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 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 LOS ANGJfiLES* CALiFOfUUA
 
 FARMERS' CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 ABRIDGED AGRICULTURAL RECORDS 
 
 IN 'SEVEN VOLUMES 
 
 From the 'Publications of the 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS 
 
 :> 6 9t I 
 
 A Compilation of sucb Bulletins and Reports 
 as are Indispensable to the Practical Farmer 
 
 VOLUME I 
 
 FARM ANIMALS 
 
 BREEDING, FEEDING, CARE 
 
 DAIRY FARMING 
 
 GARDEN CITY NEW YORK 
 
 DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 
 
 1914
 
 Copyright, 1912 
 
 by 
 
 Agricultural Service Company 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 All rights reserved
 
 V-\ 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 PRACTICALLY all the matter in the seven volumes of this 
 series is taken bodily from the bulletins, circulars, annual re- 
 ports, year books, and other documents of the Departments 
 of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations of the United 
 States and Canada. Quotation marks are omitted because almost 
 every paragraph would be enclosed by the marks, a useless and ex- 
 pensive step, in view of the acknowledgment now broadly made that 
 almost every paragraph is taken from such documents. Owing to the 
 fact that on some pages from five to twelve extracts are used from 
 different authorities and that the majority of the pages of the seven 
 volumes contain from two to five of such extracts, it was found cumber- 
 some and deemed useless to place in all cases the authority at the 
 conclusion of each extract. In many cases, therefore, the authorities 
 of sections, chapters or parts are grouped at the conclusion of the 
 general subject under treatment. 
 
 When the Secretary of Agriculture learned the scope of this 
 work, he issued directions to Mr. AT nold, Chief of the Division of 
 Publications, to supply the Publishers with a free copy of every docu- 
 ment desired that was in possession of the Department of Agriculture 
 and was available. This direction was faithfully carried out and 
 thousands of documents bearing on every subject of American hus- 
 bandry were delivered to the offices of this Company in Washington, 
 D. C., and used in making the abridgments as shown on almost every 
 page herein. Many duplicates were likewise kindly furnished by Mr. 
 Harding and Mr. Cleary, which act saved the Publishers from the 
 heavy cost of having to copy many thousands of words to avoid for- 
 cing compositors to set from both sides of printed pages. Documents 
 which were out of print at the Department and which were thus not 
 available for free distribution there, were purchased from the Super- 
 intendent of Documents to supplement the treatment of subjects not 
 fully covered by the available documents of the Department. 
 
 The authorities of the Dominion of Canada and of the Provin- 
 cial Experiment Stations, in response to requests for documents on 
 all subjects of agriculture, promptly and freely forwarded bulletins, 
 circulars, annual reports and other records, bound and unbound, and 
 kindly and freely gave the Publishers every facility to represent suit- 
 ably in these volumes the splendid progress that has been made by 
 the Dominion in modern agriculture. How well this act of the Do- 
 minion authorities was appreciated is shown by the hundreds of ex- 
 tracts taken literally from the documents thus furnished, for all of 
 which favors the Publishers herewith make most grateful acknowl- 
 edgment. Many documents came from Ontario, Quebec, Manitoba, 
 
 l
 
 2 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Saskatchewan, Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and other 
 Provinces. 
 
 At the commencement of the work of abridgment the officials 
 of the sixty-five or seventy Experiment Stations of the United States 
 and its insular possessions were asked to furnish as complete sets of 
 their bulletins and other documents as were available to be used in 
 the compilation of these volumes. All the stations promptly and 
 freely complied, forwarding in several instances the only numbers 
 in existence with requests to return them uninjured as soon as the 
 desired extracts had been copied therefrom. It is estimated that 
 nearly 20,000 documents were thus received, consulted and used. 
 From these documents were obtained much information and many 
 extracts on subjects which had not in all cases been covered in detail 
 by the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 If a farmer wants the bulletin on any special subject he will have 
 to send in a majority of the cases cited to the Experiment Station 
 which issued it originally. Many of such bulletins, perhaps a majority, 
 are out of print and therefore unavailable. In any event, if a farmer 
 wants such a bulletin he will be required to pay for it, the price varying 
 from five cents to several dollars. He should write directly to the 
 Director of the Experiment Station, enclosing the price, giving his 
 name and address, naming clearly what he wants, and if the document 
 is available, he will receive it by return mail. For instance, address 
 the letter to "Director of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 Ames, Iowa," and name the special bulletin wanted thus: "Iowa 
 Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 76." Payment for 
 documents will not be required of a farmer by the Experiment Station 
 or Stations in his own state. 
 
 It should be noted by farmers that many of the bulletins, circulars, 
 and other documents of the United States Department of Agriculture 
 are out of print at the Department and hence are not available for 
 free distribution. The documents that are available at the Depart- 
 ment are of recent issues and are comparatively few in numbers. 
 But the Government has made other provisions to supply farmers 
 with documents that are out of print at the Department. In case a 
 document is deemed of sufficient value to warrant its re-issuance or 
 reproduction, it is republished by the Government and is kept for 
 sale by the Superintendent of Documents, an officer of the Govern- 
 ment. Approximately, there are for sale by the Superintendent 
 of Documents at the present time 3,120 documents, a complete set 
 of which will cost a farmer about $632, the price varying from 5 cents 
 to several dollars each, or an average of about 20 cents each. Many 
 of the documents thus for sale by the Government are of the greatest 
 practical value to farmers who can get them in no other way than 
 by buying them. The documents thus for sale by the Superintendent 
 of Documents were consulted by the abridgers of these volumes, and 
 scores of extracts therefrom were taken and used herein. The farmer 
 can get free from the United States Department of Agriculture all 
 documents which are available, but if he wants those issued by the 
 Superintendent of Documents or by any Experiment Station except 
 the one or ones in his own state he will have to pay for them. In
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 order to secure one copy each of such documents from the Superin- 
 tendent of Documents and from the numerous Experiment Stations, 
 he will have to pay according to careful estimates, over $1,000. He 
 will then have in his possession hundreds of separate documents with- 
 out classification or index and will be, figuratively, in the shoes of the 
 person who looked so diligently for the proverbial needle in a hay- 
 stack. "The Farmer's Cyclopedia" gives the best parts of all these 
 bulletins, with a perfect index, with numerous illustrations and at a 
 price trifling in comparison to the approximate $1,000 which the 
 farmer would have to pay for a complete set of separate unindexed 
 documents. Thus these volumes select for the farmer the best in ex- 
 istence on any subject and by indexing it perfectly place it within 
 his instant reach and use. The "Farmer's Cyclopedia" is just as 
 necessary for the modern, successful and money-making farmer as the 
 libraries of professors, scientists, ministers, doctors, lawyers, etc., are 
 to them. The time is here when a farmer, in order to succeed and 
 in order to compete with other up-to-date farmers, must have a library. 
 The "Farmer's Cyclopedia" perfectly meets the requirements. 
 
 The illustrations in these volumes were all taken from the docu- 
 ments of the Departments of Agriculture and the Experiment Sta- 
 tions of the United States and Canada. Many of the plates (Illus- 
 trations) were originally prepared for insertion in documents of 
 different sizes, the paper of which was little better than that of modern 
 newspapers; others were prepared with mesh for grades of paper 
 ranging up to the finest enamel and in varying shapes, sizes and cita- 
 tion arrangements. These wide variations will account for the 
 differences in size and quality shown in the illustration of these vol- 
 umes, where all plain cuts are printed on the same kind of paper. 
 The Publishers, having at the outset announced that all matter, 
 printed and illustrated, would be taken solely and wholly from agri- 
 cultural documents, were obliged to confine their selections to the 
 cuts found in the bulletins, circulars, year books, annual reports, 
 and other documents of the Agricultural Departments and the Ex- 
 periment Stations of the two countries. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the illustrations available varied greatly 
 in the numbers devoted to the different subjects treated in this series, 
 it was found necessary, in order to prevent massing top many in one 
 place, to insert many elsewhere than in connection with the matter 
 to which they related. Thus they were inserted at regular intervals 
 throughout the seven volumes, in order to make the books well- 
 balanced and symmetrical. Approximately, 400 different cuts, repre- 
 senting all phases of farm operations, will be found in the books. 
 
 In view of the above facts it will thus be seen that almost every 
 line of the seven volumes, though now slightly changed to meet the 
 new surroundings, was originally prepared by experts of the Depart- 
 ments of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations of Canada and the 
 United States. In the preparation of these volumes the abridgments 
 were made by practical farmers, experienced agricultural writers, 
 graduates of agriculture and domestic science, professors of farming 
 specialties at Agricultural Colleges and experts connected at present 
 with Experiment Stations. Thus practically all the matter in these
 
 4 INTRODUCTION 
 
 volumes was originally written by experts and is now abridged by 
 experts. It therefore follows that these volumes represent the best 
 and most practical portions of what has been accomplished for the 
 husbandman by the Departments of Agriculture and the numerous 
 Experiment Stations of both the United States and Canada. 
 
 While the compilation was being made the following positive in- 
 struction was given to the abridgers: (1) To make no original state- 
 ments or conclusions whatever, but to use solely and wholly matter 
 prepared by the Agricultural Departments and the Experiment Sta- 
 tions of the two countries; the only variations from these instructions 
 were a few extracts from reading course proceedings, lectures on agri- 
 culture or minutes of farmers' societies or institutes. (2) To consult 
 all available authorities on each subject before making a selection. 
 (3) To select extracts, if deemed advisable, from several authorities 
 on the same subject and join them together in connected and prac- 
 tical form. (4) To select only what is of practical value to the hus- 
 bandman and his family in their everyday occupations. (5) To 
 duly weigh the writings of all authorities and use extracts only from 
 the latest and best. (6) To make the interests of the farmer para- 
 mount during all steps of abridgment. (7) To give the Departments 
 of Agriculture and the Experiment Stations due credit for the ex- 
 tracts. (8) To cite all authorities, so that farmers wanting any com- 
 plete bulletin can secure it.
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 A. C. Agricultural College. 
 
 B. A. I. B. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin. 
 B. A. I. C. Bureau of Animal Industry Circular. 
 B. B. S. Bureau of Biological Survey. 
 
 B. C. Bureau of Chemistry. 
 
 B. E. Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 B. P. I. Bureau of Plant Industry. 
 
 B. S. Bureau of Soils or (rarely) Statistics. 
 
 D. A. Department of Agriculture, or (rarely) Division of 
 
 Accounts. 
 
 D. of A. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 D. P. Division of Publications. 
 
 E. S. Experiment Station (Usually in combination with a 
 
 state name abbreviated; as, 111. E. S., Illinois Ex- 
 periment Station). 
 
 E. S. B. Experiment Station Bulletin. 
 
 E. S. C. Experiment Station Circular. 
 
 E. S. R. Experiment Station Record. 
 
 F. B. Farmers' Bulletin. 
 F. S. Forest Service. 
 
 O. E. S. Office of Experiment Stations. 
 O. P. R. Officer of Public Roads. 
 W. B. Weather Bureau.
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 In Volume I writings of the following authors were either con- 
 sulted, abridged, or both: 
 United States Department of Agriculture. A. D. Melvin, A. M. Far- 
 
 rington, George M. Rommel, Marion Dorset, B. H. Rawl, R. P. 
 
 Steddom, John R. Mohler, R. W. Hickman, B. H. Ransom, 
 
 E. H. Webster. 
 
 Alabama. D. T. Gray, C. A. Gary. 
 Arizona F. W. Wilson, A. E. Vinson, R. W. Clothier. 
 Arkansas. R. L. Bennett, R. R. Dunwiddie, V. A. Hooper, W. Len- 
 
 ton, A. K. Short, George E. Cole. 
 California. A. R. Ward, E. W. Major, Leroy Anderson, M. E. 
 
 Jaffa. 
 Canada. H. H. Dean, R. Harcourt, W. R. Graham, S. F. Edwards, 
 
 C. W. Nash, W. P. Gamble, A. E. Slater, J. W. Mitchell, F. W. 
 Foster, F. W. Taylor, G. G. Pablow, Frank Herns, F. Torrance, 
 W. H. Peters, L. Caesar, J. H. Reed, A. E. Shuttleworth. 
 
 Colorado J. 0. Williams, W. E. Vaplon, W. J. Carlyle, C. J. Grif- 
 fith, B. C. Buffum, J. E. Payne. 
 
 Connecticut. L. A. Clinton, J. M. Trueman, F. H. Stoneburn, G. H. 
 Lamson, L. F. Rettger, H. W. Conn, C. L. Beach, C. K. Gra- 
 ham, W. A. Stocking, Jr. 
 
 Delaware. C. F. Dawson, A. T. Neble, C. L. Penny. 
 
 Florida. John M. Scott, Charles F. Dawson. 
 
 Georgia M. V. Calvin, O. N. Flint, J. H. McClain, L. J. Herring, 
 H. J. Wing, J. C. Temple. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. H. H. Simpson, Luther Foster, E. V. Wilcox, 
 
 D. L. Van Dine. 
 Idaho. H.. T. French. 
 
 Illinois. W. J. Fraser, Carl E. Lee, C. H. Yates, R. E. Brand, John 
 M. Trueman, Herbert W. Mumford, R. C. Obrecht, Jesse M. 
 Barnhart, W. C. Coffey, C. C. Hayden, Arthur J. Glover, Wil- 
 liam Dietrich. 
 
 Indiana. Arthur Goss, H. E. Van Norman, J. H. Skinner, O. F. 
 Hunziker. 
 
 Iowa. C. F. Curtis, John A. Craig, G. L. McKay, W. J. Kennedy, 
 H. G. Van Pelt, M. Stalker, J. H. McNeil, D. A. Kent, Carl W. 
 Gay, James Atkinson, John J. Repp. 
 
 Kansas. Roland J. Kinzer, Oscar Erf, Francis S. Schoenleber, D. H. 
 Otis, N. S. Mayo. 
 
 Kentucky. E. S. Good, D. W. May, M. A. Scovell, J. D. Turner, 
 J. N. Harper, S. D. Averitt. 
 
 Louisiana. W. R. Dodson, H. P. Agee, W. H. Dalrymple. 
 
 Maine. F. L. Russell, G. M. Gowell, G. A. Drew, Walter Anderson, 
 Raymond Pearl. 
 
 6
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 1 
 
 Maryland. Samuel S. Buckley (who assisted in the abridgment of 
 
 the bulletins for the abridged Agricultural Records), G. E. Gage, 
 
 R. H. Waite. 
 
 Massachusetts. James B. Paige, W. P. Brooks, H. H. Goodell. 
 Michigan. L. M. Hurt. 
 Minnesota. T. L. Haecker, M. H. Reynolds. 
 Mississippi. J. A. McLean, Archibald Smith, J. S. Moore. 
 Missouri. Paul Paquin, Paul Evans, F. B. Mumford, C. H. Eckles, 
 
 C. A. Wilson, J. W. Connaway. 
 Montana. W. J. Elliott, Robert W. Clark. 
 Nebraska. H. R. Smith, A. T. Peters, A. L. Haecker. 
 Nevada.-!. E. Stubbs, R. H. McDowell, N. E. Wilson, G. H. True, 
 
 Peter Frandsen, W. B. Mack. 
 New Hampshire. T. R. Arkell, Fred Rasmussen, F. W. Taylor, 
 
 Ivan C. Weld, H. H. Lamson. 
 
 New Jersey. F. C. Minkler, Julius Nelson, T. E. Budd. 
 New Mexico. W. E. Garrison, H. H. Simpson, W. A. Lassell, R. F. 
 
 Hare, C. T. Jordan, J. D. Tinsley. 
 New York. James Law, H. H. Wing, James S. Rice, J. A. Foord, 
 
 0. F. Hunziker, George A. Smith, George C. Watson, R. A. 
 
 Pearson, W. A. Stocking, M. W. Harper, C. A. Rogers, W. P. 
 
 Wheeler, H. A. Harding. 
 
 Norfo Carolina. F. E. Hege, J. D. Cecil, J. C. McNutt, E. P. Wil- 
 liamson, J. S. Jeffrey, R. S. Curtis, John Michels, G. A. Roberts. 
 North Dakota. J. H. Worst, L. Van Es. 
 Ohio. B. E. Carmichael, E. B. Forbes, J. W. Hammond, Charles E. 
 
 Thome, R. E. Caldwell. 
 Oklahoma. W. T. McDonald, L. L. Lewis. 
 Oregon. James Dryden, F. L. Kent, James Withycombe. 
 Pennsylvania. H. P. Armsley, Harry Hayward, W. A. Cochel, 
 
 C. W. Larson, H. C. Jackson, William Frear. 
 Rhode Island. Leon J. Cole, Philip B. Hadley, George W. Field, 
 
 Cooper Curtice, W. F. Kirkpatrick, Thomas H. Taylor. 
 South Carolina. D. A. Nourse, M. R. Powers. 
 South Dakota. E. L. Moore, C. Larsen. 
 Texas. J. H. Connell, M. Francis, James Clayton, B. C. Pittuck, 
 
 John C. Burns, H. L. McKnight. 
 
 Tennessee. William G. Shaw, Moses Jacob, Andrew M. Soule. 
 Utah. James Dryden, L. A. Merrill, R. W. Clark, F. B. Linfield, 
 
 E. G. Gowans, John T. Caine, H. J. Frederick. 
 Vermont. J. L. Hills, E. A. Rich, E. H. Gregg, R. M. Washburn, 
 
 W. F. Hammond, H. A. Edson, Cassius Peck. 
 Virginia. John Spencer, W. D. Saunders, A. P. Spencer, E. A. 
 
 Smyth, Jr., E. V. Niles. 
 
 Washington.-^. B. Nelson, W. T. McDonald, A. B. Nystrom. 
 West Virginia. J. H. Stewart. 
 Wisconsin. W. L. Carlyle, E. H. Farrington, J. W. Decker, G. C. 
 
 Humphrey, D. H. Otis. 
 Wyoming. E. E. Smiley, B. C. Buffum, T. F. McConnell, J. A. Hill, 
 
 A. D. Faville, 0, L. Prim.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Part I. 
 
 BREEDS OF 
 Page 
 
 Breeds of Horses 17 
 
 American Trotters 18 
 
 Hackneys 18 
 
 French Coach 19 
 
 German Coach 20 
 
 Percheron 20 
 
 Clydesdale 20 
 
 English Shire 21 
 
 Belgian Draft 21 
 
 Ponies 21 
 
 Range Horses 22 
 
 Horse Breeding 22 
 
 Selection of Stock 22 
 
 Soundness 23 
 
 Crossbred Sires 24 
 
 Pedigrees 25 
 
 Feeding 25 
 
 Stations in Europe 26 
 
 Market Horses 27 
 
 Classes 28, 32 
 
 Requirements 29 
 
 Quality 30 
 
 Condition 30 
 
 Action 30 
 
 Age .'. 31 
 
 Color 31 
 
 Education 31 
 
 Disposition 31 
 
 Sex 32 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 Page 
 
 Breed 32 
 
 Appearance 32 
 
 Market Demands 34 
 
 Draft Horses 35 
 
 Chunks 36 
 
 Farm Chunks 37 
 
 Southern Chunks 37 
 
 Wagon Horses 38 
 
 Express Horses 38 
 
 Delivery Wagon Horses ... 39 
 
 Artillery Horses 39 
 
 Fire Horses 40 
 
 Carriage Horses 41 
 
 Coach Horses 41 
 
 Saddle 42 
 
 Gaited Saddlers 42 
 
 Cavalry Horses 43 
 
 Glossary of Horse Terms . . 44 
 
 Auction Rules 49 
 
 Feeding Horses 50 
 
 Nutrition 50 
 
 Experiments 54 
 
 Results 54 
 
 Rations 55-57 
 
 How Calculated 57 
 
 Care of Stallions 58 
 
 Care of Mares 58 
 
 Care of Foals 58 
 
 Grain Food 63-68 
 
 Other Food 65-68 
 
 MULES. 
 
 Breeding and Feeding 
 
 Qualities 
 
 Endurance 
 
 Sires 
 
 Mares 
 
 How to Breed 
 
 How to Fatten 
 
 How to Market 
 
 Market Classes 
 
 Horse and Mule Raising in the 
 South 
 
 Supply Short 
 
 Profits 
 
 Methods of Breeding 
 
 68 
 71 
 71 
 
 72 
 73 
 
 74 
 75 
 76 
 77 
 
 78 
 78 
 79 
 81 
 
 Native Stock Improved 82 
 
 Stallions 85 
 
 How to Judge Draft Horses. . . 89 
 
 What Is Necessary 89 
 
 How to Examine 89 
 
 Score Cards 90 
 
 Scoring Rules 90 
 
 Scoring 91 
 
 Points of Scoring 92 
 
 Soundness 98 
 
 Points of Soundness 99 
 
 Unsoundness 102 
 
 Shoeing Horses 102-118
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Part II. 
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY 
 
 Page 
 
 Breeds of Cattle 119 
 
 Ayrshires 120 
 
 Guernseys 122 
 
 Holstein-Friesians 125 
 
 Jerseys 127 
 
 Dutch Belted 129 
 
 Brown Swiss 130 
 
 Devons 131 
 
 Polled Durhams 133 
 
 Red Polled 134 
 
 Shorthorns 135 
 
 The Dairy Herd 138 
 
 Individuals 139 
 
 Adaptation 140 
 
 Purchases 140 
 
 Grades 143 
 
 Foundation of Herd 143 
 
 Registered Animals 144 
 
 The Bull 144 
 
 Selection 145 
 
 Temperament 145 
 
 Control 145 
 
 Exercise 145 
 
 Culling the Herd 145 
 
 Records 146 
 
 Standards 146 
 
 Cow Types 146 
 
 Each Cow Tested 147 
 
 Health of Herd 148 
 
 Proper Surroundings 148 
 
 Cleanliness 149 
 
 Milking Methods 149 
 
 Milking Machines 151 
 
 Conclusions 151 
 
 Pastures 153 
 
 Summer Feeding 153 
 
 Grain with Grass 154 
 
 Soiling Crops for Cows 155 
 
 Succession of Crops 155 
 
 Growing the Crops 156 
 
 Alfalfa for Cows 156 
 
 Red Clover 156 
 
 Peas 156 
 
 Oats 156 
 
 Rape 157 
 
 Flint Corn 157 
 
 Sorghum 157 
 
 Sweet Corn 157 
 
 Other Crops 158 
 
 The Stable, Its Preparation ... 158 
 
 Feed and Care of Dairy Cows. 161 
 Treatment Before Calving.. 161 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Page 
 
 Treatment at Calving 162 
 
 Caked Udder 163 
 
 Treatment After Calving 164 
 
 Feeding Dairy Cows 14U- 
 
 Important Considerations .... 165 
 
 When to Milk 165 
 
 Fighting Flies 165 
 
 Rations 166 
 
 Concentrates 166 
 
 Alfalfa 166 
 
 Roots 167, 170 
 
 Succulence 167 
 
 Constipating Feeds 168 
 
 Varieties of Feed 168 
 
 Appetizing Rations 169 
 
 Silage 170-172 
 
 Vegetables 170-172 
 
 Weight and Feed Related 172 
 
 Individual Feeding 173 
 
 Roughness in Feed 173 
 
 Grain in Feed 173 
 
 Balanced Ration 174 
 
 Consumers 174 
 
 Commercial Foods 176 
 
 Lactive Climaxes 176 
 
 Salt 179 
 
 Food Substitutes 179 
 
 Concentrates 179 
 
 Concentrates 179 
 
 Grain Mixtures 180 
 
 Ration Constituents 181 
 
 Gestation Periods 182 
 
 Bedding for Cows 182 
 
 Raising Calves 183 
 
 Overfeeding 183 
 
 Drink 184 
 
 Skim Milk 184 
 
 Factory Milk 185 
 
 Roughage 185 
 
 Pasture 185 
 
 Water 185,187 
 
 Salt 185,187 
 
 Grain 186 
 
 Dehorning 186 
 
 Calf Ties 187 
 
 Scours 187 
 
 Diarrhea 187 
 
 Milk Substitutes 188 
 
 Care 189 
 
 Change in Feed 189 
 
 Age to Breed 190 
 
 Cattle Authorities . . 191 
 
 MILK. 
 
 Properties of Milk 192 Impurities 198 
 
 Sources and Kinds 192 The Milker 198 
 
 Composition of Milk 193 Hands and Clothing 198 
 
 Bacteria 193 Bacteria After Drawing 199
 
 10 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Kinds 199 
 
 Cold Aids Milk 200 
 
 Flies 201 
 
 Air 202 
 
 Fermentation 202 
 
 Electricity 202 
 
 Butyric Acid 203 
 
 Flavors in Milk 203 
 
 Curdling 204 
 
 Bitter Milk 204 
 
 Stringy Milk 205 
 
 Ropy Milk 205 
 
 Fermentation, Later 206 
 
 Leucocytes in Milk 207 
 
 Pasteurizing 207 
 
 Sterilizing 207 
 
 Thunderstorms 209 
 
 Fermented Milks 210 
 
 Value of 210 
 
 Varieties 210 
 
 Buttermilk 210 
 
 Kefer 212 
 
 Kumiss 215 
 
 Yoghurt 215 
 
 Covered Pails 216 
 
 Cow Testing Associations ... 217 
 
 Need of 217 
 
 Difficulties 218 
 
 Association, First 218 
 
 Operations 218 
 
 Record in Michigan 220 
 
 Testing Outfits 221 
 
 Certified Milk 222 
 
 Commissions 222 
 
 Operations 222 
 
 Standards 222 
 
 Inspections 223 
 
 Employes' Health 223 
 
 Precautions 223 
 
 Bacteria 224 
 
 Disinfecting 224 
 
 Cleanliness 224 
 
 Cows Cleaned 224 
 
 Milking 225 
 
 Handling Milk 225 
 
 Market for Raw Milk 225 
 
 Keeping Qualities 226 
 
 Cost of Certifying 226 
 
 Its Future 227 
 
 Milk Separating Systems 227 
 
 Deep-setting 227 
 
 Dilution 228 
 
 Centrifugal 228 
 
 Hand 228 
 
 Operations 229 
 
 Speed 229 
 
 Page 
 
 Cleanliness 229 
 
 Temperature 230 
 
 Inflow 230 
 
 Cream 230 
 
 Babcock Test 233 
 
 How to Make 233 
 
 Materials 234 
 
 Steps 234 
 
 Mixing 234 
 
 Sampling 234 
 
 Filling 235 
 
 The Acid 235 
 
 Bottles 235 
 
 Fat Calculated 237 
 
 Other Tests 238 
 
 Butter Making on Farms 239 
 
 Starters 239 
 
 Ripening 239 
 
 Flavors 241 
 
 Acid Test 242 
 
 Alkaline Test 243 
 
 Mann's Test 243 
 
 Churns 244 
 
 Salting 245 
 
 Washing 245 
 
 Working the Butter 246 
 
 Utensils 247 
 
 Packing 247 
 
 Refrigeration 248 
 
 Marketing 248 
 
 Storing 251 
 
 Renovated Butter 252 
 
 Oleomargarine Tests 253 
 
 Home Tests 253 
 
 Butter Increasers, Etc 254 
 
 Cheese Making on Farms.... 255 
 
 Operations 255 
 
 Coloring 255 
 
 Rennet 255, 257 
 
 Temperature 255 
 
 Curdling 256 
 
 Cutting 256 
 
 Cooking 256 
 
 Molding 256 
 
 Pressing 256, 258 
 
 Dressing 256 
 
 Salting 257, 258 
 
 Curing 257, 258 
 
 Curd 257 
 
 Pot Cheese 258 
 
 Neufchatel 259 
 
 American Cheese 259 
 
 Club Cheese 260 
 
 Authorities on Cheese and 
 Milk 261, 262 
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 Their Characteristics 263 Aberdeen-Angus 265 
 
 Shorthorns 263 Galloways 266 
 
 Herefords . . 264 Polled Herefords 266
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 11 
 
 Page 
 
 Breeding 269 
 
 Common Stocks 269 
 
 Improvement 270 
 
 Grade Sires 272 
 
 Aged Bulls 273 
 
 Immature Females 274 
 
 Cross Breeding 275 
 
 In-and-in Breeding 275 
 
 Prepotency 276 
 
 Co-operation of Breeders 277 
 
 Grades of Feeding Cattle .... 278 
 
 Fancy . , 279 
 
 Choice 279 
 
 Good 279 
 
 Medium 279 
 
 Common 280 
 
 Inferior 280 
 
 Beef and Beef Products 280 
 
 Baby Beef 280 
 
 Feeding 280 
 
 Demands 281 
 
 Quick Returns 281 
 
 Economy 282 
 
 Fattening 283 
 
 Feeders 284 
 
 Market Demands 284 
 
 Butchers 287 
 
 Consumers 287 
 
 Dairy and Beef Type Steers.. 287 
 
 Feeders' Conclusions 288 
 
 Summer and Winter Feeding. 288 
 
 Feeding Two-Year-Old Steers 289 
 
 Silage as Food 289 
 
 Rations and Energy Values... 290 
 
 Components of Flesh 290 
 
 Percentage of Components. 291 
 
 Body a Machine 292 
 
 Composition of Feed Stuffs. 293 
 
 Food Demands 294 
 
 Food as Fuel 295 
 
 Energy in Food 296 
 
 How Utilized 297 
 
 Maintenance Requirements.. 299 
 
 Feed Values 300 
 
 Fattening Requirements . . . 301 
 
 Milk Requirements 302 
 
 Work Requirements 302 
 
 Dry Matter in Rations 305 
 
 Page 
 
 Computation of Rations 305 
 
 Steps Necessary 305 
 
 Total Feed Required 306 
 
 Rations Improved 307 
 
 Computation of Rations . . . 308 
 
 Feeding Stuffs Chosen 311 
 
 Prices of Feed 311 
 
 Amounts of Feed 312 
 
 Compounding Rations 314 
 
 Feeds and Feeding for Beef.. 315 
 
 Corn as Food 315 
 
 Dairy Cows 315 
 
 Steer Fattening 317 
 
 Commercial Stock Foods .... 319 
 
 From Wheat 319 
 
 From Rye 320 
 
 From Buckwheat 320 
 
 From Corn 320 
 
 From Gluten Meal 320 
 
 From Hominy 320 
 
 From Distilleries 323 
 
 From Oats 323 
 
 From Flaxseed 323 
 
 From Cottonseed 324 
 
 From Barley 325 
 
 From Alfalfa 325 
 
 From Meals 325 
 
 From Dried Blood 325 
 
 From Beet Pulp 326 
 
 Poultry Food 326 
 
 Molasses for Fattening 326 
 
 Feeding Molasses 326 
 
 Amounts to Feed 326 
 
 Summary 327 
 
 Feeding Alfalfa 327 
 
 Mixing Grain and Roughage.. 328 
 
 Use of Pulp 329 
 
 Beet Pulp and Corn Meal 330 
 
 Condimental Stock and Poul- 
 try Foods 330 
 
 Ingredients 330 
 
 Medicinal Ingredients 331 
 
 Cost 332 
 
 Selling Price 332 
 
 Values 332 
 
 Claims of Manufacturers... 333 
 
 Medicines for Animals 333 
 
 Sick Animals 334 
 
 Authorities on Beef . . 334 
 
 Breeds 
 
 Merino 335 
 
 Leicester 336 
 
 Border Leicester 336 
 
 Lincolns 337 
 
 Cotswolds 337 
 
 Downs 338 
 
 Southdowns 338 
 
 Shropshires 338 
 
 Part III 
 SHEEP. 
 335 
 
 Hampshires 341 
 
 Oxfords 342 
 
 Suffolks 342 
 
 Dorset Horns 342 
 
 Cheviots 343 
 
 Black-faced Highlands 343 
 
 Sheep Feeding 344 
 
 Ewes 344 
 
 Breeding Ewes 344
 
 12 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Spring Feeding 346 
 
 Summer Feeding 346 
 
 Fall Feeding 347 
 
 Lambs for Breeding 348 
 
 Hand Feeding 349 
 
 After Weaning 349 
 
 Rams 350 
 
 Fattening Lambs and Wethers 351 
 
 Showing Effects 351 
 
 Fattening to Maturity 351 
 
 Quantity of Feed 352 
 
 Cost of Increase 353 
 
 Fodders 353 
 
 Grain 354 
 
 Pulp 356 
 
 Sorghum 356 
 
 Market Demands 356 
 
 Yield of Dressed Mutton... 356 
 
 Cost of Mutton and Beef... 356 
 
 Gestation 360 
 
 Loss of Lambs 360 
 
 Dipping 360 
 
 Range and Pure Breds 361 
 
 What Is a Good Sheep? 361 
 
 Range Lamb Feeding 362 
 
 Old Mexico Sheep 362 
 
 New Mexico Sheep 363 
 
 Merinos 363 
 
 Buying Lambs 364 
 
 Shelter 364 
 
 Grading 364 
 
 Feeding 364 
 
 Shepherds 366 
 
 Sheep on Ranges 366 
 
 Handling 368-373 
 
 Pasturage Systems for Sheep. 373 
 
 Fences 373 
 
 Protection 374 
 
 Observation 374 
 
 Hounds 374 
 
 Trails 377 
 
 Coyotes 377 
 
 Bunches 378 
 
 Losses 378 
 
 Grazing 380 
 
 Roaming 380 
 
 Bedding 381 
 
 One Man's Care.. . 382 
 
 Page 
 
 Washing and Shearing 382 
 
 Packing Wool 383 
 
 Good Fleeces 384 
 
 Market Classes of Sheep 385 
 
 Mutton 35 
 
 Feeders 386 
 
 Breeders 387 
 
 Miscellaneous 387 
 
 Hot House Lambs 387, 397 
 
 Exports 387, 39T 
 
 Throw-outs 387, 397 
 
 Dead Sheep 387, 398 
 
 Goats 387, 398 
 
 Lambs 387 
 
 Prime 387 
 
 Choice 388 
 
 Good 388 
 
 Medium 389 
 
 Common 389 
 
 Yearlings 389 
 
 Wethers 390 
 
 Ewes 391 
 
 Feeders 392 
 
 Breeding Sheep 395 
 
 Fancy 395 
 
 Choice 395 
 
 Good 396 
 
 Ewes 397 
 
 Bucks 397 
 
 Judging Fat Sheep 399 
 
 Score Cards 399 
 
 Examination 399-405 
 
 Comparative Judging 405 
 
 Feeder Sheep 405 
 
 Breeders 406 
 
 Rams 407 
 
 Merinos 407 
 
 Improvements 408 
 
 Sires 409 
 
 Pedigrees 410 
 
 Authorities on Sheep 410 
 
 Angora Goats 413 
 
 Pastures 414 
 
 Breeding 414 
 
 Mohair 414 
 
 Milk 415 
 
 Hardihood 416 
 
 Part IV. 
 BREEDS OF SWINE. 
 
 General Remarks 417 
 
 Berkshires 417 
 
 Poland Chinas 418 
 
 Chester Whites 418 
 
 Duroc-Jerseys 419 
 
 Tamworths 419 
 
 Yorkshires 420 
 
 Large Yorkshires 420 
 
 Middle Yorkshires 421 
 
 Small Yorkshires 421 
 
 Essexes 421 
 
 Cheshire 421 
 
 Hampshires 422 
 
 Southern Hogs 422 
 
 Razorbacks 422 
 
 Selection of Breed 423 
 
 Score Cards 423 
 
 Care of Breeding Stocks 424 
 
 Breeding and Management... 425 
 Inbreeding 425
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 13 
 
 Page 
 
 Choice of Individuals 425 
 
 Boars 426, 433 
 
 Sows 431, 434 
 
 Mating 432 
 
 Castrating 433 
 
 Spaying 433 
 
 Farrowing 436 
 
 Two Litters Yearly 439 
 
 Weaning the Pigs 439 
 
 Advice to Beginners 441 
 
 Gestation of Swine 443 
 
 Feeds and Feeding 442 
 
 Economy 442 
 
 Corn Alone 443 
 
 Cost of Gain ,445 
 
 Corn for Breeders 445 
 
 Corn Ground 446 
 
 Corn, Cooked, Etc 446 
 
 Corn, Wet and Dry 449 
 
 Corn, Hogging Down 449 
 
 Supplements for Corn 450 
 
 Wheat 451 
 
 Middlings 452 
 
 Bran 453 
 
 Barley 453 
 
 Shorts 453 
 
 Oats 453 
 
 Rice 453 
 
 Millet 454 
 
 Beans 454 
 
 Cotton-Seed Meal 455 
 
 Linseed Oilmeal 457 
 
 Soy Bean Meal 457 
 
 Distillery Grains 458 
 
 Beef Meal 458 
 
 Tankage 459 
 
 Milk 460 
 
 Pastures and Forage 463 
 
 Permanent Pastures 463 
 
 Summer Pasture 463 
 
 Alfalfa 467 
 
 Cow Peas 470 
 
 Soy Beans 471 
 
 Canada Field Peas 472 
 
 Peanuts 472 
 
 Sorghum 473 
 
 Page 
 
 Oats 473 
 
 Winter Pasture 473 
 
 Rape 474 
 
 Chufas 474 
 
 Grain with Grass 475 
 
 Roots 476 
 
 Sugar Beets 477 
 
 Potatoes 477 
 
 Silage 478 
 
 Pumpkins 478 
 
 Molasses 478 
 
 Hotel Slop 479 
 
 Climate 479 
 
 Feed for Boars 481 
 
 Feed for Sows 482 
 
 Feed for Pigs 488 
 
 Fattening for Market 491 
 
 Weight of Pigs 492 
 
 Finishing 493 
 
 Short or Long Period 494 
 
 Stock Foods 495 
 
 Mineral Mixtures 495 
 
 Salt 496 
 
 Housing Pigs 497 
 
 Portable Houses 498 
 
 Farrowing Pens 503 
 
 Floors 505 
 
 Racks 505 
 
 Troughs 505 
 
 Dipping Vats 506 
 
 Fences 507 
 
 Exercise 510 
 
 Ventilation 510 
 
 Whitewashing 511 
 
 Sanitation 511 
 
 Market Pork 512 
 
 Bacon Types 512 
 
 Lard Types 512 
 
 Pork Classified 513 
 
 Dressed Hogs 513 
 
 Grading Dressed Hogs 513 
 
 Pork Cuts 514 
 
 Lard 516 
 
 Curing Pork 517 
 
 Hams 517 
 
 Sausage 517 
 
 Part V. 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 The Breeds 518 
 
 Starting with 518 
 
 Classes 521 
 
 General Purpose Breeds 522 
 
 Plymouth Rocks 522 
 
 Wyandottes 523 
 
 Javas 523 
 
 Dominiques 524 
 
 Rhode Island Reds 524 
 
 Buckeyes 524 
 
 Orpingtons 525 
 
 Houdans . . 525 
 
 KEEPING. 
 
 Meat Breeds 526 
 
 Brahmas 526 
 
 Cochins 527 
 
 Langshans 527 
 
 Dorkings 528 
 
 Cornish 529 
 
 White Indian 529 
 
 Egg Breeds 529 
 
 Leghorns 529 
 
 Minorcas 532 
 
 Black Spanish 533 
 
 Andalusians 533
 
 14 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Anconas 534 
 
 Redcaps 534 
 
 Hamburgs 534 
 
 Ornamental Breeds 535 
 
 Polish 535 
 
 Crevecoeurs 536 
 
 La Fleche 539 
 
 Games and Game Bantams. . . . 539 
 
 Bantams 539 
 
 Rose Comb Bantams 539 
 
 Incubation 540 
 
 The Hens 540 
 
 Eggs for Hatching 541 
 
 Color of Eggs 542 
 
 Operations 543 
 
 Periods of Incubation 543 
 
 Natural Incubation 544 
 
 Breeds Best for 545 
 
 Nests 545 
 
 Sitting Hens 546 
 
 Lice and Mites 546 
 
 Artificial Incubation 547 
 
 Machines 547 
 
 Hot-air 547 
 
 Hot-water 547 
 
 Burners 548 
 
 Chimney 549 
 
 Body 549 
 
 Nursery 550 
 
 Thermometer 552 
 
 Regulator 553 
 
 Moisture 557 
 
 Defects 557 
 
 Good Points 557 
 
 Incubators, How Operated. 
 557-566 
 
 Brooding 566 
 
 Natural Brooding 566 
 
 Brooders 567 
 
 Temperature 568 
 
 The Chicks 569 
 
 Feeding the Chicks 570 
 
 Care 575 
 
 Feeding Systems 575, 579 
 
 Dry Feeding 576 
 
 Mash Feeding 577 
 
 Other Feeds 578 
 
 Green Feed 573 
 
 Hay 573 
 
 Milk, Grits, Etc 579 
 
 Feeding Methods 580 
 
 Rations 58o 
 
 Other Considerations 581 
 
 Broilers 582 
 
 Roasters 582 
 
 Notes on Egg Production 583 
 
 Authorities on Poultry 534 
 
 Fattening Poultry 584 
 
 Pen Methods 584 
 
 C ; at e 584 
 
 Machine 534 
 
 Page 
 
 Hand 585 
 
 Feed 585 
 
 Poultry Houses 585 
 
 Location 586 
 
 Climate 586 
 
 Size 586 
 
 Roof 587 
 
 Ventilation 588 
 
 Fresh Air Houses 589 
 
 Floors 590 
 
 Walls 590 
 
 Perches 593 
 
 Nests 594 
 
 Dusts 595 
 
 Water 595 
 
 Authorities on Houses 595 
 
 Yarding 595 
 
 Turkeys 596 
 
 Wild 596 
 
 Mexican 596 
 
 Ocellated 596 
 
 Inbreeding 597 
 
 Market Weights 597 
 
 Standard Varieties of Turkeys. 598 
 
 Bronze 598 
 
 Narragansett 599 
 
 Buff 599 
 
 Slate 599 
 
 White 600 
 
 Black 600 
 
 Selecting Turkey Stock 601 
 
 Males 601 
 
 Females 601 
 
 Pairing 602 
 
 Insect Pests 602 
 
 Incubation 602 
 
 Brooders 602 
 
 Feeds 603 
 
 Dry Picking 603 
 
 Ducks . . . r. : 603 
 
 Varieties 603 
 
 White Pekin 603 
 
 White Aylesbury 604 
 
 Colored Rouen 604 
 
 Black Cayuga 605 
 
 Colored Muscovy 605 
 
 White Muscovy 605 
 
 Indian Runner 606 
 
 Gray Call 606 
 
 White Call 606 
 
 Management of Ducks 606 
 
 Buildings 607 
 
 Feeds 608 
 
 Grits 611 
 
 Incubation 611 
 
 Ducklings 612 
 
 Geese 612 
 
 Gray Toulouse 612 
 
 White Embden 612 
 
 Gray African 613 
 
 Brown Chinese 613 
 
 White Chinese 13
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 15 
 
 Page 
 
 Management of Geese 613 
 
 Mating and Setting 614 
 
 Feeding and Dressing 615 
 
 Guinea Fowls 616 
 
 Varieties 616 
 
 Habits 616 
 
 Feeds 617 
 
 Markets 617 
 
 Squab Raising 617 
 
 Houses 617 
 
 Xest Boxes 618 
 
 Fly 618 
 
 Pigeons 618 
 
 Breeding 618 
 
 Feeding 618 
 
 Killing 619 
 
 Dressing 619 
 
 Ostrich Farming 619 
 
 Eggs 619 
 
 Incubator 619 
 
 Feeds . . 619 
 
 Page 
 
 Plucking 619 
 
 Handling 620 
 
 Profits 620 
 
 Capons and Caponizing 620 
 
 What Is a Capon? 620 
 
 Time to Caponize 621 
 
 Instruments 621 
 
 Markets 621 
 
 Picking 622 
 
 Dressing 622 
 
 Scalding 622 
 
 Packing 622 
 
 Bad Habits 623 
 
 Shipping 623 
 
 Deteriorated Eggs 623 
 
 Bad Eggs 624 
 
 Summary 625 
 
 Care of Eggs 625 
 
 Selection 625 
 
 Storing 626 
 
 Part VI. 
 OTHER ANIMALS. 
 
 Birds 630 
 
 Hawks and Owls 631 
 
 Warblers 632 
 
 Thrushes 633 
 
 Titmice 633 
 
 Swallows 633 
 
 Doves 634 
 
 Cuckoos 634 
 
 Woodpeckers 634 
 
 Nighthawks 634 
 
 Kingbirds 635 
 
 Phcebes 635 
 
 Crows 635 
 
 Meadowlarks 635 
 
 Catbirds 635 
 
 Robins 636 
 
 Blackbirds 636 
 
 Orioles 636 
 
 Bobolinks 636 
 
 Blue Jays 636 
 
 Quails 637 
 
 Grouses 637 
 
 Sparrows 637 
 
 Cranes 639 
 
 Herons 639 
 
 Birds as Insect Destroyers 639 
 
 Birds Protected from Man... 641 
 
 Birds Attracted to Farms 641 
 
 Crops Protected from Birds... 642 
 Farmers' Gain from Protection 642 
 
 Pheasant Raising 642 
 
 Species of Pheasants 642 
 
 Acclimatization 643 
 
 Methods of Propagation 644 
 
 Stock 647 
 
 Prices 647 
 
 Pens 647 
 
 Food 648 
 
 Care 648 
 
 Honey Bees 648 
 
 Apiaries 649 
 
 Bee Habits 649 
 
 Handling Bees 650 
 
 Honey Production 650 
 
 Other Animal Life 651 
 
 Toads 651 
 
 Bats : 652 
 
 Silk Worms 652 
 
 Deer 652 
 
 Silver Foxes 653 
 
 Elk 653 
 
 Mosquitoes 654-666 
 
 Horse Flies 666 
 
 Field Mice 667 
 
 Jack Rabbits 668 
 
 Rabbits 669 
 
 Rats 672 
 
 Prairie Dogs 673 
 
 Ground Squirrels 674 
 
 Coyotes 674 
 
 Gophers 675 
 
 Muskrats 675 
 
 Ants . 676
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 Page 
 
 Judging Draft Horses 33 
 
 Swamp Fever in Horses. ... 51 
 
 Mule, Big, Type 51 
 
 Champion Hackney 60 
 
 Eastern Chunk 60 
 
 Barred Plymouth Rocks .... 69 
 
 Rhode Island Reds 69 
 
 Morgan Stallion 78 
 
 Express Horse, Type 78 
 
 Thoroughbred Stallion .... 87 
 
 Cavalry Horse, Type 105 
 
 Show Horse, Undefeated... 105 
 
 Hereford Bull 123 
 
 Jutland Cows 123 
 
 Brown Swiss Cow 132 
 
 Dutch Belted Cow 132 
 
 Red Polled Cow 132 
 
 Shorthorn Bull 141 
 
 Shorthorn Cow and Calf. ... 141 
 
 Clean Milk House 159 
 
 Cow Stable, Unsanitary.... 159 
 
 Polled Durham Bull 177 
 
 Polled Durham Cow 177 
 
 Large Slaughter House 195 
 
 Dirty Barnyard 195 
 
 Diagram of Cow 213 
 
 Feeding Rack for Sheep. ... 213 
 
 Clean Cows 223 
 
 Dirty Cows 223 
 
 Milk Pail, Combination.... 231 
 
 Clean Milking 231 
 
 Milk Cans Exposed 249 
 
 Milk House, Bad 249 
 
 Ayrshire Bull 267 
 
 Milk Pails 285 
 
 Dairy Barn, Round 285 
 
 Page 
 
 Dairy Stable, Open 303 
 
 Texas Steer Geronimo 321 
 
 Experimental Herd of Sheep 339 
 
 Oxford Ram 357 
 
 Leicester Ram 357 
 
 Cheviot Ram 375 
 
 Lincoln Ram 375 
 
 Rambouillet Ram 393 
 
 Mutton Cuts 411 
 
 Shropshire Ram 411 
 
 Angora Goats 414 
 
 Prime Heavy Hogs 429 
 
 Lard Type Hogs 438 
 
 Chester White Sows 438 
 
 Loco Weed Disease 447 
 
 Hog House 447 
 
 Berkshire Hogs 465 
 
 Berkshire Sow 465 
 
 Large Yorkshire 483 
 
 Duroc Jersey 483 
 
 Cheshire Hog 501 
 
 Poland China 501 
 
 Ostriches 519 
 
 Maine Poultry Houses 537 
 
 Bee Hives 537 
 
 Black Langshans 555 
 
 Light Brahmas 555 
 
 Tamworth Boar 573 
 
 Hog Sick of Cholera 573 
 
 Sheep Barn 591 
 
 Brooder House 591 
 
 Great Horned Owl 608 
 
 Sheep Feeding Corral 626 
 
 Honey Comb Diseased 645 
 
 Common Toad 652 
 
 Round Up West 663
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 
 DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 PARTI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 HORSE breeding is one of the most important lines of work 
 that animal breeders of this country have undertaken. As 
 all classes of people are largely dependent, and in the ma- 
 jority of cases, entirely dependent upon the labor of horses 
 for the necessities and comforts of life as well as many of its pleas- 
 ures, the efforts of the breeder become of great importance not only 
 to himself but to the country at large. A little improvement in the 
 horses of a country may mean a considerable increase in the wealth 
 and comforts of its people. 
 
 The first systematic attempt to improve the horse came through a 
 desire for larger animals for war purposes. When the war horse 
 was required to carry a rider protected by heavy coats of mail and 
 himself to be protected by heavy metal plates, it was found that 
 larger animals were needed. Later, improvements were attempted 
 to better fit the horse for pleasure and for agricultural purposes, 
 which gave him greater speed, endurance and beauty, and also 
 brought a greater degree of intelligence. These improvements were ef- 
 fected largely through the importation into England of horses, mostly 
 sires from the Orient. Godolphin Arabian (Barb.), Darley Arabian 
 and Byerly Turk were among the most noted of these early importa- 
 tions. The crossing of these sires on selected English mares together 
 with the skill of the English breeder resulted in the production of 
 the English Thoroughbred, which is distinctively a running horse. 
 Through the Thoroughbred has been developed the American Thor- 
 oughbred, notably of Kentucky, and the American Trotter. The 
 Russian trotters have in a similar way been developed through the 
 English Thoroughbred and by the importation directly into Rus- 
 sia of Arabian horses that were crossed on selected Russian mares. 
 
 Many of the improved breeds of horses owe much to the in- 
 fluence of Oriental blood on the foundation stock of each breed. The 
 characteristics that have been especially developed through this in- 
 troduction are alertness, symmetry, or beauty of form, stamina or 
 endurance and intelligence. Even many of the heavy draft horses 
 
 17
 
 18 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of Europe, notably the Percheron, show a marked effect of the intro- 
 duction of Oriental blood. 
 
 The English Thoroughbred in many respects occupies a posi- 
 tion in England quite similar to that of the American trotter in the 
 United States. The Thoroughbred has been a potent factor in the 
 development of the English breeds of light horses. So has the 
 American trotter performed an important part in the production 
 of the various classes of light active horses. 
 
 THE AMERICAN TROTTER. 
 
 Origin. As the thoroughbred originated in England to supply 
 the demand for a perfect runrjing hor^e-for the sports of the English 
 gentlemen, so has the trotter been developed in America for special 
 work of fast driving upon the race track and road and for this 
 purpose surpasses all other horses. The French and Russian trotters 
 have been similarly developed in their respective countries and have 
 become creditable performers, but at all distances the American 
 trotters now hold the fastest records. The Narragansett pacers of 
 New England were our first road horses but became practically ex- 
 tinct, at the beginning of the nineteenth century. About the year 
 1788, when Messenger was imported, trotters were becoming popular 
 and, since then, have been bred in increasing numbers and of grad- 
 ually increasing speed. Messenger sired Mambrino and the latter 
 Mambrino Paymaster and Abdallah and from these have sprung 
 Mambrino Chief and Rysdyk's Hambletonian, respectively, both 
 founders of noted families. The dam of Rysdyk's was the "Charles 
 Kent Mare," sired by Bellfounder, a Hackney, foaled in Norfolk, 
 England. The leading families are (1) Hambletonian, founded by 
 Rysdyk's Hambletonian (Hambletonian 10), including such noted 
 sires as George Wilkes, Electioneer, Happy Medium, Abdallah 15, 
 Robert MacGregor, Almont, Belmont, Nutwood, Dictator, etc. (2) 
 Mambrino Chief, including Mambrino Patchen, Clark Chief, etc. 
 (3) Clay, founded by Andrew Jackson, and tracing to Arabian an- 
 cestry and including, among the most noted, The Moor, Henry 
 Clay, Young Clay, Pilot, etc. (4) Morgan, founded by Justin Mor- 
 gan, of which Ethan Allen, Daniel Lambert, Ben Franklin, and 
 General Knox are the most noted. (5) Pilot, the most noted of 
 which was Pilot, Jr. The Hambletonian blood when fused with any 
 of these has been especially prolific in producing performers. 
 
 In the breeding of horses for the race track nearly everything 
 has been sacrificed for extreme speed. This one requirement alone 
 has been the leading factor. Beauty of form and of action become 
 not only unnecessary qualities but positive hindrances in speed per- 
 formances. The beautifully arched neck that is so highly prized 
 in the carriage horse becomes entirely superfluous in horses main- 
 tained for racing purposes. (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 THE HACKNEY. 
 
 Origin. This breed originated in the County of Norfolk, Eng- 
 land, through crossing thoroughbred stallions with Norfolk trotting 
 mares which were then noted for speed and endurance. Darley
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 19 
 
 Arabian, prominent as one of the founders of the thoroughbred, 
 sired Flying Childers, the sire of Blaze. The mating of Blaze with 
 Norfolk mares did much toward the production of the Hackney. 
 Blaze sired Shales, the sire of Driver, the sire of Firefly, to which 
 most of the noted Hackney's trace. 
 
 Characteristics. The Hackney is a stoutly built, compact, 
 smooth, strong-boned, muscular horse of proud appearance and a 
 kind disposition. His plump, graceful appearance with perfectly 
 curved outlines adapt him to carry a fine harness and to draw hand- 
 some and fashionable equipage in the park or boulevard. He should 
 have a clean cut intelligent head, neck strong and well arched but free 
 from coarseness, shoulders smooth and oblique, body round, short 
 and compact. Hips smooth, quarters plump with muscle, legs short, 
 strong boned and flat. Hoofs symmetrical and of good quality. 
 Action high, quick, elastic, regular, behind as well as in front, the 
 hocks being perfectly flexed to correspond w T ith the extreme high 
 knee action. The two words most perfectly describing the Hack- 
 ney are smoothness and action. Common colors are bay and brown; 
 height, 15.1 to 15.3 hands. 
 
 Utility. The Hackney having been bred pure for over a hun- 
 dred years possesses strong prepotency or power to transmit his own 
 characteristics to his offspring and is therefore well fitted for mating 
 with trotting mares, and mares of mixed breeding for the produc- 
 tion of high stepping cob horses for city use. The mares to which 
 he is bred should possess some of the characteristics of the typical 
 Hackney. (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 FRENCH COACH HORSE. 
 
 As indicated by the name, the breeding originated in France 
 where for many years it was termed Demi-Sang, being a product of 
 a cross between the English Thoroughbred and the native mares of 
 France that had considerable Oriental blood in their veins. In 
 1780 the French Government assisted the Horse Breeding Industry 
 of France and since that time has materially aided in the develop- 
 ment of the French breeds of horses that have become so noted. To 
 encourage the use of the best stallions and to discourage their ex- 
 portation, the Government allowed annual subsidies ranging from 
 $50 to $500 according to the breed and value of the individuals. 
 
 Characteristics. The typical horse of this breed stands at least 
 16 hands high and weighs from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. He is es- 
 sentially a coach or carriage horse. He is more rangy in type than 
 the Hackney, and has a graceful, free-moving gait; but does not 
 possess the quick and extreme high knee action that is so char- 
 acteristic of the Hackney. In other words it may be said that the 
 Coach horse moves more slowly and with more dignity than the 
 Hackney. Some of the horses of this breed are inclined to coarse- 
 ness and are not so desirable for breeding purposes; those of the 
 more refined type possessing considerable speed and of great pre- 
 potence are most desirable. 
 
 Utility. These horses are suited for the production of large, 
 handsome coach or carriage horses. They should not be bred for ex-
 
 20 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 treme speed, nor for the more flashy qualities so characteristic of 
 the Hackney. 
 
 THE GERMAN COACH. 
 
 This breed has been formed by mating the Thoroughbred with 
 the native mares of Germany, some of which already possess some 
 Arabic blood. It is said that horses of this type were found in 
 Germany early in the 17th century. 
 
 Characteristics. These horses are usually of solid colors, black 
 brown and bay predominating, but sometimes chestnut or sorrel. 
 They are 16 hands high or over, and should weigh from 1,350 to 
 1,550 pounds. As compared with the French Coach, there is a 
 tendency towards coarseness particularly in the bone below the 
 knee. The action of the two breeds is quite similar, although the 
 German Coach is usually heavier and stronger. 
 
 PERCHERON. 
 
 This breed takes its name from the District of La Perche in 
 France, which is now the chief center of the Percheron industry in 
 France. This district has long been known as the home of the 
 Percheron horse. The breed originally derived its weight and size 
 from the black horses of Flanders and its style and quality from 
 the Oriental breeds, notably from the grey Arab stallions Godolphin 
 and Gallipoli. Early in the history of the breeding these horses 
 were used for coach and bus work, but with the increase in weight 
 and larger bone they have become one of the most useful and noted 
 draft breeds. Grey was the original color, but recently black has 
 become quite common ; although it is not so usually transmitted as 
 the characteristic grey of the purer Percherons. 
 
 Characteristics. The Percheron stands 16 hands high or over, 
 and weighs from 1,700 to 2,200 pounds. He has an intelligent 
 head and of a type peculiar to this breed ; eyes and ears are rather 
 small, strongly muscled neck, well formed shoulders and chest, 
 round body, strong back, heavy quarters and somewhat drooping 
 croup, which sometimes is a defect. The Percheron is usually a low 
 down, blocky, clean limbed horse, having well shaped sound hoofs. 
 The pasterns in some individuals is inclined to uprightness and is 
 one of the most common defects. The action of the Percheron is 
 usually fast at a trot for a horse of this size. He has a fairly straight 
 and sprightly walk. 
 
 Utility. The Percheron breeds quite as true to breed type as 
 any of the draft breeds, although individual prepotency is often lack- 
 ing. This horse has become popular on account of his gentle dispo- 
 sition, easy keeping qualities, clean hairless legs and general adapt- 
 ability for farm and city purposes. (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 THE CLYDESDALE. 
 
 This is the draft horse breed of Scotland, and there has been 
 bred pure for many generations. This breed originated in the 
 County of Lanark, frequently called Clydesdale District. At the 
 present time this breed is well disseminated throughout the country. 
 In the formation of this breed the heavy black Flemish horses were 
 among the most noted of the foundation stock. Records of this
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 21 
 
 breed have been kept since 1715. The Clydesdale District has proved 
 to be particularly well adapted for the production of large draft 
 horses possessing an exceptional quality of bone, muscle, tendon 
 and hair. The characteristics coupled with the hardihood, activity, 
 vigor and endurance have placed the Clydesdale with the foremost 
 rank of draft horses. 
 
 Characteristics. The typical Clydesdale stands 16 hands high 
 or over, and weighs from 1,800 to 2,200 pounds. He is in color 
 bay, brown, black or chestnut with white markings. The head is 
 usually of good shape, neck of fair length, arching and muscular. 
 Horses of this breed are noted for the sloping shoulders and oblique 
 pasterns. Horses of this breed are fast walkers, due to a long, 
 springy stride at this gait. Compared to the Percherons they are 
 quite as fast at the walk due to the long stride, while the Percheron 
 has the quicker step, the Clydesdale has the longer. As a fast walk- 
 ing pace is the chief requisite as regards the action of heavy draft 
 horses, this has made the Clydesdale favorites. (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 ENGLISH SHIRE. 
 
 The heavy black stallions of Flanders used upon the large 
 native mares of the Fen counties of England, notably Lincoln, Kent, 
 and Cambridge, founded this breed of draft horses many years 
 ago. This breed is still bred pure and has been greatly improved 
 in many particulars. In color the horses of this breed are now mostly 
 bay or brown. 
 
 Characteristics. The typical size horse is of great weight and 
 power. He is more massive than the Clydesdale, but possesses less 
 quality. His body is usually deep, broad and round with strong 
 coupling, thighs and quarters heavily muscled. While powerful 
 he is slow in action and sluggish in disposition. Compared to the 
 Clydesdale the shoulders and pasterns are more upright and the hair 
 somewhat closer and in general it tends to show more coarseness. 
 The size is sometimes spoken of as a ton horse as many individuals 
 exceed this weight, (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 BELGIAN DRAFT. 
 
 Blending together the blood of the Flemish Brabancan and 
 Ardennais horses have formed in Belgium a breed of draft horses 
 known as the Belgian Draft. The breeding of these horses forms an 
 important source of income of the Belgian farmer, and the Govern- 
 ment aids this business by subsidies and supervision. 
 
 Characteristics. The typical Belgian Draft is a blocky, wide, 
 heavy horse having short clean legs, his neck often inclined to coarse- 
 ness and his croup sloping often to a defect, while his pasterns are apt 
 to be upright and his feet somewhat steep. As a rule the Belgian 
 horse, when out of condition, is perhaps more readily and quickly 
 fattened than any other breed. This makes them popular with the 
 professional horse feeder who prepares them for market. There 
 seems to be no standard color for the breed ; bays, browns and roans 
 are common. (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 PONIES. 
 
 Ponies of various grades and breeding are frequently found on
 
 22 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the market and are usually bought for the use of children and 
 ladies. The distinguishing characteristics separating ponies from 
 horses are not easily described; yet, to the trained eye, the line of 
 division is fairly distinct. The principal distinguishing features ac- 
 cepted by most authorities is that of height, a pony being 14 hands 
 or under. Sometimes there are dwarf horses without pony blood 
 that come within these limits, but usually they lack pony character- 
 istics, some of which are a deep, round body, with heavily muscled 
 thighs and quarters, croup not dropping, and width well carried 
 out. These the small horse does not usually possess. Ponies are 
 essentially children's horses, and because of this must be kind and 
 gentle in disposition, but with as much spirit as is compatible with 
 gentleness. There are no special requirements for weight. Like 
 horses, they should be straight line movers and the greater knee 
 and hock action they possess the greater will they be appreciated and 
 higher prices secured when they are placed on the market. 
 
 The Indian Pony. The Indian pony, or the Cayuse as it is 
 sometimes called, is larger and a descendant from the native range 
 stock. These animals are classed on the market as range ponies. 
 They are hardy and can endure a great privation if necessary. It is 
 stoutly maintained that they are able to perform long continued 
 hard labor with less food than almost any other type of horse. 
 
 Range Horses. Range horses are sold on the market in two gen- 
 eral classes: as light and as heavy, according to the predominance 
 of light or draft horses' blood. Most of the range horses find their 
 way to the country where they are usually broken, and when edu- 
 cated some of them are returned to the market to fill the demand 
 for some of the commercial classes. Cheap farm horses for the most 
 part remain in the country and seldom find their way to the great 
 commercial markets, where better classes of horses are in demand. 
 As these horses are worth more to wear out on the farms than for 
 any other purpose, they usually remain in the country. (111. B. 
 122.) 
 
 HORSE BREEDING. 
 
 Selection of Breeding Stock. The general principle of hered- 
 ity is that like produces like. This principle or recognized law of 
 transmission is without doubt adhered to more closely by stock 
 breeders than any one recognized law or principle of breeding. There 
 are departures or exceptions to this rule, but it proves true in the 
 majority of cases, or else there would be no continuity of species. 
 If this were not true wheat might produce corn, corn produce bar- 
 ley, etc. It should be remembered, however, that bad points are 
 quite as likely, or in fact more likely, to be transmitted than are 
 good ones. As the good points so highly prized in our improved 
 breeds have been secured by man through his skill in feeding and 
 breeding and therefore are not so firmly fixed as some of the less 
 desirable points which were original traits or characteristics of the 
 unimproved stock, from which our animals have descended, it is a 
 serious but common error in breeding to suppose that the bad points 
 of one animal can be fully off-set or overcome by the good points
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 23 
 
 of the other mate. This might sometimes happen, however, if the 
 animal possessing the good points would transmit its own character- 
 istics with greater certainty, and therefore become prepotent, than 
 the animal possessing the undesirable points. The true principle of 
 successful breeding is to mate two animals that are each as nearly 
 perfect as possible. Faults in one animal are not to be offset by choos- 
 ing the mate that is abnormally developed in the contrary direction. 
 By mating with an animal perfect in the point where the other is 
 imperfect, there would be greater likelihood of success. For ex- 
 ample, if the mares in a particular stud are lacking in size and qual- 
 ity of hoofs, the proper way to correct the fault is to persistently breed 
 to sires that have perfect hoofs, and not to use sires that have ab- 
 normally large hoofs. It is for each breeder to decide what he de- 
 sires to breed, after this he should select mares as nearly like his ideal 
 as circumstances will permit, and then mate them persistently with 
 the sires of like type and known pure blood. As the female progeny 
 shall come to the age at which they may be bred, they should in turn 
 be bred in a similar manner, as that just described, selected pure 
 bred sires in all cases should be used. The first progeny is called 
 one-half blood ; the half-blood when bred to the pure Wood sire pro- 
 duces three-quarter blood; and with each successive generation the 
 probability of securing progeny that resembles that pure bred sire is 
 increased. If we consider but a moment the fact that whenever we 
 trace back the complete pedigree of any animal for ten generations 
 we have encountered over two thousand ancestors, we sometimes 
 wonder that so good results are secured. With this brief reflection 
 we cannot fail to be impressed with the importance of selecting ani- 
 mals so far as possible, particularly the sires, that have been bred true 
 to type for many generations. In the successful breeding of horses, 
 as in other classes of live stock, there is but one course to be recom- 
 mended. Choose well the breed that you will select and then persist 
 in using nothing but pure bred sires of the type which has been de- 
 cided upon. 
 
 Importance of Soundness. It is of great importance that the 
 mare should be free from all forms of unsoundness or diseases that 
 are hereditary, transmissible, or communicable to the offspring. 
 It is also of great importance that the mares should be sound, and 
 not until both mares and stallions used for breeding purposes are 
 free from unsoundness can we hope with any degree of certainty to 
 raise the average excellence of the horse product of the country to 
 the highest plane possible. An error is sometimes made by breeders 
 in breeding from mares with bony diseases, as spavins, ring bones, 
 etc., thinking that no danger can come from such mating as these 
 diseases are not inherited. The error, however, lies in the fact that 
 the weakness in the parent which causes this bony disease to appear 
 is likely to be transmitted in the off-spring; although the diseases 
 themselves are not transmitted. It sometimes happens that a mare 
 may be maimed and incapacitated for work through accident and 
 still be as valuable for breeding purposes as though the accident had 
 not occurred. So on general principles it may be stated that blem-
 
 24 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ishes and deformities due to accidental causes are not transmissible, 
 and do not therefore render the individual animal unfit for breeding 
 purposes. In this list may be placed unsightly scars from barb wire 
 and other fences or some other accidental cause, blindness due to ac- 
 cident, fractures imperfectly united, etc. The greatest possible care 
 should, however, be exercised in deciding these matters, and where 
 possible, it often is the best policy to select for breeding purposes 
 animals that are in the best of health and free from every form of 
 blemish or unsoundness. We often hear it said in this connection 
 by farmers of limited means that they cannot afford to go to the 
 expense of securing a better class of breeding stock than they now 
 have. But when we consider that the expense and care of rearing 
 to the market age an inferior animal is practically the same as that 
 of a valuable one, the question will naturally arise can they afford 
 to raise the inferior one at all? This question, however, is for each 
 breeder to decide for himself. 
 
 Uniformity in Breeding. There has been a general lack of 
 uniformity and consistency in the breeding operations in many local- 
 ities where somewhat spasmodic attempts have been made to improve 
 domestic animals through breeding. Many horse owners have at- 
 tempted to improve their horses by what is known as the process of 
 grading-up ; which is mating Thoroughbred stallions with the mares 
 of common stock or mixed breeding until the blood of the pure breed 
 predominates over that of the native stock. Without doubt every 
 step taken in this direction has been well intended, but the desired 
 results are rarely secured unless this method of breeding is persisted 
 in ; that is, by using sires of the same breed for successive generations. 
 Many breeders have commenced right, but through various causes 
 have failed to continue sufficiently long the good plans which they 
 commenced. Unless the plan is carried far enough so that the pure 
 blood predominates in a large degree over that of the native stock 
 or of mixed breeding, the best results will not be realized, except 
 possibly in rare instances. 
 
 Cross-bred Sires Unreliable. The offspring of two animals of 
 distinct and different breeds is termed cross-bred. In a cross-bred 
 animal we have distinct and different breed tendencies and prepo- 
 tencies that have been merged together, and the identity of each dis- 
 tinct breed has been lost. These breed tendencies and prepotencies 
 in the cross-bred animal may be said to be mixed rather than 
 blended; consequently the cross-bred sire lacks the well fixed pre- 
 dominating tendencies that we hope to find prepotent in pure bred 
 sires. While this cross-bred animal may possess fine appearance and 
 individual excellence, yet it should not be expected that he will be 
 able to transmit his own individual excellence. Cross-bred sires should 
 not be used for breeding purposes, as such animals have no prepo- 
 tency in the particular line for the production of a specific breed 
 character. 
 
 Grade Sires Objectionable. In the process of grading-up, the 
 first progeny from the mating of a pure bred sire and the native 
 or scrub mare is a half-blood ; if the half-blood is mated with a pure
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 25 
 
 blood, the progeny would be a three-quarter blood; and each suc- 
 ceeding mating in this manner would reduce the amount of native 
 or scrub blood by one half. From the first mating, which produced 
 the half-blood, to that after successive generations where the native 
 or scrub blood is very slight, the animals thus produced are called 
 grades. As long as the sire contains native or scrub blood, one can- 
 not feel sure that this undesirable native or scrub blood tendency 
 will not be manifest at any time. Of course, the chances of its being 
 manifested are lessened as the quality of scrub blood is reduced, yet 
 horse breeders do not feel warranted in ever assuming any unneces- 
 sary risks. We should not forget that the offspring of a grade sire with 
 a grade female makes no advance in breeding, the result in progeny 
 as a grade. The object of the horse owner who is breeding grades 
 should be to breed higher grades in each successive generation. In 
 all of our pure breeds prepotency is a fixed character to a greater or 
 less degree. Grade sires on the contrary lack both breed and indi- 
 vidual prepotency, and therefore should not be used for breeding 
 purposes. 
 
 Value of a Pedigree. The pedigree is simply a record showing 
 the animals that have in succession entered into the breeding of the 
 individual in question. It also shows that the animal belongs to a 
 distinct breed possessing to some extent at least the prepotency of the 
 breed. It should also guarantee to some extent individual prepo- 
 tency. To insure both breed and individual prepotency, the pedi- 
 gree should contain the record of animals having individual excel- 
 lency both as near and distant ancestors. This condition should 
 exist on the dam's side as well as on the sire's side of the pedigree. 
 A pedigree tells the story of the animal's breeding and is of value 
 according to the story that it tells. If it tells that many excellent 
 animals occur all along the line both as near and remote ancestors, 
 the story is a good one ; if but few excellent animals are in the record 
 and they are very remote, the pedigree can not be said to be desirable. 
 
 Importance of Liberal Feeding. In the improvement of our 
 domestic animals breeding and feeding have gone hand in hand 
 wherever marked success has been attained. Almost without excep- 
 tion a considerable part of the improvement has been due to the skill 
 of the feeder. One is almost sure to fail of success if he depends upon 
 blood alone in the improvement of his stock. The use of an im- 
 proved sire endows the progeny with a propensity to develop char- 
 acter and qualities akin to his own and of the breed he represents, 
 but these desirable qualities can not properly develop unless the 
 progeny is given suitable food, care and shelter. The negligent 
 farmer is careless of his stock and maintains them under conditions 
 in which lasting improvement is impossible. Should he introduce 
 improved blood in his flock or herd, as the case may be, without 
 improved feeding and care, improvement will be noticed for a time, 
 but will gradually disappear until it sinks to the level that his food 
 and care will maintain. As the spring will not rise higher than its 
 source, so neither can improved breeds be maintained at a higher
 
 26 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 state of efficiency than food and care which they receive will support. 
 (Wis. B. 127.) 
 
 THE STALLION SITUATION ABROAD. 
 
 It may be asserted as a fact that in all foreign countries noted 
 for one or more pure breeds of horses, practically no scrub, grade, or 
 non-registered stallions are used for public service, and some of the 
 foreign governments prohibit the use of such horses. 
 
 The French Government for over a hundred years has main- 
 tained stables of carefully selected, sound, pure-bred stallions for 
 breeding purposes. The best stallions in France are annually chosen 
 for use in these studs, and since 1885, when a government decree to 
 that effect was promulgated, all stallions not coming within special 
 classes have been excluded from public service. The classes referred 
 to are selected by government veterinarians who inspect all horses 
 and grade them as follows: Subsidized class, comprising stallions 
 of a certain standard and for each of which a cash bonus of from 
 $60 to $100 per year is paid to the owner to keep the animal in the 
 country for use by owners of mares; Authorized class, comprising 
 horses of slightly lower quality that are authorized, after passing 
 inspection, by a card certifying them as recommended by the Gov- 
 ernment for use as sires; Approved class, comprising a few horses 
 permitted to stand for service, but not granted a bonus or recom- 
 mendation card. 
 
 In Belgium the Government has, since 1850, maintained a 
 great horse breeding establishment and promotes the breeding of 
 pure-bred Belgian draft horses (Le Cheval de trait Beige) by an 
 annual grant of $5,000 to the official draft horse registration society, 
 and an annual appropriation of $70,000 to encourage the horse 
 breeding industry of the country. Liberal prizes are awarded to 
 mares and foals at shows throughout the country; stallions are 
 officially examined by Government experts, and both approved 
 stallions and mares are granted maintenance bounties to retain them 
 in Belgium. Under such auspices horse breeding is making won- 
 derful progress and only pure-bred stallions are in use for service. 
 
 In Germany Government supervision of horse breeding has 
 obtained for centuries and today is similar to that in vogue in Bel- 
 gium, it having been required by law that no permits should be 
 issued authorizing the use of stallions, unless they passed a satisfac- 
 tory Government inspection. At the present time both the Govern- 
 ment and agricultural societies promote intelligent horse breeding. 
 Prizes are awarded for animals of special merit, and such animals 
 must remain in the country for a specified term. First prizes are 
 awarded only to mature horses and mares that have shown merit as 
 breeders. Stallion shows have long been held at Aurich in East 
 Friesland, where the horses are brought annually for inspection and 
 approval. Prizes for brood mares are also awarded by the 
 Government. 
 
 Somewhat similar supervision of horse-breeding matters is under- 
 taken by the Government of Austria and large sums of money are
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 27 
 
 annually devoted to the encouragement of the breeding industry. 
 In Great Britain practically all farmers recognize the importance 
 of using pure-bred sires and only such are used in the various dis- 
 tricts, whence come the many well-known British breeds of horses. 
 In Scotland only one non-registered stallion has, since 1900, 
 been reported as being used for public service in that country. The 
 reasons for non-use are that it does not pay to breed from such 
 horses, their stock being ineligible to record and as a rule inferior 
 to horses of approved breeding. The uniform experience of breeders 
 and owners of Clydesdales in Scotland is that during the period of 
 systematic breeding with the guidance of a pedigree record that is 
 since 1878-1879 the average quality of the stock has increased in- 
 respect to uniformity of type, soundness of feet and limbs, and gen- 
 eral wearing capacity. (Wis. B. 158.) 
 
 MARKET HORSES. 
 
 For a number of years there has been an increasing demand in 
 the United States for the various classes of work horses. As these 
 horses have been bred more extensively in certain parts of the Mis- 
 sissippi valley than elsewhere they have for the most part passed 
 through some of the large cities where open markets have been estab- 
 lished, in which horses are bought and sold as a commercial com- 
 modity at values regulated by supply and demand. 
 
 It should not be inferred, however, that the supply equals the 
 demand, particularly as regards the quality or perfection of the 
 animals desired by the purchaser, neither is this condition of affairs 
 likely to be realized for years to come. There are two causes which 
 tend to delay the breeder in fulfilling the demands of the prospective 
 purchaser. First, many horses that eventually find their way to 
 the market were not bred for any particular class, in other words, 
 many breeders have not been striving to produce horses that would 
 meet any particular market requirements, consequently many, 
 horses pass through these markets that fall far below the expectation 
 of the intending purchaser; second, the horse market is of such re- 
 cent origin that the standards set and classes made by these open 
 public markets are not clearly understood by all breeders whose 
 horses eventually find other owners through the medium of the 
 markets. 
 
 While horses cannot be classified in the market as definitely 
 as can some other market commodities, for where two classes meet 
 there is no distinct line of division, yet the establishment of these 
 classes has made it possible for the farmer to better understand the 
 use for which his horses are best adapted and also enables him to 
 better estimate their true value. 
 
 No better advice can be given the farmer and horse-grower than 
 to become better (best) posted as to the requirements of the horse 
 markets. The average farmer now understands well enough how to 
 raise horses of the best breeds, but he may not understand that cer- 
 tain markets are steady in their demands for horses of certain types, 
 breeds or ages. By studying these markets he learns what is wanted.
 
 28 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 A BRIEF STATEMENT OF MARKET CLASSES WITH LIMITS IN HEIGHT AND 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 Sub-Classes. 
 
 Height 
 Hands. 
 
 Weight 
 Pounds. 
 
 
 rLight Draft 
 
 15-3 to 16-2 
 
 1600 to 1750 
 
 DRAFT TTfYRSFS 
 
 Heavy Draft 
 
 16 to 17-2 
 
 1750 to 2200 
 
 
 Loggers . , 
 
 16-1 to 17-2 
 
 1700 to 2200 
 
 CHUNKS. 
 
 'Eastern and Export ) 
 Chunks I 
 
 Farm Chunks 
 
 15 to 16 
 15 to 15-3 
 
 1300 to 1550 
 1200 to 1400 
 
 
 Southern Chunks 
 
 15 to 15-3 
 
 800 to 1250 
 
 
 ["Expressers 
 
 15-3 to 16-2 
 
 1350 to 1500 
 
 
 Delivery Wagon 
 
 15 to 16 
 
 1100 to 1400 
 
 WAGON HORSES. 
 
 Artillery Horses 
 
 15-1 to 16 
 
 1050 to 1200 
 
 
 Fire Horses 
 
 15 to 17-2 
 
 1200 to 1700 
 
 
 r Coach 
 
 15-1 to 16-1 
 
 1100 to 1250 
 
 
 Cobs 
 
 14-1 to 15-1 
 
 900 to 1150 
 
 CARRIAGE HORSES. - 
 
 Park Horses 
 
 15 to 15-3 
 
 1000 to 1150 
 
 
 Cab 
 
 15-2 to 16-1 
 
 1050 to 1200 
 
 
 ["Runabout 
 
 14-3 to 15-2 
 
 900 to 1050 
 
 ROAD HORSES. H 
 
 Roadster 
 
 15 to 16 
 
 900 to 1150 
 
 SADDLE HORSES. 
 
 'Five Gaited Saddler 
 
 Three Gaited > Light ) 
 Saddler ] Heavy j 
 
 (Light ) 
 Hunters j Middle V 
 ( Heavy ) 
 
 Cavalry Horses 
 
 15 to 16 
 14-3 to 16 
 
 15-2 to 16-1 
 15 to 15-3 
 
 900 to 1200 
 900 to 1200 
 
 1000 to 1250 
 950 to 1100 
 
 
 Polo Ponies 
 
 14 to 14-2 
 
 850 to 1000 
 
 MINING MULES 
 
 
 12 to 16 
 
 600 to 1350 
 
 COTTON MULES 
 
 
 13-2 to 15-2 
 
 750 to 1100 
 
 SUGAR MULES 
 
 
 16 to 17 
 
 1150 to 1300 
 
 FARM MULES 
 
 
 15-2 to 16 
 
 900 to 1250 
 
 DRAFT MULES . 
 
 
 16 to 17-2 
 
 1200 to 1600 
 
 (111. B. 122.)
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 29 
 
 MARKET REQUIREMENTS. 
 
 The factors that determine how well horses sell upon the mar- 
 ket are: Soundness, conformation, quality, condition, action, age, 
 color, education, and general appearance. To meet the market de- 
 mand, a horse should be serviceably sound, by which is meant one 
 that is as good as a sound horse so far as service is concerned and 
 able to do a reasonable amount of work without undue fatigue or 
 indications of a premature break-down. He may have slight blem- 
 ishes, but nothing is permitted that is likely to cause lameness or 
 soreness in any way. He must be good in wind and eyes, but may 
 have small splints and puffs, and a little rounding on the curb joint. 
 Broken wind, thick wind, side bones, unsound hocks such as curbs, 
 spavins, and thoroughpins, large splints, and buck knees are dis- 
 criminated against. If a horse is to do hard work with a minimum 
 amount of wear and give the longest possible period of service he 
 must possess a conformation indicative of strength, endurance, and 
 longevity, the indications of which are good feet, a good constitu- 
 tion, good feeding qualities, good bone, and symmetry of confor- 
 mation. For city use too much emphasis can hardly be placed upon 
 the requirement of good feet, for the old adage, no foot, no horse, 
 is still true ; but in horses for farm use it is not so important as they 
 rarely break down in the feet. A good constitution denotes health 
 and endurance which is indicated by a deep, capacious chest giving 
 sufficient room for well developed vital organs. Endurance is also 
 evidenced by the indications of a good feeder, which are a short 
 well muscled back and loins, a deep barrel with no tucking up of 
 the rear flank, and closely coupled (coupling is the distance from 
 the last rib to the hip). A good bone should have enough weight 
 to correspond with the size of the horse ; it should be of good quality 
 and must not be unduly small at knee or hock. Symmetry of form 
 is necessary for strength, correct proportions, and perfect devel- 
 opment. 
 
 In order that there may not be an undue amount of concussion 
 which would produce soreness or disease and render the period of 
 usefulness of the horse short, he should have an oblique shoulder, 
 a rather short cannon, a moderately long pastern set at an angle of 
 about 45 degrees. The hind pastern should be less oblique than 
 the front pastern with no tendency toward a conformation known 
 as coon footed (long and very low pasterns). The foot should be of 
 good size, the horn dense, the heel wide and high, permitting a 
 large healthy frog to serve as a cushion in breaking concussion. 
 Side bones are an unsoundness found most commonly on heavy 
 horses. They are more often found on a horse with a straight 
 shoulder, a short, straight pastern, and a narrow hoof head, as 
 horsemen would say, a post leg that produces stilted action. Since 
 the forequarters or front limbs of a horse carry the greater part of 
 the horse's weight they are often termed the weight carriers, and the 
 hind quarters the propellers. Because of this fact the set of the 
 shoulder, pastern, and foot is of great importance and should pos- 
 sess enough obliquity to give a free, easy movement to the action.
 
 30 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The width of the hips should be in keeping with the other parts of 
 the horse, but not prominent. The croup should be long, well mus- 
 cled and not too drooping. The seriousness of the objection to a 
 drooping croup will depend upon the class, but in any class it is 
 unsightly and detracts from the value of the horse. The tail should 
 be set high, well haired and stylishly carried. The quarters and 
 thighs should be heavily muscled according to the class to which 
 the horse belongs; the hocks large, strong, and free from puffs or 
 any unsoundness ; the cannon short and broad, the tendons and liga- 
 ments prominent and well defined. There should be no tying-in of 
 the tendons below the knee or hock, because it gives a light appear- 
 ance to the bone. The head should be of moderate size with clean 
 cut features ; large, mild eyes ; ears rather small and set not too far 
 apart. The head should be properly set on a neck of moderate length 
 with a rather thin, well developed crest. A large horse with a small 
 head is almost as unsightly as a small horse with a large one. A long- 
 legged, narrow-chested, wasp-waisted, loose-ribbed, long-coupled 
 horse is always to be avoided and is a cheap animal on the market. 
 The different classes possess special requirements of conformation 
 which will be discussed in detail elsewhere in this bulletin. 
 
 Quality. Quality in a horse is of prime importance. This 
 term when applied to horses has reference to their bones, skin, hair, 
 and muscles. Its presence is shown by clean cut features of the 
 head ; firm, clean bone ; tendons well defined ; close fitting glove-like 
 skin; hair fine and silky; an abundance of finish; and absence of 
 coarseness, but not necessarily a small bone. When slightly exerted 
 the skin will show clearly an intricate net work of veins. Coarse 
 hair is usually associated with a coarse skin and a soft spongy bone 
 which is weak and subject to disease. With quality the muscles 
 stand out prominently and are clearly defined which aids in giving 
 a horse finish. Quality is a strong indication of the extent of a 
 horse's endurance. These two characteristics are closely associated 
 and a horse lacking in quality is comparatively a cheap animal. 
 
 Condition. To be appreciated on the market horses must be 
 in good condition, carrying a thick covering of firm flesh and pos- 
 sessing a good coat of hair which gives them a sleek appearance. 
 Condition is most important in heavy horses such as draft horses, 
 chunks and wagon. Some men are making good profits by buying 
 feeders on the market and shipping them to the country to be put in 
 condition, after which they are reshipped and resold. Whether or 
 not this added flesh increases the animal's real value for utility and 
 longevity is not necessary to consider here; since the market de- 
 mands it, the producer can well afford to supply it. Careful esti- 
 mates on the value of horse flesh made by reliable authorities, put 
 it at 25 cents per pound on heavy horses weighing 1500 pounds and 
 upward. This fact has been verified by an experiment in fattening 
 horses for market conducted at this station. It can readily be seen 
 that the producer cannot afford to let some one else reap this profit. 
 
 Action. The action of a horse is not of equal importance in 
 all classes. There is probably no other one thing that counts for
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 31 
 
 more in bringing high prices in the carriage, road, and saddle 
 classes than action. In the other classes it does not count for BO 
 much, but every horse should have good action. He should be a 
 straight line mover, picking his front feet up and carrying them 
 straight forward, placing them down again without winging out or 
 in, or interfering. The hind feet should follow in the line of the 
 front feet, and work in unison without interfering, hitching, cross- 
 firing, or forging. The action should be strong, bold and full of 
 energy ; the form and height of action will depend upon the class to 
 which the horse belongs. This subject will be taken up more fully 
 under various classes. 
 
 Age. Horses sell best from five to eight years old, depending 
 upon the class, maturity, and soundness. Heavy horses such as 
 draft and chunks sell best from five to seven years old, but a well 
 matured four-year-old in good condition will find ready sale. Car- 
 riage, saddle, and road horses sell better with a little more age be- 
 cause they do not mature so early and their education is not com- 
 pleted as young as with heavy horses. They are most desired from 
 five to eight years old. 
 
 Color. As a rule the color of horses is not an important re- 
 quirement if they possess individual excellence. Almost any solid 
 color is not objected to on the market unless it is by a purchaser 
 who has a special order to fill. However, more discrimination is 
 made against color in light horses than in heavy horses. The rea- 
 son for this is that the one is for business and utility purposes, while 
 the other is principally for dress and pleasure. There is also more 
 discrimination made in color of animals that grade as choice than 
 there is in those that grade as medium and good. All solid colors 
 except white are in good demand, while a flea-bitten gray, a mealy 
 bay or one that will fade or wash out is not desirable. Choice steel 
 gray, dapple gray, and strawberry roan horses of the draft, eastern 
 chunk and wagon horse classes are in strong demand from show- 
 men, pnckers, brewers, wholesale mercantile houses, and firms who 
 want their teams to attract as much attention as possible and serve 
 as a walking advertisement. The demand is good for bays, browns, 
 blacks, chestnuts, sorrels, and roans; matched pairs sell better than 
 single horses. In the light horses, and especially in the carriage and 
 saddle classes, bays, browns, and chestnuts sell best, but a good 
 pair of well matched blacks or iron grays find ready sale. In the 
 fashionable trade a white horse is not wanted except for hearse pur- 
 poses and to fill an occasional demand for a cross match coaching 
 team. A more popular hearse horse is coal black with no white 
 markings, and he must also have a long flowing tail. Occasionally 
 they are accepted when slightly marked with white which is less 
 objectionable on the hind feet than in the face or on the front feet. 
 
 Education and Disposition. Every class calls for a horse of good 
 disposition and well educated for his work. If it is a draft horse he 
 should be a^free worker and a good puller, free from vice and bad 
 habits. If it is a carriage horse the requirements are the same but 
 he should be much better educated and mannered, and should be
 
 32 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 indifferent to sights and sounds such as cars, automobiles, etc., 
 which frighten many horses. It is readily apparent that a thor- 
 ough education is much more necessary in some classes of horses 
 than others, for on the crowded city streets where there are often large 
 numbers of pedestrians it is quite necessary and essential that a 
 horse should "keep a level head." 
 
 Sex. Sex is not of great importance in the market; however, 
 geldings sell better than mares for city use, as there is some liabil- 
 ity of mares being in foal, and if not, the recurrence of heat is ob- 
 jectionable; but for farm use and the southern trade, mares are pre- 
 ferred because farmers buy horses with the expectation of breeding 
 them. 
 
 Breed. The breed to which a horse belongs has but little in- 
 fluence upon his market value as long as he has individual excel- 
 lence; possessing this he will always find ready sale at a good price. 
 Some buyers, however, do discriminate against certain breeds, 
 claiming they are more subject to ills and lack stamina; hut this 
 is likely to be due to individuality more often than to breed. If a 
 horse belongs to the draft or chunk class (Southern chunks ex- 
 cepted) he is the more appreciated by buyers if he shows evidence 
 of a predominance of draft blood. 
 
 General Appearance. The general appearance of horses has 
 much to do with their market value. If able to shape themselves 
 well in harness very plain horses often make a stylish showing and 
 enchance their value materially. They should be spirited and 
 energetic, which generally comes from being well fed. They should 
 be well groomed, the hair short and sleek, lying close to the body 
 and possessing a lustre which is indicative of thrift. Clipping of 
 the foretops and limbs should not be practiced as it is an indication 
 of staleness or second-hand horses. The presence of the foretop 
 and feather leaves no doubt as to the freshness from the country. 
 An exporter remarked to the writer that for foreign trade it de- 
 preciated a horse $25.00 or more, to remove the foretop. The pull- 
 ing of the mane and docking of the tail should not be practiced as 
 this is the business of the dealer who caters to a certain class of 
 trade. The feet should be in good condition, solid, and of a good 
 length hoof, which is necessary to hold a shoe. It must be perfect- 
 ly evident that if a dealer retains a horse until he grows good feet 
 before being consigned to the market he must be bought corres- 
 pondingly cheap to recover this loss. 
 
 MARKET CLASSES. 
 
 A market class is an outgrowth of a demand that exists for 
 horses of a certain well defined, specified type, height, weight, con- 
 formation, and action. If a demand for a certain class should cease 
 to exist then there would no longer be such a market class; or if 
 there should arise a new and sufficient demand for a certain type 
 of horse, then there would be created a new class. The use to which 
 they are put, in a large measure, is responsible for and determines 
 the different market classes. On the Chicago market, which is the 
 largest horse market in the world today, are found six distinct mar-
 
 8 
 
 Cfl
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 35 
 
 ket classes, and these classes are divided into sub-classes which are 
 again divided into grades. The classes are draft horses, chunks, 
 wagon horses, carriage horses, road horses, and saddle horses. 
 
 The class embodies groups of horses of a general type, while 
 the sub-class is a division of the class and distinguishes horses of a 
 similar type but slightly different in size, weight or use to which 
 they are put. The grades (choice, good, medium, common, and 
 inferior) of the various sub-classes refer to quality, conformation, 
 action, and condition, the relative importance of which are not the 
 same in all classes. In draft horses, chunks, and wagon horses, the 
 relative importance of the factors are as in the order named; qual- 
 ity, conformation, condition, style, and action; while in the carri- 
 age, road, and saddle horse classes quality is followed by action, 
 conformation, and condition. A horse to grade as choice must ap- 
 proach the ideal type of conformation, possess quality and finish to 
 a marked degree, have style and action, be sound and in good con- 
 dition. A good horse should possess the essential qualities of his 
 class but need not have the fineness of finish, quality, style, action, 
 and condition necessary to grade as choice. A horse of medium 
 grade is likely to be plain in his make up with a tendency toward 
 coarseness and there is evidence of lack of quality, finish, and sym- 
 metry. In the case of a light horse it might be his action that 
 would place him in this grade. Common is the lowest grade found 
 in most of the classes. Such a horse is wanting in most of the es- 
 sentials that go to make him desirable. An inferior horse, as the 
 name indicates, is of the lowest grade. (111. B. 122.) 
 
 Draft Horses. Draft horses, whose principal work is to haul 
 heavy loads at the walk are divided into three sub-classes: Heavy 
 Draft, light Draft and Loggers, all of which are much of the same 
 type. The ideal Drafter is a rugged, heavy set, compactly built 
 horse with great weight and strength. Strength and endurance 
 are the principal equalities sought and are best secured by the horse 
 throwing weight into the collar rather than by muscular exertion 
 of the limbs. The Drafter should be a broad massive individual 
 with symmetry of bone and muscle, standing from 15-3 to 17-2 
 hands high and in good flesh weighing not less than 1600 pounds 
 for the lighter sorts. Since he does his work by throwing weight 
 into the collar the heavier the horse, other things being equal, the 
 more efficient he will be. Along with weight he should possess 
 moderately heavy bone with quality, indicating sufficient strength 
 and substance to carry his body and not give the appearance of 
 being top heavy. His height should result from depth of body 
 rather than length of leg ; in fact as a rule the medium short legged 
 horses possess more endurance than those with long legs. He 
 should be broad of chest with a large girth and not cut up in the 
 flank. His legs should set well under his body, for if they are 
 otherwise and he is very broad he will likely be inclined to roll, 
 causing laborious action. The back and coupling should be short 
 and the loin broad and well muscled, this region being the connect- 
 ing link joining the propellers to the weight carriers. The hips
 
 36 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 should be rounding and smooth; the croup, long and muscular; 
 the quarters, deep; the thighs, broad; the gaskins and cannons 
 relatively short. The head should be medium in size and neatly set 
 on a neck of good length with crest moderately heavy. (111. B. 122.) 
 
 Action. The walk is the principal gait to be considered with 
 Draft horses since they are not often required to do their work at 
 a faster gait. The action should be straight, smooth, and regular; 
 the stride long and open, full of energy and ambition, making them 
 fast walkers, and enabling them to cover considerable ground in a 
 short time. The trot is important principally as an index to the 
 action and ease of deportment. An awkward horse or one that 
 is not a line mover, or has some defect in his gait usually shows it 
 more readily at the trot than at the walk. 
 
 Demand. Draft horses are used by wholesale mercantile 
 houses, packers, brewers, coal dealers, contractors, lumbermen, and 
 firms having heavy teaming work. They are in demand in all 
 large cities, New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, and Buffalo 
 being especially active in the trade. The supply is much short 
 of the demand, causing sharp competition and consequently 
 Drafters are bringing good prices on the open market. 
 
 CHUNKS. 
 
 Usage has fixed the name of this class, which is significant of 
 the conformation of the horse rather than the use to which he is 
 put. However, the prefix given in the sub-class is rather indicative 
 of his use. Chunks are divided into three sub-classes, Eastern or 
 Export, Farm and Southern. At one time this class was known 
 as Boston Chunks, but as the trade has widened to other cities and 
 some exported, they are known by the general name of Eastern or 
 Export Chunks. They are most generally used in pairs or three 
 abreast to do the same work as Draft horses; but may be used in 
 pairs, in a four-in-hand or six-in-hand team. 
 
 Conformation, Height and Weight. The Eastern or Export 
 Chunk is for the most part much the same type of a horse in con- 
 formation as the drafter with the exception of size, he being a little 
 more blocky and compact. He stands from 15 to 16 hands high, 
 usually not over 15-3, and weighs from 1300 to 1550 pounds, de- 
 pending upon size and condition. His neck is often short, a little 
 shorter than that of a Drafter, and his bone a little lighter, though 
 this is not a requisite. 
 
 Action. Being required to do their work mostly at the walk 
 their action should be similar to that of a draft horse. The walk 
 should be elastic, quick, balanced, straight, step long, trot regular 
 and high without winging, rolling, interfering, or forging. 
 
 Demand. As the name implies Eastern or Export Chunks are 
 bought for the trade of eastern cities and for export. The demand 
 is strongest during March, April, and May ; but they usually bring 
 good prices through the fall and winter months, from October on. 
 There is a good demand for those that grade as good and 
 choice, but, as a rule there are enough of this class of horses in the 
 general supply found on the market to meet the demand.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 37 
 
 FARM CHUNKS. 
 
 Horses of this type may be found on the market at all seasons 
 of the year, but during the spring months they form an important 
 feature" of the trade. They are bought to be used on the farm and 
 are in most urgent need during the season when crops are being 
 planted. They are usually of mixed breeding, draft blood pre- 
 dominating and commonly known among farmers as all purpose 
 horses. Mares are more generally taken than geldings. 
 
 Conformation, Height and Weight. For this class low down 
 blocky horses are wanted, not so heavy as the eastern Chunks. 
 Farm Chunks are usually lighter in bone and often slightly blem- 
 ished or unsound. Since farmers do not usually care to pay for 
 high priced horses they are often compelled to accept those with 
 slight injuries such as small side bones, curbs, wire marks, etc. 
 In general the typical Farm Chunk should be a moderate sized, all- 
 round good individual, standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high and 
 weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds. 
 
 Action. Being lighter horses than the Eastern Chunks they 
 should be a little quicker and more active on foot. The varied 
 use to which horses are put on the farm requires that they be able to 
 trot readily if necessary. However, since the walk is their most im- 
 portant gait, they should be good walkers and do it with ease and 
 rapidity when drawing a load. 
 
 Demand. Farm Chunks are in strongest demand during the 
 spring months of February, March, and April. During the re- 
 mainder of the year they are slower sale and some of the better 
 grades having heavy bone are sold as Wagon Horses. 
 
 SOUTHERN CHUNKS. 
 
 Southern Chunks or as they are termed in some markets, 
 Southern horses, or Southerns are small horses that are bought by 
 dealers for the southern markets, many of them going to Memphis, 
 Tennessee; Jacksonville, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; Richmond and 
 Norfolk, Virginia, and other large southern towns. They are used 
 by southern planters for tilling their lands and for driving and 
 riding. The southern farmer does not cultivate deeply and the soils 
 are light consequently he does not require very large horses; how- 
 ever, each year the trend of the market is for larger horses for this 
 trade. 
 
 Conformation, Height, and Weight. Southern Chunks are 
 small horses standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high and weighing 
 from 800 to 1250 pounds. They are rather fine of bone possessing 
 an abundance of quality, and are more rangy in conformation than 
 any of the other Chunks, having more of the light horse blood. 
 The head should be rather small and neat, and the neck long and 
 slender, the ribs well sprung, giving a round barrel, and neatly 
 turned over the hips and croup. Many of them are similar to the 
 cheaper horses used on the light delivery wagons of cities. Buyers 
 for the best grades of Southern horses are very particular to get 
 sound, shapely, voung horses of the very best quality, and not 
 over six years old. Some horses in the common and inferior
 
 38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 grades are slightly blemished or may have a little more age than is 
 desired. 
 
 Action. Southern Chunks should have all-round good action. 
 Because of the fact that they possess more of the light horse blood 
 and build than of the draft, they should have better action than 
 either Eastern or Farm Chunks. The form of action in folding of 
 knees and flexing of hocks should be much the same as in Farm 
 Chunks except that there should be more snap and vigor in the 
 movements and less awkwardness. 
 
 Demand. The supply of Southern Chunks being larger than 
 the demand causes them to sell as comparatively cheap horses. As 
 a general rule the demand for southern horses begins in September 
 and October and gradually increases until January, February and 
 March, when the demand is greatest. From this time on trade 
 weakens, the summer months being usually dull, and revives again 
 in the autumn. 
 
 WAGON HORSES. 
 
 Under this general term are grouped horses which are used 
 principally where business requires quick delivery. Such horses 
 must be closely coupled, compactly built, with plenty of constitu- 
 tion and stamina. They must be good actors, have a good clean set 
 of limbs with plenty of bone and quality, and a good foot that will 
 stand the wear of paved streets. In this class are Express horses, De- 
 livery "Wagon horses, Artillery horses, and Fire horses. 
 
 EXPRESS HORSES. 
 
 Express horses are used by express companies in the collecting 
 and delivering of goods to and from railroad stations. Different 
 express companies use horses of slightly different size and weight, 
 this being determined by the nature and weight of goods handled 
 and territory from which trade is drawn. For instance, if the business 
 of a company is centrally located in a city, and depots are not far 
 apart, they use larger horses and load heavier than if the business is 
 done in the outlying parts of a city, and the depots a considerable dis- 
 tance apart, in which case lighter horses with more action are wanted. 
 They are used singly or in pairs, and the size of the horse will depend 
 on the weight of the wagon to which he is hitched. The lightest ones 
 are called money horses, as they are hitched to the lightest wagons to 
 deliver valuables, this kind of work demanding quick service. 
 
 Conformation, Height, and Weight. The typical Expresser is 
 rather an upstanding, deep bodied, closely coupled horse with good 
 bone, an abundance of quality, energy, and spirit. He should 
 stand from 15-3 to 16-2 hands high and weigh from 1350 to 1500 
 pounds in good flesh, the average express horse being 16 to 16-1 
 hands high and weighing around 1400 pounds in working condi* 
 tion. His head should be neat, his neck of good length and crest 
 well developed. His shoulder should be obliquely set, coupled 
 with a short, well muscled back and strong loin. His croup should 
 be broad, rounding and well muscled, his quarters deep and thighs 
 broad. He should not be goose-rumped nor cut up in the flank.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 39 
 
 His underpining should be of the very best, his cannons broad and 
 clean, and hoofs of a dense, tough horn of a waxy nature. 
 
 Action. The Express horse is required to do his work both 
 at the walk and trot, the latter being the principal gait. He should 
 be quick and active, able always to keep his feet well under him 
 and throw enough weight into the collar to move a heavy load at 
 the walk or a lighter load at the trot. As in the previous classes 
 he should be a straight-line mover with possibly a little more knee 
 and hock action. 
 
 DELIVERY WAGON HORSES. 
 
 Delivery Wagon horses or as they are often termed Wagon 
 Horses are similar to the Expressers, but the class is broader in 
 its scope, including horses of common and inferior grades as well 
 as medium, good, and choice. Generally speaking they are not so 
 large as Expressers and not as high grade animals ; most mercantile 
 firms are not such liberal buyers and consequently they get a 
 cheaper grade of horses. However, this is not always true as some 
 of the large department stores whose deliveries serve as an adver- 
 tisement will pay more for the very best than express companies, 
 thus getting very choice animals. 
 
 Conformation, Height, and Weight. The conformation re- 
 quirements are practically the same as for Express horses, except 
 they are not quite so large, standing from 15 to 16 hands and 
 weighing from 1100 to 1400 pounds. 
 
 Action. The action requirements are the same as for Express 
 horses in most cases, though some are not so good actors. 
 
 Demand. The demand for Express and Delivery Wagon 
 horses is good at all times of the year, though it is a little stronger 
 prior to the season when parcel-carting is greatest, such as during 
 the Holiday season and spring months. The demand for good to 
 choice Express horses is greater than the supply and as a result the 
 express companies are obliged to purchase from other grades as best 
 they can. 
 
 ARTILLERY HORSES. 
 
 Artillery horses conform very closely to the better grades of 
 Delivery Wagon horses of the same weight. The following speci- 
 fications, prepared under the direction of the Quartermaster Gen- 
 eral of the United States War Department, clearly set forth the re- 
 quirements. 
 
 The artillery horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior 
 class, and have quality; of a kind disposition, well broken to 
 harness, and gentle under the saddle with easy mouth and gaits, 
 and free and prompt action in the walk, trot, and gallop ; free from 
 vicious habits; without material blemish or defect, and otherwise 
 conform to the following descriptions: 
 
 A gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condition; 
 from 5 to 8 years old; weighing from 1,050 pounds, minimum 
 weight for leaders, to 1,200, maximum weight for wheelers, depend- 
 ing on height, which should be from 15-1 to 16 hands. 
 
 Head. Small and well set on neck; with cars small, thin, neat,
 
 40 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and erect; forehead broad and full; eyes, large, prominent and 
 mild, with well developed brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in 
 every respect; muzzle small and fine; mouth deep; lips thin and 
 firmly compressed; nostril large and fine; and branches of under- 
 jaw (adjoining neck) wide apart. 
 
 Neck. Moderately long and tapering toward the head, with 
 crest firm and longer than underside ; mane fine and intact. 
 
 Withers. Elevated, not unduly fine, well developed and mus- 
 cled. 
 
 Shoulders. Long, oblique, well packed with muscle, not too 
 heavy, smooth, rounded, and so formed as properly to support the 
 collar. 
 
 Chest. High, wide, very deep; plump in front, and full. 
 
 Fore Legs. Vertical, and properly placed; with elbow large, 
 long, prominent, clear of chest, and well placed; forearm wide, 
 thick, long, heavily muscled, and vertical. 
 
 Knees. Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide in front, well 
 situated, and well directed. 
 
 Back. Short, straight, and well muscled. 
 
 Loins. Broad, straight, very short and muscular. 
 
 Barrel. Large, increasing in size towards flanks, with ribs 
 well arched and definitely separated. 
 
 Hind Quarters. Wide, thick, very long, full, heavily mus- 
 cled, rounded externally, and well directed. 
 
 Tail. Fine and intact; well carried and firm. 
 
 Hocks. Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from front to rear, 
 and well directed. 
 
 Limbs. From knees and hocks downward, vertical, short, 
 wide laterally, with tendons and ligaments standing well out from 
 bone and distinctly defined. 
 
 Pasterns. Strong, medium length, not too oblique, and well 
 directed. 
 
 Feet. Medium size, circular in shape, sound; with horn dark, 
 smooth, and fine of texture ; sole moderately concave, and frog well 
 developed, sound, firm, large, elastic, and healthy. 
 
 Each horse will be subject to a rigid inspection, and any animal 
 that does not meet the above requirements should be rejected. 
 
 Demand. The demand for Artillery horses is rather spas- 
 modic, at some times being much greater than at others. Con- 
 tracts are given to the lowest responsible bidder to supply them in 
 large numbers by a specified time. Because of the rigid examina- 
 tion and requirements of official inspectors, many men have lost 
 money in filling contracts. (111. B. 122.) 
 
 FIRE HORSES. 
 
 The Fire horse is more rangy in conformation than the Ex- 
 presser, he being required to throw weight into the collar and often 
 to take long runs. The limits of the class are narrow, there being 
 only two grades, choice and good. The requirements are very rigid, 
 and the demand limited, coming only from the fire companies of 
 the cities.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 41 
 
 CARRIAGE HORSES. 
 
 This class includes Coach, Cob, Park, and Cab horses. As the 
 name carriage implies (a vehicle for conveying people) this class 
 of horses is used on the various heavy weight vehicles. In contra- 
 distinction to light harness horses of the Road class they are often 
 spoken of as heavy harness horses. They are smoothly turned, full 
 made, up-headed horses with an unusual amount of quality and 
 must possess to a marked degree, high action, with a fair amount of 
 speed. The neck should be long and arched, the head small and 
 clean cut with a neatly set ear. The shoulder should be oblique in 
 order to enable the horse to bring his knees as high as possible. 
 The width of breast should be in keeping with the conformation of 
 the horse, too much width being undesirable as well as too little. 
 The body should be of good depth and length ; the length being in 
 a long croup rather than a long back. The back should be short 
 and well muscled, the ribs springing well from the spine, giving a 
 round barrel. The hips should be rounding, the croup well mus- 
 cled, the tail set high, and the quarters deep. The limbs should 
 be free from blemishes or unsoundness and possessing an abundance 
 of quality with plenty of substance. In addition to being well 
 muscled, the limbs should be well proportioned in length of fore- 
 arm to cannon and joined to olique pasterns and good feet. 
 
 COACH HORSES. 
 
 Typical Coachers are smoothly turned, full made horses, with 
 a little more size and length of neck than other horses of the Car- 
 riage class. The principal requirement is high action combined 
 with beauty of form. The whole outline of the horse should be 
 carried out in easy, graceful curves, pleasing to the eye. 
 
 Conformation, Height, and Weight. Coach horses should 
 stand from 15-1 to 16-1 hands high and weigh from 1100 to 1250 
 pounds. The weight is not of such great importance with Coach 
 horses as with Draft and Wagon horses. The essential thing is to 
 get a horse that looks right and proper before the vehicle to which 
 he is hitched; for instance, the most desirable height for a park 
 drag, body break or heavy coach is 15-3 to 16 hands and weighing 
 around 1150 to 1200 pounds. For a light brougham a pair of 
 15-2 hand horses and weighing 1100 pounds is more appropriate. 
 A hearse requires a horse from 15-3 to 16-1 hands and weighing 1200 
 to 1250 pounds. The Coach horse should have a small, neat head, 
 well set on a nicely arched neck, free from stagginess. He should 
 have high, thin withers to which are smoothly joined oblique 
 shoulders. The forearm should be well muscled, the cannon of me- 
 dium length and broad, to which is joined a long sloping pastern 
 with a good foot. The foot should not be so rounding as the foot 
 of the Draft horse, the heel should be high and wide, giving sufficient 
 room for a large frog. The back should be short, the body deep, 
 round and closely coupled ; the loins short and broad. The hips should 
 be nicely rounded, the croup wide, muscular and not drooping; 
 the tail is often docked and ot for fashionable trade, but when left 
 long should be carried gracefully. A common fault with many
 
 42 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Coach horses is a short, staggy neck turned upside 'down, a flab rib, 
 a long back and a goose rump. 
 
 Action. Action in the Coach horse is one of the most essen- 
 tial qualities of this class. An individual with good conformation 
 will be a comparatively cheap horse if he is very deficient in style 
 and action ; in fact, it may bar him from 'being classed as a Coach 
 horse He must be a high stepper and quick in his movements, 
 flexing his hocks well under his body, folding his front legs well 
 at the knees and carrying them high toward his chin. He may bo 
 said to be a little more stately in his action than Cobs and Park 
 horses. In comparison with the action of the trotting horse for 
 speed, he should be snorter in his stride, lifting his knees higher 
 in front of his -body, and not dragging his hocks behind. The de- 
 mand is for trotters only, pacers being not accepted in this class. 
 
 SADDLE HORSES. 
 
 The requirements for Saddle horses are sureness of foot, ease 
 of carriage to the rider, good manners, and ease of control. To 
 possess these requirements they must have an oblique shoulder with 
 a moderately long sloping pastern, a short back, and a trifle more 
 height at the withers than on the hips. The head should be neat, 
 clean cut, and attractive, set on a moderately long neck. The fore- 
 head should be broad and there should be good width between the 
 jaw-bones. The length of neck is important as a long neck is 
 usually more supple and renders the mouth more flexible, which is 
 necessary for ease of handling and smoothness of carriage. A horse 
 that is a lugger cannot possess the good qualities he otherwise 
 would. The croup should 'be long, muscular, and not drooping, 
 with neatly set tail. His limbs should be strong and clean, and 
 his action quick and graceful. This class is composed of Five 
 Gaited Saddlers, Three Gaited Saddlers, Hunters, Cavalry horses 
 and Polo ponies. 
 
 FIVE GAITED SADDLE HORSES. 
 
 Five Gaited Saddle horses, sometimes spoken of as gaited 
 Saddle horses or American Saddle horses, are distinctly an American 
 product. A recognized type has been brought about by skillful selec- 
 tion and breeding for more than half a century. The principal re- 
 quirements are that they possess at least five of the recognized distinct 
 gaits under the saddle, viz., walk, single-foot, or rack, running-walk 
 or fox-trot, trot, and canter. 
 
 Conformation, Height, and Weight. The Five Gaited Saddler 
 should stand from 15 to 16 hands high and weigh from 900 to 1200 
 pounds, the most desirable height being 15-2 to 15-3 hands and 
 weight around 1,050 to 1,150 pounds. He should be of a kind dis- 
 position, have a good mouth, possess courage and ambition, and 
 the conformation of a weight carrier. His head should be fine, 
 clean cut, and foreedy looking, his neck long, arched, and set on an 
 oblique shoulder with muscles extending well into the back, the 
 withers high and well finished. An oblique shoulder is imperative 
 or he will not be able to go the required gaits with ease to himself 
 and rider. In order to carry weight well he should possess a strong
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 43 
 
 level, short back and be closely coupled. His legs and quarters 
 should be well muscled, croup not drooping, and he should carry 
 a long, flowing tail (sometimes spoken of as a water spout tail). 
 
 Action. The action of a Five Gaited horse should be free, easy 
 and frictionless with no inclination to mix in his gaits. The walk 
 and trot should be bold and vigorous, the stride of good length but 
 not unduly long, and quick to recover. The action need not be ex- 
 tremely high but he should keep his feet well under his body at all 
 times so there will be little danger of stumbling or falling in case he 
 should slip. The running-walk is discriminated against by some as 
 it is claimed to be conducive to stumbling. The rack should be 
 regular and rhythmical of the one, two, three, four order and should 
 not have side motion in either feet, legs or body, which produces 
 roughness when going fast. In cantering the horse should be taught 
 to lead with either leg and go slow or fast according to the pleasure 
 of the rider. 
 
 Demand. The demand for Five Gaited horses is good and 
 comes from pleasure seeking equestrians, cattlemen, army officers, 
 and people looking for easy riding horses. They are produced 
 largely by the use of pure bred American Saddle horse stock, especi- 
 ally on the sire's side, most of them being bred in Missouri, Ken- 
 tucky, Southern Illinois, Indiana, and some in other states. 
 
 CAVALRY HORSES. 
 
 American horses have made good records for themselves as 
 faithful and enduring servants in rank and file, not only in the 
 American navy but in the British army as well. During the Span- 
 ish-American AVar remounts of Uncle Sam's troups which were sent 
 to the Philippine Islands stood service so well under trying condi- 
 tions that the British Government was attracted to them. When 
 the South African war broke out the English Government executed 
 large orders for American horses to be sent to South Africa as Troop- 
 ers. Here they maintained their supremacy and as a result large 
 numbers have been taken to England where they came in competi- 
 tion with English horses on their native soil. 
 
 Many of the Cavalry horses selected for export have been range 
 bred and not of the best type and conformation. In comparison 
 with the Cavalry horses selected by the United States Government 
 for army use most of them would grade as common and medium, 
 and a few grade as good. The Quartermaster General of the war 
 department has sent out the following specifications as the require- 
 ments for an American Cavalry horse: 
 
 The Cavalry horse must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, 
 and have quality ; gentle and of a kind disposition ; thoroughly 
 broken to the saddle, with light and elastic mouth, easy gaits, and 
 free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop ; also free from 
 vicious habits, without material blemish or defect ; and otherwise to 
 conform to the following description: A gelding of uniform and 
 hardy color, in good condition ; from four to eight years old ; weigh- 
 ing from 950 to 1,100 pounds, depending on height, which should be 
 from 15 to 15-3 hands.
 
 44 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Head. Small and well set on neck ; with ears small, thin, neat 
 and erect ; forehead broad and full ; eyes large, prominent, and mild, 
 with well developed brow and fine eyelid; vision perfect in every 
 respect; muzzle small and fine; mouth deep; lips thin and firmly 
 compressed; nostrils large and fine, and branches of under jaw (ad- 
 joining neck) wide apart. 
 
 Neck. Light, moderately long, and tapering toward the head, 
 with crest firm and longer than underside; mane fine and intact. 
 
 Withers. Elevated, not unduly fine, well developed and 
 muscled. 
 
 Shoulders. Long, oblique and well muscled. 
 
 Chest. Full, very deep, moderately broad, and plump in front. 
 
 Fore Legs. Vertical, and properly placed; with elbow large, 
 long, prominent, and clear of chest ; forearm large at the elbow, long 
 and heavily muscled. 
 
 Knees. Neatly outlined, large, prominent, wide in front, well 
 situated, and well directed. 
 
 Black. Short, straight, and well muscled. 
 
 Loins. Broad, straight, very short, and muscular. 
 
 Barrel. Large, increasing in size toward the flanks, with ribs 
 well arched and definitely separated. 
 
 Hind Quarters. Wide, thick, very long, full, heavily muscled, 
 rounded externally, and well directed. 
 
 Tail. Fine and intact, well carried and firm. 
 
 Hocks. Neatly outlined, lean, large, wide from front to rear, 
 well situated, and well directed. 
 
 Limbs. From knees and hocks downward vertical, short, wide, 
 laterally, with tendons and ligaments standing well out from bone 
 and distinctly defined. 
 
 Pasterns. Strong, medium length, not too oblique, and well 
 directed. 
 
 Feet. Medium size, circular in shape, sound; with horn dark, 
 smooth, and of fine texture; sole moderately concave, and frog well 
 developed, sound, firm, large, elastic, and healthy. 
 
 Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection, and any ani- 
 mal that does not meet the above requirements should be rejected. 
 
 Demand. Cavalry remounts for the United States War De- 
 partment are purchased as needed through contract orders, the con- 
 tract being let to the lowest responsible bidder. In filling orders 
 dealers are often obliged to educate many of the recruits to the sad- 
 dle in order to meet the specified requirements. During the five 
 years 1901 to 1905 there have been purchased 11,496 horses, or an 
 average of 2,299 per year. The largest purchase in a single year 
 was in 1901 when 4,179 head were secured. The Cavalry horse is a 
 closely built, compact animal with plenty of substance and quality. 
 (111. B. 122.) 
 
 GLOSSARY OF SOME HORSE AND MULE MARKET TERMS. 
 
 A bull. A horse so windy that he cannot stand much exertion 
 without choking.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 45 
 
 A few hairs off. A skin blemish not haired over; usually a 
 wire mark which may be either large or small. 
 
 A hole in. Used in speaking of an animal that is believed to 
 be defective in some manner but which at present is not apparent. 
 
 An Indian. A wild or vicious horse difficult to handle in 01 
 out of the stall. 
 
 At the halter. See No. 6, auction rules. 
 
 Beefy hocks. Thick meaty hocks lacking in quality. 
 
 Bench legged. See knock kneed. 
 
 Blue eye. An unsound eye with blue appearance. The sight 
 may or may not be entirely gone. 
 
 Bobber or jig back. A horse or mule that wobbles in hind 
 quarters when he moves, due to an unsound or weak back in the 
 region of the loin. 
 
 Boggy in hocks. Bog spavins. 
 
 Bow legged. Too wide apart at the knees, the opposite of knock 
 kneed. 
 
 Bowed tendon. An enlarged tendon back of the cannon due 
 to an injury. 
 
 Broken knees. Knees which have had the skin broken from 
 a fall or a bruise and much enlarged. 
 
 Buck kneed. Knees bent forward when standing. 
 
 Bull pen. An auction ring at any market where horses are 
 sold. 
 
 Bush. To deduct a part of a stated sale price on account of a 
 blemish or unsoundness not mentioned or not apparent at time of 
 sale, or for other reasons. 
 
 Calf kneed. Knees bent too far back, the opposite of buck 
 kneed. 
 
 Capped hock. The point of the hock back of the web enlarged. 
 Caused by a bruise of the bursa. 
 
 Car bruised. Bruised in car in shipping. If freshly done swell- 
 ing and inflammation will be present. 
 
 Cartilage. Prominent lateral cartilage or incipient side bone. 
 
 Chancy. Purchased at a moderate price because of an uncer- 
 tainty with prospects for developing into something good. 
 
 Cock ankle. Standing bent forward on the fetlocks, more 
 often on the hind ones. 
 
 Coon footed. Long and very low pasterns. 
 
 Coupling. The space or connection between the dorsal verte- 
 brae and the pelvis on top of the back. An animal that has a long 
 coupling is too long in the lumbar vertebra). This is best measured 
 by the distance of last rib from hip. 
 
 Cow hocked. Standing with hocks together and hind toes out. 
 
 Crampy. In hind legs raising either one or both legs up 
 with a jerk. More apparent when the animal has been standing 
 and is cool. 
 
 In the back. When the head is elevated and the animal is com- 
 pelled to move backward he raises his tail and shows a quivering of 
 the flanks, soreness of the loin and an inclination to drag his feet.
 
 46 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Cribber. An animal having the vice of biting or setting the 
 teeth against something and "sucking wind." 
 
 Cross firing. Hitting one of the fore feet with the opposite 
 hind foot when traveling. 
 
 Curb. An injury or sprain of the ligament at the back of the 
 hock which usually causes an enlargement. 
 
 Curby hock. The back of the hock is rounding when viewed 
 from the side. 
 
 Cushion. An enlarged bursa occurring just below the hock 
 near the forward edge on the outside of the cannon. A Michi- 
 gan pad. 
 
 Cutting. Interfering. 
 
 Docked. Having the end of the tail cut off. 
 
 Docked and set. By an operation the end of the tail is cut off 
 and the stump is set up. 
 
 Dummy. A horse whose brain is affected, the cause usually 
 being overfeeding and lack of exercise. The symptoms are listless- 
 ness and hesitancy in moving; a vacant stare in the eyes and a 
 proneness to cock the ears and look sideways and upward ; also, the 
 holding of hay and feed in the mouth without any attempt at mas- 
 tication. 
 
 Ewe neck. A deficiency of muscling causing a depression at 
 the top of the neck just in front of the withers. 
 
 Falls out of bed. Pulls back on halter rope. 
 
 Feather in eye. A mark across the eyeball not touching the 
 pupil, often caused by an injury. It may or may not impair the 
 sight. 
 
 Filled in hocks. May mean either bog spavins or thorough- 
 pins though most generally the former. 
 
 Fistula. Fistulous withers. An abscess occurring in the re- 
 gion of the withers. 
 
 Forging. Striking the front shoes with the toe of the hind 
 ones. 
 
 Founder. Inflammation of the feet causing lameness. Tech- 
 nically known as laminitis. 
 
 Glass-eye. See wall-eye. 
 
 Goose rump. A short steep croup and narrow at point of the 
 buttock. 
 
 Gristle. An incipient side bone. 
 
 Halter puller. Pulls back on halter rope. 
 
 Hand. -A inches. Horses are measured at the highest point 
 on the withers in terms of hands. 14-2 would mean 14 hands and 
 2 inches, or 58 inches. 
 
 Heavey. Having the heaves. 
 
 Hipped. Having the point of one hip broken over so that it 
 appears lower than when normal. It does not materially impair 
 usefulness. 
 
 Hitching. Having a shorter stride in one hind leg than the 
 other. 
 
 Hog back. A reached back, the opposite from sway back. 
 
 Hollow back. A sway back.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 47 
 
 Interfering. Striking the fetlock or cannon with the opposite 
 foot as it passes, either in front or behind. 
 
 Jack. A bone spavin. 
 
 Jibber. An unguidable horse, often "green." 
 
 Knee banger. One that interferes, hitting his knees. 
 
 Knee sprung. Over on the knees caused by relaxation of the 
 extensor muscles, sometimes spoken of as buck knees. 
 
 Knock kneed. The front legs bent in at the knees with feet 
 wide apart. Sometimes called bench legged. 
 
 Legs go. See No. 5, auction rules. 
 
 Light in the timber. Light boned, especially in the cannons. 
 
 Little green. Not thoroughly broken. Often means an animal 
 that will not pull. 
 
 Lugger. One that pulls or lugs on the bit. 
 
 Lunker. An exceptionally big^ heavy boned horse. 
 
 Makes a little noise. A very little windy. 
 
 Michigan pad. A puff or cushion that occurs just below the 
 hock on the outside of the hind cannon near the forward edge. The 
 same as outside cushion. 
 
 Moon blindness. Periodic ophthalmia. 
 
 Nicked. An operation severing the cords on one side of the 
 tail to straighten it. 
 
 Nigger heeled. Front toes turned out, heels in. 
 
 Old Skin or Skate. A worn out animal. 
 
 Outside Cushion. The same as cushion or Michigan pad. 
 
 Over reach. Reaching farther forward with the hind feet in 
 traveling than where the front ones were picked up. 
 
 Paddle. Winging out with the front feet. 
 
 Parrot mouth. The upper sub-maxillary longer than the lower 
 jaw. 
 
 Periodic ophthalmia. Inflammatory affection of the interior of 
 the eye. It usually disappears in a week or ten days and returns 
 again in a few weeks. The cycles are often completed in about a 
 month and because of this fact many people believe the trouble 
 is in some way related to the moon changes, hence the name "moon 
 blindness." 
 
 Pig eye. A small eye set too much in the head and with thick 
 eyelids. It accompanies, in general, animals with a lymphatic tem- 
 perament and with imperfect vision. 
 
 Pigeon toed. Front toes turned in, the opposite of nigger 
 heeled. 
 
 Pink eye. A disease causing a whte scum to form over the 
 eye, often causing blindness. 
 
 Poll evil. A fistulous condition or abscess on or near the poll. 
 
 Pones. Lumps of fat on a mule's body. 
 
 Posting. Rising and falling in the saddle with each alterna- 
 tive step when the horse is trotting. 
 
 Puffs. Wind galls, bog spavins, or thoroughpins. 
 
 Quarter crack. A vertical crack on the side of the hoof often 
 running to coronet.
 
 48 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Quittor. A fistulous opening upon the heel or coronary band 
 of the foot. 
 
 Rat tail. A tail with but little hair. 
 
 Rejects. Animals not filling the guaranty and consequently 
 turned back on the hands of the seller. 
 
 Rickety. The same as bobber or jig back. 
 
 Ringbone. A bony growth on the upper or lower pastern bones 
 and most always causing lameness. 
 
 Ripper. An exceptionally good big animal. 
 
 Roach back. See hog back. 
 
 Roarer. Defective in wind. Very windy. 
 
 Rough behind. Having a bone spavin. 
 
 Rounding hock. Having a curb. 
 
 Sand crack. A vertical crack in the middle of the hoof often 
 running to coronet. 
 
 Scalping. When speeding, the horse strikes the front side of 
 the hind coronet, pastern or cannon against the front toe. Also, 
 applied to a trader that buys and sells animals on the market. 
 
 Seam in hoof. A scar in hoof from an injury of some kind, 
 such as cracks, wire marks, calks, etc. 
 
 Seedy toe. A separation of the walls of the toe from the sen- 
 sitive laminae. Very often the end of the toes turn slightly up. 
 
 Serpentine. An animal that extends and withdraws his tongue 
 as a serpent. 
 
 Serviceably sound. See No. 2, auction rules. 
 
 Shoe boil. A bruise at elbow which results in an abscess, 
 caused from the animal lying on his foot in such a way that the 
 heel of the shoe strikes the elbow. 
 
 Sickle hock. Too much bend in the hock. A conformation 
 predisposed to curbs. 
 
 Side bone. An ossified lateral cartilage occuring on either side 
 at the top of the foot. 
 
 Slab sided. Flat ribbed. 
 
 Smoke his pipe. An animal with lip torn where the bridle bit 
 rests. 
 
 Smoky eye. A clouded eye with whitish appearance. 
 
 Smooth mouth. An aged horse. 
 
 Sound. See No. 1, auction rules. 
 
 Speck in eye. A spot on the eye not covering the pupil. It 
 may or may not impair the sight. 
 
 Speedy cutting. Striking the inside of the hind cannon against 
 the front foot as the hind foot is brought forward and passes the 
 front foot on the outside in over-reaching. This only happens in 
 speedy horses. 
 
 Splay footed. Nigger heeled. 
 
 Splint. A bony growth on the cannon bone occurring most 
 often on the front legs and either on the inside or out, but more 
 often on the inside. 
 
 Stands a little careless in front. Knees sprung or buck" kneed.
 
 49 
 
 Stringy. String-halt. A convulsive action in the hind legs 
 flexing either one or both up with a jerk. 
 
 Stump sucker. A cribber. 
 
 Sucker. An animal with some defect which is not always ap- 
 parent. 
 
 Sweeney. Atrophied shoulder muscles causing a depression. 
 
 Thick neck. A neck too thick at the shoulder for a collar to 
 fit well. 
 
 Thoroughpins. Puffiness occurring in the web of the hock. 
 
 Tongue toiler. Permitting the tongue to hang out. 
 
 Trephined. A hole in the jaw bored for removing a molar 
 tooth. 
 
 Trot out short. Sore in front having a short stride. 
 
 Wall-eye. The iris a pearly white color, due to a lack of pig- 
 ment. Sometimes called glass-eye. 
 
 Weaver. Continual swaying back and forth when standing in 
 the stall. 
 
 Wind and work. See No. 3, auction rules. 
 
 Wind galls. Puffs occurring at the upper part of the fetlock 
 joints. 
 
 Windy. One that whistles or roars when exerted. 
 
 Whistler. Defective in wind. See windy. 
 
 Winging. Throwing the front feet out or in when traveling. 
 
 Worker. See No. 4, auction rules. (111. B. 122.) 
 
 AUCTION RULES. 
 
 [NOTE. In the auction ring sales are made under certain well 
 understood rules which are published and are announced from the 
 auction stand, recorded and stand as a guaranty. The following are 
 the principal rules which govern sales in the auction ring. Excep- 
 tions to these rules may be announced from the auction stand point- 
 ing out the defects, in which case they are recorded and go with the 
 horse.] 
 
 Sound. Perfectly sound in every way. 
 
 Serviceably sound. Virtually a sound animal, barring slight 
 blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness in any way. 
 His wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or streak in the eye 
 which does not affect the sight will be considered serviceably sound 
 as long as the pupil of the eye is good. He must not be lame or sore 
 in any way. 
 
 Wind and work. The only guaranty this carries with it is that 
 the animal has good wind and is a good worker. 
 
 Work only. He must be a good worker and everything else 
 goes with him. No other guaranty than to work. 
 
 Legs go. Everything that is On the animal's legs go with him ; 
 nothing is guaranteed except that he must not be lame or crampy. 
 He must, however, be serviceably sound in every other respect. 
 
 At the halter. Sold just as he stands without any recommenda- 
 tions. He may be lame, vicious, balky, kicker or anything else. 
 The purchaser takes all the risk. The title only is guaranteed. 
 (111. B. 122.)
 
 50 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 FEEDING HORSES. 
 
 The problem of horse feeding is one which each feeder must 
 solve more or less for himself. The question regarding what is and 
 what is not a satisfactory feed will vary more or less with the time 
 and place and the varying conditions under which the feeding is to 
 be done. While the opinions of experienced men differ as to the 
 value of this food and of that food, yet it is evident that the actual 
 food requirements of a horse performing a given amount of work 
 cannot vary as a result of a change of opinion on the part of the 
 feeder. The animal needs a certain amount of food to nourish his 
 body and produce the energy that is required of him. With horses 
 as with all animals including man, the real problem is to supply suf- 
 ficient nourishing material to build up the body, repair its waste and 
 furnish it with the energy necessary to perform the required work. 
 It makes no difference whether it be the work that goes on inside the 
 body, as the beating of the heart, movements of breathing, etc. ; or 
 whether the work is performed outside of the body, as hauling a 
 load or to perform any other kind of labor. The body temperature 
 must also be maintained at the expense of the food ingredients thai 
 produce heat. Whether this material is burned in the body for 
 maintaining the body temperature, or whether the necessary heat 
 results from internal muscular work, does not necessarily concern 
 the feeder. The problem of feeding horses is somewhat different 
 from that of feeding many other domestic animals. Beef cattle, 
 mutton sheep and pigs are fed to increase gains in weight, that is to 
 fatten them. Milch cows are fed for the purpose of maintaining the 
 body and to produce abundant secretion of milk rather than fat. 
 In the same way fowls are fed for the production of eggs. Horses, 
 however, are fed almost universally as beasts of burden. They are 
 maintained for the work which they do, whether it be in drawing a 
 load, carrying a rider or propelling a vehicle at extreme speed; the 
 horse is maintained for that particular kind of labor. The most 
 satisfactory test of a practical feeding ration for work horses is that 
 it enables the horses to perform the required labor and to maintain 
 a constant bodily weight. If the animal loses weight, it is evident 
 that the ration is insufficient ; if he gains in weight, he may become 
 too fat, which is evident that more food is given than is needed or 
 that the ration does not contain the proper food constituents. If a 
 working horse is in good condition, it is seldom desirable to induce 
 any considerable gain in weight. The most satisfactory ration must 
 of necessity be made of materials which are wholesome and are rel- 
 ished by the horse. This ration should also be secured at a reason- 
 able cost. In quantity it must be abundant enough to meet all 
 bodily requirements, but not so abundant that any marked gain in 
 weight will be noted. 
 
 Principles of Nutrition. The principles of nutrition or nour- 
 ishing are practically the same in the case of all animals including 
 man. The study of foods, or feeding stuffs, has shown beyond ques- 
 tion that, although they differ so much in texture and appearance, 
 they are in reality made up of a small number of constituents that
 
 FIG. i. A FIELD CASE OF SWAMP FEVER, ABOUT 
 
 ONE MONTH BEFORE DEATH. 
 
 DEPT. OF AGE. 
 
 FIG. 2. SAME HORSE AS SHOWN IN FIG. i. ABOUT 
 
 ONE WEEK BEFORE DEATH. NOTE THE 
 
 SWEI DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 A CHOICE DRAFT MULE, HEIGHT i8\ HANDS, WEIGHT, 1,900 POUNDS. NOTE His SMOOTH- 
 NESS OF FORM, COMBINED WITH QUALITY AND FINISH FOR A MULE OF SUCH 
 UNUSUAL SIZE. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 53 
 
 in a general way are quite easily understood. The chief constitu- 
 ents are: Protein, Fats, Carbohydrates, Mineral Matter. 
 
 Protein is a name given to a group of food constituents that 
 contain nitrogen or nitrogenous compounds. This group is made 
 up of true proteids and albumens, such as the gluten of wheat, 
 white of egg, etc. 
 
 Fat includes the true vegetable fats and oils, like the oil of 
 cotton seed as well as vegetable wax, etc. In brief, it may be stated 
 that it includes, as it is used in this connection, all those substances 
 that are dissolved out of the food by ether and is known as an ether 
 extract. 
 
 Carbohydrates include starches, sugars, crude or woody fibre, 
 etc. Carbohydrates are sometimes divided by chemists into groups, 
 as nitrogen free extract and crude fibre. 
 
 Mineral matter includes the inorganic bodies present in the 
 form of salts in the juices and tissues of different feeding stuffs, 
 some of the principal elements of which are sodium, potassium, cal- 
 cium, sulphur, etc. The term ash is often and very appropriately 
 used to express this matter; since the mineral matter represents that 
 which is left when the food in question is burned. 
 
 Functions of Food. 1. To supply material to build up the 
 animal body, and to repair waste of the body through work, exer- 
 cise, etc. 2. To yield energy. 
 
 The chemical composition of foods serves as a basis for much 
 of their value for building and repairing the various tissues of the 
 body. The value of energy, however, must be learned in another 
 way. The most usual way of measuring energy is in terms of heat, 
 a calorie being taken as a unit. This is the amount of heat which 
 would be required to raise the temperature of one kilogram (about 
 2 1-5 pounds) of water one degree C., or about 1.8 degrees F. In- 
 stead of this, the unit of mechanical energy, the "foot-ton" (the 
 force which would lift one ton one foot) may be used, but it is not 
 as convenient. One calorie corresponds very nearly to 1.54 foot- 
 tons. In compounding a feeding ration the relation between the 
 quantities of nitrogen compounds in the food and the nitrogen free 
 compounds is called the "nutritive ration." In calculating this 
 ratio one pound of fat is taken as equivalent to 2.25 pounds of 
 carbohydrates; this being approximately the ratio of their fuel 
 values. So that the nutritive ratio is actually that of the protein 
 to the carbohydrates plus 2.25 times the feed. All the organs and 
 tissues of the body contain nitrogen. Protein is the only constitu- 
 ent of the food which supplies this element, and is therefore essen- 
 tial for building and repairing bodily tissues. Protein, however, 
 and carbohydrates may be burned within the body, and therefore 
 serve as a source of energy. The mineral matter in food is required 
 for a number of different purposes; a considerable amount being 
 needed in the growing animal for the formation of the bony skele- 
 ton, teeth, nails, hoofs, etc. ; some is also present in the various organs 
 and tissues. The mineral matter cannot be regarded as a source of 
 energy, since it cannot be burned within the body. The water
 
 54 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 present in food is not used in the sense that it serves for building 
 tissues for yielding energy, but it is necessary to carry the food in 
 the digestive process, to dilute the blood and for many other pur- 
 poses. The oxygen of the air is required by all living animals for 
 the burning or oxidation of the fuel constituents of the food. When 
 foods are burned in the body they give up the latent energy or heat 
 present in them. The amount of work performed by an animal, 
 as the horse, for convenience in measurement, may be resolved into 
 several factors: (1), the energy expended in chewing, swallowing, 
 digesting of food, beating of the heart, circulation of the blood, etc. ; 
 (2), the energy which is expended in moving the body, walking, 
 trotting, etc., which is usually spoken of as energy required for 
 progress; (3), the energy which is expended in carrying a rider, 
 as in the case of the saddle horse or drawing a load, which is ordi- 
 narily spoken of as labor or work. Work may be measured as 
 foot-tons or foot-pounds. A foot-pound is the amount of energy ex- 
 pended in raising one pound one foot, and a foot-ton is the amount 
 of energy expended in raising one ton one foot. A horse-power, as 
 the term is ordinarily used, expresses the power equivalent to 550 
 foot-pounds per second, or the power required to raise 33,000 foot 
 pounds per minute. Work may also be measured in terms of calories 
 or heat. One calorie corresponds very nearly to 1.54 foot-tons. 
 (Agr. Dep. F. B. 170.) 
 
 EXPERIMENTS .CONDUCTED WITH HORSES. 
 
 The tests made in horse feeding, which form the basis for this 
 bulletin, are as follows: (1) The determination of the digestibility 
 of timothy hay by horses. (2) The determination of the digestibil- 
 ity of whole oats by horses. (3) The determination of the digestibil- 
 ity of ground oats by horses. (4) The determination of the diges- 
 tibility of shelled corn by horses. (5) The determination of the di- 
 gestibility of corn meal by horses. (6) The determination of the di- 
 gestibility of the new corn product by horses. (7) Tests of the use 
 of the new corn product as a subtsitute for hay in horse feeding. 
 
 SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL RESULTS. 
 
 ruminants. 
 Corn 
 
 Feeding concentrated foods or grain with hay decreased the digesti- 
 bility of the hay. (5) It is impossible to maintain horses on a grain 
 ration alone; they must have a long forage. (6) Making a "mixed 
 feed" of the grain and long forage is the best manner of feeding 
 horses. (7) The new corn product was better digested by horses 
 than timothy hay. (8) Grinding fodder to the condition of the new 
 corn products or of coarse bran does not destroy its value as long 
 forage. (9) The new corn product was successfully used as a sub- 
 stitute for hay in horse feeding, (Md, E, S, Bui, 51.)
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 
 
 55 
 
 Rations Actually Fed to Horses and Digestible Nutrients and 
 Energy in Rations Calculated to Basis of 1,000 Pounds Live Weight. 
 
 Kind of horses. 
 
 Weight of horses. 
 
 Rations 
 actually fed. 
 
 Nutrients in ration per 
 1.000 pounds live 
 weight. 
 
 Digestible nutrients in 
 ration per 1.000 pounds 
 live weight. 
 
 Energy in digestible 
 nutrients. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 1 
 
 N i trogen-free 
 extract. 
 
 V 
 
 A 
 
 U3 
 V 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 CJ 
 
 Protein. 
 
 1 
 
 N i trogen-free 
 extract. 
 
 Crude fiber. 
 
 ARMY HORSES. 
 
 United States: 
 Cavalry 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.060 
 
 1.125 
 1,025 
 
 1.200 
 1,050 
 
 Pounds 
 (Oats, \i 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 [2,4 
 
 [2.00 
 {1.84 
 
 }2.38 
 
 [2.06 
 
 Lbs. 
 0.90 
 
 .84 
 .78 
 
 .18 
 6 
 
 Lbs. 
 12.82 
 
 11.96 
 11.39 
 
 5.87 
 10.42 
 
 Lbs. 
 4.95 
 
 4.62 
 4.80 
 
 ^2.34 
 3.87 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.25 
 
 1.16 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.76 
 1.40 
 
 Lbs. 
 0.57 
 
 .53 
 
 .48 
 
 .05 
 .40 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 8.00 
 
 7.48 
 6.88 
 
 3.58 
 6.97 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.97 
 
 1.84 
 1.94 
 
 .92 
 1.44 
 
 Calo- 
 rtes. 
 
 23.300 
 21.750 
 20.250 
 
 11,855 
 19.935 
 
 Artillery 
 
 (Oats. 12 
 
 Mules 
 
 1 Hay, 14 
 i Oats 9 
 
 
 HORSES WITH 
 LIGHT WORK. 
 
 Driving horse. 1 
 VV y o m i n g > 
 Station. 
 
 Carriage horse 
 Average 
 
 ( Alfalfa, 21.25 
 (Straw. 3.2.... 
 
 1 Oats, 10- 
 1 Hay. 12 
 
 
 2.22 
 
 .47 
 
 8.15 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.58 
 
 .22 
 
 5.27 
 
 1.18 
 
 15.895 
 
 Fire company 
 horses: 
 
 Boston Mass 
 Chicago. Ill 
 
 1.400 
 1,350 
 
 t Ground grain 
 \ 9.38. 
 1 Hay 18 
 
 U 
 
 f.,00 
 
 .68 
 
 .43 
 
 9.57 
 6.77 
 
 4.57 
 3.50 
 
 .87 
 .42 
 
 .41 
 
 .24 
 
 6.14 
 3.70 
 
 1.73 
 1.45 
 
 18,000 
 11.365 
 
 (Oats, 4 
 ( Hay.15 
 
 Average of 6. in 
 eluding above. 
 
 General average 
 for light work. 
 
 HORSES WITH MOD 
 ERATE WORK. 
 
 Express horses: 
 
 Richmond. Va.. I 
 summer. f 
 
 Jersey City. N. J. 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Average of 4, in- 
 cluding above. 
 
 Cab horses: 
 Washington. D. C. 
 San Francisco. Cal. 
 
 Average of 4. in- 
 cluding above. 
 
 
 1.35 
 
 .56 
 
 7.95 
 
 3.20 
 
 .78 
 
 .35 
 
 4.99 
 
 1.26 
 
 14.555 
 
 
 
 1.57 
 
 54 
 
 8.00 
 
 3.18 
 
 .99 
 
 .32 
 
 5.06 
 
 124 
 
 14.890 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,325 
 1.325 
 
 (Corn. 4 67.... 
 Oats, 5.33.... 
 -{Bran. 0.83. .. 
 Corn m'l 4 16 
 lHay 15. . .. 
 Corn. 2 .... 
 jOats. 19. . .. 
 ] Bran. 1.5 . .. 
 I Hay. 9.5. . .. 
 (Corn. 12 ... 
 < Oats. 5.25. . . 
 JHay.20 
 
 -1.79 
 
 -2.45 
 2.38 
 
 .78 
 
 1.03 
 1.04 
 
 11.78 
 
 13.45 
 14.% 
 
 3.64 
 
 3.57 
 5.32 
 
 .97 
 
 1.66 
 1.28 
 
 .45 
 
 .67 
 .60 
 
 8.19 
 
 9.37 
 9.75 
 
 1.46 
 
 1.32 
 2.12 
 
 21.650 
 
 25.800 
 27.000 
 
 
 2.15 
 
 .93 
 
 13.27 
 
 4.13 
 
 1.26 
 
 .55 
 
 9.06 
 
 i/.: 
 
 24,550 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1.200 
 
 1.350 
 
 Pounds. 
 1 Oats. 10 
 \ Corn, 5 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 j-2.56 
 
 [l.39 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.12 
 
 .59 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 16.50 
 
 8.87 
 
 Lbs. 
 6.43 
 
 4.00 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.28 
 
 .70 
 
 Lbs. 
 0.63 
 
 .36 
 
 Lbs. 
 10.42 
 
 5.21 
 
 Lbs. 
 2.60 
 
 1.64 
 
 Calo- 
 ries. 
 
 29,250 
 15350 
 
 < Hay. 23 
 j Oats. 8... 
 
 1 Hay. 16--.... 
 
 1.88 
 
 .80 
 
 11.51 
 
 4.30 
 
 1.06 
 
 .49 
 
 7.33 
 
 1.72 
 
 20,860
 
 56 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Rations Actually Fed to Horses and Digestible Nutrients and 
 Energy in Rations Calculated to Basis of 1,000 Pounds Live Weight. 
 (Continued.) 
 
 
 
 
 Nutrients in ration per 
 
 Digestible nutrients in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,000 pounds live 
 
 ration per 1.000 
 
 XI 
 
 
 
 
 weight. 
 
 pounds live weight. 
 
 "M 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kind of horses. 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 "o 
 
 Rations 
 actually fed 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 s 
 
 XI 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 ~ tj 
 
 E 
 
 XI 
 
 '" 3 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 ej 
 
 
 S. 2 
 
 1C 
 
 c 
 
 
 S2 
 
 * 
 
 y 
 
 
 tSf 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 o x 
 
 T3 
 
 > 
 
 
 x 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OH 
 
 a 
 (K 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 CJ 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 Farm horses: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wyoming Sta- 
 
 1.000 
 
 j Alfalfa, 13,75. 
 i Straw, 2,25. . . 
 
 (l.85 
 
 .14 
 
 6.27 
 
 
 1.37 
 
 .03 
 
 4.03 
 
 
 8240 
 
 tion. 
 
 New Hampshire 
 Station. 
 
 1.235 
 
 {Bran, 2 
 Corn, 6 
 Gluten meal,6 
 
 [-2.37 
 
 .93 
 
 10.49 
 
 2.90 
 
 1.59 
 
 .64 
 
 747 
 
 1.03 
 
 21.465 
 
 
 
 Hay.10 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Hay. 6 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Bran 2V, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Jersey Sta- 
 tion. 
 
 1,000 
 
 J Corn, 4% . . . . 
 1 Dried brew- 
 
 (3-21 
 
 .89 
 
 10.81 
 
 3.09 
 
 2.22 
 
 .65 
 
 6.99 
 
 1.38 
 
 22.440 
 
 
 
 1 ers' grain, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fHay, 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat bran. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Station. 
 
 1,100 
 
 2 
 
 U.85 
 
 .76 
 
 11.85 
 
 5.25 
 
 .85 
 
 .41 
 
 7.04 
 
 2 14 
 
 20.385 
 
 -< Provender, 6 
 crushed 
 
 
 
 corn. 2.73. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I oats. 3.27. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Alfalfa hay. 
 
 "I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah Station 
 
 1,370 
 
 1 25. 
 -{Bran and 
 1 shorts (1-1), 
 I 10. 
 
 1-3.72 
 
 .71 
 
 11.83 
 
 5.16 
 
 2.81 
 
 .29 
 
 8.27 
 
 1.% 
 
 25,480 
 
 
 
 (Timothy hay. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 8 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do 
 
 1,325 
 
 -{Bran and 
 
 1-2.17 
 
 .75 
 
 11.93 
 
 5.61 
 
 1.11 
 
 .42 
 
 6.56 
 
 2.31 
 
 20,345 
 
 
 
 1 Shorts (1:1), 
 
 Uo. 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average of 41, in- 
 cluding above. 
 
 
 
 2.46 
 
 .75 
 
 11.92 
 
 4.05 
 
 1.57 
 
 .40 
 
 8.09 
 
 1.62 
 
 22,760 
 
 
 
 General average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 for moderate 
 work. 
 
 
 
 2.38 
 
 .77 
 
 11.99 
 
 4.08 
 
 1.49 
 
 .42 
 
 8.09 
 
 1.63 
 
 22.710 
 
 Farm mules. Vir- 1 
 ginia Station, f 
 
 1,310 
 
 (Hay. 15.2.... 
 J Corn, 10.5.... 
 | Corn, silage. 
 
 [-1.70 
 
 .82 
 
 12.00 
 
 4.00 
 
 .72 
 
 .42 
 
 8.22 
 
 1.75 
 
 21.655 
 
 Average of 6, in- 
 cluding above.. 
 
 
 1 10.5 
 
 J 
 1.64 
 
 .78 
 
 11.54 
 
 3.74 
 
 .69 
 
 .39 
 
 795 
 
 1.60 
 
 20675 
 
 HORSES WITH SE- 
 VERE WORK. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Truck and draft 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 horses: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chicago, 111., 1 
 daily ration, f 
 
 1,500 
 
 (Oats. 7.5... 
 I Hay, 20 
 
 j-1.38 
 
 .58 
 
 8.99 
 
 4.34 
 
 .64 
 
 .34 
 
 5 11 
 
 1.79 
 
 15,450 
 
 South Omaha ( 
 Nebr. f 
 
 1,500 
 
 (Oats, 15 
 iHay. 12 
 
 [t.65 
 
 .70 
 
 9.57 
 
 3.27 
 
 1.04 
 
 .45 
 
 6.23 
 
 1.27 
 
 17.800 
 
 Average of 5, in- 
 cluding above. 
 
 
 
 1.80 
 
 .76 
 
 10.49 
 
 3.49 
 
 1.12 
 
 .49 
 
 6.94 
 
 1.35 
 
 19.560
 
 SPEEDS OF HORSES 
 
 57 
 
 Rations Actually Fed to Horses and Digestible Nutrients and 
 Energy in Rations Calculated to Basis of 1,000 Pounds Live Weight. 
 (Continued.) 
 
 Kind of Horses 
 
 Weight of Horses 
 
 Rations 
 actually fed 
 
 Nutrients in ration per 
 1.000 pounds live 
 weight 
 
 Digestible nutrients in 
 ration per 1. 000 
 pounds live weight 
 
 Energy in digestible 
 nutrienM 
 
 Protein 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 Nitrogen -free 
 extract 
 
 Crude fiber 
 
 a 
 
 
 *o 
 
 
 IS 
 to 
 
 Nitrogen -free 
 extract 
 
 ii 
 o 
 
 -c 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 FEEDING STANDARDS 
 AND AVERAGE RA- 
 TIONS 
 
 Light work. Wolff- 
 Lehmann. 
 Medium work. \Volff- 
 Lehmann. 
 Heavy work. Wolff- 
 Lehmann. 
 Maintenance, moder- 
 ate work, original. 
 Grandeau. 
 Maintenance, moder- 
 ate work, modified, 
 Grandeau. 
 Paris Bus Co.. horses 
 Lawes & Gilbert's, 
 computation. 
 Ordinary work, Lava- 
 lard. 
 Severe work. Lavalard. 
 
 AMERICAN EXPERI- 
 MENTS. 
 
 Horses with light 
 work: 
 Driving horses. . . . 
 
 Li's. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.5 
 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 2.14 
 
 1.95 
 1.60 
 1 10 
 
 Lbs. 
 .40 
 
 .60 
 .80 
 .52 
 
 .44 
 .40 
 
 Lbs. 
 9 
 
 11 
 13 
 11 
 
 9. 
 12. 
 
 all. 
 all 
 
 5.27 
 5.06 
 
 7.33 
 
 8.09 
 8.09 
 7.95 
 
 6.94 
 
 Lbs. 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 15 
 
 93 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 1.18 
 1.24 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.62 
 1.63 
 1.60 
 
 1.35 
 
 Calo- 
 ries 
 22,150 
 
 26.700 
 32.750 
 26.900 
 
 23.950 
 27.200 
 
 22,510 
 22.880 
 
 15,895 
 14,890 
 
 20.860 
 
 22,760 
 22.710 
 20.675 
 
 19,560 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.58 
 .99 
 
 1.06 
 
 1-.57 
 1.49 
 .69 
 
 1.12 
 
 .22 
 .32 
 
 .49 
 
 .40 
 .42 
 .39 
 
 .49 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Horses with moderate 
 work: 
 Express and cab 
 horses. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mules with moderate 
 work: Farm mules. 
 Horses with severe 
 work: Truck and 
 draft horses. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a This value represents total carbohydrates plus 2.25 times the fat. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 170). 
 METHOD OF CALCULATING RATIONS. 
 
 The feeding value of any ration may be readily calculated and 
 compared with the standards. Suppose a horse at moderate work 
 and weighing 1,200 pounds is fed 11 pounds of oats and 10 pounds 
 of timothy hay daily. The Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard for 
 horses at moderate work calls for 2.0 pounds of protein and 26,700 
 calories per thousand pounds live weight. A horse weighing 1,200 
 pounds would therefore require 1.2 times as much, or 2.4 pounds 
 protein and 32,000 calories. Oats contain 9.39 pounds of digestible 
 protein and 122,100 calories per hundred pounds. Eleven pounds 
 would therefore furnish 1.03 pounds of protein (9.39x0.11=1.03), 
 and 13,431 calories (122,100x0.11=13,431). Timothy hay fur-
 
 58 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 nishes 1.25 pounds protein and 69,850 calories per hundred pounds. 
 Ten pounds would therefore furnish 0.13 pound protein (1.25X 
 0.10=0.13) and 6,985 calories (69,850x0.10=6,985). The sum 
 of the nutrients furnished by 11 pounds of oats and 10 pounds of hay 
 would therefore be 1.16 pounds protein and 20,415 calories, or 1.34 
 pounds of protein and 11,585 calories less than the standard calls 
 for. This may be made up by adding more oats, hay, or other 
 feeding stuff. The amount of oats required to furnish the necessary 
 protein may be learned from the proportion 100:9.39::z:1.34; or, 
 in other words, by dividing 104 by 9.39, which gives 11.07. This 
 quantity of oats would also furnish 13,517 calories, making the 
 total protein of the ration 2.2 pounds and the total fuel value 33,- 
 932 calories. The fuel value of the ration is in excess of the stand- 
 ard, though the agreement is close enough for all practical purposes. 
 It will be remembered that it is not necessary that the amounts 
 furnished in a ration shall exactly equal those called for by the 
 standard, but rather that they approximate them, being greater 
 rather than less. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 170.) 
 
 CARE OF STALLIONS. 
 
 The proper care of stallions does not differ materially from 
 the care of other breeding animals. Enough of good wholesome 
 food and water, plenty of exercise, grooming and general cleanli- 
 ness, along with regular attention, are the principal factors requisite 
 to their best welfare. Many stallions fail to be sure sires simply be- 
 cause of lack of exercise or an overgenerous allowance of poor food, 
 two factors which, acting together, cannot lead to the best results. 
 The swollen or scurvy legs so often seen on stallions are generally the 
 result of insufficient exercise and lack of cleanliness. 
 
 Generally speaking, there is no good reason why a stallion 
 should not be put to work. Such treatment insures regular feeding, 
 grooming, exercise, and will give him the privilege of association 
 with other horses. It will do away with the solitary confinement 
 and irregular attention of which he is otherwise the recipient. 
 
 If, under ordinary conditions, at the close of the breeding sea- 
 son a stallion is pressed into regular service and accustomed to work 
 gradually, he will be the better for it in the end. Association with 
 other horses will come to be a regular occurrence, and the obnox- 
 ious actions so common to stallions in harness will become less fre- 
 quent. As a horse in regular service he then receives regular care 
 and exercise. If he be from any of the lighter breeds as saddler or 
 trotter it is by no means advisable to use him, for a kind of work 
 for which he was never intended. (Mo. Cir. of Information 27.) 
 
 CARE OF MARES. 
 
 The principles governing the care of mares are identical with 
 those governing the care of stallions but the customary treatment 
 differs greatly. On the average farm the problem of enough exer- 
 cise is not troublesome. The great difficulty is to find help that will 
 handle a pair of brood mares carefully. Mares carrying foals may 
 work up to within ten days of the date of foaling, and be benefited 
 by it. They should be given moderate but steady work. Mares in foal
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 59 
 
 should not be given work which requires the backing of heavy loads, 
 or where there is a chance of slipping. But breeding mares can and 
 should be worked. 
 
 The food for brood mares should be similar to that of the stal- 
 lion. Good oats, four parts, and bran one part, along with mixed 
 clover and timothy hay which has been well cured makes an excel- 
 lent ration. The rule of one pound of grain and one pound of hay 
 to every one hundred pounds live weight is again a good basis to 
 work upon, along with the variation according to the individual. 
 As the period of pregnancy advances, the ration will in most cases 
 need to be increased, somewhat. During pregnancy particular at- 
 tention should be given to the digestive apparatus of mares. They 
 should be gaining in condition, and bowels loose at the time of par- 
 turition. It is always a good plan to feed rather sparingly for two 
 or three days before parturition, and the ration, at that time, should 
 consist largely of bran. After parturition it should be increased 
 to suit the needs of the mare and foal. 
 
 Mares should be given a box stall at least four weeks before they 
 are due to foal, in order that they become accustomed to it, and may 
 also have a place large enough to be comfortable during the night. 
 The stall should at all times be kept clean and well bedded, but par- 
 ticular care should be taken regarding these details at the time of 
 parturition. (Mo. Cir. Information 27.) 
 
 THE CARE OF NEW-BORN FOALS. 
 
 At present it is estimated that some 25 per cent of the annual 
 foal crop is lost. Most of this mortality might be prevented by treat- 
 ing the mare intelligently and giving proper attention to the navel 
 and bowels of the new born foal. It is the purpose of these pages 
 to furnish practical instruction on these matters for the guidance 
 of those having the charge of brood mares and foals. 
 
 Cause of Navel and Joint Disease. The navel cord (umbilicus) 
 connects the foal's body with the afterbirth (placental membranes) 
 of the mare. It is made up of gelatinous tissue covering a large 
 vein coming from the foal's liver and carrying impure blood to be 
 purified in the lungs of the mare; two arteries carrying pure 
 blood from the arteries of the mare, by way of the placenta, to the 
 arteries of the foal, and a tube (urachus) from the foal's bladder 
 which, while the colt is in the womb, discharges urine into one- 
 of the envelopes (allantois) covering the foal. 
 
 When the navel cord breaks at birth its blood vessels and tube 
 promptly close, if all goes well. If pus-forming germs from filthy 
 or soiled bedding, floor, or ground, get onto the raw navel cord, how- 
 ever, they cause infection, inflammation and collections of pus at 
 the point involved and thence germs are carried into the system and 
 form colonies (secondary abscesses) elsewhere in the body and nota- 
 bly in the joints of the extremities. 
 
 In cases of generalized infection (pyaemia) abscesses may be 
 found in the liver, kidneys, lungs, brain, muscles and subcutaneous 
 connective tissue. If the urachus fails to close, urine dribbles or 
 streams from the navel opening and, in that event, abscesses of the/
 
 60 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 joints eventually appear, the infection having become general. The 
 latter condition is termed pervious or persistent urachus. A ma- 
 jority of infected foals die. Recovery is seldom perfect. The colts 
 fail to thrive, or develop, perfectly and are apt to have chronic affec- 
 tions of the joints. Treatment of the disease can only be properly 
 conducted by a trained veterinarian and he may employ a special 
 serum with some degree of success, both as a preventive and curative 
 agent. 
 
 Seventy-five per cent of the cases of this disease affect foals dur- 
 ing the first three weeks of life. Fat, flabby foals, with extra large 
 navel cords, often the get of overfed, pampered, underexercised stal- 
 lions, or from mares in like condition are especially prone to the 
 disease and are most likely to succumb. Foals that have small navel 
 cords and are lively at birth, soon on their feet and nursing, are much 
 less liable to attack. 
 
 Stallions should be worked, or abundantly exercised, and so 
 fed and maintained as to insure virility, vigor, stamina, robust con- 
 stitution and the perfect health of every organ. Mares should be 
 similarly treated. Foals will then be likely to come into the world 
 healthy, lively and strong to resist disease. 
 
 Symptoms of Navel and Joint Disease. A few days after birth 
 the foal is found to be weak, lame, feverish and with impaired appe- 
 tite. One joint, or another, is swollen, hot and painful. Usually 
 the attack affects the fetlock, hock, stifle, hip, knee, elbow or shoul- 
 der. Sometimes abscesses form at the poll, about the ribs, or along 
 the spinal column. The swellings rapidly increase in size and sev- 
 eral joints are affected at one time. There is swelling of the navel, 
 and pus oozes from one or more openings. Pus forms in quantities 
 in the affected joints. Diarrhoea usually comes on, or may be alter- 
 nated with constipation. Soon the foal is too weak to stand, loses 
 appetite entirely, and dies in a few days, or in two or three weeks, in 
 lingering cases. Often urine escapes from the navel, or the foal 
 passes bloody urine ; but the latter symptoms may, for a time at least, 
 be present without noticeable symptoms of pus infection. 
 
 Management of the Pregnant Mare. The mare in foal should 
 be worked lightly or abundantly exercised every day. Exercise is 
 absolutely necessary. She should occupy a roomy box stall. Here 
 she will take some additional exercise and will not be afraid to lie 
 down. She will be less likely to become cast and escape having 
 stocked legs and dropsical swellings of the udder and abdomen. The 
 bedding should be kept clean and dry. 
 
 Feed the mare sound, whole oats, bran and mixed or timothy 
 hay. Avoid moldy hay or silage, damaged grain, woody, weathered 
 fodder, dusty or rusty straw, or hay containing ergot. Keep preg- 
 nant mares out of corn stalk fields. Provide them with plenty of 
 pure, clean water. In working mares avoid jerking, severe pulling, 
 wading through deep mud, manure piles or snow drifts. Let the 
 work be light, easy and steady. Keep the bowels active by feeding 
 bran and a little flaxseed meal, carrots, or some sweet silage. 
 
 The mare goes 48 weeks, or about 340 days with foal. As foal- 
 ing time approaches decrease the grain ration and increase laxative
 
 CHAMPION HACKNEY AT ROYAL SHOW. ONT. AGR. Soc. RPT. 191 1. 
 
 A CHOICE EASTERN CHUNK. WEIGHT, 1,550 POUNDS. UEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 61 
 
 foods to keep the bowels acting freely. Constipation is dangerous. 
 When wax forms on the teats, about three days before foaling, stop 
 working the mare and place her in a prepared box stall where she 
 can be watched until the foal is born. 
 
 After foaling leave the mare alone for a time, if she is lying 
 down. If she does not expel her afterbirth promptly when she rises 
 from resting, inject into her womb one-half gallon of lukewarm 1 
 per cent solution of coal tar disinfectant, or other mild antiseptic. 
 If the afterbirth then does not come away within an hour or two, it 
 should be removed by hand. An expert should be employed for this 
 operation and when it has been performed the womb should again 
 be flushed out with an antiseptic solution. Half an hour after the 
 birth of the foal, or about that time, offer the mare a pailful of luke- 
 warm water and again at intervals of two hours. Mares are thirsty 
 at this time and should be abundantly supplied with water. An 
 hour after foaling the mare may eat a mash of steamed oats, and 
 bran, if she has been accustomed to such feed; otherwise give her a 
 small feed of her ordinary grain ration. In a few days, if the weather 
 is fine, the mare and foal may take some outdoor exercise and in two 
 weeks, or thereabouts, she should have recovered from foaling and 
 be taking her usual feed, grazing grass and getting ready to resume 
 light work in harness. 
 
 The Foaling Box-Stall. Two 14 by 14 foot box stalls should be 
 kept ready for the use of mares on every farm where foals are raised. 
 No mare should be allowed to foal in an ordinary stall, or unpre- 
 pared box stall. Navel and joint diseases will not be likely to attack 
 foals born in clean places. An absolutely clean foaling place is nec- 
 essary and should be prepared as follows: 
 
 Remove and burn all loose litter, and manure. Cleanse and 
 scrape the floor ; then saturate it with a hot 1-50 solution of coal tar 
 disinfectant, or a solution of 4 ounces of sulphate of copper (blue- 
 stone) to one gallon of hot water. Scrub and cleanse the walls with 
 a similar solution of coal tar disinfectant; or a 1-1000 solution of 
 corrosive sublimate. Cleanse the ceiling in the same way; then ap- 
 ply to walls and ceiling fresh made lime white wash, to each gallon 
 of which has been added one-third of a pound of chloride of lime. 
 Cover the floor with fresh, dry planing mill shavings in preference 
 to any other bedding material. Remove manure as soon as it is 
 dropped. 
 
