONDING MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL SOCIETY. NEW York:: D. APPLETOK AKD COMPANY, 90, 92, AND 94 GRAND STREET. 1869. PREFACE. The work now offered to the public has been prepared to meet the wants of such classes in Geography as need a comprehensive course, embracing the less prominent as well as the more important localities on the earth's surface, and exercising the student in every profitable variety of map studies. It may, with advantage, be placed in the hands of classes that have completed the author's Intermediate Geography; or, where the saving of time is an object, it may be used instead of the latter work, as the second Part of the Series. The chief difference between the Intermediate and Grammar-School is that the latter, though no more elevated in style, is fuller in both map and descriptive mat- ter, presenting a greater number of localities to be memorized. The original plan of the author, which is now so well understood and so generally appreciated as here to require no argument in its favor, has been strictly adhered to in the pres- ent work ; which, it is hoped, will be found philosophical in its arrangement, accu- rate in its details, and every way adapted to the school-room. Among the more important features of this work are the following : — First, it contains a comprehensive treatise on Physical Geography. Second, it presents fully and systematically the Physical Geography of the United States grouped together in sections, as represented in the Reference Maps, with descriptions of their most important and interesting natural features. Third, it suggests an easy method for memorizing the comparative size of all the countries on the earth. Fourth, it embraces two sets of Maps of the IJnited States and Europe : the one containing a careful selection of places, etc., all of which the pupil is obliged thoroughly to master, by means of systematic lessons ; the other (intended for reference) being as full as is consistent with distinctness, and accompanied by gen- eral questions which embody an original, and. It is believed, highly instructive, series of map exercises. Fifth, all map questions are placed opposite the maps to which they respect- ively belong. Sixth, the pronunciation of names likely to be mistaken is given in the place where they first occur. Seventh, it contains a simple and practicable system of Map Drawing, which \ will aid in impressing on the mind of the learner the outlines of countries and the relative position of places. In the present edition, the text has been thoroughly revised and brought up to date. A complete set of New Maps has been introduced, which, we think, leave nothing to be desired even by the most fastidious and critical. In fine, the Au- thor has earnestly endeavored to make this Revised Edition in every respect worthy of the favor which the work has from the very first enjoyed at the hands of an intelligent pubUc. New York, May 1, 1868. LIST OF MAPS LARGE MAPS. The Wobld, in Hemispheres, ........ NoKTH America, .......... British Provinces, .......... United States, .......... Eastern States. .......... Middle States, Maktland, Virginia, and West VmaiNiA, Southern States, Arkansas, and Tennessee, ...... Western States, ......... Pacific States, Tbrritobies, Ac, ....... United States No. 1— Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, United States No. 2— Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, United States No. 8— New York, New Jersey. Pennsylvania, United States No. 4— Delaware, Maryland, VmonnA, West Virginia, North AND South Carolina, .... United States No. 5 — Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, Alasama, Mississippi, United States No. 6— Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, .... United States No. 7— Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, ..... United States No. 8— Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, . . United States No. 9— Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, ..... United States No. 10— Nebraska, Kansas, Dakota, Indian TKRBrroRY, &c.. United States No. 11 — California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, &c., Mexico and Central America, West Indies, . . . . . . . . . . . South America, .......... Europe, ........... British Isles, .......... Part op Europe No. 1— Prance, Spain, Portugal, ..... Part of Europe No. 2 — Prussia, Austria, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Ac, Part of Europe No. 3— Belgium, Holland, Peussia, the German States, Asia, ........... Africa, ............ Oceania, ........... PAOS 14,15 . 21 24 28,29 31 . 33 35 65 67 68 70 72 76 77 78 82 89 90 190 103 104 107 113 116 SMALL MAPS. North and South Polar Hegions, Newfoundland, . Vicinity of Montreal, Vicinity of Niagara Falls, Vicinity of New York, Vicinity of Philadelphia, San Francisco and Sacramento, . Vicinity of Portland, Me., Vicinity of Portsmouth, N. H., . Vicinity of Boston, Vicinity of Providence, Part op Maryland and Delaware, Vicinity of Charleston, Vicinity of New Orleans, Vicinity of Detroit, Madison, and St. Paot., Vicinity of Cincinnati, Nicaragua Route, Route op the Panama Railway, City of Mexico and its Vicinity, Cuba, Hayti, Shetland Islands, Orkney Islands, Channel Islands, Vicinity of London, Vicinity of Liverpool, Vicinity of Manchester, British India, . Egypt, Liberia, . Cape Colony, Sandwich Islands, Part of Australia, Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, by S. S. Cornell. In the Clerk's Onice of the District Conrt fbr the Southern District of New York. Enlered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by D. Appleton ft Co., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New Yo: PAOB 14,16 . 24 25 64 64 67 57 61 61 66 68 •Jo 77 77 77 78 91 91 91 107 118 113 11.3 116 llfi COENELL'S GEAMMAE-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHT. LESSON I. Mathematical Geography. Geography is tlie science that describes the surface of the earth. Division of tlie Snljeet. — Geography is divided into three branches : — Mathematical, Physical, and Political. Mathematical Geography treats of the form, magnitude, and mo- tions of the earth, and of the various imaginary lines on its surface. Physical Geography treats of the solid and fluid parts of the earth's surface, the atmosphere, and all animal and vegetable life. Political Geograbhy treats of the various countries on tile earth's surface, their people, customs, religion, and government. Tlie Form of the Earth is nearly that of a globe, or sphere. Proofs of the Spberieal Form of the Earth. — 1st. The highest part of a ship is seen first in the distance, and, as she approaches, the lower part, or hull. 2d. Persons have sailed constantly in one direction, either east or west (as nearly as the diflerent bodies of land would per- mit), and returned to the place from which they set out. i^s 3d. The shadow the earth casts on the --^^ moon, during a lunar eclipse, is circular. Extent of the Earth's Snrface. — The earth's surfece contains about 200,000,000 square miles. The Earth's Axis is an imaginary straight line passing through its center, around which it turns. The Poles of the Earth are the ends of the earth's axis, or the points where the axis meets the surface. The north pole is the north end of the earth's axis. The south pole is the south end of the earth's axis. Eemakk.— The North Pole, or most northerly point of the earth's surfiace, is always directed toward a particular star, called the North or Pole Star. Motions of the Earth. — Tlie earth has two motions : — a diurnal, or daily motion, on its axis ; and an annual, or yearly motion, round the sun. The Earth turns on its Axis from west to east, once in every twenty-four hours. This revolution causes the succession of day and night. The Earth revolves round the Sun in a nearly circular course, called its Orbit, in about 365^1^ days. This revolution causes, in part, the diversity of the seasons. The Earth's Annual Motion is about 68,000 miles an hour. The Distanee of the Earth from the Son is about 95,000,000 miles. The Length of the Earth's Orbit is about 600,0.00,000 miles. LESSON II. Mathematical Geography— Continued. The Compass is used for ascertaining and directing the course of ships at sea, for surveying land, etc. It is a circular box, containing a card marked with the points of direction and attached to a magnetic needle, which moves freely on a pivot, and always points due north, or nearly so. The Cardinal Points of the Compass are North, South, East, and West. Cardinal means chief ; the cardinal points are the chief points of direction. The other Important Points are North-east, South-east, North-west, and South-west. thb mabineb's compass. Behabe. — Observe in what part of the heavens the sun rises, — that is east ; or where it sets,— that is west. Now, if you will stand with outstretched arms, so that the right hand points to that part of the heavens in which the sun rises, and the left to that part where it sets, before you will be north, and behind yon south. Again,— look at the sun at noonday, and you will then face the south. If at night, when the stars are visible, you will look at the Pole Star, you will then face the north. The Cireles of the Earth. — The surface of the earth is divided by im aginary circles. There are two kinds of circles ; viz., great and small. A great circle divides the earth into two equal parts. A SMALL CIRCLE divides the earth into two unequal parts. Cireles, how divided. — Every circle, whether great or small, isdivided into 360 equal parts, called Degrees. A DEGREE is the three-huudrcd-aud-sixtieth part of a circle. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. The sixtieth part of a degree is called a Minute, and the sixtieth part of a minute is called a Second. The mark for degrees is ("), for minntes O, and for seconds ("). Thus, twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven minntes, and thirty seconds, is nsnally written, 23° 27' 30". MgMiii- Haps. — A Map is a drawing which represents, on a plane, the whole or a part of the earth's surface. RBHAitK.— A map, being flat, cannot exactly represent a spherical surfece ; yet it does so near enough for ordinary purposes. A map of a particular country may be regarded as a part cut out of a map of the world. In a map of the world, the earth is supposed to be divided into two hemispheres, which are then placed on a flat surface, with their edges together, and pressed down till they coincide with it. If the maps of the hemispheres were placed with their backs in con- tact and the edges pasted together, they could be inflated so as to assume a spherical form. Globes. — The earth's surface is also ^ represented on a sphere, called a Ter- restrial Globe. Remabk. — The top of a map is north, the bot- tom south, the right hand east, and the left hand west. If this is not the case, the direction of these points is shown by a cross on the map, having a flower called ./fear de lis at the end that points to the north. Point to the north ; to the south ; to the east ; to the west. In what direction does the building you are in, face ? TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. LESSON III. Mathematical Geoffraphy— Continued. The Lines, or Circles, on Maps, are the equator, meridians, parallels, tropics, and polar circles. These lines help us to determine the relative positions of places, and their dis- tances from each other. The equator is a great circle equal- ly distant from the two poles. A MERIDIAN CIRCLE is any great circle pa.'ssing through the two poles. A MERIDIAN is half of a meridian circle. :''i/- CnATEK OF VESLVIb'S. LESSON IX. Fhysical Geography— Continued. TaMe-Lands, or Plateans. — Table-lands are extensive tracts consider- ably elevated above the level of the sea. A series of table-lands extends along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height. The table-lands of Utah, between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, (na- vah'dd) have twice that elevation. The immense plateau of Mexico and Central America exceeds 6,00Q feet in height In South America arc found some of the highest table-lands on the globe. The plateau of Quito (ke'to), lying on both sides of the equa- tor, is 9,000 feet in elevation; that of Pasco (pahs'ko), upward of 11,000; and that of Potosi {po-to'-se), from 12,000 to 13,000. The table-lands of Europe are comparatively small. Tlie south- west portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula (Norway and Sweden) con- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPUY. stitutes a plateau of moderate elevation. Bavaria is a table-land of about 2,000 feet in height ; and the central part of the Spanish Penin- sula consists chiefly of a plateau from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Asia contains the most extensive and elevated table-lands on the globe. The whole of Central Asia is one vast plateau of 3,000,000 square miles, varying in height from 4,000 to 12,000 feet above sear level. Separated from this immense plateau by the basin of the Ganges, are the table-lands of Hindostan', with an elevation of 2,000 feet ; and in South-western Asia is another plateau from 2,000 to 4,000 feet in height. The greater part of Central Africa is supposed to be an en-rmous plateau, with a mean height of about 8,000 feet. The Desert of Sa- hara (sah-hah'-rah) constitutes an immense table-land of small elevation. In Australia, two plateaus, one on the southern and the other on the northern coast, spread out to unknown distances in the interior. Lowland Plains. — Lowland Plains are tracts of land, either having about the same level as the ocean, or depressed below it, as in the re- gions around the Caspian Sea. The Dead Sea and the adjacent region have a depressio'ii of more than ],300 feet below sea-leveh The plains of the Western Continent exceed in extent those of the Eastern. Deserts. — Deserts are barren tracts of land, nearly destitute of water and vegetation. In some desert regions are interspersed small fertile tracts, well watered and wooded. These are called Oases. The most extensive deserts are to be found in the Eastern Con- tinent. Of these, the most important are the Desert of Gobi {go'he) or Shamo [shah'mo), and the Arabian Desert, in Asia, — and the Sa- hara, or Great Desert, of Africa. Islands. — Islands are variously distributed, occurring singly, or in groups and archipelagoes. It is supposed that they are the tops of mountains or table-lands, whose base is in the bed of the ocean, and whose valleys and passes are filled with its waters. Islands form about one-twelfth of the earth's surface. Some islands extend along the coasts of continents, of which they are supposed to be dependencies. Others have been thrown up firom the bed of the ocean by volcanic action. A third class, called Coral Islands, have been fonued by myriads of minute insects, inhabiting the waters of the Torrid Zone and the warmest parts of the North and South Temperate. COBAI, ISLAND, INCLOStNG A I.AOOON. These little creatures, extracting lime from the sea-water, build for their habitations great masses of coral, forming reefs hundreds of miles in extent, and circular islands, or Atolls. As they can not live above the surface of the ocean, they raise their structure only to low-water mark. Sand, sea-weed, and seeds, are brought to it by cun'ents, and in process of time it becomes the abode of man. The Bahamas, in the Atlantic Ocean, and many of the islands of the Pacific and Indian, are of coral formation. SECTION or AN INTVBMITTmO aFBDtO. The rain, einking throngb the rock, fill, the cav- ity A until It reaches the top of the figaure B the apring will then How uqUI the water la exhausted. LESSON X. Physical Geography— Continued. The Waters of the Globe — how divided. — As respects position, the waters of the globe may be divided into two classes; land-inclosed, or conti- n-ental watere, and land-inclosing, or oceanic waters. As respects properties, they may be divided into three classes; salt, mineral, and fresh. Oceanic waters are salt ; continental waters are, for the most part, fresh. Springs. — Springs are formed from melted snow, dew, and rain, which, falling on high elevations of land, sink into the soil. Tlie cav- ities beneath the surface form reser- voirs, from which, at a lower level, the water finds its way again to the surface. Those springs which continne to flow at all seasons, are called perennial ; those that alternately flow and stop, are called intermitting. There are also Hot Springs. Tlie water, descending from the surface to a considerable depth, becomes heated by volcanic action. Steam is gener- ated ; which, if unable to escape, by its elastic force drives the water up through crevices in the rocks. The most remarkable hot springs known are those of Iceland, called Geysers (ghi'zers). One hundred of these occur within a circuit of two miles, one of which, the Great Geyser, every few hours, sends forth an immense stream of boiling water to a height of from 70 to 100 feet. Rivers. — Elvers which empty directly into the ocean, or into waters communicating with it, are called Oceanic Rivers. Those which never reach the ocean, but fall into lakes unconnected with it, or are ab- sorbed and lost in swamps or deserts, are called Continental Rivers. The oceanic rivers are divided into four systems, belonging respect- ively to the Arctic, the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Ocean. Sonrces of Rivers. — Most of the large rivers originate in chains of mountains, because springs are there most abundant; but m some in- stances they have their source in small elevations in plains. Descent and Rapidity of Rivers. — Water, like every other fluid, when left free, seeks the lowest possible level ; hence the course of a river shows the general slope of the country through vvhich it flows. The velocity of the current depends on both the volume of water and the declivity of the channel. A fall of one foot in two hundred feet prevents a river from being navigable. In general, winding rivers are less rapid than those whose channel is straight. Rapids, Cataracts, Cascades. — When the fall of a river is sudden, and its velocity extremely great, it forms what is called a Rapid ; and when it rushes over a perpendicular rock, it is called a Cataract, or Water-fall. When a small stream dashes over a rock, it is called a Cascade. River-basins. — The entire extent of country drained by a river and its tributaries, is called its Basin, The" largest rivers and the most extensive river-basins are found in the Western Continent. The basin of the Amazon, in South America, embraces over 2,000,000 square miles ; that of the La Plata {lah PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. plah'tah) in South America, 1,240,000 square miles; and that of the Mississippi, about an equal number. Water-sheds. — The margin of land which separates one river-basin from another is called a Water-shed. This, in some cases, is a mere ridge-line, like the top of a roof, from which the waters flow in oppo- site directions. Months of BiTers, Deltas. — Rivers discharge themselves usually by a single mouth, but in some instances by several mouths. Some rivers carry down with them large quantities of earthy mat- ter, which, as their velocity decreases when they approach the sea, are deposited, forming triangular banks called Deltas (from the Greek let- ter delta A, which they resemble in shape). The Ocean. — The Ocean forms one vast body of water. The great land-masses, however, are so placed as to divide it into three principal basins, called respectively the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean. The Arctic Ocean may be regarded as an extension of the Atlan- tic, the Arctic Circle forming the boundary line between them. The Antarctic Ocean, which has the Antarctic Circle for its northern limit, is connected with each of the three great ocean basins. The ocean has everywhere a uniform surface, which is called the Level of the Sea. Some of its branches have a higher level, in con- sequence of prevailing winds, peculiarity of position, etc. LESSON XI. Fhysical Geography — Continued. Saltness, Color, Density, and Temperatnre of the Oecan. — ^The waters of the ocean are salt, and bluish gi-een in color, but both the degree of saltness and the tint differ in different places. Its density increases from the surface downward. The mean temperature of the surface of the ocean, for 10° on each side of the equator, is about 80° Fahrenheit ; at the tropics, it is about 75° ; in latitude 60°, it is about 50° ; and in the Arctic and the Ant- arctic Ocean, it falls to the freezing point. Depth. — The bed of the ocean contains a variety of hills, table- lands, and valleys, similar to the elevations and depressions of the land surface. The greatest ascertained depth of the ocean is about 8|- miles. Uovements of the Ocean. — There are three distinct movements of the ocean ; waves, tides, and currents. Waves. — The action of the winds on the surface of the ocean pro- duces waves, varying in height from a mere ripple to billows of from 10 to 20 feet. Tides. — Tides are elevations and depressions of the ocean which occur at regular intervals. They are caused chiefly by the attraction of the sun and moon. The waters of the ocean gradually rise oy flow, as it is called, about six hours ; "after remaining stationary about six minutes, they then re- tire, or ebh, during another six hours, to flow again after a brief repose. In the open ocean the tide seldom rises more than a few feet, probably never exceeding five. Tlie highest tides occur in the Bay of Fundy, where, with certain winds, owing to the peculiar formation of the shore, they attain a height of 70 feet. Co-tidal Lines. — The wave of high water, which twice a day visits the shores of the different continents, is supposed to have its origin in the Southern Ocean, south-east of Australia. It is thence carried for- ward into the Indian, the Atlantic, and the Pacific Ocean. By noting the times at which the same high water reaches different parts of the coast, a series of lines connecting these points may be laid down, so as to indicate the course of the tidal wave. These are called Co-tidal Lines. By examinmg these lines on the Map of the World, it will be perceived that the tidal wave that passes Tasmania at twelve o'clock, takes twelve hours to reach Ceylon, and thirteen to arrive at the Cape of Good Hope ; in twelve hours more, it has passed up the Atlantic as far as Newfoundland. Cnrrents. — The ocean is crossed in diff'erent directions by currents (see Map of the World) flowing like rivers, the neighboring waters forming, as it were, their banks. There are three prominent causes that produce these currents ; the unequal heating of the surface of the ocean, the earth's daily motion, and the obstruction of continents. Ocean currents are of the greatest importance to navigators, ac- celerating or retarding the course of ships according to the direction in which they are sailing. The Gnlf Stream. — The most remarkable of these currents is the Gulf Stream. It is distinguished by its superior warmth, its indigo hue, and its rapidity of movement. It issues from the Gulf of Mexico (see Map of the World) between the Bahamas and Florida, and flows in a north-easterly direction as far as Cape Hattcras. There it separates, one portion setting east toward ihe Azores, and another following the coast of North America to Newfoundland. At the Azores, a part of the Gulf Stream turns to the south-west, and after running along the African coast joins the great equatorial current, which sets westward across the Atlantic. The highest temperature of the Gulf Stream is 86°. Its velocity i^ over a mile and a half an hour. The mild climate of the British Isles is attributable principally to the warmth of the Gulf Stream, which washes their shores. Seas. — With the ocean various seas communicate, either by straits, like the Baltic and the Mediterranean ; or by wide openings, like the Yellow Sea and the Arabian. Seas of the former class are called in- land, and those of the latter may be styled open. Besides these two classes of oceanic seas, there are other bodies of water, not connected with the ocean, such as the Caspian and the Sea of Aral, which, though called seas, are really salt lakes. The Atmosphere. — The earth is surrounded by a highly elastic fluid, called its Atmosphere, which extends about fifty miles above its sur- face. The color of the atmosphere is light blue ; what we call " the blue sky " is nothing more than the blue air. The atmosphere is essential to animal and vegetable life, diffusing the light and heat of the sun and other luminous bodies in all directions. Density of the Atmosphere. — ^The density of the atmosphere gradually diminishes, as we ascend above the level of the sea. A perpendicular column of the whole atmosphere presses on the earth's surface with a weight of about fifteen pounds on every square inch. The air on the top of lofty mountains is so rare as to affect the breathing, prostrate the strength, and make sounds much fainter than they would be at the level of the sea. Temperatnre of the Atmosphere. — The temperature of the atmosphere becomes lower with its height Hence the perpetual snow that crowns lofty summits. Tlie mercury in the thermometer falls one degree for every 300 feet of ascent. 