 When the foal is born and has been cared for and the afterbirth 
 of the mare has come away, remove the mare and foal to the second 
 box stall, prepared as. was the first. Then clean out, disinfect, and 
 whitewash the stall just used and put in fresh, clean dry shavings in 
 readiness for the reception of the next mare. The mare must always 
 occupy a clean, specially prepared box-stall and it should be perfectly 
 ventilated and as sunny as possible. 
 
 Where but one box-stall is available clean it out, burn the after- 
 birth and soiled bedding, use a disinfecting solution freely on the 
 floor and put in plenty of fresh, dry, clean shavings as soon as pos- 
 sible after the birth of the foal. If the mare foals on grass treat the 
 foal as if it had been born in the stable. Navel infection is less liable
 
 62 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 to occur on grass, but this is possible and preventive treatment, there- 
 fore, is necessary, no matter where the foal is dropped. 
 
 Treatment of the Foal at Birth. Attend to the navel cord 
 (umbilicus) as soon as the nose of the foal has been cleared of after- 
 birth. If possible avoid tying the navel cord. It is best for it to 
 break off naturally. If it fails to break and the mare is lying down, 
 make her get up and the cord may then break. 
 
 If found necessary to tie the cord use a clean, disinfected string. 
 A dirty string may cause infection. Soak the string in a five per 
 cent solution of lysol or carbolic acid, or a 1-500 solution of corrosive 
 sublimate (bichloride of mercury). Tie the cord one inch or a little 
 more from the belly; then sever the cord with a clean knife. An 
 emasculator or ecaseur (castrating instruments) may be used to 
 sever the cord in place of tying it and then cutting through below 
 the knot. 
 
 Saturate the stump of the navel cord immediately, whether tied 
 or not, with the following disinfectant: Powdered corrosive sub- 
 limate, 2 drams; boiling water, 1 pint. When it has cooled, color 
 the solution with 2 drams of tincture of iron, label the bottle "poi- 
 son" and keep it out of the way of children. Repeat the application 
 twice a day until the cord shrivels up, drops off and no raw spot re- 
 mains. To keep the solution from blistering the foal's belly smear 
 carbolized vaseline or unsalted lard around the navel before making 
 the first application. A good way to use the solution is to put some 
 of it in a shallow, wide-necked bottle, then hold the bottle against 
 the foal's belly with the navel stump immersed so that it will be 
 completely covered by the fluid. If the navel cord has been tied 
 remove the string as soon as possible, squeeze put the blood clot and 
 instantly soak the navel stump with the corrosive sublimate solution. 
 Use the solution twice a day until the navel is perfectly healed. Re- 
 move sloughing portions of the cord each morning, so far as possible, 
 to allow the solution to wet all raw parts of the cord. 
 
 Give Attention to the Bowels. A strong foal will be on its feet 
 and trying to nurse in less than an hour from birth. Such a foal 
 needs no help, but a weak one will have to be held up to suck until 
 strong enough to do so without help. Wash the udder of the mare 
 with a lukewarm 2 per cent solution of coal tar disinfectant and 
 then rinse off with warm water before the foal is allowed to suck for 
 the first time. The external organs (genitals) , tail and hind parts 
 of the mare should be washed with a similar solution once a day for 
 the first week or so after the birth of the foal. 
 
 Keeping the udder free from infective matter in this way tends 
 to prevent the foal from scouring, for that condition of the bowels 
 often is due to germ infection of the intestinal tract by way of the 
 mouth. Disinfection of the navel cord also tends to prevent scour- 
 ing. At birth the intestine of the foal contains a sticky mass of 
 fecal matter (meoonium). This should come away promptly and 
 usually this is accomplished by the first milk (colostrum) which 
 possesses purgative properties. To assist nature, either insert a small 
 tallow dip candle (made for this purpose) in the foal's rectum, or, 
 within an hour from birth, give an injection of either warm water,
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 63 
 
 warm slippery elm bark tea, flaxseed tea, sweet oil, or a mixture of 
 equal parts of cream, molasses and warm water, and repeat in 12 
 haul's if required. Harm may be done by injecting a large quantity 
 of strong, soapy warm water with an ordinary horse syringe. A 
 fountain syringe is to be preferred and small, hard rubber nozzle, or 
 a small, clean rubber hose and funnel. Smear vaseline or lard on 
 the nozzle and in rectum before giving the injection. If the bowels 
 do not move within 24 hours from birth and the foal seems sick, 
 shake up two to four tablespoonfuls of pure castor oil in milk, or a 
 mixture of equal quantities of castor oil and sweet oil, according to 
 size of foal, and give as one dose. Then continue the injections at 
 intervals of six hours. 
 
 Raising an Orphan Foal by Hand. In case the mare dies or 
 has no milk the foal may be raised on cows' milk, if the attendant 
 conducts the work patiently and intelligently. Choose the milk of 
 a cow that has recently calved, preferably one which gives milk low 
 in butterfat, for mares' milk while rich in sugar, is poor in fat. 
 Sweeten the milk with molasses or sugar and dilute with warm water. 
 Give a little of this prepared milk at short intervals from a scalded 
 nursing bottle and large rubber nipple. Be careful to keep the bot- 
 tle anoT nipple scrupulously clean. Add an ounce of lime water to 
 each pint of the prepared milk and allow half a cupful once an hour 
 at first. 
 
 As the foal grows, gradually increase the amount of milk fed 
 and lengthen the intervals between meals. In a few days food may 
 be given six times a day and, later, four times daily. The foal will 
 soon learn to drink from a pail, if allowed to suck the attendant's 
 fingers at first. 
 
 Until the bowels move freely, give rectal injections night and 
 morning. If the foal scours at any time give two to four tablespoon- 
 fuls of a mixture of sweet oil and pure castor oil shaken up in milk 
 and stop feeding milk for two or three meals, allowing sweetened 
 warm water and limewater instead. Let the foal lick oatmeal as 
 soon as it will eat and gradually increase the amount and add wheat 
 bran. In five or six weeks some sweet, skimmilk may be given and 
 the amount gradually increased daily until, in three months or so, 
 it may be given freely three times a day in place of new milk. The 
 foal at this age also will be eating freely of grass, grain and bran. 
 
 At all times supply pure cold drinking water. Let the foal run 
 out in a lot or grass paddock for exercise. Accustom it to be han- 
 dled daily. Feed small quantities of nutritious food often, keeping 
 all food vessels clean and the foal should thrive and develop well. 
 (Wis. Cir. 13.) 
 
 HORSE FEEDING. 
 
 'Amount of Grain to Feed. While no definite rule can be made 
 that will apply with equal value in all cases as to the proper amount 
 of grain to feed per day to work horses, yet from actual experiments 
 it has been ascertained that the limits from one-fifth to one and 
 one-third pounds of grain per hundred pounds of live weight and 
 from one to one and one-fourth pounds of hay form a comparatively 
 safe one to follow.
 
 64 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Time of Feeding. Quite satisfactory results have been se- 
 cured by feeding the grain in three equal feeds and by giving one- 
 half the hay at night, the other half being divided between the 
 morning and noon feeds. 
 
 On idle days the grain ration should be reduced one-half. 
 Many cases of Azoturia are undoubtedly caused by high feeding 
 when horses are idle. 
 
 Comparative Value of Grains. From the tables giving the 
 percentage composition of the various food stuffs, it will be readily 
 seen that the cereal grains resemble each other quite closely in com- 
 position; all are characterized by fairly low water content, that is, 
 they are dry and contain a considerable amount of protein and 
 nitrogen-free extract or carbohydrates. The superiority of one grain 
 over another must, therefore, depend on some factor other than com- 
 position. Some cereals are much more palatable to some animals 
 than are others; some are more digestible under certain conditions 
 than are others; some, owing to their light weight, are much safer 
 to feed to certain animals than others. 
 
 Oats. Oats undoubtedly possess a flavor that makes them pala- 
 table and a favorite food with horses. On account of this palatabil- 
 ity and the fact that they are readily digested by horses, makes them 
 a favorite food for horses in America. They are considered the 
 safest cereal grain to feed under the various conditions which the 
 various classes of horses are fed in this country. With most horses 
 a serious mistake in feeding as to quantity would cause no serious 
 results, which can hardly be said of any other grain. While oats 
 are so thoroughly relished by horses, comparatively few would eat 
 enough to cause serious injury; even, however, if they have an op- 
 portunity to eat all they desire. Old oats seem to be somewhat more 
 digestible than new oats, and are therefore preferred by most feeders. 
 
 Barley. Barley is sometimes fed to horses, although it is not 
 relished as well as oats or corn. The kernels of barley seem to be too 
 hard to suit most horses ; grinding or soaking sometimes causes them 
 to be eaten more readily. Barley may be fed whole to horses having 
 sound teeth that are not required to do severe work. As barley when 
 ground forms a pasty mass when mixed with the saliva, it is usually 
 more satisfactory to mix a little bran or other coarse material with 
 it. (F. B. 170.) 
 
 Commercial By-Products. The various meals and cakes rich 
 in gluten materials generally speaking are commercial by-products, 
 as cotton-seed meal or cotton-seed cake and linseed meal. These are 
 by-products in the manufacture of oils from cotton-seed and from 
 linseed. As it comes from the mills it is in the form of hard cakes 
 and when ground it becomes meal. Cotton-seed meal, while very 
 rich in protein, is not a popular feed for horses ; a little cotton-seed 
 meal mixed with other ground feeds is often satisfactorily fed, par- 
 ticularly if the horses are also given some succulent food ; as the ef- 
 fect of cotton-seed meal is constipating, it should be fed with caution, 
 except when fed in connection with foods that are more or less suc- 
 culent. Linseed meal on the contrary acts as a laxative, and is par- 
 ticularly prized as a horse food when the appearance of the coat is
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 65 
 
 to be improved ; a little linseed meal in the ration seems to favor tlie 
 easy shedding of the old coat, and to produce quickly a lustrous 
 new coat. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 170.) 
 
 Forage Crops. The leguminous forage crops, as alfalfa, clover, 
 cowpeas, soy-beans, etc., are richer in protein than grasses. When 
 the forage crops are dried and cured the resulting hay is rich in pro- 
 portion to its bulk, and therefore should be fed more sparingly than 
 timothy hay. The value of different forage crops, both fresh and 
 cured, depends considerably upon the stage of growth at the time 
 of harvesting. Generally speaking, the nutritive value of the whole 
 crop increases until the growth of the whole crop is completed, but 
 if the crop is harvested before it is mature, the resulting forage will 
 be richer in protein than if the cutting were delayed until the plants 
 were mature. In this connection, it should be stated that the con- 
 sumption of protein in the food determines quite largely the amount 
 of water consumed by the animal; consequently the use to which 
 the animal is put will often determine quite largely the amount of 
 protein it should consume. Green crops, hay, straw, and other 
 cured crops, are frequently spoken of as coarse fodder" or "rough- 
 age." This term is due to the fact that they contain a compara- 
 tively small amount of nourishing material and the large proportion 
 of indigestible crude fibre as compared with their total bulk or 
 weight. Although inferior to concentrated feeds in composition, 
 they are an essential part of the ration for horses and other farm, 
 animals serving to give the required bulk to the food. It is believed 
 that unless the food when taken into the stomach is comparatively 
 bulky and the mass more or less loose in structure, it will not be as 
 readily acted on by the digestive juices. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 170.) 
 
 Roots and Tubers. Carrots, turnips, beets, parsnips and other 
 roots and tubers contain a high percentage of water and small 
 amounts of nourishing elements. It must be admitted however that 
 these roots and tubers have a feeding value when given in connec- 
 tion with other feeds in excess of the digestible compounds which 
 they contain. They have a beneficial effect on the general health of 
 the animal and aid in the digestion of their food. Ten pounds of 
 roots has been suggested as the maximum quantity which may be 
 safely fed to the average work horse. Potatoes are sometimes fed 
 successfully, particularly to colts. The practice of feeding potatoes 
 to work horses is more prevalent in Germany than in this country. 
 (Agr. Dep. F. B. 170.) 
 
 Cooked and Raw Foods. The investigations that have been 
 made to compare cooked and raw feed do not sustain the practice 
 of cooking. It has not been shown that cooking makes the food 
 more digestible, except possibly in a few instances. Several cases 
 have been noted, however, that showed that there had been a some- 
 what marked advantage as to palatability. The cost of cooking is 
 not usually made up for by the increased value of the ration. Some 
 hard grains may be improved by cooking but the cereals that are 
 ordinarily used in compounding rations for horses are not improved 
 from the standpoint of digestibility.
 
 66 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Dry and Soaked Feed. It is often claimed that soaked feed, 
 especially hard grain, is more easily masticated and its digestibility 
 is improved. This however is doubtful in the minds of many expe- 
 rienced horsemen and experimenters, for it has been found by actual 
 tests that healthy horses with good teeth digested dry beans and corn 
 as well as they did the same material which had been soaked in 
 water for 24 hours. Soaking or wetting the feed may sometimes be 
 of importance as regards the health of horses. The practice of cut- 
 ting trie roughage and feeding the grain with it causes the grain to 
 be eaten more slowly and may on this account be of considerable 
 value with some animals. Also the dust in some coarse fodders may 
 be avoided by sprinkling. 
 
 Ground and Unground Feed. Opinions differ as regards the 
 advantages of grinding grain. For horses that are worked hard and 
 are out of the stable during the day, it is quite generally believed 
 that all grains with the possible exception of oats, should be ground. 
 For idle horses or those at light work, grinding is not thought to be 
 so essential. In other respects, providing the animals have time to 
 masticate their rations thoroughly, the grinding is not necessary ex- 
 cept in instances where animals have faulty teem. When the ration 
 is eaten hurriedly, grinding takes the place of mastication to some 
 extent and increases the assimilation. From all the American tests 
 and those which have been made in Europe, it appears fair to say 
 that there is no marked advantage in grinding grain for healthy 
 horses with good teeth. 
 
 Cut and Uncut Fodders. It is the general opinion that when 
 horses have ample time for chewing and digesting their feed, there 
 is no necessity for chaffing or cutting hay and straw. When tho 
 time for feeding is limited, the cutting of these fodders is regarded 
 as somewhat advantageous; furthermore chaffed feed occupies less 
 space for storage than uncut hay or straw, and on that account can 
 be more readily handled. As some horses have a tendency to eat 
 their 'grain rations too rapidly, a decided advantage is gamed by 
 mixing a grain ration with moistened cut fodder. (Agr. Dept. 
 F. B. 170.) 
 
 Watering Horses. Horses like other animals require water 
 which shoulcT always be of good quality. It may be assumed that 
 under any given normal condition the body contains a definite 
 amount of water. When any considerable amount of this is lost a 
 sensation of thirst is experienced. In addition to the water drunk 
 by horses, a considerable amount is obtained in the succulent food 
 eaten. The amount required is influenced by several factors, includ- 
 ing season of the year, temperature of the air, character of the feed, 
 peculiarities of the individual, amount and character of the work 
 performed. 
 
 The amount of water needed increases with the temperature 
 and the amount of work performed. Less water is consumed when 
 grain and succulent foods form a considerable part of the ration. 
 In general, a horse will drink 50 to 75 pounds of water per day, how- 
 ever under the influence of warm weather or hard work the amount 
 may range from 80 to 125 pounds or even more, In some expert-
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES G7 
 
 ments in the British Army, it was found that when allowed to choose, 
 horses drank about one-fourth of their daily allowance in the morn- 
 ing, about three-eighths at noon, and about the same proportion at 
 night. The proper time to water horses is a matter considering which 
 opinions differ. Many feeders believe that they should be watered be- 
 fore feeding, while others are equally certain that feeding should pre- 
 cede the watering. Some recent experiments made in Europe tend 
 to show that the time of drinking has no effect on the digestibility 
 of a ration of hay and grain. When only hay was fed there seemed 
 to be a slight advantage of watering before feeding. In the experi- 
 ments referred to, it was found that whenever a change was made 
 from the plan of watering after feeding to that of watering before, 
 the appetite fell off for some days. A similar effect was not observed 
 when the reverse change was made. It seems best, therefore, to 
 avoid any unnecessary changes in the methods of watering. (Agr. 
 Dept. F. B. 170.) 
 
 Corn. Next to oats corn may be considered the most popular 
 grain for horses in this country. It is so commonly used especially 
 in the South and West that it is difficult to realize the prejudice 
 existing against it in other countries. It is perhaps to be expected 
 that a corn ration would be most popular where the most corn is pro- 
 duced, that is in the corn producing belt of the United States. Gen- 
 erally speaking, corn is among the cheapest of grains used for horse 
 food, and consequently the most economical feeder is one who knows 
 how to make the best use of this grain. (111. B. 141.) 
 
 FEEDING HORSES. 
 
 Horses and mules when pastured exclusively on Alsike pasture 
 have in some instances become infected with a disease which consists 
 for the most part of sores and ulcers breaking out on the skin and 
 mucus-membrane of the mouth and eyes. This disease has been 
 noted most in the southern part of the Mississippi Valley. The pre- 
 cise cause has as yet not been ascertained. (Tenn. Vol. XVIII. 
 No. 3.) 
 
 Yearling colts fed a part ration of peanut and coconut meal 
 showed somewhat larger and cheaper gains than those fed on oats, 
 and those fed peanut and coconut meal with roughage made the best 
 returns. (Dep. Agr. Bureau Animal Industry Cir. 168.) 
 
 As a food for horses, this food seems to have a considerable 
 value, but it is notably deficient in palatability ; it is hardly to be 
 considered among the desirable horse concentrates. (Ind. B. 97.) 
 
 The results of many trials of various rations for farm work 
 horses have shown quite conclusively that corn and oats either 
 ground or unground constitute one of the safest and most satisfac- 
 tory rations. A mixture of corn and bran equal parts by weight 
 make a good substitute for corn and oats. 
 
 Some feeding experiments at the Florida Station tend to show 
 that southern work horses fed ten pounds of corn and ten to fourteen 
 pounds of hay improved when sweet potatoes were substituted for 
 one half of the corn ration. The substitution being at the rate of 
 three pounds of sweet potatoes for one of corn. Carrying the com-
 
 68 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 parison still further, a yield of 150 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre 
 would have a feeding value of 50 bushels of corn. (Fla. B. 72.) 
 
 Cassava was substituted for a part of this corn ration in a feed- 
 ing experiment, but was not relished by the horses while sweet pota- 
 toes were readily eaten. 
 
 In some feeding tests ground rough rice seemed to be a very 
 satisfactory substitute for corn wholly or in part when fed to work- 
 ing mules. The conclusions being drawn that a daily ration con- 
 taining at least eight pounds of ground rough rice per 1,000 pounds 
 of live weight for horses and mules doing heavy work. (La. 
 B. 122.) 
 
 Millet as a Forage. The feeding of millet to horses was not at- 
 tended with favorable results at the North Dakota Experiment Sta- 
 tion. The results of the trial may be summed up as follows: 1. 
 Millet produced an increased action of the kidneys. 2. It caused 
 lameness and swelling of the joints. 3. It produced an infusion of 
 blood into the joints. 4. It destroyed the texture of the bone, ren- 
 dering it soft so that traction caused the ligaments and muscles to 
 be torn loose. (N. Dak. B. 26.) 
 
 Publications on horses quoted from and consulted: Wis. Circ. 
 of Information 17, 21, 28; 111. B. 122; Fla. B. 72; Wis. B. 127; Dep. 
 Agr. Bu. An. Ind. Circ. 137, 178, 163, 113; Wis. B. 158, 141, 169; 
 Mo. Circ. Inf. 27; Wis. B. 188, 155; Agr. Dep. F. B. 170, 145; N. 
 Dak. B. 45; La. B. 122; Ohio B. 195; Agr. Dep. Bu. Au. Ind. Circ. 
 124, 1'68; Tenn. B. Vol. XVIII. No. 3; N. Dak. 26, 20; N. H. B. 82; 
 Ind. B. 97; 111. B. 150, 141; Mich. B. 254. 
 
 THE MULE. 
 
 BREEDING AND FEEDING. 
 
 There are two kinds or classes of mules ; one the produce of the 
 male ass or jack and the mare, the other the offspring of the female 
 ass or jennet and the stallion. The cross between the jack and the 
 mare is properly called the mule, while the other, the produce of the 
 stallion and the jennet, is called a hinny. 
 
 The mule is the more valuable animal of the two, having 
 greater size and more finish and bone ; in fact he has those qualities 
 which make that animal so much prized as a useful burden bearing 
 animal. The hinny is small in size and is lacjdng in the qualities 
 requisite to a draft animal. 
 
 This hybrid is supposed not to breed, as no instance is known 
 in which a stallion mule has been prolific, although he seems to be 
 physically perfect. He shows great fondness for the female and 
 serves readily. There are supposed instances on record where the 
 female mule has produced a foal, but these are extremely rare. 
 
 Characteristics. The mule partakes of the several characteris- 
 tics of both its parents, having the head, ear, foot and bone of the 
 jack, while in height and body it follows the mare. It has the voice 
 of neither, but is between the two, and more nearly resembles the 
 jack. It possesses the patience, endurance and sure-footedness of 
 the jack, and the vigor, strength and courage of the horse. It is 
 easily kept, very hardy, and no path is too precipitous or mountain
 
 PAIR OF BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 PAIR OF SINGLE-COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 71 
 
 trail too difficult for one of them with its burden. The mule en- 
 joys comparative immunity from disease, and lives to a compara- 
 tively great age. Pliny gives an account, taken from Grecian his- 
 tory, of one that was 80 years old, and, though past labor, followed 
 those that were carrying material to build a temple. Dr. Reese 
 mentions two that w r ere 70 years old, in England. 
 
 Rome and Greece had their mules, which were used for car- 
 riages, the saddle, and carrying burdens. At this day they are used 
 extensively in nearly all parts of the world where agricultural pur- 
 suits are carried on, as well as in the mining regions, the cotton belt, 
 and all sugar-growing countries, where they have largely supplanted 
 the horse. Mules are much used in Europe ; Spain, Portugal, Italy, 
 and France, being the countries where they are most used, and are 
 prized highly for their gentleness and faithfulness. (Dep. Agr. 
 Bu. An. Ind. 8th and 9th Annual Rpt.) 
 
 Endurance. There is no kind of labor to which a horse can be 
 put for which a mule may not be made to answer, while there are 
 mjany for which mules are more peculiarly adapted than horses; 
 among the rest, that of mining, where the mule is used, and many 
 of them need no drivers. They can endure more hardships than 
 the horse, can live on less, and do more work on the same feed than 
 any other beast of burden we use in America. 
 
 A cotton-planter in the South would feel unwilling to raise his 
 crop with horses for motive power. The horse and the labor of the 
 cotton belt could not harmonize, while the negro is at home with the 
 mule. A mule may be worked until completely fagged, when a 
 good feed and a night's rest will enable it to go ; but it is not so with 
 a horse. 
 
 The mule being better adapted for carrying burdens, for the 
 plow, the wagon, building of railroads, and in fact all classes of 
 heavy labor, let us see how it compares with that noble animal, the 
 horse, in cost of maintenance. 
 
 From repeated experiments that have come under my observa- 
 tion in the past twenty-five years, it has been found that three mules 
 15 hands high, that were constantly worked, consumed about as 
 much forage as two ordinary-sized horses worked in the same 
 way, and while the mules were fat the horses were only in good 
 working order. Although a mule will live and work on very low 
 fare, he also responds as quickly as any animal to good feed and 
 kind treatment. True, it is charged that the mule is vicious, stub- 
 born, arid slow, but an experience in handling many mules on the 
 farm has failed to sustain the charge, save in few instances, and in 
 these the propensities were brought about by bad handling. They 
 are truer pullers than the horse, and move more quickly under the 
 load. Their hearing and vision are better than the horse. A farmer 
 has used them in all the different branches of farming, from the 
 plow to the carriage and buggy, and thinks they are liable to become 
 frightened and start suddenly; and if they do start, they usually 
 stop before damage is done, while the horse seldom stops until com- 
 pletely freed. A farmer once had a runaway of six teams in a corn- 
 field, five of them being mules and the sixth a horse. The mules
 
 72 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ran and capered until they came to the first batch of green grass, 
 and there stopped to regale themselves, while the horse ran on until 
 he stuck the plow in his back, greatly frightened. In less than ten 
 minutes the five mule plows were going without a bolt broken, while 
 the plow after the horse was a wreck, and the horse ruined for life. 
 The mule is more steady while at work than the horse, and is not 
 so liable to become exhausted, and often becomes so well instructed 
 as to need neither driver nor lines. 
 
 They are also good for light harness, many of them being very 
 useful buggy animals, traveling a day's journey equal to some 
 horses. The writer obtained one from a firm of jack breeders in his 
 vicinity, that was bred in the purple by them, as an experiment, 
 being out of a thoroughbred mare by a royally bred jack. She is T6' 
 hands high, as courageous as most any horse. In traveling a dis- 
 tance of 32 miles, this mule, with two men and the baggage, made 
 it, as the saying goes, "under a pull," in four hours, and when ar- 
 rived at the journey's end seemed willing to go on. 
 
 We do not wish to be understood as underrating the horse, for 
 it is a noble animal, well suited for man's wants, but for burden- 
 bearing and drudgery is more than equaled by the patient, faithful, 
 hardy mule. 
 
 The Kind of Sire to Breed From. There are two kinds of 
 jacks the mule jack and the jennet jack, or combined jack, that is 
 good for either mares or jennets, and is used chiefly in breeding 
 jacks for stock purposes. It is only with the mule jack that we will 
 deal, as the jennet jack is too costly to breed to mares, as a rule, un- 
 less the mares are of extra quality. 
 
 A good mule jack ought to be not less than 15 hands high, and 
 have all of the weight, head, ear, foot, bone, and length that can be 
 obtained, coupled with a broad chest, wide hips, and with all the 
 style attainable with these qualities. Smaller jacks are often fine 
 breeders, and produce some of our best mules, and when bred to 
 the heavier, larger class of mares show good results, but as "like pro- 
 duces like," the larger jacks are preferable. 
 
 Black, with light points, is the favorite color for a jack, but 
 many of our gray, blue, and even white jacks have produced good 
 mules. In fact, some of the nicest, smoothest, red-sorrel mules have 
 been the product of these off-colored jacks; but the black jacks get 
 the largest proportion of good-colored colts from all colored mares. 
 
 The breed of the jack is also to be looked into. There are now 
 so many varieties of jacks in the United States, all of which have 
 merits, that it will be well to examine and see what jack has shown 
 the best results. We have the Catalonian, the Andalusian, the Malt- 
 ese, the Majorca, the Italian, and the Poitou all of which are im- 
 ported and the native jack. Of all the imported, the Catalonian is- 
 the finest type of animal, being a good black, with white points, of 
 fine style and action, and from 14^ to 15 hands high, rarely 16 
 hands, with a clean bone. The Andalusian is about the same type 
 of jack as the Catalonian, having perhaps a little more weight and 
 bone, but are all off colors. The Maltese is smaller than the Cata- 
 lonian, rarely being over 14^ hands high, but is nice and smooth.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 73 
 
 The Majorca is the largest of the imported jacks, the heaviest in 
 weight, bone, head, and ear, and frequently grows to 16 hands. 
 These are raised in the rich island of Majorca in the Mediterranean 
 Sea. While they excel in weight and size, they lack in style, finish, 
 and action. The Italian is the smallest of all the imported jacks, 
 being usually from 13 to 14 hands high, but having good foot, bone, 
 and weight, and some of them make good breeders. The Poitou is 
 the latest importation of the jack, and is little known in the United 
 States. He is imported from France, and is reported to be the sire 
 of some of the finest mules in his native land. These jacks have 
 long hair about the neck, ears, and legs, and are in some respects to 
 the jack race what the Clydesdale is to other horses. He is heavy 
 set, has good foot and bone, fine head and ear, and of good size, 
 being about 15 hands high. 
 
 The native jack, as a class, is heavier in body, having a larger 
 bone and foot than the imported, and shows in his entire make-up 
 the result of the limestone soil and grasses common in this country. 
 He is of all colors, having descended from all the breeds of imported 
 jacks. But the breeders of this country, seeing the fancy of their 
 customers for the black jack with light points, have discarded all 
 other colors in selecting their jacks to breed to jennets, and the con- 
 sequence is that a large proportion of the jacks in the stud now, for 
 mares, are of this color. 
 
 The native jack, being acclimated and to the manor born, seems 
 to give better satisfaction to breeders of mules than any other kind. 
 From observation and experience it is believed that our native jacks, 
 with good imported crosses behind them, will sire the mules best 
 suited to the wants of those who use them in this country, and will 
 supply the market with what is desired by the dealers. The colts 
 by this class of jacks are stronger in make-up, having better body, 
 with more length, larger head and ear, more foot and bone, com- 
 bined with style equal to the colts of the imported jacks. 
 
 While many fine mules are sired by imported jacks, this is not 
 to be understood as meaning that imported jacks do not get good 
 foals, yet, taken as a class, we think that the mule by the native jack 
 is superior to any other class. This conclusion is borne out by an 
 experience and observation of some years, and by many of the best 
 breeders and dealers in the United States. 
 
 The Kind of Mare to Breed From. As the mule partakes very 
 largely in its body and shape of its mother, it is necessary that care 
 should be taken in selecting the dam. Many suppose that when a 
 mare becomes diseased and unfit for breeding to the horse then she 
 is fit to breed for mules. This is a sad mistake, for a good, growing, 
 sound colt must have good, sound sire and dam. 
 
 The jack may be ever so good, yet the result will be a disap- 
 pointment unless the mare is good, sound, and properly built for 
 breeding. First, she should be sound and of good color; black, bay, 
 brown, or chestnut is preferred. Her good color is needed to help to 
 give the foals proper color, and this is a matter of no small impor- 
 tance, as we shall see further on.
 
 74 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 This should not be understood as ignoring the other colors, for 
 some of the best mules ever seen were the produce of gray or light- 
 colored mares, as many dealers and breeders will attest. The mare 
 should be well bred ; that is, she would give better results by having 
 some good crosses. By all means let her have a cross of thorough- 
 bred, say one-quarter, supplemented with strong crosses of some of 
 the larger breeds, and the balance of the breeding may be made up 
 of the better class of the native stock. The mare should have good 
 length, large, well-rounded barrel, good head, long neck, good, broad, 
 flat bone, broad chest, wide between the hips, and good style. 
 
 How to Breed the Mule. The dam should be bred about the 
 first of April in the latitude of Tennessee, and at other places as the 
 season opens, according to climate. Before being bred, to prevent 
 accidents, the mare should be hobbled or pitted. Having taken this 
 precaution, the jack may be brought out, and both will be ready for 
 service. Care should be taken not to overserve the jack, as he should 
 not be allowed to serve over two mares a day, and not nearer than 
 eight hours apart. 
 
 The mare, after being served, may be put to light work, or put 
 upon some quiet pasture by herself for several days until she passes 
 out of season, when she may be turned out with other stock to run 
 until the eighteenth day, when she should be taken up to be teased 
 by a horse, to ascertain if she be in season, and if so, she should be 
 bred again. Some breeders think the ninth, some the twelfth, and 
 some the fifteenth day after service is the proper day to tease, but 
 observation has taught us that the best results come from the eigh- 
 teenth-day plan. After she becomes impregnated she should have 
 good treatment; light work will not hurt her, but care should be 
 taken not to overexert. She should have good, nutritious grass if 
 she runs out and is not worked, but if worked she should be well fed 
 on good feed. The foal will be due in about three hundred and thir- 
 ty-three days. As the time approaches for foaling the mare should 
 be put in a quiet place, away from other stock, until the foal is 
 dropped. She will not need any extra attention, as a rule, but 
 should be looked after to see that everything goes right. 
 
 After the foal comes it will not hurt the mare or colt for the 
 dam to do light work, provided she is well fed on good, nutritious 
 food. Should she not be worked and is on good grass, and fed lightly 
 on grain, the colt will grow finely, if the mare gives plenty of milk ; 
 if she does not the foal should be taught to eat such feed as is most 
 suitable. 
 
 Feeders, dealers, and buyers prefer the mare mule to the horse, 
 and they sell more readily. The females mature earlier, are plumper 
 and rounder of body, and fatten more readily than the male. When 
 carried to the Southern market, where the buffalo gnats exist, these 
 pests trouble the males more by biting their sheaths. The males are 
 also more leggy and angular of body, are slower in maturing, and, 
 as a rule, must be older to fatten readily. 
 
 In weaning the colt, much is accomplished by proper treat- 
 ment, preparatory to this trying event in the mule's life. It should 
 be taught to eat while following its mother, so that when weaned it
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 75 
 
 Avill at once know how to subsist on that which is fed to it. The best 
 way to wean is to take several colts and place them in a close barn, 
 with plenty of good, soft feed, such as bran and oats mixed, plenty 
 of sound, sweet hay, and in season, cut-grass, remembering at all 
 times that nothing can make up for w r ant of pure water in the sta- 
 ble. Many may be weaned together properly. After they have re- 
 mained in the stable for several days they may be turned on good, 
 rich pasture. Do not forget to feed, as this is a trying time. The 
 change from a lactic to a dry diet is severe on the colt. They may 
 all be huddled in a barn together, as they seldom hurt each other. 
 Good, rich clover pastures are fine for mules at this age, but if they 
 are to be extra fine, feed them a little grain all the while. 
 
 There is little variety in the feed until the mules are 2 years old, 
 at which time they are very easily broken. If halter-broken as they 
 grow up, all there is to do in breaking one is to put on a harness 
 and place the young animal beside a broken mule, and go to work. 
 When it is thoroughly used to the harness the mule is already 
 broken. Light work in the spring when the mule is 2 years old will 
 do no hurt, but in the opinion of many breeders and dealers make it 
 better, provided it is carefully handled and fed. 
 
 How to Fatten the Mute. This is one of the most important 
 parts of mule-raising, for when the mule is offered to a buyer he 
 will at once ask, "Is he fat?" and fat goes far in effecting a sale. A 
 rough, poor mule could hardly be sold, while if it is fat the buyer 
 will take it because it is fat. 
 
 The sugar mule should be placed in the barn with plenty of 
 room, and not much light, about the 1st of November, before it is 2 
 years old, and -fed about 12 ears of corn per day and all the nice, 
 well-cured clover hay it will eat, and there kept until about the 1st 
 of April. Then in the climate of middle Tennessee the clover is 
 good, and the mule may be turned out on it, and the corn increased 
 to about 20 ears or more per day. They will then eat more grain, 
 without fear of "firing" ; that is, heating so as to cause scratches, as 
 the green clover removes all danger from this source. During the 
 time they run on the clover they eat less hay, but this should always 
 be kept by them. About the 1st of May, the clover blooms, and is 
 large enough to cut, in the latitude of Tennessee. The mules should 
 be placed, then, in the barn, with a nice, smooth lot attached, and 
 plenty of pure water. A manger should be built in the lot, 4 feet 
 wide by 4 feet high, and long enough to accommodate the number 
 of mules it is desired to feed. This snould be covered over 'by a shed 
 high enough for the mule to stand under, to prevent the clover from 
 wilting. The clover should be cut while the dew is on, as this pre- 
 serves the aroma, and they like it better. While this is going on in 
 the lot, the troughs and racks in the barn should be supplied with all 
 the shelled corn the mules will eat. "Why shell it?" some one will 
 ask. Because they eat more of it, and relish it. A valuable addition 
 at all times consists of either short-cut sheaf oats, or shelled oats, 
 and bran, if not too expensive. 
 
 From the 1st to the 15th of June barley is harvested in this 
 latitude, and it should be ground coarsely. The mules should be fe4
 
 76 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 on this, all they will eat, taking care that no feed is permitted to get 
 sour. We usually have about this time some early varieties of corn, 
 planted for the purpose of making early roasting ears; this is now 
 cut in the field, and carried to the manger in the lot, and the ears 
 pulled off, carefully husked and placed in the troughs in the barn, 
 the stalks put in the manger. At no time must the feed be mixed, 
 but the shelled corn, oats, bran, and roasting ears kept at all times 
 in separate parts of the trough. By this time the mule is something 
 of an epicure, and no more wants its feed mixed than a gentleman 
 does his bread, meat, and potatoes. 
 
 From this time the mule should be pressed with all the richest 
 of feed, if it is desired to make it what is termed in mule parlance 
 "hog fat." All the roasting ears, ground barley, shelled oats, bran, 
 and shelled corn, should be fed, not forgetting to salt regularly all 
 the while, nor omitting the hay and green-corn blades. While all 
 those are essential, shelled oats and bran, although at some places 
 expensive, are regarded as the ne plus ultra for fattening a mule, 
 and giving a fine suit of hair. Be sure to keep the barn well bedded, 
 for if the hair becomes soiled from rolling it lowers the value, as the 
 mule is much estimated for its fine coat. 
 
 The grain makes the flesh, the green stuff keeps the system of 
 the mule cool, and balances the excess of carbonaceous elements in 
 the grain fed. This manner of feeding, if properly carried out, with 
 the proper foundation to start with, will make sugar mules, 2 years 
 old past, weigh from 1,150 to 1,350 pounds by September 1, at 
 which time the market opens. 
 
 A feeder of eighteen years' experience claims that shelled oats 
 and bran will nut on more fine flesh in a given time, coupled with a 
 smoother, glossier coat of hair, than any other known feed. The ex- 
 perienced feeder follows this method from weaning till 2 years old. 
 
 The same care and attention requisite in feeding the sugar 
 mule must be observed in the cotton mule, only the cotton mule is 
 taken up about the 1st of August after it is 2 years old, and fed on 
 green corn, shelled corn, plenty of good hay, and any kind of good 
 green stuff at hand. Having fed it in the barn with door open into 
 the lot until about November 1, when the weather will begin to be 
 bad, the mule should be kept up in the barn and well bedded. If 
 the hair does not appear as well as it ought to by the 1st of Novem- 
 ber some shelled oats and bran might be fed, to put on the fine fin- 
 ished, glossy coat and fat. This feeding until the 1st of January will 
 make the mule ready for the market. 
 
 How to Sell the Mule. New Orleans is the center of the sugar 
 mule distributing region, while St. Louis, Mo., Louisville, Ky., 
 Nashville, Tenn., and Columbia, Tenn., and other cities contribute 
 largely in sending their products to the Southern markets of both 
 classes of mules. All of the cities of the Western and Southern 
 States demand large mules for their drays and heavy hauling. 
 
 If the seller has properly colored, well shaped, fine haired, fat 
 mare mules in car-load lots, he should let the buyers know he has 
 them ? and there need be no trouble in selling. If one owner has not
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 
 
 77 
 
 a car-load, he should seek some one who is making up a car-load to 
 ship. 
 
 Market Classes. The market classes of mules are determined by 
 the use to which they are put, but in order for a class to exist there 
 must be a demand for sufficient numbers of a definite type. In the 
 East St. Louis market, which is the largest mule market in the world, 
 there are five market classes, viz : mining mules, cotton mules, sugar 
 mules, farm mules, and draft mules. As with horses, the class em- 
 bodies groups of mules of a general type, while the grades are divis- 
 ions of the class and refer to quality, conformation, condition, and 
 action. 
 
 Classes. Grades. Classes, Grades. 
 
 MINING MULES. 
 
 COTTON MULES. 
 
 SUGAR MULES.. 
 
 FAEM MULES. 
 
 DRAFT MULES. 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 
 Common 
 
 Inferior 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 
 Common 
 
 Inferior 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 
 Common 
 
 Inferior 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 
 Common 
 
 Inferior 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 
 Common 
 
 Inferior 
 
 Mining mules are those purchased with which to operate mines. 
 They are heavy boned, rugged, compactly built individuals, with 
 large feet and strong constitution. They range in height from 12 to 
 16 hands and weigh from 600 to 1350 pounds. 
 
 Cotton mules are lighter boned than miners and not so compactly 
 built. They are round bodied, smoothly turned and possess consid- 
 erable quality. They range in height from 13-2 to 15-2 hands and 
 weigh from 750 to 1100 pounds. 
 
 Sugar mules are those shipped south to use on the sugar farms 
 of Georgia, Louisiana and other southern states. They are taller, 
 larger, and more breedy looking than cotton mules and have heavier 
 bone. They stand from 16 to 17 hands and weigh from 1150 to 1300 
 pounds. 
 
 Farm mules are those purchased to be used on the farms of the 
 central states. They are somewhat lacking in uniformity of type 
 and many of them are young and somewhat thin in flesh. An aver- 
 age height is from 15-2 to 16 hands and weigh from 900 to 1250 
 pounds. 
 
 Draft mules are large heavy boned, heavy set mules that possess 
 quality and ruggedncss. They are used in cities for heavy teaming 
 and by contractors for all kinds of heavy work, such as railroad grad-
 
 78 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ing, etc. They range in height from 16 to 18 hands and weigh from 
 1200 to 1900 pounds and upwards. 
 
 (Publications on Mules Quoted From and Consulted. Agrl. 
 Dep. Bu. An. Ind. 8th & 9th Annual Repts., 1891 & 1892 ; Fla. B. 
 72; 111. B. 122; La. B. 122; Tenn. Vol. XVIII. No. 3; Agr. Dep. Bu. 
 An. Ind. Circ. 124). 
 
 Pulse, Temperature and Respiration of Domestic Animals. 
 
 Name of Animal. 
 
 Internal 
 temperature 
 Degrees F. 
 
 Number of 
 pulsations per 
 minute. 
 
 Number of 
 respirations 
 per minute. 
 
 
 100.2 
 
 34-40 
 
 8-12 
 
 Cow 
 
 102.2 
 
 40-60 
 
 12-16 
 
 Sheep and Goat 
 
 103.1 
 
 60-80 
 
 20-30 
 
 Hoe . 
 
 102.3 
 
 60-80 
 
 20-30 
 
 Doe . 
 
 101.3 
 
 55-75 
 
 20-30 
 
 Cat 
 
 100.9 
 
 70-90 
 
 15-20 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Y. R. 1900.) 
 
 HORSE AND MULE RAISING. 
 
 In the South. With the development of agriculture in the 
 South and the discussion of the best methods to follow and the best 
 policies to adopt a few subjects have received more attention from 
 public speakers and writers than the production in that section of 
 the animals needed for work purposes and meat production. The 
 idea is not only that the South should supply its own demand for 
 these animals, but that southern farmers should feed as far as pos- 
 sible the enormous amount of cotton-seed meal and cake which is 
 now shipped out, and thus replace commercial fertilizers to a consid- 
 erable extent and keep up fertility with barnyard manure. Southern 
 farm methods now in vogue have been criticised by outsiders, but 
 none have been more severe than the leaders in agricultural progress 
 in the South who are southern bred and born. 
 
 It certainly seems anomalous to contemplate a vast section of 
 our country spending millions annually for horses and mules, for 
 beef and pork, and for commercial fertilizers, and selling hundreds 
 of millions of dollars worth of fertility as cotton-seed meal and cake, 
 when we realize that the condition of soil and climate generally 
 throughout the South are excellent for animal production. This 
 condition is still more surprising when we know that, properly fed, 
 cotton-seed meal is probably the most valuable protein-bearing feed 
 the country produces, and that its fertilizing value after having gone 
 through an animal's body is almost as great as its feed value. It is 
 also more than passing strange that a southern farmer will buy hay 
 shipped from the West at from $15 to $23 per ton when his own land 
 will often yield more hay per acre than the land where the western 
 hay was produced and of as good a quality. 
 
 Inadequacy of Local Supply of Horses and Mules. According 
 to figures of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agricul- 
 ture there were 83,026 horses in South Carolina on January 1, 1907. 
 These horses had a total farm valuation of $10,437,182, an average
 
 MORGAN STALLION, "GENERAL GATES." DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 A CHOICE EXPRESS HORSE, WEIGHT, 1,375 FOUNDS. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 79 
 
 of $126 a head. The same authority estimates the number of mules 
 in the State on the same date at 134,690, with a total farm value of 
 $20,598,121 and an average of $153 a head. 
 
 The average life of a horse in South Carolina from the time he is 
 mature may be estimated at eight years and that of a mule at ten 
 years. The stock of horses and mules must therefore be replaced 
 once in each eight or ten years, respectively ; or, to express it differ- 
 ently, 10,000 horses and 13,000 mules must be raised or brought into 
 the State annually. If all were bred in South Carolina that would 
 require at least 135 stallions and 12,500 mares for horse breeding, 
 estimating a stallion to get 75 colts annually and 75 per cent of the 
 mares to breed each year. For breeding mules the number of jacks 
 required would be at least 240 and the number of mares 26,000, esti- 
 mating a jack to get 50 mules a year and about 50 per cent of the 
 mares bred to jacks to breed. This would mean a total of at least 
 38,000 brood mares. To keep up this supply of breeding mares 
 probably 10,000 more should be added to the total. In other words, 
 at least one-half of the total number of horses now in the State should 
 be mares used in breeding both horses and mules. 
 
 Furthermore, these estimates do not take into account the num- 
 ber of foals and horses from one to four years old necessary to keep up 
 this number, which would be nearly as many more. Therefore, if 
 South Carolina produced her own horses and mules, nearly as many 
 horses and mares as the State now has altogether would have to be 
 in the breeding ranks. In other words, the State has only half as 
 many horses as are actually needed. If we had no proof, this 
 alone would show that the State goes elsewhere for its horses and 
 mules. 
 
 Reasons for Raising Horses and Mules at Home. In the opin- 
 ion of the writer, there are three reasons why South Carolina farmers 
 should raise their own horses and mules. The first one is to keep 
 within the State the great sum which is paid annually for stock 
 shipped in from the North and West. From the estimates given and 
 from the best information at hand, which is largely in the nature of 
 estimates of southern men of experience and authority, it would ap- 
 pear that probably only about 2,000 of the horses and 1,000 of the 
 mules used annually are raised in the State. Estimating the cost of 
 the horses delivered to the South Carolina farmer at $125 each and of 
 mules at $175 each, the amount of money sent out of the State an- 
 nually is $1,000,000 for horses and $1,925,000 for mules $3,000,- 
 000 in round numbers, which could be retained in the State to good 
 advantage. 
 
 It may be said that if the State produced its own horses and 
 mules the general market of the country might suffer, and local 
 horse and mule breeders might not be able to raise them at a profit. 
 It is doubtful if this is true, in view of the tremendous activity of the 
 horse and mule market 3 . The year 1906 was one of unparalleled 
 prosperity for horse and mule breeders. Prices bounded skyward, 
 and for all classes there was a demand greater than the market could 
 supply. This demand shows every indication of being maintained
 
 80 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 until the supply can meet it, and as long as conditions in business 
 are good there is little, if any, reason to fear an oversupply. The 
 rise in prices of horses in the United States has been such that the 
 export trade has practically ceased except for the best grades of light 
 horses. The European market can not pay the American prices. 
 Should domestic prices decline to the European standard, the export 
 trade would begin again, and this would prevent them from falling 
 below a profitable level. 
 
 The second reason is that by producing its own horses and mules 
 the South has stock already adapted to its use. No time is lost in 
 getting an animal to do his best under southern conditions. Further- 
 more, they would be produced at cost, without having to include in 
 the expense bill a profit to any other producer or middleman. Not 
 only that, but after a horse or mule is 2 years old he will earn his 
 way, and a moderate amount of work is good for him. In this way 
 the animal has been raised to 5 years of age at a minimum cost. 
 Not only is all this a great advantage, but the breeding of the stock 
 is known, or if not it can readily be ascertained. This is of im- 
 mense importance. If a farmer owns a good horse or mule, natur- 
 ally he wants another like him, and if the sire is within reach it is 
 an easy matter to breed mares to him with a reasonable expectation 
 that the sire will duplicate his previous performances. 
 
 Let us digress for a moment to point out more in detail the value 
 of knowing something of an animal's ancestry before buying. The 
 laws of heredity are powerful, and they work not through the parents 
 alone, but through grandparents, great-grandparents, and even more 
 remote ancestors. If a line of breeding is proposed which is com- 
 posed entirely of animals of merit, the mating is almost sure to 
 result satisfactorily ; but if there is a stain in it, if some animal was 
 below standard, its faults will crop out somewhere in its descendants. 
 That is the reason why pure breeding is surer than haphazard breed- 
 ing, and why it is undesirable to breed to scrubs. It is for this reason 
 that the persistent use of purebred sires of the same breed is sure to 
 show great improvement over the original foundation stock. If for 
 no other reason, then, southern farmers should breed their own 
 animals so that they can know their breeding and use this knowl- 
 edge for future benefit. 
 
 The third reason why the South Carolina farmers should breed 
 horses and mules is that the State has excellent possibilities for stock 
 raising, and that when the supply is increased beyond local needs 
 the demands of outside markets can be filled. The greatest horse- 
 raising State in the country is Iowa, and the greatest horse market 
 for the number handled is" Chicago. However, it is estimated that 
 at least half of these horses are sent from Chicago to other points, 
 some for final sale, others for further fitting for market. The 
 highest class of horses will generally be found in the East, in New 
 York and Boston, and the highest prices for good horses are to be 
 had in these cities. Now, if an Iowa farmer sells a horse to a Chicago 
 buyer, and the horse eventually goes to New York, that buyer's 
 profit and the other expenses incident to sale must be included in
 
 81 
 
 the price obtained in New York. Des Moines, Iowa, and Columbia, 
 S. C., are quite near the geographical centers of their respective 
 States. Columbia is over 400 miles nearer New York and Boston 
 than is Des Moines. Columbia is just that much nearer the coun- 
 try's best horse marke't, and there are three large cities and three 
 great ports on the Atlantic seaboard between Columbia and New 
 York, all of them on a direct line from Columbia. 
 
 So far as the markets are concerned, the South Carolina farmer 
 has as good advantages as the Iowa farmer. These advantages are 
 not developed, it is true, but the conditions are full of latent possi- 
 bilities. If good horses are bred in the South, the buyers will soon 
 find it out and there need be no fear that good prices will not be 
 obtained for good products. 
 
 Possibilities of Southern Mule Markets. Let us now consider 
 the possibilities of the mule market. Although many of the best 
 draft mules are sold to the cities of the North at top prices and many 
 are used on the farms of the Central West, the backbone of the mule 
 industry is the southern demand. These mules are bred mainly in 
 the States within touch of Kansas City and St. Louis, and these 
 markets handle most of the mules of the country. St. Louis, Mem- 
 phis, New Orleans, and Atlanta are the great distributing points. 
 South Carolina is probably too far from Kansas City or St. Louis 
 for her mules to sell on those markets in competition with those 
 raised in Missouri, Illinois, and Kentucky, and these States are also 
 much nearer the Memphis market. Further, St. Louis is 40 miles 
 nearer New Orleans than Columbia, and on a direct line ; but look 
 at Atlanta. Columbia is only 253 miles from Atlanta, via Augusta; 
 yet Memphis is 419 miles from Atlanta, St. Louis is 733 miles away, 
 and Kansas City is 903 miles away. Atlanta is coming to be one 
 of the great mule-distributing points of the South, and is now the 
 greatest one in the Southeast. No doubt South Carolina farmers 
 get many of their mules from Atlanta, which were first sold on 
 markets two or three times as far from Atlanta as Columbia. The 
 reason for this is surely not that South Carolina can not produce 
 good mules, because there were on exhibition at the 1906 meeting 
 of the South Carolina Dairy and Live Stock Association native 
 mules which were as good as any market requires. With the devel- 
 opment of Atlanta as a mule market, the reason that more mules 
 are not bred in South Carolina can not be that there is not a con- 
 venient market. A golden opportunity exists here for anyone brave 
 enough to break away from custom and act as a pioneer in mule 
 raising. South Carolina farmers need thousands of mules of a good 
 grade, and at their very door is a market which is in touch with the 
 demand of half a dozen States. What more could c be -desired? 
 
 Methods of Breeding and Management. The methods of breed- 
 ing and management that should be used to produce horses and 
 mules in South Carolina will next be considered. It is a compara- 
 tively easy matter to discuss this phase of the subject from the 
 standpoint of central western conditions, but the writer must confess 
 that he approaches it with considerable trepidation when applied to
 
 82 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 southern conditions. So far as soil, climate, pasture, and forage are 
 concerned, the conditions in the South are very nearly ideal, but 
 there are other circumstances to be considered, chief of which are 
 the use of negro labor and the general inferiority of the stock which 
 must be used as the foundation on which to build. As to the negroes, 
 no suggestions will be advanced except that many horsemen prefer 
 them for hostlers and grooms. Throughout Kentucky the negro 
 seems to be the favorite stable hand in many of the best breeding 
 establishments, and it is well known that Mr. Ed Geers, the famous 
 trotting horseman, will not have a white man in his stables if he 
 can help it. These facts seem to show that the negro has possibili- 
 ties as a horse handler. 
 
 Necessity for the Improvement of Native Stock. The inferior- 
 ity of the native horse stock is mentioned not to find fault unneces- 
 sarily, but to get a point from which to approach the subject. We 
 might as well be frank and recognize that a candid acknowledg- 
 ment of defects in the animals under consideration will better enable 
 us to reach a logical and definite conclusion. The class of horses 
 which supply the southern markets is not a desirable one. Consult 
 the market reports for St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, and Chicago, 
 and it will be found that the classes known as southern horses, south- 
 ern chunks, etc., bring the lowest prices of any. They are variable 
 in type, ranging from very inferior light chunks to a pretty fair 
 type of drivers. As a general rule, they are horses which the Central 
 West can well afford to sell at any price and the South can ill afford 
 to buy, no matter how cheap they may be. This is said solely from 
 the breeder's standpoint. They may be the best farm horses for 
 southern conditions, and on that point the southern farmer's opinion 
 is more valuable than that of the writer, but the writer can not resist 
 the temptation to say that it is doubtful if they are more valuable 
 than their market price would indicate. Two things are certain 
 most of the horses which the South has are obtained from the North, 
 and the quality of these horses is generally the poorest of any sold 
 on northern markets. It is not, therefore, unreasonable to conclude 
 that, judged solely as horseflesh, the southern horse is not a very 
 superior animal. 
 
 Whatever the value of the native southern stock it is there, and 
 the mares must be used as the foundation for any improvement which 
 may be made. Improvement should be begun gradually, without 
 any expectation of jumping from mediocrity to the highest excel- 
 lence at one bound, and it should begin with the idea of improving, 
 first, the general average of the farm horse of the South. 
 
 The first step is the elimination of unsoundness, which should be 
 done as rapidly as possible. In selecting mares for breeding only 
 those should be chosen which are sound in wind and free from ring- 
 bones, sidebones, curbs, and spavins. The tendency for unsoundness 
 to appear is hereditary, and the presence of unsoundness makes a 
 horse practically unsalable. 
 
 For most sections of the South the next step should be the in- 
 crease of size, and this should be done somewhat gradually. The in-
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 83 
 
 crease in the size of farm horses is of the greatest importance, espe- 
 cially where heavy clay soils are common. Two 1,200-pound horses 
 will probably do more work and eat less than 3 weighing 800 pounds 
 each, and larger ones probably in similar proportion. 
 
 Next, conformation should be improved. Conformation is im- 
 portant not only because it has a great effect on the selling price, but 
 because a horse with good conformation will do more work and last 
 longer than one with poor conformation. The points especially to be 
 sought are as follows : Wide, open nostrils ; medium-sized, clean-cut 
 muzzle; clean-cut, open jaws; clean-cut head; straight face; wide 
 forehead; large, clear, intelligent eyes; medium-sized, smartly car- 
 ried ears, set close together; clean-cut throatlatch; clean-cut, well- 
 muscled, long neck, smoothly joined to the shoulders; and sharp, 
 smooth withers. The shoulders should be sloping, and should extend 
 well into the back ; the arm should be well muscled and well thrown 
 back. The forearm should be wide and muscular, the knees wide 
 and strong and strongly supported. The canon should be flat and 
 well developed, so that there is no falling away below the knee. The 
 fetlocks should be wide and straight, the pastern of medium length, 
 strong, and inclined at an angle of about 45 degrees. The feet 
 should be of good size, with large hoof heads, dense bone, well-de- 
 veloped frogs, and wide heels of good height. The back should be 
 straight, broad, and well muscled, and the ribs w r ell sprung. The 
 loins should be straight, broad, well muscled, and closely coupled to 
 the hind quarters; the croup wide and straight; the quarters fully 
 developed; and the tail set high and smartly carried. The flanks 
 should be full. The hocks should be clean cut, wide, strong, and 
 straight, and the supporting canons broad and flat. Further de- 
 scription of the hind limb practically corresponds to that of the fore 
 limb. 
 
 The necessity of these points from the standpoint of durability 
 is obvious on a moment's reflection. A wide, open nostril generally 
 indicates good lung capacity and therefore good constitution. A 
 wide forehead usually indicates brain capacity; a straight face, do- 
 cility ; a full, clear eye, intelligence ; an erectly carried ear, alertness. 
 Roman noses frequently indicate strongheadedness and dished faces 
 viciousness. A horse with a narrow nostril, Roman nose, small 
 bear eye, narrow forehead, and badly placed lop ears is usually 
 one to be suspected of being capable of all kinds of equine villainy. 
 A thick throatlatch and short, thick neck indicate a horse which will 
 probably be thick in the wind. Meaty withers and shoulders are 
 seldom found with good action. A straight shoulder and pastern 
 shows a limb predisposed to ringbones, sidebones, and other diseases, 
 and a horse with such conformation will not "wear well. Good feet 
 are necessary, as shown by the old adage, No foot, no horse. The 
 development of the middle piece the body is necessary for many 
 obvious reasons. A horse with a narrow, shallow body, low back, 
 and weak coupling is not only a weak horse with little constitution, 
 but a poor keeper; a fully developed back, well-sprung ribs, deep 
 body, and closely coupled loins usually indicate a strong one. The
 
 84 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 development of the floating ribs is important, especially in a brood 
 mare, to allow full room for the development of the digestive and 
 reproductive organs. A full hind flank is important for the reason 
 that a wasp-wadsted horse is usually a poor feeder and lacks stamina. 
 
 The development of the hind quarters is necessary, because the 
 greatest amount of the animal's propelling power is developed there. 
 Not only is muscular development necessary, but the hind legs must 
 be well shaped to endure the great strain that is exerted when pulling 
 a load. The hocks and the legs from these joints to the pasterns 
 should be parallel and set rather close together. Viewing the leg 
 from the side, the back line from the point of the hock to the ground 
 should be perpendicular. The angles of the bones of the lower leg 
 should form an angle at the hock with the cannon of about 60 de- 
 grees. If this angle is greater we have what is known as a straight 
 leg, and consequently a hock predisposed to curbs. If the angle is 
 much less a sickle hock results. Deflection of the hocks inward 
 causes what are known as cow hocks. Bad conformation in the 
 hock joint and light development of the joint predispose to spavin, 
 one of the most serious forms of unsoundness. 
 
 This, in a general way, covers the points to be looked for in con- 
 formation and the reasons for them. Next, we should look for qual- 
 ity. This is shown in the cleanness of the head, neck, and bones of 
 the leg, by the clean-cut appearance of the tendons, the softness and 
 fineness of the hair, and the texture of the skin. Quality is an index 
 of the breeding of a horse and of his stamina and durability. 
 
 Next, action should be looked for. This in a farm horse is most 
 important at the walk, which should be regular, straight, free, and, 
 above all rapid. A fast walker is a far more valuable worker than 
 a slow one, and will turn many more furrows in a day. Action at 
 the trot should be quick and free, straight and true. High action is 
 not necessary in a farm horse, but the knees and hocks should be 
 flexed well with snap and precision. Finally, in breeding stock the 
 farmer should look for uniformity. His mares should be as nearly 
 alike as possible, and should be so bred as to produce uniform colts. 
 
 This will give an idea of the type of farm horse which will read- 
 ily do work enough to pay for his keep. Any specific mention of the 
 proper size for such horses has purposely been omitted, for the reason 
 that this matter is so important that it can well be taken up again 
 in addition to what has already been said. It is useless to expect a 
 farm mare to produce a good-sized mule or work horse if she herself 
 is undersized. If the South is to produce good salable mules the 
 size of the farm mares must be increased. If it is ever to sell horses 
 at a profit on the New York or Boston markets, the same thing must 
 be done. In the writer's opinion the standard weight of a farm mare 
 should be 1,200 pounds. A mare having the description given, with 
 this weight, would produce a good mule when bred to a good-sized 
 jack, and when bred to a suitable stallion would produce a good work 
 horse for the farm. This statement of standard weight applies to 
 South Carolina under present conditions, and does not apply to con- 
 ditions which might obtain in other sections of the country, and
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 85 
 
 might not hold even in South Carolina after several generations of 
 systematic breeding up, as will be shown later on. 
 
 Selecting a Stallion. The selection of stallions to be used in 
 improving the native stock" is the next consideration. In breeding 
 animals on the farm one idea should be continually in the farmer's 
 mind breed true and do not cross. Nothing will produce mongrels 
 more quickly than to breed mares to a stallion of one breed, their 
 progeny to another, theirs to another, and so on. Breeding the same 
 mares to different stallions each year will result in the same thing in 
 the long run. To make success reasonably sure the farmer should 
 determine for himself which breed of horses suits him best and which 
 type in the breed. He should have only his own necessities and 
 market demands in mind. After making such a decision he should 
 select a good, sound, purebred stallion and breed to him, selecting 
 others as may be needed to prevent inbreeding. 
 
 How to Buy the Stallion. After the decision has been made to 
 improve the native stock by breeding to purebred stallions, steps 
 should be taken to get such a horse if one is not in the vicinity. As 
 a general rule it is probable that purebred stallions are not found in 
 very many parts of the South, and few farmers have enough mares 
 to warrant the purchase of a horse outright. Where such is the case, 
 enough men in a neighborhood to represent the ownership of, say, 
 75 or 80 mares might -band together and organize a company for the 
 purchase of a horse, each man paying into the treasury of the com- 
 pany a sum proportioned to the number of mares he wishes to breed. 
 Then let this company decide on the breed to use and send a com- 
 petent representative to visit breeding farms and select a horse. 
 This same plan may be used for the purchase of a jack. By purchas- 
 ing in this way animals can be obtained at the lowest possible fig- 
 ures and the company has the advantage of dealing with the breeders 
 direct rather than through their agents. Furthermore, if the repre- 
 sentative of the company is qualified to judge, the company is likely 
 to get good value. 
 
 The company system of selling stallions used by many importers 
 and breeders is applied in the opposite manner. A representative of 
 a stallion owner visits a community and himself proceeds to organize 
 a company. He frequently associates some prominent man with 
 him, giving him a share of stock for his influence. When sufficient 
 men come in to cover the selling price of the stallion at the fixed 
 price for shares, each member gives his note for the amount repre- 
 sented by his share, the agent discounts these notes, and the horse is 
 sold. It is an unfortunate thing that this company method of selling 
 stallions is used. Many horsemen condemn it strongly, even though 
 they may use it. Its existence is condoned on the plea that if it were 
 not used the horses would not be sold ; that the horse must be taken 
 to the buyer, because the buyer will not go to the horse. That may 
 have^been true in the Central West several years ago, and it may be 
 true in some parts of the South to-day, but in this day of tremendous 
 prices for horses of all kinds it seems strange that a really good 
 horse can not be sold on its merits.
 
 86 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The decline of the company system of selling in the corn belt is 
 being followed by the adoption of the public sale by some breeders, 
 and the firms that use the company system most extensively are car- 
 rying it into the South and far West, where less experience has been 
 had with it. There is little doubt that the people of these sections, 
 too, will soon find out the faults of the system, and we can look for- 
 ward to the time when it shall have passed from us forever. The 
 objections to the system are its expensiveness and general unreliabil- 
 ity. To send an agent into the field for several weeks to sell one 
 horse (and often the horse is with him, and a groom also), to pay 
 this agent's commission and the discount on the notes, piles up a tre- 
 mendous expense bill, which must be added to the cost of the horse 
 and paid for by the purchaser. Stallion owners estimate that it 
 costs on an average about $1,000 to sell a stallion by the company 
 system. A home-organized company could send a man to Europe 
 for a horse at a smaller expense than that. 
 
 The unreliability of the system rests on the fact that, under the 
 law, firms are liable for the acts of their agents only when agents 
 act within the limits of their authority. If a firm wishes to do so, 
 when a purchasing company finds an agent's promises of no value, 
 it can retire behind the excuse that the agent exceeded his author- 
 ity. However, there are, no doubt, more honest agents than dis- 
 honest ones, just as there are more honest stallion owners than dis- 
 honest ones. 
 
 The element of unreliability is of course not always present in 
 the sale of a horse by the company system, for the representations 
 of an honest agent of an honest firm can be depended on to the 
 letter. But no firm can sell a horse in this way without great cost to 
 the purchasers, in many cases more than the horse is really worth 
 and in most cases more than the shareholders can ever hope to get 
 out of their investment. The system has one great merit, namely, 
 that it is taking many good horses into sections of the country where 
 they are sorely needed, and probably the value of such horses to a 
 community will be equal in the long run to the price paid for them, 
 although this may not show in the books of the companies which 
 purchase them. 
 
 The Breed of the Stallion. Beginners will find themselves 
 confronted at once by the question whether to choose a horse of a 
 light breed or of a heavy breed. By a light breed is meant one of 
 the carriage, roadster, or saddle breeds, such as the Standardbred, 
 Hackney, French Coacher, Saddle Horse, or Thoroughbred. By a 
 heavy breed is meant one of the draft breeds, such as the Percheron, 
 Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, etc. By selecting a horse of one of the 
 light breeds the beginner starts on the road of producing first what 
 our markets call general-purpose horses, and eventually horses of a 
 better class carriage horses, drivers, and saddlers. If a heavy 
 horse is selected, the first cross will probably be a general-purpose 
 horse also, but with less quality than when the light breeds are used. 
 Eventually, however, this route leads to the production of heavy 
 horses the expressers and drafters of the market. The possibilities
 
 CHAMPION HACKNEY STALLION. DEPT. OF AGE. 
 
 THOROUGHBRED STALLION. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 89 
 
 of these two methods are merely suggested without an attempt to 
 advise specifically which one to follow. 
 
 HOW TO JUDGE DRAFT HORSES. 
 
 The judging of horses is an art to be acquired by careful ob- 
 servation, practice and experience. Not every man has the natu- 
 rally keen observing powers and love of the subject peculiar to some 
 men who become notable experts; yet all may acquire a practical, 
 useful knowledge of the exterior of the horse by methodical and con- 
 scientious study. To become a proficient judge of horses is worth 
 striving after. The attainment gives its possessor personal satisfac- 
 tion, the necessary information for use in breeding, buying, selling 
 and managing horses and enables him to help his fellowmen by 
 counsel in horse matters, or the selection of prize winners in the show 
 ring. Masters of the art wield a mighty influence on the horse 
 breeding operations of the country. 
 
 How to Acquire the Art. A horseman should get into the 
 habit of sizing up every horse he sees. By comparing one horse with 
 another, he will gain experience and be able to estimate correctly the 
 values of component parts and to judge of beauty, symmetry, corre- 
 lation of members and adaptability for breeding purposes or work. 
 After learning the names of the various parts of the horse's exterior 
 he is equipped to analyze the value or deficiency of each and at 
 length will be able to judge quickly and intelligently of the value 
 of the entire combination of points constituting the individual horse. 
 
 A great number of horses must be examined. Then several 
 must be considered together and one compared with the other until 
 each can be placed in its proper position as regards merit and utility. 
 Horses of varying breed, age, type, quality, soundness and service- 
 ability should be used as material for study. Where possible the 
 student of horses should visit horse breeding establishments, sale 
 stables and shows to continue his studies and round out his expe- 
 rience, as soon as a practical knowledge of the work of judging has 
 been acquired. 
 
 How to Examine a Horse. Have the animal led out to halter 
 and stood at ease in an open, well lighted place. View the horse from 
 all directions. In this way an impression of the conformation, 
 style, character and general appearance of the animal and peculiari- 
 ties or excellencies of the various members is obtained. The horse 
 may be moved around, first at a walk and then at a trot, to afford 
 the judge a broadside view. This should be followed by a careful 
 study of the animal as he walks from and to the observer and is then 
 led away and back at a trot. The examination may then follow in 
 detail. This analytical work is often best accomplished by means of 
 the score card. 
 
 The student of horses should learn to use his eyes rather than 
 his hands in judging. The eye is master of the situation. The hand 
 should only be used as an assistant to the eye. It may be used when 
 the eye unaided cannot determine a question of quality, size, condi- 
 tion or soundness. For example, the eye sees plumpness of flesh, but 
 the hand must be used to decide its depth on the ribs or other part;
 
 90 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 or the eye detects what appears to be a bone spavin and the hand 
 by feeling corroborates or disproves the suspicion. As a general 
 rule much handling is to be avoided. Excessive handling suggests 
 lack of confidence, experience and mature judgment. 
 
 Purpose of the Score Card. The use of the score card in judg- 
 ing teaches the student to analyze the component parts of the horse 
 one by one until he becomes thoroughly efficient in estimating the 
 value of all points combined in the animal. Practice with it will, in 
 time, enable him to rapidly look over a horse, note its good and bad 
 points and arrive at a correct estimate of its value. For the beginner 
 who would become a capable judge of horses it is necessary at first 
 to examine each of the points noted on the accompanying score card. 
 The experienced judge does not use a score card in the judging ring. 
 By long practice he has learned to quickly observe and weigh all of 
 the points of the horse and estimate their relative importance, in 
 placing the animals of a group in their proper positions. The use 
 of the score card trains the student so that in time he is able to judge 
 without its help. The points or parts of the horse, referred to above, 
 are shown herein. They should be thoroughly learned and then 
 demonstrated to a competent judge who should explain the characters 
 of an ideal draft horse. Then repeated judging of many widely dif- 
 ferent horses by the score card cannot fail to make an intelligent 
 horse judge of the one who earnestly strives to become proficient in 
 this useful art. 
 
 Method of Using the Score Card. It will be noticed that on 
 the score card the body of the horse is considered in sections, after 
 study of the general appearance of the animal, which is allowed 29 
 points as a perfect score. Each section is given a total value as, 
 Body 9 points and each member composing the section is studied 
 in proper order and weighted according to perfection or deficiency 
 noted. The student is advised to first note readily observable excel- 
 lencies and deficiencies or faults. The latter should be first consid- 
 ered and marked off on the score card. If, for example, the horse is 
 notably deficient in body, on account of lack of depth, spring of rib, 
 wealth of muscle or strength of loin and coupling, these points should 
 first be cut upon the score card, under head of Form and then under 
 Body as regards ribs; back; loins; underline. 
 
 Supposing the horse is otherwise admirable in general appear- 
 ance but woefully deficient in legs and action, these deficiencies 
 should first be depreciated by cutting down the perfect score allowed 
 for each part contributing to the deficiency. The major defects 
 having thus been noted on the score card, the student may proceed 
 to consider each other point in turn and, wherever necessary, cut 
 proportionately according to the degree of each noticeable departure 
 from ideal type. 
 
 Rule for Scoring. In scoring a draft horse by the score card 
 the amount cut for any defect should never exceed half of the total 
 number of points allowed for the part under consideration. Neither 
 should a cut of less than .25 point be made. For example, on the 
 Head, which is allowed one point, never cut over .50 nor less than
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 91 
 
 .25, if at all. In the case of the feet which are given eight points 
 when perfect, never cut more than four points nor less than .25. 
 The scorer must use his judgment in deciding the proportionate score 
 to allow between these limits. 
 
 Estimating Matters of Soundness. So far as possible sound 
 horses should at first be studied in score card work. The location of 
 the various unsoundnesses may be studied as soon as an intimate 
 knowledge of the various points mentioned on the score card has been 
 attained. Then actual unsoundnesses may be studied on the live ani- 
 mal and for practice to detect and point out unsoundnesses. Where 
 an unsound horse has to be used for score card work the unsoundness 
 should first be located; scoring may then proceed as though the un- 
 soundness were absent. 
 
 In the actual show judging of horses to be used for breeding 
 purposes or when buying such horses, a notable unsoundness of 
 hereditary nature necessitates rejection of the animal, despite ideal 
 value and perfection apart from the question of soundness. In judg- 
 ing or buying horses for work purposes this also would hold true. 
 The judge or buyer would reject or greatly discount in value a blind, 
 lame or wind broken horse which otherwise might be well nigh per- 
 fect in make-up as judged by the score card. The subject of "sound- 
 ness" should be specially studied, after one has become proficient 
 in ordinary score card judging. 
 
 When one has become familiar with the common unsoundnesses 
 of horses he should be able to detect most of them without using the 
 hand. In public judging the hand should be used as little as pos- 
 sible. In the judging ring care should be taken not to draw unnec- 
 essary attention to noted unsoundnesses. The judge need satisfy 
 himself alone and that in an unobtrusive manner. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR SCORING. 
 
 Height. A horse's height is measured in hands (4 inches) 
 from the summit of the withers to the ground. A typical, ideal 
 draft horse stands over 16 hands (5 feet 4 inches) and under 18 
 hands high. Tall, leggy horses, if deficient in weight, width and 
 quality, are undesirable. Such horses often are found affected with 
 St. Vitus' dance (Chorea). Exceptionally tall horses (over 17.2 
 hands) are difficult to match in pairs and therefore may not meet 
 with ready sale on the market. Such horses are chiefly used for 
 single work or as the middle horses of three horse teams. Numerical 
 values are not given to height on the score card. One must learn 
 to use judgment in estimating height and approximating its com- 
 parative value for the special purpose of the individual horse. 
 
 Weight. A draft horse should weigh 1600 pounds, or more, 
 in ordinary flesh. Perfect score. 6 points. Weight in a draft horse 
 is absolutely necessary for the hauling of heavy loads. It enables 
 the horse to derive full benefit from the strength of his muscles, adds 
 to the effect of his motions, and gives him a firm grip upon the 
 ground. Heavy weight is a useless burden when not associated with 
 adequately developed frame and muscle. It should be accompanied 
 by vigor and energy.
 
 92 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The Score Card for Draft Horses. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 
 Points Deficient. 
 
 Per- 
 fect 
 Score 
 
 Student's 
 Score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 
 
 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 29 POINTS 
 Height, estimated hands, actual 
 
 
 
 
 Weight, over 1600 Ibs. ; estimated Ibs., score 
 Action, Walk : fast, elastic, regular, straight 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 6 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 
 
 Form, broad, massive, evenly proportioned, symmetrical, 
 
 
 
 Quality, refined ; bone clean, large, strong ; tendons clean, 
 defined, prominent ; skin and hair fine ; "feather," if pres- 
 ent, silky 
 
 
 
 Action, Walk : fast, elastic, regular, straight 
 
 
 
 Trot : free, springy, balanced, straight 
 
 
 
 Temperament, energetic ; disposition, good 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 8 POINTS 
 Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well carried ; profile 
 straight 
 
 
 
 Forehead, broad, full 
 
 
 
 Eyes, bright, clear, full, same color 
 
 
 
 Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 
 
 
 
 Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even, firm. 
 Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean 
 
 
 
 
 
 Neck, muscled, arched ; throat-latch, fine ; windpipe, large . 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 22 POINTS 
 Shoulder, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, extending well 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set 
 
 
 
 Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily muscled 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 8 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 Canons, short, wide, clean ; tendons clean, defined, promi- 
 nent 
 
 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles con- 
 cave ; bars strong, full ; frogs large, elastic ; heels wide, 
 
 
 
 BODY 9 POINTS 
 Chest, deep, wide ; breast bone, low ; girth, large 
 
 
 
 Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely ribbed to hip 
 
 
 
 Back, broad, strong, muscular 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Underline, low, flanks full 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 32 POINTS 
 Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled 
 
 
 
 Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping 
 
 
 
 Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular 
 
 
 
 Quarters, plump with muscle, deep 
 
 
 
 Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean 
 
 
 
 Gaskins (lower thighs) long, wide, clean, heavily muscled. . 
 Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean, well set 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canons, short, wide, clean ; tendons clean, defined, promi- 
 nent 
 
 
 
 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 
 
 
 
 Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles con- 
 cave ; bars strong, full ; frogs, large, elastic ; heels, wide, 
 one-half length of toe, vertical to ground 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In a draft horse additional weight over the average is worth 25 
 cents or more per pound in the great horse markets. For practical 
 purposes the great weight of a draft horse should he made up of 
 compact frame, large bones and powerful muscles. Fat should he
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 93 
 
 discounted in buying a draft horse for work or breeding and, in 
 judging, one should note the development of muscle rather than fat. 
 A draft colt should weigh approximately 100 pounds for each month 
 of age at 12 months. A horse is mature at five years old, but 
 should attain practically full weight a year or so earlier, and if pure- 
 bred, weigh 1600 or over at three years. 
 
 In scoring mature draft horses reject those under 1600 pounds 
 in weight. Cut immature draft animals for lack of development 
 with respect to age. A young animal, not yet mature, should weigh 
 proportionately to the mature one and be cut if markedly under 
 weight for age. 
 
 Form. The form of the draft horse should be broad, deep, mas- 
 sive, evenly proportioned and symmetrical, the entire make-up sug- 
 gesting great strength and weight. The body should be blocky, and 
 compact, with short, broad, clean, well set legs showing fine skin, 
 large joints and prominent tendons. Perfect, 4 points. 
 
 The entire appearance of the draft horse should be indicative 
 of strength for heavy hauling. A massive body, set squarely on 
 sturdy legs, is required. Discount the horse for marked departures 
 from such form. 
 
 Quality. Good quality is shown by fine, bright, silky hair; 
 soft, pliable skin; clean, well defined tendons; smooth, well devel- 
 oped muscles; strong, smooth bones. It usually is associated with 
 style, spirit and intelligence indicative of breeding. Perfect, 6 points. 
 
 The term quality is applied to the evidence of refinement, as 
 opposed to coarseness, grossness, and sluggishness. Symmetry, high 
 spirits, lively action, endurance, all should be observed. Quality is 
 plainly evidenced when the legs are free from meatiness, appear 
 broad, flat, and, when showing feather (the long hair under knees 
 and hocks) , this springs as a silky fringe from the rear of the ten- 
 dons. Quality is the opposite of grossness and combines grac with 
 great weight and power. Excessive quality may denote weakness, 
 slimness. narrowness and lightness of bone. It is then highly ob- 
 jectionable. 
 
 Action. The draft horse should walk spryly, with regular, 
 straight steps and elastic tread. The action when trotting should be 
 free, springy and straight. Perfect walk, 6 points ; trot, 4 points. 
 
 A draft horse does most of his hard work at the walking gait. 
 It is therefore important that he should be able to walk fast without 
 tiring. He should be able to walk four miles an hour with a load. 
 To do this the action must be perfectly regular, straight and level. 
 Joints must be quickly and fully flexed ; feet must be advanced and 
 set down without deviation from a straight line. Soles of the feet 
 should turn up and show the shoes plainly as the horse moves away 
 from the observer, at both walk and trot. The feet should be lifted 
 quickly, and evenly, and be set down squarely and firmly. 
 
 There should be no paddling, dishing, or winging in or out, 
 cutting or interfering, nor should the fore legs swing out or roll, 
 or the hind legs be carried too close together or too far apart. In 
 judging of the action the observer must note the movements of each
 
 94 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 leg and foot, the handling of each joint and the carriage of the en- 
 tire body, as the horse walks and trots. Watch closely for lameness. 
 The hocks should be carried well together when in motion. Rolling, 
 or waddling in front is due to too great width of chest. Knee and 
 hock action should both be free and comparatively high. Perfection 
 of action at the walk is of highest importance in the draft horse. 
 
 Temperament. The draft horse should show a vigorous, lively, 
 energetic disposition, yet be docile, tractable and intelligent. He 
 should be neither sluggish, nor irritable, nor excessively nervous. 
 Perfect, 3 points. Noticeable vices, as cribbing, wind sucking, weav- 
 ing, tail switching, shying, biting, kicking, head shaking, etc., are 
 undesirable and a horse showing one or more of these habits should 
 be cut sharply. Sluggishness associated with fat should be avoided, 
 as it induces disease. Stupidity, clumsiness, meanness or excessive 
 nervousness are objectionable and should discount the animal. 
 
 Head. Should be large, proportionate in size to the body and 
 well formed, clean, free from coarseness and irregularities. Perfect, 
 1 point. Strength may be shown in the head as well as the rest of 
 the body. It should not be excessively fleshy or irregular. It should 
 be carried well up and balanced properly upon the neck. 
 
 Forehead. Should be broad, full and not dished or too promi- 
 nent. The profile of the face should not be too straight or of Roman 
 nose form. There should be good width, and fullness between the 
 eyes, which indicates power and intelligence. Perfect, 1 point. 
 
 Eyes. Should be bright, clear, mild, full, sound, of the same 
 color. The lids should be smooth, well arched and free from angu- 
 larities and wrinkles. Perfect, 1 point. The eyes should be free 
 from cloudiness, specks and white spots. They should not be staring 
 or bulging. Test the eyes by gently threatening to strike with the 
 hand. A horse with good sight will flinch under this test. The 
 pupil should be elliptical in form, not circular, and should contract 
 when the animal is suddenly brought into the light from a dark 
 stable. 
 
 Ears. Should be of medium size, well placed, alert, normally 
 active and free from coarseness. Perfect, 1 point. The ears should 
 be in proportion to the body in size, neither too large nor too small. 
 They should be of good quality, soft, pliable and free from excessive 
 amount of coarse hair. 
 
 Muzzle. The nostrils should be large and flexible, the lips thin, 
 even and firm and all of the parts neat and clean cut. Perfect, 1 
 point. The skin and hair of the muzzle should be of good quality. 
 Small nostrils and a narrow face indicate poor breathing power. 
 Note the lining membrane of the nostrils and the partition between 
 them to see that it is pink in color, healthy, free from ulcers or 
 purple spots and with no discharge or bad odor. The lips should be 
 even, firmly held without drooping and be free from sores or wounds. 
 
 Lower Jaw. There should be a wide space between the lower 
 jaw bones, free from meatiness, abscesses or tumors. Perfect, 1 
 point. Jaw bones that are too close together indicate deficiency in 
 ability to chew food and the animal is usually hard to keep in good
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 95 
 
 flesh. The lower jaw bones should be smooth and even and the skin 
 soft and free from much long hair. 
 
 Neck. A well arched, evenly muscled neck in proportion to 
 size of body and large windpipe and smooth insertion into the shoul- 
 der is desirable. Perfect, 2 points. The neck should be well arched, 
 not curved downward (ewe neck) or broken in crest. It should fit 
 neatly into the head and be free from thickness, coarseness and en- 
 largements at the throatlatch. The neck should merge evenly and 
 smoothly into the withers and shoulders and be free from sores at the 
 seat of the collar. The mane should be thick, lie properly and of 
 good quality. Largeness of the windpipe indicates good breathing 
 powers. The jugular vein should show no scars of bleeding and the 
 glands about the throat should be clean and of normal size. 
 
 Shoulder. The shoulder of a draft horse should be moderately 
 sloping, smooth and extending well back. Perfect, 3 points. A ma- 
 jority of poorly formed draft horses have shoulders which are too 
 steep. Occasionally the shoulders are too sloping. Either extreme 
 in a draft horse is objectionable. Trouble with collars comes from 
 these causes when the horse is doing heavy pulling. The correctly 
 laid shoulder should form a smooth comfortable bed for the collar. 
 Straight or upright shoulders detract from easy, free action of the 
 forelegs and generally are found associated with upright pasterns. 
 The shoulders should be smoothly and deeply covered with muscles 
 and be free from coarseness, roughness, sores and tumors. The 
 withers should be well covered and moderately high. 
 
 Arm. The arm of the horse extends from the point of the 
 shoulder to the elbow and should be short, heavily muscled and well 
 thrown back. Perfect, 1 point. This part is formed of the arm bone 
 (humerus) and must be so laid as to bring the leg in proper posi- 
 tion to support the weight of the forequarters. The elbows should 
 be prominent, clean, and not held too far out or too close in to the 
 body. Score off for straight, poorly placed or inadequately muscled 
 arms. Forearm. The forearm, extending from the elbow to the 
 knee, should be long, flat, wide, heavily muscled and free from 
 coarseness. Perfect, 2 points. This portion of the body of the draft 
 horse, together with the lower thigh (gaskin) of the hind leg, can- 
 not be fattened, but is composed chiefly of lean muscle and bone. 
 The muscles should be prominent in front and above and the entire 
 part clean and free from puffiness or coarseness. For weakness, 
 lack of length, or deficiency in muscle, cut sharply. 
 
 Knees. The knees should be straight, wide, deep, strongly 
 formed and smooth. Perfect, 2 points. So long as these and other 
 joints are free from puffs, bony growths and meatiness, they cannot 
 well be too large or too strongly developed. Knees should be straight 
 and so set as to perfectly carry the weight of the body. Sprung 
 knees, or buck knees, bent in the forward direction are as objection- 
 able as those of the reverse type which are known as calf knees. 
 Examine the knees for blemishes and the canons for splints close 
 up to the knees. Splints will be likely to cause lameness. -Blemishes
 
 96 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 may indicate tendency to falling. Score off for small, weak, crooked 
 or tied in knees or those that are rough, coarse, fleshy or scarred. 
 
 Canons. The canons, extending from knees to fetlocks, are 
 composed chiefly of bones and tendons. They should be short, 
 strong, clean, wide and with tendons prominent and smooth. Per- 
 fect, 2 points. The desirable flat appearance of these short, strong 
 bones is largely due to prominence of back tendons and to lack of 
 coarseness and meatiness. Feather, if present, should be fine, silky, 
 springing from the rear of the tendons. Such hair indicates fine, 
 strong dense quality of bone and is usually associated with strong 
 tendons. Coarse, kinky hair, growing from the rear and sides of the 
 canons, indicates coarse skin overlying spongy bone and gives the 
 legs a round appearance. 
 
 Fetlocks. These should be wide, straight, strong and free 
 from puffs, callouses or interfering sores. Perfect, 1 point. What 
 has been said about feather in the foregoing paragraph applies 
 equally to these joints. Sores or callouses caused by interfering, 
 knuckling, cocking forward or breaking backward are highly objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 At the back part of each fetlock, under the "footlock" of hair, 
 will be found a horny projection, known as the ergot. This is large 
 and prominent in some draft horses, but less developed in horses of 
 the light breeds. These and the chestnuts on the inner, lower part 
 of the hock joints are considered vestigial hoofs of the prehistoric 
 horse. Chestnuts are also found above the knees. 
 
 Pasterns. These bones, extending from fetlocks to hoofheads, 
 should be moderately sloping, strong and clean. Perfect, 3 points. 
 The tendency in the average draft horse is toward short, upright 
 pasterns and stubby gait. This is highly objectionable as are also 
 very long, weak pasterns, which bring the back of the fetlocks too 
 close to the ground. The latter cause strain upon the tendons when 
 drawing heavy loads. The short upright pasterns are even more 
 objectionable since they prevent springy, elastic action of the feet 
 and allow concussion to jar the bony columns of the legs. The irri- 
 tation and inflammation induced by continued jarring often result 
 in sides bones, ring bones, corns and kindred diseases. The bone of 
 the pastern should have a slope of about 45 degrees and the front of 
 the foot 50 degrees. Horses having upright pasterns and consequent 
 stubby action wear out quickly when used upon paved streets. 
 
 Feet. The hoofs should be ample in size, sound, smooth and 
 symmetrical in shape. Perfect, 8 points. The hoof is a continua- 
 tion of the skin of the parts above. The color of the skin decides the 
 color of the hoof. Dark colored hoofs are preferred. Color counts 
 for little, however, if the hoofs are of poor shape and texture. The 
 horn should be smooth, waxy looking and free from cracks or ridges 
 and the coronets (hoof heads) should be open, prominent and wide 
 at the heels. The sole should be slightly cupped (conclave) , not flat, 
 or bulging (convex) ; the frog large, elastic, healthy and without a 
 deep cleft; the bars prominent. Discount small, weak, brittle, flat, 
 low-heeled or over large, spongy, soft, shelly feet as well as those
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 97 
 
 that are unsound. Poor fore feet are one of the commonest and 
 most serious faults in draft horses. 
 
 Chest. As this part encloses the heart and lungs it should be 
 roomy in every respect. Perfect, 2 points. The chest is judged 
 from the front and sides. It should be fairly wide, markedly deep, 
 with the breast bone low and level and the heart girth large. A 
 narrow, shallow chest denotes poor constitution, lack of endurance, 
 and deficient breathing organs. If too wide the action tends to wad- 
 dling or rolling. A narrow chest and high knee action often go to- 
 gether. An ample, wide, deep chest denotes vigor, power, strong 
 constitution and easy keeping qualities. 
 
 Ribs. These form the barrel and should be deep, well sprung 
 and carried low at the flank and close to the hip. Perfect, 2 points. 
 Flat ribs mean lack of room for the digestive organs; the rounded 
 barrel indicates good keeping qualities and ability for hard work. 
 A cut up flank, with short, flat ribs and a long, loose coupling, indi- 
 cates weakness, poor digestive powers and poor keeping qualities, 
 tendency to scour and constitutional debility. 
 
 Back. The general appearance of the 'back should denote great 
 strength and compactness. Perfect, 2 points. The back extends 
 from the rear of the withers to the last rib and should be broad, 
 straight, and muscular. If the ribs are poorly sprung the back will 
 be narrow and sharp. A rounded barrel tends to give a horse a 
 slightly leggy appearance. This must be considered in judging. 
 
 Loins. The loin is the part of the back not supported by ribs. 
 It couples the body to the hips and should be short, wide, deep and 
 strong. Perfect, 2 points. Long low loins are objectionable. Ac- 
 tion of the hind legs is defective (slouching and scuffling) where 
 there is such conformation. A roach back is the opposite of a sway 
 back, and is preferable to the latter. The loin of the mare is longer 
 than that of the male, but should be strong, not sagging. 
 
 Underline. From the floor (sternum) of the chest the under- 
 line of the body should run back full and low. Perfect, 1 point. 
 If the underline slopes sharply upward to the stifle the abdomen has 
 a cut up appearance. This indicates lack of roominess and denotes 
 poor keeping qualities. 
 
 Hips. The upper part of the hind quarter should show great 
 development of wide, thick, smooth muscle and freedom from 
 angularities and coarseness. Perfect, 2 points. The muscles of the 
 hips, and hind quarters in general, give the hind legs the power to 
 start and draw heavy loads. The region should be capacious for 
 the accommodation of the maximum amount of muscle. Steepness 
 toward the root of the tail (croup) detracts from the symmetry of 
 form and lessens the space available for attachment of muscles. 
 
 Croup. The part of the hind quarter from the top of the hip to 
 the insertion of the tail. It should show comparative levelness, am- 
 ple muscle and great strength. Perfect, 2 points. The most nota- 
 ble deficiency of this part in draft horses is excessive droop, or steep- 
 ness and shortness, with weakness of muscle. Such conformation 
 tends to slouchiness in gait and often is associated with sickle hocks.
 
 98 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The draft croup should be smooth, of fair length, and neither too 
 steep nor perfectly level. 
 
 Thighs. From the hips, down to the stifles ; should be strongly 
 muscular, wide and long. Perfect, 3 points. Slim, light, narrow, 
 poorly muscled thighs denote lack of draft power. It is important 
 that the thighs and all other parts of the hind quarters should be 
 richly supplied with muscles. 
 
 Quarters. Looking from the rear the plump muscles of the 
 inner sides of the thighs form the quarters and should be full, thick 
 and carried well down to the second thighs (gaskins). Perfect, 2 
 points. 
 
 Stifles. These joints should be strong, thick with muscle, clean 
 cut in front and free from dropsical swellings. Like the elbows 
 they should be so set as to allow of straight, free action, and there- 
 fore neither appreciably turned toward or away from the body. Per- 
 fect, 2 points. 
 
 Gaskins. These are the lower thighs and correspond to the 
 forearms and what is true of the latter also applies equally to the gas- 
 kins. The muscles should be large, prominent in front of the bone 
 and carried well downward. Perfect, 2 points. 
 
 Hocks. These are most important joints as the great strain of 
 load starting and hauling falls upon them and they must be im- 
 mensely strong and perfectly sound or soon they will break down. 
 The joints should be large, clean, sharply defined, wide, deep, and 
 well set. Perfect, 8 points. Poor hocks are a common fault in draft 
 horses. It is important to improve this deficiency. To that end 
 breeding animals should have good hocks and for work horses this 
 also is imperative. The hock (not hind knee) is commonly the seat 
 of some one of such diseases as bone and bog (not blood) spavin, 
 thoroughpin and curb. These should be avoided. The joint should 
 look and feel firm, hard and with each bone well defined, free from 
 meatiness and of great size. The point of the hock should be prom- 
 inent, clean and sharp and the tendons under it straight, distinct, 
 but free from bulging. 
 
 Canons, Fetlocks, Pasterns, Feet. "What has been said rela- 
 tive to these members of the fore leg applies with equal truth to the 
 corresponding parts of the hind extremity. The canons of the 
 hind leg should have the same wide, flat appearance desirable in 
 those of the fore leg. As the hind feet strike the ground a slanting 
 blow, while concussion on the fore feet is direct, absolute correctness 
 in form and perfect soundness is somewhat more important in the 
 fore feet than in the hind feet. The hind pasterns may be slightly 
 more upright than those of the fore leg. The hoofs of the hind limbs 
 are steeper and narrower than those of the fore legs. The hind fet- 
 locks are most likely to be blemished by puffs and interfering sores. 
 
 SOUNDNESS AND UNSOUNDNESS. 
 
 The professional veterinarian when examining a horse for 
 soundness proceeds on the basis of a negative test. He looks in turn 
 for one of a number of possible unsoundnesses each at its particular
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 99 
 
 location. Not finding an unsoundness present he accounts the part 
 sound. If all parts are found to be sound, the animal is certified to as 
 sound. There is no such condition as serviceably sound. A horse is 
 either sound, or unsound. He may be too unsound to work, or able 
 to work despite unsoundness. The seriousness of the particular un- 
 soundness present is to be estimated by the judge and for that inti- 
 mate knowledge and experience are necessary. 
 
 For breeding purposes any disease is serious. A disease con- 
 sidered hereditary is most serious. A distortion, deformity or blem- 
 ish, due to accident, is not serious on the score of transmissibility, 
 but depreciates sale value. In work horses the degree to which a 
 disease or unsoundness is temporary or permanent and likely to de- 
 tract from serviceability for work, must <be carefully considered. A 
 horse may be afflicted with strangles (distemper) and recover per- 
 fectly ; or the attack may pass off, but leave the animal a roarer. The 
 attack of strangles would constitute a temporary unsoundness; the 
 roaring a permanent and serious unsoundness in a work animal. 
 In a breeding animal it should constitute an unsoundness unfitting 
 the horse for breeding purposes. A large barb wire cut scar would 
 ordinarily be considered a blemish or eye sore; but should it have 
 caused permanent lameness it would 'be a serious unsoundness in 
 a work animal. In a breeding animal, not used for work, the blem- 
 ish and even the lameness, would be of slight gravity, not being 
 transmissible to progeny. 
 
 COMMON UNSOUNDNESSES TO BE NOTED. 
 
 Having learned how to judge the various parts of the horse's 
 exterior, as regards correctness of form, the student should next 
 acquire a fair degree of skill in detecting the more common and 
 serious unsoundnesses. A judge should describe and show the loca- 
 tion of each and, when possible, demonstrate from affected animals. 
 The diseases and unsoundnesses should, as follows, be studied ac- 
 cording to each part involved: 
 
 Head. Poll evil is an enlargement of the poll, containing or 
 discharing pus; due to bruise; not hereditary; a serious unsound- 
 ness; often difficult to cure; recovered case may leave neck perma- 
 nently stiff. Look for scars. 
 
 Eyes. Test for blindness. Pupil of the eye should contract in 
 the light. Cloudiness or opacity denote moon blindness (periodic 
 ophthalmia) or cataract. Specks may be due to injuries; unimpor- 
 tant if the sight is not impaired thereby. 
 
 Ears. Excessive mobility may indicate impaired vision, vi- 
 ciousness, or nervousness; lack of mobility may indicate deafness, 
 or tetanus (lock jaw). Base of ear sometimes seat of troublesome 
 discharging fistula. 
 
 Muzzle. Nostrils should be free from discharge of chronic 
 catarrh or glanders. Sometimes plugged with sponge to hide roar- 
 ing. Lining membrane should be healthy pink in color; free from 
 ulcers, or purple spots or bad smelling discharge. Lips not torn; 
 free from chronic sores from bit at angle of mouth.
 
 100 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Teeth. Examine for diseased, missing or projecting molars; 
 overlapping incisors (parrot mouth) ; bishoping (artificial mark- 
 ing of the incisor teeth to alter indications of age) and under-shot 
 jaw. 
 
 Tongue. See that the tongue is intact and healthy. Part of it 
 may be missing, or mutilations present. See that floor of mouth 
 is sound where bit rests. 
 
 Under Jaw. Look for discharging, or plugged fistula of sal- 
 ivary duct or one connecting with a molar tooth root ; abscesses and 
 tumors. 
 
 Neck. Broken crest in stallions; sores; skin disease; watch for 
 artificially braided in mane. 
 
 Withers. Fistula of the withers, acute, chronic or healed; col- 
 lar sores. 
 
 Shoulder. Collar boils; fibroid tumors from bruising; sweeney ; 
 fistula or abscess. 
 
 Elbow. Shoe boil, from bruising of point of elbow. 
 
 Knee. Scars from broken knee, due to falling; puffs; buck 
 knee (bent forward); calf knee (bent backward); high splint; 
 capped knee. 
 
 Canons. Splints are abnormal bony growths formed at the 
 sides of the canon bones where the small splint bones (metacarpals 
 in front, metatarsals in hind leg) overlie the large canon bones. 
 They are objectionable, may cause lameness when forming, are often 
 an indication of light bone, but ordinarily should not be deemed to 
 constitute hereditary unsoundness. If found on all legs, of large 
 size and associated with other bony growths (exostoses) they may 
 indicate a hereditary tendency to such bony growths (bony diathe- 
 sis) and the animal should be rejected for 'breeding purposes. Ex- 
 amine back tendons for thickening or bowed condition. In examin- 
 ing horses having hairy legs search for evidences of grease and grease 
 heel, such as old scars, fissures, grape-like growths or discharge 
 having bad odor; also for scratches. 
 
 Fetlocks. 'Seat of puffs (wind galls) , interfering sores ; knuck- 
 ling or cocked ankles; grease, grease heel and scratches. Examine 
 on, just above or below for scars of unnerving (neurotomy). 
 
 Pasterns. Seat of ringbones; a serious, hereditary unsound- 
 ness. These bony growths are found on the upper, middle or lower 
 portions of the pastern bones, may partially or wholly encircle the 
 bone, and in aggravated cases, cause lameness and involve and inter- 
 fere with the proper action of the fetlock joint above, or with the 
 coffin joint at the lower end of the pastern bone. They give a bulg- 
 ing appearance to the part of the bone affected, have the feel of bone 
 and constitute unsoundness. In work horses ringbone involving a 
 fore pastern is much more serious than ringbone on the hind pastern. 
 
 Coronets (hoof heads). Sidebones are located under the skin 
 of the coronet, at the quarters. They are due to the lateral cartilages 
 at these parts changing to bone. When present they may be detected 
 as prominent, hard, bony masses protruding above the hoof at the 
 Bides of the feet towards the heels and bulging the hoof under the
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 101 
 
 part involved. When sidebones are absent the cartilages can be 
 grasped between the fingers and thumb and moved or bent from 
 side to side as if they were formed of stout rubber. Sidebones are 
 common in draft horses and constitute unsoundness. Horses having 
 wide, flat low heeled hoofs are most subject to this unsoundness. 
 Horses afflicted with sidebones and ringbones should not be used for 
 breeding purposes. Quittor, a fistulous abscess, is also a common 
 urLsoundness of the coronet. 
 
 Feet. Xavicular disease causes hardening and contraction of 
 the hoof and chronic lameness. The affected horse points his lame 
 foot forward when standing at rest, starts off lame and warms out 
 of the lameness. The tendency to the disease is deemed hereditary. 
 It constitutes a grave unsoundness for all purposes. Other common 
 unsoundnesses to be looked for are founder, indicated by rings and 
 ridges on the hoof wall, abnormal projection at the toe, convexity at 
 the sole (dropped sole) and lameness; sand crack (in wall at front of 
 toe) ; quarter crack (in wall at quarter) ; corns, in the sole at the 
 angle of bar and heel; and "thrush," a diseased condition of the frog 
 characterized by a bad smelling discharge from its cleft. 
 
 Hips. Examine for fractures of the point or shaft of the hip 
 (ilium) indicated by distortion, on comparing one hip with the 
 other from the rear; also examine for similar distortion on haunch 
 at side of tail (from fracture of the tuberosity of the ischium). 
 
 Tail. The black skin of the under side of the tail and nearby 
 parts often is the seat of cancerous, malanotic or pigment tumors 
 in aging white or grey horses. The disease is incurable and consti- 
 tutes unsoundness in both work and breeding horses. Examine end 
 that the tail is not artificial and joined on. 
 
 Stifle. Should be free from dropsical swellings and the knee 
 cap (patella) should remain firmly in place during motion. 
 
 Hocks. These important joints should be free from bone 
 spavin, bog, spavin, thoroughpin and curb. Each constitutes an un- 
 soundness in both work and breeding animals; tendency to them is 
 considered hereditary. Bone spavin is a bony growth upon the sur- 
 face or among the small bones, on the inner, lower part of the hock 
 joint, or may involve the true joint higher up. A bony growth 
 appearing upon the outer part of the joint is called a jarde. In 
 spavin lamenass the horse starts out lame and improves or recovers 
 with exercise. Bog, or so-called blood spavins, are soft, fluctuating 
 distensions of the capsular ligaments (synovia! or joint oil sacs) of 
 the hock joints, and give a bulging appearance to the front of the 
 part involved. Curb appears as a bulging, calloused enlargement 
 upon the rear portion of the hind leg, just under the hock joint, in- 
 volving the tendons and ligaments and sometimes the bone of the 
 part. Crooked or sickle hocks are most prone to curb which follows 
 undue strain when at play or work. Actual unsoundness, implicat- 
 ing the hock joint and objectionable conformation, rendering the 
 joint liable to contract disease or become unsound, should be care- 
 fully avoided in the selection of breeding stock and work animals.
 
 102 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 OTHER UNSOUNDNESSES. 
 
 Chorea, Shivering, or St. Vitus' Dance. This is considered 
 a hereditary disease and also constitutes unsoundness in work horses. 
 It is commonest in nervous, tall, narrow animals. The disease is 
 most readily detected when moving the horse from one side to the 
 other, or in backing out of the stall. The leg is jerked up once or 
 twice at these times and the tail and muscles quiver momentarily. 
 The symptoms disappear when the horse is exercised. Stringhalt 
 (akin to chorea) is the term applied to the exaggerated jerking up 
 action of the hind leg seen in some horses. The trouble in some in- 
 stances is remediable by operation (peroneal tenotomy). 
 
 Roaring. (Laryngeal hemiplegia) is characterized by noisy 
 breathing when the horse is exercised. It constitutes unsoundness 
 in both work and breeding horses. 
 
 Heaves. (Emphysema of the lungs), is indicated by double 
 bellowslike action of the abdominal muscles as the horse breathes; 
 cough also is present. Like roaring it is an unsoundness of the 
 breeding animal and work horse. 
 
 Vices. They are such as cribbing, windsucking and weaving 
 and are best discovered when the horse is in the stall and although 
 not certainly hereditary are highly objectionable and detrimental 
 unsoundnesses. (Wis. Circ. 17.) 
 
 HORSESHOEING. 
 
 Bad and indifferent shoeing frequently leads to diseases of the 
 feet and to irregularities of gait which may render a horse unservice- 
 able. It is important, therefore, to consider the principles involved 
 in shoeing healthy hoofs. In this discussion of the subject it is in- 
 tended to give the intelligent horse owner sufficient information, 
 based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of the 
 foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the more serious consequences of 
 improper shoeing. 
 
 The Foot. Let us first examine the mechanism of the foot and 
 learn something of its structure and of the natural movements of its 
 component parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations 
 from the normal and to apply the proper corrective. 
 
 Gross Anatomy of the Foot. The bones of the foot are four 
 in number, three of which the long pastern, short pastern, and cof- 
 finbone placed end to end, form a continuous straight column pass- 
 ing downward and forward from the fetlock joint to the ground. A 
 small accessory bone, the navicular, or "shuttle," bone, lies cross- 
 wise in the foot between the wings of the coffinbone and forms part 
 of the joint surface of the latter. The short pastern projects about 
 1% inches above the hoof and extends about an equal distance 
 into it. 
 
 Hinge Joints. The pasterns and the coffinbone are held to- 
 gether by strong fibrous cords passing between each two bones and 
 placed at the sides so as not to interfere with the forward and^back- 
 ward movement of the bones. The joints are therefore hinge joints ; 
 though imperfect, because, while the chief movements are those ov
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 103 
 
 extension and flexion in a single plane, some slight rotation and 
 lateral movements are possible. 
 
 Tendons and Flexors. The bones are still further bound to- 
 gether and supported by three long fibrous cords or tendons. One, 
 the extensor tendon of the toe, passes down the front of the pasterns 
 and attaches to the coffinbone just below the edge of the hair ; when 
 pulled upon by its muscle this tendon draws the toe forward and 
 enables the horse to place the hoof flat upon the ground. The other 
 two tendons are placed behind the pasterns and are called flexors, 
 because they flex, or bend, the pasterns 'and coffinbone backward. 
 One of these tendons is attached to the upper end of the short pas- 
 tern, while the other passes down between the heels, glides over the 
 under surface of the navicular bone and attaches itself to the under 
 surface of the coffinbone. These two tendons not only flex, or fold 
 up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground, during motion, but at 
 rest assist the suspensory ligament in supporting the fetlock joint. 
 
 Foot-Axis. The foot-axis is an imaginary line passing from 
 the fetlock joint through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffin- 
 bone. This imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pas- 
 terns and coffinbone, should always 'be straight that is, never 
 broken, either forward or backward when viewed from the side, or in- 
 ward or outward when observed in front. Viewed from one side, 
 the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, 
 should be parallel to the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the 
 long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should 
 cut the hoof exactly at the middle of the toe. 
 
 Raising the heels or shortening the toe not only tilts the cof- 
 finbone forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but 
 slackens the tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffin- 
 bone, and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and 
 backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal 
 position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken forward ; 
 that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels 
 are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, rais- 
 ing the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis 
 not only tilts the coffinbone backward and renders the toe more 
 nearly horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then 
 forces the fetlock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand 
 steeper. The foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward 
 an indication that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are 
 relatively too low. 
 
 Lateral Cartilages and Plantar Cushion. The elastic tissues of 
 the foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages and the plantar 
 cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly four-sided plates 
 of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of 
 the coffinbone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an 
 inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by 
 the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily 
 to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes may undergo
 
 104 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ossification, in which condition they are hard and unyielding. The 
 plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fatty 
 tissue filling all the space between the lateral cartilages, forming the 
 fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a buffer to disperse 
 shock when the foot is set to the ground. It extends forward under- 
 neath the navicular bone and perforans tendon, and protects these 
 structures from injurious pressure from below. Instantaneous pho- 
 tographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels to the ground 
 before other parts of the foot conclusive proof that the function 
 of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render harmless 
 violent impact of the foot with the ground. 
 
 Pododerm (foot skin). The horn-producing membrane, or 
 quick as it is commonly termed, is merely a downward prolongation 
 of the derm, or true skin, and may be conveniently called the podo- 
 derm (foot skin). The pododerm closely invests the coffinbone, 
 lateral cartilages, and plantar cushion, much as a sock covers the 
 human foot, and is itself covered by the horny capsule, or hoof. It 
 differs from the external, or hair, skin in having no sweat or oil 
 glands, but, like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensi- 
 tive nerves. And, just as the derm of the hair skin produces upon 
 its outer surface layer upon layer of horny cells (epiderm), which 
 protect the sensitive and vascular derm, so, likewise, in the foot tho 
 pododerm produces over its entire surface soft cells, which, pushed 
 away by more recent cells forming beneath, lose moisture by evapo- 
 ration and are rapidly transformed into the corneous material which 
 we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the hoof as a greatly thick- 
 ened epiderm, having many of the qualities possessed by such epi- 
 dermal structures as hair, feathers, nails, claws, etc. The functions 
 of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite it firmly to 
 the foot. 
 
 There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable 
 when the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic band, 
 a narrow ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, 
 running along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to 
 the other. This band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnish- 
 like layer of glistening horn, which forms the surface of the wall, 
 or "crust," and whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of 
 moisture from the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy 
 cornice encircling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic 
 band. At the heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy 
 frog to become lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coro- 
 net produces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions 
 produce the "bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as 
 a turning forward of the wall. (3) The fleshy leaves, 500 to 600 in 
 number, parallel to one another, running downward and forward 
 from the lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy 
 sole. They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form 
 the deepest layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union 
 between the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which
 
 A CHOICE CAVALRY HORSE. WEIGHT ABOUT 1,100 POUNDS. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 A CHOICE HEAVY DRAFIER. PHOTO BY COURTESY O BREEDER'S GAZETTE. DEPT. or AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 107 
 
 they dovetail. (4) The fleshy sole, which covers the entire under 
 surface of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny 
 sole is produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy frog, which 
 covers the under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the 
 horny frog. 
 
 Horny, Box, or Hoof. The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall 
 and bars, sole and frog. The wall is all that part of the hoof which 
 is visible when the foot is on the ground. As already stated, it con- 
 sists of three layers the periople, the middle layer, and the leafy 
 layer. 
 
 Bars. The bars are forward prolongations of the wall, and 
 are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between 
 the wall and a bar is called the buttress. Each bar lies against 
 the horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the 
 other, so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog 
 separates or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral car- 
 tilages and the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall 
 is called the bearing edge, and is the surface against which the shoe 
 bears. By dividing the entire lower circumferences of the wall into 
 five equal parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be ex- 
 hibited. The "heels," strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft 
 prominences of the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. 
 The outer wall is usually more slanting than the inner, and the 
 more slanting half of a hoof is always the thicker. In front hoofs 
 the wall is thickest at the toe and gradually thins out toward the 
 quarters, where in some horses it may not exceed one-fourth of an 
 inch. In hind hoofs there is much less difference in thickness be- 
 tween the toe, side walls, and quarters. The horny sole, from which 
 the flakes of old horn have been removed, is concave and about as 
 thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, uneven, and often covered 
 by flakes of dead horn in process of being loosened and cast off. 
 Behind, the sole presents an opening into which are received the 
 bars and horny frog. This opening divides the sole into a body and 
 two wings. 
 
 The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the 
 wall and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the 
 cross section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs 
 of horn which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. 
 This white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its dis- 
 tance from the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, 
 and in the white line all nails should be driven. 
 
 The Frog. The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the 
 plantar cushion or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form 
 as the latter, lies as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars 
 and between the edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad 
 and shallow depression in its center divides it into two branches, 
 which diverge as they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the 
 heel. In front of the middle cleft the two branches unite to fonn 
 the body of the frog, which ends in the point of the frog. The bar
 
 108 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of a bar shoe should rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod 
 hoofs the bearing edge of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on 
 a level ; that is, the under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and 
 each of these structures assists in bearing the body weight. 
 
 The Hoof. "With respect to solidity, the different parts of the 
 hoof vary widely. The middle layer of the wall is harder and more 
 tenacious than the sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in 
 larger or smaller flakes on its under surface, while no such sponta- 
 neous shortening of the wall occurs. The white line and the frog 
 are soft horn structures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn 
 cells do not, under natural conditions, become hard and hornlike. 
 They are very elastic, absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry 
 out and become hard, brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good 
 quality is fine-grained and tough, while bad horn is coarse-grained, 
 and either mellow and friable or hard and brittle. All horn is a 
 poor conductor of heat, and the harder (dryer) the horn, the more 
 slowly does it transmit extremes of temperature. 
 
 Physiological Movements of the Hoof. A hoof while support- 
 ing the body weight has a different form, and the structures in- 
 closed within the hoof have a different position than when not bear- 
 ing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a foot is continu- 
 ally changing, and the relations of internal pressure are continuously 
 varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never at rest. The 
 most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when the foot bears 
 the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest descent of 
 the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are : (1) An expansion 
 or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the coronet to 
 the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies between one- 
 fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of the front 
 half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of the 
 heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are 
 more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight. 
 
 The changes of form occur in the following order: When the 
 foot is set to the ground the body-weight is transmitted through the 
 bones and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffmbone 
 and navicular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same 
 time the short pastern sinks backward and downward between the 
 lateral cartilages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar 
 cushion. This cushion being compressed from above and being un- 
 able to expand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground 
 acting against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and 
 expands toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral car- 
 tilages and the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is 
 assisted and increased by the simultaneous flattening and lateral 
 expansion of the resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart. 
 Of course, when the lateral cartilages are ossified not only is no ex- 
 pansion of the quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to 
 painful compression of the plantar cushion and to increase of lame- 
 ness. Frog pressure is therefore contra-indicated in lameness due
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 109 
 
 to sidebones (ossified cartilages). Under the descent of the coffin- 
 bone the horny sole sinks a little ; that is, the arch of the sole around 
 the point of the frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat 
 flattened. All these changes of form are most marked in sound un- 
 shod hoofs, because in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is 
 pronounced ; they are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs. 
 
 The movement of the different structures within the foot and 
 the changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to 
 the health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept 
 active by regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the 
 hoof. Long continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and 
 shoeing decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof 
 and sometimes lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are 
 complete and spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be re- 
 garded as an evil, albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we 
 wish to keep horses continuously serviceable on hard artificial roads. 
 However, if in shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions 
 of the hoof and apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level 
 bearing surface, so as to interfere as little as may be with the expan- 
 sion and contraction of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered 
 by the nails, we need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the 
 horse has reasonable work and his hoofs proper care. 
 
 Groii'th of the Hoof. All parts of the hoof grow downward 
 and forward with equal rapidity, the rate of growth being largely de- 
 pendent upon the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm, or 
 quick. Abundant and regular exercise, good grooming, moistness 
 and suppleness of the hoof, going barefoot, plenty of good food, and 
 at proper intervals removing the overgrowth of hoof and regulating 
 the bearing surface, by increasing the volume and improving the 
 quality of the blood flowing into the pododerm, favor the rapid 
 growth of horn of good quality; while lack of exercise, dryness of 
 the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth. 
 
 The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a 
 month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones 
 faster than shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from 
 the coronet to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by 
 the precited conditions, varies in proportiin to the distance of the 
 coronet from the ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the 
 horn grows down in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in 
 six to eight months, and at the heels in three to five months. We 
 can thus estimate with tolerable accuracy the time required for the 
 disappearance of such defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc. 
 
 Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable 
 cause of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the 
 hoof that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture 
 or confined for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to 
 grow hoofs of excessive length. The long toe becomes dished that 
 is, concave from the coronet to the ground the long quarters curl 
 forward and inward and often completely cover the frog and lead
 
 110 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 to contraction of the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or in- 
 ward, and a crooked foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result 
 if the long hoof be allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally 
 directed leverage for but a few months upon young plastic bones and 
 tender and lax articular ligaments. All colts are not foaled with 
 straight legs, but failure to regulate the length and bearing of the 
 hoof may make a straight leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just 
 as intelligent care during the growing period can greatly improve a 
 congenitally crooked limb. If breeders were more generally cogniz- 
 ant of the power of overgrown and unbalanced hoofs to divert the 
 lower bones of young legs from their proper direction, and, there- 
 fore, to cause them to be moved improperly with loss of speed and 
 often with injury to the limbs, we might hope to see fewer knock- 
 kneed, bow-legged, splay-footed, pigeon-toed, cow-hocked, interfer- 
 ing, and paddling horses. 
 
 If in shortening the hoof one side-wall is, from ignorance, left 
 too long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will 
 be unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the 
 ground first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its 
 proper level (length) by the increased wear which will take place 
 at this point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe 
 prevents wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away 
 beneath the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time 
 the shoe is worn-out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mis- 
 take be repeated from month to month, the part of the wall left too 
 high will grow more rapidly than the low side whose pododerm is 
 relatively anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this 
 half of the hoof, and the ultimate result will be a wry, or crooked 
 foot. 
 
 Care of Unshod Hoofs. The colt should have abundant exer- 
 cise on dry ground. The hoofs will then wear gradually and it will 
 only be necessary from time to time to regulate any uneven wear 
 with the rasp and to round off the sharp edge about the toe in order 
 to prevent breaking away of the wall. 
 
 Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs, so that every 
 four to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge of 
 the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts of 
 the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof 
 washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided. Hoofs 
 that are becoming awry should have the wall shortened in such a 
 manner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately pro- 
 duce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb. 
 
 Characteristics of a Healthy Hoof. A healthy hoof is equally 
 warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands 
 or moderate compression with pincers. The coronet is soft and elastic 
 at all points and does not project beyond the surface of the wall. The 
 wall is straight from coronet to ground, so that a straightedge laid 
 against the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of 
 the horn tubes will touch at every point. The wall should be cov-
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 111 
 
 ered with the outer varnish-like layer (periople) and should show no 
 cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows ring-formation, but the rings 
 should not be strongly marked and should always run parallel to 
 the coronary band. Strongly marked ring-formation over the en- 
 tire wall is an evidence of a weak hoof, but when limited to a part of 
 the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs of 
 the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole 
 should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog well de- 
 veloped, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces 
 between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight 
 from the buttresses toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses 
 themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches of the 
 frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents reddish 
 discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog, thrush 
 of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The lateral 
 cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure. 
 
 Various Forms of Hoofs. As among a thousand human faces 
 no two are alike, so among an equal number of horses no two have 
 hoofs exactly alike. A little study of different forms soon shows us, 
 however, that the form of every hoof is dependent in great measure 
 on the direction of the two pastern bones as viewed from in front 
 or behind, or from one side ; and that all hoofs fall into three classes 
 when we view them from in front and three classes when we observe 
 them in profile. Inasmuch as the form of every foot determines 
 the peculiarities of the shoe that is best adapted to it, no one who is 
 ignorant of, or who disregards the natural form of, a hoof, can hope 
 to understand physiological shoeing. 
 
 The Feet. By the direction of the imaginary line passing 
 through the long axes of the two pasterns is determined whether or 
 not the hoof and pasterns stand in proper mutual relation. In the 
 regular standing position the foot-axis runs straight downward and 
 forward. Viewing the foot in profile the foot-axis should be straight ; 
 the long pastern, short pastern, and wall at the toe should have the 
 same slant. 
 
 A Front Hoof of the Regular Standing Position. The outer 
 wall is a little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. 
 The lower border of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller 
 circle that is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The 
 weight falls near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over 
 the whole bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the 
 ground of 45 to 50 and is parallel to the direction of the long 
 pastern. The toe points straight ahead, and when, the horse is mov- 
 ing forward in a straight line the hoofs are picked up and carried 
 forward in a line parallel to the middle line of the body, and are set 
 down flat. Coming straight toward the observer the hoofs seem to 
 rise and fall perpendicularly. 
 
 A Hoof of the Base-Wide Position. This is always awry. The 
 outer wall is more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the 
 outer quarter more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the
 
 112 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 
 
 sole wider than the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner 
 half of the hoof. In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its 
 position on the ground it breaks over the inner toe, is carried for- 
 ward and inward close to the supporting leg, thence forward and 
 outward to the ground, which the hoof meets first with the outer toe. 
 Horses that are toe- wide (splay-footed toes turned outward) show 
 all these peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more 
 marked degree and are therefore more prone to interfere when in 
 motion. 
 
 A Hoof of the Base-Narrow Position. This also is awry, but 
 not to so marked a degree as the base-wide hoof. The inner wall is 
 usually a little more slanting than the outer, the inner half of the 
 sole wider than the outer, and the inner quarter more curved than 
 the outer. The outer quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the 
 bottom. The weight falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In 
 motion the hoof breaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and 
 outward at some distance from the supporting leg, thence forward 
 and inward to the ground, which it generally meets with the outer 
 toe. The foot thus moves in a circle whose convexity is outward, 
 a manner of flight called paddling. A base-narrow horse whose toes 
 point straight ahead frequently interferes, while a toe-narrow (pig- 
 eon-toed) animal seldom does. 
 
 Regular Hoof. A regular hoof, viewed from one side, has a 
 straight foot-axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45 to 50. 
 The weight falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate 
 expansion of the quarters. 
 
 Acute-angled Hoof. An acute-angled hoof has a straight foot- 
 axis inclined at an angle less than 45 to the horizon. The weight 
 falls more largely in the back half of the hoof and there is greater 
 length of hoof in contact with the ground and greater expansion of 
 the heels than in the regular hoof. 
 
 Upright, or Stumpy, Hoof. In the upright, or stumpy, hoof 
 the foot-axis is straight and more than 55 steep. The hoof is rela- 
 tively short from toe to heel, the weight falls farther forward, and 
 there is less expansion of the heels than in the regular hoof. 
 
 Wide and Narrow Hoofs. Finally, there are wide hoofs and 
 narrow hoofs, dependent solely upon race and breeding. The wide 
 hoof is almost circular on the ground surface, the sole but little con- 
 cave, the frog large, and the quality of the horn coarse. The nar- 
 row hoof has a strongly cupped sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicu- 
 lar side walls, and fine-grained, tough horn. 
 
 Hind Hoofs. Hind hoofs are influenced in shape by different 
 directions of their pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is 
 not round at the toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its 
 greatest width is two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the 
 sole is more concave, the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10 
 steeper than in front hoofs. 
 
 The Shoe. The object of the examination is to ascertain the 
 direction and position of the limbs, the shape, character, and qual-
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 113 
 
 ity of the hoofs, the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the 
 number, distribution, and direction of the nails, the manner in 
 which the hoof leaves the ground, its line of flight, the manner in 
 which it is set to the ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the 
 next and subsequent shoeings proper allowances may be made and 
 observed faults corrected. The animal must therefore be observed 
 both at rest and in motion. 
 
 At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant 
 of the long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant down- 
 ward and outward (base-wide foot), or downward and inward (base- 
 narrow foot) ? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an 
 imaginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to 
 the ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. 
 But if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not 
 straight, as it should be, but is broken inward at the coronet, an 
 indication that either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or 
 that the inner wall is too short (low). On the contrary, if the cen- 
 ter line of the long pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis 
 is broken outward at the coronet, an indication that either the inner 
 wall is too long or the outer wall too short. 
 
 The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three 
 paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note 
 the size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the ani- 
 mal, and the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight? That 
 is, does the long pastern have the same slant as the toe? Or does 
 the toe of the hoof stand steeper than the long pastern? in which 
 case the foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, 
 usually, that the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too 
 short. If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe the foot-axis 
 is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quarters 
 are too low (short). 
 
 Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note 
 the outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and qual- 
 ity of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number 
 and distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire 
 lower border of the wall? or is it too narrow or fitted so full on the 
 inside that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been 
 nailed on crooked? or has it become loose and shifted? is it too short 
 or so wide at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses 
 of the hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? 
 Are the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with 
 the expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are they too 
 large? driven too fine or too high? These are questions which the 
 observer should put to himself. 
 
 Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeach- 
 able evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the 
 ground since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable pointers 
 in leveling the hoof. Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe 
 and the ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly lev-
 
 114 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 eled hoof is set flat to the ground, the grounding wear of a shoe 
 should be uniform at every point, though the toe will always show 
 wear due to scouring at the moment of breaking over. Everything 
 which tends to lengthen the stride tends also to make the grounding 
 wear more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which 
 shorten the stride, as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork, 
 or disease, bring the grounding wear nearer the toe. An exception 
 should be noted, however, in founder, in which the grounding wear 
 is most pronounced at the heels. 
 
 If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner 
 than the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the 
 middle line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing 
 greater weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much 
 more often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has 
 been too long (too high) , or the opposite section of wall has been too 
 short (too low). One-sided w r ear, uneven setting down of the feet, 
 and an unnatural course of the wall are often found together. How 
 much an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher 
 its scars! 
 
 The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or 
 pace, from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the break- 
 ing over, the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to 
 the ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not al- 
 ways move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often 
 there is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or 
 two hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when 
 a few steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by 
 showing us the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to 
 the regular, base-wide or base-narrow form. No man is competent 
 either to shoe a horse or to direct the work till he has made the pre- 
 cited observations. 
 
 Preparation of the Hoof for the Shoe. After raising the 
 clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch-cutter (buffer) ^and 
 drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is critically examined 
 and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then drawn or punched 
 out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially detached horn. The 
 farrier has now to dress the overgrown hoof to receive the new shoe ; 
 in other words, he has to form a base of support so inclined to the 
 direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface shall be set flat 
 upon the ground. He must not rob the hoof nor leave too much 
 horn ; either mistake may lead to injury. If he has made a careful 
 preliminary examination he knows what part of the wall requires re- 
 moval and what part must be left, for he already knows the direc- 
 tion of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and has made up 
 his mind just where and how much horn must be removed to leave 
 the hoof of proper length and the foot-axis straight. 
 
 A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp 
 nippers and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con- 
 cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 115 
 
 the point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of 
 exfoliation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full 
 thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of 
 the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the "bearing surface of 
 the hoof." The bars if long may be shortened, but never pared on 
 the side. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars 
 and the wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the 
 wall, so as not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. 
 Corns, or bruises of the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a 
 thick mass of dry, unyielding horn at this point. The frog should 
 not be touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose 
 as to form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontane- 
 ously by the exfoliation of superficial layers of horn, while if the 
 frog is dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by ap- 
 plying moisture in some form and allow it to wear away naturally 
 than to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project be- 
 low the level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain 
 shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses. 
 The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp 
 to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the 
 foot is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make 
 sure that the lines bounding the hoof correspond with the direction 
 of the long pastern. 
 
 Characteristics of the Shoe. The shoe is an artificial base of 
 support, by no means ideal, because it interferes to a greater or less 
 degree with the physioloorv of the foot, but indispensable except for 
 horses at slow work on soft ground. Since a proper surface of sup- 
 port is of the greatest importance in preserving the health of the feet 
 and legs, it is necessary to consider the various forms of shoes best 
 adapted to the different forms of hoofs. Certain properties are com- 
 mon to all shoes and may be considered first. They are form, width, 
 thickness, length, surfaces, borders, fullering, nail holes, and clips. 
 
 Form. Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which 
 it is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape; but for 
 every hoof that has undergone change of form w r e must endeavor to 
 give the shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front 
 shoes and hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different 
 and easily distinguishable. 
 
 Width. All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends 
 of the branches. The average width should be about double the 
 thickness of the wall at the toe. 
 
 Thickness. The thickness should be sufficient to make the 
 shoe last about four weeks and should be uniform except in special 
 cases. 
 
 Length. This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof 
 viewed in profile. The acute-angled hoof has long overhanging 
 heels, and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg 
 falls in the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches 
 of the shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly
 
 116 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 double the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form the 
 branches should project an amount equal to the thickness of the 
 shoe. In a stumpy hoof the shoe need not project more than one- 
 eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover the entire 
 bearing surface of the wall. 
 
 Surfaces. The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known 
 as the upper, or hoof surface, of the shoe. That part of the hoof 
 surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the bear- 
 ing surface of the shoe. The bearing surface should be perfectly 
 horizontal from side to side and wide enough to support the full 
 thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch 
 of the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be per- 
 fectly flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe (rolling-mo- 
 tion shoe). The surface between the bearing surface and the inner 
 edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent pressure 
 too far inward upon the sole. This concaving, or seating, should be 
 deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more concave. As a 
 rule strongly cupped soles require no concaving (hind hoofs, nar- 
 row fore hoofs). 
 
 Borders. The entire outer border should be beveled under the 
 foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead 
 to interfering. 
 
 Fullering. This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. 
 It should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be 
 clean, and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes 
 the shoe lighter in proportion to its width, and, by making the 
 ground surface somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping. 
 
 Nail Holes. The shoe must be so punched that the nail holes 
 will fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the 
 fore half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of 
 hind shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each 
 branch are sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided 
 with long calks, eight holes are about right,. though three on the in- 
 side and four on the outside may do. 
 
 Clips. These are half-circular ears drawn up from the outer 
 edge of the shoe either at the toe or opposite the side wall. The 
 height of a clip should equal the thickness of the shoe, though they 
 should be even higher on hind shoes and when a leather sole is inter- 
 posed between shoe and hoof. Clips secure the shoe against shifting. 
 A side clip should always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe 
 that first meets the ground in locomotion. 
 
 A Shoe for a Regular Hoof. This fits when its outer border 
 follows the wall closely in the region of the nail holes and from the 
 last nail to the end of the branch gradually projects beyond the sur- 
 face of the wall to an eighth of an inch and extends back of the 
 buttresses an amount equal to the thickness of the shoe. The shoe 
 must be straight, firm, airtight, its nail holes directly over the white 
 line, and its branches far enough from the branches of the frog to
 
 BREEDS OF HORSES 117 
 
 permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches of the shoe must be of 
 equal length. 
 
 In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form 
 of the hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of 
 irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the 
 hoof, but also to the direction of the pasterns and the consequent 
 distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight 
 falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where 
 the least weight falls (opposite side of the hoof) the surface of sup- 
 port should be narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of 
 weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of 
 support. 
 
 A Shoe for a Base-Wide Hoof. This shoe should be fitted full on 
 the inner side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because 
 the inner side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch 
 are placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward 
 toward the toe. 
 
 A Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof. This shoe should be just the 
 reverse of the preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat 
 longer than the inner. 
 
 A Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof. This shoe should be long 
 in the branches, because most of the weight falls in the posterior 
 half of the foot. The support in front should be diminished either 
 by turning the shoe up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe. 
 
 A Shoe for a Stumpy Hoof. This shoe should be short in the 
 branches, and for pronounced cases should increase the support of 
 the toe, where the most of the weight falls, by being beveled down- 
 ward and forward. 
 
 In many cases, especially in the hoofs of draft horses that stand 
 very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand 
 out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer 
 branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full 
 that an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just 
 meet the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other 
 hand, must be fitted as close as possible. The principal thought 
 should be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn 
 side. Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and 
 popular fad of giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes 
 an extreme outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in 
 fitting the shoe full at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at 
 the quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be 
 pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated, 
 by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punch- 
 ing it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line. 
 
 Hot Fitting. Few farriers have either the time or the skill 
 necessary to so adjust a cold shoe to the hoof that it will fit, as we 
 say, air-tight. Though the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid pic- 
 ture of the direful consequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, 
 it is only the abuse of the practice that is to be condemned. If a
 
 118 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 heavy shoe at a yellow heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof 
 which has 'been pared too thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage 
 may be done. But a shoe at a dark heat may be pressed against a 
 properly dressed hoof long enough to scorch and thus indicate to the 
 farrier the portions of horn that should be lowered, without appre- 
 ciable injury to the hoof, and to the ultimate benefit of the animal. 
 
 The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. 
 They should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above 
 the shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on 
 the wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and 
 strong clinch, rather than a narrow one which would be formed 
 near the point of the nail, and furthermore has the strongest possi- 
 ble hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a 
 right angle to the grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high. 
 Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches. 
 
 The Bar Shoe. The bar shoe has a variety of uses. It enables 
 us to give the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activ- 
 ity and development when by reason of disuse it has become atro- 
 phied. It gives the hoof an increased surface of support and en- 
 ables us to relieve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may 
 have induced inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should 
 equal the average width of the remainder of the shoe and should 
 press but lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a 
 leather sole with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute 
 the weight of the body over the entire ground surface of the hoof. 
 
 The Rubber Pad. Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, 
 rope shoes, fiber shoes, and other contrivances to diminish shock and 
 prevent slipping on the hard and slippery pavements of our large 
 cities are in use in different parts of the world. In Germany tiro 
 rope shoe (a malleable-iron shoe with a groove in its ground sur- 
 face in which lies a piece of tarred rope) is extensively used with 
 most gratifying results. It is cheap, durable, easily applied, and 
 effective. 
 
 In the large cities of England and the United States rubber 
 pads are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite 
 efficient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements, 
 though not so effective on ice. The rubber is stitched and cemented 
 to a leather sole and is secured by the nails of a three-quarter shoe. 
 Such a pad will usually last as long as two shoes. They may be 
 used continuously, not only without injury to the hoof but to it 5 ! 
 great benefit. The belief, unsupported by evidence, that rubber pads 
 draw the feet keeps many from using them. A human foot encased 
 in a rubber boot may eventually be blistered by the sweat poured 
 upon the surface of the skin and held there by the impervious rub- 
 ber till decomposition takes place with the formation of irritating 
 fatty acids; but there is no basis for an analogy in the hoof of a 
 horse. (Agr. Dep. F, B. 179.)
 
 PART II 
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE domestic cattle of the world are probably descended from 
 one parent stock, but variation began at a very early period. 
 Through ancient sculptures and other records cattle can be 
 traced back at least four thousand years, and the earliest evi- 
 dence shows that animals of different types were then known. In 
 various parts of the world there are now cattle so distinct in their 
 characteristics as to justify their claim to be regarded as breeds, and 
 these breeds exceed 100 in number. A subdivision of a family in the 
 animal kingdom may be recognized as a breed when it has been sub- 
 jected to and reproduced under the same conditions until it has ac- 
 quired a distinctive character common to all the members and natu- 
 rally reproduced with very slight variations. This definition, and the 
 term breed, applies especially to domestic animals, and the differences 
 which chiefly distinguish the breeds of the present day are the result 
 of artificial treatment by man the work of skillful breeders having 
 definite objects in view. 
 
 Or if/in of Breeds. The different breeds of cattle to be found in 
 the United States nearly all came from Great Britain and the western 
 portions of Europe, and it is not at all unlikely that they have a com- 
 mon origin in the wild cattle which existed in the ancient forests of 
 Europe. These were described by Julius Caesar, Pliny, and other 
 Latin writers almost two thousand years ago, and by others who wrote 
 of them a century or two later as abounding in the great forests 
 around London. They were also mentioned frequently in chronicles 
 of the middle ages. 
 
 In the early history of these cattle natural causes tended to 
 divide them into two general classes ; first, those adapted to the more 
 mountainous and less fertile sections of country, and, second, those of 
 the plains and richer regions. The former, owing to greater scarcity 
 of food and more difficulty in obtaining it, were smaller, more rug- 
 ged, and rougher in type than the better-fed animals of the latter 
 class. Later, breeding and artificial conditions, together with natural 
 causes, resulted in additional variations among cattle, and led to the 
 distinctions which became fixed in different breeds. The chief char- 
 acteristics resulting from man's interference and control were to be 
 first seen, on the one hand, in a tendency of the animals to mature at 
 an early age and easily to lay on flesh and fat; and, on the other 
 hand, in prolonging the natural period of milk flow and increasing 
 the milk product much beyond the needs of the calf. 
 
 119
 
 120 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 At the present time each of the various recognized breeds of 
 domestic cattle may be < satisfactorily placed in one of three great clas- 
 ses designated, respectively, as beef cattle, dairy cattle and dual pur- 
 pose cattle. The characteristics of those breeds which are valued es- 
 pecially for their dairy qualities and of a few which belong primarily 
 to the beef breeds, but also possess dairy merit. Some of the dairy 
 breeds of Europe are not included ; it seems enough to present those 
 which are best known in the United States; which have already 
 made an impress upon the neat stock of this country, and which 
 promise to be of value in promoting dairy interests. 
 
 AYRSHIRES. 
 
 The county of Ayrshire, in the southwest part of Scotland, 
 stretches for 80 miles along the lower portion of the river Clyde and 
 the Irish Sea. The surface is undulating in large part, with moory 
 hills, much woodland, and a climate moist and rather windy, 
 although not severe. It is a region of moderate fertility, with natural 
 pasturage so distributed that grazing animals must travel long dis- 
 tances in a day to satisfy their hunger. 
 
 The Ayrshire breed has been built up within the nineteenth 
 century by the liberal use of blood from the cattle of England, Hol- 
 land, and the Channel Islands. The exact facts and methods are 
 unknown, but the result testifies to the good judgment in selection 
 and breeding of those who carried on the work. The Ayrshire of the 
 present day which is found best developed in Cunningham, the 
 upper and most fertile of the three divisions of the country bears 
 strong resemblance to the Jersey in certain features; and in form, 
 color, and horn it resembles the wild white cattle of Chillingham 
 Park. Many people believe the cattle to be direct and but slightly 
 varied descendants of the original wild cattle of Great Britain. 
 There is a well-defined tendency in the improved Ayrshire to become 
 lighter in color, many being almost white. This is additional evi- 
 dence of a strong infusion of the blood last mentioned at some period 
 in the history of the breed. 
 
 The first Ayrshires in America were brought to New York in 
 1822. They were imported into New England in 1830 and into Can- 
 ada in 1837. In 1837 there was quite a large herd in Massachusetts, 
 and several importations were made prior to 1845. This breed has 
 been a special favorite for dairy purposes in Canada and highly es- 
 teemed in the New England States and parts of New York. Else- 
 where in this country these cattle do not seem to be so well known as 
 their established merits deserve. 
 
 Characteristics. Unless it be the little Irish Kerry, there is_no 
 cow which excels the Ayrshire in obtaining subsistence and doing 
 well on a wide range of scanty pasture or in thriving and giving a 
 dairy profit upon the coarsest forage. The natural hardihood of 
 constitution renders these cattle admirably adapted to grazing on 
 broken ^ and rugged pastures and in sterner weather than would be 
 conducive to the well-being of cows of some other breeds. The end 
 sought in perfecting the breed has been a large yield of milk \A-ithout 
 extravagance of food. It is a characteristic of the Ayrshire that she 
 carries her weight only, and lives only, to serve dairy interests with
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 121 
 
 the utmost economy in the utilization of food. Yet, like all other 
 good dairy cattle, the Ayrshire responds promptly and profitably to 
 liberal feeding. The Scotch have a saying, taught by experience, 
 that "the cow gives her milk by the mouV 
 
 Ayrshires are of medium size among dairy cattle. The bulls 
 attain a weight of 1,400 to 1,800 pounds at maturity, sometimes being 
 larger. 
 
 The cows weigh 900 to 1,100 pounds, averaging probably 1,000 
 pounds in a well-maintained herd. They are short-legged, fine- 
 boned, and very active. The general form is of the wedge shape, re- 
 garded as typical of cows of dairy excellence; and this shape is not 
 from any weakness forward, but rather because of uncommon devel- 
 opment and strength of body and hind quarters. Good specimens of 
 the breed, when in milk, do not carry a pound of extra flesh. The 
 prevailing color of the body is red and white, variously proportioned ; 
 in spots, not mixed. Probably three-fourths of all the breed can be 
 thus described as to color. A generation ago the dark markings pre- 
 dominated ; but there is now a drift toward more white. The red is 
 sometimes bright, but often of a rich, shiny brown, like the shell of 
 a horse chestnut, and the coat of a thrifty Ayrshire is equally bright 
 and shining. _ Nearly all good animals of this breed have broad, flat, 
 well-arched ribs, giving room for capacious digestive apparatus. 
 
 Doctor Sturtevant thus describes the milking parts of the Ayr- 
 shire cow: "The udder has been the point toward which the search 
 after quality has been directed by the careful Scotchman for a long 
 period of time. It is well held up to the body, and in the types of the 
 breed extend far forward and back, with a broad and level sole. The 
 teats are small and of a cylindrical shape rather than cone-shaped, as 
 seen in other cows." The teats are, however, often too small for com- 
 fortable milking ; but careful breeders have remedied this defect, and 
 whole herds can be found with superb udders and teats of good size, 
 though rarely large. 
 
 The Ayrshire is of a highly nervous temperament. The cow 
 has a superabundance of nerves and is willing to employ them, upon 
 instant demand, in self-defense or self-support. The bulls, if prop- 
 erly handled, are not fractious, but the cows are rather inclined to be 
 quarrelsome. The Ayrshire cow is a large and persistent milker. A 
 yield of 5,500 pounds a year, as an average for a working herd in 
 good hands. 
 
 The milk of the Ayrshire is not exceptionally rich, but some- 
 what above the average. Herd records show 3^ to 4 per cent of 
 butter fat in the mixed milk throughout the year. The milk of this 
 breed is very uniform in its physical character, the fat globules being 
 small, even in size, and not free to separate from the milk. Cream 
 rises slowly and has comparatively little color. The Ayrshire is there- 
 fore not a first-class butter cow, but its milk is admirably suited for 
 town and city supply, being safely above legal standards, uniform, 
 and capable of long journeys and rough handling without injury. 
 The breeders of Ayrshire cattle in America organized in the vear 
 1863 ajad began the publication of a herdbook. The interests of the
 
 122 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 breed are now represented by the American Ayrshire Breeders' As- 
 sociation. (F. B. 106.) 
 
 GUERNSEYS. 
 
 Origin and History. The island of Guernsey is the second in 
 size of the Channel Islands, and lies farthest to the west in this group. 
 It is triangular in shape, being 9 miles long and about 4 in greatest 
 width, with rough, rocky coasts, containing 16,000 acres, and has a 
 population of 35,000, half of whom live in the principal town, St. 
 Peters. Market gardening is the chief occupation of the country peo- 
 ple and dairy cattle form a secondary interest. There are only about 
 5,000 cattle owned upon the island. By a long-continued policy of 
 excluding all live cattle from without its limits, the stock of this 
 island has been built up into a distinct breed. 
 
 It is difficult to say when Guernsey cattle began to come to the 
 United States, but a few are known to have been owned near Phila- 
 delphia prior to 1850. In America, as in England, all Channel 
 Island cattle imported were long called "Alderneys," irrespective of 
 the island from which they came. Pure as they were at home, each 
 within its own limits, the distinction was not properly preserved after 
 they reached this country. But between 1870 and 1875 the Guern- 
 sey became recognized here as a breed, and for forty years importa- 
 tions have been made nearly every year. The breed has steadily in- 
 creased in numbers and as steadily has gained in favor wherever 
 introduced. 
 
 Characteristics. Guernseys are larger than Jerseys, stronger- 
 boned, and a little coarser in appearance. They are claimed to be 
 hardier and larger milkers. They are generally very handsome and 
 attractive cows. 
 
 The head of the Guernsey is rather long, the neck slender, the 
 body large, deep, and rangy, the rump prominent, the flanks thin, 
 thighs incurved, and twist open and roomy. Altogether the animal 
 is at once recognized as businesslike and belonging to the pronounced 
 dairy type. They are light in color, yellow and orange predominat- 
 ing, with considerable white, usually in large patches on the body 
 and on the legs. Darker shades, approaching brown, are found upon 
 some cows and are quite common on bulls. The muzzles are almost 
 invariably buff or flesh-colored, surrounded by a fillet of light hair. 
 A characteristic of this breed is a very generous secretion of yellow 
 coloring matter, which pertains to the whole skin, but is seen especi- 
 ally where the hair is white, in the ears, around the eyes, and about 
 the udder. This gives a richness to the animal which is very notice- 
 able and causes the butter produced to be of a higher color at all 
 seasons of the year than that of any other breed. The udder and teats 
 are large and admirably shaped. 
 
 The Guernsey possesses a nervous temperament, and yet the 
 cows are extremely quiet and gentle when properly handled, and less 
 trouble is reported in the management of aged bulls than with Jer- 
 seys of like age. 
 
 Milk and Butter. The cows of this breed produce liberal quan- 
 tities of milk, and it is of uncommon richness in butter fat and in 
 natural color. They are to be especially recommended for butter
 
 CHAMPION HEREFORD BULL. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 BLACK AND WHITE JUTLAND BREED, DENMARK. Y. B. 1902.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 125 
 
 cows, as well as for market milk where quality secures a relatively 
 high price, and they are noted for rich production combined with es- 
 pecial economy in feeding. They posesss great power of assimilating 
 food and converting it into milk, yet are delicate feeders rather than 
 gross, and will not generally bear much forcing. The grades, off- 
 spring of a Guernsey bull and well-selected cows of no particular 
 breeding, usually make very satisfactory dairy stock. Guernsey 
 cows average 1,000 pounds in weight, or a little more, and thus, being 
 heavier than Jerseys, they are expected to give more milk. In 
 Guernsey, the average cow is expected to produce 5,000 pounds of 
 milk and 300 pounds of butter in a year without high feeding. In 
 this country these cows are fed higher and produce accordingly. 
 Large herds have made records above the island standard just stated. 
 The fat globules in the milk are relatively large and the cream sepa- 
 rates easily. 
 
 On the island of Guernsey the beef of the native cattle is highly 
 prized, and young animals are said to fatten easily at a profit. In 
 the United States the friends of the Guernsey have laid no claim to 
 its being a beef producer, and yet when an animal of this breed, if 
 not too old, ceases for any reason to be profitable for the dairv, it is 
 converted into beef without loss to the feeder. The American Guern- 
 sey Cattle Club was organized in 1878. 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS. 
 
 Origin and Development. The strongly marked black-and- 
 white cattle of North Holland and Friesland constitute one of the 
 very oldest and most notable of the dairy breeds. Historians claim 
 that it can be traced back for two thousand years, continuously occu- 
 pying the territory named and always famous for dairy purposes. 
 
 These cattle have been known by several different names, in 
 both Europe and America, Holland cattle. North Hollanders, Dutch 
 cattle, Holsteins, Dutch-Friesians, Netherland cattle, and Holstein- 
 Friesians are all the same. There was sharp contention in this coun- 
 try before the last name was agreed upon and generally accepted. 
 
 The large frame, strong bone, abundance of flesh, silken coat, 
 extreme docility, and enormous milk yield of the Holstein-Friesians 
 result from the rich and luxuriant herbage of the very fertile and 
 moist reclaimed lands upon which the breed has been perfected, the 
 uncommonly good care received from their owners and the close 
 association of people and cattle. "The preservation of the Friesian 
 people and their continued adhesion to cattle breeding for more than 
 two thousand years is one of the marvels of history." 
 
 The early Dutch settlers in America undoubtedly brought their 
 favorite cattle with them during the seventeenth century, and there 
 are definite records of three or four importations prior to 1850; but 
 the credit of first introducing this breed to America and maintaining 
 its purity here is due to Winthrop W. Chenery, of Massachusetts. He 
 made three importations between 1857 and 1862. The Messrs. Gerrit 
 S. and Dudley Miller, of New York, followed in 1867, and soon there- 
 after numerous others brought animals of this breed in considerable 
 numbers to the United States. They have increased rapidly by im-
 
 126 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 portations and by breeding, and are now to be found in nearly all 
 parts of this country. 
 
 Characteristics. The striking features in the appearance of this 
 breed are the color markings of black and white and the large size of 
 the animals of both sexes. The shining jet black contrasts vividly 
 with the pure white, the fine, silky hair being upon a soft and mellow 
 skin of medium thickness. In some animals the black predominates, 
 and the white in others. The average animal carries rather more 
 black than white, and the distribution and outlines of the markings 
 are extremely irregular. The black and white are never mixed, the 
 lines of demarcation being usually sharply drawn. In Europe there 
 are still some red and white cattle in this breed, and occasionally a 
 purely bred calf is dropped in this country with bright red instead of 
 black, showing the influence of some remote ancestor; but none are 
 admitted to the American Herd Book except those'that are black and 
 white. In size the Holsteins are the largest of all the dairy breeds. 
 The big, bony frames are usually well filled out, and the chest, abdo- 
 men, and pelvic region are fully developed. It is difficult to prevent 
 the males from becoming too fleshy for breed animals, and the fe- 
 males, when not in milk, .take on flesh rapidly and soon become full 
 in form. The cows range in weight from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds, most 
 of them being between 1,100 and 1,400, with an average of about 
 1,250 pounds. The bulls at maturity are very large and heavy, often 
 above 2,500 pounds in weight. The udder is often of extraordinary 
 size, filling the space between legs set well apart, extending high be- 
 hind and fairly well forward, with teats of large size and well placed. 
 The milk veins are usually prominent and sometimes remarkably 
 developed. There is a more marked inclination toward the beef form 
 among the bulls than among the cows ; the latter are generally of the 
 true dairy type. 
 
 In temperament these animals are quiet and docile, bulls as well 
 as cows. They have great constitutional vigor. The calves are large 
 at birth, almost always strong and thrifty, and they grow fast and 
 fatten easily. They mature early, heifers reaching their full height 
 at two and a half years and showing no growth after four or five years 
 except the addition of flesh and fat. Animals of both sexes can be 
 readily turned into very good beasts for slaughter at almost any age, 
 but they lack depth in the loin and ribs and have not the finish and 
 quality of the noted beef breeds. These animals are very large 
 feeders and at the same time dainty about their eating. To do their 
 best they must have an abundance of rich food without the necessity 
 of great exertion to get it. 
 
 Milk and Butter Records. These great black-and-white cows 
 yield milk in proportion to their size. The breed is famous for enor- 
 mous milk producers. Records are abundant of cows giving an aver- 
 age above tneir own live weight in milk monthly for ten or twelve 
 consecutive months, and there are numerous authentic instances of 
 daily yields of 100 pounds or more for several days in succession and 
 20,000 to 35,000 pounds of milk in one year. Cows giving 40 to 60 
 pounds (or 5 to 7 gallons) per day are regarded as average animals; 
 7,500 to 8,000 pounds per year is depended upon as a herd average.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 127 
 
 The cows have been favorites for dairymen doing a milk-supply busi- 
 ness, but in some cases their product has been below the standards 
 fixed by State and municipal laws. On the other hand, there are 
 some families of Holsteins, and single animals are numerous, which 
 give milk of more than average richness and show themselves to be 
 profitable butter producers. Cows have frequently made from 15 
 to 30 pounds of butter a week. Entire herds of good size have aver- 
 aged over 17 pounds a week ; a few cows have records of 90 pounds, 
 and even 100 pounds, in a month. One of the herds already referred 
 to averaged 308 pounds of butter per cow annually for four years, 
 and there are several yearly herd records of over 400 pounds per 
 head ; also single records of 500 and 600 pounds, and one is claimed 
 of 1,153 pounds of butter in three hundred and sixty-five consecutive 
 days. 
 
 The breeders of thoroughbred Holstein cattle in America organ- 
 ized in 1872 and compiled the first herdbook. This was three years 
 before any such published pedigrees appeared in the Netherlands, 
 the home of the breed. In 1877 another association of breeders 
 formed and started the Dutch-Friesian herdbook. After a long and 
 bitter contest these two organizations happily compromised and 
 united their names and records as the Holstein-Friesian Association 
 of America. The secretary of the association is editor of its register 
 (a monthly journal) and of its herdbook. It is believed that in re- 
 spect to size and dairy quality the best animals of this breed in the 
 United States are superior to those of their native country. 
 
 JERSEYS. 
 
 Origin and History. Lying in the English Channel, 30 to 50 
 miles from the southern extremity of Great Britain, is an interesting 
 group of islands, the largest of which, but 13 miles from the coast of 
 France, is the Island of Jersey. It is 11 miles long and less than 6 
 miles wide, being an irregular rectangle in shape, about the size of 
 Staten Island, in New York Harbor. High rocky cliffs bound its 
 coast on the north and west; thence the surface slopes gradually to 
 the south, with valleys and plains of some extent. This is the home 
 of one of the most important and widely distributed of the dairy 
 breeds of cattle. The foundation of the breed of cattle developed 
 hero was probably the stock of Normandy and Brittany. But early 
 in the eighteenth century steps were taken to prevent outside cattle 
 coming to Jersey, and in 1779 a law was made, Ayhich has since been 
 rigidly enforced, prohibiting under heavy penalties the landing upon 
 the island of any live animal of the bovine race. Jerseys have there- 
 fore been purely bred for a longer time than any other breed of 
 British origin. 
 
 The arable land of the island is in the hands of about 2,000 
 owners. The holdings vary from 3 to 30 acres, and herds exceeding 
 a dozen cows are very rare. The soil is extremely fertile and its pro- 
 ductiveness is enhanced by mildness of climate; the mean tempera- 
 ture of the year is 51 F. and the average rainfall is 30 inches. From 
 time immemorial the custom has been to tether all animals, and they 
 are moved several times a day. They are always led instead of being 
 driven, and the handling is largely done by women. The cows re-
 
 128 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 main out of doors the greater part of the year and are often milked 
 in the fields. Very little grain is fed, but in addition to grass and 
 hay the cattle are liberally supplied with roots chiefly parsnips, which 
 are abundantly grown for this purpose. Under these conditions a 
 breed of highly organized, delicate, and gentle cattle has been devel- 
 oped. 
 
 A few Jersey cattle, then generally known as Alderneys, were 
 brought to the United States prior to 1840, 'but importations did not 
 become active until after the middle of the century. Connecticut, 
 Massachusetts, and New Jersey led in introducing this breed to Amer- 
 ica, and from 1860 to 1890 importations were very numerous. Year 
 after year the little home island exported 2,000 animals or more, 
 nearly all coming to this country. Jerseys have been so numerously 
 imported, have increased so rapidly in America, have been so largely 
 used for grading ; and have proved so remarkably well adapted to a 
 wide range of climate, that the characteristic markings of no other 
 breed can be so frequently seen wherever dairy cows are kept, from 
 the St. Lawrence to the Gulf, and from ocean to ocean. 
 
 Characteristics. Jerseys are the smallest in average size of the 
 noted dairy breeds, cows ranging from 700 to 1,000 pounds and the 
 bulls from 1,200 to 1,800 pounds. The average weight of Jerseys in 
 America is considerably more than the average on their native island. 
 In color this breed varies more than any other. For a time there was 
 a craze for solid-colored animals in this country, and many persons 
 have the idea that no pure Jersey has white upon it. This is entirely 
 erroneous. At one time a careful examination of the foundation 
 stock on the Island of Jersey showed that but one cow in ten was solid 
 colored. The proportion is greater in the United States, but there are 
 pure registered Jerseys of all shades of brown to deep black, and of 
 various shades of yellow, fawn, and tan colors to a creamy white ; also 
 mouse color or squirrel gray, some light red and a few brindle. 
 
 This breed is second only to the Guernseys in the abundant 
 secretion of coloring matter, which shows itself on the skin on various 
 parts of the body, makes the fat of the body a deep orange, gives a 
 rich tint to milk and cream, and a strong golden hue to the butter. 
 Jerseys are irregular and sharp in outline, being picturesque rather 
 than symmetrical, with the spare habit of flesh which is deemed fa- 
 vorable to dairy quality and enough muscular development for 
 healthy activity and full digestive force. They are light, quick, and 
 graceful in movement. Those of certain coloring are spoken of as 
 deer-like in appearance and action. 
 
 Jersey cattle are of the nervous order of temperament, highly 
 developed. They are excitable for cause, but the females, when prop- 
 erly treated, are exceedingly placid and docile. The bulls have the 
 reputation of being fractious and difficult to handle after attaining 
 maturity. As dairy animals they are decidedly superior to their 
 Island progenitors. 
 
 Milk and Butter Records. For scores of years Jerseys have been 
 bred especially and almost exclusively for butter. There was no de- 
 mand for milk on the home island, and the whole effort was to in- 
 crease richness and add to the product of butter. In America breeders
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 129 
 
 have striven with success to increase the milk yield. Two, three, and 
 four gallons per day are common yields, and these cows are noted for 
 persistence in milking, making a long season of profit, with great 
 evenness of product until near its close. 
 
 Individual cases are recorded by the hundred of cows making 15 
 to 20 pounds of butter in a week, and there are numerous weekly 
 records of 25 to 30 pounds or more. Several tests with single animals 
 have resulted in 600, 700, 800, and even 1,000 pounds of butter with- 
 in twelve months. The butter fat in Jersey milk is in globules of 
 uneven size, but mostly large larger than with other breeds and 
 hence easily separated. The natural milk of cows of this breed is 
 often too rich for their own calves, and it generally needs to be di- 
 luted when used for infants. 
 
 Jerseys are heavy feeders and have great capacity for assimilat- 
 ing and turning to profit all kinds of cattle forage. As a rule, they 
 will bear rich feeding and forcing for long periods uncommonly well. 
 In the good animals all the extra food is converted into milk. They 
 do not fatten readily. The Jersey cow is essentially a machine for 
 producing milk butter-making milk and may be considered 
 worthless when she ceases to give milk. The owner should depend 
 for profit solely upon the produce of the cow while she is alive. Yet 
 Jersey steers and an occasional nonbreeding female have been found 
 to take on flesh at a profit and make small butchers' beasts, with fine- 
 grained, high-flavored flesh, very rich in color. 
 
 Breeders on the island of Jersey commenced the compilation of 
 a herdbook in 1866, and a like association began similar work in this 
 country the sairfe year. The American Jersey Cattle Club was organ- 
 ized in 1868 and published the first volume of its Herd Eegister two 
 years later. This is a strong organization, maintaining a business 
 office in New York City. The blood of this breed is more generally 
 diffused and more highly prized than any other in the active butter- 
 producing districts of the United States and among family cows in 
 the country at large. 
 
 DUTCH BELTED. 
 
 Origin. The domestic cattle of Holland appear to have had a 
 common origin, and the prevailing markings of all are black and 
 white. The distribution of color differs, however, and one branch 
 of this general stock has been so peculiarly marked for a century or 
 tM*o some claim three as to fix its name and secure recognition as 
 a breed. What are known in Holland as Lakenfeld cattle are called 
 Dutch Belted in this country. 
 
 Characteristics. The animals of this breed are all jet-black, 
 with a broad band or belt of pure white encircling the 'body. This 
 belt or blanket differs in width, but rarely reaches so far forward as 
 the shoulder blade or back to the hips. On cows the fore part of the 
 udder is usually included. No white is admissible elsewhere on the 
 body and no black within the white zone. In general conformation 
 the cattle are of the dairy type, although not to such a degree as 
 some others. 
 
 They are docile beasts and fairly hardy and vigorous in growth 
 and action. In size they rank with the Ayrshire, although perhaps
 
 130 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 somewhat less blocky and with longer legs. Individuals are larger in 
 frame, but not often heavier. This breed is not numerous either in 
 Europe or America. A few specimens were brought to the United 
 States in 1838, and for a long time there were more to be found in the 
 famous dairying county of Orange, N. Y., than in all other parts of 
 the country combined. They have become more scattered during 
 recent years, and the interests of the breed are represented by the 
 Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America. As milk producers 
 these belted cows seem to give good satisfaction, although the milk is 
 not above the average in quality. The claim of a leading breeder is 
 that these cattle are deep milkers, practical, profitable, thrifty, and 
 picturesque in the extreme when seen as a herd at pasture. 
 
 BROWN SWISS. 
 
 Origin and History. Switzerland has been famous as a dairy- 
 ing country for some centuries. It is especially noted for cheese, and 
 it is said that seventeen different kinds are regularly exported to other 
 countries. Two distinct races of cattle contribute to these products, 
 ,and both are excellent dairy animals. In many respects they are 
 unequaled by any of the other breeds of continental Europe. 
 
 The Brown Swiss is the breed better known in the United States. 
 It is called also Brown Switzer, but more properly Brown Schwyzer, 
 from the Canton Schwyz, where the breed originated, or, at least, has 
 been bred longest and is still found of truest type. It is now common 
 to the other cantons of eastern and central Switzerland and has a fine 
 reputation throughout Europe. These cattle have been especially 
 successful as prize winners at Paris, Hamburg, and other large exhi- 
 bitions of live stock. 
 
 The first pure-bred animals of this breed brought to the United 
 States comprised one bull and seven heifers, imported from the Can- 
 ton Schwyz to Massachusetts in the autumn of 1869. It was not till 
 1881 or 1882 that other importations were made, but meanwhile this 
 first little herd had been kept pure and had increased to nearly two 
 hundred in number. During the years 1882 and 1883 several impor- 
 tations were made and there have been a number since. Where they 
 have become known these cattle have made a favorable impression 
 among the dairymen, and herds of different sizes can now be found 
 in States of all parts of the Union. 
 
 Characteristics. The Brown Swiss may be placed in tHe second 
 class as to size when placed among the distinctly dairy breeds. They 
 are substantial, fleshy, and well proportioned, with very straight, 
 broad back, heavy legs and neck, giving a general appearance of 
 coarseness. But when examined they are found to be small-boned 
 for their size and to possess a fine, silky coat, and rich, elastic skin, 
 with other attractive dairy points. Although generally described as 
 being brown in color, the brown runs through various shades and 
 often into a mouse color and sometimes a brownish dun. 
 
 The cows are so plump and compact as to appear smaller than 
 they really are. Mature animals weigh from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds, 
 and often more; bulls run up to 1,800 pounds and over, yet are not 
 so much heavier than the females as in niost breeds. These cattle are
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 131 
 
 extremely hardy and very active for their size, being necessarily good 
 mountain climbers in their native country. 
 
 M ilk and Butter. Developed as a dairy breed primarily, Brown 
 Swiss cows yield a generous flow of milk and hold out well. The 
 quality of milk is above the European average, 3% to 4 per cent of 
 fat being usual. Ordinarily 22 pounds of the milk of this breed will 
 make 1 pound of butter. 
 
 The description given indicates that these cattle are good for beef 
 as well as for the dairy. They are almost always full-fleshed, easily 
 kept so, and readily fattened when not in milk. The flesh is said to 
 be fine-grained, tender, and sweet. A barren heifer in Minnesota 
 weighed 1,680 pounds; a mature cow in New York, fattened for 
 butcher, weighed 1,925 pounds, and made 1,515 pounds of beef. A 
 pair of Swiss steers at 13 months old weighed 2,200 pounds. The 
 calves are large, often 100 pounds at birth, and make a vigorous 
 growth. Weights of 400 to 600 pounds at 4 to 6 months of age are 
 not uncommon. Altogether, the Brown Swiss is able to present about 
 as strong a claim as any breed to being a profitable general purpose 
 cow. 
 
 In their native country these cattle are ordinarily fed nothing 
 but hay, grass, or other green forage throughout the year, but they 
 respond promptly to more various and generous feeding. 
 
 The Brown Swiss Breeders' Association in this country was or- 
 ganized in the year 1880 and has published several volumes of the 
 Swiss Record. The Brown Swiss of this country are owned mostly 
 in the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Illinois, Wis- 
 consin, Iowa, Minnesota and Colorado. 
 
 DEVONS. 
 
 Origin and History. The peninsula which forms the south- 
 western portion of England is the home of a thrifty and attractive 
 race of deep-red cattle, which take their name from the elevated re- 
 gion in the north of Devonshire, where they have been brought to the 
 greatest evenness and fixity of type. 
 
 If solid color throughout and resistance to variation in all parti- 
 culars be accepted as evidence of antiquity in a breed, the Devon must 
 be regarded as among the oldest and purest. It certainly is one of 
 the best defined of British breeds of cattle, although little is known of 
 its origin. It was undoubtedly very gradually developed. 
 
 It is believed that Devons were among the very first cattle 
 brought across the Atlantic, reaching New England on the ship 
 Charity in the year 1623. Importations of some consequence were 
 made in 1800, and to New York soon afterwards, but the first herd 
 to be brought to this country and maintained pure, so that breeders 
 can still trace to it, was a present of a bull and six heifers from Hoik- 
 ham, sent directly to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Maryland, and arriv- 
 ing at Baltimore 'June 10, 1817. This Patterson herd has been kept 
 up during the greater part of the century. Other importations occur- 
 red in 1818, 1820, 1835, 1855, and frequently in later years. 
 
 Characteristics. The characteristics of the Devon are compact- 
 ness and general beauty, hardiness, activity, intelligence, docility, 
 aptitude to fatten, and quality of milk. The prevailing red varies
 
 132 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 from a dark, rich color to pale chestnut, but no Hack or white is ad- 
 missible excepting a little white patch on and in front of the udder, 
 which sometimes extends forward on the belly, and white hair in the 
 switch of the tail. The skin is yellow and unctuous, its richness 
 being shown in an orange ring around the eyes and more or less of 
 the same encircling the muzzle. The hair is soft, fine, and often curls 
 closely on the necks, shoulders, and faces. The head is adorned, in 
 the case of the female, with particularly elegant, creamy-white, sharp- 
 pointed, black-tipped horns of medium length, having a good eleva- 
 tion at the junction with the head and curving upward. In the bull 
 the horns are shorter in proportion to thickness, straighter, and less 
 raised. Straight, broad, level backs, roundness of form, fineness of 
 bone, uncommon symmetry of outline, make up an animal of great 
 attractiveness. 
 
 These cattle thrive on meagre pasturage and have shown re- 
 markable adaptability to varied conditions of topography and cli- 
 mate. They do well in the most hilly and rigorous parts of New 
 England and have proved well suited to the old field and pine lands 
 of the Gulf States. 
 
 As Milk and Beef Producers. As a rule, Devon cows do not 
 yield large quantities of milk and are not persistent milkers ; yet some 
 families, bred and selected for dairy purposes, have made fair milk 
 records, single animals producing 40 and even 50 pounds per day. 
 The milk of this breed is rich in quality, ranking next to that of the 
 Channel Island cattle in percentage of butter, fat, total solids, and 
 high color, being in these respects well above the average milk of the 
 dairy cows of the country. 
 
 While it is believed that the Devon is not commonly held in as 
 high esteem in the United States either as a dairy cow or a general- 
 purpose animal as is really justified by its merits, the best friends of 
 this breed regard it as more particularly a beef producer. The calves 
 are always fat and lusty, showing a vigorous growth, while cows and 
 steers are easily kept in good order and fatten readily on demand. 
 At the famous Smithfield Fat Stock Show of London the Devons have 
 year after year won highest honors for butchers' meat. The beef 
 is fine-grained, usually tender, and well marbled, and the fat of a 
 deep yellow color, like the milk fat. 
 
 Capt J. T. Davy began the publication of the Devon Herd Book 
 in 1851, and animals bred and owned in America were for some years 
 entered in that book. Indeed, American pedigrees recorded run 
 back ten years further than the oldest published for English herds. 
 In 1859 herdbooks were published simultaneously in England and 
 America, and in March, 1863, the American Devon^ Herd Book, the 
 first volume of a new series, appeared. This publication has been 
 continued by the American Devon Cattle Club. 
 
 The preceding description relates to what may foe regarded as the 
 true Devon breed, although by some called the North Devon. This 
 is to distinguish them from South Devons a variation from the 
 breed in its best form, giving a larger, coarser animal, not so well 
 adapted to dairy uses.
 
 1. 
 
 r^>< 
 
 i. BROWN Swiss Cow. 2. DUTCH BELTED BULL. 3. RED POLLED Cow. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 133 
 
 POLLED DURHAMS. 
 
 Origin and History. This is a breed of cattle, if it may yet be 
 called a breed, which has originated in America; but its foundation 
 lies away back in the dawn of history regarding domestic cattle in 
 England. At the time the earliest definite knowledge of improve- 
 ment in the cattle of Great Britain begins the middle counties formed 
 the scene of activity, and the district of Craven, a fertile corner of 
 the West Riding of Yorkshire, bordering on Lancashire, seems to 
 have been the place where the first decisive work was done which laid 
 the foundation for a great race of cattle. The farmers of Yorkshire 
 were well ahead of the rest of the country two or three centuries ago 
 in their ideas of cattle improvement. The first group, or perhaps 
 breed, to receive distinction and a name were the Longhorns. Their 
 horns were as long as those of the typical Texan steer, but were 
 drooping instead of erect. The result of the next marked epoch in 
 English cattle breeding was the Durham breed, which, by contrast 
 with preceding favorites, were named Shorthorns. Another century 
 has passed, and between sports selection, and artificial means, Ameri- 
 can breeders have been able to separate from the general Shorthorn 
 stock a family retaining all the other features of that race, but with 
 no horns at all. These are called Polled Durhams, and have become 
 so fixed in type and in the potency of the hornless feature that they 
 have been allowed a name and place as a distinct breed. It has taken 
 shape within two or three decades, and one chary of new breeds is 
 somewhat startled to find that animals registered as Polled Durhams 
 are also admitted to the American Shorthorn Herd Book. Although 
 thus largely of Shorthorn blood, the old familiar muley cow of the 
 native stock of the country, often a brindle in color, was used to 
 a considerable extent in the early work of building this breed and 
 breeding out the horns. But, having served its purpose, this common 
 blood is now rather despised, and one of the requirements for entry 
 of animals in the American Polled Durham Herd Book was that after 
 the year 1899 females shall carry at least 96% per cent of Shorthorn 
 blood, unless their parents are already registered. Besides this, they 
 must have the "color and markings characteristic of the Shorthorn," 
 but must be hornless. This branch or family of the Shorthorn 
 breed for that is what it is was developed mainly in Ohio, and is 
 best known in the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi and in States 
 to the westward. 
 
 Characteristics. As to size, color, and general appearance, the 
 Polled Durhams answer perfectly to the description of the typical 
 Shorthorn of the beef form, without the horns. Red is the color pre- 
 ferred and prevailing. They should be, and usually are, classed as 
 belonging to the beef breeds ; yet so many animals of dairy excellence 
 appear among them that they deserve this mention. One of their most 
 careful breeders and earnest champions says of them: They have 
 the contour and general make-up of the grand old breed from which 
 they have been mainly builded; besides, in their development the 
 milking qualities have not been lost sight of, and among them are 
 some excellent milkers.
 
 134 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 In their dairy capacity they may also be said to practically dupli- 
 cate the milking Shorthorns, so that a separate description is unneces- 
 sary. The breed is not yet sufficiently strong in numbers and has not 
 been handled enough for dairy purposes to furnish milk records of 
 value for herds or single animals. In short, they have been from the 
 first, and continue to be, bred primarily for the development of feed- 
 ing quality for beef production as their dominant characteristic, and 
 their service as milk producers must be regarded as a secondary con- 
 sideration. It remains still to be determined to what extent this breed 
 will affect the interests of dairymen. At the Columbian Exposition 
 (1893) the Polled Durhams were entered as general-purpose cattle, 
 and in the sweepstakes rings for that class they received the highest 
 honor in competition with representatives of several other breeds of 
 similar character. Breeders of these animals organized in the year 
 1889 as the American Polled Durham Breeders' Association and at 
 once began the compilation of a herdbook. 
 
 RED POLLS. 
 
 Origin and History. This is another of the comparatively new 
 breeds, as its independence has only been recognized within the last 
 half of the nineteenth century, and it is another without horns. Red 
 Polled cattle resemble the Devons almost as closely as the Polled Dur- 
 hams resemble the Shorthorns. Yet the two red races are probably 
 not closely related ; the Devons are natives of the Dartmoor region in 
 the southwestern portion of England, and the Red Polls had their 
 origin on the eastern plain, north of the river Thames, and particu- 
 larly in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. The progenitors of this 
 breed were the little, old, red, horned cattle of Norfolk and the dun, 
 or mouse, colored polled animals of Suffolk. According to very early 
 records the latter were superior milch cattle. Arthur Young, in his 
 Survey of Suffolk, published in 1794, mentions the hornless cattle of 
 that country and says : There is hardly a dairy of any consideration 
 in the district that does not contain cows which give, in the height of 
 the season, 8 gallons of milk a day, and 6 are common among many 
 for a large part of the season. For two or three months a whole dairy 
 will give 5 gallons a day on the average. And he adds: Many of 
 these beasts fatten remarkably well and have flesh of fine quality. 
 Low, writing in 1845, after giving the breed, under the name of 
 Polled Suffolks, a poor character in respect to almost everything ex- 
 cept milking powers, suggested the probability of its immediate ex- 
 tinction. But since that time much enterprise has been shown among 
 the cattlemen of that part of England. The early stock of Norfolk 
 and Suffolk has been merged (from about 1846), handled with skill, 
 the horns eliminated on the one side and all color but red upon the 
 other. The traces of an infusion of Scotch Galloway and West High- 
 land blood, doubtless once made, have been well covered, and the Red 
 Polled cattle have now recognition as a breed and come well to the 
 front. They have not made much headway in Great Britain, how- 
 ever, outside of the two counties named. 
 
 Some of these hornless cattle, red and of other colors, were among 
 those brought to the early English colonies in America, and the so- 
 called muley cows among our natives are probably descendants, more
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CA TTLE 135 
 
 or less mixed with other strains, including the Scotch Galloways, of 
 these early arrivals from Norfolk and Suffolk. But the first notable 
 importation of the breed in its modern form was made in the year 
 1873 by Gilbert F. Taber, and this herd, to which he added in 1875 
 and 1882, was maintained for some years in Putnam County, N. Y. 
 A number of importations to the United States have since been made, 
 and the State of Ohio has lately been the center of active interest in 
 making these cattle known in this country. 
 
 Characteristics. The animals of this breed are about the same 
 size as Devons, and, being of the same color and of the beef form, 
 the resemblance is still greater. The absence of horns and the change 
 thus caused in the shape of the head, which assumes a comparatively 
 high and sharp crown, or poll, with a tuft of hair upon it, is the only 
 noticeable distinction. The development of the milking parts has 
 been better maintained in the Red Polls, so that at present their 
 udders, teats, and milk veins show the better. In the matter of teats 
 this may have been overdone, as with the Polls these are often unduly 
 large, puffy, and conical. While red is the required color, it is per- 
 missible to have a white tijD to the switch and some white upon the 
 udder, although the latter is deemed undesirable. The Red Polled 
 cattle are strong in constitution, hardy, good grazers, active in move- 
 ment, and quiet in disposition. 
 
 In general appearance the animals of this breed are of the beef 
 type blocky, round, full, smooth, and fine-boned. Their aptitude 
 for making meat seems to be greater than for making milk. Their 
 special friends claim them to be good at both, and press their merits 
 strongly as the general farm cow. It is needless to present here the 
 proofs of their excellence as 'butchers' beasts. 
 
 Milk Records. As dairy animals the Red Polls must be placed 
 in the second class with the other breeds which aim to serve the dual 
 purpose. They appear to give rather more milk than Devons on the 
 average, but not quite so rich in quality. Being comparatively few 
 in number in this country, dairy records of entire herds in the United 
 States are lacking, and the available figures mainly pertain to records 
 in Great Britain. Good herds there average 5,000 to 5,500 pounds of 
 milk annually per cow, and, when small and selected, occasionally 
 rising to 7,000 pounds. One record is claimed of 7,744 pounds eacn 
 for 22 cows. The first herdbook for this breed was published in 
 England in 1874, and in 1883 the Red Polled Cattle Club of America 
 was organized, and issued its first volume in 1887. A few years later 
 the English and American associations united their herdbooks, which 
 have since been a joint issue, all animals of the breed in both coun- 
 tries being registered together. This is the only instance of its kind 
 among the purebred cattle organizations of this country. 
 
 SHORTHORNS. 
 
 Origin and History. The cattle which have been most famous 
 as a breed in England and America, which have received the longest 
 and closest attention of breeders and improvers, which have com- 
 manded prices singly and in herds far above all others, and which 
 have made the most general impression upon the live stock of both 
 countries during the nineteenth century, are the Shorthorns, or Dur-
 
 136 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 hams. Wallace says they are descended from the old Northeast of 
 England breed, variously designated as Durham, Teeswater, York- 
 shire, and Holderness, and adds : The breed was probably originally 
 formed, though perhaps several centuries ago, by crossing the aborigi- 
 nal British cows with large-frame bulls imported from the Continent. 
 Early Shorthorns were good milkers, and it may be presumed they in 
 part inherited that quality along with the shortness of horn from 
 their Continental ancestors. Little is known of the breed except from 
 the uncertain authority of tradition down to the early part of the 
 eighteenth century, though it is only right to infer that long before 
 this time great care and even skill had been .bestowed upon it. The 
 earliest records show that purity of breed was fully appreciated, and 
 this important fact could not have been universal without previous 
 experience and attention. 
 
 The great county of York, extending along the east coast of Eng- 
 land from the river Humber to the Tees, and westward almost to the 
 Irish Sea, has the honor of being the seat of the most noted examples 
 of improvement in British cattle. It was this country which fur- 
 nished the foundation stock upon which Gresley, in Staffordshire, 
 Webster in Warwickshire, and that greatest of all breeders, Robert 
 Bakewell, in Leicestershire, labored to create the breed of Longhorns, 
 which filled all the middle counties of England during the eighteenth 
 century, and was then regarded as the most valuable in the Kingdom. 
 And it was Yorkshire, helped somewhat by the smaller county of 
 Durham, adjoining on the north, which brought the famous Short- 
 horns to the front, following closely upon the best days of the Long- 
 horns. The former replaced and practically absorbed the latter, 
 spreading over all middle England and northward across the island 
 and well into the lowlands of Scotland. 
 
 Inseparably connected with the development of the Shorthorn 
 breed are the names of Robert and Charles Colling, who brought 
 their favorites into a new era of fame and popularity during the last 
 decades of the eighteenth century and the first of the nineteenth. 
 The Collings were shrewd advertisers as well as good breeders. In 
 those days of slow communication and absence of fairs and shows 
 they adopted the clever plan of sending specimen animals of their 
 breeding on long tours about their own and adjoining counties. 
 Two of these animals became especially famous. The Durham Ox, 
 which had a live weight of 1% tons, and The White Heifer that 
 Traveled, weighing considerably over a ton, were driven about the 
 country for several years and extensively exhibited. Almost equally 
 valuable to this breed have been the later services of Bates and Booth 
 and Cruickshank. Under these leaders, and in the hands of a host of 
 able lieutenants and followers, this superb race of cattle has been 
 raised to the highest rank in the United Kingdom, carried to the 
 continent of Europe, and introduced into all British colonies. It 
 was the first pure breed to make an impress upon the cattle of the 
 United States. 
 
 The Shorthorns in America. The Revolutionary war was 
 scarcely over before attention began to be given to improving the
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 137 
 
 cattle in America. Virginia led in the work with several small im- 
 portations between 1783 and 1800, and from these pioneer animals 
 the first pure-bred Durhams were taken to Kentucky. In 1817 there 
 was a special importation for Kentucky use, from which the descend- 
 ants can be fully traced to the present time. This stock was popu- 
 larly called the "milk breed," but they were improved Shorthorns, 
 some of them from the Collings herd. Also in 1817 some of like 
 breeding reached New r York and Massachusetts. A few years later 
 they obtained a foothold in Pennsylvania. Several importations 
 followed prior to 1835, but up to this time the breed did not seem to 
 do well east of the Alleghenies. In Kentucky and Ohio, on the con- 
 trary, great progress was made. Twenty years of special activity 
 then followed in the development of American Shorthorns. During 
 this time the famous herd Thorndale, New York, was built up, 
 and the Alexander herd at Woodburn, Kentucky. A quiet period 
 of fifteen years was followed by another Shorthorn boom, beginning 
 after the civil war, and the climax came in September, 1873, when 
 the celebrated New York Mills sale occurred. One hundred and 
 nine head of Shorthorns were then sold at auction in three hours 
 for $380,000. Eight cows averaged $14,000 each, and six others 
 averaged $24.000; one sold for $35,000 and another for $40,600. 
 British breeders acknowledged that the United States possessed bet- 
 ter Shorthorns than could be found in England, and sent over agents 
 to take back some of them at any price. During the last hundred 
 years the Shorthorn blood has been more generally distributed 
 through the United States than that of any other cattle, and it has 
 proved most acceptable as the basis of improvement for the com- 
 mon, or native, stock, both for beef production and dairy purposes. 
 
 The aim of nearly all the improvers of Shorthorns has been to 
 secure early maturity, size, form, and beef-producing qualities. All 
 is useless that is not beef was the motto of an eminent breeder, and 
 he has had many followers. Thomas Bates is the most noted of the 
 few who have seemed anxious to retain good milking capacity. The 
 Shorthorns are a beef breed and have been so for generations. They 
 are classed among the beef breeds at all the great exhibitions, and, 
 as a breed, do not even pretend to be general-purpose animals. But 
 there have always been good dairy cows among them, and in Eng- 
 land, especially, strains and families have been kept somewhat dis- 
 tinct and known as milking Shorthorns. A few breeders in the 
 United States have followed this example, and enough were found 
 in 1893 to make up a herd which entered the famous dairy-cow tost 
 at the Columbian Exposition and there made a most creditable 
 record. This alone entitles the Shorthorns to a place in these pages, 
 although their best friends would hardly claim them to belong to 
 the class of special dairy breeds. 
 
 Characteristics. In point of size the Shorthorns are probably 
 the largest among pure breeds of cattle. In their modern form they 
 are not so tall and have not so large a frame as some of their English 
 ancestors, but the lower, blockier, fuller form maintains the maxi-
 
 138 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 mum weight. Bulls ordinarily weigh a ton and more, sometimes 
 running up to 3,000 pounds; mature cows range from 1,200 to 
 1,600 pounds, sometimes falling a little below and sometimes ex- 
 ceeding these limits. The colors of the breed have always been 
 red and white, with various blendings of these two. Many of the 
 best among the early Shorthorns were pure white, but that color has 
 lost caste, and red is especially fancied in this country. In England, 
 however, the roan color is much more common than any other, and 
 this peculiar blending of the red and white, popularly called roan, 
 is rarely, if ever, seen in any animal of the bovine race which does 
 not possess some portion of the Shorthorn blood. (Sanders.) 
 
 The lines of the body are straight, the rectangular form, with 
 well-filled points, broad, level back, full loin, heavy, thick buttocks, 
 wide apart, brisket wide and full, legs rather short, close, fine-boned 
 and well proportioned to size of body. In the best milking strains 
 the cows are rather more rangy and angular in outline, with large, 
 hairy udder and good-sized straight teats, well placed. The skin 
 over the whole body is flesh colored, soft, oily to the touch, and cov- 
 ered with fine short hair. The animals are quiet and kind in dispo- 
 sition. Nearly all show evidences of long-continued high breeding, 
 and this has been carried to such an extent in many cases as to cause 
 more or less delicacy of constitution and sometimes shyness in 
 breeding. 
 
 Milk and Butter. It has been already noted that among the 
 early Durham and Teeswater cattle there was much dairy excellence, 
 and that Shorthorns when first brought to America earned the name 
 of the milk breed. Among old records are those of cows giving 
 6, 8, and even 9 gallons of milk a day on grass alone. Although now 
 latent in most lines, there seems to be a dairy quality inherent in the 
 breed which some careful managers are able successfully to develop 
 and propagate. Records of several dairy herds in the United States 
 within a quarter century show a milking season of about two hundred 
 and seventy-five days and an average produce of 6,500 pounds of 
 milk. One herd of 10 cows, from 3 to 12 years old, averaged 7,750 
 pounds in a year. Single cows have averaged much more, several 
 instances being known of 10,000 to 12,000 pounds in a season. The 1 
 Shorthorn milk is of good quality, rather above the average ; the fat 
 globules are of medium and fairly uniform size, so that cream sepa- 
 rates easily ; it is rather pale in color. * 
 
 The first Shorthorn herdbook was published in England in the 
 year 1822, but for nearly a century before pedigrees of some fine 
 bulls had been kept with reasonable accuracy. The American Short- 
 horn Breeders' Association was organized in 1842 and publication of 
 the herdbpok of this country began in 1845, connecting with the 
 Coates series in England. (F. B. 106.) 
 
 THE DAIRY HERD; ITS FORMATION AND IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 Introduction. The pursuit of dairy farming depends for its 
 success upon certain fundamental conditions. First, the owner of 
 the business himself, or otherwise the agent or manager who has the
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 139 
 
 immediate control and personal direction of the work, must have a 
 natural fondness for animals, prompting to generous and kind treat- 
 ment, as well as good judgment in selection, breeding, and care. It is 
 not sufficient that he should be a horseman, or fond of cattle in gen- 
 eral; for best results he should have a special liking for the dairy 
 cow, over and above all other animals. Second, the cattle must be 
 good of their kind and of a variety suited to the work. They must 
 be truly dairy cattle. Third, the farm should be specially adapted to 
 the branch of husbandry in view. A good dairy farm is pretty cer- 
 tain to be good for general farming, but many good farms in general 
 are not suited to dairying. The dairy farm should be carefully 
 selected, all the requirements of the business being well considered. 
 Yet many disadvantages so far as the farm is concerned may be 
 successfully overcome by the skillful dairyman, and dairying in 
 some form is profitably conducted without any farm, so that this 
 condition, important as it is, can not be regarded as essential. Fourth, 
 it is well to study the character of the accessible markets and the 
 means of communication; location and the line of dairying to be 
 followed may be largely controlled by the markets. The first and 
 second of the above qualifications remain as the essential factors 
 the owner and the cow. 
 
 Like almost all other occupations at the present day, dairying 
 has become divided into several distinct and special lines. These 
 differ mainly as to the form of product and the manner of disposing 
 of it. Milk or cream may be produced for delivery to consumers, 
 and this delivery may be direct or indirect. The same products may 
 be delivered to a factory for manufacture into butter or cheese, or 
 the milk product of the herd may be worked up at home and there 
 converted into butter or cheese. The prudent dairyman should first 
 consider which line of business he will pursue. In so doing he must 
 have regard for all his circumstances the location, markets, farm, 
 buildings, water and ice supply, the labor at his command and his 
 own preference, and prospects for profit. Upon his decision as to 
 the particular kind of dairying to be followed should depend the 
 character and composition of his herd of cattle. 
 
 Cattle for the Dairy. Dairymen are divided in opinion as to 
 the kind of cow which is most profitable. Some prefer a "general- 
 purpose cow," which is a member of a specially developed milk-pro- 
 ducing family from one of the beef breeds, or grades of such stock. 
 An animal is thus secured which has a large frame, is easily kept in 
 good flesh, and fattens soon when not milking heavily; such an one 
 also has large calves, profitable for veal or for growing as steers. 
 Even if such animals are not so productive while in the dairy, their 
 meat-making proclivities may make up for it. There are two or 
 three of the established breeds of cattle which claim to possess com- 
 bined qualities for meat and milk. On the other hand, many dairy- 
 men prefer cattle of the distinct class or type especially adapted to 
 dairy purposes alone. This class includes various families and breeds, 
 all having the marked characteristics which distinguish the milk 
 producer. Owners of such cows expect them to be so profitable aa
 
 140 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 milkers that their beef-producing quality and the final disposition 
 of their carcasses may be largely ignored; and the calves, except so 
 far as wanted to raise for the dairy, are given little consideration. 
 Which of these lines of policy should be pursued every dairyman 
 must determine for himself. To succeed in his business he should 
 select his herd or its foundation with a view to profit. Whether he 
 should buy, breed, and feed his cows, having in view only their dairy 
 products and capacity for reproduction, or whether he will find it 
 more profitable to include the items of beef and veal, must be largely 
 determined by home conditions. 
 
 Special Adaptation. Within the general class of dairy cattle 
 one can find great variety and can therefore select breeds or families 
 well adapted to the special needs in view. Some dairy cattle are 
 noted for the quantity of milk they produce; others for the high 
 quality or richness of their milk. Some combine quantity and qual- 
 ity in a specially economical w r ay, under some circumstances. There 
 are cows of active habits, which forage well on a wide range of 
 scanty pasture, and will profitably work up the coarser kinds of food 
 in winter. There are others which have proved their capacity for 
 making good returns when more closely confined and subjected to 
 high feeding. Some cows give a great flow of milk for a compara- 
 tively short season, and others are noted for an even, steady yield 
 of milk the year through. The dairyman can easily find cattle, 
 therefore, adapted to his particular wants. As a rule, the different 
 dairy characteristics named pertain to different breeds, so that every 
 dairyman is likely to find some one breed of dairy cattle better suited 
 to his wants than any other. 
 
 This is not the place to revive the never-ended "battle of the 
 breeds." No matter how strong one's convictions, discretion must be 
 exercised. Pronounced opinions and direct advice as to the several 
 recognized dairy breeds are here unnecessary. Evidence abounds 
 on every side, and every dairyman, or prospective dairyman, can 
 satisfy himself as to the cattle he should adopt, if he will but make 
 a proper study of the subject. He need not go far in this country to 
 find the kind or breed of cows for milk supply, one for butter mak- 
 ing, or one for the cream trade. There is no special cheese-making 
 cow ; the best butter cow is also the best for cheese ; this fact has been 
 demonstrated beyond dispute. 
 
 Formation of the Dairy Herd. There are two very different 
 ways of forming a dairy herd and of maintaining its size and quality. 
 It may be done by buying or breeding or these two methods may be 
 combined. 
 
 By Purchase. The purchasing plan is practiced to a consider- 
 able extent by those who produce milk for town and city supply. In 
 a few cases it has been known to be successful where the work of the 
 herd was to make butter. Applied in its extreme form, cows are 
 bought when mature and at their prime, judged almost exclusively 
 by their milk yield, are highly fed so as to keep steadily gaining in 
 flesh, and are sold, usually to the butcher, as soon as they cease to be 
 profitable as milkers. The bull may be of any kind so long as he
 
 SHORTHORN BULL. DEPT. OF AGE.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 143 
 
 gets the cows in calf, as the calves are of value only as causing fresh 
 cows and are disposed of as soon as possible. The first modification 
 of this system is to keep extra good cows for several seasons and the 
 next to raise heifers from some of the best milkers to replenish the 
 herd. This way of making up a herd and keeping good its numbers 
 requires abundant capital and rare judgment in buying and in sell- 
 ing. .It can not be recommended to one lacking experience, and even 
 the shrewdest buyer runs great risk of bringing tuberculous animals 
 into his herd. 
 
 By Breeding. The other extreme is to begin with a few well- 
 selected animals as a foundation, and gradually build up the herd 
 to the size desired, by judicious breeding and natural increase. This 
 method takes time, and time which may be money, but it is by far 
 the safer and more satisfactory in its results, and it must be recog- 
 nized as a higher grade of dairy farming. 
 
 Foundation of the Herd. A desirable combination in starting 
 is to buy the number of cows desired and good animals of the sort 
 determined in advance. If one's means will permit, include a few 
 superior cows and a first-class bull at any rate. Let the cows selected 
 be such as have had two calves, and perhaps three, so that they may 
 be judged by their own development and yet be young enough to 
 improve and be in full profit for some years. With a herd thus 
 formed, begin at once the work of improvement by breeding and 
 selection. Sell promptly any cow which proves unsatisfactory and 
 replace her by the best increase of the herd, or purchase occasionally 
 an animal which will raise the average quality. 
 
 Purebred Dairy Cattle and Grades. A dairyman can hardly 
 be advised to buy at once a full stock of purebred cattle of any breed, 
 if his sole object and dependence for profit is to be the dairy product 
 of the herd. Such a venture will necessitate large investment, and 
 should include the breeding of registered animals, for sale at re- 
 munerative prices, as a part of the business. Well-bred and well- 
 selected grade cows of the line of blood desired seem to be the most 
 profitable animals for the practical dairyman, or at least the best to 
 begin with. If enterprising and progressive, the owner will hardly 
 be content with grades only. He may begin with only his bull pure 
 bred; presently he will want a registered cow to match, then one or 
 two more. Thus he will be steadily and properly working toward 
 a purely-bred herd. If the breed chosen is the right one for the 
 object sought, it will soon be found that the more of this blood the 
 herd contains the better. Starting with half-bred cows (the off- 
 spring of pure-bred bulls and dams of mixed or uncertain blood), 
 the next grade, three-fourths pure, will prove better dairy stock, if 
 the bull is what he should be and the increase has been culled. An- 
 other step higher is better still, better for the dairy, and so the grad- 
 ing goes up and improvement goes on until the blood of the herd is 
 practically pure, but for production only. The best dairy results 
 may thus be reached, but the herd has a taint. It lacks pedigree. 
 Its increase, however excellent in dairy performance, must pass and 
 sell as grades. The owner feels this, and is pretty sure to gradually
 
 144 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 replace his grade cows, almost pure bred, with fully pedigreed and 
 registered animals. This end is reached sooner and easier by start- 
 ing with one or two registered females, and, of course, a registered 
 bull. Moderate investment and the lessened risk of loss in the hands 
 of one unaccustomed to handling registered stock, and finding a mar- 
 ket for the surplus, doubtless favor grades for the dairy herd. The 
 argument and the probabilities of success, based upon the fixed prin- 
 ciples of breeding, are on the side of purebred registered stock. In 
 the hands of experienced men the latter prove the more profitable 
 in actual practice. 
 
 Buying Registered Cattle. In these days any dairyman who 
 wants registered animals of any of the approved breeds can get them 
 if he will but make the effort. The beginner in registered dairy stock 
 can not be too strongly urged to buy and breed on the basis of indi- 
 vidual and family merit and dairy record, and not upon lineage 
 alone. Pedigree that includes both lineage and performance is of 
 value and should be well studied; it is the best guaranty that the 
 calves to come will make good cows. It is also economy, having chosen 
 the right breed, to purchase good representatives of that breed, rather 
 than be content with only average or even ordinary animals. Suc- 
 cessful dairying has proved that the greater profit comes from the 
 best cows, whatever their kind. This is as true of purebred or regis- 
 tered stock as of common cows. It is better to pay $300 for three ex- 
 cellent cows than to pay the same sum for four good cows or five 
 which are only fair. A really superior dairy cow of a superior family, 
 with pedigree which gives assurance of calves equal to the dam, if 
 not better, is always worth a large price. Such an animal adds much 
 to the average value of any dairy herd. In buying registered cattle 
 deal only with men of reputation as breeders and of strict integrity. 
 
 THE BULL AND HIS TREATMENT. 
 
 Selection of the Bull. With any dairyman who depends upon 
 breeding and rearing calves for the maintenance of his herd and its 
 improvement, the choice of a bull is a matter of prime importance. 
 The bull is constantly referred to as the head of the herd, and that 
 trite saying, The bull is half the herd, should never be forgotten. 
 Every calf added to the herd takes half its blood from the bull. 
 Often this is the more important half. The bull is always the main 
 dependence for raising the average quality of the herd, and should be 
 chosen with this object in view. This is especially true if the cows 
 are grades and grading up is in progress. The grade dam may be 
 selected and largely relied upon to give size, form, and constitution to 
 her heifer calf; its dairy qualities may be largely derived from the 
 purebred sire. One cow may prove a poor dam, or fail to breed, and 
 still give a profit in milk. Such a loss is comparatively trivial and 
 the fault easily corrected. But if the 'bull fails, or proves a poor 
 sire, the entire increase of a year may be lost. In getting a bull, get 
 a good one ; or at least approach the ideal as nearly as possible. Make 
 a study of the animal's pedigree and the dairy history of his an- 
 cestors, and especially of the females among his nearest of kin. Then 
 see that the good qualities of his progenitors appear to be reproduced
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 145 
 
 in the animal in question. A common error among dairymen is to 
 use immature bulls and to dispose of good ones before their merit as 
 sires has been fairly proven. Bull calves are cheap, and young bulls 
 are considered much easier to handle. But it is good advice to the 
 buyer to purchase a bull of some age, whose progeny prove his value 
 as a breeder; and having a sire of proved excellence, to keep him and 
 use him for years, or as long as he shows himself potent and pre- 
 potent. 
 
 Temperament. The chief objection made to bulls of some age 
 is that they are likely to be vicious and dangerous. Everyone recog- 
 nizes the difference in temperament between the fleshy, beefy bull 
 and the one of pronounced dairy character ; but experience and obser- 
 vation have taught that the bulls of marked dairy type are much 
 alike in disposition, regardless of breed. In all the breeds some bulls 
 will be found of naturally bad temper, but it is believed that the great 
 majority of bulls of all the dairy breeds can be safely kept until too 
 old for service and handled without serious trouble, if only properly 
 reared and judiciously managed. 
 
 Control and Exercise. In rearing a bull, accustom it to being 
 handled from calfhood, but without fondling or encouraging frolic. 
 Give it kind, quiet, firm, and unvarying treatment, and keep .it 
 always under subjection, that it may never know its strength and 
 power. Insert the nose ring before it is a year old, keep this renewed 
 so as to be always strong, and always lead and handle the animal with 
 staff in the hands of a discreet and trusty man. The bull should 
 never run loose in yard or pasture, but should be provided with abun- 
 dant and regular exercise, always under restraint and full control. 
 Incidentally, he may be made to run a fodder cutter or a cream sepa- 
 rator and perform valuable service. As age and strength increase, 
 let the staff be supplemented by strap, chain, or rope attached to a 
 second ring. To this may well be added some hitching or leading 
 chain with a strong strap around horns or neck. Let there be always 
 a double hitching device, so that the bull may never by accident 
 find himself loose when he should be tied. If restiveness and temper 
 are shown, add to the exercise, in duration or quantity, without vio- 
 lence ; a bull physically tired may be depended upon to be quiet and 
 easily managed. It is much better to keep the bull as much as pos- 
 sible in the presence or in full sight of the herd than stabled by him- 
 self in a lonely place. 
 
 Culling the Herd. As soon as the herd is established and in 
 working order, the study of every individual animal should begin. 
 To guide rational treatment and insure greatest profit, the owner 
 must become familiar with the characteristics of every cow. The 
 system of record should conform to the circumstances of the case 
 and extent of the business. The record should include a concise his- 
 tory and description of every member of the herd, with a summary of 
 the dairy performance. The latter requires a daily record of the milk 
 yield of every cow, with notes explaining irregularities or occurrences 
 of interest. If the quality of the milk i.s a matter of any importance, 
 as it is in most cases, and ought to be, however the milk is disposed
 
 146 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of, a fat test should be made of the milk of every cow, for several 
 consecutive milkings, as often as practicable. Some form of the 
 Babcock tester is the simplest, and now within the reach of every 
 dairyman. (See Babcock Test.) According to the size of the ap- 
 paratus, a certain number of milk samples can be tested at one time, 
 and thus the record of a large herd can be completed in a few days. 
 It is well to make this test and record of the quality of every cow's 
 milk at least once a month. The most satisfactory practical record 
 is the average percentage of fat found in the milk of several suc- 
 cessive milkings, samples from which may be mixed and this com- 
 posite sample tested, thus obtaining the average ; the method is easily 
 learned and practiced. This record of quality, taken periodically, 
 joined with a summary of the daily quantity of milk, gives a full 
 dairy record of the cow, upon which her value can be readily com- 
 puted. To give the owner a more complete knowledge of his opera- 
 tions,- there should also be a record, of at least approximate accuracy, 
 of the food of every cow, with monthly summaries of quantities or 
 value, so that the economy of production may be shown. 
 
 Value of Records. Such records are far more easily made than 
 the description may indicate, and are well worth all they cost. They 
 form the only accurate and safe basis for judging the individual 
 merits of the different animals. The improvement of every herd, 
 which should be the constant aim of its owner, depends upon period- 
 ical culling and getting rid of unworthy members. No one can 
 afford to do this upon guesswork alone. 
 
 Raising the Standard. Good judges believe that in the entire 
 country one-fourth of the cows kept for their milk do not pay for 
 their cost of keeping, and nearly a fourth more fail to yield annual 
 profit. As a matter of ordinary business prudence and a condition 
 essential to best results, every dairyman should study the individ- 
 uality of his cows, keep a sufficient record of quantity and quality of 
 milk product, know approximately the cost of production, and sys- 
 tematically weed out his herd. After proper consideration and prac- 
 tical tests as to possibilities, set a standard for a satisfactory cow and 
 maintain this standard by promptly disposing of the animals which 
 fail to attain it, unless reasonable excuse appears, with the prospect 
 of better conduct in future, and gradually but persistently raise the 
 standard. 
 
 Fewer Cows More Money. 'Tis quality of cows rather than 
 quantity that counts. It never pays to keep a really poor producer. 
 Reduce the herd half if necessary ; it's profits you want. Apply the 
 scales and test to the whole herd and an ax to the robber cow. A 
 certain dairyman had ten cows that gave him a total profit for the 
 year on the whole herd of only $81.20. The six best cows sepa- 
 rately would have profited him $82.62. Four cows were kept at a 
 great loss. 
 
 Good Cows are Money Makers. The increasing demand for 
 milk indicates that there is money ahead for the wise dairyman. 
 Good cows require the attention of a good man in order to be profit- 
 able. Abundant food, congenial stables and kind treatment are
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 147 
 
 essential. When these can be assured, fill up the stables with high- 
 grade cows and success is yours. Remember that the low producer 
 is a bad investment at any price, but that the cow liberally endowed 
 with dairy capacity is always a powerful factor for good upon the 
 farm. The sire is often much more than half the herd and through 
 his purity of breeding the profitable cow must always be sought. 
 
 Necessity for Testing Each Cow. Common observation teaches 
 us that there is a great difference in the profit derived from the dif- 
 ferent cows of every herd. To the milk producer this difference is 
 obvious in the widely different amounts of milk yielded and in the 
 persistency with which they maintain the production as the lactation 
 period progresses. When scales are not used the amount is gener- 
 ally estimated by the fullness of the pail, but the presence or ab- 
 sence of foam may greatly influence the judgment. Until one has 
 employed the scale in weighing the milk from his cows he cannot 
 realize how far from correct has been his estimate of their annual 
 production. Guessing at the amount of milk given is unsafe and 
 unbusinesslike. It is surprising, though nevertheless true, that the 
 regular milker of any cow in a herd, where the milk is not weighed 
 regularly, can seldom guess within 1,500 or 2,000 pounds of her 
 actual yearly milk production. 
 
 If the amount of milk yielded were the only consideration, it 
 could be readily met by the use of scales. However, in order to ap- 
 proach the true value of a cow, we must know her butter making 
 capacity, and as this is not necessarily in proportion to the amount 
 of milk given, the quantity and quality of the milk for both butter 
 making and direct consumption must be taken into consideration. 
 For this reason the Babcock test should be used in every herd to de- 
 termine each cow's capacity for producing butter fat. Testing the 
 milk at regular intervals will give fairly accurate results. After test- 
 ing numerous herds it has often been observed that cows previously 
 considered of good dairy ability have made poor annual records, 
 while some of which little was expected have done very well. 
 
 The necessity of testing is all the more apparent when we re- 
 flect that the nature of milk makes it impossible to judge by its ap- 
 pearance as to its richness in butter fat. The coloring matter of 
 milk is not necessarily associated with the butter fat, so that the 
 richness of color does not always indicate the proportion of butter 
 fat. Without some accurate means, such as the Babcock test, for de- 
 termining the quality of the milk from each cow, a dairyman can 
 never be sure as to which are his best and which his poorest cows. 
 Until a cow's ability to produce milk and butter fat is approximately 
 known, she has her owner at a disadvantage. (111. Circ. 76.) 
 
 How to Make the Test. The simplest method is to use a spring 
 scale on which to weigh the milk from each cow, and the Babcock 
 test in order to determine its butter fat content. The other ap- 
 paratus necessary to conduct this work consists of a small sample 
 dipper for taking the samples, tin-top pint milk jars for holding the 
 composite samples, corrosive sublimate tablets for preserving the
 
 148 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 samples, labels for numbering the composite milk jars, and milk 
 record sheets for recording the weights of milk. 
 
 The milk pails should be of the same weight, if not, one should 
 be selected as a weighing pail, and the adjustable hand on the scales 
 set back so that the weight of the empty pail causes the hand to stand 
 at zero. In this way no deduction for the weight of the pail need be 
 made. As soon as the milk is drawn the pail is hung on the scales, 
 and the exact weight recorded immediately in the proper place 
 under the cow's number on the record sheet. 
 
 Every ninth week the milkers should weigh and sample each 
 cow's milk separately, for fourteen consecutive milkings. Sampling 
 the milk consists in taking a small quantity from each milking, 
 using a dipper provided for the purpose, and putting'the same into 
 the composite sample jar bearing the cow's number. It is understood 
 that each cow should have a number, and a milk jar numbered to 
 correspond into which is placed the sample dipper full from each 
 of the fourteen consecutive milkings as just indicated. This com- 
 posite test sample, as it is called, is kept from souring by placing a 
 corrosive sublimate tablet in the jar before taking the samples, one 
 tablet being sufficient to keep the composite sample sweet for two 
 weeks. The sample should be carefully agitated each day by a gentle 
 rotary motion of the sample jar, but care should be taken not to 
 throw the cream upon the sides of the vessel and allow it to adhere, 
 as this makes it difficult to get an accurate test. After the sample 
 from the fourteenth milking has been taken, the composite sample 
 is ready for testing, and the percentage of fat which it is found to 
 contain is the average percentage of fat in the milk for the week. 
 (111. Circ. 76.) 
 
 Health of the Herd. There is no point of greater importance 
 in selecting animals for the foundation of a herd, or in making pur- 
 chases of additions, than to get perfectly healthy stock. Animals 
 chosen should be critically examined and should afford evidence of 
 being strong in constitution and of healthful vigor. It is advised 
 that all be tuberculin-tested and this, of course, should be done by a 
 competent veterinarian. 
 
 Environment. Close confinement, with impure air and lack of 
 exercise, is as prejudicial to the health of milch cows as to that of 
 human beings. Some recently promulgated theories of dark, warm 
 stables and no exercise for profitable milk production are without 
 rational basis and certain to lead to disastrous results sooner or later. 
 Exposure to storms and cold is equally injurious to the health and 
 profit of cows. A judicious mean is the provision for moderate exer- 
 cise in the open air and sunshine, and the application of the same 
 common-sense care for the comfort of cows which one would approve 
 for members of his own household. 
 
 Watchfulness. Every member of the herd, young or old, 
 should pass under the critical eye of the owner or his trusty assist- 
 ant daily, and preferably twice a day. The least symptoms of dis- 
 order, like dullness, loss of appetite, rough coat, and irregularity of
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE . 149 
 
 milk, manure, or urine, should be noted and promptly receive the 
 attention which it deserves. Experience is needed on the part of the 
 caretaker to detect and correct the beginnings of trouble, and thus 
 maintain the general health of the herd. 
 
 Regularity and Cleanliness. A herd of good dairy cows de- 
 serve to have good care, and this can only be insured by having the 
 right kind of attendants. If the owner is unable to either attend 
 the cows himself or give the matter personal supervision twice a day 
 or more, it is to his interest and profit to be certain that his em- 
 ployees are trustworthy and fit to be cow keepers. Everyone should 
 be quiet, even-tempered, gentle, and regular and cleanly in his 
 habits. A cow abominates an unclean man. Tobacco in all its 
 forms is obnoxious to every department of dairying. All the work 
 about the herd should be done with the utmost system and regular- 
 ity stable cleaning, grooming, exercise, watering, feeding, milk- 
 ing; a fixed time for everything and everything at its time on the 
 dot, (Agr. Dep. F. B. 55.) 
 
 Methods of Mil Icing. Milking the dairy cow is such a simple 
 operation, and one that occupies in the aggregate, so much of the 
 dairyman's time, that it is easy to become careless about it and to 
 look upon the operation as one not requiring skill nor demanding 
 scientific investigation. The feeding of the herd has received careful 
 attention, both by investigators and farmers, until it is now probably 
 correct to say that the dairy cow in the hands of the progressive 
 dairyman is more scientifically fed and nourished than most chil- 
 dren. The ventilation and sanitation of stables has also been the 
 subject of much discussion, but it is certainly a fact that the art of 
 milking has not received the attention it deserves, at least not until 
 very recently. (Cornell B. 213.) 
 
 It matters not how high the grade of the individuals comprising 
 the dairy herd, or with what care they are housed and fed, careless 
 or ignorant milking is sure to reduce the quantity and lower the 
 quality of the milk and eventually ruin the milking qualities perma- 
 nently, especially in the case of the heaviest milkers. It is even 
 claimed by high authorities that the progeny of a fine milking strain 
 may be seriously affected in their milking qualities for generations 
 afterwards, no amount of after care being capable of repairing the 
 damage done. Thi? indicates strikingly one phase of the possible 
 far-reaching effect of carelassness or ignorance in one branch of the 
 manifold operations of .the dairy. 
 
 On the other hand, careful, observant dairymen have profited 
 by the knowlege that thorough stripping tends to stimulate and de- 
 velop milk secretion, and therefore insist that their milkers strip 
 clean. The shippings are much richer in fat than is the first milk 
 drawn from the udder. 
 
 With this knowledge so general among dairymen, it seems a 
 little strange that the facts have only recently been worked over into 
 a definite practical system, applicable in every well-regulated dairy.
 
 150 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The Hegelund Method of Milking. The milking is done with 
 dry hands and with the whole hand. After the milk flows readily 
 the milking is proceeded with as rapidly as possible and without in- 
 terruption until full streams of milk are no longer obtained. At this 
 point the milker begins with the manipulations of the udder, which 
 are three in number, and may be described as follows : 
 
 First Manipulation. The right quarters of the udder are 
 pressed against each other (if the udder is very large, only one quar- 
 ter at a time is taken), with the left hand on the hind quarter and 
 the right hand in front of the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed 
 on the outside of the udder and the four fingers in the division be- 
 tween the two halves of the udder. The hands are now pressed toward 
 each other and at the same time lifted toward the body of the cow. 
 This pressing and lifting is repeated three times. The milk collected 
 in the milk cistern is then milked out, and the manipulation is re- 
 peated until no more milk is obtained in this way; then the left 
 quarters are treated in the same manner. 
 
 Second Manipulation. The glands are pressed together from 
 the side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one 
 hand, with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other 
 hand in the division between the right and left fore quarters; the 
 hands are pressed against each other and the teat then milked. When 
 no more milk is obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters 
 are milked by placing a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise 
 with fingers spread and turned upward, but with the thumb just in 
 front of the hind quarter. The hands are lifted and grasp into the 
 gland from behind and from the side, after which they are lowered 
 to draw the milk. The manipulation is repeated until no more milk 
 is obtained. (Wis. B. 96.) 
 
 Third Manipulation. The fore teats are grasped with partly 
 closed hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, 
 both at the same time, by which method the glands are pressed be- 
 tween the hands and the body; the milk is drawn after each three 
 pushes. When the fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked 
 in the same manner. (Hawaii B. 8.) 
 
 Hand Milking. Nothing has been produced which begins to 
 compare with the human hand as a milking machine. Cleanliness 
 and regularity are the first requisites in good milking. Next, quiet 
 and gentleness should be accompanied by quickness. Two milkers, 
 one rapid and the other slow (the cow being accustomed to both), 
 will get about the same quantity of milk in any given number of 
 days, but the former will get the more fat. The quicker the milking 
 the richer the milk, if the work is done well and completely ; the dif- 
 ference may not 'be great, but it is measurable in butter or money. 
 Again, two men milking like quantities in like time, from the same 
 cows or animals, giving milk usually just alike, will^get different re- 
 sults as to richness, and if they change places the richer milk is se- 
 cured by the same man. The milk fat or butter fat comes from the 
 cow, but it is the expert milker that gets the most of it. There seems 
 to be an undefined and yet conclusively proved relation between
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 151 
 
 some milkers and the cows they handle which produces this result. 
 It is certain that change of milkers, manner or time of milking, 
 irregularity, or any disturbance at milking time, may be expected 
 to cause loss of butter fat in the milk. In short, it pays, and pays 
 well, to have milking done in the very best way, by the very best 
 milkers that can be found. A superior milker should be appreciated 
 and retained as persistently as a superior cow; the former is the 
 more difficult to replace. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 55.) 
 
 Results Obtained by Machine-Milking. Two milking machines 
 were installed more than a year ago and they have been used con- 
 stantly since. No special experiment was attempted with the ma- 
 chines except that of using them under practical conditions and ob- 
 serving the results. The same class of men were employed to oper- 
 ate the machines that had been employed for hand-milking. The 
 class of farm labor in Tennessee has had practically no experience 
 with machinery. 
 
 During the first six months four different men operated the 
 machines, and none of these men handled them long enough to be- 
 come well acquainted with the method of operation. During the year 
 and a half that the machines have been in use, seven different men 
 have been employed to operate them, and three successive months is 
 the longest period any one man has remained in charge. The 
 machines have consequently not been given the advantage of an ex- 
 perienced operator. The only stripping done after the machine has 
 been to try each teat as soon as the machine was removed to see if 
 the cow was milked dry. 
 
 These records for machine-milking are with cows of all ages. 
 There seems to be little relation between age and the way the cows 
 respond to the machines. Heifers had extremely small teats, however, 
 and considerable trouble was found in fitting them with cups. The 
 No. 00 cup that is being sold now will no doubt give better yields 
 with this class of heifers. There were three heifers on the machine 
 this year that have never been milked by hand. They have held 
 up well in milk up to the present time. One lost 131 pounds in five 
 months and another 59 pounds in seven months, and the other was 
 30 pounds higher during her fourth month, 67 pounds higher dur- 
 ing her fifth month, and 16 pounds higher during her sixth month 
 than during her first month of lactation. 
 
 No udder troubles occurred that could be ascribed to the use of 
 the machine. Wo 'had a few cases of slight inflammation during the 
 last six months, but in each case the cow had a skin trouble which 
 appeared before the inflammation. In each case there were skin 
 eruptions on the udder. When the machines were properly handled 
 they were not painful to the cow and did not injure the teats or the 
 udder. 
 
 Conclusions. 1. Under the conditions existing during the test, 
 machine-milking has been at least equal, if not slightly superior, to 
 hand-milking. 2. Under average conditions a cow is milked as 
 clean with the machine as by hand. An expert operator can milk 
 cleaner with the machine than the average man will by hand. 3. If
 
 152 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the teat-cups and mouthpieces are properly adjusted the machine is 
 not injurious to the teats and udder or objectionable to the cows, 
 some even preferring it. 4. The machines are not difficult to keep 
 clean and a high grade of milk is secured when machines are used. 
 If neglected, however, they soon become filthy and are a serious 
 source of contamination. 5. One man running two machines is 
 nearly equal to two hand-milkers. There is a great difference between 
 the number of cows different men will milk per hour. To secure thor- 
 ough milking and rapid work, the operator should follow the ma- 
 chines closely to see that each cow is milking properly. 6. Success- 
 ful milking with machines depends upon the proper fitting of cups 
 and mouthpieces, the operator being sure that each teat is milking 
 before going to the next cow, and thorough manipulation of the 
 udder before removal of the machine. In many cases it is necessary 
 to use a smaller-sized teat-cup during advanced stages of lactation 
 than when the cow is fresh. 7. The operator should be above the 
 average farm laborer in intelligence and mechanical skill. 8. Trou- 
 bles that occur in operating are due more to misuse than to any fault 
 of the machine. (Tenn. B.) 
 
 Milking Machine Experiments. Of the 41 farmers reporting, 
 31 submitted favorable reports either the first or the second time, 
 while 27 submitted only favorable reports. We may consider, there- 
 fore, that we are justified in concluding that 27 out of 41 farmers at 
 the time they reported their experiences, had made a success of ma- 
 chine-milking, while six out of this number had failed. It is evi- 
 dent from the comments made by the farmers that the success of ma- 
 chine-milking will depend largely on the man operating the machine 
 and on his attitude toward machine-milking. If he is willing to give 
 the machine a fair trial and to follow the directions of the manufac- 
 turers he will, as a general rule, foe able to make a success of this 
 method of milking, at least to the extent of approximating the results 
 obtained by good hand-milkers, and perhaps even improving on 
 those secured by general farm help who are often prejudiced against 
 the work of milking. 
 
 The experiences of practical dairy farmers and the results of 
 careful exhaustive trials agree in showing that so far as the machine 
 itself is concerned, the problem of mechanical milking may now be 
 considered solved, although minor improvements in the present ma- 
 chine are needed and will doubtless be made before long. Properly 
 cared for and handled the milking-machine will prove a valuable 
 aid in the solution of the hired-help problem on many dairy farms 
 and will become an important factor in the further development of 
 our dairying industry. (Wis. B. 173.) 
 
 First and Last Milk Drawn. A number of tests were made of 
 the same and of different cows in order to discover the difference, if 
 any, between the first pint of milk drawn from the udder and the 
 pint last drawn. The average per cent of fat in the milk of each 
 cow for a number of days before and after the trial is shown herein 
 for the sake of close comparison. The udders were washed before 
 milking, excepting in a few instances. It was omitted in these
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 153 
 
 cases under the impression that the manipulation incident to the 
 washing might affect the per cent of fat in the first milk drawn. The 
 results do not indicate, however, that such was the case. The cows 
 were milked in the usual manner, through a funnel into a pint bot- 
 tle until the first pint was secured, after which they were milked into 
 a pail until nearly finished. Toward the close they were again milked 
 into bottles containing one-fourth of a pint each, and when the milk- 
 ing was finished, the last four quarter pints were taken as represent- 
 ing the last pint drawn. 
 
 It will be noticed that in every case the per cent of solids not fat 
 is higher for the milk first drawn, and the per cent of fat lower; but 
 the difference between the fat of the first and last drawn is much 
 greater than the inverse difference between the solids not fat, and its 
 fluctuations are wider from day to day, and between different cows. 
 
 Pasture Season and Soiling. As soon as the spring grass gets 
 high enough for the cows to get a bite, let them have it. At first the 
 time daily on pasture should be very short, for the good of both pas- 
 ture and cow. The latter should be gradually changed from stable 
 feeding to pasturage, especially if the feeding has been of dry ma- 
 terial or mostly so. And the stable feeding should continue un- 
 changed, undiminished, until the cow herself indicates that she is 
 getting enough grass to replace a part of the stable ration. Then, as 
 the pasturage improves, indoor feeding may be lessened and finally 
 discontinued. If a pasture furnishes an abundance of variety of 
 grasses, there can be no better food found for the milch cow. The 
 nutritive ratio for mixed pasturage is about 1 to 5, which can not be 
 improved for succulent food. But the best of pasture grasses contain 
 from 65 to 75 per cent of water, sometimes more, and the cow must 
 procure a large quantity of this material, 100 pounds or so in the 
 course of a day, to secure the food material required. Shade and 
 water should be carefully looked after in connection with pasturage, 
 as well as the grass. In very large pastures there should be watering 
 places in different parts of the inclosure, as well as shade, that the 
 cows may not be compelled to travel far to find either. 
 
 Until flies become troublesome, cows had better stay in pasture 
 by day and in stable by night, or be left out all tjie time. But in the 
 worst fly time, and perhaps when the sun's heat is greatest, it is good 
 practice to stable the herd during' the day in an airy but shaded 
 cowhouse, and turn it on pasture at night. If the pasture has not 
 abundant shade and water this course should certainly be followed. 
 Heat and flies reduce both quality and quantity of milk product. 
 The trouble from flies can be largely remedied by spraying the cows. 
 (See "Fighting Flies," p. 165.) 
 
 Summer Feeding. Every owner of a cow welcomes the time 
 when the animal can be turned out to pasture. Not only is the labor 
 and expenses connected with winter feeding done away with, but 
 each cow is expected to give the best results of the year on grass. In 
 changing from dry feed to grass, it is best to go somewhat slowly, 
 especially with heavy milking cows. The young, immature grass, 
 such as we have in early spring, contains a large amount of water and
 
 154 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 a small amount of dry matter, and it is almost impossible for a heavy 
 milking cow to eat enough of such feed to supply the necessary 
 amount of nutrients. Wheat and rye pastures are of the same na- 
 ture. Another reason for putting cattle on pasture gradually rather 
 than suddenly, is the effect on the taste of milk. When a cow is 
 changed at once from a grain ration to grass a very marked taste is 
 developed in the milk, while if this change in feed is made gradually 
 and not suddenly the change in the taste of the milk is scarcely 
 noticed. 
 
 Summer Conditions to be Maintained. Soon after the cows are 
 on pasture, usually the latter part of May or the first part of June, 
 they reach the maximum production of milk for the year. This sug- 
 gests that what the dairyman must do in order that the production of 
 milk may be the largest, is to imitate these summer conditions as far 
 as possible throughout the remainder of the year. This is what the 
 careful dairyman and skilled feeder does, and the results correspond 
 closely to the success with which these summer conditions are main- 
 tained. The summer conditions which bring about the maximum 
 production and which are to be maintained as far as possible through 
 the year, are described as follows : 1, an abundance of palatable food ; 
 2, a balanced ration ; 3, succulent feed ; 4, moderate temperature ; 5, 
 comfortable surroundings. 
 
 Grain Feeding While on Pasture. There is some difference of 
 opinion on this question from the standpoint of economy. There is 
 no question but tnat a cow will produce more milk if fed grain while 
 on pasture, and if a large yield is of more importance than economy 
 of production, grain should certainly be fed. The cow that gives a 
 small average quantity of milk will produce but little more, if fed 
 grain while on pasture. However, with the heavy producing cow the 
 case is quite different and it is necessary that she be fed grain or she 
 will not continue on the high level of production long. The neces- 
 sity of feeding grain to the high producing cow arises from the fact 
 that she cannot secure a sufficient amount of nutrients from the grass 
 alone, and must have some concentrated feed in the form of grain in 
 order to continue to produce large quantities of milk. 
 
 Experiments made by the Cornell Experiment Station, covering 
 four years, showed that while an increase of milk yield was secured 
 from grain feeding, it was not economical to produce it in this way. 
 They secured only about an additional pound of milk for each 
 pound of grain fed. In these experiments the pastures produced an 
 abundance of nutritious grasses. They observed, however, that the 
 cows fed grain during the summer gave better results after the graz- 
 ing period was over, than those not having received grain. This is also 
 a matter of common observation, and should be taken into account 
 in considering the advisability of feeding grain. The point is that 
 the cows fed grain stored a considerable quantity of surplus nutri- 
 ents on their body which were afterwards available for the production 
 of milk. A Jersey cow that is giving as much as 20 pounds or 10 
 quarts per day, or a Holstein or Shorthorn giving 25 pounds or more
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 155 
 
 daily should be given some grain. It has been recommended that 
 cows feeding on pasture be fed as follows : 
 
 Jersey cow producing 20 Ibs. milk daily, 3 Ibs. grain; 25 Ibs. 
 milk daily, 4 Ibs. grain ; 30 Ibs. milk daily, 6 Ibs. grain ; 35 Ibs. milk 
 daily, 8 Ibs. grain ; 40 Ibs. milk daily, 10 Ibs. grain. Hostein, Short- 
 horn, or Ayrshire producing 25 Ibs. milk daily, 3 Ibs. grain ; 30 Ibs. 
 milk daily, 5 Ibs. grain ; 35 Ibs. milk daily, 7 Ibs. grain ; 40 Ibs. milk 
 daily, 9 Ibs. grain; 50 Ibs. milk daily, 10 Ibs. grain. (Mo. Circ. 44.) 
 
 SOILING CROPS FOR DAIRY COWS. 
 
 During the dry, hot weather average summer pastures stop 
 growing and the grass becomes dry and woody, proving unpalatable 
 and innutritions to animals. A large part of the energy derived from 
 the feed of the cows is expended under these conditions in wander- 
 ing about the fields endeavoring to get shelter from the scorching 
 rays of the sun, protection from the swarms of flies that torment 
 them, and sufficient palatable feed to supply the needs of the system 
 for milk production. With these conditions it is easy to understand 
 why shipments of dairy products show a marked shrinkage during 
 the late summer months. 
 
 The practice of partial soiling offers the opportunity of keeping 
 cows in a cool, dark barn, and giving them that rest and quiet which 
 they require for greatest milk production. When kept in the stable 
 for at least a part of each day they may be fed regularly a uniform 
 quantity, and none of the feed need be wasted. Since pasturage is a 
 cheap and easy method of feeding, however, the most practical sys- 
 tem for the majority of farmers and dairymen in this state is obvi- 
 ously one which will secure for them the benefits of pasturage with- 
 out its disadvantages. A system of partial soiling and partial pas- 
 turage, in which the cows are turned to pasture at night and fed in 
 the barn during at least a part of each day, seems to supply all the 
 conditions necessary for most profitable production of dairy cows. 
 
 With this system the acreage of pasture required is greatly les- 
 soned. It has been found that each cow in the dairy herd requires 
 about two acres of pasture when no soiling is practiced. This acreage 
 may be reduced at least one-half when the cows are fed soiling crops 
 as above suggested. The chief objection to the system lies in the fact 
 that it requires more labor, but even this should not be a serious ob- 
 jection, providing the increased returns derived from the cows, and 
 the lessened acreage required for pasture, taken together, are greater 
 than the increased cost of labor. 
 
 Some improvement is greatly needed in the feeding and care of 
 the dairy cows during the summer months. 
 
 A Succession of Crops Necessary. In order that it may not be 
 necessary to cut the soiling crops when immature, because of the 
 lack of mature feed, or to continue feeding any one crop after it has 
 become over-ripe and woody, for the reason that another crop is not 
 ready, a close succession must be provided for. The order in which 
 the seed for the various crops should be sown, and the time of sowing, 
 is dependent upon the time of year at which each variety will make 
 its best growth, upon the length of time between seeding and cutting,
 
 156 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 upon the length of time for which the crop from, one seeding may 
 profitably be fed, and upon the number and value of the crops which 
 may be substituted one for the other at any one period of the soiling 
 season. 
 
 Growing and Harvesting Different Crops. This crop should be 
 sown in the latter part of August or the first of September, so that it 
 may get a good stand and cover the ground well before winter. In 
 case the growth is too luxuriant, it may be made to supply an excel- 
 lent pasture for calves, sheep, or even cows for some weeks in the 
 autumn. The land should be well worked up and a good seed-bed 
 prepared for seeding. In the several trials made three bushels of 
 seed per acre has been used, as it has been found that thick seeding 
 produces a much finer growth of the stems of the plants which ren- 
 ders it more palatable for the cows. This feed is not greatly relished 
 by the cows as a rule, since it comes at a season of the year when they 
 have just turned to pasture in the spring. If pasturage is late and 
 scant, however, as it frequently is, this crop will be of much service 
 in keeping up the milk flow after the silage is gone. 
 
 Alfalfa. This plant is an excellent one for soiling purposes on 
 account of the rapidity with which it grows and the number of cut- 
 tings and large yields that may be obtained. It is ready for soiling 
 from ten to fifteen days earlier in the spring than any other crop 
 that may be grown except rye. The seeding should be done quite 
 early in the spring, using at the rate of twenty pounds of seed per 
 acre and covering it well with a harrow. It is only fair in palatabil- 
 ity but when eaten freely it is considered an excellent feed for milk 
 production. The second crop is usually about forty days after the 
 first has been removed and this appears to 'be more palatable than 
 the first cutting. One-half acre was seeded with this crop on April 
 20, 1903, and made a very rapid growth. On July 3rd the crop was 
 cut just as it was beginning to bloom and 1,260 pounds of hay was 
 secured. A second cutting of about the same amount was made 
 August 15th. 
 
 Red Clover. This does not give so large a yield as some of the 
 annuals, but entails less labor and is not as bulky a feed as some of 
 the more succulent crops. Its culture is too well known to need de- 
 scription. Nearly every farmer grows it and by referring to the table 
 of yields one may readily appreciate its value for soiling. 
 
 Peas and Oats. This crop is very popular in many sections of 
 the East for soiling purposes, but has not been entirely satisfactory 
 with us owing to the difficulty of getting a stand of peas. The ordi- 
 nary Canada field pea does not seem to be relished by dairy cows and 
 the variety known as the Spanish grass pea is recommended for trial. 
 The ground for this crop is best prepared by thorough discing fall- 
 plowed land as early as it can be done in the spring and seeding at 
 the rate of one and a half bushels of oats and a bushel of peas per 
 acre, which may be sown deeply with an ordinary grain drill. Better 
 satisfaction, however, will be obtained by sowing the peas broadcast 
 and discing them in five or six days before the oats ; the latter should 
 be sown broadcast and harrowed in with a light harrow. Care should
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 157 
 
 be taken to harvest this crop early. A succession of this feed, cover- 
 ing about three weeks, can be secured by sowing at three successive 
 periods, with a week or ten days between each sowing period. 
 
 Rape. This is an excellent soiling crop, but its use cannot be 
 generally recommended for dairy cows, owing to the peculiar pun- 
 gent odor which characterizes it and which seriously affects the milk 
 of cows. In seeding rape for either purpose it should be sown in 
 May on well-prepared ground, at the rate of about two and a half 
 pounds of seed per acre, in rows thirty inches apart, using an ordi- 
 nary garden drill. This plant yields an immense weight of very pal- 
 atable feed per acre. It should be cut about five inches from the 
 ground, when it will make a very rapid second growth. A horse hoe 
 should be run between the rows several times after the first cutting 
 to stir the soil. 
 
 Flint Corn. This corn gives a slightly larger yield than the 
 dent variety and usually matures earlier for feeding purposes. It is 
 of a very leafy habit of growth and is eaten very greedily by the cows. 
 It can be planted somewhat earlier than the dent varieties, seeming 
 to have more germinating vitality. It is best planted thickly in rows 
 three feet eight inches apart and the plants four to five inches apart 
 in the row. Seeding thus thickly insures finer stalks, more leaves, 
 and the feed is eaten with less refuse. The amount of feed yielded 
 from a small area is very surprising. 
 
 Sorghum. Sorghum is one of the most valuable of all soiling 
 crops. It is ahead of field corn in value, though Evergreen Sweet 
 corn comes very close to it. In 1902 an acre was sown May 26th, 
 and harvested Sept. 4th, when it yielded the enormous amount of 
 40.4 tons per acre. This is considerably above the average yield, but 
 it shows the possibilities of the crop. The kind recommended to sow 
 is northern grown seed of the Early Amber variety. Sorghum is a 
 southern plant and thrives best in hot, dry summer weather. The 
 soil should be well cultivated at several successive periods previous to 
 sowing in order to germinate and destroy all weed seeds. The sor- 
 ghum grows very slowly during the first weeks of its life, and much 
 benefit can be derived by harrowing it thoroughly with a light slant 
 toothed harrow when a few inches high. In 1901 an experiment 
 was conducted to find whether light or heavy seeding would give the 
 better yield. Three plots side by side were sown on the same day 
 with an ordinary grain drill. The results are as follows: Sorghum 
 from one seeding cannot be fed for a longer period than about fifteen 
 days, because the stalks become very hard when mature and much 
 waste results from the animals refusing to eat this portion of the 
 plants. 
 
 Sweet Corn. The Evergreen has been the variety used and it 
 gives very large yields. The growth being shorter than that of field 
 corn and the stalks smaller, there is not so much waste in feeding. 
 The yield of total dry matter per acre is far in excess of either dent 
 or flint corn, and the fodder is more palatable. If drilled thickly in 
 rows the crop is not as likely to lodge under the influence of wind 
 and rain as if sown broadcast. This makes an excellent crop for fall
 
 158 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 feeding on account of its evergreen nature, retaining its succulence 
 longer than any of the other corns or sorghums and making an ex- 
 cellent fodder when cured. 
 
 Other Crops. Several other crops have been tried but have not 
 proven satisfactory. Barley and millet are unpalatable. Vetches 
 and rye or vetches and oats do not give as large a yield as peas and 
 oats. Giant fodder corn gives a larger yield than flint corn, but the 
 stalks are so large and coarse that it is unsatisfactory as a feed. 
 
 General Information. In the case of a majority of the crops 
 grown it was found that they were most palatable and satisfactory 
 when fed at, or a little before, full bloom. If required much earlier 
 than this they were very watery and not so sweet and palatable to the 
 taste, besides causing the cows to scour seriously when heavily fed. 
 
 Thick seeding is to be recommended with nearly all the crops ; 
 not only is a much greater yield produced, but a finer quality of 
 more edible forage is secured. It is advisable to grow a surplus of 
 soiling crops rather than just a sufficient amount, since all of the 
 varieties of crops recommended, except rape, make excellent fodder 
 when cured and stored for winter feeding. The number of pounds 
 of the various soiling crops that a cow will eat, when given in addi- 
 tion the freedom of a good pasture at night, has not been definitely 
 determined. 
 
 When fed on soiling crops alone, without pasturage, as some 
 cows were in a few instances for a short period, they consumed from 
 seventy-five to one hundred pounds of soiling feeds daily. About 
 one-half this amount, or forty-five pounds on the average, will be 
 found an ample allowance for each cow on full milk when access is 
 had to good pasturage during the night. (Wis. B. 103.) 
 
 The Stabling Season. Up to a certain point fall pasturage is as 
 good as in any other part of the year. But after one or two hard 
 frosts it is well to offer the cows some nice hay when they come in at 
 night, and if they eat it with relish, one may be pretty certain the 
 season has arrived to gradually change the herd from pasture to 
 stable for the winter. The cows should not be left out at night after 
 it becomes chilly, or be exposed to cold autumn storms. They may 
 be allowed in the field a few hours on all pleasant days until snow 
 flies, but without expecting them to get much besides water and ex- 
 ercise. Before keeping them steadily at the stable and yards the 
 feeding should be, by gradual steps, completely changed to the full 
 stable diet. 
 
 Preparation of the Stable. Meanwhile, or on leisure days 
 earlier in the year, the cow house should be prepared for its occu- 
 pancy by the herd throughout the stabling season. Boxes, stalls, and 
 feeding troughs or floors should be thoroughly cleaned and disin- 
 fected, so that no animal can discover or be subjected to any un- 
 pleasant traces of another and previous occupant of the place. Then 
 assign every cow her particular place for the winter, and gently in- 
 sist upon every one being always in the right place. The bedding, 
 absorbents, and disinfectants should be provided in abundance and 
 in ample time for all to be quite dry. Use no damp material under
 
 CLEAN, SANITARY, INEXPENSIVE MILK HOUSE. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 INSANITARY Cow STABLE; PURE MILK IMPROBABLE. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 161 
 
 a cow, no rotten straw, and no moist earth or sawdust. In order of 
 efficiency, the best absorbents are peat, spent tanbark, sawdust, wheat 
 straw, forest leaves, and dry earth. If earth alone is used, from 30 
 to 40 pounds per cow will be needed daily a big shovelful. Cattle 
 will not be bothered so much in the shade. It is a good practice to 
 stable the herd during the day in an airy but shaded cowhouse, 
 and turn it on pasture at night. If the pasture has not abundant 
 shade and water this course should certainly be followed. Heat 
 and flies reduce both quality and quantity of milk product. The 
 trouble from flies can be largely remedied by spraying the cows with 
 a very weak mixture of water and some one of the approved sheep- 
 dip preparations. Such a spraying will last a week or ten days, un- 
 less there are hard rains meanwhile. The entire interior of the cow 
 house should be sprayed with a solution of this kind, and strong 
 enough for an insecticide, weekly, throughout the summer. (Agr. 
 Dep. F. B. 55.)- 
 
 Feed and Care of Dairy Cows. The greatest yield is obtained 
 from cows that calve in the fall, if proper care, feed and shelter are 
 provided during the winter. The prices of butter fat and butter are 
 higher during the winter, and with cows fresh in the fall or early 
 winter this higher price comes during the period of greatest yield. 
 A cow that calves in the early fall while on grass is in the best con- 
 dition to make a high yield when fresh. Good feed and care through 
 the winter will maintain a good yield, and when the cow is turned 
 to pasture in the early spring a fresh flow will be started that will 
 considerably increase the year's yield. 
 
 A cow that calves in the spring has the best milk-producing 
 feed at a time when she will do well with any good ration. As the 
 flow begins to slacken the quality of the feed grows poorer, and flies 
 and heat help to cut it down still lower. In the fall when the milk 
 begins to drop rapidly on account of the time from calving, the cow 
 goes from green pastures to dry feed a change that tends to reduce 
 the yield and dry up the flow entirely. Winter dairying avoids in- 
 jury to flavor of butter from weeds in summer and fall pastures. 
 
 Cows, with fair surroundings, can be made more comfortable in 
 winter than in summer-, and with fall calving will be dry when heat, 
 flies and drouth are severest and when butter prices are the lowest. 
 Winter dairying furnishes profitable employment for the farmer and 
 his men at a season of the year when, without it, farm forces are 
 either idle or work for low wages. 
 
 Another advantage of fall calving is that the calves can be 
 raised at a season when there is time to give to them that careful at- 
 tention which is so great a factor in calf-raising by hand, when 
 lo-ses from heat, flies, diarrhea, and sour milk can be avoided and 
 when, at weaning time, the calves can go from milk to green pasture 
 without a check in growth. 
 
 Treatment Before Calving. With most cows the highest yield 
 for the year can be obtained by having them go dry six to eight 
 weeks before calving. This is especially true of those cows whose 
 milk is rich in butter fat, and continuous milking of such cows with-
 
 162 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 out rest before calving usually results in a serious lowering of the 
 yield for the entire year following calving, and also frequently in 
 a weak, puny calf. From these cows the most milk and butter fat 
 can be obtained in a series of years by milking ten months in the 
 year only. It is frequently the case with this class of cows that if 
 milking is continued to the time of calving the milk of the last eight 
 or ten weeks has a bad flavor and odor, is hard to churn and will in- 
 jure the butter made from any milk with which it is mixed and it 
 is profitable to dry up the cow on this account as well as for the effect 
 of the rest. Rest does not seem so essential for cows giving milk low 
 in butter fat, and it is impossible to dry up many heavy yielders of 
 thin milk without injury to the udder. In such cases the only rea- 
 sonable plan is continuous milking ; but if too much difficulty is not 
 experienced in drying up this class of cows, it should be done, as bet- 
 ter results will be secured by the rest. Dairymen handling cows of 
 the beef type have hard work to keep their cows in fair flow for the 
 ten months, but with dairy cows, the rest before calving should be 
 provided for, and the general rule to follow is that the average dairy 
 cow and the cow giving milk with a high per cent of butter fat 
 should go dry six to eight weeks before calving ; and heavy yielders 
 of milk low in butter fat may be milked continuously if there is 
 much difficulty in drying them up. 
 
 To dry up a cow, reduce the feed, take away the grain, and 
 when the milk yield drops, milk first once a day, then once in two 
 days, and in one to two weeks the average cow will be dry and her 
 udder in good condition. With persistent milkers there is seldom 
 difficulty if hay only is fed for a time. If a cow continues to give 
 milk under this treatment or if the udder is hard and feverish, thei 
 work of drying up must stop, and the ration be changed to a light 
 milk ration, with loosening feeds, and the cow milked regularly. 
 Forced drying up under these conditions injures the cow. If by 
 oversight the drying-up process has been neglected until within three 
 or four weeks of calving, do not attempt it, as there is risk of injury 
 to the health of the cow and her udder. 
 
 After becoming dry, the cow will need little attention before 
 calving if she is on good pasture, except to see that she has plenty 
 of good water and shade, is comfortable and not annoyed or injured 
 by other cattle, particularly steers. If the cow is on dry feed, more 
 attention is necessary. She must be in fair condition but not fat, 
 and should have bulky feeds both roughness and grain and suc- 
 culent feed is exceedingly desirable, either ensilage or roots. One of 
 the best grain mixtures for cows before calving is, by weight, two- 
 thirds bran and one-third linseed meal. This grain mixture is a 
 good one for the first two weeks after calving. Alfalfa hay is excel- 
 lent for roughness. The bowels should be kept loose. This is es- 
 sential and needs more attention than any other condition, and for 
 this purpose roots and silage are very helpful. Corn and corn meal 
 should not be fed. 
 
 Treatment at Calving. In winter iTie calving cow will do best 
 in warm, comfortable quarters, free from draft. It is well to blanket
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 163 
 
 
 
 her as soon as the calf is dropped, and to keep her blanketed until 
 she has regained her normal condition. We have sewed bran bags 
 together for a blanket when nothing better was at hand. Her bowels 
 must be kept loose. Give her light, loosening feeds and all the water 
 she will drink, removing the chill from it until the afterbirth has 
 come away. When cold water is given before the afterbirth has been 
 removed, the chill frequently causes a contraction of the mouth of 
 the womb and the retention of the afterbirth. If the afterbirth does 
 not come away in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, it should be 
 removed by a competent man, as its retention causes a serious loss in 
 the milk yield, often lowering the yield through the entire milking 
 period. 
 
 Where a box stall is kept for calving cows, and a number calve 
 in it, all bedding should be removed after each birth and the floors 
 and sides thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with quicklime or 
 solutions of carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Unless the cow's milk is so rich that it scours the calf, we prefer 
 to have the calf stay with the cow for a few days. The colostrum, 
 or first milk, is needed as the first food for the calf. If the cow's 
 udder is caked and feverish, the rubbing of the baby calf against 
 it in attempting to suck will help to reduce the inflammation. It is 
 not difficult to teach the calf to drink, even when it has been with 
 the cow for a week, if it is allowed to get quite hungry before the first 
 feed is offered. 
 
 Caked Udder. The udder is often hot and caked. When this 
 is the case, the cow should be milked frequently, at intervals of not 
 longer than two hours, and if the inflammation is serious more fre- 
 quent milkings are -better. Never milk the udder dry while it is in 
 this condition, as, if it is milked out clean, a fresh flow is stimulated, 
 which frequently increases the inflammation and sometimes leads 
 to the fatal milk fever. If the udder is badly inflamed the cow 
 should have a physic, and for this we use IMj pounds Epsom salts per 
 1,000 pounds live weight of cow, dissolving the salts in warm water 
 and giving it as a drench from a long-necked bottle. Besides keep- 
 ing the bowels loose and frequent milkings, hot applications and 
 rubbing are the best means of reducing the inflammation. Dip a 
 flannel cloth in water as hot as the hand will bear, wring it out lightly 
 and hold around the udder. Before the cloth cools dip it again in 
 the hot water and apply as before. Keep this up as long as time will 
 permit. Thirty minutes of such application is good, two hours is 
 better, and after a rest repeat the operation until the swelling is re- 
 duced and the fever gone. Whenever this steaming of the udder is 
 discontinued for a rest, the udder should be rubbed dry by using the 
 hands gently, and we often used camphorated vaseline while rubbing, 
 as it allays the soreness on the surface of the udder. 
 
 When the udder has been badly inflamed, we have sometimes 
 made a sack, covering the entire udder, and suspended it by straps 
 from the hips ; coarse bran is packed between the udder and the sack 
 and kept saturated with hot water by pouring from cups. Holes are 
 made in the sack for the teats, so that the cow can be milked fre-
 
 164 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 quently. Twenty-four to seventy-two hours of such treatment will 
 sometimes save the udder of the most valuable cow in the herd, and 
 the increase in milk for the first month will more than pay for the 
 extra work. 
 
 Milk should not be used until there is no fever in the udder and 
 not until the udder and womb have regained a healthy condition. 
 Ordinarily this will be in about five days ; but if the afterbirth is 
 retained, or there is a flowing from the vagina or severe inflamma- 
 tion of the udder continues, the period is longer, and in exceptional 
 cases the milk may not be fit for use for a month after calving. 
 
 Treatment of the Cow After Calving. After the cow has re- 
 covered from calving, the feed should be gradually increased until 
 the full limit of profitable feeding is reached, and the cow should 
 be pushed to her utmost possible limits for the first three months. It 
 will often pay to give the cow for the first three months after calving 
 more feed than will produce butter at the lowest rate, e. g., if a cow 
 on a certain amount of feed will produce a pound of butter for 7 
 cents for the feed, it may pay to increase the feed 25 per cent to 50 
 per cent, or even double it, though this increase brings the cost of 
 butter up to 8 or 10 cents per pound for feed, if a good increase in 
 yield is obtained, because a high yield during the first months after 
 calving brings an increase through all the months of the milking 
 period, and a cow that is pushed at the beginning of her year will 
 give a good flow longer than one not so treated. 
 
 When other work is pressing, the dairyman is sometimes 
 tempted to let the fresh cow go with the ordinary care and feed until 
 the rush is over, expecting to make up for this neglect by good treat- 
 ment when he is less hurried. He cannot afford to do this, for if a 
 cow starts with a low or moderate milk yield, no amount of care 
 or feed afterward will succeed in securing her best yield. 
 
 Cows will give, and do give milk without any of these careful 
 attentions. A cow will give milk if little attention is paid to drying 
 her up and no cooling and loosening feeds are given before calving. 
 Cows calve every winter without shelter or care, with ice water only 
 to drink, and with no care given to their udders, and yet they give 
 milk. But the best yields and most profitable returns can be ob- 
 tained only by careful attention to every one of these details, and 
 neglect of any one of them frequently cuts down the yield 25 per 
 cent for the year. It is the neglect of many and sometimes all of 
 these details in caring for the cow that makes the average cow yield 
 less than one-third of that produced by the good dairy cow properly 
 handled. 
 
 After the cow has passed the point of greatest flow the feed 
 should be gradually reduced, feeding to produce yield at most profit. 
 Care should be taken to keep her in moderate flesh, and the ration 
 slowly changed until, during the last month of milking, it is similar 
 to that recommended to be fed before calving. (Kan. B. 81.) 
 
 FEEDING DAIRY COWS. 
 
 In the production of milk there are four factors which are of 
 prime economic importance. 1. Cows must be secured which are
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 165 
 
 capable of producing large quantities of milk and butter fat. 2. 
 These cows must be properly housed and cared for. 3. There must 
 be a feeder who has good judgment. 4. Sufficient food of the proper 
 quality must be supplied. The last is equal in importance- to the first. 
 The best way to obtain good cows is by careful selection and breed- 
 ing of animals from one of the recognized dairy breeds or their 
 grades. Scrub cows have no place in profitable milk production. 
 On the other hand, no matter how carefully cows are selected nor 
 how 7 well bred, if poorly fed, they will give little better returns 
 than scrubs. To become a good feeder requires a knowledge of the 
 needs of the dairy cow and of the nature of different feeds. This 
 means that the man, w T ho is to become a successful feeder, must be 
 willing to spend time and energy in studying the details of these 
 subjects. The cow is a business partner not easily defrauded. If she 
 is the right kind of cow, supplied with the proper materials, she will 
 return a just amount of product, and if proper feed and care are 
 withheld, she will withhold the desired product. Food of the right 
 kind and amount is absolutely necessary to any considerable degree 
 of production. 
 
 Things to Consider. There are many things which should in- 
 fluence the feeder in selecting feeds and working up a balanced ra- 
 tion for his herd. Some of these are given below: 1. What is the 
 composition of feeds as shown by chemical analysis? Do they con- 
 tain the materials necessary to support the animal and make milk? 
 2. What feeds can be grown on the farm? 3. 'What feeds should be 
 purchased and what is their relative value? 4. What is the quality 
 or condition of the feeds to be used? 5. What is their physiological 
 effect on the animal? (111. Cir. 152.) 
 
 Wit en Will It Pay to Milk a Cow? Having cows of various 
 ages and capacities on the farm, the question arises as to when it will 
 pay a man to milk the cow and raise the calf on skim-milk. Since 
 it costs about $12.50 per cow to pay for the work connected with 
 milking, and from $7 to $8 to raise the calf on skim-milk, a cow 
 must produce, in order to be profitable, at least $20 worth of butter- 
 fat before it will pay to milk her, assuming that the skim-milk pays 
 for the hauling. With four-per-cent milk and fifteen cents for but- 
 ter-fat, this would mean 3,333 pounds of milk per annum; with 
 eighteen-cent butter-fat it would be 2,777 pounds of milk per annum, 
 and with twenty-cent butter-fat it would be 2,500 pounds of milk. 
 This is assuming that a dairy cow would eat no more when giving 
 milk than she would when not. Doubtless she would eat some more, 
 and this would have to be added to the above cost. (Kan. B. 125.) 
 
 Fighting Flics. Flies are a torment to the dairy cow. Where 
 possible, it is desirable to keep the cows during the day in a cool 
 barn, where the doors and windows are screened to keep out the flies, 
 and allow the cows to run on pasture at night. 
 
 Where this arrangement is not possible, we have found by test- 
 ing several fly mixture?, that it is possible to produce a mixture that 
 will work reasonably well in keeping flies away. The best mixture 
 that we have used, all things considered, is as follows: Resin, one
 
 166 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and one-half pounds; laundry soap, two cakes; fish-oil, one-half 
 pint; enough water to make three gallons. Dissolve the resin in a 
 solution of soap and water by heating ; add the fish-oil and the rest 
 of the water. Apply with a brush. If to be used as a spray, add one- 
 half pint of kerosene. The mixture will cost from seven to eight 
 cents per gallon, and may be used on either calves or cows. One- 
 half pint of this mixture is considered enough for one application 
 for a cow ; a calf, of course, would require considerably less. It will 
 be more economical to apply this only to parts not reached by the 
 tail. At first it will perhaps be necessary to give two or three ap- 
 plications per week, until the outer ends of the hair become coated 
 with resin. After that retouch those parts where the resin is rubbed 
 off. 
 
 At the time of milking, we find that it materially adds to the 
 comfort of the cow and the milker to have material like gunny-sacks 
 that will reach the full length of the cow and come down low enough 
 to hold her tail. This will keep the cow from switching her tail into 
 the milk-pail and into the milker's face. (Kan. B. 125.) 
 
 Bulk in the Ration. Next to the proper nutritive ratio and 
 amount of a ration, its bulkiness must be considered. A certain 
 amount of bulk in the ration is necessary and desirable, and is made 
 up largely by the water and fiber. If the ration is too bulky, the 
 animal is unable to eat enough of it to secure the proper amount 
 of digestible nutrients, and if it is not bulky enough the digestive 
 organs are not sufficiently distended to permit of complete digestion. 
 When the bulk is largely due to fiber, the ration is likely to be too 
 unpalatable to be readily eaten, and when it is due to water a loos- 
 ening and depleting effect on the system is likely to result. Under 
 ordinary conditions for cattle the ration will be sufficiently bulky 
 when two-thirds of the dry matter given is in the form of hay, fod- 
 der or silage and one-third in the form of grain or concentrated feed. 
 For working horses the amount of grain and coarse feed should be 
 about equally divided. (N. H. B. 127.) 
 
 Substituting Alfalfa for Concentrates. Practically speaking, it 
 seems that when an equal amount of alfalfa hay is substituted for 
 wheat bran about one-third more cotton-seed meal will be eaten ; and 
 when alfalfa hay is substituted for cotton-seed meal about three times 
 as much alfalfa hay will be required, pound for pound, to replace the 
 cotton-seed meal. Actual experiments indicate that the theoretical 
 basis of substitution is practically correct. 
 
 The limit of substitution that can be permitted will depend on 
 the individual capacity of the animals to consume alfalfa hay. When 
 alfalfa hay is cheap and abundant it can be fed in what might be 
 termed a wasteful manner. It should be placed before the animals in 
 larger quantities than might seem advisable from a purely economic 
 standpoint, for the purpose of inducing them to eat as much of it as 
 possible, because it provides digestible protein in the cheapest form 
 in which it can be obtained, in other words, than it can be supplied in 
 the form of wheat bran and cotton-seed meal. Ordinarily, not more 
 than from 10 to 12 pounds of alfalfa hay will be consumed with sil-
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 167 
 
 age. On the other hand, while no silage is fed this amount may be 
 increased to from 15 to 20 pounds per day. (Tenn. B. Vol. 17 
 No. 4.) 
 
 Mangolds, Carrots, Sugar Beets and Rutabagas. Where silage 
 is not used the dairyman should provide succulence for the winter 
 ration in the shape of some kind of roots. The three which suggest 
 themselves as probably yielding the most value for the labor and 
 money expended in growing them are mangold, sugar beets and car- 
 rots. Turnips and rutabagas may be used in the dairy but always 
 with extreme caution, because of their liability to impart an unpleas- 
 ant taint to the milk and to the products made from it. It is true 
 undoubtedly that rutabagas can be fed to dairy cows in such a way 
 as to avoid this taint in the milk. They must be fed after milking. 
 Precautions as to manner and amount have to be taken and some- 
 times these precautions are apt to be neglected. The result is a sam- 
 ple of butter injured and perhaps a customer permanently offended. 
 The reasonable use of other roots is attended with no such danger, 
 and for this reason they are recommended. The area devoted to 
 them need not be large, but roots add a needed variety to a winter 
 ration, whether a silo is used or not. They repay their cost in the 
 increased healthfulness of the cow as well as in the butter produced. 
 A comparison was made of the cost of growing and of the yields of 
 ox-heart carrots, yellow tankard mangolds, long red mangolds and 
 rutabagas. The yield per acre were as follows: 
 
 YIELD PER DRY MATTER 
 CROPS. ACRE. PER ACRE. 
 
 Carrots 28,836 3,321.90 
 
 Long red mangolds 25,616 3,381.30 
 
 Tankard mangolds 21,744 2,111.30 
 
 Rutabagas 31,028 3,741.98 
 
 Sugar beets 28,320 5,346.80 
 
 The largest yields, both in gross weight and dry matter are 
 given by the rutabagas, the long red mangolds following next. The 
 average yield per acre of four acres of sugar beets grown on land 
 adjoining the root field was, as given in the table, over fourteen 
 tons per acre containing 5,346.80 Ibs. of dry matter. (Mich. B. 
 234.) 
 
 Succulence. The June pasture which forces every cow to her 
 best yield, furnishes a succulent ration, and for best results from 
 the cows through the winter, succulent feed must be given. On June 
 pasture alone a cow will give a heavy yield. Cut the grass, dry it care- 
 fully, so that water only is lost, give this dried grass to the cow as her 
 only feed, and she will soon go dry. The grass has lost its succulence. 
 We know the value of fruit and vegetables to man in winter, and dur- 
 ing this time succulent food is equally valuable to the cow. It may 
 be secured either from ensilage or roots. When the first expense can 
 be afforded, the silo is the cheapest and best way of providing green 
 feed for the winter, and corn the best crop for silage. Where the 
 dairyman has no silo, mangel-wurzels or sugar beets should be raised 
 to furnish succulent winter feed.
 
 168 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Succulent feeds in winter have two advantages ; they are appetiz- 
 ing, which makes the cow enjoy her feed, and they keep the system 
 in a healthy condition and the bowels loose. The nearer we can feed 
 our cow in winter to secure the natural loose condition of the drop- 
 pings as they are from June pasture, the more she can eat and the 
 more she will be able to give in return for each pound of beef eaten. 
 When a cow is constipated there is a feverish condition of the body, 
 a smaller per cent of the feed is digested and converted into milk 
 and the yield is lowered. 
 
 If the dairyman has neither ensilage nor roots, he should com- 
 bine his feeds to secure as nearly as possible the right condition of the 
 bowels. This is hard to do without succulent feeds. In the list of 
 feeds following, the general effect which each has in this respect is 
 given : 
 
 LOOSENING FEEDS. CONSTIPATING FEEDS. 
 
 Alfalfa. Corn fodder. 
 
 Sorghum hay. Corn stalks. 
 
 Ensilage. Kaffir corn fodder. 
 
 Roots. Prairie hay. 
 
 Bran. Timothy hay. 
 
 Soy bean meal. Kaffir corn grain. 
 
 Linseed meal. Corn (in light feeds). 
 
 Gluten meal. Cottonseed meal. 
 
 Rations can be made from these constipating feeds alone which 
 will contain digestible protein and energy values in the right propor- 
 tions, and such rations are frequently used with results of low milk 
 yields, although the cows have apparently an abundance of nutri- 
 tious feed. This factor in profitable milk production should always 
 be considered. 
 
 Variety. Cows, like human beings, crave variety in their food, 
 and do best when they have it. A ration containing the proper food 
 elements can sometimes be given by using one rough feed and one 
 grain feed only, and fair results be obtained, but best results are se- 
 cured when a variety is given, and it is well to have a variety both 
 in roughness and in grain. A mixture of two grains will produce a 
 higher yield than the same amount of food given in one grain, and 
 four or five, or even more, kinds of grain mixed together will usually 
 give better returns than two, although the bulk of the mixture is 
 made of one grain. Small additions of a number of feeds flavor 
 the mixture and make it more appetizing, and for this reason the 
 cow will eat more and yield more in proportion to what she eats. 
 Ground oats usually cost too much to form any large portion of the 
 dairy cow's ration, but cows like this feed and it is frequently profit- 
 able to add a handful of ground oats to the grain ration of each meal, 
 as it makes the whole feed taste better, and when cows relish their 
 feed it adds to the yield. The feeders of the cows that have made the 
 high records have thoroughly understood" this fact, and a part of 
 their success is due to feeding a mixture of a number of nutritious, 
 palatable foods, thereby inducing their cows to eat large quantities.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 169 
 
 While cows need a variety, they want it to come by having a 
 mixture of feeds at each meal, and not by receiving one kind of 
 feed at one meal, another at the next, and still another at the third. 
 Such a method of giving a variety is sure to reduce the yield, as 
 the cow, at a given feeding time, expects the same kind of feed that 
 she ate yesterday at the same time, and if not given it will be dis- 
 turbed and will give less milk. It is not necessary to give a cow 
 the same kinds of feed for supper that she has for breakfast, but 
 the breakfast mixtures should be alike for all breakfasts and the 
 supper feeds the same for all suppers for a considerable period. 
 
 Sudden changes usually decrease the milk yield, even when the 
 new ration is better than the old, and when it is necessary to make 
 a change in feed the change should be made gradually, taking a 
 week to ten days to make any radical change. 
 
 Appetizing Rations. It was stated -in the last paragraph that a 
 variety in the ration brought better yields because it made the food 
 more appetizing, inducing the cow to eat more and to yield more for 
 what she ate. Whatever makes the feed taste better or makes it more 
 enjoyable to the cow increases its value for milk production. Early- 
 cut hay is best for the dairy cow, not only because it contains more 
 protein than that cut late, but because its aroma and flavor make it 
 more palatable to the cow. The appetizing effect from the early 
 cutting and careful curing of all forage crops increases their feed 
 value for milk production. Freshly-harvested and freshly-ground 
 grain are the most palatable to the dairy cow and will give best 
 results. Dairymen who grind feed should grind often, as grain that 
 has lost its freshness is not the best relished by the cow. 
 
 Often the dairyman has a large quantity of coarse, rather un- 
 palatable rough fodders, such as corn fodder and over-ripe or slightly 
 damaged hay, which he must feed, and has only a limited quantity 
 of choice roughness to feed with it. In this case, best results can be 
 secured by giving the more palatable roughness in the morning or 
 with the grain night and morning and feeding the poorer roughage 
 as the last feed at night, to be eaten at the cow's pleasure during the 
 night, or else put in racks in the yard for mid-day meals. Palatable 
 feed in the morning gives a contented cow through the day, and this 
 contentment brings more milk. 
 
 When several kinds of feed are given it is usual to throw them 
 together into the manger and let the cow eat at will. This method 
 does not secure the highest milk yield. You do not want your soup 
 and pie served together on the same plate, and neither docs the cow 
 like this method of serving her food. If all the feed-stuffs for a meal 
 are thrown together, the more palatable are eaten first. In separat- 
 ing and eating these, the others are "mussed" over, and when the 
 cow comes to eat them, they do not taste good and she will not eat 
 enough to produce the greatest milk yield. We like to feed our most 
 palatable roughness and give this just before the milkers go to their 
 meal. When the milkers come back from eating, the cows have fin- 
 ished their first feed, and the less palatable roughness can then 'be 
 given them. It will not then have been slobbered on and will be
 
 170 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 better relished and more of it eaten. This method of feeding re- 
 quires time and care, but it pays. 
 
 If the cows are given their rough feed in racks out of doors, it 
 will pay to put feed in these racks often, so that the feed will be clean 
 and appetizing. Mangers, feed troughs, and racks should be kept 
 clean and fresh from old, soiled feed, both as a matter of health and 
 because the food in a clean manger smells and tastes better. 
 
 The dairyman's rule should be to harvest feed in its most pala- 
 table form and feed in the most appetizing manner. (Kan. B. 81.) 
 
 Silage and Vegetables. One of the chief requisites of a ration 
 for profitable milk-production is that it be succulent, by which is 
 meant that a portion of the ration contains a large percentage of 
 water. This watery condition, or succulency, adds to the palatability 
 of the food, and also seems to have a beneficial physical effect upon 
 the animal digestion. The cow, therefore, eats a larger quantity of 
 food, digests and assimilates it more thoroughly, and consequently 
 gives a larger flow of milk. Although the major portion of Califor- 
 nia does not have the long cold winters to which the Eastern States 
 are subject, and where it is an absolute necessity to store large quan- 
 tities of food, both succulent and dry, still every section of our State 
 has a longer or shorter period during the year when pastures are 
 dry. The provident dairyman, therefore, anticipates these dry 
 months, and either lays in a store of green food beforehand, or has 
 some growing which he may cut and feed to his cattle. 
 
 Roots. Several of the vegetables are valuable in supplying suc- 
 culence for the ration. Among the root class the one in most com- 
 mon use is the mangel wurtzel beet, because very large quantities 
 can be grown per acre and because it is palatable to all kinds of live 
 stock. Carrots are also used in some sections, and they have the ad- 
 vantage of containing a slightly larger amount of dry matter than 
 mangels. Of all the roots moreover none are more relished by horses 
 than carrots. Sugar beets are not found profitable to grow for feed- 
 ing stock, because they yield so small a tonnage in comparison to 
 mangels, and the greater cost of growing and gathering can only be 
 undertaken on the ground of their greater value for sugar. Potatoes 
 contain about twice as much dry matter as mangels and three times 
 as much carbonaceous material. They are, therefore, of greater food 
 value, but, like sugar beets, have too high a commercial value as 
 human food to make them profitable for stock. 
 
 Squashes. Another class of vegetables which are useful and 
 easily grown is that of the melons or squashes. A very familiar ex- 
 ample is the so-called pie-melon. This, like the ordinary field pump- 
 kin, can be produced readily in large quantities on most lands, and 
 it ripens at a time when green food is likely to be scarce. All of 
 these vegetables when fed to dairy stock produce an increased milk 
 yield, which is more than commensurate with their actual content 
 of food substance. This is because of their palatability, beneficial 
 effect upon digestion, and the addition of a wholesome variety to the 
 ration. Any of the vegetables named may be fed with profit to
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 171 
 
 swine and poultry when in confinement, and to sheep especially dur- 
 ing the nursing period. (Cal. B. 132.) 
 
 Sugar-Beet Pulp. In the process of manufacturing beet sugar 
 there remains a by-product containing a large proportion of water 
 and for which no profitable use has been found thus far, except as 
 a food for stock. Upon the arrival of the sugar-beets at the factory 
 they are first washed and then run through a slicing machine which 
 shreds them into small strips resembling a large size of twine. The 
 shredded beets are placed in large cylinders through which hot 
 water is forced and the sugar thereby dissolved out of the beets. The 
 portion remaining after the sugar has passed off in solution is what 
 is known as beet-pulp, or residue. It is of no further use to the 
 manufacturer, who is always ready to dispose of it at a nominal 
 price. Because of its passing through such a soaking process, the 
 beet pulp comes from the factory with a high content of water, which 
 in most cases is about ninety per cent of its total weight. It is there- 
 fore heavy material to handle, and the cost of transportation is likely 
 to be high in proportion to its actual value, either for food or any 
 other purpose. The presence of so much water, however, renders 
 the beet residue of much value for milch cows where other succulent 
 foods, as green pasture, silage or soiling crops, are not available. 
 
 Several years of experience in California have proven sugar-beet 
 pulp of value for fattening cattle as well as for producing milk, and 
 the fact is that the larger portion of the beet pulp in the State is con- 
 sumed by cattle which are being fitted for the butcher's block. It 
 has been fed also to some extent to sheep. Both cattle and sheep eat 
 the pulp so readily that there is scarcely any difficulty about getting 
 them accustomed to it. So far as we are able to learn all those who 
 have fed beet pulp to either of these kinds of stock have been success- 
 ful except where they tried to make the pulp the sole food. This 
 should never be done for more than a few days at most, because the 
 animal cannot consume enough of such watery food to maintain life 
 and produce milk or meat. Moreover, as a general principle, an 
 animal should never be expected to do its best when confined to a 
 single article of diet. 
 
 Storing Beet Pulp. When a pile of beet pulp has been sub- 
 jected to the weather for some time the whole exposed surface decays 
 to a depth of six to eight inches, forming a crust which serves as a 
 seal to preserve the under-lying material. Beet pulp may be said, 
 therefore, to silo itself; and the chief points in arranging storage 
 for it are to confine the desired quantity into as small a space as 
 possible and reduce the exposed surface to a minimum. These points 
 are secured by means of silos of various kinds. Since the food value 
 of beet pulp is so small in proportion to its weight, there is no profit 
 in constructing costly storage places ; therefore the silo may be cheap, 
 but it must be strongly built. (Cal. B. 132.) 
 
 Sorghum Silage. The question which confronts the farmer is: 
 What crop can I raise most economically for the silo? This means: 
 What crop will produce most tons of good nutritious food per acre? 
 Cowpea hay is known to be an excellent forage, but the yield is
 
 172 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 small ; moreover it does not make a good quality of silage. The same 
 is true with oats, rye, or beggarweed hay. It comes then to the ques- 
 tion of deciding between corn and sorghum. Analysis shows sor- 
 ghum silage to be a little richer in total digestible nutrients than corn 
 silage. Sorghum has also a heavier yield of green forage per acre 
 than corn. If then, sorghum produces silage richer in total diges- 
 tible nutrients, and also gives a larger yield of green forage per acre, 
 it has two important points in its favor. It is not only the best crop 
 for the silo, but also the cheapest. 
 
 The cost of cultivating an acre of ground is the same regardless 
 of the yield ; that is, the time and labor required to produce an acre 
 of corn will be the same, whether two tons or ten tons of forage are 
 produced per acre ; but the cost of production per ton will be reduced 
 as the yield per acre is increased. For example, if it costs $10 to 
 fertilize and cultivate one acre that produces only four tons of forage, 
 the cost per ton will be $2.50; but if for the same expenditure of 
 money we can produce some other crop that will yield from twelve 
 to fifteen tons per acre, then the cost per ton will be reduced by 
 nearly 60 to 75 per cent. (Fla. B. 92.) 
 
 Feeding Roots. Roots of some kind are good for all domestic 
 animals. Their effect is tonic as well as nutritive. Breeders and 
 feeders of animals for exhibition find them invaluable. For most 
 purposes the roots are chopped or sliced before feeding. Various 
 hand and power machines are on the market for this work. Gen- 
 erally speaking, roots should not be fed alone as they carry too much 
 water. A feed may vary from 25 to 50 pounds per day for a thou- 
 sand pounds of animal, according to the amount of dry concentrates 
 and roughage fed. It is usual to put the cut roots into the feed box 
 and distribute the ground grain over them. For poultry, however, 
 the whole roots may be given, allowing the fowls to pick them. It 
 is said by some that turnips and rutabagas impart a flavor to milk. 
 However, if no roots are in the milking room at the time of milking 
 and they are fed just after milking, this may be avoided. 
 
 Feeding Cabbage. Cabbages are good food for cattle, sheep and 
 swine. When they are grown for stock feeding it has not been a 
 general practice to remove them from the field. If it is convenient 
 for feeding to continue into early winter they are pulled and piled 
 closely, then fed directly from the field. When fed to sheep they are 
 generally not cut. The sheep can nibble them very well. When 
 fed to cattle they should be cut either by a cutting machine, or they 
 may be chopped fairly well with a square pointed shovel. They 
 should be fed as soon after being cut as possible. Sometimes the 
 grain or chopped feed is mixed with them. 
 
 It is claimed by many feeders that cabbages are likely to lend a 
 disagreeable odor or taste to the milk when fed to dairy cattle. This 
 may be avoided, however, by feeding just before or just after milk- 
 ing, care being taken to remove the milk from the presence of the 
 cabbage as soon as possible. (N. Y. Cornell B. 242.) 
 
 Relation of Live Weight to Proper Feeding. The live weight 
 of a cow is a good index of whether the cow is being fed a proper
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 173 
 
 amount or not, but good judgment must be used in regulating the 
 ration by observing this condition. We must expect that a cow will 
 lose weight in the first few weeks of her milking period, but after 
 this period is past there is no reason why she need to change much in 
 weight for several months, and this is the period when the greater 
 part of the milk production is secured. It will not mean, of course, 
 that the animal should not be allowed to gain in weight during the 
 latter end of the milking period. This is necessary on account of 
 the development of the foetus, and since it is natural for the animal 
 to carry some fat on her body at calving time. 
 
 It does not mean, however, that in order to feed a herd of cows 
 economically it will not do to feed them all the same quantity of 
 grain whether they are giving a gallon of milk a day or whether 
 they are giving four gallons, and it means that when a cow in the 
 middle of her lactation period is putting on weight that she is being 
 fed more than she needs and will give just as much milk if the feed 
 is cut down somewhat. It also means that if a certain animal is los- 
 ing in weight that sufficient feed is not being given, and if the defi- 
 ciency is not supplied it will not be long before the milk production 
 will come down to correspond with the amount of feed available. 
 
 Feeding as Individuals. In connection with this subject of the 
 amount to feed cows it needs to be pointed out that it is only possible 
 to feed a bunch of cows economically when they are fed as individu- 
 als, and not as a herd. A too common practice, even in the other- 
 wise well conducted herds, is for all animals to be fed the same 
 amount of grain regardless of the time they have been in milk or the 
 quantity of milk individual cows are producing. Such feeding al- 
 ways lacks economy, as the high producing cow does not get enough, 
 and while she may milk very well for a short time, she soon comes 
 down to a lower level, while the lighter producing cow usually gets 
 too much and accumulates fat. One of the difficult problems which 
 confronts the practical feeder is how to adjust the quantity of feed 
 to meet these individual requirements. It can be done fairly well 
 even in the large herds by observing how much milk the cow is pro- 
 ducing, and whether she is gaining or losing in body weight. 
 
 Amount of Grain and Roughness to Feed. The cow being 
 adapted by nature for consuming bulky feeds does not feel satis- 
 fied unless she has sufficient bulk to the ration given at all times. 
 An animal that is fed too much grain in proportion to the amount 
 of roughness may seem hungry, while sne really has a sufficient 
 amount of nutrients, but so concentrated that it does not have suffi- 
 cient bulk. The cow should be fed practically all the roughness she 
 will eat up clean, and the difference in rations fed to different 
 animals should not be so much in the amount fed as in varying 
 amounts given: 1. Feed all the roughness they will eat up clean 
 at all times. 2. Feed one pound of grain per day for each pound 
 butter fat produced per week, or one pound grain daily for each 
 three pounds of milk. 3. Feed all the cows will take without gain- 
 ing in weight.
 
 174 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The rule regarding the amount of grain to feed per day to each 
 cow applies only when good roughness such as corn silage, and 
 clover, cowpeas, or alfalfa hay is used. 
 
 Home Grown Balanced Rations. One reason why the average 
 farmer makes a mistake of feeding his cows rations that are not prop- 
 erly balanced is that it is easier, or he thinks it is, to grow feeds that 
 are excessively rich in carbohydrates and lacking in protein. This 
 comes about principally by the large amount of corn grown and 
 used. Many farmers have corn fodder and timothy hay for rough- 
 ness and practically nothing in the way of grain but corn. From 
 such feeds it is impossible to make a ration that supplies the neces- 
 sary nutrients to produce much milk. It is possible to make a fairly 
 good ration using these for roughness, but it is only possible to do so 
 by buying large quantities of mill feeds that are rich in protein. 
 The thing for the farmer to do is to raise the feeds he requires on 
 his own farm, as far as possible, and it is possible to produce prac- 
 tically all that is needed to make a balanced ration. The place to 
 begin in considering the feeding of an animal always is with the 
 roughness, since the character of the roughness determines to a large 
 extent the kind of grain it is advisable to feed. 
 
 The cheapest source of protein is in leguminous hays, including 
 clover, alfalfa and cowpea hay. If an abundance of any one of 
 these hays are on hand, the problem of making an economical bal- 
 anced ration is very much simplified. The use of these hays makes 
 it unnecessary to buy any large quantities of bran, oil meal or cotton- 
 seed meal for ordinary dairy cows, and makes it possible that the 
 principal grain used be corn, which is usually our cheapest grain. 
 Even cowpea or alfalfa hay alone, with corn for grain, makes a 
 fairly good ration for an ordinary dairy cow, and such a ration could 
 be substituted with good results for that of timothy hay and corn 
 fodder. When hay is purchased, it is always best to purchase one 
 of the kinds mentioned, as the price is about the same, or lower than 
 that of timothy, which is far inferior as a milk producing food. If 
 any hay is to be sold from the farm it should be timothy hay and not 
 clover or cowpea hay. (Mo. Cir. 44.) 
 
 Suggestions to Consumers. There appears to be a growing ten- 
 dency on the part of consumers to purchase proprietary brands of 
 feeding stuffs that are mixtures of two or more by-products. Many of 
 these mixtures are compounded for the purpose of providing a me- 
 dium in which inferior waste products lose their identity by mixing 
 them with materials of good and well recognized quality. For in- 
 stance, an "oat feed" may contain hominy feed, oat hulls and some- 
 times enough of some material rich in protein, perhaps gluten meal, 
 to bring the protein content of the mixture up to a desirable propor- 
 tion. Such a mixture is worth commercially what the hominy feed 
 and gluten meal would cost and no more. If 20 per cent of oat hulls 
 are present then the price of the mixtures should be 20 per cent less 
 than what a full ton of the hominy feed and gluten meal mixture 
 would cost. ^ Oat hull mixtures are not an imposition on the con- 
 sumer, provided they are sold at a price proportional to the standard
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 175 
 
 materials which the mixtures contain, otherwise they are bought at 
 a loss. As a matter of fact, these mixtures are sold at about the prices 
 which rule for feeding stuffs of standard grade. 
 
 If farmers foolishly think that it is desirable to have in the 
 grain mixture some fibrous material like oat huUs, let them hire 
 someone to grind up their straw stacks or the mows of poor hay and 
 mix the good grain with these. It is pitiful to see farmers of limited 
 means paying grain prices for an ingredient in certain commercial 
 cattle foods which is worth no more than the poorest coarse fodders 
 around the barn. Such costly business management seems to be the 
 fruit of either wilful ignorance or a lazy indifference. 
 
 The manufacturer who uses oat hulls in such a way as to de- 
 ceive his customers is simply dishonest. One of the most glaring im- 
 positions discovered is the case of sample 246, representing an oat 
 feed found on sale at Homer. The oat feed ( ?) contained only 1.7 
 per cent of protein and over 30 per cent of fiber. It was nothing but 
 oat hulls. The selling price was $15 per ton ! Comment is unnec- 
 essary. 
 
 The wise course for farmers to pursue is to purchase either 
 standard by-product feeding stuffs or the entire grains, such as corn 
 and oats, whole or ground. At $1.00 per hundred for corn meal and 
 $0.40 per bushel for oats, a mixture of equal parts by weight of these 
 two grains can be secured at no greater price than what is asked for 
 certain oat feeds. If hominy feed is used in place of the corn meal 
 the cost would be lessened. (N. Y. State Bui. 198.) 
 
 Nevertheless, the feeder must use his business sense. "When 
 oats and corn are both hovering around $25 per ton there is no com- 
 bination of pure grains that can be made which will yield the manu- 
 facturer a profit at $18 per ton. If protein feeds are desired, consider 
 content of protein and price per ton together in the selection. The 
 protein feeds are submitted in a wide variety, and, this year at least, 
 the differences seem to be in analysis rather than in price. 
 
 When home-grown feed commands a high price, sell and buy 
 cheaper feeds. In many instances the purse and the ration are both 
 improved. If corn is high and, therefore, to be sold, and gluten meal 
 is Dought in its place, the best of the corn is brought home again. 
 It is a common practice to exchange wheat for wheat bran ; why not 
 corn for gluten meal or feed? Still, this is not applicable to all feeds; 
 for while an exchange of corn for gluten products returns the best of 
 the corn, the exchange of oats for oat feed returns the poorest por- 
 tions of the oats. 
 
 On the other hand, the home-grown products may be cheap, and 
 there is a point when the exchange, though desirable from the stand- 
 point of the ration, will not prove profitable enough to warrant itself. 
 Remoteness from market, the price of feeds, the freight rates and 
 the small returns from dairy products 'may so change conditions as 
 to render one feeder's folly, in feeding carbohydrates wastefully, the 
 most profitable, if not the most desirable, course for another feeder to 
 pursue.
 
 176 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 All these things must be borne in mind by the feeder who would 
 be successful. When buying, buy wisely. Buy either standard 
 goods, the quality of which may be judged pretty accurately, or in- 
 sist on guarantees. Avoid the materials which are marked down be- 
 cause they are slightly below grade. Usually the reduction in price 
 is by no means large enough, and having accepted the goods with the 
 statement that they are damaged or deficient, there is no redress. 
 
 Of course it must be remembered that certain products are ex- 
 empted from the provisions of the law, as stated in the opening pages 
 of this bulletin. As to the others, the Station expects to do its duty 
 in the matter. In the fertilizer inspection it has been found that the 
 desire to stand well in the published results of the inspection has 
 been an important factor in causing a careful attention to legal pro- 
 visions. At the same time, those who find it necessary to purchase 
 feeding stuffs should remember that they can largely assist in deter- 
 mining the extent to which the law is obeyed. If they refuse to buy 
 foods not properly marked or for which no guaranteed analysis can 
 e furnished, when under the law such should be furnished, dealers 
 will not handle such goods ; and when dealers refuse to handle a par- 
 ticular brand, the manufacturer will be obliged to comply with the 
 law to protect his interests. (N. J. B. 153.) 
 
 Purchase of Commercial Feeding Stuffs. A well-managed 
 dairy farm should produce all of the coarse fodder, in form of corn 
 fodder or stover, hay and ensilage, which is needed for the stock, 
 and, excepting under unusual conditions, should also supply an 
 abundance of starchy food, such as corn meal and in some cases oats 
 and barley, for feeding purposes. These the farmer should be able 
 to produce in abundance. But in order to feed them without wa.-to 
 and also to supply a deficiency in them, it is almost always advisable 
 or necessary, in the absence of clover, alfalfa, or other leguminous 
 crops, to buy feeds rich in digestible protein; considerably richer 
 in it than corn meal. (N. J. B. 115.) 
 
 Best Week in a Cow's Lactation Period. It is often of much im- 
 portance to know at what time in a cow's lactation she is liable to 
 make her best record. Nearly all of the associations of our improved 
 dairy breeds favor the animals making large milk or butter records. 
 In some cases certain fixed standards are set, as, for example, in the 
 American Jersey Cattle Club Association where fourteen pounds or 
 over of butter is required to admit animals to what is known as the 
 tested list. 
 
 In looking over the herd records, it was found that a great 
 variation existed as to the best week of lactation. This variation was 
 not only among certain individual cows but it also existed with the 
 same cow from year to year. In order to get reliable data it was 
 quite evident a large number of records would be required to over- 
 come the varying influence and find a fair average. Out of this large 
 number of carefully compiled records the following data and results 
 are drawn. It was found that nine-tenths of the cows made their 
 best records during the first ten weeks of lactation and that over one- 
 half made their best records during the first month. The first week
 
 POLLED DURHAM BULL. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 POLLED DURHAM Cow. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 179 
 
 is calculated beginning four days after calving, thus making the end 
 of the first week eleven days after calving. From the results ob- 
 tained, which bid fair to be average, the second and third weeks of 
 a cow's lactation are the best, and there is not much difference be- 
 tween the two. A cow reaches her highest production of butter fat 
 at an earlier period than she does her greatest milk flow. (Nebr. 
 B. 76.) 
 
 Salt Required. A cow should receive enough salt to compen- 
 sate for the chlorine contained in the milk produced. In general 
 this will require about .6 ounce of salt for each 20 Ibs. of milk given. 
 A slight excess will do no harm and it is recommended that dairy 
 cows be given at least 1 oz. of salt per day. Exceptionally heavy 
 milkers will require more than this. (Wis. 22d Annual Report.) 
 
 Cattle Food Substitutes. On the farm or in the city, it is folly 
 to pay feed prices for low-grade material of lower utility than the 
 ordinary forms of farm roughage. If consumers should see the 
 original of some of the fine-ground materials which are appear- 
 ing on the market, they would almost refuse it as 'bedding, for fear 
 the animal might eat it cocoanut shells, peanut shells, rice hulls, 
 coffee hulls, and various other kinds of hulls, all trading on the 
 reputation of the genuine products, such as true cocoanut meal, pea- 
 nut meal, rice meal, etc. 
 
 It is doubtful if any feed with less than 7 per cent protein is a 
 wise purchase, unless under exceptional circumstances. Even aver- 
 age cob meal contains nearly 8 per cent. As a rule, when the amount 
 of protein present in a feed falls below 7 per cent its place is taken by 
 crude fiber, and the purchaser does not receive any greater amount, 
 if as much, of the more digestible forms of carbohydrates than if the 
 protein were furnished. 
 
 Consumers are, therefore, advised to be on their guard in the 
 purchase of some of these so-called cheap feeds. As a rule, buy 
 standard feeds, for their quality may be pretty accurately judged. 
 Avoid materials which, you are confidentially informed, are of 
 slightly inferior grade; they are apt to be very much so. If the 
 material offered is such that the law requires it to be guaranteed, 
 insist on having the guarantee and study it. (N. J. B. 156.) 
 
 What Concentrates Shall the Farmer Purchase? Concentrates 
 do not permanently affect the percentage composition of the milk. 
 Feeds having a high fat percentage, such as cottonseed meal and 
 distillers' dried grains may temporarily increase the fat and cream 
 percentage, but the milk shortly returns to its normal composition. 
 The richness of the milk in fat depends primarily on the breed and 
 individuality of the cow and also upon the stage of lactation. The 
 only way to make more cream and more butter is to make more 
 milk. 
 
 There is no "best" grain ration. Some feeds are better suited 
 than others for milk production, and some are decidedly more eco- 
 nomical. It would, of course, be out of place in a publication of this 
 kind to attempt to specify which is the most economical grain or 
 grain mixture for the reason that the market is subject to frequent
 
 180 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and sudden changes and what may be true to-day might be incor- 
 rect a week or month hence. 
 
 In selecting concentrates, the purpose for which they are needed 
 as well as their cost, should be kept steadily in mind. Experiments 
 have clearly demonstrated that the dairy cow of 800 to 1,000 pounds 
 live weight, yielding 10 to 14 quarts of milk daily, needs from 14 
 to 16 pounds of actual digestible matter a day, and of this quantity, 
 2 to 2M> pounds should be protein, the balance being carbohydrate or 
 starchy material. Now the farm produces principally one-sided or 
 starchy feeds, such as hay, roots and corn. A combination of hay, 
 silage and corn meal will furnish all the digestible matter that is 
 needed in the daily ration, but the combination will be lacking in 
 protein. It is advisable and necessary therefore, in order to produce 
 milk to the best advantage, to purchase feeds rich in protein to make 
 up the deficiency. A grain ration made up of protein feeds will also 
 produce manure 10 to 15 per cent more valuable than one composed 
 of hay, silage and corn meal. 
 
 It is poor economy for the farmer to purchase starchy feeds, 
 since he can produce them more economically. Milk producers, on 
 the other hand, who buy all of their grain will find it advisable to 
 have one-third of their ration consist of corn or hominy meals in 
 order to furnish the necessary digestible matter. 
 
 Experience and experiments have taught the writer that the 
 most economical and satisfactory concentrates to make up the pro- 
 tein deficiency are cottonseed meal, gluten meal and gluten feed, 
 dried distillers' grains, flour middlings, dried brewers' grains and 
 malt sprouts. Linseed is also satisfactory and at present economical. 
 Wheat bran, because of the relatively small amount of protein it con- 
 tains is an expensive protein feed. It is, however, valuable as a di- 
 luter for the more concentrated articles, and has a satisfactory effect 
 on the bowels. It is hardly the part of economy to have the grain 
 ration consist of over one-third bran, and many feeders will endeavor 
 to get along without it by using corn silage or distillers' grains as 
 a diluter. If starchy feeds are needed purchase corn, hominy or 
 barley meals. In regard to the so-called mixed feed adulterated with 
 corn cobs, the various oat offals containing large quantities of oat 
 hulls, and other inferior feeds, the only advice that can be given is, 
 do not be tempted to purchase them. 
 
 Talk About Grain Mixtures. Many farmers are prone to esti- 
 mate the value of the different grains in quarts rather than in 
 pounds. Thus a quart of bran, weighing a trifle more than one-half 
 pound, is compared in feeding value with a quart of cottonseed meal 
 weighing 1.4 pounds and the feeding effect noted on this basis. That 
 this is an unfair method of comparison is self-evident. Feed stuffs 
 should always be compared pound for pound, and in making up a 
 grain mixture, a definite number of pounds of one feed should be 
 mixed with a definite weight of another. The weight of a quart of 
 the mixture can be ascertained, and for practical purposes a certain 
 number of quarts equivalent to a definite number of pounds may 
 then be fed daily.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 181 
 
 There is a wide difference of opinion among feeders as to the 
 amount of grain that it is profitable to feed daily, and in fact no 
 exact rule can be laid down. Generally speaking, cows weighing 
 800 to 1,000 pounds, that are producing 12 or more quarts of milk a 
 day, can profitably utilize 6 to 8 pounds of grain in 24 hours in addi- 
 tion to the ordinary roughage ration. When milk or cream brings 
 a low price, it might be better management to increase the roughage 
 and decrease the grain to 4 or 5 pounds daily, and on the other hand, 
 where the demand for milk is good and the feeding and productive 
 capacity of the cow is known, 10 and even in some instances 12 
 pounds can be fed to advantage. Heavy milking Holsteins will 
 often use double these amounts when fresh. As the period of lacta- 
 tion advances and the animal fails to respond to the maximum 
 ration, the quantity of concentrates can be somewhat reduced in ac- 
 cordance with the judgment of the feeder. 
 
 It is unwise to feed heavy nitrogenous concentrates unless di- 
 luted with some bulky feed, for the reason that they are likely to be 
 imperfectly chewed, digested and assimilated, and are frequently 
 chewed, digested and assimilated, and are frequent causes of diges- 
 tive disturbances. Wheat bran, distillers' grains, malt sprouts and 
 even chopped hay or silage will serve as proper distributers. In the 
 types of grain mixtures given below, one-third wheat bran has been 
 used in most of the combinations. Some very successful feeders 
 maintain that the most satisfactory rations should contain one-half 
 bran, but the writer is of the opinion that such a mixture would be 
 too expensive for the average feeder. Grain rations should be so 
 compounded that a quart of the combination should not weigh over 
 one pound or even a little less. (Mass. B. 93.) 
 
 Fertility Value of Rations. The matter of fertility values 
 should also be considered in connection with the question of home- 
 grown protein. If the entire feed-supply is derived from the farm 
 itself, then the only increase in fertility elements possible is that due 
 to the nitrogen that has been gathered by alfalfa, red clover, cow 
 peas the other leguminous crops, while when feeds are purchased 
 the increase in fertility elements will be in proportion to the, amounts 
 contained in the manures made from them. In the home-grown 
 ration used here, the gain in fertility would be due entirely to the 
 
 Siantity of nitrogen that would be gathered from the air by the 
 falfa. 
 
 It is not possible to correctly estimate the quantity of nitrogen 
 so gathered, because leguminous crops use both soil and air nitrogen, 
 although the quantity gathered will depend upon the supplies of 
 nitrogen in the soil. That is, nitrogen will be taken frorn the soil 
 in greater proportion in those which are rich in this element. If it 
 is assumed that all of the nitrogen contained in the alfalfa hay used 
 in the experiment was dra\vn from the air, then the quantity was 
 slightly greater than that which was contributed by the purchased 
 feeds. If all was obtained from the land, the farm Is poorer in nitro- 
 gen, because a part is retained in the milk, while the use of the feed 
 ration has made the farm richer in nitrogen by the pounds added
 
 182 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 in the feed, less that sold in the milk. The phosphoric acid and pot- 
 ash have been drawn from the soil, and the farm is no richer, but is 
 poorer, because of the quantities gathered by the alfalfa hay, while 
 the purchased feeds brought considerable quantities to the farm. 
 It has been shown, however, that on reasonably strong soils, the 
 crops following alfalfa are able to obtain their mineral food more 
 readily than if they follow cereal or grass crops, which draw all of 
 their nitrogen from the soil. This, however, does not change the 
 fact that in the purchase of feeds considerable quantities of fertility 
 elements are added to the total supply on the farm, and should be 
 regarded as an offset in part, at least, against the cost of feed supplies. 
 
 On the other hand, the growing of alfalfa presents a possible 
 means of gaining nitrogen, while at the same time increasing the 
 power of other plants to absorb phosphoric acid and potash from the 
 soil. (N. J. B. 204.) 
 
 Period of Gestation in Cows. Of 182 births the average period 
 of gestation was almost exactly 280 days. The shortest period was 
 264 days; the longest 296 days. Approximately equal numbers of 
 births occurred on each day from the 274th to the 287th inclusive. 
 The period of gestation was the same for male and female calves. 
 (N. Y. Cornell B. 162.) 
 
 Whole Straw and Cut Corn Fodder for Bedding. Many farm- 
 ers may hesitate at using fodder for bedding. In the minds of most 
 people, fodder is one of the staple forage crops of the farm, and is 
 raised and cared for for feed only. As was mentioned before, feed 
 and bedding were taken from the same pile at the time these tests 
 were made, and it was very good feed too. To use such material for 
 bedding may appear very wasteful. Wheat straw can be used for 
 no other purpose. It is valueless as feed, and we have come to re- 
 gard it as a bedding material. But a few comparisons may put the 
 matter in a different light. As was stated, the cut stover makes a 
 more satisfactory bedding than the straw. Now the question comes 
 as to its cost. There are but two ways to get at this. The market 
 price of good wheat straw is a little more than that of fodder per ton. 
 In fact, this difference in selling value is about sufficient to balance 
 the difference in the weights of straw and fodder necessary 
 for the same results in bedding. Another way to compare the two 
 is to consider the amounts grown per acre. Good wheat will make 
 about two tons of straw per acre. But a good crop of fodder is much 
 more sure than is a good crop of straw, and a person depending on 
 corn fodder for bedding is not so likely to be disappointed as Avhen 
 depending on wheat straw. Of course there are other factors to be 
 considered. A corn crop is surer and more valuable than a wheat 
 crop. But, on the other hand, with the present system of farming, 
 wheat is _thought necessary as a nurse crop for grass. But what we 
 were trying to establish was that it was not necessary or even ad- 
 visable to grow wheat purposely for bedding. Corn fodder is as good 
 or better, is a surer crop, and is a more valuable crop otherwise than 
 wheat. It should take the place of wheat straw for bedding to a great 
 extent.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 183 
 
 Sawdust and Shavings for Bedding. For the strictly sanitary 
 dairy, sawdust or shavings are the ideal bedding materials, though 
 the ordinary dairy farmer could not be advised to buy when he could 
 raise either the straw or the stover. There is a little dust in shavings, 
 but it would have no effect on the wholesomeness of the milk, as the 
 dust from the shavings is generally small particles of wood and sel- 
 dom contains 'any moulds or bacteria. As was stated before the saw- 
 dust is. damp and has no dust. Moreover, both of these materials 
 keep the cows cleaner and make a stable look neater than either the 
 straw or the stover. 
 
 Rye Straw. In the city markets rye straw sell for about twice 
 as much as any other material intended for bedding. Of course it 
 is intended almost exclusively for horses, and the double price paid 
 for it would indicate that horsemen considered it just twice as de- 
 sirable for bedding. It is a little difficult to get at the true reason. 
 Farmers evidently prefer the wheat straw for both horses and oows. 
 It is very doubtful if rye straw would prove at all satisfactory in a 
 d;iiry stable. It is hard and stiff and, in some tests made at this 
 station, with a separate and smaller herd than the one used in the 
 previous tests, about the same quantity of rye straw as of wheat straw 
 was used, but the cows did not keep in as clean a condition. The 
 rye straw apparently was a very poor absorbent. (Md. B. 104.) 
 
 RAISING CALVES. 
 
 The Proper Kind of Treatment. If the cow fails to lick the calf 
 soon after birth it should be rubbed dry with cloth or straw, and if 
 necessary assisted to get its first meal. It is especially important 
 for the calf to get the first or colostrum milk of the dam. This milk 
 contains about 17.6 per cent of protein or nearly six times as much 
 as ordinary milk. It also contains more ash. It is a powerful laxa- 
 tive and tonic and is effective in removing the faecal matter from 
 the alimentary canal. The calf should receive its mother's milk for 
 the first week, after which it may get the mixed whole milk of the 
 herd. 
 
 The calf may be allowed to suck until the milk is fit for human 
 consumption, usually about the eighth or ninth milking. The calf 
 may then be removed, preferably to an adjoining pen or lot where 
 the cow may reach and fondle it but where the partition is sufficient- 
 ly high to prevent it from sucking. This will insure the content- 
 ment of the cow, and when the calf is kindly treated will go a long 
 way to inspire confidence in the herdsman or attendant. The cow 
 is a mother and we must appeal to the mother instinct if we are to 
 expect large and profitable returns. 
 
 Danger of Overfeeding. It should be remembered that while 
 the stomach of the cow is remarkably large, holding in its four com- 
 partments about 260 quarts, that of the calf is small, holding about 
 two or three quarts, its first two compartments being yet undevel- 
 oped. When allowed to run with the cow, the calf is said to suck 
 from 10 to 15 times daily, taking only a little milk at a time. When 
 removed from its mother and left from 6 to 12 hours, it gets ex- 
 ceedingly hungry and when offered milk in large quantities will
 
 184 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 gorge itself and force the milk on through the stomach before diges- 
 tion can take place, resulting in disorders in the alimentary canal. 
 Great care must be exercised not to overfeed the young calf. (Wis. 
 B. 192.) 
 
 Teaching the Calf to Drink. When the calf is weaned from its 
 mother it is well to let it go 18 to 24 hours without milk in order 
 to have it hungry for its first meal from the pail. A calf is much 
 more tractable when hungry and this may materially aid in keeping 
 the feeder in a better humor and thus insure better care of the 
 calves. The first feed from the pail is a crisis in the calf's life. 
 The calf will not learn to drink any quicker by being forced to 
 breathe the milk into its lungs. The feeder should realize that in- 
 stinct compels the calf to look up for its feed and he must change 
 this by teaching the calf to look down. Some calves are taught to 
 drink from the pail at the first trial with little or no sucking of 
 fingers. Others will require much more persistent effort, and con- 
 siderable patience and common sense is required. The calf will re- 
 spond to kindness, although stubborn at times, and the feeder who 
 will put himself in sympathy with calf nature will find the stubborn- 
 ness of the calf may soon be conquered. 
 
 The Calf on a Milk Diet. The amount of milk fed should be 
 carefully regulated. A good plan with the normal calf is to give 4 
 pounds (2 quarts) of whole milk three times per day, fed sweet and 
 at blood temperature. In the state of nature the calf gets milk con- 
 taining about 3 per cent fat. Our domesticated cows have been bred 
 in some instances to give nearly twice this amount. Milk that is 
 too rich may cause serious trouble from scours, and in feeding such 
 milk care should be exercised to give limited amounts at the proper 
 temperature. The feeding of whole milk should be continued for 
 about three or four weeks, when the number of meals may be re- 
 duced to two per day. From one-half to a pint of skim milk may 
 now be substituted for an equal quantity of whole milk. The 
 amount of skim milk may be gradually increased and the amount 
 of whole milk correspondingly decreased until, at the end of a week 
 or 10 days, the calf is getting all skim milk. Feed the milk sweet 
 and at blood temperature. 
 
 The Calf on Skim Milk. Not over 10 to 12 pounds of milk 
 daily should be fed until the calf is 5 to 7 weeks old. Later the 
 amount may be increased to 14 or 16 pounds and at three months 
 may, though not always, go to about 20 pounds. The amount fed 
 however must be carefully regulated by the ability of the calf to 
 handle it without scouring. The following method has been suc- 
 cessfully used as a guide. 
 
 For the first 100 pounds live weight 10 pounds of skim 
 milk per day; For the second 100 pounds live weight 5 pounds of 
 skim milk per day; For the third 100 pounds live weight 2% 
 pounds of skim milk per day. A calf weighing 80 pounds would be 
 fed, according to this plan, 8 1 /2 pounds (one gallon) of skim milk; 
 a calf weighing 300 pounds would be getting a little over 17 pounds
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 185 
 
 (two gallons) per day. If skim milk is available it can be fed profit- 
 ably to the dairy calf six to eight months, or even a year. 
 
 Whenever the calf does not eat readily, cut down the supply 
 of milk. The adding of boiling water or scalding the milk may 
 help materially at such times. 
 
 Factory vs. Hand Separator Skim Milk. Good calves can be 
 raided on factory skim milk provided the creamery is careful to re- 
 ceive only good sweet milk so that the skim milk may be kept sweet 
 until consumed by the calf. It should be borne in mind, however, 
 that unless factory skim milk is heated sufficiently to destroy germ 
 life it is not only difficult to keep sweet but it may spread disease, 
 especially tuberculosis, to the calves and hogs kept on the farm. 
 
 It is much less work when the hand separator is used, and the 
 calves are assured of a more uniform feed. The calves are usually 
 fed immediately after separating, while the milk is still warm and 
 sweet. This uniformity of condition and freedom from outside in- 
 fection in the milk is exceedingly important, and the hand separator 
 deserves much credit for making this possible and practicable. 
 (Wis. B. 192.) 
 
 Roughage for Calves. Calves will eat roughage at about the 
 same time they begin to eat grain, viz., two to three weeks of age, and 
 will consume about the same quantity of each at first. As the calf 
 grows older the proportion of roughage to grain increases, and by the 
 time the calf is six months of age, it will have consumed about three 
 times as much roughage as grain. The quality of the hay should be 
 of the best, always clean and bright. It can be placed in a rack in 
 one corner of the calf pen. Any left uneaten should be removed at 
 the next feeding time and a new supply added. The kind of hay 
 may vary according to the needs and condition of the calf. Early 
 cut blue grass is good, as is also hay from mixed grasses. Clover and 
 alfalfa are frequently used to excellent advantage even with the 
 young calf, although there is probably more danger from scours with 
 these. Their importance, as the calf grows older, cannot be over- 
 estimated. Corn silage is also proving an excellent roughage for 
 calves. It is usually safe to give the calf all the roughage it will 
 eat. 
 
 Pasture. Some feeders have difficulty from scours in turning 
 calves on pasture. This may be overcome by allowing the calves 
 to graze for only a short time the first day and gradually increasing 
 the time each day until they become accustomed to handling the 
 green feed or what is better, gradually get them used to green 
 feed by an increasing daily allowance of soiling crops. Sud- 
 den changes in feeding should be avoided. It is doubtful if there 
 is any gain in placing calves on pasture before they are four months 
 of age. 
 
 Water and Salt for Calves. Calves, like other farm animals, 
 get thirsty, even though milk forms a large part of their ration. 
 Calves three months of age will drink as much as five quarts of water 
 daily per head. They like to drink often, sipping a little at a time. 
 A half barrel, cleaned and replenished twice daily, will serve nicely
 
 186 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 as a water trough. Another good device is an automatic waterer, 
 which may be easily cleaned, situated a little above the floor to keep 
 out the litter. Salt is essential to the development of the calf, as 
 of other animals, and should be kept continually available. (Wis. 
 B. 192.) 
 
 Grain for Calves. When calves are changed to skim milk they 
 need some substitute for butter fat. This may be furnished in the 
 form of fat as cod liver oil. It is more cheaply obtained from the 
 starch and fat found in grain. Ground flaxseed made into a jelly 
 and fed with milk is soothing and makes a good substitute for the 
 'butter fat in the milk until the calf is three or four weeks old when 
 it should be necessary to eat ordinary farm grains as corn and oats 
 in sufficient quantities to substitute for the butter fat. Many feed- 
 ers start on farm grains without flaxseed and report good results. 
 
 Kind and Amount of Grain to Feed. Skim milk contains 
 more protein and carbohydrates than whole milk. In selecting a 
 grain to take the place of the fat that has been removed, it is not nec- 
 essary nor is it advisable to get one rich in protein, as the skim milks 
 furnishes the nutrient. While calves may do well on high priced 
 concentrates, they are unnecessarily expensive and give no better re- 
 sults than the cheaper carbonaceous grains, as corn, barley, oats, 
 Kafir corn, or sorghum. 
 
 Calves will sometimes learn to eat the grain more readily if a 
 little bran forms a part of the ration for a short time. A number 
 of farm grains have been used successfully in feeding calves. The 
 following list may serve as a guide to the calf feeder in making se- 
 lections or combinations to suit his conditions: 1. Corn meal grad- 
 ually changed in four to six weeks to shelled corn with or without 
 bran. 2. Whole oats and bran. 3. Whole oats and corn chop, the 
 latter gradually replaced by shelled corn in four to six weeks. 4. 
 Ground barley with bran or shelled corn. 5. Shelled corn and 
 ground Kafir corn or sorghum. 6. Whole oats, ground barley and 
 bran. 7. A mixture of 20 pounds of corn meal, 20 pounds of oat 
 meal, 20 pounds of oil meal, 10 pounds of blood meal and 5 pounds 
 of bone meal, changed to corn, oats and bran when calves are three 
 months old. 8. A mixture of 5 pounds whole oats, 3 pounds bran, 1 
 pound corn meal and 1 pound of linseed meal. The calf may be 
 taught to eat grain by rubbing a little on its mouth when it is 
 through drinking milk. From this it will soon learn to eat from the 
 feed box. (Wis. B. 192.) 
 
 Dehorning Calves. It is much easier, to say nothing of being 
 more humane, to dehorn calves when they are young, preferably 
 when from three to four days old. Clip the hair away from the but- 
 ton ; take a stick of caustic potash, wrapped in some material to pro- 
 tect the fingers, moisten one end with water, and rub gently over the 
 button until the skin becomes slightly raw and smarts a little. In a 
 few days a scab will form, which will soon disappear, and, if the 
 work is properly done, will leave the calf without horns. One appli- 
 cation is usually enough, but in case the horns start again the appli-
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 187 
 
 cation can be repeated. Care should be taken that none of the caustic 
 potash runs down over the hair, to injure the eyes and skin. 
 
 In case the horns break through the skin before the caustic is 
 applied, it will probably be necessary to use a knife to cut off the but- 
 ton, after which a little caustic potash can be rubbed over the ex- 
 posed surface. There are a number of chemical preparations which 
 give good results, but a man cannot afford to pay very much for 
 them, as caustic potash is comparatively cheap and effective. 
 
 Water and Salt. Calves enjoy clean, fresh water. A test was 
 made by weighing the water given to thirteen calves that ranged 
 from two to three months of age. It was found that 868 pounds of 
 water were consumed in seven days, or nearly ten pounds per day 
 per head. It was also noticed that the calves drank several times a 
 day, sipping a little at a time; even after their ration of milk they 
 would take a swallow of water. An automatic watcrer situated a 
 little above the surface of the ground is the best arrangement for 
 supplying this want. Calves seem to demand salt as well as older 
 stock, and this should be kept before them at all times. (Kan. B. 
 126.) 
 
 Calf Ties. Where there are only a few calves to be fed, fairly 
 good ties can be had by the use of short ropes with snaps, to be fast- 
 ened to ropes around the calves' necks, supplied with rings. When 
 this method is employed the calves should be hitched far enough 
 apart to prevent their reaching each other after drinking their milk. 
 
 By far the best method of fastening calves is by means of 
 stanchions. Here the calf finds his place and waits his turn. The 
 feeder can set a bucket of milk down to the calf and then feed 
 others, without fear of the calf tipping the bucket over. Where the 
 stanchions are properly constructed, the calves cannot reach each 
 other, and they can be left in the stanchions until their mouths are 
 dry. Calves will commence eating grain sooner when fastened in 
 stanchions than when tied with ropes. 
 
 Scours or Diarrhea. Undoubtedly the greatest difficulty that the 
 calf-feeder has to contend with is scours. Here, as elsewhere, an 
 ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The principal causes 
 of this difficulty are overfeeding, sour milk, feeding cold milk, feed- 
 ing grain with the milk, using dirty milk-pails, very cold water, too 
 much water after periods of thirst, and irregularity in feeding. The 
 careful feeder will watch very carefully the effect of his feed upon 
 his calves, and as soon as there are any signs of scours the milk 
 should be reduced one-half or more and gradually increased again' 
 as the calf is able to stand it. A mild case of scours can usually be 
 cured in from one to two days by reducing the milk and adding 
 a teaspoonful of dried blood while the calf is drinking. In a test 
 that was made with five calves that were scouring at the same time, 
 two were fed dried blood after reducing the regular feed of milk; 
 the others were fed dried blood without changing the feed of milk. 
 In the former case the calves recovered after two feeds and the latter 
 after three feeds.
 
 188 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 In feeding dried blood a teaspoonful at a feed is a great plenty. 
 This should be continued until the scours disappear, or, in the case 
 of a weak calf, the allowance may be increased to a tablespoonful 
 per feed. The blood should be thoroughly mixed with the milk to 
 prevent its settling to the bottom of the pail. The packing com- 
 panies are now making soluble blood-meal that is claimed to dis- 
 solve in milk much more readily than the regular dried blood. No 
 dried blood should be used that has not been thoroughly sterilized ; 
 otherwise it would be comparatively easy to carry disease into the 
 herd. In severe cases of scours, the addition of one or two eggs with 
 the dried blood has been found to be very effective. 
 
 Another remedy that has been found to be successful is to give 
 from one to two ounces of castor-oil in the morning, and follow in 
 about twelve hours with fifteen to twenty drops of laudanum and a 
 teaspoonful of dried blood. If the case is a persistent one, one or 
 two raw eggs may be added, as mentioned above, which will help to 
 keep the calf from suffering from hunger, as, under such conditions, 
 it is useless yes, worse than useless to give it much milk. (Kan. 
 B. 126.) 
 
 Dairy By-Products as Substitutes for Milk. This dairy by- 
 product is of practically the same composition as skim milk. There 
 is little question if it has not the same feeding value as sour skim 
 milk. Experiments show that calves fed buttermilk make good 
 gains and may even be less subject to scours than those fed skim 
 milk. Where buttermilk is fed special effort should be made to have 
 its condition at feeding time as nearly uniform as possible. 
 
 Whey has the casein as well as the butter fat removed and hence 
 is a much less valuable feed than skim milk; a good grain ration 
 must be carefully selected as a supplementary feed. The calf to be 
 fed on whey should receive whole milk for the first week or two ; it 
 can then be changed to skim milk. If this is not available it should 
 be continued on whole milk. A calf will do better not to receive 
 whey for five or six weeks. It will take ten days to two weeks more 
 to complete the change to whey. Calves will handle about the same 
 amount of whey as skim milk, viz., 14 to 16 pounds daily per calf. 
 An excessive amount may cause undue largeness of the paunch. 
 The feeder will need to give more care and attention to calves fed on 
 whey than to those fed on milk. The grain for whey-fed calves 
 should be selected for its constipating effect so as to counteract the 
 tendency to scours. Oats, sorghum seed, shelled corn, or middlings 
 (as part of the ration) are good for the purpose. Avoid soy beans 
 and other grains that have a loosening effect. For roughage, mixed 
 hay is probably the best. Alfalfa, clover or silage should be fed 
 sparingly until the feeder knows whether the calves can handle them 
 without scouring. (Wis. B. 192.) 
 
 Calf Meal as a Substitute for Milk. The food requirements for 
 a given gain increases with the age of animals. The steer requires 
 7.4 pounds of digestible organic matter to produce one pound in- 
 crease in live weight, while the calf makes the same gain from 1.57 
 pounds of dry matter. To secure these economic gains, the ration
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 189 
 
 of the calf must be liberal in amount, easily digested and rich in 
 nutrients suitable for growth. The calf designed for beef purposes 
 may be pushed for the most rapid gains. The dairy calf should be 
 kept in a thrifty growing condition, but should not be allowed to 
 become fat. A calf intended for a dairy cow should not gain more 
 than one and one-half pounds per day for the first four months and 
 less thereafter. The most rapid gains with calves can be made with 
 mother's milk. Skim milk reinforced with hay and grain will pro- 
 duce satisfactory gains with calves, especially those designed for 
 dairy animals. Several substitutes for milk have been recommended 
 among which are hay tea and the various calf meals. (Conn. B. 
 43.) ' 
 
 Skim-Milk Substitutes for Calf Raising. The calves had mixed 
 hay before them at all times, and all were provided liberally with 
 a grain mixture composed of 6 pounds of corn and oats, 3 of wheat 
 bran, and 1 of oil meal, which was supplemented with the different 
 feeds entering into the comparison. The records are given for from 
 4 to 5 months from birth, and include experiences for two seasons; 
 the first with skim-milk, Schumacher Calf Meal, and Lactina Suisse 
 (an imported powder said to be principally of vegetable origin) ; the 
 second, with skim-milk, Schumacher Calf Meal, Blatchford Calf 
 Meal, and skim-milk powder. The 'latter was purchased from the 
 Merrill-Soule Co., of Syracuse, N. Y., and was said to be dried skim- 
 milk. The substitutes for the skim-milk, were fed in gruel form. 
 It is evident from the results of these experiments and those else- 
 where, that good, strong, healthy calves can be raised without 
 skimmed milk or milk of any kind after the first thirty days. . . . 
 Skimmed milk, hay, and grain, make the best substitute for whole 
 milk in raising calves. (U. Y. Cor. B. 269.) 
 
 The best substitute for the ordinary skim-milk seemed to be 
 the dried skim-milk powder. Schumacher Calf Meal was the best 
 commercial substitute, in the nature of grain. The Lactina Suisse 
 and the Blatchford Calf Meal were too expensive for economical 
 use, especially in view of the gains in weight which were made. 
 (R. I. B. 140.) 
 
 Regularity and Care. Feeding the game time each day with 
 the same quantity and quality of milk, has much to do in maintain- 
 ing a healthful condition of the calf. With this should go the pre- 
 caution of providing a dry pen, warm and well ventilated in winter 
 and cool in summer. The calf is sensitive and should have kind 
 treatment. The successful calf feeder will watch his calves closely 
 and at the first signal of scours will cut down the supply of milk ; at 
 this time a couple of tablespoons of castor oil in scalded milk may 
 effect a cure. Persistent cases will require more strenuous treatment. 
 
 Change in Character of Feed. When the skim milk diet is 
 stopped at any time from 6 to 12 months of age, it should be remem- 
 bered that the calf is deprived of a nitrogenous feed and its place 
 should be taken by some nitrogenous grain or roughage. The ten- 
 dency of the dairy calf to get too fat depends not only upon its tem- 
 perament but also upon its feed. Avoid too much corn. For grain,
 
 190 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 oats and barley are good ; for roughage, bright clover or alfalfa hay 
 with corn silage to give succulence and variety. The aim should be 
 to keep the calf in a healthy, thrifty and growing condition. Under 
 proper treatment the calf should continue to grow until four to six 
 years old. 
 
 Every effort should be made to develop a large stomach and 
 consequently large capacity; build muscle and good bone, but do 
 not allow it to get too fat. The good dairy cow must handle large 
 amounts of feeds. This she should learn to do while young. For 
 this purpose roughage exercises the digestive apparatus more than 
 concentrates. There are some who think that with a good quality of 
 clover or alfalfa with corn silage or roots for succulence, no grain 
 is necessary from the time the calf is weaned from skim milk until 
 she drops her first calf. There are others, however, and probably 
 these include the larger number of our progressive dairymen, who 
 think a little grain should be given daily to keep her stomach ac- 
 customed to handling grain. 
 
 Size depends much upon heredity but even more upon liberal 
 and judicious feeding. It is impossible to starve good dairy quali- 
 ties into a growing heifer but many a promising heifer has been 
 starved into a poor cow. 
 
 The Herdsman's Responsibility. After all that has been said 
 and done, the calf will not be properly raised, unless its feed and care 
 have been directed by intelligence on the part of the herdsman. Calf 
 feeding requires skill and good common sense. The art of calf rear- 
 ing cannot be taught out of books, bulletins and papers. There must 
 be brains and intelligent interest to properly accommodate the calf 
 to its feed and environment. There are no hard and fast rules that 
 can be laid down. The intelligence that the herdsman puts into his 
 calf feeding will have a great influence upon the future cow. There 
 are great possibilities in the production of good cows but these are 
 seldom, if ever seen, appreciated or attained except by an intelligent, 
 thoughtful feeder. The ear marks of an intelligent feeder are seen 
 in his herd. The calves are thrifty, active, with bright eyes, smooth 
 glossy coats, always hungry, and playful and lusty. (Wis. B. 192.) 
 
 Age at Which to Breed. The heifers fed only 2 pounds of 
 grain per day during the winter of 1908-1909 were not as large as 
 they should have been for their age, when they were turned out to 
 pasture in the spring. This was a considerable loss to the herd as 
 it necessitated waiting much longer before breeding them, than 
 would have been necessary had they been larger. The loss was one 
 of time as well as of feed. We were compelled to do without the milk 
 they should have been producing, as well as to feed them for another 
 six months, at a cost approximating $20.00. Heifers should be well 
 enough grown to drop their first claves when from 24 to 27 months 
 old. The objection is made that heifers bred too young will be 
 dwarfed in size, and that, if the policy is continued, the race will de- 
 teriorate. This is not necessarily true. The heifers can be so fed 
 and cared for as to be large enough and vigorous enough to keep up 
 the vitality of the race, even if they come into milk at two years old.
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE 191 
 
 If this is done, two important things will have been accomplished. 
 First, time and feed have been saved; and second, the heifer's ener- 
 gies are early turned towards milk production, before the habit of 
 producing flesh and fat has been acquired. The latter reason may 
 be considered fanciful by some, but there seems to be good evidence 
 for the belief that coming into milk early in life, helps to develop and 
 fix the milking habit. Even if this were not true, the saving in time 
 and feed will amply repay the farmer for giving the young things 
 extra care until they are two years old. (Conn. B. 63.) 
 
 Authorities Consulted : Cattle Foods and Feeding. la. A. E. S. 
 B. 87; Cornell B. 154; Miss. B. 104; Kans. B. 115; Miss B. 114; Tex. 
 B. 110, 135; Va. B. 164, 173; la. B. 87; Miss. B. 92; Pa. B. 70; 
 Colo. B. 125; Ky. B. 141; Mich. B. 203; N. H. B. 154, 147, 149, 
 133, 116; Mass. B. 50; Wash. B. 48; Minn. B. 36, 27; Pa. B. 50; 
 Del. B. 5; R. I. B. 78, 98; S. C. B. 105; Del. B. 7; la. B. 86; Mass. 
 B. 51, 45; la. B. 66; Ag. Dept. Bu. Chem. B. 108; 111. Cir. 88, 92, 
 94 ; Wis. B. 151 ; N. J. B. 184 ; Ind. B. 21 ; 111. B. Ill ; Kans. B. 124, 
 130, 132; Miss. B. 136, 92; Kans. B. 11.2, 39, 61, 60, 51, 67; Minn. 
 B. 60; Ky. B. 108; Pa. B. 83, 74; Idaho B. 24; Utah B. 101, 54; Pa. 
 B. 68, 64, 53; Wash. B. 79; Pa. B. 57; F. B. 320; Nebr. B. 75, 85, 
 90; Tex. B. 86; Minn. B. 99; Vt. B. 152; N. Dak. B. 73, 33; Tex. 
 B. 97; Colo. B. 102; S. Dak. B. 97; Okla. B. 58; Mo. B. 25; Va. B. 
 173; Mo. B. 75; Va. B. 164; 111. B. 103, 83, Cir. 94; Nebr. B. 100; 
 111. Cir. 92; Ag. Dept. Bu. An. Ind. B. 131 ; Ind. B. 141, 152; F. B. 
 346; Ag. Dept. Bu. An. Ind. B. 143; Wis. B. 187. 
 
 Calves and Calf Feeding. Mo. A. E. S. B. 57; Wis. B. 192; 
 Kans. B. 97 ; Pa. B. 60 ; Ind. B. 47 ; Mass. B. 28 ; La. B. 104 ; Kans. 
 B. 126; Mo. B. 47; N. H. B. 58; Mich. B. 257; Idaho B. 48; Va. B. 
 172; Conn. B. 43; Conn. B. 63; R. I. B, 140,
 
 MILK. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF MILK. 
 
 NORMAL milk is an opaque, almost white fluid, nearly free 
 from germ life when first drawn from the udder. The 
 lack of transparency is due partly to the fat held in sus- 
 pension and partly to a suspension of the nitrogenous and 
 mineral matter. It has a slight smell and a mild sweetish taste. 
 When allowed to stand for any length of time, a multitude of flat 
 globules rise to the surface and form what is termed cream. On con- 
 tinuous standing, the sugar of milk is converted by bacteria into 
 lactic acid, and the milk coagulates or sours. The larger part of milk 
 consists of water, which contains a variety of substances in suspen- 
 sion and solution. The substances large dissolved in water are casein 
 and albumen, milk sugar, and the ash or mineral matter, which to- 
 gether form the milk serum. The fat is suspended in the milk in 
 microscopic globules, which are semi-solid, and with the serum, 
 form what is termed an emulsion. (Mass. B. 110.) 
 
 SOURCES AND KINDS OF MILK. 
 
 In civilized countries where the climate allows, cows have been 
 most generally bred for the purpose of giving milk, probably not so 
 much because their milk was more particularly desirable for human 
 food than that of some other mammals as because, all things con- 
 sidered, they can be made to give the best results for a given amount 
 of care and feed. Our preference for their milk is undoubtedly the 
 result of habit and acquired taste rather than of any intrinsic supe- 
 riority, save, of course, as special breeding has developed certain 
 desirable characteristics. In some parts of the world other kinds of 
 milk are used; goat's milk is very common, especially in the rough, 
 hilly districts of Europe ; buffalo's milk is much used in India, and 
 llama's milk in South America, while camel's milk is esteemed in 
 desert countries, and mare's milk on the steppes of Russia and Cen- 
 tral Asia. Sheep's milk is used in Europe and elsewhere for making 
 certain kinds of cheese and in other ways, and the milk of reindeers 
 is commonly used as food in the arctic regions. So much does cow's 
 milk predominate in the western world, however, that unless other- 
 wise specified the word milk almost always refers to that kind. 
 
 Perhaps no food has been more often studied by chemists than 
 milk and its products, and so a great deal of information is available 
 regarding the composition and properties of these important food 
 
 192
 
 MILK 
 
 193 
 
 materials. The average composition of cow's and some other kinds 
 of milk used for food is given in the table which follows: 
 
 Average composition of milk of various kinds. 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Protein. 
 
 
 Fit 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 Mineral 
 
 Fuel 
 value 
 
 
 
 solids. 
 
 Casein. 
 
 Albumin. 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 (milk 
 sugar). 
 
 matters. 
 
 per 
 pound. 
 
 Woman 
 
 Per ct. 
 87.58 
 
 Per ct. 
 12 6 
 
 Perct. 
 80 
 
 Percent. 
 1 21 
 
 Per ct. 
 2 01 
 
 Perct 
 3 74 
 
 Percent. 
 6 37 
 
 Percent. 
 30 
 
 Calories 
 31O 
 
 Cow 
 
 87.27 
 
 12 8 
 
 2 88 
 
 51 
 
 3 39 
 
 3 68 
 
 4 94 
 
 .72 
 
 31O 
 
 Goat 
 
 86.88 
 
 13.1 
 
 2.87 
 
 .89 
 
 3 76 
 
 4 07 
 
 4 64 
 
 .85 
 
 315 
 
 
 83 57 
 
 16.4 
 
 4 17 
 
 98 
 
 5 15 
 
 6 18 
 
 4 73 
 
 .96 
 
 410 
 
 Buffalo (Indian). 
 
 82.16 
 
 
 4.26 
 
 .46 
 
 
 7 51 
 
 4 77 
 
 .84 
 
 
 Zebu 
 
 86.13 
 
 
 
 
 3.03 
 
 4 80 
 
 5 34 
 
 .70 
 
 
 Camel 
 
 87.13 
 
 
 3 49 
 
 38 
 
 
 2 87 
 
 5 39 
 
 .74 
 
 
 Llama 
 
 86.55 
 
 
 3.OO 
 
 90 
 
 
 3 15 
 
 5 60 
 
 .80 
 
 
 Reindeer.. ....... 
 
 67.20 
 
 
 8.38 
 
 1.51 
 
 
 17.09 
 
 2.82 
 
 1.49 
 
 
 Mare 
 
 90.58 
 
 9 9 
 
 1 3O 
 
 75 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 5 87 
 
 .36 
 
 
 Ass 
 
 9O.12 
 
 10.4 
 
 .79 
 
 1.O6 
 
 
 1,37 
 
 6.19 
 
 .47 
 
 215 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 As the figures in the table make plain, milk of all sorts is a 
 dilute food, as it contains a large percentage of water, the lowest 
 proportion according to the figures cited being noted with reindeer 
 milk and the highest with mare's milk. The three groups of protein, 
 fat, and carbohydrates are represented by fair proportions, the quan- 
 tities of protein and fat being especially noteworthy, as it is these 
 constituents and the mineral matter or ash which to a large degree 
 give milk its peculiar value as a food for young mammals. (Dept. 
 Agr. F. B. 363.) 
 
 Germ Life. Bacteria, Yeasts, Etc. Most of the changes that 
 take place in milk, after it is drawn from the cow, are due to minute 
 forms of plant life, principally bacterial ferments, which gain access 
 to it and in their growth and development bring about many and 
 varied changes in it and its products. As all air contains 'bacteria 
 to a greater or less extent no milk is free from them. A change 
 well-known to all is that of the souring of milk, which is due to lac- 
 tic acid bacteria gaining access to it and converting the sugar of 
 the milk into lactic or milk acid. 
 
 These various organisms, when they gain access to milk, find 
 it a perfect food, and if the temperature and other conditions be 
 favorable to their growth they develop very rapidly. Although they 
 are extremely small, single-celled organisms, visible only under a 
 strong microscope, yet their rapidity of growth and reproduction ex- 
 plains the marked changes that often take place in milk within a 
 comparatively short space of time. Their usual method of reproduc- 
 tion is to lengthen somewhat and then divide into two. Under favor- 
 able conditions this will take place in from half an hour to an hour's 
 time. Assuming it to take place in an hour's time, and the process 
 to go on at this rate for twenty-four hours, the result would be about 
 17,000.000 organisms from the one parent organism. Of course as 
 these organisms grow they feed upon the milk and bring about many 
 changes fermentations in it which may seriously affect its flavor, 
 change its condition physically, impair its food value, and, if they
 
 194 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 be disease organisms, render it dangerous to use as a food. This 
 applies to both milk and milk products. 
 
 A Brief Classification of Bacteria. From the standpoint of the 
 dairyman, bacteria may be briefly classified as follows: 1. Patho- 
 genic or disease producing bacteria, such as those of tuberculosis, ty- 
 phoid fever, scarlet fever and diphtheria. 2. Those that produce 
 poisons (ptomaines), not uncommon in ice-cream that has melted 
 and been re-frozen. 3. Peptogenic bacteria, or those that peptonise or 
 digest the casein or curd portion of milk. 4. Putrefactive forms of 
 germ life, which decompose the milk, producing offensive flavors and 
 odors. 5. Butyric ferments or those that act upon the fat of the 
 milk, producing rancidity. All are familiar with the taste and smell 
 of rancid milk, butter and cheese, due to this cause. 6. Bacteria 
 which bring about changes in the color of milk (chromogenic) pro- 
 ducing red, blue and other tints. 7. Sweet-curdling bacterial fer- 
 ments which cause the casein or curd portion of the milk to coagu- 
 late without souring. Their action may be compared to that of ren- 
 net. 8. Gas-producing organisms. Many of the organisms that pro- 
 duce bad flavors in milk and its products also produce gas. This 
 is particularly noticeable where milk is made into cheese, as the gas 
 is likely to produce holes or openings in it. 9. Lactic acid bacteria 
 which convert the sugar into lactic acid, or cause the ordinary sour- 
 ing of milk. 
 
 This is not an exhaustive list, but will prove sufficient to illus- 
 trate the many and varied changes in milk and its products, due to 
 the action of germ life ferments. In fact the problem of ferments 
 and fermentations, and how to control them, is the great task which 
 the dairyman has to face in the handling of milk, the manufacturing 
 of it into its different products, and the care of the same. Some of 
 these organisms are decidedly harmful, and when present in milk 
 make it dangerous to use. Others affect its flavor, rendering it more 
 or less unpleasant to the taste and smell. The great majority, while 
 not specially harmful to a person in vigorous health, depreciate the 
 value of milk as a food and also, when present in too great numbers, 
 set up trouble in the digestive tracts of persons with weak digestion, 
 such as invalids and infants. Others, particularly the lactic acid 
 organisms, are what may be classed as desirable organisms, that is, 
 when not present in too great numbers, and when kept under control, 
 they aid cheese and butter makers in the process of ripening milk 
 and cream for their respective purposes. They are not desirable in 
 milk or cream' 1 to be consumed as such, that is, if allowed to develop 
 to any extent they cause it to sour. (Manitoba Agrl. Col. B. 3.) 
 
 Bacteria. Science has admirably succeeded in tracing back 
 through generations the species, genera, families and orders of plants 
 and animals, but whatever may be the prototype of any living organ- 
 ism, the origin of that prototype, that first form of living substance, 
 is to-day as obscure as it was a thousand years ago. The same holds 
 true in case of bacteria. We simply have to admit that we do not 
 know. But this lack of information is of little consequence to the 
 practical dairyman. To him the knowledge of the general distribu-
 
 INTERIOR OF LARGE SLAUGHTER HOUSE. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 DIRTY BARNYARD AND WASTE OF MANURE. DEPT. OF AGR. 1909.
 
 MILK 197 
 
 tion of bacteria in nature and the channels through which milk may 
 become infected is of much greater importance. It is well for him to 
 bear in mind that wherever life is possible there he may also find 
 bacteria. They are present in the water, in the soil, in the air, in 
 dead animal and plant tissues, on the skin, on the hair, in the upper 
 air passages and in the intestinal tract of man and beast, in excreta, 
 in dust and in dirt, etc. 
 
 Realizing this most liberal distribution of bacteria in nature it 
 is not difficult for the milk producer to understand how they may 
 gain access to the milk. 
 
 But milk, even before it is drawn, has been found to contain 
 variable and often large numbers of these microorganisms. The 
 first source of bacteria in milk is the udder itself. If the animal is 
 suffering from a specific infectious disease such as tuberculosis, an- 
 thrax, foot and mouth disease and other cattle diseases, the bacteria 
 causing these diseases are able to find their way from the animal 
 body through the tissues into the udder. While milk from such ani- 
 mals is utterly unfit for consumption as it imperils the health and 
 life of the consumer, its dangerous effects may be overcome in case 
 of tuberculosis by properly pasteurizing the milk. In the case of an- 
 thrax, however, the germs are very resistant and heating the milk 
 to the boiling point will not destroy them. Fortunately, the milk 
 secretion in animals suffering from anthrax 'decreases rapidly and 
 ceases completely after a few days; the milk takes on a yellow, viscid 
 appearance. The foot and mouth disease, which is causing enor- 
 mous loss of cattle in European countries, has, thanks to the rigid 
 enforcement of our quarantine laws, so far successfully been kept 
 from the herds of this country, hence an infection of mOk from this 
 source is much less liable to occur. 
 
 In healthy animals the only possible channel of bacterial in- 
 vasion is the teat. The teat is a canal surrounded by muscular walls 
 and closed at the extremity by an involuntary sphincter muscle, 
 which varies much in contractility in different animals, often it is 
 so lax that the pressure of a small amount of milk in the canal is 
 sufficient to open it and the animal leaks her milk. In other ani- 
 mals it requires a strong effort on the part of the milker to draw 
 the milk. This canal, with a temperature of the animal body and 
 containing always, even after the most complete milking, a small 
 amount of milk, offers ideal conditions for bacterial growth. When 
 the animal lies down, be it on the pasture or in the stable, the udder 
 and teats come in contact with dust and dirt, which are teeming 
 with bacteria. It seems, then, reasonable to conclude that in case of 
 leaky udders the bacteria adhering to the exterior of the teat have 
 easy access to the interior, where they meet most favorable conditions 
 for rapid development. This assumption is borne out by the results 
 of many investigations which invariably show that cows with leaky 
 udders harbor a very large number of bacteria in their milk. For 
 this reason such cows are discarded from the herd in some sanitary 
 dairies. On the other hand, where the sphincter muscles close the 
 teat firmly the bacterial invasion is greatly checked.
 