10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. LESSON XII. Physical Geography— Continued. Winds. — Wind is air in motion. — ^Winds are called after the point of the compass from which they come ; marine currents, after the point to which they tend. An easterly -wind comes from the east ; an easterly cuiTent, from the west. Velodty of Winds. — Winds vary much in their velocity and force. A gentle wind has a velocity of from 4 to 5 miles an liour; a brisk wind, from 10 to 15 ; a high wind, from 30 to 35; a violent storm, 60; a hurricane, 80; a violent hurricane, 100. Use of Winds. — ^Winds have a purifying effect on the atmos- phere ; they dissipate unhealthy exhalations; they waft our ships ; they transport vapors from the sea, to moisten and fertilize the land ; they carry the seeds of plants far and wide, and thus ex- tend the empire of vegetation. Trade Winds. — These winds prevail generally in the Atlantic and the Pacific, between the equator and the 28th degree of north and south latitude. The heat between the tropics being greater than on the other parts of the earth's surface, the in- cumbent air, becoming warmer and consequently less dense, riseb, and the vacant place is immediately occupied by colder and there- fore heavier air, which rushes in on both sides fi-om the regions beyosd the tropics. Monsoons. — Monsoons are regular periodical winds which sweep over the Indian Ocean and Hindostan, changing their course accord- ing to the position of the sun. When the sun is north of the equator, the south-west monsoon prevails ; when south, the north-west monsoon. Hnrricanes. — Hurricanes are violent revolving storms, from a fe\v miles to 500 miles in diameter, which occur most frequently in the West Indies and the Indian Ocean. In the Chinese Sea, they are called typhoons or tornadoes ; in other places, they are known as whirl- winds, waterspouts, landspouts, sand-pillars, white-squalls, pamperos, etc. Rain. — Eain is water, which, originally taken up into the atmos- phere in the form of vapor, is returned to the earth in drops. The average quantity of rain is greatest within the tropics. Kainy Seasons. — Countries situated within 10° of the equator have two rainy and two dry seasons during the year ; but, beyond that de- gree, tropical regions have only one rainy and one dry season, the former lasting from four to six months. During this period, the rain commences about noon, and generally continues four or five hours, after which the clouds vanish, and not a drop falls during the night. In some parts of the earth, however, within and near the tropics, rain never falls, and there are other regions where it rains almost incessantly. Snow. — Snow is vapor congealed and crystallized before its particles have had time to join together to form a rain-drop. In the Northem Hemisphere, the region of snow (that is, in which snow falls at sea-level) embraces most of the United States, with the countries on the north, all of Europe, and the greater part of Asia. The elevation of the snow-line (that is, the lowest limit at which snow remains unmelted throughout the year) differs in dift'erent lati- tudes. Within the tropics it ranges from 15,000 to 20,000 feet above sea-level, while it descends to the level of the sea in about latitude 80. Hail. — ^Rain-drops are sometimes formed in the upper part of the atmosphere, and in their descent fall through a stratum of air at the freezing-point, when they assume the form of hail ; if they freeze only partially, they form sleet. Hail-storms often occur in summer, owing to the sudden congelation of atmospheric currents; they are most fre- quent in temperate climates. Climate. — The term climate signifies the prevailing character of the weather at any place. HomsitHAi. LtN>8 coDnect plnces hnving the tame mean annual temperatura. The figures over the extremlUea of each Isothormal liue in the above Chart show the mean annual temp«rattu% of the ptocea through which it paaaea. OljaeTve throujjh what grand divisions the line of greatest heat passe*. The climate of a place is affected by the following circumstances : — 1. Its latitude. 2. Its height above the level of the sea. 3. The posi- tion and direction of the mountain-chains. 4. Its distance from the sea. 5. The slope of the country. 6. The character of the soih 7. The degree of cultivation which it has received, and the density of its population. 8. The prevalent winds. 9. The quantity of rain that falls. LESSON XIII. Physical Geography— Continued. Metals are very widely diffused over the earth. They are some- times found pure, but are generally mixed with other minerals, in a rocky substance called ore. The principal metals arc gold, plat'inum, silver, iron, copper, zinc, lead, tin, and mercury or quicksilver. Gold. — This is the most precious of the metals. It is usually found in grains, or gold-dust, in a pure state. Gold is extensively diffused throughout the United States. The Appalachian region extends from the Rappahannock River, in Vir- ginia, to the coast of Alabama. The California gold region, noted for its richness, is in the great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin {sahn ho-ah-keen'), nearly 600 miles long by about 50 in breadth. Gold is also very abundant in Colorado ; and there are rich fields of this precious metal in I'daho, Montana (mon-tah'na), New Mexico, and Arizona. The gold region of Australia, one of the most productive in the world, occupies the south-eastern part of the continent. Gold is also found in Mexico and Central America; in South America, along the base of the Andes and in Brazil ; in Europe, at Kremnitz in Austria, and other places. It is abundant in Western PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 11 Siberia ; and is found in Africa among the Kong Mountains and in various pails of the eastern coast. The islands of Malaysia, particu- larly Borneo, Celebes (sel'e-biz), and Sumatra, also produce gold. Platinnm. — Platinum, a gi-ayish metal, is found in some of the gold washings of South America, and in the Ural Mountains is produced in considerable quantities. SlWer. — Silver is found in several localities in the western part of the United States — in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Idaho, and Mon- tana. The mines of Nevada and Arizona are particularly rich. Mexico contains the richest silver mines in the world. In South America, there are very productive mines in Peru, Bolivia, and Chili. The quantity of silver found in other parts of the world is compar- atively insignificant. The principal mines in Europe are those of Schemnitz {shem'nitz) and Kremnitz, in Hungary, and those of Spain. Iron. — This is the most useful and extensively diffused of all the metals. It is found in the greatest abundance in the United States and Europe. In the former, the states most noted for its production are Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Ken- tucky, Maryland, and West Virginia. Iron ore is also abundant in the great mineral region south of Lake Superior, in Tennessee, Georgia, Missouri, and other states. Iron Mountain, in Missouri, is composed entirely of iron ore. Copper. — Copper ranks next to iron in utility, and, though less abundant, is found in many parts of the earth. It is sometimes ob- tained in pure masses weighing several tons. The richest and purest copper mines in the United States, and probably in the world, are found in Northern Michigan, on the shores of Lake Superior. The most noted copper region of South America i^in Chili ; the most noted of Europe is in England. Zluf. — The countries most noted for extensive zinc mines are Prus- sia and Belgium. Lead. — Lead is found in greater or less quantities in all countries. Those particularly distinguished for the amount of lead annually pro- duced, are the United States, Great Britain, and Spain. The great lead mines of the United States lie on each side of the Mississippi River, in North-western Illinois, South-western Wisconsin, and Iowa; and in Missouri, south of the Missouri River. Tin. — This metal is found in but few countries. The most noted places where it is obtained, are Cornwall, in England, and the island of Banca, in the East Indies. Mertnry. — The principal quicksilver mines of the world are those of California ; of Peru, in South America; of Idria, in Southern Aus- tria; and of Almaden (ahl-mah-den'), near Cor'dova; in Spain. Coal. — Coal is particularly abundant in parts of British America and the United States, in South America, in Great Britain, in portions of the European Continent, and also in China. It is believed that the largest coal-fields in the world are those of the United States. Petrolcnm. — Petroleum, or rock oil, an inflammable bituminous liquid, is found in various parts of both the Eastern and the Western Continent. It is particularly abundant in Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, and Canada. Amber. — This is a resinous substance often made into ornaments. It is obtained chiefly in Prussia, on the shores of the Baltic, where it is found in the sand and sea-weed, and also by digging below the surface. LESSON XIV. Physical Geography — Continued, Chief Food-Plants, etc. — The chief food-plants are grains, fruits, grasses, and tuberous roots. The principal plants that produce ma- terials for clothing, are cotton, flax, and hemp. Cotton is most extensively raised in the southern part of the United States. Flax and hemp are largely cultivated in the United States and in parts of Europe. Plants of the Torrid Zone. — This zone is noted for palms, banana.s, sugar-cane, coffee, cocoa-nuts, spices, yams, rice, m&ize, arrow-root, cassava-root, etc., together with a great variety of luscious fraits. Its timber-trees are both numerous and important; the hardest and heavi- est woods are generally produced here, also most of the dye-woods. Plants of the Temperate Zones. — In these zones, wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, grasses, flax, hemp, the vine, the apple and similar fruit- trees, flourish ; together with several kinds of berries and a great variety of garden vegetables. Here are found forest-trees in great variety, the oak, the hickory, the pine, the elm, the beech, the fir, the cedar, and the maple. The warmer regions of the temperate zones produce a great va- riety of what are called tropical fruits and plants ; such as oranges, lemons, figs, olives, sugar-cane, cofl'ee, rice, etc. Plants of the Frigid Zones. — In these zones, all trees, except birches, beeches, alders, and a few others, almost entirely disappear. Vege- tation is exceedingly scanty ; but heath, moss-plants, and lichens, are abundant on the rocks, and grass grows during the summer. Such is the power of the sun at this season, that plants spring up, blossom, produce their seed, and die, in about six weeks. In that part of the Arctic region which borders on the north tem- perate zone, barley and oats flourish in the valleys. Vegetation ceases in the northern hemisphere in about latitude 76°, in the southern hemisphere in latitude 59°. Perpendienlar Dlstribntion of Plants. — Plants have a perpendicular dis- tribution, in an order corresponding to their distribution in zones of latitude. Thus, we find on a high mountain range within the tropics, the lower part covered with palms, orange-trees, sugar-cane, etc. ; the middle with oaks, elms, firs, and similar trees; the higher part with birches, mosses, and lichens. Animals of the Torrid Zone. — This zone is as full of animal as of vege- table life ; the influence of heat, light, and abundance of vegetation, tending to its increase. The minuter beings, — insects, reptiles, birds, etc., here swarm in great numbers ; together with animals of gigantic size, such as the elephant, camel, rhinoceros, giraffe, tapir, and hippo- potamus. Here, too, is the region of numerous animals of prey, the lion, tiger, puma, and hyena, — the vulture and condor, — ^the rattlesnake and boa constrictor. Among the remarkable species of the African tropical regions, not mentioned above, are the crocodile ot the Nile, the baboon, the go- rilla, and a great variety of antelopes. Animals of the Temperate Zones. — The temperate zones are favorable to herbivorous animals, — as the horse, ass, ox, buflalo, deer, and sheep. Among the chief beasts of prey, are the wolf, fox, lynx, bear, and otter. Animals of the Frigid Zones. — Among the most conspicuous animals may be mentioned the white bear, the moose, the reindeer, the musk- 12 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ox, the white fox, the polar hare, and the lemming. Seals, whales, and walruses, inhabit the ocean. Among the birds are sea-eagles, gulls, cormorants, etc. LESSON XV. Political Geography. Political Geography treats of the various countries on the earth's suiface, their people, customs, religion, and government. Bates of Hen, — The human species is divided into five races ; the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the American, the African, and the Malay. Namee. Caucasian, or European, Mongolian, or Asiatic, . Est. Number. 450,000,000 600,000,000 Nsmefl. American, or Indian, AiHcan, or Negro, . 40,000,000 Est. Number. 10,000,000 80,000,000 The Caaeasian, or White Race are distinguished by their fair skin, fine and long hair, full high forehead, regular features, and symmetrical form. They inhabit South-western Asia (including Arabia, Persia, and Hindostan), the north of Africa, and most of Europe, and have extended their dominion to the greater part of the Western Continent, to South Africa, Eastern and Southern Australia, and New Zealand. The Mongolian, or Yellow Baee have a sallow olive complexion ; long, black, straight hair ; a square head, low forehead, broad and flat cheek- bones, short nose, and eyes small, pointed, and obliquely set. The Mongolian is the largest of the five races, constituting nearly one-half of the inhabitants of the earth. Its headquarters are in East- ern and Central Asia, whence it has penetrated into parts of Europe — Finland, Lapland, Turkey, and Hungary. The Esquimaux (es'ke-mo) tribes, along the coast of the Arctic Ocean, are also of Mongolian origin. The Ameriean, op Copper-eolored Race are characterized by long, black, straight hair, dark and deep-set eyes, high and prominent cheek-bones, an aquiline nose, and receding forehead. This race includes- all the native tribes of North and South America, except the Esquimaux. The African, or Black Bate have woolly hair, a long and narrow head, low forehead, large and prominent eyes, thick lips, broad and flat nose, high cheek-bones, and prominent jaws. It consists of the native tribes of Africa (south of Abyssinia and the Great Desert), of Austra- lia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia. The Malay, or Brown Bace are distinguished by a tawny skin ; coarse, lank, black hair ; a low and broad forehead, large mouth, short broad nose, and eyes obliquely set. They occupy the Malay Peninsula and most of the islands of Oceania. Social Condition. — Mankind is divided, as respects social condition, into four classes, — Enlightened, Civilized, Half-civilized, and Savage. Those nations that have made the most progress in art and science, in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, are called Enlightened. Those nations that have made considerable progress in the arts and sciences, in agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, though not so much as the Enlightened, are called Civilized. Tliose nations whose knowledge of the arts, sciences, and agricul- ture is very imperfect, whose commerce is limited, and whose manu- factures are few and inferior, are called Half-civilized, Those nations that are unacquainted with the arts and sciences, with agi'iculture, commerce, and manufactures, and depend almost wholly on hunting and fishing for a subsistence, are called Savage. Systems of Bellglon. — The principal Systems of religion are the Jew- ish, Christian, Mohammedan, and Pagan. The Jewish faith recognizes the Old Testament as the highest authority in matters of religion, but not the New. The Christian faith recognizes both the Old and the New Testa- ment as authority in religious matters. The Mohammedan faith recognizes one God, and Mohammed as his " last and greatest prophet," who substituted for the Bible a book called the Koran. The Pagan faith does not recognize the God of the Bible, but substitutes a variety of images, birds, beasts, reptiles, etc. NamoA. E»t Number. Jewish, 6,000,000 Christian, 260,000,000 Languages. — There are 860 languages spoken in the world, and about 6,000 dialects. The language spoken by the greatest number is the Chinese ; the one most widely spread is the English. GoTcmment. — Government is that form of rules and principles by which a nation is governed. The supreme power of a government con- sists of three parts ; viz., the Legislative, which enacts the laws ; the Judicial, which determines their application in individual cases; and the Executive, which puts them in execution. Forms of Govemment. — There are three distinct forms of government ; viz., monarchical, aristocratic, and democratic. A monarchical form of government gives the supreme power to one person, who may be styled king, queen, emperor, empress, sultan, etc. When the sovereign is limited in the exercise of his powers by a Constitution or Council, the government is called a Limited Monarchy ; when not, it is an Absolute Monarchy. An aristocratic form of government vests the supreme power in a few privileged men, styled nobles or chiefs. A democratic form of government vests the supreme power in rulers chosen by, and from, the whole body of the people, or by their representatives assembled in a national congress. N>me«. Eit Number. Molianimedan, . . . . 160,000,000 Pagan, .... . . 665,000,000 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 18 Aristocracy may lie comliinea with monarcliy and democracy. In this case, the kins or qaeen represents the monarchy; the nobles, the aristocracy; and the commons, or repre- sentatives chosen by tlie people, the democracy. t^««h is the government of Great Britain. Polltltal DiTlsions of the Eartli. — The political divisions of the earth are empires, kingdoms, republics, states, cities, towns, etc. An Empire is a country governed by an Emperor. A Kingdom is a country governed by a King or Queen. A Republic is a country governed by men who are chosen by the people. A union of democratic republics is styled a Federal Demo- cratic Republic ; such, is the political title of the United States. A St.ite is a division of country which has an independent govern- ment for the regulation of its own affairs, and muy or may not be united with other divisions like itself under a general government. A Duchy is a country governed by a Duke. A Grand Ducliy is a country governed by a Grand Duke. A Principality is a country gov- erned by a Prince. An Electorate is a country governed by an Elec- tor. A Landgraviate is a country governed by a Landgrave. Remark. — In Germany,' certain princes formerly elected the emperor, and Elector was one of their titles. Landgrave signiflea earl or count. Empires, kingdoms, states, etc., are generally divided into Coun- tie.?. Parishes, Distncts, Shires, Provinces, Departments, or Cantons. A Township is a division of a county. A Village is a small collection of liouses and inhabitants. A Town is a large collection of houses and inhabitants. A City is an incorporated town ; that is, a town invested by law with certain rights and privileges which it did not before possess. The Capital of a country is the city in wliich the officers or legis- lature meet to make laws. Tlip Metropolis of a country is its chief city, or that whicli contains the greatest number of inhabitants. The chief magistr.\te of a Republic is called President. The chief officer of a Republican State is called Governor. The chief of- ficer of a city is called Mayor. LESSON XVI. Folltical Geography— Contlmied. Chief Branehrs of Industry. — The chief branches of industry are acri- culture, manufactures, commerce, and mining. igrienltnre is the cultivation of the soil for the purpose of produc- ing veiretables, fruits, grain, etc. It is carried to great perfection in the British Isles, also in Central and Western Continental Europe, and in many parts of the United States. Mannfattnres are articles made from raw materials by the hand or machinery ; as, cloth from wool, or linen from flax. Animal, vegetable, and mineral productions, in their natural state, are called raw materials. The countries most noted for manufactures, are Great Britain, Holland, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United States. Commerte is the exchange of goods, and is either Foreign or Inland. Foreign commerce is the trade which one nation cariics on with another. Inland commerce is the trade between itnlividuals of the same nation. The countiies most noted for commerce are Great Britain, the United States, France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Ru.^^sia. Articles sent out of a country in tlie course of trade are called Exports. Articles brought into a country in the course of trade are called Imports. Minins. — Mining is the business of digging into the earth to obtain mineral productions ; such as gold, silver, coal, salt, ct3. Directions for Memorizing the Contents of a Map. Countries. — Begin at the north-west corner of the map, mention the countries which are situated along the northern border, next those on the eastern, then those on the southern, and lastly those on the west- ern. When there are countries in the interior, mention them last of all. Capitals and otiier Cities. — Mention the capitals and other cities in the same order as above, naming those in or near the center last. Islands. — Begin at the north-west corner of the map, look along the coast and some distance from it, taking an easterly, southerly, v/esterlv, and northerly course, and mention the islands as you find them. Peninsulas and Capes. — Commence at the same corner of the map as before directed, and look along the northern coast, then the eastern, next the southern, and lastly the western, and name the peninsulas and capes in the order you meet with them. Mountains. — Follow the directions given for memorizing cities. Seas, Gnlfs, Bays, Straits, Sounds, and Channels. — In mentioning these divisions, observe the directions given above for capes. Blvers. — I. Mention first those rivers which empty into bodies of water on the north, then those which flow into bodies of water on the east, next those which empty into bodies of water on the south, and lastly those which flow into bodies of water on the west. II. Whenever you mention a river, see whether it has any branches ; if so, name them before passing to the next river in order. HI. If the river runs a northerly or a southerly course, name its eastern branches first, beginning with the one nearest the source of the main river, and then the western branches in like manner. IV. If the main river runs an easterly or a westerly course, name its northern branches first, beginning as before directed. Lakes. — Lakes are to be memorized in the same order as rivers ; that is, those lakes whose outlets lead into northern bodies of water first, and so on. Lakes having no outlets mu.'t be mentioned last. Remark.— rhvficnl'and polilical divisions which are connected only with islands, are to be mentioned after those situated on, or connected with, the main-land. For example, in mentioning the straits of North America, Davis Strait should be named after the others, be- cause it is not connected with the main-land of North America. To THE Teacher. — It is impossible to give an idea of the relative size of coun- tries from maps alone. Owing to tbeir diversity of form and irregular outlines, even were the maps on the same scale, we could not hope to convey any correct notion of their actual or comparative size. There is but one way of doing thi.s. With the map hung up before his class, let the teacher dictate, in round numbers, the area of the different grand divisions and countries in square miles, till, by re- peating the numbers after him, each pupil has thoroughly committed them to mem- ory. Let the teacher then impress these numbers on the minds of his pupils by making them compare the countries learned, — by asking how many times larger or smaller one is than another, what two are nearly of the same size, etc. By devot- ing to this exercise a few minutes after each regular recitation, the absolute and comparative size of all the countries on the globe can be readily mastered, not only without difficulty, but with interest and pleasure on the part of the learner. The following order is suggested : — Continents and Grand Divisions of the Earth. The Chief Divisions of North America. The Political Divisions of British America. The States of the United States. Review : compare all the countries learned. The Chief Divisions of South America. The Chief Divisions of .Europe. The Chief Divisions of Asia. The Chief Divisions of Africa. Review : compare all the countries learned. The larger Islands of the West Indies. Th'' larger Islands of Oceania. Review: compare all the countries and isl- ands thus far learned. EXPLANATION. The small letters on the fl.igs in this work, are designed to indicate the color of their stripes, etc. Thus B. Is blue ; Y., yellow ; G., green ; R., red ; and W., white. I *S1^^ ^tfra Frig-id Zorf^^/^i / ■^.