 198 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 From what has been said above it may clearly be seen that, if 
 cows are allowed to wade in swamps covered with stagnant water, or 
 lie down on dirty, filthy stable floors which are covered with excreta, 
 etc., the chances are that a comparatively large number of bacteria 
 will be able to enter the udder through the teats, a fact which is espe- 
 cially true in the case of cows that leak their milk. It is obvious, 
 therefore, that the discarding of animals which suffer from disease 
 and of cows that have leaky udders, the use of drained pastures, and 
 of clean bedding on the stall floor, constitute the first step towards 
 improving the hygienic and keeping-quality of milk. 
 
 Contamination During the Operation of Milking. Since dead 
 organic matter such as dust, dirt, excreta, etc., is charged with enor- 
 mous numbers of bacteria, large numbers of these microorganisms 
 gain access to the milk during the operation of milking by the fall- 
 ing into the milk pail dust from the atmosphere, of hair and dirt 
 from the animal body, from the unclean hands and clothing of the 
 milker and by the use of nonsterile utensils. Bacteriological exam- 
 inations of the stable air and of the air under the udder during milk- 
 ing have shown that thousands of these germs will fall into the open 
 milk pail while the milk is being drawn. There is also unquestion- 
 able experimental evidence of the fact that, where the teats, the 
 udder and the portions immediately surrounding the latter are care? 
 fully washed before milking, where the stable has plenty of light, is 
 well cleaned, ventilated and the floors sprinkled with water to lay 
 the dust before milking, where the milker has clean hands, wears 
 clean clothing and uses sterile utensils, the number of bacteria in 
 milk is reduced to a minimum. (N. Y. Cornell B. 203.) 
 
 THE MILKER. 
 
 The kinds of bacteria that the milker is likely to introduce into 
 the milk include nearly the whole list. It seldom occurs to the 
 average milker that it is as necessary to wash the hands before 
 milking as before eating a meal of victuals. The numbers that 
 come from soiled clothes and dirty hands which get into milk are 
 large. The hands of a milker working around the farm during the 
 afternoon were tested, just before milking time, for the numbers 
 of bacteria that could be washed off in a quart of sterile water. The 
 number was found to be 45,000,000. This washing did not remove 
 all the bacteria, but did remove all those that might have dropped 
 off during the milking. Another experiment was tried to deter- 
 mine how many bacteria were left on the hands after thorough 
 washing with soap and warm water. The number that could be 
 washed off then in sterile water was found to be 900,000. These 
 two experiments show that 98 per cent of bacteria can be washed 
 from the hands. 
 
 The clothes of the ordinary dairyman carry immense numbers 
 of organisms with dust from all sorts of contaminations. The 
 milker has a much wider range for the collection of a larger num- 
 ber and a greater variety of organisms than the cow. The only 
 proper attire for a milker is a white suit and cap to be worn only at 
 milking time. A white suit shows dirt very readily, and when
 
 MILK 199 
 
 made of white duck will last a long time and can be sterilized almost 
 indefinitely. 
 
 The milker may not only be the source of a very large number 
 of harmless bacteria, but the largest source of disease germs that 
 get into milk. The milker may be the immediate source of dis- 
 ease germs or may transmit them from another person. The disease 
 germs that get into milk are largely from human origins, infectious 
 diseases that pass individual to individual. A grave mistake has 
 been made in the past by allowing persons ill with contagious dis- 
 eases to enter a cow stable or dairy where milk is handled. Many 
 an epidemic of diptheria, scarlet fever and typhoid has been traced 
 to a case of illness on the dairy farm, which was not properly quar- 
 antined and cared for. One high grade milk handling concern 
 requires that if a case of contagious disease arises in the dairy of one 
 of its patrons, that the milk supply be withheld till the patient has 
 passed the danger limit of conveying the disease germs. The milk 
 produced, however, is paid for during the quarantine. It is very 
 difficult to make the average individual understand or even believe 
 that our worst diseases are caused by special kinds of bacteria, and 
 that these bacteria can be transmitted to a healthy individual, who 
 is likely to-contract the same disease. (Conn B. 51.) 
 
 Bacteria Decrease in Milk After Drawing. In contrast with 
 this generally accepted opinion, investigators have from time to 
 time made the statement that for a certain length of time the num- 
 ber of bacteria decreases, so that milk when a few hours old contains 
 a smaller number of organisms than it did when first obtained. 
 Which of these conditions actually takas place in milk is of great 
 practical importance to all milk handlers, since it bears upon the 
 importance of immediate cooling. If all the bacteria contained in 
 the fresh milk developed from the very outset, the value and im- 
 portance of immediate cooling can not be over-emphasized, but if, 
 on the other hand, there is a falling off in all species during the first 
 few hours, it would only be necessary to cool the milk before the 
 time of minimum numbers had passed and they again commenced 
 to multiply. 
 
 The decrease in the numbers of the normal milk bacteria dur- 
 ing the first few hours after milking is not properly to be attributed 
 to germicidal condition or property possessed by the milk, but 
 simply of the natural dropping out of those species which do not 
 find the milk a suitable medium in which to develop. (Conn. 
 B. 37.) 
 
 Kinds Rather than Numbers. The great host of bacteria are 
 workers for the common good. They are transformers, cleaning up 
 the accumulations of plant and animal life that would otherwise clog 
 and encumber the soil to the extent of preventing the existence of 
 even plant and animal life, on the earth. All these products they con- 
 vert into absolutely necessary plant foods. There are a few kinds 
 of bacteria which are harmful to man and animals in that they 
 produce disease. It would be very unreasonable to condemn the 
 whole group of plants because there are a few poisonous plants.
 
 200 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 It would be just as illogical to condemn the whole group of bacteria 
 because a few are disease germs. Not more than one per cent of all 
 bacteria are harmful to man. The ninety-nine per cent are bene- 
 ficial and are absolutely necessary to the existence of life on the 
 earth. Many bacteria are out of place when in our food, though 
 they may be perfectly harmless. Here they are performing their 
 natural functions in changing and breaking down materials, which 
 work is essential in the soil, but not in foods. They are striving to do 
 in milk what they were created to do in the products necessary to 
 be changed for the growth of plants. 
 
 The number of organisms that get into milk is proportionate 
 to the carelessness and ignorance of the producer. The question of 
 the numbers of bacteria that get into milk is not so serious as the 
 power of growth or multiplication of those that do get in. For ex- 
 ample, a bacterium will divide into two bacteria in twenty or thirty 
 minutes, according to the temperature, and again these two into four 
 in another twenty or thirty minutes, and so on in geometrical 
 progression. So that a bacterium given sufficient food and proper 
 conditions would multiply into a mass the size of the earth in five 
 days and eight hours. But yet the question of multiplication is not 
 so serious as the KINDS of bacteria that get into milk. 
 
 Ten typhoid bacilli in a quart of milk are a source of disease 
 and even death to the consumer, while the three hundred millions 
 to six hundred millions of lactic acid bacteria per cubic centimeter 
 in sour milk and butter-milk render these products not only harmless, 
 but excellent and strengthening articles of food. The settling of 
 a limit by boards of health for the numbers of bacteria that a cubic 
 centimeter of market milk shall contain falls far short of the real 
 requirement. The question should be, are those present harmless 
 or dangerous? The ideal market milk would be milk entirely free 
 from bacteria, but under present conditions this ideal is an impos- 
 sibility. On the other hand, milk to be used for the making of butter 
 and cheese must contain certain kinds of bacteria for the proper 
 ripening of cream and cheese. These kinds which are necessary 
 to the creameryman are the most difficult ones to keep out of milk. 
 (Conn. B. 51.) 
 
 Why Cold Aids in Preserving Milk. Dairymen at the present 
 time understand that milk is sure to contain bacteria in greater or 
 less numbers, and that these bacteria are the cause of the various 
 changes characterizing the spoiling of milk. It is the type of bac- 
 teria known as lactic bacteria that is responsible for the souring of 
 milk and all of the other changes which are liable to prove trouble- 
 some to the dairyman, slimy milk, bitter milk, etc., etc., are to-day 
 well known to be due also to bacteria in the milk. It is not simply 
 the presence of bacteria in the milk that produces these changes, 
 but rather their growth and multiplication. If they did not multi- 
 ply at all, the milk would not sour; the more rapidly they multiply, 
 the quicker the changes of the milk take place; the longer the 
 growth may be delayed and the slower it is, the longer the milk 
 may be retained in its fresh condition. These facts arefunda-
 
 MILK 201 
 
 mental phenomena associated with the keeping of milk, and every 
 milkman should therefore understand as a foundation of dairy prac- 
 tice that the keeping of milk is dependent upon, preventing or 
 checking the multiplication of bacteria, rather than upon simply 
 preventing their presence in milk. 
 
 A second fact which is not so thoroughly appreciated, but is 
 equally true, is that the rapidity of growth of all species of bacteria 
 is dependent upon temperature. Within certain limits the rate of 
 multiplication rises with the increase and falls with the decrease 
 in temperature. At a temperature of freezing, bacteria do not grow 
 at all, and milk, therefore, if frozen, may be kept indefinitely with- 
 out any changes taking place therein. If the milk is kept at a few 
 degrees above freezing, the growth of bacteria begins, but at low 
 temperatures this growth is extremely slow. As the temperature 
 rises, the rapidity of bacterial growth increases. When the tem- 
 perature reaches 70, bacteria grow very rapidly; at a temperature 
 of 80 and 90 they grow more rapidly still; and at a temperature 
 of about 100 the growth of some species of bacteria is most rapid 
 of all. All this is generally understood, but it is not generally rec- 
 ognized that if the temperature is raised somewhat above these 
 higher limits, the bacteria do not grow so rapidly. If the tempera- 
 ture is raised to 120, most of these organisms find conditions un- 
 favorable to their life, and grow very slowly ; indeed many of them 
 cease to grow at all. At temperatures above this the ordinary milk 
 bacteria entirely fail to develop. From these facts it will be seen 
 that in general the growth of the kinds of bacteria that produce 
 trouble in milk will be found between temperatures of freezing and 
 a little above 100 F., and that the greater the temperature, within 
 these limits, the more rapid is the development of the bacteria, and 
 hence the more rapid the spoiling of the milk. 
 
 From these facts of course it follows that the keeping of milk 
 will be very closely dependent upon temperature. At high tempera- 
 tures (90) milk will sour very rapidly. At somewhat lower tem- 
 peratures (70) the souring is not quite so rapid, but still it takes 
 place in a comparatively few hours. At lower temperatures still, 
 in the vicinity of freezing, the souring and all other changes may 
 be delayed for a long time; and if milk can be frozen, it may be 
 retained indefinitely without any appreciable change taking place 
 in it, (Conn. B. 26.) ^ 
 
 Flies. The domestic fly is passing from a disgusting nuisance 
 and troublesome pest to a reputation of being a dangerous enemy to 
 human health. A species of mosquito has been demonstrated to be 
 the cause of the spread of malaria. Another kind of mosquito is 
 the cause of yellow fever, and now the house fly is considered an 
 agency in the distribution of typhoid fever, summer complaint, 
 cholera infantum, etc. 
 
 The numbers of bacteria on a single flv may range all the way 
 from 550 to 6,600,000. Early in the fly season the numbers of 
 bacteria on flies are comparatively small, while later the numbers 
 are comparatively very large. The place where flies live also deter-
 
 202 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 mines largely tjie numbers that they carry. The average for 414 
 flies was about one and one-fourth millions bacteria on each. 
 (Conn. B. 51.) 
 
 The Air. The air is not a source, but a medium, of distribu- 
 tion for bacteria. The outdoor air away from cities is very free 
 from organisms. It is the interiors of buildings where germs collect 
 that cause the air to become a medium of distribution. The con- 
 stant accumulation of dust that is not removed is ready at the 
 slightest commotion to be raised into the air and spreads itself to 
 every part of a room. After an hour or two it settles on all exposed 
 surfaces ready to be again wafted into the air at any disturbance. 
 'Dust and bacteria are almost synonymous terms. The former 
 scarcely ever exists without the latter. In fact, bacteria utilize float- 
 ing dust as air ships for distribution. Hay is the most abundant 
 source of dust and bacteria in a barn and stable. If the dust is 
 never removed it collects in very large quantities. Grain feeds are 
 dusty and well supplied with bacteria. Poor or swamp hay bed- 
 ding is a very abundant source of bacteria and is so near the milk 
 pail during milking that it furnishes large numbers that get into 
 the milk. It is advisable not to use hay for bedding, but instead 
 use sawdust, planer shavings or clean straw. Dry sweeping is the 
 worst method of cleaning floors, because it fills the air with dust 
 that settles over everything and only removes the coarser particles 
 of dirt. Dusting should be done with damp cloths, not dusters. 
 Sweeping with some damp material spread over the floor, or better, 
 on cement floors, flush with water. The air is, then, a medium for 
 the distribution of nearly all kinds of bacteria, including a few 
 varieties of disease germs whenever the sources of bacteria and dust 
 are dried and pulverized materials. (Conn. B. 51.) 
 
 Lactic Fermentation. As pointed out in the previous bulletin, 
 the lactic fermentation is produced by a large variety of bacteria. 
 This fact has been confirmed over and over again in recent years 
 and the list of lactic-acid bacteria has been constantly growing. At 
 the present time a very large number of species (over one hundred) 
 have been described as producing the acid fermentation of milk. 
 To what extent, however, they are all to be regarded as producing 
 the lactic fermentation we can hardly say, because in most cases no 
 attempt has been made to determine chemically the presence of 
 lactic acid, the investigators being ordinarily content with the deter- 
 mination of the production of an acid reaction. Moreover, it is 
 impossible to state to what extent these different species are really 
 different from each other. The list includes many pathological 
 forms, as well as the distinctively dairy bacteria. The first-described 
 species, Bacillus acidi lactici, has been found to assume many 
 varieties. 
 
 Eleetricity. The action of lactic organisms appears to be still 
 the only known method of spontaneous milk souring. It is true 
 that careful investigation has shown that when milk is drawn fresh 
 from the cow it is commonly very slightly acid, an acidity depend- 
 ent upon certain conditions in the milk gland, but no other second-
 
 MILK 203 
 
 ary causes of milk souring are known except that of micro-organ- 
 isms. Experiments on the relation of electricity to milk have verified 
 the conclusion that electricity has no direct influence in producing 
 the souring of milk. The only recent work on this subject has been 
 that of Liebig, whose conclusions are that the souring of milk dur- 
 ing a thunderstorm is simply due to the rapid growth of bacteria, 
 produced by the same conditions which produce the thunderstorm. 
 (See Effect of Thunderstorms on the Souring of Milk.) 
 
 Butyric Acid. We know little in regard to this type of fer- 
 mentation. Butyric acid fermentation is a very common type, At 
 the present time about a dozen organisms are known to produce this 
 fermentation and have been described. There are many others 
 which have been less thoroughly studied, but which produce butyric 
 acid as a by-product. They have been found in various milk products 
 (milk, butter, and cheese) and in other places in nature as well. 
 
 The butyric-acid fermentation does not appear to be so simple 
 a one as the lactic fermentation. In the lactic fermentation we have 
 what we regard as nearly a smooth splitting of the milk-sugar mole- 
 cule into carbonic acid and lactic acid. It is true that there are 
 always produced other by-products, and these sometimes in consid- 
 erable amount, but these secondary products are not very important 
 in the lactic type of fermentation. In the case of butyric acid, how- 
 ever, the reverse is the case. Butyric acid is to be regarded prob- 
 ably in all cases as an end product of a long series of fermentative 
 changes. It is always accompanied by many by-products, and 
 usually the butyric acid is slow in its appearance and is not the chief 
 product in the fermentation. (U. S. Dep. Agr. 0. E. S. B. 25.) 
 
 Flavors in Milk. Milk may acquire abnormal flavors and odors 
 in various ways: 
 
 (1) The cow may, through some pathological condition, pro- 
 duce milk with an unusual flavor. This may occur when the cow 
 shows no outward sign of disorder and usually last for a short time 
 only. 
 
 (2) Highly flavored foods may impart their peculiar flavors 
 to the milk. The disagreeable results of feeding even small quan- 
 tities of wild onion, turnips, and similar feeds are unfortunately too 
 familiar to need comment. Other feeds with a less pungent taste 
 no doubt affect the flavor of the milk to a less degree. 
 
 (3) Milk, especially warm milk, takes up the odors and flavors 
 of the surrounding air with great rapidity. The flavor thus ac- 
 quired may be so slight that it ordinarily passes unnoticed, or it may 
 be so pronounced that anyone may recognize its source. 
 
 (4) The flavor of milk may be materially changed by the 
 growth of bacteria, with the infinite variety of by-products which 
 result from their development. If milk is sterilized and then inocu- 
 lated with some one kind of bacteria, a certain flavor, frequently 
 very pronounced, will result; and under the same conditions this 
 particular variety will always produce the same flavor. Another 
 kind may produce an equally pronounced but entirely different 
 flavor, while some species may grow for a long time without causing
 
 204 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 any noticeable change. In ordinary milk, however, the conditions 
 are different, in that many kinds of bacteria are growing together 
 and the milk is usually consumed before there is any marked change 
 in the flavor. 
 
 When a number of different kinds of bacteria grow together, 
 as they usually do in milk, the development is not equal. One 
 variety finds the conditions of food or temperature or acidity more 
 suited to its peculiar habits of life and develops more rapidly than 
 other kinds. In a short time this rapidly growing form may so 
 change the milk, that, while the conditions are more favorable to 
 its own growth, they become less and less adapted to the needs of the 
 others. In the course of time this form crowds out all others and 
 an examination would show large numbers of this kind, while the 
 others originally present would have entirely disappeared, or would 
 occur only occasionally. It is in this way that the special fermenta- 
 tions develop. 
 
 If milk shows a peculiar flavor when it is first drawn, it is safe 
 to say that the flavor is not produced by bacteria but by the cow, 
 usually through something in the feed. If, on the other hand, the 
 fresh milk is normal and the flavor develops as the milk stands, 
 it is usually due to bacteria. 
 
 Sweet Curdling and Digestion. It sometimes happens that 
 milk curdles without showing the usual acid taste. This is followed 
 by the separation of a straw-colored whey, which slowly increases 
 until the curd has nearly all disappeared. This condition is the 
 result of a series of complicated changes brought about by bacteria. 
 
 When milk is taken into the stomach, especially the stomachs 
 of young animals whose diet is largely or wholly milk, a certain 
 constituent of the digestive juice precipitates the casein, forming a 
 firm curd. This curd resembles the acid curd in appearance, but 
 differs from it chemically and has no sour taste. The part of the 
 digestive juice which produces this change is the rennet, with which 
 we are familiar in cheese making and in the junket tablets of the 
 kitchen. It is what is technically known as an enzyme, and while 
 it has some of the properties which we ordinarily attribute to living 
 beings, its action is purely chemical. 
 
 In this precipitated condition the casein is not in a form to be 
 used by the animal. It must be so changed that it will go into a 
 solution and pass through the membranes lining the digestive tract. 
 This change is brought about by another enzyme, pepsin. Pepsin 
 changes the curd rapidly and completely into compounds soluble in 
 water. 
 
 Bitter Milk. The distinct bitter taste which sometimes ap- 
 pears in milk may be caused by (1) certain weeds that the cow has 
 eaten, (2) an abnormal condition of the udder, (3) an advanced 
 period of lactation, or (4) the action of certain bacteria. It is prob- 
 able that the bacteria causing bitterness are not at all uncommon and 
 that they could be found in many lots of milk showing no bitter- 
 ness. Some of these bacteria form acid and sour the milk; the
 
 MILK 205 
 
 more common forms, however, form little acid, and are checked by 
 the growth of the lactic-acid bacteria. 
 
 The bacteria causing bitterness in unheated milk are more fre- 
 quently those of the acid-forming classes, which are better able to 
 compete with the lactic-acid bacteria. The acid formed by this 
 group is usually butyric and not lactic. Some writers have stated 
 that the bitterness is caused directly by the butyric acid. Nearly 
 all of the bacteria known to produce bitterness bring about an active 
 digestion of the casein and albumen, and it is probable that the bitter 
 principle is formed in this decomposition. In most cases, however, 
 the bitterness becomes evident before there is any visible sign of 
 change in the milk. 
 
 Bitter milk may occur as an epidemic, persisting day after day 
 and causing great trouble. This may be due to some constant 
 localized source of infection which adds each day unusual numbers 
 of bacteria to the milk. In some cases it has been found that the 
 udder of a cow was infected. This should be determined by carefully 
 cleaning the udders of all the cows and milking from each quarter 
 of the udder of each cow into fruit jars or bottles which have been 
 previously cleaned with boiling water. 
 
 In case one of these samples shows a well-developed bitterness 
 while others remain normal, it may be assumed that the source of 
 infection is the udder of the cow giving this milk. In that case 
 there should be injected into the udder after each milking a solu- 
 tion of 1 part hyposulphite of soda in 100 parts of water. 
 
 It is probable in many cases that the source of infection is not 
 localized. If through some combination of circumstances the lactic- 
 acid bacteria are suppressed, other kinds become predominant. The 
 utensils, the milk-room, and the stable gradually become inoculated 
 with these bacteria or their spores and each new lot of milk is thor- 
 oughly inoculated. The bitter-milk bacteria may be one of the new 
 forms. In this event it may be necessary, after thoroughly cleaning 
 and steaming everything coming in contact with the milk, to intro- 
 duce some good sour milk from a neighboring dairy. In this way 
 the normal fermentation may be restored and the objectionable 
 bacteria suppressed. 
 
 Ropy or Stringy Milk. In this most troublesome fermenta- 
 tion the milk becomes what is commonly described as ropy or 
 stringy. The milk is slimy and viscid. As this condition increases 
 the milk may be drawn out into threads. 
 
 This fermentation should not be confused with garget, which 
 appears in the fresh milk and is due to an inflammation of the 
 udder. Ropy or stringy milk develops after the milk is drawn and 
 is caused by the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Although a 
 number of kinds of bacteria causing this trouble have been studied 
 as distinct varieties, it is probable that they are nearly all closely 
 related. They do not form spores and are therefore destroyed by a 
 comparatively low heat. 
 
 If a sample of ropy milk is examined under a microscope it is 
 found to be filled with these small bacteria, each one surrounded
 
 206 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 by a capsule of a sticky, gummy substance. This gum or slime holds 
 the bacteria together. When a thread is drawn out it is really a chain 
 of bacteria held together by their sticky capsules. 
 
 Ropy milk is, so far as known, in no way detrimental to health. 
 The famous Edam cheeses are nearly all made from milk which has 
 undergone this fermentation. The peasants of Norway consider 
 ropy milk a desirable beverage and bring about this fermentation 
 by adding to fresh milk the leaves of certain plants on which the 
 bacteria causing ropy milk are abundant. Most people, however, 
 object seriously to milk with any tendency to form threads. This 
 trouble frequently affects the milk of a dairy day after day and is 
 removed only by the most drastic measures. 
 
 Outbreaks of this nature frequently occur in the cold months, 
 because the bacteria of this group thrive better at low temperatures 
 than the lactic-acid bacteria which hold them in check under normal 
 conditions. In one case it was found that these bacteria were abun- 
 dant in the dust of the stable. The trouble was removed by a thor- 
 ough cleaning and whitewashing. In another serious and persistent 
 outbreak it was found that the milk as it came from the dairy con- 
 tained few or no ropy milk bacteria, but that they were abundant 
 in the water tank in which the milk was held over night. The small 
 amount of water occasionally splashed into the cans added sufficient 
 bacteria to make the milk ropy in a comparatively short time. The 
 utensils and floor had become so thoroughly impregnated with this 
 organism that milk exposed in the room or strained through the 
 wire strainer became ropy without contamination with the water. 
 The trouble w r as removed by thoroughly scalding all the utensils, 
 disinfecting the floor with a 5 per cent sulphuric acid solution, and 
 destroying the organisms in the ice water by adding potassium 
 bichromate. This was used in the proportion of 1 part in 1,000, 
 or, roughly, 1 ounce to 1 cubic foot of water. 
 
 The source of the trouble can sometimes be easily located by 
 taking small samples of the milk in clean glass jars at different 
 stages in the handling. These should be covered, set away in a cool 
 place to retard the souring, and examined after twenty-four to thirty- 
 six hours for indications of ropiness. 
 
 In dairies getting milk from a number of farms the source of 
 the difficulty may be located on some particular farm and proper 
 methods taken to remove the source of contamination. 
 
 Any precaution is almost sure to be ineffectual if all utensils 
 coming in contact with the milk are not thoroughly scalded, or, 
 better still, steamed. 
 
 Miscellaneous Fermentations, In addition to the various fer- 
 mentations previously described, milk may undergo many other 
 changes as a result of the action of bacteria or other micro-organ- 
 isms. The color may be changed. The appearance of color in milk 
 is due to the growth of bacteria which produce a pigment soluble 
 in water. All the colors of the rainbow, from bright red to violet, 
 are formed by bacteria. Blue milk, which is the most common of 
 the color fermentations, is probably due to contaminations from
 
 MILK 207 
 
 water, in which the blue and violet forming bacteria are known to 
 occur frequently. It is only under unusual circumstances that these 
 bacteria occur in milk in sufficient numbers to give any trouble. 
 
 Milk sometimes undergoes an alcoholic fermentation, and in 
 some countries this is brought about by proper inoculation and con- 
 trol of temperatures to produce a beverage. The alcoholic fermenta- 
 tion is usually caused by a yeast which has the ability to break up 
 milk sugar into alcohol and large quantities of carbon dioxid gas. 
 The ordinary yeast, such as is used in bread making, produces 
 similar changes in cane sugar, but does not affect milk sugar. In 
 the alcoholic drinks made from milk the alcoholic fermentation is 
 usually combined with an acid fermentation. Koumiss, a drink 
 made originally in the Caucasus from mare's milk, is a combination 
 of an alcoholic and a lactic-acid fermentation. 
 
 The Presence of Leucocytes in Milk. It has long been known 
 that milk contains many bacteria and cellular elements. The rela- 
 tion existing between the kind of bacteria and the cellular elements 
 has been a subject of considerable discussion in the last few years. 
 Early observers found that the leucocytes and bacteria were invari- 
 ably increased in the milk from a cow with udder inflammation. 
 When milk contained a large number of bacteria and cells, it was 
 thought that some one animal in a herd was suffering from garget 
 or mammitis. Later observers contended that these cellular ele- 
 ments were found in normal milk, and that different animals and 
 even different quarters of the udder in the same animal contained 
 varying amounts of these elements. 
 
 The variety of bacteria commonly associated with an increase 
 of leucocytes is the streptococcus. Whether the polymorphonuclear 
 leucocyte is to be considered as a pus cell or a normal leucocyte is 
 still an unsettled question. The early milk experts were inclined to 
 consider the presence of large numbers of leucocytes as an indication 
 of udder disease, the reason for this being that they found increased 
 numbers of the streptococci also present. Some later observers for 
 instance, Savage did not find this relation. Since normal milk 
 contains leucocytes in varying numbers, it is a somewhat general 
 opinion that they can not be considered as pus cells unless they are 
 present in large numbers, associated with pus-producing organisms. 
 The mere presence of leucocytes in milk, therefore, does not seem 
 to indicate pus formation in the udder. (U. S. Dep. Agr. Bu. An. 
 Ind. B. 117.) 
 
 Pasteurizing and Sterilizing. Heating milk for the purpose of 
 destroying the germs present is effected by means of two methods, 
 known as sterilization and pasteurization. Pasteurized milk has the 
 same relation to sterilized milk that rare-done beef has to well-done 
 beef. Such milk has not been heated sufficiently to give it the 
 cooked taste, and its preparation is founded on the fact that disease 
 germs can be destroyed at a temperature below that which causes 
 this cooked condition. As most of the other germs in the milk are 
 destroyed at the same time, such milk is greatly improved as regards 
 its keeping qualities.
 
 208 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Sterilized milk, properly speaking, is that which has had all 
 of its germ content destroyed. Hence if such milk be guarded from 
 further contamination, it will remain unaltered, even at ordinary 
 temperatures, for an indefinite period. To destroy all the germs in 
 milk, including the spores, it becomes necessary to subject it to the 
 action of live steam under pressure, at a temperature considerably 
 above the boiling point (240). Such a proceeding is neither prac- 
 ticable nor necessary in the household, as pasteurizing serves all 
 ordinary purposes. Milk may, however, be completely sterilized 
 by repeated pasteurization. The heating is repeated daily for nearly 
 a week, because all the spores present do not germinate after the close 
 of the first or even after the second heating, though there are very 
 few that remain. While milk sterilized by this method, has no 
 cooked flavor, yet it is a method commercially impracticable. 
 
 What is generally called sterilized milk is not entirely free 
 from germs, but having been subjected to a more thorough heating 
 than with pasteurization, and being guarded against further con- 
 tamination, it will keep longer than does pasteurized milk. This 
 is its main advantage, for it has to a greater or less degree the cooked 
 flavor. 
 
 The Simplest Method of Pasteurizing. If there is no objection 
 on the part of the consumer to the cooked flavor, the process of heat- 
 ing milk need not be so carefully done. No thermometer is needed. 
 All that is necessary is to bring the milk to the boiling condition. 
 But if one is to pasteurize milk it is necessary to use a thermometer. 
 One costing twenty-five cents is sufficient for this purpose. 
 
 The simplest method of pasteurizing milk requires no addi- 
 tional apparatus aside from the commonest kitchen utensils. One 
 has simply to heat the milk as rapidly as possible in a common gran- 
 iteware pan, stirring all the while with a spoon of convenient size, 
 while the thermometer is held in the milk. As soon as the mercury 
 has run up to 185 (which occurs very quickly) the dish is covered, 
 removed from the fire and set aside. In our own practice we receive 
 the milk at 9 A. M. It is at once scalded at 185. This suffices for 
 the day. After supper, what is left, is heated again to preserve it 
 for breakfast. No refrigeration is used. Where the milk is received 
 in time for breakfast, unless some is needed through the night, the 
 second heating is unnecessary. In case there is no fear of disease 
 germs, what is used for the first meal or two (depending on the 
 season) can be used raw, while the portion that is reserved for later 
 use is heated. Milk can be kept for some days without ice, even in 
 warm weather, by this method of scalding night and morning. The 
 use of ice makes one heating a day to be sufficient. 
 
 Pasteurizing Milk in Bottles. The bottles known as sterilizing 
 bottles are tall, narrow ones, with a capacity of eight ounces, or half 
 pint. After being filled with milk, the bottles are corked most con- 
 veniently by means of a wad or plug of cotton batting. But of course 
 care must be used that this does not become wet, and the bottles 
 must be kept upright. They may also be stoppered with ordinary 
 corks which have recently been boiled each time before using, and
 
 MILK 209 
 
 then less care to keep the bottles upright will be needed. But corks 
 must be firmly tied down, when sterilizing is done, to prevent their 
 being forced out. 
 
 To heat the milk in these bottles, it is necessary to put them into 
 a boiler upon a perforated false bottom or platform to keep them 
 from direct contact with the bottom of the boiler. Water is poured 
 in around the bottles to the same level as the milk. This water is 
 heated, and as the temperature of the milk lags some ten or more 
 degrees behind that of the water, the latter must be raised to the 
 boiling point, when the bottles can be removed and cooled, gradually, 
 to prevent their cracking. As it is advantageous to cool the milk 
 rapidly, the use of tin cans of similar shape as the bottles is recom- 
 mended. Such cans may be put at once in iced water. The part of 
 the bottles above the milk is not pasteurized, and hence the bottles 
 should be kept upright to prevent contamination. 
 
 At 170, water begins to steam, and simmer; while boiling be- 
 gins at 190 to 195, at which time the milk in the bottles has 
 reached 185. ^ 
 
 If it is desired to pasteurize at a lower temperature, say at 155, 
 the water must be held at this point for half an hour, and at 140 
 for about an hour. This will take more care and time than the 
 method described. 
 
 To use this boiler as a sterilizer it is only necessary to boil the 
 water for about ten minutes to half an hour, or longer. The time 
 will depend on whether the bottles are taken out and cooled at once 
 or left in the hot water to cool gradually. In the latter case the 
 boiling can be shorter. 
 
 The boiler can also be used as a steamer, by putting less water 
 in and putting on the cover. When bottles are plugged with cotton 
 it is necessary to remove the cover when the steaming is completed 
 to prevent the plugs from getting wet by the condensing steam. In 
 this case the plugs and upper parts of the bottles become sterilized. 
 If desired, the plugs may be withdrawn after sterilizing, and steril- 
 ized corks substituted, care being exercised to prevent the finger from 
 touching the bottom of the corks or the lips of the bottle. Or, the 
 cotton plugs can be made impervious by saturating them with melted 
 paraffine. This, of course, must not be done until after the steaming 
 is completed. (N. J. B. 152.) 
 
 Supposed Effect of Thunderstorms. A consideration of the 
 subject of the souring of milk would not be complete without refer- 
 ence to the effect of electricity. The popular belief that thunder- 
 storms will sour milk is so widespread that it would seem as if there 
 must be some foundation for it. It has been asserted by many that 
 the ozone produced in the air by electricity causes the milk to be- 
 come sour. In experiments in which electric sparks were discharged 
 over the surface of the milk, however, little or no effect has been 
 produced upon it. The conclusion is that electricity is not of itself 
 capable of souring milk or even of materially hastening the process. 
 Nor can the ozone developed during the thunderstorm be looked 
 upon as of any great importance. It seems probable that the connec-
 
 210 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 tion between the thunderstorm and the souring of milk is one of a 
 different character. Bacteria certainly grow most rapidly in the 
 warm, sultry conditions which usually precede a thunderstorm, and 
 it frequently happens that the thunderstorm and the souring occur 
 together, not because the thunder has hastened the souring, but 
 rather because the climatic conditions which have brought the storm 
 have at the same time been such as to cause unusually rapid growth 
 of the bacteria. This fact has been verified by many experiments 
 which have shown that without the presence of lactic organisms there 
 can be no spontaneous souring of milk. Milk deprived of bacteria 
 will certainly keep well during thunderstorms. Dairymen find no 
 difficulty in keeping milk if it is cooled immediately after being 
 drawn from the cow and is kept cool. Milk submerged in cool water 
 is not affected by thunderstorms. Dairymen find that during "dog- 
 day" weather, even when there is no thunder, it is just as difficult 
 to keep milk as it is during thunderstorms, and they also find that 
 scrupulous cleanliness in regard to the milk vessels is the best pos- 
 sible remedy against souring during a thunderstorm. It is safe to 
 conclude, therefore, that in all cases it is the bacteria which sour the 
 milk, and if there seems to be a casual connection between the 
 thunder and the souring it is an indirect one only; climatic condi- 
 tions have hastened bacteria growth and have also brought on the 
 thunderstorm. The same conditions would affect the milk in exactly 
 the same way even though no thunderstorms were produced, and this 
 effect, our dairymen tell us, is frequently observed during the warm, 
 sultry autumn days. 
 
 FERMENTED MILKS. 
 
 Food Value of Fermented Milk. The high food value of milk 
 is too generally recognized to need discussion here ; fermented milks 
 also have a high food value, except that in some cases the fat is 
 partially or entirely removed. Otherwise the food value of the fer- 
 mented milk differs little from that of the fresh milk from which' 
 it is made. Any increased digestibility of the fermented milk is due 
 not so much to change in the chemical nature as to the fact that 
 the casein is furnished in a precipitated and finely divided condi- 
 tion. In none of the fermented milks is there any material cleavage 
 of the casein resembling the digestion in the stomach. The fat is 
 almost unchanged, and a part only of the sugar is converted into 
 acid, alcohol, or gas. In certain gastric troubles in which it is diffi- 
 cult to find any food that can be retained by the patient, fermented 
 milks are frequently used with good results. Kefir and kumiss 
 especially are used under such circumstances, as the stimulating 
 action of the carbon dioxid which they contain is believed to aid in 
 their digestion. The value to the physician of a highly nutritious 
 food which can be digested when other foods are rejected is obvious. 
 
 Therapeutic Value of Fermented Milk. Fermented milks have 
 been used since very early times, and it is probable that their value 
 in treating intestinal disorders has been known in an indefinite 
 way for centuries, but it is only in recent years that their therapeutic 
 possibilities have been recognized by physicians. The development
 
 MILK 211 
 
 of bacteriology was necessary to supply the information on which 
 the rational use of this therapeutic agent is based. For the past 
 fifteen or twenty years medical journals have contained occasional 
 papers on fermented milks of various kinds, and at one time the 
 use of kumiss in the treatment of tuberculosis and other diseases 
 was much discussed. The present interest in the subject is largely 
 due to the work of Metchnikoff and his students. 
 
 Fermented milks are now recommended when a nutritious and 
 digestible food is essential, but it is in the treatment of disorders re- 
 sulting from autointoxication that their chief value is supposed to 
 lie. Autointoxication may be caused by the undue accumulation 
 of poisonous substances which, are promptly removed in health. 
 Toxic substances usually found in small quantities may be produced 
 in excess, or, what is more common, toxins may be formed by bac- 
 teria in the intestines in amounts too great to be disposed of through 
 the usual channels. These toxic substances are absorbed into the 
 system and produce symptoms which may be merely an uncomfort- 
 able feeling of indigestion and headache, or which may assume the 
 more acute form frequently and erroneously spoken of as ptomaine 
 
 Eoisoning. This form of autointoxication is usually accompanied 
 y intestinal gas and foul-smelling stools. One symptom 01 great 
 value to the physician is the excretion in the urine of abnormal 
 quantities of indican and ethereal sulphates. 
 
 The Various Forms of Fermented Milk. If it is considered 
 advisable to use cultures of acid-forming bacteria, the form in which 
 these are taken becomes an important question. In large cities one 
 usually has a choice of lactic-acid bacteria from several sources. 
 Buttermilk is usually available, although it is not always of good 
 quality. Sometimes kumiss or kefir can be obtained, and at the, 
 present time milk coagulated with the so-called Metchnikoff bacillus 
 is sold as yoghurt or matzoon and under various trade names. 
 
 Buttermilk. This, properly speaking, is the by-product result- 
 ing when milk or cream is churned for butter making. It is the 
 milk remaining after the fat has been collected in globules and re- 
 moved. If cream is churned when sweet the buttermilk does not 
 differ from ordinary skimmed milk, but if it is churned when sour 
 the usual practice the acidity is sufficient to coagulate the casein 
 in the cream. In the churning process this curd is broken up into 
 very fine particles. These curd particles settle very slowly, and if 
 the buttermilk is agitated occasionally it will retain its milky ap- 
 pearance. When the buttermilk is allowed to stand undisturbed for 
 several hours the curd particles sink to the bottom leaving an opal- 
 escent whey at the top. At the present time a large part of the but- 
 termilk sold in cities is not made by churning cream, but is simply 
 soured skimmed milk which has been churned or stirred in order 
 to break up the curd. The same product is sold also under the name 
 of ripened milk. 
 
 The souring of milk or cream is brought about by the activity 
 of certain bacteria which form lactic acid by decomposing the milk 
 sugar (lactose). The ability to form acid from lactose and other
 
 212 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sugars is possessed by many kinds of bacteria, but is so character- 
 istic of a certain group that they^ are commonly spoken of as the 
 lactic-acid bacteria. These bacteria have been described as distinct 
 species or varieties under many names. Among these may be men- 
 tioned Bacterium guntheri, Bacillus acidi lactici, Streptococcus lac- 
 ticus, and many others. In spite of the confusion in nomenclature 
 it is evident that the term "lactic-acid bacteria" includes a fairly 
 well-defined group of closely related varieties possessing in common 
 several definite characters. Variations from the type in minor char- 
 acters produce an almost infinite number of varieties. These varia- 
 tions may be in the ability to ferment different sugars, in the ten- 
 dency to grow in chains, in the kind of flavor formed in milk, in 
 the intensity of acid formation, and in the ability to produce patho- 
 logical conditions in animals. 
 
 In making buttermilk from milk the same procedure should be 
 followed as in making a starter for cream ripening. A good, clean- 
 flavored mother starter should be carried along with every possible 
 precaution to prevent contamination. Good commercial cultures 
 can be obtained, but if it is not convenient to use one of these a 
 natural starter can be secured. 
 
 Milk to be used for making buttermilk should be fresh and 
 clean flavored. Good buttermilk can not be made from milk that 
 is tainted or too old to be used for other purposes. Skimmed, partly 
 skimmed, or whole milk, as desired, may be used. 
 
 Butter makers in the Northwest make a very refreshing and 
 nutritious drink by adding sugar and lemons to buttermilk. As the 
 casein is already precipitated, the acid juice of the lemon has no 
 effect. Slightly more sugar and lemon juice are necessary than in 
 making ordinary lemonade, and the mixture should be well iced. 
 
 Kefir. Fermented milks have evidently been extensively used 
 by the people of southern Russia, Turkey, the Balkan countries, 
 and their neighbors for many centuries. The natives have no 
 records and few traditions of the origin of the milks they use, and 
 it is probable that their preparation and use developed gradually 
 by accident and cumulative experience. One of the first of the fer- 
 mented milks known to Europeans was the kefir, made in the Cau- 
 casus Mountains and neighboring regions from the milk of sheep, 
 goats, and cows. Kefir differs from most of the fermented milks of 
 the Mediterranean countries in that it is made from a dried prepa- 
 ration and contains considerable quantities of alcohol and gas. 
 Kefir is made by many tribes under varying names, as hippe, kepi, 
 khapon, kephir, kiaphir, and kaphir, all of which are said to come 
 from a common root signifying a pleasant or agreeable taste. 
 
 The mountaineers of the Caucasus depend for a large part of 
 their food on kefir, which they prepare in leather bottles made from 
 the skins of goats. In the summer the skins are hung out of doors 
 either in the sun or in the shade according to the weather, but in 
 winter they are kept in the house. The bags are usually hung near 
 a doorway, where they may be frequently shaken or kicked by each 
 passer-by. Fresh milk is added as the kefir is taken out, and the fer-
 
 IS 
 
 DIAGRAM OF Cow SHOWING POINTS. B. A. I. ISTH REPORT, i. HEAD. 2 MUZZLE. 
 3. NOSTRIL. 4. FACE. 5. EYE. 6. FOREHEAD. 7. HORN. 8. EAR. 9. CHEEK. 10. 
 THROAT. II.NECK. 12. WITHERS. 13. BACK. 14. LOINS. 15. HIP BONE. 16. PELVIC 
 ARCH. 17. RUMP. 18. TAIL. 19. SWITCH. 20. CHEST. 21. BRISKET. 22. DEWLAP. 
 23. SHOULDER. 24. ELBOW. 25. FOREARM. 26. KNEE. 27. ANKLE. 28. HOOF. 29. 
 HEART GIRTH. 30. SIDE OR BARREL. 31. BELLY. 32. FLANK. 33. MILK VEIN. 34. 
 FORE UDDER. 35. HIND UDDER. 36. TEATS. 37. UPPER THIGH. 38. STIFLE. 39. 
 TWIST. 40. LEG OR GASKIN. 41. HOCK. 42. SHANK. 43. DEW CLAW. 
 
 LATTICE RACK FOR FEEDING ALFALFA TO SHEEP. B. P. I. BUL. 31.
 
 MILK 215 
 
 mentation continues. Made and propagated in this way, foreign 
 bacteria becomes mingled with the essential bacteria of the grains, 
 and abnormal and frequently disagreeable flavors result. When the 
 milk is drawn off, in order to prevent the escape of gas, a string is. 
 first tied around the neck of the leather bottle, so that the small part 
 wanted for use is held between the stricture and the opening. In the 
 villages and the low country kefir is made in open earthen or wooden 
 vessels and most of the gas escapes. Small, yellowish, convoluted 
 masses are observed in kefir, which are called seeds or "grains." 
 
 Kumiss. The missionary monks and other wanderers who first 
 penetrated the undulating, treeless plains of European Russia and 
 central and southwestern Asia brought back descriptions of a fer- 
 mented drink which in the light of more recent investigations is 
 easily recognized as kumiss. These vast prairies are inhabited by 
 tribes of nomads who live in squalid huts or tents in the winter and 
 wander during the summer, seeking pasture for their horses, their 
 herds of cattle, or flocks of sheep. They are all horsemen, and by a 
 process of selection in which they have probably played only a 
 passive part have developed an exceptionally hardy race of horses. 
 The mares give much more than the ordinary amount of milk, which 
 constitutes almost the entire food of the people during the summer. 
 This is never used in the fresh condition, but is fermented to make 
 kumiss. Unlike kefir, there is no dried ferment, seeds, or grains 
 with which the fermentation of the mare's milk is started. It is the 
 practice of the natives, when it becomes necessary to establish the 
 fermentation anew, to add to milk some fermenting or decaying 
 matter, such as a piece of flesh, tendon, or vegetable matter. What- 
 ever the material used to supply the essential organisms, it is evi- 
 dent that the milk is so cared for that a combination of an acid and 
 an alcoholic fermentation is favored and the necessary bacteria and 
 yeasts are soon established. No doubt the change in the milk is 
 produced under different circumstances by different combinations 
 of bacteria and yeasts, and there are usually present various con- 
 taminating organisms which are detrimental or at least are not 
 essential to the production of the kumiss. Native kumiss makers 
 lay great stress on the quality of the milk, the breed of the mares, 
 and the condition of the pastures; but it is probable that their 
 troubles ascribed to variations in these conditions are more likely due 
 to imperfectly controlled bacteriological factors. 
 
 There was at one time much interest in kumiss as a therapeutic 
 agent in the treatment of tuberculosis, and sanatoria were estab- 
 lished in Russia where invalids could be given this treatment. It is 
 probable that the benefits, real or imaginary, derived from this treat- 
 ment came more from the general methods, which corresponded 
 somewhat to present practices, than to the action of kumiss. 
 
 Kumiss is often made and offered for sale in this country, but 
 as this is usually made from cow's milk, it is, more correctly, kefir. 
 
 Yoghurt, etc. In passing to a consideration of the fermented 
 milks used by the people of the countries bordering on the eastern 
 end of the Mediterranean we find a preparation very distinct from
 
 216 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 that of the Caucasus and the Russian steppes. Kefir and kumiss are 
 limpid, mildly acid, and distinctly alcoholic; but the yoghurt, ya- 
 hourth, or jugurt of the Turks, the kisselo mleko of the Balkan peo- 
 ple, the mazun of Armenia, the gioddu of Sardinia, the dadhi of 
 India, and the leben or leben raib of Egypt are all thick curdled 
 milks, decidedly acid, and with very little or no alcohol. The 
 method of preparation is also quite different. Goat's, buffalo's, or 
 cow's milk may be used. This is usually boiled and sometimes is 
 reduced by evaporation to one-half its original volume. In the lat- 
 ter case it is not used as a drink, but is eaten, frequently with the ad- 
 dition of bread, dates, or other food. (Dep. Agr. Bu. An. Ind. 
 Circ. 171.) 
 
 Covered Milk Pails. The demand for a good wholesome grade 
 of milk produced under sanitary conditions is steadily increasing. 
 People in the cities are taking more and more interest in the san- 
 itary quality of the milk which they use in the household. The 
 general awakening in regard to the sanitary qualities of milk which 
 as taken place in the last few years can be attributed chiefly to two 
 causes. The first of these is in harmony with, and a part of the 
 general desire on the part of consumers for pure and wholesome 
 food products of all kinds and the milk supply has come in for its 
 share of investigation. The general supply of the cities has been 
 studied, methods of transportation have been considered and more 
 recently the conditions existing upon the farms where the milk is 
 produced have come in for their share of investigation. 
 
 The ordinary market milk which reaches the larger cities nor- 
 mally contains high numbers of bacteria. These are the result either 
 of more or less dirty conditions in the production of the milk or of 
 too warm a temperature after the milk has been produced or a com- 
 bination of these two conditions. It is perfectly possible to produce 
 milk containing a very low number of bacteria, a fact which has 
 been demonstrated by many producers of so-called sanitary or cer- 
 tified milk. Consumers in general at the present time are not will- 
 ing to pay the increased price charged for the so-call*ed certified 
 grades of milk which are now available in practically all cities. 
 
 Most of the detrimental changes which occur in milk are caused 
 by bacteria. The chief source of these organisms is the dust and 
 dirt which fall into the milk, principally while the milk is being 
 drawn from the cow and before it leaves the stable. Any means, 
 therefore, for preventing the entrance of dirt into the milk during 
 the process of milking will tend to improve the sanitary quality of 
 the product. One of the most practical devices used at the present 
 time for the purpose of excluding dirt and bacteria from the milk 
 during the process of production is some form of covered milk pail. 
 The ordinary milk pail is about twelve inches in diameter and if it is 
 entirely uncovered it is easy to see that a considerable amount of 
 dirt might fall into the milk during the process of milking. If, 
 however, this opening can be reduced to a small proportion of the 
 entire area of the pail the amount of dirt which could fall in would 
 be correspondingly reduced. The demand for some form of covered
 
 MILK 217 
 
 pail which is both effective in excluding dirt and bacteria and which 
 is at the same time practical has resulted in the development of a 
 number of styles of covered milk pails. The purpose sought in all 
 of these is the same; namely, to reduce as far as possible the area 
 through which dirt and dust can fall into the pail. The amount to 
 which the opening can be reduced is necessarily limited because 
 a certain sized opening is necessary for the practical operation of 
 any pail. 
 
 The following gives, in a condensed form, the results of some 
 carefully made experiments with several kinds of covered pails : 
 
 The use of the covered milk pail is of great advantage in any 
 stable in excluding dirt and bacteria from the milk. The relative 
 advantage gained by the use of the cover depends upon the sanitary 
 condition of the stable. 
 
 The special form of cover does not seem to be important pro- 
 vided it is a device practical for use and the area through which 
 dirt can gain access to the milk is reduced as much as possible. 
 
 Whether or not a strainer on the covered pail is desirable 
 depends upon the style of the straining device. 
 
 The use of the strainer in a pail where the dirt which falls 
 into the opening is likely to be driven through by the succeeding 
 streams of milk is not desirable. Its use tends to increase the germ 
 content of the milk and injure its keeping quality. 
 
 In pails where the dirt which falls in does not remain where 
 the succeeding streams strike against it a strainer cloth aids in 
 keeping down the number of bacteria which gain access to the 
 milk. The North pail is an illustration of this type. 
 
 The use of absorbent cotton as a strainer is a decided advantage 
 in preventing the entrance of bacteria into the milk. (Conn. 
 B. 48.) 
 
 COW-TESTING ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 Opportunity and Need. According to the Twelfth Census the 
 average production of butterfat per cow in the United States in 
 1900 was 145 pounds, which compared with the average produc- 
 tion of 224 pounds of butter per cow in Denmark is entirely too 
 low. The Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture 
 reports that on January 1, 1910, there were 21,801,000 milch cows 
 in the United States, and if it were possible to inaugurate a system 
 whereby the average production per cow might be increased even 
 one pound of butterfat in a year, this increase would amount to 
 21,801,000 pounds, which at the price of 30 cents a pound would be 
 worth $6,540,300. If such an increase could be brought about by 
 better selection of cows and feeding stuffs, the sum mentioned could 
 be figured practically as clear profit. Investigations by experiment 
 stations and breeding associations show that there are a large num- 
 ber of cows which yield greatly in excess of this average, some reach- 
 ing an amount as high as 800 or 900 pounds of butterfat in a year 
 one cow even 998 pound-. This being the case, there must be a 
 large number of cows which yield less than 145 pounds of butterfat 
 in a year.
 
 218 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The Practical Difficulty. The difficulty has been to devise a 
 system whereby the unprofitable cows might be detected. It is a 
 common belief among farmers that the man who does the milking 
 knows the best cows in the herd, as well as the poorest ; but numer- 
 ous experiments have demonstrated clearly that this belief is not 
 warranted. Many factors enter to lead the judgment astray. The 
 cow which gives a generous flow of milk during the first few weeks 
 of her period of lactation is usually regarded as the best cow. She 
 may soon go down in her flow of milk, and perhaps goes dry for four 
 or five months of the year, but this is not observed, and only the 
 memory of the large flow she gave when fresh lingers in the mind of 
 the owner. 
 
 Another cow may give only a fair flow of milk when she first 
 comes in, and may not be regarded highly by her owner; but she 
 may continue at the same rate of yield for a long period, and 
 will in the end prove a great deal more valuable than the other cow. 
 No milker can tell, without weighing the milk regularly, whether 
 a cow gives 6,000 or 8,000 pounds of milk in a year; still the differ- 
 ence may prove the difference between profit and loss on that par- 
 ticular cow 
 
 When the milk is valued according to its butterfat content 
 unsupported estimates of the cow's performance are still more un- 
 certain. It requires frequent testing to ascertain the average per- 
 centage of fat in the milk a cow yields; the test may vary greatly 
 from milking to milking and from day to day. There may also 
 be a great variation in the richness of the milk yielded by a cow 
 when she is fresh as compared with a time later in the period of 
 lactation. 
 
 The First American Association. The cow-testing movement 
 in the United States was inaugurated at Fremont, Mich., September 
 26, 1905, under the name of the Newaygo County Dairy Testing As- 
 sociation. The general purpose for which it was formed was to pro- 
 mote the dairy interests of its members, and particularly to provide 
 means and methods for testing the milk of the cows of the members 
 periodically. It consisted of 31 members, and 239 cows completed 
 the first year's test. The officers of the association consisted of a 
 president, a vice-president, a secretary and treasurer, and a board of 
 nine directors. This board had the management of the business of 
 the association and employed a cow tester, who made nionthly visits 
 to each herd, and as there are only twenty-six working days in a 
 month, it was necessary for him in some cases to test two herds in 
 one day. 
 
 Methods of Operation. The cow tester arrives at the farm in the 
 afternoon and remains there for twenty-four hours, when he is car- 
 ried by the farmer to the farm of the next member in the association. 
 
 On his arrival at the stable the cow tester enters in a book which 
 he carries for this purpose the name and number of each cow in the 
 herd, whether she gives milk or not. As it is the purpose of the work 
 to ascertain the actual status of the whole herd, as well as of the indi- 
 vidual, every cow in the stable should be entered on the list. It is ob-
 
 MILK 219 
 
 vious that if only cows with large yields were entered on the list, 
 at the end of the year the herd would show a higher average than 
 the truth would warrant. For this reason, and in hope of obtaining 
 commercial advantages from such high records, some dairymen have 
 preferred not to have the whole herd tested; but it is a rule of the 
 cow-testing association to obtain records of every animal in the herd 
 which has had one calf, and no records are published where such is 
 not the case. 
 
 The cow tester takes part in the feeding of the cows, and while 
 doing so he weighs the amount of roughage and grain each cow re- 
 ceives and records these data in a book which he carries with him at 
 all times. The milk yielded by each cow is weighed and samples of 
 it are obtained for testing. Records of the feed and the yield for 
 each individual are again obtained and recorded the next morning, 
 and after breakfast the fat determination is made. During the fore- 
 noon the calculations are made and entered in the record book, which 
 at all times remains in the possession of the farmer. 
 
 The milking is done at the usual milking time, in order that 
 the average yield may be obtained as accurately as possible. In case 
 of competition between the herds, there may be a tendency to milk 
 early in the morning on the day the tester is expected to arrive. In 
 this way the yield for the testing day might be somewhat increased. 
 To guard against this it is customary in some associations for the 
 cow tester not to follow a regular route, so that it will be impossible 
 for the dairyman to know the exact day on which to expect him. 
 
 In weighing the milk a shotgun can a can 8 inches in diame- 
 ter and 20 inches high is used. It holds 35 pounds and has straight 
 sides, with a handle near the bottom so that it may be easily emptied. 
 The empty can should weigh even pounds so that mistakes in sub- 
 traction may be avoided. It has straight sides so that accurate samples 
 may be obtained by the use of an instrument known as a milk thief, 
 as with an ordinary milk pail with a flaring top an accurate sample 
 might not always be obtained, owing to the greater area of the milk 
 at the surface than at the bottom. If the herd is large it is desirable 
 to have two of these cans with straight sides so that the milker may 
 pour the milk into them and proceed to milk the next cow without 
 waiting for the tester to weigh and sample the milk. In this way 
 time is saved in the stable. 
 
 For weighing the milk a special spring balance is used, weigh- 
 ing to 30 pounds and having two indicators, one of which is adjust- 
 able and should be set at zero when the weigh can is on the scales. 
 The balance is graduated in tenths of pounds and is frequently tested 
 so that any stretching of the spring may be immediately detected. 
 The milk is poured from pail to pail two or three times and the 
 sample for testing is taken immediately after such pouring is com- 
 pleted. 
 
 The fat determinations are invariably made at the farm. The 
 reason for this is the difficulty in transporting the samples to the 
 creamer}'- without leakage, churning of the milk in hot weather, 
 etc., any of which renders correct determination difficult. Another
 
 220 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and equally important reason is that the dairyman becomes more in- 
 terested in the work if it is done on the farm. He usually assists the 
 expert with the testing and in this way acquires an understanding of 
 the principles and the use of the Babcock test which he would not 
 otherwise get. 
 
 If a cow is in heat or temporarily out of condition on the testing 
 day, no sample of her milk is taken, as there is usually an abnormal 
 fluctuation in the fat content at such times, and the calculations 
 based upon tests taken then may be several pounds too high or too 
 low. The fact of such temporary abnormal condition is recorded in 
 the herd book, and the average of the preceding and the following 
 months' tests is used in the calculations. 
 
 Milk fresh from cows for the first three days can not be consid- 
 ered normal, and calculations based upon a test at that time may be 
 very erroneous. It is the rule not to use the test of a cow's milk for 
 calculations until she has attained a normal condition. If she has 
 not reached this condition on testing day the following month's test 
 is used as a basis for calculation. The yield for the first three days 
 is omitted from the record, and the cow is considered as being dry 
 when she is not milked every day. 
 
 The day upon which the test is made is called the testing day, 
 and the records obtained on that day are used as a unit for each day 
 in the period extending equal lengths of time on both sides of the 
 testing day. This period is called the testing period, and is so marked 
 off as to end exactly in the middle of the time between two testing 
 days. Observance of this rule is very important, as it materially 
 affects the accuracy of the work. The number of days in the testing 
 period is understood to include both the dates mentioned as begin- 
 ning and end of the period ; thus, if the testing period begins March 
 15 and ends April 14, there will be thirty-one days in the testing 
 period. The yields of milk and butterfat for the testing period are 
 found by multiplying the yield on the testing day by the number of 
 days in the period. The daily yield of milk is recorded in tenths 
 and the monthly yield in whole pounds, while the yield of butterfat 
 is recorded in tenths of a pound. If 12 tests are made in the year, 12 
 testing periods will result, and the sum of the records thus obtained 
 will furnish a total summary of the various items for one year. 
 
 It is 'always advisable that the dairyman should make daily 
 weighings of each cow's milk. By doing this he will discover at once 
 any sudden fluctuation in the milk yield, and may in many cases 
 be able to locate and remedy the cause. He should also note when 
 each cow goes dry, when she is bred, the date of calving, and any 
 changes in feed during the testing period, so that he may be able to 
 give the cow tester this information when he arrives. 
 
 A Michigan Association's Record for the First Four Years. 
 The Newaygo County Dairy Testing Association, the first cow-test- 
 ing association organized in the United States, has now been in 
 operation for a number of years. At the end _of the first year a 
 number of members withdrew from the association, but new mem-
 
 MILK 221 
 
 bers were readily found, and the association is now able to get more- 
 members than it can take care of. 
 
 Method of Organizing. The usual way of organizing an asso- 
 ciation has been to ascertain the extent of the interest in dairying 
 in a community, and to call a meeting and explain the merits of the 
 cow-testing association as an institution. If enough interest is ex- 
 hibited to warrant going on with the work, a temporary organiza- 
 tion is effected, and the neighborhood is thoroughly canvassed dur- 
 ing the following few days in search of additional members for the 
 association. When enough have been secured a second meeting is 
 called, at which the organization is perfected, officers elected, and 
 by-laws adopted. 
 
 In order to support a cow-testing association it is necessary that 
 there should be 26 herds, conveniently located, and a sufficient num- 
 ber of cows so that the tester can get a reasonably good salary. As 
 it is each member's duty to furnish the tester's conveyance to his 
 next place of work, it is necessary that the farms of the members be 
 located near enough together so he can be conveyed without incon- 
 venience. A distance of 2 miles is not too great to give satisfaction, 
 and the conveyance is often furnished by some passer-by. If the 
 cow tester keeps his own horse and buggy, as is the case in some asso- 
 ciations, a larger territory is usually accommodated. In such cases 
 the members must furnish feed and stabling for his horse. The 
 charge to the farmer is usually $1 a year for each cow. This money 
 constitutes the pay of the tester; and it is desirable that there should 
 be not less than 400 cows in an association, in which case the tester 
 gets $400 a year. In addition he gets his board and lodging free of 
 charge at the farm where he is working. There being only twenty- 
 six working days in a month, it is not possible to have more than 26 
 members, except in cases where two men with small herds live very 
 close together so that it is possible to test both herds in one day. 
 On such farms the regular milking time is fixed so that the tester can 
 attend to the weighing and testing in the first herd and still have 
 plenty of time to get to the second herd by the regular milking hour. 
 In addition to the $1 a cow, the farmer pays a membership fee of 
 25 cents yearly. This money, which for 26 members amounts to 
 $6.50, is used for paying incidental expenses, postage, cost of sul- 
 phuric acid, etc. 
 
 The Testing Outfit. A testing outfit consists of a 12 j bottle 
 Babcock tester with case and glassware, a shotgun can fitted up with 
 3 trays containing sample bottles, a spring balance, a milk thief, a 
 thermometer, a pair of dividers, and the necessary books and record 
 blanks The outfit, with the Babcock tester, is sometimes furnished 
 by the State authorities, but in case it must be purchased by the as- 
 sociation assessments have to be levied for this purpose unless the 
 number of cows is great enough so that it can be paid out of the fund 
 collected at the rate of $1 a cow. The necessary books and blanks 
 have in some ca.es been provided by the United States Department of 
 Agriculture until such time as the States have appropriations from 
 which to supply these. The States of Michigan, Wisconsin, Ver-
 
 222 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 mont, Ohio, Iowa, and Maine now have provision for supplying this 
 material to associations within their own borders. 
 
 Qualifications of the Tester. The cow tester has much to do 
 with the successful working of an association. He should be well 
 fitted temperamentally and should have had special training for the 
 work. Punctuality, regularity, and accuracy are of great impor- 
 tance, for unless he has these qualities the records may not be a true 
 indication of the value of the respective cows. The tester should also 
 have the ability to advise and teach the farmers, and for this reason 
 it is necessary that he be constituted temperamentally to give ad- 
 vice in such a manner that it will be accepted and followed. 
 
 The work of a cow-testing association depends largely for its 
 success upon the capability, reliability, and conscientiousness of the 
 tester; but, on the other hand, the result of this work depends also 
 upon the members. They should be willing to profit by the lessons 
 which the cow testing teaches and ready to put into effect such 
 changes in feed, stabling, and operation of the dairy as the records 
 show will be profitable. 
 
 In this country, as well as in Europe, the position of cow tester 
 offers excellent opportunities for dairy students to gain practical 
 experience and is the best kind of school to fit them for responsible 
 positions in connection with dairy work. (Dep. Agr. Bu. An. Ind. 
 Cir. 179.) 
 
 CERTIFIED MILK. 
 
 Milk Commissions. The first milk commission was organized 
 April 13, 1893, and it was not until five years later (1898) that the 
 second was formed. After 1899 the movement spread more rapidly 
 and commissions were organized as follows: One in 1900, one in 
 1901, five in 1902, two in 1903, three in 1904, one in 1905, five in 
 1906, and thirteen organized or in process of organizing in 1907. 
 The subject is being agitated in several cities at the present time 
 and it is quite probable that the number of commissions will be con- 
 siderably increased in the near future. 
 
 Objects of the Commission. The objects and requirements of 
 the commission were stated as follows : To establish correct clinical 
 standards of purity for cow's milk ; to become responsible for a peri- 
 odical inspection of the dairies under its patronage; provide for 
 chemical and bacteriological examinations of the product, and the 
 frequent scrutiny of the stock by competent veterinarians; to pro- 
 mote only professional and public interests. 
 
 The following are three general requirements or standards for 
 the milk: (1) An absence of large numbers of micro-organisms, 
 and the entire freedom of the milk from pathogenic varieties; (2) 
 unvarying resistance to early fermentative changes in the milk, so 
 that it may be kept under ordinary conditions without extraordinary- 
 care; (3)_ a constant nutritive value of known chemical composition, 
 and a uniform relation between the percentage of fats, proteids, and 
 carbohydrates. 
 
 Certified Dairies and Quantity of Milk Produced. The number 
 of dairies producing milk for any one commission varies from 1 to
 
 CLEAN Cows, GOOD BEDDING, PURE MILK. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 Cows IN FILTHY CONDITION; CLEAN MILK IMPOSSIBLE. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 MILK 223 
 
 20. Eleven commissions have 1 each; three have 2; one has 3; 
 one 4; and one 20. The least amount handled daily by any one 
 commission is 120 quarts and the greatest amount 9,373 quarts. A 
 few commissions certify to cream as well as milk. 
 
 Standards for Condition and Quality of Milk. The standards 
 for bacteria vary with the different commissions. Of the 20 report- 
 ing standards, 13 place the number at 10,000 per cubic centimeter, 
 1 at 20,000, and 3 at 30,000. One has a standard of 10,000 from 
 October to April, and 20,000 from April to October. Another has 
 a standard of 5,000 in winter and 10,000 in summer, and another 
 a standard of 25,000 in winter and 50,000 in summer. The stand- 
 ard for cream in all cases where it is certified is 25,000 per cubic 
 centimeter. 
 
 The standard required for fat in eight instances is a minimum 
 of 4 per cent; in three instances, 3.5; in two, 4.5; and in one, 3.7+. 
 Four allow a range of 3.5 to 4.5, one a range of 3.25 to 4.50, and 
 one 3.75 to 4.50. One puts out a special milk containing a higher 
 percentage of fat, which must keep within the limits of 4.50 and 5.50 
 per cent. One commission specifies that the cream must not vary 
 more than 2 per cent from the guaranty. Only eight commissions 
 report standards for solids not fat. These range from 8 to 9.3 per 
 cent. 
 
 Living up to the Standard. Twelve commissions report that 
 their dairies have no difficulty in producing milk that is up to the 
 required standards. Five report a little difficulty, and one states that 
 there was no trouble with the bacteria count, but that it took several 
 months to reach the fat standard, which was 4 per cent. 
 
 Inspection of Dairy and Product. The answers from the vari- 
 ous commissions relative to inspections show considerable variation. 
 In some instances the inspections are made by members of the com- 
 mission and in others paid inspectors are employed to do the work. 
 As a rule inspections of the dairy are made monthly either by a 
 veterinarian or a member of the commission, or both, and in some 
 instances inspections are made every two weeks. The tuberculin 
 test is usually applied annually, but in some cases this is done every 
 six months. Chemical and bacteriological examinations range all 
 the way from once a week to once in two months; in most instances, 
 however, it is the practice to make tests every two weeks or oftener. 
 
 Health of Employes. The employes in certified-milk plants 
 are required to be clean in habits and appearance and are not admit- 
 ted to the stables or dairy if not in good health. Some commissions 
 require that employes be regularly examined by a physician and 
 given certificates of health. In some certified plants attendants when 
 ill arc cared for in a building specially set apart for the purpose. 
 
 Precautions to Prevent Spread of Contagious Diseases. Where 
 a large milk business is conducted and several thousand customers 
 are served daily, there is danger that some contagious disease may be 
 brought to the dairy in some of the bottles. To avoid this, in some 
 instances a wagon makes a special trip to collect bottles from any 
 house where a contagious disease is known to exist. These bottles
 
 224 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 are thoroughly boiled in a special room before they come to the 
 dairy proper. They are then subjected to the same cleansing process 
 as all the others. 
 
 The Production of Certified Milk. The number of cows in 
 herds producing certified milk varies from 25 to 500. Practically 
 every breed is represented in some of these herds, and some grade 
 or native stock is found in two-thirds of them. There are several 
 herds of registered animals. The breed is not considered of special 
 importance with most of the commissions, provided the composition 
 of the milk produced is within the limits of the standard prescribed. 
 The health of the animals and cleanliness of the surroundings and 
 product are the most important elements in production. The pro- 
 duction of the different herds ranges from 225 to 5,000 quarts daily 
 (though the milk from the largest herd is not all certified). The 
 butterfat in the milk as reported varies from 3.6 to 6.5 per cent 
 and averages about 4.69 per cent. 
 
 Bacteria in the Milk. The number of bacteria in the milk, as 
 reported by the dairymen, varies all the way from 200 to 10,000 per 
 cubic centimeter. One has an average of 3,317 for 43 weeks ; another 
 reports a count of below 1,000 for one year and an average of 150 
 for 15 successive weeks from samples taken at random in the city. 
 
 Cleaning and Disinfecting Stables. It is the general practice 
 in certified dairies to remove the manure at least twice daily to the 
 field, or to a suitable pit some distance from the stable. In the most 
 carefully managed dairies the whole interior of the stable is washed 
 and scrubbed daily with water containing a washing compound. 
 Some use a disinfectant in the water once or twice a week, as bichlorid 
 of mercury, carbolic acid, or permanganate of potash. Bichlorid 
 of mercury is probably the most expensive of any of the dis- 
 infectants; aside from this fact it is one of the most satisfactory be- 
 cause it gives off no odor. One dairyman uses cresol in water daily. 
 Where the interior of the stable is built of wood, it is whitewashed 
 from two to twelve times annually, or kept well painted. Land 
 plaster is the most common disinfectant for floors and gutters. 
 Slacked lime is also satisfactory for this purpose. Shavings are most 
 in favor for bedding. Some dairymen do not use any bedding, but 
 this system is not recommended. 
 
 Cleaning and Treatment of Cows. The cows are cleaned daily 
 with currycomb and brush. The udder and parts in proximity to 
 it are either washed and wiped with a clean towel, or are wiped with 
 a damp cloth or sponge. In many cases the udder, flanks, etc., are 
 clipped periodically. Occasionally a dairyman sprays stables and 
 cows immediately before milking. It is a common practice to fasten 
 up the cows after they have been cleaned, in such a w r ay that they 
 can not lie down till they have been milked. 
 
 In a few dairies where extraordinary care is .used, the whole 
 body of the cow is groomed an hour or more before each milking, 
 and any soiled parts are scrubbed with a brush and water containing 
 a washing compound ; the entire body is bathed from the neck back ; 
 the tail is washed ; the udder is washed in sterile water from a sterile
 
 MILK 225 
 
 pail, and dried with a clean towel, a separate one being provided for 
 each cow. 
 
 Milkers and Milking. In a few dairies the milking is not done 
 in the regular stable, the cows being taken to a milking room en- 
 tirely separated from the rest of the barn. This room is well lighted, 
 and every precaution is taken to make it absolutely sanitary. Other 
 dairymen claim that just as good results can be secured by milking 
 in the regular stable if proper precautions are taken. As some of the 
 lowest bacteria counts on record have been obtained where the latter 
 plan is followed, this fact would seem to substantiate the claim. 
 
 The custom is almost universal for the milkers to be clad in 
 freshly laundered suits. Where the most extreme care is taken, the 
 clothing of each milker receives a thorough cleansing with boiling 
 water after every milking, and is then locked in an individual air- 
 tight drying room, where it is sterilized and dried by steam, remain- 
 ing there until wanted for use. Before putting on their special suits, 
 milkers are required to wash their hands and faces and clean their 
 nails. When ready for milking the milker is supplied with a pail 
 and a stool, both of which have been cleansed and sterilized since last 
 in use. With these extreme precautions, when the milker goes to the 
 milk room, he is as clean in person and equipment as it is possible 
 to make him. In milking it is a common practice to discard the 
 foremilk. The milking is done strictly with dry hands, except in 
 a few instances where vaseline is employed (a usage which is re- 
 ported to be entirely practical). In some dairies milkers are re- 
 quired to wash their hands before milking each cow, but this is not 
 the general practice. 
 
 Handling the Milk. After being drawn the milk is taken im- 
 mediately to a separate room, where it is strained into a can through 
 a double thickness of cheese cloth (a separate strainer being used for 
 each pail of milk). It is then taken immediately to the bottling 
 room, where usually it is cooled to a temperature as low as 45 to 
 50 F., and in some cases as low as 35F. Sometimes it is strained 
 again through absorbent cotton on reaching the cooling, room. In 
 a majority of the dairies a cooler of some description is used; in a 
 few, however, the milk is strained into cans standing in ice water. 
 It is then bottled, packed in cases, and covered with crushed ice. 
 
 Certified Milk and Market Milk Compared. As far as the chem- 
 ical composition is concerned, certified milk does not differ materially 
 from ordinary market milk. The milk commissions require that the 
 fat and total solids shall come within certain limits, and for this rea- 
 son there is but little variation in the chemical composition of certi- 
 fied milk. The standards are not high for the reason that milk con- 
 taining about 4 per cent of fat is considered to be the best for imme- 
 diate consumption. As stated elsewhere, many of the herds in certi- 
 fied-milk dairies are composed of grade cows and do not produce milk 
 of more than the average richness. 
 
 When we compare the bacterial content of certified and market 
 milk we find a very striking difference. The bacteria in the average 
 milk supply of our large cities exceed 500,000 to the cubic centi-
 
 226 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 meter, while the bacteria in certified milk seldom exceed 30,000 to 
 the cubic centimeter and in most instances average less than 10,000. 
 There have been some cases where commissions have reported that 
 no bacteria were shown to be present by the ordinary methods used 
 for their detection. Liquefying, putrefactive, and pus-forming bac- 
 teria are seldom present in large numbers; in fact the contracts of 
 some commissions with the producers specify that the milk shall not 
 contain pathogenic bacteria or more than a limited number of pus 
 cells to the cubic centimeter. 
 
 Keeping Qualities of Certified Milk. As would naturally be ex- 
 pected, certified milk with its small number of bacteria will keep 
 sweet for a long time. The theory that clean milk should have a 
 long keeping quality works out in practice. Instances are on record 
 where certified milk has been taken on an ocean voyage and not only 
 brought back in good condition but kept sweet until thirty days old. 
 In fact it is now a common practice for people when crossing the 
 water or taking a long land journey with infants to take several 
 cases of certified milk with them. They are then reasonably sure of 
 having a constant supply of sweet milk for several days. Some pro- 
 ducers who guarantee their milk have offices in London as well as 
 in this country so that a supply of fresh milk can be secured by voy- 
 agers going in either direction. This has been a great convenience 
 and has given comfort to many people. Again, a number of certi- 
 fied-milk dairies in the United States sent exhibits of milk to the 
 Paris Exposition in 1900. The milk kept perfectly sweet for two 
 weeks and in some instances 18 days after being bottled and after 
 a summer journey of 3,000 to 4,000 miles. Regular delivery bottles 
 were used, the only extra precaution being to use two paper caps 
 instead of one, and to cover the caps witl^ parafin so as to exclude 
 the air. Of course the milk was carefully packed in ice for shipment, 
 but this was the only means used for preservation. 
 
 Is Certified Milk Worth. -the Extra Cost? In view of the ex- 
 treme care and greater expense required in the production of certi- 
 fied milk, the question is sometimes raised as to whether it is worth 
 the labor and pains necessary to produce it. It must be conceded 
 that pure milk is of vital importance in the feeding of infants. The 
 best way to produce it is by the methods commonly practiced in cer- 
 tified-milk plants' as already outlined in this bulletin. The result of 
 feeding such milk to infants and children in our cities, as shown in 
 the decrease in the death rate, is a matter of common knowledge. 
 Further, with more refined ideas of living, there is a growing de- 
 mand for milk of the highest quality that can be produced. Natur- 
 ally, with the careful methods used in its production, certified milk 
 costs more than ordinary market milk, and the price charged for it 
 is correspondingly higher. In spite of this advanced price, however, 
 a number of certified dairies have failed to make a profit. 
 
 Certified milk, produced under the direction of a reliable milk 
 commission, is worth more than ordinary market milk for several 
 reasons: (1) It is free from disease-producing bacteria, and all 
 other germs are reduced to a minimum. (2) It is free from high
 
 MILK 227 
 
 acidity and pathogenic germs which lead to stomach derangements 
 and kindred troubles. (3) The customer can always depend upon 
 his milk coming from the same farm, the same herd of cows, sub- 
 jected to the same treatment, and having the same quality. The fat 
 content is guaranteed not to vary outside of narrow limits ; hence the 
 milk is always of good quality. (4) Cleanliness and cold are the 
 only preservatives used. (5) It is a safe food for infants and people 
 with delicate digestion. (6) It is the natural product of the cow, 
 and has not been subjected to any treatment which affects its diges- 
 tibility or changes its character. (7) It is reasonably free from 
 foreign odors and objectionable flavors. 
 
 The Future of the Certified-Milk Industry. The production 
 and sale of certified milk will probably never amount to more than 
 a small fraction of the total milk consumed. It is believed, however, 
 that the demand for this class of milk will increase, not only for in- 
 fants and persons of delicate health, but for people who appreciate 
 a good product and want the best. There is over a score of cities at 
 the present time each of which is supplied with certified milk from 
 one or more dairies, and it is believed that most cities of a population 
 of 25,000 to 50,000 or more would support a certified-milk dairy if 
 the product were properly advertised and its merits generally known 
 to the public. Physicians assist greatly in the sale of certified milk, 
 and, as a number of them are usually members of the milk commis- 
 sions in the various cities, they are thoroughly acquainted with the 
 conditions under which the milk is produced and freely recommend 
 its use. (Dep. Agr. Bu. An. Ind. B. 104.) 
 
 SYSTEMS OF SEPARATING MILK. 
 
 Four systems of separation are in common use; the shallow pan, 
 deep setting, dilution, and centrifugal. 
 
 The Shallow Pan. The setting of milk in pans or crocks, let- 
 ting the milk stand for from twelve to twenty-four hours, depending 
 upon the temperature, and then skimming the cream, is known as 
 the shallow-pan system. This is the oldest method of separating 
 cream from milk, and varies greatly in efficiency, depending very 
 largely on how quickly the milk is cooled after coming from the cow 
 and how low a temperature is secured during the creaming process. 
 As low as .4 per cent of butter fat left in the separated milk has been 
 secured with the shallow pan when the milk was cooled immediately 
 after being milked and kept at a low temperature during the cream- 
 ing process. On the other hand it is not unusual to leave as high as 
 1 per cent of butter fat in the skimmed milk when the milk is set 
 in a warm room. Probably .8 per cent is a fair estimate for the loss 
 when milk is separated in this way. 
 
 Deep-Setting System. The separation most frequently found 
 in use, next to the shallow pan, is the deep-setting system. The es- 
 sentials of this system are cans six to eight inches in diameter and 
 about two feet long, which are placed in cold water. Often a trench 
 is dug in a spring house in which the water stands at the proper 
 height and is continually running through the trench. This is a 
 very effective and economical method, both as to labor and expense
 
 228 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of construction. It is not practical to put ice in such a trench, how- 
 ever, and a temperature cannot be secured below that of the spring. 
 
 As in the case of the shallow-pan system, the efficiency of this 
 system of separation depends principally upon the temperature of 
 the milk. Under the best conditions, milk can be separated with this 
 system leaving only about .3 per cent of butter fat in the separated 
 milk. Under favorable conditions .5 per cent, or more, will be left. 
 
 The Dilution System. Another system which, fortunately, is 
 not found very frequently, is known as the dilution system. The so- 
 called separators which are sold to cream milk in this way are essen- 
 tially tin cans of varying capacities in which milk and water are 
 mixed. Sometimes tubes are run through them in different direc- 
 tions, helping to make the purchasers believe they are purchasing a 
 machine, but they do not add to the efficiency of the system. Usually 
 these tin cans have been sold to the farmer with the statement that 
 they have some of the virtues of the centrifugal machine and are 
 much cheaper. The fact is they do not have in the remotest sense 
 the characteristics of a centrifugal separator. They are not so effec- 
 tive, even, as the shallow-pan system. Repeated tests have shown that 
 they leave .7 per cent of butter fat in the skim milk under the best 
 conditions and often leave as high as 1.5 per cent. The manufac- 
 turers of these tin cans have traded upon the reputation achieved by 
 the centrifugal machines, by calling them separators, but no farmer 
 should buy one with the idea that he is securing anything but a tin 
 can, and should not use one, or the same method with home-made 
 cans, without expecting to lose even more butter than he would with 
 the pans. 
 
 The Centrifugal System. The most efficient method of sepa- 
 rating milk yet devised is the centrifugal machine. This is a ma- 
 chine which revolves a bowl very rapidly. Milk is introduced into 
 the bowl at the center while the bowl is revolving. The milk is 
 thrown to the sides of the bowl with a great deal of force. The sepa- 
 rated milk being heavier than the cream, goes to the outside, the 
 cream staying in the center. Spouts draw off the separated milk and 
 the cream, the cream spout entering the center of the bowl and the 
 separated milk spout entering the outer part. 
 
 This system involves the purchase of a very carefully constructed 
 machine, which must of necessity cost the farmer a considerable 
 amount of money, more than would be expended with any of the 
 other methods described, and he should expect better results. Any of 
 the standard makes of machines on the market will leave as little as 
 .02 per cent of butter fat in the separated milk under the best condi- 
 tions, and the farmer should expect to secure a separation averaging 
 as close as .05 per cent. (Va. B. 186.) 
 
 The Hand Separator. The following is a summary of results of 
 a trial made to compare the efficiency of several hand separators: 
 
 These trials show very little, if any, difference in completeness 
 of skimming and the total amount of fat recovered in the cream be- 
 tween the different makes of separators used.
 
 MILK 229 
 
 With one exception, all the separators fulfilled the claims of 
 their manufacturers as to capacity and efficiency of skimming. 
 
 All the separators used did satisfactory work under a far wider 
 range of conditions than is recommended by the manufacturers. 
 
 Considerable difference seemed to exist between the various 
 separators as to substantialness and durability. 
 
 There is a wide difference in the ease with which the various 
 separators were operated. 
 
 The cheaper and newer machines did as efficient work in these 
 trials as the older and more expensive ones. 
 
 There is no difference in the quality of cream delivered by the 
 various machines. 
 
 There is no difference in the churnability of cream from the 
 separators used in these tests. 
 
 These trials would seem to indicate that the choice of a hand 
 separator should be influenced very largely by its first cost and its 
 apparent durability. (Pa. B. 38.) 
 
 Some conditions that affect the skimming efficiency of the hand 
 separator are the following: 1, smooth running; 2, speed; 3, clean- 
 ing of separator; 4, condition of milk; 5, temperature of milk; 6, rate 
 of inflow; 7, richness of cream. 
 
 Smooth Running. No separator can be expected to do efficient 
 work unless it runs smoothly. When the separator is in operation the 
 milk, flowing into the bowl, is divided into three layers, namely 
 cream, skim milk, and separator slime. If the bowl revolves smooth- 
 ly the cream and the skim milk, thus separated, find their respective 
 outlets. If the machine trembles and jars, a portion of the cream 
 and skim milk are again mixed by the vibration of the bowl, with 
 the result that a relatively large amount of fat goes into the skim 
 milk. 
 
 Speed. Every machine has a certain speed at which it will do 
 its most efficient work. The number of turns which the crank should 
 make per minute is usually indicated on the crank. If the speed is 
 reduced below that indicated, the skimming will be less complete and 
 more fat is lost in the skim milk. It is not advisable to run the ma- 
 chine at a higher speed than that required, as there is danger of dam- 
 aging the separator or of the bowl jumping the castings, nor does 
 excessive speed increase the skimming efficiency of the separator. 
 
 Cleaning of Separator. It seems strange that, in the minds of 
 some dairymen, the idea prevails that it is unnecessary to thoroughly 
 wash the separator more than once a day, or once in two or three 
 days. The same men would rebel at the suggestion of sitting down 
 at the table and eating their dinner off the unwashed breakfast 
 dishes, and yet the principle is precisely the same. An investigation 
 of this condition showed that out of 57 dairies where the milk is 
 separated mornings and evenings 35 washed their separators after 
 each separation and 22 washed them once a day or once in two days. 
 Even where the bowl is flushed with warm water after each separa- 
 tion there remain in it remnants of cream, milk and separator slime 
 which rapidly undergo decomposition. When the warm milk of the
 
 230 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 succeeding milking is run through the separator the cream neces- 
 sarily becomes contaminated with the bacteria causing this decompo- 
 sition, and tainted with the products of decay. This cream is both 
 dangerous to the health of the consumer and unfit to be made into 
 butter. The hygienic and sanitary side of this practice is sufficient 
 to condemn it. In addition to this the use of unclean separators 
 also causes a material increase in the per cent of fat in the skim milk. 
 The presence of these remnants of milk in the bowl and in the cream 
 and skim milk outlets obstructs the free passage of the milk and hin- 
 ders the process of separation. 
 
 Condition of Milk. The freshly drawn milk is in the best con- 
 dition for effective skimming. It has the proper temperature, the fat 
 is in solution and the physical condition of the milk is such as to 
 insure a high degree of fluidity. Sour, curdled milk skims with dif- 
 ficulty. Before such milk is run through the separator it should be 
 poured from one can to another in order to break up the curd as 
 finely as possible. Unless this is done it will cause the machine to 
 clog. The clogging can be prevented more or less by underfeeding 
 the machine. It cannot be expected, however, that the separation of 
 sour and curdled milk will be complete. 
 
 Temperature of Milk. The warmer the milk the more fluid it 
 becomes, and the greater the freedom with which the fat globules 
 can move about. The more fluid the milk the more complete is the 
 separation. 75 deg. F. is about the minimum temperature at which 
 most separators will skim closely. At 60 deg. F. there is a decided 
 loss of butter fat in the skim milk, no matter what make of hand 
 separator may be used. On the farm the best results are obtained, 
 where the milk is separated as soon as it is drawn. It has then an 
 ideal temperature for skimming. If the milk is separated but once a 
 day, the cold milk should be warmed up before it is run through the 
 separator. 
 
 Rate of Inflow. Every separator is built to take care of a cer- 
 tain amount of milk. It has a certain capacity. The capacities of 
 the hand separators used on farms range from 250 to 900 pounds of 
 milk per hour. When the machine is forced beyond its capacity, the 
 milk has to pass through the bowl so fast that it is not exposed to the 
 centrifugal force long enough to effect a complete separation of the 
 fat. The more milk that is run through the separator in excess of 
 its given capacity, the greater the loss of fat in the skim milk. It is, 
 therefore, of importance that the operator know the exact capacity of 
 his machine and then govern the inlet accordingly. 
 
 Richness of Cream. The thickness of cream obtained from cen- 
 trifugal separators is regulated by the cream screw. It is affected too, 
 to a greater or less extent, by most, if not all of the conditions which 
 influence the per 'cent of fat in the skim milk, and which have been 
 above referred' to. While most of the standard makes of separators 
 will do good skimming if cream is produced that tests from 20% to 
 50% of fat, there is a considerable difference in the behavior of dif- 
 ferent machines. Some separators skim as closely when 50% cream 
 is produced as when set for 30%. Others are at their best when set
 
 COMBINATION MILK PAIL, CAN, STRAINER, AND STOOL. 
 DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 MILKING UNDER CLEAN AND SANITARY CONDITIONS. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 MILK 233 
 
 for 30% cream or thereabout, and their skimming efficiency de- 
 creases as the per cent of fat in the cream increases. 
 
 Thus the use of the hand separator in the place of the gravity 
 systems of creaming, will effect a saving of $3.50 to $7.00 worth of 
 butter fat from one cow in one year. 
 
 With the separator a richer cream and a better quality of cream 
 and skim milk can be produced than with the gravity systems. 
 
 Of the gravity methods the deep setting system is the least ob- 
 jectionable. It produces a more complete separation and a better 
 quality of cream than either the shallow pan or the water dilution 
 systems. 
 
 Any neglect to thoroughly clean the separator after each sepa- 
 ration reduces the skimming efficiency of the machine and lowers 
 the quality of the cream and butter produced. Wash the separator 
 after each separation. 
 
 A trembling machine, insufficient speed, sour, curdled, slimy, or 
 cold milk, and over-feeding the separator caused a loss of butter fat 
 in the skim milk amounting to from 8 to 12 pounds of butter per 
 cow in one year. 
 
 Other things being equal, high speed and a small rate of inflow 
 tend to produce a thick cream. Insufficient speed, a trembling ma- 
 chine and a large rate of inflow result in a thinner cream. (Ind. 
 B. 116.) 
 
 BABCOCK TEST FOR BUTTER PAT. 
 
 How to Use the Babcock Test. Before the Babcock test was in- 
 vented, twenty-two years ago, no simple, accurate method was known 
 by which the farmer could measure the richness of the milk or cream 
 which he sold, or of the skim milk which remained. At creameries 
 and cheese factories, each patron was paid in proportion to the weight 
 of milk delivered. It was then commonly supposed that 100 pounds 
 of milk from one cow would make as much butter or cheese as an 
 equal weight of milk from any other cow. Cows were valued accord- 
 ing to the number of pounds of milk each produced. 
 
 It is now well known that the weight of butter or cheese that 
 can be obtained from a given quantity of milk depends to a great 
 extent upon the weight of fat present in the milk. For this reason, 
 milk and cream are now both weighed and tested for fat by the 
 Babcock test at most factories, and patrons are paid according to the 
 test, that is, according to the weight of fat delivered by each. 
 
 The relative value of different cows in a herd is now determined 
 by weighing and testing the milk of each. Many cows produce a 
 profit of from $25 to $50 per year, but in almost every herd, cows 
 are found whose milk does not pay for the feed consumed by them. 
 By replacing the poorest cows with better ones, the herd will be im- 
 proved. 
 
 In separator skim milk there is only about one-eighth as much 
 fat as there is in milk skimmed from crocks or shallow pans, but 
 even separator skim milk should be tested for fat frequently to see 
 if the separator is skimming as closely as it should. Ordinarily sepa- 
 rator skim milk tests about five-hundredths (.05) of one per cent, but
 
 234 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 if, by running the separator too slowly or separating the milk when 
 too cold or for other reasons, the skim milk should contain .15 per 
 cent or more of fat, the loss may amount to $1 or $2 per cow per year. 
 This amount of money will more than pay for the entire expense of 
 installing and operating a Babcock test. Although the fat in the 
 skim milk is not wasted when fed to pigs or calves, yet it is much 
 more profitable to sell butter fat as cream or butter than it is to make 
 veal or pork out of it. 
 
 The three important uses for the Babcock test on the farm are : 
 First, cow testing, regularly done, in order to improve the herd; 
 second, frequent testing milk or cream before it is sold, to determine 
 if the testing done at the factory is correct ; third, occasional testing 
 of skim milk, to see that no butter fat is being wasted. 
 
 The Babock test is saving many times its cost annually on many 
 dairy farms, and at the same time is enabling farmers to select their 
 best cows and to improve their herds more rapidly than can be done 
 by any other means. There should be a Babcock tester regularly 
 used, on every dairy farm. 
 
 Material Needed. The materials and apparatus used on the 
 farm for testing milk are: (1) Milk scales; (2) weighing pail; (3) 
 bottle of preserving tablets; (4) bottle of sulphuric acid; (5) hand 
 Babcock tester; (6) milk test bottles; (7) acid cylinder; (9) pipette 
 (17.6 cc.) ; (10) thermometer; (11) record book. 
 
 Steps in the Babcock Test. (1) Mix the milk thoroughly and 
 take out a small sample; (2) do not let the sample evaporate or 
 curdle before testing; (3) fill the 17.6 cc. pipette to the mark with 
 milk; (4) empty the pipette without loss into a Babcock test bottle; 
 (5) add sulphuric acid from the measuring cylinder to the test bottle; 
 (6) mix the acid and milk thoroughly by shaking the bottle; (7) 
 place bottles in the centrifuge, cover, and whirl 5 minutes; (8) add 
 hot mater and whirl again twice, one minute each time; (9) read 
 and record the per cent of fat in the neck of the test bottle; (10) 
 empty the test bottles and wash thoroughly. 
 
 Mixing and Sampling Milk. Provide a quart or more of milk, 
 with which to practice sampling and testing. Mix it thoroughly by 
 pouring several times from one vessel to another, or by stirring vig- 
 orously. Larger quantities of milk require longer stirring. While 
 the milk is still in motion, dip out a half teacupful and pour this at 
 once into a small, clean, dry bottle. Fill the bottle nearly full, and 
 stopper tightly to prevent evaporation. Label the bottles with the 
 name of the cow or owner. 
 
 The small sample of milk taken for the Babcock test must con- 
 tain exactly the same proportion of fat as the entire contents of the 
 pail or can. If milk stands quiet for even a few minutes, the cream 
 will begin to rise, and the top layer on the can will contain more fat 
 than the rest of the milk. If the top part is used for the test, it will 
 indicate a higher per cent of fat than is present in the entire lot of 
 milk. It is incorrect to take a sample out of a pail, can or vat of 
 milk for testing without first thoroughly mixing the milk by stirring, 
 or pouring it from one vessel to another.
 
 MILK 235 
 
 Preserving Samples. If it is necessary to keep the milk samples 
 several hours or days before testing, a preservative should be added 
 to prevent curdling, and the bottles kept tightly stoppered. The 
 preservative most commonly used 15 corrosive sublimate (a poison). 
 This is sold in the form of tablets, in boxes containing 100 or 1,000. 
 Each tablet also contains some pink coloring matter, so that every- 
 one may know that the milk, so colored, contains poison, is unfit to 
 drink, and must not be fed to stock. One small preservative tablet 
 should be dropped into each bottle of milk and shaken until dis- 
 solved. The box containing the tablets should be kept out of the 
 reach of children. Borax and bichromate of potash are other pre- 
 servatives which may be used instead of the tablets. 
 
 Filling the Pipette. The milk test bottle and pipette are cleaned 
 with hot water and washing powder or soap, if necessary, and thor- 
 oughly rinsed with clean water before using. For the Bafocock test 
 17.6 cc. of milk (18 grams) is measured with the pipette and trans- 
 ferred to the test bottle without loss. 
 
 It should be remembered that cream is always rising in milk, 
 whether it can be seen or not. Before taking any milk out of the 
 small sample bottle with the pipette the sample bottle should be well 
 shaken, so as to mix the cream all through the milk. If lumps of 
 butter fat appear on the surface of the milk, warm the bottle and 
 contents to about 100 degrees and shake again. Immediately put 
 the narrow tip of the pipette into the milk (while it is still in motion) 
 and with the mouth, suck the air out until the milk rises in the 
 pipette, above the mark on the neck. Quickly place the forefinger 
 over the upper end of the pipette, before the milk runs down below 
 the mark. If the finger is dry it is easy, by changing the pressure 
 on the end of the tube, to let the milk run down slowly and to stop 
 it exactly at the mark. 
 
 Filling the Test Bottle. The tip of the pipette is next placed in 
 the top of a test bottle, held in an inclined position and the milk is 
 allowed to run down one side of the neck of the 'bottle, without filling 
 the neck completely, or preventing the escape of air. In this way 
 exactly 18 grams (17.6 cc.) of milk is transferred to the test bottle 
 without loss. It is well for a beginner to practice this work with 
 the pipette filled with water until the flow can be readily controlled 
 with the forefinger. If at any time a portion of the milk containing 
 preservative is drawn into the mouth, reject it, and rinse the mouth 
 with clean water. After the samples of milk have been placed in 
 the test bottles, they can be set aside for a day or a week, if neces- 
 sary, and the testing can be finished at any time. 
 
 Adding the Ac id. -Sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1.82 is 
 next added to the milk in the test bottle. It can be obtained at any 
 drug store or of dealers in dairy supplies. The acid is first poured 
 into the little acid cylinder which holds just 17.5 cc. when filled to 
 the mark. The cylinder is then emptied into the test bottle, which 
 is held in an inclined position to permit escape of air, and avoid 
 spilling the acid. Since this acid destroys wood and metals, the bot- 
 tle of acid and the little measuring cylinder should be kept standing
 
 23'6 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 on a brick or a piece of sheet lead. Liquids containing sulphuric 
 acid should not be thrown where live stock can come in contact with 
 them, but can be safely poured into an earthen jar or into a clay 
 drain tile set on end in the ground. The sulphuric acid bottle should 
 be kept stoppered because the acid readily absorbs moisture from the 
 air and thus becomes weakened. Always add acid to milk in the 
 bottle, never add milk or water to the acid. 
 
 Sulphuric acid will quickly eat holes in the clothing and cause 
 blisters on the skin, and the greatest care should be taken not to spill 
 it. To observe its effect, put a drop or two of acid on each of two 
 pieces of paper, or cotton or woolen cloth. With a little water, rinse 
 the acid as quickly as possible off one piece, and note whether it is 
 spotted where the acid fell. Leave the other piece for a few hours 
 and then wash it. 
 
 When handling sulphuric acid wear an apron and have a sup- 
 ply of water ready for washing spilled acid off of the clothing, person 
 or furniture quickly in case of an accident. After thorough wash- 
 ing with water, a little household ammonia, or baking soda or lime 
 water may be applied and washed off with more water. Sulphuric 
 acid must not be measured in the pipette because of the danger of 
 drawing it into the mouth. 
 
 Mixing the Acid and Milk. The sulphuric acid in the test bot- 
 tle weighs more than the milk, and the acid goes to the bottom at 
 once, forming a clear layer, which soon becomes brown where it 
 touches the milk. As soon as the acid is all poured in, the test bottle 
 should be held by the neck and shaken in a circle so as to mix the 
 acid and milk. Keep the liquid out of the neck of the bottle, while 
 shaking it, to prevent loss. During the filling and mixing point 
 the neck of the bottle away from the face, so that no drop of acid 
 may be thrown into the eyes. 
 
 As the shaking is continued, the mixture turns to a uniform 
 brown color and becomes quite hot. Be sure to mix thoroughly. 
 Write the number of the sample with a common black lead pencil 
 on the roughened spot on the side of the test bottle. 
 
 With the same precautions as before, transfer a pipette full of 
 milk from the other sample bottle to a second test bottle; measure 
 in the acid, and mix by shaking. If the test bottles become cold after 
 adding acid and before whirling, they should be warmed again by 
 placing in water at about 160 degrees for about 15 minutes. While 
 the bottles are hot put them into the tester and whirl them as di- 
 rected below. 
 
 Whirling the Bottles. Having placed the bottles opposite each 
 other in the whirling machine (called a centrifuge) and closed the 
 cover, turn the handle for four or five minutes at the speed indicated 
 by the directions furnished with the machine. Allow it to stop of its 
 own accord. 
 
 The centrifuge is generally enclosed in an iron box so that if 
 any thing should break while the machine is running, no one is 
 injured by the flying pieces. The cover should always be kept closed 
 while the machine is running. The wheels will turn easier and last
 
 MILK 237 
 
 longer, if they are oiled daily when in use. The bottles travel around 
 the circle 700 to 1,000 times a minute, moving about 40 miles per 
 hour. The machines are not all of the same size and some go faster 
 than others. A weight hung iby a string 22 inches long will swing 
 back and forth about 80 times per minute, or about 70 times if the 
 string be made 24 inches long. Such a pendulum, once adjusted to 
 the right length with the aid of a watch, is a help in running the 
 tester at the right speed. In large factories where many samples are 
 tested the centrifuges are run by steam or electric power. In such 
 cases a speed indicator is used to make sure that each machine runs 
 at the proper speed. Running faster than directed is likely to break 
 the bottles. 
 
 The cover is opened when motion has stopped, and a small 
 amount of hot, soft water is added with the pipette to each bottle, 
 without taking it out of the pocket. The bottles are thus filled to the 
 bottom of the neck, and the machine is then closed and run at full 
 speed for another minute. More hot water is added with the pipette, 
 bringing the fat up into the neck, between the top and bottom of 
 the scale of figures, and the machine is closed and run another min- 
 ute or two, for the third and last time. 
 
 Some operators prefer to add enough water after the first whirl- 
 ing to bring all the fat up into the neck and whirl the bottles only 
 two times in all. The bottles are then taken out of the machine and 
 the per cent of fat is read from the neck of each bottle, while still 
 hot, before the fat solidifies. To prevent the bottles cooling they 
 may be set in water at 130 or 140 degrees until each is read. 
 
 Reading the Per Cent of Fat. In reading the per cent of fat 
 from the fat column in the neck of a milk test bottle, readings are 
 made at the extreme top and at the bottom of the fat column. Sub- 
 tracting the smaller of these figures from the larger gives the per 
 cent of fat in the milk. By the aid of a pair of dividers the subtrac- 
 tion is avoided, and the per cent of fat is read directly from the neck 
 of the bottle. 
 
 To use the dividers adjust the points to the top and bottom of 
 the fat column as shown ; and then, without changing the distance 
 between them, place one point at the bottom of the scale of figures, 
 and read on the scale the position of the other point. This gives the 
 per cent of fat in the milk. 
 
 Fat solidifies at about 100 degrees. Warming the fat in the 
 neck of a test bottle from 110 to 150 degrees makes it expand about 
 1.5 per cent of its volume. This expansion amounts to about .05 per 
 cent fat on a test reading 3.5 per cent fat, and hence is too small to 
 be of importance in milk testing. In cream testing it is necessary to 
 regulate the temperature with care. It is well to study the directions 
 and to repeat the entire process of sampling and testing on several 
 days, until thoroughly familiar with the work. 
 
 Calculating Weight of Fat in Milk. To find the pounds of fat 
 in any quantity of milk it is necessary, first, to weigh the milk ; sec- 
 ond, to test the milk by the Babcock test to find the per cent of fat; 
 and, third, to multiply the weight of the milk by the per cent of fat
 
 238 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 in the milk. For practice, one learning to make the test may figure 
 the pounds of fat in 
 
 25 pounds of milk testing 5.0% fat. Ans. 1.25 pounds of fat 
 
 37 pounds of milk testing 4.0% fat. Ans. 1.48 pounds of fat 
 
 70 pounds of milk testing 3.5% fat. Ans. 2.45 pounds of fat 
 
 Cleaning the Test Bottles. Having read and recorded the per 
 
 cent of fat from each test bottle, empty all of the bottles while still 
 
 hot, and wash them thoroughly, using hot water and soda, washing 
 
 powder, or soap, if necessary, to remove all of the fat. Finally rinse 
 
 with clean water. Small specks left sticking to the inside of the 
 
 neck can be removed with a brush such as is sold for the purpose or 
 
 with a bit of cloth fastened to the end of the stick. 
 
 The Appearance of the Fat Column. The color of the fat col- 
 umn at the end of the test should be light brown. If acid is added 
 when the milk is too warm, as when fresh from the cow, or if it is 
 too strong, or if too much is used, the fat column may be very dark, 
 or may contain black particles of curd which interfere with accurate 
 reading. Incomplete mixing or delay in mixing acid and milk may 
 cause similar trouble. In such cases the bottle must be washed and 
 the test repeated. The milk and acid should be at about 70 degrees 
 to get the 'best results, and if this is the case and the fat is still black, 
 a little less acid should be used in repeating the test. It is a good 
 plan to add the acid from the little measuring cylinder in several por- 
 tions, shaking well after each addition. If the acid is of the correct 
 strength, i. e., about 90 per cent pure, of specific gravity 1.82, as 
 usually sold for use in the Babcock test, no trouble will be had. 
 
 Sometimes the fat column contains white or light colored par- 
 ticles resembling curd, at the end of the test, and in such cases the 
 acid used is too weak, or the amount used is too small, or the milk 
 and acid are too cold when mixed, as may occur in the winter time. 
 Hard water sometimes causes bubbles of foam at the top of the fat 
 column. To avoid this, use soft water in testing. 
 
 Sampling and Testing Milk of Different Cows. In comparing 
 the amounts of butter fat produced by different cows, it is necessary 
 to weigh and test the milk regularly throughout the season. The 
 testing and weighing may be done once a month, twice a month, 
 weekly, or daily. Or the milk may be weighed daily, and tested as 
 often as convenient. 
 
 Testing Skim Milk by the Babcock Test. Wherever cream is 
 sold the skim milk should be tested for fat occasionally, to make sure 
 that the cream separation is complete. To test skim milk, collect 
 the entire quantity of skim milk running from the separator in a 
 tub or barrel, mix it well by stirring. While the skim milk is still 
 in motion, measure with a pipette 17.6 cc. of milk, avoiding the 
 foam, into a special form of Babcock test bottle called a skim milk 
 bottle. Add acid and whirl at full speed for a few minutes longer 
 than usual, and keep the bottles hot, since it is hard to get out all of 
 the fat in testing skim milk. 
 
 The ordinary milk test bottle reading 10 per cent on the scale 
 cannot be used for testing skim milk, because the column of fat
 
 MILK 239 
 
 from skim milk generally fills less than one division on the scale, 
 and therefore cannot be read. The skim milk test bottles have a 
 double neck, with a wide tube for pouring in the milk and acid 
 and a narrow tube in which the fat column rises. The scale reads 
 up to one-fourth or one-half of one per cent. 
 
 These bottles are also used for testing buttermilk and whey. 
 Only about three-fourths of a cylinder full of sulphuric acid should 
 be added to each test bottle of whey. The test is then completed in 
 the usual way. (111. Circ. of Inf. 27.) 
 
 BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM. 
 
 Ripening the Cream. Up to the point of ripening the cream 
 the dairyman has been trying to keep his cream as free as possible 
 from bacteria and to check the growth of all that may get into it, 
 but from this point on the work will be quite different Cream 
 should be perfectly sweet, and if cooled properly will remain so for 
 a number of hours. In fact, it can be preserved four or five days if 
 kept at a temperature below 50 F. It might be churned in this 
 condition and a quality of butter made that is in demand in a limited 
 way, but, practically speaking, nearly all butter used in this country 
 is churned from sour cream. Sweet cream butter to most users tastes 
 flat and insipid. 
 
 The Starter and Its Use. The dairyman may think, if it is 
 necessary to sour the cream, why is all this pains taken up to this 
 point to keep it sweet. The trouble with ordinary souring is, it may 
 not be the desirable kind. It must be handled in such a way that 
 desirable flavors will be developed and the undesirable ones kept in 
 check. This can only be done by starting with a perfectly sweet 
 cream and afterwards controlling the souring process. This control 
 is secured by introducing into the cream what is known as a starter. 
 A starter is nothing more nor less than nicely soured milk, either 
 whole or skimmed. It will contain those kinds of bacteria that will 
 develop the good flavors wanted and not those that cause putrefac- 
 tion, gassy fermentations, and similar undesirable changes. To 
 secure a starter containing desirable bacteria, the dairyman has sim- 
 ply to set away a portion of skim milk as it comes from the separator 
 and await developments. If the milk is kept at a temperature be- 
 tween 70 and 80 F., it should sour inside of twenty-four hours and 
 form a solid curd. A test of this curd shows whether or not the 
 dairyman has kept his milk clean. If the taste is found pleasant 
 and mildly acid and the curd readily breaks up when poured from 
 one vessel to another, becoming creamy, showing no hard lumps 
 that will not break down, he has a good starter. On the other hand, 
 if the curd is stringy or will not break with a square, sharp cleavage, 
 but seems to be granular, or if a clear whey is formed on the surface, 
 it shows that bacteria of a harmful species are present. The forma- 
 tion of this curd is caused by the development of acid in the milk. 
 If the souring continues too long and too much acid is formed, the 
 starter becomes sharp and unfit for use. After a certain amount of 
 acid is formed its further development is checked, but this does not 
 occur until the milk is too sour for a good starter.
 
 240 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The starter is at its best just as the curd becomes firm, and the 
 butter maker should plan to have this occur at the time he wants 
 it to put into the cream. A glass jar is the best vessel in which to 
 make a starter. The glass surface, being smooth, is easily cleaned, 
 and the butter maker can see what action is taking place while the 
 milk is souring. If there are gas-producing germs in the milk, little 
 bubbles of gas will form in the bottom and along the sides of the jar. 
 If these are formed the starter should not be used, as gas fermenta- 
 tions always indicate impurity, and the effects of the starter will not 
 be good. 
 
 The amount of starter that should be used in the cream will 
 vary under different conditions. Ordinarily, if one is churning every 
 day, about 1 to 1% gallons of starter in 10 gallons of cream is the 
 right proportion. If it is necessary to hurry the process of souring, 
 more starter can be used, and vice versa. The temperature at which 
 the cream is set will influence the amount of starter to be used. If 
 the cream is cooled to about 60 F., it will require more starter than 
 if it is set at 70 F. Unless the butter maker has means of control- 
 ling the temperatures quickly, either by very cold water or by means 
 of ice, it is best to have the cream as cold as well water will make it 
 (which will usually be about 60 F.) when the starter is added. If 
 the cream is to be held for the next eighteen or twenty hours at this 
 temperature, the amount of starter to be added can be determined 
 by the butter maker after tw r o or three trials. Attempt should be 
 made to add just enough starter to have the cream soured properly 
 at churning time. No absolute rule can be given that can be de- 
 pended upon for this work. The butter maker must use his intelli- 
 gence and decrease or increase the amount of starter and raise or 
 lower the temperature of the cream in such a way that it will be 
 ripened and ready for churning at the right time. 
 
 If the cream is not to be churned every day, but must be held 
 from two to four days before enough is secured for a churning, either 
 of two ways may be followed : A very small amount of starter may 
 be added to the first batch of cream, which will cause the gradual 
 development of the acidity, or the cream may be held sweet from 
 two to four milkings and then the starter added in a little larger 
 quantity, with a view to having the ripening completed about twelve 
 to eighteen hours after the last batch of cream is added. Here again 
 the butter maker must use his judgment and experiment until he 
 finds just the right quantities and the right time to add the starter. 
 
 Whole milk can be used for making a starter, as well as skim 
 milk, but it is usually considered best to use the latter. The surface 
 of the starter should be skimmed off for a half -inch or so in depth 
 and thrown away. This is necessary because in opening the jar for 
 examination or for any purpose dust may have entered and formed 
 colonies of undesirable bacteria which will be growing on the sur- 
 face but have not reached any depth into the milk. When whole 
 milk is used this skimming is not desirable on account of the loss of 
 butter fat that would have risen to the surface.
 
 MILK 241 
 
 It is sometimes necessary, in order to secure a good starter, to 
 save a number of samples of milk and select the best from the lot. 
 When an exceptionally good starter is secured it can be propagated 
 from day to day by adding a small portion of it to a quantity of 
 sweet skim milk, enough milk being used to make the necessary 
 amount of starter for the cream to be churned. This controls the 
 souring of the milk just the same as the addition of starter to the 
 cream controls the souring of the cream. Where one is churning 
 every day this is a very good method for carrying forward the 
 starter. In fact, it may be used when but two or three churnings 
 a week are made just as satisfactorily, discarding the lots on the days 
 there are no churnings. 
 
 Under factory conditions, where mixed milk from a number of 
 herds is used, it is always necessary to heat the milk intended for 
 the starter to near the boiling point to destroy the bacteria that it 
 may contain, and then renew the germ life in it by adding a portion 
 of a well-ripened starter, but under farm conditions there should be 
 no necessity for this. The milk should be so clean and so pure that 
 the only decomposition which takes place would be that of souring, 
 and it wilt usually be found that this souring gives the pleasant acid 
 taste to the milk that is desirable in the butter. 
 
 When an attempt is made to ripen the cream without the ad- 
 dition of a starter the results are not usually as good. An example 
 of what takes place in cream can be readily seen after one has some 
 experience in making starters. Very often one sample of milk will 
 not develop the desirable flavors, but will become entirely unfit to use 
 in the cream as a starter, while another sample, perhaps taken from 
 the same day's milking, will sour with a fine flavor. The cream 
 contains the bacteria that developed in both of these starters, and 
 each kind has equal chance to develop, unless a large quantity of the 
 right kind is introduced, these overcoming the undesirable kind 
 present and thus controlling the changes which take place. This is 
 the purpose of the starter. 
 
 During the last few hours of ripening there should be taken into 
 consideration the temperature at which the cream must be churned. 
 When it is completely ripe or has reached that point where the flavor 
 is fine and the arom-a good, it should be quickly brought to the tem- 
 perature necessary for churning, if not already at that temperature. 
 If it has to be lowered several degrees, it should stand at the churn- 
 ing temperature for a period of three or four hours before churning. 
 This becomes necessary because the butter fat is a poor conductor of 
 heat and takes longer to change in temperature than the milk serum. 
 Everyone is familiar with the fact that oils and fats cool very slowly. 
 
 During the process of ripening the cream should be stirred oc- 
 casionally to obtain best results. Just what is the result of stirring 
 is not entirely known or why it is necessary, but it is known that 
 cream when frequently stirred ripens with a more uniform and finer 
 flavor than cream which is ripened without stirring. 
 
 Flavors in Cream. In speaking of flavors, so far only acid 
 flavors have been mentioned. There are undoubtedly desirable
 
 242 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 flavors in cream that do not come from the development of acid. 
 Just what these are is not known at the present time, but the rich 
 creamy flavor, or as it is sometimes described, the nutty flavor, of a 
 fine quality of cream is a combination of acid and other flavors. The 
 butter maker quickly recognizes this fine combination of flavors 
 when he has once become familiar with it, and always looks for its 
 development in his cream. 
 
 Onions, leeks, turnips, and all similar strongly scented plants 
 impart their flavors to the milk. It is commonly thought that the 
 fine clover and timothy pastures common to some sections give a 
 peculiarly fine flavor to milk. Before the science of ripening cream 
 was developed to its present stage these ideas had more influence 
 than they have now. Onions, garlic, and plants of this character 
 still are very troublesome and often ruinous. About the only effect- 
 ive way to combat troubles from this source is to rid the pastures of 
 them, which is easier said than done. Pasteurization of the cream 
 will help to overcome this difficulty, but this adds to the expense. 
 
 The Acid Test. The only standard that has been applied in 
 measuring the ripening of cream is the determination of the acid 
 present. The acid test, as it is called, gives a fair idea of the quality 
 and stage of ripeness. It is true, however, that two lots of cream 
 may have exactly the same amount of acid and one of them be 
 good and the other bad; so, after all, the acid test is not infallible. 
 There is no step in the whole process of making butter where the 
 judgment of the maker is so much needed as in ripening the cream. 
 He must cultivate his taste for the desirable flavors and must know 
 when the point is reached where further ripening must be checked. 
 Neither the butter maker who depends entirely upon the sense of 
 taste and smell, nor the one who depends entirely upon the acid 
 test, will get the best results. 
 
 Methods of learning to taste and smell, or judgment in their 
 use, can not be given in a book. The ability must be developed 
 through experience. The acid test, however, is a mathematical cal- 
 culation capable of exact determination. 
 
 The Principle and Its Application. As already stated the meas- 
 ure of ripeness of cream can be determined in a general way by the 
 amount of acid it contains. For the purpose of determining the 
 amount of acid, different methods have been devised, but all are 
 based on the principle that an alkaline substance in solution will 
 neutralize an acid solution. The manipulation of the different tests 
 is practically the same although the apparatus differs somewhat in 
 character. In every instance an alkaline solution of known strength 
 is used. This is added to a definite quantity of cream until it exactly 
 neutralizes the acid in the cream. The amount of alkali necessary 
 to do this measures the quantity of acid present. In order to tell 
 just when the right point is reached and all of the acid is neutralized, 
 a coloring matter, called an indicator, is added, which is pink in an 
 alkaline solution and colorless in an acid solution. Sometimes this 
 coloring matter is added to the alkaline substance used to make a 
 test, as in the case of certain alkaline tablets. As the solution con-
 
 MILK 243 
 
 taining the indicator is added to the sour cream it shows no color 
 until the point of neutrality is reached. At this point color gradually 
 appears and becomes permanent. In other forms of the test it is 
 necessary to add the coloring matter or indicator to the cream before 
 beginning the test, three or four drops being sufficient to give the 
 proper color when the cream becomes alkaline. 
 
 Farrington's Alkaline Test. The two most common forms of 
 the acid test are known as Farrington's alkaline test and Mann's acid 
 test. In the former the alkaline substance is put up in the form 
 of tablets of a uniform strength ; the indicator is added to the tablet 
 and gives it its pink color. The best method of using these tablets is 
 described as follows : 
 
 The apparatus required is a 100 cc. cylinder, a 17.6 cc. pipette, 
 and a white porcelain cup. Clean, soft water to the amount of 97 cc. 
 is placed in the cylinder and five tablets are dissolved in it. The 
 cylinder should be tightly corked and laid away until the tablets 
 are entirely dissolved. If tablets and water are put in the cylinder in 
 the evening they should be ready for use the next morning. In mak- 
 ing the test, take the 17.6 cc. pipette, measure that quantity of cream 
 and place it in the clean cup. Rinse out the pipette with a small 
 quantity of clean water and add the rinsings to the cream in the cup. 
 Pour a few cubic centimeters of the tablet solution into this cream, 
 giving the cup a rotary motion with the hand so as to thoroughly 
 mix the solution with the cream. Add a few drops at a time until 
 a slight pinkish color appears and remains permanent. The amount 
 of 'alkali used can then be read off on the cylinder. The number so 
 obtained represents the per cent of acid actually in the cream. 
 
 In making tests of this kind, in order to have results that will 
 be uniform, exactly the same shade of pink, as near as it is possible 
 to determine with the eye, should be observed each time. There are 
 various other methods for using the tablet test, but the one given is 
 the simplest and gives a direct result which needs no further compu- 
 tation. 
 
 Mann's Acid Test. In using Mann's acid test the alkaline solu- 
 tion is procured in the form of a solution of known strength. This 
 solution, added to the cream by means of a burette, determines very 
 readily the acidity of the cream. In using this test a few drops of 
 indicator w r ill have to be added to the cream before the alkali solu- 
 tion is added. The amount of solution is read directly from the 
 scale on the burette. This does not give the percentage of acid in the 
 cream, as in the case of the tablet test, but gives a relative factor, 
 which has to be worked out by the following formula in order to re- 
 duce to percentage: Multiply the number of cubic centimeters of 
 alkaline solution required to produce the pink color by 0.9 and divide 
 the result by the number of cubic centimeters of cream used in mak- 
 ing the test. The result is the per cent of acid in the cream. For 
 the mathematical explanation of this formula and a more extended 
 description of the acid test, the reader is referred to publications on 
 the subject of testing.
 
 244 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 In order to secure uniform results, the butter maker should see 
 that his cream runs practically uniform from day to day in butter 
 fat, and develops about the same amount of acid for each churning. 
 The degree to which the ripening should be developed will depend 
 largely on the demands of the local market where the butter is sold. 
 
 The Churn. No other utensil in connection with dairying has 
 received as much attention from inventors as the churn. Most of 
 the efforts along this line have been to get a churn that would anni- 
 hilate time. The thirty to forty minutes spent in churning has 
 seemed a prodigious waste to the hustling inventor. The one-minute 
 churn has been the goal. In round numbers there have been more 
 patents issued by the Patent Office on churns than on any other one 
 thing. 
 
 A careful analysis of the junk in the attic or storehouse of the 
 average dairyman will reveal one or more relics of this kind, due to 
 the persuasive powers of an agent who had convinced him that he 
 was foolish in spending so much time at the churn. In spite of all 
 this activity for an improved article, the greater number of churns 
 in use today are either the old-fashioned dasher churn or the equally 
 old revolving barrel or box churn or its later modification, the com- 
 bined churn and worker. Of these types the barrel churn is by far 
 the best. Practically all factory churns in this country are modifica- 
 tions of it. This form has stood the test of time, and, until some 
 genius gets up an entirely new method of making butter, it will be 
 used to the exclusion of all the claptrap quick-churning machines 
 ever invented. 
 
 Barrel Churn the Best. Taking the barrel churn as best for the 
 farm butter maker, he should know how to get the most out of it. 
 In this form of churn the concussion of the cream necessary to do 
 the churning is secured by the fall of the cream as the churn is re- 
 volved. The faster the churn is revolved the greater number of con- 
 cussions per minute will be secured. But if the churn is whirled so 
 fast that the centrifugal force created holds the cream from falling 
 no churning will take place. 
 
 Cleaning the Churn. Churns are usually made of wood, and 
 their care is an important factor. When ready to clean, the churn 
 should be rinsed out with cold water to remove all buttermilk, salt, 
 etc. ; it should then be partially filled with boiling water, the lid put 
 on and fastened loosely, so steam can escape, the draining plug with- 
 drawn, and the churn whirled. The pressure on the inside caused 
 by the creation of steam from the hot water will force water into 
 every nook and crevice of the churn. After a few revolutions the 
 water should be drawn off and another lot, boiling hot, added, and 
 the whirling repeated. Empty this out and let the churn stand so it 
 will drain a few minutes, and then turn the opening up and let it 
 dry. The heat in the wood will dry it out rapidly, and there will be 
 no chance for mold to grow. An occasional rinsing out with lime 
 water will help to keep a churn sweet. 
 
 All other wooden dairy utensils should be rinsed, scalded, and 
 dried with the same care.
 
 MILK 245 
 
 Churning. The process of churning is the gathering into a 
 mass of the butter fat in the cream. The butter fat exists in the 
 cream in minute globules, each independent of the others, and any 
 agitation tends to bring them together, the force of the impact caus- 
 ing them to adhere to each other. As the agitation is continued these 
 small particles of butter grow larger by addition of other particles 
 until a stage is reached where they become visible to the eye, and if 
 the churning is continued long enough all will be united in one 
 lump of butter in the churn. 
 
 Temperature. The time that it takes to churn depends largely, 
 on the temperature of the cream at the beginning. If the cream is 
 quite warm, the butter will come very quickly ; if it is too cold, the 
 churning may have to be prolonged, in some instances for hours, 
 before the butter granules will become large enough to free them- 
 selves from the buttermilk. The temperature at the beginning should 
 be regulated accordingly. It is usually considered that about thirty to 
 thirty-five minutes' churning should bring the butter. With differ- 
 ent seasons of the year the temperatures will have to be varied some- 
 what, in order to have the butter come in this length of time. It is 
 necessary in hot weather to churn at a temperature as low as 50 or 
 55 F., while in the winter months, when the cows are on dry feed 
 and the weather is cold, it is often necessary to raise the churning 
 temperature to 60 or 65 F. Cases have been known where under 
 some peculiar feed condition the temperature had to be raised to as 
 high as 80 F., in order to make the butter gather at all. Trouble 
 of this kind rarely ever occurs when the cows have succulent feed in 
 winter, such as silage or roots. Occasionally some peculiar fermenta- 
 tion takes place in the cream, causing difficult churning, but this is 
 a result of carelessness somewhere, and can 'be remedied by a thor- 
 ough cleaning up of the premises. 
 
 Washing and Salting the Butter. It is important to know at 
 just what point to stop churning. For best results in freeing the 
 granules from the buttermilk and incorporating the salt it is consid- 
 ered that the butter granules should be about the size of grains of 
 wheat, possibly a little larger. The churn is then stopped, and the 
 buttermilk allowed to drain. After the buttermilk is well drained 
 from the butter granules an amount of water about equal in volume 
 and of the same temperature as the buttermilk should be added, and 
 the churn given four or five revolutions, slowly, so that the water will 
 come in contact with every particle of butter and wash out the re- 
 maining buttermilk. 
 
 As soon as the wash water has drained well from the butter gran- 
 ules, salt should be added. The amount of salt used will depend en- 
 tirely on the demands of the consumer. Usually about 1 ounce of 
 salt for each pound of butter will be necessary. If the ordinary bar- 
 rel churn is used, which is perhaps the best form made, the salt may 
 be added in the churn. By giving the churn a few revolutions the 
 salt will be quite thoroughly incorporated with the butter. It should 
 stand in this condition for a few minutes, until the salt becomes more 
 or less dissolved, before the working of the butter is begun.
 
 246 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Working the Butter. For working the butter some form of 
 table worker is best to use. The butter bowl and paddle never give 
 as good results because the butter will almost invariably be greasy, 
 owing to the sliding motion of the paddle over the butter. The table 
 workers commonly used are of two kinds one having a stationary 
 bed and a roller, either corrugated or smooth, arranged so that it can 
 be passed back and forth over the surface of the butter; the other 
 having a movable bed, revolving on a center, usually under two cor- 
 rugated rollers. Both of these forms will do good work if the opera- 
 tor understands their use. 
 
 Suggestions as to Working. If the salt and butter have been 
 mixed in the churn the butter can be placed on the working table and 
 the working begun at once. After the butter has been pressed out 
 with the roller it should be divided in the center, one part being laid 
 over onto the other and the rollers passed over again. The process 
 should be repeated until the butter assumes what is termed a waxy 
 condition. If the working is continued for too long a time the butter 
 will become salvy, having the appearance of lard, and will lose its 
 granular structure, becoming weak-bodied. The firmness of the 
 butter must be taken into account in determining how long it should 
 be worked. Usually the firmer the butter the more working it will 
 stand and the more time it will need to thoroughly incorporate the 
 salt and bring out the waxy condition. 
 
 Testing Saltiness While Working. During the process of 
 working, the butter should be tested frequently to determine its salti- 
 ness, and if by mistake too much salt has been added it can readily 
 be removed from the butter by pouring a little cold water over it as 
 the working continues. The water washes out the excess of salt. If 
 the butter should contain too little salt, more can readily be added 
 during the process of working. It is best practice to about half finish 
 the working and then let the butter stand for about twenty minutes 
 or half an hour before completing. This gives the salt an additional 
 chance to dissolve, and there is less liability of mottles in the finished 
 product. 
 
 The Remedy for Mottles. If after standing a few hours the 
 butter is found to show a mottled appearance, this can be overcome 
 by putting it on the worker and giving it an additional working. 
 The mottled appearance indicates that some step in the working of 
 the butter has not been thoroughly done. It is due to an uneven dis- 
 tribution of salt, and possibly to the presence of casein that has not 
 been washed from the butter, the action of the salt on the casein 
 forming lighter spots in the butter. The best remedy for mottles is 
 to thoroughly wash the butter when it is in granular form before the 
 salt is added, and then to work it until it has reached the waxy condi- 
 tion alluded to. 
 
 Water Content of Butter. If the dairyman is using the com- 
 bined churn and worker, the principles of working remain practically 
 the same. The butter must be watched to determine just when it 
 has been worked enough and to determine its condition in regard to 
 the salt it contains. If butter is worked in the presence of water it
 
 MILK 247 
 
 has a tendency to take up water and increase the bulk of butter 
 made. On the other hand, if the water is allowed to drain thoroughly 
 from the butter as it is being worked, the tendency is to have drier, 
 firmer-bodied butter. The water content will vary from 6 or 8 per 
 cent up to as high as 14 or 15 per cent, depending upon the method 
 the operator uses in working and on the temperature of the butter 
 when it is churned and worked. If butter is churned so warm that 
 it comes very soft, the granules contain larger quantities of water, 
 and in this soft condition it can not be worked as much as a firmer 
 butter. The presence of this moisture, together with the smaller 
 amount of working, results in retaining the moisture in large drops, 
 and the butter will have a wet or sloppy appearance. Firm butter 
 worked in the presence of water will take up the water in minute 
 drops, giving the butter a drier appearance. 
 
 These steps in working butter, like other operations, demand the 
 exercise of judgment in the person who is doing the work, and one 
 must experiment with conditions which surround him and find just 
 what method is best to pursue. Butter will stand considerable work- 
 ing if rollers are used that do not slide over the surface, making it 
 smeary. 
 
 Care of Utensils. The worker, paddles, and prints that come in 
 contact with the butter need special preparation before the work is 
 begun. They should first be thoroughly scalded, and the scalding 
 should continue long enough to make the surface of the wood hot, 
 after which it should immediately be rinsed with cold water. This 
 operation opens up the pores of the wood and then causes them to 
 contract and form a smooth surface to which the butter will not 
 stick. It also thoroughly wets the surface, which probably has a 
 tendency to prevent the butter sticking. 
 
 Packing Butter. The size and style of package to be used in 
 packing butter will depend entirely on the market conditions where 
 the butter is sold. While great stress has been laid on the quality of 
 butter made, it must also be borne in mind that the method by which 
 it is packed and the neatness with which it appears on the market 
 have practically as much to do with its sale as has its quality. In fact 
 many buyers will select a neat package of butter in preference to one 
 that is put up in a slovenly manner, even though the quality may not 
 be as good. It is undoubtedly true that the average man or woman 
 will judge an article of food as much by its appearance as by its gen- 
 eral qualities. An unattractive article does not appeal to the sense 
 of taste. It ought not to be necessary to say that a package of any 
 kind must be neat and clean in appearance, but a large portion of the 
 farm butter that comes into market shows that a great many makers 
 do not realize the importance of this part of their work. Many lots 
 of otherwise good butter are sold every day at a discount because of 
 the slovenly methods of packing. The demands of the market on 
 which the butter is sold should bo carefully studied, and the package 
 made of a size and form that will meet those demands. 
 
 Butter in Tubs. If the butter is to be put up in tubs, the packing 
 should be so done that the butter will be solid throughout its entire
 
 248 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 mass. Too frequently the butter is thrown in without sufficient pack- 
 ing, and large holes will appear in the body of the butter. While 
 these may not affect the quality they affect the appearance. If a 
 parchment paper lining is used in the tub it should be put in smooth 
 and the top should be turned neatly over the edge of the butter. 
 Coverings that are put on the top, whether circles of parchment or 
 cloth made for the purpose, should exactly fit the top of the package. 
 Care should be taken that the tub does not show finger marks or other 
 dirty spots. 
 
 Butter in Small Packages. It is becoming more common for 
 the markets to demand that butter be packed in small packages, as 
 pound prints or squares. Butter put up in this form should be neatly 
 wrapped in parchment paper. It is an excellent idea for the dairy- 
 man to have his name or label printed on the parchment. This helps 
 to establish the identity of the goods, which, if properly made, should 
 aid the dairyman in finding a permanent market for them. Wooden 
 packages of almost any size can be secured for packing the prints. 
 These should be used, particularly if it is necessary to ship the butter 
 to market. For local distribution, light crates or boxes which will fit 
 the prints and prevent them from getting out of shape in hauling 
 should be used. 
 
 Refrigerator Boxes. In the summer months it is a hard matter 
 to transport butter from the dairy to the market, and keep the prints 
 in shape, unless the dairyman has ice for this purpose. Light refrig- 
 erator boxes are manufactured which can be used to great advantage, 
 as their use will keep the butter hard and firm, and enable the maker 
 to deliver it in that condition to his customers in the hottest weather. 
 No one likes to buy a parcel of butter that is so soft that it can hardly 
 be handled, and the good dairyman will not attempt to place butter 
 on the market in that condition. 
 
 Marketing the Butter. The markets which are accessible to the 
 farm butter maker are of course dependent largely on local condi- 
 tions. Almost any fair-sized town will furnish a local market for a 
 quantity of first-class butter. 
 
 Selling Direct to Consumers. Usually in these places a pre- 
 mium above the average market price can be secured by selling the 
 butter to private customers who have regard for quality in products 
 of this nature. This method of marketing of course involves more 
 labor, but if the time can be spared for delivery it will give greater 
 returns than any other method. It also enables the maker to estab- 
 lish a reputation for his goods such as he can not secure if he is com- 
 pelled to place his butter with the general mass of butter that comes 
 to the stores. If the dairyman attempts to build up a market of this 
 kind he must be sure that he can always supply regularly those with 
 whom he is dealing. If he can not do this misunderstandings and 
 disappointment are liable to occur. 
 
 If the maker is compelled to take his butter to stores, he usually 
 has to take the average price given for butter regardless of quality. 
 A. few storekeepers will recognize certain lines of butter as being 
 superior to others and will pay more for them, but usually not as
 
 MILK CANS EXPOSED TO DIRT AND FLIES. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 A MILK HOUSE FAVORABLE FOR DIRT AND ODORS. DEPT. OF AGR. 1909.
 
 MILK 251 
 
 much as can bo obtained by private marketing. In most localities, 
 particularly during the summer months, the markets are flooded with 
 farm butter and the prices are very unsatisfactory. The maker who 
 is depending on the stores for the sale of his butter usually has to 
 accept the current price, while if he has worked up a private trade the 
 chances are that he has a market that will give a uniform price 
 throughout the year, which is a great advantage. There is little op- 
 portunity for the farm butter maker to ship his butter to distant 
 markets, unless he is acquainted with the dealers or brokers who are 
 to handle his product. 
 
 Patronizing Creameries vs. Making Butter. Should the dairy- 
 man be compelled to take the average store price for his butter, he 
 can generally do better by selling his milk or cream to a creamery, if 
 there be one in easy reach, as the price for farm dairy butter is 
 usually lower than the quotations for butter fat. In sections where 
 creameries abound it is a question whether or not the dairyman can 
 afford to make his ow r n butter and spend the time looking for a good 
 market in which to sell it. By the time he has added to the cost of 
 his butter fat the work and worry connected with the making of the 
 butter, which is too frequently done by the housewife, the amount 
 actually saved is very small, and even though it is gain in dollars 
 and cents it may not be worth the time and labor expended. Only 
 on dairy farms where there is ample help to do the work can there be 
 profit in making the butter at home. 
 
 Storing or Holding for Market. The amount of butter that the 
 farm dairyman can store or hold for any length of time for market 
 is necessarily limited. The old methods of packing butter down in 
 brine or salt, such as were followed by our grandparents, has prac- 
 tically no place in modern methods of dairying. Cold storage such 
 as the dairyman would probably have is not suitable for keeping but- 
 ter any length of time, because such storage is not cold enough to 
 answer the purpose. Modern storehouses for butter have tempera- 
 tures from 5 to 10 below zero. It is now considered that anything 
 above that temperature is not cold enough to properly preserve the 
 butter and check the development of bad flavors. These tempera- 
 tures, of course, are out of the reach of the dairyman. If ice is at 
 hand and a good refrigerator or cooling room is available the butter 
 may be stored for a short, period with more or less success. The tem- 
 perature of a good ice-storage room would probably not be below 
 40 or 45 F. unless special and expensive construction is made. It 
 is sometimes necessary for a dairyman to keep the butter until a suffi- 
 cient quantity has accumulated for profitable shipment. When this 
 is done the butter should be packed in the ordinary way and kept as 
 cold as possible until delivered to the market. 
 
 Rooms that are used for purposes of storing butter should be dry 
 and free from mold. Too frequently ice-storage rooms are just the 
 reverse; they are excessively moist, which condition is favorable to 
 the production of mold. Butter placed in a room of this character 
 becomes quite moldy after a few days, which of course destroys its
 
 252 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 highest value as a product on the market. It is possible to construct 
 rooms so that the circulation of air in them will be dry. 
 
 The interior of rooms of this character should be either white- 
 washed or painted with a good paint and shellac. From the sanitary 
 standpoint the whitewash is better, as it has a tendency to destroy 
 mold growths and keep the air pure and sweet. A room of this kind 
 used for butter should not be used for other products of any kind, 
 unless it be milk or cream. It is usually not a profitable undertaking 
 for a dairyman to hold his butter in anticipation of higher prices. 
 The butter is never so good as when it is fresh, and in that condition 
 will give the best satisfaction to the consumer and in the long run 
 will make more money for the dairyman. If any attempt is made to 
 furnish a customer with butter that is "off" in flavor it always results 
 disastrously to the dairyman. He can not afford to do anything that 
 will tend to discredit his work or make the customer feel that he 
 could do better elsewhere. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 241.) 
 
 Renovated or Process Butter. Oleomargarine is no longer a 
 novelty to Americans; its composition and method of manufacture 
 have become matters of common knowledge. Renovated or process 
 butter, on the other hand, having been introduced more recently, and 
 being retailed usually without other designation than the general one 
 of butter, is as yet not so well known to the general public. All 
 grades of it good, indifferent, and bad are met with in our mar- 
 kets. The better grades of it are made from miscellaneous assort- 
 ments of country butter, mainly farmers' rolls, produced by individ- 
 ual farmers remote from creameries and sold or exchanged at the 
 country stores, this material being treated or processed, as the term is, 
 while still fresh or relatively so. The poorer grades result from the 
 treatment of inferior raw material ; for example, the aforesaid coun- 
 try butter, or any other kind of butter, which, by too long keeping, 
 by abuse in regard to temperature, or by unfavorable surroundings, 
 has suffered great deterioration. Experience has shown that only a 
 poor article of renovated butter can be produced from rancid stock. 
 
 How Renovated or Process Butter Is Made. The process may 
 be briefly outlined as follows : Melting of the butter and settling of 
 the curd and brine, skimming off of froth and scum, drawing off and 
 discarding of the curd and brine, blowing of air through the molten 
 fat to remove faulty odors, mixing of milk very thoroughly with the 
 molten fat, rapid cooling and granulating of this mixture by running 
 it into ice-cold water, draining and ripening of the granulated mass 
 for a number of hours, salting and working out of the excess of milk, 
 packing or making into prints. 
 
 By this process, when used upon comparatively fresh raw mate- 
 rial, butters of low grade are materially improved, the farmer's reve- 
 nue is increased, values are enhanced in short, a good thing is done. 
 Harm begins only when the renovated is sold for the genuine (that 
 is, the original) article, for they are not the same thing. While the 
 fats in the two are practically the same chemically, the nitrogenous 
 portions are not. Moreover, since the article known now and for ages 
 past as butter is an article the last step in whose manufacture is the
 
 MILK 253 
 
 churning of cream, it is evident that the product of an elaborate sub- 
 sequent process, a process entirely foreign to the manufacture of 
 butter, should be designated by a distinctive name. 
 
 How to Distinguish Genuine Butter from Renovated, and Both 
 from Oleomargarine. Several of the States have already enacted 
 laws requiring the distinctive branding or labeling of the new product 
 when offered for sale, and as a consequence chemists have, during the 
 last year or two, devoted considerable study to methods for distin- 
 guishing between the genuine and the renovated article. One of the 
 results of such study is the method of Hess and Doolittle, which is 
 based upon the difference in the relative proportions of albumin and 
 so-called casein, as well as the different properties of the latter, exist- 
 ing in the two products. But as this is distinctly a laboratory method, 
 quite inapplicable in the household, it will not be dwelt upon here. 
 
 Another useful method, of the nature of a preliminary test, is 
 that of microscopic examination by polarized light, with and with- 
 out the selenite plate ; but for the reason just stated, this, too, will be 
 passed with a bare mention. So also with .various chemical tests and 
 the regular chemical analysis of the fats. 
 
 Household Tests. Another important means employed in dis- 
 tinguishing between genuine and renovated butter is the boiling test. 
 This test was first mentioned in scientific literature by Dr. Henry 
 Leffmann, who states that it was shown to him by a Mr. Morris, a 
 detective in oleomargarine prosecutions. It has been in use about ten 
 years, and was originally used only for the detection of oleomar- 
 garine ; but after the advent of renovated butter the test was found 
 to serve almost equally well in distinguishing this product from gen- 
 uine butter. Therefore, this test distinguishes between genuine but- 
 ter on the one hand and oleomargarine and renovated butter on the 
 other; and, fortunately, it is so simple of execution that it can be em- 
 ployed in any kitchen almost as well as in the laboratory, and re- 
 quires no special skill on the part of the operator. It consists merely 
 in boiling briskly a small portion of the sample and observing its 
 behavior the while. 
 
 In the kitchen the test may be conducted as follows: Using as 
 the source of heat an ordinary kerosene lamp, turned low and with 
 chimney off, melt the sample to be tested (a piece the size of a small 
 chestnut) in an ordinary tablespoon, hastening the process by 
 stirring with a splinter of wood (for example, a match). Then, in- 
 creasing the heat, bring to as brisk a boil as possible, and after the 
 boiling has begun, stir the contents of the spoon thoroughly, not neg- 
 lecting the outer edges, two or three times at intervals during the 
 boiling always shortly before the boiling ceases. In the laboratory 
 a test tube, a spoon, or sometimes a small tin dish, is used in making 
 this test. From the last-named utensils the test is often called the 
 "spoon test," and sometimes the "pan test." 
 
 A gas flame, if available, can be used perhaps more conveniently 
 than a kerosene lamp. Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil 
 noisily, sputtering (more or less) like a mixture of ^grease and water 
 when boiled, and produce no foam, or but very little. Renovated
 
 254 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 butter produces usually a very small amount. Genuine butter boils 
 usually with less noise, and produces an abundance of foam. The 
 difference in regard to foam is very marked, as a rule. Rarely, a 
 butter is found which yields an uncertain result ; such a butter should 
 receive the benefit of the doubt. (Dep. Agr. P. B. 131.) 
 
 FOOD PRESERVATIVES AND BUTTER INCREASERS. 
 
 The subject of the preservation of articles of food against decay 
 is one of no little importance. Decay or fermentations is known to 
 be due to the action of living germs or ferments. If in any way 
 these germs can be destroyed or their development prevented, without 
 any change in the food product itself, it seems possible that food 
 might be preserved almost indefinitely. Two conditions that are 
 absolutely necessary for the growth and multiplication of these germs 
 are a moderate temperature and moisture. The methods most gen- 
 erally used for the preservation of food aim to destroy these germs by 
 depriving them either temporarily or permanently of one or the 
 other of these conditions. These methods may be grouped as follows ; 
 
 1st. Those depending upon the use of heat for the destruction 
 of the germs and subsequent sealing to exclude other germs. This 
 principle is illustrated in the process of canning fruits and vegetables. 
 
 2d. Those depending upon the use of cold to prevent the mul- 
 tiplication of the germs for lack of sufficient heat. An example of 
 this is found in our extensive systems of cold storage. 
 
 3d. Those in which the food product is dried in order that 
 the germs present may not multiply for lack of sufficient moisture. 
 The production of evaporated fruits illustrates this principle. 
 
 Where it is impossible to employ any of the above methods, or 
 where their use might injure or destroy some desirable quality of the 
 food, resource is often had to the direct addition to the food of some 
 substance that is detrimental to germ life. The familiar process of 
 preserving meats, especially pork, by salting, illustrates the class. 
 There seems to be little or no objection to the use of foods preserved 
 by any of the first three general methods, nor to this last provided 
 that the substance added has itself no bad physiological effect. Be- 
 sides common salt the following substances are often used: Borax, 
 boric acid, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, sulphate of soda, saltpeter and 
 formalin. There is no doubt that they possess the power of arresting 
 the action of germs, but there is some question about the advisability 
 of the continued use of foods containing them. Inasmuch as there 
 is some prejudice on the part of dealers and consumers against their 
 use, frequent attempts are made to introduce preparations of these 
 substances under new forms and names. 
 
 Some butter increasers contain acids which curdle the casein. 
 This is shown in the souring of milk itself when lactic acid is formed 
 from the milk sugar; or by adding vinegar or other acids to milk. 
 Hence it is plain what the effects of an acid Increaser would be. 
 The acetic acid would curdle the casein which would become mixed 
 with the fat, and yield a product that would be neither good butter 
 nor poor cheese. This incorporated casein furnishes a medium for 
 the growth and multiplication of millions of organisms. It is to re-
 
 MILK 255 
 
 move this casein and so get rid of these germs that butter is so care- 
 fully washed. 
 
 While the food preservatives may have some valuable uses, 
 as keeping milk samples for composite tests, there is absolutely no 
 excuse for Butter Increasers in an honest community. They are 
 fraudulent in that they pretend to teach the producer how he can 
 get more butter from cream than there is in it. They promote dis- 
 honesty by throwing in the way of an unscrupulous producer a 
 means of defrauding his customers; and worse than all, the use of 
 these Increasers is an attempt to put on the market a product which 
 not only cheats the producer but may possibly endanger the health 
 of the consumer. (N. Y. Cornell B. 118.) 
 
 CHEESE MAKING ON THE FARM. 
 
 How to Make Farm Dairy Cheese. The ordinary process by 
 which our American cheese is made in factories is not applicable to 
 the farm dairy, because it takes too much time, and is so complicated 
 that it requires years of practice to become sufficiently familiar with 
 the varying conditions in which milk comes to the vat. The various 
 changes that take place in milk and which are troublesome in mak- 
 ing cheese nearly all develop in the night's milk kept over until the 
 following morning. So if milk is made into cheese immediately 
 after it is drawn, no difficulty need be experienced. By employing 
 a simple and short method of manufacture, anyone at all accustomed 
 to handling milk can, with the appliances found in any well-regu- 
 lated farm home, make uniformly a good cheese. 
 
 Details of Manufacture. The best time to make farm dairy 
 cheese is immediately after milking. First pour the milk from one 
 vessel to another in some locality where the air is pure and fresh, 
 raising the vessel well so that the air can pass through the milk as it 
 is poured out and carry off the animal heat and odor. Then pour 
 the milk into the vat, or, if no regular vat is at hand, use a large 
 wash boiler. 
 
 Coloring. If it is desired to have more than the natural color, 
 so that the cheese will look rich, add about a teaspoonful of cheese 
 color to 16 gallons of milk. To do this properly take a large dipper 
 half full of milk, mix in the color thoroughly, and stir the whole 
 into the vat of milk. 
 
 Rennet. Now add rennet extract at the rate of 1 ounce to 100 
 pounds, or 12 gallons, of milk. Mix the extract with half a dipper of 
 cold water and then pour into the milk. Rennet tablets may be used 
 instead of the extract, one small tablet for every 5 gallons of milk, 
 or one large tablet for 25 gallons. Small tablets are about the size of 
 a dime ; large tablets are about as large as a silver quarter of a dol- 
 lar. Dissolve the tablets required in a small quantity of cold water, 
 then pour into the milk. The rennet extract or the tablets may be 
 procured from any dairy supply house and at many drug stores. 
 
 Temperature. Great care should be taken not to have the milk 
 at a temperature below 86F. nor above 90 when the rennet i>o 
 put in.
 
 256 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Curdling. After the rennet is put into the milk, stir gently two 
 or three minutes, then let stand until the curd is firm enough to cut. 
 The milk should begin to curdle in from ten to twelve minutes. To 
 ascertain when the curd is ready for cutting, push the forefinger into 
 the milk at an angle of 45 until the thumb touches the milk ; make 
 a slight notch in the curd with the thumb, then gently raise the 
 finger; if the curd breaks clean across the finger without any flakes 
 remaining on it, the curd is ready for cutting. A little practice will 
 soon enable the operator to tell the best time to cut. 
 
 Cutting. : For cutting, regular cheese knives are best, one with 
 horizontal blades and one with perpendicular blades. In case it is 
 intended to make only a few cheeses, a wire toaster may be used, the 
 wires only about a half an inch apart. First cut lengthwise, then 
 crosswise of the vat or boiler, until the curd is cut into tubes about 
 the size of small kernels of corn. 
 
 Cooking. After cutting, stir the curd gently for about three 
 minutes, then heat slowly to 98 or 100 F., constantly stirring gent- 
 ly while the curd is being heated. Keep the curd at this tempera- 
 ture for about forty minutes. To tell when the curd is sufficiently 
 cooked, take a handful and press it gently, hold for a moment, then 
 open the hand, and if the curd falls apart it is firm enough. As soon 
 as the curd is sufficiently cooked, draw off the whey. Then the curd 
 is ready to put into the cheese mold, or hoop. 
 
 Molding. Fill the mold by taking a double handful of curd at 
 a time and pressing in gently until the mold is full and well rounded 
 up. Regular Gouda molds are best, but any tin or wooden receptacle 
 will answer if small holes are made in it to allow the whey to escape. 
 The cheese should be from 8 to 10 inches in diameter and about 3 
 inches thick. Then take the cheese out of the mold and turn it up- 
 side down and replace it. Put on the cover and put the cheese to 
 press. 
 
 Pressing. The press may be a simple lever and weight de- 
 scribed as follows : The lever should be about 12 feet long ; a broken 
 wagon tongue answers the purpose very well. Set a strong box, on 
 which the mold may be placed, about 3 feet from a wall, post, or tree ; 
 on the latter nail a slat and under it put one end of the lever. Put 
 a circular board about 6 inches in diameter upon the mold and on 
 this rest the stick or lever. A pail containing a few cobblestones 
 will answer for the weight. Do not apply full pressure at first, but let 
 the weight hang about halfway between the mold and the outer end 
 of the stick. Let the cheese remain a few hours in the press ; then 
 take out and dress. 
 
 Dressing. To dress a cheese, first put it in warm water for a 
 few moments and then wipe dry and rub smooth. Take a piece of 
 linen cloth about 6 inches wide and long enough to go around the 
 cheese and lap over a few inches. Wrap the oloth smoothly around 
 the cheese, folding the edges down carefully over the sides ; then put 
 a circular cap of cloth of suitable size on each side. Replace the 
 cheese in the mold, with the bandage or dress all smooth, and put it 
 under the press, moving the pail to the end of the stick. Leave the
 
 MILK 257 
 
 cheese in the press for about twenty hours; then take it out and 
 salt it. 
 
 Salting. The cheese may be either dry salted or brine salted. 
 Brine salting is the better way. Make a solution of salt and water 
 as strong as it can possibly be made; put the cheese into this brine 
 and sprinkle some salt on the surface which is exposed as it floats. 
 Leave the cheese in brine for two and a half days, turning it over 
 every twelve hours. For dry salting rub salt onto the cheese, and all 
 over it, twice a day for three or four days. 
 
 Curing. Next, put the cheese on a shelf in the cellar for cur- 
 ing. It must be turned and rubbed with the palm of the hand every 
 day for a week or two; after that twice a week will suffice. While 
 curing, cheese should occasionally be wiped with a cloth dampened 
 in warm water, and if it gets a rough rind smooth it by using a brush 
 and warm water. The temperature best adapted for curing is from 
 55 to 65 F., and the air should be as moist as possible. A cellar 
 with a suitable and even temperature and not too dry is therefore a 
 good place for curing. The cheese will be ready for use in from two 
 to four months. The lighter the cheese is salted the sooner it will be 
 ready for use, and the more the curd is cooked the slower it will be in 
 ripening and the longer it will keep. Cheese made as here described 
 is more like the Dutch Gouda than any other of the standard vari- 
 eties. (From a circular issued from the Minnesota Dairy School; 
 Agr. Dep. F. B. 166.) 
 
 Notes for Home Cheese Making. A good vat one that can be 
 kept clean and sweet and large enough to hold whatever milk is to be 
 used at one time. A press ; for the product from five to eight cows, a 
 simple lever with weights. Accompanying the press must be hoops ; a 
 good size is 10 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep, made of heavy 
 tin, edges strong and no top or bottom. A drainer or vessel with per- 
 forated bottom, in which the curd is drained; a large basket will do, 
 lined with strainer cloth. A dozen cloths a yard square. A ther- 
 mometer. A curd knife or knives. These come in pairs, one to cut 
 horizontally and one vertically; but a long, slim knife will dp, or 
 a strong piece of galvanized wire netting, or even a strong strip of 
 tin. A suitable room for curing, with a few smooth, wide shelves on 
 which to cure the cheese. 
 
 Rennet. Use about one tablespoonful of rennet extract for 3 
 gallons of milk. If the curd is over one-half hour in coming, in- 
 crease the quantity of rennet ; if less, decrease it. Rennet tablets may 
 be used. 
 
 Preparation of the Curd. Warm the milk to 85 F., add the 
 rennet and mix thoroughly, then cover and let stand at this tempera- 
 ture for about one-half hour, or until the curd will break, leaving the 
 whey clear. Then cut each way, leaving it in columns about 1 inch 
 square. Now let it stand until the whey rises an inch on top of the 
 curd, then warm the whole gradually, taking two or three hours to 
 reach 98F., lifting and stirring and breaking it gently with the 
 hand all the time until the pieces are about the size of grains of 
 corn. Be very careful not to crush the curd, as that will cause the
 
 258 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 cream or fat to escape with the whey. Then let stand at this tem- 
 perature, stirring it occasionally to keep from packing, until the curd 
 is so firm that when squeezed gently in the hand and the hand 
 opened, it will separate into particles again. The whey should have 
 a slightly acid taste. Then dip the curd into a basket lined with 
 cloth, to cool and drain. 
 
 Salt. Salt the curd after it is drained, using 4 ounces of salt to 
 10 pounds of curd, mixed in carefully but thoroughly; or salt by 
 brine bath or rubbing, after pressing. 
 
 Pressure. The pressure must be gentle at first or the milk fat 
 will run out, thus leaving a poor cheese. Increase the pressure grad- 
 ually, and in a few hours take the cheese out, turn it, rearrange the 
 bandage, and press as before. 
 
 Curing. This is a very important part of cheese making. The 
 room for curing (and it may be in a basement or cellar if the condi- 
 tions are right) should be, first of all, capable of being kept at an 
 even and medium temperature. From 50 to 60 F. is now regarded 
 as the best for domestic purposes, although the time in curing may 
 be somewhat lengthened thereby. The cooler the room, the slower 
 the curing. If the room at any time gets much warmer than 65, 
 even for a short period, the cheese is likely to be permanently in- 
 jured. The room should be fairly dry, but not too dry, and, while 
 being well ventilated, should be free from currents of air. If too 
 dry or subjected to dry currents, the cheese will lose weight and be 
 apt to crack. Great care must be taken to keep out all flies. The 
 bandage should be greased and rubbed and the cheese turned over on 
 the shelf every day or two for a month ; later this need be done only 
 once or twice a week. If the cheese should crack, paste strips of 
 cheesecloth or stout paper over the openings. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 
 166.) 
 
 Pot Cheese. A toothsome and nutritious article of food is made 
 from sour skimmed milk or buttermilk by allowing the casein to 
 coagulate by the action of acid already naturally formed, and then 
 expelling the water by the aid of heat. A considerable number of 
 products, locally distinct and different in the degree of dryness of 
 the curd, are made in this way. The general process of manufacture 
 is to take sour buttermilk, or skimmed milk which has coagulated, 
 heat it gently from 85 to 125F., according to circumstances, and 
 drain off the whey through a cloth strainer. Then reduce the tex- 
 ture of the resulting curd by kneading with the hands or a pestle ; 
 salt is added, and the product is improved by the addition of a small 
 quantity of cream or butter. Some persons consider it an improve- 
 ment to season by the use of one of the more common spices, as nut- 
 meg, caraway, etc. It is largely made only for domestic consump- 
 tion, but in most cities and villages, especially during the summer 
 months, there is a considerable demand for fresh cheese of this sort, 
 and its manufacture is often a source of revenue to factories suitably 
 located. It is usually sold and eaten in a fresh state, but it may be 
 subjected to certain curing processes, which quite materially change 
 its character and which vary widely in different localities. This
 
 MILK 259 
 
 simple kind of cheese is also called Dutch cheese, cottage cheese, and 
 schmierkase. 
 
 Neufchatel Cheese. This cheese was originally a French make 
 of soft molded cheese. In this country the process of manufacture 
 has been considerably changed, so that the cheese as now manufac- 
 tured represents a somewhat different type, that is ready for use as 
 soon as made. 
 
 Fresh milk is set at 85Fahr., with sufficient rennet to cause 
 a thorough coagulation in 24 to 36 hours. The curd is then placed 
 in cheese-cloth bags and allowed to drain for some 12 to 24 hours. 
 The draining is assisted by the application of light pressure. When 
 the curd is dry enough it is pressed into cylindrical shapes I%x3 
 inches, and salted from the outside. It is then allowed to drain for 
 several hours, and is placed in a ripening room where in a few weeks 
 it becomes covered with white and blue mold. The cheese is then 
 placed in a cellar for further ripening, and when red spots appear on 
 the outside it is wrapped in paper and tinfoil and marketed. 
 
 American Method of Manufacture. Fresh sweet milk is heated 
 to 1'65 Fahr. for 10 minutes and then cooled immediately to 72 
 Fahr. Until very recently, the milk used was not pasteurized, but 
 the great difficulty in securing reliable milk, together with the ad- 
 vantages of pasteurization and the use of a commercial starter, have 
 made the heating method very popular. 
 
 In large factories the cheese is made in large vats, but on the 
 farm it can be made in smaller quantities in shotgun-cans holding 
 about 30 pounds of milk. After the milk is cooled to 72 Fahr., a 
 small amount of commercial starter is added and enough rennet to 
 insure a thorough coagulation in 18 hours. Usually about 1 c.c. of 
 commercial starter and a /2 c.c. of rennet extract is sufficient to 30 
 pounds of milk if the temperature is maintained at 72 Fahr. As 
 soon as the milk is firmly coagulated it is placed on a cotton covered 
 strainer-rack or in cotton bags to drain. The acidity of the exuding 
 whey at this time should not be over .3% or the flavor of the cheese 
 will be too acid. The draining process requires several hours and 
 should be kept up until all free whey has escaped. Light pressure 
 such as can be obtained in a small cheesepress aids materially in ex- 
 pelling the whey. During the draining process the curd on the outer 
 surface of the strainer should be stirred occasionally to insure even 
 drying. As soon as the curd is sufficiently dry, salt is added at the 
 rate of 2% ounces to 10 pounds of curd. At this time the acidity of 
 the whey should be not over .5%. The cheese should then be pressed 
 for a short time to expel excess whey. It is then kneaded by hand 
 and finally pressed into small cylindrical shapes I%x2% inches, 
 weighing one-fourth pound each. These are wrapped in parchment 
 paper and tinfoil, and are then ready for market. 
 
 Qualities of Neufchatel Cheese. Neufchatel cheese should have 
 a distinct, mild, clean flavor resembling will-ripened cream. The 
 texture should be fairly dry, yet smooth and entirely free from 
 lumps. There should be no leaking whey, and each cheese should be 
 neatly wrapped. The cheese will usually keep in good condition for
 
 260 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 two weeks if kept in a cold place. From 100 pounds of milk about 
 22 pounds of Neufchatel cheese can be made, which sells for 20 to 
 40 cents per pound, depending on its quality and the manner of 
 marketing. 
 
 Precautions to Observe in Making Neufchatel Cheese. The 
 making of Neufchatel cheese is easy and very profitable, but in order 
 to secure a uniformly good product each day strict attention must be 
 given to the control of temperature, acidity and moisture. High 
 temperature, too much rennet, too much acid, too rapid drying and 
 uneven drying all cause lumpy texture. It is very important that the 
 curd be properly coagulated before being placed in the draining 
 process. If it is too soft or breaks up too much in being transferred 
 from the can to the strainer, uneven drying usually results. (N. Y. 
 Cornell B. 270.) 
 
 Club Cheese. This is one of the most common varieties of 
 fancy cheese, being manufactured most extensively in Canada, New 
 York and Michigan. For those persons who desire a pronounced 
 flavor and taste, together with a smooth soft texture in cheese, the 
 club variety answers the purpose better than any other. One im- 
 portant quality in club cheese is that it can be spread easily on bis- 
 cuits or bread, and for this reason it is used on almost every occasion 
 when cheese is served. 
 
 Method of Manufacture. The method of making club cheese 
 is very simple and yet it requires considerable skill to manufacture 
 a uniformly good product from day to day. The most important 
 factor is the use of suitable raw material, viz., cheddar cheese and 
 butter of good quality. The amount of each of these constituents to 
 be used is determined by the quality of the cheese used and the keep- 
 ing quality desired in the club cheese. 
 
 The method consists in simply grinding up some well-ripened 
 cheddar cheese of good flavor in a meat mincing machine and adding 
 a certain amount of good butter to increase the softness and richness 
 of the cheese. If a fairly strong flavored cheese is desired, cheese six 
 months to one year old should be used, while if a milder taste is pre- 
 ferred, cheese about three months old is better. If the cheese to be 
 ground up is dry in texture, it will require more butter to make it 
 smooth than would be required by a softer cheese containing more 
 moisture. Generally speaking, for home use and for reasonably 
 quick consumption 1 pound butter to 8 pounds cheese make very 
 desirable proportions. The mixture of cheese and butter is usually 
 run through the mincing machine a second time and then kneaded 
 by hand to remove all possibility of lumpiness. In large factories 
 a machine is used for this purpose. Occasionally a small amount of 
 mustard or brandy is added to suit the taste of consumers. 
 
 How Club Cheese is Marketed. Club cheese is usually packed in 
 glass or wrapped in tinfoil. When jars are used they should be of a 
 size that can oe conveniently used on the dinner-table, or for picnics, 
 lunches, etc. 
 
 In packing, the jars are first smeared on the inside with melted 
 butter to prevent air-spaces between the cheese and the glass where
 
 MILK 261 
 
 mold might grow. The jars are filled to within one-quarter inch 
 of the top, covered with plain tinfoil, and then with a tightly fitting 
 cover. When desired in smaller quantities, the cheese can be more 
 profitably put up in small packages, wrapped first in oiled paper 
 and then in tinfoil. Club cheese usually retails for about 40 cents 
 per pound. When stored in a cool place it will keep for some time. 
 (N. Y. Cornell B. 270.) 
 
 PUBLICATIONS QUOTED FROM AND CONSULTED. 
 
 The Babcock Test. Univ. Wis. A. E. S. Cir. of InformatiDn 
 No. 27; Pa. B. 12; Mo. Cir. 41; N. H. B. 114; N. Y., Geneva, B. 
 178; Minn. B. 19; Pa. B. 33; Ag. Dept., Bu. An. Ind. B. 58. 
 
 Bacteria in Milk. Cornell Univ. A. E. S. B. 303 ; la. B. 59 ; 
 U. S. Ag. Dept. A. E. B. 25; 111. B. 91; la. B. 59; Del. B. 43; N. J. 
 B. 152; N. Y., Cornell, B. 203; Conn. B. 37, 42; N. Y., Cornell, B. 
 197; Mass. B. 110; Manitoba Ag. Col. B. 3; Conn. B. 26; Mich. B. 
 33, 42, 23, 29; Conn. B. 51; Dept. Ag. F. B. 161; Del. B. 71; Conn. 
 B. 25; N. Y., Cornell, B. 195; Conn. B. 59; Wash. B. 12; Va. B. 
 194; Md. B. 102; Va. B. Ill; Dept. Ag. Bu. An. Ind. B. 92; N. Y., 
 Cornell, B. 178; N. Dak. B. 21; Nebr. B. 87; Dept. Ag. Bu. An. Ind. 
 Cir. 171, B. 126, B. 117. 
 
 Butter and Butter-Making. Colo. A. E. S. B. 163; Wis. B. 
 132; Nev. B. 42; Md. B. 135; Kans. B. 138; N. H. B. 141; Utah B. 
 73; Hawaii Press B. 31; N. Y., Geneva, B. 263; 111. Cir. 131; Ark. 
 Cir. 6; 111. B. 139; N. Y., Cornell, B. 281; Conn. B. 65; Ag. Dept. 
 Bu. An. Ind. B. 114, Cir. 56, 161; Wis. B. 152, 154, Cir. 14; Mich. 
 Tech. B. 1, 2; S. C. B. 125; la. B. 76, 97, 80, 71. 
 
 Butter Cultures and Starters. Mich. A. E. S. B. 246; Pa. B. 
 44; Mich. Cir. 7; N. Y., Cornell, Cir. 10; Wis. Cir. 2; Ore. B. 83; 
 Ark. Cir. 6. 
 
 Camembert Cheese. Conn. A. E. S. B. 46, 58; Dept. Ag. Bu. 
 An. Ind. B. 98, 115, 71, 82. 
 
 Cheddar Cheese. N. Y., Cornell Univ., A. E. S. B. 257, Cir. 
 3 ; Dept, Ag. F. B. 166, 257, 122 ; Nev. B. 18 ; Ont. Ag. Col. 20th An. 
 Kept.; Ont. Dept. Ag. B. 183; Dept. Ag. Bu. An. Ind. B. 15; N. Y., 
 Geneva, B. 219. 
 
 Fancy Cheeses. N. Y., Cornell Univ., A. E. S. B. 270; Ag. 
 Dept. Bu. An. Ind. B. 146. 
 
 Feeding the Dairy Cow. U. S. Dept. Ag. F. B. 55 ; Minn. B. 
 71, 79, 67; R. I. B. 80; N. H. B. 18, 20, 120; N. Y. .State B. 
 120; Dept, Ag. Bu. An. Ind. Cir. 114, 170; Del. An. Kept. 1902; 
 111. Cir. 151; Mont. Cir. 10; Va. B. 170; N. Y., Cornell, B. 222, 
 169, 173; N. Y., Cornell, B. 213, 152; Wis. B. 130, 142; Miss. B. 
 141; Pa. B. 70; Colo. B. 125; Ky. B. 141; N. H. B. 147, 149, 133; 
 Wash. B. 48; Minn. B. 36, 27; Pa. B. 50; la. B. 86; Wis. B. 103; 
 Ind. Cir. 20; N. H. B. 4; Ind. Cir. 26; Calif. B. 132; N. Y. State B. 
 197; Mass. B. 53, 45; Ind. Cir. 26; Mass. B. 94; S. C. B. 131; Mich. 
 B. 193; N. J. B. 189, 156, 204; La. B. 110; Mass. B. 118; N. Y., 
 Cornell, B. 183; N. M. B. 17; Nev. B. 64, 26; Ag. Dept. Bu. An. 
 Ind. B. 74; 111. B. 43; Minn. B. 26; Kans. B. 103; Conn. B. 43; 
 Pa. B. 80; Tenn. B. 83; Va. B. 169; Mo. B. 56, 58; W. Va. B. 106;
 
 262 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Va. B. 156; Mass. B. 39; N. Y. State B. 197; Pa. B. 52; N. Y., 
 Cornell. B. 243, 242; Pa. B. 28; Nebr. B.-76; Mass. B. 38; Conn. B. 
 63; Va. B. 148; Tex. B. 47; Minn. B. 80; Fla. B. 92; S. C. B. 123; 
 111. B. 101 ; Mich. B. 240 ; N. H. B. 8, 14 ; Mo. B. 8 ; Ore. B. 85 ; Tenn. 
 B. 80; Cornell Reading Course No. 8; Kans. Cir. 18; Kans. B. 125; 
 Colo. B. 87-90; N. J. B. 174; Tenn. Vol. 5, No. 3; 111. Cir. 152; 
 Minn. B. 26; Conn. B. 34; S. C. B. 66; N. H. B. 2; S. C. B. 117; 
 Kans. B. 125; Conn. B. 29; N. H. B. 20, 120, 1'6; Tenn. Vol. 17, 
 No. 4; Utah B. 68; N. H. B. 17; S. C. B. 67; N. H. B. 127, 4, 16; 
 Mo. B. 5; 111. Cir. 103; 111. B. 146; Mich. B. 242, 234; Ohio B. 155; 
 Ala. B. 114, 123; Minn. B. 106; R. I. B. 77; Mo. Cir. 44. 
 
 Composition of Milk.U. S. Dept. Agr. F. B. 363 ; N. H. B. 
 103; Mo. B. 37; N. H. B. 126; 111. B. 74; U. S. Dept, Agr. Bu. An. 
 Ind. B. Ill, 134; N. H. B. 103, 132; S. Dak. B. 73; Wis. B. 156, 195. 
 
 Cow Testing. Wis. A. E. S. B. 144, 131, 172; 111. Cir. 118, 
 76, 113, 134; Nebr. B. 101; Ohio Cir. 67; 111. Cir. 76; Wis. Cir. 9. 
 
 Dairy Management. Wis. A. E. S. B. 167; Minn. B. 124; 111. 
 Cir. 103, 93; 111. Cir. 134. 
 
 Milking Machines. Wis. A. E. S. B. 167; Tenn. B. 80; Wis. 
 B. 173; Wis. Cir. 111. 
 
 Moisture in Cheese and Cheese Curing. N. Y., Geneva, A. E. 
 S. B. 207, 203; Mich. Special B. 21; N. Y., Geneva, B. 236, 237, 
 203, 183, 184, 214, 234, 233; la. B. 57; Wis. B. 101; Ag. Dept. Bu. 
 An. Ind. B. 122, 85; Wis. Cir. 20; Ag. Dept, Bu. An. Ind. B. 
 62 123 
 
 Milk Testing. Univ. Wis. A. E. S. Cir. of Inf. 27 ; Mo. Cir. 
 41; N. H. B. 114; N. Y., Geneva, B. 178; Minn. B. 19; Idaho B. 
 63 ; Pa. B. 33 ; Ag. Dept. Bu. An. Ind. B. 58 ; Pa. B. 12. 
 
 Production of Milk.Va.. A. E. S. B. 185; Ind. B. 89; 111. 
 B. 147, 120, 92; Ag. Dept. Bu. An. Ind. Cir. 170. 
 
 Separators. Purdue Univ. A. E. S. B. 116; U. S. Ag. Dept. 
 F. B. 201; Conn. B. 40; Mo. B. 94; Kans. B. 137; Oreg. B.^89; Pa. 
 B. 27; Del. B. 17; Conn. An. Rept. 1893; Ind. B. 44; Pa. B. 38; 
 Va. B. 186; N. Y., Cornell, B. 171, 151.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE. 
 
 SHORTHORNS. 
 
 THIS is one of the heaviest of the beef breeds. Mature bulls in 
 show shape often attain a weight of 2,700 pounds and cows 
 2,000 pounds. However, these extreme weights, without the 
 highest quality are objectionable. The color is more variable 
 than that of any other breed; it may be red or white, or a mixture 
 of these colors, the colors popularly used to describe the breed thus 
 being red, white, and roan. Roan is, indeed, the one distinctive 
 Shorthorn color never produced except by the presence of the blood 
 of this breed. A typical Shorthorn head will afford a man weeks of 
 study in bovine character. The indications of a good feeder are also 
 present. In passing, note the short horn, curving gracefully forward 
 and occasionally drooping, waxy and white in color with black tips. 
 The neck shows strength and sexual power, and is joined to a rather 
 upright shoulder by a smooth and full shoulder vein. Passing to the 
 body, note the heavy flesh and the spread of back and loin. In the 
 hind quarters especially Shorthorn characteristics are present. In- 
 deed, the breed has the reputation of carrying the best hind quarter 
 of any. Legs are of moderate length, with a bone of medium fine- 
 ness and plenty of strength. 
 
 Three groups of Shorthorn cattle have been evolved during the 
 last century. During the first fifty years, the Booth and Bates fam- 
 ilies were developed and the opposition between them was as great 
 as between different breeds. The Booth cattle were famous for their 
 fleshing qualities. Bates cattle were famous for both milk and beef 
 production. They grazed well and possessed high quality and much 
 style. Later the development of the Scotch sorts, under the guidance 
 of the Cruickshanks, brought forth animals of a blocky, short-legged 
 type, with much scale and substance, excellent fattening powers, 
 good constitution, quality, and early maturity. The tendency dur- 
 ing the past thirty years has been to combine the blood of the old 
 strains. 
 
 As a breed, its popularity and wide dissemination have given 
 rise to variation in types that has resulted in many a show-ring dis- 
 pute; but we have, to offset this, the wonderful adaptability of the 
 breed, its seeming universal usefulness, and its value in crossing with 
 almost every other. Shorthorn blood was the first to be used on the 
 native cattle of the Plains, and exercises a very great influence on the 
 range cattle of the present time. 
 
 An estimate of 150,000 as the number of living registered 
 Shorthorns in the United States is approximately correct. Of these, 
 it is stated that 5% are on the range and 95% in the hands of the 
 
 263
 
 264 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 small farmer, the strong feature of the breed being its adaptability to 
 the requirements of diversified farming. 
 
 HEREFORDS. 
 
 In weight, Herefords are about equal with the Shorthorns. The 
 extreme weights to which Shorthorn bulls frequently attain are rare, 
 but, generally speaking, there is practically no difference between 
 the two breeds. 
 
 Hereford color is easily recognized. That most favored is a rich 
 medium red with white markings. Note the extent of white; head 
 and face, top of neck, dewlap, brisket, belly, front feet, hind legs 
 below hocks, and brush of tail are usually white. This arrangement 
 is not absolute. A streak may be present on the middle of the back, 
 and the white may extend over a very much larger area, even to the 
 extent of making a spotted effect. Ears are usually red or spotted, 
 rarely solid color; red spots often are present on the head, especially 
 around the eyes. The red may vary from a light yellow red to dark, 
 almost black in some animals. Time was when the face was gray, or 
 mottled, in some animals and spotted in others. Even an occasional 
 white animal was met with. The advent of a spotted calf in a herd 
 is therefore no indication of impurity. 
 
 In the Hereford the width and lowness of the form is extreme. 
 Close to the ground, broad, blocky, deep, nicely rounded, and stylish, 
 the Hereford is typical. The head is a splendid feeder's pattern 
 broad, short, and full of character, with a capacious mouth and large 
 nostrils, showing good digestion and strong constitution. The muzzle 
 is light in color, without spots. The horn is white, somewhat coarser 
 and considerably longer than that of the Shorthorn, has longer 
 curves, sometimes being nearly straight, and usually has a drooping 
 tendency, especially in the best-bred cattle. In cows and steers it is 
 often elevated, but this is rare in bulls. 
 
 The head is set closely to the body a noteworthy point of econ- 
 omy. The neck is cheap meat; therefore, eliminate the neck if you 
 can. The development of the fore quarters, "or fore hand," the width 
 of chest and heart girth have been objects of special care by Hereford 
 breeders. Accompanying these will be the strong constitution that 
 has given the Hereford his hold on the range. Back, loin, and ribs 
 carry a tremendous amount of flesh of fine quality. The Hereford 
 hind quarter has been somewhat differently developed from that of 
 the Shorthorn and has been remarkably improved during the last 
 twenty-five years. The square-cut, packed-in-a-box appearance that 
 the Shorthorn presents is missing here. The hips are not quite so 
 wide nor prominent as in the Shorthorn, generally a little smoother, 
 the rump wide and well filled, and, instead of a straight quarter be- 
 hind, we see a slightly bulging one, more so than in the Shorthorn, 
 but less than in the Angus. 
 
 As a breed, their long specialization for beef production has 
 operated to give them a less general distribution than the Short- 
 horns ; but the strength of the breed lies in this very fact. Its value 
 for grazing purposes and for prime beef production commands atten- 
 tion.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 265 
 
 Though among the first breeds to be introduced, Herefords were 
 little known in the United States until the opening of the range 
 country. The impetus which this gave the cattle trade brought them, 
 into prominence, and, beginning about the year 1880, a rapid 
 growth has put the white faces second in point of numbers in this 
 country and almost supreme on the range. 
 
 ABERDEEN- ANGUS 
 
 Examining an Angus bull for the first time, we shall notice 
 first his black color. He is all black, the only white allowed being 
 a little on the underline behind theliavel. Some white on the udder 
 is not objectionable, as it is thought to be usually present with the 
 best milkers, but white is not wanted on the cod. Occasionally red 
 calves are dropped, showing a tendency to revert to the animals of 
 the eighteenth century, when mixed colors were comparatively com- 
 mon. Having observed the color, we note an entire absence of horns. 
 Not even scurs are allowed. 
 
 Going more into detail, note next the form. This presents a 
 considerable variation from the ones previously discussed, and is 
 very typical of the breed. While the requirements of a first-class 
 beef animal demand a rounded form, here we find this carried to an 
 extreme, and the barrel shape is a characteristic that the Angus 
 claims peculiar to itself. Viewed from any direction, this marked 
 rotundity is prominent ; and one notices, too, how low-set the animal 
 is, his great style, quality, compactness, and symmetry. In the 
 feeder we find all the indications of a good beef-making machine and 
 in the finished animal every requirement of a market topper. We 
 see short legs, and neat, fine bone, and most particularly the wonder- 
 ful smoothness which even the most extreme forcing is hardly able 
 to mar. 
 
 The head is very characteristic. Short, wide, clean cut, with a 
 muzzle whose capacious mouth and large nostrils denote excellent 
 feeding qualities and strong powers of constitution ; surmounted with 
 a tufted poll that is sharp and higher in the female than in the male. 
 
 Note the tremendous width of chest, with legs set well outside 
 the body, the spring of rib, the deep heavy flesh. Observe the com- 
 pactness, how closely the ribs are joined to the hind quarters. In 
 the hind quarters we fail to find the hook bones. They are there, 
 but so well concealed by smooth flesh that frequently the most care- 
 ful handling fails to locate them. Here we find still other Angus 
 characteristics. The tail is set a little farther forward than in the 
 Shorthorn. The buttocks are more rounded, 'but the quarter carries 
 a large amount of flesh well down to the hocks. 
 
 Individuals of this breed do not attain the great weights of the 
 Shorthorns, mature bulls rarely weighing over 2,200 pounds, and 
 cows averaging perhaps 1,600 pounds in show condition. But early 
 maturity enables them to attain marketable weights in an extremely 
 short time. Angus bulls are strongly prepotent, getting calves of 
 great uniformity, from 75 to 90 per cent of which from horned 
 cows are polled.
 
 266 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The milking qualities of Angus cows have been considerably 
 neglected, and all the powers of the breed have been directed to the 
 production of prime beef. 
 
 The first importation of Angus cattle into the United States was 
 that of three bulls brought over in 1873 for use on the native cows 
 of Kansas and Indian Territory. The offspring of these bulls at- 
 tracted much attention, and subsequent importations soon made 
 the breed well known. Their footing on the range has always been 
 secure, but the popularity of the breed for the production of baby 
 beef keeps most of them east of the Missouri. 
 
 GALLOWAYS. 
 
 Many judges have found Galloway and Angus so much alike 
 that the one was mistaken for the other. This has been carried to 
 such a point that claims were made at one time that there was no 
 difference between them. In appearance their common color makes 
 identification difficult, but as to a common origin, if such was the 
 case, it was so far back in bovine mythology that its effect was long 
 since lost owing to differences in climate, environment, management, 
 and standards of breeding. 
 
 We find the Galloway ranking with the Angus in size. In form 
 the beef rectangle presents itself broad, deep, and symmetrical. 
 Possessed of ample bone, very hardy and an ideal hustler, the Gallo- 
 way has endeared himself to cattle raisers in rigorous climates and 
 high altitudes. His coat is especially characteristic, with a thick 
 hide and a mossy coat of long, wavy hair, in fact, a sort of double 
 coat, a close mat of short hair being found under the long one. 
 Black, tinged with brown, is the prevailing color, but a tendency to 
 reversion to the old stock of mixed colors may be present. 
 
 Like the Angus, Galloway bulls are good dehorners, and strong- 
 ly prepotent, from 75 per cent to 90 per cent of their calves from 
 horned cows being without horns. On the range and in the feed lot 
 Galloways are of great value, and their hides are made into robes of 
 great beauty. Among the more outstanding merits of this breed are 
 their great hardiness, prepotency, excellence for the blodk, and fine 
 hides. (Dep. Ag. Bu. An. Ind. B. 34.) 
 
 POLLED HEREFORDS. 
 
 In 1898 Gen. W. W. Guthrie, of Atchison, Kans., showed a 
 group of cattle at the Trans-Mississippi Exposition at Omaha that 
 attracted much attention. These cattle had Hereford characteristics, 
 minus the horn, and General Guthrie called them 'Tolled Kansans." 
 They had been produced by crossing Hereford bulls on "muley" 
 cows, inbreeding being avoided by resort again to Hereford stock. 
 The bull shown was said to get a good percentage of hornless calves. 
 Since then the interest has grown, the name Polled Hereford has 
 been adopted, and recently the American Polled Hereford Cattle 
 Club was organized, with headquarters in Des Moines, Iowa ; Warren 
 Gammon, secretary. 
 
 The polled variation is not so common among Herefords as 
 among Shorthorns, and this imposes a considerable disadvantage on 
 one who attempts to fix it; but there are occasional registered Here-
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 269 
 
 fords that have never developed horns. An effort is now being made 
 to collect these animals into one herd and thereby form the nucleus 
 for more extended operations. Such work is commendable and will 
 be watched with interest. (Dep. Agr. Bu. An. Ind. B. 34.) 
 
 BREEDING. 
 
 Producers of beef cattle divide quite naturally into two classes. 
 First there is that class comprising the small minority engaged large- 
 ly in the production of pedigreed animals to be offered for sale for 
 purposes of improvement. There are a few undoubtedly who own 
 pure bred animals, but have not been keeping the registration up. 
 On the other hand this list must include some who own but a single 
 recorded animal, namely, a bull. The fact that these men own re- 
 corded stock is evidence enough that they are interested in live stock 
 improvement, and are familiar with and are practicing good methods 
 of live stock breeding. 
 
 The second class comprising by far the great majority of stock 
 owners is the one in whose hands the inferior stock are to be found. 
 Because this last class comprises such an overwhelming majority of 
 stock owners, and because it produces nearly all the animals and 
 animal products marketed, its influence in determining the character 
 and reputation of meat and milk products is very far reaching. It is 
 in the hands of some of this class that the scrub and animal of badly 
 mixed breeding are to be found. After the few breeders of pure bred 
 animals have expended large sums of money for good foundation 
 stocks, and offered good young pure bred males at moderate prices, it 
 cannot be denied that they are extremely slow of sale. The ordinary 
 producer of meats and milk (not breeder), seems determined not to 
 pay more than about meat prices for males to infuse improved blood 
 in his herd, and the breeder cannot make a living producing them 
 at such prices. Failing to secure improved males at these low prices, 
 many producers fall back on the grade or even the scrub, and fre- 
 quently combine with this in-breeding, especially where the males 
 are chosen within the herd. The greatest, and most pressing needs of 
 today, in live stock improvement, are more breeders, more good males, 
 and more men willing to pay remunerative prices for them, and 
 cease admixing blood, and using grade and scrub sires. 
 
 Inferiority of the Common Stocks. The chief fault of the com- 
 mon cattle found today, is their lack of quality and uniformity; this 
 is not due so much to the lack of infusion of good blood, as to the 
 indiscriminate admixture of the blood of breeds of both beef and 
 dairy types. It is not necessary to attempt to present and establish 
 proof of this assertion, as every live stock producer can secure abun- 
 dant evidence for himself in a short time by simply exercising the 
 faculty of observation. In traveling about the country by wagon 
 road or rail, note the number of animals in each herd seen, also the 
 variation in type, form, and more particularly, color. Except for the 
 herds of the few growers of pure bred, or high grade cattle, the com- 
 mon bunches will be found to include a great variety of color and 
 types. In some herds red, white, black, brindle, and all conceivable 
 combinations of these colors are to be found ; at the same time some
 
 270 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 individuals will conform in a measure to strictly beef form, others 
 quite markedly to dairy form, with all gradations between these two. 
 The indications of blood, as seen in color, will undoubtedly attract 
 the attention of the casual observer more readily than other features. 
 In other words, the presence and admixture of so many colons in 
 common herds indicates that Shorthorn, Holstein, Jersey and less 
 frequently Hereford and Ayrshire blood has been freely admixed. 
 The seriousness of this lack of uniformity in breeding, quality, color, 
 form, etc., is not fully appreciated. For the past ten or fifteen years, 
 with one or two exceptions, the Chicago market has been topped by 
 a certain breed of cattle sold in car load lots. The reasons for this 
 are found in the word uniformity. They have been uniform in size, 
 color, form, finish, and quality ; in fact, as much alike as so many 
 peas ; you see one and you see them all. This prime requisite of uni- 
 formity can never be secured through mixed breeding. The man 
 who offers for sale nineteen good steers and one inferior one bearing 
 undesirable color, is at a great disadvantage ; the scrub steer is ever 
 under the nose of the prospective purchaser, and offers him a strong 
 pretext for lowering his bid. 
 
 A large percentage of the best cattle fed today, by good feeders, 
 are secured from western stockyards ; the feeders of these cattle claim 
 that it is difficult to secure feeding cattle of good quality and uni- 
 formity at home ; one has to purchase the culls along with the good 
 ones in order to get any. Close inspection of consignments of cattle 
 is not necessary to convince one of their lack of breeding ; the drover 
 who picks up a few market cattle here and there, until a load or two 
 is made up for shipment, is the man who gathers together the motley 
 combination representing the large aggregate ; the man who breeds, 
 buys and feeds a good car or more of steers usually markets them 
 himself. 
 
 Some Causes of Lack of Breeding in Cattle. The indiscrimin- 
 ate admixture of the blood of the various breeds has been one of the 
 most direct causes of the production of inferior stocks. This has not 
 been restricted to the breeds within the beef and dairy classes, but 
 includes admixture of the blood of the two classes. With the rise 
 in prices of dairy products the common cows have been bred to 
 dairy bulls; with depreciated values for dairy products, these same 
 cows and their female progeny have been bred back to beef sires, and 
 so on. On the other hand, there are plenty of instances where herds 
 possessed of cows of a small type, producing a small flow of rich milk, 
 nave been bred to a bull of a larger breed noted for heavy milk flow, 
 and vice versa. There are too many animals in our yards today 
 saved from bulls bred to females for no other purpose than to freshen 
 them again. 
 
 The lack of good breeding among our cattle today is not due to 
 lack of introduction of good blood at an early date. 
 
 Live Stock Improvement Not Difficult. Questions of breeding 
 are generally regarded as being obscure, intricate and extremely 
 difficult, except to those skilled in the art through long years of train- 
 ing. It is true that we are obliged to look back upon the achieve-
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 271 
 
 ments of the master breeders of history with feelings akin to rever- 
 ence, for their tasks of type founding, breed forming and breed im- 
 provement were difficult, requiring a whole lifetime in some in- 
 stances to gain the mastery, and in others two whole generations to 
 attain the highest success. But the initial step in live stock breeding 
 for improvement confronting us today, is an exceedingly simple one ; 
 we do not need to undertake the establishment of new types or 
 breeds, as there are plenty now in existence to choose from, which, 
 judiciously chosen will respond favorably to the conditions to which 
 they are adapted. The first step in the line of live stock improve- 
 ment must come from the cessation of the practice of admixing the 
 blood of the various breeds, and of using grade and scrub sires. 
 
 Plan for Live Stock Improvement. Before introducing the 
 plan of live stock improvement, known as up-grading, it should be 
 the ambition of every man owning live stock to eventually get into 
 some line of pure-bred live stock breeding. The plan that would 
 naturally be suggested for the improvement of the common stocks 
 of the country, is that known as up-grading, which consists in in- 
 grafting the characteristics of a superior breed upon animals of com- 
 mon, or mixed breeding for the purpose of improving them. This 
 improvement is due to the superior quality of the males used, and 
 chiefly their prepotency, or power of transmitting accurately these 
 qualities to their offspring. This plan differs from cross breeding, 
 in that pure blood is used on the sire's side, and females of mixed 
 blood, or no blood, on the dam's side. Thus we have the prepotency 
 concentrated in the bull, and the very opposite in the females, as the 
 more mixed the breeding, the less stable are the inherent character- 
 istics of the individual, and therefore the less resistant to improve- 
 ment. It would be absolutely impractical to advise all owners of 
 common cattle to send their stocks to the block and purchase pure 
 bred foundation stocks ; only a few could do this for the following 
 reasons: First, if the great majority now possessed of common 
 stocks were to simultaneously seek to purchase pure bred foundation 
 stocks, they could not get them, they are not in existence, for only 
 about one per cent of the cattle in the United States are possessed of 
 pedigrees. Second, the finances of a great many holders of common 
 stock are not such as to allow them to make extensive purchases of 
 pedigreed animals, and replacement is out of the question, as it 
 would require the returns from the sale of three or four common 
 animals to purchase one pedigreed one. Third, it is highly desir- 
 able for breeders to grow into any line of pure breeding rather than 
 to buy into it suddenly, and take up a work in which experience 
 is necessary. 
 
 In general, then, it is necessary for the majority of holders of 
 common stock to make the best use of the animals on hand, with a 
 view to improving them. Let us suppose the case of a herd of com- 
 mon, or mixed cattle of say eighteen head, and apply a plan of im- 
 provement. The first thing for the owner of this herd to do, is to 
 decide upon some one line of production, either beef or dairy, and 
 then stand by the resolution. Without this he cannot improve his
 
 272 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 herd, for the animals of mixed breeding are largely the result of 
 frequent change of purpose. Suppose in this case, that the owner 
 has decided to go into the dairy business; that being the case, the 
 next thing to do will be to look over the herd of eighteen, and decide 
 which ones are so possessed of dairy type and characteristics, as to 
 warrant their being used in the business. They can be divided into 
 three classes, such as best, medium and inferior, from a dairy stand- 
 point. Then, in the majority of cases, it will be found to be a decided 
 advantage to send the six inferior ones to the block and use the re- 
 maining twelve for the foundation herd. Having selected the fe- 
 males to be retained, the next and one of the most important steps 
 is to decide upon the breed to be used in improvement. In this, 
 adaptability of the breed to the conditions, and the question of per- 
 sonal preference, are the two important factors; the decision of this 
 question is also an important factor, for a change of mind after the 
 work has begun, and the use of other blood, is more apt to result in 
 retrogression for a time, than improvement. Haying decided upon 
 the breed to be used for improvement, suppose it is the Holstein, 
 then purchase the best Holstein bull that the pocketbook will allow. 
 Mate this bull with the twelve selected cows, and use him for two 
 seasons, after which his progeny will be old enough to breed. At this 
 point secure another Holstein bull, a better one than the first if possi- 
 ble ; follow him with others of the same breed, indefinitely. Let it 
 be Holstein bull after Holstein bull, nothing but Holstein bulls. We 
 have cited the Holstein merely for the purpose of this illustration. 
 The same plan must be used, no matter what the breed is. 
 
 We may expect, after a few top-crosses in upgrading, that the 
 progeny will resemble the type of sires used in improvement, quite 
 closely, both as to form and general characteristics ; in fact, so much 
 so that the high grade may eventually equal the pure blood improver 
 from a standpoint of utility in meat or milk making, as the case 
 may be. There is some question as to the number of crosses that 
 must be produced before this high standard of excellence will be se- 
 cured in the grade. This will be somewhat dependent on the dura- 
 tion of the purity of the improving blood, the prepotency of the indi- 
 vidual sires, and the plasticity of the common females. Instances 
 are on record where ideal high grades have resulted from the third 
 cross ; in general, one would be safe in counting on at least the fifth. 
 We must not, however, lose sight of the fact that while a high grade 
 may eventually equal the improving breed from a standpoint of 
 meat or milk making, that it can never be possessed of a pedigree, 
 nor equal the full bloods from a standpoint of prepotency in breed- 
 ing, this is the chief argument used against grade sires. 
 
 The Grade Sire. Attention has been directed to the fact that 
 high grade animals may be eventually produced capable of equalling 
 those of the pure breed used in their improvement, insofar as meat 
 or milk production are concerned, but at the same time they can 
 never equal them in prepotency nor become possessed of pedigrees, 
 except in rare instances. So far as external form and indications of 
 quality are concerned, a high grade sire may look equally as good
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 273 
 
 as a pure bred one, and still this is no justification for his use. 
 Though an animal may be an exceptionally good individual, if he 
 is lacking in prepotency, as the grade derived from mixed blood on 
 the dam's side is sure to be, his offspring cannot equal those of the 
 pure male. And so in actual practice, except in rare instances, grade 
 sires fail to produce offspring possessed of the marked uniformity 
 and quality of those from the pure bred male. Attention just here is 
 called to the fact that the quality of prepotency more markedly 
 manifest in the breeds of most ancient origin has been developed 
 through centuries ; one must not expect to develop it in high grades 
 in one decade. It would be useless to say that no grade sires should 
 be used at all, for of the bulls that are needed, as indicated by the 
 last state census, only a portion of the number could possibly be 
 made up of pure breds, as they are not to be had. Therefore, the 
 only rational thing to advocate is the utilization of all pure bred 
 bulls to their fullest extent, the use of the fewest possible high grade 
 sires for the present, the use of the best of this class and the replace- 
 ment of these by pedigreed animals as rapidly as possible. Occa- 
 sionally, in purchasing, a man hesitates between two sires, the one 
 a grade, the other a pure bred; the former perhaps about as good 
 as the latter in individuality, judging from appearances. On this 
 basis, the purchaser secures the grade because it is at least one-half 
 cheaper, but in considering the final results we should not lose sight 
 of the fact that the superiority of a crop of ten calves from a pure 
 bred sire is almost sure to be so much greater than the same number 
 from a high grade, that the difference in the purchase price of the 
 two sires may be more than made up in a single season. 
 
 Discarding the So-Called Aged Bull. In general, it can scarce- 
 ly be said of a bull, that he has reached full maturity until four 
 years of age, though this perfect stage of development is commonly 
 regarded as being attained at a somewhat earlier age among some 
 breeds. It has been a common practice for years, among farmers, 
 to send the three or four years old bulls to the block, largely because 
 there is no sale for them as breeders. The general rule among pros- 
 pective purchasers is to search for nothing but young bulls, yearlings 
 or less, with the idea that they will grow into money for them, if they 
 can dispose of them before maturity. It is a false economy to pur- 
 chase on this basis solely and take more or less chance on a young, 
 untried animal when the actual results from a mature animal may 
 be ascertained. There are two principal reasons why sires are usually 
 sent to the block at three or four years of age. First, it is claimed 
 that their dispositions do not mellow with age, and second, they 
 become too large, heavy and clumsy, and it may tend to impotency. 
 In answer to the first of these objections, we believe that except for 
 the inheritance of mean, treacherous dispositions, bulls in general re- 
 turn on the points of their horns only that which is dealt out to 
 them on the points of the fork, or in other words, the bull responds 
 to the character of the treatment and management given him. 
 Mature bulls should not have a tendency towards impotency if prop- 
 erly fed, managed and exercised, but because of the fact that the bull
 
 274 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 is isolated, he is frequently neglected to a greater extent than any 
 other animal on the farm. Too many bulls are fed irregularly and 
 improperly, and confined constantly for long periods in small dark 
 filthy box stalls; these conditions are not conducive to good breeding 
 qualities. 
 
 There are some decided advantages in purchasing mature bulls. 
 One of the greatest of these is found in the fact that the buyer can 
 ascertain something relative to the character of their get ; this is most 
 important to the breeder of dairy stock. Another advantage arises 
 from the fact that there is always more or less uncertainty regarding 
 the future development of the bull calf, while this factor is entirely 
 eliminated in the purchase of a mature sire. It is also not unreason- 
 able to conclude that a mature sire will beget more vigorous off- 
 spring, especially because the young ones are frequently used to ex- 
 cess. Three and four year old bulls can generally be secured at 
 very reasonable prices. Some of the best show cattle were sired by 
 bulls far past the mature stage. The expert breeder appreciates the 
 value of mature sires. 
 
 Evil Effects of Breeding Immature Females. During the past 
 decade or two, there has been a growing tendency to breed heifers 
 at an early age; this is particularly true among the dairy breeds. 
 The men who advocate and practice the breeding of heifers so as to 
 produce calves under or at about twenty months of age, are extremely 
 numerous. In fact, the practice has been carried to such an extreme 
 that in many localities mature cows of some of the dairy breeds can- 
 not be found bearing the same size that these types did twenty years 
 ago. This practice is supported chiefly on the following grounds, 
 viz. : First, that the earlier a heifer is made to produce, the sooner 
 she begins to make some financial return for her keep, and second, 
 the capabilities of the dairy cow can be increased if stimulated at an 
 early age. There are those who claim not to object to lack of size 
 in dairy cows, and also that the smaller cows are more profitable, but 
 this latter claim has not yet been proven. The relative value of small 
 versus large dairy cows as economic producers has not been deter- 
 mined, though much discussed. It is a notable fact, however, that 
 the world's record makers and the majority of the cows entered in 
 the various advanced registry associations, are, in general, consider- 
 ably above the average as to size. It is also a notable fact that the 
 twenty-five Jersey cows entered in the dairy cow demonstration at 
 St. Louis in 1904, were large cows, the average weight for the twenty- 
 five at the beginning of the test was 911.2 pounds, and at the close 
 983 pounds. These figures place them considerably aiboye the aver- 
 age of the cows of this breed in general use in many dairy sections 
 today. These cows were used in a test where comparative economic 
 production was one of the main features. Some expert dairy 
 breeders are inclining more and more to the belief that heifers 
 should be allowed greater maturity before dropping the first calves 
 and are also permitting them to lay on more flesh than has been 
 thought to be safe; these men are demonstrating the accuracy of 
 their theories in the results produced, While it is clearly apparent
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 275 
 
 that immature breeding has reduced the size of many of our dairy 
 cattle, it has not been proven that diminished constitutional vigor 
 has accompanied this loss of size, though many hold to that view. 
 It is rational to assume that in unduly immature breeding some of 
 the physiological laws of nature must be violated, and this cannot 
 occur without being followed by some evil results. No fixed age can 
 be given for the breeding of heifers, it should be dependent on the 
 rapidity and character of the development of the individual. 
 
 Cross-Breeding. A cross-bred is the progeny of two distinct 
 breeds. Though there has been an indiscriminate mixing up of the 
 blood of various breeds, cross-breeding in its strictest sense is not 
 prevalent, owing to the small number of pure bred females in exist- 
 ence. The grades of the various breeds, however, are crossed fre- 
 quently. The practice has been stimulated by sudden and somewhat 
 prolonged fluctuations in market values; a depressed dairy market 
 leads to more or less crossing of beef blood upon dairy types and 
 vice versa; an increased price for the longer and coarser staples of 
 wool always causes more or less crossing of coarse wools upon 
 fine wools or the reverse, as the case may be. No breeder can make 
 such radical changes as these, frequently, for every time he alters his 
 breeding operations so radically in trying to meet market fluctua- 
 tions, he introduces factors leading to the final deterioration of his 
 breeding stocks. It is much safer to choose some definite line of pro- 
 duction, and stand by that through the temporary ups and downs 
 of the market; the men who have done this have made a success of 
 animal breeding. It would not be sensible to say that no changes 
 should be made in one's breeding operations; if a man is sure he has 
 made a mistake, the only rational thing to do is to make a change, 
 but these should not be made often, as they are usually attended by 
 some loss. The progeny from some first crosses have shown highly de- 
 sirable results and while cross-breeding is more justifiable in the pro- 
 duction of market animals, it cannot be employed continuously in 
 the production of breeding stocks. From the breeders' standpoint, 
 each succeeding cross becomes less and less satisfactory. Cross-breed- 
 ing is more justifiable among those classes of animals such as swine, 
 which reproduce quickly and abundantly, and mature early, for in 
 such cases it is easily possible to return to the original types for 
 breeding animals. While it must be admitted that cross-breeding 
 has rendered valuable service, in the form of single out crosses in 
 the formation of new breeds and types, still, it should not be prac- 
 ticed among cattle on the ordinary farm, for three reasons, viz. : (1) 
 It would tend to destroy the identity of breeds; (2) The results are 
 in many cases uncertain, and (3) It might render pure bred females 
 less capable of breeding true to type. 
 
 In-and-in Breeding. Because of the fact that the several terms 
 used in connection with the breeding of variously related animals 
 are not always properly used, or understood, it may be well to define 
 them. (1) In-and-in breeding implies the mating of animals closely 
 related, for a number of successive generations; it includes close 
 relationships and continuous repetition. (2) In-breeding implies
 
 276 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the mating of related animals in a single instance, or at intervals 
 among the generations, without much regard for the closeness of the 
 relationship. (3) Close breeding merely implies that closeness of re- 
 lationship existed between the animals mated. (4) Line breeding 
 implies the breeding of animals within the members of one family, 
 or one or more related families. It is virtually a continuation of 
 in-and-in breeding, the relationships being less close. 
 
 It is astonishing the extent to which in-and-in breeding and in- 
 breeding are allowed among the common stocks of the country, and 
 this too, by some persons who realize fully the seriousness of the 
 practice. It arises, of course, from the selection of sires from among 
 the offspring of the herd; in some cases, it may be due to a lack of 
 means to make a suitable purchase, but in general, it is due to care- 
 lessness or indifference. When in-and-in 'breeding is carried too 
 far the following evils are likely to result, viz. : loss of size, delicacy 
 of constitution, impaired reproductice powers, and in fact general 
 deterioration. 
 
 The practice of in-and-in breeding, and in-breeding, should not 
 be denounced entirely, for they may become useful factors when em- 
 ployed by those skilled in the art of breeding ; they must almost nec- 
 essarily be used in the formation of new breeds, where it is the aim 
 to fix new characters in animals, and secure uniformity and perma- 
 nence in the transmission of the same. But, on the other hand, the 
 improver of common stocks has no occasion to resort to close breed- 
 ing. He is not going to become a former of new breeds or types but 
 is going to improve his common stocks through up-grading, in which 
 he will rely solely on the prepotency of the sires chosen to work the 
 transformations by w r hich each succeeding generation will be brought 
 more near to his own standard of excellence. 
 
 Prepotency. What is prepotency? Strictly speaking, prepo- 
 tency is the superior power which one parent has over the other in 
 determining the character of the off-spring. But the term is more 
 commonly used to indicate that power which an animal has to trans- 
 mit its own qualities. If a pure male were to beget progeny from fe- 
 males of the same breed, which bear a close resemblance to the male 
 parent, this result would be a stronger evidence of prepotency in the 
 male, than a similar result produced by mating him with females of 
 mixed breeding, since the resistance to modification in the progeny 
 of the females in the first instance, would be stronger than resistance 
 to the same in females in the second instance. This quality in a sire 
 is one of the most important factors stimulating rapid improvement 
 in any process of upgrading. It is more important in the sire than 
 the dam, as the effect on the sire's side is more far reaching. Prob- 
 ably one of the most difficult things in animal breeding is to deter- 
 mine whether a sire is possessed of prepotency or not. It is conceded 
 by some, that prepotency is the result of certain lines of breeding, 
 and that certain visible characteristics must accompany it. The fol- 
 lowing are some influences tending to produce prepotency, viz. : (1) 
 duration of purity of breeding without admixture of alien blood; 
 (2) uniformity of type and results from animals in pedigree; (3)
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 277 
 
 inherent vigor of type, race or individual; (4) line breeding. To 
 illustrate the first point; it is well known that it matters little with 
 what breed or type a Holstein bull is mated, the offspring is almost 
 sure to resemble the sire markedly in characteristics, and particularly 
 in color; it is doubtful if any breed of cattle has been bred pure 
 for a longer period than the Holstein, and the inherent vigor of the 
 breed is indisputable. The ability of the Hereford, also, to transmit 
 uniformly its characteristic color markings, especially the white face, 
 is an evidence of prepotency, the result of a long period of pure 
 breeding. In selecting a prepotent sire, it is well to study the pedi- 
 gree and ascertain as far as possible what is known relative to the- 
 performance of the ancestry as breeders, for an animal the progeny 
 of prepotent ancestry, is certainly likely to be more prepotent than 
 an animal whose ancestors have not been prepotent. 
 
 BREEDERS SHOULD CO-OPERATE. 
 
 It would seem highly desirable that some forms of co-operation, 
 in breeding methods, should be established by communities, such for 
 instance as the joint ownership and use of males by several parties 
 rather than one. In theory this proposition sounds well, but in ac- 
 tual practice it has not worked satisfactorily in the majority of in- 
 stances, as illustrated by the universally undesirable results from the 
 formation of stock companies in the ownership of stallions. In this 
 instance, however, it is only fair to venture the assertion that the 
 initial troubles among these companies is generally the fault of the 
 organizer or promoter, the seller of males, who unloads something on 
 the company that does not prove satisfactory. One cannot conceive 
 of any logical reasons why several men in a community could not 
 form, a co-partnership in the ownership and use of good sires. If 
 such a plan could be followed, the good influences of superior sires 
 would become more far reaching and fewer males in all would be 
 needed than in the case of individual ownership. At present pedi- 
 greed males are usually introduced into a community by individuals. 
 These men usually possess small herds and the one sire could be used 
 upon a number of other herds providing the neighboring owners 
 could but see the advantage to be gained thereby. But at present the 
 man who introduces a good male and offers his services at a reason- 
 able price, does not greatly benefit his community, as the prevailing 
 practice is to patronize the sire offered at the smallest fee, and this 
 is always the grade or scrub. The scrub is likely to flourish and con- 
 tinue to be used until such time as national or state legislation places 
 a prohibitive tax on him. The form of co-operation discussed would 
 ho particularly suited to thickly settled communities where the farms 
 and holdings of cattle are small, and consequently close together. 
 In general, it is the men with the smaller holdings of cattle who 
 resort most to mixed breeding, and who are in greatest need of good 
 sires. 
 
 It is highly desirable for the various breeders in a community 
 to co-operate in other ways in addition to that just referred to. Great 
 advantages would accrue from unity of purpose and methods in 
 breeding. One of the great difficulties existing today is found in the
 
 278 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 fact that the blood of altogether too many breeds of a given species is 
 to be found in each community; this facilitates the admixture of 
 the blood of various breeds. There is really no occasion for the use 
 of so many breeds; in fact there are some notable disadvantages. 
 There is no disputing the fact that individual likes and dislikes vary 
 greatly, but it nevertheless seems to be the case, that if one man in- 
 troduces a certain breed, his nearest neighbor will at once introduce 
 another, apparently for no other purpose than to have something 
 different, whereas, if they were both using the same blood it would 
 work to their mutual advantage. 
 
 Probably it would not be wise to advocate a single breed of 
 cattle, for instance, for each community, but it would unquestion- 
 ably be wise to limit the breeds to those only which are peculiarly 
 adapted to the conditions of each community and the lines of produc- 
 tion therein pursued. The greatest success that has been achieved 
 in the history of animal breeding has occurred where there were har- 
 monious community interests, and but one principal line of breeding. 
 Examples are numerous, for instance, Jerseys only have been bred 
 on the Isle of Jersey, Holsteins in Holland, and all the leading 
 breeds of cattle and sheep in England and Scotland were each devel- 
 oped largely within one or more counties or shires, to the almost total 
 exclusion of other 'breeds of the same species. When a given com- 
 munity is specializing in the production of some one or two breeds of 
 cattle, it soon becomes noted for these breeds, and prospective pur- 
 chasers are attracted thereby to the mutual interest of all those co- 
 operating in the work. 
 
 There is a great lack of proper organization among stockmen 
 today. It is true that a state live stock breeders' organization exists, 
 and also that there are a number of breeders' associations, and one or 
 two county live stock organizations. It would seem highly desirable 
 for most counties and perhaps some townships, to organize live stock 
 breeders' organizations. It would seem possible through such or- 
 ganizations, to bring the live stock breeders into closer touch with one 
 another, and thereby present favorable opportunities for the discus- 
 sion and adoption of methods of breeding best suited to the interests 
 of the community. (Mich. B. 241.) 
 
 GRADES OP FEEDING CATTLE. 
 
 There are six fairly well defined grades of feeding cattle recog- 
 nized in the cattle markets. They are known as (1) Fancy, (2) 
 Choice, (3) Good, (4) Medium (5) Common, (6) Inferior. 
 
 Grade 1. Fancy Feeders. Animals of this grade contain nearly 
 one hundred per cent of the blood of the improved beef breeds. The 
 dams are high grade cows and the sires are registered. 
 
 "While there may be a slight lack of uniformity in size of this 
 grade of steers, they possess the quality and conformation that ac- 
 company the typical beef-bred steer. It is also true that age, as well 
 as ^quality, conformation, and condition, is characteristic of the 
 various grades of feeding cattle. Usually when the better grades of 
 feeding cattle are selected for feeding they are comparatively young. 
 To make this point more clear it may be said that it would be impos
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF, CATTLE 279 
 
 sible to secure a two-year-old inferior feeder, as inferior steers of this 
 age would possess neither the weight nor the flesh demanded in the 
 feeder class. As a rule, we may classify as feeders, steers weighing 
 900 pounds or more that are eighteen months old or older, and that 
 are fleshy enough so as not to render an extended period of low 
 feeding necessary. Manifestly the slower maturing, lower grades 
 will always be the older animals when feeding weights are attained. 
 
 The individual steers comprising this fancy grade possess out- 
 standing quality. They are the kind from which car-load show cat- 
 tle are produced. Those who have attempted to collect such a group 
 of cattle know how very scarce they are. Such feeding cattle are 
 very seldom seen in any of our feeding-cattle markets, for when such 
 a bunch is known to be for sale it is usually eagerly sought, hence it 
 is unnecessary to ship them to the market to find a buyer. 
 
 Grade Q. Choice Feeders. The steers in this group are unques- 
 tionably choice. They possess large frames and perhaps average six 
 months older than the fancy selected grade, though still younger 
 than grades 4, 5, and 6. Owing to their more advanced age and the 
 appearance of being more growthy, thi a grade of steers is frequently 
 selected by experienced feeders as the best calculated to produce the 
 largest and most rapid gains of any in the market. They are the 
 heaviest cattle and perhaps, everything considered, carry slightly 
 more flesh than the others, although grades 1 and 2 are similar in this 
 regard. They are high-grade steers, uniform as to size, color, and 
 conformation. Fed to a finish, steers of such quality ought to pro- 
 duce prime steers of sufficient merit to sell at the top on any ordinary 
 market. 
 
 Grade 3. Good Feeders. The quality and finish so manifest in 
 the choice and fancy grades are not so much in evidence in this 
 group, although it is easy to see that beef blood still predominates. 
 While these cattle possess a strong infusion of beef blood, they do not 
 meet the requirements of the ideal feeder in type or conformation. 
 They are inclined to be upstanding, while some of the steers are 
 rather plain in their rumps. They lack that attractive uniformity 
 that characterizes grades 1 and 2. As to condition they are hardly 
 as fleshy as the grades already described. It should not be gathered 
 from what has been said that these are an undesirable grade of feed- 
 ing cattle, for they are not. In fact, cattle of their quality are not 
 at all plentiful in the markets of our country, and can only be pro- 
 duced by the use of bulls of some of the beef breeds. 
 
 Grade 4- Medium Feeders. Undoubtedly the most noticeable 
 characteristic of this grade is its lack of uniformity in color. This 
 suggests their probable mixed breeding. The lack of uniformity is 
 not by any means the main difference between this and the better 
 grades. A closer study reveals a coarseness and angularity not at all 
 characteristic of those of better quality. There is a plain, old style 
 appearance about them that is very evident. The cattle appear to be 
 close to three years old. Experienced feeders would select now and 
 again a steer from this grade that would be expected to make large
 
 280 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 gains, and occasionally one that would finish quite smooth, but the 
 majority would always remain rather coarse, rough, and paunchy. 
 
 Grade 5. Common Feeders. This group shows but a very small 
 percentage of beef blood. Native and unimproved blood predomi- 
 nates. There is no uniformity in color and every steer shows a lack 
 of both quality and conformation. The steers are rather coarse boned 
 and large headed, and are plain throughout. They do not all have 
 similar faults, but all are noticeably deficient in some particular. 
 They are the kind that result from the somewhat common practice 
 of indiscriminate breeding and the too common practice of breeding 
 from inferior grade bulls. 
 
 Grade 6. Inferior Feeders. There are so many standards by 
 which feeding cattle might be designated as inferior that it is well 
 to be explicit in specifying the standard employed in the selection 
 of the cattle comprising this grade. It is not that they should be 
 steers carrying a high percentage of dairy blood, although steers in 
 this group are undoubtedly strongly dairy bred. Nor is it that they 
 should be beef-bred steers of faulty conformation and lacking in 
 constitution. An effort is made to select cattle inferior in quality 
 and conformation from the standpoint of beef breeding, that is, 
 those possessing very little, if any, of the blood of any of the improved 
 beef breeds. This is a more difficult task than would seem to those 
 who have not attempted it. The majority of this grade are selected 
 from grass cattle shipped to the Chicago market. They show no evi- 
 dences of beef blood and every evidence of being scrubs. (111. 
 B. 90.) 
 
 BEEF AND BEEF PRODUCTION. 
 
 Demand for Baby Beef. The packers report that they have 
 never been able to supply the demand for baby beef, and that there 
 is no likelihood of the market ever becoming oversupplied, even 
 though stockmen generally should go to producing it. The best 
 demand and the highest prices are in the months of April, May, and 
 June. During these months butchers want light cuts, and they find 
 less waste in baby beef than in that from larger cattle. After July 1 
 the price for baby beef has a tendency to become lower, as light 
 grass-fed cattle compete. The best prices are obtained for well-fat- 
 tened calves weighing from 600 to 1000 pounds. Calves either above 
 or below these weights do not top the market. The age should be 
 from twelve to fourteen months. 
 
 Care in Feeding for Baby Beef. In forcing calves for baby beef, 
 the feeder must remember that the calves are babies and must be 
 treated as such to secure the greatest gains. The feeder who loves 
 them and pets them and never allows a harsh word to be spoken in 
 the feed-lot will get many more pounds of gain from his feed than 
 will the feeder who simply puts an equal amount of feed in the boxes 
 and kicks a calf when it gets in his way. 
 
 The feed should be fresh and palatable at every feeding, and 
 the calves should be fed in such a way as to induce them to eat the 
 greatest possible amount and yet come to the feed-boxes hungry at 
 every feeding. The feeding should be done regularly to the minute.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 281 
 
 Water and salt should be before them all the time, and both should 
 be palatable. We prefer fresh salt and place it in the boxes under 
 the shed. Fresh salt should be placed in the boxes at least twice 
 each week, and care must be taken to see that the salt does not cake 
 and harden. If it does the calves will not eat enough for best results. 
 
 The best results will be obtained by feeding the grain mixed with 
 the roughage, and the mixing is best when done in such a way that 
 each particle of grain is taken into the mouth attached to a piece of 
 roughage. When this is done the calves chew the greater part of 
 the grain over a second time with the cud. Greater gains are made 
 from each hundred pounds of gain, and scouring and getting off feed 
 are not troublesome. (Kan. B. 113.) 
 
 In stormy weather it will pay the feeder to stay in the feed-lots 
 with the calves all day. In bad weather a calf feels "blue," just 
 as a human being, and often, if left to himself, will not eat. When 
 a calf does not eat he will not gain. At such times, if the feeder 
 who has petted his calves will stay in the feed-lot, stir up the feed in 
 one box, freshen it in another, and offer a handful to the calf that is 
 not eating, the calf will come around his feeder for companionship, 
 and, after he has had a few mouthfuls of feed, will find that he is 
 hungry and will eat a hearty meal. The calf makes a good gain from 
 that day's feed. Care and kindness do not cost money, but come 
 from thoughtfulness and love for animals. They pay. 
 
 What Does the Production of Baby Beef Mean? Nothing to 
 the ranchman who has cheap pastures; a complete change in the 
 methods of crop-production and of feeding to the farmer with high- 
 priced, limited pastures. The farmer who raises and fattens mature 
 steers has to furnish pasture for his cows, the yearlings, the two- 
 year olds, and often for the three-year-old steers. He waits three 
 years from the time the calf is born until he realizes on the invest- 
 ment, and only one-fourth of his herd are cows producing calves. 
 If the farmer will produce baby beef, he can fill his pasture to the 
 full limit with cows producing calves, and he will realize on the calves 
 twelve months from the date of their birth. Capital is turned an- 
 nually instead of once in every three years. The farmer's grain 
 will produce from 50 to 100 per cent more pounds of baby beef than 
 it will of beef from a mature steer, and for the past three years the 
 baby-beef animal has sold for as high prices per hundred as has the 
 average steer. In producing baby beef, the farmer can market his 
 heifer calves at the same price as his steers, and will usually get 
 more for the twelve-months-old heifer than he would for the same 
 animal if kept until maturity. (Kan. B. 113.) 
 
 Quick Returns Saving in Pasture. The production of baby 
 beef gives quick returns on the investment. The farmer who raises 
 and fattens mature steers has to furnish pasture for his cows, the 
 yearlings, the two-year-olds, and often for the three-year-old steers. 
 He waits three years from the time the calf is born until he realizes 
 on his investment, and only one-fourth of his herd are cows produc- 
 ing calves. If the farmer will produce baby beef he can fill his
 
 282 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 pasture to the full limit of cows producing calves, and he will realizes 
 on the calves twelve months from date of birth. 
 
 The Economy of Gain at Different Ages Compared. It is a 
 well-established principle in animal nutrition that young animals 
 make more economical gains than older ones, and that the amount 
 of feed required for a given gain increases as the age of the animal 
 advances toward maturity. 
 
 Comparatively few practical feeders are aware of the marked 
 variation due to the operation of this law. Experiments are recorded 
 where gain has been made at the rate of 1 pound of increase in live 
 weight for each pound of dry matter in the feed consumed. (Arms- 
 by's Manual of Cattle Feeding.) This was made with calves under 
 three weeks of age. The ration consisted of 17.6 pounds of milk per 
 head daily with 3.9 pounds of cream added. 
 
 In an experiment conducted at the Iowa Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station (Bulletin No. 25, p. 24, Iowa Experiment Station), a 
 gain of 1 pound of increase in live weight was obtained from each 
 1.97 pounds of dry matter in the feed consumed. This experiment 
 covered a period of ninety days, beginning when the calves were 
 about one week old. The ration consisted of separator skim milk, 
 supplemented with corn, oats, and oil meal, and in addition a mod- 
 erate allowance of hay. For the first eight months it required 4.6 
 pounds of feed (dry matter) for a pound of gain, and for the first 
 seventeen months it required 5.97 pounds of feed for a pound of 
 gain, and for a period of two years the amount of feed required for 
 a pound of gain had increased to 7.19 pounds, and during the last 
 four months the amount of feed per pound of gain ran up to 9.02 
 pounds. In another experiment, recorded in Bulletin No. 24 of the 
 Iowa Station, five steers were finished for market at the age of 32 
 months, and it required 10.4 pounds of feed for a pound of gain 
 at this age. Director Thorne and Professor Hickman have presented 
 a summary of results (Bulletin No. 60, Ohio Station), obtained at 
 the stations in eight States, covering 132 head of cattle ranging in 
 age from 2 to 3 years, in which it is shown that it has required on an 
 average 10.24 pounds of feed (dry matter) for a pound of gain, 
 while the work done by Lawes and Gilbert along this line indicates 
 an average of about 11 pounds of feed per pound of gain on cattle 
 approaching maturity. 
 
 These results have been repeatedly verified by many other careful 
 experiments, not only with cattle, but with sheep and hogs as well, 
 and the law of diminishing returns for feed consumed as animals 
 advance in age toward maturity is conclusively established, and gov- 
 erns the economy of gain in all practical as well as experimental feed- 
 ing. This law should be kept constantly in mind by the meat pro- 
 ducer. Economy of production is one of the important factors in 
 the practical problem of determining profit, and the advantages are 
 all with the young and growing animal as compared to the one that 
 has practically attained its growth. In comparing the cost of gain 
 made by pure-bred Shropshire lambs and pure-bred Shropshire year- 
 lings at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, it was found
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 283 
 
 that the lambs made gain in weight at the rate of 1 pound from each 
 7.18 pounds of feed (Bulletin 33, pp. 536 and 565) consumed, at a 
 cost of 2.88 cents per pound for the gain made, while it required 11 
 pounds of feed to make a pound of gain on the yearlings, and at a 
 cost of 4 cents. All conditions except age were the same. 
 
 The market also pays a premium on the younger animal, owing 
 to the fact that it furnishes a more profitable carcass and less waste 
 by reason of the absence of excessive fat. 
 
 The modern feeder must combine the advantages of economy 
 of production resulting from early maturity, and the excellence and 
 enhanced value of the finished product that can only come from the 
 right kind of stock well handled. This implies good breeding and 
 continuous good feeding. These requirements are no longer merely 
 subservient, but practically imperative. (F. B. 71.) 
 
 Grain for Young Cattle. This is almost self-evident. Three 
 year old steers, for example, can handle ear corn and coarse roughage 
 far more advantageously than can calves, say, that are just being 
 weaned. It is not at all difficult to make a fair rate of gain on young 
 animals, and to accomplish only this result would not require any 
 special preparation of grain. ^ But to make a gain that is sufficiently 
 rapid to fatten the animal within reasonable time does require that 
 the grain be offered in an easily assimilable form and that the rough- 
 age be of a very palatable and nutritious character. In other words, 
 as has already been pointed out, the first draft a young animal will 
 make on its food, outside of maintenance, is for growth, and it is nec- 
 essary to induce the animal to eat and digest an amount considerably 
 in excess of the requirement for maintenance and for growth in order 
 to make it fat. The aged steer, on the other hand, has little use for 
 food for growth, and puts practically its entire ration, outside of that 
 required for maintenance, to the uses of fat production, and it is not, 
 therefore, so vital a matter that the animal gain to the absolute limit 
 of its capacity in order to get fat in a reasonable time or to prove prof- 
 itable. Thus it comes about in practice that the feeders use ear corn 
 for aged cattle and crushed or ground or soaked or shelled corn for 
 calves and yearlings. (Mo. B. 76.) 
 
 Long Time to Make Young Animals Fat. The younger the ani- 
 mal, the longer the time required to make it fat. This is on account 
 of the tendency of the young animal to utilize its feed so largely for 
 growth instead of for the production of fat. It is fat that makes the 
 animal ripe and marketable. Clearly, the young animal, when on 
 full feed, puts its food to three distinct uses: 1. Maintenance; 2. 
 Growth; 3. Fat. The rate of growth diminishes as the age of the 
 animal increases. After a certain time, therefore, the animal would 
 reach an age when growth would cease entirely. At such a time in 
 the life of any animal all of the available food above maintenance 
 would necessarily go to the production of fat. The presumption is 
 that the recfuirement for growth gradually diminishes, but not 
 directly with the age of the animal. This rate of growth has not 
 been determined for the different ages of the beef steer, but it is well 
 known that after the age of something like two years is reached,
 
 284 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 varying greatly with the individual, and with how he has been fed 
 previously, it is very much easier to make him lay on fat than before. 
 This of course is saying that with the decline in the tendency to 
 grow comes a corresponding increase in the tendency to fatten. These 
 are all matters of common observation among feeders. Particularly 
 has the ease with which older cattle may be made fat, and the com- 
 paratively short feeding period necessary to bring this about become 
 a matter of common observation and likewise the great difficulty ex- 
 perienced in making young animals fat and the long time required 
 to accomplish it. 
 
 Starting with six months old calves in good flesh, twelve months 
 is the minimum time in which these animals may be made thick and 
 prime, whereas three year old or four year old steers, of similar qual- 
 ity and much thinner in flesh to start with, may be made prime in 
 less than six months. Or, the same principle may be illustrated in 
 another way. To make a six months old calf crime will require the 
 laying on of from 600 to 750 pounds of additional weight, making 
 the finished animal weigh from 1,100 to 1,250 pounds, and requir- 
 ing, as has been said before, some twelve months of full feeding. 
 Whereas, a three year old steer, even thin in flesh at the outset, may 
 be made strictly prime by the addition of 400 pounds, weighing at 
 the close of the feeding period between 1,450 and 1,550 pounds. 
 (Mo. B. 76.) 
 
 Young Cattle Must Be Fat to Sell Well. Attention has already 
 been called to the fact that the yearling must be fully finished to sell 
 well. This fact, while so well known to the experienced feeder, is so 
 often overlooked that it will bear further emphasizing in this con- 
 nection. It seems to be a well established law in the cattle trade that 
 the older and larger the animal is, the less fat beyond a certain point 
 it is required to carry to sell well up toward the top of the market for 
 its class. It not infrequently occurs that heavy three year olds will 
 bring the top of the market for heavy cattle, while a yearling equally 
 fat would not sell within 50 cents of the market, and might even be 
 classed on the market as a well advanced feeder rather than as a fat 
 steer. In this connection the reader is again referred to the replies 
 from the commission men and packers in relation to the factors 
 affecting the demands of the market. One cannot fail to be im- 
 pressed with the unanimity with which these men agree that the so- 
 called dressed beef steer, or the 2 year old, weighing from 1,300 to 
 1,400 pounds, is in most active demand and sells at a better price one 
 day with another, year after year, than any other age or weight of 
 similar quality and of equal finish. It is furthermore significant that 
 the feeder has said with striking unanimity that the 2 year old steer 
 weighing between 1,300 and 1,400 pounds has returned him the 
 greatest profit. (Mo. B. 76.) 
 
 The Feeder. The average feeder may not be guilty of getting 
 his cattle too fat. For this reason it is sometimes sugge*sted that he 
 be encouraged to get his cattle as fat as possible, in order not to fall 
 below the market requirements. While it is doubtless true that many 
 feeders fail to eet the proper finish to their cattle, this is no reason
 
 i' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ! I'iii', ',',!! 
 
 OPEN AND COVERED MILK PAILS. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 Ill I IB 
 
 BARN 90 FEET IN DIAMETER; ONE OF THE FEW DAIRY BARJSS WITH SUFFICIENT LIGHT. 
 
 DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 287 
 
 why they should remain in ignorance of what constitutes a proper 
 finish. The feeder should be taught as to what is meant by an ideal 
 beef, and encouraged to reach that ideal whenever it is possible, and 
 to be able to recognize it when it is reached. Such knowledge will 
 inspire a feeder to do better feeding and will undoubtedly result in the 
 marketing of better cattle. 
 
 Another class of feeders may market their cattle in a finished 
 condition, but, not being able to recognize this condition, may be led 
 by unscrupulous buyers to imagine their cattle are not fat enough, 
 and sell them accordingly. Feeders need to know what they have 
 and what their cattle will show upon the block. The more knowledge 
 feeders have along these lines the more certain they are to be re- 
 spected and to get their just dues. (Kan. B. 118.) 
 
 The Butcher. The butcher buys a beef animal for the amount 
 of lean meat he is able to cut from it, and especially for the amount of 
 lean in the high-priced cuts. He wants just as little waste as possi- 
 ble. It is his business to cater to the desires of the consumer, and 
 whatever the consumer demands he tries to secure in the purchase of 
 a beef animal. 
 
 The Consumer. The consumer dictates to the butcher, the 
 butcher to the feeder, and the feeder to the breeder; in other words, 
 the consumer is the supreme judge as to what constitutes good beef, 
 and all the others must bow to his judgment. There is no question 
 but that the consumer is demanding more lean and less fat. As in- 
 dicated in the cooking tests, there must be enough fat distributed 
 among the fibers of the lean to make the meat tender and well fla- 
 vored, but the heavy layers of fat are now relegated to the tallow box, 
 and not served on the meat platter. If this be true, it behooves both 
 the breeder and feeder to produce beef animals that will furnish the 
 largest amount of well-marbled meat in the highest-priced cuts with 
 the least amount of extraneous fat. (Kansas B. 118.) 
 
 DAIRY TYPE STEERS COMPARED TO BEEF TYPE. 
 
 Dairy type steers show a considerably higher percentage of fat 
 and a lower dressing percentage. They also carry a higher percent- 
 age of fat on internal organs, thereby increasing the total weight of 
 cheap parts. Beef type steers carry a higher percentage of valuable 
 cuts and also furnish heavier and thicker cuts ; they are more evenly 
 and neatly covered with outside fat and show superior marbling of 
 flesh. The flesh of beef type steers is brighter red in the lean and 
 the fat a little clearer white, but there is little difference in fineness of 
 grain of the lean meat. 
 
 It is neither profitable nor desirable to feed steers of dairy type 
 for beef purposes. They are unsatisfactory to the consumer, because 
 they do not furnish thick and well marbled cuts; they are unsatis- 
 factory to the butcher because they furnish low-grade carcasses which 
 are difficult to dispose of and they are decidedly unsatisfactory to the 
 feeder, because they yield him little or no profit and both breeder and 
 feeder waste their time in producing such a type of steer for beef 
 purposes. (la. B. 81.)
 
 288 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Practical Feeders' Conclusions Usually Right. As a rule the 
 practical man arrives in the long run at correct conclusions on the 
 main points involved in his practice. This is perhaps more true of 
 the cattle feeder than of any other class of farmers, for several rea- 
 sons : First, he is among the most intelligent and progressive of the 
 farming class. Second, giving most of his attention to the buying, 
 feeding and marketing of cattle, makes him in a large sense a spe- 
 cialist in this particular branch of agriculture. Third, he has oppor- 
 tunities for checking up his observations and judgment with accurate 
 data that men in other lines of farming do not have. This comes 
 about because, as a rule, he buys his cattle by weight and has, there- 
 fore, an accurate knowledge of the cattle at the time he begins his 
 feeding operations. He always sells by weight and has, therefore, the 
 weight of his cattle at the close, and can easily determine quite ac- 
 curately, the gain. Furthermore in many instances, he buys a large 
 portion, and frequently all of the feed used, which enables him to 
 determine with a fair degree of accuracy the amount of food con- 
 sumed. These are the necessary data, of course, for reliable con- 
 clusions as to the outcome of his feeding operations. Fourth, the pro- 
 fessional feeder is of necessity more or less of an experimenter. He is 
 forced by the varying supply of different kinds of feed to vary the 
 material fed from season to season, and thus one season while he may 
 naturally prefer a certain grain or hay the supply is inadequate or 
 the price is too high, and he adopts another. Normally he might 
 prefer to feed his corn whole, but the price may be such as to warrant 
 him in grinding it, and so on throughout the entire range of steer 
 feeding. The state of the feeder market will justify his feeding three 
 or four year olds in one season, heifer calves in another, and so on. 
 Thus his experience is forced, so to speak, to take a very wide range 
 in the quality and condition of cattle fed, and in the kind, condition 
 and quality of feed used. 
 
 These considerations therefore would seem to justify us in giving 
 to the conclusions of these men the greatest weight. That is, the dif- 
 ference between two or more methods or practices, when large, may 
 be safely assumed to have already been discerned by the practical 
 man, by reason of his exceptional facilities for securing accurate data 
 already pointed out, and furthermore because of his capacity for close 
 observation and sound reasoning. (Mo. B. 76.) 
 
 Advantages of Summer Over Winter Feeding. The advantages 
 of summer over winter feeding may be very^ briefly summarized as 
 follows: First, gains made in summer require less grain. Second, 
 the gains are made more rapidly, so that the animal is finished in less 
 time. Third, steers may be made thick and prime on corn and grass 
 in summer without the use of expensive supplementary feeds like 
 cottonseed meal or linseed meal, and will carry to market a lustrous 
 coat. It is impossible by the use of corn and such roughage as tim- 
 othy or prairie hay to bring animals within a reasonable time to any- 
 thing like the degree of fatness that may be easily made with corn 
 and grass, and they will never carry the bloom that is put on by full 
 feeding at pasture. Presumably the green grass contains sufficient
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 289 
 
 protein to give the high finish and excellent coat required of animals 
 that bring a high price. To approximate this finish in winter feed- 
 ing requires the use of a considerable quantity of expensive grain 
 like cotton seed meal or linseed meal, or the use of clover, cowpea or 
 alfalfa hay for roughage. Fourth, the hog makes larger gains and 
 shows a very much lower death rate in summer than in winter feed- 
 ing. Fifth, there is a considerable saving in labor in summer feeding 
 over winter feeding, in view of the fact that only the grain has to be 
 hauled, and in view of the further fact that as a rule the steers need 
 to be fed but once a day either about sunrise or near sunset. To 
 offset this, however, labor on the average farm is scarce and much 
 higher priced in summer than in winter. The manure is scattered 
 by the cattle themselves, and the hauling of it out upon the ground 
 is dispensed with. Grass is cheaper than hay, as has already been 
 pointed out, and makes better gains. The handling of the roughage 
 is likewise disposed of. (Mo. B. 76.) 
 
 Feeding Two Year Old Steers. With the gradual increase in the 
 price of grain, the feeder is becoming confronted with a new prob- 
 lem. He is in the business for profit and unless the price of animal 
 products increases proportionately with the price of grain, he must 
 decrease expenses or quit the business. The latter is serious for no 
 country can be kept in a prosperous condition without a large number 
 of farm animals, and any condition that tends to hinder the raising 
 of farm animals should be discouraged. 
 
 The amount of grain fed to dairy and beef cattle is changing. 
 Experiments with dairy cows are beginning to show that less grain 
 can be fed, for heavy maximum production than has been the prac- 
 tice to feed. Enormous quantities of grain have been fed, but on 
 account of the increase of its price, farmers of the United States are 
 probably not feeding grain as heavily as in former years. Reports 
 from various parts of the country show that less grain is being fed. 
 A large amount of grain for a short period with fleshy steers or a 
 small amount of grain with considerable roughage for a long period! 
 with thin steers, seems to be giving good results and is apparently 
 finding favor. Reports from the middle and eastern states, are that 
 farmers are looking more to silage, roughing their cattle through the 
 winter and finishing on grass in the spring with less grain than in 
 former years. This may not be very general yet, but it shows that 
 there is a tendency to feed less grain. (Montana B. 78.) 
 
 Silage Fed Cattle Kill the Best. While the percentage of good 
 meat in any of the slaughter tests is thus considerably below what 
 should be a fair standard, it indicates that with improved sires, the 
 standard of beef cattle could be quickly raised in the' state. A grati- 
 fying result of the slaughter test is found in the fact that the silage 
 fed cattle showed the highest per cent of good meat, it being the pre- 
 vailing though erroneous belief of the farmer and butcher that an 
 animal fed succulent food will not kill well. The slaughter testa 
 speak for themselves on that point and sound the death-knell of a 
 prejudiced and absurd belief. The weight of the livers was not ma- 
 terially influenced by the character of the ration fed, though the
 
 290 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 pound of intestinal fat showed considerable variation. It was highest 
 as a rule with the silage fed cattle. WMle the greater weight of the 
 intestinal fat may be attributed in a measure to the succulent food, 
 it is also influenced by individuality and is not a factor of sufficient 
 importance to have any marked influence on the investigation. 
 (Tenn. No. 3, Vol. XV.) 
 
 RATIONS AND ENERGY VALUES. 
 
 Components of the Animal Body. The essential working parts 
 of the body contain a great variety of substances, but these may, for 
 our present purpose, be grouped under three heads water, ash, and 
 protein. The bones, constituting the framework of the body ; the liga- 
 ments, muscles and tendons which bind together and move the bones ; 
 the skin and hair, or wool, which cover and protect the body; the 
 internal organs of circulation, respiration, digestion, excretion, and 
 reproduction ; the brain and nerves in short, the whole mechanism 
 of the body can be regarded as being composed substantially of 
 these three classes of substances 
 
 Water. Rarely less than half and sometimes as much as three- 
 fourths of the weight of the live animal consists of water. The pro- 
 portion of water is greatest in young and lean animals and decreases 
 as they become more mature or fatter. 
 
 Ash. The ash or mineral matter is the portion left after com- 
 plete burning. Its presence is most familiar in the bones, but it is 
 found in all parts of the body and is just as essential as water or pro- 
 tein. It amounts to from 2 to 5 per cent of the weight of the body. 
 
 Protein. Protein is the name given to a highly important group 
 of substances, of which the white of egg, washed lean meat, the casein 
 of milk, the gluten of wheat flour, etc., are familiar examples. They 
 are composed of the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
 nitrogen, and sulphur. They are what are commonly called organic 
 substances, which simply means that they may be burned completely 
 in air or oxygen. They differ from the other groups of substances 
 found in the animal body in containing sulphur and especially nitro- 
 gen, the latter element constituting from 15 to 18 or 19 per cent of 
 their weight. 
 
 Protein is the basis of the living tissues of the body the so-called 
 protoplasm and is the substance through which life especially mani- 
 fests itself. In the body it is always associated with water and ash. 
 
 Fat. Besides its working parts, the body contains a store of 
 reserve material in the form of fat. While the fat deposits in the 
 body are of use mechanically as cushions between the various organs 
 and as a protecting layer under the skin, nevertheless fat represents 
 essentially a storage of material derived from food consumed in ex- 
 cess of the body's immediate needs. When the food is insufficient or 
 entirely lacking, this store of surplus material is drawn upon, and 
 the animal gradually becomes lean. The percentage of fat in the 
 bodies of agricultural animals may vary greatly, but seldom falls 
 below 6 or rises above 30 per cent. 
 
 Glycogen. Besides fat there are stored up in the muscles, liver, 
 and other organs of a healthy animal rather small amounts of a sub-
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 291 
 
 stance called glycogen, belonging to the group of carbohydrates de- 
 scribed in the next section. Neither fat nor glycogen contains the 
 elements nitrogen or sulphur, but each is composed entirely of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 
 Composition of the Entire Body. The average results of an- 
 alyses shown in the following table indicate the composition of the 
 bodies of different animals in different conditions: 
 
 Percentage Composition of Live Animals. 
 
 
 Ox. 
 
 Fat 
 calf. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Well 
 fed. 
 
 Half 
 fat. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Lean. 
 
 Well 
 fed. 
 
 Half 
 fat. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Very 
 fat. 
 
 Well 
 fed. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Water . . . 
 
 Perct 
 54.3 
 4 8 
 
 Per ct 
 50.2 
 4 4 
 
 Perct 
 43.6 
 3.9 
 
 Perct 
 60.1 
 4.5 
 
 Perct 
 56.6 
 3.4 
 
 Perct 
 53.7 
 3.3 
 
 Perct 
 50.7 
 3 2 
 
 Perct 
 44.8 
 2.9 
 
 Perct 
 39.0 
 2 8 
 
 Perct 
 53.9 
 
 2 7 
 
 Perct 
 42.0 
 1 8 
 
 Ash... 
 
 Fat 
 
 7.1 
 
 15.8 
 
 14.9 
 15.5 
 
 26.8 
 13.7 
 
 13.1 
 15.3 
 
 8.6 
 15.4 
 
 13.2 
 14.8 
 
 18.3 
 13.8 
 
 28.1 
 12.2 
 
 37.2 
 11.0 
 
 22.5 
 13.9 
 
 40.2 
 11.0 
 
 Protein 
 
 Contents of stomach and 
 intestines 
 
 18.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 Total 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 Components of Feeding Stuffs. Like the animal body, the vege- 
 table feeding stuffs which nourish it contain a great variety of sub- 
 stances, but these, too, like those of the animal, may be classified into 
 a few groups. Not only so, but these main groups are the same as 
 those found in the animal, viz, water, ash, protein, fats, and carbo- 
 hydrates. The proportions of these ingredients in the animal body 
 and in vegetable substances, however, are widely different. 
 
 Protein and Fat. Protein is the predominant ingredient, aside 
 from water, in the animal body, while the latter stores up its reserve 
 material in the form of fat with but little carbohydrates (glycogen). 
 Protein is also contained in all plants and, as in the animal, forms 
 the basis of the living tissues, but the predominant ingredients as 
 regards quantity are the carbohydrates. In the form of cellulose, or 
 crude fiber, they form the cell-walls of the plant, while as starch and 
 sugar they are stored up in large amounts in the cells of seeds and 
 roots as reserve material. A few plants, like flax and cotton, store up 
 oil instead of starch and are likewise rich in protein, but as a rule the 
 common feeding stuffs contain relatively small amounts of protein 
 and fat and are rich in carbohydrates. 
 
 The protein and fats of plants are not widely different from 
 those of animals and call for no special description here. 
 
 Carbohydrates. The carbohydrates, as starch, sugar, etc., con- 
 stitute a distinct group, represented in the animal chiefly by the small 
 amounts of glycogen mentioned previously and by the sugar of the 
 milk. They are composed of the chemical elements, carbon, hydro- 
 gen, and oxygen, the two latter being present in exactly the same 
 relative amounts as in water, Like the fats, they contain no nitrogen
 
 292 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 or sulphur, but they differ from the fats in containing less carbon 
 and more oxygen. 
 
 The carbohydrates of feeding stuffs may be divided into two 
 classes. The first of these includes those substances which are found 
 in the cell walls and constitute the framework of the plant. This class 
 includes cellulose and a great variety of other substances, most of 
 which are rather difficult to dissolve. The crude fiber obtained in 
 the analysis of feeding stuffs represents this class of carbohydrates. 
 
 The second class of carbohydrates consists of the reserve material 
 stored up in the cells and includes starch, the various kinds of sugar, 
 and other less familiar substances. Some of these carbohydrates, like 
 the sugars, dissolve in water and all may be converted into soluble 
 forms rather easily. In analyses of feeding stuffs they are contained 
 in the nitrogen-free extract which, however, also includes a variety 
 of other substances of ill-defined nature. 
 
 The Animal Body as a Machine. Mechanically the body of an 
 animal is a very wonderful machine, but what is of peculiar interest 
 in this connection is that the body is what the engineer calls a prime 
 motor that is, like the steam or gasoline engine, it moves itself and 
 may supply power to move other machines. In fact, there is in some 
 respects a very close likeness between the animal body and what are 
 known as internal-combustion motors, i. e., those engines in which 
 power is developed by burning liquid or gaseous fuel (gasoline, 
 alcohol, producer gas, etc.) in the cylinder of the engine itself. Such 
 an engine requires two things for its operation : ( 1 ) Sufficient repair 
 material to keep its working parts in running order, and (2) a supply 
 of fuel in proportion to the work to be done. Just these same two 
 things are what the animal requires repair material and fuel. 
 
 In one respect, however, the animal body differs from the arti- 
 ficial machine it can not be stopped and started again at will. As 
 long as the animal lives the vital machinery is in operation, although 
 less actively at some times than at others. The animal might be com- 
 pared to an automobile whose engine must be kept running at a low 
 speed in order to have the power available when needed. Conse- 
 quently, the animal requires to be supplied with repair material and 
 with fuel as long as it lives and not merely when it is in active use. 
 
 That the feed of the animal is its source of both repair material 
 and fuel is sufficiently obvious. We do not need a physiologist to tell 
 us that when an animal is deprived of food its tissues waste away 
 while its fat is burned up in the effort to keep the bodily machinery 
 in motion. We may proceed at once, therefore, to consider the feed 
 in these two relations, but at the same time must weigh the effects of 
 all kinds of food as regards their comparative values in the economy 
 of fat-production, heat-generation and muscle formation. It is not 
 so much what the animal needs nor what the feed will furnish in the 
 way of heat, energy and strength, so much as it is in what the animal 
 can transform into those effects from the feed. In other words, the 
 desired elements in the feed must be so available that the particular 
 animal can transform them into the power required. (This leads 
 to a study of both animal digestion and plant nutrition.)
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 293 
 
 Average Composition of Feeding Stuffs. The following table 
 shows the average composition of a considerable number of American 
 feeding stuffs. In this table the common practice has been followed 
 of dividing the group of carbohydrates into two portions. The crude 
 fiber or woody fiber is stated separately, partly because it is of some- 
 what inferior nutritive value and partly because it gives some indica- 
 tion of the bulkiness and wobdiness of the feeding stuff. The column 
 headed nitrogen-free extract includes all the carbohydrates except the 
 crude fiber that is, the sugar, starch, etc. 
 
 Feeding stuff 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Crude 
 protein a 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 Fat (ether 
 extract) 
 
 Crude 
 
 fiber 
 
 Nitrogen 
 free ex- 
 tract 
 
 Green fodder and silage: 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Per cent 
 71.8 
 80.9 
 70.8 
 79.3 
 74.4 
 71.1 
 85.7 
 76.6 
 61.6 
 
 8.4 
 15.3 
 42.2 
 40.5 
 10.7 
 7.7 
 16.0 
 11.3 
 13.2 
 
 9.2 
 7.1 
 9.6 
 
 88.6 
 91.2 
 78.9 
 88.6 
 90.6 
 
 10.9 
 10.9 
 15.1 
 11.0 
 10.5 
 11.6 
 10.5 
 
 8.0 
 
 75.7 
 11.8 
 8.2 
 
 7.0 
 
 6.8 
 8.1 
 8.2 
 8.1 
 9.2 
 9.9 
 10.2 
 11.8 
 89.9 
 6.4 
 11 9 
 12.1 
 
 Per cent 
 2.7 
 1.7 
 2.1 
 1.2 
 1.5 
 1.7 
 2.0 
 1.8 
 2.1 
 
 7.4 
 6.2 
 2.7 
 3.4 
 7.5 
 6.0 
 6.1 
 7.2 
 4.4 
 
 5.1 
 3.2 
 4.2 
 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 1.2 
 
 .8 
 
 2.4 
 1.5 
 1.5 
 3.0 
 2.6 
 1.9 
 1.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 4.8 
 7.2 
 
 2.0 
 2.1 
 1.3 
 .9 
 1.0 
 5.7 
 5.6 
 5.7 
 3.5 
 .4 
 3.3 
 5.8 
 3.3 
 
 Per cen 
 4.8 
 3.1 
 4.4 
 1.8 
 2.2 
 3.1 
 2.4 
 2.6 
 3.1 
 
 14.3 
 12.3 
 
 4.5 
 3.8 
 16.6 
 7.5 
 7.4 
 15.4 
 5.9 
 
 4.0 
 3.0 
 3.4 
 
 1.1 
 1.4 
 2.1 
 1.2 
 1.3 
 
 12.4 
 10.5 
 8.5 
 11.8 
 20.2 
 10.6 
 11.9 
 
 24.1 
 5.4 
 28.0 
 42.3 
 
 29.2 
 17.3 
 23.2 
 24.5 
 28.3 
 32.9 
 35.9 
 23.2 
 14.7 
 1.0 
 10.8 
 15.4 
 15.6 
 
 Per cent 
 7.4 
 5.2 
 8.1 
 5.0 
 5.8 
 9.2 
 2.2 
 11.6 
 11.8 
 
 25.0 
 24.8 
 14.3 
 19.7 
 20.1 
 27.7 
 27.2 
 22.3 
 29.0 
 
 37.0 
 38.9 
 38.1 
 
 1.3 
 .8 
 .6 
 1.3 
 1.2 
 
 2.7 
 2.1 
 6.6 
 9.5 
 14.4 
 1.7 
 1.8 
 
 13.0 
 3.8 
 6.3 
 5.6 
 
 11.0 
 12.3 
 6.4 
 6.1 
 1.1 
 8.9 
 8.8 
 10.7 
 3.3 
 2.2 
 19.8 
 9.0 
 4.6 
 
 Per cent 
 12.3 
 8.4 
 13.5 
 12.2 
 15.0 
 14.2 
 7.1 
 6.8 
 20. 2 
 
 42.7 
 38.1 
 34.7 
 31.5 
 42.2 
 49.0 
 40.6 
 28.6 
 45.0 
 
 42.4 
 46.6 
 43.4 
 
 7.6 
 5.4 
 17.3 
 7.5 
 5.9 
 
 69.8 
 69.6 
 64.8 
 59.7 
 51.1 
 72.5 
 71.9 
 
 44.8 
 12.5 
 41.9 
 23.6 
 
 39.4 
 51.0 
 54.7 
 47.8 
 50.8 
 35.4 
 36.8 
 48.5 
 63.9 
 6.3 
 58.4 
 53.9 
 60.4 
 
 Per cent 
 1-0 
 .7 
 1.1 
 .5 
 1.1 
 .7 
 .6 
 .6 
 1.2 
 
 2.2 
 3.3 
 1.6 
 1.1 
 2.9 
 2.1 
 2.7 
 5.2 
 2.5 
 
 2.3 
 1.2 
 1.3 
 
 .4 
 .2 
 .1 
 .2 
 .2 
 
 1.8 
 5.4 
 
 3.5 
 5.0 
 1.2 
 1.7 
 2.1 
 
 6.7 
 1.6 
 
 7.2 
 13.1 
 
 11.4 
 7.5 
 6.3 
 12.5 
 10.7 
 7.9 
 3.0 
 1.7 
 2.8 
 .2 
 1.3 
 4.0 
 4.0 
 
 Clover crimson 
 
 Clover red 
 
 Corn fodder 
 
 Corn silage 
 
 Hungarian grass 
 
 Rape 
 
 Rye fodder 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Hay and dry coarse fodders: 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Clover hay red 
 
 Corn forage, field cured 
 
 Corn stover, field cured 
 
 Cowpea hay 
 
 Hungarian hay 
 
 Oat hay..., 
 
 
 Timothy hay 
 
 Straws: 
 Oat straw 
 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 Roots and tubers: 
 
 Mangle-wurzels 
 
 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Grains: 
 Barley 
 
 Corn 
 
 Corn-and-cob meal 
 
 Oats 
 
 Pea meal 
 
 Rye 
 
 Wheat 
 
 By-products: 
 Brewers' grains: dried 
 
 Brewers' grains wet 
 
 Buckwheat middlings 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 
 Distillers' grains dried 
 Principally corn 
 
 Principally rye 
 
 Gluten feed dry 
 
 Gluten meal Buffalo 
 
 Gluten meal Chicago 
 
 Linseed meal old process 
 
 Linseed meal new process 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 Rye bran 
 
 Sugar-beet pulp fresh 
 
 Sugar-beet pulp dried 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 
 Total N X 6-25.
 
 294 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The Demand for Repair Material. The repair material for any 
 machine must be of the same kind of which the machine is made. 
 We have just seen that the machinery of the body is composed of 
 protein, ash, and water. These, then, are the materials which must 
 be supplied to keep it in repair. Water, of course, is or should be 
 abundantly supplied in the drink and scarcely need be considered 
 in a discussion of rations. 
 
 Ash. The ash supply has received less attention in the past than 
 its importance deserves. In the ordinary operation of the bodily ma- 
 chinery its ash ingredients are being continually excreted and the 
 food must supply ash sufficient in amount and of the right kinds to 
 make good the loss, while the growing animal needs an additional 
 supply for building up its new tissues. Fortunately, normally con- 
 stituted rations appear to be rarely deficient in ash. Usually it is 
 only when large amounts of certain by-product feeds are used or 
 when there is a misrelation between grain and coarse fodder that 
 special attention needs to be given to the ash supply. 
 
 Protein. The protein supply, on the other hand, calls for care- 
 ful consideration. Protein is the characteristic ingredient of the 
 animal mechanism, and is broken down and destroyed in its opera- 
 tion at a fairly regular rate. Moreover, since the bodily machinery 
 is running all the time, whether any external work is done or not, 
 this loss is continually going on. 
 
 The body differs from a machine in being self-repairing, but it 
 can not manufacture protein for repair purposes out of the carbo- 
 hydrates and fats of its feed any more than it is possible to make 
 repairs for an automobile out of the gasoline which supplies the 
 power. For its protein the body is absolutely dependent on the 
 protein of the feed. This protein is needed for two purposes. 
 
 First. It is required for repair purposes in the strict sense; 
 i. e., for making good the wear and tear of the bodily machinery. 
 The amount needed for this purpose is comparatively small, and is 
 no greater under normal conditions when the animal is doing work 
 than when it is not. Like a good engine, the body makes relatively 
 small demands for repair material and requires chiefly fuel. 
 
 Second. Protein as well as ash is needed in the growing, preg- 
 nant, or milking animal to furnish the material for enlarging the 
 working machinery of the body of the animal itself or of its young. 
 The amount of protein required for this purpose is just so much in 
 addition to that needed for repair purposes simply, and hence the 
 feed of these animals must contain a more liberal supply of this in- 
 gredient. This is important physiologically to secure proper nutri- 
 tion of the young and economically because the growth of milk pro- 
 duced is the principal object of the feeder. 
 
 Feed as a Source of Repair Material. For the reasons stated 
 the ash has generally been omitted from consideration in discuss- 
 ing the feed as a source of repair material. The value of a feeding 
 stuff as a source of protein to the animal body evidently depends in 
 the first place on the amount of protein which it contains. Cotton- 
 iseed meal, carrying some 43 per cent of protein, is evidently, other
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 295 
 
 things being equal, a better source of protein than Indian corn, car- 
 rying about 10 per cent. 
 
 In the second place, however, the protein of the feeding stuff 
 must be capable of being digested by the animal. Of two feeding 
 stuffs containing equal amounts of protein, that one is the more 
 valuable as a source of supply in which the larger proportion of the 
 protein is digestible. The second column of the table herein shows 
 the average percentage of digestible protein contained in a number 
 of the more common feeding stuffs. These figures are the average 
 results of a considerable number of analyses of the feeding stuffs 
 and a smaller number of determinations of their digestibility. In- 
 dividual samples may vary more or less, 'and sometimes considerably, 
 from the average. 
 
 A third question is at once suggested, viz, whether the digest- 
 ible protein from different feeding stuffs is equally valuable to the 
 animal. It is unlikely that this is exactly the case, but whether 
 these probable differences are of much practical significance, espe- 
 cially in rations containing a number of feeding stuffs, seems doubt- 
 ful. At any rate, the only course open at present is to assume them 
 to be of substantially equal value. 
 
 The Demand for Fuel Material. Since the animal machinery 
 is running continually, it requires a continual supply of fuel ma- 
 terial, the amount which is necessary depending upon the amount 
 of work done. This fuel material consists chiefly of the carbohy- 
 drates and fats of the food, although if more protein be fed than is 
 required for repair and construction purposes it, too, may be used as 
 fuel, while the worn-out portions of the protein tissues are also util- 
 ized that is, the bodily engine can burn up its own waste products 
 as fuel. The unnecessary use of protein as fuel material, however, 
 is wasteful, because protein is ordinarily more expensive to buy or 
 to produce on the farm than are carbohydrates and fat. 
 
 If the fuel materials supplied in the food are just adequate to 
 the work to be done, they are virtually burned up as a source of 
 power. If more are supplied than are immediately needed, the body 
 is able to store away the surplus for future use, much as we may fill 
 up the gasoline tank of an engine. To a small extent the body stores 
 up carbohydrates (in the form of glycogen), but most of its surplus 
 fuel it converts into fat. The fat of the body, therefore, is its re- 
 serve of fuel. In fattening, the body is accumulating a surplus 
 against future needs which man diverts to his own use as food. If 
 the food becomes insufficient, this store is drawn upon and the ani- 
 mal gradually becomes lean. Similarly, in growth and in milk pro- 
 duction, the animal sets aside a part of the supply of both repair 
 and fuel material in its food for its own growth or for the use of its 
 young, and man appropriates the resulting meat or milk as repair 
 and fuel material for his own body. 
 
 Fecrl. as (i Source of Fuel Material. We can run an engine with 
 various kinds of fuel. For the steam engine we may use coal, wood or 
 petroleum ; for the internal-combustion motor, gas, alcohol, or gaso- 
 line may be employed. Similarly we supply the animal body with
 
 296 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 a great variety of feeding stuffs from which it has to extract its sup- 
 ply of fuel, and even the materials which it actually burns up are 
 of various sorts. 
 
 These fuel materials are not all of equal value. A pound of 
 good anthracite coal, for example, is, other things being equal, about 
 14 per cent more valuable as fuel than the same weight of alcohol, 
 while a pound of fat in the food has over twice the fuel value of a 
 pound of starch. Evidently, it will greatly simplify comparisons 
 of different feeding stuffs and rations as sources of fuel material to 
 have some simple method by which we can learn not only the amount 
 of fuel material which the feed contains, but also the quality of that 
 fuel. Such a basis of comparison is afforded by a study of the 
 energy values. 
 
 Measurement of Energy. Anything which has the capacity to 
 do work is said to possess energy. Hence we say that the fuel of the 
 engine and the feed of the animal possess energy, since they enable 
 the engine or the body to do work. They hold this energy stored 
 up in the "latent" or "potential" form of chemical energy. When 
 they are burned in the engine or the body, this chemical energy is 
 set free, part of it being converted into work and the rest escaping 
 as heat. 
 
 Plainly, then, the value of a fuel, or of a feeding stuff so far as 
 it serves as fuel, depends, in the first place, on how much chemical 
 energy it contains. This can be measured without difficulty by 
 converting it all into heat, by burning the substance, and measur- 
 ing the heat produced. Various units have been employed in meas- 
 uring heat, but the one used in this article is the therm. 
 
 A therm* is the quantity of heat required to raise the tempera- 
 ture of 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 pounds) of water 1 C. A pound 
 of good anthracite coal would produce heat enough to raise the 
 temperature of about 3,583 kilograms of water 1 C. Consequently, 
 the chemical energy contained in the coal is 3.583 therms per pound. 
 In precisely the same way the amount of chemical energy contained 
 in many feeding stuffs has been measured. The following are the 
 results of a few such determinations : 
 
 Chemical Energy in 100 Pounds (With 15 per cent moisture.) 
 
 Therms. 
 
 Timothy hay 175.1 
 
 Clover hay 173.2 
 
 Oat straw 171.0 
 
 *In the nutrition investigations and studies of foods and feeding stuffs made 
 by this Department and by the State agricultural experiment stations, the results, 
 so far as energy or fuel value is concerned, have been expressed in calories. 
 There is consequently a large mass of available data so expressed. The calorie 
 is the amount of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 C. (approximately 
 1 pound of water 4 F.). The small size of the unit has made it necessarv to 
 use inconveniently large numbers to express the fuel values of foods and feeding 
 stuffs, a difficulty which is obviated by the use of the therm. As the latter unit 
 is equivalent to 1,000 calories, available data, such, for example, as those in 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 22, can be readily given expression in the new unit. The 
 use of the word therm, with the abbreviation *., has also been proposed as th 
 equivalent of the small (or gram) calorie, but it has not come into general use,
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 297 
 
 Therms. 
 
 Wheat straw 171.4 
 
 Corn meal 170.9 
 
 Oats 180.6 
 
 Wheat bran 175.5 
 
 Linseed meal 196.7 
 
 Utilization of Energy. But the value of a fuel depends also 
 upon how much of the chemical energy which it contains can be used. 
 Hard coal contains plenty of energy, but it would not be of much 
 use to run a gasoline engine. Wheat straw contains fully as much 
 chemical energy as corn meal, but much of that energy can not be 
 utilized by the animal machine. Two causes combine to affect the 
 utilization of the chemical energy contained in feeding stuffs. 
 
 First, more or less of the feed escapes from the body unburned. 
 If a coal is of such quality that portions of it drop through the grate 
 unconsumed, and if smoke and combustible gases are carried off 
 through the stack, it is evident that a ton of it will supply far less 
 heat to the boiler than it would if the combustion were perfect. The 
 case of the feeding stuff is similar. Much of even the best feeding 
 stuffs escapes digestion and is excreted in the dung, carrying with it 
 a corresponding quantity of the chemical energy of the feed. More 
 or less incompletely burned material is also contained in the urine, 
 while ruminants, and to a certain extent horses, also give off combust- 
 ible gases, arising from fermentations in the digestive tract. Thus 
 about 22 per cent of the chemical energy of corn meal and fully 55 
 per cent of that of average hay has been found to escape in these 
 ways. 
 
 Second, as already pointed out, the animal body has to extract 
 its real fuel material from its feed, separating i'; from the relatively 
 large proportion of useless material which it excretes. To effect 
 this separation requires work and consumes energy, and this energy, 
 of course, is not available for other purposes. The case is somewhat 
 as if the gasoline engine had to distill its own gasoline and separate 
 it from impurities. Moreover, when the animal eats more feed than 
 is required simply to furnish energy to run its machinery, and hence 
 is able to produce meat or milk, the process of converting the food 
 into suitable forms to store up in the body seems to require a 
 further expenditure of energy. 
 
 It is not, then, the total chemical energy contained in a feeding 
 stuff which measures its value as fuel material to the body, but what 
 remains after deducting the losses in the unburned materials of the 
 excreta and the energy expended in extracting the real fuel ma- 
 terials from the feed and transforming them into substances which 
 the body can use or store up. For example, while 100 pounds of 
 corn meal contain, as stated, about 170.9 therms of chemical energy, 
 only about 88.8 terms remain, after all these deductions have been 
 made, to represent the actual value of the corn meal as a source of 
 energy to the organism. 
 
 Energy Values of Feeding Stuffs. While it is a comparatively 
 simple matter to ascertain the total amount of chemical energy con- 
 tained in a feeding stuff, the determination of the proportion of this
 
 298 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 energy which the body can actually utilize requires the use of com- 
 plicated and costly apparatus (respiration apparatus or respiration 
 calorimeter) and the expenditure of much time and labor. While 
 much has been accomplished along this line, vastly more still re- 
 mains to be done before we can claim to have even a fairly com- 
 plete knowledge of the energy values of feeding stuffs. At the same 
 time, enough has already been accomplished, chiefly through the 
 investigations of G. Kiihn and of Kellner at the Mockern Experi- 
 ment Station in Germany, since 1882, and in part also by experi- 
 ments carried on, in co-operation with this Department, by the 
 Institute of Animal Nutrition of The Pennsylvania State College, 
 to demonstrate that the method still generally current of comparing 
 feeding stuffs on the basis of the digestible matter which they con- 
 tain is seriously erroneous and to furnish the beginnings of a reform. 
 
 The last column of the table on page 300 contains the energy 
 values of the feeding stuffs, whose composition is given herein, com- 
 puted on the basis of Kellner's investigations. They are what Kell- 
 ner call production values i. e., they show primarily the value of 
 the different feeding stuffs for the production of gain in mature 
 fattening cattle. Even for this purpose many of them are con- 
 fessedly approximate estimates, and still less can they be regarded 
 as strictly accurate for other kinds of animals and other purposes 
 of feeding. Nevertheless, there seems to be reason for believing 
 that they also represent fairly well the relative values of feeding 
 stuffs for sheep at least, and probably for horses, and for growth 
 and milk production as well as for fattening. At any rate, there can 
 be little doubt that they are decidedly more accurate than the figures 
 which have been commonly used, and we are quite justified in using 
 them tentatively and subject to correction by the results of later ex- 
 periments. 
 
 As regards swine, the matter is far less certain, and it may per- 
 haps be questioned whether the values given in the table are any 
 more satisfactory for this animal than the older ones. 
 
 Feed Requirements. Assuming that the big table on next page 
 represents, with a fair degree of accuracy, the amount of repair 
 material (protein), on the one hand, and of energy, on the other, 
 which the various feeding stuffs can supply, we still need to know 
 how much of each is required by the bodies of animals of different 
 kinds and kept for different purposes ; in other words, we need some 
 formulation of the feed requirements of farm animals. 
 
 Since the animal machine can not be stopped when it is not in 
 active use, it requires, as shown herein, and as is a familiar fact of 
 experience, a continual supply of food. This amount of food, which 
 is required simply to support the animal, is commonly designated as 
 the maintenance requirement i. e., it is the amount required sim- 
 ply to maintain the animal when it is doing no work and producing 
 nothing. In other words, it is the least amount on which life can 
 be permanently maintained. 
 
 The maintenance requirement is naturally greater for a large 
 than for a small animal. Experiment has shown, however, that this
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 299 
 
 increase is not proportional to the weight of the animal, but approx- 
 imately to the amount of surface which it exposes, so that the large 
 animal requires less food in proportion to its weight to maintain it 
 than does the small one. 
 
 The following tables show the amounts of protein and of energy 
 required per head for the maintenance of cattle, sheep, and horses of 
 different weights. The figures given for sheep include a sufficient 
 allowance for the normal growth of wool. No very satisfactory 
 figures for swine are available. It should be understood that strict 
 accuracy is not claimed for these figures, although they are sub- 
 stantially correct. In particular there seems to be reason to believe 
 that the maintenance requirement of fattening animals increases 
 somewhat more rapidly than these tables indicate. 
 
 Maintenance Requirements of Cattle and Horses, Per Day and Head. 
 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Horses 
 
 Live weight 
 
 Digestible 
 protein 
 
 Energy value 
 
 Digestible protein 
 
 Energy value 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Therms 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Therms 
 
 150 
 
 0.15 
 
 1.70 
 
 0.30 
 
 2.00 
 
 250 
 
 .20 
 
 2.40 
 
 .40 
 
 2.80 
 
 500 
 
 .30 
 
 3.80 
 
 .60 
 
 4.40 
 
 750 
 
 .40 
 
 4.95 
 
 .80 
 
 5.80 
 
 1.000 
 
 .50 
 
 6.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 1.250 
 
 .60 
 
 7.00 
 
 1.20 
 
 8.15 
 
 1,500 
 
 .65 
 
 7.90 
 
 1.30 
 
 9-20 
 
 Maintenance requirements of sheep, per 
 day and head. 
 
 Estimated energy value of 
 I pound of gain in 
 weight by growing cat- 
 tle and sheep. 
 
 Live weight. 
 
 Digestible protein. 
 
 Energy value. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Therms 
 
 20 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.30 
 
 40 
 
 .05 
 
 .54 
 
 60 
 
 .07 
 
 .71 
 
 80 
 
 .09 
 
 .87 
 
 100 
 
 .10 
 
 1.00 
 
 120 
 
 .11 
 
 1.13 
 
 140 
 
 .13 
 
 1.25 
 
 Age. 
 
 Energy value. 
 
 Months. 
 3 
 6 
 12 
 18 
 24 
 30 
 
 Therms. 
 1.50 
 1.75 
 2.00 
 2.50 
 2.75 
 3.00 
 
 Requirements for Growth. While young animals gain in 
 weight faster than do older ones, a pound of increase in live weight 
 in the young animal contains much more water and less dry matter 
 than in the case of a more mature animal. Moreover, the dry mat- 
 ter in the case of the young animal contains relatively more protein 
 and less fat, as a rule, than in the older one, and fat contains much 
 more chemical energy than protein, the proportion being 1 to 1.67. 
 The consequence is that a gain of 1 pound in live weight represents 
 the storing up of much less energy in the young than in the mature 
 animal, and therefore requires a smaller supply of energy in the 
 food.
 
 300 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy Values per 100 Pounds. 
 
 Feeding stuff 
 
 Total dry 
 matter 
 
 Digestibl 
 protein 
 
 Green fodder and silage: Pounds Pounds 
 
 Alfalfa 28 2 2.50 
 
 Clover crimson 19 i 2 19 
 
 Clover red 29 '.2 2 !21 
 
 Corn fodder green 20.7 .41 
 
 Corn silage 25.6 1.21 
 
 Hungarian grass 28.9 1.33 
 
 Rape 14.3 2.16 
 
 Rye 23.4 1.44 
 
 Timothy 38.4 1.04 
 
 Hay and dry coarse fodders; 
 
 Alfalfahay 1-6 6.93 
 
 Clover hay red 84.7 5.41 
 
 Corn forage, field cured -Q'K 
 
 Corn stover 1.80 
 
 Cowpeahay 
 
 Hungarian hay * 
 
 Oat hay S4.0 2.59 
 
 Soy bean hay ".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.''.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'. ' f8.7 7.68 
 
 Timothy hay 86.8 2.05 
 
 ^oli straw... 90.8 1.09 
 
 Rye straw 92.9 .63 
 
 Wheat straw 90 - 4 .37 
 
 Roots and tubers: 
 
 Carrots A -* ' 
 
 Mangel-wurzels 011 
 
 Potatoes **} -fl 
 
 Rutabagas .88 
 
 Turnips 9 - 4 -22 
 
 89.1 8.37 
 
 .'.''.'.'.'.'.'.''.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.:'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.".::::'.".'.":::: 89. i 6.79 
 
 Corn-and-cbb meal ..'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. *- 5 ,3 
 
 Oats oy.u o.ob 
 
 Pea meal' "'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. !!"..".'!!!".'.'!.';.*.'!!"!! !!!!!!! !"!!""!! 89.5 16.77 
 
 Rve 88.4 8.12 
 
 wh^at::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 89.5 8.90 
 
 By-products: 
 
 Brewers' grajns dried 92.0 19.04 
 
 Brewers' grains wet 24.3 3 81 
 
 Buckwheat middlings 88.2 22 '34 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 91.8 35.15 
 
 Distillers' grains dried 
 
 Principally corn 93.0 21 93 
 
 Principally rye 93.2 10 38 
 
 Gluten feed dry 91.9 1995 
 
 Gluten meal Buffalo 91.8 21 56 
 
 Gluten meal Chicago 90.5 33.09 
 
 Lindseed meal old process 90.8 27.54 
 
 Lindseed meal new process 90 . 1 29 26 
 
 Malt sprouts 89.8 32.36 
 
 Rye bran 88.2 11.35 
 
 Sugar-beet pulp fresh 10.1 .63 
 
 Sugar-beet pulp dried 93.6 6.80 
 
 Wheat bran 88. 1 1021 
 
 Wheat middlings 84.0 12.79 
 
 Unfortunately no very extensive determinations of the compo- 
 sition and energy values of the increase of live weight in growing 
 animals have yet been reported. The following estimates by the 
 writer, derived from such data as are available, may serve to give a 
 general idea of the requirements per pound of growth of cattle and 
 sheep at different ages, but they can not lay claim to any high de- 
 gree of accuracy. The figures refer to normal growth, with no con- 
 siderable fattening.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 301 
 
 The growing animal also requires a sufficient supply of digesti- 
 ble protein for maintenance and to supply material for new growth. 
 No very systematic study of the latter requirement has yet been made, 
 but from the results of a considerable number of practical feeding 
 trials it is possible to make a fairly satisfactory estimate of the total 
 amounts of digestible protein which should be contained in the ra- 
 tions of cattle and sheep at different ages to insure satisfactory 
 growth. These estimates are contained in the following table. They 
 are expressed in pounds per head and include the maintenance 
 requirement. As a matter of convenience, the table also contains 
 the estimated energy values required per head for normal growth, 
 and it thus constitutes a set of approximate feeding standards. In 
 their use the weight rather than the age of the animal should be the 
 controlling factor. 
 
 Estimated Requirements Per Day and Head. 
 
 FOR GROWING CATTLE. 
 
 FOR GROWING SHEEP. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Live 
 weight. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. A * e - 
 
 Live 
 weight. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 Months. 
 
 founds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Therms. Months. 
 
 Po unds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Therms. 
 
 3 
 
 275 
 
 1.10 
 
 5.0 6 
 
 70 
 
 0.30 
 
 1.30 
 
 6 
 
 425 
 
 1.30 
 
 6.0 9 
 
 90 
 
 .25 
 
 1.40 
 
 12 
 
 650 
 
 1.65 
 
 7.0 12 
 
 110 
 
 .23 
 
 1.40 
 
 18 
 
 850 
 
 1.70 
 
 7.5 15 
 
 130 
 
 .23 
 
 1.5O 
 
 24 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.75 
 
 8.0 18 
 
 145 
 
 .22 
 
 1.6O 
 
 30 
 
 1.100 
 
 1.65 
 
 8.0 
 
 
 
 
 a Including the maintenance requirement. 
 
 No satisfactory data for colts are available, while, as noted else- 
 where, knowledge of the relative values of feeding stuffs for swine is 
 somewhat deficient. 
 
 Requirements for Fattening. The foregoing data refer to what 
 might be called normal growth, in which the animals are kept in a 
 good thrifty condition, but do not become fat. If any considerable 
 fattening is desirable, somewhat heavier rations must be given in 
 proportion to the amount of gain made, because the increased gain, 
 in fattening animals consists to a very large extent of fat, and there- 
 fore means the storing up by the animal of more reserve energy. 
 For fairly mature fattening animals such, for example, as the 2 
 to 3-year-old steers which are commonly fattened in the corn belt 
 probably 3.5 therms per pound of gain in live weight is a fair allow- 
 ance, although more appears to be often used in practice. As yet no 
 corresponding data are available for the fattening of growing ani- 
 mals, as, for example, in the production of the so-called baby beef. 
 It is not probable, however, that any larger amount of protein is re- 
 quired in such fattening than in feeding simply for normal growth, 
 so that the additional food given for fattening may, from this point 
 of view, consist largely of nonnitrogenous material, i. e., carbohy- 
 drates and fats. It is to be noted, however, that an excess of these 
 material* in the ration tends to cause less perfect digestion, and also
 
 302 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 that a moderate proportion of the more nitrogenous concentrates 
 .seems to aid in securing the consumption of heavy rations. Kellner 
 recommends that at least 1 pound of digestible protein be supplied 
 in the ration for each 8 to 10 pounds of carbohydrates and fat to 
 each animal. 
 
 Requirements for Milk Production. Of all forms of animal 
 production that of milk is perhaps the most variable and most in- 
 fluenced in its amount by the feed supply. The energy relations of 
 milk production have not been very fully investigated. Tentatively, 
 however, it seems safe to estimate that the production of 1 pound of 
 average milk, containing about 13 per cent of total solids and 4 per 
 cent of fat, will require approximately 0.3 therm of production value 
 in the feed. Naturally this amount would vary with the quality of 
 the milk, milk rich in fat and in total solids requiring more than 
 milk containing more water or a lower percentage of fat. This state- 
 ment is based upon the best authority. 
 
 The matter of the protein requirements for milk production 
 has not been altogether cleared up. It seems to have been pretty 
 well demonstrated that, for a time at least, milk production may be 
 kept up on a supply of protein very slightly exceeding that found in 
 the milk produced (of course, in addition to the maintenance re- 
 quirement) . In the case of average milk, this would call for about 
 0.032 pound of digestible protein for each pound of milk. It has 
 not been demonstrated, however, that a cow can keep this up in- 
 definitely. Furthermore, for the production of liberal yields of 
 milk more protein seems to be required, or at least to be advantage- 
 ous. No definite statement can be made at present as to how large 
 an excess is necessary. For the ordinary commercial dairyman, how- 
 ever, it is believed that an allowance of 0.05 pound of digestible 
 protein per pound of milk will prove ample. 
 
 Requirements for Work. Since the horse (or mule) is the 
 usual working animal in the United States, consideration will be 
 limited to this animal. There is on record a considerable amount 
 of data as to the relation between the work performed by the horse 
 and the amount of energy necessary to be supplied in the feed. 
 Where large numbers of horses are kept and the work is relatively 
 uniform in amount, it is possible to make fairly satisfactory compu- 
 tations from these data, although the method is somewhat compli- 
 cated. The amount of w r ork required of farm horses, however, is so 
 varied in amount and kind and so difficult of measurement or esti- 
 mate as regards amount, that it is scarcely practicable to base the 
 calculations of rations upon it. The large table herein probably 
 shows with at least a fair degree of accuracy the relative values of 
 different feeding stuffs as sources of energy for work production, 
 while the amount to be fed will ordinarily be based upon the obser- 
 vation of the feeder rather than upon arithmetical calculations. As 
 a sort of general average, however, Kellner recommends the follow- 
 ing rations for a 1,000-pound horse, the amounts stated including 
 the maintenance requirement:
 
 3 
 
 C/5 
 
 w 
 
 5
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 305 
 
 Requirements of the Working Horses. 
 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 1.0 
 
 Therms. 
 9.80 
 
 
 1.4 
 
 12 4O 
 
 
 2.O 
 
 16.00 
 
 
 
 
 Dry Matter in Rations. The total volume of feed which an 
 animal requires, although rather variable, has its limits. In com- 
 puting rations the most convenient indication of the bulk of the 
 feeds is the percentage of dry matter shown in the first column of 
 the table on page 15. In very general terms it may be said that a 
 1,000-pound ruminant should be given from 20 to 30 pounds of 
 dry matter per day, 25 pounds being perhaps a fair average, while 
 for the horse smaller amounts will be appropriate. 
 
 A study of the table shows that concentrated feeding stuffs con- 
 tain much more protein and energy in proportion to their dry mat- 
 ter than do the forage crops. Evidently, then, in heavy feeding, 
 where the purpose is to give the animal all the feed possible, the ra- 
 tion should consist as largely as practicable of concentrated feeding 
 stuffs, because only in that way can the required amount of food be 
 obtained, without unduly increasing the bulk of the ration. On the 
 other hand, in light feeding the coarse fodders may predominate, 
 because they are usually relatively cheaper and can supply the re- 
 quired amount of food in a bulk which the animal can consume. 
 
 THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS. 
 
 General Considerations. In the foregoing pages we have con- 
 sidered the requirements of the animal machine for repair material 
 (protein), and for fuel material (energy), and have also studied the 
 food as a source of these two. If we knew exactly the requirements of 
 the animal in any given case, and if we knew exactly what amounts 
 of protein and energy the feeding stuffs at our disposal could furnish, 
 the computation of a ration would be almost purely a matter of arith- 
 metic. We would simply have to devise a mixture of the feeding 
 stuffs which would yield the requisite amounts of protein and energy 
 and would at the same time be of suitable bulk and of such a char- 
 acter as to exert no injurious action upon the animal. 
 
 As a matter of fact, we have no such exact knowledge. Prac- 
 tically, animals vary in their requirements, while feeding stuffs of 
 the same name show a wide range in composition, digestibility, and 
 nutritive value. Furthermore, what is still more important, the 
 economic conditions vary from case to case so that, for example, a 
 very liberal ration might be advisable in one instance, while for the 
 same animal under different conditions it would be highly uneco- 
 nomic. The figures given on previous pages can not be made the 
 basis of infallible recipes which shall save the user the trouble of 
 observing and thinking.
 
 306 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 But notwithstanding all this, the foregoing data can afford val- 
 uable aid to the feeder. By their use he can get a general idea of 
 the feed requirements of his animals and can compute a ration 
 which will approximately supply the requisite amounts of protein 
 and energy. His ability as a feeder will be shown, first, in his 
 power to estimate the conditions which will modify the feed require- 
 ments of his particular animals and cause his feeds to vary from the 
 average, and, second, in the skill with which he can interpret the 
 daily results and modify his feeding in accordance with them. 
 
 The problems given on the following pages are intended simply 
 as illustrations of the method of using the tables and not as model 
 rations. Limitations of space forbid the multiplication of examples, 
 but the reader who grasps the method will have no serious difficulty 
 in applying it to his own conditions, while facility will be required 
 with surprising rapidity by practice. It will be observed that the 
 form of these tables and the methods of computation do not differ 
 materially from those which have been used for many years in com- 
 puting rations on the basis of digestible nutrients, although the sig- 
 nificance of some of the figures is different. It may be added that 
 the digestible protein in the tables is true protein that is, it does 
 not include the so-called "amids" of the "crude protein." Con- 
 sequently the percentages, as well as the amounts estimated in the 
 rations on succeeding pages, are somewhat smaller than in the older 
 tables. 
 
 Total Feed Required. A bunch of feeders 2 to 3 years old, 
 averaging 1,000 pounds per head, are to be fattened on clover hay 
 and corn-and-cob meal. Such cattle, if of good grade, should weigh 
 1,400 pounds each when ready for market and should not require 
 over two hundred days to make the gain of 400 pounds. They 
 should therefore make an average gain of 2 pounds per day. 
 
 On page 301 it was estimated that a gain of 1 pound live weight 
 requires about 3.5 therms energy value in the feed ; for a daily gain 
 of 2 pounds, therefore, the energy requirement would be 7 therms. 
 To this must be added the maintenance requirement, which will in- 
 crease as the animals grow heavier. For the average weight of 1,200 
 pounds it is sufficiently accurate to use the maintenance requirement 
 computed in the table on page 299 for 1,250 pounds, viz., 7 therms. 
 This makes the total energy requirement per day 14 therms on the 
 average of the whole feeding period. 
 
 If we assume that 2 pounds of grain will be fed for each pound 
 of hay, it is easy to compute from figures given on the foregoing 
 pages, the amount of feed required to supply 14 therms of energy, 
 as follows: 
 
 Therms. 
 
 In 100 pounds of clover hay 34.75 
 
 In 200 pounds of corn-and-cob meal. 144.10 
 
 In 300 pounds of feed 178.85 
 
 In 1 pound of feed 596
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 307 
 
 To supply 14 therms requires 14-^0.596=23.49 pounds of total 
 feed, consisting of 7.83 pounds of clover hay and 15.66 pounds of 
 corn-and-cob meal, or, in round numbers, 8 pounds of hay and 16 
 pounds of meal. 
 
 This, of course, represents the average ration for the whole 
 feeding period. At the beginning the feed will naturally be lighter 
 and consist to a larger extent of hay, while the amount of feed, and 
 especially the proportion of grain, will be gradually increased until 
 toward the end of the feeding the animals are consuming all the 
 grain they will take, with only enough hay to insure the necessary 
 bulk and proper digestion. Naturally, too, the form in which the 
 corn is given will usually be varied in the course of the feeding. 
 
 Improvement of a Ration. In the foregoing example it was 
 assumed that the feeding stuffs to be used had been decided upon 
 and attention was directed simply to the quantity required. Let us 
 now take up the question from the other end and see where a study 
 of the ration may not yield some suggestion of possible improve- 
 ment. 
 
 According to the table herein, clover hay and corn-and-cob 
 meal, respectively, contain in 100 pounds^ 
 
 Feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 84 9 
 
 Pounds. 
 5 41 
 
 Therms. 
 34 74 
 
 Corn-and-cob meal 
 
 84 
 
 4 53 
 
 72 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 The 8 pounds of clover hay in the ration will evidently contain 
 eight one-hundredths of the amounts given in the table, viz: 
 84.7 X0.08=6.78 pounds of dry matter. 
 5.41x0.08=0.43 pounds of digestible protein. 
 34.74X0.08=2.78 therms of energy value. 
 A precisely similar computation for the corn-and-cob meal gives 
 the following results: 
 
 84^9 X0.16=13.58 pounds of dry matter. 
 
 4.53X0.16= 0.72 pounds of digestible protein. 
 72.05X0.16=11.53 therms of energy. 
 Adding these amounts, it is found that the total ration contains: 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 
 Pounds . 
 
 R 78 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Therms. 
 
 
 13 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total .. . 
 
 20.36 
 
 1.15 
 
 14 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 The quantity of energy, of course, corresponds with that esti- 
 mated to be necessary, because the amounts of feed were fixed upon 
 that basis. It is observed, however, that the amount of digesti- 
 ble protein in the ration is considerably less than is estimated on
 
 308 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 page 301 to be needed by cattle of this age. A ration like the above 
 might produce fair gains, but it would fail to take full advantage of 
 the capacity of such cattle, for growth and the gain would most 
 likely fall below that which was anticipated. An increase in the 
 protein could be expected to make the ration more efficient. One 
 way of accomplishing this which naturally suggests itself is to feed 
 more clover hay, since it is richer in protein than the meal. This 
 would make the ration more bulky, and the rather low total for dry 
 matter indicates that a moderate increase in this direction is prac- 
 ticable. In the early stages of fattening in particular, at a time 
 when we may suppose that the call for protein is greater than at 
 subsequent periods, a freer use of clover hay would usually be prac- 
 ticable, as well as desirable on the score of economy. Even if we 
 suppose the proportion of hay and grain reversed, however, and the 
 ration to consist for a time of 16 pounds of hay and 8 pounds of 
 meal the digestible protein is after all only slightly increased. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 16 pounds of clover hay contain of digestible protein 0.86 
 
 8 pounds of corn-and-cob meal contain of digestible protein . . .36 
 
 Total digestible protein 1.22 
 
 To make any marked change in the ration in this respect, it is 
 evident that there must be introduced into it some feed much richer 
 in protein than either of those composing it. On consulting the 
 table it is evident that what is needed is one of the by-product feeds 
 like gluten feed or meal, the oil meals, etc., and also that only a 
 small amount of one of these will be needed to effect a marked 
 change in the ration. Thus, if there be substituted 2 pounds of old- 
 process linseed meal for 2 pounds of the corn-and-cob meal, the ra- 
 tion will foot up as follows : 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 Clover hay, 8 pounds 
 
 Pounds. 
 6.78 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.43 
 
 Therms. 
 
 2.78 
 
 Corn and-cob-meal, 14 pounds 
 
 11.87 
 
 .63 
 
 10.09 
 
 Old-process linseed-meal, 2 pounds 
 
 1.82 
 
 .55 
 
 1.58 
 
 Total... 
 
 20.47 
 
 1.61 
 
 14.45 
 
 Thus at a comparatively small additional expense it is possible 
 to improve the ration materially by adding the lacking protein, and 
 there is little doubt that the improved ration would produce a more 
 rapid gain and, under ordinary conditions, a more profitable one as 
 well, either by increasing the total gain or shortening the feeding 
 period. 
 
 Computing a Ration From Given Feeding Stuffs. There are 
 available for a dairy herd field-cured corn forage (including the 
 ears), clover hay, corn meal, wheat bran, and gluten feed. The 
 table herein shows that these feeding stuffs, if of good average qual- 
 ity, will furnish in 100 pounds :
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 30(9 
 
 Feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 Pounds. Pounds. Therms. 
 
 Corn forage 57.8 2.13 30.53 
 
 Cloverhay 84.7 5.41 34.74 
 
 Cornmeal 8&.1 6.79 88.84 
 
 Wheat bran 88.1 1O 21 48.23 
 
 Glutenfeed 91.9 19.95 79.32 
 
 The cows average 850 pounds per head and have produced in 
 previous years an average of 20 pounds of milk per day. According 
 to the table above, the maintenance requirement of such animals 
 per day and head would be approximately 
 
 Digestible protein pound . . 0.45 
 
 Energy therms . . 5.60 
 
 For the production of 20 pounds of milk of average quality there 
 would be needed. 
 
 Digestible protein (0.05X20) pounds.. 1 
 
 Energy (0.3X20) therms.. 6 
 
 The total feed requirements per day and head are therefore : 
 
 Digestible Energy 
 protein. value. 
 
 Pounds. Therms. 
 
 For maintenance 0.45 5.6O 
 
 For milk production , 1.00 6.00 
 
 1.45 11.60^ 
 
 The problem, then, is to find a mixture of the available feeding 
 stuffs which will yield these amounts of digestible protein and of 
 energy and which shall have a suitable bulk. The first step in the 
 construction of a ration is to fix upon the amounts of coarse fodders. 
 It is usually desirable to use as large a proportion of these as possible, 
 since they are usually cheaper sources of food than grain. On the 
 other hand, the amount of them which an animal can consume is 
 limited. Much depends upon the individual animals, and the proper 
 amount can only be told by trial, but it is aimed to get from 12 to 14 
 pounds of dry matter in the form of coarse fodder. Corn forage 
 being a cheap feeding stuff, it is best to use this freely, with prob- 
 ably some hay for variety. By a little trial, it is found that 14 
 pounds of corn forage and 6 pounds of clover hay will give us 12 
 pounds of dry matter and the amounts of digestible protein and of 
 energy shown below: 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy, 
 value. 
 
 Corn forage. 12 pounds , 
 Clover bay. 6 pounds . 
 
 Total. 
 
 Pounds. 
 6.94 
 5.08 
 
 12.02 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 0.26 
 
 .32 
 
 .58 
 
 Therms. 
 3.66 
 2.08 
 
 6.74
 
 310 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 To this is added sufficient grain to bring the ration up to the 
 requirement. The proper amount must be ascertained by trial. At 
 a venture there is taken 5 pounds of corn meal and 2 pounds of 
 wheat bran. Add this to the ration and the result is 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein . 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 Corn forage, 12 pounds 
 
 Pounds. 
 6 94 
 
 Pounds. 
 26 
 
 Therms. 
 3 66 
 
 
 5 08 
 
 32 
 
 2 os 
 
 Corn meal, 5 pounds 
 
 4 46 
 
 34 
 
 4 44 
 
 
 1 77 
 
 20 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 18.25 
 
 1 12 
 
 11 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 Comparing these totals with the requirement as computed, it is 
 found that the ration is slightly deficient in energy and considerably 
 so in digestible protein, while the rather low figure for dry matter 
 shows that more feed may be added to it if desirable. Of the feeding 
 stuffs available, gluten feed is the one richest in protein, and nat- 
 urally this is used to make up for the lack of this material. The 
 ration still needs 0.33 pound of digestible protein in the ration, and 
 this will be almost exactly supplied by IMj pounds of gluten feed. 
 Making this addition, the ration stands thus: 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 Corn forage 12 pounds 
 
 Pounds. 
 6.94 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.26 
 
 Therms. 
 3.66 
 
 Clover hay, 6 pounds 
 
 5.08 
 
 .32 
 
 2.08 
 
 
 4.46 
 
 .34 
 
 4.44 
 
 Wheat bran, 2 pounds . 
 
 1.77 
 
 .20 
 
 .96 
 
 Gluten feed. 1 J4 pounds 
 
 1.38 
 
 .30 
 
 1.19 
 
 Total . 
 
 19.63 
 
 1.42 
 
 12.33 
 
 
 
 
 
 This ration contains almost exactly the desired amount of 
 digestible protein, but it supplies a surplus of energy which would 
 probably tend to fatten the cows rather than to cause any marked 
 increase in the milk flow. It is wished, therefore, to reduce the 
 energy content while retaining the same amount of protein. This 
 can be done by taking out some material, such as corn meal, which 
 supplies chiefly energy, and substituting for it a smaller quantity 
 of some substance like gluten feed, rich in protein. Thus, exchang- 
 ing 1 pound of corn meal for one-half pound of gluten feed gives a 
 ration which agrees very closely with the computed requirements : 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 
 value. 
 
 Corn (orage, 12 pounds 
 
 Pounds. 
 6.94 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 0.26 
 
 Therms. 
 3.66 
 
 Clover hay, 6 pounds 
 
 5 08 
 
 .32 
 
 2 08 
 
 Corn meal, '4 pounds 
 
 3.56 
 
 .27 
 
 3.55 
 
 Wheat bran. 2 pounds 
 
 1 77 
 
 .20 
 
 .96 
 
 Gluten feed, 2 pounds 
 
 1.84 
 
 .40 
 
 1.59 
 
 Total 
 
 19.19 
 
 1.45 
 
 11.84 
 
 
 

 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 311 
 
 This ration corresponds with the average requirement of the 
 whole herd, since it is based on its average performance. It hardly 
 need be said that it should be modified to suit the requirements and 
 capacities of the individual cows, the heavy milkers getting more 
 and the lighter ones less. 
 
 By proceeding in this manner, with a little patience there can 
 usually be obtained a ration corresponding as closely as it is neces- 
 sary to the requirement, provided the feeds available admit of it. 
 With a little experience one very soon learns to guess pretty closely, 
 and with some practice finds the computations very easy. An exact 
 agreement with the requirement need not be sought for, since in 
 practice the composition of the feeds will probably vary more or less 
 from the average of the tables. 
 
 The Choice of Feeding Stuffs. When, as in the last example, 
 feeding stuffs must be purchased in order to get the desired relation 
 between the protein and the energy of the ration, it is evident that 
 often a wide range of choice may be offered. In such a case the 
 question at once arises which of the various feeds available is it most 
 economical to purchase, it being evident, of course, that this is not 
 necessarily the one offered at the lowest price. 
 
 No simple method of determining this point is possible, be- 
 cause, as seen, the food serves two entirely distinct purposes in the 
 body. Sometimes the supply of protein is the specially important 
 point, and in other cases what is needed is a supply of energy with- 
 out special reference to whether its source be protein or non-nitrog- 
 enous material. Consequently, the relative values of two feeding 
 stuffs may vary under different circumstances. Some writers have 
 based their comparisons of the values of by-product feeds solely 
 upon their content of protein, for the reason that such feeds are 
 often bought especially to supply this ingredient, while the fats 
 and especially the carbohydrates are usually produced in abundance 
 upon the farm. They regard that purchased feeding stuff as the 
 most economical which furnishes a pound of digestible protein at 
 the lowest cost, ignoring any value in the other ingredients. It is 
 obvious, however, that this is a one-sided view. The other ingredi- 
 ents have a value, and this is especially true in the case of a feeder 
 who buys a considerable part of his grain supply and depends upon 
 it as a source of energy, as well as of protein. The method of com- 
 parison illustrated in the following pages is based primarily upon 
 the cost per unit of energy because this is on the whole the most im- 
 portant function of the feed, but the method takes account also of 
 the amount of protein present. 
 
 Suppose the following feeding stuffs are available to a dairy- 
 man at the prices named : 
 
 Prices of Feeds Per Ton. 
 
 Oats (40 cents per bushel) $25 
 
 Corn meal 25 
 
 Wheat bran 21 
 
 Wheat middlings 24 
 
 Dried brewers' grains 23
 
 312 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Gluten feed $27 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 30 
 
 Old-process linseed meal 33 
 
 The supply of coarse feed on the farm is sufficient to furnish 
 each animal per day 32 pounds of silage and 8 pounds of clover 
 hay; the cows average 1,000 pounds each and may be expected to 
 produce about 24 pounds of milk per day. The first step is to com- 
 pute, in precisely the same way as in the previous example, the esti- 
 mated requirements of these cows per day as follows: 
 
 Requirements. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.50 
 
 Therms. 
 6.00 
 
 For 24 pounds of milk; 
 Protein 24X 0.05 
 
 1.20 
 
 
 Energy 24 X 0.30 
 
 
 7.20 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 70 
 
 13.20 
 
 
 
 
 The amounts of silage and clover hay available will furnish, ac- 
 cording to the table, the following amounts of dry matter, digestible 
 protein, and energy value: 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein. 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 
 Pound*. 
 8 lo 
 
 Pounds. 
 39 
 
 Therms. 
 5 30 
 
 
 6 7o 
 
 43 
 
 2 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 14.97 
 
 .82 
 
 8.08 
 
 
 
 
 
 The question now is what feeding stuffs is it most economical 
 to buy (or to refrain from selling if in stock) to complete the ration. 
 The first step in deciding this question is to compare the various 
 feeds as sources of energy and see which one furnishes a unit of 
 energy value at the lowest price. This computation gives the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 Kind of feed 
 
 Cost of 100 
 pounds 
 
 Energy 
 value of 
 100 pounds 
 
 Cost of 
 1 therm en- 
 ergy value 
 
 Oats 
 
 $1.25 
 
 Therms 
 66.27 
 
 Cents 
 1 89 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 .25 
 
 88.84 
 
 1.13 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 .05 
 
 48.23 
 
 2.18 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 .20 
 
 77.65 
 
 1.55 
 
 Dried brewer's grains 
 
 .15 
 
 60.01 
 
 1.92 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 .35 
 
 79.32 
 
 1.70 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 
 1.50 
 
 84.20 
 
 1.78 
 
 Old-process linseed meal .. . . 
 
 1.65 
 
 78.92 
 
 2.09 
 
 
 
 
 
 Evidently, if it were simply a question of supplying energy to 
 the animals, the farmer should use corn meal, since that supplies a 
 unit of energy at a much lower price than any of the other feeding
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 
 
 313 
 
 stuffs. If it were thought desirable to add variety to the ration, 
 wheat middlings would obviously be the next choice. 
 
 It is evident, however, without going through the labor of com- 
 putation, that while corn meal and wheat middlings may be used in 
 the ration, neither will supply enough protein if used exclusively. 
 Of the available feeding stuffs which are rich in protein and which 
 may therefore serve to balance the deficiency of this ingredient, 
 gluten feed is relatively the cheapest, and cotton-seed meal comes 
 next. While the difference between the two is not great, naturally 
 it is best to try the cheaper one. It is not difficult to determine by 
 a few trials that 4 pounds of corn meal and 2 1 /2 pounds of gluten 
 feed, in addition to the coarse fodder available, will give a ration 
 corresponding very closely to the requirements, as the following 
 table shows: 
 
 Kind and amount of feed 
 
 Total dry 
 matter 
 
 Digestible 
 protein 
 
 Energy 
 value 
 
 
 Pounds 
 8.19 
 
 Pounds 
 0.39 
 
 Therms 
 530 
 
 Clover bay, 8 pounds 
 
 6.78 
 
 .43 
 
 2.78 
 
 
 3.56 
 
 .31 
 
 3.55 
 
 Gluten feed, 2/4 pounds 
 
 2.30 
 
 .50 
 
 1.73 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 20 83 
 
 1 63 
 
 13 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 This ration shows as close an agreement with the computed 
 requirement as could be desired. The comparatively low figure for 
 dry matter indicates that more coarse fodder might have been used 
 had it been available, with the probable effect of cheapening the 
 ration. As it is, the farmer has used the feeds relatively lowest in 
 price and apparently have a very economical ration. 
 
 Since, according to the assumed figures, corn meal is relatively 
 cheap as compared with the other feeding stuffs, the farmer should 
 naturally use as large a proportion of this in the ration as practic- 
 able. In order to increase the corn meal, however, it will plainly be 
 necessary to use some other feed richer in protein than gluten feed. 
 Cotton-seed meal is nearly as cheap as a source of energy as gluten 
 feed, while it contains almost twice as much protein. Therefore the 
 farmer should try the effect of increasing the corn meal to 4^ 
 pounds and using l 1 /^ pounds of cotton-seed meal in place of the 
 2M> pounds of gluten feed, with the following results: 
 
 Kind and amount of feed. 
 
 Total dry 
 matter. 
 
 Digestible 
 protein . 
 
 Energy 
 value. 
 
 Corn silape, 32 pounds 
 
 Pounds. 
 8.19 
 6.78 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.39 
 .43 
 
 Therms. 
 5.30 
 2 78 
 
 
 4.01 
 
 .31 
 
 4 00 
 
 Cotton-seed meal, 1% pounds 
 
 1.38 
 
 .54 
 
 1.26 
 
 Total 
 
 20.36 
 
 1.67 
 
 13 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 This ration agrees with the computed requirements even better 
 than the previous one, while a simple comparison shows that it is
 
 314 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 actually a trifle cheaper. The grain portion of the two rations costs 
 as follows: 
 
 Feed in ration. 
 
 First 
 ration. 
 
 Second 
 ration. 
 
 
 Cents. 
 
 5 00 
 
 Cents. 
 5 63 
 
 
 3.37 
 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 
 
 2 25 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 8 37 
 
 7 88 
 
 
 
 
 It thus appears that a ration made up with the somewhat more 
 expensive cotton-seed meal was actually cheaper because it was pos- 
 sible to use more of the cheap corn meal. The difference, to be sure, 
 is small, yet for 30 cows fed for 200 days, it would amount to $30. 
 Such a difference is only likely to be found, however, when, as was 
 assumed in this instance, some feed low in protein but rich in energy 
 can be had at a relatively cheap rate. In general, it may be said that 
 when there are no very marked differences in the cost of a therm of 
 energy value in the feeding stuffs constituting the bulk of the ration, 
 one of the various high-protein feeds which supplies energy at the 
 lowest cost should ordinarily be used, although it is always wise to 
 check up this point, as in the example just given. 
 
 THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS. 
 
 While in the foregoing examples an exact daily ration is com- 
 puted, it would, of course, be utterly impracticable in most cases 
 to weigh out separately each day's ration for each animal. Indi- 
 vidual weighings of feeds at intervals would often yield valuable in- 
 formation and might be profitably undertaken, but for the ordi- 
 nary routine of feeding simpler methods must be used. 
 
 When practicable, the grain feed may be advantageously mixed 
 in advance in the desired proportions in as large quantities as the 
 storage capacity available and the proper preservation of the ma- 
 terials will permit. Where facilities are available, the whole amount 
 of grain required for all the animals may be weighed out daily, or 
 even for each feeding, without much additional labor. In distrib- 
 uting the grain to the individual animals, regard of course should 
 be paid to their productive capacity and their individual peculiari- 
 ties. The ration, as computed, is for the average animal. The skill 
 of the feeder is shown in adapting it in quality and in amount to 
 the individual. Doubtless individual weighings at intervals, as al- 
 ready suggested, would be useful as a control on the accuracy of the 
 distribution. 
 
 The weighing of coarse fodder is usually a more difficult prob- 
 lem on account of its bulk. When, however, silage or cut fodder is 
 handled in trucks, the matter is still comparatively simple. Long 
 fodder, on the contrary, is not readily weighed. Nevertheless, even 
 here an occasional weighing, if practicable, as a control upon the 
 feeding, is very desirable. 
 
 In all these and similar matters common sense is necessary. 
 The computed ration expresses the best estimate that can be made
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 315 
 
 of the actual average requirements, but it is at best more or less of an 
 approximation. It would be foolish, therefore, to seek extreme ex- 
 actness in realizing it or to go to more expense in the weighing and 
 apportioning of the feed than the saving in the latter would amount 
 to. The scale upon which the feeding is conducted will play an im- 
 portant part. Where scores or hundreds of animals are being fed, 
 an exactness may be profitably sought which would be absurd in the 
 case of two or three animals. Finally, it should be remembered that 
 these computed rations are guides and not recipes. They may aid 
 the feeder in wisely using the resources at his command, but they 
 can not take the place of experience and good judgment. 
 
 BEARING ON FARM MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The data and the methods of computation on previous pages 
 will aid the feeder in determining the amounts of each class of 
 feeds needed for each class of his animals. The man of good busi- 
 ness habits will find them useful in determining the quantities of 
 each kind of feed to grow or purchase and in deciding upon the pur- 
 chase of animals to feed and the feeds to keep or to purchase for 
 feeding them. These facts and methods will aid the farmer, the 
 feeder, or the user of work animals in deciding upon the chances 
 of profit in proposed enterprises. Often by using these formal ways 
 of checking up a proposed business project the way is made more 
 clear to avoid loss and to secure the largest practicable profit. In 
 case of the farmer who grows most of his feed stuffs, these facts and 
 methods of calculation may often be used in connection with the 
 planning of his scheme of crop rotation and in proportioning the 
 acreages of the respective crops to each other and to the numbers of 
 each class of animals. They will prove useful in reducing the farm- 
 management plan to a scientific basis. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 346.) 
 
 FEEDS AND FEEDING FOR BEEF PRODUCTION. 
 
 Importance oj. Corn as a Stock Food. Corn is the great Amer- 
 ican stock food. No other plant compares with it in its wide and 
 general distribution, in the ease, certainty and cheapness with which 
 it may be produced ; in the yield of valuable food material per acre, 
 and in the close relation it bears to the development of the live stock 
 interest of the country. Practically every State in the Union is re- 
 ported as growing corn commercially. Where corn is grown ex- 
 tensively, there the live stock interests are extensively developed and 
 prosperous. A corn center is synonymous with a live stock center, 
 and the geographical distribution of corn production is in a general 
 way an index to the distribution of live stock production. Eleven 
 prominent corn states, producing something over 75 per cent of all 
 the corn of the United States, produce practically 60 per cent of the 
 horses, mules, cattle, hogs, milch cows and sheep of the country. 
 From these states are drawn the chief supplies of well finished 
 beeves and hogs, and well developed horses and mules. They are 
 the feed yard of the nation. (Univ. Mo. Circ. Inform. 11.) 
 
 Dairy Cows. Jordan reports the result of an experiment in 
 which the yield of milk from cows when fed on six pounds of corn 
 daily and all the timothy hay they would eat was compared with
 
 316 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the quantity of milk obtained from the same cows when fed on a 
 balanced ration consisting of two pounds corn meal ; two pounds of 
 cottonseed meal; and two pounds of gluten meal together with all 
 the timothy hay they would eat. (Maine State College Annual Re- 
 port 1893, page 81.) Both rations supplied practically the same 
 quantity of digestible nutrients, but the proportion of protein was 
 nearly twice as much in the mixed grain ration as in the corn meal 
 ration. The results showed that during the time the cows were fed 
 the balanced ration, they produced from one-fifth to nearly one- 
 third more milk than when they were fed on the unbalanced ration, 
 and that the yield of milk solids was from 30 per cent to 40 per 
 cent greater. (Univ. Mo. Circ. Inf. 11.) 
 
 Corn a Carbonaceous Food. Notwithstanding the fact that 
 corn is the best single stock food known and that thousands of ani- 
 mals are successfully wintered or fattened each year on an exclusive 
 ration of corn and corn stover or some similar roughage, it is true 
 that it is by no means a perfectly balanced or complete food. As 
 has been shown, corn contains a very large quantity of carbona- 
 ceous matter in proportion to the protein compounds. It does not 
 give a proper balance between the carbohydrates (which includes 
 starch, the sugars, fat and digestible fiber) and the protein. In 
 other words, practical experience and scientific experiments have 
 proven beyond doubt that by combining corn with some feed that 
 will increase the proportion of protein, a more efficient ration will 
 be the result; more rapid gains will be made by the animals to 
 which it is fed; more rapid and healthful growth will be made on 
 young animals; a larger flow of milk will be obtained from the 
 dairy cow; and the steer will carry a smoother finish and a finer 
 coat to market; and under ordinary circumstances, or if the mate- 
 rial for balancing the corn be selected judiciously and with a due 
 regard to the cost as compared with the increased efficiency obtained, 
 an increased profit will be returned. 
 
 Preparation of Corn for Feeding. Upon this point Prof. Jor- 
 dan has summed up the results of the investigations and practical 
 experience as follows: Much labor and expense have been ex- 
 pended by farmers in giving to feeding stuffs special treatment, such 
 as wetting, steaming, cooking and fermenting, in order to secure a 
 supposed increase in nutritive value, an increase which must come 
 chiefly, if at all, from a more complete digestion. It is plainly no- 
 ticeable that these methods of feeding have lost in prevalence rather 
 than gained. Practice does not seem to have permanently ratified 
 them, and, so far as digestibility is concerned, this outcome is in 
 accordance with the results of scientific demonstration. The conclu- 
 sions of German experimenters have been that these special treat- 
 ments have no favorable influence, their effect being either imper- 
 ceptible or unfavorable. 
 
 German and American experimenters unite in condemning the 
 cooking of foods already palatable, because this causes a marked de- 
 pression of the digestibility of the protein, with no compensating 
 advantages. Digestion trials with cooked or steamed hays, silage,
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 317 
 
 lupine seed, cornmeal, and wheat bran, and roasted cotton seed, uni- 
 formly show their protein to be notably less digestible than that in 
 the original materials, a fact which may explain the lessened pro- 
 ductive value of cooked grains which has been observed in certain 
 experiments. It must be conceded, of course, that when cooking 
 feeding stuffs by steaming or otherwise renders them more palata- 
 ble, and thereby makes possible the consumption of material other- 
 wise wasted, the influence upon digestibility is a minor considera- 
 tion. 
 
 A large number of careful experiments have been made in this 
 country with corn on hogs with results unfavorable to cooking. 
 Corn was either shelled or ground and in some cases a mixture of 
 corn meal and middlings was used. In most cases the raw food was 
 more efficient than the same food carefully cooked. Averaging all 
 the trials, 476 pounds of uncooked meal or grain were required for 
 100 pounds gain while after it was cooked 505 pounds were re- 
 quired for the same gain. 
 
 CORN THE BASIS OF PROFITABLE RATIONS. 
 
 In general the best ration is made of such a combination of 
 food stuffs as will give the proper proportion of protein and carbo- 
 hydrates for the particular class of animals or the special purpose for 
 which it is to be used, at the same time that careful attention is 
 given to the cost of the material to be used, the palatability of the 
 ration and the convenience with which it may be obtained and fed. 
 In short the controlling factor in making up every ration should be 
 its cost in proportion to its productiveness, but as has already been 
 stated the taste and appetite of the animal should be catered to and 
 heed should be given to the adaptability of the ration to the special 
 use to which it is proposed to be put. A vast majority of the feed- 
 ers of America find it necessary and profitable to use the product of 
 the corn plant as the basis of all rations and for all classes of stock. 
 It is clear that when feed is to be purchased, it should, as far as prac- 
 ticable, be selected with reference to supplementing, balancing or 
 adding to the value of the material already on hand, rather than to 
 purchase more of the same class. For example, it would not be good 
 business to purchase timothy, kafir corn, sorghum, millet, or any of 
 the straws to feed with corn and stover, since such a combination 
 adds nothing to the ration above the sum of digestible nutrients con- 
 tained in the two feeds. Whereas, if clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, bran, 
 middlings, gluten meal, cottonseed meal, or linseed meal be selected 
 to combine with the corn products, the feeding value of the resulting 
 ration would be directly increased. 
 
 Fattening Steers. Corn is conceded by all authorities to be 
 the best single grain ration for fattening animals especially when 
 its low cost is considered. At the same time the combination of 
 corn with such food stuffs as will increase the proportion of protein 
 in a ration, will result in a more rapid gain. 
 
 Grinding. Experiments indicate that corn when ground into 
 meal or the grain and cob crushed together will be somewhat more 
 digestible than when fed whole. The difference, however, is so
 
 318 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 small that when corn is very cheap the increased efficiency may 
 not meet the expense of grinding. The following concise advice is 
 commended: This subject is a difficult one to discuss owing to the 
 great variety of conditions existing as to both grain and animals. 
 Directions are here given which may serve to guide the feeder in his 
 practice. For horses which are out of the stable during the day and 
 worked hard, all grain, with the possible exception of oats should be 
 ground. For those at extremely hard work, all grain should be 
 ground and mixed with chaffed hay. For idle horses oats or corn 
 should not be ground, nor need the hay or straw be chaffed. A 
 cow yielding a large flow of milk should be regarded as a hard work- 
 ing animal and her feed prepared accordingly. Fattening steers 
 and pigs may be crowded more rapidly with meal than with whole 
 grain, though there is more danger attendant upon its use. Sheep 
 worth feeding can always grind their own grain. In general, idle 
 animals and those having ample time for mastication, rumination 
 and digestion do not need their grain or roughage prepared as care- 
 fully as do those with only limited time for these essential opera- 
 tions. Experiments quite generally show increased gains from grind- 
 ing grain, but in many cases they are not sufficient to pay the cost 
 of grinding. It is believed that it will pay to grind or crush corn 
 for calves, colts and all young cattle in the average season, particu- 
 larly if they are to be fed strong, and it will undoubtedly pay to 
 Erepare corn in this way for dairy cows in any season. It is not 
 elieved that the cob has any considerable nutritive value, but it 
 seems to have a very favorable effect upon the mechanical condition 
 of the grain in the stomach of the animal. 
 
 VALUE OF SOFT CORN FOR BEEF PRODUCTION. 
 
 The early fall frosts affect the corn crop in the central and 
 northern states more or less each year. The crop of 1902 was seri- 
 ously damaged in many sections by the early September frost. The 
 yield per acre was very much reduced. The percentage of market- 
 able corn was a variable quantity. In some sections practically all 
 of the corn was worthless from a regular market standpoint, due to 
 the fact that it was too soft and watery for shipping purposes. 
 
 This presented a serious condition of affairs. There was then 
 but one way to utilize that portion of the crop which was soft and 
 immature. It must be fed to live stock. The feeding value of the 
 soft corn at once became a question of vital interest. Many men 
 regarded it as being worthless from a feeding standpoint. Some 
 claimed that the frost affected the composition, thus the necessary 
 food constituents were not present. Others claimed that that part 
 of the food value which was not present in the corn grain proper was 
 contained in the cob, thus by the utilization of both the cob and 
 corn all the food nutrients could be obtained. It was also claimed 
 by many that this soft corn might give fairly good results at the 
 beginning of the fattening period, but that it would be impossible to 
 finish animals on the same. 
 
 There certainly was an urgent need for some information 
 which would enlighten the people on the feeding value of soft corn.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 319 
 
 Information along this line was needed by the man who desired to 
 purchase soft corn for feeding purposes. The same was true for that 
 large mass of people who make a business of grain farming. They 
 needed information concerning the value of the corn which they 
 must either sell to the stockman or allow to rot in the fields. 
 
 Recognizing the need of securing some light on this subject the 
 Animal Husbandry Section of this Station with the co-operation of 
 the Agronomy and Chemical Sections conducted the work presented 
 in this bulletin. A practical feeding test, in which sixteen steers 
 were divided into two lots of eight each, was outlined and carried 
 through a period of six months. 
 
 The lot fed on soft corn required almost one pound less dry 
 matter in the corn fed to make one pound of gain than did the lot 
 fed on mature corn. The amount of moisture in the soft corn was 
 determined at the beginning and end of each month and an aver- 
 age of the same was used in computing the figures for the month in 
 question. 
 
 At the beginning of the test the amount of moisture was de- 
 termined by taking the average of several samples which had been 
 analyzed by the chemical section. From the beginning until the 
 end of the test the amount of moisture was determined by a series 
 of chemical analyses and the results of a corn shrinkage test. In 
 the corn shrinkage test the crib was weighed at the end of each 
 month, thus we had the results of a considerable amount of corn 
 which very much reduced the possibility of error in our estimates. 
 It will be further noticed that the cattle fed on soft corn sold for 
 the same price as did the lot fed on mature corn which was practi- 
 cally the top of the market. In shipping, the soft corn lot had the 
 lightest shrink, and in the slaughter test they dressed out .8 of a per 
 cent more meat than did the mature corn lot. (la. B. 75.) 
 
 COMMERCIAL STOCK FOODS. 
 
 From Wheat. Bran consists of the outer coating of the wheat 
 kernel and because of its fat and protein content is a very valuable 
 feed. Middlings and Shorts are terms used interchangeably in the 
 trade and consist of the coating of the wheat kernel just below the 
 bran layer, the finer particles and fragments of bran and flour par- 
 ticles. They are rich in digestible fat and protein and an excellent 
 feed. Middlings are often divided into standard middlings, germ 
 middlings, flour middlings, etc. White middlings as used in many 
 parts designate a product which is in reality a low grade flour much 
 below red dog in feeding value. Shipstuff consists of a mixture of 
 bran and middlings, bran and shorts or of all three of these mate- 
 rials. Red Dog Flour consists of low grade flour and fine particles 
 of bran which cannot be separated in the process of milling. Screen- 
 ings consist of the smaller, imperfect grains of wheat, weed seeds 
 and other foreign materials separated from the wheat in preparing 
 it for milling. Scourings consist of the small particles from the 
 outer bran coating of the wheat kernel and the dust and dirt re- 
 moved by the scourer. Sweepings consist of the cleanings from the 
 bin, around spouts and other parts of the mill. Bee Wings con-
 
 320 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sist of the light, fine, thin, membranous coating set free from the 
 crease of the wheat kernel in the process of crushing the wheat. 
 
 From Rye. These products are secured from the same portions 
 of the rye grain as are the bran and middlings from the wheat 
 kernel. 
 
 From Buckwheat. Bran consists of a mixture of buckwheat 
 hulls and middlings prepared by the millers of buckwheat to enable 
 them to dispose of buckwheat hulls. Middlings consist of that por- 
 tion of the buckwheat grain immediately inside the hull and are 
 rich in crude fat and crude protein and have a high feeding value. 
 Mixed Feed consists of relatively large proportions of middlings and 
 shorts and a small proportion of hulls. Two of the samples were 
 deficient in crude protein. 
 
 From Corn. Bran consists of the outer coating of the corn 
 kernel and is variable in composition, depending on the process of 
 manufacture. It is of low feeding value and is often used as an 
 adulterant for wheat bran and other wheat by-products. Hominy 
 Feed or Chop consists of the bran coating, germ and part of the 
 starch portions of the corn kernel secured as a by-product in the 
 manufacture of hominy. Hominy Hearts are secured as a by- 
 product in the manufacture of hominy and consist of the germ or 
 heart of the grain. 
 
 Gluten Meal This is a by-product of corn, produced in the 
 glucose factories in the manufacture of starch. It is difficult to se- 
 cure detailed information as to the various steps employed in the 
 manufacture of these products, due to the fact that the owners of 
 these factories prefer to withhold some things from the public. The 
 following points in regard to the preparation of the same may be of 
 interest to feeders. The corn is first soaked, then by mechanical de- 
 vices the different parts of the corn are separated. First the germ 
 is taken out; then the bran, which is the hull of the corn, is sepa- 
 rated from the gluten and starchy portions. The gluten and starch 
 are then separated by a filter process. The starch, being the heavier 
 of the two, settles to the bottom, while the gluten runs off and is 
 taken to the feed house where it is kiln dried into gluten meal. 
 
 Buffalo Gluten Feed. This, like gluten meal, is a by-product 
 of corn, produced in the manufacture of starch. It differs from 
 gluten meal in that it contains the hulls (corn bran) as well as the 
 gluten part of the corn. Gluten and corn bran are found in gluten 
 feed in about the following proportions: gluten 55 per cent; corn 
 bran or hulls 45 per cent. The corn bran gives it more bulk than 
 gluten meal, thus making it an easier product to feed. It does not 
 contain as much protein, however, as gluten meal. For the average 
 farmer we would recommend the use of gluten feed in preference to 
 
 fluten meal unless his other grain feed is of a bulky nature. (la. 
 .66.) 
 
 Hominy Feed. Hominy, as manufactured for human use, 
 consists of the hard or flinty part of the corn kernel. The hull, 
 germ, and part of the starch portions of the kernel constitute the
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 323 
 
 waste of hominy manufacture. These materials are sold together 
 under the name of hominy chops or feed. 
 
 Distillers' Dried Grains. These are a by-product obtained in 
 the manufacture of alcohol or whisky from the cereals. Corn and 
 rye are most often used, sometimes singly, more often in combina- 
 tion. Sometimes certain proportions of oats, wheat, and barley are 
 also added. The grains are coarsely ground, mixed with water, a 
 malt solution added, and the whole kept at a uniform temperature 
 until most of the starch has changed to sugar. Yeast is then 
 added to convert the sugar to alcohol, which is distilled. The 
 residue from the distillation, or distilling slop, is filtered, dried, and 
 placed on the market as a concentrated food. The dried material, 
 on account, of the removal of a large part of the starch and sugar 
 of the grain by the above process, contains an increased percentage 
 of proteids, fat, and crude fiber. 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal consist of the whole ear of corn ground or 
 crushed just as it is received from the field without the addition 
 either of cob or kernel. 
 
 Corn Sweepings consist of small pieces of cob, butts of corn, 
 particles of husks, chaff and the imperfect and decayed kernels 
 which are not removed in the process of shelling. This material is 
 often used as an adulterant. 
 
 Cob Meal consists of finely ground corn cobs which are largely 
 woody fiber. It contains but little crude fat and crude protein and 
 a large amount of crude fiber. It is often used as a filler, serving to 
 give bulk and roughness. It has little or no feeding value and is a 
 common adulterant of feeding stuffs. 
 
 From Oats. Oat Clippings are the small hairs and dust sepa- 
 rated from the oats in the clipping machine. They bear much the 
 same relation to the oat kernel as scourings do to the wheat kernel 
 and contain considerably larger amounts of crude fat and crude pro- 
 tein than the hulls and considerably less fiber. They are often used 
 as a filler and also as an adulterant. 
 
 Oat Hulls are a common adulterant of feeding stuffs and are 
 much used as a filler. They contain about the same amount of 
 crude fat, crude protein and crude fiber as cob meal, serve a similar 
 function in feeding stuffs and have little or no feeding value. 
 
 From Flax Seed. Flaxseed Meal consists of the entire flaxseed 
 ground. Oil Cake is the unground residue from the extraction of 
 oil from ground flaxseed. Linseed Meal is the ground residue from 
 the extraction of oil from ground flaxseed. The extraction of the 
 oil is accomplished by two methods known as the old and new proc- 
 ess and the meals from the two processes are designated as old and 
 new process linseed meal. New Process Linseed Meal consists of the 
 residue from crushed flaxseed which has been heated and the oil 
 extracted by repeated leachings with light naphtha. After the ex- 
 traction is complete the naphtha is driven from the rasidue with 
 steam and the meal is entirely without naphtha odor. The extrac- 
 tion of the oil in the new process meal is much more complete, the
 
 324 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 new process meal containing only one-half as much crude fat and 
 from one to two per cent more crude protein. (Ind. B. 141.) 
 
 At the oil mills after the flaxseed is crushed there are two ways 
 of removing the oil. The first, known as the old process, consists of 
 crushed flaxseed heated and placed in sacks which are piled one on 
 another and the mass subjected to hydraulic pressure to extract the 
 oil. After the oil has been pressed out, the residue, after it is 
 stripped of its coverings appears in the form of slabs about one inch 
 thick, one foot wide, and two feet long. In this form it is shipped 
 abroad as it is then in its purest form and contains no adulterations. 
 In this country it is usually ground up and sold in the form of meal, 
 known as old process oil meal. The new process oil meal has been 
 treated in a different way by the use of chemicals and steam, and 
 contains about the same amount of digestible protein and carbohy- 
 drates but not nearly so much fat. A simple test to distinguish old 
 process oil meal as outlined is as follows: Pulverize a small quan- 
 tity of the meal and put a level tablespoonful of it in a tumbler; 
 then add ten tablespoonfuls of boiling hot water to the meal, stir 
 thoroughly and leave to settle. If the meal is new process meal it 
 will settle in the course of an hour and will leave about half of the 
 water clear on top. Old process meal will remain jelly like. (la. 
 B. 66.) 
 
 In making cold pressure linseed cake the flaxseed is run 
 through a screw press and the oil extracted by pressure, the process 
 being similar to that employed in the production of cold pressed cot- 
 ton seed cake. Ground flaxseed cake is a term used to designate a 
 low grade linseed meal made of inferior flaxseed. Flax Screenings 
 consist of the broken flaxseed, hulls, weed seeds and other foreign 
 materials separated in preparing the flaxseed for the manufacture of 
 linseed oil. 
 
 From Flax. Flax Bran as used by manufacturers of com- 
 pounded feeds is of variable composition and ingredients, but usually 
 consists of flax pods, flax stems from which the tow has been ex- 
 tracted, and small flax seeds. The pods and stems are invariably 
 present in largest amount. This product is sometimes used as an 
 adulterant for alfalfa. 
 
 From Cotton Seed. Cotton Seed Cake is the residue of cotton 
 seed from which the oil has been extracted after removal of the 
 hulls. In the process of extracting the oil from cotton seeds they 
 are first delinted, the hulls removed, the meats and such hulls as 
 cannot be separated cooked, wrapped in cloths, placed in presses 
 and all the oil possible extracted by pressure. The residue in the 
 cloths from the extraction is cotton seed cake. Cotton Seed Meal is 
 ground cotton seed cake. It is rich in both crude fat and crude 
 protein, relatively low in crude fiber and is highly regarded as a 
 concentrated feeding stuff. 
 
 Cold Pressed Cotton Seed Cake consists of the residue from 
 cotton seeds after extraction of the oil by what is known as the cold 
 pressure system. In preparing this material the cotton seeds are 
 delinted and the entire seed without heating or hulling is put into
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 325 
 
 a screw press and the oil extracted by pressure. The residue from 
 this process consisting of the hulls, meal and such lint as was not 
 removed constitutes the cold pressed cotton seed cake which is sold 
 as a feeding stuff without further crushing. It is a light, rather 
 fluffy material containing on an average less crude fat and 17.5 per 
 cent less crude protein than cotton seed meal. Cold pressed cotton 
 seed cake is not as valuable for milk and butter production as an 
 equal weight of choice cotton seed meal and hulls mixed in the pro- 
 portion of two parts of meal to one part of hulls. The analysis of 
 cold pressed cake is a reliable indication of its feeding value. Among 
 the principal claims made for this product is that not having been 
 f.'ooked the albuminoids are more digestible than those in cotton 
 seed meal and being more bulky and less concentrated it can be fed 
 in large quantities without danger of the undesirable results pro- 
 duced when excessive amounts of cotton seed meal are used. 
 
 Cotton Seed Feed Meal is a trade name used to designate a mix- 
 ture of cotton seed meal and cotton seed hulls generally in the pro- 
 portion of 50 to 55 per cent hulls. 
 
 Cotton Seed Hulls are the outer portion of the cotton seed. 
 They are high in crude fiber and have little feeding value. Their 
 principal use is as a filler, as a source of roughage and as an adul- 
 terant for cotton seed meal. 
 
 From Barley. Malt Sprouts consist of the dried shoots secured 
 in the germination of barley in the production of malt. They are 
 low in crude fat and rich in crude protein. 
 
 Dried brewers' grains consist of the residue left after mashing 
 the malt, whereby the greater portion of the carbohydrates is re- 
 moved, leaving a residue rich in protein, which, on drying becomes 
 a valuable feeding stuff. 
 
 From Alfalfa. Alfalfa meal consists of ground alfalfa hay. 
 The better grades of alfalfa meal contain a larger proportion of 
 leaves than stems. 
 
 Corn and Oats Feed. Corn and oats feed, usually sold under 
 the name of Corn and Oats Chop, or Chop Feed, are prepared by 
 mixing corn and oats together, generally in the proportion of 56 
 pounds of the former to 32 pounds of the latter, and then grinding. 
 (Ind. B. 141.) 
 
 Animal Meals. These consist of by-products from the packing 
 industry, such as dried blood, meat meal, blood meal, digester tank- 
 age, etc. They are very rich in protein, and have been found to be 
 an excellent concentrate in a ration for swine. They are sold in a 
 dry condition, finely ground. In some cases the bone has been sub- 
 jected to steam under pressure or kettle rendered, in which case the 
 resulting product is lower both in fat and protein. (Dep. Agr. Bu. 
 Chem. B. 108.) 
 
 Dried Blood. This is a product from packing houses, prepared 
 as follows: The blood runs from the cattle when stuck, into a re- 
 ceptacle from which it is promptly pumped into a cooking tank 
 where it is cooked to a point where the water separates from the clots. 
 It is then dropped into large press cloths and put under hydraulic
 
 326 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 pressure to press out most of the water. The residue, which is then 
 in the form of a cake about three inches thick and containing about 
 50 per cent of moisture is put into a mechanical dryer, which is heated 
 by steam radiation, from which it comes, containing about 6 per cent 
 of moisture. It is then ready for the mill where it is ground and put 
 into sacks ready for the market. In the preparation of blood for 
 feeding purposes it must be handled very quickly and not allowed to 
 decompose between the different stages of manufacture. Some samples 
 of blood have a frightful odor, caused by decomposition in the 
 process of manufacture. (Iowa B. 66.) 
 
 Dried Beet Pulp. The beets are thoroughly washed, shredded, 
 and placed in a large cylinder ; water is admitted and sugar extracted 
 by the diffusion method. After the liquor is withdrawn, the beet 
 pulp is run through a press to remove excess of water. Molasses 
 residues from the sugar factory are thoroughly mixed with beet pulp 
 and the whole kiln dried by direct heat. The resulting dry product 
 is placed on the market as a feeding stuff. 
 
 Molasses Grains. These residues are added to some dry and 
 bulky material, such as brewer's grains, malt sprouts, oat hulls, or 
 light oats, in such amounts that they are all absorbed. This mixture 
 after drying is known to the trade as "molasses grains." 
 
 Propnetary Feeds. These are derived from numerous and 
 varied sources, but very often they serve as the outlet for industrial 
 by-products, such as are obtained in the manufacture of breakfast 
 foods. 
 
 Poultry Foods. These are composed principally of several 
 cereals, either whole or coarsely ground. Some poultry foods con- 
 tain also charcoal and ground oyster shells. Other foods of this class 
 are fortified with dried blood, meat scraps, cottonseed or linseed 
 meals. Wheat screenings, containing the small and shriveled wheat 
 and weed seeds, are very often among the chief ingredients. (Dep. 
 Agr. Bu. Chem. B. 108.) 
 
 MOLASSES FOR FATTENING CATTLE. 
 
 Methods of Feeding Molasses. The most common method of 
 using barrel molasses is to carry it out in buckets and mix it by hand 
 with feed in the bunk. In all our experiments the molasses was 
 mixed with an equal volume of water and poured over the mixed 
 grain and hulls, the whole then being thoroughly stirred. This, 
 however, entails too much labor to be profitable when feeding on a 
 large scale. A common practice is to take a spraying outfit, the barrel 
 being filled with equal parts of water and molasses, and drive through 
 the feed lot, spraying on the mixed feed in bunks such amount of the 
 mixture as is to be fed. This practice in some degree prevents the 
 loss occasioned by the feed being blown from the bunks. Feeders 
 who mix meal and hulls in the mill, buy their molasses in tank cars, 
 empty it into storage tanks in proximity to the mixing room and mix 
 it with the meal and hulls before loading it into the feeding wagon. 
 Others recommend allowing steers constant access to molasses. 
 
 Amount of Molasses to Feed. Those feeders who have been 
 using molasses as a cattle food, have in most instances restricted its
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 327 
 
 use to a quart per day, mixing it with the feed principally to render 
 it more palatable, inducing the cattle to consume greater amounts. 
 The idea prevails to a considerable extent that molasses has a laxative 
 action, and its use in large quantities is not advisable. This impres- 
 sion is probably founded upon the experience of feeders of beet mo- 
 lasses, the ash of which is more abundant and contains more potash 
 than the ash of cane molasses. Although observing very closely, we 
 have never noted that increase in amount of molasses fed caused any 
 more inclination to scour than follows the too rapid increase of any 
 new feed. So far as the danger of scouring is concerned there is no 
 reason to refrain from using molasses in the same manner as in any 
 other feed of similar composition would be used. 
 
 Experiment III. Feeding Molasses from Trough. At the close 
 of experiment II, Lot II was divided and added to the original lots I 
 and III, which two lots were increased to ten head each by the addi- 
 tion of other animals of same age and weight. These two lots were 
 turned on grass and fed similarly except that one lot was allowed 
 access to a tight bottomed feed bunk in one end of which a barrel of 
 molasses was placed and gauged to run fast enough to make sure of 
 continuous supply. These cattle, now two-year-olds past, weighing 
 about 900 pounds and eating twelve pounds grain each per day, prin- 
 cipally corn, at the start ate molasses at the rate of six pounds or two 
 quarts each per day. They continued to take increasing amounts of 
 the molasses until in the third week they were taking twelve pounds 
 (one gallon) each daily. Some steers seemed especially fond of the 
 molasses and ate it in such large quantities as to cause them to scour. 
 This is the only experience we have had with the system of feeding 
 clear molasses separately. The grass on which the cattle were de- 
 pendent for roughage was very washy and so scarce that at no time 
 were they as well filled as is desirable. 
 