■: W.i'-^AtfCa (.K\M:I!AI, yrKSTlOSS on TIIK MAI' or THK WORLD. WJim c'.n ilic Iw.i ii.imispli.Ti'.s rp|)ip.«cii ? Tlif mtirf .mrfa<-e „r ihr r.irlli ■ Wli:.l i.s sf.lwl.'.I Id dividp lU.' »;lol..- jiUo llie ^ K:isli'iii :iii.l 111!' WoslPin Hi'iuijaplii'ii' '.' Th'- iiieritluui 2"° ., o^ in:it ojtiif fii-ridi.ai oJOreenwhli. Wli.tl ijinn.l ili-vj- ^ «ii.ii lipsv^'iliyi" 'i"di lifiiiiis|)lMMPS y What islaiiil ? <'^^;^>5 Wlial ffninil divi.«i()i\.-i iil' Mm railh Ui> wlinlly ^W in Ihf VVpf>l.'i-n li.'lMrsphci-.'? Wh.Tl Iwci Wo A,' wli.illy ill llii' l';;i»l'Mii lli-.mis|iliiMi. ■.' In wliii ,^ l„.nu.^|ili.T.. .lo.v .iivii-ly nil i.C Asim ''•" '•'_^o^>// /^'^■^/■A' 'L'h ll^;l iiii|i(ii-l:iul |inrl ill' Oii':iiii:\ V '/^ v lliiw i.< llii' AiiUii-rlii- I'.Tjiliiieiil .silu.il- I'd .' KiiiliM-liy sl.njid V (Viahajii l.Miitl .' Vn wli;il iliiectioii is Kiuojif /f^ liiijii .Voilli Ami'J-ii'ii V Iviiviipp /^ ti-ojii Sdulli .\-Uieiirii V Kiu-opi Cnmi Atvii-i V K.iiiuji.e IJuin A.sin .' Kuio|ii- fiinii AusUhJiii? 1" wlial (Ihvcliaii is Niutli A hihi- Lcii Ivoili Afiii:i .' Mortli Aineiii-ii li-iuu AsiM V Nmlli Aiju'i-irn f]-oju Kni-iiiif '.' N^. V .\niKi-i("i lin.Hi Austi':tli:i ? q Wlial yT.-linl iliV-Lsiiius .^ pKtiMicI .SIJII.1I1 111' till' ("iliui- liii ' Wliii'Ji Up wluiUy .-, luil-Tji nf rilP pqiiator'.' lu ;- wliHl 2,1 iiics is Soitli .AjiiPi-- .„! : n - -""Vyv V lljlu u-.\ '.' ihiiojip '.' Asia ■; .Ans- iTaJia '.' Atiipii ? Soutli A-iiiPi- ipa ■' WJi:i1 uliuiil ilivLsinns .up I'liisspil Jiy IliP Tjojiii- I'l' I 'ail: rrr .' Dy iliP Tiiijiir ol' (.'a]irj- '^\\ 11)111.' By till' eniiJitoj' '.' In wlial /.OKI' is ritp «'rpnlpi- pjui of Sinilli AiiipHfa *.' Tlip ol-palpi- paii nl' Noi*tb AniPiifa '.' NVv, ^\^^^^ P' (.S,v Uft-h.ni.J Cli.iH.) WJ.al Wy'^-'AV.* VkjiiiLs ]ifi"vail ill llii' iini-th liiiliil zoup .' hi tlip simtli tiiiiiil /.imp? <1ji wJiidi JN r ©J 'J .Si AND TBi IV '4 %^ r^'^ >^ tf^ '^ ■ijW ?k K i« -J*-- .^, fl, 'tade-Sluci \ ^ LAmpxi-cR 1? E - A, [asig«oT:» fK'f. I ,A .,A ^.. ^ "t:^ ■O.M«%i- W' ,_*....\<- pi( of 'ilH/l'f ' gOJ-OM IIA V?- ^^. .^CS'jj Br i^M -t-w- I * 1/ \ ill what hilitiulr i^ tlic i-efi;ioii hI" Ciiiuis in tlie rA AUautir / bi tJif Pftiillr ? What is tin- vc^imx -^^ of lJie xiioji.somis'.' W-hnt pari <»f XorUt Aiueric:i is visited by Piutli- <[ii:\ke^7 Whril p:uis itl' J>ouTK Aiiieiir:i ? Wlial pail ol' "'^i^^ K.iunjie .' Of A sin .* Of Afwrii ? Of AiistiMli.i .- Wh«1 island in rhp imrlk AlJantir is noii»t3^ e wind? 0-) F> /"^i a / , ^J>wj»(}|gf Cipri«« -\ ' Yn ''ttfe — & — ^^v^''*!^" r^v"" ■ i i\ : ^^ \M lABLE WINDS CHI E FLY I NORTH- WESTERiLY k' NORTI W^' WW ©lEEiD flON OF THF. ^,o fimRlElfTS„ In. wiuit directiou do tli^e diief jiioiunadu j.-aii)i;fs tjt'tlio W ostejii Coiiliiieirt ex:teud? HiTw arp dtp lrrwlaiid.« aiifl pJaiiu* of Uit' worltl sluxwji oji thi- .iuaj> V Iforw, tlxe de.sfii'ts? TJie momitaiiL** aiul tn])lc-laiul.s V Wiiw? are the pmi- cipnJ lo-vrlaiids and piaiiis ot'Xottli Amoo-ica V Uefscribp Tiip sui" fftce of the Tiw^teiaijiiu-t of isfiftlj mul SoiitJi Aiiirj-icH. /z w wogiip TiihlP'hijids n-iiverst'd btnuountum-raitgeti. ALoir::," wiKri idvt^-s arn tliejmjicipallijwjiuid jOainsfrfSoirtii Ajjifirim ? Jn-vrlmt tlii'ectijaLU.doJiio.**t of l]ip Jiioini - taiii-jraiig^'s of J'hii-o]je iiuil.Aaia RxieudV _ WJiflt _i^ t]it' nliiij-aclei- of tlie ^rpm-p.r jiai-i of tJie suvfn.-i' ol' Asia ? Of A&ica 7 (tf Aiis- iridi:i .' WJi.nr isthc chflrflrtrar of the siu'- facf of tlio iiortlienij*art ctf Asia 7 Th*» i^re.itei* j>arf of Bn.«.sia iii JKiinojie V "^CUar ^-ajid diTiaioii is jiotpd for its r>_u TvijHt ivntcjr.s would a jii»r.**ttii s;iil. iu a voyaiiVfi'iUu^PwViu*h TO Aiistj-alL^, TJii <'tt>>e td't.TOod- H- / / ^^yhCr /// -^ trnlia ? Jdo.ni of Afi-ica ? TJk^ iuu-d»tu-n ^^Y^y?^ ~by^V part of AfiTJ'a'.' "Wlien* do tlip Esqitbiiaiix: Jin?? ToTTliat i-aci' do dipy ]>eloiig:? ^Vfiat is tlip jiircvailuifif race iu tlie V. .S. ? Iu Alexico ? OjLthe nonst of South AuLPTiin? IViiatis thehiffh- V est jLOrtheriL hitiludp p\nu- rfafli'*d \fy explorer;*'.' 82 ^=^*^ :^0 . btj Ur. Hane. Hovr ^init\' detjrpps is that iroiu th.> uoith jjolp ? \Vh.at i« tliP lua:liest soutlieru latitude pvpv j-pach- 78° 10*. bif CapfBoss. How niaiw de^iees i.« that fioiu the south polp? 16 MAP DRAWING. LESSON XVIII. MAP DRAWING. The system of Map Drawing presented some years ago in connec- tion with this Series of Geograpliics, in a set of Cards adapted to its Maps, has proved so popul 3 1 ST 30 f -^-v c 3G ^ .t 9^ 8 B ' 1 in the manner above described suflBciently often to fix in the mind its shape and the latitude and longitude of a few of its most prominent points. It is unnecessary, indeed it is impossible, to follow every mi- nute indentation of coast or slight change of direction in the boundary. It is enough to have the general outline correct. In drawing the state of Mississippi, for instance, it will only be neces- sary to memorize the lat- itude and longitude of the points A, B, C, D, E, and F; to remember the slight change in the direction of the eastern boundary, in lat 32, and that the Mississippi Riv- er, the western boundary, crosses the 91st meridian a little north of parallel 34 and again a little far- ther north of parallel 32. In drawing from mem- ory, it will be well to take countries of regular out- line first ; but in no case should the exercise be at- tempted until the pupil is thoroughly prepared for it by previously copy- ing the map^several times, if necessary. In all cases, after a sketch is made from memory, the pupil should compare it with the map, and find for himself wherein he has gone wrong. If his drawing is quite inaccurate, he should make another attempt, correcting his previous errors. When he has succeeded tolerably well in this exercise, it will be well for the student to try what he can do in the way of rapid sketch- ing, without the aid of parallels or meridians. Let him simply draw a figure representing as nearly as he can the outline of the country in question, and then fill in its principal rivers, towns, etc. Here again the benefit will lie in comparing the sketch thus drawn with the map, and ascertaining wherein the proportions or the positions of places are faulty. Example on page 19. — In consequence of its regular outline. South America is the most easily drawn of the grand divisions. Its outline is presented on page 19. The pupil would commence at the most north-westerly point, A. In drawing the outline, he would have to locate only eleven prominent points, denoted in the figure by A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, and K. In connecting two points, if the outline does not run in the gen- eral direction of a parallel or meridian, which will serve as a guide, it is sometimes an assistance to draw a faint straight line between the points on both model and copy, so that the deviations from a straight line may be more clearly shown and more exactly imitated. When the true outline has been drawn and traced with ink, these lines may be removed with rubber. Thus, in the outline on p. 19, the points B and C, C and D, D and E, F and G, are connected with straight lines to serve as guides in drawing the outline. Similar lines having been drawn on the model, the deviations of the coast-line can be more easily imitated. ( nm^m mmmmma i 20 MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS. STUDIES ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, SYSTEMATICALLY AEEANGED. , LESSON XX. Conotrles. — ^Bound each : — Eussian America (which belongs to the United States), British America, the United States, Mexico, Balize (ba-lecz'), Central America, and Da'nish America (Greenland and Ice- land — describe them separately, as islands). Model.— The tJnitcd States is bounded on the north by British America, east by the Atlantic Ocean, south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and west by the Pacific Ocean. Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — Ottawa, Washington, Mexico, Balize, — Reykjavik {rike' yah-vik), and Sitka. Model.— Ottawa Is situated in the south-eastem part of British America. Important Places in British America and United States. — State the situ- ation of each : — Halifax, St. John, Quebec, Montreal, Toronto, New Westminster, — St. Paul, Chicago (she-kaw'go), Cincinnati, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Albany, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Richmond, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans, Galves- ton, Austin, Brownsville, San Francisco, Portland, Salt Lake City, and St. Louis. Important Places in Mexico and Central America. — State the situation of each: — Chihuahua (che-wah'wah), Monterey (mon-to-ra'), Vera Cruz (va'rah kroos), Merida (mer'e-dah), Acapulco (ah-kah-pool'ko), Guada- jaxara {(/wah-dah-lah.-hah'rali), Mazatlan', San Luis Potosi {sahn loo'is po-to'se), La Puebla (lah pweh'lah), — San Jose {ho-sa'), Managua {mah- nah'goo-ah), San Salvador, New Guatemala (ffwah-ta-mah'lah), and Comayagua (ko-mi-ah' gwah). LESSON XXI. [Rules for describing the natural dlTlsions of the earth are given on pages 5, 6.] Islands. — Describe each : — Parry Islands, Southampton, Discoe, Newfoundland, Anticosti, Prince Edward, Cape Breton {hrit'un), Ber- muda Islands, West Indies, Revillagigedo Islands (ra-veel-yah-he-ha'do), Vancouver, Queen Charlotte Isles, Sitka, Kodiac (ko'de-ahk), and Nu- nivak {noo^ne-vahk'). Peninsnlas. — ^Describe each : — ^Melville, Nova Scotia, Florida, Yuca- tan, California, and Alaska. Capes. — Describe each: — Barrow, Bath'urst, Chidleigh {chid'le), Sable, Cod, Hatteras, Canav'eral, Gracias (gmh'se-ahs), Corrientes, St. Lucas, Mendocino {men-dose' no), Flattery, Elizabeth, and Prince of Wales. Monntain Ranges, etc. — Describe each : — Alleghany, Sierra Madre (se-er'rah mah'dra). Sierra Nevada (na-vah'dah), Cascade, and Rocky. — Mt. St. Elias, Mt Fairweather, Mt. Brown, Mt. Hooker, and Mt. Nelson. LESSON XXII. Seas. — Describe each : — Caribbean (kar- rib-he' -an) and Behring. Gnlfs and Bays. — Describe each : — Coronation, Boothia, Hudson, James, St. Lawrence, Delaware, Chesapeake, Mexico, Campe'che, Hon- duras, California, San Francisco, Georgia, Cook's, Bristol, and Baffin. Straits. — ^Describe each : — Union, Fury, Hudson, Belle Isle, Flori- da, Behring, — Prince of Wales, Banks, Barrow, and Davis. Sonnds and Channels. — ^Describe each : — Smith's, Lancaster, and Mel- ville. — Kennedy, Fox, and McClintock. Inlets. — Describe each : — Bathurst, Wager, and Chesterfield. Lakes. — Describe each : — Little Slave, Athabasca, WoUaston, Deer, Great Slave, Great Bear, Winnipeg, Lake of the Woods, Superior,* Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and Great Salt. LESSON XXIII. Rivers In Russian and British America. — Describe each : — Kouskovim [koos-ko-veem,'), Kwichpak, Porcupine, — Mackenzie's, Athabasca, Slave, Peace, Great Fish, Churchill, Nelson, Saskatch'awan, Severn, Assiniii- boin, Red, Winnipeg, Albany, Rupert's, East Main, Great Whale, Koksak, St. Lawrence, Ottawa, Saguenay (sag-a-na'), Eraser, and Simpson. Rivers In the Inited States and Ifexico. — Describe each : — Hudson,f James, Cape Fear, Santee, Savannah, Altamaha {awl-ta-mO, haw'), Ala- bama, Mississippi, Ohio, Cumberland, Tennessee, Missouri, Yellow Stone, Big Horn, Nebraska, Arkansas, Canadian, Red, Trinity, Colo- rado (col-o^ah'do), Rio Grande {re'o grahn'da), Pecos (pa'koce), Colo- rado (West), Gila (he'lah), Sacramento, Columbia, Clarke's, Lewis, — San Juan {hoo-ahn'), Balsas, and Santiago {sahn^te-ah'go). QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA, PBOMISOUOnSLY ARRANGED. LESSON XXIV. I. Bound North America. Of the countries of North America, which extends farthest north-west ? Farthest east ? Farthest south ? Wliat river forms part of the boundary between Mexico and the United States? What lalces in British America are connected with the Arctic Ocean ? What river is their final outlet ? What cape is on the northern coast of Russian America ? II. What strait connects the Kamtchatlia Sea with the Arctic Ocean ? Bafiin Bay with the Atlantic Ocean ? Hudson Bay with the Atlantic ? What large island lies in Hudson Bay ? What is the southern part of Hudson Bay called ? M'liat three rivers flow into James Bay? What four into Hudson Bay? Of these, wliich is the outlet of Lake Winnipeg? Of what river is the Saguenay a branch ? III. What island is east of Baffin Bay ? What islands east ol Greenland ? Where is Upernavili (oo-pur iiA-vik) ? Mt. Hecla ? What mountain range is in Brit- ish America ? What islands are off the western coast of Russian and British Amer- ica ? What lakes in British America are connected with Hudson Bay 1 What lakes are connected by the Winnipeg River ? By the Slave River ? IV. Jn what direction are the Bermudas from Iceland ? From the Bahamas ? Washington from Sitka ? Ottawa from Mexico ? Riclimond from San Francisco ? New Orleans from New Westminster ? Philadelphia from Salt Lake City ? Pike's Peak from Mt. Fairweather ? What island on the Pacific coast is in the same lati- tude as Newfoundland ? What islands in the Pacific, west of Mexico ? V. What country in N. America is crossed by the Tropic of Cancer ? What two gulfs ? What peninsula ? What point of the United States is nearest to the Tropic of Cancer ? How far north do the United States extend ? To the i9th par- allel of iV. latitude. About how far south ? VI. Of the countries of North America, which is the largest ? U. S. Which, next in size ? B. A. Which is the smallest ? What is the largest island of North America? The longest river ? Tlie Mississippi. The largest lake ? The largest gulf? The largest bay ? The longest range of mountains ? Tlie highest mountain ? St. E. * The outlet of Lake Superior is the St. Mary's Eiver ; of Lake Michigan, the Strait of Mackinaw ; of Lake Huron, the St. Clair Eiver ; and of Lake Erie, the Niagara Eiver. + The Hudson Kivcr is in the north-eastern part of the United States, flows a southerly course, and empties Into New York Bay. Describe the other rivers according to tliis model. -^' ' ' ' - -■ - — ■■■ '■ ■ -J.- , c^ J ,1. ^ '^ ^ -p w-j/ Oitco'* '-.X. .f H. ^SH XiAeri 4- / !'■ ■<*■., ^^/..t.|;> c^'^ ""'\*.'.-i\ ^»* '■"i"-.s';.^ PioKinj .iTjijjj, >,'•*. * . let---' ^1 1/ SajiHai™''*' Soaie ol Miles Luij^.tiuic West SU iVoui Wasliiue-tou ^O Q- LongifadB feaAt y PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGUAPHY. 1. Pknnk. 8. Opoepnm. 15. Virpinia deer. 22. Wliite-hcadcd eagle 3. Racoonda. ». American black bear. 16. Elk. 23. Eared owl. 3. Rattlcpiinko. 10. Black wolf. 17. Opogsum monee. 24. JlissiKfippi kite. 1. Wolverine. 11, Bison. 18. FlvjiifT BQiiinol. 26. Walrus. r>. Wild cat. 12. American fox. 19. Black Fqiiiml. 2C. Crested seals. r». Raccoon. 13. Musk ox. 20. Canadian porcnpine. 27. Polar bear. 7. Canadian owl. 14. Mustan;j«. 21. Yirj;iniagoat-8uckcr. 28. Greenland wbale. a. Agave (Mexico). d. Acacia. g. Soqnoia ^iirantcai. J. Magnolia. ft. Yucca ( " ). e. norse-clicetnnts. A. Spnice flrs. h. Cotton plant. c. Arrowroot. /. Arctic flrs. I. Pine forest. /. Tobacco. LESSON XXV. NORTH AMERICxV Geograpliiral Position, ctt. — North America lies west of Europe and east of A.sia. It e.xteiids from about the eiglith parallel of north latitude to the Arctic Ocean, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The greatest breadth of North America is 3,000 miles, and the extent of its coast 22,000 miles. Pliyslfal Fcstares. — The surface of North America is divided into five phys- ical regions; viz., the Great Northern Plain, the Atlantic Slope, the Great Valley of the Mississippi, the Mexic'an Table-land, and the Pacific Slope. The Great Northern Plain, lying north of 50° of north latitude, is a cold and barren waste, gently sloping toward tlie Arctic Ocean, and contain- ing numerous lakes and rivers. Tlie Atlantic Slope extends- from the. Alleghany Mountains to the At- lantic Ocean, and includes the" region drained by the rivers that flow into the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico, from New Brunswick to Mississippi. The Great Valley of the Mississippi extends fi-om the Alleghany to tlie Rocky Mountains. It includes the vast region drained by the Mississippi Itiver and its tributaries. The Mexican Table-land extends from Utah to Guatemala. It Separates the rivers that emjity into the Rio Grande and the Gulf of Mexico, from those that flow into the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Slope extends from the- R»cky Mountains to the Pacific Oce.in, and includes that part of the United States drained by rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean. This slope is traversed lengthwise by several mountain ranges. The most important of these are the Cascade Range, and the Sierra Nevada, some of whose snow-clad peaks have an elevation of about three miles above the level of the sea. Inhabitants. — The present population consists of Whites, Negroes, In- dians, and Esquimaux. The Whites arc of European, the Negroes of Afri- can, and the Esquimaux of Asiatic, descent. The Indians are the aborigines. History. — The Continent of America is called the "New World," from its having been discovered comparatively recently. The inhabitants of the Eastern Continent, or Old World, knew nothing respecting this portion of the globe, when Christopher Columbus, in the year 1492, made the. voyage that resulted in the discovery of Guanahani (gwah-nah-hah'ne), or Cat Isl- and, now called St. Salvador. This remarkable man was a native of Gen'- oa, in Italy. In his third voyage he discovered a portion of the American Continent, at the mouth of the Orinoco River. The first explorer of Continental North America was John Cabot', a Venetian, who, accomjianied by his son Sebastian, set sail from England in .June, 1497, and discovered that part of the coast of British America now called Lab'rador. When North America was discovered, it was a wil- derness, inhabited by savage tribes subsequently styled Indians. RUSSIAN AMERICA CfographiMl Position. — Russian America, an extensive region, the interior of which is little known, lies in the north-westeix part of North America. BRITISH AMKRICA AND DANISH AMERICA. 23 Physical Fcatnres — Those port ions of the coast wliich border on Behr- ing Sea and the Pacific are higli and rocky, but ihe Arc:ic coast is gener- ally low and marshy. In the south-eastern part there is a mountain range, of which Mounts St. Elias and Fairweatlier are the loftiest peaks. Soil, etc. — The soil is sterile, and the climate exceedingly cold. Fur- bearing aninuils and fish abound. Grain is i)r()duced in the south, in small quantities; a lew trees, mostly i)iiies and birches, are found on the hills. Inliabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Esquimaux, Iiidians, and Russian traders. The country was once a colonial possession of Russia, but now belongs by purchase to the United States. Mannfiictnrps and Fxports. — There are no manufactures, the chief employ- ment of the natives being hunting and fishing. The furs which they take are sold to the Russian fur-traders. The exports are furs and fish. SiTiiA, on the Lsland of Sitka, is the capital. -~ 1^: THE UOUTU OF THE SAaUENAT BITEB. LESSON XXYI. BRITISH AMERICA. Cenjraplikal Position, etc. — This country comprises all the nortliorn con- tinental portion of North America except the Russian Possessions, andall the islands in the vicinity except (ireenland and Iceland. It extends from the Arctic Ocean on the north to the United States on the si>uth, and from tlie Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. now divided. — British America embraces several colonies belonging to the British crown ; viz., British Columbia, the Iludscm Bay Company's Ter- ritory, Canada (consisting of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- wick, and Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island. BRITISn COLUHrei A. —British Columbia is an extensive tract, lying be- tween the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The discovery of rich gold districts along the valley of the Fi-azer River has attracted a large number of settlers. The soil is good; much of the surface is covered with dense forests. New Westminster, on the Frazer River, is the capital. THE DDDSON BAT COMPAM'S TEBRITORT, or Rupert's Land, comprises a large portion of British America, extending from the Rocky Mountains to Labrador, and from Canada and the United States to the Arctic Ocean. That part situated south of Lake Winnipeg is called the Red River Set- tlement. The residents of this regipn are chiefly emigrants from Scotland, with some Indians and half-castes. The inhabitants of the other portion are mainly Indians and Esquimaux. Physical Features.— The greater part of the surface consists of dense for- ests, vast swamps, extensive lakes, large rivers, and lofty mountains. Soil, etc.— In the northern districts the soil is barren ; but in the south it is toler.ably fertile. The climate is so cold that "wine is often found frozen in a solid mass; and the bays and lakes are covered with ice during half the year. Of the fur-bearing animals, which are here numerous, there are upwards of twenty difi'erent kinds. The seas and lakes abound in morses, seals, cod, etc. There are indications of mineral wealth in various parts. Exports. — The inhabitants lieing wlioUy occupied in hunting and fishing, the chief exports are furs, dried and salted fish, oils, and wajrus-ivory. YoHK Factory, a settlement on Hayes River, is the capital and chief trading-station of the teri-itory. Foot- GAiiiiY, in the Red River Settle- ment, is an important trading-post. DANISH AMERICA. Ccograplilcal Position, etc. — Danish America, situated east of British America, comprises Greenland, Iceland, and some smaller islands. GREKMiAND (supposed to be an itland, though its northern coast is un- known) lies between Baflin Bay and tiie Atlantic Ocean. Physical Features. — A chain of mountains is supposed to extend the en- tire length of the island. Vast glaciers descend to the shore, and, be- coming detached, float as icebergs into the adjacent seas. Soil, etc. — The soil is barren, and the climate is very severe ; July being the only month hi which there is no snow. Kitchen vegetables are i)roduced in the southern part. Seals inhabit the surrounding seas, and are of great im[)ortance to the Greenlaiiders, supplying them with food, clothing, etc. luhubitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly Esquimaux, engaged in hunting and fishing. Many of them have been converted to Christianity. The exports (sent chiefly to Denmark) consist of eider-down, skins of seals and- other animals, whalebone, and fish-oil ; for which the Greenlander re- ceives various manufactured articles. ICELAND, situated in the Atlantic, is TOO miles west of Norway, and 200 miles east of Greenland. Physical Features. — The surface is generally mountainous. About .30 volcanoes have been discovered on this island, the cliief of which is Ileda. Soil, etc. — The soil is generally barren, and the climate is very variable. The longest day of summer and the longest night of winter last each about a week;. .The aurora ^^ __^ borealis is seen in Ice- land in all its 'bril- liancy. Notreesgrow on the island; there are only a few stunted shrubs and mosses. Birds are plentiful, the most valuable of which is the eider- duck. The Geysers, or boiling springs, are interesting curiosi- ties. Inlinbitants, etc. — The inhabitants are of the Scandinavian stock. The island is ruled by an officer ap- pointed by the king of Denmark. Luther- anism prevails. The leading pursuit is cod- fishing. Exports. — The ex- ports consist chiefly of knit stockings, oil. Is a small town on the south-western coast. THE CHEAT OET8EB, ICELAND. fish, suljihur, and moss. -Reykjavik, the capital, ?-2 ^1 D. •- m § o 0>-. cy .1 g p. O o a; 03 i U ^ t-, ja T3 fl -i*l c a 3 G «) o c □ 1 ^3 m CJ , Wli:il is V:>ll''V ' Hf tll"s.' lluit .Iniill ill.' w.'st.'lll lull' V lilt' fxli'iil oi' llii' .'iiliif (Vt.iitii'i- liii. Ah.illl Hl.IMm ///// IV. Wlial stall's lionl.T .111 till' Allalllir'.' I 111 ill.' (illlf II. Il.'lw.'.'ii wlial il."ir.'.'s ..r laliliiili' aii' ill.' Iliiiti'il .'f M.'xi.i. V (In llii- I'aiili.? (Ill ill.' '^^'at laUi's .' On Siali's siliial.'.r.' Wlial pall iil' Kmiip.' ami AlViia is .'iii- tli.' U.>iiiiiiii>ii ..I' I'anaila .' By wlial stall's is tli.' llislri.