 Summary. The addition of molasses to a fattening ration has 
 always produced an increased gain. Addition of molasses to a ration 
 of cottonseed meal and hull lowered the cost of gains. When mo- 
 lasses was added to a balanced ration it gave larger gains and im- 
 proved the appearance of the cattle but did not lower the cost of 
 gain. There was no undesirable result from feeding yearling steers 
 one gallon of molasses each per day. and there is good reason to be- 
 lieve that larger amounts might be used. The cheapest gains in each 
 month were made by the lot receiving most nearly a balanced ration. 
 Molasses returned from 3 to 30 cents per gallon. The lower value 
 was obtained when molasses was added to a ration already balanced 
 and when, in the early part of the feeding period, an unbalanced ra- 
 tion was fed the higher value was obtained. (Texas B. 86.) 
 
 FEEDING ALFALFA. 
 
 The use of alfalfa as the sole roughage in full-feeding cattle is 
 becoming quite general and seems to give the best of results. Some 
 feeders, however, are of the opinion that where too much alfalfa of 
 high quality is supplied to steers, they will not consume enough 
 grain to produce satisfactory results. It has been observed in the 
 progress of feeding experiments that cattle receiving nothing but al-
 
 328 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 falfa as a roughage always seem to have a taste for coarse roughage 
 of various kinds. Other kinds of roughage have been fed in connec- 
 tion with alfalfa but the results seem to indicate that the advantage 
 lies with the feeding of alfalfa as the sole roughage in comparison 
 with the feeding of other kinds in connection with it. (Kan. B. 
 130.) 
 
 MIXING GRAIN AND ROUGHAGE TOGETHER. 
 
 The first thing that a practical feeder notices when he goes into 
 a feed-lot where steers are fed grain and roughage mixed is the ab- 
 sence of scouring. The stockman who is feeding his fattening steers 
 grain and roughage thoroughly mixed finds that, with ordinary care 
 in feeding, his steers not only do not have the scours, but that an 
 animal is seldom off feed. Why? 
 
 Average corn contains seventy-two per cent of starch. Starch in 
 feed is not absorbed into the system and used in building up the 
 body and sustaining life until it is changed to sugar. When changed 
 to sugar it is readily absorbed and used in the body. The saliva of 
 the mouth has the power to make this change while the juices of the 
 stomach do not. It follows, then, that the method of preparing the 
 feed that will induce the steer to chew it the most thoroughly and for 
 the longest time will secure the greatest amount of saliva mixed with 
 the feed and the greatest amount of starch changed to a form that 
 will build up the steer's body. 
 
 When grain and roughage are mixed together the steer eats 
 slowly, giving much time for the food to become saturated with the 
 saliva and for the saliva to act on the starch. When the food is 
 swallowed it goes from the mouth to the paunch. When the food 
 reaches the paunch the finer portions, such as grain fed alone, are 
 forced directly into the third stomach and onward. The coarse food 
 and the grain mixed with it, when the grain is thoroughly mixed 
 with the roughage, is held for quite a while in the paunch, where the 
 saliva and the water which the steer drinks makes it very soft and 
 moist and the saliva continues to change the starch to sugar. After 
 the coarse feed has remained in the paunch until it is thoroughly 
 softened it is brought back to the mouth and rechewed as the cud ; 
 this allows more saliva to be mixed with it, which in turn changes 
 more starch into sugar, and the rechewing reduces the food to a 
 greater fineness. The second time the food is swallowed it passes to 
 the paunch and the fine particles go to the third and fourth stomachs, 
 where the action of the saliva ceases. 
 
 When the grain is fed separately from the roughage, the animal 
 chews it but little, swallows it quickly, it stays but a short time in the 
 paunch, and but a small portion or none is brought up with the cud 
 and remasticated. This allows for slight action only of the saliva. 
 The starch which forms seventy-two per cent of corn is not acted on 
 by the gastric juice of the stomach, and the large proportion, which 
 has not been changed by the saliva, passes to the intestines undi- 
 gested. Some of the juices of the intestines change the starch to 
 sugar, but what remains unchanged irritates the intestines, producing 
 looseness and scouring.
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 329 
 
 Mixing the grain with the roughage compels the steer to spend 
 more time in chewing his ration than when the grain is fed alone. 
 The mixed grain and roughage is held in the paunch, where most of 
 the water drank by the steer is stored, and the water thoroughly 
 softens the mixed feed. The lengthening of the time needed to 
 chew the feed and the holding in the stomach gives the saliva a 
 longer time in which to change starch to sugar. After the mixed 
 feed has become soft it is returned to the mouth as the cud, and the 
 chewing of the cud grinds the grain to greater fineness, putting it in 
 such shape that the digestive juices of the stomach and intestines can 
 better act on it. The result is that a larger portion of the grain is 
 made of use in building up the body of the steer ; a less portion of the 
 grain is undigested. The steer gains more for each bushel of grain 
 eaten, better digestion keeps his body in better health, and scouring 
 is avoided. It is obvious that the best results will be obtained where 
 the feed is so well mixed that every mouthful which the steer takes 
 is part grain and part roughage. (Kansas B. 112.) 
 
 USE OF PULP. 
 
 It should be stated that the attempts to compute the cash value 
 of pulp compared with other foods do not indicate its total value. It 
 supplies a succulent food at a time when such food is either not avail- 
 able or is scarce, and its effect on stock seems to be much more favor- 
 able than either its chemical analysis or the return in increased meat 
 or milk would indicate. To its actual nutritive effect as a food should 
 be added its general effect on the quality of meat and milk and on 
 the animal system. Pulp undoubtedly overcomes much injurious 
 effects of dry and concentrated foods, puts the system in good 
 sanitary condition, keeps off disease, ana so aids the appetite and 
 digestion and assimilation of food that there is less waste, both of 
 food which is generally discarded in eating, and that which usually 
 passes through the animal undigested. 
 
 There seems to be no difficulty in regard to keeping beet pulp. 
 While there is some loss of material when placed in open piles, the 
 fermentation which takes place seems to be beneficial rather than 
 otherwise. Animals eat the sour pulp as well, and after a little time 
 even better than they do the pulp fresh from the factory, and the dry 
 beet chips on the surface of the piles are very palatable to sheep and 
 cattle. Nebraska feeders claim that pulp which has been left in open 
 piles for two or three years is as good as ever. 
 
 No injurious effects have been observed from feeding pulp, un- 
 less too large amounts are given before the animals become accus- 
 tomed to it. The Michigan Station warns feeders against too liberal 
 use of pulp from frozen beets. Freezing does not seem to injure the 
 pulp itself, except that it probably does not pay to feed large amounts 
 of frozen pulp in cold weather, as the animal must expend much food 
 energy to raise the temperature of the pulp to the heat of the body. 
 
 During the past spring the Denver papers gave an account of 
 catties' mouths becoming sore from eating pulp, claiming that the 
 injury was produced by acids added to the pulp in the process of 
 manufacture. This is hardly possible, as the pulp is subjected to
 
 330 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 nothing but hot water at the factory. Through the process of fer- 
 mentation from long keeping butyric and acetic acids develop in 
 pulp, but we have no accounts of any injurious effects from feeding 
 fermented pulp. 
 
 The greatest difficulty with pulp feeding is that the large 
 amount of water it contains makes it heavy and rather expensive to 
 handle, and it is sometimes difficult to keep the animals dry and 
 comfortable while feeding large amounts of it. The feeder who is 
 near the factory and has the appliances so arranged that he can 
 handle the pulp with the least expense, should make the greatest use 
 of pulp and will gain the greatest profit from its use. If it can be 
 placed before stock at a cost of not more than one dollar per ton, we 
 believe it will bring good returns for the investment, and in many 
 instances it may be worth two or three times this amount. Whether 
 fresh, fermented, or dry, beet pulp is a valuable stock food, and one 
 of which our farmers should make the largest possible use. (Colo. 
 B. 73.) 
 
 BEET PULP AND CORN MEAL. 
 
 The conclusions to be drawn from these three feeding trials, in 
 comparison of dried beet pulp and corn meal for fattening steers 
 are: Beet pulp produced gain cheaper than corn meal. The ab- 
 solute gains produced by feeding beet pulp were practically the same 
 as from feeding corn meal. The gains of the pulp fed steers were in 
 the nature of growth and development, the corn-meal produced fat 
 and finish. As a result, at the end of the feeding period, the corn 
 meal steers were in better condition for market than the others. For 
 growing animals, beet pulp produced the greatest gains. For ani- 
 mals in a condition for finishing corn meal gave the most rapid 
 gains. 
 
 From this it would be safe to conclude that in the earlier part of 
 the feeding period, beet pulp could be fed in a larger quantity to ad- 
 vantage, because of its cheapness and at the same time ability to pro- 
 duce gain rapidly. During the finishing period it should, however, 
 be replaced at least in a large measure by corn meal, which possesses 
 more value for finishing purposes. The corn meal is a much more 
 concentrated feed, hence its especial value for forcing at the close of 
 the feeding period when beet pulp could not be used on account of 
 the bulky character rendering it impossible to feed sufficient quantity 
 for the best results. These trials show that a thousand-pound steer 
 will not consume over 10 Ibs. of dried beet pulp in a day. (Mich. 
 B. 247.) 
 
 CONDIMENTAL AND MEDICINAL STOCK AND POULTRY FOODS. 
 
 Food Ingredients. The chemist and microscopist have found 
 these foods to consist principally of ordinary grains and concentrates, 
 such as wheat by-products (bran and middlings) and corn meal. In 
 some oases a few hundred pounds to the ton of linseed, cottonseed 
 and occasionally meat and bone meal have been added, obviously to 
 increase the amount of protein ; such mixtures contained from 10 to 
 20 per cent of that nutrient, Occasionally the presence of consider-
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 331 
 
 able quantities of mustard hulls, cocoa shells and weed seeds are 
 noted, used evidently as a filler. 
 
 The poultry foods more frequently reveal the presence of from 
 10 to 50 per cent of ground oyster shells or noticeable quantities of 
 ground bone, which accounts for the exceptionally high ash per- 
 centage. 
 
 Nutritive and Commercial Values of the Food Ingredients. It 
 having been shown that the bulk of these foods is made up of or- 
 dinary ground grains and by-products, it must be evident to all that 
 they cannot have a greater nutritive value than is to 'be found in the 
 materials of which they are composed. The extravagant claims 
 made by the manufacturers concerning their wonderful nutritive 
 properties is in no way substantiated by the analytical results. It 
 also must be clear that their commercial value from a nutritive 
 standpoint cannot exceed 1 to 1% cents a pound. Certainly no one 
 would entertain the idea of purchasing these mixtures, at the prices 
 asked, because of any particular nutritive value they may possess. 
 
 Character of Medicinal Ingredients. In addition to the various 
 cereals and by-products, these foods contain small quantities of a 
 variety of substances, most of which possess simple medicinal qual- 
 ities, to which it is understood is attributed the wonderful nutntive 
 and curative properties claimed for them. The condition powders, 
 so called, generally contain larger quantities of these medicines than 
 the stock and poultry mixtures. The medicinal substances are de- 
 scribed as follows: 
 
 Fenugreek and fennel are the ground seeds of plants grown in 
 southern Europe, known botanically as Trigonclla Fanum Groecum 
 and Fceniculum vulgare. They are aromatic substances, used to ex- 
 cite the action of the stomach, thereby relieving indigestion and gas, 
 and also to impart an agreeable flavor. The quantity used is com- 
 paratively small. 
 
 Anise or Aniseed (Pimpenella Anisum) is the seed of a plant 
 cultivated in Spain and Malta. It has a pleasant warm taste and an 
 agreeable odor, and is used for much the same purpose as fenugreek. 
 
 Gentian, occasionally recognized, is the dried root of the plant 
 known as Gentiana lutia, and is grown in central and southern 
 Europe. It is very bitter, and is used as a stomach tonic, promoting 
 an increased secretion of the gastric juice. 
 
 Ginger is the powdered underground stem of Zingiber officinale, 
 grown principally in India and the West Indies. It stimulates the 
 various membranes with which it comes in contact, and is used as an 
 appetizer and to reduce the griping effects of purgatives. 
 
 Pepper, the common black form, is obtained from the brown 
 berries of an East India climbing plant, Piper nigrum. Cayenne 
 pepper consists of the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum fastigiatum and 
 (tit a mn. Both kinds are used as a stomachic and to increase the ac- 
 tivity of the reproductive organs. Salt, of which many of the mix- 
 tures contained from 2 to 20 per cent, was used as an appetizer. 
 8ul fates of magnesia and soda, in the form of Epsom and Glauber's 
 salts, are purgatives, and are frequently spoken of as salts. Saltpeter,
 
 332 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 nitrate of potash or niter, is used in medicine to excite the action of 
 the kidneys and to reduce fever. Sodium bicarbonate is employed to 
 neutralize an undue acidity of the stomach. Sulphur is used as a 
 laxative, alterative, and as a stimulant of mucous surfaces. Iron 
 found as the oxide Venetian red or Princess metallic is not used 
 medicinally, but is employed to color or disguise the real character of 
 the food. Sulfate of iron used as a restorative and tonic was seldom 
 identified. 
 
 The medicinal value of charcoal consists in its ability to check 
 fermentative changes, and to absorb undesirable gases. In most cases 
 it appears to have been ground fine and mixed with the other in- 
 gredients to conceal their identity. 
 
 Tumeric, the powdered root of an East Indian plant, the Cur- 
 cuma longa, is a stomachic, but is used principally as coloring matter. 
 
 Quantity of Medicinal Ingredients. No attempt was made to 
 determine the exact quantity of each of the several drugs employed. 
 Most of the foods contained from 5 to 40 per cent of ash. Ordinary 
 grains and by-products rarely contain more than 5 per cent of ash ; 
 the excess in the present cases was made up of such mineral substances 
 as oyster shells, bone, sand, common salt (2 to 20 per cent), Epsom 
 or Glauber's salts (about 5 per cent), niter (1 or more per cent) and 
 Venetian red. The vegetable drugs fenugreek, fennel, anise, 
 gentian, ginger and pepper were employed in sufficient quantities 
 to produce an agreeable odor and smart taste, probably in quantities 
 varying from 5 to 10 per cent of the whole mixture. In some cases 
 the total quantity of mineral and vegetable drugs constituted from 
 one-sixth to one-third of the mixture, while in other cases the amount 
 of such substances was very much less. 
 
 Cost and Selling Price Compared. None of the mineral drugs, 
 excepting niter, cost much over 1 cent a pound ; the vegetable drugs 
 vary in price from 3 to 12 cents a pound. Judging from all the data 
 at hand, the cost of the entire mixtures grains and drugs- could 
 rarely have exceeded 3 to 4 cents a pound. In many oases it could 
 not have been more than 2 cents a pound. 
 
 The initial cost of the condition powders is probably somewhat 
 greater than the ordinary stock foods. The retail prices of the latter 
 vary from 6 to 25 cents a pound, depending on the brand and quan- 
 tity purchased. Condition powders are much higher priced, varying 
 from 30 cents to $1 a pound. Is it not strange that many are willing 
 to pay extravagant prices for materials possessing such ordinary feed- 
 ing and medicinal values? It is hoped that poultrymen have suf- 
 ficient common sense to purchase bran, corn meal, salt, oyster shells, 
 charcoal and meat scraps separately, rather than pay from 10 to 20 
 cents a pound for such mixtures put up in attractive packages, for 
 which the manufacturers make the most astounding and unreason- 
 able claims. 
 
 Utility of These Foods. Their food value cannot be greater than 
 the ordinary grains, of which they are largely composed. Their 
 medicinal value depends largely upon the aromatic seeds and roots 
 used as a tonic for the stomach, on charcoal as an absorbent and on
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 333 
 
 the purgative effect of the Epsom or Glauber's salts. The quantity 
 recommended to be fed daily is usually so small (1 ounce or less) 
 that very little if any effect can be expected unless the material is fed 
 for a considerable length of time. While it is probably true that 
 some of these stock foods may prove beneficial under certain con- 
 ditions, it is also true that most of them ore heterogeneous mixtures, 
 and evidently put together by parties quite ignorant of the principles 
 of animal physiology, pathology % and vetrinary medicine. 
 
 Claims Made by Manufacturers. The following are the prin- 
 cipal claims made by one of the largest manufacturers of stock and 
 poultry foods: Horses. Gives greater speed endurance. Imparts 
 new life and strength. Makes colts grow very rapidly and keeps 
 brood mares and colts healthy. Guaranteed to save corn and oats. 
 Makes horses fat, gives glossy coat and fine appearance. Cattle. 
 Increases the milk yield 15 to 25 per cent and increases the richness 
 of the milk. Removes taint from milk, cream and butter, and makes 
 milk more healthful for human use. Such milk will convey some of 
 the beautiful elements of the vegetable ingredients we use into the 
 systems of your children, and they will be stronger to ward off dis- 
 ease. Makes calves grow as fast as new milk. Saves thirty days' time 
 in fattening cattle, and 15 to 25 per cent of the grain usually required. 
 Hogs. Cures and prevents hog cholera, and is the quickest hog 
 grower ever discovered. Makes juicy and tender meat. Poultry. It 
 prevents disease and cures chicken cholera. It greatly increases egg 
 production and makes chickens grow very rapidly. The amount ad- 
 vised to be fed daily to horses and cattle to accomplish these mar- 
 velous results is two-thirds of an ounce I The material costs 14 cents 
 a pound in 25-pound lots. 
 
 The Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, Iowa, 
 South Dakota and Massachusetts stations have found this stock food 
 to consist principally of wheat (bran and middlings), to which has 
 been added fine charcoal, a bitter substance resembling gentian, cay- 
 enne and common salt. Another large manufacturer makes es- 
 sentially the same claims as above, and the material sells at 6 cents a 
 pound in 25-pound lots. The same experiment stations found it to 
 be composed largely of corn meal, with small quantities of fenu- 
 greek, gentian, charcoal and salt. 
 
 Farmers, dairymen and poultrymen: What would be your 
 opinion of any experiment station worker who would make such 
 statements concerning the nutritive, medicinal or commercial value 
 of corn meal, wheat bran, charcoal, gentian arid salt? Do you think 
 there is any humbug in the claims made by the manufacturers of 
 such goods? The question is left for you to decide. You may be 
 the judge. 
 
 Do Healthy Animals Need Medicine? Animals in a state of 
 health do not need condition powders or tonic foods. There is in the 
 body of a healthy animal a condition of equilibrium of all body func- 
 tions. The processes of digestion and assimilation are at their best. 
 All that is required to maintain this condition of balance is that the 
 animal be kept under sanitary conditions, and receive a sufficient
 
 334 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 supply of healthful, nutritive food and pure water. While tonics 
 may improve the appetite so that the animal will temporarily con- 
 sume and digest more food, should this increased quantity of nu- 
 trients consumed not be appropriated by the tissues of the body, 
 harm may result from thus overloading the lymphatic system, or 
 from an increased action of the excreting organs. 
 
 Treatment of Sick Animals. It is believed to be unwise to give 
 drugs to animals when it can possibly be avoided. Even such simple 
 substances as salts, ginger, gentian and the like should be used as 
 sparingly as possible. If an animal is out of condition, and it is be- 
 lieved a tonic will be helpful, try the following : Pulverized gentian, 
 1 pound; pulverized ginger, % pound; pulverized saltpeter, */4 
 pound; pulverized iron sulfate, l /2 pound. Mix and give one table- 
 spoonful in the feed once a day for ten days, omit for three days, then 
 give ten days more. Cost of the above, 20 cents a pound. In ex- 
 ceptional cases, when skilled medical treatment appears absolutely 
 necessary, it is far wiser to employ a reliable veterinarian than to at- 
 tempt home doctoring by the indiscriminate use of patent medicines 
 or powders recommended to cure everything. (Mass. An. Kept. 
 Part II, 1910.) 
 
 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 
 
 Beef Production. Mo. B. 76; Miss. B. 76; Kans. B. 118, 113; 
 Mich. B. 241; Kas.B.lll;Tenn.B.79;Tex.B.86;Tenn.B.3.Vol.XV; 
 S. Dak. B. 100 ; Ag. Dept, F. B. 71 ; Miss. B. 92, 136 ; Nebr. B. 75, 85, 
 90; la. B. 66; Mich. B. 247; An. Rept. Sec'y Ag. U. S., 1908; Mont. 
 B. 48; la. B. 75, 79; Miss. B. 137, 145, 149, 152; Ag. Societies of 
 Ont. llth Rept. ; Tex. B. 121, 147 ; Kans. B. 146, 158 ; Miss. B. 125 ; 
 Pa. B. 26 ; Minn. B. 60 ; Kans. B. 86 ; Mass. An. Rept. Part II, 1910 ; 
 Tex. B. 97 ; Tex. B. 86 ; Mass. B. 44 ; la. B. 75 ; Tex. B. 135 ; Kans. B. 
 112; Kans. B. 130; Ag. Dept. Bu. An. Ind. B. 34; 111. Cir. 88, 92, 
 94 ; Mich. B. 241. 
 
 Commercial Cattle Foods. R. I. A. E. S. B. 77; Miss. B. 114; 
 Mass. B. 45; Mass. B. 94; Nev. B. 26; N. J. B. 185, 237, 153, 160, 
 230; Tex. B. 141; Mass. B. 108, 106; Tex. B. 127; Mass. B. 101; 
 N. J. B. 165, 175, 212; Pa. B. 41; R. I. B. 94; Conn. Rept. 1905, 
 Part 3; N. J. B. 193, 201, 185; N. Y., Geneva, B. 268; Term. B. 
 Vol. 9, No. 3 ; Pa. B. 81 ; Conn. Rept, 1909, Part 3 ; La. B. 86 ; Va. B. 
 107; N. Y., Geneva, B. 198; La. B. 114; N. Y. (State) 217; N. H. 
 B. 147 ; Mass. B. 93 ; La. B. 88 ; Conn. Biennial Rept. 1908, Part 10 ; 
 N. H. B. 116; Mass. B. 56, 64, 85, 71; N. H. B. 147; Mass. B. 53, 
 136, 139; la. B. 66; Nev. B. 26; Vt. B. 144; Vt. B. 138; R. I. B. 78, 
 105, 112; la. B. 65; N. H. B. 149; R. I. B. 119; La. B. 98; Mass. B. 
 78 ; R. I. B. 119 ; R. I. Inspection B. 1911 ; Conn. Rept, 1906, Part 3 ; 
 N. H. B. 133; R. I. B. 134, 140; Wis, Cir. Inf. 11, 22, 1; Tex. B. 70; 
 R. I. B. 98; Ind. Cir. 7, 6.
 
 PART III 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SHEEP are associated with man in the earliest records of the 
 human race. They were first used only for milk and later the 
 skins were used for clothing. Nearly a century and a half 
 have elapsed since Robert Bakewell of Dishley, Loughborough, 
 England, began the first systematic and intelligent improvement of 
 mutton sheep. Prior to that time wool had been the primary con- 
 sideration in sheep raising. 
 
 Spain, the home of the Merino, at one time controlled the wool 
 markets of the world, and in the early management of the Spanish 
 Merino the ewes were so small that it was common to kill half the 
 lambs in order that those remaining might go to two ewes. The 
 fleece was practically the only consideration in the sheep reared in 
 that country, and this has been the distinguishing characteristic of 
 the Merino breed until within the present decade. As late as 1892 
 J. H. McKibbon of Albion, Iowa, exhibited a yearling American 
 Merino at the Iowa Sheep Breeders' shearing meeting that yielded a 
 15-pound fleece from a 54-pound carcass. 
 
 Bakewell's work marks the beginning of a new era in sheep 
 raising in Great Britain. His achievements in the practical and scien- 
 tific improvement of live stock and the consequent increased value 
 and profit in farm animals entitle him to take rank with the great- 
 est benefactors of humanity. Bakewell's contemporaries credit him 
 as being a man of such analytical and systematic methods, such force 
 of intellect and creative genius, that he would have been eminent in 
 any field of labor or undertaking. The problems connected with 
 live-stock production are even more intricate at the present time and 
 the conditions in agriculture more exacting. Good animals never 
 come by chance or haphazard methods ; they have been the product 
 of a high degree of intelligence, skill, and intellectual ability. This 
 field will always be worthy of the best minds and highest talent the 
 world affords. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 96.) 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL BREEDS. 
 
 Merinos. Modern Merinos originated in Spain but their ances- 
 try traces back to the sheep of Italy, Greece and Syria. For the most 
 part they have been raised in large flocks and, hence, adapt them- 
 selves to range conditions more readily than the English Mutton 
 Breeds, which have generally been handled in small flocks. Thero 
 are many distinct types of Merinos known by different names. All, 
 however, are characterized by the extreme fineness of their wool and 
 
 335
 
 336 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the heavy fleeces they shear. As a sheep for mutton purposes they 
 compare with the English breeds in about the same way as a Jersey 
 compares with a Shorthorn or Hereford. They are essentially the 
 sheep of Southern Europe, Australia, New Zealand, the Argentine 
 Republic and the prairies of the United States. Even in these coun- 
 tries, however, there is a marked tendency to cross with rams of the 
 English Mutton breeds, so as to produce a sheep of greater value for 
 the export mutton trade. This tendency accounts for the fabulous 
 prices which, of late years, have been paid by breeders from these 
 parts of the world for rams of the Lincoln and other English breeds. 
 One strain of Merinos, the Rambouillet or French Merino, has re- 
 cently become particularly, popular in parts of the United States and 
 elsewhere. This strain, called after the little village in France 
 where it originated, is characterized by more size, better mutton form 
 and a little coarser wool than any other of the Merino sheep. The 
 Rambouillet and other Merino sheep have the ability to conceive 
 early and drop their lambs in fall and winter, a characteristic shared 
 by the English Dorset 'breed. (Annual Report Sec'y Agr. Prov. 
 Nova Scotia, 1907.) 
 
 ENGLISH LONG WOOL SHEEP. 
 
 Leicester. Although sheep existed in the British Isles as long 
 ago as history records, yet it was not until about the year 1755 that a 
 systematic effort at improvement was made. About that time Robert 
 Bakewell, of Dishley Grange, Leicestershire, famed, also as a breeder 
 and improver of Longhorn cattle and cart horses, made a systematic 
 effort to improve the sheep of his neighborhood, as a result of which 
 he produced the English Leicester, or Dishley breed of sheep. He 
 had conceived a clear idea of the modern, smooth, easily-fed and 
 early-maturing type of sheep as superior to the sometimes larger, but 
 coarser and later-maturing sort then existent. As a result of careful 
 selection, and, it is believed, considerable inbreeding, he produced a 
 class of sheep measuring up to his ideal, which were so highly appre- 
 ciated that as much as 2,000 guineas ($10,000), per year, each, was 
 paid for the rent of seven rams bred by him. The Dishley Leicester 
 has been used extensively in effecting improvement in other long- 
 wool breeds. 
 
 The Border Leicester. The Border Leicester, thought by some 
 to have been produced in the Border areas between England and 
 Scotland by crossing the Dishley Leicester with the Cheviot, is now 
 generally considered to have been produced through crossing of ewes 
 of the Teeswater Valley with Dishley rams. The Dishley and Border 
 Leicester are much alike, the principal differences being that the 
 head of the Border Leicester is white, and bare of wool, whereas that 
 of the English Leicester has a bluish-white appearance, and the head 
 and face is not so free from wool. The carcass of the Border Leicester 
 is considered to be a little larger and longer than that of the English 
 Leicester. The following description of the Border Leicester will, 
 with the exception of the above points, fit the English Leicester as 
 well:
 
 SHEEP 337 
 
 The face is bare and pure white. The body is scarcely as low set 
 as that of some of the other breeds, but is a little longer. The back is 
 exceptionally wide, and the quarters very smoothly rounded on top. 
 No breed possesses a more marked aptitude to fatten, a characteristic 
 which places a special premium upon the Leicester for crossing pur- 
 poses. The wool of the sheep is lustrous, five or six inches long, and 
 very soft, though frequently too open, and sometimes absent on the 
 belly. 
 
 The Lincoln. This is the largest sheep of the British Isles, and 
 also possesses the heaviest and strongest fleece of wool. The breed is 
 a growth of many years' culture in the Lincolnshire fens and ad- 
 joining districts. Here, agriculture has been carried on under the 
 highest system, and roots, grasses and grain, all grown in profusion, 
 have been the means of developing a very large-framed sheep. The 
 Lincoln of early times, like that of today, was a large sheep, but was 
 coarse, and of slow maturity. Marked improvement was effected by 
 a cross of the improved Leicester. The modern Lincoln is a magni- 
 ficent-looking sheep. The head is rather long and massive, the face 
 pure white, free from wool, but surmounted by a conspicuous tuft of 
 wool. The body is exceedingly full in its development all over. The 
 wool is long in fibre, very strong, and noted for its lustre. It is 
 especially valuable for the worsted class of goods, as well as for braids, 
 bunting for flags, etc., where length and strength are needed. As to 
 mutton qualities, the breed is a little large and strong to meet the ap- 
 proved demands of an exacting market. Their special value seems to 
 be for crossing upon the common American stock to improve their 
 size. Farmers generally are not recommended to adopt this breed, 
 unless they were prepared to accord them somewhat of the same 
 luxurious feeding as their ancestors were accustomed to on their 
 native soil. 
 
 The Cotswold. This breed, contrary to the haibit of most long- 
 wooled sheep, has made its home on the uplands the Cotswold hills 
 of Gloucester and adjoining counties. It is a very ancient breed and, 
 with the exception of a little resort to Leicester blood to improve the 
 quality, has been kept pure for a long period. In form, the Cotswold 
 is rather deeper, squaror in outline, and larger than the Leicester, in 
 fact, rivalling the Lincoln in size. The head is rather long, but wide 
 between the eyes, though scarcely as massive as that of a typical 
 Lincoln. The face is usually white, but dashes of grey are quite ad- 
 missible and, by many, admired. The face is surmounted with a 
 full, long forelock. It is said of the Cotswolds that they are a sheep 
 that "can look over a hurdle" in reference to the prominent way in 
 which they carry their heads. Many Cotswolds are, on this account, 
 inclined to be ewe-necked, although this has boon bml out of the best 
 of them. As regards wool, Cotswold breeders prefer a bold, open curl, 
 rather than the close, spiral of the Leicester. A long, strong fibre 
 that yields heavy is the ideal. Owing to its length, the fleece is some- 
 times open along the back. In regard to mutton qualities, Cotswolds 
 are open to the same criticism as the Lincoln and their greatest value 
 in this country is for crossing upon and improving the size of the
 
 338 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 smaller grades. In selecting Cotswolds foe very particular to get them 
 dense fleeced, especially along the back, and of extra quality. 
 
 The Downs. In the south of England is a chain of chalky hills 
 covered with fine, short grass. As long as history records, there has 
 been on these hills a race of short-wooled sheep for the most part pos- 
 sessed of horns. From this old type, through selection and crossing 
 and careful feeding, have been developed the Southdown, Shrop- 
 shire, Oxford, Hampshire, Suffolk and Dorset horn, breeds of sheep 
 which, in greater or less numbers, are to be found in the United 
 States and Canada. These breeds are, for the most part, somewhat 
 smaller than the Long-wools, but they atone for this by their quality 
 and even more by the fineness and denseness of their fleeces, the 
 latter being particularly important as a means of protecting them 
 from rains and snows, which are all too often the cause of colds and 
 other diseases. 
 
 The Southdowns. This breed is a striking illustration of the 
 possibilities of breeding. A native of the Sussex-downs, and some- 
 times so designated, the unimproved ancestors are described as being 
 small in size, of bad shape, long in the neck, low at both ends, light 
 in shoulders, narrow in front, coarse in bone, possessed of horns, but 
 boasting of a big leg of mutton. Today, the breed is one of the most 
 perfectly formed breeds in existence. 
 
 The size of Southdowns is medium' to small, but so compact and 
 thick fleshed are they and so close to the ground that their weights 
 will astonish any unacquainted with the breed. The head is mod- 
 erate in size, short and cleanly cut. The forehead should be covered. 
 with wool, as also the cheeks, but this does not usually join under the 
 eyes. There is an absence of horns and the ears are small, pointed 
 and very alert. The face is of a mouse or slightly darker brown 
 color (speckled face objected to). The neck, body and quarters are 
 most symmetrical and the very embodiment of mutton type. No 
 other sheep has such a development of hind quarters. The fleece is 
 characterised more by its fineness and density, rather than its weight, 
 which is usually not great on account of the shortness of fibre and a 
 comparative lack of yolk. 
 
 The great transformation in the quality of the Southdown was 
 effected exclusively by selection, and the result has been not only a 
 very handsome, but exceedingly prepotent class of sheep that have 
 been used extensively in the improvement of the short-wools, just as 
 the Leicester has been used in the improvement of the long-wools. 
 Southdowns are not very numerous in this country, their lack of size 
 and rather light fleeces being strongly urged against them. Never- 
 theless, they will always find a place, and every breeder of short-wool 
 sheep must feel a debt of gratitude to this splendid breed of sheep, 
 whose blood has so greatly improved the mutton qualities of almost 
 all the Down breeds. 
 
 Shropshires. This well-known breed originated a little further 
 north in England than the Southdowns. The fact that, at the pres- 
 ent time, it has the largest number of registering breeders, indicates 
 its great popularity. In size, the Shropshire is considerably larger
 
 SHEEP 341 
 
 than the Southdown, and shears a heavier fleece, while at the same 
 time preserving, to a large degree, the compact mutton form, for 
 which the latter is so deservedly noted. The breed had its origin in 
 the mingling of the blood of a diminutive black or brown-faced and 
 horned sheep, called from its habitat, the "Morfe Common sheep," 
 with that of the Leicester, Cotswold, and Southdown. These Morfe 
 Common sheep dressed, when matured, about forty to fifty pounds of 
 mutton, and sheared about two (2) pounds of wool. A comparison 
 of this sheep with the modern Shropshire ought to convince anyone 
 of the possibilities there are for stock improvement through the per- 
 sistent use of high-class sires of the type sought after. In sixty years 
 the Shropshire sheep as compared with their ancestors, doubled their 
 carcass weight, and more than trebled the weight of their fleeces. 
 Since about the middle of the Nineteenth Century the breed has been 
 kept pure. 
 
 The type of the Shropshire is, as stated, veiy similar to the 
 Southdown, except that it is on a larger scale. The head is of mod- 
 erate size, short, wide and clean cut. It should be closely covered 
 with wool right down the bridge of the nose. There should, of 
 course, be no appearance of horns. The ears should be far apart, 
 pointed and moderate in thickness and preferably covered with fine, 
 curly wool. The fleece should be strong and fine in fibre, with all 
 the density possible, extending from the bridge of the nose all over 
 the body and right down to the hind fetlocks. Black wool fibres are 
 objectionable, though sometimes hard to avoid forward of the ears. 
 The characteristic color of the face and legs is a rich, dark seal brown. 
 No breed of sheep will adapt itself to varying conditions better than 
 the Shropshire. 
 
 The greatest rivals of the Shropshire are the Oxford and Hamp- 
 shire Downs. Of these two, the Oxford very much resembles the 
 Shropshire, so that it is sometimes almost impossible to distinguish 
 a coarse Shropshire from a fine Oxford. The chief points of differ- 
 ence are to be seen in the greater size, larger, heavier head and ear 
 and the longer but more open fleece of the Oxford as compared with 
 the Shropshire. 
 
 Hampshire. These have not, as yet, been extensively bred in 
 America. However they are gradually coming into favor. The 
 Hampshire is one of the more recent additions to the 'breeds of Eng- 
 lish sheep and is the result of the skillful mingling of bloods of an 
 old, white faced, horned breed called the Wiltshire (somewhat simi- 
 lar to the Dorset), the Berkshire Knot (<a similar though smaller 
 breed), the Southdown and, perhaps, the Cotswold. The result has 
 been the evolution of the largest and heaviest of the Down breeds, 
 almost rivalling the Cotswold and Lincoln in size. 
 
 The face and legs of the Hampshire are darker in color than in 
 any of the Down breeds, except the Suffolk. The head is large, 
 strong and bold. Though its features cannot be too dark in color, 
 yet the wool of the body must be perfectly white, even a dark tinge 
 around the poll being objectionable. The head is well covered with 
 wool, both between the ears and on the cheeks, the wool not, however,
 
 342 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 coming down as far as in the Shropshire. The ears are large, set on 
 somewhat low and falling slightly outward, as they do, give the 
 appearance of a very wide poll. In body Hampshires are of the ap- 
 proved mutton type, but they axe stronger boned and larger than 
 any other of the Down breeds. The wool is relatively short, but 
 dense and of strong fibre. 
 
 The strong points claimed for the Hampshire are their size and 
 the early maturity of their lambs, no lambs excelling them in weight 
 at a siven age when well fed. It must, however, be remembered 
 that they are the sheep of the arable farm, able to consume a large 
 amount of food, and requiring an abundance of it before their good 
 points can be thoroughly evidenced. They have a place on our 
 farms, where pastures are good and plenty of stable feeding supplied. 
 
 Oxfords. This breed is one of the more modern of sheep. Its 
 origin was the deliberate crossing of two distinct types of sheep, viz., 
 the Southdown and Hampshire, of the short-wools, and the Cots- 
 wold, of the long-wools. The result has been a breed almost if not 
 as large as the Hampshire, and uniting many of the diverse qualities 
 of long and short-wool sheep. The Oxford resembles in form the 
 Shropshire, but is generally larger and higher off the ground. The 
 fibres of wool are longer and somewhat stronger, but the fleece 
 itself is scarcely as dense as that of the Shropshire. The head is 
 larger and longer than that of the Shropshire, and is not so densely 
 covered with wool. The face may be a dark-gray or a brown, with 
 or without a gray spot on the tip of the nose. The ears are larger 
 and longer than those of the Shropshire, but should not be coarse, 
 and should be well carried. The Oxford is a noble sheep, and is 
 especially valued on account of its strength and size, for cross breed- 
 ing. In a measure, the statements made in regard to the feed neces- 
 sary for Hampshires also apply to the Oxfords. 
 
 Suffolks. In appearance the breed is somewhat similar to the 
 Hampshire, .having the same black features and bat-like spreading 
 ears. The head, however, is usually bare of wool or carries but a 
 small amount on the forehead. They are not so blocky, compact 
 and low-set as the Shropshire and their fleece, though pure and dense, 
 is rather short. The Suffolk in its home, however, has been greatly 
 improved and is growing in favor, having distinguished itself par- 
 ticularly in the block tests at England's great Fat Stock Show, 
 Smithfield, London. No doubt more will be heard of this breed in 
 future years. 
 
 The Dorset Horn. The horned sheep of Dorsetshire are also 
 classed with the Down breeds, but different from all the others in 
 the particular that, with their short wool, they have white faces and 
 legs, whereas, the other short wool breeds have dark faces and legs. 
 Their ancestry was a horned breed very similar to the ancestors of the 
 Hampshire Downs. Like the Southdown, however, they have been 
 improved entirely by selection and hence, are one of the purest 
 breeds in existence. The Dorset horned sheep is larger than the 
 Southdown, though scarcely as large as the Shropshire. In form and 
 fleece they are not unlike the Southdown, but generally more up-
 
 SHEEP 343 
 
 standing and seldom as thick. Many of them, too, are a little promi- 
 nent in their shoulders and somewhat lacking behind the shoulders, 
 faults which are being rapidly bred out of them. They will shear 
 about the same weight of fleece as a Southdown. The head of a 
 Dorset should be white, and well covered on the crown and about the 
 jaws with wool. Both male and female have horns, those of the ram 
 being large and heavy, and curving rather closely in front of the 
 head, and those of the ewes being lighter and curving toward the 
 front. 
 
 The peculiarity which stamps the Dorset is their unrivalled 
 fecundity. They will breed at almost any time of the year, and 
 under efficient management, can be made to produce two crops of 
 lambs a year, a practice not, however, to be commended. The ewes 
 also rival all other breeds as milkers. Possessing these qualities, 
 Dorsets are particularly popular in those sections of the country 
 where breeders cater to the Christmas or "Hothouse" lamb trade. 
 In America they are found in largest numbers in the vicinity of 
 thickly populated and wealthy areas, where the people are prepared 
 to pay a sufficiently high price for early lambs. 
 
 The Cheviot. This is one of the most beautiful and hardy of 
 all the British breeds. The breed is of Scotch origin, 'being a native 
 of the Cheviot Hills, in Southeastern Scotland. Legend traces their 
 ultimate ancestry to sheep that swam ashore from the shipwrecked 
 vessels of the Spanish Armada. The Cheviot Hills are clothed with 
 short, sweet herbage right to their summit. At the same time, they 
 are snow-covered for a large part of the year, and the high altitude 
 exposes them to severe storms, so that the Cheviot sheep have become 
 inured to exposure, being inferior in this particular, however, to the 
 Black-faced Highland sheep. 
 
 In size, the Cheviots are about the same as the Shropshire. They 
 are not unlike the Leicester in appearance, but are more stylish sheep, 
 carrying their heads higher, and with greater fire in their eyes, and 
 grace in movement. The face and legs are bare of wool, but should 
 be well covered with short, hard, wiry, pure white hair, which should 
 extend over the ears and well back over the head. Horns on rams, 
 though not always present, are not objected to, being considered a 
 sign of hardiness. The ears are carried rather more erect than those 
 of the Leicester. The nose is somewhat Roman, the nostrils black, 
 and the eyes dark, very full and bright. The wool is moderately 
 long, and should be dense, and neither open nor curly, but straight 
 (somewhat like the Down breeds). The Cheviot is a hardy sheep, a 
 good grazer, and of splendid mutton form. 
 
 The Black-Faced Highland Breed. They are essentially the 
 sheep of the Highlands of Scotland, where no animal can take their 
 place. They are mountain sheep, hardy, vigorous, active, and hence 
 capable of gathering a living or the exposed Highlands, where other 
 breeds would perish, either from starvation or exposure. They are 
 a comparatively new breed in Scotland, having been there, accord- 
 ing to tradition, for not more than one hundred and forty years. 
 Their ultimate origin is shrouded in mystery, some tracing it to
 
 344 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sheep from the Spanish Armada, and others to English sheep that 
 traveled northward. Whichever is correct, the type is now dis- 
 tinctive, and is, no doubt, the result of generations of living under 
 the severe conditions prevailing in the Highlands. 
 
 The breed is naturally small, but of good mutton form, covered 
 with a long, flowing fleece, the fibres of which, under a system of 
 good feeding, sometimes grow to 20 to 24 inches in a single year. 
 The wool iis coarse and valued mostly for the manufacture of strong, 
 coarse fibres. Black-faces make good mutton, which commands the 
 highest prices in the British market. Both sexes are horned, the 
 horns of the ram being, of course, much heavier than those of the 
 ewe. The face may be black, or black with white mottles with a top- 
 knot of wool on the forehead and small ears. The body is of mutton 
 type and the fleece so long as to sweep the ground. 
 
 The management of a Black-faced flock is comparatively sim- 
 ple, as they can subsist on very bare pastures and withstand much ex- 
 posure. In ordinary years, on their native heath, they can tide over 
 the winter without any auxiliary feed at all; and in deep storm, a 
 small quantity of natural hay is enough to supply their wants. For 
 a time the popularity of this breed in the Highlands was threatened 
 by the Cheviots, but the severity of the winter of 1859-60 proved the 
 greater hardiness of the Black-faces, and since then they have fully 
 held their own ground. A few of these sheep have been imported to 
 parts of the United States and Canada. (Annual Report Sec'y Agr. 
 of Nova Scotia, 1907.) 
 
 SHEEP FEEDING. 
 
 In feeding all classes of sheep there are general details that con- 
 tribute toward satisfactory results. Among these may be included 
 all those things that are conducive to the general health of the sheep, 
 such as considerate treatment, cleanliness of troughs and racks, 
 healthfulness of the quarters in which the sheep are kept, regularity 
 in feeding, and the use of such accessories as salt, pure water, and 
 sulphur. 
 
 Feeding Breeding Ewes. To enter into detailed discussion of 
 the feeding of breeding ewes it will be best to divide the topic ac- 
 cording to the season, and in this way present the subject of winter, 
 spring, summer, and fall feeding. Under climatic conditions per- 
 mitting the breeding flocks to have pasture throughout the year, 
 what may be termed summer feeding would largely prevail at all 
 times, so with such an understanding local conditions will not neces- 
 sitate much variation from the course of feeding suggested. 
 
 Winter Feeding of Breeding Ewes. Breeding ewes require 10 
 to 15 square feet of space in a building, and ewes weighing from 150 
 to 200 pounds should have an allowance of 1.5 feet at the feeding 
 rack. Less than this causes too much crowding at feeding time, 
 which often results in the birth of dead lambs. Breeding ewes need 
 not be fed more than twice daily. It is a good practice, however, to 
 feed them some fodder outside during the winter season, for in this 
 way they are induced to take some exercise. With this in view the
 
 SHEEP 345 
 
 fodder may be taken some distance from the building in which the 
 sheep are housed. 
 
 In a practical way, the shepherd should regulate the quantity of 
 food according to the condition of the ewes. If they have gone into 
 wintr quarters in thin condition, they should be fed more heavily 
 than if they were fat at that time. Handling the ewes at intervals 
 furnishes the best indication as to their condition, and this will in- 
 dicate the quantity of food that should be fed. In the author's ex- 
 perience the aim has always been to keep the breeding flocks in a 
 condition which the general farmer would term fat, and only good 
 results in lambs have come from this management. When ewes are 
 firm fleshed, through abundant feed and exercise, they are vigorous, 
 and a healthy flock of lambs is likely to be the outcome. In general, 
 a breeding ewe weighing 150 pounds requires daily about one-half 
 pound of such grain as bran and oats, 2 pounds of succulent food, 
 and the same weight of such dry fodders as clover hay or cut corn 
 fodder. As lambing time approaches, twice this amount of grain 
 will be required. The quality of the fodder and grain will have an 
 influence on the amounts to be fed, but the controlling factor should 
 be the condition of the ewes. Overfeeding, especially if associatd 
 with lack of exercise, will be productive of disease in the flock, and 
 it is likely to result in the birth of large weak lambs, while under- 
 feeding is equally favorable for disease and the birth of undersized 
 lambs. Overfeeding may produce sterility, while underfeeding de- 
 lays the breeding season. The vigorous, firm-fleshed condition which 
 results from liberal feeding and unlimited exercise is the aim of the 
 experienced flock master. 
 
 Among the fodders for winter feeding may be mentioned clover 
 hay, pea straw, corn fodder, oat hay, oat straw, and millet. As to 
 their relative merits, based on cost, the nourishment in them for 
 sheep and more especially the preference of the sheep for them are 
 about in the order given. 
 
 Pea and bean straw are greatly relished by sheep. In Canada, 
 where the pea crop is a general one, the straw is put away especially 
 for the sheep, and it is fed more extensively, perhaps, than any other 
 fodder, with good results. The hardness of the stems of timothy hay 
 seems to be one of the reasons why sheep do not care much for this 
 fodder. They never appear to be eager for it, and if given any lati- 
 tude in choice they will leave it untouched in favor of any of the 
 other fodders, with the possible exception of oat straw. 
 
 For the best results in thrift, wool growth, and lamb produc- 
 tion, the breeding ewes should get some grain during the winter 
 season. They can hardly be kept in proper condition otherwise. A 
 good plan is to feed oats the first part of the winter, and then bran as 
 lambing time approaches. About 0.5 pound of oats during the first 
 of the winter, and near lambing time 1 pound of bran per head 
 daily will be sufficient for breeding ewes weighing from 150 to 200 
 pounds. Thc?o are the two most satisfactory grain foods that are 
 generally available, both in respect to cost and results. Corn is not 
 a satisfactory grain to feed ewes, as it produces too much fat, which
 
 346 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 apparently tends to accumulate internally and impair the breeding 
 qualities and lessen the general vigor, instead of imparting tone to 
 the system. 
 
 Some succulent food should be fed to breeding ewes at all times, 
 though it is very easy to feed them too much just previous to lamb- 
 ing. When turnips or silage are fed to breeding ewes in too liberal 
 quantities, weak lambs are likely to result. Before lambing, 3 pounds 
 of any succulent food, such as mangel-wurzels, sugar beets, corn or 
 clover silage, will be found sufficient. After lambing, unlimited 
 quantities of these may be fed, to stimulate the milk flow. 
 
 Turnips are relished by the sheep, and many prefer them for 
 sheep feeding to any other roots. Sheep are very fond of any of the 
 varieties of Swedish turnips, and also relish mangel-wurzels near 
 springtime. Sugar beets are satisfactory if fed in small quantities. 
 In some trials it has been found that a ewe would eat daily 3.3 pounds 
 of sugar beets, with 1.5 pounds of hay and 0.5 pound of oats or bran, 
 costing about 1.3 cents. The ewes that were fed this ration averaged 
 from 150 to 160 pounds. 
 
 Corn or clover silage, when well preserved, is a succulent food 
 that may be fed to sheep with satisfactory results. It is cheap, is 
 liked by the sheep, and if fed in quantities not exceeding 3 or 4 
 pounds per head daily it will give satisfaction. The corn kernels in 
 the silage are one of the drawbacks to feeding it liberally. 
 
 As between mangel-wurzels and corn silage, the lambs sucking 
 the ewes fed roots made slightly better gains than those sucking ewes 
 fed silage, although the silage appeared to be the cheaper ration. 
 As between beets and corn silage, the lambs of the ewes fed silage 
 made slightly the larger gain in weight. These results show but a 
 meager difference in the feeding value of these foods. 
 
 Spring Feeding of Breeding Ewes. If the ewes lamb before the 
 conditions are such that they may be turned out to pasture, they will 
 require liberal feeding, which means about 1 to 1.5 pounds of bran, 
 2 pounds of hay, and as much succulent food as they -will eat. It is 
 very desirable to maintain a heavy flow of milk, and to do this, grain 
 feeding and the free use of succulent food are necessary while the 
 sheep remain in the sheds. 
 
 It is generally good management to turn the ewes and lambs 
 out to pasture as soon as possible, provided some grain is fed to the 
 ewes while the grass is in a very succulent state. There is not suffi- 
 cient nourishment in it at this time to properly support the ewes that 
 are suckling lambs. It is advisable to so stock the pastures with 
 sheep that none of the grass may grow too coarse. On the other 
 hand, overstocking injures the pasture. Frequent change from one 
 pasture to another will be found advisable. When the pasture ceases 
 to consist altogether of a fresh growth peculiar to an early spring, 
 there is no advantage in feeding the ewes grain. 
 
 Summer Feeding of Breeding Ewes. In the summer manage- 
 ment of the breeding flock there is nothing of more importance than 
 a provision of some green fodder to supplement the dry and parched 
 pastures that are common in most sections in the summer months,
 
 SHEEP 347 
 
 For this purpose the crops most commonly utilized are rape, rye, 
 corn, and vetches. 
 
 This crop is one that has many advantages for summer feeding 
 breeding ewes. It grows rapidly, produces a large quantity of succu- 
 lent food, and is greatly relished by sheep. About two months is 
 required for the growth of a crop. It remains fresh in the field for 
 over a month under usual conditions after the first cutting has been 
 made. Sixty-two ewes, 26 ewe lambs, and 5 rams were fed from 300 
 to 350 pounds of rape daily throughout the drought of August and 
 September. From August 16 until September 17, 9.75 tons by ac- 
 tual weight were cut from 0.5 acre, or at the rate of 19.5 tons per 
 acre. In cutting rape at different heights, the best results were ob- 
 tained from cutting about 4 inches from the ground. Two cuttings 
 were made from the piece so treated, one August 29 and the other 
 November 6, and the yield was at the rate of 36 tons per acre. 
 
 Rye pasture has been known to be in good condition after being 
 used six years for pasturing sheep. The rye was never allowed to 
 grow beyond the second joint of the stalk. If the sheep did not keep 
 it down, it was cut. It furnished unusually early pasturage for 
 sheep, and was at all times acceptable. Rye grows quickly, will 
 establish itself in poor soil, and is eagerly eaten by sheep if it is not 
 allowed to become rank. It may be used as a soiling crop at any 
 time, but with special advantage if sown in the corn at the last culti- 
 vation, so as to be ready in the spring before the pastures are in con- 
 dition to turn the sheep on them. 
 
 These are not as indifferent to climatic conditions as the crops 
 previously mentioned, but where they can be grown they are invalu- 
 able for soiling sheep. They are very nutritious, and sheep thor- 
 oughly relish them. Mixed with one-third oats, with the object of 
 supplying supports for the vines, they can hardly be surpassed as a 
 soiling crop. In the drier sections, where the need of soiling crops 
 is greater, the vetches can not be made to produce the amount of 
 fodder that rape does. 
 
 When the lambs have been taken away from the ewes, the lat- 
 ter should be put on scanty pastures or given the range of a field of 
 grain stubble, to dry up the milk as soon as possible. The ewes, if 
 they have done well by their lambs, will be in poor condition at this 
 time, but it is not advisable to give them full, feed. 
 
 Fall Feeding of Breeding Ewes. It is a general impression 
 among shepherds that the condition of the ewes at the time of breed- 
 ing has a marked influence on the succeeding crop of lambs. If the 
 ewes are in vigorous condition and improving in flesh, the prospects 
 are thought to be favorable for the production of a large percentage 
 of lambs. It is equally accepted that the condition of the ewes in the 
 fall prior to going into winter quarters has an effect on the suscepti- 
 bility of the flock to such diseases as are more or less prevalent dur- 
 ing the winter season. It is certain that the ewes may be gotten into 
 vigorous condition much more cheaplv and easily in the early fall 
 than at any time later, and it is equally true that a vigorous condi- 
 tion is the best preventive of disease,
 
 348 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 As the breeding season approaches (it usually begins in Octo- 
 ber), the ewes, being in thin condition, require some grain. The 
 'best grain for this time is clean sound oats, about 0.5 pound per head 
 daily. If the ewes are brought into a uniformly good condition by 
 grain feeding they will breed uniformly, which of itself is an appre- 
 ciable advantage. 
 
 It is advisable to keep some fresh pasturage for late fall feeding. 
 Exercise in the fall is conducive to thrift in winter and healthy 
 lambs in the spring. In our northern climate sheep are housed too 
 much at best. The ewes may obtain more food than would be sup- 
 posed from a field of fresh blue-grass pasture that has been in part 
 retained for them. It is becoming an opinion among shepherds that 
 when ewes are fed on clover aftermath they are more difficult to get 
 with lamb than if fed on other pastures or fed soiling crops. In ad- 
 dition there is danger that the sheep may bloat on it. The best plan 
 is to save the second-crop clover for the lambs that have been weaned ; 
 and to prevent bloating pasture them for a part of the day on blue- 
 grass pasture, and after they have satisfied their appetites to some 
 extent, to change them to the clover. 
 
 Feeding Lambs Intended for Breeding Purposes. When the 
 ewe has lambed, if the lamb after becoming dry is not able to obtain 
 ewe's milk of its own accord, it should be assisted in doing so. Some 
 of the milk should be drawn from the udder to see that the milk 
 escapes freely, and then the lamb held so that it may reach the teat. 
 If it is too weak to stand, the ewe may be thrown, but it is perhaps 
 better to draw some of the milk from the udder and feed it to the 
 lamb from a spoon. By feeding a teaspoonful every hour for a half 
 day or so, most weak lambs soon become strong enough to get to the 
 teat themselves. It should be seen that there is no dirty wool around 
 the udder or any filth about the teats to prevent the lamb from suck- 
 ing. In the case of young ewes it is especially necessary that atten- 
 tion be paid to these matters. It is advisable to keep the ew r e and her 
 lamb in a pen by themselves for at least three days. 
 
 For feeding lambs to be used for breeding purposes preference 
 should be given to bran, oats, and linseed meal. These are preferable 
 to corn meal, which tends to fatten and does not produce growth to 
 the same extent as the other foods. The bran is relished by the 
 lambs, and they may eat large quantities of it without danger or 
 detriment of any kind. Linseed meal is best fed in a mixture with 
 the bran, as it is very rich and concentrated. Oats are seemingly 
 liked by the lambs, but they will not eat them as freely as the other 
 foods mentioned. If the oats are ground, the lambs leave a consider- 
 able quantity of the chaff untouched. The best results will likely be 
 obtained by giving an equal mixture by weight of bran, oats, and 
 linseed meal. 
 
 At first the lambs will take only small quantities of grain. By 
 feeding them very little at a time and always taking away what they 
 may leave they soon begin to eat eagerly and look forward to feed- 
 ing time. To give young lambs all they have capacity for requires 
 frequent feeding in small quantities, When tho lambs are yet in
 
 SHEEP 349 
 
 the shed and not on pasture, good practice in feeding has been about 
 as follows: In the morning about 6 o'clock they are fed a small 
 quantity of grain, in the trough. After the other sheep are fed, if 
 the lambs have eaten their grain more is put in the trough. At 
 noon they receive another allowance. In the evening they are fed 
 twice in the same manner as in the morning, and they are left at 
 night with some grain in their troughs. 
 
 Hand-feeding Lambs. In rearing lambs that have lost their 
 mothers, or when the latter do not give enough milk to nourish the 
 lambs properly, it is best to feed cow's milk from a bottle that has a 
 small rubber nipple attached to it. A newly dropped lamb only re- 
 quires 2 teaspoonfuls at a time, given every hour. It has not been 
 found necessary to sweeten the milk with sugar or dilute it with 
 water, but it is strongly recommended to heat the milk and feed it at 
 a temperature of 100 F. The lambs seem to like it hot, and they 
 certainly thrive better upon it. It is necessary to keep the nipple, 
 the bottle, and the vessel in which the milk is heated thoroughly free 
 from any disagreeable taste or odor, such as that of sour milk, else 
 the lambs will refuse the milk. When the lambs are about 2 months 
 old they are able to take in two feeds 2 pints per head daily, in addi- 
 tion to such grain and grass as they may eat. 
 
 Feeding After Weaning. The time for weaning the lambs de- 
 pends greatly upon the extent to which the lambs are obtaining milk 
 from the ewes. When they are four months old they may usually 
 be w r eaned with advantage. If they have been fed grain previous to 
 weaning they will not be checked in their growth by it and they will 
 be almost unconscious of the weaning, but if they have not received 
 grain they will lose in weight and be checked in their growth. 
 
 It will be advisable to separate the ewe lambs from the ram and 
 wether lambs. If allowed to run together the ram lambs will annoy 
 the others and the gains will not be satisfactory. The wether and 
 the ewe lambs may be kept together. 
 
 After weaning, the lambs should be gradually made to rely on 
 oats as their grain ration. If on pasture of only ordinary quality, 
 0.5 pound of oats daily may be fed if needed, but if on good after- 
 math clover or blue-grass pasture less will be required. 
 
 When the lambs have just been weaned they should get the best 
 pasture obtainable, and if possible the field should be some distance 
 from the ewes. There is nothing better for lambs just weaned than 
 second-growth clover that has grown up a few inches and has lost 
 some of the freshness characteristic of new growth. There is not 
 much danger of lambs of this age bloating on such food. Rape is an 
 excellent food for the ram lambs, and if managed with judgment 
 there is no danger in giving them free range. If neither of these 
 can be secured for the lambs, they should at least have a clean piece 
 of blue-grass pasture that has not been eaten down by other stock. 
 
 The best practice among shepherds giving close attention to the 
 growth of their lambs is to sow rye in the fall for early food in the 
 spring for the ewes and lambs, followed by vetch and oats and by
 
 350 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 vetch sown alone at intervals of two weeks. These last until the 
 lambs are weaned and the clover aftermath is ready for them. Suc- 
 ceeding this comes the rape crop and fall turnips. 
 
 During the first winter the ewe and ram lambs should receive 
 special care. The aim should be to encourage growth as much as 
 possible by good feeding without making them fat. Some grain, 
 preferably oats, and wholesome fodders, such as clover hay, cut corn 
 fodder, and others that they relish, should be fed. Until they become 
 matured the ewe and ram lambs should be fed liberally, for any loss 
 in growth that they may suffer through scrimped or neglected feed- 
 ing can never be regained in later life. 
 
 Feeding Rams. In feeding mature rams it is desirable to main- 
 tain them in a thrifty and vigorous condition without fattening. 
 This implies wholesome food and exercise. If rams are made too 
 heavy in flesh at any time, impotency or inability to serve ewes fre- 
 quently results, and if they are once overfed and made too fat it is 
 a very hard matter to reduce them without serious injury to their 
 vitality. Exercise and not the reduction of their ration is the best 
 remedy for reducing the flesh. 
 
 During the winter the object should be to maintain the weight 
 if the ram is mature, and if a shearling or young ram to make con- 
 tinuous improvement. Oats are probably the best grain food, though 
 the addition of some bran is advisable. A mature ram will need from 
 0.5 pound to 1 pound of grain daily to keep him in proper condition. 
 
 The fodders should be chosen so as to give as much variety as 
 possible. They may include clover hay, pea straw, corn fodder, and 
 others, fed at different intervals, or, perhaps better, one in the morn- 
 ing and another in the evening. Some succulent food should also 
 be fed, such as turnips or silage. Experienced shepherds are very 
 decided upon the danger from feeding mangel-wurzel. A great many 
 rams have died from a formation of crystals in the bladder, and these 
 have frequently been traced, it is believed, to the feeding of mangel- 
 wurzels. 
 
 To secure the best results in the breeding season it is not ad- 
 visable to let the rams run with the ewes before that time. They 
 should be pastured as much as possible, for in this way they will keep 
 healthier and stronger on their legs. Though the fleeces of the rams 
 that run out may not appear to as good advantage as if housed, yet 
 for results in breeding it is much the better plan to keep them on 
 pasture as much as possible. They should get some grain, the 
 amount depending on their condition. 
 
 The feeding of the rams during the breeding season is very im- 
 portant. The grain should be mostly oats, with the addition of some 
 bran and linseed meal. Such fodders as vetches and rape, fed in the 
 shed, are recommended. The breeding season is a severe strain on 
 the vitality of the ram, which has to be met by liberal feeding of grain 
 and other foods in as great variety as possible. About 1 pound of 
 grain daily will be required, with as much green food as the ram will 
 eat, (Agr. Dep. F. B. 49.)
 
 SHEEP 351 
 
 FATTENING LAMBS AND WETHERS IN WINTER. 
 
 When wethers and lambs are bought at the same price per pound 
 and are fattened under similar conditions, the lambs are likely to 
 bring considerably more profit. This increased profit is likely to 
 arise first, from the greater relative advance at which the lambs will 
 probably be sold, and second, from the greater relative gains which 
 the lambs are likely to make on a given amount of food. And this 
 profit may be expected to increase with the decrease in the difference 
 between the weight of the wethers and lambs respectively at the time 
 of purchase, because of the influence which weight at the beginning 
 of an experiment exercises upon any advance made in mutton values. 
 (Minn. B. 59, 69.) 
 
 Shearing Wether Lambs Before Fattening Them. When 
 lambs are being fattened early in the fall or in preparing them for 
 winter fattening it is a profitable practice to shear them before the 
 fattening begins. Shearing the wether lambs before fattening them 
 in January proves to be of slight advantage. The wethers that 
 were shorn made 7 pounds more gain than those left unshorn, but 
 the cost of gain was $4.44 per 100 pounds in comparison with $4.17 
 in the case of those that were not shorn. One advantage noted was 
 the rapid fattening of the shorn wethers after shearing and during 
 the first half, or first eight weeks, of the feeding period. 
 
 It was found decidedly beneficial to shear lambs in October 
 before fattening them. Five wethers were shorn October 14 and fed 
 for fifteen weeks against another lot of 5 left unshorn. The shorn 
 lot gained 225.5 pounds and the unshorn 210.5 pounds, or an aver- 
 age weekly gain per head of 3 pounds for the shorn and 2.8 pounds 
 for the unshorn. The cost of 100 pounds of gain was $6.11 with the 
 shorn lot and $6.67 with the unshorn. 
 
 Fattening Wether Lambs to Maturity. It is the common prac- 
 tice on many farms to withhold grain from the lambs for a time 
 before and after weaning, in the belief that they will make quicker 
 and more profitable gains while being fattened later. The evidence 
 is clear that the greatest and most profitable gain is made in the 
 younger days of the lamb, and that the feeding of such food as bran, 
 linseed meal, and oats before weaning and a small quantity of oats 
 after weaning not only pays in direct profit if the lambs are sold at 
 any of these times, but the fattening later is none the less profitable 
 because of this management. 
 
 Feeding grain before weaning has produced an average of 61 
 cents per head more profit at weaning time than where no grain was 
 fed. With lambs sold in the fall, feeding grain both before and after 
 weaning produced an average of 34 cents per head more profit than 
 where no grain was fed. 
 
 One of the most profitable features of grain feeding lambs pre- 
 vious to fattening was observed to be the earlier maturity of those 
 that had had grain from birth. For instance, in one trial the lambs 
 fed grain from birth attained an average weight of 113 pounds seven 
 weeks earlier than those that had had no grain previous to fattening,
 
 352 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and this weight was reached at a smaller cost in the instance of the 
 lambs fed grain from the start. 
 
 There is unlimited variation in general practice in regard to this 
 point. It has been customary to feed the grain first, then the suc- 
 culent food, and last the dry fodder. In feeding fattening sheep of 
 the age indicated the aim should be to induce the wethers to eat as 
 much as possible. At this time they should receive all the grain 
 they will eat up eagerly. To secure the best results it is a good plan, 
 where it is possible to do so, to feed the grain in two or even three 
 feeds. This may be done easily when less than 100 are fed together, 
 but with more than that it is not a commendable plan. By feeding 
 only one-third of the full feed intended it is easy to gauge the appe- 
 tites of the wethers, which is a very important matter. The smallest 
 degree of overfeeding is certain to react on the gain of the sheep, for 
 in some instances it will probably cause scouring, in others constipa- 
 tion, and it may even result in the loss of some of the lambs. 
 
 There are two essentials that contribute to cheap and rapid gains, 
 and these are quietness and confinement. The least excitement 
 brought on by the appearance of dogs, haste, or abuse on the part of 
 the attendant is certain to be shown by the scales. For some time the 
 Wisconsin Station used yards in connection with the fattening pens, 
 but for the last two years they have been removed, and better results 
 seem to have followed. 
 
 Quantity to Feed. Careful attention must be given to the 
 amount of grain that is fed. This part of the ration costs most, gives 
 the quickest returns, and is the most likely to produce some disorder 
 in the digestion of the sheep. For the first two weeks it is much bet- 
 ter to give them only one-half what they need than to feed them too 
 much ; especially is this true if over 50 sheep are being fed together. 
 Starting the sheep safely and well on a ration brings the feeder's 
 skill into play, particularly if the sheep have been accustomed to 
 grain. There are some foods that are safer than others to feed at the 
 beginning, and among these oats or bran have a general preference. 
 Wheat is comparatively safe, while corn is probably the most dan- 
 gerous to feed alone. One pound per head daily of either bran or 
 oats is liberal feeding for sheep that are accustomed to grain, and a 
 slightly smaller quantity will be sufficient for those that have not 
 been accustomed to it. The quantity of grain may be gradually in- 
 creased as the capacity of the sheep to consume it becomes greater. 
 The careful and successful feeder trains his sheep to eat with as much 
 carefulness as the trainer teaches a colt to trot. It is safe to assume 
 that wethers at this age may be fed all the grain that they will eat, 
 as it is usual for them to profitably utilize it in making gain, unless 
 they are unhealthy or the management is defective. It is a hard 
 matter to estimate the amount of grain to feed, owing to the variation 
 in the consuming capacity of sheep. In starting it has been cus- 
 tomary with some herdsmen to feed from 0.5 pound to 1 pound. A 
 month later the wethers will probably be taking 1.5 to 2 pounds, and 
 during the last month from 2 to 3 pounds per head has been the 
 capacity of most sheep.
 
 SHEEP 353 
 
 Cost and Value of the Increase. In comparing foods for fat- 
 tening sheep it has been the custom to compare them on the basis of 
 the cost of 100 pounds of gain, overlooking the increased value per 
 pound which the sheep realizes in the market because of the increase 
 that has been made during the feeding period. It is but a moderate 
 advance to accept 3 cents per pound as the cost price of feeders and 
 4 cents per pound as the selling price when ready for market. Thus 
 each pound that cost 3 cents when the feeding began becomes worth 
 4 cents at the close of the feeding, owing to the better condition of 
 the sheep, which increases the percentage they will dress. This bet- 
 ter condition is produced by the foods that are fed, so that in esti- 
 mating the profits from any ration the ration should be credited with 
 this increased value per pound of the sheep. Calculations of profit 
 in succeeding experiments here mentioned have been made on this 
 basis. 
 
 Fodders for Fattening Lambs. There is no doubt as to the 
 preference of the sheep in the choice of fodders, but there is no ex- 
 perimental data upon which to base conclusions as to their relative 
 values. Clover hay seems to be the fodder they relish most, then 
 pea straw, corn fodder, and timothy hay. The condition of the fod- 
 der will materially influence the gain, for if it is musty, burned, or 
 dusty, or has been allowed to grow too coarse, they will neglect it. 
 Two or three pounds of any of the fodders mentioned will be about 
 the quantity that wether lambs 9 or 10 months old will eat daily 
 through the fattening period. When being fattened wether lambs 
 should have some succulent food in their ration, for the reason that 
 they will remain healthier and not be troubled with the common 
 disorder called stretches, and they will usually make a better gain. 
 It is very seldom that a group of sheep may be fattened on dry food 
 without some of them dying or suffering with constipation. 
 
 At the New York Cornell Station two lots of 5 lambs each, about 
 8 months old, were fed alike, except that one lot had corn silage and 
 the other hay. In nineteen weeks the lot on silage gained a total 
 of 132.5 pounds; the other lot gained 124 pounds in the same time. 
 The silage ration was estimated to be the cheapest. Four pounds of 
 silage were considered to be equivalent to 1 pound of hay. The value 
 of roots in a ration was shown by trials at the Michigan Station, in 
 which corn and hay were compared with corn, roots, and hay. Ten 
 .^hccp on the former gained 328 pounds in fifteen weeks, as compared 
 with 397 pounds on the corn, roots, and hay. The profit was about 
 
 3 cents per head more for the latter lot. 
 
 At the Wisconsin Station a ration of oats, corn, and linseed 
 meal with hay was fed against a similar ration containing roots. The 
 
 4 lambs fed the former ration made a weekly average gain of 2.64 
 pounds per head and those fed the ration with roots made a weekly 
 gain of 2.48 pounds per head. The profit was about 2 cents per head 
 more from the ration without roots. These results do not show a de- 
 cided difference in favor of either ration, but in feeding large num- 
 bers the advantage more decidedly appeal's in favor of the succulent 
 ration because of the decreased risk of deaths due to digestive de-
 
 354 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 rangements. Roots and silage have been compared for fattening 
 wether lambs without any marked difference in their value becom- 
 ing apparent. If there is any, the rate of gain is in favor of the roots, 
 and the cost of gain is favorable to the silage. 
 
 Grain. This is assuredly the most fattening farm food that 
 may be fed to sheep. In relying on it alone, however, there is much 
 difficulty in maintaining the appetites of the sheep and in prevent- 
 ing disorders and deaths. Corn, roots, and hay were fed in a ration 
 at the Michigan Station against different rations, and the corn ration 
 gave a weekly gain per head of 2.6 pounds, which was only equaled 
 by a mixture of corn and oats. Corn and hay were fed for fifteen 
 weeks in trials conducted at the Michigan Station. The 10 wether 
 lambs ate 1,579 pounds of corn and 1,095 pounds of hay and gained 
 a total of 328 pounds, giving a profit of 59 cents per head. At the 
 Wisconsin Station 5 wether lambs ate in eight weeks 427.75 pounds 
 of corn and 288.5 pounds of hay and gained 104.5 pounds, giving a 
 profit of 87 cents per head. Cracked. corn and hay were fed at the 
 Minnesota Station to 10 wether lambs weighing 710 pounds, and in 
 twelve weeks they ate 1,103 pounds of corn and 849 pounds of hay 
 and gained 211 pounds, or an average weekly gain per head of 1.75 
 pounds. This ration returned a profit of 44 cents per head. 
 
 In beginning to fatten wether lambs it is safe to feed oats. The 
 lambs like them and they will begin to eat them at once. Fed alone, 
 however, they do not produce as great a gain as corn. Hence, as 
 the fattening proceeds, the quantity of oats should be gradually de- 
 creased. At the Ontario Station 4 wether lambs were fed for fifteen 
 weeks on oats, hay, and roots and gained 156 pounds, or a weekly 
 increase of 2.6 pounds per head. At the Michigan Station 10 lambs 
 fed for seventeen weeks on oats, hay, and roots gained 379 pounds, 
 or a weekly average per head of 2.2 pounds. At average prices there 
 was no profit in either case. Oats and Swedish turnips were fed to 5 
 wether iambs weighing 548 pounds at Rothamsted, England, for 
 ninety-seven days. The lambs gained 130.9 pounds, or an average 
 weekly increase of 1.9 pounds per head, giving a profit of only 3 
 cents per head. 
 
 The results of many trials declare corn to be the most profitable 
 grain for fattening sheep. But practice teaches that other grains 
 must be fed with it to maintain the appetites of the sheep and keep 
 them otherwise healthy. It will likely be safest and best under most 
 conditions to start the fattening with oats or bran, then introduce as 
 much corn as possible, and finish the fattening with a mixture con- 
 taining one part oats, one part oil meal, and three parts corn by 
 weight. The data given in the trials described will indicate what 
 the advantage may be in using other foods under special circum- 
 stances. 
 
 In the beginning to fatten wether lambs it is safe to feed oats. 
 The lambs like them and they will begin to eat them at once. Fed 
 alone, however, they do not produce as great a gain as corn. Hence, 
 as the fattening proceeds, tne quantity of oats should be gradually 
 decreased. Crushed oats were fed in feeding trials at Woburn, Eng-
 
 SHEEP 355 
 
 land, in connection with Swedish turnips and hay chaff, with the re- 
 sult that 8 wethers increased 380 pounds in one hundred and twelve 
 days, or an average weekly gain of 2.9 pounds per head. This high 
 rate of gain appears to have been due to the crushing of the oats. 
 The best satisfaction will be obtained from feeding peas when they 
 are split or crushed and fed with other foods. 
 
 In an experiment at Woburn, England, with different rations, 
 including linseed cake, linseed cake and undecorticated cotton-seed 
 cake, crushed oats and barley meal, crushed oats and split beans, and 
 lastly wheat, the wheat gave the largest gains. During the first pe- 
 riod of the experiment it was fed in the form of meal, but was after- 
 wards fed whole, w r ith a very noticeable increase in the gains result- 
 ing. The 6 wethers fed wheat for one hundred and six days ate 558 
 pounds of wheat, and, as nearly as can be estimated, 12,720 pounds 
 of roots and 277 pounds of hay chaff, and on this they gained 313 
 pounds, or an average of 3.4 pounds per head weekly. 
 
 Sheep of all kinds and ages appear to be very fond of wheat 
 bran, probably on account of its flavor and the fact that they digest 
 it easily. Many of the large feeders in the West consider bran one 
 of the safest and best foods to begin the feeding of large numbers, 
 though they only rely on it alone for a few weeKs. 
 
 In the feeding experiments that have been made with beans 
 as the only grain the results have been unsatisfactory. In a trial 
 at Rothamsted, England, ground beans were fed with mangels in 
 comparison with other grains, and a very unsatisfactory opinion was 
 formed of their value, the sheep refusing to eat the beans and losing 
 weight, so that the food had to be changed. 
 
 A very healthy food for sheep is linseed meal, and they eat it 
 eagerly, especially if it is not ground too fine. When crushed into 
 pieces about the size of peas sheep eat it with relish. There is much 
 difference in the different grades of linseed cake, and for this reason 
 its feeding value varies greatly. In an experiment in England with 
 linseed cake containing 6 or 7 per cent of fat and others containing 
 15 or 16 per cent, the wethers ate very nearly the same amount of 
 food of both kinds, while the gain with the linseed cake rich in fat 
 was much the greater. It is estimated that this was worth $5 per ton 
 more than the linseed cake low in fat. 
 
 From the results presented in the outline of what had been ac- 
 complished in the feeding of single grain foods, it is evident that 
 there are but a few of them that give profitable returns when fed 
 alone. Some give a high rate of gain, but the cost absorbs the profit, 
 and others yield satisfactory gains so long as the sheep will eat them 
 and continue in good health. At the average current prices the 
 indications of the experiments are that corn is much the most profit- 
 able single grain to feed, next to which rank such as wheat, cotton- 
 seed meal, or linseed, while most of the others enumerated barely pay 
 returns equal to their market prices, and some, such as beans and 
 bran, fail to do this. 
 
 There is abundant evidence indicating that the merit of a grain 
 mixture as a part of the ration lies in the fact that the sheep like it
 
 356 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 better than the unmixed grains, eat more of it, and as a result gain 
 more. The fact that they eat more seems to be the chief element in 
 making the profit less than in the feeding of some of the foods un- 
 mixed. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 49.) 
 
 Feeding Beet Pulp to Lambs. Owing to the bulky nature of 
 the pulp not enough of it can be consumed by lambs to produce suf- 
 ficient fat to finish them ; hence it should be fed to the greatest ex- 
 tent at the commencement of feeding. What is fed in the latter 
 part of the feeding period should be used as an appetizer and a regu- 
 lator of the bowels rather than for the fat it produces. Pulp fed in 
 large quantities produces a soft flesh. The matter of transportation 
 is a very essential one for the farmer to consider in the utilization of 
 pulp. For the profitable use the yards must be near the factory or to 
 railway facilities. When large quantities of pulp are fed to animals 
 confined in small lots the lots become very foul, much to the discom- 
 fort of the animals and loss to the feeder. (Colo. B. 76.) 
 
 Sorghum as a Forage and Grain Ration. Under conditions 
 where alfalfa can not be grown to advantage, as on saline soils, 
 when water for irrigation is scant, or following a crop of grain, 
 sorghum may be grown as a forage plant to supplement the usual 
 alfalfa ration. Alfalfa alone produces the greater gain in weight per 
 unit of feed. Sorghum in combination with alfalfa makes the most 
 economical ration, and the gains made are nearly equal to those 
 with alfalfa. Sorghum alone, both hay and grain, is inferior to 
 alfalfa and at best makes little more than a maintenance ration. 
 (Ariz. Timely Hints for Farmers 84.) 
 
 LAMBS PREFERRED IN THE MARKETS. 
 
 The market also favors the younger animal. On this account it 
 is generally more profitable to finish sheep for market under one 
 year of age than to hold them longer unless an abundance of cheap 
 feed is available, as is the case where lands are cheap or free range 
 accessible. In a slaughter test lambs dressed the following per- 
 centages of net carcass to live weight: 
 
 Percentages of Yield of Dressed Mutton. 
 
 Breed. 
 
 First 
 test. 
 
 Second 
 test. 
 
 Southdown 
 
 55.4 
 
 55.26 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 56.3 
 
 52.88 
 
 Oxford 
 
 55.2 
 
 50.08 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 53.6 
 
 52.54 
 
 Lincoln . 
 
 55.7 
 
 51.08 
 
 Leicester 
 
 57.8 
 
 51.87 
 
 Cotswold 
 
 54.9 
 
 53.57 
 
 Dorset 
 
 52.6 
 
 54.11 
 
 Merino .... 
 
 51.8 
 
 49.57 
 
 Crossbred 
 
 53.7 
 
 
 RELATIVE COST OF PRODUCING MUTTON AND BEEF. 
 
 A summary of results published by the Ohio Experiment Sta- 
 tion, compiled from experiments conducted with a large number of 
 cattle at various stations in the United States, gives the average num- 
 ber of pounds dry matter per pound of increase in live weight at 
 10.24, and a recently published report of the work of Lawes and
 
 OXFORD DOWN RAM. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 BORDER LEICESIKR RAM. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 SHEEP 359 
 
 Gilbert gives 11 pounds for cattle and 9 pounds for sheep. This in- 
 dicates that a pound of mutton can be made on lambs at less ex- 
 penditure for feed than is required to produce a pound of beef on 
 cattle at the ordinary age of finishing for market. 
 
 It is sometimes asserted that cattle and sheep require the same 
 amount of feed per thousand pounds of live weight. This statement 
 seems not to be well founded. In recent experiments cattle con- 
 sumed 19.6 pounds of dry matter per thousand pounds of live weight, 
 against an average of 29.07 by the sheep. Both sheep and cattle 
 were on full feed. The sheep made a daily gain of 3.73 pounds per 
 thousand pounds live weight, and the cattle 2.14. In summing up 
 this comparison, we find that while the sheep ate 48 per cent more 
 than the cattle, they also gained nearly 75 per cent more. 
 
 With older sheep a larger amount of feed is required in propor- 
 tion to increase in live weight. This was quite clearly demonstrated 
 in the experiment conducted by the Iowa Stations in which the 
 costs of producing gain on pure-bred Shropshire wethers and lambs 
 under the same conditions and on the same ration were compared. 
 It cost 56 per cent more to produce gain on yearlings than on lambs 
 of the same breed ; perhaps this difference is somewhat greater than 
 would ordinarily occur on account of the wethers being somewhat 
 fatter at the beginning of the experiment than the lambs, although 
 the comparison from month to month shows a wide difference in each 
 case. It always costs proportionately less to make gains on young 
 animals than on older ones. (Ohio St. B. 60; Iowa St. B. 33.) 
 
 GESTATION. 
 
 1. From the breeding records of 514 ewes it is concluded that 
 the normal period of gestation ranges from 144 to 150 days after 
 the date of service and that more ewes will lamb 146 days after 
 service than at any other time. 2. There is no appreciable difference 
 in the period of gestation for male and female offsprings in sheep. 
 3. There is an apparent relation between the duration of the period 
 of gestation and the period required for reaching maturity. Quick 
 maturing breeds appear to carry their young for a shorter period than 
 those breeds requiring more time to mature. 4. Large lambs are on 
 the average carried in utero for an appreciable longer period than 
 small or medium lambs. 5. Lambs dropped before the 144th and 
 after the 149th day of pregnancy are lacking in strength and vital- 
 ity at birth. 6. Shropshire ewes were more prolific than any of the 
 other breeds and crosses except the fourth cross of Shropshire rams 
 on a Merino ewe foundation. 7. From the data presented it is appar- 
 ent that twins are the normal increase for ewes of the mutton type. 
 8. One year old rams are not so prolific as those two or three years 
 old. Ewes also average a larger percentage of increase in lambs 
 after they reach full maturity at three years of age until after they 
 are six years old, when the rate of increase diminishes. 9. The 
 amount of service required of the ram in breeding lias an influence 
 on the percentage increase in offspring of the ewes that produce 
 lambs. Ewes bred early in the season of mating to a single ram.
 
 360 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 dropped a larger percentage of lambs than those near the latter 
 end of the season. (Utah B. 78.) 
 
 LOSS OF WINTER-FED LAMBS. 
 
 A trouble resembling apoplexy in human beings has for several 
 years been causing large losses among winter-fed lambs near Ba- 
 tavia, N. Y., a region where feeding lambs for the winter market is 
 a large industry. The lambs are bought largely in Buffalo or Chi- 
 cago, fed for a period of three and one-half to four months on a 
 highly fattening ration, and when fat are shipped back to Buffalo to 
 be slaughtered. Two crops of lambs are fed each year. The first lot 
 is bought about November 1 and is marketed in February. They 
 weigh about 60 pounds at purchase. It is considered that the great- 
 est profit is realized when they are marketed in 90 to 120 days at a 
 weight of 80 to 85 pounds. If the feeders are not able to dispose of 
 their first crop early in February, they usually get another lot to be 
 finished as early as possible up to June 1. The feeders utilize the 
 hay from their farms, alfalfa, clover, or timothy, together with bean 
 fodder, if they have it, and mill feeds, with a relatively large part of 
 the rations made up of corn and linseed-oil meal. Usually the corn 
 is fed whole and the oil meal preferably in the form of the oil cake 
 broken up into pieces a little larger than peas. 
 
 The trouble appears suddenly and does its work quickly. It is 
 sometimes accompanied by paralysis. It nearly always proves fatal, 
 only about 1 or 2 per cent of those afflicted ever having been known 
 to recover. The disease seems to accur only where lambs are being 
 fed heavily, and it then attacks the strongest and most vigorous. 
 While this disease has been prevalent for some years, its exact cause 
 has not yet been determined. Two opinions have been set forward : 
 First, that the disease is caused by feeding an excess of protein in 
 the ration; second, that the disease is caused by overfeeding. (Dep. 
 Agr. 0. E. S. Vol. IV. No. 6.) 
 
 Investigations by the department of animal husbandry of Cor- 
 nell University Experiment Station indicated that the trouble was 
 caused mainly by sudden overfeeding rather than from feeding a 
 narrow (high-protein) ration. The best results were obtained on 
 rations with a relatively narrow nutritive ratio that is, 1:5. It 
 seemed to be clearly shown that in a fattening ration for lambs a 
 relatively large amount of protein is necessary to keep the lambs up 
 on the heavy grain ration required for the best results in fattening. 
 
 In the opinion of those who conducted the experiments on the 
 subject there should not be the wholesale loss from overfeeding that 
 some feeders have experienced if proper precautions are taken to 
 keep the rack spaces all occupied and to distribute the grain equally, 
 although there may be an occasional loss from the heavy feeding 
 or from nervous excitement, which is thought to be one cause of 
 apoplexy. (Dep. Ag. 0. E. S. Vol. IV. No. 6.) 
 
 DIPPING. 
 
 Nearly all range sheep are affected with scab, though it is fre- 
 quently held in check so as to be scarcely noticeable when the sheep 
 first arrive from the range. Its development appears a few weeks
 
 SHEEP 361 
 
 later, however, and unless proper precautions are taken it becomes a 
 serious interference with good results in fattening, besides a source 
 of infecting the yards and premises with the germs of this disease. 
 On this account it is generally considered best to dip all range sheep 
 brought to the farming sections for feeding. The dipping should be 
 done immediately or at least very soon after arrival, and repeated in 
 about ten days to insure effective work. Sheep may be dipped even 
 at a zero temperature with less menace to the flock than to allow 
 the disease to go unchecked for a few weeks. When necessary to dip 
 in severe weather, the work should be done under shelter in a liquid 
 slightly warmed and the dipped animals placed immediately in dry, 
 warm quarters and kept in for several days until the fleeces have had 
 time to dry. 
 
 There are various dips on the market and in common use. 
 Lime and sulphur and the tobacco dips are effective and popular 
 where the work is done on a large scale. A number of the prepared 
 dips on the market are equally effective, and they have the addi- 
 tional advantage of promoting a more favorable condition of the 
 fleece. All farm flocks should also be dipped at least once a year for 
 the general good effects resulting from dipping regardless of the 
 existence of scab. (B. A. I. B. 21; Col. E. S. B. 38.) 
 
 FEEDING OF RANGE AND PURE-BRED LAMBS COMPARED. 
 
 The range lambs averaged only about half as much gain per 
 head daily as the pure-bred mutton lambs. This marked difference 
 is mainly due to the fact that the Western sheep, reared under semi- 
 arid conditions and scanty vegetation, have only about one-half as 
 much digestive capacity as our larger breeds, accustomed to more lib- 
 eral feeding. In this experiment the range lambs consumed more 
 feed (dry matter) for a pound of gain than those of the mutton 
 breeds. 
 
 WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 
 
 The value of good blood has been emphasized in preceding 
 pages. Not all the animals belonging to any of the improved breeds, 
 however, are possessed of a high degree of excellence. No graver 
 error can be made than the assumption of uniform excellence in the 
 stock constituting any breed, no matter how much prominence it 
 may have attained. Individual animals always differ more than 
 breeds ; and there are relatively few really good animals in any breed. 
 This seems to be strikingly true of the mutton sheep. The chief 
 trouble in mutton production is and always has been the scarcity of 
 stock sheep, particularly sires, that have sufficient merit to fill the 
 standard of excellence for a strictly prime carcass. Until we reach 
 this higher degree of excellence the mutton sheep will not assume its 
 rightful place in American agriculture. The American market has 
 become the most discriminating in the world on beef products, and 
 it will demand a corresponding superiority in mutton. With this in 
 view a brief consideration of what constitutes a good mutton sheep 
 may be of interest. 
 
 First, let there be pronounced masculinity in the male and fem- 
 ininity in the female. Sheep should be neither sexless nor character-
 
 862 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 less. They should bear the stamp and character of the breed they 
 represent. This breed character is a mark of good blood, and it 
 should be manifest in no unmistakable manner. The sire should be 
 impressive, resolute, and of noble bearing. He should be distinctly 
 the head of the flock in every sense of the word. To meet these re- 
 quirements he must have good constitutional and vital powers. With- 
 out these no animal is fit to head a herd or flock. In selecting a sire, 
 look first at the head. If deficient there, look no further, but reject 
 at once. Insist upon a head that faces you boldly with a wide face, 
 a clear, prominent eye, and a robust character throughout. The 
 head should be joined to a well-filled, round, muscular neck, wide at 
 the poll and back of the ears and gradually enlarging in all lines to 
 a strong, full junction at the shoulder, as seen from top, sides, or 
 bottom. This should be accompanied by a wide chest, a prominent, 
 well-filled brisket, and a full heart girth, giving straight, even lines 
 from the shoulders back. A depression either in front of or behind 
 the shoulder, whether at the top, side, or bottom line is an indication 
 of weakness. The back should be strong, wide, and well meated 
 from shoulder point to tail. The hind quarters should be full and 
 well let down in the leg and flank, in order to yield well of high- 
 priced meat. The legs should be placed wide apart and stand 
 straight. Sickle-shaped hocks and weak, sloping pasterns afford suf- 
 ficient reason for condemning an otherwise good sheep. 
 
 RANGE LAMB FEEDING. 
 
 The territory west of the one hundredth meridian, known as 
 the Range, is the great breeding ground for sheep. They have been 
 rapidly crowding the cattle off of the northern portion of this Range 
 territory, and it is quite generally recognized that the range-cattle 
 industry is gradually disappearing, except in the southern section. 
 While this territory is favorable to the grazing of stock in large num- 
 bers, the natural conditions will not permit of the production of 
 sufficient feed to properly fatten and finish the stock grown there. 
 The finishing can only be done by drawing on the surplus grain 
 crops of the upper Mississippi Valley States. This has been largely 
 practiced during the past. Owing to the shortage of good feeding 
 stock in the farming sections, the surplus of grain products, and 
 prevailing low prices, there is a general interest in the character and 
 feeding value of the sheep raised on the Range. (Col. E. S. B. 32.) 
 These sheep have been classified as follows: 
 
 Old Mexico Sheep. These sheep are the direct descendants of 
 the original Spanish Merinos, brought over two hundred years ago 
 by the Spaniards to Old Mexico. They have been bred with scarcely 
 any outcross and are very distinctly marked. They have long legs ; 
 a long thin body, not very deep; small, rather long neck, and 
 a long thin head, carried high. The wool is fine and thin. To the 
 eye they appear almost worthless as mutton sheep, and of still less 
 value for wool. Their good points are that they are hardy, excellent 
 travelers, will keep in good condition on the poorest and driest of 
 ranges, are fairly prolific, and can be herded in bunches of almost 
 any size. They fatten easily, though never looking plump and fat,
 
 SHEEP 363 
 
 like the Northern sheep. When they reach the Chicago market, if 
 in good condition, they outsell all other sheep, for they shrink very 
 little in dressing, the meat has an excellent flavor, and the hide is so 
 thin, firm, and soft as to command the highest price. A well-fat- 
 tened bunch of Mexican lambs will weigh, on the Chicago market, 
 from 78 to 81 pounds. Yearlings, ewes, and old wethers of this 
 breed are in good condition if they weigh 90 pounds in Chicago. 
 
 New Mexico Sheep. These original Mexican sheep have been 
 largely graded with Merino rams in New Mexico and southern Colo- 
 rado, and for some years were run there as grade Merinos for wool. 
 They have not the thick wrinkly fleece of the typical Merino and 
 show decidedly their Mexican origin, being intermediate, in length 
 of leg, body, neck, and head, between the true Merino and the Mex- 
 ican. They are a small-bodied, quick-maturing sheep, and, although 
 never growing very large, they get very fat. It takes them longer to 
 fatten than the better bred sheep. Never less than five and usually 
 six months elapse from the time they are put on feed until they go 
 to market. 
 
 The bunches of lambs brought from New Mexico run quite even 
 in size and appearance. They are all kept under the same condi- 
 tion, and but few of the flocks have as yet been topped with mutton 
 breeds so as to present any great variation from the general type. 
 When brought to Colorado in the fall, about the 1st of November, 
 the lambs weigh, in bunches, from 48 to 53 pounds. When shipped 
 to Chicago, in May, they weigh from 80 to 84 pounds. Their frames 
 are then not much larger than in the fall, but the body is much 
 deeper, and they are almost as thick through, making them very 
 plump. They easily get the highest prices on the Chicago market, 
 for the same reasons as the Mexican sheep. 
 
 Merinos. Until a few years ago, nearly all the sheep of Colo- 
 rado, Wyoming, Utah, and Idaho were straight Merino sheep, bred 
 for the most part from Merinos brought from the East. Some flocks 
 originated from the Mexican or New Mexican sheep, but they were 
 crossed so many times with thoroughbred Merino rams as to lose the 
 characteristics of the southern sheep. So long as these flocks were 
 used for wool they were carefully bred by purchasing high-priced 
 rams from the East. As the price of wool fell, the profits decreased 
 until a point was reached where the sheep for mere wool ceased to 
 be profitable. Many flocks were sold, and those sheep men that con- 
 tinued in the business turned their attention to wool and mutton. 
 Many of them still continue to use Merino rams, but the number 
 of these flocks is constantly decreasing, and, especially from west- 
 ern Wyoming westward, the use of rams of the mutton breeds has 
 become almost universal. These Merino flocks from the north retain 
 the thick fleece of the original Merino, since the climate is not hot 
 enough to thin out the fleece as it does in New Mexico and Texas. 
 Most of the wrinkles disappear, but a few remain around the shoul- 
 ders, and the face has the Merino colors distinct, being thus easily 
 told from the southern sheep, which have no wrinkles and very thin 
 wool around the head. The lambs are short legged and consequently
 
 364 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 not such good travelers as the southern sheep, nor do they need to be, 
 for the Wyoming ranges will average much better than the New Mex- 
 ican. The lambs appear larger than the New Mexican, but will not 
 weigh quite so much. From 42 to 47 pounds is an average weight on 
 the 1st of December. They grow a little more rapidly when put on 
 feed than southern sheep, and will stand a little heavier feeding. In 
 May they will weigh in Chicago just about the same as the southern 
 lambs, yet, if equal bunches were put on the market together, the 
 southern would more rapidly find a purchaser. The ewes, yearling 
 wethers, and older wethers of the Merino are heavier than those of 
 the southern sheep. Yearling wethers the first of December should 
 weigh from 80 to 90 pounds; old wethers occasionally go over 100 
 pounds. They fatten more quickly than the lambs much more 
 quickly than the southern lambs. Four months' feeding is always 
 sufficient, and many bunches will be ready for market after three 
 months. They should weigh in Chicago from 115 to 125 pounds. 
 (Agr. Dept. F. B. 96.) 
 
 In selecting lambs for winter feeding, their age and size are 
 not of as much importance as that the lambs be thrifty and grow- 
 ing. It is unsafe to buy stunted lambs, or those that are losing flesh, 
 unless they can be purchased early in the fall and allowed the run 
 of a good pasture for a month or more before the heavy feeding 
 commences. 
 
 Buying Lambs. Profit in lamb feeding depends not a little on 
 the price paid for the lambs. They must be bought at from one- 
 half a cent to one cent per pound live weight below the probable 
 selling price if profit is to be expected on the venture. The begin- 
 ner had better buy by the pound, and if he cannot buy at about 
 the figures stated it would be safer to let the other fellow do the 
 feeding. 
 
 Shelter. The general testimony is that sheep do not suffer seri- 
 ously from the cold if the weather is dry; and probably experience 
 bears out the conclusion. However, wet and stormy weather affect 
 them seriously. The person who plans to take up the work of feed- 
 ing lambs as a business should provide sheds under which the sheep 
 may find protection from the wet. These sheds need not be expen- 
 sive, yet they should be substantially built. 
 
 Grading the Flock. If a large number of sheep and lambs are 
 to be fed it will pay to grade the flock, and feed according to the 
 condition of each bunch. Merino sheep generally feed well in large 
 flocks but the mutton types do better in comparatively small flocks. 
 (Utah B. 78.) 
 
 Regular Feeding Essential. Regularity and uniformity in 
 feeding are of prime importance. Some of the most successful feed- 
 ers manage a large feeding establishment with absolute regularity 
 and precision. The system generally practiced consists in having a 
 feeding yard separate from the other quarters. One feeding yard 
 serves for five to ten lots of sheep ranging from three to five hundred 
 in number. The grain ration is placed in the troughs and the sheep 
 admitted and returned to their regular quarters in ten or fifteen min-
 
 SHEEP 365 
 
 utes after the grain is eaten. The sheep themselves become wonder- 
 fully punctual and regular in their habits. When properly managed, 
 the feeding begins at precisely the same time and proceeds in regu- 
 lar order each day. This procedure becomes so well understood by 
 the sheep that they always expect their ration promptly on time, and 
 they will take their place at the gate admitting them to the feed 
 yard in regular order by lots. For instance, lot one at its feeding 
 time will be waiting for admittance while lot two in the pen adjoin- 
 ing five minutes before feeding time will be lying contentedly 
 and taking no notice of what is going on outside ; a few minutes later, 
 however, they will be crowded at the gate and eagerly waiting their 
 turn. When the feeder is a quarter of an hour late, every animal in 
 the lot seems to recognize and resent his tardiness. 
 
 Attention to these and numerous other minor details have a 
 great deal to do with the profits resulting from extensive feeding 
 operations. The loss from indigestion and other troubles frequently 
 reaches 4 or 5 per cent under negligent methods, but in careful, ju- 
 dicious handling this can be reduced to less than 1 per cent. 
 
 Restricting the amount of grain to a very limited quantity at 
 the beginning is absolutely essential to the best results in fatten- 
 ing western sheep ; a lighter grain feed should then be used in pref- 
 erence to one that is more concentrated, and during the finishing 
 stages a heavier and richer grain ration will be productive of good 
 results. 
 
 Feeding Three Times a Day. On one of the largest and most 
 successful feeding ranches in the West, near Jansen, Nebr., 2,500 
 head, in lots of about 300 each, were being fattened on a grain 
 ration consisting of l 1 /^ pounds of shelled corn and one-eighth of a 
 pound of oil meal per head daily at the time of the writer's visit there 
 in February. They were being fed grain three times daily in sepa- 
 rate feeding yards adjoining their other quarters, according to the 
 system previously described in this bulletin. The manager of the 
 sheep at this farm recommends feeding three times a day, although 
 it is not common to feed more than twice. Those who have practiced 
 feeding three times a day claim as an advantage for this method 
 that larger quantities of grain may be consumed with less danger of 
 injury than by feeding only twice. One feeder who has recently in- 
 troduced this method stated that he was able to safely feed 300 
 pounds more grain per day to 2,500 head of sheep. A striking illus- 
 tration in favor of careful methods is furnished in the following rec- 
 ord: Three lots, ranging from 500 to 1,500 each, all selected from 
 the same large bunch shipped in from the range together, went into 
 the hands of different feeders. One, the largest lot, made an aver- 
 age gain of 20 pounds in five months, another, 13, and the third, 9. 
 They went to market at about the same time and sold for $4.55, 
 $4.40, and $4.35, respectively. The difference in gain and value of 
 the sheep on the market when finished was enough to return a lib- 
 eral profit on the best lot, while it was with difficulty that the others 
 wore able to balance accounts. These differences prevail in other lo- 
 calities and demonstrate the advantage and increased profit that
 
 366 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 always result where right methods are applied. Careful feeders by 
 giving strict attention to all essentials are able to make average gains 
 of 8 or 10 pounds per head monthly on range lambs and 10 to 15 
 pounds on well-bred mutton lambs. 
 
 Requisites of a Good Shepherd. A flock of sheep can not be 
 handled or fattened successfully without a close observance of their 
 habits and peculiarities. There are a great many little things that 
 enter into the attention and management by a successful shepherd 
 that may seem trivial, yet they have much to do with the comfort, 
 thrift, and profit of the flock. The axiom that "The eye of the mas- 
 ter fattens" is nowhere more applicable than in the sheepfold. The 
 competent feeder acquires a trained eye, that detects at a glance any 
 evidence of disorder that will be manifest if a single animal is off of 
 feed or out of condition. To the unobserving or inexperienced feeder 
 sheep all look alike, but when rightly studied no class of stock pre- 
 sents more marked individual peculiarities or so clearly manifests 
 evidence of thrift and well-doing or the reverse. Attention to these 
 little details, accompanied by regular habits and a quiet manner, 
 constitutes the keynote of successful sheep feeding. Nothing con- 
 tributes more to good results than contentment and quiet surround- 
 ings. The feeder who disturbs the quiet and comfort of the flock 
 every time he goes about it should quit the sheep business at once. 
 Rough manners and harsh treatment absolutely disqualify any man 
 for success in this work. The natural timidity and nervous tem- 
 perament of the sheep necessitate gentle treatment. Their dainty 
 habits about eating and drinking must also be indulged as fully as 
 practicable. No animal naturally selects a wider variety of feed, 
 particularly of rough forage and vegetation ; but two essentials are 
 always exacted, viz., cleanliness and palatability. Never give a sheep 
 any stale or undesirable feed, nor expect it to eat any feed left over 
 from a previous meal. The ration should be always wholesome and 
 tempting to the appetite. The barn or stabling quarters should 
 never be without a fresh, pure atmosphere and an ample supply of 
 dry bedding. Sheep rarely suffer from cold if kept dry and pro- 
 tected from direct drafts. The open air is better than a poorly kept 
 shed or barn. (Agr. Dept. F. B. 96.) 
 
 SHEEP ON THE RANGE. 
 
 A great difference exists between eastern Nevada sheep ranges 
 and those of the Sierras. In the former, only about one-quarter the 
 number of sheep are grazed on the same area of range. This is due 
 to some extent to the greater scarcity of water and to the fewer num- 
 ber of sheep men occupying the territory. They have also access to 
 the great free range country in northern Nevada in the region of 
 Gold creek and the Bruneau river, so that a number of bands can be 
 kept there during the summer months and then brought down to 
 the home range to be topped off and shipped. As most eastern Ne- 
 vada sheepmen have from one to ten bands of sheep on this free 
 range, and about sixty or seventy thousand sheep from Idaho also 
 summer in northern Nevada, it stands to reason that there must be a 
 continuous struggle for the 'best camping and feeding grounds,
 
 SHEEP 367 
 
 Probably _more feed is wasted by trampling than is eaten. This, 
 however, is not so injurious to the range as if it were eaten off close 
 and the forage plants destroyed permanently. In no place on the 
 home ranges had the grasses suffered from trampling and overstock- 
 ing to such an extent as shown by Dr. Griffiths in his investigation 
 in the Steins mountains in Oregon. This may be accounted for by 
 the facts that usually the sheep only feed over the ground once ex- 
 cept in the vicinity of the sheepherder's camp. Sometimes a lazy 
 or incompetent herder will bring his sheep back to his cooking camp 
 every evening so that they may be more easily watched and he may 
 not have so far to go for his meals. A few instances of this kind were 
 noticed which showed that the soil was ground up into a fine powder 
 and the plants eaten and trampled upon excessively. Cattle had 
 done considerable damage along the creeks where they went daily 
 for water for many months in the year by trampling many paths 
 in their journey to and fro. The soil is not merely loosened in these 
 cases but innumerable paths, from one to three inches deep, are cut 
 into the ground making it impossible for any vegetation to grow 
 in them. The nature of the soil on much of the region investigated 
 is such that, when loosened by the feet of the sheep, it forms a sort of 
 sponge which readily soaks up the summer rains, and, when this is 
 not carried to excess, it is an easy means of cultivation which aids 
 rather than retards the future growth of the plant. There are some 
 steep hillsides, however, which cannot be classed under this head. 
 The soil is of a more gravelly nature and the rains are not readily 
 soaked up by it. Sheep, however, traverse these hillsides in a hori- 
 zontal direction and form narrow trails, while the rains descend 
 perpendicularly, and, beating upon these flattened paths, are hin- 
 dered from making any deep erosions in the hillsides. This was not 
 the case in the Sierras, where the timber had been cut and the soil 
 of a light nature. There the rains cut miniature gorges into the 
 steep banks, which, in time, will form passageways through which 
 the water will rapidly be carried down to the lower levels. 
 
 The plants which appear to have suffered most in this region 
 are those of a shrubby nature, such as the Indian currant or snow- 
 berry, wild currants, rosebushes, service-berry and chokecherry. The 
 sheep are responsible for the most part for the total destruction of 
 numerous Indian currant, wild currant and rose bushes. They eat 
 them extensively duing the fall months, feeding on the leaves and 
 tender young shoots until finally the main stems die and a bunch of 
 dry sticks remains. Cattle, however, are exceedingly destructive to 
 the service berry and chokecherry. While lazily enjoying the shade 
 of the willows along the creeks during the heat of the day before 
 ascending the higher mountains to feed on the bunch grasses, they 
 seem to enjoy nibbling at the young twigs of these bushes until, 
 as in the case with the currant and rose bushes, the main stems re- 
 fuse to send forth any shoots and gradually die back. Many thou- 
 sands of dry sticks from four to seven feet high were seen, being 
 remnants of once healthy son-ice berry and chokecherry bushes. 
 Several plant-, such as the poverty weed (Iva axillaris) and the
 
 368 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 nettle-leaved mint (Lophanthus urticifolius), which are of no value 
 for forage and are not eaten to any extent by sheep or cattle, occupy 
 considerable areas, the former growing on poor soil and the latter 
 on the very best soil the region affords. Owing to their being left 
 undisturbed and allowed to seed abundantly, they seem to be in- 
 creasing out of proportion to the more valuable forage plants. From 
 the fact that sheep prefer weeds and browse to grasses, it was no- 
 ticed that on this range the grasses were allowed to seed and no sign 
 of overgrazing by sheep of these valuable forage plants for cattle 
 was seen. Cattle, however, do not care to feed on ground over which 
 sheep have passed, so that, as far as that particular season is con- 
 cerned, the grasses are not eaten by cattle. As already stated, owing 
 to the range being controlled and the scarcity of water in some sea- 
 sons permitting only a portion of the land being grazed by sheep, 
 there is always plenty of grass for cattle on these ungrazed portions. 
 This statement is corroborated by the fact that hundreds of cattle 
 were seen on this sheep range which were in very good condition. 
 Under these circumstances the grazing of sheep over this particular 
 range is a benefit rather than a menace to the grasses, as they insure 
 protection to them while seeding. 
 
 Methods of Handling. About the 1st of March the sheep leave 
 the white sage flats in Nye and White Pine counties south of Eureka 
 and come slowly northward through the valleys, obtaining water 
 from the melting snow or by eating the snow itself. They usually 
 reach the shearing grounds by the railroad about the 1st of April. 
 Their chief feed at this time is the bud sage (Artemisia spinescens) 
 and the young grass sprouting from their stools. The sheep are then 
 separated into ewe bands and wether bands, the ewes and their lambs 
 of the previous year having run together during the winter. Those 
 which have been bred to coarse-wooled bucks, like the Shropshires, 
 are kept together to sell for mutton later, while those which have 
 been bred to fine-wooled bucks like the Rambouillet's, are kept as 
 stock sheep. This is done in order to keep up the quantity and 
 quality of the wool, and, at the same time, obtain a fair price for 
 the mutton. Two crops of wool are also obtained from each lamb 
 as they are not usually sold until about two years old, which differs 
 from the practice in the Sierras, where the lambs are marketed when 
 from four to five months old. Eastern Nevada sheepmen are unable 
 to compete with the lambs raised on the Sierras as their sheep lamb 
 later, the country being colder in spring and the difference in the 
 character of the forage preventing rapid development. The lambs 
 also shrink too much in shipping, being too far from both the East- 
 ern and Western markets. Different customs prevail as to the time 
 of dipping and shearing, some preferring to dip before shearing and 
 others after. The advocates of the latter method claim that the 
 lime which is used in the dip mixture is harmful to the wool. When 
 the mixture is properly made, however, no bad results need be 
 feared. Those who dip before shearing claim that the sheep are 
 weak at this time of the year and that dipping increases this weak- 
 ness, and, if a cold storm comes when the sheep are not protected
 
 SHEEP 369 
 
 by their wool, they are apt to lose a great many. Still others prefer 
 to wait until after lambing before shearing and dipping, as, if there 
 should be a cold spell, the -ewes will stay with their lambs better. 
 This, however, necessitates dipping the lambs also and results in 
 setting them back to a greater or less degree. The sheep are sheared 
 before lambing, if the weather permits. The custom is to make a 
 contract with a shearing outfit, the price being seven cents per sheep 
 with board, or eight cents per sheep without board, there being 
 usually twenty to twenty-four men in an outfit. If the sheep are not 
 too wrinkled a good man will shear on an average about one hun- 
 dred in a day. 
 
 The wool is of medium grade, having about sixty-five per cent 
 shrinkage. From six and a half to eight pounds of wool per head 
 is secured, according to the grade of the sheep. The wool is usually 
 put up in sacks of from 275 to 350 pounds each and consigned to 
 local warehouses in Reno and Elko or else sold direct to Eastern 
 buyers, most of it going to Boston. In a few instances, where the 
 wool has to be hauled some distance to the railroad, it is put up in, 
 bales. The price received by Messrs. Anderson & Duborg at Beo- 
 wawe by selling to Eastern buyers direct was thirteen and one-eighth 
 cents Yer pound. The warehouses usually sell by auction to the 
 highest bidder, but a movement is on foot to do away with the mid- 
 dleman and sell the wool direct to the firms in Boston, the only ex- 
 pense being the storage and shipment to the warehouse. 
 
 After shearing, the sheep are driven about a distance of five 
 miles to a natural hot spring where a dipping plant has been in- 
 stalled. The water from the spring is boiling and is carried through 
 a ditch to the tank. When all the sheep have been dipped, the ewes 
 start for their lambing grounds, and the wethers for their summer 
 range. On account of the young sheep being separated from their 
 mothers, it is necessary to have two men to take care of a band of 
 2,500 or 3,000 sheep. The camp tender has a wagon, pitches camp 
 and cooks the meals, one camp tender attending to two bands. Dry 
 ground on the lower foothills is selected for lambing purposes and 
 five or six men are put in charge of each band. When lambing com- 
 mences the sheep do not travel more than a mile a day, the lambs 
 dropped during the day being rounded up into a bunch by them- 
 selves and a man put in charge of them, the rest of the band feeding 
 off a short distance. Each day's lambing is thus rounded up into a 
 separate bunch until all the ewes in the band have dropped their 
 lambs. Sometimes the ewes, more especially the young ones, will 
 not claim their lambs, so they are tied by means of a short rope to 
 the nearest bush in order that the lambs may be fed. Shropshires 
 retain their well-known characteristics on the range by being better 
 mothers and producing hardier lambs than the Merinos. When 
 the lambs are two or three days old the ewes are gradually brought 
 together into larger bunches until they number about 700, which, 
 with their lambs, makes a band of about 1,400. They remain this 
 way for about two weeks when the lambs are branded, their tails cut 
 and the males castrated, processes which are commonly known
 
 370 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 among sheepmen as "marking." Branding consists of making some 
 kind of cut or slit on the ear, using the left ear for weathers and 
 the right for ewes, which makes an easy method for separating when 
 the sheep are being prepared for shipment. In addition to this, they 
 are stamped with a letter or sign indicating the owner. This is done 
 with a liquid made of linseed oil and lampblack, or more commonly 
 one of the prepared inks, a number of which are on the market, is 
 used. Tar will answer the purpose, but it will not come out in 
 scouring, and is considered a defect in the wool. It is, however, 
 cheaper and lasts longer. Marking in this way is necessary, as the 
 bands of different sheepmen frequently get mixed together, when 
 they are taken to the nearest corral and separated by the distinguish- 
 ing brand. 
 
 After marking about 1,400 ewes are put together, which, with 
 their lambs, make a band of about 2,600. Ninety to a hundred per 
 cent of lambs is a good average for grade Shropshires and from 
 eighty to ninety per cent for Merinos in a good year. In exceptional 
 cases as high as one hundred and twenty per cent have been raised 
 on the ranges in Nevada and one hundred and twenty-five per cent 
 on pasture, as in the latter case, there is no loss from coyotes and 
 strays. In a pasture where there is no danger of becoming tied up 
 in the brush the twin lambs are frequently tied together by their 
 necks to prevent straying. If the previous winter has been a dry 
 one the number of dry ewes is greatly increased, especially if they 
 are only one and two years old. The younger the sheep the smaller 
 the percentage of lambs, as they are frequently dry and seldom pro- 
 duce twins. Sometimes a lamb will survive and its mother die, and 
 a ewe frequently loses her lamb. It is the custom, then, to take the 
 pelt off the dead lamb and put it on the motherless one, or, as it is 
 commonly called, the "bum" lamb, and give it to the ewe to bring 
 up, the pelt being removed after a few days. 
 
 The greatest loss among the lambs is caused by the coyote, not 
 less than five per cent every year and sometimes more. Although 
 many hundreds are killed during the winter by the rifle, by poison- 
 ing and with traps, yet they seem to be on the increase. They are 
 extremely prolific, having from six to eight young ones in a fitter. 
 The spring of 1903 was a remarkable one in regard to the numerous 
 losses sustained by the depredations of this animal all over the State. 
 Some sheepmen are indifferent in regard to the destruction of the 
 coyote, leaving it to the more energetic to do their work for them. 
 There is a fifty cent bounty given by the State for the scalp of every 
 coyote, but this should be increased to one dollar, as the bounty is 
 hardly sufficient for anyone to make a business of killing them. 
 
 When the lambing season is over the bands are ranged over the 
 lower areas, feeding on the spring flowers, young grass, onions, dan- 
 delions, chaenactis, phlox, carrots, hop sage, bitter brush and other 
 plants. One sheepherder is put in charge of each band of about 
 2,500 sheep. He has a "burro," or donkey, which goes with the 
 sheep and carries his bed for him, the camptender supplying the 
 camp and the necessary victuals and moving to a fresh portion of
 
 SHEEP 371 
 
 the range about every week, or when he thinks it is necessary. It is 
 the camptender's business also, to bring the salt to the sheep in the 
 mountains on pack horses. He has no time to cook meals for the 
 sheepherder, as was the custom in the Sierras, but is kept on a con- 
 tinuous journey from the main source of supplies to his two or three 
 bands over which he has charge and back again. 
 
 The bands of dry ewes and wethers are herded in the same 
 manner, two or more bands being sent to the free range country, 
 about fifty miles to the north, to compete in the struggle for feed. 
 These are brought down about the middle of August, fed on the 
 home range for a short time and shipped. Beginning usually about 
 the first of September, the ewe bands are brought into the corrals 
 and examined and the lambs separated from them. This examina- 
 tion is commonly termed "mouthing," and consists of opening the 
 mouth and observing the condition of the teeth. These sometimes 
 commence to open or they may have become worked down to the 
 gums, or some of them lost, in which case they are unable to bite 
 off the feed and cannot do well, so, if they are in condition, they are 
 shipped as soon as possible. Ewes, however, generally have a good 
 mouth until they are six or seven years old, and sometimes eight and 
 nine. The wether bands are started to be shipped about the middle 
 of August and continued until all are shipped. Those shipped be- 
 fore October the first usually go to the San Francisco market direct, 
 while those shipped after are put on alfalfa pasture in the vicinity of 
 Lovelock and later fed hay, about one hundred thousand sheep from 
 eastern Nevada being fed on the Lovelock pastures every fall. This 
 part of the enterprise is looked after by the butchers, who pay half 
 cent a head per day for pasture and six and a half dollars per ton 
 for hay, the price of the latter varying from season to season. These 
 sheep are kept for the winter market and shipped by the butchers as 
 the occasion demands. 
 
 The sheep that are to be held over during the winter are 
 usually dipped in the fall to prevent infection from the sheep scab. 
 These consist of the ewes wihich are to be used for breeding purposes 
 and the wethers that are too young to sell profitably. On account of 
 the excellent work done by the county and Government inspectors 
 the dreaded sheep scab is fast disappearing in this State. 
 
 About the first of November the bands are made ready for the 
 winter range, the ewes and wethers being separated. Generally, the 
 older ewes are bred to coarse-wooled bucks to raise mutton lambs 
 and the young ewes to smooth Merinos for wool production and 
 stock sheep. The bucks are put with the ewes while on the trail to 
 their winter quarters, remaining with them for about ten days or 
 until snow comes. 
 
 Several sheepmen usually run their bucks together during the 
 summer. In the fall they are separated by the different brands and 
 put on pasture and fed barley or oats. From this time on the sheep 
 are cared for in the large white sage valleys in the southern part of 
 the State.
 
 372 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Suggestions. Attention should be given by all sheepmen to the 
 more valuable plants on their range and a particular effort should 
 be made, not only to preserve these, but also to increase them. Plants 
 of no value, like the nettle-leaved mint and the poverty weed, should 
 be replaced by either native or introduced forage plants of value. 
 
 The fenced areas along the creeks could be made to produce 
 more grass and less of the sedges and rushes by a more scientific use 
 of the flood waters in the spring of the year. This could be done by 
 a better system of ditches and drainage, giving a more even distrib- 
 ution of the water. Much land at present receives too much water in 
 spring and none during the summer. This accounts for the great 
 preponderance of the almost worthless rush, commonly known as 
 "wire grass" (Juncus balticus), in the native hay, which can with- 
 stand these conditions, while the valuable native blue grasses must 
 have drained land. Every possible means should be used in this re- 
 gion to retain the layer of soil on the hillsides, which at best is not 
 over abundant, in order that the water, falling in the form of rains, 
 may soak up into the soil and gradually give up its moisture as un- 
 derground water for months after the rains have ceased. We well 
 know that, if the soil is removed, a hard impervious surface is the 
 result, and the rains falling on this run off rapidly, cutting gullies 
 everywhere. This problem is of the greatest importance in this re- 
 gion, as the area of land which contains forage is far in excess of the 
 amount of water remaining in the creeks during the months of 
 July, August, and September. Unlike the Sierras and other wooded 
 regions, there are few trees which are annually shedding their leaves 
 and producing a layer of spongy soil. Red top and the native clovers 
 which are not abundant here, but in similar situations in other 
 parts of the State, might be sown within the fenced areas to the 
 great improvement of the hay. Where only a moderate amount of 
 water can be obtained, the smooth brome grass (bromus inermis) 
 will prove of great value for early pasture. The wheat grasses, 
 chiefly the bunch or Western wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum) 
 and the slender wheat grass (Agropyron tenerum) are also worthy 
 of a place in these enclosed areas. 
 
 The springs should be protected from being trampled into 
 bogs by cattle, cutting down a few of the cottonwoods close by and 
 fencing in the mouth of the spring. Troughs should also be made 
 for the sheep and cattle to drink out of. 
 
 Stockmen, whether sheep or cattlemen, should own and control 
 absolutely the land over which they graze to the exclusion of all 
 others. This control should last for a long number of years, so that 
 they may get the benefits of a judicious use of their ranges. There 
 should be no free public range. The arguments given forth that by 
 the use of the free range great additions are made annually to the 
 country's wealth is a good one. This would be well and good if a 
 guarantee could be given to the people of the United States that these 
 lands would continue to produce the same amount of wealth in fu- 
 ture generations. We know that this has not been the case with the 
 ranges in Texas, Arizona, and even in our own State. An author-
 
 SHEEP 373 
 
 ity (Bui. 10, Div. of Agr. U. S. Dep. of Agr.) speaks of the condi- 
 tions in Texas as follows : "In a short time every acre of free grass 
 was stocked beyond its fullest capacity. Thousands of cattle or 
 sheep were crowded on the ranges where half the number was too 
 many. The grasses were entirely consumed; their very roots were 
 trampled into dust and destroyed. In their eagerness to get some- 
 thing for nothing speculators did not hesitate at the permanent in- 
 jury, if not total ruin, of the finest grazing country in America, 
 There is need in the first place of the enactment of more beneficient 
 lease laws to govern the use of county and State lands. Perma- 
 nency of tenure is essential, for it is only through such a condition 
 that stockmen can be made to see that it is to their own interest to 
 improve the carrying capacity of the range." 
 
 What has ruined the grazing lands in Texas is going on in 
 Nevada to-day, but to a less extent. Many of the lands which are 
 now being used without cost, if needed in future years, will not be 
 worth even the smallest amount, if the present methods of using 
 the public range continue. (Nevada B. 55.) 
 
 PASTURAGE SYSTEM FOR HANDLING RANGE SHEEP. 
 
 These pages contain the results of experimental work during 
 1909 to determine the efficiency of the pasturage system of handling 
 sheep, with a view to the best utilization of grazing lands. The 
 studies, for the most part, were conducted in the coyote-proof pas- 
 ture at Billy Meadows, in the Wallowa National Forest, Oregon. In 
 addition, observations to determine the feasibility of the pasturage 
 system for lambing ewes were made on the lambing grounds on 
 open range as well as in pasture. The coyote-proof pasture com- 
 prises 2,560 acres in the form of a square, 2 miles on a side, made 
 up of 1,300 acres of heavy timber, 400 acres of open timber, and 860 
 acres of untimbered scab land and meadows. 
 
 In these pages is discussed the durability of the coyote-proof 
 fence and the cost of maintaining it; the efficiency of the fence as a 
 protection against predatory animals, especially coyotes; the actions 
 of a band of Merino ewes with lambs sired by Shropshire rams when 
 unmolested in pasture; the effect of such a system of grazing upon 
 the sheep and upon the carrying capacity of the range ; the factors 
 that bring about the increase in weight of the sheep and the increase 
 in the carrying capacity of the range ; and a supplementary compar- 
 ative discussion of lambing ewes under the prevalent methods of the 
 herding system and lambing them in pasture. 
 
 Repairing the Fence. The cost of keeping a coyote-proof fence 
 in proper repair will depend upon the thoroughness of construction 
 and the locality in which it is built. Unless the construction work 
 is well done in every detail there will be a constant need for repair of 
 loose and broken wires and holes under the fence. On the other 
 hand, a fence constructed with proper care on an untimbered area 
 will require little attention, and the cost of maintenance during the 
 first few years will be almost negligible. In a heavily timbered area 
 the damage done will vary with the intensity of snow and wind 
 storms. Great loads of wet snow may throw a few trees; accom-
 
 374 DOMESTIC 'ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 panied by heavy wind they may throw a good many. Wind alone 
 will do little damage except during the rainy season, when the 
 ground is saturated to a considerable depth and shallow-rooted trees 
 overturn easily. 
 
 In 1908 thirty-eight trees fell across the wires along the 5 miles 
 of the coyote-proof pasture fence that runs through a heavy lodge- 
 pole and yellow pine forest. They were removed and the fence was 
 repaired at a cost of $10. An additional $10 was expended in repair- 
 ing holes made by the spring run-off and by badgers. During 1909 
 only ten trees fell across the fence. They were removed and the 
 fence repaired by one man in one and one-half days, at a cost of 
 $3.75. Badgers had dug under the wire during the fall and early 
 spring in fifteen places. This damage was repaired by driving stakes 
 into the holes and then filling in with dirt. Stakes placed close to- 
 gether will discourage coyotes from attempting to scratch out the 
 loose dirt and crawl through. The entire work of removing trees 
 and filling holes required only two days' labor for one man, at a 
 cost of $5. The cost of maintenance of the 8 miles for the first year 
 was $20; for the second year, $5. 
 
 Efficiency of the Fence Against Predatory Animals. To enable 
 the reader to recall the details of the experimental coyote-proof fence 
 at Billy Meadows, the specifications are repeated: Posts set 2% feet 
 in the ground and 16 feet apart; on the surface of the ground a 
 barbed wire; 3 inches higher a 42-inch woven-wire fence, having a 
 4-inch triangular mesh; 6 inches higher a barbed wire; 8 inches 
 above this a second barbed wire. Total height, 59 inches. 
 
 Plan of Observation. The fence was repaired between May 10 
 and May 15, before the coyotes drifted back to the summer range 
 from the winter and spring ranges below. Before the holes were 
 filled up and the gates closed the inclosure was carefully hunted with 
 hounds. The only animals tracked were bears, deer, badgers, and 
 porcupines. Coyotes had been inside, but had gone out before the 
 hounds appeared. For three days before June 22, when the sheep 
 were put in, the area was again carefully hunted for predatory ani- 
 mals. Bears had been passing through at will, and deer were still 
 inside, but no coyotes had entered, although there were many in 
 the neighborhood after June 1. 
 
 When the sheep were turned loose, June 22, the hunter began 
 his work of patrolling the fence with hounds. From that date until 
 September 27, with a few exceptions, the 8 miles of line was in- 
 spected each morning and a record made of all animals that came to 
 the pasture and the attitude of each toward the fence. This was 
 done both to protect the sheep against bears and to determine the 
 efficiency of the fence against each kind of predatory animal. 
 
 The Hounds. Without hounds it would be very difficult to de- 
 termine whether predatory animals were in the pasture or not, un- 
 less sheep were killed. Accordingly, the hunter was provided with 
 one foxhound, two mixed foxhouncl, bloodhound, and bulldog, and 
 during part of the season two dogs of staghound and foxhound breed. 
 For the work of patrolling the foxhound was relied upon almost en-
 
 CHEVIOT RAM 
 
 CHAMPION LINCOLN RAM AT ARGENTINE RURAL SOCIETIE'S SHOW, SEPTEMBER, igo8. 
 LAMBED AUG. i, 1907. SIRED BY AN IMPORTED RAM. DAM BRED IN ARGENTINA.
 
 SHEEP 
 
 377 
 
 tirely. His scent was very keen and his ability to distinguish be- 
 tween the forward track and the back track was seldom at fault. 
 
 The Trail. Any animals that came to the fence during the 
 night could be trailed on the following day if the track was reached 
 before the dew entirely evaporated. When the hounds "picked up" 
 a trail, the hunter endeavored to find out what kind of animal had 
 passed and what had been its attitude toward the fence. Occasion- 
 ally the dogs would follow a hot track for miles from the pasture. 
 On such occasions the fence inspection was completed, but a com- 
 plete record of animals could not be secured without the hounds. 
 Many trails around the fence were missed in this way. 
 
 The following, compiled from the daily reports of the hunter, 
 shows the number and kind of animals actually observed and the 
 efficiency of the coyote-proof fence as a protection against them. 
 
 Efficiency of the Fence. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Animal. 
 
 Came to 
 fence. 
 
 Got 
 
 through 
 fence. 
 
 Turned 
 away. 
 
 Killed by 
 hunter. 
 
 1909. 
 June 25-Sept. 26 
 
 
 166 
 
 o 
 
 166 
 
 7 
 
 May 1-Sept. 26 
 Do 
 
 Grizzly bear 
 
 
 4 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 3 
 
 al 
 
 JJ 
 
 June 25-Sept. 26 
 
 Lynx 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 *1 
 
 o 
 
 Do 
 
 Badgers 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Killed near pasture: no attempt to go through fence. 
 
 b Apparently no attempt to go through fence. . 
 
 c Six taken near pasture; three were cubs not killed. 
 
 Attitude of Animals Toward the Fence. Coyotes. From one 
 to five coyotes were recorded for each of eighty days out of the ninety 
 days of test. Many times they were on every side of the pasture in 
 one night, and occasionally one would follow the fence line for 5 or 
 6 miles. Seven were shot or trapped along the line between June 22 
 and September 25, yet not one passed through, over, or under tho 
 fence during the experimental period. However, when the fence was 
 repaired in May there was some indication of attempts by coyotes 
 to scratch under the wire. The animals were those that had gone 
 in on the deep snow and had found themselves inclosed when the 
 snow melted. Apparently they considered it a trap and began work- 
 ing to get out. In one place there was evidence of one having tried to 
 scratch under in five places within a space of 3 rods. Where the final 
 effort was made the hole was somewhat larger than the others, and 
 there was a good deal of fur left on the bottom barbed wire. Evi- 
 dently the animal had succeeded in forcing his way through. Later, 
 during the experimental period, June 22 to September 29, there was 
 evidence of one having attempted to scratch under from the outside, 
 but a pole nailed securely to the bottom wire on the inside was an 
 effective barrier, and the coyote turned away. This data, added to 
 observations on the depth to which coyotes often dig to find field 
 mice, leads to the belief that they can dig under such a fence. 
 Should they do so, an extra wire placed on the ground on the inside 
 face of the fence posts would, in all likelihood, keep them out. A
 
 378 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 better arrangement would be to have the extra barbed wire on the 
 outside 6 inches from the fence and just above the ground surface, 
 though this might result in injury to horses and cattle on the out- 
 side range. With the wire on the outside the coyote could not work 
 near the fence, and in either case it is doubtful if he would be per- 
 sistent enough to dig the distance that would be necessary in order 
 to go under both wires. 
 
 Loss of Sheep During the Pasture Period, June 22 to September 
 %g. September 29, 7 a. m., the experiment was closed and the sheep 
 counted and turned over to the owner. 
 
 Count turned into the pasture, June 22, 1909 1,942 
 
 Count turned into the pasture, July 6. 1909. 98 
 
 Loss during season, June 22 to September 29, 99 days : 
 
 a. By poisonous plants 
 
 Ewe (One ewe, poisoned before entering pasture, 
 
 died immediately afterwards) 1 
 
 Lambs 
 
 b. From "bluebag," ewes 2 
 
 c. On back between logs, ewe 1 
 
 d. Sickness, undetermined, lamb 1 
 
 e. For mutton 3 
 
 Total 
 
 Count when taken from the pasture September 29, 1909. . . . : 2,032 
 
 Total count 2,040 
 
 Actual loss in the pasture , 
 
 Per cent loss in the pasture 0.2 
 
 Separating into Small Bunches. In order to handle a band of 
 ewes and lambs under the pasturage system in a way best both for 
 the forage crop and for the sheep it is essential to know: First, the 
 extent to which the ewes and their lambs will naturally be separated 
 from each other and remain apart; second, to what extent the ewes 
 and their lambs may separate and remain apart without retarding 
 the growth of the lambs, or without loss of ewes from inflammation 
 of the udder, caused by an excess of milk ; and, third, to what extent 
 they should remain in small bunches in order to secure the best 
 utilization of the forage crop. 
 
 During most of the time for the first twenty days after the 
 sheep were turned loose in the pasture they were in one band. They 
 would scatter widely and occasionally separate into two or three 
 bunches for a short time during the day, but toward evening they 
 would invariably work together. Except on two occasions they were 
 together on the oed ground at night. This action, no doubt, was in 
 part due to the fact that there was no heavy timber grazing during 
 the period, but in greater degree to the tendency of each ewe to look 
 after her lamb, and to the fact that the band had not yet outgrown 
 the habits acquired while herded. As the season advanced the actions 
 of the sheep were characterized by greater freedom. The number
 
 SHEEP 379 
 
 of bunches was from 1 to 8, the number of sheep in each bunch 
 varying from 10 to 2,040 head. 
 
 After the first month the sheep were constantly coming to- 
 gether and separating again, the size of bunches varying with each 
 separation. They were seldom in one band for any length of time. 
 As soon as the lambs had been suckled they were content to wander 
 off again. During the last six weeks of the test the ewes and lambs 
 cared very little whether they were together or not. The band was 
 usually in many small bunches so widely distributed over the 2,560 
 acres that it was difficult even to keep track of them. 
 
 The number and size of bunches as well as the time that they 
 are apart will depend upon the size and topography of the inclosure, 
 the acreage and distribution of heavily forested areas, the length 
 of time that the sheep have been without a herder, the condition of 
 the forage crop, atmospheric conditions, and especially the age of the 
 lambs. 
 
 On an untimbered area the sheep would scatter widely, but 
 would seldom be apart any length of time. In a heavily forested 
 inclosure they would separate more frequently, and would not come 
 together as easily. After having been herded, it takes them some 
 time to depart from their old habits and accommodate themselves to 
 the freedom of the pasture. When the forage is plentiful and of 
 choice quality they are quickly satisfied, and the tendency to run 
 about is not so great as it is when the main crop dries and a sparse 
 growth of green grass appears in the fall. The main factor, how- 
 ever, is the tendency of each ewe to look after her lamb. This at- 
 tention on the part of the ewe gradually becomes less as the season 
 advances and the lamb becomes less dependent upon the mother 
 for support. Consequently, the tendency to separate increases. 
 
 As a rule, when a band the size of tne one on the experimental 
 area divides into small bunches many lambs are separated from their 
 mothers. Usually, however, the bunches, in grazing about, come 
 together often enough to prevent weaning the lambs and thereby 
 retarding their growth, although occasionally it was necessary to put 
 them together. During the entire month of August they were, 
 together on the bed ground only three times, yet it was thought' 
 necessary on only four occasions to drive small bunches to the main 
 band on account of the lambs. In this connection it is essential to 
 know to what extent they may remain apart without detrimental 
 effect to themselves and to the range. 
 
 The time that a ewe and her lamb may be left apart depends 
 upon the age of the lamb. For the first two days after birth he will 
 make the best progress if he is suckled at intervals not exceeding two 
 hours. The time between feeds may then gradually increase. After 
 he begins to eat green s<ucculent forage, the milk is not so necessary 
 in satisfying hunger, but is still essential to rapid growth, and ho 
 should not be away from the ewe for more than four or five hours. 
 At 4 months of age he lives for the most part upon forage, but still 
 the milk gives a roundness and beauty of growth that is not attained 
 without it. However, at this age he can go all day, and occasionally
 
 380 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 longer, without being suckled, provided there is sufficient tender for- 
 age to satisfy his needs. If these natural requirements are kept in 
 mind and judgment used in handling a band of ewes and lambs, 
 there will be little danger to the ewe from accumulation of milk, and 
 the growth of the lamb will not be retarded. 
 
 If the sheep are contented, the bunches can not be too small for 
 the good of the range. But until the lambs are from 4 to 5 months 
 old the small bunches made up of ewes whose lambs perhaps are 
 in some other bunch and lambs whose mothers are elsewhere are 
 restless after they have been separated from the band for several 
 hours. As a result they move about considerably, to the detriment 
 of both sheep and range. Toward the close of the season, when the 
 lambs are practically independent of their mothers, the small bunches 
 are contented and the destruction of forage by trampling is at a 
 minimum. The aim, always, should be to keep the sheep contented 
 and grazing quietly and openly. It may be advisable and even nec- 
 essary at times to drive small bunches to the main band. 
 
 Open Grazing. It has already been said that the sheep should 
 be contented and graze openly and quietly. Close bunched grazing, 
 massing, running, and trailing should be prevented if possible. The 
 destruction of forage by trampling is greatest when sheep are in 
 large bunches, under herders who are continually using the dogs on 
 the leaders and the "drag bunch" to make them keep pace with each 
 other. It is least when the sheep are in small bunches, each ewe with 
 her lamb at her side, grazing openly and quietly. The actions of the 
 pasture band were not ideal in this respect, but the tendency to open 
 quiet grazing was much more pronounced than under most herders, 
 and it increased as the season advanced. 
 
 During the first month the entire band was together most of the 
 time, but it spread out over so large an area and grazed so quietly 
 that the unnecessary damage due to trampling was limited to occa- 
 sional running and to trailing over pine grass areas from one choice 
 glade to another. As the season advanced the sheep grew more inde- 
 pendent of each other, were less easily frightened by any slight noise, 
 and the number of small bunches increased. As a result, close 
 bunched grazing was rare and there was very little trailing. Before 
 the experimental period closed it was almost impossible to keep them 
 close bunched without using a dog. Bunch them up and immediately 
 they would spread out in every direction. They simply would not 
 graze close bunched. 
 
 Rambling About. The distance covered by the sheep during 
 twenty-four hours varied from one-fourth mile to 2% miles, the usual 
 distance being 1 mile or less. The distance traveled varied consid- 
 erably, even under the same conditions of forage crop and atmos- 
 phere. In general, sheep travel less when the forage is choice than 
 when it is dry or scarce ; less on hot days than on cool days ; less ^in 
 timber than on the untimbered areas, and less after the lambs are in- 
 dependent of the mothers than when they are from 3 to 4 months 
 old. When the lambs are very young, of course, the ewes, if unmo-
 
 SHEEP 381 
 
 lested, will move about very little, but variations and exceptions will 
 occur in each case. 
 
 Usually, small bunches move a shorter distance than larger 
 bunches. A small bunch in some instances would graze for two or 
 three days within a radius of one-fourth mile. The larger bunches 
 would do this only when they were on a meadow area where there 
 was abundance of attractive flowering plants and clover. The shorter 
 the distance traveled, the less energy is expended, but the distance 
 covered in a day is not in itself a measure of the forage destroyed 
 by trampling or needlessly wasted as energy. A large band of sheep 
 will destroy more forage by coming together on the run, when scat- 
 tered over 100 acres of ground, than they will by quietly grazing 
 in one direction, well spread out, all day, even though they travel 2 
 miles. In the former case, twenty hoofs may strike the same plant, 
 and each hoof act as a cutting edge. When they are quietly graz- 
 ing, well spread out, few hoofs, perhaps only one, will strike a plant, 
 and the impression of the foot is almost imperceptible. The ground 
 is not packed, nor the seedlings uprooted, as by the massing. 
 
 There were times when the pastured sheep did more trailing than 
 was desirable. During the first month the scab glades were covered 
 with a luxuriant growth of succulent flowering plants, and while 
 they lasted the sheep would eat nothing else. They would sweep 
 across a small glade area, nipping off the flowers and choice leaves, 
 then trail over an area of yellow pine land to reach the next glade. 
 As a result considerable pine grass and clover was beaten down and 
 left to wilt. To some extent this damage could be eliminated if a 
 tender had been present to check the leaders in their rapid march 
 from one glade to another. Aside from this feature there was oc- 
 casional trailing from the bed ground in the morning and to it at 
 night. On the whole, however, comparatively little forage was de- 
 stroyed by trampling. 
 
 Bedding. The number of bunches in which the sheep bedded 
 varied from 1 to 5 ; that the number of bunches bedded increased as 
 the season advanced ; that the number of bunches bedded, as a rule, 
 was less than the number during the day ; that the number of beds 
 used, old and new, for a given period, increased as the season ad- 
 vanced; and that during the ninety-nine days of test, 77 different 
 beds were used. 
 
 During the first month the tendency of the sheep to assemble for 
 the night was very marked, but gradually decreased until it was 
 almost negligible at the close of the season. During the first two 
 weeks of test the band was separated at night only twice, while 
 during the entire month of August they were together at night only 
 three times. In the last two weeks of record they bedded in one 
 band five times, but during this period they were grazing an area 
 with few natural bed grounds and with barriers of dense timber that 
 the sheep would not readily pass through during the cold weather 
 of late September. Naturally, they came together at night on the 
 few suitable bedding places. _Pvjring the first week of test 4 beds
 
 382 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 were used; during the second week, 6; the third, 5; the fourth, 6; 
 and the fifth, 12. 
 
 From the observations made it is safe to conclude that when the 
 lam'bs are young the ewes will naturally come together at night, if 
 many of them have been separated from their lambs during the day ; 
 that in an inclosure similar to the coyote-proof pasture the general 
 tendency of the sheep will be to bed where night overtakes them, 
 providing the place affords a suitable bedding ground ; and, finally, 
 that, with few exceptions, the bedding under this system will prove 
 beneficial rather than detrimental to the forage crop. 
 
 In the small untimbered inclosure a band would be together 
 much more during the day, and would bed in one place and in one 
 bunch more frequently than was the case at the experimental pasture. 
 
 Number of Sheep One Man Can Care for in Pasture. It is 
 evident from the preceding discussion that sheep in pasture do not 
 require a great amount of care, provided the fence is coyote-proof. 
 They should be salted at regular intervals, not exceeding ten days, 
 preferably five days. During the period when flies are bad a few 
 sheep, though very few, will need treatment to prevent loss from 
 flyblows. Aside from this, it is essential to see that ewes and their 
 lambs do not remain too long apart during at least the first four 
 months of the lamb's life. Neither should be disturbed unless it 
 is necessary, and the need for interference should be based upon the 
 actions of both ewe and lamb, the condition of the ewe's udder, and 
 the appearance of the lamb. If contented, quiet, and making good 
 progress they should not be molested. If any of the lambs appear 
 to be gaunt and uneasy, or if there are ewes with distended udders 
 caused by excess of milk, care should be given them. No set rules 
 can be laid down to govern the shepherd in such cases. If he is 
 accustomed to handling sheep he will know immediately when his 
 flock is not doing as well as they should do. 
 
 In timbered areas the fence should be inspected frequently and 
 kept in good repair. A well-trained foxhound will aid materially 
 in ascertaining whether predatory animals have entered the inclosure. 
 He will soon learn to be quiet when near the sheep, and may be 
 allowed to follow the attendant about the pasture. If a predatory 
 animal has entered, the track usually will be crossed somewhere 
 during the rounds, and the hound will immediately make the fact 
 known. 
 
 It is probable that one energetic man, who understands the na- 
 ture of the difficulties that may arise, can properly care for four 
 inclosures similar to the experimental coyote-proof pasture, inspect- 
 ing two each day. In case of emergency, the four inclosures could 
 be looked after in one day. Under such an arrangement one man 
 would care for from 8,000 to 10,000 head of sheep. (Dep. Agr. 
 Forest Service Cir. 178.) 
 
 WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP. 
 
 Washing sheep is not nearly as prevalent as formerly. Most 
 manufacturers agree that wool which has been washed in the coun- 
 try is not as desirable as that which. has been sent to market un-
 
 SHEEP 383 
 
 washed. It is an unsatisfactory process at best, and many times the 
 country washing makes scouring at the mills more difficult. 
 
 \\'<>.->hing. After a careful investigation of the subject one is 
 convinced that, in the long run, it is more profitable to dispense with 
 washing altogether. Better results have been secured by shearing 
 sheep during the first half of April than later in the season. This, 
 of course, makes it impossible to wash sheep before shearing. A 
 heavier average fleece and also a wool of better strength may be se- 
 cured from the same flock by shearing during the first half of April 
 than by shearing in May or June. If reasonable care is taken to keep 
 the wool free from dirt and litter while on the sheep's back then 
 there is little to be gained by washing. Wool market quotations 
 show a class of unmerchantable wools. This class includes wools 
 poorly washed. A large per cent of washed wools are sold as un- 
 merchantable, at a price about equal to that of unwashed wools. 
 
 The custom of washing the sheep is of doubtful utility on ac- 
 count of injury to the sheep. Sheep are often roughly handled and 
 not infrequently more injury i<? done to the sheep than good to the 
 fleece. The sheep will suffer no inconvenience from early shearing 
 except for the first few days, if they are properly sheltered and pro- 
 tected from the cold and more especially storms. The wool makes a 
 rapid growth during the cool months of spring and the sheep is not 
 sweltering under a thick blanket of wool. In the latter case the sheep 
 is not only uncomfortable, but the wool makes but little if any 
 growth. For several years, in a majority of instances, the Eastern 
 wool markets have been better in April than in June. This would 
 give the grower, who makes a practice of early spring shearing, a 
 slight advantage as to markets. 
 
 Shearing. The best job of shearing is that which secures the 
 largest amount of wool in the best condition for market without 
 injury to the sheep. It is highly desirable that the sheep be closely 
 shorn and that there should be no second cuts. The fleece should 
 be kept intact, not torn apart, and the skin of the sheep should not 
 be wounded. 
 
 Tying Up or Packing Wool. It will be observed that, almost 
 without exception, commission men and wool dealers agree that one 
 of the greatest faults, if not the greatest fault, of wools lies in the 
 M ay they are tied, or prepared for the market. To sum up the ob- 
 jections they would be something as follows: 
 
 1. Either by neglect or intent tags and litter are often incor- 
 porated in the fleeces. 2. Too much twine of an inferior grade is 
 used. 3. The use of the wool box, which packs the fleeces into a 
 square bundle that is too compact. 
 
 Let us consider these objections. If it is understood that tags 
 refer to bunches or locks of manure which have accumulated on 
 small bits of wool about the thighs and hocks, then by all means 
 they should be left out of the fleece, and either sold separately, as 
 tags, for what they will bring or used as manure. Breeders of fine 
 wool sheep who have thoroughly washed and dried the tags then put 
 a handful or so in each fleece. There is no great objection to this,
 
 384 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 providing the tags are well washed and thoroughly dry. It is be- 
 lieved, however, that it would be more businesslike to sell the washed 
 tags separately, as the wool will never be as valuable as the rest of 
 the fleece. It is perfectly legitimate to tie up all the wool that grows 
 on the sheep in the fleece, provided that the wool is free from all 
 foreign substances which would add to the natural weight of the 
 fleece. 
 
 There are two distinct classes of growers who put tags into the 
 fleece. The first class includes growers who put tags into the fleece 
 either through absolute carelessness or with the evident intent of 
 deceiving the buyer. For such one should have no sympathy and 
 one has reason to believe this class of men is small. The second class 
 includes growers who are progressive and business like. This state- 
 ment sounds inconsistent, but it is not. These men have cut out 
 tags and litter very carefully, it may be for two or three years, they 
 have observed that, as a rule, they get no more for their wool than 
 the men who put tags and all into their fleeces. This suggests that 
 buyers are not careful enough in recognizing careful painstaking 
 methods on the part of the progressive growers. Buyers know the 
 extra value of clean wool. Let them encourage the honest, painstak- 
 ing growers in a substantial manner by giving more per pound for 
 their wool, a thing which they can well afford to do. Let them, at 
 the same time, discriminate against wool carelessly tied, or that con- 
 tains chaff, burrs and other litter. Until buyers rigidly adhere to 
 the above policy there can be but little improvement expected among 
 wool growers. 
 
 The second and third objections are so closely associated that it 
 is difficult to separate the two in a discussion of them. If the reader 
 has carefully read the foregoing pages he will have a very definite 
 idea in regard to the way the local dealers, commission men and 
 manufacturers consider the present methods of growers in tying up 
 their wool. (Mich. B. 178.) 
 
 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD FLEECE. 
 
 The modern mutton sheep must also be a wool producer. Our 
 future wool supply must come largely from sheep grown primarily 
 for mutton. It is essential, then, that a mutton sheep have a good 
 fleece as well as a good carcass. This combination is both prac- 
 ticable and profitable ; and it is no longer regarded necessary to grow 
 one sheep for a fleece, another for a carcass, and another for a lamb. 
 The intelligent flock-master combines them all in one class. Some 
 of the best mutton sheep are producing as profitable fleeces as those 
 kept exclusively for wool, and their lambs are decidedly superior. 
 One of the first essentials in a good fleece is compactness or density. 
 This quality not only insures a better yield of wool, but it affords 
 better protection against storm and indicates a hardier animal, 
 better able to withstand exposure. A 'dose, even, dense fleece with 
 no breaks should cover all parts of the body, including the head, 
 limbs, and under parts. The tendency in improvement of the 
 wool-producing qualities of all modern breeds has been toward car- 
 rying the fleece more completely over the head, face, limbs, and
 
 SHEEP 385 
 
 lower line. The advantage is not so much in the increased yield of 
 wool grown on these parts, as that is of little consequence, but in 
 the accompanying tendency to a larger and better yield of wool in 
 all parts. A barefaced and barelegged sheep is always a relatively 
 light shearer, and in contrast with this the sheep wooled from the 
 eyes to the toes always yields a heavy fleece and the wool is gener- 
 ally of a better quality than from those having a scanty covering. 
 Fineness, length, and strength of fiber are essential qualities in 
 a good fleece that should always have prominent consideration in the 
 selection of breeding stock, as these qualities largely determine the 
 market value. Neglect or undue exposure of the flock, a period of 
 sickness, or anything that induces unthrift and impaired vitality 
 invariably results in diminishing both the length and strength of 
 the fiber. Well fed sheep always produce the most and best wool. 
 Softness and pliancy of wool usually correspond in degree with fine- 
 ness. Harshness and dryness are always detrimental to the quality, 
 even if the fiber is otherwise good. As a rule, this condition may be 
 taken as an indication of poor breeding, although it may be due to 
 disease, old age, or improper treatment. Generally, a fleece begins 
 to decline in value and yield after a sheep becomes 4 years old. Soft- 
 ness and pliancy are to a considerable extent due to the secretions 
 of the skin. A clear pink or yellowish skin is an indication of a 
 good quality of wool, while a pale or bluish skin is generally accom- 
 panied by an inferior fleece. The yolk is the oily secretion which 
 gives color, softness, pliancy, and luster to the fleece. The composi- 
 tion of the yolk consists of a soapy matter, principally animal oil 
 and potash, which promotes the growth of the fleece and prevents 
 friction, wearing of the fibers, and cotting. Good feeding, shelter, and 
 care promote liberal secretion of yolk, while exposure and alkali 
 soils result in injury to wool by diminishing the yolk. The secre- 
 tions are always more abundant under high temperature, hence 
 blanketing and confinement in close, warm quarters will stimulate 
 the production and insure a finer fiber. A liberal secretion of yolk 
 is favorable to the production of a good fleece, but the yolk should 
 be clear and transparent and not too thick and gummy. In addi- 
 tion to these qualities, a fleece should possess the properties of even- 
 ness and uniformity; this refers to covering, density, and quality. 
 A good fleece should be as nearly uniform in all parts as practicable. 
 Avoid the fleeces that run to coarse, kempy fibers at the thighs and 
 along the lower line. The best grade and quality of wool is found 
 on the rear part of the shoulder, and the nearer all other parts of 
 the fleece measure up to this standard in length and fineness of fiber 
 the higher will be its value. Wrinkles or folds of the skin about the 
 neck or other parts of the body are detrimental, as the wool that 
 grows within these folds is unlike the other parts of the fleece, and 
 there is a consequent lack of uniformity. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 96.) 
 
 MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP. 
 
 Mutton Sheep. All sheep and lambs sent to market for slaugh- 
 ter, no matter what the condition, age, or weight, are classed as 
 mutton sheep. Of the various sub-classes, the one known as lambs
 
 386 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 is by far the most important, due to the fact that the producer can 
 most profitably market his sheep as lambs and also that lamb is 
 preferred to mutton by the consumer. However, mature mutton 
 sheep will always be a feature on the market because it is the chan- 
 nel of disposal for surplus and spent breeding stock. 
 
 Mutton sheep upon the Chicago market are either slaughtered 
 at the Chicago packing houses or reshipped, principally to Phila- 
 delphia, New York, Baltimore, Washington and Buffalo. These 
 live shipments are usually made up of choice grades. The sheep 
 slaughtered in Chicago are disposed of locally and by shipments 
 to other consuming centers. The following sub-classes mark the 
 divisions under which mutton sheep are graded: LAMBS, YEAR- 
 LINGS, WETHERS, EWES, BUCKS and STAGS. 
 
 Classes. 
 
 OUTLINE. 
 
 Sub-Classes. 
 
 Lambs 
 
 Yearlings 
 
 MUTTON SHEEP 
 
 (Native and Western Sheep) 
 
 Ewes 
 
 FEEDER SHEEP 
 (Western Sheep) 
 
 Lambs 
 
 Yearlings 
 
 Wethers 
 
 Ewes 
 
 Grades. 
 
 f Prime 
 Choice 
 jGood 
 I Medium 
 [Common or Culls 
 
 r Prime 
 
 J Choice 
 
 [Good 
 
 Prime 
 I Choice 
 ] Good 
 I Common 
 
 rPrime 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Medium 
 Common or Culls 
 
 {Choice 
 Good 
 Common 
 
 Fancy Selected 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Medium 
 
 Common 
 
 Choice 
 
 Common 
 
 r Choice 
 I Good 
 ~j Medium 
 [ Common 
 
 (Choice 
 Good 
 Medium 
 Common
 
 SHEEP 387 
 
 OUTLINE CONTINUED. 
 
 BREEDING SHEEP 
 
 (Native and Western Sheep) 
 
 (Fancy Selected 
 Choice 
 Good 
 Common 
 (Not graded) 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Hot House Lambs 
 Export Sheep 
 Throw-outs 
 Dead Sheep 
 Goats 
 
 Lambs. It is estimated by traders upon the Chicago market 
 that at least eighty per cent of the sheep received at that place are 
 lambs. This observation in part confirms the current statement that 
 mutton production has become very largely a lamb proposition. As 
 stated in the discussion under Mutton Sheep, both the producer and 
 the consumer prefer lambs to older sheep. They are preferred by 
 the producer because they make cheaper gains than sheep, and by 
 the consumer because they are more palatable and more convenient 
 to use. 
 
 At from twelve to fourteen months of age lambs pass into the 
 yearling and ewes classes. But it is the degree of maturity the young 
 animal has attained rather than a set, definite age which determines 
 whether or not it belongs to the lamb class. Native lambs usually 
 reach maturity at an earlier age than western lambs because they 
 receive a greater abundance of feed, and they are generally free 
 from Merino blood. Let it be understood that the above statement is 
 no disparagement to Merino blood. The most important factors in 
 determining the grade to which lambs belong are form, quality, con- 
 dition and weight, and the grades recognized on the market are 
 Prime, choice, good, medium, common or culls. 
 
 Prime Lambs. It is understood that when lambs are graded as 
 prime they are the very best of the class that may be generally ex- 
 pected on the market. Prime lambs are taken largely for fancy city 
 market, hotel and restaurant trade. Such lambs are practically 
 above criticism in quality, condition and weight. They are usually 
 secured by sorting the best out of a band. This is especially true 
 of native lambs where the offerings in one shipment are likely 
 to be very uneven. Before a lamb is graded as prime it is determined 
 by sight and touch that it possesses the form, quality, condition and 
 weight demanded by the dealer in high-class mutton. 
 
 The butcher demands the form that shows the most develop- 
 ment in the loin, back, and leg of mutton. He demands develop- 
 ment in these regions because they are the parts from which the 
 high priced cuts are secured. The animal should show a great 
 deal of depth and .breadth and no tendency to be paunchy, because 
 pnunchiness adds to the percentage of waste in slaughtering. The 
 prime lamb should present a general fullness and smoothness of out- 
 line, both of which indicate thickness and evenness of flesh.
 
 388 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 The degree of development in this characteristic is one of the 
 most important in determining the value of fat lambs. General 
 quality is indicated by a medium sized, clean cut head, ears of fine 
 texture, and fine, but strong bone, a light pelt, and full, well-rounded 
 outlines. All these suggest a freedom from that coarseness which 
 adds to the waste in dressing, and the unattractiveness which works 
 against the value of the carcass. Of the items of general quality 
 enumerated, lightness of pelt is the most essential. By pelt is meant 
 the skin and wool combined. To secure a pelt of light weight, the 
 skin should be comparatively thin and free from folds or wrinkles, 
 and the wool should not be very dense or oily. 
 
 The terms quality and condition are frequently used inter- 
 changeably on the market, and chiefly because the quality of flesh 
 is largely dependent upon condition. By condition is meant the 
 degree of fatness of a lamb. The reasons why a lamb should be fat 
 are (a) Other things being equal, there will not be as high a per- 
 centage of offal as in the half fat, or the thin lamb; (b) the fat adds 
 to the attractiveness of the carcass, and thus makes it more inviting 
 to the purchaser; (c) the comparatively fat carcass loses less in weight 
 in the process of cooling out in the refrigerator and also in cooking ; 
 (d) some fat on the outside of the lean meat and a considerable 
 amount deposited through it adds to its palatability by making it 
 more juicy and of better flavor. 
 
 Desirable quality of flesh is indicated by firmness along the 
 back, at the loins, over the sides and at the leg of mutton. Hard QS 
 a board is a favorite phrase with many sheepmen to describe a back 
 having desirable quality of flesh. 
 
 Weight is a factor that varies somewhat with the different sea- 
 sons in the year, but in general, the lamb of prime quality and con- 
 dition and weighing 80 pounds sells at the highest price. When 
 spring lambs first appear on the market they weigh little more 
 than 60 pounds, but if they have the quality and finish they easily 
 command top prices. During the summer months consumers of 
 mutton desire small cuts because they do not eat large quantities of 
 meat in warm weather, and this gives rise to a strong demand for 
 lambs ranging in weight from 65 to 70 pounds. There never is a 
 time, however, when lambs weighing 80 pounds will not sell as 
 prime, provided they are prime in form, quality, and condition. 
 
 Choice Lambs. This is the grade that includes by far the 
 greater number of the better offerings upon the Chicago market. 
 To grade as choice, lambs cannot fall below the requirements for 
 prime lambs to any marked degree. They must have the form, 
 quality, and condition that make them desirable as mutton of a 
 high class. They usually fail to sell as prime lambs because they 
 are not quite up to the standard in quality, condition, or weight. 
 While lambs frequently fail to grade higher than choice because of 
 their quality or their weight, a lack in condition is most often the 
 retarding factor. 
 
 Good Lambs. Upon the market, buyers and salesmen often 
 prefer to speak of a band of lambs as being good to choice rather
 
 SHEEP 389 
 
 than using either of the terms separately to describe them. This 
 doubtless is partly due to the un evenness in bands of lam'bs, which 
 suggests two grades rather than one. If there is a pronounced un- 
 evenness in an offering, that alone is sufficient to prevent them grad- 
 ing better than good. But the individual lamb must be noticeably 
 deficient in form, quality, condition or weight, or slightly deficient 
 in each, thus making a lower grade through a combination of de- 
 ficiencies. In discussing the choice grade it was pointed out that 
 condition is the factor in which most lambs in that grade fall short 
 of prime, but in the grade under consideration a lack of quality is 
 almost as frequently apparent as lack of condition. No matter how 
 much fat they may have, lambs having heavy pelts, as evidenced 
 by folds or wrinkles over the body, rarely grade higher than good. 
 
 Medium Lam, bs^ Lambs of this grade do not have, by a great 
 deal, the condition and quality necessary in the prime lamb. It is 
 in this grade more than any discussed above that faulty form is ap- 
 parent. Long, loosely coupled bodies, with little spring of rib, and 
 rough outlines are frequently seen. Because they are coarse, under- 
 finished, and often paunchy, they do not dress a high percentage, 
 and what they do produce is without sufficient fat to meet favor with 
 dealers who handle high class mutton. Only the coarser, heavier 
 pelted western lambs are found in this grade, as the smoother, tidier 
 range lambs in underfinished condition are sold to go to the country 
 as feeders. 
 
 Common or Cull Lambs. Lambs are in this grade chiefly be- 
 cause they are very far below that condition of flesh that would make 
 them desirable for mutton. Coarse, ill-shaped lambs commonly be- 
 long to this grade, but not unless they are noticeably lacking in 
 quality of flesh and amount of fat. Offerings in this grade are very 
 light in weight, the range, with the one exception, as noted below, 
 being from 30 to 50 pounds. Occasionally very young native lambs 
 reach the market that have enough quality and" condition to place 
 them in a higher grade, but because of their very light weight and 
 tender age they must sell as common lambs. 
 
 Yearlings. Yearlings are used as a substitute for lambs in the 
 meat trade. The ability of the animal to substitute in this way de- 
 pends upon its weight, quality, condition, and immaturity. An in- 
 dex greatly depended upon for identifying the carcass of a young 
 sheep, or lamb, is what is known as the break joint, which is found 
 immediately above the pastern joint. The leg easily severs at the 
 break joint, leaving a reddish, porous, indented surface over which 
 there is a slight, viscid like secretion easily noticeable to the touch. 
 The presence of this joint in the live animal is best determined by 
 feeling just above the pastern joint for a bony-like prominence, 
 which is a true indication of it. It disappears when the sheep be- 
 comes mature, and a sheep that does not have it cannot class as a 
 yearling. The yearling class is composed exclusively of wethers 
 because the break joint disappears in ewes at about the time they pass 
 out of the lamb class. The grades are: Prime, choice, good.
 
 390 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Prime Yearlings. Yearlings, to grade as prime, must be 
 highly developed in form, quality, and condition, and of a light, 
 handy weight, which ranges from 70 to 90 pounds. The form of the 
 prime yearling embodies symmetry, compactness, roundness, and 
 smoothness with no suggestion of uneven lines or prominent parts. 
 as with prime lambs, so with yearlings, a high dressed percent- 
 age is demanded, and this is not possible with the animal having very 
 coarse features and a heavy pelt. 
 
 Choice Yearlings. Since it is difficult to secure the most de- 
 sirable form, quality, condition, and weight combined in one animal, 
 choice yearlings out-number those of the prime grade. Any notice- 
 able departure from what is considered prime in any of the above 
 characteristics is sufficient to place a yearling in the choice grade. 
 During the winter season when the offerings of sheep are almost 
 wholly grain fattened the greater number of yearlings are in prime 
 condition, but at all times there are offerings that are not of the most 
 desirable form, quality, and weight. Those of more than 90 pounds 
 weight, although they may be in prime condition, rarely grade bet- 
 ter than choice. 
 
 Good Yearlings. With a few scattered exceptions this is the 
 lowest grade of yearlings offered as mutton. Undesirable quality, 
 weight, or condition or a combination of deficiencies in any two or 
 all three of the above will, if readily apparent, place a yearling in 
 the good grade. Yearlings of 110 pounds and upAvards rarely grade 
 better than good, even though they be prime in every other respect. 
 Ill form, general coarseness, and undue weight of pelt are all serious 
 objections and those having such defects are nearly always placed 
 in this grade. 
 
 Wethers. This sub-class is composed of mature castrated 
 males. Since comparatively few native wethers appear upon the 
 market, this class is looked upon as chiefly a western product. It is 
 claimed that there are fewer wethers reaching the markets each 
 year, and if the demand for dressed lamb continues to grow at its 
 present pace, and if transportation lines are extended through all 
 range districts as present indications would lead us to suppose they 
 will be, it is felt that the proportionate number of wethers will con- 
 tinue to decrease. Just now the rangeman has place for wethers if 
 his location is such that the shipment of animals is difficult and ex- 
 pensive ; if he has very cheap grazing lands, and can produce his ani- 
 mals at very low cost ; or if he has too few breeding sheep to run his 
 ranch at its full capacity. 
 
 As a mutton product, wethers are desired in hotel, restaurant, 
 dining car. and steamship trade, or in any place where the com- 
 paratively heavier cuts may be used to advantage. The following 
 grades include the offerings appearing on the markets: Prime, 
 choice, good, common. 
 
 Prime Wethers. The same conformation, quality, and condi- 
 tion are demanded in prime wethers that have already been noted 
 as characteristic of prime yearlings. The most desirable weights 
 range from 95 to 110 pounds, and are popularly known as light,
 
 SHEEP 391 
 
 handy weights. However, wethers weighing 140 pounds and up- 
 wards frequently grade as prime if their heavy weight is accompan- 
 ied by desirable conformation, quality and condition. These prime 
 heavy wethers are selected for export and for a limited demand in a 
 few large cities, notably Chicago, New York and Boston. 
 
 Choice Wethers. Choice wethers must possess quality and con- 
 dition to a marked degree. Quality in this instance applies more 
 particularly to lightness of pelt and to freedom from paunchineca 
 than to coarseness of features. Wethers of this grade must also come 
 under the light, handy or the heavy weights. Choice wethers are 
 used in the same way as prime wethers, and both are sought by 
 dealers in high class mutton. 
 
 Good Wethers. Good wethers are characterized by coarseness 
 and lack of prime condition. They do not command the highest 
 prices because they dp not dress a high percentage of marketable 
 meat, nor yield a quality of mutton satisfactory to a high class trade. 
 
 Common Wethers. This grade is made up of wethers of in- 
 ferior quality and in perceptibly underfinished condition. But for 
 their undesirable quality they would sell as feeders. They help to 
 supply a cheap city trade. 
 