-l ..C lira.i'.l liflwi'i'ii llii'.s.' pai-illi'lsV Ml ,>f Eiir,>ih- s,„illi nj ihr r.duiiiliia siimiiuiil.Ml •.' On what livci- il.n's il lii'? Wlial /•.ir.ilhl .y I'.iiis. .111,1 ill,- ii„iili,iii /',irt ,•/ A/'ii,;/ . Iw.i .ilii's ilii.'s il .-.iiitaiii .' .(•h,- t lil'OWlCT' I ^ 'Monterey Mature' , B|7 ; jLcmg ittude "fi Greenwich. ; 7t \ M E rx .-i^ , C"3 Ew .»»•' Ifjarlisfli*. lCoh»«»T ^^^^^ufii* \ jwo""; -BdIW w - .1 bLU'**"\* .lu«1««i 1.1 N*- tw't? <1I«U N TT i t ) 5) ^3.'^ DelokU» ;VAi 1. A * \ \ iV^* L ^i\ ^\ . m'sw'Nl (I«A<> .Atl-*"' lUi).-"- ,(-«■ (■„l>. S«1 < o c F o 5 Kuj^lisL Macs \- wo ' ay) " * ^ '^- .i-.K"^>';'-" .^:^^tss^- ■ Liiiiidf W<-,sl tV-c.iii W.>.slaii|;t..ii r. i: St firnju Wrtsiimetun 80 MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS. STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE EASTERN STATES, SYSTEMATICALLY AKEANGED. LESSON XXXIV. states.— Bound each: — Vermont, New Hampsbire, Maine, Massa- cliusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — Montpelier, Concord, Augusta, Boston, Providence, Newport, Hartford, and New Haven. Important Piaces in Termont. — State tlic situation of eacli :— St. Albans (awl'banz), Island Fond, Newbury, Norwich, Woodstock, Windsor, Bellows Falls, Brattleboro, Bennington, Rutland, Brandon, Middlebury, Vergenncs, and Burlington. Important Places In New Hampshire and Maine. — Lancaster, Colebrook, Dover, Portsmouth, Exeter, Manchester, Nashua, Keene, Lebanon, Hanover, Haverhill (ha'ver-il), Andover, — Cal'ais, Eastport, Machias (maich-i'us), Ellsworth, Bangor, Belfast, VVaterville, Rockland, Thom- aston, Gardiner, Bath, Brunswick, Lewiston, Portland, Saco (saw'ko), Biddeford, York, Bethel, Andover, Fanuington, Norridgewock, and Dover. LESSON XXXY. Important Places In Hassaehnaetts. — State the situation of each : — Wil- liamstown, Greenfield, Lowell, Lawrence, Newburyport, Gloucester (glos'ter), Salem, Lynn, Charlestown, Roxbury, Plymoutli, Barnstable, Now Bedford, Fall River, Taunton, Worcester (woos'ter), Springfield, Sheffield, Pittsfield, and Northampton. Important Places in Rliode Island and Connecticut. — Smithfield, Paw- tucket, Bristol, Kingston, East Greenwich [green'ich), — Salisbury (saioh'ber-e), Windsor, Stafford, Stonington, New London, Norwich. Middletown, Bridgeport, Norwalk, Stamford, Danbury, W^aterbuiy, and Litclifield. Islands. — Describe each :— Moose, Jit. Desert, Fox, Nantucket, and Martha's Vineyard. Capes. — ^Describe each : — Small Point, Elizabeth, Ann, and Cod. Honntains. — Describe each : — Green, White. — Washington, Wa- cbusett (waw-chu'set), Holyoke (liole'rjokc), and Tom. LESSON XXXVI. Bays. — ^Describe each : — Passamaquoddy, Macliias, Penobscot, Casco, Massachusetts, Cape Cod, Buzzard's, and Narragansett. Lakes. — Describe each : — Memphrema'gog, Eagle, Grand, Schoodic (nkoo'dik), Chesun'cook, Pemadum'cook, Moosehead, Uraba'gog, Scba'go,* and Winnipiseogee {win-ne-pe-sok'e). Rivers. — Describe each : — Otter, Winooski, Lamoille, Missis'qne, St. Croix {kroi), W. Machias, Union, Penobscot, Mattawamkeag, Piseat'a- quis, Kennebec, Sandy, Androscoggin, Saco, Piscat'aqua,t Salmon Falls, Merrimac, Pemigewasset {pem-eje-rvos'set), Winnipiseogee, Con'toocook, Nashua, Taunton, Blackstone| or Pawtucket, Thames, Qiiinebaug', Shetncket, Connecticut, Ashuelot (ash'wc-loi), Miller's, White, West, Deerfield, Westfield, Farmington, and Housatonic (lioo-sa-ton'ik). QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE EASTERN STATES, PBOMISOUOfSLY ARKANGKD. LESSON XXXVII. I. Mention the Eastern States. By what other name are these states known f 77ie New England •Stalts. What three Eastern States border on Canada? What three, on New York? What four, on the Atlantic? Which Eastern State bor- ders on New Brunswick ? Which, on Long Island Sound ? Which, on Lake Champlain ? Which has the greatest extent of cojjst on the Atlantic ? II. Of what state is Montpelier the capital ? What is the most southerly place in Vermont, on the Connecticut ? What is the largest place on Lake Champlain f JB. Uow far is it from the capital of the state to Burlington ? About 40 milen by railroad. What five towns in Vermont are on the Connecticut ? What four, on Otter Creek ? What river foims the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire ? III. What city is the capital of New Hampshire ? On what river? Sailing down the Merrimac from Concord, what important places would you find on the right bank? What, on the left ? In what state is Newburyport ? Mention the chief seaport of New Hampshire. What manufacturing city is about 12 miles north-west of Portsmouth ? What manufacturing town la about the same distance from Portsmouth, south-west ? IV. Name the largest lake in New Hampshire. What rivers flow into the Merrimac below the Winnipiseogee ? Among what mountains does the Saco River rise ? In what lake, the Androscoggin ? The Kennebec ? Why is Augusta called the capital of Maine ? W^hat seaport is at the head of Penobscot Bay ? What seaport is on the south-western side of that bay ? V. What do you suppose has made Portland the largest city in Maine ? Mention the places on the Androscoggin River. On the Kennebec. AVhat places are situ- ated opposite to each other on the Saco ? What seaport is situated on the east- ernmost frontier of the United States ? E. On what island is it, and in what bay ? What port is near the mouth of AVest Machias River ? LESSON XXXVIH. ♦ The outlet of Sebago Lake is the Prescnmecnt River. t The Piscataqua is formed by the Salmon Falls and the Cocheco River. X The BlackBtone empties into the Providence River, which flows into Narragansett Bay. I. What rivers flow into the Kennebec? What place is on the Sandy Elver? Mention the chief lakes of Maine. What bays indent the coast of Maine ? What capes are near the entrance of Casco Bay ? On what waters would you sail in going from Eastport to Boston ? See scale of miles, and tell the direct distance between these places. II. Of what state is Boston the capital ? What important city in the vicinity of Boston ? C. What manufacturing city is situated on the north-eastern shore of Massachusetts Bay? L. What commercial city a few miles north-east of Lynn ? S. AVhat noted manufacturing places are on the Merrimac, in Massachu- setts ? What, on the Taunton ? T. and F. R. III. What river crosses Massachusetts ? What places in Massachusetts are on the Connecticut ? What mountains are near the Connecticut ? What bays indent the coast of Massachusetts ? What capes on the coast ? In what part of Mas- sachusetts is Worcester ? For what is it noted ? For its manufactures. What is the largest manufacturing city in the western part of Massachusetts ? P. IV. What cities are alternately the capital of Rhode Island ? What other state has two places where the legislature meet ? What rivers cross Connecticut from north to south ? In what state docs the Connecticut rise ? The Housatonic ? W^hat rivers form the Thames ? What three states border on Connecticut ? What two, on Rhode Island ? AVhat bays indent the coast of Massachusetts ? V. What city is situated on Buzzard's Bay ? What manufacturing town a few miles north of Providence ? On what river is it? AVhat other town on this river, in Rhode Island ? For what is Smithfield celebrated ? For Us limestone quarrifK. What city is at the head of navigation on the Thames ? N—Ji. What city is near the mouth of the Thames ? VI. Mention the places in Connecticut, on Long Island Sound. On the Con- necticut River. On the Thames. What three places lie near the western boundary of Connecticut ? AVhat two islands in the Atl.mtic, south-east of Buzzard's Bay ? To what state do they belong ? Of the Eastern States, which is the largest ? AA^hich, the smallest ? AVhich extends farthest north ? AVhieh, farlhest south ? 32 MAP STUDIES AND GENERAL QUESTIONS. STUDIES ON THE MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES, MARY- LAND, VIRGINIA, AND WEST VIRGINIA, BTBTEMATIOALLT ARRANGED. LESSON XXXIX. states. — ^Bound each : — New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Penn- sylvania, — Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. Capital Cities. — State the situation of each : — ^Albany, Trefiton, Do- ver,* Harrisburg, — ^Annapolis, Richmond^ and- Wheeling. Important Places Id New Tork.?— State the situation of each : — Roches- ter, Oswego, Watertown, Ogdensburg, Plattsburg, Whitehall, Saratoga Springs, Schenectady, Troy, Hudson, Kingston, Poughkeepsie (po- kip'se), Newbmg, West Point, Sing Sjng, New York, Bing'hamton, Owego, Ithaca, Elmira, Bath, Olean (o-le-an'), Dunkirk, Buffalo, Lock- port, Batavia, Gcneseo, Geneva, Auburn, Syracuse,f Hamilton, Rome, TJtica, — Brooklyn. Jamaica, Oyster Bay, Greenport, and Sag Harbor. LESSON XL. » Important Places In New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. — State the situation of each : — Paterson,J Jersey City,J Newark,^ Elizabeth, New Brunswick, Atlantic City, Cape Island City, Vincland, Salem, Cam- den, Burlington, Princeton, — Wilmington, Smynia, Milford, Lewes (lu'is), Georgetown. ' Eric, Warren, Coudersport {kow'derz-port), Athens, Carhondale, Scranton, Wilkesban-e (wilks'bar^e), Easton, Pottsville, Reading {red'- inff), Philadelphia, Lancaster, York, Carlisle, Washington, Pittsburgh, Alleghany, Newcastle, Meadville, Oil City, Williamsport, Danville, Lewiston, and HoUidrysburg. Important Places In Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. — State the situ- ation of each : — Cumberland, Ilagerstown, Havre de Grace (hav'er de grass), Easton, Cambridge, Salisbury, Frederick, Baltimore, — ^Win- chester, Alexandria, Fredericksburg, Petersburg, Portsmouth, Norfolk, Danville, Lynchburg, Salem, Abingdon, Jefferson ville, Staunton, Char- lottesville, — Grafton, Romney, Martinsburg, Harper's Ferry, Beverly, Lewisbnrg, Princeton, Guyandotte [ghi-an-dot'), Charleston, Point Pleasant, Parkersburg, and Buckhannon. Islands. — ^Describe each : — ^Long and Staten.§ Capes. — Sandy Hook, May, Henlopen, Charles, Henry, — and Mon- tauk Point. LESSON XLI. Honntains. — Describe each : — Adirondack (ad-e-ron'dak), Catskill, Blue Ridge, and Alleghany. Bays. — ^Describe each : — New York, Delaware, and Chesapeake. Laltcs. — ^Describe each : — Erie, Ontario, Seneca, Cayuga, Owaseo, Oneida, George, Champlain, Otse'go, and Chautauqua {sha-taw'qua). Bivers of the Middle States. — Describe each : — Niagara, Genesee, Os- wego,! Seneca, Black, Oswegatchie, Racket, Saranac, Hudson, Mo- hawk, — Rar'itan, — Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill, Susquehanna, Che- nango, Chemung, Conhocton, Tioga, West Branch of Susquehanna, • Dover is eilnated on Jones Creek. + Syracuse Is sitnatcd on Onondaga (pn-on-daw'ga) Lake. X See small Map of a Part of New York and New Jersey. % Stalcn Island is snrroundcd by New York Bay, the Narrows, and Staten Island Sound. I The Oswego is formed by the junction of the Seneca and the Oneida Kiver. Juniata (jocHne-a/i'ta), Monongahela, Alleghany, Clarion, Conewaiigo Creek, Oil Creek, and French Creek. Rivers of Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. — Describe each : — Chop- tank, Patuxent, Putoraac, Monoc'acy, — Shenando'ah, Rappahannock, Rapidan, York, Mattap'ony, I'amunky, James, Appomattox, Nottaway, Meherrin, Staunton, Dan, — Big Sandy, Guyandotte, Great Kanawha, Greenbrier, Gauley, Elk, and Little Kanawha. QUESTIONS ON MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES, ETC., PKOMI8CrOTI8I.T AEJgANOKD. /;. LESSON XLII. I. Name the Nflfrthcm or Middle States. N. Y., N. J., B., and P. To what di- vision do Maryland, Virginia, and VFcst Virginia belong ? To'the Southern States. What two Middle States border on Lake Erie ? What three, on tlie Atlantic ? What two islands, forming part of New York, border on the Atlantic ? L. and S. What two states border on Delaware Bay ? What two, on Chesapeake I3ay ? ^[afakt pjf ifiiV VTonK: feiniiw jkkskx. j;niMaai-tJ!fgOTVlvm%i II. What two cities in New Jersey are opposite New York » ■ H. mid J. C. What city on Long Island is opposite New York ? Between what rivers is New York situated ? J7i£ Hudion and the East River. What waters are connected by the East River? Long Island Sound and y. Y. Bay. What strait is south of N. Y. Bay ? Describe Long Island Sound. How is Long Branch situated ? m. Which two Middle States have the most sea-coast ? Which has no sea- coast? What capes are at the entrance of Chesapeake Bay? Of Delaware Bay ? Name the principal places on Long Island. On the Hudson Kiver. On the Mohawk. On the Delaware. On the Susquehanna. On the Potomac. On the James. On the Ohio, in West Virginia. Where is the Dismal Swamp ? IV. What is included in the cily limits of Philadelphia? 77ie entire county, in which are several towns and villages. Name some of these places. Between what two rivers is Philadel- phia located ? What city in N. Jersey is opposite Philadelphia ? What two rivers form the Ohio ? What city is at their junction ? Wliat ridges trav- erse part of Pennsylvania ? What is the largest city in New Jersey ? A\ In Delaware ? IT. In Maryland ? In Virginia? if. In West Virginia? H'. V. What rivers empty into Lake Ontario ? Into the Alleghany River ? Into the Susquehanna? Into the Delaware? Into the Potomac? Into Chesapeake Bay? Into the Ohio, from AVest Virginia ? In what direction is Norfolk from Baltimore? From Petersr burg? 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Important Places In Minnesota, Wlseonsln, and Michigan. — State the situa- tion of each : — Fond du Lac, St. Anthony, Minneapolis, Shak'opee, Red Wing, Wabasbaw (toaw' bashaw), Faribault {far-e-bo'), Wino'na, Manka'to, Breckinridge, Crow Wing, St. Cloud, Monticello. Superior, Green Bay, Appleton, Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Sheboygan, Milwaukee, Wau'kesha, Racine (ras-seen'), Keno'sha, Beloit, Janes- ville. Mineral Point, Prairie du Chien {pra're du sheen), La Crosse, Galesville, Chippewa Falls, Grand Rapids. Ontonag'on, Marquette {mar-ket'), Saut St. Mary {soo sent ma're), Saginaw, Corunna, Port Huron, Pontiac, Detroit, Ann Arbor, Ypsilan'ti, Monroe, A'drian, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Grand Rapids, Grand Haven. LESSON XLIX. Important Places In Ohio and Kentucky. — State the situation of each : — Toledo, Tiffin, Sandus'ky, Cleveland, Ravenna, Wooster, Canton, Steu- benville, Zanesvillo, Marietta, Athens, Chillicothe, Portsmouth, Cincin- nati, Dayton, Springfield, Bellefontaine, Lima, Mt. Vernon, Newark, — Padu'cah, Henderson, Owenboro, Hawesville, Louisville, Bardstown, Covington (cuv'ing-tun), Maysville, Pikeville, Barboursville, Glasgow, Russellville, Hickman, Danville, and Lexington. Important Places In Mlssonri and Iowa. — State the situation of each : — Hannibal, Mexico, St. Charles, St. Louis, St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'), Cape Girardeau {je-rar-do'), New Mad'rid, Hartville, Forsyth, Spring- field, Carthage, Bolivar, Harrisonville, Independence, Lexington, Wes- ton, St. Joseph, Glasgovir, Boonville, Heruiann. Algo'na, Waverly, Cedar Falls, Dubuque (du-booke'), Cedar Rapids, Davenport, Iowa City, Muscatine, Fairfield, Burlington, Fort Madison, Ke'okuk, Ottumwa, Oskaloosa, Afton, Council Bluffs, Sioux (soo) City, Fort Dodge, and Boonesboro. LESSON L. _. Important Places In Illinois and Indiana. — State the situation or^ach : — Galena, Dixon, Rockfort, Wauke'gan, Chicago, Jo'liet, Kankakee [kan- kaio'lce), Danville, Mt. Carmcl, Shawneetown, Cairo (ka'ro), Kaskaskia, Salem, Illinois Town, Alton (awl'tun). Jacksonville, Quincy, Carthage, Rock Island, Peru, Lacon, Peoria, Blooraington, Decatur, Vandalia. Michigan City, South Bend, Fort Wayne, Richmond, Lawrence- burg, Madison, New Albany, Evansville, Vincennes (vin-senz'), TeiTC Haute (ter'reh hote), La Fayette, Logansport, Crawfordsville, Greencas- tle, and Blooraington. Islands. — Describe each : — Apostle, Royale {roy'al), and Beaver. * Madiaon is situated on an isthmas between Laices Mcndota and Mono'na. Bays. — Kewee'naw, Green, Grand Traverse, and Saginaw. Strait. — Describe it : — Mack'inaw. Lakes. — Describe each : — Traverse, Otter Tail, Red, Lake of the Woods, Rainy, Vermilion, Superior, Michigan, Winnebago, Houghton (ho'tun), Huron, St. Clair, Erie,* Itasca, Leech, Mille Lacs, Pepin (pip'in), Peoria, and Big Stone. LESSON LI. Rivers that flow toward the Great Lakes. — ^Describe each : — Red River of the North, Red Lake, Rainy Lake, St. Louis, St. Mary, Menom'onee, Fox, Wolf, St. Joseph's, Kalamazoo, Grand, Maske'gon, Manis'tee, Au Sable (o sahbl), Saginaw, Flint, St. Clair, Detroit,! Raisin, Mau- raee, St. Joseph's, St. Mary's, Sandusky, and Cuyahoga {ki-orho' ga). Elvers that flow toward the Ohio. — Describe each :— Muskingum, Ver- non, Scio'to, Miami (nie-ah'me), Wabash (waw'bash), Sugar Creek, White, Tippecanoe, Embarras, Little Wabash, Big Sandy, Licking, Kentucky, Salt, Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee.J Bivers that flow toward the Mississippi. — ^Describe each : — Ohio,§ Big Muddy, Kaskaskia, Illinois, Kankakee, San'gamon, Salt Creek, Fox, Spoon, Rock, Wisconsin, Black, Chippewa, St. Croix, Ruin, — Crow, Minnesota, Cannon, Root, Upper Iowa, Iowa, Red Cedar, Skunk, Des Moines, Raccoon, Salt, Missouri,^ Chariton, Grand, Nodaway, Boyer, Little Sioux, Big Sioux, Osage', Gasconade, and Mar'amec. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE WESTERN STATES, PEOMISOnODSLT ARBANGED. LESSON LII. I. What states are classed as Western States ? Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Illitwis, Indiana, and all the states west of the Mississippi River except Louisiana and Texas. What state borders on Lake Huron ? What states border on Lake Superior ? On Lake Michigan ? On Lake Erie ? On the east bank of the Mississippi ? On the west bank ? On the Ohio ? What state has the greatest extent of lake coast ? n. What river separates West Virginia from Kentucky ? Kentucky from In- diana ? Kentucky from Missouri ? Kentucky from Illinois ? Iowa from Wiscon- sin ? What lakes are in Minnesota ? What lake is in Wisconsin ? What moun- tain in Missouri ? Where are the Pictured Rocks ? Where is Mammoth Care ? in. Name the principal places in Ohio, on Lake Erie. In Wisconsin, on Lake Michigan. In Illinois, on the Mississippi. In Iowa, on the Mississippi. In In- diana, on the Ohio. What place on the other side of the river is directly opposite St.' Louis? Davenport? :Sew Albany? Covington? IV: Which of the rivers of Ohio belong to the basin of the St. Lawrence ? M., SL J., St. M., 8., and C. Which, to the basin of the Mississippi? Name the east- ern branches of the Mississippi, north of the Ohio. The western branches, north of the Missouri. The southern branches of the Missouri, in Missouri. V. What city is the metropolis of Ohio? Ci. Of Kentucky? Lou. Of Mis- souri ?«.i. Of Wisconsin ? if«7. Oflowa?-D«. Of Illinois ? C/m. 01 Mich- igan ? D. What places in Iowa are on the Missouri River ? What places in Mis- souri on that river? Name the principal places in Kentucky. Which is the largest of the Western States ? Cal. * The outlet of Lake Erie is the Niagara Kiver. t The Detroit River runs from Lalie St. Clair to Lake Erie. X See Map of the United States, for the entire course of this riyer. I The Ohio is formed hy the Alleghany and Monongahela, in western Pennsylvania. a « ^ G»-. -rJ -^ ^ "" " o o I "^ ■ -a o >-, I -- o , ^ e^- -fi ^ S , o '^ ^ J E o ■u •= ■= s a> 0) fflj r: ^ e 2 ^ ■5 »■ C J3 ■o -S J= 2 O c^ c3 o a* 5 ( i 0^ fc- aJ to ^ H c3 .5 a -== K- +j ,> to ^ j= .W 2 c g -s S «j 5 g p^ 0) ^ *c c o a i? ,o 9 to -;^ oj O 5 5^ Bag i^ - g ^6 9 S ° 3 S O to a .s ■= -e > lis" o O •- a) >- ^ a P t^ ^ ^ OJ 00 i . 2 6= a O o » S ^ ^ g p^ »^ DO ^ to m ^. r;3 S o ^2 t> a 6 t> ^- fe tf ■p. c &i e .2 s. o £ •£ ^ ^m O ro ^ •f •E s p? o S fe "S a ts j: a • e^ a § ^ &• tu S5 d, & o a O H 3 0) t« W Ph > ^ ^2; !^ C8 03 MJ c3 a; ■ — tn S § s 6 03 tB QJ S tn fc: HH ^ O « ^ M CO O c -a 3^ P; s 1^ -e -^^-^ M a & ■a ,o § b e S as "^ is e •^ ir o 02 O 7 . £ o ca "^^ § ca o e3 I tsn £ 'd ca o H S ^ i J. f^ a S Ui 5 . ri4 («5 cT 1-3 O CQ !Z2 Pd 1-^ S M 'S — ^ -•■« P^ ■^ :iS 1-^ ^ o sa Ph ^ S .2 o B CO .'. c ^ .2 o na ea c« « Irt c^ ^ c ■E o o s" I 7 CO li: ja O 3 P5 o M o -c o (2; S ri^ C IS g 03 O IS o o o Q I O In ^ a tc ^ o ? o ^ CO e ^ ■ — ' B 2 => g s ^ r« "O -2 3 ^ .2 "a -^ IS B ^ 3 tH- ■ O o CO 02 Q 3 O CO c o - fe O § =a - U O! 03 CJ a M C a* .5 S a ■r •- « 1-' 03 o S ca cu .^ P ^ ;| "S C» ^ -S "J 03 W 'o C^ —-DP - ff .2- S^ CO CO C3 o fe g .5 3 g'E5 tu -o P. & .& .2 g e Eh ^ CO A. J3 ID .J3 B eS o J<1 S O ^ a 2 S •S to '^ s S fc CO •E " S -a — o B -E g ■" 2 =« 3 rt -5 "^ I- a ■& P B J: ■= ^ ? ? J= -^ O be T3 P5 S CO w .2 ■r =« -Q i ° B I I f~* •=*• "tS a jd .2 Bo" bd Ph .b O 5 .3 ca tp B o fe " bo -g & 0) 2 o A •= qa ° t» ,o a Qj T3 ~ .a - * C-, a ,2 (£^ o .U .2 fe S a O M >. p B •« a So) ■° 5 S B S -B * 2 QQ V 0) > is o £: CO . >- ca ■■^ -s ca !^ op O I ■CZ2 1-^ a CD ,3 o .s 'o o « 3 O P^ "ca &H 9 E M S o ft. ft. ca 40 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. THE UNITED STATES. LESSON LIX. Area In eqaare milee, 3,480,000. Popnlation, 82,000,000. CAPITAL CITY — ■WASHINGTON. Gengrapbleal Position. — The United States occupy the central part of North America, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from British America to tiie Gulf of Mexico and Mexico. Extent of Coast. — Tlie shore on the At- lantic, including indentations, measures 0,186 miles, on the Gulf of Mexico 3,407 mOes, and on the Pacific 2,281 miles. The shore-line of the great northern lakes is about 3,600 miles. FLAG OF THE UNITED BTATES. Comparati?e Size. — The United States are nearly ten times as large as Great Britain and France combined; and only about one-tenth smaller than the whole of Europe. Physical Fcatnrcs. — The surface is divided by the Alleghany and the Eocky Mountains, into three principal sections ; the Atlantic or Alleghany Slope, the Pacific or Rocky Mountain Slope, and the Mississippi Valley. Inhabitants, et«. — The inhabitants consist of Whites, Negroes, and In- dians. The Negroes number about 4,500,000 ; the Indians, about 400,000. There is no established church ; all sects are tolerated, and all have equal privileges. — No other country has increased in population so rapidly and steadily as the United States. History. — The first permanent English settlement was made at James- town, Virginia, in 1607. In 1775, there were thirteen colonies, with a population of nearly three millions. The inhabitants, feeling aggrieved by the injustice of the British Parliament in taxing them without their con- sent, determined to throw off" allegiance to the mother country. Accord- ingly, on the 4th of July, 1776, they declared their independence. This gave rise to a seven years' war, which resulted in the acknowledgment of the independence of the colonies by the British Government in 1788. The present Constitution was ratified in 1788. Goremment. — The government is a federal democratic republic. The legislative or law-making power is vested in Congress, which consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. This body meets at Washington, on the first Monday in December. The Senate is composed of two members from each state, elected by the Legislatures of the same for six years. The members of the House of Repre- sentatives are chosen by the people of the several states every second year. Each state is entitled to one Representative for every 127,000 inhabitants. Each territory may send one delegate to Congress, who has the right to debate on matters pertaining to his territory, but cannot vote. The executive power is vested in a President, who, with a Vice-Presi- dent, is elected every four years by Electors chosen either by the people or by the state Legislatures. The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy. With the concurrence of the Senate, he makes treaties, appoints civil and military ofiicers, levies war, concludes peace, etc. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, which sits once a year at Washington. Each state has its own separate government, consisting of a Senate and a House of Assembly, a Governor, etc., who regulate all aifairs except such as belong to the general government. The states are for the most part divided into counties, and the counties into townships. How dlTided. — The United States comprise thirty-seven states, ten ter- ritories, and one district. The states are divided into four sections ; the East- ern or New England, the Northern or Middle, the Southern, and the Western. THE STATE OF VERMONT. Geographical Position. — This state, the most north-westerly of the New England section, lies between New York and New Hampshire. Physical Featores. — The surface is generally mountainous and well wood- ed. The Green Mountains traverse the state from north to south. Hence the name of Vermont, vert in French signifying green, and mont mountain. SoU, etc — The soil in the valleys is fertile, and the hills aflTord excellent pasturage. The climate is cold, but healtliy. The staples are wheat, but- ter, cheese, wool, maple sugar, and live-stock. Iron, marble, slate, and granite, are the chief mineral products. Natnral Cnriositles. — The most noted natural curiosities are Bellows Falls, on the Connecticut, and Great Falls, on the Lamoille River. Inhabitants, etc. — This state was settled by the English. The soldiers of Vermont bore a conspicuous part in the Revolution, and were known as " Green Mountain Boys." Agriculture is the leading pursuit. Manafactnres and Exports. — Manufactures are not extensive. Mineral products, lumber, live-stock, cheese, pot and pearl ashes, and maple sugar, are exported. Towns. — MoNTPELiKR, the capital, on the Winooski or Onion River, car- ries on an active trade. Bitkungton, the most populous and commercial town in the state, is finely situated on a branch of Lake Champlain. It is the seat of the University of Vermont. Windsor and Bkattleboro lie on the Connecticut ; the former is noted for its fine site and beautiful scenery, the latter for its manufactures. Rutland is an active business center. Bennington, in the south-western corner of the state, is memorable for the battle fought there in 1777, in wliich a detachment of Burgoyne's array was defeated by General Stark. Middlebuht, on important manufactur- ing town on Otter Creek, is the seat of Middlebury College. Marble is obtained in great quantities from a quarry near the town. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Geographical Position. — This state lies between Maine and Vermont, and extends from Canada to Massachusetts. Physical Featnres. — The surface is hilly and mountainous, except in the south-eastern part, which is either level or gently undulating. New Hamp- shire has only 18 miles of sea-coast, and but one good harbor. The White Mountains proper extend no more than 20 miles, but de- tached groups of the chain stretch as far south as Connecticut. Mount Washington is the loftiest peak, and the Notch, where the Saco River makes its way through the mountains, is an object of great interest to touri.sts. On account of its magnificent scenery, New Hampshire is often styled " the Switzerland of America." LAKE WINNn'ISBOUEE, N Soil, etc. — The soil is not generally fertile, but the hills aftbrd very fine pasturage. The climate is severe, yet healthy. The chief productions are grain, potatoes, butter, cheese, wool, maple sugar, bees'-wax, and honey. THE UNITED STATES. 41 Granite abounds, and hence New Hampshire is called "the Granite State." Iron is also found. Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are chiefly of English descent. The first settlements were made near Portsmouth, in 1623. The leading in- dustrial pursuits are agriculture, manufactures, and lumbering. ManDfactnrcs and Exports. — Manufactures are extensive, chiefly cotton and woolen goods, leather, and iron. The principal exports are lumber, live-stock, wool, fish, pot and pearl ashes, and granite. Jlties, ete.— CoNOOED, the capital of the state and a great railroad center, lies on the right bank of the Merrimac. Manchester, on the left bank of the Merrimac, the most important city of the state, is noted for its manu- factures ; as, also, are Nashua and Exetek. Hanovkk, near the Connecti- cut, is the seat of Dartmouth College. DovEK, the oldest town in the state, on the Cocheco River, carries on extensive cotton manufactures. PoRTSMonTn, the only seaport of New Ilampsliire, is built on a beautiful peninsula, on the right bank of the Pis- cataqua, three miles from the ocean. MT. KATAHDIN, UAINK (THE LOFTIEST SUMMIT IN THE STATE). LESSON LX. THE STATE OF MAINE. Geographkal Position. — Maine, the most north-easterly state in the Union, ■ lies between New Brunswick and New Hampshire, and extends from Can- ada to the Atlantic. It has a sea-coast of 1,000 miles. Physical Featares. — -Maine contains numerous detached elevations, but no mountain range. It abounds in lakes ; nearly one-tenth of its surface is covered with water. Soil, etc.— The soil is best adapted to grazing. The most fertile portions lie in the valley of the St. John's, and between the Penobscot and the Ken- nebec. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and cold ; the win- ters are long and severe. Among the most important productions are grain, potatoes, wool, butter, cheese, bees'-wax, and honey. The great staple is lumber. The chief minerals are iron, limestone, granite, and slate. Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are mainly of British descent. A few Indians still inhabit some of the islands in the Penobscot. The chief pur- suits are agriculture, lumbering, the coasting trade, and the fisheries. From its abundance of suitable timber, Maine has become the greatest ship-building state in the Union. Mannfactnres and Exports. — Maine is not so largely engaged in manufac- tures as some others of the Eastern States. The fisheries are extensive. Fish, lumber, butter, cheese, lime, marble, granite, and ice, are the chief exports. Cities, etc.— Augusta, the capital, is situated on the Kennebec, which is here crossed by a bridge. Portland, the first city in the state in popu- lation, wealth, and commerce, stands at the west end of Casco Bay. Bangok, oa the right bank of the Penobscot, is the greatest lumber depot in the world. Eastpoet, on Moose Island, is also an important lum- ber depot. Belfast, a seaport town, is largely engaged in ship-building, commerce, and the fisheries. Bath, on the right bank of the Kennebec, ranks seventh among the cities of the U. S. in the importance of its shipping. MASSACHUSETTS. Geographical Position. — This state extends from New York on the west, to the Atlantic Ocean on the east. Physical Features. — The north-eastern and middle portions are hilly ; the south-eastern, level and sandy ; the western, mountainous. Two ridges of the Green Mountain Range from Vermont traverse the state, and furnish an abundance of picturesque scenery. Soil, etc — The soil, though not generally favorable to agriculture, yet by the industry of the inhabitants, has been made to yield a rich return. The most fertile portions are the valleys of the Connecticut and the Housatonio. The climate is severe in winter ; the summers are exceedingly pleasant. The chief products are Indian corn, oats, potatoes, butter, and cheese. Sien- ite, granite, marble, and limestone, are the most abundant minerals. BTatnral Cnriosities. — Among these may be mentioned the Natural Bridge on Hudson's Brook ; the Ice Hole in Stockbridge, a deep, romantic ravine, where ice remains the year round ; and an immense rock, of 40 tons, in the village of New Marlborough, so nicely balanced that a finger can move it. Inhabitants, etc. — This state was first settled at Plymouth, December 20th, 1G20, by a company of English Puritans, whom religious persecution had driven to Holland. The leading pursuits are commerce, manufactures, and the fisheries. In commerce, this state ranks second only to New York. nanofactares and Exports. — In manufactures, Massachusetts exceeds every other state in the Union. It produces cotton and woolen goods, leather, boots and shoes, woodenware, tinware, paper, carpeting, etc. These, with granite, marble, ice, whale-oil, and fish, are the principal exports. Cities. — Boston, the capital, is the great metropolis of New England, and the second commercial city in the Union. It stands at the head of Massachusetts Bay, near the confluence of the Charles and the Mystic River. Its wharves and warehouses are on a scale of magnitude surpassed by no other city of equal population. Cambridge and Charlkstown are connected with Boston by bridges. The former is the seat of Harvard University ; the latter contains the cele- brated Bunker Hill Monument, erected on the site of the battle-field. SPErNGFiELD, a flourishing city on the Connecticut, contains a U. S. Ar- senal. Worcester, an important railroad center, lies in a valley surrounded by beautiful hUls. Lowell and Lawrence are celebrated for the amount and variety of their manufactures. Lynn is noted for the manufacture of shoes. Salem has a good harbor, and is extensively engaged in commerce. New Bedford, on a branch of Buzzard's Bay, has more tonnage employed in the whale fishery than any other port in the Union. IVAIVTUCKET AND MABTHi'S VDiETARD.— These islands, forming part of Massachusetts, are separated from the main-land by Vineyard and Nan- tucket Sound. The inhabitants are largely engi^ed in the whale fishery. RHODE ISLAND. Geographical Position.- This state lies south and west of Massachusetts. Physical Features.- On the coast it is level, but in the west hilly. Nu- merous small streams afford water-power for manufacturing purposes. Soil, etc.— Along the bay, and on the islands, the soil is fertile. Rhode Island is noted for fine cattle, apples, and butter. Coal, iron, Umestone, and marble, are found to some extent. Inhabitants, etc.— The inhabitants are chiefly of British descent. The first settlement was made at Providence, in 1086, by Roger Williams. The 42 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. leading objects of pursuit are manufactures, commerce, cattle-rearing, and the dairy. Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Rhode Island, in proportion to population, ranks first among the United States in cotton, and second in woolen, manu- factures. These, with cattle, butter, cheese, and apples, are the chief exports. Cities, et«. — Peovidenoe and Newport are the capitals. The former, on an arm of Narragansett Bay, is the largest city in the state ; it is extensively engaged in com- merce and manu- factures, and is distinguislied for its educational in- stitutions. Newport is sit- uated on Rhode Island, a beautiful island in Narra- gansett Bay, from which the state received its name. , .: : , M,.UN«S, NWPOBT, B. I. NcWpOrt is OnC of the most celebrated watering-places in the Union ; its harbor is among the best on the coast of the United States. Pawtucket is noted for the manufacture of cotton goods and ma- chinery ; BiusTOL, for its good harbor and coasting-trade. LESSON LXI. THE STATE OF CONNECTICUT. Geograpliieal Position.— Connecticut, the most south-westerly of the New- England States, lies between New York and Rhode Island. Pliysieai Features.— Much of the surface is hilly. The state is crossed by a succession of groups and eminences. There is an abundalice of water- power, though but few of the rivers are navigable. Soil, ele.— The soil is fertile, and in the eastern part is best adapted to grazing. The climate, though subject to sudden changes, is remarkably healthy. The chief productions arc Indian com, oats, potatoes, butter, cheese, and live-stock. The principal minerals are iron, copper, lead, and marble. • Inliabitants, ete.— The inhabitants are mainly of British origin. The chief pursuits are agriculture, manufactures, and the whalc-fisliery. Mannfactnrcs and Exports.— The manufactures are varied and extensive, consisting of wooden, copper, iron, tin, and brass ware ; hats, shoes, coaches, a variety of hardware, combs, buttons, etc. These constitute the principal exports. The foreign commerce of the state is carried on mainly through the ports of Boston and New York. Cities. — IlAETFonD and New IIaveii are the capitals. At the former. Trinity College is located. New Haven, on a branch of Long Island Sound, is one of the handsomest cities in the Union, and the seat of Yale College. It is known as " the City of Elms." NoKwicn, on the Thames, and Bridge- port, on an arm of Long Island Sound, are extensively engaged in manufactures. New London, on the Tiiames, throe miles from its entrance into the Sound, has a fine harbor, and sends out numerous whalers. Middletown, at the head of ship navigation on the Connecticut, is the seat of Wesleyan University. THE FALLS AT NOBWIOH. NEW YORK. Geograpliieal Position. — New York, the most northerly of the Middle States, lies directly west of New England. Pliysicai Features. — New York presents a great variety of surface. The eastern part of the state is traversed by tlie Adirondack, Catskill, and Shawangimk (ahong'gum) Mountains. The western part is generally level or undulating. Soil, ete. — The soil is various. The most fertile districts are in the western part, and the valleys of the Hudson and the Mohawk. The winter is long and severe in the north, but is much milder in the south- eastern part. Wheat is the staple. The other important products are oats, potatoes, buckwheat, rye, barley, grass-seeds, orchard products, maple sugar, bees'- wax, honey, dairy produce, wool, and live-stock. Iron ore is abundant, and salt springs are numerous. Valuable mineral deposits are found. Natural Cnriosities.— The Falls of Niagara, in a river of the same name, are about 22 miles below Lake Erie, and 14 miles above Lake Ontario. The mighty volume of water which is the outlet of the great lakes, is here precipitated over a ledge of rocks IGO feet in height, forming the grandest cataract in the world. The Cohoes Falls, in the Mohawk, about two miles above its mouth, are exceedingly romantic. The Genesee Falls are in a river of the same name, at Rochester. The Catskill Falls, 180 feet high, and Trenton Falls, in West Canada Creek, are objects of great interest. Inhabitants, ete. — The Hudson River was discovered by Henry Hudson in the year 1G09 ; the first permanent settlements were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange, now Albany, and New Amsterdam, now called New York City. The inhabitants consist chiefly of Europeans and their descendants. The leading pursuits are commerce, agriculture, and manufactures. In commerce and agriculture this state ranks the first in the Union. Uannfactsres and Exports.— Though New York is largely engaged in man- ufactures, she does not equal some of her sister states in tliis respect. The exports consist mainly of domestic produce. Cities. — Albany, the capital, stands on the right bank of the Hudson, 145 miles from New York City, in a fovorable position for trade, being connected by the Erie Canal with the great western lakes, and by the Hud- son with the ocean. Trot, six miles north of Albany, lies on the left bank of the Hudson. The transhipment of goods, and manufacture of machinery, nails, stoves, cars, etc., form the principal business of the place. New York, the chief commercial emporium of the New World, is situ- ated on Manhattan Island, at the confluence of the Hudson and the East River, about 18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean. The island is 13J miles in length, and its greatest breadth is a little over 2 miles. The wharves on both sides are crowded with the vessels of all nations. New York contains a great number of imposing public edifices. It is abundantly supplied with water brought from the Croton River, a distance of over 40 miles, by means of an aqueduct which cost $9,000,000. RoonESTER, on both sides of the Genesee, not far from Lake Ontario, has an almost unlimited water-power, which is extensively used by flour- ing-raills and other inanufacturing establishments. Oswego is largely en- gaged in trade with Canada. Buffalo is the great entrepot between the northwest and the states of the Atlantic sea-board. Stracuse is the seat of the most valuable salt manufactories in the United Statgs. Utica, on the Mohawk, and Poitgh- KEEPsiE, on the east bank of the Hudson, midway between Albany and New York, are important trading and manufacturing places. LONG ISLAND. — This island, forming a part of the state of New York, is separated ti-om the main-land by a strait called the East River, and by Long Island Sound. Physleal Features, ete. — A ridge, nowhere exceeding 300 feet in height, traverses the island from .east to west. Long Island is important for its THE UNITED STATES. 43 market products ; the numerous bays that indent the coast abound in fine fish, oysters, and clams. Cities. — Bhooklyn, the principal seaport on the island and third city in the Union in population, is situated at its western extremity, opposite New York City. It is finely built and contains a U. S. Navy Yard. STATESf ISLAND. — This island, forming a part of the state of New York, lies in New York Bay, about sis mUes south-west of New York City. Physieal Features, ete. — The northern part of the island, called Richmond Hill, is elevated about 300 feet above the ocean. The villages along the shores contain many splendid country-seats of New York citizens. The fisheries on the coast are very valuable. LESSON LXII. THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY. Geographieal Position. — New Jersey occupies a peninsula, situated south of New York and east of Pennsylvania. Physical Features. — In the central and northern parts, it is undulating, hOly, or mountainous. The entire eastern coast, from Sandy Hook to Cape May, is sandy, and broken here and there by small inlets. Soil, etc. — In the north, the soil is well adapted both to tillage and pas- turage. The central and southern sections of the state are light and sandy. The climate is somewhat milder than that of New York. The chief pro- ductions are grain, orchard and market products, butter, cheese, cider, and live-stock. The principal minerals are bog-iron ore, zinc, and marl. LONG BRANCH, NBW JEBSET. Natural Curiosities. — The Passaic Falls, in a river of the same name, near Paterson, are about 70 feet in height. The scenery in the vicinity is re- markably picturesque. Inhabitants, etc. — This state was first settled by the Dutch, at Bergen, in 1614, and the present population embraces many of their descendants. The chief pursuits are agriculture, manufactures, and mining. Ilanafattiires and Exports. — The manufactures are varied and important ; among them are cotton, wool, iron, paper, leather, brick, glass, and earthen- ware. The leading exports are orchard and market products, and leather. Cities. — Teentojj, the capital, has abundant water-power from the Falls of the Delaware, and is becoming one of the first manufacturing places in the state. Newark is the largest and most flourishing city. It is exten- sively engaged in the manufacture of paper-hangings, clothing, carriages, etc. Patersox ranks next to Newark in population and manufactures. Jersey City, situated opposite to New Y'^ork, and New' Brunswick, on the Raritan, have considerable trade and manufactures. The former is one of the greatest thoroughfares of travel in the Union ; the latter is the seat of Rutgers College. Cape Island City, on Cape Island, is one of the most celebrated watering-places in the United States ; as also is Atlantic City, which lies in the south-eastern part of the state, and is connected with Camden by railroad. DELAWARE. Geographical Position. — Delaware, the smallest state in the Union except Rhode Island, lies south-west of New Jersey. Physical Featnres. — It is generally level, but in the northern part some- what hUly. There are no mountains in the state. Soil, etc — In the north, and along the shore of Delaware Bay, the soil is rich ; in the southern part, it is light and sandy. The climate is generally mUd, and highly favorable to agricultural pursuits. The staple productions are wheat, Indian corn, and butter. Bog-iron, and a fine sand suitable for the manufacture of glass, are the most important mineral products. Inhabitants, etc. — This state was first settled in 1627, by the Swedes and Finns. About one-fourth of the present inhabitants are colored. Manu- factures and agriculture form the leading pursuits. Mannfactnres and Exports. — The manufactures of powder, paper, flour, and cotton, are very extensive. The exports consist chiefly of flour, lum- ber, sand for the manufacture of glass, and great quantities of peaches. Cities, etc. — Dover, the capital, situated on Jones Creek, carries on a considerable trade with Philadelphia, mainly in flour; Wilmington, the most populous city in the state, is noted for its manu- factures, and contains a U. S. Arsenal. Newark is the seat of Delaware College. Lewes, on Delaware Bay, is a place of resort during the bathing season. It lies opposite the Delaware Breakwater, which was constructed at an expense of over $2,000,000, as a shelter for shipping in bad weather. PENNSYLVANIA, Geographical Position. — ^This state lies south of New York, and west of New Jersey, from which it is separated by the Delaware. Physical Featnres. — The great AUeghanian Chain, which passes through this state in several ridges, forms naturally three distinct regions ; viz., the eastern, or Atlantic slope; the western table-land, declining toward the Ohio ; and the mountainous region of the center. Soil, etc. — ^The soil is generally good, particularly in the valleys. The climate, though changeable, is exceedingly healthy. Among the varied productions of this state may be mentioned grain, orchard fruits, potatoes, butter, wool, and live-stock. Pennsylvania stands first among the states in abundance of coal, iron, and petroleum. Inhabitants, ete. — The territory of Pennsylvania was granted to WUliam Penn, a celebrated English Friend, who made his first settlement in 1682, where Philadelphia now stands. The population afterward received nu- merous additions of Germans and Irish. The leading pursuits are agricul- ture, mining, and manufactures. JHaDnfaetnres and Exports. — Pennsylvania ranks fourth among the states of the Union in foreign commerce, and among the first in extent and va- riety of manufactures. Her exports consist mainly of flour, Indian corn, lard, butter, coal, iron, and petroleumi Cities, etc. — Harrisbubg, the capital, is delightfully situated on the east bank of the Susquehanna, and contains many handsome public buildings. Philadelphia, the metropolis of Pennsylvania, stands between the Del- aware and the Schuylkill River, five miles above their confluence. It is remarkable for the regularity and cleanliness of its streets, the neatness of its dweUings, and the excellence of its benevolent and educational institu- tions. The commerce and manufactures of Philadelphia are very extensive. Easton, situated at the junction of several canals, is the seat of exten- sive manufactories, and a large inland trade between the coal and iron re- gions and the eastern markets. Lancaster, a place of considerable trade, is in the heart of a very fertile and highly cultivated region. Reading is the third city in the state in population and manufactures. Erie, on Lake Erie, has an excellent harbor. 