 Ewes. This sub-class is composed of yearling ewes, surplus 
 breeding ewes, and those no longer useful for breeding purposes. As 
 these different sources indicate, there are wide differences in the age, 
 condition, and weight of the various offerings of ewes appearing on 
 the market. 
 
 Ewes do not sell on a par with wethers, because they have, pro- 
 portionately, a greater percentage of offal and a smaller amount of 
 lean meat. Except in times of urgent demand for mutton, prime 
 wethers sell for at least fifty cents per hundred-weight more than 
 prime ewes. However, when the demand for mature mutton is 
 strong the difference is often no more than twenty-five cents. The 
 higher grades of ewes are used by dealers in high-class mutton for 
 hotel and restaurant trade, but they, of course, are not as desirable 
 as the better grades of wethers. They function somewhat as a supple- 
 ment to wethers. The lower grades are used in cheap city trade and 
 in districts such as mining camps, where there is a call for cheap 
 mutton. Ewos are graded as follows: Prime, Choice, Good, Medium, 
 Common or Culls. 
 
 Prime Ewes. Smooth, highly finished native and western year- 
 ling ewes, and a very small number of well-bred, aged native ewes 
 of prime quality and in prime condition, comprise the offerings in 
 this grade. Since the bulk of yearling ewes are sold for breeding 
 purposes the total offerings of prime ewes are small. Prime yearling 
 ewes may be not entirely above criticism in quality and condition, 
 but because they are light in weight, they meet with ready sale. The 
 strongest demand is for weights not greater than 100 pounds. How- 
 ever, large, smooth, aged ewes in prime condition sell as prime ewes. 
 The supply of such ewes is meager and they go to a trade that could 
 not handle manv of them.
 
 392 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Choice Ewes. Ewes of this grade must show development to a 
 high degree in form, quality and condition, as they are placed to the 
 same use as prime ewes. They may be slightly faulty in quality, 
 condition or weight, but they are usually criticised for their lack 
 either of quality or condition. Grain-fattened western ewes fre- 
 quently sell as choice. 
 
 Good Ewes. Good ewes are appreciably open to criticism in 
 condition and often in quality. In most seasons of the year, ewes, 
 choice in condition and quality but of the unhandy weights, ranging 
 from 115 to 130 pounds, are also placed in this grade. 
 
 Medium Ewes. Underfinished condition and advanced age are 
 usually evident in this grade. Often ewes and their lambs are sent 
 to market together. Ewes in such shipments are frequently too low 
 in condition to be above the medium grade. The mutton from this 
 grade goes to supply a cheap trade. 
 
 Common or Cull Ewes. Offerings of this grade are pronounced 
 in their lack of condition. Toothless old ewes, too decrepit to make 
 use of feed and thus regain desirable condition, are slaughtered for 
 the cheapest class of trade. As the winter season advances a number 
 of ewes appear on the market well advanced in pregnancy. Such 
 ewes, although they may 'be of choice quality .and condition, sell as 
 common ewes because of their high percentage of waste and the ill 
 effects pregnancy is said to have upon the color of the carcass. 
 
 Feeder Sheep. It must be obvious to everyone that the one 
 thing which determines whether a sheep or lamb belongs to the feeder 
 class, is condition. "Whenever sheep are too low in condition to suit 
 the needs of the packer they fall into the feeder class, unless they be 
 extremely coarse in quality or weakened in vitality because of dis- 
 ease or advanced age. 
 
 The heavy run of feeder sheep occurs in the months of Septem- 
 ber, October and November, when rangemen are reducing their 
 flocks and preparing for the winter months. However buyers are 
 constantly looking for thrifty, underfinished stuff and a limited 
 number of feeder sheep go out from the markets every week in the 
 year. As the shearing season approaches buyers of feeders from 
 Michigan, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois make strong bids for well 
 wooled lambs. Such lambs usually make large gains immediately 
 after being shorn, and thus are made prime in condition in a short 
 period. 
 
 Practically all the sheep sold as feeders .are grown on the west- 
 ern ranges. Occasionally a few natives are taken out as feeders but 
 so rarely and in such small numbers that they cannot be listed as 
 belonging to the feeder class. Experience has taught sheep feeders 
 that the thin natives on our large markets are, for reasons already 
 mentioned, rarely profitable in the feed-lot. 
 
 The following are the recognized sub-classes of feeder sheep: 
 Lambs, Yearlings, Wethers, Ewes. 
 
 Feeder Lambs. Feeder lambs are those thin in flesh left after 
 sorting out those in a band in suitable condition for the mutton 
 trade. A great percentage of the feeder lambs reaching the markets
 
 CHAMPION LINCOLN RAM. DEPT. OF AGR. 1907. 
 
 Cn \MPIOX RAMBOUILLET RAM. DEPT. OF AGR.

 
 SHEEP 395 
 
 fall into that class because of certain influences under which they 
 have been placed. It may be that they have had an unequal chance 
 with those in highest condition in the band on account of not being 
 so well nourished by their dams; they may have been born too late 
 to reach that degree of condition, finish, and weight demanded by 
 the packer; or, they may have been held too long at the shipping 
 place on the range or on the road by poor train service without the 
 necessary amount of feed, so that the deterioration in condition 
 placed what would have been mutton lambs in the feeder class. The 
 grades recognized on the market are : Fancy Selected, Choice, Good, 
 Medium, Common or Inferior. 
 
 BREEDING SHEEP. 
 
 This class includes both native and western ewes in about equal 
 proportions. Breeding bucks are exclusively natives. 
 
 The ewes most sought after are two, three and four-year-old, 
 dark faced natives in ordinary field condition. Dark faced ewes 
 sell better than those that are otherwise their equals, because their 
 lambs, being dark faced sell better than light faced lambs on the 
 eastern markets. Western ewes are very popular for breeding pur- 
 poses in certain localities, as Ohio, Michigan, and western New York, 
 and many engaged in the trade think they should be preferred over 
 natives because they are more hardy and comparatively free from 
 internal parasites. Many of the ewes offered for breeding purposes 
 are yearlings, but they are not as desirable as two or three-year-old 
 ewes because they are immature and likely to be unsatisfactory as 
 mothers at their first lambing. The native yearling is heavier and 
 more nearly mature than the western yearling and she meets with 
 a correspondingly better sale. The offerings on the market come 
 under the following grades : Fancy Selected, Choice, Good, Common. 
 
 Fancy Selected Breeding Ewes. Only a few of the breeding 
 ewes sold out of the market can be regarded as Fancy Selected. Oc- 
 casionally an order is placed for a small number of fancy ewes. 
 These are secured by making individual selections from different 
 shipments of native ewes coming to the market, and it may take sev- 
 eral days to get together a shipment. Such ewes are high grade of 
 some of the Down breeds, usually Shropshire, and in addition to 
 being thrifty and sound, they are uniform in quality, conformation, 
 fleece and style. Ewes of this grade are, as a rule, in higher condi- 
 tion than any other offerings of breeding ewes because consideration 
 for the requirements demanded makes it necessary to disregard high 
 condition which most purchasers would rather secure through cheap 
 feeding. 
 
 Choice Breeding Ewes. Since the greater number of the more 
 desirable breeding ewes are in this grade a detailed description is 
 undertaken. The selection of choice ewes is based upon form, con- 
 stitution, age, soundness, breeding, quality, and condition. 
 
 As stated above, the most desirable ages are two, three and four 
 years, and more particularly two and three years. When breeding 
 ewes go to the country it is the thought of the purchaser that they 
 are to produce, on the average, three crops of lambs before they aro
 
 396 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sent back to the market as old. mutton ewes; hence, if the age is any 
 greater than four years the ability to produce profitably for three 
 years is very doubtful. 
 
 Soundness refers to the condition of the mouth and udder. A 
 broken mouth, which means missing teeth or teeth worn down short, 
 indicates advanced age and although ewes may otherwise look desir- 
 able for breeding purposes they cannot grade as choice if the teeth 
 are not intact. It is necessary that the choice breeding ewe have a 
 sound udder and it is pronounced sound when it is soft and pliable 
 to the touch without abnormal development on either side. Any ewe 
 not having a sound udder should be rejected as a breeder, but in the 
 good and common grades some carelessness is exhibited in this re- 
 spect. 
 
 The breeding most sought after is some one of the Down breeds, 
 chiefly because of the dark color upon the face and legs. Early in 
 the season of the breeding ewe trade, when Kentucky, Tennessee and 
 Virginia are taking large numbers of breeding ewes, color has a pro- 
 nounced influence upon the desirability of a ewe. Of two ewes, one 
 with light markings and the other with dark, but equal in all other 
 respects, the one with dark markings is placed a grade higher than 
 the other. It is also desirable that the breeding of choice ewes be 
 such that they have abundant fleeces of medium wool, which means 
 that the wool be of medium fineness and length, dense and evenly 
 covering all parts of the body. Since they are to remain in the 
 country for three seasons the quality and quantity of wool they pro- 
 duce is no inconsiderable item. 
 
 The smooth, low set, symmetrical ewe is preferred over the an- 
 gular, upstanding ewe with uneven top and lower lines. Since the 
 breeding ewe is to produce and nourish lambs it is essential that she 
 be deep and wide in the chest, and that she have a roomy middle, all 
 of which indicates that she has a strong constitution and well devel- 
 oped assimilative powers. Choice ewes, unlike fancy selected, do not 
 necessarily have to be of stylish carriage. 
 
 Choice breeding ewes should have smooth, rather refined fea- 
 tures and bone of medium size. Ewes of this grade are used to pro- 
 duce choice a.nd prime lambs for the spring and early summer mar- 
 kets, and without a great deal of general quality, they could scarcely 
 fulfill their mission. It is well to distinguish between good general 
 quality and over-refinement, as delicate, over-refined ewes are with- 
 out sufficient constitution to be profitable producers. 
 
 While choice breeding ewes should be thrifty and active, fat 
 is not desirable as the purchaser prefers to place these ewes on pas- 
 ture and cheap forage feeds, which will secure the condition desired 
 at a lower cost than the price demanded on the market. Breeding 
 ewes are somewhat like feeder lambs in that they are the result of a 
 sort where those ewes of desirable form, quality, breeding, age, 
 soundness, and thrift, but somewhat lower than mutton condition 
 are selected out from those that are fatter and desirable for mutton. 
 
 Good Breeding Ewes. Several factors combined cause breeding 
 ewes to grade as good, such as undesirable markings, age, weight,
 
 SHEEP 397 
 
 conformation and condition. Very often ewes of this grade are 
 shipped from the Chicago market to parties in the country who act 
 as dealers, and these dealers divide the shipment into small lots and 
 sell them to the fanners. In this way small uniform lots may be 
 secured and some of these lots may grade as choice, while others 
 would grade as common, and still others would grade as good. 
 
 Common Breeding Ewes. The general run of this grade show 
 no single line of breeding. In many instances they are so noticeably 
 advanced in age that it is evident their stay in the country as pro- 
 ducers will be short. Perhaps there is no better way to define this 
 grade than to say they are on the border line between breeders and 
 feeders, and fortunately they are not sold in any considerable num- 
 bers as breeders. 
 
 Breeding Bucks. While the rams sold out of Chicago market 
 as breeders vary in age, weight, and markings, there are no recog- 
 nized grades. Those most sought after are dark faced, smooth, low 
 set, vigorous looking rams of a year or more in age. In times of 
 great scarcity ram lambs are taken out for breeding purposes. In- 
 spection of rams selected for breeding out of the open market re- 
 veals the fact that the greater percentage show undesirable form and 
 a mixture of breeding. It is unnecessary to point out to intelligent 
 breeders the effects of mating grade ewes with sires of the type gen- 
 erally found on the open market. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Hot House Lambs (Spring Lambs) . The term hot house lambs 
 refers to those produced early and marketed before the general run 
 of spring lambs start to market, which is about May 20. A few 
 shipments of these lambs reach the Chicago market but they are 
 called spring lambs, not hot house lambs, and they do not sell as 
 well correspondingly as the same kind of lambs do on the eastern 
 markets. Those who specialize in producing hot house lambs usually 
 contract them to be sent in small shipments of dressed carcasses di- 
 rect to the retailer or commission man. This is probably the most 
 advantageous way to market them because they are slaughtered be- 
 fore they are old enough to ship well alive and are sold per head 
 and not per pound. Hot house lambs are most in demand from 
 Christmas until Easter. They must be fat and weigh between 40 and 
 55 pounds alive. 
 
 Export Sheep. Most of the sheep selected for export are the 
 heaviest of their class. They are usually in prime condition and of 
 the choice grade. Wethers are preferred, but ewes, yearlings, and 
 lambs are also taken, hence the term export cannot be said to apply 
 to any particular sub-class of mutton sheep. Many buyers use the 
 term freely to designate whether?, yearling?, ewes, and lambs heavy 
 in weight and prime in condition whether they be taken for export 
 or not. 
 
 Throw-Outs. This is a term applied to lambs rejected as 
 feeders. After a band of lambs has been divided into the mutton 
 and feeder classes, the purchaser of the feeder end usually has the 
 privilege of rejecting those not suitable for feeding purposes. Lame
 
 398 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 lambs, those appearing unthrifty, entire males, those large enough to 
 be suspiciously near the short yearling age, and frequently black 
 lambs, make up the rejections. Black lambs are not always rejected, 
 but a number of Ohio and Michigan feeders object to them because 
 they make the band of lambs less uniform in appearance. 
 
 Throw-outs sell late when most of the sales for the day have 
 been affected. There are but few of them and these few are not 
 uniform in weight and condition. They are never fat enough to 
 be turned into other than a cheap grade of mutton. All these sur- 
 rounding circumstances make them the quest of small city butchers 
 who cater to a cheap trade. Throw-outs are often called "rejects," 
 but they are never known as culls or by any of the terms which 
 denominate the grades under the regular classification. Sometimes 
 they sell on a basis of cull lamb prices; at other times, upon that 
 for medium lambs. 
 
 Dead Sheep. These are sheep that meet with death in transit. 
 Losses are greatest in warm weather when deaths are frequent if 
 close crowding in the car is practiced. Native shippers often experi- 
 ence a loss of sheep in transit by making them part of a mixed load 
 with either swine or cattle. They usually try to guard against such 
 losses by partitioning ihe sheep off to themselves, but the bumping 
 of the car in switching often breaks down the partition by throwing 
 the animals against it. 
 
 Dead sheep have a value chiefly for their wool. The best are 
 worth twenty-five cents per head. It is claimed that fifty per cent 
 of them are worthless on account of the wool being mangled and 
 trampled off. 
 
 Goats. Goats are sold for slaughter provided they are in good 
 condition, but they do not sell on a par with sheep. Only a few are 
 sold on the Chicago market, and hence they are not graded. If 
 they are too thin in condition to sell for slaughter, they are sold 
 to go to the country to browse over brush lands. This demand is 
 very uncertain, and offerings for this purpose are frequently held 
 for several days before they can be sold. (111. B. 129.) 
 
 Judging Fat Sheep. It is the ultimate aim of all breeders of 
 mutton sheep to produce that type best suited to fill the demands of 
 the butcher. The main feature demanded in a sheep by dealers in 
 high-class mutton are, proper age and weight, form, condition, and 
 quality. Each of these features will now be taken up separately and 
 discussed. These discussions will aim to give instructions on (a) 
 what constitutes the ideal; (b) how to examine the parts to deter- 
 mine how nearly they approach the ideal; and (c) some of the more 
 common faults or defects that are often present and should be dis- 
 counted in determining the true merit of the individual. Therefore, 
 we will first take up a detailed description of that type and in con- 
 nection with this give directions as to the best method of examina- 
 tion to secure a definite idea whether or not the animal fulfills all the 
 requirement of the fat sheep as indicated in the butcher's or market's 
 ideal. This ideal is represented in the score card.
 
 SHEEP 
 
 399 
 
 MUTTON SHEEP. 
 
 SCORE CARD. 
 
 FAT. 
 
 SCALE OP POINTS. 
 
 Stan- 
 dard 
 
 Points Deficient 
 
 Judge's 
 Score 
 
 Cor- 
 rected 
 
 
 8 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 5 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 
 GENERAL APPEARANCE 38 per cent 
 
 3. Form, long, level, deep, broad, low set, stylish 
 
 
 
 4. Quality, clean bone, silky hair ; fine, pink skin ; light 
 in offal, yielding high percentage of meat 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh, espe- 
 cially in regions of valuable cuts. Points Indi- 
 cating ripeness are, thick dock, back thickly 
 covered with flesh, thick .neck, full purse, full 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 7 per cent 
 
 6. Muzzle, fine, mouth large; lips thin; nostrils large 
 and open 
 
 
 
 7 Eyes large, clear, placid 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 Neck thick short free from folds 
 
 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 7 per cent 
 
 12. Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top; snug 
 13 Brisket neat, proportionate; breast wide 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm 
 
 
 
 BODY 20 per cent 
 
 
 
 16. Ribs, well sprung, long, close 
 
 
 
 17. Back, broad, straight, long, thickly fleshed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 16 per cent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 Thighs full deep, wide 
 
 
 
 22 Twist plump deep 
 
 
 
 23. Legs, straight, short, strong; shank fine, smooth... 
 WOOL 12 per cent 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 Quality, fine, pure; crimp close, regular, even 
 
 
 
 26. Condition, bright, sound, clean, soft, light 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Study the score card and use it in the scoring of several animals 
 until you become familiar with all its parts and the relation they bear 
 to each other and to the live sheep. 
 
 Method of Examination. On account of the length of the 
 fleece it will be necessary to carefully handle every part of the sheep 
 to determine its form, quality, and condition. Moreover, all exhib- 
 itors practice trimming to give their animals a smoother and more 
 attractive appearance than they would have otherwise and thereby 
 are able to cover up many defects of form, and, in case the wool is 
 long enough, can give their sheep almost any shape desired.
 
 400 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Sheep judging is a very different proposition from the judging 
 of other classes of live stock, in that the hands and not the eyes must 
 be depended upon, thus necessitating a different method of examina- 
 tion. It is all the more important, then, that a definite plan of pro- 
 cedure be adopted in order that no part be overlooked and that no 
 defect escape notice. Notice should be taken of the manner 
 in which a judge should handle a part, that when examining it, he 
 holds his hands flat with the fingers together in a sloping manner. 
 In this way it is possible to feel the form of the sheep without dis- 
 turbing or breaking the fleece. Sticking the fingers into the fleece 
 makes holes in it, which gives access to rain and dirt, detracts from 
 its appearance, and greatly annoys the shepherd. The examination 
 should be begun at the head and continued over the whole body. 
 
 Age and Weight 8 per cent. The lamb age is the most de- 
 sirable age for butcher sheep due to the fact that it is the most profit- 
 able for the producer and is in greatest demand by the consumer. 
 About 80 per cent of all sheep marketed are lambs. Sheep pass from 
 the lamb state just after they are a year old. 
 
 The age of a sheep is best estimated by the order of the ap- 
 pearance of the front teeth, called "nippers" or incisors. Sheep 
 have eight permanent incisors in the lower jaw, having none in the 
 upper. By permanent teeth we mean those that replace the baby, 
 temporary, or milk teeth. The milk teeth can easily be distin- 
 guished from the permanent ones in that they are narrow, while the 
 permanent incisors are broad and wide, widening out considerably 
 toward the top. The permanent teeth take the place of the tem- 
 porary in regular order by pairs as the sheep grows older. The first 
 pair consisting of the two front teeth, one either side of the me- 
 dium line of the jaw supplants the milk teeth when the sheep is 
 slightly over one year old. The next pair, that is, one on each side 
 of the central or first pair, appears one year later or when the sheep 
 is two years old ; the third pair appears when the sheep is a little over 
 three years or between the ages of two and three; and the fourth 
 pair, when the sheep is between four and five years old. Every judge 
 should familiarize himself with the age of an animal as determined 
 by its teeth, so that he will be better able to pass on other parts more 
 or less dependent on age. 
 
 To estimate the age, observe the teeth by holding the sheep with 
 the hand under the jaw and pressing down the lower lip with the 
 thumb and forefinger. 
 
 Lambs weighing about 80 pounds, in prime quality and con- 
 dition, sell at the highest prices on the market. They should reach 
 this weight at as early an age as possible. Mature wethers should 
 weigh 140 pounds or more. Weight varies depending on various 
 conditions, but is principally influenced by age, breed, and degree 
 of fatness. Plenty of weight is desired to insure healthy, vigorous, 
 and early maturing qualities, but too great weight is objectionable, 
 in that it is likely to be associated with coarseness, and low dressing 
 percentage, and also giving too large cuts for the retail meat trade.
 
 SHEEP 
 
 401 
 
 Form JO per cent. To form a basis for estimating the good 
 and bad qualities of a fat sheep or lamb, it is best to consider the car- 
 cass from the point of view of the butcher. The different parts of 
 the animal show a wide variation from the butcher's standpoint. 
 The accompanying tables gives the per cent weight of the dressed 
 carcass, the wholesale price per pound, and the per cent value of the 
 dressed carcass that each wholesale cut represents. 
 
 Wholesale Mutton and Lamb Cuts. 
 
 Mutton and lamb cuts. 
 
 Names of 
 wholesale cuts. 
 
 Weight of 
 carcass. 
 
 Wholesale 
 price. 
 
 Value of 
 carcass. 
 
 Saddle 
 
 JLegs 
 
 Percent. 
 
 30.36 
 
 Pound. 
 13tf cts. 
 
 Percent. 
 43.16 
 
 Rack 
 
 Hotel or short I 
 rack (10 ribs) 1 
 
 21.43 
 14.28 
 
 8% cts. 
 12K ct. 
 
 18.97 
 18.76 
 
 
 "* Stew (chuck). 
 . and breast).. I 
 
 33.93 
 
 SKcts. 
 
 19.11 
 
 A study of the above table will show that the most valuable meat 
 is found on the hindquarters and loin. The butcher, therefore, re- 
 quires in the mutton carcass a heavily fleshed leg of mutton, a broad 
 back and a broad, full loin deeply covered with flesh, in order to 
 secure the greatest percentage of valuable cuts. However, there is 
 always a close correlation between all the parts of an animal and in 
 order to secure high development in the desired regions a relatively 
 high degree of development must be had in all parts. In general, 
 then, the sort that are not too heavy boned, that do not have too 
 large frames, and that do not show a tendency to 'be paunchy, but 
 present a smooth, even, plump appearance, of the broad, low-set, 
 thick type with special development of the leg, back, and loin, possess 
 the form most desired by the butcher because they carry the least 
 amount of waste and so dress out a higher per cent of carcass to offal. 
 In general appearance then the animal should present a general full- 
 ness and smoothness of outline, both of which indicate the desired 
 thickness and evenness of flesh. A flat ribbed, narrow chested, 
 drooping rumped, upstanding individual with peaked hindquarters, 
 should be discriminated against, because such will carry a large 
 amount of waste in proportion to the valuable cuts. Openness at the 
 top of the shoulder, roughness, and angularity invariably go with 
 bareness of shoulder, back, and loin, a thin leg of mutton and an ex- 
 cess of bone in the carcass. 
 
 Head and Neck 7 per cent. The head should be short and 
 broad, showing character. The eyes should be bright, full and 
 placid, indicating a quiet disposition. The muzzle should be large 
 with open nostrils and strong lips, showing thrift and feeding capaci- 
 ity. The oars should be medium sized and covered with fine soft 
 hair. Although the neck is a cheap part, it should be short and 
 thick, which feature is likely to characterize the entire carcass. To 
 examine the neck, place both hands on either side and note its full- 
 ness, length, and manner of blending into the shoulder at the 
 shoulder vein. A. long narrow head with a pinched muzzle and a
 
 402 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 thin neck are undesirable, because they indicate weakness of consti- 
 tution and lack of thrift, and a thin neck usually goes with a slender 
 body. 
 
 Forequarters 7 per cent. Although the forequarters, consist- 
 ing of the shoulder, brisket, and legs represent a small part of the 
 value of a mutton sheep, yet a proper development of these parts is 
 essential to give the required smoothness of form that goes with the 
 best type of fat sheep. The shoulders should be smooth, well laid 
 in at the top and evenly covered with flesh and well filled out in 
 the crops and shoulder vein. The brisket should project forward and 
 present a wide, full breast indicating health and vigor. The legs 
 should be short, straight and set wide apart with a broad and well 
 fleshed arm, the whole showing as little waste as possible. 
 
 With the hands on either side of the shoulders an idea of their 
 width and covering can be obtained. The fullness of the crops and 
 shoulder vein may also be noted. A rough, bare shoulder indicates 
 lack of quality and a large amount of waste, while narrow shoulders, 
 and long, crooked legs, indicate low vitality and poor fleshing quali- 
 ties. 
 
 Body 20 per cent. The body is an important region in that 
 it contains some of the highest priced meat along the back and on 
 the ribs, and also contains the vital organs as the lungs, heart and 
 heart girth because these indicate an abundance of heart and lung 
 capacity. A narrow, shallow chested individual is almost sure to 
 be low in condition and lack thickness of flesh. The back should 
 not only be straight and strong, but covered thickly with firm, 
 smooth flesh with the spinal column well hidden. A rough, open 
 shoulder is usually accompanied by a narrow, weak, bare back. The 
 ribs should be well sprung, giving ample space for the laying on of 
 flesh. Flat ribbed animals are to be avoided in that they give a 
 small amount of the high priced meat included in the short rack. 
 A broad, thick loin is desired in order to be in keeping with the back 
 and ribs and give a good connection between the heavily developed 
 hindquarters or leg of mutton and the short rack, as well as to fur- 
 nish a large amount of relatively high priced meat. Weak, short, 
 thin loins are found in up-standing, angular individuals, lacking 
 depth of flesh in all parts of the body. 
 
 Hindquarters 16 per cent. The hindquarters, consisting of 
 the hips, rump, thighs, twist and legs constitute the wholesale mutton 
 cut known as the leg of mutton. The value of this part to the butcher 
 has already been emphasized by pointing out the fact that it repre- 
 sents over 43 per cent of the value of the carcass, and it will be 
 readily understood why an individual must show superior develop- 
 ment in this region in order to meet with favor. The hindquarters 
 should be long and continue straight and full both on the top and 
 side lines. Drooping rumps are frequently seen and are most unde- 
 sirable whether the falling away is toward the tail-head or down the 
 thighs. The sheep should be especially strong from the hip to the 
 hock. Not only should the leg of mutton be plump and full with 
 flesh on the outside, but between the legs, in the twist, the flesh
 
 SHEEP 403 
 
 should fill well down to the hock, compelling the legs to stand well 
 apart. When grasping the leg of mutton, a decided "plumpness 
 should be found. Thin fleshed legs on the outside and a high, un- 
 developed twist often occur, giving the animal a leggy, narrow ap- 
 pearance behind. Such are undesirable because they indicate lack 
 of constitution and represent such a large proportion of the carcass 
 that its value to the butcher must necessarily be low. 
 
 Condition or Finish 10 per cent. The terms quality and con- 
 dition are frequently used interchangeably when used in connec- 
 tion with fat sheep because the quality of flesh is largely dependent 
 upon condition. By condition is meant the degree of fatness and 
 there are five reasons why the butcher demands that animals be 
 fat: (1) other things being equal, the animal will dress a higher 
 per cent of edible meat to offal than in a half fat or thin 
 animal; (2) fat adds to the appearance of the meat thus making it 
 more salable; (3) fat carcasses will lose less in weight when cooling 
 out in the refrigerator and in cooking; (4) the keeping and curing 
 qualities of the fat carcass excel those of the thin carcass; (5) when 
 a considerable amount of fat is distributed through the lean meat 
 the edible qualities are improved making it more tender, juicy, and 
 of better flavor. High condition is indicated by a deep, even cover- 
 ing of firm flesh, especially in the regions of the valuable cuts. 
 Points showing ripeness and finish are a thick dock, a full, mellow 
 purse, a well covered back-bone, thickness and smoothness on the 
 back and shoulder, fullness at the neck and flanks, and a plump, well 
 filled breast. Condition is a very important consideration and is 
 probably emphasized by the butcher more than any other feature. 
 It is impossible to tell condition by merely looking at the sheep, 
 hence it is necessary to use the hands freely in examining the points 
 above mentioned, in order that you may draw conclusions not only 
 of the degree of fatness but also of the nature and quality of the 
 flesh. The most desirable quality of flesh is indicated by firmness 
 along the back, at the loins, over the sides and at the leg of mutton. 
 Many sheep men describe this firmness as being hard as a board 
 but the novice must be careful that he does not mistake bareness or 
 lack of flesh for this hardness. While the flesh should have that 
 firmness which would impress an inexperienced man as being hard, 
 it should have enough springiness to yield lightly to the touch. The 
 flesh should extend well down over the sides, without softness due to 
 excessive fat or oily tissue. Then too, very often rough, blubbery 
 patches will be present about the tail-head. These are very objection- 
 able in that they are entirely waste and are usually associated with 
 carcasses in which the fat and lean are not well marbled, thus giving 
 low quality meat. 
 
 Quality 10 Per Cent. Good quality is indicated by medium 
 sized, lean, clean-cut head and ears; fine, dense bone of medium size; 
 soft, silky hair on the face, ears, and legs; a fine, pink colored, mel- 
 low skin or pelt; and a smooth, even covering of firm flesh. Qual- 
 ity is important because it is usually associated with good breeding 
 and rapid fattening ability, and because the waste is always lesa
 
 404 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 from a sheep of good quality than it is from one of inferior quality. 
 Lightness rather than heaviness of pelt is desired in fat sheep. By 
 pelt is meant the skin and wool combined. To secure a pelt of light 
 weight the skin should be thin and free from folds and wrinkles, 
 and the wool should be abundant but not too oily. Quality is usu- 
 ally associated with style and breeding and is an evidence of refine- 
 ment as opposed to coarseness and grossness, which in turn are ob- 
 jectionable because they represent a high degree of waste. Quality 
 is very essential to the best mutton type, as indicated by the fact 
 that it is given 10 per cent, on the score card. 
 
 Since the quality of the flesh and skin can only be determined 
 by touch, it should be kept in mind at the same time the animal is 
 being examined for form and condition. General quality which is 
 indicated by the features of the head, the fineness of the hair and 
 the density of the bone is determined by the eye. Coarseness, gross- 
 ness, and sluggishness which are indicated by a heavy rough head, 
 covered by coarse, harsh hair, and large, coarse ears; a thick, wrin- 
 kly skin covered with coarse wool; a large, open frame and heavy 
 bone and rough joints, standing on long, crooked legs, and fin un- 
 even distribution of flesh, detract from the appearance and quality 
 of the individual and should be discriminated against because they 
 add to the waste or offal and materially detract from the value of the 
 animal. The factors which determine the quantity of the wool are 
 length and density, and the evenness in both over all parts of the 
 body. 
 
 Length. This is an important feature both from the commer- 
 cial point of view and from the shepherd's standpoint. The manu- 
 facturer of woollen goods desires a short-stapled wool, for such has 
 better felting qualities. On the other hand the manufacturer of 
 worsted goods, desires length of staple because it gives a yarn of 
 strong, even texture. Other things being equal, a long staple, will 
 afford more protection to the sheep. By density is meant closeness 
 of the fiber, or the number of fibers that grow on a square inch. A 
 heavy fleece is secured by density and such a fleece affords greater 
 protection to the sheep. Quantity is further increased by the fleece 
 being of uniform length and density all over the 'body, avoiding un- 
 even and bare points. 
 
 Quality. The fleece should be fine, pure and soft, with a close, 
 regular crimp, and should be of uniform quality all over. Quality 
 and quantity are not usually found together in their highest state 
 of development in the same types or breeds and the shorter fleeces 
 are usually those that show the most quality. In order that high 
 grade goods may be manufactured from wools, the fibers must be 
 soft and fine and of uniform texture. By the crimp is meant the 
 wave in the fiber. The crimp should be regular and close together, 
 the finer quality fleeces usually having the closest crimp. 
 
 Condition. By condition is meant the brightness of the fleece, 
 and its healthy appearance. It should be clear, soft and Mght, being 
 free from harshness and foreign matter such as dirt, burrs, and hairy 
 fibers. The amount and character of the yolk, grease, or oil deter-
 
 SHEEP 405 
 
 mines to a great extent, the condition. Too much yolk is not desired, 
 but a sufficient amount is necessary to give the fleece a soft texture 
 and a bright lustre, which are indicative of health. The skin 'be- 
 neath the wool should be of a bright pink color. A bluish tint is 
 often found in the skin but should be discriminated against because 
 it may indicate lack of vigor and health. 
 
 Comparative Judging. The foregoing discussion has dealt al- 
 most exclusively with observations on and descriptions of the good 
 and bad qualities of a single individual ; also methods of examination 
 of same. It has taken up the various features and considered them 
 more or less in detail. It is essential to become familiar with all 
 these details of an animal before a fair estimate of its true merit can 
 be made. The work so far has been a study of the ideal and a detec- 
 tion of faults and deviations from the standard required. In other 
 words, the work has consisted of accurate observations, which is an 
 analysis of conformation, quality, condition, etc. In actual sheep 
 judging, however, where several animals are brought together for 
 the judge to rate and place, the judge must balance these obser- 
 vations already made. This is altogether a matter of comparison and 
 may be called comparative judging. 
 
 In the show ring, the judge must inspect each animal sepa^ 
 rately, then make a draft of the likely winners, by considering, bal- 
 ancing and comparing each of the main points separately and collec- 
 tively, until he is able to decide which animal, on the average, comes 
 most nearly to filling all the requirements of the standards for that 
 class. Such animal will be the first prize winner, the next best will 
 be the second prize winner, and so on until all the animals are placed 
 relative to their respective merit. 
 
 In doing this work the judge keeps uppermost in mind the more 
 important features of general appearance, style, size, and conforma- 
 tion, quality, condition, and wool, at the same time, keeping in mind 
 that these features include collectively all details which he considers 
 may be made necessary by the presence of evenly balanced animals 
 in the ring. 
 
 Feeder Sheep. When judging feeder sheep always keep in 
 mind the type that best meets the demands of the butcher. The 
 feeder that will come nearest to doing this when fat will be the most 
 profitable. 
 
 Constitution and Form. From the market standpoint the 
 chest, breast, or underline require little consideration but in the view 
 of the feeder, these points are of great importance. To be profitable 
 to the feeder, a sheep must have a vigorous constitution, be able to 
 consume a large amount of feed and transform it into valuable meat 
 at the lowest possible cost. These characters are invariably associated 
 with a wide, deep chest, good depth of barrel, and well sprung ribs 
 to give ample room for the lungs, heart, and digestive organs. Good 
 si /o is desired because an animal is wanted that will attain a good 
 weight at an early age. A short, broad head with fine quality ears, 
 full, bright eyes, open nostrils, strong lips, and a short, thick neck, 
 deep body and short legs, all indicate a vigorous, thrifty animal
 
 406 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 which will give a good return for feed consumed and kill out a valu- 
 able carcass of mutton when fat. 
 
 Quality. Quality is indicated in the feeder in the same way 
 that it is in fat sheep. It is very important in that it adds to the 
 value of the carcass when fat, both in dressing per cent and the edible 
 quality of the meat. It is also very closely associated with the growth 
 and feeding qualities of the animal. 
 
 Condition. By no means should feeder sheep be fat. How- 
 ever, the better type show fairly straight, full outlines because they 
 indicate good growth and a rapid feeding tendency. Then too the 
 very thin lamb is not likely to finish in a normal feeding period and 
 is less likely to possess the thrift and constitutional vigor necessary 
 to make fast and economical gains in the feed lot. The animal that 
 carries some flesh and is in a growthy condition is preferred, at the 
 same price per pound, to the very thin animal because at will finish 
 quicker and to a higher degree even though the gains per day are 
 not so great. 
 
 Breeding Sheep. All the marks of excellence in conformation, 
 constitution, and quality, that are required in butcher and feeder 
 sheep, are just as important in the breeding classes. Because of the 
 action and workings of the law like begets like you cannot expect to 
 raise high class feeders that will finish into high grade butcher sheep 
 from an inferior lot of breeding stuff. 
 
 Besides the above mentioned requisites, special attention must 
 be given to breed type and sex characters. Then too, greater empha- 
 sis must be placed on the character of the fleece, the color of the skin, 
 and the constitutional vigor and thrift of breeding sheep, for with- 
 out such qualities all excellence of form, quality, etc., will avail 
 nothing if the animal is not strong enough to transmit these good 
 features to its offspring. Straight, strong legs, set well apart, with 
 strong pasterns, are also very necessary to the general health and 
 utility for breeding purposes. 
 
 The Ewe. When judging the ewe from the breeding stand- 
 point it should be remembered that she must possess not only the 
 requisites of the fat sheep in general form and quality, and the con- 
 stitutional vigor and feeding and fleshing qualities of the feeder, but 
 she must also possess all those characters that indicate a long-lived 
 regular, and prepotent breeder. To insure a long life and regularity 
 in breeding, the ewe should be rugged in constitution, of good form, 
 sound in mouth and udder, and bear an abundant fleece of healthy 
 wool. In addition to this she should have a strong maternal nature 
 and feminine appearance. This is indicated by rather fine features 
 about the head, a slender neck as compared to that of the ram, es- 
 pecially deep, round ribs, with a rather long, capacious body to pro- 
 vide room for the developing fetus. The ewe that will milk well and 
 rear early maturing lambs, tends towards the wedge shape, being 
 deeper in the chest, larger bodied, and wider across the loin and hips 
 than the ram. She should not carry excessive fat. The flesh should 
 be firm and evenly distributed, and not gathered in blubbery patches 
 about the tail-head.
 
 SHEEP 407 
 
 Ewes should adhere very closely to the type of the 'breed to 
 which they belong, possessing in a marked degree all the breed chaiv 
 acters that are laid down in the standards of the breed association 
 Such ewes give evidence of purity of breeding through several gen 
 erations along definite lines for a definite purpose, having the breed 
 characters so fixed as to be uniformly transmitted to the offspring. 
 
 Rough ewes with plain, heavy heads and necks, lacking in gen- 
 eral refinement and feminine appearance are rarely satisfactory 
 breeders. On the other hand, short, shallow bodied ewes with nar- 
 row hindquarters and an undersized, stunted appearance should also 
 be avoided for they lack the necessary breeding essentials of size, 
 form, quality and constitutional vigor as pointed out above. 
 
 The Ram. The ram is the head of the flock and might well 
 be called half of it. Type and breed characters are the first con- 
 siderations in judging a ram. He should be a pure-bred and possess, 
 to a high degree, all the characters of the breed to which he belongs, 
 as in the case of the ewe, because this indicates prepotency. He 
 should have plenty of size, and as opposed to the ewe, have a strongly 
 developed forehand and a decidedly masculine appearance, indicated 
 by general burliness of the head, thickness of neck, general mas- 
 siveness, with a bold, energetic outlook, a bright, clear eye, much 
 quality, and a brisk movement, denoting vim and vigor. He should 
 nave widely distended nostrils, a thick, heavy loin, twist and crops, 
 broad, full chest and brisket, a level, strong back, hips well laid in, a 
 straight, deep, level flank, and a fine, long, dense fleece of good qual- 
 ity. Such a ram will leave his impress indelibly on the offspring. 
 An effeminate ram is a decided objection because he usually lacks 
 prepotency and is rarely a sure and strong breeder. 
 
 The Merino or Fine-Wool Type of Sheep. The purpose of the 
 Merino or fine-wool sheep is essentially different from that of the 
 mutton type. The former is bred almost exclusively for its w y ool 
 while the latter is bred principally for mutton with the wool as a sec- 
 ondary consideration. The general conformation of the Merino may 
 be compared to that of dairy cattle. It lacks fullness of breast, 
 breadth of back, and general thickness throughout, with a leg of 
 mutton that lacks fullness, and has a rather long neck and legs. An 
 angular, muscular development of the entire body prevails rather 
 than the smoothness and heavy fleshing of the mutton type. How- 
 ever, the head is short and should be broad at the muzzle, with large 
 nostrils; the nose short and inclined to be wrinkled, and somewhat 
 Roman shaped in the ram. Horns occur on most males of the fine 
 wool type and on the females of some breeds. They have a more or 
 less cork screw shape and should have a waxy, dense texture denoting 
 quality. The neck is rather long and thin in the ewe but should 
 show decided strength and masculinity in the ram with more or less 
 throatiness. Although the shoulders are narrow they tend to be 
 prominent with sharp withers. The breast and chest are narrow but 
 should gain capacity by depth. Crooked legs coming together at 
 the knees, with the toes spread out are objectionable, indicating as 
 they do a narrow chest. The body usually carries a narrow back and
 
 408 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 flat rib. The ribs should be long to give ample feeding and breeding 
 capacity. The sheep is usually inclined to be droopy and narrow 
 behind with a thin leg of mutton carrying a small amount of flesh. 
 The head and neck, forequarters and body are given about the same 
 rating on the score card for both the mutton and fine-wool types. 
 However, the hindquarters are given only eight per cent for the fine- 
 wool type as compared to 16 per cent or double the amount for the 
 mutton. This is readily understood when we consider that it is in 
 the leg that we get the greatest amount and the highest priced meat in 
 the mutton type, and that meat is of little importance in fine-wools. 
 
 Wool. Since the wool is the principal source of income from 
 the Merino sheep, it must be given special consideration. It is the 
 most important factor in the true Merino type. When judging a 
 ring of fine-wools almost half the rating is based on the fleece. The 
 score card gives the wool a value of 45 per cent in the Merino as 
 compared to only 12 per cent in the mutton type. The wool of 
 the Merino is shorter than in the mutton type, but it is very thick 
 over the entire body, carrying well down on the face and legs and 
 is remarkably fine in quality, having a very close crimp and an 
 exceedingly soft texture. The yolk is abundant and gives the sheep 
 a dirty and oily appearance because it collects and holds dust and 
 foreign particles. Many sheep of this type possess folds on the neck 
 and shoulders, and in some cases they appear on the body and thighs, 
 affording more area for the growth of the wool. (Ind. Circ. 29.) 
 
 Live Stock Improvement. The quickest, cheapest, and surest 
 method of live stock improvement is up-grading. By this is meant 
 the mating of the common grade stock of the farm with a pure-bred 
 sire. It is not practicable nor possible to replace all the live stock 
 of the farms of Indiana with pure-breds, for less than two and 
 one-half per cent of the live stock of the state is registered. It is 
 possible, however, and would be highly profitable, to replace all the 
 grade, cross-bred, and scrub males which are being used as sires, 
 with males which possess the breeding that will insure improvement. 
 
 Up-grading is economical because the sire mates with the entire 
 female herd, while the influence of the female is limited to a few. 
 The well-worn expression, "the sire is half the herd," is more than 
 true. The influence of the sire extends to all the offspring produced. 
 Since the sire is pure in breeding, the young will resemble the sire 
 more than the dam ; i. e., the pure-bred sire is prepotent over the 
 dam. It requires nearly as much feed to keep a poor animal as it 
 does a good one. The annual cost of maintenance is practically the 
 same. The greater cost of the pure-bred sire over the scrub is more 
 than returned by the increased market value of his first crop of off- 
 spring. 
 
 The rate of improvement in up-grading is rapid and certain. 
 The first cross with a pure-bred sire produces an animal that is one- 
 half pure. When this animal is mated with a pure-bred sire the 
 offspring is three-fourths pure. The third cross produces a seven- 
 eighths _ pure-bred, or a very high grade, and the next, an animal 
 which is fifteen-sixteenths pure. For market purposes, the high
 
 SHEEP 409 
 
 grade is practically the equal of the pure-bred. Though good in in- 
 dividuality, he, however, is unreliable as a sire. The problems of live 
 stock improvement very largely center upon the selection of the sire. 
 
 Selecting the Sire. Since the sire must be largely depended 
 upon as the source of improved breeding, his selection should be in- 
 telligently and carefully considered. Since his influence is equal to 
 the influence of the entire female herd or flock taken collectively, 
 his selection is the most vital consideration of live stock improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Performance. The first essential of the sire is that he possess 
 the ability to transmit his characters regularly and surely. It is the 
 most fundamental quality of the sire. Due to the fact, also, that it is 
 the most common and conspicuous weakness, it is of first importance. 
 
 The only reliable test of fertile, prepotent breeding powers is 
 actual performance. The appearance of the sire as an individual, par- 
 ticularly his masculinity and vigor of disposition, and the character 
 of the animals in his pedigree, are considered as general indications 
 of breeding ability, but they should never be relied upon when the 
 actual performance record is available. For this reason tested sires 
 are much more reliable than sires of immature age. A fuller appre- 
 ciation of this fact on the part of the breeder will not only prevent 
 further sacrifice of promising sires just approaching the period of 
 their greatest usefulness, but will greatly conserve and extend the 
 service of those sires whose breeding qualities have been demon- 
 strated. In buying a sire, therefore, the character and uniformity of 
 his get should be considered of first importance and the most reliable 
 single guide to his future breeding powers. Performance is the only 
 real test of value. 
 
 Individuality. The second consideration in buying or select- 
 ing a sire is his individuality. He should be a good individual. By 
 this we mean that he possess the size, form and quality which indi- 
 cate strong constitution, thrifty growing and feeding capacity in the 
 offspring, and in addition, insure the production of the sort of ani- 
 mal which sells best on the market. He should be strong in mascu- 
 linity and vigorous in appearance, for manv believe that they reflect 
 fertile breeding powers and prepotency. I'he ultimate test, for ex- 
 ample, of the beef sire for up-grading is the character of the mar- 
 ket steers he is able to get; the ultimate test of the stallion is the 
 serviceability and market value of the geldings which he produces. 
 In addition to possessing these fundamental requirements, the pure- 
 bred sire should possess the characters of the breed to which he be- 
 longs, such as size, peculiarities of color, form, shape of head, and set 
 of horn, etc., i. e., his breed type characters should be strongly rep- 
 resented. When typical of a breed, we have good reason to expect 
 his breeding to be more desirable than that of the individual lack- 
 ing the characters of a breed. 
 
 Individuality means everything about the animal which can be 
 seen with the eye or felt with the hand. Individuality is entirely 
 depended upon by the judge in placing a class of animals in the 
 show ring. In buying a sire, however, we should not depend upon
 
 410 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 individuality alone, for sometimes individuals which are good 
 enough to exhibit in the show ring prove disappointing as breeders. 
 "Like produces like" only within very wide limits, and so individu- 
 ality should be supplemented, when possible, by performance and 
 pedigree. 
 
 Pedigree. The third essential of the pure-bred sire is that he 
 have a good pedigree. A pedigree is simply the record of an ani- 
 mal's ancestry. Besides the names of the sire and dam, and grand- 
 sires and grandams, etc., it usually includes also the color and date 
 of birth of each animal, and the names of the breeders. A pedigree 
 in itself is not a guarantee of merit, for all pure-bred animals may 
 have recorded pedigrees. The most important thing in studying a 
 pedigree, is to learn of the merit of each animal as a breeder and 
 as an individual appearing in the immediate ancestry. If the im- 
 mediate parents were good individuals and the grandparents were 
 uniformly good, we have good reason for calling it a good pedigree. 
 If we add to this, good animals of the third and of the fourth gen- 
 erations we have a still stronger guarantee of merit. Uniformity of 
 individuality in the pedigree usually means similarity of blood lines, 
 and this usually means strong, prepotent breeding powers for the 
 animal under consideration. The most essential feature of a good 
 pedigree is good individuality in the immediate ancestry. 
 
 Summary. In buying a sire, therefore, performance, or actual 
 breeding ability, should be considered of first importance. Individ- 
 uality is second in importance and a most reliable guide to merit for 
 persons unfamiliar with pedigrees, or when the animal is too young 
 to have been tested. Thirdly, a knowledge of the individual should 
 be supplemented by a knowledge of the pedigree. When good indi- 
 viduality is supported by a good pedigree we have the strongest 
 possible quarantee of good performance. (Ind. Cir. 29.) 
 
 Authorities Consulted. Sheep Breeding. Ag. Dept. F. B. 49; 
 N. Dak. B. 28; S. Dak. B. 55, 71, 80; Utah B. 82; Mont. B. 47; 
 Mich. B. 220; Wyo. B. 69; N. H. B. 152; Ariz. Timely Hints 84; 
 Minn. B. 59; Ind. B. 147; la. B. 63; Wyo. B. 51; Okla. B. 78; 
 Minn. B. 78; Mo. Cir. 25; Nev.B.51, 55. * 
 
 Wool Mich. State Ag. Col. E. S. B. 178; Ag. Dept. Rept. on 
 Wool, 1886; Wyo. 21st An. Kept.; Treasury Dept. Rept. Wool & 
 Mfgs. of Wool, 1894. 
 
 Early Lambs. Colo. State Ag. Col. E. S. B. 52; N. Y. Cornell 
 B. 88. 
 
 Fattening Range Lambs. Ohio A. E. S. B. 179; S. Dak. B. 86; 
 Wyo. B. 64, 68; Minn. B. 59; Ohio B. 179, 187; Minn. B. 57. 
 
 Feeding Lambs. Utah A. E. S. B. 78; S. Dak. B. 80; Utah B. 
 78; N. Mex. B. 50; Wyo. B. 73, 81, 79; N. H. B. 152, 85; Colo. B. 
 76, 75; Minn. B. 75; Mont. B. 35; Minn. B. 59; Colo. B. 151; N. 
 Mex. B. 79; Mass. B. 37, 43; Wyo. B. 89, 51, 47; Minn. B. 44; Ag. 
 Dept. O. E. S. Vol. 4, No. 6; N. Y., Cornell, B. 47. 
 
 Breeds of Sheep. An. Rept. of Sec'y of Ag. for Prov. of Nova 
 Scotia, 1907; La. B. 74.
 
 MUTTON CUTS LOCATED ON LIVE STOCK, i, 2, SADDLE. 3, 4, 5, RACK, i, 2, 3, LONG 
 SADDLE, i, LEG. 2, LOIN. 3, SHORT RACK. 4, BREAST. 5, CHUCK. 4, 5, STEW. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE RAM.

 
 SHEEP 413 
 
 ANGORA GOATS. 
 
 In keeping goats on a large scale it is not alone the skins and 
 fleeces ^ which enter into the account of profit, although they form 
 the chief part the flesh, tallow, bones and horns constitute an item 
 of considerable importance. In some countries the production of 
 milk is quite important, and so available is the goat as a dairy ani- 
 mal that she is called "the poor man's cow." A female goat is rel- 
 atively one of the most profitable of domestic animals. 
 
 The goat readily adapts itself to a great variety of soils, cli- 
 mates and conditions. 
 
 There is hardly a State in the Union where Angora goats can 
 not be raised advantageously if properly cared for (which, of course, 
 has to vary according to the local conditions). They have done 
 well in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Illinois, and other Northern 
 States. Whether in those States they will do as well under a herder 
 has yet to be learned. The excellence of winter pastures is more 
 important where herded than where they are kept within fences 
 in but small numbers and easily taken care of in winter. But 
 south of the Ohio River they should do well everywhere, both on 
 farms and ranches. 
 
 As to the South, and especially its rough, elevated regions, there 
 can be no doubt of its suitability to the Angora, and therefore even 
 more to the common or short-haired goat, both in climate and food. 
 Mr. J. T. Henderson, commissioner of agriculture of Georgia, in his 
 annual report, states: 
 
 "Experiments in the raising and keeping of the Angora goat 
 in these mountain pastures are making a very favorable impression. 
 It is thought, with some reason, that this particular branch of stock 
 raising may be easily carried to a very large and important develop- 
 ment in our mountain counties. The adaptedness of this locality to 
 the raising and support of the Angora has been so marked that those 
 accustomed to the care of this valuable animal are sanguine that we 
 shall see in the near future a very important source of profit in this 
 branch of industry. * * * It is hardly possible that the native 
 habitat of the Angora is better adapted to its keep and development 
 than are the mountain counties of this State." 
 
 Land can be cleared of the worst brush known to this country 
 for a little less than nothing by Angora goats. Some one asks how. 
 Simply this: Angora goats will pay a profit and live on leaves and 
 weeds, leaving the land cleaner and nicer than can be done in any 
 other way. Many persons have the idea that goats bark the trees 
 and in that way kill them. They also think that goats wholly eat 
 the hazel and other small brush. There is nothing in this, uoats 
 are no worse to bark trees of any kind than sheep. The way in 
 which goats kill brush is by continually cropping the leaves, which 
 serve as the lungs of the brush. The continued cropping of the 
 leaves makes the brush, as it were, sick, caused by lack of nourish- 
 ment. This sickness sinks to the very extremity of the roots, thug 
 preventing sprouting. ^ Any and all kinds of brush are in this way 
 easily killed. Some kinds of brush and some kinds of stumps are
 
 414 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of course much harder to kill than others. Many varieties are en- 
 tirely killed by one summer's trimming of the leaves. Almost any 
 are killed by two years' trimming. To clear the worst brush do not 
 cut anything that the goats can reach or bend. The tallest or largest 
 is better not cut. All trees and saplings should be cut, and the 
 goats will keep all the sprouts down. If stumps are allowed to sprout 
 one year before the goats are turned in, the sprouts need not be cut. 
 About 200 goats for 40 acres of brush will in two or three years 
 make the land as clean as a garden. If the pasture has only patches 
 of brush, turn in a few goats and it will make more grass for other 
 stock than if the goats were not in. They eat very little grass when 
 they can get leaves. Goats even like weeds better than grass. In 
 clearing brush land in the old way by grub and plow there are al- 
 ways left many eyesores in the way of brushy nooks and bends and 
 steep places which can not be plowed. 
 
 Pasturing With Other Stock. So far as the goats themselves 
 are concerned, they may be kept in the pastures where there are 
 sheep, cattle, and horses. Their presence is in no way obnoxious to 
 any of these animals. A few of them in a flock of sheep are a pro- 
 tection against dogs. However, it is not best for the goats that they 
 be kept in pastures with horses. This is especially important if there 
 are kids, as the horses have a habit of playfully chasing any animal 
 that is not large enough to defend itself, and they are apt to strike, 
 the kids. 
 
 Age for Breeding. Goats of both sexes will sometimes breed 
 when they are 5 months old, and often at 6 months, but from the 
 fact that they are at this age but a month or two from weaning time 
 and are not nearly full grown, it is obvious that they should not be 
 permitted to breed. They reach maturity when about 16 or 18 
 months old, and they ought not to breed before this time. If bred 
 earlier the kids will not be so strong or so well developed. The goats 
 are in their prime when from 2 to 6 years old, but with proper feed- 
 ing in winter they have been known to breed regularly until 15 years 
 old. The average life of goats, however, is about 12 years. There 
 should be no tendency to keep does until they are very old unless 
 they bring kids of exceptional merit, for it must be remembered 
 that their mohair gets coarser, and consequently less valuable, as 
 they grow older. 
 
 Mohair. The word mohair is the technical and commercial 
 name for the fleece of the Angora goat, which is used in the manu- 
 facture of fabrics. The word comes to us, through the old French 
 mohere, from the Arabic mukhayyar, meaning goat's-hair cloth. 
 
 The fleece upon the goat is pure white, is exceedingly lustrous, 
 and grows to an average length of 10 inches annually. It hangs in 
 beautiful wavy curls, or ringlets, from all parts of the oody, if the 
 animal is of the best breeding. The average annual production of 
 mohair is about 4 pounds a head. The grade of the goat has much 
 to do with the weight of the fleece. The first cross of an Angora buck 
 upon a common doe gives but a small amount of mohair, but the in- 
 crease in quantity is noticeable as the crosses become higher.
 

 
 SHEEP 415 
 
 Feed and care have a great influence upon the weight and fine- 
 ness of the fleece. If goats are exposed to sudden changes of weather 
 the effect is shown in the fleece. In some parts of the United States 
 where the climate is dry and the soil is distinctly alkaline the natural 
 yolk disappears from the mohair, leaving it dry, fetid, and harsh. 
 The fiber becomes coarser as an animal grows older. The best fiber 
 grows upon goats of the best blood, and among these that upon kids, 
 yearling wethers, and does, in the order named, is preferred. The 
 best fiber is usually very curly, or, rather, in ringlets, but not kinky. 
 It loses its curl and becomes thinner, coarser, and straighter as the 
 animal grows older. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 137.) 
 
 MILCH GOATS. 
 
 The present situation regarding the milch goat industry in the 
 United States is confined largely to an awakening interest, although 
 there are now some communities of foreigners where a considerable 
 number of goats are kept for milk, and the kids being fitted for 
 slaughter. 
 
 So far as we can apply the leading features of the milch goat in- 
 dustry of Europe to the conditions prevailing in the United States, 
 it can be said that the goat is needed by the poor man who can not 
 afford to keep a cow, and by those people especially who live in the 
 suburbs of the large cities and those who work in the mining dis- 
 tricts. Dairies should also be conducted according to approved mod- 
 ern methods, so that a constant supply of milk may be had for sick 
 people and for children whose mothers do not properly nourish 
 them. These are matters of such importance that German writers, 
 referring to the industry in their own country, say that the milch 
 goat in its later development has done great service to the state, in 
 that it supplies a want which before caused great unrest among the 
 peasantry. 
 
 In Germany the goat plays the part in the households of poorer 
 people, especially of the day laborers, that the cow does in the house- 
 holds of the well-to-do classes. Hoffmann says that the proportion 
 of households in Germany that keep goats is 75 per cent, and that 
 the keeping is not confined to the poorer people, but that the pros- 
 perous middle classes consider the goat of advantage to them also. 
 
 It furnishes to its owner, without doubt, the best milk for nour- 
 ishing infants, for the household, for the cooking of food, and for 
 coffee, besides butter and cheese. When one considers that it very 
 often depends solely on the milk production of the goat whether the 
 nutrition of the child and the whole family is bad or good, and the 
 nutrition from infancy on has a bearing on the ability to perform 
 a greater or a comparatively small amount of w r ork in later life, then 
 one will believe me when I say that the goat is in a position to wield 
 a great influence in sustaining life. 
 
 Yield of Milk. The first question that most people ask concern- 
 ing this industry is, "How much milk will a goat give?" A mo- 
 ment's reflection is sufficient to convince one that this question can 
 not be given a definite answer. Such matters as the healthfulness of 
 the animals, the character of feed, the regularity of feeding, the kind
 
 416 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of breed, the age of the animal, etc., have an important bearing upon 
 the quantity of milk produced. 
 
 A doe that yields less than a quart a day is not considered a 
 good milker; if she yields two quarts a day she may be regarded as 
 profitable, provided lactation may be maintained six or seven months. 
 Pegler says that a doe yielding 3 pints a day with her first kid "need 
 not be set aside as an indifferent animal, as she will, in all probabil- 
 ity, give twice that quantity on subsequent occasions." The German 
 literature is full of instances of goats that yield 4 and 5 quarts per 
 day, and it appears that the average in Germany and Switzerland 
 must be not far from 3 quarts. 
 
 Goats Not Worried by Dogs. Dogs do not worry goats to the 
 extent that they do sheep ; but the failing is not with the dogs. The 
 goat is better able to take care of itself and is more inclined to do so. 
 However, it will never be entirely safe to expose kids where there are 
 worthless curs in the neighborhood, for this is the class of dogs that 
 usually worries sheep. It is not often that a well-fed dog of good 
 blood is guilty of worrying sheep. Kids are not able to take care of 
 themselves. Grown goats will offer fight, and a sheep-killing dog 
 never wants to encounter any other animal that fights; and yet a 
 hungry dog may do considerable damage to a goat that offers fight. 
 Whoever is familiar with the common goats that are so often found 
 about livery stables has observed that dogs always give the goat the 
 right of way; these goats have been trained to fight, and this has 
 made them masters. A goat does not need much training to make 
 him fight a dog, and this little should be given to a buck for the 
 benefit of the whole flock. (Dep. Agr, Bu. An. Ind. B. 68.)
 
 PART IV 
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE. 
 
 THE majority of the present breeds of hogs in the United 
 States and Canada originated in Great Britain. It has been 
 the custom to divide them into white and black breeds, and 
 into lard and bacon types. These are divisions adopted in 
 the markets and should be known and considered by all growers. 
 
 The Berkshire. Color Black, and, like the Poland-China, has 
 six white points, viz., on feet, face, and tip of tail. The face is short 
 to medium in length, and gracefully dished, and the ears are erect, 
 or slightly inclined forward. The back is level and of moderate 
 breadth, with considerable length of side. The cheek, or jowl, is 
 full ; the shoulder of medium thickness and breadth ; the ham is deep 
 and thick, extending well up to the body and down to the hock; the 
 leg is medium to short, straight and strong, and widely set apart. 
 The bone is of fair quality. 
 
 Although the Berkshire is classed as belonging to the fat or lard 
 type, it is generally considered as a medium between the lard and the 
 bacon types of swine. 
 
 The breed seems to be able to adapt itself to almost any environ- 
 ment, as it is found being successfully raised in the warmer sections 
 of the South and Southwest, as well as in the more northerly parts of 
 the country. The early-maturing qualities of the Berkshire are 
 classed as good; and as a grazer, it ranks high. 
 
 Pigs at 6 months old should readily weigh 175 pounds, and at 
 one year about 300 pounds. For grading purposes, the value of the 
 Berkshire is very good. (La. B. 124.) 
 
 The Berkshire breed is one of the old and well-established lard 
 types of hogs. In form they are long, broad, deep, and low. They 
 are much shorter on their legs and have a shorter head and neck and 
 a better developed ham than the bacon type. While the back of the 
 Berkshire is broader than that of the hogs of the bacon types, still it 
 is not as broad as that of the Poland-China. The modern Berkshire 
 breeders are working for a back medium in width and for a side long 
 and deep and free from wrinkles. They are admirably suited to the 
 South. They are good rustlers, fatten at almost any age, and cross 
 well with the inferior hogs of the country. The quality of the meat 
 is good, also. While they are relatively strong in breeding qualities, 
 still they are not as good breeders as the Yorkshires, Tamworths, or 
 Duroc-Jerseys. They are, however, more prolific than the Poland- 
 Chinas. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 The Berkshires lose less in dressing than most other breeds, al- 
 though a greater proportion of their dressed weight consists of fat, 
 
 417 -
 
 418 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 which is better for making lard than for table use. The sows are pro- 
 lific and good mothers. (F. B. 100.) 
 
 The Poland-China. Color Black, with six white points, viz., 
 feet, face, and tip of tail. The face is straight or very slightly dished, 
 and the ears lop over about one-fourth to one-third from the tip. A 
 high quality specimen of the breed should be smooth throughout, 
 with thick, broad, heavy sides, smooth shoulders, broad, heavy, 
 plump hams extending well down to the hocks, with short legs and 
 upright pasterns. The bone is fine ; the tail fine ; the head and ears 
 neat and attractive, and the quality of the meat is very good. The 
 breed is characterized by early maturing qualities, and nearly perfect 
 form of the lard type of hog, being blocky and compact. The Po- 
 land-China is an excellent breed for crossing on common stock for 
 grading purposes. The breeding qualities are considered fair. (La. 
 B. 124.) 
 
 The Poland-China breed of hogs originated in the State of Ohio. 
 This breed is considered the ideal of the lard type of hog. The in- 
 dividuals are broad on the back, compact, low, and dress a high per 
 cent of marketable meat. The back is broader and shorter than that 
 of the Berkshire, but the latter has the advantage of the Poland- 
 China in length of side. The face of the Poland-China is longer and 
 not dished so much as that of the Berkshire. While the ideal ear of 
 the Poland-China hog stands erect, still the tips of the ears should 
 droop. The large, overhanging ear is very objectionable to Poland- 
 China breeders. 
 
 The Poland-China was originally a very large hog, but has been 
 bred for refinement and compactness so long that at the present time 
 it will not weigh as much as the Berkshire. Poland-Chinas are good 
 feeders and early maturers. They are suited rather to lot feeding 
 than to pasture feeding, as they have not the rustling qualities of 
 some of the other breeds. Still they will make good use of pastures. 
 The meat of this breed is not as high in quality as that of the Berk- 
 shire; it is tender and fine grained, but there is more fat than the 
 average consumer likes, and the fat is not suitably distributed with 
 the lean. The Poland-China is not as good as the Berkshire or the 
 Duroc-Jersey in breeding qualities. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Chester White. Color White, with occasional black, or bluish- 
 black spots on the skin. The size ranges from a large hog to one of 
 medium size. The Chester White belongs strictly to the fat or lard 
 type, producing a relatively large proportion of fat meat to lean in 
 the carcass. The face is straight, with the nose tending to be long 
 and narrow, and the ears are drooped forward, breaking over from 
 one-half to one-third of their length. The body is blocky in form, 
 although not very long, with heavy hams and smooth shoulders, 
 broad back and smooth throughout. 
 
 As a feeder the Chester White ranks high, and is considered one 
 of the most prolific of the heavier-fleshed types. It is a good grazer. 
 The quality of the meat is high. Like other white-skinned pigs, they 
 are liable to sun scald in hot climates. (La. B, 124.)
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 419 
 
 The Chester White is a popular hog in some of the Northern 
 States, but in the South this breed is not so desirable, because of its 
 color. Many of the Chester Whites raised in the South are of the 
 family known as the Ohio Improved Chesters (0. I. C.). As a breed 
 the Chester White is large, long in body, has a heavy bone, and is 
 not as refined or compact as the Poland-China. For the last few 
 years the Chester White breeders have been selecting for refinement 
 and compactness. In color the breed is white; blue spots are often 
 seen upon the skin along the back and sides. If it were not for their 
 color, the Chester Whites would soon occupy much the same position 
 in the South as the Duroc-Jerseys, because they are good mothers, 
 good grazers, and very prolific. The quality of the meat is about like 
 that of the Duroc- Jersey . (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Duroc-Jersey. Color red, the shades varying from light to dark. 
 The body is rather short, with medium length and well placed feet. 
 The head is considered small in proportion to the size of the animal. 
 The face is straight or but slightly dished. The ears are of medium 
 size, drooping forward, and the top third more or less breaking over. 
 The back is wide compared to the length, and the body often shows 
 unusual depth. The shoulders and hams are rather heavy and thick 
 fleshed. 
 
 This breed is one of the lard types. The maturing qualities are 
 high, pigs readily dressing 175 pounds at 6 months old. The quality 
 of the meat is considered fairly good. The breed is very prolific. 
 (La. B. 124.) 
 
 Originally the Duroc-Jersey was a large, coarse animal, but of 
 recent years the object has been to breed out the coarseness of bone, 
 head, and ears. While much of the roughness has been eliminated, 
 etill the Duroc-Jerseys are not as refined and compact as the Poland- 
 Chinas. In color the Duroc-Jersey is cherry red ; sandy red is very 
 objectionable to the breeders. The pictures show that when com- 
 
 Earcd with the Berkshire or Poland-China the Duroc-Jersey has a 
 cad and face longer and coarser than either of them. The ears do 
 not stand erect ; they fall forward and lie close to the head. 
 
 The Duroc-Jersey is exceedingly well adapted to the South. It 
 is a more prolific breed than either the Berkshire or the Poland- 
 China. Duroc-Jersey sows are also better milkers and mothers than 
 the Berkshires or Poland-Chinas. The Duroc-Jerseys are also one of 
 the best grazers that we have; they are strong and active and can 
 graze over large areas. Owing to the roughness that is still found in 
 some individuals of this breed, they can not be expected to mature 
 as early as the Berkshires or Poland-Chinas. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 The Duroc-Jerseys are large, long-bodied, red hogs, which are 
 good feeders, easily fattened, and grow very rapidly when well fed. 
 Being very long-bodied, the proportion of side meat to ham and- 
 shoulders is larger than in most other breeds, but many regard this 
 as an advantage, and the breed is growing in favor wherever it has 
 been introduced. (F. B. 100.) 
 
 Tamworth. Color red, or sandy, varying in shade from light to 
 dark. Large in form ; lean in type ; and long in head, body and leg.
 
 420 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 .The snout is long and tends to be straight, and the face is but slightly 
 'dished. The ears are large, and should be erect, or leaning slightly 
 forward, and not breaking over. The back is narrow and long, and 
 the sides long, and should be deep. The shoulders and hams repre- 
 sent the lean type. The Tamworth is distinctively a bacon type of 
 hog, and as such, ranks very high. This breed is large in size, and 
 can be made to weigh from 700 to 900 pounds, and even more. The 
 average mature male will probably weigh about 600 pounds, and the 
 sow, 450 pounds. At six months of age, pigs will weigh about 175 
 pounds. The early maturing quality of this breed is said to be in- 
 ferior, but the feeding quality fairly good. (La. Bui. 124.) 
 
 The Tamworths are the ideal bacon type. The bodies are ex- 
 tremely long and moderately deep. The legs, the head, and the neck 
 are also long and coarse when compared with the hogs of the lard 
 type. The back is not as broad as that of the Yorkshire. They ha\-e 
 the advantage of the Yorkshires in color, as they are red. They will 
 attain a size almost equal to that of the Yorkshire. But it is not 
 probable that the Tamworths will become popular in the South for 
 many years to come, as one of the duties of the purebred boar in the 
 South is to refine and make more compact the scrub. This the Tam- 
 worth will not do as satisfactorily as will some of the other breeds, as 
 he is long and coarse in legs and head and light in hams. The Tam- 
 worths are good rustlers, very prolific, and the meat is of the highest 
 quality. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Yorkshire. This is an old English white breed of hogs. Its 
 blood is said to have entered into the formation of practically all 
 breeds, either of English or American origin. There are three dif- 
 ferent varieties of the Yorkshire, viz., the Large, Middle or Medium, 
 and Small. The Large Yorkshire is a bacon hog, while the Small 
 Yorkshire is of the fat or lard type, and the Middle Yorkshire is a 
 medium between the two. 
 
 The Large Yorkshire. Color white; the head is medium in 
 length, with but little upturned curve; the underjaw is broad and 
 strong ; the ears incline to be heavy and droop forward. They should 
 be fine, of medium size and be carried well upward and only slightly 
 pointing forward. The body should have considerable length; the 
 back should be of fair and uniform width with considerable depth, 
 the sides being long and deep at the flanks, and full between shoulder 
 and hip. (La. Bui. 124.) 
 
 The individuals of the Large Yorkshire breed are noted for their 
 extreme length and depth of body, from which can be taken large 
 pieces of meat suitable for bacon. They are not as broad as the lard 
 type of hog across the shoulders, backs, and hams. The Yorkshire 
 is a very large breed probably the largest of the breeds of swine 
 known in America. For use in the South their color is against them, 
 as they are white, and in this section there is strong objection to 
 white hogs on the ground that they are more subject to skin diseases 
 than the black or red hogs. This is practically the only point, how- 
 ever, that can be brought against them for southern conditions.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 421 
 
 They are good rustlers, can get about over large areas, and they are 
 unexcelled as grazers. The Yorkshire is not an early maturing 
 breed ; the smaller breeds of hogs can be prepared for the market in 
 less time, but Yorkshires are rapid growers and are capable of 
 making much of this growth from pastures. Furthermore, they are 
 good breeders, good mothers, and produce large litters regularly. 
 (F. B. 411.) 
 
 The Middle Yorkshire. Color white ; this hog is said to be the 
 outcome of the cross between the Large and the Small Yorkshire. 
 It is of smaller and fatter type than the Large White. Its face is 
 more dished, its back is broader, and it more nearly approaches 
 American ideals of form. The Middle Yorkshire is not a recognized 
 breed in America, although it is in Great Britain. 
 
 The Small Yorkshire. Color white, except for occasional black 
 spots. The face is very short and broad, and often dished to such an 
 extent as to point the end of the nose upward. The lower jaw, also, 
 is much curved upward ; the ears are short, fine and erect, and point- 
 ing forward; the jowl is very round and highly developed. The 
 back is very broad, short, and thickly laid with flesh or fat. The 
 hams and shoulders are heavy and full, and the bone, hair, and qual- 
 ity are refined. The breed ranks as the smallest in this country, but 
 it has great breadth and depth for its size. The early maturing qual- 
 ities of this breed rank very high ; they fatten readily, and are said to 
 be good grazers. The quality of the meat is good, but it contains a 
 high percentage of fat. (La. Bui. 124.) 
 
 Cheshire. Color white ; the face is somewhat dished, although 
 not extremely so; the ears are small and fine, stand erect or point 
 slightly forward. The back should be long, broad and straight nearly 
 to the root of the tail. The body is usually long, but frequently 
 lacks depth. The hams and shoulders are well developed. 
 
 The quality of the meat is excellent. Cross bred and grade Chesh- 
 ires are not very common, but are in favor in some places. The 
 breeding qualities are good. (La. B. 124.) 
 
 Essex. Color, all black ; the head is fine and rather short, with 
 slightly dished face; the ears are thin and erect; the jowl is heavy 
 and the legs are short and firmly boned. The back is broad and 
 somewhat short, and the sides are deep and short. The shoulders 
 are thickly fleshed, and the hams thick and deep. The Essex is a 
 small, compact, chunky hog on short legs. It is typical of the lard 
 type of hog, except that it is small in size. The breed is noteworthy 
 for early maturing qualities feeders maturing at six months of age. 
 
 As compared with the Poland-China and Berkshire, the Essex 
 ranks among the smaller breeds. At maturity it is said to attain a 
 weight of from 250 to 400 pounds, depending upon the care and 
 treatment. The quality of the meat is fine and well-flavored, with a 
 tendency to fat over lean. The crosses and grades may be of con- 
 siderable comparative value. According to an English breeder, there 
 is probably no black pig which combines more good qualities as 
 either porker or bacon hog than the produce of an improved Essex
 
 422 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 boar and an improved Berkshire sow. The place for the Essex seems 
 to be in the hands of the small breeder or feeder. 
 
 The Hampshire or Thin Rind Hog. Color black, with a white 
 band, four to twelve inches wide, encircling the body, and including 
 the fore legs. The head is small; the ears of medium length, in- 
 clining slightly forward. The jowls, or cheeks, are light; back of 
 medium width. The hams are somewhat lacking in fullness com- 
 pared with the larger American breeds; the legs are well set apart. 
 This breed is sometimes classed as a medium between the lard hog 
 and the bacon hog, although it is generally considered as belonging 
 to the former. It is, however, about medium in size. A cross of the 
 pure-bred male on common sows is thought likely to result in more 
 prolific stock, leaning toward the bacon type. The Hampshire is a 
 good grazer and is quite prolific. The quality of the meat is superior. 
 (La. Bui. 124.) 
 
 Victoria. Color white ; the head is moderately broad ; the face 
 medium dished ; the ear small to medium in size, and carried erect. 
 The body is broad and deep ; the back level, and the tail set on at a 
 line nearly level with the back. The hams and shoulders are con- 
 siderably thick and full, and the length and depth of side meat is 
 very good. The length of leg is moderate, and the quality of bone is 
 fair. In size the Victoria ranks as medium with the Poland-China 
 and Berkshire. At maturity, the males should weigh about 600 
 pounds, and the sows 450 pounds. As a feeder, this breed has not 
 been extensively tried. The quality of the meat will rank well 
 among that of other breeds. The breeding qualities of this hog are 
 considered very good. 
 
 The Razorback, or Common Southern Hog. Color varied; as a 
 breed the Razorback is a long-bodied, long-legged, thin, long-nosed 
 hog, exceedingly hardy and with remarkably good foraging powers, 
 but too slow in coming to maturity, and too light in weight to com- 
 pare with the modern and improved breeds of swine. In describing 
 this breed of hogs, a writer adds: "It has no place in modern agricul- 
 ture." Nevertheless this breed can be much improved by selecting 
 the best sows and breeding them to well bred boars of the best type. 
 (La. Bui. 124.) 
 
 Selection of a Breed. The more common breeds in this country 
 are the Berkshires, Poland-Chinas, Chester-Whites, and Duroc-Jer- 
 seys, though Essexes and a few others are occasionally seen. Thirty 
 years ago the differences between different breeds were very marked, 
 but with the greater attention which breeders have given to the pro- 
 duction of animals possessing an ideal form the characteristics of the 
 different breeds have approached each other, until now nearly all 
 breeds have the same general form. (F. B. 100.) 
 
 The question is often asked, What is the best breed of swine? 
 The answer can not 'be given by naming any one particular breed; 
 there is no such thing as a best breed. One breed may be specially 
 adapted for a certain purpose, while another may be better suited for 
 a different object. The best breed for any particular farmer is 
 usually the breed that he likes best.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 
 
 SCORE CARD FOR SWINE.* 
 
 423 
 
 Scale of Points. 
 
 Possible 
 score. 
 
 Points 
 deficient. 
 
 Points 
 deficient. 
 
 GENERAL, APPEARANCE 25 POINTS. 
 Weight estimate actual Ibs 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, com- 
 pact, standing squarely on legs 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Quality, bone clean, hair silky, skin soft, head 
 and ears refined, evenly covered with firm 
 flesh 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 Disposition, quiet, docile 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 HEAD AND NECK 10 POINTS. 
 Snout, medium length, not coarse 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Face, short, cheeks full 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Forehead, broad 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Eyes, large, mild, full, bright, wide apart 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Ears, medium size, fine, soft 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 FOREQUARTERS 13 POINTS. 
 
 Shoulders, symmetrical, broad, deep, full, com- 
 pact on top 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Breast, wide, prominent, well let down 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Legs, straight, short, feet and pasterns strong. . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 BODY 32 POINTS. 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Sides, deep, lengthy and full 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Loin, thick, wide and strong 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Belly, straight, even and firmly fleshed 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 HINDQUARTERS 20 POINTS. 
 Hips wide apart smooth 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Hams, firm, heavily fleshed, deep and wide 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Legs, straight, short feet and pasterns strong. . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 This card Is used in classes in swine judging in the Animal Husbandry depart- 
 ment of the College of Agriculture. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 The breeds of hogs are divided into two general classes, the 
 bacon type and the lard type. The Yorkshire and the Tamworth 
 breeds belong to the bacon type, while other 'breeds, as the Berkshire, 
 the Poland-China, and the Duroc-Jersey, belong to the lard type. 
 
 The farmer who is about to adopt a breed should be sure to se- 
 lect one of the standard and common breeds of his own State. Many 
 men make the mistake of introducing a breed new to the section, and 
 when the time comes that a new boar must be secured much diffi- 
 culty and expense are incurred before a satisfactory one can be 
 found. Therefore a breed should usually be selected which has a 
 good representation in the State in which the farmer lives. (F. B. 
 411.) 
 
 After the farmer has decided upon the breed of hogs which he 
 believes to be the best and most profitable for him to raise, he should 
 then stick to that breed and endeavor to develop it to its most per- 
 fect condition. It is not possible to get the most out of a breed by
 
 424 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 continually changing from one to another. The most famous in- 
 dividuals, and the most famous herds of animals, have been built up, 
 developed and perfected, only by sticking to the breed and getting 
 the most out of it. 
 
 There is plenty of room, and sale, for all the different breeds of 
 hogs ; but it is useless for one individual to try to raise, and bring to 
 their most perfect development, all of them. (La. Bui. 124.) 
 
 There is so little difference between the breeds when properly 
 handled, that the results obtained will be due to the intelligence of the 
 breeder rather than to the merits of the 'breed itself. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 CARE OP BREEDING STOCK. 
 
 Breeding stock should, be kept in the open air and sunshine as 
 much as possible during the year. Pasture runs alone will not suf- 
 fice, but should be supplemented by foods especially adapted to bone 
 and muscle development. The feed for the brood sow should be 
 nutritious and bulky. Sliced roots, clover or alfalfa hay, either fed 
 dry or as a chop feed is very palatable. Some corn may be fed, but 
 ground oats, crushed peas or white middlings supply more nutri- 
 ment for muscle and bone development. The importance of daily 
 exercise for brood sows cannot be overestimated. Scattering grains of 
 corn over large areas will force activity and cause needed exercise. If 
 animals are confined to pens, walking the sows short distances each 
 day will prove beneficial. After farrowing, as the pigs develop 
 greater appetites, the sow should receive an increased amount of suc- 
 culent feed. By-products from the dairy, such as skim milk or but- 
 termilk, supplemented with a grain mixture made up of 
 
 Nutritive Ratio. 
 
 4 Ibs. Middlings 
 
 2 Ibs. Ground Oats.. 
 
 4 Ibs. Corn Meal, 
 
 1:6.1 
 
 2 Ibs. Ground Barley 
 
 1/2 Ib. Oil Meal . 
 
 fed in a thick slop in quantities sufficient to keep the milking moth- 
 ers in a vigorous, not fleshy appearance, will prove useful. A mix- 
 ture of the common products found on the farm is always preferable 
 to any one grain ; while grinding, cooking or soaking the feed, espe- 
 cially corn, is a waste of time and money. Barley, wheat or oats 
 should be crushed. Alfalfa hay fed in slat racks is very nourishing 
 and keeps the digestive system active. 
 
 A small, low trough, accessible 'only to the young pigs, should 
 foe provided, and a little feed, preferably skim milk or thin mid- 
 dlings with a little oil meal added, supplied. This tasty mixture will 
 tempt the youngsters' growing appetite, and when they are encour- 
 aged to drink in this way weaning Is comparatively easy. After the 
 young pigs are weaned they should be well fed, provided with a 
 grassy pasture or have access to a lot where they can obtain fresh, 
 green forage. This will tend to keep their digestive tract in good 
 condition, and later, when ready for fattening, their digestive appa- 
 ratus will be sufficiently developed to enable heavy feeding, and thus 
 rapid and economical gains. (N. J. L. S. C. Cir. 1.)
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 425 
 
 BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Pure Blood or Grades. Swine offer a greater opportunity for 
 improvement than any other class of live stock. There is no reason 
 why any farmer should raise scrubs. Starting with a pure bred sire, 
 and continuing to use a sire of the same breed, but a few years are 
 required to establish a grade herd equal to pure-breds in every way 
 for pork production. Even when starting with an inferior lot of 
 sows, by using a good boar and rejecting all inferior animals each 
 year, a uniform herd can be developed. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 As to whether pure-breds, grades or scrubs shall be grown, rests 
 largely with the aesthetic tastes of the producer. Cross breds and 
 scrubs may make as economical gains as high grades and pure 
 bloods, but they will lack that excellency of conformation that is so 
 gratifying to the feeder and that so quickly appeals to the buyer. 
 (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 Good grades are much more reliable breeders than are crosses 
 and are to be preferred. The native stock has the vigor of constitu- 
 tion, which is always necessary, and has no inherited prepotency to 
 develop in any certain direction. When mated with a pure-blood, 
 the result is usually an animal with the vigor of the native ancestor 
 and the characteristics of the pure-blood parent shown in its better 
 form and fattening qualities. Succeeding crosses in the same direc- 
 tion strengthen this tendency toward improvement. The great ob- 
 jection to "grading up" in this way is the fact that, no matter how 
 fine specimens the animals may be, they can never be sold as pure- 
 bloods, and an animal which is a grade will never sell for breeding 
 at as high a price as will one which is of pure blood and entitled to 
 registration. 
 
 The most satisfactory results will be obtained from a grade sow 
 mated to a pure-bred boar. (Utah Bui. 94; F. B. 100.) 
 
 Inbreeding. While inbreeding is the quickest and surest way 
 to fix type, it should be practiced with great care. As it intensifies 
 both the good and the bad characteristics, it should only be done 
 when care is taken to select the best individuals of the type to breed, 
 and to discard all others. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Selection of Individuals. The selection of breed is a matter of 
 fancy; the selection of the individual animals for the foundation of 
 the herd is the basis for profit or losses. 
 
 The first consideration should be to get both boar and sows from 
 prolific strains, and of the type demanded by the market. Except 
 during the few weeks when the pigs are suckling, it costs as much to 
 keep a sow that has one to four pigs in a litter, as it does to keep one 
 that has eight to ten pigs. The first cost of the new born pig is de- 
 termined by the cost of keeping the dam, divided by the number of 
 pigs in the litter. 
 
 Uniformity in type is essential for the largest profits. No two 
 breeds or types "feed exactly alike, and where there is a mixture there 
 is a variation in finish and weight that lowers the selling price. 
 
 There are three serious defects to avoid in selecting animals 
 for breeding stock: Weakness through the heart, weak or swayed
 
 426 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 back, and weak pasterns. These are faults which the swine growers 
 of the corn belt have learned from years of costly experience to 
 avoid, and no other good qualities will compensate for these defects. 
 (Colo. Bui. 146.) 
 
 If you have decided upon the breed you are going to raise, 
 remember that the individuals of any breed vary widely in merit, 
 and for that reason much care should be exercised in selecting 
 animals for breeding purposes. There are many pure breds of all 
 breeds that are very inferior and the only merit they have is their 
 purity of breeding. Many are offered for sale as pure breds which 
 in reality are only grades, which accounts for their lack of good 
 conformation. The lack of care and feeding, however, is the chief 
 reason for the presence of so many inferior pure breds. (N. D. 
 Bui. 83.) 
 
 The pigs which are to be used for breeding purposes should be 
 selected during the time when the pigs are with the sow. If the 
 breeder is raising hogs for market he will select only sows, castrating 
 all boars. No boar should be used or sold that is not eligible to 
 registry. If the breeder is raising pure-bred stock the inferior boars 
 will be culled out and castrated, the others being kept for the breed- 
 ing market (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Selecting the Boar. The male has the greater influence on the 
 herd, for the simple reason that every pig in the herd is sired by 
 him, whereas they have not all the same dam. To achieve the best 
 results a breeder should never allow the standard of his sows to be 
 lowered, and should always couple them with a boar of a little better 
 grade. A superior boar may be used on a herd of inferior sows 
 with good results, but the use of an inferior boar on sows of high 
 quality will have a disastrous outcome. The one method raises the 
 standard of the herd ; the other inevitably lowers it. 
 
 A boar with the male characteristics strongly developed should 
 be selected, preferably as a yearling, or else as a pig that has been 
 purchased at the same time as the sows and allowed to come to 
 maturity before being used. He should have a strongly masculine 
 head and a well-crested neck. His shoulders should be developed 
 according to age; but strong shoulder development in pigs under a 
 year or eighteen months is objectionable. The same indications of 
 a good pork-producing carcass that the sows required should be seen 
 in the boar a broad, straight, deeply fleshed back, much depth and 
 length of side, and well-developed hind quarters. The boar should 
 be selected to correct any defects that may be common to the sows ; 
 for example, if the sows are rather coarse in bone and loosely built, 
 the boar should have high quality fine bone, skin, and hair. If 
 the sows tend toward over-refinement and delicacy, the boar should 
 be rather rangy and strong-boned. There is a common belief that 
 the male parent influences principally the extremities and general 
 appearance of the offspring, while the vital organs (the heart, lungs, 
 and viscera), conformation, and size resemble those of the female 
 parent. This theory is strongly questioned by some modern author- 
 ities on heredity; but so long as our knowledge of the subject is so
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 427 
 
 limited, and this particular phase is in dispute, it can do no harm 
 to select breeding animals according to the old ideas. The visible 
 organs of the reproductive system should be well developed and 
 clearly defined. A boar should not be bought with small, indef- 
 initely placed testicles. Avoid particularly a boar with only one 
 testicle visible. 
 
 The boar should stand up on his toes. There should not be the 
 slightest indication of weakness in the pasterns of a young one ; in a 
 mature boar (2 or 3 years of age) that has seen hard service it may 
 be expected that he will be a little down on his pasterns, but a 6 or 8 
 months old pig that does not carry himself on upright pasterns is 
 not a safe animal to select for a herd boar; the hind pastern will be 
 in much danger of breaking down with a little age and service. 
 Look carefully to the set of the hind legs. The hock should be 
 carefully set and straight. A crooked hock is as great a drawback 
 as a weak pastern. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 The selection of the boar to be used cannot be too carefully 
 done. The saying "the sire is half the herd" is very true because 
 he exerts his influence on every pig in the herd if only one sire is in 
 service. For this reason it is very imperative that the boar be equal 
 and if anything superior to the sows. If one's yearly pig crop is to 
 be superior to that of the preceding year, it can be done with the 
 least expense by getting a better boar than formerly used. Grade 
 herds can soon be improved in merit through the use of good boars. 
 The progress made with the pure bred herd must come also in this 
 way. 
 
 In selecting a boar get one that has male characteristics well 
 developed, which are indicated by a strong rather than a feminine 
 head, a well-crested neck and plenty of vitality. If the boar is 12 
 months old or over a strong development of shoulder may be allow- 
 able, although undue coarseness in these parts is not desirable. In 
 addition to the masculine characters he should possess these points 
 relative to form that are desirable in his breed and class. Good 
 heart girth to furnish a large capacity for the vital organs is essen- 
 tial in all breeding animals. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 The boar must first show the characteristics of the breed to 
 which he belongs. He should show masculinity, especially in the 
 head. The neck should be short, the shoulders smooth and com- 
 pact on top, deep and wide between the legs. The body should be 
 long, smooth and evenly fleshed, with a slight arch and a wide, 
 strong loin. 
 
 The hind quarters should be long, deep and wide, well let down 
 in the ham and having a width equal to that of the shoulders and 
 body. The legs should be short, with strong, fine bones. He should 
 be active, yet of docile and quiet disposition. 
 
 The most vigorous young are produced from animals that have 
 reached maturity. A strong and vigorous herd cannot be built up 
 by breeding continuously from young boars and gilts. The practice 
 of buying boars from 6 to 8 months old, because they are cheap, 
 using them on herds two seasons, and then marketing, cannot meet
 
 428 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 with success. The old boar should be kept until the young one is 
 mature. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 The most detrimental factor to swine breeding is the scrub boar, 
 for he has neither individuality, good breeding, nor any quality 
 worth transmitting. The herd boar should be pure bred and have 
 individual merit and character. Pure breeding should insure prepo- 
 tence in the sire and give uniformity and character to his offspring. 
 The breeder should become a competent judge, and study the type, 
 shape and conformation of his animals under different ages and 
 conditions. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 The sire should be strong in the characteristics of the breed and 
 possess the type of market class to which he belongs. While the 
 boar may well have the proper color markings, and points of the 
 breed, it is all important that he should possess a combination of size 
 and quality. A sire of the lard type should be short and broad in 
 the face, broad between the eyes, and have short, broad ears. His 
 neck should rise rapidly behind the ears and widen into a body 
 which is long, uniformly wide and deep. Boars often become too 
 wide and rough in the shoulders, with deep wrinkles in the skin. 
 The thick plates of hard skin, on the sides of the shoulders, are 
 sometimes called "shields." Mature boars are liable to develop 
 massive fore quarters and be narrow behind, with insufficient depth 
 in the hams and twist. Sires of this sort should be avoided. Seek 
 refinement in the head and fore quarters, with a broad, strong, 
 slightly arched back, a wide loin, and wide, deep hams. 
 
 It is imperative that the legs and feet of a boar be short, strong, 
 and sound. The tendency has been to pay particular attention to 
 the hog's conformation of body and too little to his legs and feet. 
 The legs below the knees and hocks should be of medium size and 
 free from fleshiness or wrinkles in the skin. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 A new boar should be purchased as often as the sows have 
 passed their prime and are replaced by the offspring of the old boar. 
 If hogs are grown for the market only, it is not necessary to pay a 
 fancy price for a fancy animal which has every bristle of just the 
 right color and pointing in exactly the right direction. The man 
 who is raising hogs to be sold as pure bred breeding animals cannot 
 be too careful to purchase only such as come nearest the ideal shape, 
 color, and style typical of the breed he is using; but for the man 
 who is raising pork and who does not expect to sell fancy breeding 
 animals, slight variations in color, shape and position of ears, and 
 length of tail, are of little importance. What the pork raiser should 
 require in his boar is good form and size without coarseness, good 
 feeding capacity, and a strong constitution. 
 
 In breeding for pork the boar need not have all the finer mark- 
 ings of his breed. Color of hair on the hog makes no difference with 
 the quality of the pork, but he should have a good form, and should 
 be descended from animals having good forms. A poor specimen 
 of a pure-blood animal is little better than a scrub, and should not 
 be used simply because he has a long pedigree. Pedigree is good 
 because it gives prepotency, but form and vigor are better because
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 431 
 
 they give pork. Good shape is absolutely necessary in a good boar, 
 and if he has a good pedigree also he is a much better animal. 
 
 Nearly all breeders of fancy stock have numerous boar pigs 
 which are not quite up to the standard in some unimportant par- 
 ticulars, and so cannot be sold as strictly first-class animals. The 
 defects may be nothing more than a slight variation in color, swirls 
 in the bristles, or a missing tail; but with even such defects the 
 animals would stand a poor chance in the show ring, and breeders 
 are often glad to sell them for little more than their value for pork. 
 Such animals are just as good as any where pork and not show is 
 wanted, and will insure much better pigs than can be expected from, 
 an equally well-formed grade or an inferior pure blood. (F. B. 
 100.) 
 
 Selecting the Sow. The sire is often considered half the herd, 
 but in reality the females are equally important. The typical sire 
 will transmit his qualities of excellence to his get, but the best 
 results will only be had when he is mated with proper dams. The 
 dam should have the same combination of size and quality requisite 
 in the sire. In conformation she may not need to be so compactly 
 built and may be somewhat finer in features and bone. The sow 
 that is quiet and docile in temperament proves a good mother and 
 is careful with her litter. These characteristics can to some extent 
 be judged before the sow has been used. The ideal sow has 10 to 12 
 well-developed, sound teats. Sows occasionally have blind teats that 
 are rarely detected before farrowing. The number of sound teats 
 sometimes is considered an indication of prolificacy in the sow. 
 
 Prolificacy usually is a family characteristic and it is wise to 
 select a prospective brood sow from a large litter of robust pigs. The 
 strongest pigs of a litter, most suitable for prospective sows, usually 
 nurse from the teats nearest to the front of the udder. The pro- 
 spective sow may therefore be chosen before she is taken from her 
 dam. In selecting brood sows the highest possible standard of excel- 
 lence should be retained and all others should be marketed for pork. 
 (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 It will even be much better to buy one high-class sow than five 
 poor ones. This would be real economy, and the development of 
 the herd will prove its value. It will be well if a beginner can obtain 
 the assistance of an old and successful breeder in making a start. 
 
 If the boar is half the herd, the sows certainly make up the 
 other half, and their selection is a highly important matter. They 
 may be purchased, already bred, some time before the boar, and 
 quite an item of expense will thus be saved. Then by the time the 
 sows have been watched and studied for a season and have each 
 raised a litter of pigs, the owner will be much better prepared to 
 select a suitable male, and he can then get one to use on both dams 
 and offspring. 
 
 The sows selected should be nearly the same age, which should 
 be about 12 months, and all should be safe in pig, preferably to the 
 same boar. Their individual characteristics should, perhaps, be first
 
 432 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 looked to. While hogs do not show the strong differences of sex that 
 we look for in a cow or a mare, sex characteristics always constitute 
 a marked feature of a good brood sow. The smoother forehead and 
 lighter, finer neck are points of distinction from the signs of mascu- 
 linity in a boar. The forehead should be broad between the eyes, 
 the throat clean and trim, the neck moderately thin, and the shoul- 
 ders smooth and deep ; the back should be fairly wide and straight, 
 and ample room for the vital organs should be provided by a good 
 width and depth of chest, well-sprung ribs, and straight, deep sides 
 a deep, capacious body from end to end. Depth of chest and 
 abdomen are specially important in a brood sow. Pinched chests 
 and waists must be avoided. It is generally advised that sows with 
 much length of body should be selected for breeding purposes, 
 length of body being regarded by some as an indication of fecundity. 
 It will certainly do no harm to select sows that are especially long, 
 but care should be taken that quality goes with the increase in. 
 length. The loose- jointed, long-coupled, slow-maturing, and slow- 
 fattening type should not be selected. 
 
 The surest means by which to select prolific sows is to keep an 
 accurate record of the herd and cull out all sows that do not yield a 
 certain percentage of pigs annually. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 The sow should possess the same characteristics as the boar, but 
 should show more refinement, indicating femininity. The body 
 should be long, showing great digestive capacity and room for 
 carrying young. The hind quarters should be broad, to obviate 
 difficulty in parturition. Breadth between the eyes indicates good 
 disposition. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 For breeding for pure-bred swine to be sold for breeding pur- 
 poses, it is important to have a good class of swine in the herd. In 
 breeding swine for market, so much quality and perfection of form 
 are not essential to profit. 
 
 A brood sow should be selected to reproduce thrifty young in 
 large numbers, and rear them successfully. Experience shows that 
 a sow having the most ideal conformation for market demands does 
 not always make the best breeder. In selecting sows of the lard 
 breeds it is best to select a long-bodied, somewhat more upstanding, 
 coarser-boned sow, in preference to the compact, neater kinds. 
 
 In breeding pure-breds it is good policy to retain a brood sow 
 that has proven a good mother, just as long as she continues to pro- 
 duce good litters. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 Do not be too ready to discard a sow known to be a strong, 
 regular breeder, having large litters, for one that is yet untried ; but 
 keep her so long as she produces, regularly, large litters of strong, 
 healthy pigs. The Wisconsin Station has found that the number 
 and weight of pigs increased as the sows increased in age. With 
 stronger, more vigorous pigs at birth, more rapid and economical 
 gains can be made. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 Mating. It is customary to mate the sows from December 1st 
 to January 15th, so that the pigs will be farrowed between March
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 433 
 
 20th and May 5th. The time will depend on the facilities for 
 housing the sows during farrowing time, and whether breeding or 
 market hogs are raised. 
 
 If raising pure^breds for breeding purposes, the sows should be 
 bred so the pigs will be farrowed early, so they will be large enough 
 for service by the breeding season in the fall. 
 
 In raising market hogs, they should be farrowed as early as 
 they can be kept warm and made to thrive. Thus with good care 
 they will be reaay for market before severe winter weather. 
 
 During the mating season it is a good practice to place all the 
 breeding sows in a lot together, so that the period of heat may be 
 readily detected. It is a common practice on many farms to turn 
 the boar in with the sows and let him serve them at will. The 
 dangers from this method are that the sows may vary in size. If 
 some of the sows are large and the boar small, he will be unable to 
 serve the large ones and the small ones may suffer if the boar is 
 old and heavy. The other danger is the boar may misuse himself. 
 These dangers can be avoided by confining the boar in a lot adjoin- 
 ing the sow pen and turning the sows with him when in heat long 
 enough for a single service. In case the boar is unable to serve a 
 sow, it is well to use a breeding crate, which is designed to give him 
 an advantage. (N. D. Bui. 83.) 
 
 Sows carry their pigs about 16 weeks, and usually will not take 
 the boar while suckling pigs, except immediately after the litter is 
 dropped, and they must be bred then or after the pigs are weaned. 
 The periods of heat are about sixteen days apart, altnough they vary 
 with the individual. (Wyo. B. 74.) 
 
 Gilts should not be served before the age of 8 months, bringing 
 the first litter at 12 months. This gives sufficient time for the devel- 
 opment of the reproductive organs. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Castrating and Spaying. The 'boar pigs should be castrated 
 during cool weather, as soon as the testicles descend into the scrotum. 
 An early date is always preferable to a late one, for the development 
 of sex characteristics is of no value to an animal that is intended for 
 meat. 
 
 The practice of spaying sows is not very general. It is much 
 more difficult than castration. It often happens that sows may 
 become pregnant before spaying and bear a good litter of pigs after 
 that operation. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 The results of the experiment at the Utah Station show the 
 gains to have been slightly in favor of the unspayed sows, though 
 the difference is less than 5 per cent. This single test does not give 
 sufficient data from which to draw a conclusion, but it indicates that 
 there is practically no difference in the feeding qualities of spayed 
 and unspayed sows. (Utah B. 70.) 
 
 Management of the Boar. As soon as the boar arrives, he 
 should be thoroughly dipped or washed with some of the coal tar 
 dips for destroying lice, and given the same treatment after ten 
 days. For three weeks after arrival he should be kept at a safe dis-
 
 454 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 tance from all other hogs on the farm; then, if found free from 
 disease, he may be placed in quarters near them. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 A boar should not be used for much service until he is at least 
 12 months old. A fully matured boar produces the most vigorous 
 pigs, other things being equal, and if properly fed and handled, 
 may be profitably kept for several years. His tushes should be cut 
 or knocked off as often as they show considerable size. The boar 
 should serve a sow but once, and two sows a day should be the limit 
 for a mature boar, and then he should have a day's rest after every 
 second or third day. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Breeders generally advocate the practice of keeping a boar to 
 himself during the entire year out of sight and hearing of the 
 sows. However, a boar is often allowed to run with the sows after 
 they are safe in pig ; but during the breeding season it is by far the 
 best policy to keep him by himself, admitting a sow to his yard for 
 mating, and allowing but one service. This will be productive of 
 the best results in many ways. The energies of the male are not 
 overtaxed. He may thus serve a much larger number of sows, and 
 the litters will generally be larger and the pigs stronger. In the 
 case of a sow that is a somewhat shy breeder and a valuable animal, 
 she may be allowed to remain with a boar during the greater part' 
 of her heat, but such instances are exceptional. Another advantage 
 of the single-service system is that a man always has an accurate 
 knowledge of his breeding operations and knows when to expect 
 farrowing time. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 The boar should be used before being fed. A mature boar is 
 sufficient for 50 sows. Over-service results in pigs being dead, weak 
 or puny at birth. 
 
 The boar should have dry, comfortable shelter, and daily exer- 
 cise. He will keep better natured and easier to handle if allowed 
 to run with the barrows outside the breeding season. If allowed to 
 run with the sows during the breeding season, he will weaken him- 
 self by over-service. At other times there is danger that he will 
 injure the sows. 
 
 It pays to train a boar from his first service to the use of a 
 breeding crate. With it, any size and weight of boar can be mated 
 with any size and weight of sow. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 The boar should never be allowed to run with the sows, as he 
 will be a continual worry both to them and to his owner, and it is 
 much better to keep him in a lot where he can neither see nor hear 
 other hogs. He should be kept as quiet as possible, and his food 
 should be such as will give him strength and vitality, but not too 
 fattening. He will do better service when he has sufficient grazing 
 to give him exercise and only sufficient grain food to keep him in 
 good condition without becoming so fat as to be heavy and unwieldy. 
 (F. B. 100.) 
 
 Management of the Sow. A large litter of heavy, vigorous 
 pigs at weaning time is the foundation of profits. The sow should 
 be selected and from birth should be fed and handled to produce 
 such litters.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 435 
 
 The sow pig intended for a breeder should be pushed for the 
 first year and given feeds that will make rapid growth, but that will 
 not fatten. She should weigh from 300 to 375 pounds at 12 mouths 
 of age when in thrifty condition, but not fat. Ample exercise every 
 day is necessary for health and to develop muscles and lungs. If 
 the sow has made a good growth, she may be bred to drop her first 
 litter when she becomes 12 months of age. She should be in perfect 
 health and in good flesh when bred. The gestation period for the 
 sow is 112 days. 
 
 While pregnant, the sow should be given muscle and bone- 
 making feeds that will develop in the unborn pigs size and strong 
 vital organs. The same feeds are needed for this purpose that are 
 required by pigs after weaning. The sow should be kept in good 
 flesh, but not fat. A heavy condition of flesh is favorable if it is put 
 on with muscle-making feeds and the sow has been given ample 
 exercise. Under feeding is extremely detrimental. The pigs from 
 a half-starved sow are weak and undersized at birth, and are stunted 
 while suckling from lack of sufficient milk. 
 
 Constipation in the sow while she is pregnant, or suckling, 
 must be avoided. Pig eating is often caused by constipation. Lax- 
 ative and bulky feeds will prevent this trouble. Exercise is neces- 
 earv to keep the bowels in good condition. Small feeds of roots are 
 good. Heavy feeding of roots is often the cause of weak or dead 
 pigs at birth. Feeding frozen roots is likely to cause abortion. The 
 pregnant sow should be fed, sheltered, exercised, and handled in 
 such a way as to keep her in good flesh and health. Everything 
 that facilitates this condition tends to secure pigs with greater vigor 
 and more profitable as feeders. 
 
 A blow or a strain of any kind to the belly of the pregnant sow 
 is likely to result in pigs dead at birth, or pigs born the wrong way, 
 with the consequent injury to the sow, or her death. Sows had to 
 step over a six-inch board in passing through an opening between 
 their yard and pasture. There were many dead pigs at farrowing, 
 and some of the sows died from trouble while giving birth. The 
 ground next to a hog pen was eight inches lower than the floor, and 
 the brood sows had to climb over this step dead pigs and dead 
 FO\VS at farrowing time was the consequence. Potatoes were dug 
 with a plow and the land left in ridges. Pregnant sows had to travel 
 over these to get to a pea field. At farrowing time there were many 
 dead pigs, and two sows died. A boar allowed to run with sows that 
 are bred will frequently knock them around and bring the same 
 trouble. Horses or cattle running in a lot with brood sows will 
 often injure the sows the same way. Not over five to ten bred sows 
 should be allowed to sleep together, as crowding in cold weather may 
 result in losses at farrowing time. Pregnant sows should not be 
 allowed to run with fattening hogs. 
 
 A breeding record should be kept, and two weeks before the 
 pigs are expected the sow should be placed in a farrowing pen con- 
 nected with a dry yard large enough to allow her to exercise. The
 
 436 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 feed should be somewhat reduced, without any sudden change, and 
 her bowels kept loose. She should have dry, sunny shelter, free 
 from draughts. The sow should be petted so that she will like to 
 have her feeder handle her. (Colo. Bui. 146.) 
 
 To produce good, strong, healthy pigs they must be looked 
 after before they are born. The mother while pregnant must be 
 cared for and fed properly if she is to give birth to a good litter of 
 pigs. As a rule the mother is neglected during the period of preg- 
 nancy, the owner seeming to think that the application of care and 
 feed after she has farrowed is all that is required. But we should 
 know that a poorly nourished pregnant mother means a weak, sickly 
 Utter of pigs. (Wis. Bui. 184.) 
 
 Hogs require attention, regardless of condition, age, or sex, but 
 the management of the brood sows is the surest test of the breeder's 
 skill. If sows are carelessly fed during pregnancy, trouble of some 
 kind is sure to ensue at farrowing ; if overfed after farrowing, losses 
 may occur among the pigs from scours and thumps. At no time ia 
 the development of the pigs so easily influenced as while they are 
 dependent on the sow's milk the first month of life. Excepting 
 the ravages of epidemics, perhaps the greatest death losses in the 
 herd occur during this time, including farrowing. The accidents 
 during farrowing, an attack of scours due to the milk of the dam, or 
 a chill while following the sow in pasture on a wet day may stop 
 growth temporarily, leaving a permanently stunted pig, or may 
 result fatally. On the other hand, the results of good management 
 during pregnancy are as marked as the unfortunate consequences 
 of careless methods. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Farrowing Time. Record should be kept of the date of service 
 of the sows, so that it may be known when they will farrow. Sows 
 vary very little in their gestation period. The period is 112 days 
 from the date of breeding. If the date they are due to farrow is 
 known and they are running out in sheds or outbuildings, they 
 should be given a pen in the piggery at least a week before the date 
 of farrowing. This will give the sow an opportunity to become 
 acquainted with the new surroundings and also make it possible to 
 give her better care during farrowing time. If farrowing takes 
 place during cold weather, it is necessary to have a warm place such 
 as a reasonably well constructed piggery will provide. If a stove 
 can be provided in a small room to warm the pigs when it is found 
 necessary, it will prove helpful. 
 
 The bedding of a sow at farrowing time should not be too 
 abundant, but just enough for cleanliness. Chaff or very fine straw 
 is best. If a deep bed of coarse straw is provided, the pigs are liable 
 to burrow into it and' smother or be crushed by the sow. The writer 
 realizes that many farmers do not have a good piggery, or any barn, 
 to farrow the sows in. If this is the situation, the sow can be penned 
 temporarily in a shed previous to and for a short time after farrow- 
 ing and good results may be had in saving the pigs unless the 
 weather is too cold,
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 437 
 
 It is well to watch the sows when they show signs of getting 
 ready to farrow and be at hand to assist them, in case they should 
 have difficulty. If the sow is very nervous, it is not wise to give her 
 too much attention, unless she has a troublesome case. Attention 
 sometimes does more harm than good during farrowing. It is a 
 good plan to handle the sow considerably before she farrows, so that 
 she will become accustomed to an attendant in the pen. If this is 
 done, the sow will be much less excitable if it is necessary to give 
 her some assistance or to care for the pigs. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 If the sow has already farrowed a litter, and has been properly 
 fed and cared for during pregnancy, little difficulty may be ex- 
 pected. With young sows, particularly those bred at an immature 
 age, there is a considerable element of risk at this time, not only to 
 the pigs, but to the sow herself. 
 
 The bedding of a sow at farrowing time should be sufficient 
 only for cleanliness and dryness. If furnished in large amount, the 
 pigs will burrow into it and get lost or be crushed. The best bed- 
 ding is rye straw and wheat straw, and if the straw is cut it makes 
 an almost ideal bed. Chaff is excellent if it can be obtained. Oat 
 straw is not so valuable. 
 
 The management of sows during farrowing will depend largely 
 on the animal and on the weather conditions. Assistance should be 
 at hand if needed, but the sow should not be helped if she is getting 
 along nicely alone. Many pigs are lost annually by lack of atten- 
 tion during farrowing; but, on the other hand, there is no doubt 
 that in many cases overanxiety and too much attention may do 
 more harm than good and often result seriously. The assistance 
 that is imperative at this time is to help in cases of difficult labor 
 and to protect pigs from chilling in cold weather. The tempera- 
 ment of the sow should be considered ; some are plainly annoyed by 
 the presence of an attendant and show it in their nervous actions; 
 others may be positively ill natured and resent interference. Such 
 sows are better left alone during farrowing, and should be bred to 
 farrow when warm weather may be expected, so that the chances 
 are as much in favor of the pigs as possible. If the sow's nervous- 
 ness or ill nature leads her to eat her pigs, the best remedy is to put 
 her in the pork barrel at the earliest opportunity. 
 
 When farrowing occurs during warm weather, a minimum 
 amount of attention will be needed. The pigs are less likely to 
 become chilled at this season and will generally find their way to the 
 teats unaided. Proper preliminary feeding of the sow and good 
 quarters will make the chance of trouble small. On the other hand, 
 if a sow farrows during extremely cold weather the pigs will be in 
 danger of being chilled unless the house is heated. To remedy this 
 some breeders throw a blanket over the sow until she is through. 
 Others place a few hot bricks or a hot soapstone in the bottom of a 
 basket or barrel, covering them with straw, and put a cloth over the 
 top to prevent too rapid radiation ; and, unless the sow objects too 
 seriously, the pigs are placed in this receptacle as fast as they arrive.
 
 438 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 They will not suffer if they do not suck for a few minutes, and they 
 will be dry and warm when placed to the teats. This treatment 
 will be necessary even in warm weather with sows that are nervous 
 and move about during farrowing. When farrowing is over the 
 pigs should all be placed to the teats, care being taken that each one 
 gets his share. When the afterbirth is passed it should be 
 removed at once and burned or buried. There is good reason to 
 believe that the eating of the afterbirth is often the beginning of 
 the habit of eating the pigs that is so troublesome with some sows. 
 
 In very cold weather it may be necessary for a few days to 
 remove the pigs to a warm place after they have sucked, to prevent 
 chilling. As newborn pigs suck as often as every two hours during 
 the day, this entails considerable inconvenience; but it is time well 
 spent and may mean the difference between profit and loss to the 
 breeder. The pigs are soon able to fight their battles with the cold 
 unaided by any but their own warmth and that of the dam. 
 (F. B. 205.) 
 
 When the udder of the sow becomes distended and milk can be 
 drawn from the teats, she can be expected to farrow in 24 hours. 
 The sow should be closely watched to see that all her organs are 
 operating in the proper manner. She should have a medium supply 
 of fresh, dry, clean, dustless bedding. Fine oat straw or shredded 
 corn fodder make excellent bedding. Avoid barley straw or wood 
 shavings. Dusty beds are liable to cause coughs or pneumonia. 
 Sows differ as to the amount of bedding they prefer at farrowing. 
 Some make bad use of it and should be given but little, while others 
 can be allowed a liberal supply. Little pigs are very sensitive to the 
 cold and if they arrive during cold weather, they must be given 
 artificial heat. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 It is best to have the sows farrow at nearly the same time, and 
 then the owner can watch them day and night during farrowing 
 time. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Most good hog raisers who have warm buildings try to have 
 their sows commence farrowing about March 1, but without good 
 houses this is impracticable. Breeders find it necessary to have their 
 pigs come about this time in order to have them large enough for the 
 fall demand, and producers of market hogs find the practice profit- 
 able. Early pigs have several marked advantages. In the first 
 place, there is usually more time to care for them early in March. 
 Early March pigs are large enough to begin to eat as soon as pasture 
 is ready and thus get the longest possible pasture season, and can 
 be expected to make more pork from grass than is possible for later 
 pigs. They can be kept on pasture until ready for market, or nearly 
 so. Not only can they make more use of pasture, but they can make 
 more economical use of all feed, because they can be finished for 
 market before the cold weather of winter sets in, when grains are 
 more expensive. (F. B. 438.) 
 
 Good sows improve for several years in the number and size 
 of the pigs they have at a litter, The U. S. Department of Agri*
 
 A DESIRABLE SIRE OF THE LARD TYPE POSSESSING LOW-SET, THICK CONFORMATION, 
 SHOULD BE SELECTED FOR THE PRODUCTION OF MARKET HOGS. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 CHESTER WHITE Sow IN SHOW CONDITION. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 439 
 
 culture compiled the records of over 6,000 sows and found yearling 
 sows averaged 6.65 pigs per litter, and five-year-old sows averaged 
 8.4 pigs per litter. At the Wisconsin Experiment Station year-old 
 sows averaged 7.8 pigs per litter, with an average weight per litter 
 of 14.2 pounds, while sows from 4 to 5 years old averaged 9 pigs 
 per litter, with an average weight per litter of 26 pounds. The 
 common practice of farmers selling their old brood sows each year 
 and reserving immature ones for breeding is a bad practice, as the 
 older sows are much better mothers and their pigs have a strong 
 advantage in greater vitality at the start. 
 
 The beginner had better arrange to have the pigs born in May, 
 when the sows can be turned on pasture soon after farrowing. 
 (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Two Litters a Year. A well-fed, mature sow, with a strong 
 constitution, can profitably have two litters a year. (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 In the South, each sow, after she is 1 year old, should have two 
 litters per year, one in the spring and one in the fall. The man- 
 agement of the fall litters, which are usually dropped in October 
 or early in November, is similar to that of the spring litters, except 
 the winter grazing, which is mainly on alfalfa, wheat and vetch, and 
 rape and clover. The farmer must decide whether to market fall 
 pigs in the summer or carry them over and fatten in the fall. 
 Usually the latter plan is adopted. (U. S. Cir. 30.) 
 
 Two litters of pigs may be produced each year if mature sows 
 are used, and warm shelter provided. Better stock will be produced 
 if only one litter is farrowed from a sow each year. (Wyo. B. 74.) 
 
 By abundant and careful feeding, the sow should produce two 
 litters a year. The ration for the fall litter should be as nutritious 
 and palatable as possible. (Mo. Cir. 28.) The sow may be bred 
 three days after the pigs are weaned. When mature sows are to 
 have two litters a year, the sow, if bred October 12, will farrow 
 about February 1. Allowing the pigs to suckle nine weeks, they 
 will be weaned about April 4, and the sow bred the second time 
 three days later. The second litter will then be born about July 28. 
 -(Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Weaning the Pigs. Some farmers make the mistake of wean- 
 ing the pigs too young. The age at which they should be weaned 
 depends somewhat upon whether the mother is to produce two litters 
 a year. However, the pigs should never be taken away from the 
 mother under 8 weeks of age ; it is usually advisable to let them run 
 with the sow until they are from 10 to 12 weeks old. The mother's 
 feed at weaning time should be reduced to pasture alone for a few 
 days, so that the flow of milk will be checked; if full feed is con- 
 tinued when the pigs are weaned, the mother's uddors and teats are 
 apt to be ruined. The milk flow will dry up within a few days, and 
 if the sow is thin the feed should be raised some, but she will not 
 require as much feed as when she was suckling tho litter of pigs. 
 
 The pigs should be accustomed to feeds before they are taken 
 from the mother. If they are weaned before they are thoroughly
 
 440 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 acquainted with some concentrated feeds, they are sure to be seri- 
 ously checked in their growth. The farmer who has some skim 
 milk will experience no difficulty at all in carrying the pigs through 
 this period, as the skim milk, with the proper grain ration, takes the 
 place of the mother's milk. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Breeders differ widely as to the age of weaning. The majority 
 wean at six to ten weeks, with a considerable number at twelve 
 weeks; some wean later than twelve weeks and a few earlier than 
 six weeks. The breeders who wean at the early periods usually are 
 situated where dairy by-products are plentiful, and they usually 
 raise two litters each year, making the demands of the pigs on the 
 sow as brief and light as possible. Breeders in the corn belt wean 
 at the more mature ages, rarely weaning as young as 6 weeks, and 
 often allowing the pigs to reach the age of 16 weeks before the sow 
 is taken away. A considerable number make no attempt to wean 
 as the word is generally used ; that is, there is no enforced separation 
 of the sow from her pigs; the pigs run with the sow until her 
 instinct tells her that they are old enough to shift for themselves. 
 
 The method of weaning will depend somewhat on circum- 
 stances. If the pigs are so little dependent on the sow's milk that 
 she is gaining rapidly in flesh and lessening in milk flow the wean- 
 ing may be abrupt, the sow being taken away out of hearing. If 
 she is still milking considerably she may be returned to the pigs 
 once a day for two or three days, or the pigs may be taken away in 
 detachments, beginning with two or three of the largest and strong- 
 est, then the next strongest, leaving the weakest ones of the litter 
 to complete the drying off. 
 
 Whether the weaning is brought about directly or gradually, it 
 should in all cases be complete and decisive. The pigs should be 
 placed apart from the sows in quarters secure enough to prevent 
 communication. By no means should pigs be allowed to follow a 
 sow until she is almost worn out. The pigs are no better and 
 the sow infinitely worse than if weaning had been brought about 
 properly. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Pigs begin to eat at 4 to 5 weeks old and it is always best to 
 have them eating well before weaning. They can best be fed in a 
 creep or small pen away from the old sows. The ration should 
 be fed from an easily cleaned, small, V-shaped trough. They will 
 early learn to eat shelled corn, and a small quantity should be kept 
 handy in a trough or clean spot on the floor. This dry corn pre- 
 vents the slop ration from causing scours. 
 
 It is very important to keep little pigs from getting off feed. 
 They should thrive and grow steadily ; have fresh feed, clean troughs 
 and comfortable quarters. The young pigs should be fed three 
 times a day, but not an excessive amount, and may be weaned at 
 6 weeks, or, better, 8 weeks. If a few smaller pigs are left with the 
 sows when the larger ones are weaned, the milk flow will be dried 
 of? gradually. Otherwise the sows should be turned in with the
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 441 
 
 pigs once a day for three or four days to prevent trouble with their 
 udders. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 Wean the pigs at 7 to 9 weeks old. Wean the stronger ones 
 first, leaving the weaker ones with the mother. It is better to have 
 the sows and pigs in the pasture or lot where the pigs are to run, at 
 least a week before weaning, and to wean the sow away from the 
 pigs, and not the pigs away from the sow. They will worry less. 
 Remove the sow and two or three of her smaller pigs to a lot out of 
 sight and hearing of the pigs being weaned. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 The cheapest way to put gains on young pigs is through the 
 sow. She should be fed to produce a high yield of milk, and the 
 pigs kept with her until they get to eating a full feed of both grain 
 and pasture. The boars should be castrated before being weaned. 
 Cut down the sow's ration to water and alfalfa hay at weaning time 
 and she will dry up without injury to her udder. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 The Pigs After Weaning. Attention will now be given to the 
 pigs that have been weaned. Up to this time all are on the same feed 
 and under the same management. From now on, however, those 
 that are to be retained as breeding animals should be continued on 
 a growing ration that is, one which is somewhat narrow and will 
 develop bone and muscle to the largest extent. Those that are to be 
 fattened for market should be fed more liberally and their feed made 
 more carbonaceous. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Young pigs should be given plenty of opportunity for exercise 
 from the time they begin to get strong enough to run about. If they 
 are confined too closely they are apt to take on flesh too rapidly and 
 become infected with what is known as thumps. Thumps are indi- 
 cated by violent vibrations of the heart. It is caused by the deposi- 
 tion of fat about the internal organs. When the pigs get an attack 
 of thumps they never will thrive well afterwards, and it often results 
 in death. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 Pigs stunted on the start will always remain so. Give them 
 plenty of sunshine, warm, sunny yards and plenty of exercise. Keep 
 in dry, freshly bedded quarters. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 The Herdsman. The ideal herdsman is gentle in manner and 
 moves quietly among the herd. He is quick to observe and loves to 
 watch the animals under his care. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 Advice for the Beginner. Select one of the best leading breeds. 
 Get only 1 to 5 sows, preferably the smaller number, getting an ex- 
 perienced man to select good individuals from prolific strains on 
 both sides. Study the requirements of the animals and work for 
 larger litters and early maturity. 
 
 The second year 3 or 4 of the best sow pigs should be saved with 
 their dams. The third year the grower should be able to handle 10 
 sows and their produce, and then slowly increase to the limit of the 
 farm. Cheap shelter and fences should be used until the grower has 
 learned what is most suitable for his conditions. (Colo. B. 146.)
 
 442 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Gestation Table for Swine. 
 
 Showing the date when a sow is due to farrow, counting 16 weeks from the day when she was 
 served. Find the date when the sow was served, and the date immediately to the right is the date 
 when she is due. For instance, if the sow was served February 1, she is due May 24; if served May 
 24, she is due September 13, 
 
 Feb, 
 
 May 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 April 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 July 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 June 
 
 Oct, 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mar. 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 31 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 April 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 June 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 29 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 
 23 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 31 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 
 24 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 FEEDS AND FEEDING. 
 
 Feeds; Concentrates. Bulk in the food of the hog is not desir- 
 able, as the physiological make-up of the animal is such that he can 
 not handle foods of this character to advantage. While it is true that 
 the hog consumes more food in proportion to his weight and makes 
 greater gains from the food consumed than any other farm animal, 
 we must never lose sight of the necessity of providing food for him in 
 a good mechanical condition and of a sufficiently palatable nature to 
 maintain the appetite of the hog. It is unwise, therefore, to attempt 
 to feed any considerable amount of roughness to this class of live 
 stock, as the gains obtained will not be satisfactory. Palatability is 
 also a very important consideration in the feeding of swine. Dry 
 grain is not a particularly attractive food and the same ration of corn 
 and water fed continuously for days while the animal is confined in a 
 small pen is not calculated to insure large gains or economic returns 
 to the farmer. (Va. B. 167.) 
 
 Economical Handling. Feeding hogs from the time they are 
 weaned until ready for market in sections where dairying is not prac-
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 443 
 
 ticed is a difficult undertaking, particularly in the winter season, 
 during the summer many grazing crops can be utilized, and some of 
 these, like the winter cereals and cowpeas and soy beans, which pro- 
 duce an abundance of grain, enable the farmer to keep his hogs in a 
 growing, thriving condition, with little labor and at a low cost, as 
 they can be made to harvest their own food; and the exercise they 
 enjoy in the open keeps them in a healthy condition, and produces a 
 finer quality of meat than is generally obtained from pen-feeding on 
 corn alone. Naturally the farmer should endeavor to finish as many 
 of his hogs in the summer season as possible where dairy by-products 
 are not available, but even under the most favorable management 
 there will be a large number of animals which must be maintained 
 or fattened during the winter season, and how to handle these hogs 
 most advantageously is a serious problem and one to which some con- 
 siderable attention has been given, owing to its general interest. 
 
 Corn Alone Not Satisfactory. It is now clearly recognized that 
 dry feed alone, especially where corn is the exclusive ration, does not 
 provide the most satisfactory combination of nutrients for the hog, 
 and the chief object of the present investigation was to determine the 
 influence of adding various protein amendments to a ration of corn. 
 The fact that corn is so generally cultivated has led to its almost ex- 
 clusive use as a fattening food for hogs in many localities, which is 
 unfortunate in the light of investigations made in the past few years, 
 as the results distinctly show that much better gains would be ob- 
 tained were the corn combined with some other food which would 
 supply the needs of the growing animal to better advantage. For 
 fattening purposes, corn stands supreme, but it is not a complete and 
 perfect food for either growing or fattening animals, and this state- 
 ment applies to all classes of live stock. From the standpoint of the 
 hog feeder, corn is deficient in both protein and mineral matter, 
 especially the latter. Since the uniform and rapid development of 
 the animal depends on the maintenance of the skeleton or bony 
 framework, the nutrition of the muscles, and the formation of fat, it 
 is essential that such foods be fed as will provide for the needs of the 
 body in the cheapest form. As other grains are rich in some of the 
 constituents in which corn is deficient, it appears that a combination 
 of them will prove effective, and such is shown to be the case by the 
 results presented. 
 
 The common practice of feeding corn alone to hogs would be 
 corrected, were some well known truths more generally recognized. 
 For instance, it is stated on competent authority that the ash of corn 
 is entirely indigestible by swine. Moreover, the withholding of min- 
 eral matter from the hog not only impairs the skeleton, but the whole 
 nutritive process is disturbed as well, and the growth of the animal is 
 seriously retarded if our results are to be relied upon. The fact that 
 gains two or three times larger than those normally obtained on corn 
 alone follow the proper adjustment of the ration is a matter of such 
 far-reaching and economic concern to hog raisers as to command 
 their most- respectful and earnest consideration. (Va. B. 167.)
 
 444 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 It is generally considered that there is no other feed equal to 
 corn for pork production. This is true, provided the corn is used 
 judiciously. But if it be fed alone for any length of time there are 
 few feeds which are poorer, as the experiments described below strik- 
 ingly demonstrate. If, however, corn is fed in combination with 
 other feeds, its use is to be highly commended, and it can be used to 
 great economical advantage, too, even though it sells upon the 
 market as high as $1 a bushel. 
 
 The hog is not adapted to living on corn alone, and when we 
 require it of him we are forcing him to do a thing which is not con- 
 sistent with his nature. Man likes a mixture of feeds or a change in 
 diet; so do the lower animals. The hog in its wild state is omnivor- 
 ous, feeding upon roots, nuts, fish, grass, fruit, snakes, etc. ; in fact, 
 but few feeds can be mentioned that he will not eat if he be given the 
 opportunity. Our domesticated hogs have inherited the tendency to 
 select their feed from a variety of substances, and when we inclose 
 them in a pen and give but one feed, we are not allowing them to 
 reach their highest possibilities. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Corn alone is not a good ration for hogs. The growing animal 
 requires a certain proportion of muscle forming material along with 
 the fattening nutrients of the food. From the farmer's standpoint, 
 the important functions of the protein are the production of lean 
 meat, tendons, wool, hair, and building up and maintaining the vital 
 organs of the body. The carbohydrates and fats are used in the for- 
 mation of fat and in the production of the heat and energy of the 
 animal body. Corn is rich in the fat forming compounds but is de- 
 ficient in protein and consequently the best results cannot be ob- 
 tained by feeding it alone. (Ok. B. 80.) 
 
 The specific effects of corn as an only food, as evidenced by the 
 growth of young swine, are in general, a retarded development of 
 proteid and bony tissues, and an over-development of fatty tissue. 
 This results in the production of fine-boned, poorly muscled, under- 
 sized and over-fat animals, which reach their limit of growth pre- 
 maturely, and which are characterized by less than normal breeding 
 capacity. Impaired fecundity seems to result from discouragement 
 of proteid increase generally, and from the lessened circulation of 
 blood in the female reproductive organs, this last being caused by 
 pressure of the excessive amounts of internal fat which accumulate 
 about these parts. With hogs fed on corn alone the bones, muscles, 
 liver, kidneys, lungs, heart and spleen all compose an abnormally 
 small proportion of the increase in weight, and fat composes an ab- 
 normally large part of the increase. (Mo. B. 81.) 
 
 Exclusive corn feeding proved very unprofitable, and especially 
 so where the pigs used were young and small at the beginning. When 
 the mixed ration of corn chops, rice bran, and tankage was fed in the 
 place of the straight corn ration the gain was much more rapid and 
 the cost of that gain much reduced. (Tex. B. 131.) When corn 
 was fed alone but 43 cents was realized upon each bushel of corn 
 used. ^ The way to secure a better price for the corn is to feed it in 
 combination with some other feed.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 445 
 
 When corn was used alone as a ration for fattening hogs both 
 the daily gains and the financial outcome were unsatisfactory. Money 
 was lost in every case where corn was fed without a supplement. 
 (Ala. B. 143.) Corn alone, however prepared, even when as 
 cheap as 30 cents per bushel, is a very expensive feed for dry-lot pork 
 production. (Mo. B. 65.) 
 
 Cost of Gain With Corn. The cost of a pound of gain where 
 hogs were fed corn meal alone varied from 6.05 to 13.44 cents; where 
 fed corn meal and linseed meal from 3.18 to 3.53 cents; where fed 
 Red Dog and corn meal soaked and unsoaked 5.42 and 4.34 cents, 
 respectively; where fed meat meal and corn meal in varying pro- 
 portions, from 4.69 to 4.93 cents ; where fed skim milk and corn 
 meal in the proportion of 4 to 1, from 3.15 to 3.41 cents; where fed 
 middlings and corn meal in varying proportions, from 5.75 to 6.40 
 cents. A good profit may be anticipated by the careful feeder of 
 hogs on a margin of 50 cents, an excellent profit on a margin of 
 $1.00, and large profits on margins of $1.50 and $2.00. These re- 
 sults show conclusively that it is false economy and wrong theoretic- 
 ally and practically to attempt to maintain hogs on corn meal alone. 
 (Va. B. 167.) 
 
 Experiments show that pork cannot be profitably raised and 
 finished on corn alone when corn sells for 70 cents per bushel. When 
 corn is worth 70 cents a bushel, the cost of each pound of gain will 
 be just about 7 cents. When corn is selling at 60 cents a bushel each 
 pound of gain put on will cost 6 cents ; when corn is worth 50 cents a 
 bushel each pound of gain will cost 5 cents; and when corn is worth 
 only 40 cents a bushel pork can be finished for only 4 cents a pound. 
 It appears, therefore, that when 70-cent corn is fed to 5-cent hogs the 
 feeder is losing 20 cents a bushel on his corn. Seven-cent pork must 
 go along w T ith 70-cent corn if the owner is to strike even on feed- 
 ing corn alone. As a general thing the farmers do not get 7 cents 
 for their hogs. If corn were worth but 40 cents a bushel, as it 
 often is in some of the Wesetrn States, it would be a very profitable 
 thing to raise corn and feed it to 5 and 6 cent hogs; good money 
 could be made out of it, as the farmer would then be selling his 40- 
 cent corn, by means of hogs, at 50 to 60 cents a bushel. But even in 
 the corn-belt States it is more profitable to supplement the corn with 
 other concentrates or green crops, and this practice is followed by the 
 best farmers. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Corn for Breeding Animals. The professional herdsman, and 
 also many of the successful breeders of pure-bred stock of all kinds, 
 believe that corn is injurious to breeding animals. We believe, how- 
 ever, that there is no time in the life of any farm animal in the Corn 
 Belt when the corn may not properly be used, whether it be with a 
 fast horse or a slow one, a milch cow or a bacon hog, a laying hen or a 
 breeding ewe ; but for many purposes it must be used in moderation, 
 and must be properly supplemented, so as to provide those nutrients 
 in which it is deficient. Animals need energy-producing food, much 
 more of it than of any other sort, and in this region corn will supply
 
 446 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 this kind of nutriment more cheaply than will any other food. 
 (Mo. B. 81.) 
 
 Savings Effected Per Bushel by Grinding Corn for Fattening Pigs. 
 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 When corn is worth 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 Saved by grinding 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 3.6 
 
 3.9 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn Whole or Ground. The table shows that when corn is 
 worth 25 cents per bushel, the saving from grinding is only 1.5 cents, 
 not enough to cover the cost unless cheap power is available. As corn 
 advances in price the saving per bushel increases three-tenths of a 
 cent with each five cents' advance. With corn at 75 cents per bushel, 
 the saving from grinding is 4.5 cents per bushel. Where there is 
 plenty of time for maturing the pigs, and it is not necessary to secure 
 the maximum daily gain, it is doubtful if it pays to grind corn for 
 pigs. The test shows that where quick maturity is an important 
 item, better results are secured from the corn meal. Pigs fed corn 
 meal, eat more grain and make somewhat larger daily gains. Corn 
 meal can doubtless be used to good advantage in finishing off a bunch 
 of hogs which were at first fed shelled corn. Changing over to corn 
 meal near the close of the feeding period also furnishes a change in 
 the character of the ration, which will be satisfactory to the animals. 
 (Wis. B. 145.) 
 
 The dry climate and intense sunshine in Colorado make the 
 grain much harder and more flinty than those grown in the humid 
 region. It is, therefore, usually not profitable to feed dry, whole 
 grain. Rolling is preferable to grinding, and requires less power. 
 Rolled grain is left in the form of flakes, while in grinding hard 
 grains like Colorado barley, the ground particles of grain have sharp 
 edges that are objectionable. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 The average of 19 experiments with 297 pigs at 6 experiment 
 stations where corn meal and whole corn were compared, show the 
 feed required for 100 pounds of gain was 524 pounds when whole 
 corn was fed, and 479 pounds when corn meal was fed, a difference 
 of 8% per cent in favor of grinding. (B. A. I. Cir. 63.) 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal. Ground corn and cob has a slightly better 
 feeding value than corn on the ear. For practical purposes it is more 
 economical to feed corn on the ear rather than hauling to the mill 
 and grinding for feed. (N. H. B. 66.) Corn-and-cob meal contains 
 too much indigestible and unpalatable fiber and costs too much in 
 the preparation to be the best feed for any purpose, for swine. It is 
 the last food we would choose to use for hog feeding. (Mo. Bu. 65.) 
 
 Soaking and Cooking. The general experience of swine feeders 
 in Colorado is that soaking grain from 24 to 48 hours has the same 
 beneficial effect as grinding, at less cost, but with more trouble. Care 
 must be taken in hot weather not to let the soaking grain sour, and 
 in cold weather to keep it from freezing until eaten. Cooking grain
 
 Loco WEED DISEASE; PLANT IN FLOWFR. 
 
 . 
 
 * "" ' .!"*..' 1 _ 
 
 A HOG HOUSE WITH UPPER WINDOWS PERFECTLY ARRAM 
 
 FARKOWING
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 44S 
 
 reduces its feed value. It has been found necessary to cook potatoes 
 where any considerable quantity has been fed to hogs, and several 
 feeders report good results from cooking sugar beets thoroughly, and 
 then mixing the grain with the beets while they are still hot, but 
 after the fire has been removed. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Grinding is mor.e efficient than soaking as a means of prepara- 
 tion of corn ; soaking, however, costs much less and is nearly as valu- 
 able ; both methods of preparation are very useful and well worth the 
 cost in these experiments, even when corn costs as little as thirty 
 cents per bushel. (Mo. B. 65.) 
 
 Young hogs made faster gains upon corn meal and skim milk 
 than upon shelled corn and skim milk, but if cost of grinding was 
 subtracted the difference in profit was small though still in favor of 
 corn meal as against shelled corn. Pigs fed a mixture of grains 
 soaked for 24 hours made both faster and cheaper gains than either 
 pigs fed the same feed mixture dry, or those having it given freshly 
 mixed with water. (Ind. B. 150.) All grain should be ground for 
 hogs. Cooking is not profitable; but warm feed in cold weather is 
 profitable, because with warm feed the hogs use less of their food for 
 maintaining bodily heat. (Wyo. B. 74.) 
 
 Wet or Dry. In an experiment at the Utah Station, a saving of 
 34 pounds of grain for every 100 pounds gain was effected by feeding 
 the grain dry. The average result from the four Experiment Sta- 
 tions (Wisconsin, Minnesota, Oregon and Missouri) show a dif- 
 ference of 7 per cent in favor of using wet or soaked meal. (Utah 
 B. 70.) It would appear that there is really no gain in feeding the 
 pigs a slop instead of a dry grain, excepting as a feeder may regard it 
 a matter of convenience. (Ind. B. 86.) 
 
 Hogging Down Corn. In these times of scarcity of labor and 
 its high price many farmers are trying to reduce the labor on the 
 farm. Some of the hog raisers have adopted the plan of harvesting 
 the corn crop by turning the hogs into the cornfield and letting them 
 gather it, or hogging it down, as it is called. Besides saving the ex- 
 pense of harvesting the corn, there are two other great objects to be 
 attained by this method of harvesting corn: (1) The improvement 
 of the land and (2) the health of the hogs. (F. B. 331.) 
 
 Hogging off corn may be practiced with profit on many Minne- 
 sota farms. Pork was produced with less grain by hogging corn than 
 by feeding ear or snapped corn in yards. Hogs fed in field gained 
 nearly one-third more rapidly than those fed in yards. The cost of 
 fencing cornfields may be from $1.00 to $2.50 less per acre than the 
 cost of husking the corn. The stover lost in following this method is, 
 in many cases not worth the cost of saving it. Good pastures are in 
 most cases necessary for the economical production of pork. To have 
 good hog pastures and to hog off corn economically, a carefully 
 worked out plan with a view to economy of labor and fencing is es- 
 sential. A four year rotation (grain, clover, corn, corn), works very 
 satisfactorily on small fields, for hogs, as it gives twice as much corn 
 as pasture, which is about the proportion used. It requires no more 
 labor to prepare for subsequent crops fields that have been hogged off
 
 450 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 than those that have been treated by the ordinary methods of harvest- 
 ing. Hogs waste no more corn in field than when fed in yard. They 
 pick the corn as clean as most men do in husking. Three pounds of 
 rape, costing 15 cents, sown in corn at last cultivation, furnishes con- 
 siderable succulent feed, which may take the place of high priced 
 shorts. Labor in caring for hogs is not increased by hogging corn, but 
 may be decreased, if systematic methods are employed. It is not ex- 
 pected that all com raised be fed off with hogs, but the amount they 
 can clean up from the time it is nicely glazed until the weather be- 
 comes unfavorable, may be very economically fed in this way. Hogs 
 should not, as a rule, be turned into more corn at one time than they 
 can eat up clean in two or three weeks. The shorter period is pref- 
 erable. (Minn. B. 104.) 
 
 Supplements for Corn. Large consumption of feed and large 
 gains in weight are essential to the most profitable use of supplement- 
 ary feeds. Corn is more rich in protein than is necessary in a mere 
 maintenance ration, but the further we get from the maintenance 
 ration, that is, the more flesh we produce in a given time, the less 
 efficient is corn alone, and the greater is the need of supplements. 
 This principle receives constant recognition from dairymen, who 
 know that the more milk a cow produces, the narrower must be her 
 ration, but we do not happen to have seen the point mentioned in con- 
 nection with meat production. It is, of course, so obviously true as to 
 need no proof. (Mo. B. 81.) 
 
 It has been shown that the southern farmer can not afford to use 
 corn alone as a fattening ration for swine. Fortunately for the South, 
 it is not necessary to depend upon corn alone, as almost all the crops 
 which can be grown in any part of the country can be grown in the 
 South, and there are many crops suitable for hog feed which can be 
 grown in no other section of the country. This section is wonder- 
 fully blessed in its great variety of grain and concentrates, and in ad- 
 dition green and pasture crops can be made to spread over 12 months 
 of the year. In fact, with the use of pasture crops the South is in a 
 position to make pork cheaper than any other section of the United 
 States. 
 
 As stated before, the hog likes a variety of feeds and thrives bet- 
 ter upon a ration made up of two or more feeds than upon one made 
 up of but one. It has proved by several of the experiment stations 
 that wheat and corn, when fed separately to fattening hogs, are 
 practically equal in feeding value. At the Wisconsin Experiment 
 Station several tests were made to learn the relative value of wheat 
 and a mixture of wheat and corn in equal parts. It was found that 
 500 pounds of wheat were required to make 100 pounds of gain, but 
 when wheat and corn were fed in equal parts only 485 pounds of the 
 mixture were required to make the same gain. When fed separately, 
 these grains are of equal feeding value, but the mixture of the two 
 was more valuable than either grain when fed alone. While the 
 South has not the wheat, yet the Wisconsin experiments teach the 
 lesson that if the most is to be realized upon the hog and the corn a 
 supplementary feed must go along with the corn. (F. B. 411.)
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 451 
 
 Straight corn feeding does not support normal growth, nor pro- 
 duce rapid gains ; the rations in which liberal amounts of protein were 
 fed, produced marketable hogs in much less time than did corn alone. 
 The hogs ate very much more of the supplemented rations and made 
 larger and cheaper gains. The smaller the proportion in which a 
 palatable supplement is fed, the greater is the amount of corn which 
 each pound of supplement saves ; but the larger the proportion of a 
 palatable supplement fed, until a balanced ration is reached, the 
 lower is the cost of making pork in the dry-lot, both in pounds of 
 grain, and, at usual prices of grain feeds, also in dollars and cents. 
 (Mo. B. 65.) 
 
 In every experiment conducted at the Station during the past 
 five years there has been an increase in the rate of gain, a decrease 
 in the cost of gain, a higher finish and a greater profit, resulting from 
 the use of a supplement in connection with shelled corn or corn meal, 
 as compared with the same feeds without supplements in fattening 
 hogs. (Ind. B. 137.) 
 
 Either home grown or commercial supplemental feeds may be 
 used in connection with corn to good advantage, and feeders should 
 be ready to use whichever will be most profitable. It will often pay 
 to exchange farm grown feeds for commercial feeds. On the other 
 hand, it is often true that the use of feeds grown on the farm will 
 prove more profitable than the use of commercial feeds. (O. B. 209.) 
 
 As for the corn products, gluten meal, gluten feed and germ 
 oilmeal our experience with them does not commend them especially 
 to us as supplements to corn for hogs, and cottonseed meal as here fed 
 is certainly not in the same class as to usefulness with other foodstuffs 
 which are known not to be dangerous. (Mo. B. 67.) 
 
 Wheat. Tests made at many experiment stations with wheat 
 show that pound for pound, it is equal to corn for making gains on 
 fattening hogs. It was found at the Colorado Experiment Station, 
 that a mixture of equal weights of wheat and barley was worth 17 per 
 cent more than corn for fattening hogs. (Colo. B. 146.) Wheat, as a 
 basis, has proved the most effective grain both in rapidity and econ- 
 omy of gain. The hogs so fed required less grain for each pound of 
 gain than either the corn or barley rations. This is a point of very 
 great importance to the Utah feeder where wheat is the largest and 
 cheapest grain crop. (Utah B. 94.) 
 
 Many ranchmen think corn is necessary to pork production. 
 Our experiment proves by local demonstration what is acknowledged 
 in many other communities, namely: that wheat will put more meat 
 on growing hogs than corn. The wheat fed was shrunken by frost. 
 The hogs averaged 84 and 82 pounds per head at the beginning of 
 the experiment, and in eleven weeks' feeding the wheat-fed hogs 
 averaged 40 pounds per head heavier than the corn-fed hogs, weigh- 
 ing on the average nearly 200 pounds each. (Wyp. 15th A. R.) 
 
 Ground wheat sometimes makes a more economical ration than 
 ground corn. (Utah B. 67.) With corn and wheat at the .-:UIK- 
 price, corn costs about one-ninth more for a given increase in weight. 
 The wheat lot ate much more feed and made a half more gain than
 
 452 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the corn lot, in the same length of time, which means economy in 
 the labor of feeding, if it is desired to put the hogs on the market at 
 a given weight. Wheat is a first-class feed for growing shoats, and 
 whenever it may be secured at the price of corn it should be used in 
 preference to corn. (Wyo. B. 74.) In these experiments, wheat 
 seems to have given the best results as a fattening food. Results also 
 indicate that a bushel of wheat properly fed to reasonable well bred 
 hogs, should produce approximately thirteen and one-half pounds of 
 live pork. (Or. B. 80.) Wheat will put on as many pounds of gain 
 on hogs as an equal weight of corn. The fat has a dingy color and 
 the pork shrinks excessively in cooking. Wheat fed hogs should be 
 fed barley or peas the last 60 to 75 days of fattening. This will give 
 the proper color, flavor, and firmness to the meat. (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 Wheat Middlings. It is worthy of note that the low protein 
 content of wheat middlings, requiring as it does that it be fed in 
 large proportion with corn in case it is used to supplement the latter 
 feed, is a point of great importance in this connection. The feeding 
 of corn and wheat middlings, half and half, as is necessary for most 
 economical results w r ith this supplement, occasions a cash outlay and 
 an amount of hauling of feed from town that is quite out of the 
 question in a great many local situations. (Mo. B. 67.) 
 
 Wheat Shorts and Middlings are especially good feed for suck- 
 ling sows and young pigs, and for fattening purposes are worth about 
 8 per cent, more than an equal weight of corn. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 Wheat middlings and germ oil meal are neither so palatable, nor so 
 efficient, nor so profitable, as supplements to corn in pork production 
 as are tankage and linseed oil meal. (0. B. 213.) The lot which 
 received corn and middlings, equal parts of each by weight, made 
 fair gains and at a not exceedingly heavy expenditure of feed. The 
 amount of feed consumed was much lower than for the corn and 
 skim milk lot or the corn and tankage lot, and the amount of feed 
 required for a given gain was relatively large. The relatively low 
 consumption of corn is especially striking. (O. B. 209.) It is 
 found that each 100 pounds of pork made cost $9.80 when corn was 
 used exclusively, and when middlings were used along with the corn 
 100 pounds was made for $6.01, which was a saving of $3.79 a 100 
 pounds made as a result of introducing some middlings into the ra- 
 tion. With hogs selling at 5 cents a pound, and middlings at $30 a 
 ton, when corn alone was used only 35.7 cents were realized upon 
 each bushel fed, but when the corn was fed in conjunction with mid- 
 dlings 41.2 cents were realized for each bushel. In many places in 
 the South hogs have been selling for 6 cents a pound, in which case, 
 when corn was fed alone 42.8 cents would be secured for each bushel, 
 but when fed with the middlings the corn would realize, through the 
 hogs, 77.3 cents a bushel. As a result of using middlings the farmer 
 can secure more for his corn than if he had not done so. Still, profits 
 can not be made as a rule upon hogs when they are fed nothing but 
 corn and middlings; that is, when corn is quoted at 70 cents a 
 bushel and middlings at $30 a ton and hogs sell at 5 cents a pound 
 live weight. Some other feed or feeds must be secured to go along
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 453 
 
 with corn. (F. B. 411.) Middlings make good hog feed, but are 
 visually too expensive. (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 Wheat Bran. This feed contains too much woody fibre to be a 
 profitable feed for either growing pigs or fattening hogs. It is some- 
 times useful to feed to mature breeding animals, when bulk, with 
 a moderate amount of nutrition is wanted, and may be used as a 
 laxative feed just before farrowing. The leaves of alfalfa hay have 
 every good quality of bran as a hog feed, are more nutritious and 
 much cheaper. (Colo. B. 146.) Bran is not acceptable as a hog 
 feed, especially for young animals. It is too bulky to feed to an ani- 
 mal which has a small stomach. The hog has but one stomach and 
 that one is small when compared to the size of the animal. But 
 middlings or shorts can well be used as supplementary feeds to corn. 
 (F. B. 411.) Bran does not prove equal to either shorts or alfalfa 
 when fed as one-quarter of the ration to pigs. (Neb. B. 20.) Bran 
 was profitably used in small proportion with corn but was not as use- 
 ful for fattening hogs as some other supplements. (Mo. B. 65.) 
 
 Barley. This is the most profitable grain to grow for fattening 
 hogs in the irrigated sections having an altitude of 6,500 feet or 
 lower. The yield per acre of well-bred barley is sufficient to put 
 from 600 to 800 pounds of gain on fattening hogs. About 108 
 pounds of barley have a feed value equal to 100 pounds of corn. 
 Owing to the dry atmosphere and the intense sunshine, Colorado 
 barley is hard and flinty, and should be either rolled or soaked. 
 When ground, it is broken into sharp pieces that irritate the digestive 
 tract. Hogs fed barley should have all the alfalfa pasture or hay 
 they will eat. Barley makes a white fat and gives the pork a choice 
 flavor. (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 Barley and Shorts. Two home grown feeds that can be secured 
 almost anywhere in the State. They make a first class ration when 
 fed together. The millers of Colorado do not ordinarily separate 
 shorts from bran, but will usually do so upon request, at a price 
 about ten cents per hundred in advance of the price of bran. 
 
 Barley and Wheat. Another home grown combination that 
 gives good results. Where a sufficient yield of durum wheat can be 
 secured on the dry lands of the State, this ration will prove particu- 
 larly well suited to those regions. (Colo. B. 165.) 
 
 Oats. The meat of the oat is excellent hog feed. The hull has 
 about the same value as straw. Usually the high price and the per 
 cent, of husk make it unprofitable to feed oats to fattening hogs. 
 When oats are fed to hogs they should be ground, and for young 
 pigs the hulls should be sifted out. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Rice Feeds. In some sections of the South rice products can be 
 used to advantage as a hog feed, especially in parts of South Caro- 
 lina, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. In the South Carolina test 
 the rice meal proved to be worth $16.36 a ton with hogs selling for 5 
 cents a pound and skim milk at 30 cents a hundredweight, and 
 $24.42 a ton when the animals sold for 6 cents a pound, while the 
 corn was worth but $14.94 and $22.72 a ton, respectively, under sim- 
 ilar conditions. In the Alabama work the rice polish likewise proved
 
 454 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 to be more valuable as a hog feed than the corn meal. At the Mas- 
 sachusetts Station the rice meal and the corn meal proved to be prac- 
 tically equal in feeding value, but the rice meal was the cheaper 
 feed. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Rice bran was much cheaper than corn and yielded a larger 
 gain. The pork produced by it was of an inferior quality to that pro- 
 duced by corn. The shrinkage from the dressed weight hot to the 
 dressed weight chilled was much greater and the per cent of dressed 
 carcass much less. Rice bran should be used more extensively in pork 
 production when corn is so much higher in price, and, for the best 
 results, should be fed in connection with a feed rich in protein. - 
 (Tex. B. 131.) 
 
 Millet. Seed of millet can be grown profitably as a fattening 
 ration for swine. It does not furnish as good a ration as either bar- 
 ley or wheat for swine. The carcasses of the lot fed on millet were 
 clothed with pure white fat of superior quality as compared with the 
 fat of those fattened on barley or wheat. It required one-fifth more 
 millet than it did barley meal and a trifle more barley meal than it 
 did wheat to make a pound of gain. A bushel of 56 pounds of millet 
 is equal to a bushel of 48 pounds of barley for hog feed. Millet meal 
 produced a softer quality of fat than did either barley or wheat meal. 
 Millet meal was found not to be so good for a fattening ration as bar- 
 ley meal or wheat meal during extremely cold weather. (S. D. 
 B. 83.) 
 
 Beans. From many inquiries and reports received from the 
 farmers of the state it was known that many were using beans alone 
 for fattening swine. Some of these told of large gains and others of 
 unsatisfactory ones. Some that had corn were even selling this and 
 buying damaged beans, feeding these exclusively, instead of making 
 a combination of the two feeds. Such feeding must necessarily be 
 accompanied with some losses of protein, and from the standpoint 
 of food economy is open to considerable criticism. However, if the 
 beans were cheap the practice might be financially allowable. When 
 any feed is cheap and a large stock of it is on hand there is a great 
 temptation to supply it too freely, and to feed it to the exclusion of 
 other feeds which experience and judgment would suggest. It would 
 appear that hogs of the weights and ages of those fed in this experi- 
 ment could reasonably be expected to make a gain of about a pound 
 per day on a ration consisting of beans only, and that the same sort 
 of hog could reasonably be expected to make a gain of about l^j 
 pounds per day if an equal amount of corn were supplied with the 
 bean ration. Further, it would appear that the gains made by the 
 bean-fed hogs would cost about $2.50 per hundred pounds and those 
 made by the beans and corn-fed hogs would cost about $3.50 per 
 hundredweight. 
 
 Two ways of cooking are used here at the College. The one by 
 injecting live steam into a barrel containing the food to be cooked, 
 the other by the use of the ordinary feed cooker, consisting of a cal- 
 dron kettle with a castiron stove as a jacket for the same. A large 
 variety of cookers of similar sorts are upon the market. In cooking
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 455 
 
 small amounts, the kettle gave the better results, while the steam 
 was more convenient for larger quantities. (Mich. B. 243.) 
 
 Cotton-Seed Meal. The deaths that sometimes occur as a result 
 of feeding cotton-seed meal to hogs deter the majority of fanners 
 from using it. It is a feed that, if used at all, must be used in moder- 
 ation and with judgment. The Bureau of Animal Industry and most 
 of the southern experiment stations have fed it both fermented and 
 sweet and killed pigs in both cases. There is a risk when it is used 
 for long periods of time, and the man who feeds it should bear in 
 mind this risk. It is not a feed for the farmer to experiment with. 
 He should keep well within bounds when feeding cotton-seed meal to 
 his animals. It is not safe to feed it to hogs, even when making up 
 only one-third of the whole ration, for more than twenty-one days. 
 If it is to be used longer than twenty-one days, the proportion of the 
 meal should be cut down to one-fifth or one-sixth of the entire ra- 
 tion, and even then there is great danger. This danger may be 
 averted somewhat by allowing the hogs plenty of succulent pasture. 
 
 Aside from the deaths that may occur, cotton-seed meal is an 
 excellent feed. In fact, it is probably the best feed in the South to 
 go along with corn. It has been charged that it is impossible to keep 
 the hogs eating well when part of the ration consists of cotton-seed 
 meal, but the writer has experienced no trouble in keeping all the an- 
 imals keen for the next meal when the mixture of corn and meal has 
 been fed as a thin slop, so that it could be drunk rather than picked 
 up and eaten. If it is fed in a doughy condition, the pigs will soon 
 go off feed. 
 
 When cotton-seed meal is fed along with corn the cost of the 
 gains is greatly reduced provided no deaths occur. While the ex- 
 pense of making pork is greatly reduced when corn is supplemented 
 with cotton-seed meal, still, with corn at 70 cents a bushel and cot- 
 ton-seed meal at $25 a ton, it is seldom that the feeder can come out 
 even when employing them without further supplements. In the 
 Alabama test each bushel of corn when used alone realized 47.5 cents, 
 with hogs selling at 5 cents, but when the corn was used along with 
 cotton-seed meal, the value of each bushel was raised to 56.2 cents. 
 The North Carolina work illustrates what poor use hogs will some- 
 times make of corn when they receive nothing but corn. Assuming 
 the same live price for hogs, only 21.8 cents were realized for each 
 bushel of corn. However, while the regular market price was not 
 secured for the corn, even when cotton-seed meal was fed along with 
 it, still as a result of the addition of small amounts of the meal the 
 value of the corn was doubled in one case and multiplied by 2 l /2 in. 
 the other case. 
 
 As will be seen later, cotton-seed meal has at least one valuable 
 and safe place in our pork-making operations a place where it can 
 be fed in large amounts. It can, and should, be used along with corn 
 in a short dry-lot finishing period after the pasture and grazing crops 
 are exhausted. Corn is excellent for finishing up an animal when he 
 is taken off of green crops, but corn with cotton-seed meal is still 
 better, because, first, the gains are made more economically when the
 
 456 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 two feeds are used together ; and, second, the meat and the lard of the 
 animal are hardened more rapidly than when corn is used alone. 
 (F. B. 411.) 
 
 In feeding cotton-seed meal to pigs the daily allowance in gen- 
 eral should be arrived at from the age and weight of the animals. 
 For continuous feeding the following allowances appear to be well 
 within the danger limit: Pigs under 50 pounds, one-fourth pound 
 per day ; pigs from 50 to 75 pounds, one-third pound per day ; pigs 
 from 75 to 100 pounds, .4 pound per day; pigs from 100 to 150 
 pounds, one-half pound per day. If fed a full grain allowance, the 
 dosage may be obtained by properly proportioning the cotton-seed' 
 meal to the other components of the ration, namely, 1 to 5, 6, 7, or 
 8, according to the stage of growth. When pigs obtain part of their 
 feed by grazing a proportion of 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 can be fed by dimin- 
 ishing the grain allowance. A meal ration containing cotton-seed 
 meal should also contain at least an equal amount of wheat bran to 
 supply bulk. For the remainder corn appears to be the only choice. 
 
 The idea that cotton food products can ever take the place of 
 corn in pork production in the south may well be abandoned. They 
 can not replace but may prove valuable adjuncts to corn or any other 
 starchy or carbohydrate food which may be found available in the 
 south for hog feeding. (Ark. B. 85.) 
 
 As a rule pigs do not die when fed a grain ration containing cot- 
 ton-seed meal if the cotton-seed meal is not continued longer than 
 four weeks, although it sometimes happens that they do. No case 
 has come under the notice of the writers where a pig has died if the 
 cotton-eeed meal mixture has not been continued longer than three 
 weeks. As a rule, if small pigs are shut up in a small pen and fed a 
 grain mixture containing cotton-seed meal to the amount of one- 
 fourth to one-fifth, all the pigs will die inside of eight to ten weeks. 
 But this experiment, and others elsewhere, show that there are excep- 
 tions to this. From preliminary work done <by this station, and other 
 work under way, it looks as if a ration containing from one-fifth to 
 one-tenth cotton-seed meal may be fed in light rations for an indefi- 
 nite time, if the pigs are running on a green range. (Ok. B. 51.) 
 
 When corn was supplemented with a partial ration of cotton- 
 seed meal the daily gains and the financial outcome were satisfactory. 
 Four deaths occurred as a result of the use of cotton-seed meal, but 
 these deaths did not occur while the animals were eating the meal. 
 All of the deaths have occurred soon after the animals were taken off 
 of cotton-seed meal and placed upon a ration which contained no 
 cotton-seed meal. This suggests the idea that cotton-seed meal may 
 be stimulating in its effects similar to the action of certain drugs 
 and when it is removed suddenly from the animals that death may 
 occur through depression. (Ala. B. 143.) 
 
 Cotton-seed meal may be profitably used to finish hogs for mar- 
 ket. In such cases it may be safely fed in quantities of one-half 
 pounds per pig daily and then omitted during periods of alternate 
 weeks. (Ken. B. 101.)
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 457 
 
 Linseed Oilmeal. The rations of linseed oilmeal and corn meal 
 in proportion of 1 to 5 were eaten in larger quantity than any other 
 feeds tested, and made more pork, with smaller expenditure of feed 
 than any other ration involved. Estimating the cost of linseed oil- 
 meal at $30 per ton, corn at 30 cents per bushel, grinding at 10 cents 
 per hundredweight, and wheat middlings at $18 per ton the cost of 
 pork made from the oilmeal rations averaged 11.3 per cent less than 
 from the rations of corn meal and wheat middlings. The average 
 cost per 100 pounds with the oilmeal rations was $3.23, and with the 
 middlings rations, $3.60, or a difference of 37 cents per 100 pounds 
 of pork in favor of the oilmeal rations. In order to make pork from 
 corn meal and wheat middlings as cheaply as from the above men- 
 tioned ration of corn meal and linseed oilmeal the middlings would 
 have to be bought at prices ranging from $14.70 to $15 per ton in 
 the various lots. Middlings are usually more expensive, and linseed 
 oilmeal is usually less so than as here figured. 
 
 With corn at 25 cents per bushel it would be an even thing so 
 far as cost of gain is concerned whether one would feed it alone or 
 with oilmeal at $30 per ton as in lot 15 ; with corn at 29 cents per 
 bushel there would be no saving or loss from the feeding of mid- 
 dlings with corn as in lot 14, allowing in each case ten pounds of 
 pork per bushel of corn fed alone. 
 
 There must also be considered the fact of the greater rapidity of 
 the gains produced by the linseed oilmeal ration. With both rapidity 
 and economy of production in its favor it would seem that this were 
 the better feed with which to supplement corn for fattening hogs. 
 The oilmeal ration was so much more palatable than the middling 
 rations that much more of it was eaten daily. The pigs receiving this 
 feed, always ate heartily and consistently even during the coldest 
 weather and evinced a fondness for their food that was not noticeable 
 in any other case. (Mo. B. 67.) 
 
 Soy Bean Meal. Corn meal and soy bean meal proved to be a 
 more efficient ration in the tests reported than corn meal and linseed 
 meal, both as regards the rate and the cost of gains. (Ind. B. 126.) 
 Soy beans made an excellent pig feed mixed with corn in the propor- 
 tion of 1 :2. Being rich in protein it is recommended as an espe- 
 cially efficient addition to the ration when corn composes the larger 
 part. (Ky. B. 101.) Soy fbean meal has proven to be equally as 
 efficient as linseed meal in all of the tests conducted at the Station. 
 (Ind. B. 137.) 
 
 In the pn.^t, when the cowpea and the soy bean sold at cheap 
 prices, some fanners used them in large amounts in hog-feeding 
 operations. But they have advanced in price within the last few 
 years and at the present time must be used in limited amounts. 
 When they arc valued at $1.50 a bushel neither one can be used 
 freely. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Soy beans may be grown in the Corn Belt and used with profit 
 in pork production, though the supply of beans on the market is 
 sufficient only to satisfy the demands for seed, at seed prices. (0. 
 B. 213.)
 
 458 DOMESTIC 'ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Distillery Grains. Dried distillery grains proved to be a poor 
 pig feed except in small proportions. When fed as one-third or one- 
 half of the ration with corn it was unprofitable. Where it composed 
 one-fifth of the ration very good returns were obtained. (Ken. 
 B. 101.) 
 
 Tankage and Meat Meal. There are at least two packing-house 
 by-products tankage and meat meal which should be more gen- 
 erally introduced in the South as feeds to go along with corn. Either 
 one of them would cheapen the ration materially and make corn 
 worth more a bushel as a hog feed. (F. B. 411.) Tankage is the 
 product which drops to the bottom in our rendering tanks, when we 
 are rendering out grease, tallow, etc., at our various packing houses. 
 It has been thoroughly cooked under forty pounds pressure for sev- 
 eral hours, which thoroughly destroys any disease germs which 
 might possibly be in the raw meat. This product is pressed and then 
 dried in steam driers at a high temperature. It is then ground and 
 shipped in 100 and 200 pound sacks. 
 
 Beef Meal. This is made from scraps of meat and bone from 
 which the grease has been extracted and the liquors concentrated by 
 cooking. These are then pressed, dried and" ground in preparation 
 for the market. It is claimed to contain 40 per cent to 50 per cent 
 of protein. (la. B. 65.) 
 
 At the Alabama Station when corn alone was* used only 48.7 
 cents were realized for each bushel fed, but when a one-tenth part of 
 the corn ration was made up of tankage the sum was increased to 67 
 cents, assuming that the hogs sold for 5 cents a pound live weight. 
 The average of the work in Nebraska shows that when corn alone 
 was used 60.5 cents were secured for each bushel ; when tankage was 
 fed along with corn the returns were 63.5 cents a bushel. In Okla- 
 homa, when corn was fed alone but 41.1 cents were secured for a 
 bushel, but when meat meal supplemented the corn the amount av- 
 eraged 64 cents a bushel. In Tennessee only 18.7 cents were realized 
 upon each bushel of corn when it was used alone, but when the meat 
 meal was used along with it, its value was raised to 50.3 cents (aver- 
 age of three lots.) (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Digester tankage ranked next to skim milk for efficiency in pro- 
 ducing rapid and, from the standpoint of feed consumed for a pound 
 of gain produced, economical gains. The amount of feed required 
 to produce one hundred pounds of gain was comparatively small 
 360.2 pounds. The large amount of corn consumed daily per pig 
 by the corn and tankage and the corn and skim milk lots is worthy 
 of note. When either of these feeds was used, a much larger amount 
 of corn was consumed daily than when a ration of corn alone, corn, 
 and middlings, or corn and soy bean meal was fed. (0. B. 209.) 
 