44 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. PiTTSBHEGH is Situated at the junction of the Alleghany and the Monon- gahela, which here unite to form the Ohio. Its commerce is large, and its manufactures are more extensive than tliose of any other city in the state except Philadelphia. THB IXrtHATA KIVER, FEKN8TI,TAKIA. MARYLAND. Geographical PosltloD. — Maryland, the most north-easterly of the South- ern States, is situated south of Pennsylvania. Physical Features. — Maryland includes three distinct regions: — 1. The Eastern Shore, which lies east of the Susquehanna River and Chesapeake Bay ; 2. The part hetween Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac ; 3. The mountainous district of the north-west. The surface along the bay is level. Soil, etc — The soil in the valleys of the northern and middle parts, is highly fertile ; that of the eastern, and part of the western shore, is less so. The climate in the north is healthy and pleasant ; in the south the winters are milder, but the summers are hot, moist, and unhealthy. The staples are tobacco, wheat, and Indian corn. The mineral products are iron and coal. Inhabitants, etc. — The first settlers were English. Agriculture, com- merce, and manufactures, engage the attention of the people. Blannfactnres and Exports. — Among the leading manufactures are cotton and woolen goods, iron, leather, glass, shot, and powder. The chief articles of foreign export are flour, grain, pork, and tobacco. Cities, etc. — Annapolis, the capital, about three miles from Chesapeake Bay, contains a United States Naval Academy, and a State House in which the old Continental Congress held some of its sessions. Baltimore, the metropolis of the state, on a bay which sets up from the Patapsco River, is pleasantly situated and regularly laid out. It is or- namented with numerous monuments, and is therefore called " the Monu- mental City." It is distinguished for being the greatest market for tobacco in the United States, and the principal flour market in the world. Cum- berland stands next to Baltimore in population, and is noted for its trade in coal. Frederick City ranks third in population, and second in wealth and commercial importance. Haqerstown has considerable trade. LESSON LXIII. THE STATE OF VIRGINIA. Geographical Position. — Virginia lies south of West Virginia and Mary- land, and north of Tennessee and North Carolina. Physical Features. — It is divided into three sections: — 1. The tide-water district, bordering on Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic ; 2. The Piedmont (peed'mont) district, extending from the head of tide-water on the rivers, westward to the Blue Ridge ; 3. The valley between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies. Soil, etc. — In' the tide- water district, the soil is poor, except along the rivers ; the Piedmont section is well adapted to the growth of Indian com, tobacco, and cotton ; the valley district is generally fertile. Along the coast the climate is hot and moist, while it is cool and healthy in the mountain districts. The staple products are wheat, corn, flax, live- stock, and tobacco. Coal and iron are abundant ; salt and snlphor springs are nnmerons. Katnral Cariosities. — The Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, near its junc- tion with the James River, about 120 miles west of Richmond, is one of the greatest natural curiosities in the world. This bridge of limestone rock spans a chasm 90 feet in width, at an elevation of 215 feet above the creek. Wier's Cave, about 18 miles north-east of Staunton, is also a noted natural curiosity. It extends 2,500 feet into the ground, and contains about 20 large rooms, besides numerous passages and galleries. Inhabitants, etc — Virginia was first settled by the English, from whom the present inhabitants have mainly descended. The first permanent Eng- lish settlement in our country was made at Jamestown, 30 miles above the mouth of the James River, in 1607. The leading pursuit is agriculture. Bbnafactarcs and Exports. — This state is not noted for manufactures. Its principal exports are tobacco, flax, com, flour, and oysters. Cities, etc— RiCHiioxD, the capital of Virginia, on the James, is built on several hills which command a prospect of great beauty and grandeur. This city has an abundance of water-power, which is used for the manu- facture of flour, tobacco, cotton, and ironware. Norfolk, on the Elizabeth River, eight miles above its entrance into Hampton Roads, is the chief commercial port of Virginia. Portsmocth, on the opposite side of the same river, is noted for its fine harbor. Petersburg, on the Appomattox, is a flourishing town, and esjjorts large quantities of flour and tobacco. Alexandria, on the right bank of the Potomac, seven miles below "Washington, is a place of considerable trade. Ltnchburg, finely situated on elevated ground, is one of the busi- est and wealthiest towns in the state. WEST VIRGINIA. Geographical Position. — This state lies between the Alleghany Mountains on the east, and the Big Sandy and the Ohio River on the west. Physical Features. — The eastern part is mountainous, and the western gradually slopes toward the Ohio and the Big Sandy. Magnificent scenery abounds. Soil, etc. — The soil in most parts of the state is susceptible of cultiva- tion, and the climate is pleasant and healthful. The leading productions are Indian corn, wheat, and other cereals. Coal, iron, salt, and petro- leum, are abundant. Natnral Curiosities. — The Hawk's Nest, on New River, is unsurpassed in grandeur. It is an immense pillar of rock, rising 1,000 feet perpendicu- larly on all sides but one, where it is connected by a narrow passage with the table-land in the rear. A number of medicinal springs in the southern part of the state are much frequented ; of these, the White Sulphur are the most celebrated. Inhabitants, etc— This state, prior to 1862, formed part of the old state of Virginia, and its inhabitants have mainly descended from the English, who were the original settlers. The leading pursuit is agriculture. Mannftctares and Exports.- This state is not, as yet. noted for its manu- factures. Its chief exports are coal, iron, and petroleum. aties, etc— Wheeling, the capital, is the most important city on the Ohio between Pittsburgh and Cincinnati. Parkersburg, on the Ohio, and Martixsburg, on the line of the Bal- timore and Ohio Railroad, are active business centers. Charleston on the Great Kanawha, Morgantown on the West Fork of the Monongahela, and Grafton on the East Fork of the same river, are places of considerable trade. Harper's Ferry, at the confluence of the Shenandoah and the Poto- mac, is noted for its picturesque scenery. THE UNITED STATES. 46 NORTH CAROLIXA- GMgnpklta] FhIUh. — This state lies between Yii^inia on the north and 8oath Carolina and Georgia on the south. Phydcal Fntnts.— Xorth Carolina is divided into three sections: — 1. The eastern, consisting of a h>w, sandr plain, abounding in marshes and shallow lakes. 2. The middle section, which is hillr. 3. The western section, which is mountainous. The coast is skirted bj low sand^ islands, surrounded by shoals, which render navigation exceedingly dangerous. The Great Dismal Swamp, partly in this state and partlr-in Virginia, has an area of over 100,000 acree^ covered mostly with cedar, pine, and cypress trees. Sail, etc — Much of the low sandy section, which extends from the coast aboat 60 miles inland, is covered with vast forests of pitch pine, that fur- nish, not only lumber, but tar, turpentine, and resin. In the interior, the aoil is highly favorable to agricultural pursuits. In the summer, the cli- mate is hot and unhealthy on the coast, but cooler and more salubrious in the elevated districts. Cotton, rice, and indigo, flourish in the eastern lowlands; grain, fruits, etc., in the higher grounds. The staples are In- dian com, tobacco, and sweet potatoes. This state is rich in minerals, especially gold. lahakitaats, etc — ^The first English settlement in America was made on Roanoke Island, near the entrance to Albemarle Sound, in 1585, under the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh. Subsequently the colonists became dis- conraged and returned to England; but in 1&50 permanent settlements were made by emigrants from Virginia. The leading pursuit is agricul- ture ; mining and manufactures receive considerable attention. laaaCutarrs ud Experts. — Cotton, iron, and leather, are manufactured. Agricultural products, tar, pitch, and turpentine, are the chief exports. ■AEnS TJkS n X MOITH CABOLCU RXS TOMMSft. Cities, etf. — ^Raixigh, the capital, lies about 6 miles west of the Neuse River, in an elevated and healthy situation. Wilmixgtox, on the east bank of the Cape Fear River, is the largest and chief commercial city in the state. FATkrit\iiiE is the center of an extensive trade ; it has ample water-power, which is employed in the manufacture of cotton and flour. Nkwbees, a place of considerable trade, exports lumber, grain, tar, pitch, turpentine, and rean. BEArroBT has the best harbor in the state. Cbaelotte, in the west of the state, is rapidly growing, in consequence of its nearness to the gold mines. A mint is establi^ed here, for coining the gold. Chapel Hnx, 28 miles from Raleigh, is the seat of the University of Xorth Carolina. LESS05 LXIV. THE STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA. GcagrapUcal Pasitin. — South Carolina lies between North Carolina and Georgia ; from the latter it is separated by the Savannah. Pbysifal Fratarts. — The coast, from 80 to 100 miles inland, is covered with forests of pitch pine, interspersed with numerous swampy tracts. Toward the west, the surface rises, forming a very pleasant country, diver- ged by hin and dale, forest and stream. The coast is skirted by low islands, on which live oaks, pines, and palmettoes abound, and sea-island cotton and other articles are rdsed. MI, etc — South Carolina has ax distinct varieties of soQ: — 1. Tide swamp, devoted to the culture of rice. 2. Inland swamp ; to rice, cotton, com, etc 3. Salt marsh; to long cotton. 4. Oak and pine lands; to long cotton, com, etc. 5. Oak and hickory lands ; to short cotton, com, indigo, etc. 6. Pine-barrens ; to fruits, vegetables, etc. The climate is like that of North Carolina, but warmer. Cotton and rice are the staples. Gold, iron, and lead, are the most important minerals. labakHaats, etc — ^Among the original settlers, who were mostly English, were some Scotch, Germans, and French Huguenots. The leading objects of pursuit are agriculture and commerce. ■aBBfiutans tmi Expatls. — Manufactures are not extenave. The chief exports are cotton, rice, lumber, and naval stores. More rice is exported from this state than from all the other states in the Union together. Cities, etc — CoLnraiA, the capital, is laid out with wide streets, beanti- fully omamented with trees. The site of the city is elevated, afibrding fine views of the surrounding country, which is in the highest state of culture. The South Carolina College is located at this place. Chaklestox, the metropolis and principal seaport, is situated on a pe- ninsula between the Ashley and the Cooper River, which unite below the dty and form a spacious harbor, about seven miles from the Ocean. Many of the houses are omamented with verandahs reaching from the ground to the roof, and surrounded by orange-trees, magnolias, palmettoes, etc. Geobgktows, on the west side of Winyaw Bay, is noted for its coast- ing trade; Cajtoex, on the Wateree, for the battles fought in its vi- cinity during the Revolution. HAJCsrEG, a noted cotton mart, on the Savannah, is connected with Augusta, Georgia, by a bridge. GEORGIA. Gcagnphln] Pa^tlM. — ^This state extends from Tennessee and JTorth Carolina on the north, to Florida on the south, and from the Savannah River and the Atlantic on the east, to Alabama on the west. Physiol Featarcs. — Along the coast, the land b low. About 100 miles back from the ocean, it begins to rise, and in the west of the state becomes hilly and mountainous. The coast is lined with low islands, which are covered with rich plantations, and produce sea-island cotton in great quantities. Sao, etc — In the north of the state, the vallej^ are exceedingly rich ; in the south, are the tide and swamp land^ favorable to the growth of rice, and about 60 miles from the coast pine Lmds, valuable for their timber. The middle region is well adapted to cotton, tobacco, and grain. The winters are pleasant, but the summers are very hot. Sickness pre- vails during August and September. Cotton is the staple. Rice, Indian com, tobacco, and sweet potatoes, are extenavely ctdtivated. Cofiee, sugar, and tropical fruits, are produced in some districts. Gold is found in the north of the state, and iron ore in various sections. lakabitaats, etc — Georgia was the last settled of the original thirteen states. The first colony was established by General Oglethorpe, in 1733, on the site of Savannah. The present inhabitants are engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits. Saaafaetares aad Exp«rts. — ^This state has latterly made considerable ad- 46 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHT. varices in the establishment of manufactures. Those of cotton and iron are the most important. The chief exports are cotton, rice, lumber, and naval stores. Cities. — MiLLEDGKviLLE, the capital, on the west bank of the Oconee, is built on elevated ground in the midst of a fertile cotton country, and is the center of a considerable trade. Sa- vannah, the largest and chief commercial city in the state, lies on the Savannah Eiver, 18 miles above its mouth. Its streets are regularly laid out, and its public squares are much admired. Atlanta, the terminus of four of the principal railroads in the stiite, is a great business center, and an important depot for cotton and grain. Augusta, 231 miles from the mouth of the Savannah, is the depot of a fine tobacco and cot- ton country. Columbus, on the PALLS 01- TOCCOA, NBAK CI.AnKSVILLE, OA. ,^j^ ^^^^^ ^f ^^^^ OhattallOOChce, and Macon, at the head of navigation on the Ocmulgoo, are flourishing cities ; large quantities of cotton are shipped from these places. FLORIDA. Gcograplilcal Position, etc.— This state occupies a peninsula south of Ala- bama and Georgia, between the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. Though the length of sea-coast is over 1,000 miles, there are few good harbors. Pliysical Features. — Florida is generally level, there being no mountains in the state. In the south, dense marshy thickets, called everglades, cover the surface for a distance of 160 mUes, with an average breadth of sixty miles. Soil, ete.— The soil is exceedingly rich on the banks of the rivers ; and, for the space of thirty miles from the coast, there is scarcely to be seen a stone weighing more than two or three pounds. As this state approaches within a degree and a half of the torrid zone, its climate is almost tropical. It very rarely freezes. The air is pure and free from fogs. The chief productions are cotton, Indian corn, sugar-cane, rice, and to- bacco. Tropical fruits, such as oranges, lemons, figs, pomegranates, pine- apples, olives, etc., are abundant. The country teems with game, and the surrounding waters yield the finest fish. Alligators and mosquitoes abound on the shores of the inlets and rivers. Inlia1)itants, ete. — Florida was originally settled by Spaniards, and did not form part of the Union till 1820, when it was purchased from Spain. St. Augustine was settled in 1564; so that it is by many years the oldest city in the United States. The leading pursuit is agriculture, though but a small part of the state is under cultivation. Dlaniifaetnres and Exports, — Florida is not a manufacturing state. The exports consist chiefly of agricultural products. Cities, etc. — Tallahassee, the capital, is situated on a commanding emi- nence, about twenty miles north of its port, St. Mark's ; it is regularly laid out, and contains several public squares. Key West, on an island of the same name, is the most populous place in the state, being the key to the northern passage to the Gulf of Mexico. About thirty vessels are annually wrecked on this part of the coast ; and the sale of what is saved from them constitutes much of the business of Key West. Salt and sponges are exported from the island. Pknsaoola, on Pensacola Bay, is one of the principal seaports of Flor- ida. Six miles below the city is a U. S. Navy Yard. Appalachioola is noted for the shipment of cotton. St. Augustine, on Matanzas Sound, about two miles from the ocean, is distinguished for the mildness and healthiness of the cUmate, which render it a place of resort for invalids in winter. LESSON LXV. THE STATE OF ALABAMA. Geograplilcai Position, ete. — This state lies between Tennessee on the north, and Florida and the Gulf of Mexico on the south, and extends from Georgia to Mississippi. The length of sea-coast is about sixty miles. Pbysleal Features. — The Alleghany Range terminates in the northern part of this state. South of the mountainous district, the surface gradually declines to the Gulf of Mexico ; the extreme southern i)art is a dead level. Soil, ete. — In the flats between the low mountains in the north, the soil is good. The central part of the state consists chiefly of fertile prairies, and the southern of i)rairies and pine-barrens, interspersed with alluvial river bottoms of great fertility. The climate is similar to that of Georgia. Running water is rarely frozen. Cotton is the great staple. In the amount of cotton annually produced, Alabama ranks second in the Union. Indian corn, wheat, oats, rice, live- stock, butter, and sweet potatoes, are jiroduced in large quantities. Sugar- cane grows in the south-western part of the state. Iron, coal, and marble, are the chief minerals. Inhabitants, ete. — This state was settled by the French. Agriculture is the chief employment of the inhabitants. Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Cotton manufactures have been introduced with considerable success. The commerce of the state consists chiefly in the exportation of articles of domestic produce. Cities, ete. — Montgomery, the capital, is situated on a high bluff on the left bank of the Alabama River, and is surrounded by one of tlie richest of cotton regions. Mobile is the largest city and chief commercial mart of the state. Steamboats ply between this port and New Orleans, by way of Lakes Borgne and Pontchartrain. Tuscaloosa, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Black Warrior, is noted for its active trade and literary institutions. Florence, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Tennessee, is the principal shipping port in the north of the state. Huntsville, an important placfe, situated a few miles north of the Ten- nessee, is noted for its handsome buildings. Wetumpka, on the Coosa, and EuFAULA, on the Chattahoochee, are largely engaged in the cotton trade. MISSISSIPPI. Geograplileal Position.— Mississippi lies between Tennessee on the north, and the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana on the south, and extends from the western border of Alabama to the Mississippi. Pliysieal Features.— In the north, the land is hilly and broken ; in the eastern and central parts, it is a kind of tal)le-land, descending toward the Mississippi. In the south, for about 100 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, it is mostly level, covered with pine forests and cypress swamps. Soii ete.— The valleys of the northern and central sections are exceed- ingly fertile. In the south-east, the soil is mostly sandy, interspersed with a few fertile tracts. The summers are long and hot, but the winters are several degrees colder than in the Atlantic states of the same latitude. Cotton is the great staple. Indian corn, rice, bananas, sweet potatoes, and a great variety of fruits, together with wool, butter, and live-stock, are among the chief productions. Inliabltants, ete.— This state was first settled by the French, at Fort Ro- salie (now Natchez). Agriculture is the leading pursuit. THE UNITED STATES. 47 MannfaetBTCs and Exports. — Mississippi is not a manufacturing state. Its commerce, which is carried on mostly through the port of New Orleans, consists chiefly in the export of cotton and other agricultural products. Cities, tte. — .Jackson, the cai)ital, is a thriving place, and ships about 30,000 bales of cotton annually. Natchez, the largest and chief commer- cial city of the state, stands on a bluff 200 feet high, overlooking the Mis- sissippi. It contains many handsome buildings, surrounded by gardens and orange-groves. Holly Springs, in the northern part of the state, is noted for its educational institutions. VioKSBtiRO, 400 miles above New Orleans, is an important cotton mart, exporting 100,000 bales annually. Columbus, on the left bank of the Tom- bigbce, which is here bridged, is the depot of an extensive region. I LOUISIANA. Geographieal Posldon. — Louisiana extends from Arkansas to the Gulf of Mexico, and from Mississippi to the Sabine River. Physical Features. — Tliis state has no mountains ; nowhere is there an elevation of more than 200 feet. The southern portion of the state, includ- ing the great Delta of the Mississippi, is not, for the most part, elevated more than ten feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, and is annually inundated by the spring floods. Soil, ett. — The soil is various ; only one-twentieth part of the state is under cultivation. The richest tract is a narrow belt of land, from one to two miles in width, on both sides of the Mississippi, extending from 150 miles above, to about 100 miles below, New Orleans. The climate is like that of Mississippi. Cotton and sugar-cane are the great staples. Nine- tentlis of the sugar-cane produced in the United States comes from Louisiana. Fruits, such as oranges, figs, peaches, etc., are abundant. Inhabitants, etc. — This state, first settled by the French, has still a large French population. It was bought from France in 1803 by the United States. Agriculture and commerce form the leading pursuits. Mannfactnres and Exports. — This state is largely engaged in the mann- facturo of sugar and molasses. Its commerce .consists in the exportation of sugar, cotton, and other articles of domestic produce. Cities, etc. — Baton Koure, the capital, stands on a blnff thirty feet high. Just above a plain occupied by rich sugar-plantations, splendid villas, and groves of tropical fruit-trees. NAioniioouES and Alexandbia carry on an active trade. mnr obleans, Louisiana. New Obleans, the great commercial emporium of the South-west, is about 100 miles above the mouth of the Mississippi; it is built round a bend in the river, and is hence called " the Crescent City." The Levee, an embankment bnilt to prevent the river from inundating the city at high water, forms a continuous quay, four niiles long and one hundred feet wide. TEXAS. Geographical Position. — Texas extends from New Mexico and Indian Ter- ritory on the north, to the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande. Physical Features. — The country along the coast, for a distance of about fifty miles toward the interior, is level ; then comes a strip 200 miles wide, which is undulating ; and this is followed by a mountainous tract in the north and north-west. The coast is lined with low islands. Soil, etc. — There are few countries of the same extent, that have as little unproductive land as Texas. The climate, free from extremes of heat and cold, is mild and healthy. Snow is seldom seen, except on the mountains. Cotton is the great staple; sugar-cane thrives well in the level country ; tobacco and indigo flourish with but little care. Wheat, com, and rice, are extensively cultivated. Fruits of almost every kind are plentiful. Vast herds of buflaloes and wild horses wander over the prairies. Useful minerals abound. Inhabitants, etc. — Texas was first settled by the Spanish, in 1C92. It was formerly a Mexican province, but achieved its independence in 1836. It remained an independent republic till 1845, when it was admitted as a state into the Union. Agriculture and the rearing of live-stoct form the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. Mannfaetnres and Exports. — Texas has but few manufactures. Cattle and salt are exported to the West Indies. The chief export is cotton. Cities, etc — Austin, the capital, is situated on the Colorado, about 200 miles from its mouth. Galveston, the most populous and chief commer- cial city, situated on an island of the same name, at the mouth of Galveston Bay,- carries on an extensive coasting trade. Houston, the second city in the state in commercial importance, lies on Buffalo Bayou (M'o), about 45 miles from its entrance into Galveston Bay. Matagorda and Bbownsville are places of considerable trade. LESSON LXVI. THE STATE OF MINNESOTA, Geographical Position. — Minnesota lies west of Wisconsin, and extends from Iowa to British America. Physical Features. — Though there are no mountains in the state, yet it is the most elevated tract between the Gulf of Mexico and Hudson Bay. The surface is mostly covered with prairies, interspersed with numerous streams and lakes. Parts of the state are densely timbered. Soil, etc. — The soil in the river valleys is excellent, and the climate, though somewhat severe in winter, is remarkably healthy. The chief pro- ductions are corn, wheat, oats, and potatoes. There is but little mineral wealth in the state. JVatnral Cnriositics.— -Tlie Falls of St. Anthony, on the Upper Mississippi, are an object of great interest to travelers. The perpendicular pitch of these falls is seventeen feet; but, including the rapids above and below, the entire descent in a mile is estimated at sixty-five feet. An island, at the brow of the precipice, divides the current into two parts. Inhabitants, etc. — This state is being rapidly settled by emigrants from the older portions of the Union and various other parts of the world. The leading pursuits are agriculture and lumbering. manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are comparatively limited, but increasing. The exports are confined to agricultural products. Cities. — St. Paul, the capital of the state, an enterprising and busy place, is situated at the head of steamboat navigation on the Mississippi, about 3,000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and nine miles by land below the Falls of St. Anthony. St. Anthony and Minneapolis, located at the falls, are rapidly increasing in wealth and population. 48 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. WISCONSIN. i Geographieal Position. — Wisconsin lies north of lUinois, between Lake Micliigan and the Mississippi Eiver. Physical Features. — It is mostly level in the southern and central parts, which consist of prairie and timber land. There are no mountains, prop- erly so called ; but several ranges of hills diversify the state. Soil, ete. — The soil of the prairie land is well adapted to agricultural purposes, as also are the " oak openings," or lands covered with a scat- tered growth of oak. The pine districts in the north and west are not so rich. The climate, though severe in winter, is equable and healthy. The chief agricultural products are wheat, Indian corn, oats, potatoes, butter, and live-stock. Lead and copper ore abound in the south-western part. THE UNIVERSITr OF WISCONSIN, Inbabitants, ete,— This state was first visited and settled by the French. The population, which has grown with wonderful rapidity, consists chiefly of emigrants from the eastern section of the Union, and from various parts of Europe. The leading industrial pursuit is agriculture. Dlannfattares and Exports.— Wisconsin is not, as yet, extensively engaged in manufactures. Its commerce consists mainly in the exportation of wheat and other grains, lumber, and lead. Cities. — Madisou, the capital, is pleasantly located on an isthmus be- tween Lakes Mendota and Monona. It is the seat of the University of Wisconsin. Milwaukee, the most populous city of the state, and the chief port on Lake Michigan except Chicago, is the commercial mart of a rich and rapidly improving country. Racine, at the moutii of the Root River, has one of the best harbors on Lake Michigan, and ranks second in population and commerce. Janes- viLLE and Wateetown are finely situated and rapidly growing, having an abundance of water-power fi-om the Rock River. MICHIGAN. Ceograpliical Position. — Michigan comprises two large peninsulas; the northern situated between Lakes Superior and Michigan, and the southern between Lakes Michigan and Huron. Piiysieal Features. — The northern peninsula is much diversified; the southern is generally level or rolling. Michigan has a lake coast more than 1,000 miles in length. It is sometimes called " the Lake State." Soii, etc. — The soil of the northern peninsula is rugged and poor, abound- ing in lofty forests; that of the southern is generally fertile. Though the climate is severe in winter, in summer vegetation comes forward rapidly. The staple products are grain, hay, garden vegetables, wool, butter, cheese, maple sugar, and live-stock. Fish and minerals abound. Valuable salt- beds are found along the Saginaw Valley, and the copper-mines on the shore of Lake Superior are the richest in the world. Natnral Cariosities. — The shores along Lake Superior are composed of sandstone, which in some i)laces has been worn by the wind and water into fancied resemblances of ruined temjdes, castles, etc. The most noted specimens of this character are the " Pictured Rocks," about sixty miles west of the Strait of St. Mary. They extend nearly twelve miles, and rise about 300 feet above the level of the lake. Inliabitants, ete. — Michigan was first settled by the French, at Detroit, in 1G70. Tlie leading industrial pursuit in the southern peninsula is agri- culture ; in the northern, mining. Dlannfactnres and Exports. — Michigan is eminently an agricultural state.- Its manufactures are as yet limited, but are rapidly increasing. The chief exports are wheat and other grains, live-stock, wool, lumber, and copper. Gties, ete. — Lansing, the capital, situated on both banks of the Grand River, is the center of an active and increasing trade. Deteoit, tlie com- mercial emporium and largest city of the state, is admirably situated for commerce, in which it is extensively engaged. Grand Rapids is the chief depot for tlie northern country, and lias a large inland trade. MoNuoK is tlie principal market for the wheat produced in the vicinity. Adrian contains various mills, and is the center of an active trade. Kal- amazoo and Ann Aebok are flourisiiing places ; the latter is the seat of the State University. LESSON LXVII. THE STATE OF OHIO. Ceograpliicai Position. — This state extends from the Ohio River to Mich- igan and Lake Erie, and from Pennsylvania to Indiana. Physleal Features. — The central part of the state is a high table-land, about 1,000 feet above the level of the sea. The surface in general is un- dulating and agreeably diversified. There are no mountains. Soii, ett. — Nine-tenths of this state is susceptible of cultivation, and nearly three-fourths exceedingly productive. The climate is pleasant and healthy. The staple'products are grain, butter, cheese, wool, orcliard prod- ucts, maple sugar, tobacco, and live-stock. Ohio ranks first in the Union in the amount of wool annually produced. Iron, coal, and petroleum, are abundant in the south-eastern part. Inliabitants, ete. — This region reihained in possession of the Indians till five years after the Revolution, when General Putnam, with a company of New Englanders, made the first white settlement at Marietta. It is now the third state in the Union in wealth and population. Agriculture is the leading pursuit. Manufactures and commerce also receive attention. Manufactures and Exports. — The chief manufactures are those of woolen goods, iron, and leather. Among the exports, which are sent mostly to New Orleans or the Atlantic seaboard, we may mention flour, grain, Uve- stock, wool, cheese, butter, pork, and lard. Cities. — Columbus, the capital, on the Scioto River, is an active busi- ness center, being surrounded by a rich and populous country. Cincinnati, the largest city of the Western States, and hence called "the Queen of the West," is located in a beautiful valley on the Ohio, and is distinguished for the extent of its commerce, the variety of its manufactures, and its literary and benevolent institutions. There are many largo vineyards near the city, which produce wine equal to that of France. Cleveland, distant about 200 miles, by water, from Bufliilo, is the great commercial emporium in the north of the state. Toledo is noted for its fine harbor and the extent of its commerce. Sandusky, on Sandusky Bay, three miles from Lake Erie, is an important commercial city, and is exten- sively engaged in the plaster and lime trade. Dayton and Zanesville are flourishing places, distinguished for the extent and variety of their manu- factures. CuiLLicoTnE, noted for its beautiful situation, is the center of trade for the fertile valley of the Scioto. THE UNITED STATES. 49 KENTUCKY. Geographleal Posiflon, — Kentucky lies north of Tennessee, and south of the Ohio River, which separates it from Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Physical Features, — The surface in the eastern section is liiEy and moun- tainous ; in the west, it is generally level. Soil, etc. — The soil of the greater part of the state is celebrated for its fertility, and the cUmate is mild and salubrious. The staple products are Indian corn,- flax, hemp, and tobacco. The other noted productions are wheat, rye, oats, wool, butter, bees'-wax, and honey. In the amount of tobacco annually produced, this state ranks second only to Virginia. Coal and iron are abundant, and salt and mineral springs are numerous. IVatural Curiosities. — Among the natural curiosities the most noted is tlie Mammoth Cave, situated about 130 miles south-west of Lexington. This remarkable cave has been explored for a distance of ten mUes. Inhabitants, cte. — Kentucky originally formed part of Virginia ; it was first explored by Colonel Boone and his companions, in 1769. The chief industrial pursuit is agriculture. llannfaetgres and Exports. — Kentucky is not extensively engaged in man- ufiictures ; agricidture is the leading pursuit. Cattle, horses, mules, and swine, are raised in great numbers, and sent to the Atlantic and Gulf States ; these, with corn, tobacco, cotton bagging, and hemp cordage, form the chief exports. Cities. — Frankfort, the capital, is the center of an active trade. Louis- ville, on the rapids of the Ohio, is the metropolis. To enable boats to pass around the rapids, a canal, 2J miles long, has been constructed. Lexington, the oldest city in the state, is distinguished for its literary and scientific institutions. Covington, a flourishing city, stands directly opposite to Cincinnati. Newport is an important and growing place. A SCENE ON THE KENTUCKY ItlVEB. TENNESSKE. Geographical Position. — Tennessee lies south of Kentucky, and north of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Physical Features. — Tliis state is divided into East Tennessee, which is mountainous, — Middle Tennessee, which is hilly, — and West Tennessee, which is generally level. Soil, etc. — The soil is generally fertile, particularly in the middle and western sections, and the climate is mild and genial. The staple products are Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton. Grain, grass, and fruit, are abun- dant. Immense numbers of swine and mules are raised. The chief min- eral resources are iron, copper, and coal. Inhabitants, etc. — Tennessee was first settled by hardy pioneers, of Eng- lish descent, from North Carolina, of which colony it originally formed a part. Agriculture is the leading pursuit. Mannfactnres and Exports. — Tennessee is not noted as a manufacturing state. The exports are live-stock, fruits, and the staple products. Cities, etc. — Nashville, the capital, is a handsome city, and the seat of an active trade ; the Cumberland is here crossed by a magnificent suspen- sion bridge. Memphis, buUt on a high bluff, is the most important city on the Mississippi, between St. Louis and New Orleans, and ships large quan- tities of cotton. Knoxville, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Holston, and Muhfreesboeo, in a fertile plain ?0 mUes from Nashville, are important and flourishing places. LESSOlf LXTIII. THE STATE OF ARKANSAS. Geographical Position. — This state lies west of the Mississippi Eiver, an^ extends from Missouri on the north to Louisiana on the south. Physical Features. — The surface is low and marshy in the east, for a dis- tance of 100 mUes, undulating in the interior, and mountainous in the west. Soil, etc. — Along the rivers, the soil is very fertile ; in other parts, sterile. The climate is healthy and temperate in the west ; in the east and south, it is moist and unhealthy. The staple productions are cotton, Indian corn, and live-stock. The chief mineral resources are coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, gypsum, manganese, and salt. Hot springs are numerous along tlie Washita River. Arkansas is stiU the abode of numerous wild animals, such as deer, elks, bears, and wolves. Natural Curiosities. — Sixty miles from Little Rock are the celebrated Hot Springs, about 100 in number ; they are much resorted to by invalids. Inhsbitants, etc. — Arkansas was originally settled by the French. The present inhabitants are engaged chiefly in agricultural pursuits. Manufactures and Exports. — This state is not extensively engaged in man- ufactures. The staple products form the chief articles of export. (Sties, etc. — Little Rook, the capital and largest town, is the business depot of a wide extent of country. Camden, a flourishing place on the Washita Eiver, ranks next to the capital in population. Van Buben is the chief commercial emporium. Helena and Batesville carry on a flourishing inland trade. MISSOURI. Gei^raphieal Position. — This state borders on the west side of the Missis- sippi River, between Iowa and Arkansas. Physical Features. — North of the Missouri are picturesque hiUs, inter- spersed with extensive prairies and shady groves ; south of the river, the surface is hilly and mountainous, except in the south-east, where it is low and marshy. Soli, etc. — The soil is generally fertile, particularly along the margin of the rivers. The climate, though variable, is healthy. The staple produc- tions are Indian corn, wheat, hemp, and tobacco. Fruits grow in great profusion. The prairies supply excellent pasturage for immense numbers of cattle. Missouri is rich in lead, iron, coal, and copper. Inhabitants, etc. — Missouri was originally settled by the French, but the present inhabitants consist chiefly of emigrants from the other states in the Union, and their descendants. The leading industrial pursuit is agricul- ture. Mining is carried on to some extent. Manufactures and Exports. — Manufactures are increasing. Among the chief exports are live-stock, pork, flour, lead, and tobacco. Cities, etc. — Jefferson City, the capital, has a highly picturesque situa- tion on the right bank of the Missouri. St. Louis, on the west bank of the Mississippi, about 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri, and 1,200 mUes from New Orleans, is the largest place in the state, and one of the most important commercial cities in the Mississippi valley. It contains numerous costly public edifices, and extends along the river for about seven miles, presenting an imposing appearance. 60 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. St. Odarlks is finely situated on the left bank of the Missouri. St. Genevieve, on the Mississippi, about 60 miles below St. Louis, is the ship- ping port for the products of the iron works at Iron Mountain. Large quantities of copper, load, and white sand, are exported from this place. Hannibal is rapidly increasing in commercial importance. Independ- ence, located about five miles south of the Missouri, carries on consider- able trade, being the place where many of the emigrants, on their way to Oregon and California, procure their outfit. HALT OF AH XMISRANT FABTT. KANSAS. Geographical Position. — This state lies between parallels 87° and 40° N. lat., and extends from Missouri to Colorado. Physical Features. — Kansas, for the most part, consists of rolling prairie ; there are no mountains in the state. Soil, etc. — Kansas is one of the finest grazing states in the "West. There are some sandy plains, but most of the state is unsurpassed in fertility, par- ticularly the valleys of the Missouri and the Kansas. The climate is mild ; the winters are short, and but little snow falls. The great staple is Indian corn. Gypsum and coal are abundant. Inhabitants. — The eastern part has been rapidly settled by emigrants from the older states, and the population is still increasing very fast. In the western part of the state there are several Indian tribes'. Agriculture is the chief pursuit. Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Manufactures are as yet limited. The prin- cipal exports are agricultural products. Cities. — ToPEKA, the capital, is on the right bank of the Kansas River. Leavenworth and ATomsoN, on the Missouri, and Lawrence, on the Kansas, are important business centers. Leavenworth is the metropolis of tlio state. NEBRASKA. Geographical Position. — This state lies between the 40th and the 43d parallel of north latitude, and extends from the Missouri River westward to Colorado and Wyoming. Physical Features. — There are no mountains in Nebraska. The surface is little else than one vast rolling prairie, here and there diversified by a picturesque stream, and affording an inexhaustible supply of pasturage. Soil, etc. — The soil in the eastern part of the state is deep and very fer- tile ; the western section is, for the most part, unproductive. The climate is milder than that of the Eastern States situated in the same latitude. The leading productions are Indian corn, wheat, and other cereals. Coal, iron, and limestone, are abundant. Salt-springs are numerous in the south- eastern part. Inhabitants. — The population is rapidly increasing by immigration. The chief industrial pursuit is agriculture. Hunting and trapping furnish em- ployment to many. Hannfaetnres, etc. — Manufactures have not, as yet, received much atten- tion. This state, like Kansas, holds an important position as the tliorough- fare of a large western emigration. Railroads are in course of construc- tion, which wOl greatly extend its commercial facilities. Cities, etc — Lincoln, a place recently laid out in the south-eastern part of the state, is the capital. Omaha, the metropolis of the state, and the eastern terminus of the great Union Pacific Railroad, is pleasantly situated on the Missouri River. Nebraska City, on the same river, is largely en- gaged in transporting freight to the territories. LESSON LXIX. THE STATE OF IOWA. Geographical Position. — Iowa lies north of Missouri, between the Missis- sippi and the Missouri River. Physical Features. — The general surface is that of a high, rolling prairie, there being no mountains in the state. A tract of table-land divides the waters which flow into the Mississippi from those that empty into the Mis- souri. The banks of the streams are generally skirted with wood. Soil, etc. — ^The soU is exceedingly fertile and easily cultivated, except in the north-east, where it is rugged and rocky. The climate is temperate and healthful. The staple products are Indian com, wheat, and live-stock. The lead-mines in the vicinity of Dubuque are among the richest in the United States. Coal is abundant ; iron ore and copper have been found in considerable quantities. Inhabitants, etc. — Iowa was settled by the French, and formed part of the Louisiana purchase. The present inhabitants consist mainly of emi- grants from the other states in the Union, and from Europe. Agriculture is the leading pursuit. Much attention is paid to the production of wool, and the raising of swine for market. Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Iowa is not yet extensively engaged in man- ufactures, though it possesses plenty of coal and an abundance of water- power. The chief exports are grain, flour, lead, and pork. THS BOCKT TOWBBB, MBAB DUBCQUE, VPFEB UIBSISSIFFI. (Sties, etc — Dk8 Moines, pleasantly situated on a river of the same name, is the capital. Dubuque, on the right bank of the Mississippi, the earliest THE UNITED STATES. 51 settlement, and now the metropolis of the state, is the great depot of the mineral region. Davenport, on the Mississippi, in the neighborhood of some of its finest scenery, is an important and growing city. Keokttk, a flourishing town, lies at the foot of what are called the lower rapids of the Mississippi, immediately above the month of the Des Moines. Burlington, situated on the Mississippi, and connected with the Illinois shore by a steam ferry, is a place of considerable trade. Iowa City, formerly the capital of the state, stands at the head of steamboat navigation on the Iowa Eiver, 80 miles above its mouth. ILLINOIS. Geograplii€aI Position. — This state lies south of Wisconsin, and east of the Mississippi Eiver, which separates it from Iowa and Missouri. Physical Features. — By far the greater part of the state is a table-land, from 300 to 800 feet above the level of the Gulf of Mexico, sloping toward the south, as the course of the rivers indicates. There are no mountains, but vast undulating prairies meet the eye, decked with beautiful wild flowers of almost every hue. Soil, etc. — The soil is, for the most part, very fertile; the climate is healthy, and milder than that of the Atlantic States lying in the same lati- tude. The staple products are Indian corn, wheat, oats, hay, butter, cheese, and potatoes. Illinois ranks first in the Union, in the production of corn and wheat. Lead and coal are the chief minerals, and iron ore is found in many localities. Salt-springs, from which large quantities of salt are manufac- tured, are found in the southern part of the state. Inhabitants, ete. — This state was settled by the French. Agriculture forms the chief employment of the present population. Mannfactnres and Exports. — Illinois is not distinguished as a manufactur- ing state. Agriculture is the leading pursuit, and the advantages of the state in this respect are unsurpassed by those of any other in the Union. Lead, grain, potatoes, and wool, form important articles of export. Cities. — Springfield, the capital, stands near the center of the state, on the border of a large and beautiful prairie. Chicago, the most populous and chief commercial city, lies on the south-west shore of Lake Michigan, on both sides of the Chicago River, with an elevation of only about five feet above the surface of the lake. Chicago has grown with almost incred- ible rapidity, and is the great shipping depot of an immense region. Peoria, at the outlet of Peoria Lake, is an important commercial city. QtjiNOY, in the vicinity of a rich prairie, is actively engaged in trade. Galena, on the Fevre River, six miles above its entrance into the Missis- sippi, is the metropolis of the lead region of northern Illinois. INDIANA. Geographical Position. — This state lies between Ohio and Illinois, and extends from Lake Michigan and Michigan on the north, to the Ohio River. Physical Features. — There are no mountains in the state. The southern I)art, near tlie Ohio, is hilly ; and the south-western section is somewhat rocky and broken. The remainder of the state is generally level, and is interspersed with extensive prairies and rich bottom-lands, thickly studded with forests. The general inclination of the surface is toward the Ohio. Soil, etc. — The soil, for the most part, is fertile, and the climate is healthy and mild for the latitude. Indian corn is the staple ; in the amount of wheat produced, Indiana ranks second in the Union. The other leading products are oats, potatoes, fruits, butter, live-stock, wool, and maple sugar. Of minerals, coal and iron ore are the most important. Inhabitants, etc. — This state was settled by the French. In 1800, in con- nection with the present state of Illinois, it was erected into the territory of Indiana, and, sixteen years after, was admitted into the Union as an in- dependent state. Agriculture forms the chief employment. Ilannfactnres and Exports. — Though this state possesses ample water- power, it is not as yet engaged in manufactures to any great extent. An active lake and river trade is carried on. The leading exports are live-stock, pork, beef, lard, Indian com, wheat, and wool. Cities, ete. — Indianapolis, the capital and largest city, situated in the central part of the state, is the terminus of several railroads, and is des- tined to become a very important city. New Albany, two miles below the Falls of the Ohio, is more extensively engaged in steamboat-buUding than any other port on the river. Evansville, on the Ohio, the southern terminus of the longest canal in the United States, is the principal shipping point for the grain and pork of south-western Indiana. Foet Wayne is the business depot of a highly fertile district. La Fayette, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Wabash, is the chief grain market in the state. Teebb Hahtk is a busy railroad center, and Madison is noted for its extensive pork-packing es- tablishments. LESSOlf LXX. THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. Geographical Position. — This state lies south of Oregon, and extends west- ward from Nevada and Arizona to the Pacific Ocean. Physical Features. — A large portion of the state is traversed by mountain ranges. The great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin extends from north to south about 500 miles ; it is bounded on the east by the Sierra Nevada, and on the west by the Coast Range. On the western slope of the former are the principal gold mines. Soli, etc. — The soil in the valleys is exceedingly fertile. The year is divided about equally into two seasons — the wet and the dry, the former lasting from the middle of November to the middle of May. Among the chief agricultural products are barley, wheat, potatoes, and fruits. The fruits and garden vegetables grow to a remarkable size. Grapes are large- ly cultivated, and excellent wine is made. Fish are fine and plentiful. In the abundance of its minerals, particularly gold, California takes the lead of the other states. The quicksilver mine of New Almaden, about 13 mOes south of San Jose, is probably the richest in the world. Natoral Cnriosities. — Among the most remarkable curiosities are the hot sulphur springs, about 90 miles north of Benicia, which eject boiling water to a height of from 10 to 15 feet. — The Falls of the Yosemite are, as far as height is concerned, the greatest cataract in the world. Inhabitants, ete. — California was first colonized by the Spanish. In 1822 it became a province of Mexico, and in 1848 Mexico ceded it to the United States. The present inhabitants consist chiefly of emigrants from other parts of the Union, and from the Old World, including 30,000 Chi- nese. Mining is the leading pursuit. Of late years this state has made rapid progress in commerce, and it now carries on an extensive trade, not only with the Atlantic States by way of Panama, but also with the Old World, by means of steamers that ply between San Francisco and ports on the opposite side of the Pacific. Hannfaetnres and Exports. — Manufactures are rapidly multiplying. Among the leading exports are gold, silver, and wine. Cities, ete. — Sacramento City, the capital, on the left bank of the Sacramento River, is a noted commercial port, being accessible to large- sized vessels. San Feanoisco, the great commercial metropolis of the Pacific coast, lies on the west side of San Francisco Bay. The entrance to this city from the ocean is through a strait four miles long, called the "Golden Gate." 62 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. Makysville, the third town of the state in population, and Stookton, the fourth, are respectively the centers of trade for tlie northern and the southern mining districts. Bbnicia, situated on Karquenas {har-ke'ndg) Strait, contains an arsenal, a navy-yard, and large docks for the repairing of steamers. OREOON. Geogiapliical PositloD. — Oregon lies north of California and Nevada, and extends westward from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean. Physleal Features. — Mucli of the state is mountainous, but fertile valleys abound. Three mountain ranges diversity the surface. Soil, etc. — The soil, except in the eastern portions, is fertile. The cli- mate is mild for the latitude. Wheat, orchard-fruits, hay, and potatoes, are the staples. Oregon is noted for forests of gigantic pine and fir trees. Its mineral resources have not yet been developed, but gold and coal have been found in various localities. Salmon abound in the Columbia Kiver. Inhabitants, ete. — The inhabitants consist chiefly of emigrants from the different states in the Union, engaged mainly in agriculture and lumbering. Dlannfactares and Exports. — Manufactures are limited. The leading ex- ports are lumber, orchard-fruits, live-stock, and flour. Important Places. — Salem, the capital, — Poetland, the metropolis and chief commercial town, — and Okkqon Citt, a flourishing place possessing excellent manufacturing facilities, — are all situated on the Willamette River. NEVADA, Geographical Position. — This state is situated south of Oregon and Idaho, between Utah on the east and California on the west. Physical Features. — The surface is chiefly an elevated table-land ; its val- leys are from four to five thousand feet above the level of the sea. Sou, etc. — The soil is fertile only in the valleys. Timber is scarce, and there are no large rivers. The climate is pleasant; the atmosphere is pure, dry, and healthy. Nevada is noted for its rich silver-mines, which form the chief source of wealth. Gold, coal, iron, and salt, also abound. Inhabitants, etc. — The inhabitants are chiefly emigrants from the older states. Mining forms tlie leading pursuit; agriculture and stock-raising also receive attention. There are few manufactures ; the leading export is silver. Important Places. — Carbon Citt, near Carson River, is the capital. ViEGiNiA, the commercial metropolis, is an important depot of supplies for the mining regions. LESSON LXXI. WASHINOTON TERRITORY. Geographical Position. — Washington lies between British Anxerica and Oregon, and extends from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean. Physical Features. — Much of the surface is mountainous. The territory is crossed by the Coast and the Cascade Range ; several peaks of the latter are covered with perpetual snow. Soil, etc. — Most of the region east of the Cascade Mountains is sterile and nearly destitute of wood ; but west of this range the soil is fertile, and forests of gigantic firs, spruces, and cedars, abound. The climate is re- markably mUd for so high a latitude. Nowhere are fish more plentiful. Gold and coal have been found in some localities. Inhabitants, etc.— The population of Washington and the other territories consists mainly of emigrants from the states, who are rapidly increasing in number, and native Indians, who are fast diminishing. Manufactures, as in all newly-settled regions, are limited. Lumber is the leading article of export from Washington. Important Places. — Olympia, the capital, stands at the head of Puget Sound. Steilaooo», Walla Walla, and Vancouvee, are important places. IDAHO TERRITORY. Geographical Position. — Idaho lies east of Washington Territory and Oregon, and west of Montana and Wyoming. Physical Features, etc. — The surface is mountainous. The Bitter Root and Rocky Mountains form the eastern boundary. The valleys are fertile and well watered. Many thousands of acres are covered with " bunch- grass," affording excellent pasturage. Gold and silver are found in abun- dance, and mining operations are carried on in various parts. SIINQIU AT WORK. Important Places. — Boisb City, on a river of the same name, is the cap- ital. Among the principal places are Idaho Citt, Lbwiston, and Flobencb. MONTANA TERRITORY. Geographical Position.— Montana lies between Dakota on the east and Idaho on the west, and extends from British America to Wyoming. Physical Features, etc — The surface is generally mountainous. Along the streams that form the Missouri, the country is an undulating prairie. The climate is mild for the latitude. The soil in the south, along tlie river- valleys, is productive. The streams are fringed with forests of fir, pine, and cedar. The chief minerals thus far discovered are gold and silver. The Great Falls of the Missouri, which belong to this territory, are the grandest in N. America, except the Falls of Niagara. Important Places.— Virginia City, an important mining town, is the cap- ital of Montana. Bannock City, noted for its rich silver-mines, is situated on the Jefferson River, not far from its source in the Rocky Mountains. DAKOTA TERRITORY. Geographical Position.— Dakota Territory lies east of Montana and Wyo- ming, and west of Minnesota and Iowa. Physical Features, etc.— The Black Hills extend into the south-western part ; the rest of the territory is mostly level, and well supplied with lakes and ponds. "The climate is healthy, and the soil is well adapted to agricul- ture and pasturage. The valleys of the Missouri and the Red River of the North are highly productive. Furs are obtained in large quantities. Dakota is as yet very sparsely settled ; about one-fourth of the inhabit- ants are Indians, many of whom are engaged in farming and stock-raising. Important Places.— Yankton, on the left bank of the Missouri River, about 65 miles west of the Iowa line, is the capital. Most of the settle- ments are in the south-eastern part of the territory. THE UNITED STATES. 53 INDIAN TERRITORY. Geographieal Position, etc. — Indian Territory lies south of Kansas and nortli of Texas. This tract has been set apart by the government for the permanent residence of those Indian tribes that formerly occupied some of the south-western states. The United States have several military posts in the territory, but exercise no control over it, except when it may be necessary to preserve peace on the frontier. Some of the removed tribes have made considerable advances in agri- culture, and have established schools and churches ; while others have be- come indolent and intemperate, and are fast diminishing in numbers. Tah-le-qdah, the capital of the Cherokee nation, is the principal place. WYOMINa TERRITORY. Gfosraplileal Position, etc.— Wyoming, fonnerly part of Dakota Terr and still attached to it for tlie purposes of government, lies between tana on the north and Colorado on the south. itory, Men- LESSON LXXII. TERRITORY OF NEW MEXICO. Geograplileal Position. — New Mexico lies between Texas and Arizona, and extends from Colorado on the north to Mexico and Texas on the south. Pliysleal Features. — The surface is a high table-land, traversed by stupen- dous mountain-ranges and broken ridges. The great valley of the Rio Grande, about 20 miles in width, crosses the territory from north to south. Owing to the elevation of the surface, the climate is temperate for the latitude. The soil is mostly barren. In the river-valjeys, agriculture is pursued to some extent. The vine thrives in the southern part. Gold, silver, copper, and other minerals, are abundant. Inhabitants, ete. — The population consists chiefly of wandering Indian tribes, Mexicans, and eraigrimtg from dift'ei-ent parts of the Union. Santa Ft, the capital, is on the great western overland route from St. Louis, from which it is about 1,000 miles distant. ARIZONA TERRITORY. Geographical Position. — Arizona lies east of California and west of New Mexico, and extends from Mexico to Utah. Physical Featnres. — The territory is crossed by several minor mountain- ranges. Much of the soil is sterile, but the climate is, in most parts, de- lightful. Arizona is rich in minerals, particularly silver. Mining is the chief pursuit of the white inhabitants, among whom are a number of Mexicans. Some of the Indian tribes reside in villages, and are engaged in agriculture. Important Places. — Prescott, the capital, is situated in the neighborhood of a rich mining district, near the centei* of the territory. La Paz, on the Colorado River, and Tucson, on the Santa Cruz, are among the chief towns. UTAH TERIIITORY. Geographical Position, — Utah extends westward from Colorado to Ne- vada, and southward from Idaho to Arizona. Physical Featnres. — The greater part of Utah is mountainous and barren, but peculiarly adapted to the raising of stock. The section lying west of the Colorado valley is called the Great Basin ; all the rivers of this region ter- minate within its limits, in lakes that have no visible outlets. In fertile spots that are capable of being watered, grain and garden vege- tables are cultivated with success. The inhabitants are mostly Mormons. Agriculture is the chief pursuit ; manufactures receive some attention. Commerce is confined chiefly to traflio with overland emigrants, and with the miners of Idaho, Nevada, and Colorado, who here obtain supplies of provisions and live-stock. Important Places. — Salt Lake Citt, on the Jordan River, not far from Great Salt Lake, is the capital of the territory. Provo City, on the east shore of Utah Lake, is an important and growing place. nUNTINQ THE BUFrALO. The surface is mountainous. The south-western part of the territory is traversed by the Rocky Mountains, the north-eastern part by the Black Hills. Fremont's Peak is on the boundary between Wyoming and Idaho. But little is known about the soil or resources of this territory. Few settlers have as yet found their way to it. Fort Laramie, on the north fork of the Platte or Nebraska River, is the principal place. COLORADO TERRITORY Geographical Position. — Colorado lies between Kansas on the east and Utah on the west, and extends from Wyoming to New Mexico. Pliysical Featnres, ete. — The Rocky Mountains traverse Colorado fi-om north to south. Near the center of the territory is Pike's Peak, one of the loftiest summits in the United States. The cultivation of the soil is con- fined chiefly to tracts near streams, which can be watered. The mountain regions are densely wooded, but on each side of them are vast plains almost treeless. Colorado is particularly noted for its rich gold-mines, which lie in the central parts of the territory, among the mountains. Valuable mines of silver have also been discovered. Some manufacturing is done at mills, breweries, and tanneries; but mining is the chief pursuit, and gold is the principal article exported. Important Places. — Golden City, situated near the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, is the capital. Denver, on the right bank of the South Platte, is the largest place and the commercial emporium. Colorado City, on an affluent of the Arkansas, is a depot for the neighboring mines. THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. This district, situated on the north-east side of the Potomac River, has an area of 60 square miles. 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A ''■•ndvHnok ? PiedK ^ r"^^ I ^N Ha|Te lie G-r.T ca^Kv^Hl ■%, F5.-- V I •:■ /■I Luglish Mi In A. / ^O MO lOU Loiigitiiile West 21 from WashingUMi -GlttfisjMu-o V\, «av C H. BA in liltup » Islaud City Vy^^^-R G I N kT Warranto n X ^ Port U IV") Ii *— ^ I , Cape May frank ^ Loiiditiidr East •^I from WasTimg'laii PHYSICAL GEOGRAPUr AND GENERAL QUESTIONS. 59 NEW YOEK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA. LESSON LXXVIII. PHYSICAL GEOaKAPHY. Surface. — As regards surface, the states represented on Map No. 3 may be divided into three distinct regions ; viz., the Atlantic plain, adjacent to the coast, the central mountainous district, and the north- western section, partly plateau and partly undulating, with a general slope toward the great lakes and the Ohio. The Atlantic plain gradu- allv increases in width, from a few miles in south-eastern New York, where it is narrowest, to 125 miles in southern I'ennsylvania. "■ Monntains. — The Appalachian system of mountains traverses Penn- sylvania in a north-easterly direction, in two principal ranges, nearly parallel. The more easterly of these, distinguished as the Blue Ridge, passes through north-western Jersey, crosses the Hudson, constituting its grand and picturesque Highlands, and finally runs into the Taghan- ie chain. The western range approaches the Hudson higher up in the bold Catskills. — In Pennsylvania the Appalachian range attains its greatest width, about 200 miles. The Adirondacks, a detached group in northern New York, con- tain Mt. Marcy, 5,467 feet high, the loftiest summit in the state. RlTcrs. — The rivers of this section belong to three different systems, — the Atlantic, the St. Lawrence, and the Mississippi. Of the first class, the Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna are the largest ; the numerous streams of northern and north-western New York belong mostly to the second class ; while the Alleghany and Monongahela, with their branches, form the third. Lakes. — New York is noted for its fine lakes. South of Lake On- tario we have one series, and on the western slope of the Adirondacks another, both belonging to the St. Lawrence system. Connected with this system, also, are Lakes George and Champlain : the former is fa- mous for its beauty; the latter, with the Riohelieu River, Whitehall Canal, and Hudson River, forms an unbroken water connection be- tween Canada and the metropolis of the state. Lake Ontario, though the smallest of the five great lakes, consider- ably exceeds in size the whole state of Connecticut. It is navigable in all parts for the largest vessels. Coal Regions. — Pennsylvania contains the most productive coal- fields in the U. S., inexhaustible in their supplies of both anthracite and bituminous coal. The principal anthracite or hard coal region lies between the Delaware and the Susquehanna, about the upper waters of the Schuylkill and Lehigh Rivers. Bituminous or soft coal abounds in the western part of the state, in the neighborhood of Pittsburgh ; also near Blossburg, in the northern part. Its abundance of coal has enabled Pennsylvania to take the lead in the manufacture of iron, which has added much to the wealth and prosperity of the state. Great Cities. — In this section are the three largest cities of the U. S., — New York, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn. New York owes its greatness to its commerce, being the depot, not only of its own state, but of the northern part of the Mississippi basin, with which it is con- nected by railroad, and also by the great lakes, the Erie Canal, and the Hudson River. Manufacturing industry and an extensive inland com- merce have made Philadelphia the second city in the Union. LESSON LXXIX. Questions on Map of U. S. No. 3. Latitude. — Between what degrees of latitude is New York situated ? Between 40^° and 45° N. lat. What do we find in the same latitude on the Pacific coast ? Oregon and the northern part of California. What countries on the coast of Europe are in the same latitude as New York ? The northern part of Spaiji and Portugal. What European city is in nearly the same latitude as N. Y. ? Naples. Longitnde. — Between what degrees of longitude is New York ? Incliuling Long Island, it lies between 72° and about 80' ]V. Ion. What states extend farther east? What countries on the coast of South America lie in the same longitude as New York ? 7Vie western part of Venezuela, and the United States of Colombia. Exereise with .Seale of Miles. — What is the length of New York on the parallel of 42' ? What is its extreme breadth ? What is the length of N. Jersey ? What, of Pennsylvania ? What, its breadth ? What is the distance in a direct line be- tween New York and Philadelphia ? Between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh ? General Qnestions. — Where is Barnegat Inlet ? Sodus Bay ? Grand Island ? Chestnut Ridge ? Laurel Ridge ? Broad Mountain ? Where are the Thousand Isles ? Schooley's Mountains ? Bald Eagle Mountains ? Where is Titusville ? Oil City ? Mention the lakes that lie west of the Adirondacks. Mention those east of the Adirondacks. On what lake is Cooperstown? REFERENCE TABLE OF PRINCIPAL RAILROADS. Plattsbnrff & Montreal New Yorlt & Harlem Hudson River New York & Erie Buffalo Div. of N. Y. & Erie N'wcstern Div. of N. Y. & Eric New YorK Central N. Y., Athens, & Schcnoctady Uiv. . Auburn Bivision Syracuse, Binghamton, & N. Y Oswego & Syracuse Buffalo, Niairara Falls, & Lewiston. Buffalo & Erie Black Kivcr & Utica ■Rome. Watertown, & Ogdcnsburg. . Ogilcnsburg & Lake Champlain Rensselaer & Saratoga Troy & Boston Albany & Susquehanna N. Jersey, Philadelphia & Trenton.. Camden & Amboy Northern of New Jersey Central of New Jersey Morris & Essex Delaware, l.ackawanna, & Western . Lehigh Valley Lackawanna & Bloomsburg Philadelphia & Erie North Pennsylvania Behidere, Del., & Flemingtou Phil., Wilmington, & Bait Phil. & Baltimore Central Catawissa Pennsylvania Central Bald Eagle Branch Western Pennsylvania Br Alleghanv Vallev Pittsburgh & Connellsville Philadelphia & Reading Lebanon Valley Branch Reading & Columbia East Pennsylvania Cumberland Valley Schuylkill & Susqiiehanna Raritan & Delaware Bay Camden & Atlantic W. Jersey, Millville & Glassboro, C. Northern Central , Plattsbnrg . , New York. Coming Honicllsville.. . Albany & Troy, Schenectady , .. Syracuse Buffalo., Utica , Rome Ogdensburg. . . , Troy .Albany , New York ,! South Amboy. .New York Montreal Alb'y & Troy, via White Plaint' Albany & Troy Dunkirk Buffalo Buffalo, via Roci.eater Athens Rochester, viaAubum Binghamton Oswego Lewiston Erie Boonville Ogdensbnrg, via Waurtowo . . Rouse's Point Rutland, via Saratoga North Adams Ilarpersville Philadelphia Easton Scranton Philadelphia . Tyrone Blairsville Int. Pittsburgh Philadelphia . Reading May , Harrisbnrg . Auburn , Pott Monmouth , Camden Baltimore. Piermont Easton, via Somerville via Morristowu Great Bend Scranton Northumberland Lrie, via Sunbur^' . • Bethlehem Mannnkachunk Baltimore Rising Sun Williamsport, via Tamaqua. . . Pittsburgh Sunbury, via WUlianiFporl .Mlegliany City Brady's Bend Uniontown Pottsville. via Reading Ilarrisburg Columbia AUentown Hagerstown Cotiiinbia Philadelphia Atlantic City Cape May Canandaigua 157 150 459 112 M 298 41 104 80 35 28 88 .35 112 118 as 48 120 tiO ISO 120 SO 451 .M 98 98 57 187 355 120 67 09 73 98 40 36 74 59 94 60 84 .32S TABLE OF CHIEF NAVIGABLE RIVERS. The St. Lawrence (length 770 miles) is navigable for ships to Montreal, and by the aid of canals to Ltike Ontario 770 miles. " Hudson (length .300 miles) is navigable for large ships to Hudson (117 miles), and for steamboats to Troy 151 ** " Raritan (length 33 miles) is navigable for steamboats to New Brunswick 15 '' " Delaware " 30O " " " " Trenton 75 " " Monongahela (length 300 miles) is navigable for steamboats to Fairmouut 150 " " Alleghany " 300 " ■ " " " Olean 260 " Voyages, Travels, ete. — What railroad connects Troy and Buffalo ? Philadel- phia and Pittsburgh ? New York and Dunkirk ? By what two railroads can one go from New York to Albany ? What railroads would one take in going from Philadelphia to Saratoga Springs ? In going from Poughkeepsie to Trenton Falls ? 60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GENERAL QUESTIONS. DELAWAEE, MARYLAND, YIEGINIA, W. YIE- GINIA, N. & S. CAROLmA. LESSON LXXX. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Snrfaec. — We now cross Masou and Dixon's line (the boundary be- tween Pennsylvania and Maryland), so called from two eminent Eng- lish mathematicians by whom it was drawn. West of the Atlantic plain, which here widens toward the south, the Appalachian Mountains traverse this section, as they do Pennsyl- vania, in several parallel ranges, forming a belt from 80 to 100 miles wide. They attain their greatest height in North Carolina, where Mt. Mitchell rears its head 6,732 feet above the level of the sea, — the loftiest peak east of the Rocky Mountains. It belongs to the Black Mountains, a group so called from the dark foliage of the firs and other evergreens that cover their sides. Bivers. — The rivers of these states belong to the Atlantic and Mis- sissippi systems, the Appalachian Mountains forming the watershed. Those of North and South Carolina rise in the easternmost range, or Blue Ridge ; but most of the streams north of these states have their source in one of the more westerly ranges, and make their way through the Blue Ridge in picturesque gorges. Rapids or falls occur in these rivers where they descend from the highlands on their way to the coast, and to this point they are mostly navigable. Many of the rivers of Carolina, however, have their mouths so obstructed by sand-banks as to be inaccessible to large vessels. itianttc Coast. — The Atlantic coast, in the northern part of this sec- tion, is indented with numerous bays, abounding in fine fish and oysters. In all parts, it is lined with a chain of low sandy islands, cutting off a series of shallow sounds. The inlets that connect these with the ocean are constantly changing, the old ones filling up with shifting sands, and new ones being opened by the beating of the surge. The Hatteras Banks, which enclose Pamlico Sound, extend far out into the ocean, terminating in Cape Hatteras, the most dangerous point to navigators on the coast. The names of Cape Lookout and Cape Fear, projecting farther south-west from the same sandy de- posit, show that the danger is not confined to this point. Many of the islands off the South Carolina coast are cultivated, and produce the famous sea-island cotton. Swamps. — Much of the country adjacent to the coast consists of swamp-land interspersed with small lakes. Dismal Swamp, an exten- sive tract of this character, lies in south-eastern Virginia and the north- eastern part of North Carolina. It is covered with a black soil con- sisting of vegetable matter, and produces a thick growth of reeds, ferns, and aquatic trees. Cedars and cypresses abound. ProdDCtions. — The .climate of this section, removed alike from ex- tremes of heat and cold, is in- the highest degree genial and favorable to agricultural pursuits. In the north we have the great tobacco- bearing region, in the south that of rice, — while Indian corn and wheat flourish in almost every part. From the North Carolina coast we obtain our chief supplies of turpentine and resin, made from the sap of the long-leaved pines which there abound. Their straight trunks rise without a limb from twenty- five to thirty feet, at which height they branch out, nearly excluding the light of day with their thick evergreen foliage. LESSON LXXXI. Questions on Map of U. S. JVo. 4. Latitnde. — Between what degrees of latitude are Virginia and W. Virginia ? Between 36^° a7id altout 40|° JSf. lal. What countries on the coast of Europe are in the same latitude ? The central and souOiern parts of Sjmin and Portugal. What country in western Asia ? Asia Minor. What city on the Pacific coast is in nearly the same latitude as Richmond ? San Francisco, in California. Longitude. — Between what degrees of longitude is Vu-ginia ? Between about 75J° and 83J° W. Ion. What island of the West Indies lies in the same longi- tude ? Cilia. What South American city is in nearly the same longitude as Wash- ington ? Lima (le'mah), in Peru. Exercise with Seale of Miles.— What is the length of Virginia along the south- ern boundary line ? Of Delaware from N. to S. ? Of N. Carolina, from E. to W. ? Of S. Carolina ? Of West Virginia, from N. to S. ? What is the distance in a direct line from Baltimore to Wheeling ? From Richmond to Charleston ? Islands, Monntains. — What island is near the entrance to Albemarle Sound ? For what is it memorable ? For having been the siie of the first English settlement in America. What island is off the mouth of the Cape Fear River? Where is Edisto Island ? Where are the Kittatinny Mountains ? The Greenbrier Mounts ains ? The Peaks of Otter ? Where is Mitchell's Peak situated ? Bays, Sonnds, etc.— How is Pocomoke Bay situated ? Raleigh Bay ? Onslow Bay ? Long Bay ? Winyaw Bay ? St. Helena Sound ? Port Royal Entrance ? What inlet leads into Pamlico Sound? What bay projects from the coast of South Carolina? Where is Hilton Head ? Lexington? Lake Drummond ? REFERENCE TABLE OF PRINCIPAL RAILROADS. Delaware Baltimore & Ohio " " (Wash. Branch) Winchester & Potomac North-weetem Virginia ■ . RUhmoud, Fredericksburg, & Potomac. OranKe & Alexandria Alexandria, Loudoun, & Hampshire ManaF-eas Gap Virginia Central Richmond & PeterBhurg Richmond & DanWlle Peternhurg & Weldon Norfolk cfc PeterslHirg Seaboard & Roanoke Petersburg & Lynchburg (S. S.) Virginia & Tennessee. Wilmington Crisfleld Baltimore W'heeling, viu Cumberland. . . . '* [Washington Harper's Ferry . ; Winchester Graflon Parkershurg Richmond Acquia Creek Alexandria Lynchburg " Leesburg Manassas June . Mount Jackson Richmond Covington " Peterslnii^ " . . Greensboro Petersburg Weldon " Norfolk Weldon Portsmouth Petersburg Lyncliburg Lynchburg (Bristol. Tenn Weldon. Wilmington.. Goldsboro Raleigli & Gaston (Raleigh iWeldon WUmington & Weldon t,t..,.,,.„ tt,i„.„, " " Manchester Wilmington, Charlotte, & Rutherford . North Carolina Atlantic & North Carolina Western (N. C.) North-eastern Cheraw & Darlington South Carolina " " Columbia Branch Charlotte & South Carolina Greenville & Columbia Spartanburg & Union Blue Ridge Charleston & Savannah Salisbury Charleston . . . . Cheraw Charleston — Branchville . . . Columbia Wilmington Kingeville, via Florence, S. C. . SandHilL Charlotte, via Ralelgb Morehead City Head of Road Florence Spartanburg • . • Anderson Charleston Augusta Columbia Charlotte Greenville. . . . 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