 Sufficient work has been done to show that hogs following 
 cattle are often not supplied with the ration best suited for the pro- 
 duction of the greatest gains. In the tests reported in this circular 
 the gains made by hogs fed tankage were more than one-half greater 
 than the gains made by the hogs that depended entirely upon the
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 459 
 
 droppings from the steers a decided increase from the use of a sup- 
 plementary feed rich in protein and ash. (0. Cir. 73.) 
 
 Tankage has been the most efficient commercial feed used as a 
 supplement to corn in fattening hogs under market conditions pre- 
 vailing during recent years. (Ind. Bui. 137.) A greater pro- 
 portion of corn may he used in feeding tankage than in feeding lin- 
 seed meal as a supplement. Hogs fed on a ration of corn meal and 
 tankage consume more feed and make more rapid gains than hogs 
 fed a ration of corn meal and linseed meal. A ration of corn meal 
 and tankage gives a better finish than one of corn meal and linseed 
 meal. (Ind. B. 126.) Tankage proved to be an exceedingly sat- 
 isfactory feed to supplement corn. In fact, it was almost as satisfac- 
 tory as cotton seed meal, and it has the advantage over cotton seed 
 meal in that there is no danger in feeding it. (Ala. B. 143.) Tank- 
 age and linseed oil meal are about equally profitable supplements to 
 corn at the prevailing prices of recent years. (0. B. 213.) 
 
 Growing pigs fed meat meal or tankage to the extent of 16 2-3 
 per cent of their ration, and older hogs having these feeds to the 
 extent of 10 per cent of their ration, with corn, ate more feed and 
 made more rapid gains than those fed on any other combination, 
 such as shorts, barley and corn, or shorts and corn. In dry lot feed- 
 ing a ration composed of corn with either meat meal or tankage 
 produced from 25 to 40 per cent faster gains on quite mature hogs, 
 and from 50 to 60 per cent faster gains on younger hogs, than a ra- 
 tion of corn alone, and in every instance the number of pounds of 
 feed required per 100 Ibs. gain was decidedly less with the mixed 
 , ration. Both meat meal and tankage are more valuable and profit- 
 able adjuncts to the corn ration for dry lot feeding than when pigs 
 or hogs are being developed and fattened on pasture, especially if the 
 pasture be composed of leguminous crops. (la. B. 91.) 
 
 Selected tankage is a very high protein feed containing over 
 40% of protein, so only a small quantity of it is necessary with grain. 
 It proved satisfactory when fed either in the proportion of one- 
 eleventh of the ration, or one-seventh of the ration. With grain at one 
 cent a pound and tankage at two cents per pound, the grain and tank- 
 age ration, with the grain forming five-sixths to nine-tenths of the 
 ration, will cost from about $4.50 to $5.25 for each 100 pounds gain 
 upon fattening pigs under two hundred pounds live weight. (Colo. 
 B. 165.) 
 
 There is no difficulty in using blood meal for hog feeding if it 
 is fed with a small quantity of middlings or some other palatable 
 food, exercising reasonable care to get the hogs started right and not 
 to overfeed at any time. Blood meal and skimmed milk have a sim- 
 ilar feeding value when fed on the basis of an equal number of 
 pounds of protein, and as supplements to either old or new corn. 
 Where a good market is offered for skimmed milk, a margin of $1.00 
 between the cost and selling price of the hogs is necessary in order 
 that this by-product may form a part of the ration fed to fattening 
 hogs. Blood meal at $3*00 per hundredweight is equivalent in feed-
 
 460 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ing value to skimmed milk at 25 cents per hundredweight. (Va. 
 B. 176.) 
 
 Milk. Among the various concentrated supplements which can 
 be used with corn for fattening hogs are the dairy by-products 
 skim milk and whey. Of course at the present time the South has 
 but little dairy by-products to use in finishing hogs, but as the dairy 
 business assumes greater proportions much larger amounts of these 
 valuable feeds will be at the disposal of the hog feeder. It is prob- 
 able that the skim milk and w r hey could be used to better advantage 
 in feeding the suckling mothers and the small pigs, as the green 
 pasture crops can take their place after the pigs are weaned, but 
 still there are cases where it should be fed to the fattening animals. 
 The value of these feeds can be seen from the following experiments : 
 
 Experiments Showing Value of Skim Milk in Feeding Hogs. 
 
 Station. 
 
 'Ration. 
 
 Pounds 
 of feed to 
 make 100 
 pounds 
 gain. 
 
 Cost of 
 100 
 
 pounds 
 gain. a 
 
 Alabama^ 
 
 Corn alone 
 Corn, 1 part 
 
 670 
 210 
 
 $8.38 
 
 
 Skim milk 2.2 parts 
 
 465 
 
 
 Tennessee^ 
 
 Corn alone . 
 
 410 
 
 5.12 
 
 
 Corn, 1 part 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 1,190 
 
 
 
 j Corn 
 
 243 
 
 
 
 1 Skim milk 
 
 559 
 
 
 
 Corn 3 parts 
 
 310 
 
 
 
 Middlings, 2 parts. 
 
 207 
 
 
 Tennessee* 
 
 
 467 
 
 5.84 
 
 
 Corn, 1 part 
 
 211 
 
 
 
 Skim milk, 5 3 parts 
 
 1,122 
 
 
 Tennessee^ 
 
 Corn alone 
 
 1.263 
 
 15.79 
 
 
 Corn,.l part 
 
 186 
 
 
 
 
 746 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Price of feeds; Corn. 70 cents a bushel; skim milk. 
 30 cents a hundredweight: middlings, $30 a ton. 
 Bulletin 82. 
 
 c Bulletin 167. 
 
 d Bulletin 79. 
 
 e Bulletin, Vol. XV. No. 1. 
 
 It is seen that the skim milk was very profitably used except in 
 those cases where the larger amounts were fed. When skim milk is 
 valued at 30 cents a hundredweight, as it is in the table, it must 
 be used in limited amounts in conjunction with the corn. So far 
 as economy of gains is concerned, poor results were secured when 
 from five to seven parts of skim milk were fed to one part' of corn ; 
 but when only two or three parts of milk were fed to one part of 
 grain the results were always satisfactory. Even though too large 
 amounts of milk were fed in some of the above tests that is, when 
 valued at 30 cents a hundredweight the average result of the Ala- 
 md Tennessee work shows it to have a feeding value of 71.7 
 
 bama and Tennessee work shows it to have a feeding 
 
 cents a hundredweight when corn is worth 70 cents a bushel. 
 
 In
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 461 
 
 the Missouri work, when both corn and middlings were fed in the 
 check lot, the skim milk proved to have a value of 70.4 cents a 
 hundredweight. 
 
 As a rule, all kinds of dairy products, even the skim milk, com- 
 mand a very high price when offered to the public in the southern 
 markets. Many dairymen could not afford to feed skim milk to the 
 hogs. But there are many other dairymen who are situated in such 
 a manner as to have no outlet at all for the skim milk made upon the 
 farm as far as selling it upon the market is concerned. Many farmers 
 consider this feed as almost a waste product and treat it as such, 
 but if it is properly apportioned with the grains and given to hogs, 
 it can be disposed of, through the hogs, for an excellent price. The 
 hog, therefore, is a valuable adjunct to the dairy business as a means 
 of utilizing the waste or by-products. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Skim milk, on the basis of its composition, is of the class known 
 as protein feeds. Being too deficient in starches and sugars (carbo- 
 hydrates) , as well as fat, it is not very valuable as a fat producer when 
 fed alone. When combined with corn or some similar feed in the 
 proper proportions, the protein of skim milk supplies the deficiency 
 of the protein in the corn, while the carbohydrates of the corn supply 
 the deficiency of the carbohydrates in the skim milk, the two feed 
 stuffs thus forming a balanced ration. This means one which con- 
 tains the nutrients in proportions which meet the needs of the animal 
 body for its best development. "With the dairy industry rapidly de- 
 veloping in this State it is important to know the value of skim milk 
 as a feed for hogs. (Tex. B. 131.) 
 
 At the Storrs Experiment Station 8 lots of 20 pigs were fed 
 for 114 days different proportions of grain and milk to determine the 
 mast economical proportions. The four lots receiving grain and milk 
 in the proportion of 1 to 7-8 made an average daily gain of 1.10 
 pounds. The average daily gain of the four lots receiving grain 
 and milk in the proportion of 1 to 3-4 was 1.27 pounds. The cost 
 of 100 pounds of gain for the lot receiving grain and milk in the 
 proportion of 1 to 7-8 was $4.95, and the average for the four lots 
 receiving grain and milk in the proportion 1 to 3-4 was $4.45. The 
 average amount of food required for 100 pounds of gain was 253 
 pounds of grain and 1,086 pounds of milk and the average cost 
 was $4.70. (Conn. Storrs B. 39.) 
 
 Skimmed milk was worth about 15 cents per cwt. to feed pigs 
 from weaning up to a weight of 125 pounds. Clear corn meal is 
 perfectly satisfactory as a single grain when fed in connection with 
 skimmed milk. Weanling pigs in close quarters during cold weather 
 can be made to gain a pound live weight per day for three months. 
 There are indications that the proportion of skimmed milk can be 
 increased economically above the ratio of three pounds of milk to 
 one pound of grain usually recommended, thus lessening the amount 
 of grain food that must be purchased. (N. Y. Cornell B. 220.) 
 
 Skim milk should be fed hogs if it can be obtained. It may 
 be mixed with the grain to make a thick swill, or if it is desired to
 
 4S2 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 feed the grain dry, the milk may be fed separately. In either ease 
 clean, pure water should be provided for drinking. (Wyo. B. 74.) 
 To produce one pound of gain in live weight more total solids were 
 required with the milk rich in butter fat than with the milk poor 
 in butter fat. Later in the trials with pigs fed rich milk ad libitum, 
 serious digestive disturbances were noticed. (Conn. Storrs B. 31.) 
 
 A ration of skim milk and grain, fed in the proportion of one 
 pound of grain to five pounds of skim milk, for young animals ; and 
 one pound grain to three pounds of skim milk, for older animals; 
 proved a better ration than a larger proportion of milk. The hogs 
 so fed gained faster, took less food for each pound of gain, and re- 
 turned more for each 100 pounds of skim milk. 
 
 Adding skim milk to a grain ration enabled the hogs to gain 
 more than twice as rapidly as when fed grain alone, and each 100 
 pounds of skim milk effected a saving of 13 to 17.2 pounds of grain 
 according to the way in which the milk was fed. As, on the average, 
 100 pounds of skim milk contains slightly less than 10 pounds dry 
 matter, it is evident that a pound of dry matter in skim milk is 
 worth as much as 1.5 pounds of grain. 
 
 When the price of grain is high, slower, but more economical 
 gains are made by feeding a small quantity of grain and giving all 
 the milk the hogs will eat. When so fed, considerably better results 
 are obtained by feeding on pasture than in pens. 
 
 Hogs will gain fairly well on a ration of skim milk alone, but 
 we have found it difficult to keep them in good health when so fed 
 in pens. When this ration is fed on pasture, the hogs keep in better 
 health, gain a little more rapidly and make more economical gains. 
 Such a ration is not to be recommended when grain can be obtained 
 at a reasonable price. (Utah B. 94.) 
 
 Too often the value of the so-called by-products of the farm is 
 not fully realized by the farmer. The dairyman, for instance, whose 
 first object is to produce as much milk as possible that he may sell 
 the butter fat, may overlook the value still remaining in the skim 
 milk and buttermilk after the fat has been taken from them. As a 
 matter of fact from 10 to 20 per cent of the value of milk lies in the 
 skim milk when it is properly fed to growing young animals. 
 (Ariz. B. 47.) 
 
 Skim milk has proven to be the most efficient supplement to 
 shelled corn or corn meal, used in the experimental feed lots at the 
 Station for the past five years in fattening hogs. (Ind. B. 137.) 
 
 As a result of five years' work it is found that most economic re- 
 turns are secured with skimmed milk when corn meal is the grain 
 used. The proportion of corn meal to skimmed milk may be varied 
 without apparently affecting results. In no case should the amount 
 of skimmed milk fed be greater than the pigs can quickly and 
 easily consume. (N. Y. Cornell B. 199.) 
 
 Hoge fed in the ratio of 1 pound of grain to 3, 6, 9 and 12 
 pounds of skim milk made the largest gains on from 9 to 12 pounds 
 of skim milk. The consumption of skim milk reduced the consump- 
 tion of concentrates considerably, though the cost of a pound of gain
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 463 
 
 was lowest with a consumption of 1 pound of grain to 3 pounds of 
 skim milk. This shows that animals will often consume larger quan- 
 tities of food than they can digest and 1 assimilate with the greatest 
 economy. (Tenn. B. Vol. XVI. No. 3.) The pigs receiving corn- 
 meal and separator skim milk were the most hearty feeders and made 
 the best gains. The cost per pound of gain was over two cents 
 cheaper where skim milk was fed with corn-meal and middlings. 
 Corn-meal produced much better gains and at a cost of 2.93 cents 
 cheaper than middlings. (N. H. B. 113.) 
 
 PASTURE AND FORAGE. 
 
 Permanent Pastures. Until the farmer sees his way clear to 
 make a permanent pasture, or has one already made, he should keep 
 out of the live-stock business. It is, in fact, almost impossible to 
 realize a profit upon any kind of stock without good pastures. There- 
 fore, the first thing to be done when one contemplates engaging in 
 stock raising is to establish a pasture. The South, which is the very 
 section where they can be made easily, is sadly deficient in pastures. 
 No attention has been given to them ; it has all been given to cotton. 
 But the southern farmer, if he will devote some time and effort to 
 the subject, can have as good a pasture as was ever seen in Kentucky 
 or Missouri and have that pasture available for grazing more months 
 in the year than is possible in those States. For a permanent pas- 
 ture there is no combination, either in the North or in the South, 
 that will equal bur clover and Bermuda grass. The Bermuda can be 
 grazed throughout the summer months and the bur clover from 
 January until the Bermuda comes on again. The combination will 
 afford grazing at least ten months of the year. Both plants are per- 
 manent after they are once established. To supplement the perma- 
 nent pasture, temporary pastures should be grown, as cowpeas, pea- 
 nuts, etc., but no farmer who has stock can afford to be without this 
 permanent pasture combination to be ready for use when the tem- 
 porary pastures can not be employed. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Hog raising can seldom be made profitable (in the South) with- 
 out a good permanent pasture where the hogs can secure a large part 
 of their coarser food at a nominal cost, and where they can have 
 the exercise which is absolutely necessary to good health. If they 
 have an extended range they should make fully half their growth 
 without further cost, and when such a range is not available, pasture 
 should be provided. (F. B. 100.) 
 
 Permanent pastures for hogs are not as desirable as good clover 
 pastures. In fact, they cannot be compared with them. Clover pas- 
 tures are not permanent as most of the clover is killed out the first 
 winter after it is pastured. Quite often wood lots or other pieces of 
 land that cannot be cultivated are fenced for hogs and when large 
 enough may make fairly good pastures, though as a rule, much 
 smaller returns per acre are obtained than from good rotation pas- 
 tures. When such pastures are already provided on a farm, it is 
 probably not wise to change at once. (Minn. B. 104.) 
 
 Plants for Summer Pasture. The pigs which are born in late 
 winter and early spring should be finished for the market, or for
 
 464 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 home killing, the following fall or early winter. It will seldom pay 
 to keep them through the first winter. When the pig is sucking the 
 mother both should be given the run of a pasture crop in order that 
 grain may be saved. If the pig is born in late winter, any of the 
 crops heretofore mentioned can be used until the summer crops be- 
 gin to come on. When green crops and pastures are thus used the 
 pig can be gotten up to weaning time as cheaply, perhaps more 
 cheaply, than he can be carried from weaning time to a finish. Bur 
 clover, which is a part of the permanent pasture system, should, of 
 course, be used during the late winter and early spring months. 
 When the pigs are from 60 to 75 pounds in weight they are ready to 
 begin to finish, and this is the time that the summer pasture crops 
 should be ready to use. This date will be about August. (F. B. 
 411.) 
 
 It is not safe or even desirable to rely upon a single crop, ex- 
 cepting alfalfa where it is an assured success, to furnish pasture for 
 our hogs throughout the entire season. It is better to arrange for a 
 succession of pastures from the beginning of the season until the 
 hogs are ready for market, making the feed richer and more con- 
 centrated toward the close of the season and as we approach the fin- 
 ishing or fattening period. For this purpose the following crops 
 are recommended, red clover or alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans. (Mo. 
 
 J5. <y. ) 
 
 Red clover, sorghum and Spanish peanuts were the best foods 
 for succession. They are cheap and easy to produce, and their sea- 
 sons of maturity are in convenient order for pigs to consume them. 
 Rooting for the peanuts was too slight to injure the soil. By this 
 system of raising and fattening^ pigs the manure remains scattered 
 over the soil from which the foods were eaten. The cost to produce 
 a pound of pork with a pig from birth to 10 months of age on red 
 clover, sorghum and peanuts, and 6 3-5 bushels of corn and grown on 
 soil that would produce 25 bushels of corn per acre was 1% cents. 
 The rotation of red clover, sorghum and peanuts is a system that 
 required 6 3-5 bushels of corn to produce a hog weighing 243 pounds 
 at 10 months old. Less corn could have been fed in farm practice 
 by keeping the pigs two weeks longer on peanuts in December, and 
 feeding corn only while the ground was frozen. The time could be 
 shortened probably a month, and produce the same weight, 243 
 pounds, by grazing peanuts earlier, and by feeding on alfalfa in- 
 stead of red clover. By this system of pig grazing the farmer raises 
 the crops and the pigs gather them. (Ark. B. 73.) 
 
 When corn is -used alone as a hog feed money is almost sure 
 to be lost. It has been shown that the feeding value of corn is in- 
 creased as a result of the use of almost any supplement. But even 
 when corn is assisted by the supplementary feeds mentioned, there 
 are but few cases where 70 cents is realized for a bushel of corn; 
 that is, when hogs sell for 5 cents a pound live weight. Under pres- 
 ent conditions the southern farmer must see his way clear to realize 
 at least 70 cents a bushel upon his corn when fed to hogs before he 
 can look upon the hog business as a profitable one. In short, con-
 
 BERKSHIRE HOGS. DEPT. OF AGE. 
 
 BERKSHIRE Sow IN SHOW CONDITION. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 467 
 
 centrated feeds of all kinds are upon such a high level of prices that 
 the farmer can not afford to limit the feed of the hog to them alone. 
 Help must be sought outside the concentrated feeds. 
 
 The supplementary feeds heretofore mentioned are almost all 
 good and should be used in hog-feeding operations, but the future of 
 profitable hog production in the South depends upon the use of 
 green or pasture crops. It is possible for the southern farmer to have 
 grazing crops practically the year through, and many of the best 
 farmers have them. The southern farmer has, in fact, a decided ad- 
 vantage over the northern farmer in this respect. We have seen 
 that a variety of feeds almost always produced more satisfactory re- 
 sults than one feed. Pastures and green crops can be used to fur- 
 nish variety better than any other feeds. The southern farmer has 
 grown so accustomed to placing his hogs in a small pen when the 
 fattening period arrives that he has almost forgotten that the hog 
 can make valuable use of many green crops if he be given the op- 
 portunity. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Keep the pasture short for young pigs, as fresh growth is the 
 most easily digested, and tall pastures, when wet, often make the 
 pigs have sore skins. Have two pastures and change from one to 
 the other, so that the pigs will always have clean feed. (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 Alfalfa Pasture. Many sections are admirably suited to grow T - 
 ing alfalfa. When the farmer is so situated that he can sell alfalfa 
 hay it may not be wise to keep the pasture grazed down with hogs, 
 but at certain times of the year the pasture can be grazed without 
 at all injuring the hay crop. Some farmers are so situated with ref- 
 erence to markets that it would be far more profitable to keep the 
 alfalfa pasture grazed down by hogs than to undertake to make hay 
 of it. It is one of the best pastures that can be secured, since it fur- 
 nishes a large amount of feed to the acre and the grazing season 
 extends over several months of the year. 
 
 While the rape pasture in the Kansas test proved to be a good 
 feed to use along with the grain, the alfalfa pasture proved to be a 
 little more than twice as valuable. One acre of rape was equal to 
 753 pounds of grain, while 1 acre of alfalfa pasture was equal to 
 1,544 pounds of grain. The pastures were grazed only 98 days, 
 whereas the alfalfa pasture, in the South at least, can be grazed for 
 twice that length of time. When a price of $30 a ton is placed upon 
 the grain used, an acre of rape pasture prove'd to be worth $11.29, 
 while an acre of alfalfa pasture was worth $23.16. 
 
 In the Missouri test the alfalfa was cut and carried to the hogs, 
 which were confined in a dry lot. There were 6 hogs in the lot. 
 They ate 463 pounds of green alfalfa in 102 days. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 The number of hogs that may be pastured profitably on an 
 acre depends very largely on the amount of grain fed. Probably 
 from six to eight hogs, under ordinary conditions, would bo about 
 the right number. This would allow enough alfalfa to grow to make 
 three fair crops per year. The fields should be small rather than 
 large, so that the part nearest the water and sheds, will not be kept
 
 468 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 too close to the ground, leaving the far end untouched. (Neb. 
 B. 99.) 
 
 At the Utah Station some 5 months old pigs were fed on alfalfa 
 pasture alone, This test indicated that alfalfa furnishes only a 
 maintenance ration and that additional food must be given to secure 
 gains in live weight. During the progress of the experiment the gen- 
 eral appearance of the pigs was greatly changed. The plump rounded 
 form gave place to large, coarse frames and large stomachs. At the 
 end of the experiment they looked very much larger than at the 
 beginning, but the scales failed to show any gains. What is said 
 above would apply also to the mixed pasture set, only in that case the 
 eye was not as badly deceived, for small gains were made. 
 
 While the pasture had the effect to develop strong frames and 
 large stomachs, and while the gains from the after feeding were very 
 high and the consumption of food enormous, the profits from this 
 method of feeding, even for the short period of after feeding, were not 
 as large as from a number of others, and the practice is not to be 
 recommended. 
 
 Alfalfa without other food, whether pastured by pigs or cut 
 and fed to them in pens, furnished only enough nutriment for bare 
 maintenance. When additional food was given the rates of gain 
 were nearly proportional to the extra quantities they received. It 
 supplies a good supplementary food in connection with bran and 
 grain, but it is too coarse and bulky to be fed alone to the pig whose 
 digestive tract is especially adapted to concentrates. (Utah B. 70.) 
 
 Food Character of Alfalfa. It not only furnishes a great amount 
 of pasture, but it is of a character that goes to make bone and muscle. 
 It belongs to the leguminous family of plants, as do the clovers, the 
 cowpea, the field pea, the soy bean, and the vetches, and, while it is 
 furnishing this valuable food, it is adding fertility to the land. Either 
 alfalfa pasture or alfalfa hay, with corn, forms very nearly. a bal- 
 anced ration for animals ; and, while it is better to have grain ration 
 fed with it to hogs as well as other animals, a healthier, thriftier hog 
 can be raised on alfalfa alone than on corn alone. Many instances 
 are found where hogs have been raised on alfalfa alone. (F. B. 
 331.) 
 
 Alfalfa Hay. While alfalfa pasture has been found to be very 
 valuable for hogs, the hay as a part ration for winter is scarcely less 
 important. Throughout the region referred to the farmers are 
 feeding the hay to hogs in winter. The hay has been found to be 
 especially valuable for brood sows before farrowing. Where it is 
 fed during the winter only a small ration of grain is necessary to keep 
 the sows in good flesh and in healthy conditions. Sows thus fed also 
 farrow good litters of strong, healthy pigs. 
 
 Many feed the hay by throwing it on the ground in forkfuls ; 
 others have made low racks in which the hay is placed, where the 
 hogs can feed like cattle or sheep. The hay is usually fed dry. The 
 leaves are more readily eaten by the hogs than the stems, and they 
 contain more of the nutritive value of the plant. For these reasons 
 some farmers save the last cutting of hay for the hogs because it is
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 469 
 
 more relished. It is eaten up cleaner, as the stems are not so woody. 
 Sometimes the hay is cut up fine, wet, and mixed with other feed, 
 and sometimes it is fed ground, as there are now alfalfa mills scat- 
 tered throughout the alfalfa regions. But it is very doubtful whether 
 this extra expense will pay, unless it be for a ration for young pigs. 
 
 To avoid the expense of cutting or grinding, some farmers in 
 order to get the hay all eaten have soaked it in water and fed it. 
 This has proved very satisfactory where tried. One Oklahoma farmer 
 carried his hogs through a winter by feeding them alfalfa leaves 
 soaked in hot water for one day and the next day shorts mixed with 
 the pulp and water. He feeds much alfalfa hay to his hogs and is 
 very successful with them. He puts the last cutting in shock as soon 
 as wilted, and this cures it without bleaching and feeds it to his 
 hogs. (F. B. 331.) 
 
 Alfalfa Play. Where a good quality of leafy alfalfa hay may 
 be had at reasonable cost, and other protein feeds are difficult to 
 obtain or are high in price, the alfalfa hay may be used to supple- 
 ment grain feed for fattening pigs. It should not be fed with the 
 grain, but should be put in specially constructed racks where the 
 pigs may go to it at pleasure. Mixed grains, with alfalfa hay will 
 give better results than a single grain with hay as a rule. (Colo. 
 B. 165.) 
 
 The leaves only, are of value, the stems being too woody, and 
 the hogs should be fed a sufficient quantity so that they will get 
 all they want when they have eaten the leaves. For this reason it 
 does not pay to cut or grind alfalfa hay for hogs, as these methods 
 compel the hog to eat the indigestible stems. In a test made by the 
 writer, hogs fed whole alfalfa hay ate 515 pounds of grain for 
 each 100 pounds of gain, while those fed finely cut alfalfa hay re- 
 quired 538 pounds of grain for each 100 pounds of gain. 
 
 Alfalfa for hay for hogs should be cut when the first few 
 blooms appear, cured with as little exposure to the sun as possible, 
 and handled in such a way as to preserve the leaves. In feeding 
 tests made by the writer with hogs fattened on grain and alfalfa 
 hay, a ton of early, green-cured alfalfa hay was equivalent to 868 
 pounds of grain, and a ton of alfalfa hay cut late was equivalent 
 to 333 pounds of grain. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 A ration three-fourths corn and one-fourth alfalfa produces 
 greater gains than when one-half alfalfa is fed. Where alfalfa is 
 raised on the farm, and when there is no particular need to hasten 
 growth in the pigs, a ration one-half alfalfa hay and one-half corn 
 may give cheaper gains than when a heavier corn ration is fed. 
 (Neb. B. 20.) 
 
 Alfalfa, the leading crop in New Mexico at the present time, 
 forms an excellent pig feed when combined with grain. Alfalfa fed 
 alone is a very poor food for fattening pigs. The lot of pigs which 
 received a ration composed of nearly equal parts of alfalfa hay and 
 corn, made greater gains and larger profits (Alfalfa hay at $7.00 
 per ton) than either the lot that received a ration composed of nearly 
 three parts of corn to one of alfalfa hay, or the lot that received a
 
 470 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ration composed of practically two parts of alfalfa hay to one of corn. 
 The largest return per ton for the alfalfa hay, after paying for the 
 corn consumed, was made by the lot that received the largest propor- 
 tion of corn in the ration. Furthermore, the return per ton for the 
 alfalfa hay decreased with the decrease in the proportion of corn in 
 the ration. (N. M. B. 62.) Clover or alfalfa fed as hogs will eat 
 it, together with a grain ration, improves materially the rapidity of 
 the gain and the economy of the feeding. (Mon. B. 73.) 
 
 Cowpeas as a Grazing Crop. Through the use of quick-matur- 
 ing varieties of cowpeas this plant can be made to be one of the very 
 early summer grazing pastures. If two or more varieties be used, or 
 if the same variety be planted at different dates, the grazing period 
 can be extended over several months. It is, perhaps, best to use other 
 plants, which will be mentioned later, to extend the grazing period. 
 Several of the southern stations have used the cowpea pasture for 
 hogs. The value of this pasturage is shown by the following results 
 at the Alabama station : 
 
 Cowpea Pasture for Fattening Hogs. 
 
 Station. 
 
 Ration. 
 
 Feed to make 
 100 pounds 
 gain. 
 
 Cost of 
 100 Ibs. 
 gain 
 
 Value of 
 1 acre 
 in terms 
 of corn 
 
 
 
 586 pounds .. . 
 
 $7.33 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Alabama 
 
 
 
 3 84 
 
 
 Bulletin 93, 
 
 Cowpea pasture 
 
 0.137 acre 
 
 
 36.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Unknown variety of cowpeas was used in the foregoing 
 work. When the pigs were placed in the field the leaves were all 
 green and only one-half of the peas had taken on the color of ma- 
 turity. The other pods were all green, but most of them had attained 
 full size. Even with the thin stand and the rows far apart good 
 results were secured. When the corn was fed alone only 47.8 cents 
 was realized for each bushel, but when cowpea pasture was used in 
 addition to the corn each bushel was worth 71.3 cents (charging 
 the crop at $8 an acre, fertilizer not considered). When the cost 
 of the crop was not taken into account each bushel of corn proved to 
 be worth 91.3 cents. 
 
 At the Mississippi station cowpea pasture was grazed without 
 grain. In 1903, although the crop was grown on thin land, 1 acre of 
 cowpeas produced 350 pounds of pork. In 1904 the crop was grown 
 on good valley land and produced 483 pounds of pork to the acre. 
 The hogs were turned on the crop when tho peas were ripe. Better 
 results would no doubt have been secured if the animals had been 
 given the run of the field about two weeks before the maturity of 
 the peas. 
 
 In 1906 the Mississippi substation turned 8 sows with their 30 
 pigs into a red-clover pasture of 3% acres on March 20, the red clover 
 having been sown the previous fall. This furnished ample grazing 
 until August 20, when they were turned into a 4 1 /-acre lot of corn
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 471 
 
 and peas. The 30 pigs were killed out of this pasture November 1 
 without the addition of any other feed and dressed 117 pounds each, 
 at an average age of 196 days. The pigs ate approximately 6 bushels 
 of corn each. When land rent is estimated at $5 an acre> corn at 70 
 cents a bushel, and the cost of seeding the red clover is also taken 
 into account, each pig cost $4.98. 
 
 It is getting to be a common practice in the Middle States, where 
 cowpeas thrive well, to plant the peas in the corn at the last cultiva- 
 tion and graze the hogs on both crops. This method saves a great 
 amount of labor, and the waste of corn is very small indeed if small 
 pigs are given the run of the field after the fattening animals are 
 taken off ; in fact, the loss of corn is not as great as is usually the case 
 when hired help gathers it. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Soy-Bean Pasture. The soy bean is a very valuable crop both 
 for hay and for use as a pasture for hogs. The Tennessee station, 
 Bulletin 82, has compared the cowpea and the soy bean as to their 
 habits of growth, yields, etc. According to this bulletin the cowpea 
 has the following advantages over the soy bean: (1) The soy bean 
 may fail to come up through a crust which would offer little resist- 
 ance to cowpeas. (2) The germination of the cowpea seed is surer 
 than that of the soy-bean seed, which is liable to be spoiled by heating. 
 The cowpea is therefore better than the soy bean for broadcasting, 
 especially on land that is heavy and liable to bake. (3) The cowpea 
 is much better suited than the soy bean for planting with either corn 
 or sorghum. (4) Cowpea hay is more easily cured by the methods 
 in common use, without the increased loss of either leaves or fruit, 
 than soy-bean hay. 
 
 The soy bean, on the other hand, appears more valuable than 
 the cowpea (1) as a grain producer, (2) as an intensive farm crop, 
 
 (3) as an early hay or grazing crop (for which purposes the early 
 and medium varieties will produce either hay or seed several weeks 
 ahead of any variety of cowpeas which had been tasted at the station) , 
 
 (4) the seed decay more slowly than those of the cowpea when left 
 on the ground, so are better adapted to being pastured off by hogs. 
 
 Rabbits feast upon the soy bean while they will not bother the 
 cowpea at all. Therefore the farmer who plants soy beans should 
 plant enough for both himself and the rabbits. The soy beans proved 
 to be greatly superior to sorghum. In fact, sorghum was practically 
 worthless, while satisfactory results were secured from soy beans. 
 When corn alone was used 61.4 cents were realized upon each bushel, 
 with hogs at 5 cents; but when the corn was supplemented by the 
 soy-bean pasture each bushel of corn used was worth 98.6 cents (al- 
 lowing $8 to make each acre of soy beans) . 
 
 Even when the interest on the land and the cost of putting in 
 the crop were counted against the gains, pork was still made for less 
 than one-half of what it cost when corn was used alone. Again, when 
 corn alone was used only 48.9 cents were secured for each bushel, but 
 when a three-fourths, a one-half, and a one-fourth ration of corn 
 were used along with the pasture the value of a bushel of corn was
 
 472 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 raised to $1.59, $1.69, and $3.35, respectively (estimating the cost 
 of making the crop at $8 an acre). 
 
 The Southern Yellow variety of bean was used in all cases. 
 Other varieties can he used if it is desired that the grazing period 
 should be extended. For instance, the Hollybrook variety is ready 
 for grazing two or three weeks before the Southern Yellow, although 
 planted at the same time. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Soy beans will furnish pasture for hogs during the latter part 
 of August and September, and the green and ripening beans when 
 harvested by the hogs in this way make an excellent feed. The beans 
 when fed in a ration consisting of one part beans and three to five 
 parts of corn or Kafir corn, as shown by the Kansas Agricultural Ex- 
 periment Station, make a very profitable ration for fattening hogs. 
 (F. B. 331.) 
 
 The soy bean is regarded as somewhat better adapted for finish- 
 ing a bunch of hogs than the cowpea ; at the same time if one does 
 not care to bother with so many different crops, the cowpea may be 
 used instead with satisfactory results. (Mo. B. 79.) 
 
 Canada Field Peas.- The seeding is done in April or early in 
 May, and the crop can be pastured by midsummer. The best season 
 for pasturing is when the peas have formed, the stock being allowed 
 to harvest the crop. Hogs make a very thorough harvesting, clean- 
 ing up the peas and the vines quite thoroughly. What vines are left 
 on the ground, together with the manure, enrich the soil and add 
 more humus to it. In addition to this the labor of harvesting is 
 saved. (F. B. 33.) 
 
 Peanuts. Other things being equal, legumes should always be 
 made use of when planning a succession of crops for hogs, on account 
 of their favorable influence in building up soils. Peanuts range among 
 the exceedingly valuable leguminous hog crops. Many farmers are 
 already aware of their high feeding value, and they are used in those 
 few sections of the South that at the present time are producing more 
 pork than is used at home. As a rule, when a hog-producing section 
 is found in the South, a peanut-growing section is also found. This 
 plant, used along with soy beans, affords a long summer and fall 
 grazing season. It is a very valuable crop for fattening hogs. It 
 should also be remembered in this connection that these hog-grazing 
 crops do not cost a cent to harvest ; the hogs save the expense by con- 
 suming the crops in the field. Again, when the hog grazes on the 
 crop there is practically no danger of losing it on account of con- 
 tinued rain at harvesting time. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 As a whole, peanut pasture was found to be more useful than 
 any other pasture tried. Notwithstanding the fact that the peanut 
 pastures were not good two years out of the three they still gave ex- 
 cellent results. Pork was made at a good profit when peanut pasture 
 was used in conjunction with corn. (Ala. B. 143.) 
 
 Spanish peanuts fed alone yielded a larger gain than corn fed 
 alone. The results indicated that an acre of peanuts of a yield of 
 forty bushels would produce approximately $18.40 worth of pork at 
 $6.25 per 100 pounds. With pork at $9 per 100 pounds the same
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 473 
 
 acre would produce $26.64 worth. Peanuts and corn combined pro- 
 duced much more rapid gains than peanuts alone. The quality of the 
 pork produced by peanuts was much inferior to that produced by 
 corn. (Tex. B. 131.) 
 
 Sorghum. Sorghum is less palatable and nutritious than many 
 other forage crops adapted to this region. For this reason many do 
 not like it as a pasture crop. Hogs do not thrive as -well on it as on 
 alfalfa and require more grain to keep them growing nicely. The 
 special value of sorghum lies in the fact that it furnishes a great 
 abundance of pasture in dry hot weather when alfalfa makes little 
 growth. After it is well started, say 2 feet high, it will furnish fairly 
 good pasture for 30 hogs to the acre for a few weeks, and a good crop 
 will carry 25 head of 100-pound pigs nearly all summer. (F. B. 
 331.) Mature sorghum pasture has very little to recommend it as. a 
 feed for fattening swine. Both the gains and the financial outcome 
 were unsatisfactory. When the sorghum was cut and carried to the 
 hogs the results were better than when the hogs were made to graze 
 the crop. (Ala. B. 143.) 
 
 Sorghum is a green crop well thought of in the South as a feed 
 for swine. Its chief advantage lies in the large yields and the sure- 
 ness of the crop, there being very few seasons in which it fails. But 
 it must be remembered in planting a rotation of crops that sorghum 
 is not a legume, so that the land will not be made better on account 
 of its having been grown. It should also be borne in mind that 
 corn and sorghum do not make up a balanced ration for animals. 
 They are both low in protein, so if sorghum is to be used at all, the 
 concentrate feed should be partly made up of a feed high in protein, 
 as cotton-seed meal or tankage. Sorghum has probably one valuable 
 place as a hog feed to help carry the brood sows through the sum- 
 mer months economically when the pastures are short. Sorghum is 
 a bulky feed and is more suited to ruminants than to the hog. The 
 young hog makes no use at all of the leaves and the fibrous part of 
 the stalk; his stomach is too small for such bulky roughage, but older 
 hogs can use roughage to a considerable extent. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Plant8 for Winter Pasture. Many plants, in addition to the 
 ones previously mentioned, can be used for winter pasture. Of course 
 it is more difficult to secure winter than summer grazing, but with 
 the proper use of bur clover, rye, oats, vetch, and crimson clover all 
 fall sown there is little trouble to secure grazing areas throughout 
 the whole winter. Bur clover is a permanent pasture and will grow 
 upon almost any character of soil. It occupies the land with Ber- 
 muda, but makes its growth in the winter time and dies down when 
 spring appears, and the Bermuda takes its place. Rye, oats, vetch, 
 and crimson clover can be fall sown, following the general summer 
 crops, and be ready for use during the winter and early spring 
 months. 
 
 Oats Pasture. The great value of oats is due to the fact that 
 they furnish succulent feed at a season when it is much needed. 
 They are also greatly relished by hogs. Oats are particularly val- 
 uable as pasture for sows and young pigs, many farmers sowing
 
 474 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 them for this purpose. One farmer claims that he is less troubled 
 with scours in pigs on oat pasture than on alfalfa. (F. B. 331.) 
 
 Rape Pasture. One of the valuable green crops for hogs is rape. 
 It can be sown in the fall after the summer crops are taken off the 
 land, and within seventy days is ready for the hogs to be turned 
 upon it. It is a winter growing crop, or one that can be used be- 
 tween the two summer crops. As a result of its use the land can be 
 kept in use and covered with green vegetation the year round. Sev- 
 eral experiment stations have demonstrated its value as a hog feed. 
 While rape when planted in the spring will make a summer growth 
 almost anywhere in the South, it is not advisable for the farmer to 
 use it as a summer pasture. Other pastures can be used during the 
 summer months, and the rape can be sown in the fall, after the sum- 
 mer crops are taken off the land, and be ready for pasturing by Janu- 
 ary. As a rule, lands lie idle throughout the winter months, thus 
 exposing them to the heavy washes, but if rape is used the land can 
 be made to produce a green crop the year round, and at the same time 
 afford the fattening or breeding hogs a good winter pasture. 
 
 The experimental work in both Alabama and Wisconsin has 
 shown rape to be an excellent grazing crop to supplement corn. In 
 Alabama the area was grazed twice, as the rape grew up behind the 
 hogs after they had grazed it the first time, and as a result of both 
 grazings it was learned that 1 acre of the rape pasture was equivalent 
 to 61.9 bushels of corn (assuming that 580 pounds of corn will make 
 100 pounds gain) ; or, leaving out of consideration the expense of 
 making the crop, each bushel fed at the first grazing was worth 95.8 
 cents (hogs at 5 cents) and each bushel during the second grazing 
 realized $1.36. If it cost $8 to make an acre of rape, and this ex- 
 pense is charged against the gain, the corn during the first grazing 
 sold for 67.8 cents a bushel while that of the second grazing sold for 
 91.6 cents. In the Wisconsin test 1 acre of rape was found to be equal 
 in feeding value to 45 bushels of corn, or, estimating, as in the Ala- 
 bama test, the corn sold for 99.6 cents a bushel when the cost of 
 making the rape crop was not considered, and for 91.9 cents a bushel 
 when the cost is counted against the gain at the rate of $8 an acre. 
 These results were secured in winter, a time of year when the average 
 farmer is realizing no returns at all upon his land. Thus the farmer 
 is one crop ahead, equal to about 30 bushels of corn. 
 
 Rape is not a legume ; it will not enrich the soil. Its chief value 
 lies in the fact that it can be grown in the winter time between the 
 main farm crops. It comes off in the spring in ample time for the 
 same area to be planted in any of the general farm crops. (F. B. 
 411.) Rape at the present time is the most favorably known of the 
 fleshy-leaved plants for swine pasture. (Ind. B. 82.) 
 
 Chufas. The chufa plant is one that can be used for winter 
 grazing also, but it has two disadvantages. One of these is that it 
 must be planted in the spring and occupies the land throughout the 
 whole summer; the other is that while it occupies the ground for a 
 long time it is not a soil improver. Nevertheless many farmers make 
 excellent use of. it for pigs that they wish to finish for late spring kill-
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 475 
 
 ing or for the early spring or late winter markets. Some farmers make 
 a practice of planting it upon the same land and at the same time with 
 peanuts, but in alternate rows. This is a good practice. The peanuts 
 are ready to graze before the chufas are matured, so the animals 
 when turned into the field first consume the peanuts and later on in 
 the fall or winter make use of the chufas. The chufas lies in the 
 ground without much loss by rotting. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Grain to Feed When on Pasture. It would be of interest to the 
 farmer to know just how much grain to feed along with the pasture 
 crops. Of course the amount of grain fed depends upon the kind of 
 pasture used and whether the animals are just being carried along or 
 are being rushed to a finish. 
 
 No farmer can afford under present conditions to sell his corn 
 directly upon the market as corn, even for $1 a bushel. He should 
 market it through hogs. In the Alabama test from $1.42 to $2.82 
 was secured for each bushel of corn fed when hogs sold for 5 cents 
 a pound live weight. Some farmers hold that the most profitable 
 method is to feed no grain at all while the hogs have the freedom 
 of a good pasture, but it is seen from the above prices realized upon 
 corn that the man who has corn to sell should make more money 
 by feeding it in conjunction with the pasture. Third, the amount of 
 available pasture will have something to do with the amount of corn 
 to feed. If the area of pasture is small for the number of hogs on 
 hand, it would pay to be liberal with the corn in order that the pas- 
 ture may be extended over as long a time as possible. Fourth, the 
 amount of grain used depends upon the length of time the farmer 
 has in which to get the animals ready for the market. If prices are 
 ruling low, it may be wise to simply carry the animals along slowly 
 until the prices advance. If hogs are selling at a good figure and there 
 is danger of their depreciating in value on account of prices falling, 
 it would be the part of wisdom to finish rapidly through the liberal 
 use of grain. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Grass alone does not furnish a satisfactory ration for hogs. 
 When they have the run of a large pasture with opportunity for root- 
 ing, the supplementary food thus obtained enables them to maintain 
 their weight, and probably gain slightly. When the grass pasture 
 is supplemented by a small grain ration, or by skim milk, or possibly 
 by the slops from the house, the hogs make much better use of the 
 pasture, and they will make quite satisfactory gains -on a small 
 amount of supplementary food. The hogs gain in live weight more 
 slowly, but the gain is made at a lower food cost on the part ration 
 than on the full grain ration. In this conclusion nothing is allowed 
 for the pasture. By feeding a part grain ration on pasture the hogs 
 eat more of the pasture and thus make a pound of gain on less grain 
 than when fed a full grain ration, but do not gain so rapidly. Thus, 
 on one side there are more economical but slower gains, accom- 
 panied by slower returns, greater risk and more labor; contrasted 
 with more costly gains, la<s risk and labor, and quicker returns. 
 Which of those methods to adopt, the feeder will have to decide for 
 liimself, according to his market or circumstances. -(Utah B. 94.)
 
 476 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Hogs fed a half grain ration on clover and alfalfa pasture 
 made, in proportion to the grain fed, much faster gains and much 
 more economic gains that those fed a full grain ration. (Mon. B. 
 73.) In pork production economic use may be made of pasture 
 in connection with a full grain ration. This is shown not only by the 
 average results of all the experiments conducted but also by every 
 point of comparison in each separate test. The average shows the 
 gains of the pasture sets to be 33 per cent the higher and to have been 
 made on 10 per cent less grain. The average results of four seasons' 
 experiments show quite conclusively that mixed pasture is not bene- 
 ficial to pigs having a full supply of grain and skim milk. Pasture 
 with grain rations, averaging all the experiments, gave slightly better 
 results than green stuff cut and fed in connection with grain in pens 
 and yards. Where lands are cheap and labor comparatively dear, 
 it seems advisable to follow the pasture method. (Utah B. 70.) 
 
 An extensive use of pasture should often be made in pork produc- 
 tion, especially when grain is very high in price. With hogs upon 
 pasture the proposition is very different from dry lot feeding, and it 
 is often possible, by feeding relatively light grain rations, to induce 
 ihogs to eat a much larger amount of grass than when heavier grain 
 rations are supplied, and thus effect a marked economy in produc- 
 tion. Marked economy in cost of gains resulted from the use of a 
 light grain ration in place of a heavy grain ration for swine on pas- 
 ture. If a cheaper feed may be used in place of the grain, it is often 
 possible to lessen very materially the cost of pork production by feed- 
 ing a light grain ration. If concentrates are to be used exclusively, 
 the use of a heavy grain ration would be advisable, unless the aim of 
 the feeder is to hold the stock in a low or moderate condition in order 
 to secure cheaper feeds for fattening later. It is important for feeders 
 to understand market conditions as well as efficiency of feeds. The 
 rations that produce the most rapid gains are not necessarily the most 
 profitable feeds to use. On the other hand, rations that produce cheap 
 gains may produce these gains so slowly that the profits will be very 
 email. (O. B. 209.) 
 
 Roots. In some form they are a desirable food for pigs in win- 
 ter, as an addition to the grain ration, in prompting healthful activity 
 of the digestive organs and acting as an appetizer. Sugar beets, arti- 
 chokes or carrots would no doubt serve this purpose better than man- 
 gels. They are more expensive in view of greater cost of production, 
 but this difference is not important. They, however, contain enough 
 more sugar to make them somewhat more relished by the pigs than 
 are the mangels. (Ind. B. 79.) 
 
 The real value of succulent food for swine cannot be measured 
 by simple gains in weights of pigs given such food. Undoubtedly 
 where animals are confined to a pure grain diet, the digestive tract is 
 more torpid and sickness is more likely to occur than when succu- 
 lent food is given. Then the digestive organs are more active and 
 natural in movement and the body is better prepared to resist dis- 
 ease than when pure grain food is fed. The influence of this succu- 
 lent food on sows in pig or sucking pigs cannot be measured by the
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 477. 
 
 scales, but the general testimony of practical feeders of experience 
 is that such diet promotes easy parturition, a generous milk flow and 
 vigorous offspring. Pigs that are to be fattened in a short period 
 of feeding do not perhaps need roots in their diet, though I believe 
 it would be to their advantage, but breeding stock, both male and 
 female, and suckling sows will certainly be materially benefited by 
 summer pasturage and roots in winter. Swine should always be fed 
 with discretion the first few days after turning on. pasture to prevent 
 bloat, but where roots are fed no special danger is likely to occur. 
 (Ind. B. 82.) 
 
 It may be stated, as a general rule, that root crops can not be as 
 profitably used for fattening hogs as can some of the crops hereto- 
 fore mentioned. The South must adopt a system of farming that 
 requires as little labor as possible, and when the root plants are 
 grown much labor must be expended upon them. One of the advan- 
 tages of stock farming is that it lends itself to handling large areas of 
 land without a corresponding increase in the amount of labor used. 
 If, through the addition of stock to our system of farming, we should 
 materially increase the amount of labor required 1 , the business could 
 not be made a success, as there is but little extra labor to be had. 
 Then again, the effect of the crop upon the soil should never be over- 
 looked. The common root crops now in use are not legumes, so the 
 soil will not be improved as a result of their having been grown. 
 Nevertheless some farmers are so situated and their soils are of such 
 a character that they can probably use root crops to advantage. 
 (F. B. 411.) Roots as a supplemental food also make a valuable 
 addition to the ration, coming next in value to skim milk and tank- 
 age. (Mon. B. 73.) 
 
 Sugar Beets. For light weight fattening pigs, weighing from 
 60 to 160 pounds, sugar beets are not an economical fattening feed 
 in connection with grain, when they constitute approximately one- 
 half of the ration by weight. Our experience indicates that when 
 such pigs are fed beets at pleasure, they will eat the beets and grain 
 in about equal proportions by weight. (Colo. B. 165.) 
 
 In experiments made on the Colorado Agricultural College farm, 
 hogs fed all the sugar beets they would eat, and no other feed, just 
 maintained their weight. Hogs fed grain and all the sugar beets 
 they would eat made less gains than those fed the same amount of 
 grain and no beets. A small quantity of beets fed as a conditioner 
 were valuable, one ton taking the place of 200 pounds of grain. 
 (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 Potatoes. No tests have been made of feeding potatoes to fatten- 
 ing hogs at the Colorado Experiment Station. Several other sta- 
 tions have tried them, and it has been found that potatoes alone 
 do not make a satisfactory feed, and that raw potatoes have little 
 feeding value. Potatoes cooked until dry and mealy and mixed 
 with raw grain make a palatable feed, and from 400 to 450 pounds 
 of potatoes are equal to 100 pounds of grain. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 At Cornell the Irish potato was fed both cooked and raw. A 
 little grain and skim milk were fed in addition to the potatoes. Over
 
 478 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 400 pounds of potatoes were eaten, but the pigs failed to make prog- 
 ress and the test was closed. At the Central Experimental Farm, 
 Ottawa, Canada, reasonable results were secured when cooked pota- 
 toes were used, but raw potatoes produced practically no gains. Sub- 
 sequent experience in feeding hogs on sweet potatoes in the ground 
 did not prove to be profitable. The potatoes were not eaten with 
 relish, and after being rooted up they were left upon the surface, 
 some of them remaining there until they decayed. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 In feeding potatoes to pigs during the winter, warm dry quar- 
 ters should be furnished, otherwise the potatoes whether cooked or 
 uncooked may do more harm than good. (N. Y. Cornell B. 199.) 
 
 Silage. At the Virginia Station two brood sows were fed for 
 seven weeks, during winter, exclusively on silage. The animals lost 
 weight, and their general appearance at the end of the experiment 
 was such as to discourage the further use of silage as an exclusive 
 ration for hogs, though in after-fattening these took on flesh as 
 rapidly as did the onas fed corn, showing that the exclusive use of 
 silage had not impaired the digestion. In the experiments in which 
 the silage constituted only a part of the ration, the animals consumed 
 from 28 to 35 pounds of silage and 14 to 21 pounds of corn on the 
 cob per week during a period of ten weeks. The animals were kept in 
 good condition through a severe winter on this ration. By using the 
 silage a saving of nearly one-third in the cost of feed was effected. 
 Experiments at other stations have not generally been very favorable 
 to the use of silage as a food for swine; nor do the results of experi- 
 ments at the Virginia Station do more than indicate that silage is 
 worthy of consideration as a component of a cheap maintenance ra- 
 tion, to be used for such purposes as carrying brood sows over winter, 
 and not for fattening. (F. B. 103.) 
 
 Experiments indicate that silage cannot be profitably substituted 
 for a part of the grain ration with pigs. In this experiment it was 
 fed in addition with some profit, giving quicker gains and keeping 
 the animals in better condition. (Ken. B. 101.) 
 
 Pumpkins. Pumpkins are an excellent feed for keeping hogs 
 in a healthy condition. Many farmers claim that the seeds of pump- 
 kins will prevent worms in pigs and shoats and that a ration of pump- 
 kins fed with grain will keep hogs thrifty and give them a good 
 appetite. A good many wagonloads can be grown on an acre of rich 
 land. Stumpy land or low moist land will grow good pumpkins. 
 (F. B. 331.) 
 
 The cooking of pumpkins does not increase their feeding value. 
 When pumpkins are available for pig feeding they can be fed most 
 economically in connection with cornmeal. While raw pumpkins 
 fed in connection with milk produced a pound of gain at small cost, 
 so few pounds were produced it is advisable to feed cornmeal with 
 them. Apples, even at the low price of 10 cents per bushel, are not 
 an economical food for pigs. (N. H. B. 66.) 
 
 Molasses. Black strap molasses, on the basis of its composition, 
 is of the same class of feed stuffs as Indian corn. It is rich in carbo- 
 hydrates, the same constituent that makes Indian corn valuable as
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 479 
 
 a fat producer. Like Indian corn, it is deficient in protein, only 
 more so, and this is the constituent which is necessary in a feed stuff 
 to produce the lean meat or muscle of an animal and, to some extent, 
 the frame work. Black strap or feeding molasses, a refuse obtained 
 in refining cane sugar, is produced in this State annually in large 
 quantities, and though its importance as a cattle feed has already been 
 thoroughly demonstrated by this Station and by cattle feeders in 
 different portions of the State and elsewhere, its value as a feed for 
 hogs has not been so clearly determined. (Tex. B. 131.) 
 
 Hotel Slop. Feeding slop from hotels is practiced in some parts 
 of the State. With careful management it sometimes proves profit- 
 able, but one must be always on guard against contagious diseases, 
 such as cholera and contagious sore mouth, the germs of which are 
 frequently found in such slop. (Wyo. B. 74.) The cause of death 
 in certain outbreaks of disease among swill-fed hogs is the direct pois- 
 oning of the animals by the excess of free alkali (washing soda) in the 
 swill. These alkalies come from the powdered soaps used in washing 
 dishes. It appears that small quantities of the powdered soaps do not 
 produce immediate bad results. It is presumable that they can be 
 used in quantities sufficient for the needs of cleanliness with perfect 
 safety, but owing to the danger involved in their use it is safer not 
 to give the water containing them to animals. In addition to the 
 unwholesomeness of garbage and kitchen slops for animal food, and 
 in addition to the losses sustained from the immediate effect of such 
 kinds of food, hogs fed upon it are very liable to contract specific in- 
 fectious diseases, such as hog cholera, swine plague and tuberculosis. 
 (N. Y. Cornell B. 141.) 
 
 Climatic Influences. The climate and soil which will best favor 
 the production of any kind of live stock are those in which the same 
 kind of stock is found wild. In his native state the hog frequents 
 those localities where vegetation is abundant, if not luxuriant. The 
 climate is usually one of only moderate severity. If extremes either 
 of heat or cold are common, the environment provides shelter in the 
 dense thickets in winter and shade and an abundance of water in sum- 
 mer. The hog is a heavy and promiscuous feeder, therefore in his 
 domestic state he thrives best where pastures are most luxuriant and 
 grain crops, nuts, or roots are most abundant. He is not a ranger, 
 nor does he thrive on grass alone ; he can not endure a great amount 
 of travel at a time; exercise he must have, yet he must be able to 
 find his feed with only a small amount of searching, and water should 
 always be accessible. During hot weather he craves a pool of water 
 to reduce his temperature, for he perspires little; and in winter he 
 wants shelter from storms. Owing to these requirements there are' 
 few hogs in the semiarid States of the West, and in that section hog 
 raising is generally coincident with irrigation and alfalfa growing. 
 
 The first place in hog raising in the United States is easily with 
 the corn-growing sections, and here corn is the first grain thought 
 of w r hen the fattening of animals, especially hogs, is considered. It 
 is, however, fallacious to argue that hog raising will not give profit- 
 able returns outside of the corn belt. The corn belt has wonderful
 
 480 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 advantages for economical pork production, but it also has its disad- 
 vantages. The cheapness and abundance of corn in the corn belt 
 have often led farmers to use it as the exclusive grain feed. But 
 breeding stock so fed does not thrive so well and is not so prolific 
 as when given a varied ration, and when used for fattening an ex- 
 clusive corn diet is not generally profitable. The work of the agri- 
 cultural colleges and experiment station during recent years has 
 done much to show breeders and -feeders the undesirability of this 
 practice, and the increasing price of corn has forced farmers to econo- 
 mize in its use as much as possible. 
 
 Any locality that will grow clover of any species, or that is favor- 
 able to the production of alfalfa, peas, or beans, or where grains are 
 readily grown not only corn, but barley, wheat, oats, or rye will 
 be a favorable situation for the successful production of pork. If 
 it is also a locality where dairying is common, no better advantages 
 are required; for, given leguminous pasture clover, alfalfa, peas, 
 beans, etc. as a basis, with a grain feed that can be readily grown, 
 and also dairy by-products, the very highest grade of pork can be 
 produced at a minimum cost. Variety of feed alone is an item of 
 immense importance in feeding. An animal tires of a constant ration 
 of one kind, and is more easily put off feed at such times than when 
 he is occasionally supplied with a change to keep his appetite keen. 
 Not only has variety of feed an influence on appetite, but it results 
 in a better quality of pork. 
 
 The few States comprising the corn belt are the source of supply 
 for a great amount of the meat product, especially hams and bacon, 
 that is consumed in other portions of the country. Yet the advan- 
 tages of many of these corn-belt States are little, if at all, superior 
 to those outside of that district. The South has an abundance of 
 vegetation. Cowpeas, velvet beans, and peanuts are leguminous crops 
 that are peculiar to that section. Corn grows readily in all parts of 
 the South, and in the subtropical portions the experience of feeders 
 with cassava seems to indicate that it has considerable value for pork 
 production. In addition, there is generally an abundant water sup- 
 ply; the climate is mild, and there is a long period during which 
 green feed is available ; the expense of shelter and winter feeding is 
 very greatly lessened. These conditions, giving a long period of pas- 
 ture and outdoor life, enhance thrift, and with proper management 
 insure great freedom from disease. 
 
 In the extreme West the alfalfa of the irrigated valleys and the 
 clover of the coast districts give a splendid foundation for successful 
 pork production. In most of these regions there is an abundance of 
 small grain, particularly barley, that may often be 'fed economically, 
 while in some localities corn is a successful crop. 
 
 Barley is of so much interest and importance in the production of 
 prime pork that it demands more than a passing notice. This grain 
 has not been relied upon to any great extent in America as the princi- 
 pal part of a hog-fattening ration, but the practice of Danish farmers 
 and the results of experiments can very well be studied with profit 
 by American feeders. The Danish bacon, which figures so promi-
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 481 
 
 nently in the English markets, is produced mainly -with barley and 
 dairy by-products. At the Ontario Agricultural College, Day has 
 found barley so valuable in the production of prime export bacon that 
 it is now used as a standard with which other grains are compared. 
 In his experiments to determine the nature and causes of soft pork, 
 Shutt found that the best bacon produced was by a ration in which 
 barley was at least one-third of the whole amount. Farmers in those 
 parts of the country -where barley is a prominent crop can well devote 
 attention to their opportunities for pork production ; besides, in addi- 
 tion to this grain, some of the leguminous crops can often t>e grown 
 for pasture, thus furnishing materials for a well-balanced ration. 
 
 The purpose of these remarks is not to minimize the value of corn 
 in meat production of any kind. Corn is, perhaps, with a favorable 
 climate and soil, the most economical grain that is at the command of 
 the stock raiser and feeder in those sections of the United States 
 where it can be grown successfully. It is nutritious and highly 
 palatable. Without its use it is difficult to imagine how the animal 
 products of the United States could have attained their present 
 position in the world's commerce; and so long as meat products 
 are a factor of American agriculture corn will probably be a leading 
 element in meat production in this country, and the corn belt will 
 naturally continue to be more or less the center of feeding operations. 
 On the other hand, the condition is ever present that farmers in local- 
 ities where corn is a limited product have their own wants to supply. 
 If, in addition to their own needs, the farmers of these localities can 
 supply a share of the export demand, great strides will have been 
 taken in their agricultural development, for live-stock husbandry is 
 the foundation of successful agriculture. A market for the surplus 
 is, of course, essential, but where a supply is available the market will 
 probably be forthcoming. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Feed for the Boar. A boar not mature will need nitrogenous 
 food to develop his vital organs, muscles and bones, while the mature 
 boar can be maintained on a more starchy ration. The mature boar 
 should carry sufficient flesh to be thrifty in appearance. Exercise 
 is of prime importance to the boar, and an over-abundant amount of 
 flesh is not conducive to exercise. He should have plenty of range 
 with good pasturage. If he be given forage crops of rape and cow 
 peas and alfalfa, but little grain need be given. If the pasture is rich 
 in proteid. he should be given one or two pounds of corn a day, with 
 perhaps bran or middlings slop. The ration should be increased in 
 the breeding season, as any weakened condition might lessen the 
 number of pigs in the litters. 
 
 The boar should not be confined to too small a yard in winter, 
 but given opportunity for exercise. The ration should then be rather 
 bulky, and may consist of corn, bran, alfalfa, meal, or hav and short*. 
 A few roots make a good appetizer and help to regulate tne bowels. 
 (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 The boar pig should be pushed with growing feeds, so that he 
 will make a gain even* day until he reaches full, mature weight. A 
 mixture of any two or more of the following grains is good: Corn,
 
 482 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 barley, or milo maize, with wheat, peas, or shorts. A liberal supply 
 of skim milk is especially good. He should have all the alfafa he 
 will eat every day, either pasture or hay. A small feed of roots or 
 cooked potatoes is good. Stunting, even for a short time, will per- 
 manently injure his value. He should weigh 300 to 400 pounds 
 when 12 months old. 
 
 After reaching full growth, the boar, when not in service, should 
 be given bulky feeds that will keep him full, satisfied, and in good 
 condition, but that will not put on fat alfalfa, roots, and a small 
 daily ration of any kind of grain. A few weeks before the beginning 
 of the breeding season the grain feed should be gradually increased, 
 giving a mixture the same as when he was growing, and the amount 
 of roots and alfalfa should be slowly reduced. The animal should 
 be put in perfect condition and good flesh, but not made fat. The 
 best results are not secured from a sire that is either fat or thin. 
 During the breeding season the boar should have an abundance of 
 food, using the same combination as recommended for him while 
 growing, except that just sufficient succulent feeds (alfalfa and roots) 
 should be given to keep his bowels in good condition. A full supply 
 of succulent feeds at this time is likely to make him infertile. 
 (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 The feed of the boar when not in service may be of a succulent 
 nature mainly pasture and cut green forage during the summer 
 months and roots in winter. A boar can hardly be sustained on this 
 alone, and some grain should be allowed to keep him in condition. 
 This should be nitrogenous in character, consisting of mill feeds 
 such as shorts, middlings, and bran some oil meal, and the legumi- 
 nous grains, with a little corn. As the breeding season approaches 
 the feed should be increased, so that the boar will be in good condi- 
 tion. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Feed for the Sow. The sow should be given wide range, and if 
 in good condition when put in pasture, will need but little if any 
 grain. In Nebraska it was found that sows weighing 200 pounds 
 each gained nearly half a pound a day for 63 days on alfalfa pasture 
 and no grain. 
 
 In the absence of alfalfa, forage can be provided by land sown 
 with a mixture of the following: rape 2 pounds, cane or corn 20 
 pounds, cowpeas 8 pounds. Or if sown early, oats and barley may be 
 used. It is well to plant a lot of ground each week, and so have a 
 pasturage of green forage for several weeks to turn into. Over 10 
 tons of green forage can be produced on an acre. 
 
 During winter the sows may have the run of the cattle yards 
 until 6 weeks before farrowing time. They should be given clean 
 water, a little corn and middlings and a couple of roots a day. After 
 removing them from the yard, give laxative foods. Sows are more 
 often underfed than overfed. They should have plenty of protein 
 feeds of a bulky nature. 
 
 If a large number of brood sows are kept, and the hog cot system 
 used, more grain will be required. Feed 3^2 pounds per day of the 
 following ration : Corn 3 parts, shorts 3 parts, oil meal or tankage 1
 
 LARGE YORKSHIRE. (COURTESY OF PROF. DIETRICH, ILLS.) DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 DUROC-jERSEY SOW IN FAIR SHOW CONDITION. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 485 
 
 part, with some alfalfa meal or hay. The cost of this method is 2 to 
 4 cents per sow daily. If sows have been summered on alfalfa, they 
 will eat a larger amount of alfalfa hay if it is kept clean in a rack. 
 (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 Feed for Sow Before Farrowing. It will be shown later on that 
 pastures are the basis for the profitable handling of hogs. The pigs 
 should be gotten up to w r eaning time as cheaply as possible, and 
 the cheapest way to do this is to have a pasture for the sows to run 
 upon every month in the year. It is very little trouble to have pas- 
 tures practically the year round in the South. Of course the sow 
 should be provided with some grain in addition to the pasture, but 
 the pastures will save a great amount of grain. It must be remem- 
 bered that the sow must be nourished in such a way that the pigs will 
 come into the world strong and healthy. Corn alone will not keep 
 the sow in a good healthy condition, neither will it develop the pigs 
 in the mother's body. But corn along with good leguminous pasture 
 will provide her with a good ration. When pastures are not avail- 
 able such feeds as skim milk and bran should be used along with the 
 corn. Not more than one-half of her ration should ever be made up 
 of corn ; the other half should be made up of a feed that will furnish 
 plenty of ash and protein to build up the litter of pigs in the body. 
 Leguminous pastures are the cheapest feeds that can be found to go 
 along with the corn. With a good leguminous pasture the sow will be 
 maintained in good flesh when she is fed a ration of corn equivalent 
 to 1 per cent of her live weight. For a 200-pound sow this would 
 be 2 pounds of corn daily. When no pasture is provided it requires 
 from 6 to 7 pounds of grain to maintain a 200-pound sow in proper 
 condition. 
 
 Some farmers make use of a leguminous hay for the sows when 
 the pastures become short. Alfalfa, cowpea, and soy-bean hay are all 
 good for this purpose. They save a great amount of grain. When 
 the farm is supplied with a cutter it will pay to cut the hay into 
 small parts, which should be mixed with the corn and fed as a thick 
 slop. But it will not pay to go to any extra expense to get ready to 
 cut this hay. Some feeders throw the uncut hay on the ground, 
 but this causes considerable waste, especially in rainy weather. In 
 the South, where hay is high in price, it will pay to provide a small 
 rack so that the animals can pull the hay from below without getting 
 it under their feet. 
 
 If neither pastures nor hay are available, the feeder should use 
 corn along with wheat shorts, oran, tankage, skim milk, etc. Corn 
 should never be used alone. Corn and skim milk should be fed in 
 the proportion of one part of corn to three parts of skim milk. Under 
 average conditions the dry sow should be fed about one part of 
 shorts or bran to three parts of corn, or one part of tankage to nine 
 parts of corn. It would pay some farmers to use cowpeas and soy 
 beans along with the corn in the proportion of one part of the peas 
 to about six parts of corn. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 During pregnancy two facts must be borne in mind. The first 
 is that the sow is doing double duty. Not only is she keeping up her
 
 486 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 own bodily functions, but the development of the fetal litter is a con- 
 stantly increasing drain on her system. Although feeding at this 
 time will not need to be so heavy as after the pigs are farrowed, it 
 should be liberal. The sow's condition should be good neither too 
 fat nor too lean. It is hardly too much to say that the mistakes in 
 feeding breeding animals are more frequently those that keep such 
 stock in a thin, half-starved condition, under the idea that the repro- 
 ductive organs are so peculiarly liable to become transformed into 
 masses of fat. The use of the reproductive organs in either sex 
 creates demands of an unusual nature on the animal organism, and 
 these demands must be met in the same manner as those of a differ- 
 ent character such as growth, work, etc. and that is by providing 
 liberal supplies of the proper kinds of feed. The amount of nitro- 
 genous, or protein-bearing, feeds in the ration at this time should be 
 increased. These are bran, peas, beans, oats, and barley, and, to a 
 moderate extent, wheat. The forage plants that are especially suit- 
 able to pregnant brood sows are the clovers and their relatives al- 
 falfa, pease, beans, vetches, etc. The ordinary pasture grasses are 
 also of much value. Feed should be given in such form that the 
 system of the sow will be at its best. All breeders lay special empha- 
 sis on the condition of the bowels during pregnancy, and particu- 
 larly at farrowing, the special danger to be avoided being constipa- 
 tion. To this end the greater part, if not all, of the grain ration is 
 given as slop, and toward the close of the period of gestation oil 
 meal or a small amount of flaxseed meal is introduced into the 
 ration. 
 
 Corn should not be fed in large amounts to breeding stock. If 
 possible, it should not be fed at all to any but fattening animals. In 
 the corn belt many farmers are often so situated that they have no 
 other grain feed at hand. If corn must make up the greater part of 
 the ration of the brood sow, the injurious effects may be counter- 
 acted in a measure by compelling the sows to exercise. Various 
 schemes may be necessary to bring about this result, such as having 
 the house and feeding floor or the feeding floor and watering place 
 at opposite ends of the hog lot; so that a good walk is a necessity 
 several times each day. If the lot is located on a hillside, the walk 
 is made a climb. Some men scatter grain among straw and corn 
 fodder with this idea of exercise in mind, and others resort to the 
 whip and drive the sows gently for a mile or two each day. (F. B. 
 205.) 
 
 The following ration is for brood sows during pregnancy, fed 
 entirely on grain. The addition of the bran increases the bulk and 
 laxative effect. Corn meal, 23 pounds; ground oats, 23 pounds; 
 wheat middlings, 23 pounds; wheat bran, 23 pounds; oil meal, 6 
 pounds; salt, 2 pounds; total, 100 pounds. This should be fed as 
 a slop. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 Feed for Sow After Farrowing. The mother should receive no 
 feed at all for about twenty-four hours after giving birth to the pigs. 
 She is feverish, though, and should be liberally supplied with fresh 
 water. The second day after farrowing she should be given a small
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 487 
 
 feed. It is well to start her on a light slop made up of shorts and 
 skim milk. If there is no skim milk on hand, mix about four parts 
 of com with one part of shorts, cowpeas, or soy-bean meal and give 
 a small quantity. She should be gradualy brought up to a full 
 feed; this should require about three weeks. If she is overfed at 
 first the pigs are apt to take scours and thumps. When she is on full 
 feed she will be eating daily an amount equivalent to about 4 per 
 cent of her live weight, provided she is not on pasture. If she has 
 the run of a good leguminous pasture, at least one-half of the grain 
 will be saved. If she has no pasture, she should be fed just about as 
 she was fed before farrowing, except that she should receive more 
 feed than when she was dry. When the pasture is composed mainly 
 of blue grass or Bermuda grass she should receive a grain feed equiv- 
 alent to about 3 per cent of her live weight, and the grain part 
 of the ration should be partly composed of shorts, tankage, cowpeas, 
 or soy beans. When the pasture is made up of a leguminous crop, 
 a grain ration equivalent to not more than 2 per cent of her body 
 weight will keep her in excellent flesh, and in this case corn can be 
 used for the grain portion of the feed. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Give the sow all the water she wants for the first twenty-four 
 hours after the pigs are born, but no grain. Take the chill off the 
 water in cold weather. For three or four days after the first twenty- 
 four hours, give plenty of water, but feed grain and milk sparingly. 
 Then slowly increase until, when the pigs are three weeks old, the 
 sow is having all the feed she will consume. Give the pigs exercise 
 and sunshine from birth, but do not allow them, to get damp nor to 
 be exposed to the wind. 
 
 When the sow is given a warm, rich slop, or other milk-pro- 
 ducing feeds just after her pigs are born, a strong milk flow is forced. 
 The new-born pigs get too much and have diarrhoea, w r hich often, 
 kills them. They cannot take all the milk, and the sow's udder 
 becomes inflamed and caked. When the pigs suckle, the pain be- 
 comes so intense that in desperation she jumps up, kills, and eats 
 them. Overfeeding and lack of exercise cause the thumps in young 
 pigs, but usually in Colorado, when pigs are thought to have the 
 thumps, they actually have pneumonia, due either to damp beds 
 or exposure to draughts. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 A sow should be kept quiet and fed very little, if at all, during 
 the first 24 hours after farrowing. Begin by giving a drink of water, 
 followed by a light bran mash. The feed can be increased gradually 
 up to the fifth day, after which the sow may be fed more liberally. 
 At farrowing times the pigs should be examined and the useless ones 
 discarded. (Wis. B. 184.) Until the pigs are weaned, the sow 
 should be fed twice a day a thin slop of corn meal and wheat shorts 
 or rice polish. When the pigs are two weeks old the sow is to be 
 turned out to pasture for a few hours, and soon the pigs may fol- 
 low. Some hog raisers feed the sow only soaked corn after she is 
 fully accustomed to grazing; generally, however, it is better to con- 
 tinue the slops till the pigs are weaned, about eight or ten weeks. 
 (W. S. Cir. 30.)
 
 488 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 After farrowing increase the food of the sow, giving her all 
 she will eat of a ration of mixed grains, with skim milk if available. 
 A shady pasture in summer, and a warm, dry, sunny pen in win- 
 ter mean health and thrift for the young pigs. Probably no other 
 farm animals gain as rapidly as young pigs. Weighing from two 
 and one-half to three and one-half pounds when farrowed, they will 
 nearly double their weight in a week, and, if the sow is generously 
 fed, will weigh from fourteen to eighteen pounds at a month old, and 
 will double it at two months old. When one month old, the 
 young pigs should receive food in addition to the milk of the dam. 
 (Utah B. 94.) 
 
 The sow should be fed light for a few days after farrowing. 
 If she does not eat anything for a day or two after farrowing, it is 
 so much the better. For a few days she should be fed small quan- 
 tities of thin slop made of middlings and water. Increase the sup- 
 ply gradually from day to day until she gets on full feed at the end 
 of a week or ten days. If the sow has a large litter, she will require 
 liberal feeding, but if the litter is small, it may be necessary to feed 
 more sparingly. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 Feed for Pigs Before Weaning. Here, again, the most im- 
 portant point of all, as far as economy of gains is concerned, is to 
 have a pasture for the pigs to run upon as soon as they begin to eat. 
 When a good pasture is available and the mother is fed liberally of 
 the proper feeds, the little pigs will need little in addition to what 
 they obtain from the pasture and the mother. But the pigs will 
 make use of some additional feed, especially if the litter is a large 
 one. The pigs will begin to eat when they are about 3 \veeks old if 
 they be given the opportunity. For these young animals nothing 
 is superior to skim milk mixed with shorts. Many farmers have no 
 skim milk, though, so something else must be used. In such case 
 probably the best thing to feed is a thin slop of shorts up to the time 
 that the pigs are from 4 to 6 weeks old, after which the ration should 
 be made up of equal parts of corn meal and shorts. These young 
 animals should never be fed corn alone. The feed for the pigs must 
 be fed in separate troughs, around which a fence has been built to 
 keep the sow r s away. 
 
 There is no advantage to be gained by pushing the pigs too 
 rapidly with supplementary feeds. They should not be fed much 
 fattening feeds, as corn; they should rather be given feeds which 
 tend to make bone and muscle, as skim milk, shorts', pasture, cow- 
 peas, soy-bean meal, etc., so that when the time arrives to finish them 
 for the market they will have a well-developed body upon which to 
 put the fat. They should, while young, be given just enough feed 
 to keep them in a good healthy growing condition. 
 
 Oftentimes when the litter is small and the mother is a good 
 milker the little pigs will need no feed at all in addition to the pas- 
 ture and the mother's milk. The Wisconsin station has done some 
 experimental work which seems to show that gains on young pigs 
 can be made as economically by feeding a given amount of feed to 
 the mother as by feeding directly to the pigs. To be able to keep
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 489 
 
 up an average-sized litter in this way, the mother must be fed lib- 
 erally. The mother and the pasture should be depended upon to 
 furnish the greater part of the feed for the small pig. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 About one-half pound of shorts mixed with one or two quarts 
 of skim milk, will make an excellent ration. Feed it in a small pen 
 apart from the sow. Start with a small quantity, and increase as 
 fast as the pigs will eat it. Wean the pigs at seven to eight weeks 
 old. Remove two of the strongest pigs the first day, in two or three 
 days the next two most vigorous, and so continue till all are removed. 
 Such a method will tend to dry up the milk of the sow, thus avoid- 
 ing trouble from that cause. (Utah B. 94.) 
 
 The appetite for something besides the dam's milk may begin 
 to assert itself by the time the pigs reach three weeks of age. This 
 time will vary, of course, some pigs being more precocious than 
 others. They will be noticed nibbling at grass, rooting a little, and 
 even investigating the sow's feed. A pen should be arranged adjoin- 
 ing that of the dam and separated from it by a partition, with suf- 
 ficient room at the bottom to allow the pigs to run under. In this 
 inclosure put a low, shallow trough and place in it a little skim milk 
 or a thin gruel similar to that recommended for the sow the first 
 day after farrowing. This gruel may be made with any concentrate 
 that is free from woody matter. If ground barley or oats is fed the 
 meal should be first sifted to remove the hulls. There is a great va- 
 riety of feeding stuffs that can be used. The main point to be ob- 
 served is that the pig's stomach is very easily deranged at this age 
 and feeds must be given that will digest readily. The trough in 
 which the pigs are fed should be kept clean. No stale feed should be 
 allowed to remain in it from one feed to the next. 
 
 As the pigs learn to eat the feed may be increased. Skim milk 
 should be used liberally, using rather large quantities at first from 
 6 to 12 pounds of milk to each .pound of gram. During this period 
 comparatively little corn should be fed, as a rule. More growth can 
 be obtained with a narrow ration, and the corn should be withheld 
 until the fattening period comes. The pigs should be kept growing 
 constantly, and the best results will come with feeding a little under 
 their capacity rather than all they can consume. To counteract the 
 tendency to become too fat they should have plenty of exercise. 
 
 Scours and thumps often cause very serious losses among young 
 pigs. The former is caused usually by overfeeding, by feeding 
 badly spoiled feed, by an abrupt change of feed, or by a change in 
 the feed of the dam that affects her milk. Thumps is generally 
 caused by overfeeding and lack of exercise. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Make a creep for the pigs, and in a low trough supply a thin 
 slop made of 2 parts corn, 3 parts shorts stirred in milk. Forcing a 
 pig to eat from a high trough may produce a weak and sway back. 
 (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 The following ration is especially useful for feeding small pigs 
 during a short period just before and after the weaning time. When 
 supplemented with warm skim milk, young pigs take to it very 
 readily. If it is desired to wean pip 5 early, in order to breed for fall
 
 490 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 litters, the ration should be carefully prepared to suit their needs. 
 It is very important to avoid stunting little pigs, for growth once 
 checked proves permanent and means loss of profit. Begin feeding 
 small quantities of this ration to pigs about four weeks old, and con- 
 tinue for 2 weeks: Ground oats (hull free), 35 pounds; wheat mid- 
 dlings, 35 pounds; corn meal, 20 pounds; oil meal, 8 pounds; salt, 
 2 pounds. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 Feed for Pigs After Weaning. Pigs just weaned should be fed 
 from 3 to 5 times a day. They took meals from their mother every 
 two hours, and too sudden a change is detrimental. After they 
 start growing vigorously, cut down to 2 meals a day. When they 
 weigh 75 pounds each, if on good pasture, feed once a day and that 
 at night. 
 
 A variety of grains will give larger and cheaper gains than 
 will any single feeds. Peas, barley, wheat, rye, milo maize and 
 corn are the grains used in Colorado. Soak from 24 to 48 hours, 
 feeding at least 2 grains. Do not sour the feed, and keep all uten- 
 sils sweet and clean. Half the weight of a 200 pound pig should bo 
 made from pasture. Alfalfa makes the best pasture, followed by 
 rape, clover and a mixture of wheat, oats and barley, sown thick. 
 (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 The following ration is suited to swine from weaning time 
 until weighing 250 to 300 pounds. If for market, supply all the ear 
 corn they will eat in addition. Skim milk will be valuable also. 
 The oil meal in the slop keeps the other feeds from settling in the 
 barrel. It also regulates the digestive organs. Corn meal, 30 
 pounds; ground oats, 30 pounds; wheat middlings, 30 pounds; oil 
 meal, 8 pounds; salt, 2 pounds. Feed as a slop. (Wis B. 184.) 
 
 After weaning the pigs, continue the skim-milk and shorts ra- 
 tion, gradually adding heavier grains and giving a larger proportion 
 of skim milk as they grow and develop. In our experience, skim 
 milk is almost an indispensable food for young pigs. When fed on 
 grain alone, whether wheat, barley or corn, especially if confined in 
 a pen, they make very slow growth, and make very poor use of the 
 food consumed. This probably would not apply to hogs after they 
 attain a live weight of forty to sixty pounds. Young pigs always 
 do better, however, on a variety of foods, and for this reason, as well 
 as for the advantage of the exercise and healthful surroundings, a 
 shady pasture is an excellent place to raise them. In addition to 
 the pasturage, however, young pigs, especially, need some grain 
 feed. (Utah B. 94.) 
 
 The pigs should be fed a slop of equal parts corn meal and 
 shorts twice a day till they are twelve or fourteen weeks old, so as to 
 give them a vigorous start, and they should receive all the soaked 
 corn they will eat up till they are turned into the early cowpea pas- 
 ture in July. This may be done when about half the pods begin to 
 turn (from July 15 to August 1). Prior to this time the pigs^are 
 pastured on rape and clover. About August 20 turn the pigs into 
 the corn, and after September 20 give them full range of the corn,
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 491 
 
 poavine, and peanut pastures. If soy beans are planted, turn on 
 them also. (U. S. Cir. 30.) 
 
 After weaning hogs should be supplied with a good pasture, a 
 leguminous pasture preferred. Alfalfa affords one of the best pas- 
 tures obtainable for young pigs. With a good pasture and a half 
 ration of grain they will make good and profitable gains up to the 
 time they are ready to finish for the market. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Overfeeding and lack of exercise cause the thumps in young 
 pigs, but usually in Colorado, when pigs are thought to have the 
 thumps, they actually have pneumonia, due either to damp beds or 
 exposure to draughts. The sow pig intended for a breeder should 
 be pushed for the first year and given feeds that will make rapid 
 growth, but that will not fatten. Such feeds as milk, alfalfa pas- 
 ture, or hay, and moderate quantities of grain, such as wheat, peas, 
 barley, milo maize, and shorts. Ample exercise every day is neces- 
 sary for health and to develop muscles and lungs. If the sow has 
 made a good growth, she may be bred to drop her first litter when 
 she becomes twelve months of age. The gestation period for the sow 
 is 112 days. (Colo. Cir. 2.) 
 
 Fattening for Market. The cost per pound of growing and fat- 
 tening a hog for market increases with the size and age of the ani- 
 mal. It costs much less to raise two hogs weighing 300 pounds each 
 than to grow one weighing 600 pounds, and even 500 pounds is too 
 heavy to be profitable under ordinary circumstances. A hog must 
 consume a certain amount of food to maintain his present weight, 
 and for that food the owner receives no returns. Whatever the 
 hog can be induced to eat in excess of the amount required for main- 
 tenance goes to the production of growth, and it is from this excess 
 that all gains and profits are made. 
 
 These facts make it to the interest of the feeder to induce his 
 hogs to eat all they can digest and to secure gains as rapidly as pos- 
 sible. A pig which is made to weigh 200 pounds at six months or 
 300 pounds at a year old is always profitable, while if it takes two 
 years to make 300 pounds the last 100 pounds will usually be made 
 at a loss. As the rate of growth, both in proportion to the size of the 
 animal and to the amount of food given, decreases as the hog be- 
 comes larger, there must come a time when a pound of increase will 
 cost more than it will bring on the market, and it is a nice point 
 with the feeder to decide when that time will come and to market 
 his hogs before it is reached. Ordinarily, this time will come when 
 the hog weighs from 250 to 300 pounds, but may be reached either 
 above or below those weights. A hog 1 year old and weighing 300 
 pounds in November may still make a profitable gain if he has the 
 gleaning of a recently harvested cornfield with an abundance of 
 cowpeas, the leavings of a sweet potato field, or any similar food 
 which would otherwise be wasted, but if none of these feeds are avail- 
 able, and all the food consumed must be purchased, it will be more 
 profitable to sell at once, even if the weight is not more than 200 
 pounds,
 
 492 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 As showing the increased cost per pound of gain with the in- 
 crease in weight, Professor Henry, of the Wisconsin Station, has com- 
 piled the results of more than 500 tests made at many different ex- 
 periment stations. More than 2,200 hogs were used in these tests, 
 and the work has been so extensive and carried on through so many 
 years that the results may be regarded as very conclusive evidence. 
 The figures are as follows : 
 
 Weight of pigs. 
 
 Average feed per 
 day. 
 
 Feed eaten daily 
 per 100 pounds 
 of live weight. 
 
 Average gain per 
 day. 
 
 Feed eaten for 
 each 100 pounds 
 of i-'ain. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 15-50 
 
 0.223 
 
 5.95 
 
 0.76 
 
 293 
 
 50-100 
 
 3.35 
 
 4.32 
 
 .83 
 
 400 
 
 100-150 
 
 4.79 
 
 3.75 
 
 1.10 
 
 437 
 
 15O-200 
 
 5.91 
 
 3.43 
 
 1.24 
 
 482 
 
 2OO-250 
 
 6.57 
 
 2.91 
 
 1.33 
 
 498 
 
 250-300 
 
 7.40 
 
 2.74 
 
 1.46 
 
 511 
 
 300-350 
 
 7.50 
 
 2.35 
 
 1.40 
 
 535 
 
 From these figures it is seen very plainly that the greatest as 
 well as the most profitable gains are made on the lighter hogs, the 
 last column showing a constant and almost regular increase in the 
 amount of feed consumed for each 100 pounds of gain. Up to the 
 time when the pigs weighed from 200 to 250 pounds each it required 
 an average of 422 pounds of feed for each 100 pounds of gain, 
 while for those exceeding 250 pounds in weight 523 pounds, or 
 nearly 24 per cent more food was required to produce an equal gain. 
 Pigs weighing less than 100 pounds each made the greatest gains 
 for the food consumed, needing only 347 pounds of feed for each 
 100 pounds of gain, and, if feed were the only consideration, the 
 100-pound pig would be the most profitable; but there are other ex- 
 penses which must be charged against him. The cost and care of 
 the boar and sow are the same whether the pigs are butchered at 
 100 or 500 pounds. Losses are much more frequent among young 
 pigs than among those which weigh more than 100 pounds each, 
 and, while there is a limited demand for "pig pork" at good prices, 
 such pork can not be sold in unlimited quantities, as packers want 
 only hogs which are fairly well matured. These expenses, risks, 
 and market conditions all combine to make a somewhat heavier ani- 
 mal more profitable, even at some additional expense for feed. Al- 
 though the figures given above represent the actual amounts of food 
 consumed by pigs of different weights, they do not represent exactly 
 the cost of the feed. The food of the younger pigs must consist 
 largely of the more costly feeds, shorts, oats, pease, etc., while the 
 older animals can be kept in good condition on coarser and cheaper 
 foods, such as sweet potatoes, sorghum, or artichokes. When steers 
 are being fattened on whole corn, hogs running in the same feed 
 lot will secure a large proportion of their feed without expense from 
 the droppings of the cattle. This will not be the case, however, 
 when the steers are fattened on other feeds, corn meal giving very 
 little feed for the hogs, and droppings from the steers fed on cotton-
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 493 
 
 seed meal, the common fattening feed in the South, often prove 
 positively injurious. (F. B. 100.) 
 
 The previous treatment and the condition of the hogs when 
 the fattening process begins, have as much influence on the subse- 
 quent gains as does the kind of feed used. (Ind. B. 137.) The fat 
 hog should be sent to market carrying a deep, uniform covering of 
 flesh all over the body. The flesh should be comparatively firm. 
 Corn makes the best grain for the major part of the ration during 
 the finishing period. There is some danger, however, of producing 
 a carcass with too much flabbiness if corn is too exclusively used. 
 (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 From 60 to 75 days before the pig is to be marketed he should 
 be confined in limited quarters and fed heavily on grain until he be- 
 comes well finished and fattened. Up to this time he should be 
 kept growing every day, but fed as little grain and as much forage as 
 can be done and maintain a thrifty growth, and he should be given 
 ample exercise. Fattening hogs will make the greatest gains when 
 they have just enough exercise to keep their appetites sharp. A fat- 
 tening hog should be limited to half an acre, and 25 fattening hogs 
 kept on this area will do better than a greater number. The hogs 
 should be sorted to lots of even size and age, and no matter how 
 many are being fattened, not over 25 should be allowed to run to- 
 gether. Brood sows should not be kept with fattening hogs. 
 
 The hogs should be fed at regular hours, either two or three 
 times a day, and at each feed should be given just a trifle less than 
 they will eat up clean. The profits come from inducing the hog to 
 consume a large quantity of grain and maintain a sharp appetite. 
 The feeder will secure the best results by watching the hogs each 
 time until they finish eating. He will then know whether the hogs 
 are slow about cleaning up the feed, showing over feeding, or 
 whether they clean up the feed quickly and need more. The hogs 
 should have all the clean, pure water they will drink at least three 
 times a day. Colorado feeds are rich in protein, and a hog eating 
 them needs much more water than when eating corn. The hog 
 should, before being marketed, be well fattened, smooth and well 
 rounded with a good outer covering of fat, and be firm and solid to 
 the touch. If the feeder will go into a pen of thin hogs and feel 
 them along the loin and back, and then into a pen of well fattened 
 hogs, he can quickly learn the "feel" that indicates a good finish. 
 The hogs should be sorted to an even size and weight before being 
 shipped. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Finishing. The feeding period for finishing should not last 
 over 6 weeks. During this time the hog should eat a ration in 
 weight equal to 4% per cent of his own weight at the beginning 
 of the finishing perioa. This should consist mostly of corn, supple- 
 mented with the proteid feeds, middlings, oilmeal, tankage and 
 bloodmeal, depending on prices. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 Among the hogs produced by the supplemented rations, the 
 most profitable OUCH to the packer were tho^o which had received con- 
 centrated rations. Bulk in the ration is prejudicial to the packer's
 
 494 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 interest. The hog which shrinks the least in killing is the corn- 
 fed hog. Bought at the same price and the products sold at the 
 same prices, the hog which has been fed on whole corn without sup- 
 plements, is the most profitable to the packer. This is the least 
 profitable hog to the farmer. The higher the proportion of corn 
 that is in the ration and the less the feed the hog has been in the 
 habit of eating, the cheaper is the cost per pound, net dressed weight, 
 to the packer. The hog with which the farmer has made the cheap- 
 est pork has probably been raised on grass or has received milk or 
 nitrogenous grain supplements along with its corn. (Mo. B. 65.) 
 
 It is a well known fact that beans and peas make a softer flesh 
 and fat than corn. Corn pork is the standard in this country, and 
 the flesh and fat produced by corn in this experiment was dry and 
 firm. Soja beans and chufas made fat of about the same firmness, 
 but not quite equal to corn. Peanuts made a soft and oily fat. As 
 to the flavor when cooked, no difference between the meats could be 
 detected. The usual practice, when pigs are fattened on other foods 
 than corn and grain, is to feed corn to them for a few weeks to 
 harden the flesh and fat before marketing. (Ark. B. 54.) 
 
 Short or Long Period. For the short growing period the 
 March and April pigs are grown rapidly and marketed in 6 to 10 
 months, while the long period pigs are grown through the summer 
 and winter, and marketed the following spring and fall. Ordinarily 
 the short feeding period is the more profitable. There is a consider- 
 able saving in cost of feed by the latter method. 
 
 The cost of producing a pound of gain increases as the pig ad- 
 vances in age. The risk in growing the pig for a longer period is 
 also greater. In special cases it may pay to keep the hogs over 
 the second summer, feeding clover with a small grain ration, pro- 
 vided an extra price can be obtained for them in the fall. (Mo. 
 Cir. 28.) 
 
 Usually it is better to have hogs ready for miarket as early as 
 November or December, and it rarely pays to feed through the win- 
 ter for making pork. Summer feeding is cheap while winter feed- 
 ing is expensive. Pigs farrowed in the spring should weigh from 
 200 to 250 pounds by fall, and if the market is not unusually de- 
 pressed it is better to let them go then rather than to feed through 
 the cold weather and risk still lower prices in the spring. If good 
 grazing is assured through the entire winter and grain is not too 
 expensive, winter feeding is sometimes profitable on account of the 
 higher prices which usually prevail in the spring, but ordinarily 
 it is better to winter only the breeding animals and the fall pigs. 
 (F. B. 100.) 
 
 In rare instances it may pay to keep a pig over winter as a 
 store hog, but generally he loses the flesh he accumulated while suck- 
 ling his dam, and this can not be replaced except at increased ex- 
 pense. Corn will now come into the ration, and should be supple- 
 mented by all the variety of feed at the feeder's command, to keep 
 the appetite keen and the digestive system in the best condition. This 
 variety should consist of mill feeds, dairy by-products, and succu-
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 495 
 
 lent feeds, and, according to some authorities, pasture. If skim 
 milk, whey, and buttermilk are at command they can be combined 
 to very good advantage with the ration, commencing with a propor- 
 tion of about 2 pounds of milk to 1 of grain at weaning time, and 
 reducing the quantity of milk until the pigs are finished on grain 
 alone. A pig gives best returns from dairy by-products while young. 
 The fattening pigs should gain from 1 pound to 1^ pounds daily, 
 and should weigh between 250 and 300 pounds at 9 or 10 months of 
 age. Gains made after this weight are nearjy twice as expensive 
 as those made when weighing from 50 to 100 pounds, and a well- 
 bred pig having good quality and conformation finished at a weight 
 of about 250 pounds will very nearly fill the market requirements 
 fed. (Mich. B. 243.) 
 
 In winter feeding it will be advisable to supply the feed while 
 warm, but in the use of all warm feeds every pailful used should be 
 stirred until at an even temperature and then tested with the finger. 
 It is a cruel neglect to supply hot food to a hungry pig. Sore 
 mouths, dislike of food, and apparent loss of appetite are sometimes 
 traceable to no other cause. Such mistakes will sometimes occur un- 
 less the feeder adopts the plan of stirring and testing every pailful 
 fed. (Mich B. 243.) 
 
 Water. It is dangerous to let hogs have access to irrigation 
 ditches or streams, as these are great carriers of disease. A conven- 
 ient way to water hogs is to mount a barrel on a small sled and at- 
 tach a hog waterer. As many barrels and sleds can be used as are 
 needed to maintain a full supply of water, and by this method the 
 water can be placed in the pasture or feed lot wnere the hogs can 
 reach it without travel. A hog should drink small quantities of 
 water often, and not overload the digestive tract with large quanti- 
 ties, as he will when he has to travel a considerable distance for it. 
 (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 Stock Foods and Mineral Mixtures. In themselves, there is 
 no special objections to stock foods. In fact, there are brands made 
 that are rich in nutriment, and have a high value as a food. The 
 principal criticism that can be made is the excessive price generally 
 charged for them, which is far beyond their value. No doubt, in 
 many cases oil meal will give fully as satisfactory results as the stock 
 food. (Ind. B. 93.) 
 
 The result of comparison indicates that so far as the true feed- 
 ing value of any of the stock foods examined is concerned, the 
 bran is rather the better food. Now as to cost, it seems that the 
 International retails at 12 cents per pound, the Clover brand at 11 
 cents and the others at 10 cents. Thus these foods cost the farmer 
 respectively $240.00, $220.00 and $200.00 per ton. In this respect 
 the bran has even at its present inflated price, $20.00 per ton, from 
 ten to twelve times the advantage. 
 
 By comparing the analyses given in the foregoing table with 
 those published by the Iowa Station. Bulletin 87, another grave 
 fault appears in these so-called foods. They are not of uniform com- 
 position. That is, they are not scientifically compounded so that a
 
 496 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 feeder who buys different lots each time gets a food of a different 
 composition. It matters not what view point is claimed by the man- 
 ufacturer, whether food, medicine or condiment, this is a grave and 
 serious objection. 
 
 It has been suggested that the formula for a home-made stock 
 food be: Gentian, two pounds, cost $0.50; ginger, one pound, cost 
 $0.40; sodium bicarbonate, one pound, cost $0.10; fenugreek, one- 
 half pound, cost $0.10. Purchase these materials at a drugstore 
 and have them mixed into fine powders. Then, mix with five pounds 
 of common salt and twenty-five pounds of shorts. This compound 
 will cost about 4% cents per pound. For the pig, mix one pound 
 with every 48 pounds of grain. (S. D. B. 105.) 
 
 The general health of hogs depends most largely upon ju- 
 dicious feeding and good sanitation. "Stock-foods" are never profit- 
 able to buy. The cost is out of all proportion to their value. If hogs 
 need medicine or a condition powder, it can be made cheaper than 
 stock food can be bought. A good condition powder is the Govern- 
 ment Hog Remedy, made as follows: Wood charcoal, 1 pound; 
 sulphur, 1 pound; common salt, 2 pounds; baking soda, 2 pounds; 
 sodium hyposulphite, 2 pounds; sodium sulphate, 1 pound; anti- 
 mony sulphide, 1 pound. Dose Large tablespoonful once a day 
 for each 200 pounds live weight. Mix well with the feed, and feed 
 in the slop. Good for dispelling worms, and for the digestion. 
 
 Another good and cheap condition powder for general use is 
 the following: Ashes, 10 pounds; salt, 1 pound; sulphur, 8 ounces; 
 lime, 2 pounds; copperas, 1 ounce; charcoal, 3 pounds. Pulverize 
 and mix thoroughly. Keep in a box where the hogs can have con- 
 stant access to it, or give small amounts along with the feed. Hogs 
 crave ashes and charcoal. Prof. Henry found it took 629 pounds 
 of corn meal to make 100 pounds gain when ashes were not fed, as 
 compared with 491 pounds when ashes were fed. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 Soft coal in unlimited quantity seemed not to be harmful to 
 pigs in confined pens. Soft coal, wood charcoal and a tonic mixture 
 ranked according to value as correctives in the following order: (1) 
 tonic mixture; (2) wood charcoal; (3) soft coal. The lot of pigs 
 having no corrective made smaller gains than any of the other lots, 
 but produced pork more cheaply than the lot on soft coal. (Md. 
 B. 150.) 
 
 Salt. In the use of salt with pigs to which salt has not been 
 supplied regularly care must be taken to offer it in small quantities 
 at first. When supplied suddenly or in excessive quantities very 
 serious, or even disastrous consequences may follow. Always keep- 
 ing this caution in mind, it will be found advantageous to use some 
 salt with every mess of beans cooked, about the same amount as 
 would be used for human food would probably be sufficient. Salt is 
 an appetizer and renders the food more palatable. It also possesses 
 laxative properties. (Mich. B. 243.) The following mixture should 
 be kept constantly in supply in a dry place and accessible at all 
 times to hogs and pigs. This mixture aids digestion and tends to 
 keep the hogs in perfect health :
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 497 
 
 Charcoal ............................ bushels . . 
 
 Common salt ........................ pounds . . 4 
 
 Hardwood ashes ...................... pounds. . 10 
 
 Slaked lime ......................... pounds. . 4 
 
 (U. S. Cir. 30.) 
 
 QUARTERS AND CARE. 
 
 Cost of Housing Pigs. What is the necessary cost of housing 
 a litter? Where lumber is $25 to $35 a thousand, good single- 
 walled houses need not cost over $10 to $20 a pen, and double-walled 
 $20 to $30 a pen. It is doubtful economy, under most conditions, 
 to make them cost over $30 a pen, and very good sheds are some- 
 times made for less then $10 a pen. The owner of a new hog house 
 once showed it to the writer with considerable pride. It contained 
 18 pens besides the feed bins, and cost, according to the contractor, 
 approximately $4,000, or $222 a pen. The interest on this invest- 
 ment at 5 per cent amounts to $11.10 for every sow pen, and the 
 annual cost of each pen, including interest, depreciation, repairs, 
 and insurance, would be about $27, which, as has been shown, is 
 amply sufficient to pay for a good pen outright; or, at average 
 Omaha prices ($5.50 per hundredweight), it would take two 250- 
 pound hogs every year to pay for the maintenance of a single sow 
 pen. It is hard to see how such a building can ever pay for itself. 
 By careful management it is not difficult to make each pen ac- 
 commodate three litters a year. Taking $25 as the cost per pen 
 (which is sufficient to make a good double-walled building), we 
 have the following: 
 
 Interest on investment ($25), at 5 per cent ..... $1.25 
 
 Insurance, at 50 cents per $1,000 .............. 0125 
 
 Repairs, i l /2 per cent ........................ 375 
 
 Depreciation, 5 per cent .................... 1.25 
 
 Total ................................ $2.8875 
 
 Using each pen for three litters a year, the cost of housing one 
 litter would be slightly less than $1. This is about what one pig has 
 cost when farrowed. Or, with the high prices that have prevailed 
 for several years, one pig at weaning time would pay for the use of 
 one good pen a whole year, which would accommodate three litters, 
 averaging seven pigs or more each. Of course, more shed room is re- 
 quired for the older hogs, but this may be of much cheaper construc- 
 tion. If only one litter a year is raised, no other shed would be 
 needed. Many farmers have provided usable structures for less than 
 half the above figures. (F. B. 438.) 
 
 Housing in Mild Climates. In the South and in much of the 
 country west of the main chain of the Rocky Mountains the win- 
 ters are sufficiently mild to obviate the necessity of constructing 
 buildings of much warmth. Not only are the winters mild, but they 
 are comparatively short, and green feed is available much longer 
 than in other parts of the country. In such localities a shed will 
 often suffice, but it should be well constructed, in order to provide 
 protection from storms and damp, chilly weather. The location
 
 498 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 should be high and well drained, affording clean, dry sleeping 
 places; the shed should open to the south. The expense of such a 
 'building is well warranted in view of the added comfort to the stock 
 and increased number of pigs raised. Under all circumstances, re- 
 gardless of climate, whether a man is breeding pure-bred stock or 
 grades, hogs shpuld have sleeping places that are dry and warm and 
 feeding places that are clean. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 Portable Hog Houses. Swine were originally native of warm, 
 damp, climates, but when domesticated and given proper protection 
 are found profitable in all agricultural districts. And yet no other 
 farm animal is subjected to such uncomfortable quarters; he fre- 
 quently sleeps in filth and eats from sour and slimy troughs. For- 
 tunately farmers are now appreciating better methods for shelter and 
 herd management. With the practice of these improved methods we 
 find the portable house rapidly coming into favor. 
 
 Some advantages of the portable house are as follows. It is 
 easily and economically constructed; it can be easily moved and lo- 
 cated wherever desired ; it is useful both to the general farmer and 
 to the breeder of pure-bred stock; and of all systems for housing 
 swine, it is the most natural and sanitary. Only the simplest kind 
 of workmanship is necessary to build the portable house and much 
 odd lumber can be worked into it. The method of construction can 
 be easily understood from explanations and directions given with 
 the description of each house. The portable house is peculiarly ad- 
 vantageous since it can be readily moved. The renter who finds it 
 impossible to provide expensive quarters for his hogs can well afford 
 to construct portable houses since they can be retained as personal 
 property. 
 
 Many farmers construct hog houses without considering the 
 importance of sanitation, ventilation, and drainage. A hog house of 
 any kind should be located on a high, dry site, and, if possible, on 
 soil containing sufficient sand to drain well. A house located on an 
 elevation may be somewhat colder in winter, but it is much cooler 
 and more comfortable in summer. Hogs suffer greatly with the 
 extreme heat of summer and it is equally as important to keep them 
 cool in summer as it is to keep them warm in winter. 
 
 The portable houses are useful on any sized farm, as the num- 
 ber can be regulated to the size of the herd. With separate pad- 
 docks to accommodate swine of different ages and sexes a portable 
 house is practically a necessity. Swine will never pile up in a damp, 
 poorly-ventilated quarter and come out steaming in the cold morning, 
 air unless compelled to do so. Where a large number of animals 
 are continually housed in one hog house and fed in or around the 
 house the surroundings are sure to become more or less filthy and 
 unsanitary. If feeding is done on the inside it keeps a portion of 
 the floor wet, and gives the entire building an offensive, disagree- 
 able appearance. On the other hand, by using the portable house, 
 moving it occasionally onto a fresh piece of ground, and feeding 
 the hogs at a different place one avoids these unsanitary conditions. 
 These portable houses are built to accommodate from four to six
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 499 
 
 mature animals or ten to twenty shoats. This method keeps them 
 much cleaner and more thrifty than when allowed to congregate in 
 larger numbers. Individuals of a herd showing evidences of a con- 
 tagious disease can be readily isolated. 
 
 By locating the portable houses adjacent to the main farm 
 barn yards, it gives the animals freedom for exercise and exclusive 
 shelter from the other farm stock. Six to eight of the 8 by 8 A- 
 shaped houses will easily accommodate a car load of shoats. A feed- 
 ing floor can be conveniently arranged in some protected quarter so 
 that the work in caring for the herd is reduced to a minimum. It 
 will be found that by locating the houses in a high and dry place, 
 that they will keep in good condition if thoroughly bedded once a 
 week. But in damp and muddy seasons it is better to 'bed them 
 oftener. The beginner in planning accommodations for swine 
 should thoroughly compare the merits and the economy of this sys- 
 tem with the conditions and expense connected in maintaining a 
 large hog house. (Wis. B. 153.) 
 
 For providing the pigs with shelter when they are out in the 
 lots, the portable cot is a desirable thing to have. They also come 
 very handy during the winter months, for they can be used to pro- 
 vide shelter for something around the barns. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 The portable house is coming into very general favor, espe- 
 cially in disease-infected districts. It is of various forms, and should 
 be large enough for five or six grown hogs, with enough height to 
 allow a man to stand erect ; 6 by 6, 6 by 8, or 8 by 8 feet are good 
 sizes. Such houses should be strongly constructed of good lumber, 
 with perfectly tight siding and roof. They may be made with or 
 without floors. If lined inside with the same materials as outside, 
 such a house will be warm enough for a sow and pigs in zero 
 weather; and on extremely cold nights a lantern hung in the house 
 will provide warmth enough. 
 
 The plan for a portable house used by two successful breeders 
 A. J. Lovejoy, of Illinois, and L. N. Bonham, of Ohio are de- 
 scribed as follows: The Lovejoy pens or portable houses are each 
 situated in the middle of an acre lot and on either side of a drive- 
 way, the divisions being made by the use of wire fencing. The 
 houses are 8 feet square. Four 16-inch boards make the floor, and 
 the roof and sides are made of matched flooring lined with building 
 paper, and that covered on the inside with common lumber. The 
 houses are set to front south. There is a door in both north and 
 south ends, and a window in the south end, the latter being hinged 
 at the top with a rope and pulley attached, so that it can be swung 
 up out of the way when it is open. In cold weather and early spring 
 the north door is closed, and, if necessary, the south openings are 
 also closed, fresh air being secured through the ventilator in the 
 roof by carrying the ridge a trifle higher than the sides that com- 
 prise the roof. 
 
 In hot weather the houses are converted into summer resorts 
 by leaving both doors and window open. Each house is nicely 
 painted with two coats and trimmed in white, and costs, complete,
 
 500 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 about $10. They are set up on blocks in the summer to keep the 
 floors dry, and in the winter time they are dropped to the ground 
 and banked to keep the wind out from under the floor. 
 
 The primary object of the Bonham pig house is to secure shel- 
 ter, warmth, sunshine and pure air at reasonable cost, and the sec- 
 ondary object is to have it as handy for feeding and handling the 
 sows and pigs as possible. For some sows the main roof may be 
 shortened 18 inches. This will give a pitch to the front, and a sash 
 6 by 1% feet in front to let in the sunlight and keep out the rain 
 and cold may be provided. This adds a little to the cost, but makes 
 an ideal shelter for spring litters, when sunshine is never in excess 
 and of inestimable value. In very cold weather we add a swinging 
 door, but a gunny sack hung at the top of the door will do. If the 
 weather is below zero and windy, a lighted lantern hung to the roof 
 inside until the pigs are dry and have had their first meal of the 
 sow's milk will keep them comfortable in the coldest weather. The 
 warmth of the sow is sufficient in other weather to keep the pigs 
 comfortable in such a pen. This house is 5 by 6 feet. Four scant- 
 lings 2 by 2 inches by 12 feet and two scantlings 2 by 4 inches by 
 12 feet will make the frame and roof supports. The bottom rail is 
 2 by 4 inches, the others 2 by 2 inches. The three pieces for the roof 
 are cut 6 feet by 6 inches to give a 3-inch projection of the roof be- 
 yond the sides. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 There are two systems now commonly used for housing swine, 
 the central house system and the cot system, where small separate 
 houses are used. Both have their advantages and many fanners will 
 do well to use both to a certain extent. The important factor in 
 housing swine is to keep them dry and free from drafts. Damp 
 beds and sleeping pens cause trouble. Cement floors are preferable 
 for a hog house, but sleeping pens should be overlaid with board 
 floors. As a rule hogs should always be fed outside on a feeding 
 floor. Inside feeding is unsanitary and wasteful of space, even 
 though it may be convenient. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 One shed roof hog house is provided with a door in the rear the 
 same size as the lower front door and placed diagonally opposite so 
 that by opening all the doors, it makes a cool house in summer. On 
 the other hand, by closing both lower doors and opening the upper 
 front door, for ventilation, it makes a warm house for cold winter 
 weather. The upper front door is arranged with a wooden ratchet on 
 the back side, which holds it in any desired position. By having the 
 hinges on the top, the storm and hot sun cannot enter and yet by ad- 
 justing the opening, air can circulate freely without causing a draft 
 on the animals. This door at the top is an important factor. It is a 
 serious mistake to build these houses with but one opening, as is 
 sometimes done. There is then no ventilation whatever, and the 
 house in warm weather becomes a suffocating quarter. To build 
 the shed roof house, construct the frame 8 feet long by 6 feet 4 
 inches wide on 7 joists 2 inches by 4 inches 6 feet long, and two 
 pieces 2 inches by 4 inches nailed across the ends of the joist. This 
 will make the foundation for the floor 6 feet 4 inches wide and
 
 CHESHIRE HOG. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 POLAND CHINA Hoc. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 503 
 
 8 feet long. Beneath the frame are nailed 3 pieces 2 inches by 4 
 inches to serve as runners for moving the building. (Wis. B. 153.) 
 
 Reference has already been made to the desirability of hog 
 cots to use in connection with the piggery. When climatic condi- 
 tions are not too rigorous, cots only are employed for handling the 
 entire herd. In general, the climatic conditions in Michigan are too 
 extreme to permit the use of cots for all classes of hogs for all pur- 
 poses during the entire year. They are especially desirable, how- 
 ever, for dry brood sows and young males and females being reared 
 for breeding purposes ; it is in this way we are using them. They are 
 desirable because an abundance of fresh air, sunshine and exercise 
 are provided. During the summer season cotting and yarding nearly 
 all classes of pigs cannot be excelled. 
 
 The form of cot used here is desirable in that it is warm in 
 winter but objectionable in that it provides little protection against 
 the extreme heat of summer. It is also considered a good form of 
 cot for the brood sow to farrow in in moderate weather as she cannot 
 lie down close enough to the sloping roof to crush her pigs as against 
 a wall. A general mistake is made in fastening this form of cot 
 permanently to the skids, or runners, on which it is built. These 
 are the first to decay and along with them the lower ends of the 
 boards, thus making repairs impossible even though the balance of 
 the structure remains sound. A separate pair of skids should be 
 constructed for this or any other form, of cot so that they can be re- 
 placed. Its own weight will hold the cot in place on the skids while 
 being moved. (Mich. B. 223.) 
 
 Farrowing Pens. For farrowing there should be a separate 
 house and yard for each sow. A house 6 feet by 8 feet made of 
 boards, covered and floored, will answer; roof 7 feet high at front 
 end and 4 feet at rear. The floor foundation may be made of 2- 
 inch pine or oak, floored with 1-inch boards. Two by four studding 
 will answer for sides. The roof may be made of boards battened. 
 The front should have a board 1 foot wide for the roof to rest upon ; 
 then a door 2 feet wide should be hung to this top board. This door 
 should extend across the front end and be propped open except in 
 very stormy weather. In sheltered places the door is generally 
 omitted and the door space left open. Two 2 by 6 inch runners 
 should be placed under the pen, upon which to draw it when change 
 of location is desired. A yard, using wire or board, 16 feet by 33 
 feet, will answer for exercise. (Utah S. Cir. ,30.) 
 
 The farrowing pen should be provided with fenders around at 
 least three sides about 6 or 8 inches from the floor and 6 or 8 inches 
 from the wall. These should be strong enough to support the weight 
 of the sow should she lie on them. They will, to a great extent, pro. 
 tect the pigs from being lain upon during the first few days of their 
 lives. This will go far to prevent a very fruitful cause of loss among 
 young pigs. The little fellows will soon learn to creep under these 
 fenders when the sow lies down. 
 
 Many breeders now use a specially arranged farrowing pen for 
 the object being to allow the sow room enough to farrow
 
 504 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 with reasonable comfort, but not enough to turn around. The safety 
 of the pigs under such circumstances is said to be much greater 
 than when the sow is given all the space she cares to take. Provision 
 is made for the safety of the pigs by raising the walls of the pen 
 6 or 8 inches from the floor. Such a pen may be readily arranged 
 by placing the sow at one end of her pen and nailing boards across 
 so that she can not turn, leaving space for the pigs to slip under 
 the barrier. A number of patented farrowing pens are on the 
 market. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 The farrowing quarters should be a pen with a hard smooth 
 clay floor, covered with a bushel or two of fine chaff. The next best 
 is a pine floor. Cement absorbs too much heat, and will chill the 
 young pigs. The projecting rail around the pen 6 inches from the 
 wall and 6 inches from the floor should prevent the mother from 
 smothering the pigs. (Mo. Cir. 28.) 
 
 When hogs are not supplied with plenty of comfortable bed- 
 ding in cold weather, they pile on top of each other to keep warm. 
 In this way the under ones become heated, and when they get out 
 into the cold air are easily attacked by pneumonia and rheumatism. 
 If the attack is not sufficient to kill them, it makes them unthrifty. 
 It is best to allow only a limited number of hogs to sleep together, 
 and they should have such shelter and bedding that they can keep 
 warm without becoming heated. Bathing in cold water in irrigat- 
 ing ditches is likely to result in rheumatism. Hogs are more dis- 
 turbed by wind than any other farm animals. Their shelter should 
 thoroughly protect them from wind and from draughts. (Colo. B. 
 146.) 
 
 Many farmers in this state use a straw covered shed in which 
 to shelter their brood sows. This proves very successful. We have 
 used one with good results at this experiment station. Where straw 
 is so abundant such a shed is very easily made. It is well, however, 
 to use considerable care in order to construct a frame work which 
 will support the straw placed over it. Cases have been known where 
 they have "caved in" from the weight of the straw over them and 
 the pigs have been smothered. The shed was made so that it is very 
 convenient. The frame was made high enough to enable one to 
 walk erect with ease in it. The openings in front were provided 
 with doors and an old window was inserted on the front side to fur- 
 nish light. The expense of equipping a shed in this manner that 
 will do to raise a pig crop successfully requires very little expenditure 
 of money. (N. D. Bui. 83.) 
 
 In the South, the far South especially, very little shelter is 
 needed except at farrowing time. There is no occasion for expen- 
 sively constructed buildings. Of course, at farrowing time the 
 mother should always be supplied with a building that will afford 
 shelter from the rain and the wind for both the mother and the 
 pigs until the pigs become dry. If the wind strikes the young pigs 
 when they are first born they will often chill to death. Each farmer 
 can make his own shelter, to be in keeping with his surroundings, 
 but probably the best and most economical building that can be made
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 505 
 
 is the portable hog house. These houses may vary in size; those 
 with floor dimensions of 6 by 8 feet, 6 by 9 feet, or 8 by 8 feet will 
 be found most satisfactory. The roof need not be over 7 feet high 
 at the highest point. The house may be made on runners to facili- 
 tate moving it about. To prevent the sow from crushing the pigs 
 at farrowing time, -a scantling should be fastened to the inside of 
 the house, about 8 inches from the ground, projecting about 10 
 inches toward the center of the pen. The small pigs can run under 
 this protection and keep the mother from lying upon them. There 
 is no necessity for a floor for these houses. Some straw at farrow- 
 ing time is all that is required. (F. B. 411.) 
 
 Floors. The hog house floor is an unsettled question. A good 
 floor is the ground with woven wire stretched on top to prevent the 
 hogs from rooting. Electrically welded corncrib wire is very satis- 
 factory. This makes a floor which is easy on the hogs, almost free 
 from rats, and, if properly bedded, warm and dry. It is, however, 
 more difficult to keep free from dust than some other floors. Many 
 concrete floors are used, but they are cold, liable to be wet, and are 
 hard on the hogs' feet. Often almost an entire pig crop and many 
 sows are lost by taking cold on concrete floors. Concrete floors are, 
 however, very satisfactory when covered with plank overlays, or 
 false floors, which should be raised from the concrete about an inch 
 by nailing cleats on the under side. The wood portion of this floor 
 consists of 2 by 4 inch timbers laid about one-fourth inch apart to 
 allow drainage. 
 
 Board floors are expensive, short lived, cold if up off the ground, 
 and make the worst kind of rat harbors. The writer once visited an 
 old hog house with wood floor in which the owner said the rats had 
 gotten over half the pigs. Several men report that rats may be 
 kept out by packing sand or cinders to the top of the joists before 
 laying the floor, but these materials are often too expensive to be 
 used for this purpose. (F. B. 438.) 
 
 Alfalfa Racks. In order to prevent undue waste when feeding 
 alfalfa to pigs, the hay should be fed in a slatted rack placed in a 
 flat bottomed trough. The spaces between the slats should not ex- 
 ceed 2 1 /2 inches and the trough should extend at least 18 inches be- 
 yond the rack in every direction. The coarse stems left by the pigs 
 may be fed to stock cattle. (N. M. B. 62.) 
 
 Troughs. "Well made troughs are a necessity in pig feeding. 
 The time-honored V-shaped trough is very common and is doubt- 
 less familiar to all who handle hogs. Others advise the use of a 
 low, wide, shallow trough. Troughs should not be so long that they 
 can not bo handled by one man, and they should be so strong that 
 they will not readily be broken to pieces by the pigs. A very con- 
 venient arrangement of the feeding troughs is shown in the draw- 
 ings of the Maryland Agricultural College hog house. The troughs 
 extend across the front of the pen and are built solidly, so that they 
 will not be displaced. The front of the pen is hung on hinges, and 
 attached to it is a strong iron rod which fits into holes in the edges of 
 the trough and holds the pen front firmly. When filling the troughs
 
 *06 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the pen front is swung back and the rod inserted in the inside edge 
 of the trough. The pigs can not then get to the feed until the front 
 is lowered. The plan permits feeding without being disturbed by 
 the eagerness of the animals, and the feed is evenly distributed. 
 (F. B. 205.) 
 
 For feeding pigs, there should be a slatted trough to prevent 
 the more greedy getting into the food. It is constructed as follows: 
 A bottom board 1 by 12 inches and 8 feet long, edges beveled, end 
 piece 2 by 6 inches, a center board 8 inches wide nailed to the ends, 
 the lower edge standing 2 inches above the bottom of the trough 
 the top edge would be 10 inches above the trough. On the two edges 
 of the bottom nail 1 by 4 inch strips 8 feet long, and nail slats 2 
 inches wide from the top of the 4-inch sides to the top of the center 
 board, far enough apart to allow the pigs to eat 6 inches will an- 
 swer for small pigs ; 8, 10, and even 12 inches may be required for 
 larger. (U. S. Cir. 30.) 
 
 The troughs are made of two-inch hemlock constructed in a V 
 shape, one side being two-by-ten inch material and the other side 
 and ends two-by-eight. These troughs are simply toe-nailed in be- 
 tween the division posts so that they can be removed easily and re- 
 placed when necessary. We like the V shaped troughs in prefer- 
 ence to any flat bottomed sort, in the piggery, because the pigs can 
 clean them more readily and thoroughly and there is practically no 
 contact at the floor except for the short end pieces ; as a result filth 
 and moisture do not accumulate beneath them. On the under side 
 of the V shaped trough, next the alley, the floor is always dry and 
 on the pen side it can be cleaned thoroughly and is always exposed 
 to the air. Hemlock troughs last from two to five years, or even 
 longer, particularly if protected by a strip of band iron on the inner 
 edge. Sloppy feed does not chill or freeze in wood troughs as readily 
 as in cement or metal. We like flat bottomed troughs for out door 
 feeding where they are moved about frequently, they are not upset 
 so readily as the V-shaped ones. We also like low sided, flat bot- 
 tomed troughs for weanling pigs. (Mich B. 223.) 
 
 Dipping Vat, One vat which has proven very successful 
 is constructed entirely of concrete. It is three feet deep, seven 
 feet six inches long on top and three feet six inches long on bottom. 
 It is eighteen inches wide on the bottom and thirty at the top. The 
 end next the passageway is perpendicular, requiring the animals to 
 plunge in ; the other end is sloping with creases in the cement form- 
 ing little steps to enable sheep and hogs to walk out. Adjacent to 
 the vat and separated from it by an eight-inch cement partition, 
 is a dry chamber five and one-half feet long, two and one-half feet 
 deep, and eighteen inches wide, for an attendant to stand in and hold 
 or handle sheep, as the vat is used for both sheep and hog dipping. 
 One end of this chamber is raised nearly a foot to enable the attend- 
 ant to assist sheep up the incline. The cement floor around the 
 vat is so graded that the drippings are returned to it. This illustra- 
 tion shows, also, the drain pipe leading to an underdrain with the 
 valve in the dry chamber below the floor level of this part. This
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 507 
 
 vat was easily constructed, inexpensive, durable, and is entirely sat- 
 isfactory. (Mich. B. 223.) 
 
 Yard Fences. The question of cheap, durable, and serviceable 
 fencing for the small yards adjacent to the piggery is an important 
 problem. During the past, lumber in various forms has been con- 
 verted into fences of different styles for this purpose, but now its 
 scarcity and high price renders its use almost prohibitive. A tight 
 board fence probably makes the most perfect one for turning hogs. 
 We have attempted to make a suitable substitute, in large part, for 
 the lumber except in the case of the divisions between the boar pens. 
 The fences forming our small pens are constructed of woven wire 
 with two-by-six inch material at bottom and top. Cedar posts are 
 placed, in this case, a little less than eight feet apart. (They should not 
 be more than this distance for pen fences.) The posts were notched 
 out at the bottom and top one-inch deep and the width of the two- 
 by-six. Thus, the two-by-sixes when firmly spiked in place, instead 
 of being flush, projected an inch out from the surface of the post 
 The 26-inch woven wire was placed on the posts with top and bottom 
 wires just touching the two-by-sixes. The woven wire was not 
 stapled to the end posts but each strand brought around the post 
 and wrapped on itself. The wire fencing was also stapled to the 
 intermediate cedar posts and the top and bottom wires to the two-by- 
 sixes against which they rested. 
 
 The woven wire used was special hog fence with seven lateral 
 wires, top and bottom wires No. 9 and intermediate No. 12. There 
 are twenty-eighth No. 11 cross wires to the rod. The woven wire 
 and two-by-sixes make the fence thirty-eight inches high. This has 
 furnished a cheap fence and after three seasons' use we are perfectly 
 satisfied with it. But one repair has been made and that at a point 
 where a flaw occurred in the wire. The openings of these pens con- 
 sist of doors which slide up and down in grooves at the sides, drop- 
 ping into slots at the bottom to prevent pigs from opening them. 
 
 Lot Fences. The term lot is here used to designate larger en- 
 closures, such as those furnishing pasture and forage crops. In pur- 
 suing economic methods of swine husbandry, pasture and forage 
 crops are essential throughout the greatest possible portion of the 
 year. Few crops provide continuous pasturage throughout the grow- 
 ing season and even those which do may require resting spells for 
 recuperation. Continuous pasturing and foraging by hogs is largely 
 dependent on a succession of these two classes of crops. As a small 
 area can be made to produce sufficient green crop for large numbers 
 of hogs, this fact, in addition to the two already stated, would seem 
 to require either a number of small lots or one large one subdivided 
 by portable fences or hurdles. Portable fences constructed of light 
 lumber have been commonly used in the past but this material is 
 no longer practicable under general conditions. If the number of 
 hogs on a farm will justify the growing of say six acres of forage 
 crops, this should be enclosed and divided through the center by 
 permanent fences. Division of the two halves can then be made by 
 means of a portable woven wire fence as follows : Set a row of posts
 
 608 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 two rods apart across each half for the support of the portable fence ; 
 owing to the distance between the posts they will not interfere seri- 
 ously with cultivation. (Mich. B. 223.) 
 
 A good permanent fence for a pig lot can be made as follows: 
 Place posts 4 inches by 7 feet one rod apart. Staple a string of 
 barb wire two inches from the bottom. Two inches above it place 
 a ribbon of 26-inch woven wire and six inches above it another string 
 of barb wire. The post will project one and one-half feet above 
 the height of the fence. Short posts can be used, but the long posts 
 may be used some time later in case it is desired to place more wires 
 on the fence to keep in cattle or horses. A good movable fence can 
 be made in practically the same way. Use smaller posts, sharpen 
 them and drive them into the ground two rods apart. On the bot- 
 tom string a barb wire. Stretch the woven wire on the post and 
 staple it tightly to the post so that it can be readily removed and 
 rolled up when you wish to move it. A fence of this kind can be 
 readily moved from place to place, and set up without a great deal 
 of labor. The panel portable fence is a very convenient type of 
 fence. The cost of it makes it almost prohibitive, however, on the 
 average farm. In Bulletin 104 of the Minnesota Experiment Sta- 
 tion, the cost of the material for a temporary fence and placing it, 
 is given as 37.7 cents per rod. The temporary fence here, judging 
 from the comparative cost of similar fences, would be about 45 to 
 60 cents a rod. (N. D. Bui. 83.) 
 
 No man should attempt to raise hogs without adequate fencing 
 of yards and pastures. An animal of any kind, but especially a hog, 
 can make himself an intolerable nuisance if not confined within 
 proper bounds. For pastures woven wire is the best fencing mate- 
 rial, all things considered. Such a fence may bo purchased ready- 
 made or may be made on the farm by machines, of which there are 
 several good kinds on the market. From motives of economy it 
 may be desirable to run a fence of woven wire around a field to a 
 height of 30 to 36 inches, and above this to stretch two or three 
 strands of ordinary barb wire. This will make a hog-tight fence, 
 and if horses are necessarily placed in the field the fence will be 
 much safer than the ordinary one made entirely of barb wire. Mid- 
 way between the posts the lower strand in the fence should be se- 
 curely stapled to a small post or stake ; this will prevent hogs from 
 working their way under the fence. A further precaution against 
 this may be secured by plowing a furrow against the lower strand, 
 or, better still, by digging a trench 5 or 6 inches deep along the 
 fence line and nailing 2 by 12 inch planks or cedar or locust poles to 
 the posts and fastening the lower strand to these. In building any 
 kind of wire fence, ground wires may be put down to moisture at 
 frequent intervals to give stock protection from lightning. 
 
 A board fence makes, perhaps, the most secure inclosure for 
 hogs, but its expense precludes its use generally except for yards 
 and pens. 
 
 Barb wire is a very poor material for a hog fence. It can 
 hardlv be made close enough or strong enough to .prevent a shoat
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 509 
 
 from crawling through. In this respect it is only a little better than 
 a hedge, which is expensive and unsatisfactory when used to con- 
 fine stock. Gates must, of course, be carefully made, hung, and 
 fastened. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 The best adjunct of the fencing proposition is a good pasture 
 on the inside. We do not ring the hogs. It has been our experience 
 that hogs kept on pasture all the time will do very little damage by 
 rooting. (Miss. B. 107.) 
 
 If from 150 to 200 hogs were raised, the 20-acre corn field could 
 be easily fed off by them. And here again would be realized the ad- 
 vantage of large fields. The cost per acre of the outside fence would 
 be about $1.20. Forty rods of movable fence would be necessary 
 so as to fence off a portion of the field which could be used by the 
 hogs. This would cost about $10. Since this strip of fencing could 
 be used for many years, the annual cost per acre would not exceed 
 lOc, making the total cost per acre for fencing this cornfield hog 
 tight and in plots about $1.30. It would cost from $3 to $5 per acre 
 to pick and feed this corn. Hence, there is a saving of from $1.70 
 to $3.70 per acre by feeding off the corn as it grew in the field. 
 
 Since fencing is quite an item in the cost of pastures and in 
 hogging off corn, the arrangement of fields in such a way as to use 
 the least possible amount of fencing and still have the hogs near the 
 farm buildings so they may be sheltered, watered and fed econom- 
 ically is essential. A piece of land one rod wide and 160 rods long 
 contains one acre and requires 322 rods of fence to enclose it. A 
 piece of land 12% rods square contains one acre and requires 51 
 rods of fence to enclose it. A 10-acre field (40 rds.x40 rds. ) requires 
 160 rods of fencing to enclose it or an average of 16 rods per acre. 
 It is quite evident from the above facts that the larger and more 
 nearly square a field is the less fence is required per acre to fence it. 
 Likewise, two adjoining fields may be fenced more cheaply than two 
 separate fields of the same size as a portion of the fence answers for 
 both fields. (Minn. B. 104.) 
 
 The pen and yard for the boar should be separate from the rest 
 of the herd and out of sight of it. The pen should be so strong that 
 the boar can not tear it down or go through it, and a tightly fenced 
 pasture of one-half to 1 acre in area should adjoin. A sow about to 
 farrow, if she is to farrow in the piggery, can have the run of the 
 alley for exercise. It she has a house to herself, a small yard should 
 adjoin. It will generally be a satisfactory practice to keep hogs away 
 from other stock except when following fattening steers. Pregnant 
 brood sows should never be allowed to run in the same yards or pas- 
 tures with cattle, horses, or mules. Many good sows have been 
 ruined by the playfulness or viciousness of me larger farm animals. 
 
 Watering. A better plan than to put water for the pigs into 
 troughs is to set one-half of a kerosene barrel on brick or stone so 
 as to raise it 3 inches from the ground. Place the barrel between two 
 posts planted opposite to each other; then wire it in position. Insert 
 a pipe near the bottom, with an automatic valve which will let the 
 water now into a small trough without overflow. There are special
 
 510 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 devices on the market which accomplish this purpose. Fill the half 
 barrel with water and fasten on a board cover. In this way the 
 drinking water is always kept clean and accessible. 
 
 An open shed, floored, is advantageous for feeding. The hogs 
 are thus protected from the sun in hot weather, and the soaked corn 
 can be scattered on a clean floor. Never throw corn for hogs on the 
 ground. It forces them to eat too much dirt. 
 
 It is emphatically necessary to avoid all wallowing holes if the 
 herd is to be kept healthy. (U. S. Cir. 30.) 
 
 Exercise. A fact that has recently been determined indicates 
 that the influence of exercise upon the functional activities of a pig 
 is an important factor. Hence the lack of exercise is a handicap to 
 the fall pig because during the winter on account of cold weather 
 not so much exercise is usually taken as in the summer, except dur- 
 ing very hot periods. For maximum and most economical produc- 
 tion it seems absolutely necessary for the young and growing pig to 
 have an abundance of exercise. Its chief value seems to be in the 
 influence it exerts upon the respiratory and digestive functions. 
 (111. Cir. 133.) 
 
 The foundation on which to build a successful breeding ani- 
 mal is ample range, affording an abundance of exercise, and a rather 
 narrow ration. Growth should be continuous and feed plentiful. 
 The pigs should not be given so large a range and so little feed that 
 they will develop nothing but bone; neither should they have so 
 much to eat that they will become indolent and refuse to take the 
 exercise required to develop necessary bone and muscle. Exercise 
 will strengthen the sinews and develop strong muscles, as well as 
 firm joints and strong legs, while a well-filled stomach will nourish 
 these ; and from this management we may expect a sow that will be 
 strong, thrifty, and a good breeder, and a boar that will do good work 
 in the herd without breaking down in any respect before he should. 
 
 No time should be lost after farrowing in getting the sow into 
 the open air. Of course, if the pigs were farrowed during the winter 
 months care will be needed, and it may be necessary to let the pigs 
 reach the age of tw r o weeks before turning them out. They can, how- 
 ever, get considerable exercise in the piggery or in the lot with the 
 sow, and there is often a lot adjoining a barn that is sunny and shel- 
 tered from cold winds where the new family may be turned out for 
 exercise. Avoid particularly allowing the pigs to run out during a 
 cold rain. They are especially tender during the first weeks. (F. 
 B. 205.) 
 
 Comparing sets II and III with the same feed but one fed in the 
 pen and the other in the yard, it will be seen that the yard set gained 
 18 pounds more or .035 of a pound more per pig daily. The set 
 getting exercise consumed 221 pounds more food during the period 
 (125) days and required ten per cent more food for 100 pounds 
 gain. The most economical gains were made by the set confined in 
 the pen. (Utah B. 70.) 
 
 Ventilation. The Boar's permanent quarters should be a clean, 
 dry, warm, well-lighted, and well-ventilated pen, 10 or 12 feet square,
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 511 
 
 with a yard adjoining where sows may be brought for service. This 
 yard should be large enough to give him some exercise during the 
 breeding season, when it may be inconvenient to allow him the run 
 of the pasture. Adjoining the yard should be the boar's pasture, 
 from one-half acre to an acre in extent, consisting of clover, alfalfa, 
 or good pasture grasses that thrive in the locality. (F. B. 205.) 
 
 It is very important to provide means for ventilation in the pig- 
 gery to prevent the accumulation of dampness on the walls which 
 cause rheumatism, bronchitis, and often pneumonia. Provision for 
 ventilation is more necessary in a cold climate than in warmer cli- 
 mates, because the moisture collects readily on the walls, due to the 
 cold weather. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 A little pig loves sunshine and needs it almost as much as he 
 needs food. No piggery is fit for the purpose unless it admits direct 
 sunshine onto the floor of every pen at the time the pigs are farrowed, 
 furnishes plenty of fresh air, and provides for exercise in the open 
 air. Dryness, sunshine, warmth, fresh air, freedom from drafts, and 
 exercise are of primary importance in raising pigs. These secured, 
 the 'battle is half won. In putting up buildings the six requirements 
 just mentioned must be kept constantly in mind; not one can be 
 neglected. (F. B. 438.) 
 
 One of the first requisites for success with hogs is a shelter where 
 young pigs can be kept warm and well supplied with sunshine and 
 fresh air. A little pig takes cold very easily and recovers slowly if 
 at all. To prevent taking cold he must be kept dry, warm, away 
 from drafts, and provided with fresh air. (F. B. 438.) 
 
 It is not easy to secure a good supply of fresh air and prevent 
 all drafts from striking the pigs. There are, however, several quite 
 satisfactory methods of ventilation in use. The commonest one is 
 to make some of the windows so they will either slide or swing on 
 hinges. The box ventilators are very satisfactory. The cloth curtain 
 window also does good work. 
 
 Whitewashing. Whitewashing the inside of the house is an 
 excellent practice. Besides going a long way toward disinfecting, it 
 increases the light materially. When the sunshine strikes a white- 
 washed wall, much of it is reflected to the floor and does a great deal 
 of good. Dark houses which must be used will be much improved 
 by whitewashing. (F. B. 438.) 
 
 Importance of Sanitation. The greatest drawbacks to the hog 
 industry in this country are the losses through hog cholera and swino 
 plague, and through tuberculosis, as well as by parasites, especially of 
 young pigs. 
 
 Hog Cholera and Swine Plague are so similar as to be identical 
 for practical purposes. They are caused only by disease germs or 
 bacteria, carried from one animal to another, and can best be pre- 
 vented by thorough disinfection and cleanliness. Tuberculosis is 
 more difficult to detect, and is slow in developing. It is frequently 
 present when hogs are fed on dairy products, or run after cattle. 
 (F. B. 205.) Dipping and quarantine should be applied to every 
 hog or pig that is brought to the farm, as it will often prevent serious
 
 512 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 losses from lice and disease that would otherwise be carried by the 
 new purchase to the swine already on the farm. (Colo. B. 146.) 
 
 MARKET PORK. 
 
 Bacon or Lard Hogs. All of the breeds are included in two 
 types, the lard type and the bacon type. Those breeds that are low, 
 deep, broad and heavy fleshed, such as the Poland China, are known 
 as lard hogs. They are chiefly of American origin, having been de- 
 veloped by generations of feeding on a fat producing ration, prin- 
 cipally corn. 
 
 The bacon type, on the contrary is of long, narrow, deep, 
 smooth and thin fleshed conformation, illustrated by the Tamworth. 
 These breeds are of foreign origin and have been developed largely 
 on nitrogenous rations of grains and skim milk. 
 
 A majority of experiments show that all breeds of the same type 
 do equally well under similar conditions. The bacon hog compared 
 with the lard hog, dresses but 70 to 75 per cent net to gross weight, 
 whereas the lard hog dresses from 84 to 87 per cent. 
 
 Owing to the difference in dressed weight compared to live 
 weight, and the fact that packers can buy a supply of immature lard 
 hogs in place of true bacon hogs, the breeding of the bacon type 
 should not be undertaken in competition with the lard hog, unless 
 there is sufficient demand to insure a profitable price. (Wis. B. 184.) 
 
 The hog adapted for the production of high grade bacon gives 
 promise of being produced extensively in the Northwest before many 
 years pass. A great many farmers are using the blood of the bacon 
 breeds of swine in their herds at the present time. The Large Im- 
 proved Yorkshire breed is being raised by many. 
 
 The farmers of the Province of Ontario, Canada, raise the bacon 
 type of swine for market by the use of the -bacon breeds almost uni- 
 versally to the exclusion of the lard type. They feed practically the 
 same feeds that the farmers of this state can grow successfully. The 
 farmers of Ontario, however, feed considerable dairy by-products, 
 because they are extensively engaged in dairying. As a result of the 
 farmers of Ontario growing the bacon type of hog so generally, they 
 have succeeded in capturing the English trade for fancy bacon, and 
 they are in direct competition with Denmark and Holland the coun- 
 tries that have the reputation for producing the best grade of bacon 
 put on the market. High class bacon sells for better prices than the 
 poorer grades of pork, and this has enabled the Canadian packers to 
 pay more for hogs than they do on our markets in this country. A 
 comparison of market prices of hogs at Toronto, Canada, and Chi- 
 cago, shows that the prices paid at Toronto ranged on the average 52 
 cents to $1.23 per cwt. higher than those paid at Chicago. 
 
 There is not a great deal of difference in the merit of the Poland 
 China, Berkshire, Chester White and Duroc Jersey breeds, for they 
 are quite uniform in type. The success that the farmer has with 
 any breed will depend more upon the skill he exercises in handling 
 them than upon the difference that exists in the characteristics of the 
 breeds. All the best individuals of the lard breeds are compact and 
 thick fleshed, and mature at an early age. If one desires to produce
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 513 
 
 bacon hogs, the following breeds are best adapted for that purpose : 
 the Large Yorkshire, the Tarn worth and Hampshire. The objection 
 to producing the bacon hog is that the cost of growing them is greater 
 than to grow the lard breeds. Experiments made at several experi- 
 ment stations in the United States and at the Ontario Agricultural 
 College, do not support this objection, since the bacon breeds in some 
 of these trials made cheaper gains than the lard breeds. The bacon 
 breeds also have in their favor greater prolificacy. (N. D. B. 83.) 
 
 Pork Classified. Hog products may be described under three 
 heads: (1) Dressed Hogs, (2) Pork Cuts and (3) Lard. As a rule, 
 not more than one or two per cent of the number of hogs slaughtered 
 in large packing houses are sold as whole carcasses. Approximately 
 three-fourths of the trade in hog products consists of various cured 
 meats and fresh cuts, the remainder consisting principally of lard 
 and a small percentage of sausage and canned meats. Further, fresh 
 pork is of much less importance, relatively, than fresh beef or 
 mutton, only about one-fifth of the domestic trade and five per cent of 
 the export trade in pork products (other than lard) consisting of 
 fresh meat. Thus the classification of pork consists largely of cured 
 and manufactured products, the number and variety of which ren- 
 ders the outline of this subject quite complex. 
 
 Dressed Hogs. The classification of the hog carcasses is based 
 on the uses to which they are adapted, or the products into which 
 they can be converted. The classes generally recognized and average 
 weights included in each are as follows: 
 
 CLASSES. CARCASS WEIGHTS. 
 
 Smooth Heavy or Heavy Loin Hogs 240 to 400 Ib. 
 
 Butcher or Light Loin Hogs 160 to 240 Ib. 
 
 Packing Hogs 100 to 400 Ib. 
 
 Bacon or Marked Hogs 90 to 170 Ib. 
 
 Shippers 100 to 200 Lb. 
 
 Pigs 20 to 100 Ib. 
 
 Different styles of dressing are characteristic of the different 
 classes of carcasses except heavy and light loin hogs, and shippers 
 and pigs. Dressed hogs of all classes are cut open along the under- 
 line and through the aitch-bone and brisket, but the method of 
 splitting and trimming varies with the class. 
 
 Grading Dressed Hogs. The grades of hog carcasses are much 
 less numerous and complex than those of carcass beef or mutton, 
 owing to the greater variation in the latter with respect to age and 
 general development. Standard grades are recognized only in the 
 bacon and packing hog classes. In a broad sense, however, the six 
 general classes may be regarded also as grades, since they are differ- 
 entiated largely by shape, finish, quality and weight as well as by 
 styles of dressing. 
 
 The shape dasired in loin and packing hogs is great width of 
 side and back in proportion to length of body, straight, even linea 
 and well-filled hams and shoulders. In bacon hogs, length of side 
 is more important, with less width and thickness of back in propor- 
 tion to that of the side than in the grades of fat hogs. Finish is indi-
 
 514 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 cated by the depth and evenness of fat covering the carcass, espe- 
 cially along the back and over the sides; also by the amount and 
 quality of leaf fat. (The leaf is the eternal fat of the carcass. It 
 includes the kidney fat and extends down to the flanks and skirt 
 (diaphragm.) It is essential that the fat be white and firm. The 
 depth of covering and proportion of leaf fat desired are described and 
 illustrated in connection with the various classes. 
 
 Quality implies firm, bright, smooth-grained flesh and solid, 
 white fat evenly distributed over the carcass; smooth, thin, mel- 
 low skin free from wrinkles, blotches or bruises; moderately small, 
 fine shanks and head; soft, red chine-bones, back-bone and brisket; 
 and an absence of coarseness in general. Points of special import- 
 ance in selecting dressed hogs are the development and quality of 
 loins and sides, and the size, shape, firmness and covering of the 
 hams. Coarse or extremely large shoulders, neck and jowls, are 
 indications of stagginess, and seedy sows are classified as packing hogs 
 because of their coarse quality. The importance of weight in grad- 
 ing dressed hogs varies according to the class. In general, weight is 
 >a very important factor, and in the case of loin hogs it determines 
 not only the grade but also the class to which a carcass belongs. 
 
 Pork Cuts. The various cuts made from dressed hogs may be 
 divided into the following general classes: Hams, sides, bellies, 
 backs, loins, shoulders, butts and plates and miscellaneous. 
 
 These products are quoted and handled according to the man- 
 ner in which they are prepared or packed viz., Fresh pork cuts, dry- 
 salt and bacon meats, barreled or plain-pickled pork, sweet-pickled 
 meats, smoked meats, English meats and boiled meats. It will be 
 necessary to define these terms before attempting to describe the 
 grades and uses of the different classes of cuts. 
 
 Fresh pork cuts are sold either chilled or frozen. The bulk of 
 the uncured product is disposed of within a few days after slaughter, 
 during which time it is chilled at temperature slightly above the 
 freezing point. Freezing is employed for the storage of pork loins 
 and other fresh cuts and edible offal when supply exceeds demand, 
 and in some cases for keeping bellies, hams, shoulders and other 
 cuts intended for future curing. Frozen pork, however, is not quoted 
 nor handled to the same relative extent as frozen beef and mutton. 
 Cut meats may also be kept without curing by packing in brine and 
 storing at about 15 F., until it is desired to cure them in the regular 
 manner. Cuts packed in a light brine and kept slightly above the 
 freezing point for a short time are sometimes sold as "partly cured" 
 meats. 
 
 Fresh pork cuts are taken more or less from all classes of hogs. 
 Since the pork loin is by far the leading fresh cut, light loin hogs 
 are more extensively used for fresh pork than any other class. The 
 varying demand for loins determines to a considerable extent the 
 method of cutting other classes of hogs from time to time. Tender- 
 loins and spareribs are also primarily fresh cuts. Skinned shoulders, 
 shoulder butts, hams, bellies, fat backs, and raw leaf fat are sold fresh 
 to a small extent. Some packers purchase their raw material in the
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 515 
 
 form of fresh cuts, such as bellies, hams, picnics, leaf and back fat, 
 and convert the minto smoked meats, lard and other products bear- 
 ing the trade-mark of the packer. 
 
 Dry-salt meats are domestic cuts made from heavy fat pack- 
 ing and loin hogs, cured and shipped in coarse salt, and with a few 
 exceptions, pumped before salting. These are distinct from English 
 meats both as to selection and packing. The cuts that are sold in 
 this form are heavy sides, bellies, shoulders, fat backs, plates and 
 jowls. The same cuts, and particularly bellies and short clear sides, 
 are also quoted as bacon meats, which, after being cured in dry salt 
 are smoked before shipping. The term bacon, when used as a pre- 
 fix, refers to dry-salt meats, while smoked meats, as described below 
 are cured in sweet pickle. Dry-salt and bacon meats are generally 
 shipped loose, but are sometimes put up in boxes containing 25 to 
 500 pounds. 
 
 Barreled or plain-pickled pork is packed in plain salt brine in 
 tight barrels (18x29 inches) at 200 pounds net weight of cured pork 
 per barrel (355 pounds gross) . The strength of brine is varied some- 
 what according to the cuts of pork and their destination. Barreled 
 pork is made largely from sides of packing and heavy loin hogs, and 
 consists principally of mess, fat back and belly pork of various 
 grades. A much smaller proportion of the pork supply is barreled 
 than formerly. Sweet-pickled (S. P.) meats are cured in sweet 
 brine. Standard cuts of this class are packed as follows for delivery 
 on the Chicago Board of Trade: 300 Ibs. block weight shall be 
 packed in each tierce with either 22 Ibs. of salt, 3 quarts of good 
 syrup, 12 ounces of saltpetre and tierce filled with water, or tierce 
 filled with sweet pickle according to above standard. After curing, 
 sweet-pickled meats are commonly packed in slack barrels or boxes, 
 or sold loose, but are also sold in tierces (21x32 inches), either pickle 
 on or drained. The bulk of sweet-pickled and other sugar-cured 
 meats are smoked before they reach the consumer, as explained in 
 the following paragraph. A percentage of heavy sweet-pickled hams, 
 picnics and loins are also boned out and sold as boiled meats which 
 are described below. The cuts that are quoted as sweet-pickled meats 
 are hams, picnics, New York cut and skinned shoulders, boneless 
 butts, light bellies, and spareribs. This class of meats is cut princi- 
 pally from butcher hogs and from medium and light packing hogs; 
 hams and picnics from all classes of hogs are generally sweet-pickled. 
 
 Smoked meats are sweet-pickled as described above and smoked 
 after curing. They also include light breakfast-bacon bellies that have 
 been dry-cured in salt and sugar. In packing smoked meats, fancy 
 hams and breakfast-bacon bellies are wrapped in parchment paper 
 or canvas and packed in 50 and 100 pound boxes and crates. Other 
 grades are sold either unwrapped, canvassed, or wrapped in burlap, 
 and either loose, boxed or crated (100 to 500-pound packages) or 
 packed in slack barrels or burlap sacks. 
 
 English meats is a term applied to certain cuts that are dry- 
 cured in English salt and saltpetre and primarily adapted to English 
 trade, being given a milder cure than domestic meats. They are
 
 516 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 made principally from bacon hogs. The leading cuts of this class 
 are English bacon sides, long-cut hams, clear backs and bellies, and 
 square shoulders. After curing, these cuts are packed in borax or 
 salt in 500 to 550-pound boxes for export. Borax is principally used, 
 but a small proportion of English cuts such as long clears are shipped 
 in salt, which continues the curing process during shipment. Eng- 
 lish meats are generally dried or smoked lightly after their arrival 
 at British ports before being sold. Meats cured by this process are 
 used to some extent in this country, being quoted as English-cured 
 sweet-pickled meats are also shipped in borax to England in con- 
 siderable quantities. 
 
 Boiled meats consist of hams, picnic shoulders and loins cured 
 in sweet pickle, cooked in water and lightly smoked. The cuts 
 are usually boned and the fat trimmed off within one-half to one 
 inch' of the lean before cooking. Boiled hams and shoulders are 
 generally quoted as rolled boneless cuts, which are pressed in a cylin- 
 drical form, or rolled and tied with cord. Three loins are tied to- 
 gether for boiling, making a loin roll. Boiled meats are made prin- 
 cipally from the heavier cuts but various averages are used, including 
 12 to 30 pound hams, 10 to 14-pound picnics and 14 to 24-pound 
 loins. The boning and fatting reduces the weight of hams about 
 25 per cent and of loins, about 60 per cent. 
 
 Grading Pork Cuts. The grading of pork cuts is more complex 
 than that of other meats since it involves not only their quality, 
 shape, proportions of fat and lean, and weight, but also the styles 
 of cutting and methods of packing by which they are prepared for 
 different classes of trade. Many of the grade names refer merely to 
 different methods of cutting and curing ; but since they are applied 
 only to cuts of specified quality, thickness or weight, the grades are 
 in reality based on the latter factors to a large extent. The various 
 cuts differ considerably as to methods of grading. 
 
 Lard. From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass is made 
 into lard in large packing-houses, the proportion varying with the 
 relative price of lard and grade of hogs. The standard grades are 
 kettle-rendered leaf, kettle-rendered, neutral, prime steam, refined 
 and compound lard. They differ as to the kinds of fat they contain, 
 methods of rendering, color, flavor and grain. (111. B. 147.) 
 
 There is a growing demand for clean, wholesome pork which 
 should be catered to by intelligent farmers. Thousands of people 
 are willing to pay increased prices for pork made from healthy, well- 
 fed animals, kept in a cleanly manner. There is no reason why farm- 
 ers cannot co-operate and establish small packing houses which shall 
 send out smoked ham, breakfast bacon, sausage and lard, which will 
 be eagerly bought up at good prices by a discriminating public. A 
 market for choice pork must be created and enlarged and the public 
 properly informed of the situation before this matter will take proper 
 shape. The plan is feasible, and certain sooner or later to be brought 
 about. Hogs fed to produce a large percentage of lean meat must, 
 to be profitable, sell for at least 20 per cent more than current prices;
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 517 
 
 a discriminating market will soon pay this difference. Every animal 
 requires a certain amount of food. (Wis. 10th A. R.) 
 
 Curing Pork on the Farm. The State Commissioner of Agricul- 
 ture and Immigration (Louisiana), has, for years, employed the 
 following methods of curing pork on his farm with such success that 
 we take the liberty of reproducing them here : 
 
 When hogs are fat, select any time during the month of De- 
 cember, January or first half of February, when weather is clear, 
 wind from the north to northwest, with the thermometer registering 
 below 35 at sunrise. Have your water hot and scald as soon as hog 
 is dead. Hang up and disembowel the animal just as soon as it is 
 cleaned. No butchering animal should ever be permitted to cool off 
 until after it is disemboweled. Cut up the carcass as soon as it is 
 through dripping. Saiw or split the backbone. Let it and the spare 
 rib remain on the side, and make them as long as you can. Hams 
 and shoulders small. Hams to sell readily should weigh from fifteen 
 to eighteen pounds. Jowl will mix very nicely with trimmings and 
 shoulder in making sausage, either for house use or the market. Feet, 
 when cleaned properly, and put, raw, in strong brine, will keep all 
 right for several months. Spread the joints and sides in your smoke 
 house, applying a small quantity of salt to each piece. Let it lay until 
 next morning to cool, then pack away, using plenty of clean salt. 
 
 To Sugar Cure Hams. To half bushel fine salt add half pound 
 pulverized saltpeter, one pound finely ground black pepper, four 
 pounds brown sugar, mix thoroughly. Rub hams with mixture. 
 Pack in box, skin side down. Apply double handful of mixture to 
 flesh part of each ham. Then apply plenty of clean salt, never per- 
 mitting the meat to touch, without salt being between. Covering all 
 parts and filling every crevice, and let them remain in the salt six 
 weeks. 
 
 How to Smoke Ham. After being in salt six weeks, select a 
 clear day, string each ham, and dip in a boiling solution of one pound 
 borax dissolved in fifteen gallons of water and hang up high in a 
 dark smoke house (the higher the better) and smoke, using green 
 hickory wood. Smoke daily for two weeks or more, as preferred. 
 By April 1 at latest, hams should again be dipped in boiling water, 
 to cleanse them from all impurities, wrapped in paper, then cloth, 
 and this painted with some cheap mineral paint. Hang up again and 
 leave until used or sold. 
 
 To Make Good Sausage. Grind your meat as fine as possible; 
 don't have it too lean. Season with salt, ground black pepper, a 
 good supply of pulverized soda crackers, not too much sage, and some 
 red pepper tea. Well mix and stuff in sausage cases. Cases can be 
 secured from packing houses. (La. B, 124.)
 
 PART V 
 
 POULTRY KEEPING. 
 
 BREEDS. 
 
 THERE is probably no other domestic animal which has a 
 more general distribution than the hen, and the part which 
 she plays in the agricultural wealth of this country is almost 
 incredible. According to the most recent statistics of the 
 Department of Agriculture, the products of the American hen aggre- 
 gate a total value of more than $620,000,000 annually. This sum is 
 stated to be equal to the value of the hay crop for 1908 and greater 
 than the combined value of oats and potatoes for the same year. It 
 is nearly nine times the value of the tobacco crop and equal to that 
 of wheat. 
 
 Poultry and eggs are produced in all sections of the country, but 
 the business finds its greatest scope in areas presenting the most favor- 
 able conditions. It is a noticeable fact that the bulk of these impor- 
 tant products is produced on the farms of the Mississippi Valley. 
 In this section there are practically no large intensive poultry farms 
 such as are commonly found in the Eastern States and on the Pacific 
 coast. Poultry keeping, therefore, is largely incidental, the hens being 
 considered and treated largely as an agency for converting material 
 which would otherwise go to waste into a salable product. Conse- 
 quently the poultry and eggs produced constitute merely a by-product 
 of the general farm. Because prices for poultry products are com- 
 paratively low the farmers make no effort to keep larger flocks than 
 can be supported by this waste without much attention or extra feed, 
 and because individual flocks are small little attention or thought has 
 been given to improving the product or the method of disposing of 
 it. It should be kept in mind, however, that while individual sales 
 of poultry products are small, the aggregate for the year is large, 
 reaching for each State in the Middle West a total of many millions 
 of dollars. (Dep. Agr. Bureau Animal Ind. B. 141.) 
 
 Making a Start With Poultry. The safest way for those who 
 are about to make their first attempt at poultry raising is to start in 
 a small way with a few fowls, and learn the business thoroughly be- 
 fore making large investments. Mistakes will be made and many dif- 
 ficult problems will be presented for solution before success in any 
 large measure will be attained. As soon as it is found to be a paying 
 investment, more capital may be put into the plant. 
 
 Another good plan for the beginner who wishes to learn the art 
 of poultry keeping is to secure a position with some successful poultry- 
 man. One or two years of work on a large, practical plant will be 
 
 518
 
 u
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 521 
 
 found a great help, as the methods of caring for the birds and of 
 marketing the products can thus be learned better than in almost 
 any other way. 
 
 The question is often asked as to what is the best time of the 
 year for one to begin. When to begin is not very important, but the 
 fall of the year is a good time, for then stock can be purchased for 
 less money than at any other season. It is also advisable that the 
 fowls be moved to their new quarters before they begin to lay. If 
 the beginner has had experience in poultry keeping, it will be all 
 right to purchase eggs, otherwise he should begin with the fowls and 
 thus gain some knowledge of caring for poultry before attempting to 
 raise chickens. -(F. B. 287.) 
 
 The American Poultry Association has recognized certain 
 breeds of fowls as "standard bred" and for these breeds it has 
 adopted a description and scale of points to be used in judging. It 
 has also noted the most common serious defects in these standard 
 breeds for exhibition purposes. It should be remembered that the 
 scale of points for the various recognized breeds as determined upon 
 and published by the American Poultry Association in a little vol- 
 ume known as The Standard of Perfection, has to do almost wholly 
 with exhibition birds and does not especially pertain to the produc- 
 tion of either meat or eggs. The standard, however, serves a most 
 useful purpose in maintaining the purity of breeding and in secur- 
 ing uniformity among breeders. 
 
 Classification. There are over 100 standard and a large num- 
 ber of non-standard varieties of chickens raised in this country. The 
 standard varieties are divided as follows : 
 
 1. American class: Barred, White and Buff Plymouth Rocks; 
 Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black, Partridge, Silver-penciled, and 
 Columbian Wyandottes ; Black and Mottled Javas ; Rose-comb Dom- 
 iniques; Single-comb and Rose-com'b Rhode Island Reds, and Pea- 
 comb Buckeyes. 
 
 2. Asiatic class: Light and Dark Brahmas; Buff, Partridge, 
 White, and Black Cochins; Black and White Langshans. 
 
 3. Mediterranean class: Single-comb Brown, Rose-comb Brown, 
 Single-comb White, Rose-comb White, Single-comb Buff, Rose-comb 
 Buff, Single-comb Black, and Silver Duckwing Leghorns; Single- 
 comb Black, Rose-comb Black, and Single-comb White Minorcas; 
 White-faced Black Spanish; Blue Andalusians, and Mottled An- 
 conas. 
 
 4. English class: White, Silver Gray, and Colored Dorkings; 
 Rose-comb Redcaps; Single-comb Buff, Single-comb Black, and 
 Single-comb White Orpingtons. 
 
 5. Polish class: White-crested Black, Bearded Golden, Bearded 
 Silver, Bearded White, Buff-laced, Nonbearded Golden, Nonbearded 
 Silver, and Nonbearded White Polish. 
 
 6. Dutch class: Golden-spangled, Silver-spangled, Golden- 
 penciled, Silver-penciled, White, arid Black TIarnburgs. 
 
 7. French class: Mottled Houdans, Black Crevecoeurs, and 
 Black La Fleche.
 
 522 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 8. Game .and Game Bantam class : Black-breasted Red, Brown 
 Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing, Red Pyle, White, Black, 
 and Birchen Games ; the same varieties for Game Bantams. 
 
 9. Oriental Game and Bantam class: Oornish and White In- 
 dians, Black Sumatras, Black-breasted Red Malays, and Black- 
 breasted Red Malay Bantams. 
 
 10. Ornamental Bantam class: Golden and Silver Sebrights; 
 Rose-comb White and Rose-comb Black; Booted White; Light and 
 Dark Brahmas; Buff, Partridge, White, and Black Cochins; Black- 
 tailed, White, and Black Japanese; Bearded White, Buff -laced, and 
 Nonbearded Polish. 
 
 11. Miscellaneous class: White Silkies, White Sultans, and 
 Frizzles. 
 
 For practical purposes the above eleven classes may be grouped 
 into four general classes, as follows: 1. The general purpose breeds: 
 The American class, the Orpingtons, and the Houdans. 2. The 
 meat or table breeds: The Asiatic class, the Dorkings, and the In- 
 dian Games. 3. The egg breeds: The Mediterranean class, the 
 Dutch class, and the *Redcaps. 4. The ornamental breeds: The 
 Polish, the Crevecoeurs and La Fleche, the Game and Game Ban- 
 tam class, the Oriental Game and Bantam class (except the In- 
 dians), the Ornamental Bantam class, and the miscellaneous class. 
 
 GENERAL PURPOSE BREEDS. 
 
 Plymouth Rocks. This is the most popular of all breeds of 
 poultry as a general-purpose fowl. The Barred variety is the best 
 known, and its history dates back over a quarter of a century. Va- 
 rious breeds were used in its making, the belief being general that it 
 originally came from a cross between the American Dominique and 
 the Black Java. It has also been shown that the Light Brahma, 
 Dark Brahma, and Pit Game have been used in its making. 
 
 The Barred Plymouth Rock is of a grayish-white color, each 
 feather regularly crossed by narrow, parallel bars of dark blue-black 
 running in distinct lines throughout the entire length of the feather 
 and showing on the down, or undercolor, of the feathers. The barr- 
 ing is somewhat smaller on the hackle and saddle feathers than on 
 other portions of the body. A medium-sized bird with a broad, full 
 breast, a rather long and broad body, medium-sized wings that fold 
 gracefully, the wing fronts being well covered by the breast feathers 
 and the wing points by the saddle feathers; a moderately large 
 head; ornamented with an upright bright-red comb and wattles; a 
 large bright-red or bay eye, and yellow beak, shanks, and toes places 
 the picture before us. 
 
 For the farmer or market poultry man these fowls are favorites, 
 being of medium size, well proportioned, with a deep full breast, 
 making a most admirable bird for market purposes. They are 
 hardy, mature early, and make excellent broilers when from 8 to 12 
 weeks old. They are good layers the year round, and in winter lay 
 exceptionally well. Their eggs are brown in color and average 8 to 
 a pound. They are good sitters and excellent mothers.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 523 
 
 The characteristics of this breed are noticeable in the other va- 
 rieties of Plymouth Rocks, excepting that of color. The sizes, shape, 
 general outlines, and qualities are the same in the other varieties as 
 in the Barred. The White Plymouth Rock is pure white in plumage 
 throughout, and the Buff variety is a clear golden buff, uniform in 
 shade. The buff should extend to the undercolor as much as pos- 
 sible the deeper the better. The standard weight of cocks is 9^ 
 pounds; hens 7^> pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; pullets, 6% pounds. 
 
 Wyandottes. This is another of the general-purpose fowls 
 and is rated next to the Plymouth Rock. From the first it sprang 
 into popular favor and has continued so to the present time. It came 
 originally from the Dark Brahma, Silver-spangled Hamburg, and 
 the Breda (a French fowl). Not a few authorities say that Wyan- 
 dottes have Cochin blood in them, from the fact that their ancestors 
 produced single combs and feathered shanks. 
 
 For general purposes the Wyandottes have proved a success, be- 
 ing of medium size, weighing on an average a pound less than the 
 Plymouth Rocks, being hardy of constitution, and prolific layers. 
 They are easily cared for and bear confinement well. For table 
 purposes they are of superior worth ; their flesh is sweet, juicy, and 
 tender, and they make excellent broilers and roasters. As layers 
 they are among the best, averaging about fourteen dozen eggs a 
 year, and as winter layers they do well under ordinary circumstances. 
 
 There are eight varieties of the Wyandotte breed, and it is only a 
 matter of opinion as to which is the best. The general characteristics 
 are the same in all, the difference in color of plumage being the only 
 distinguishing mark. 
 
 The Silver Wyandotte is of a silvery-white plumage, with regu- 
 larly marked black lacing on the breast and a generous distribution 
 of white and black throughout the entire body. The cock has a 
 silver-white head, rose comb, silver hackle, with a black stripe down 
 the center of each feather ; silvery-white back ; saddle same as hackle ; 
 breast feathers black, with large white centers ; tail black ; wings half 
 black and half white, or, rather, black edged with white; when the 
 wing is folded there should be a well-defined bar across it; shanks 
 and toes rich yellow, free from feathering. The hen of the silver 
 variety is marked similarly to the male ; excepting the back and 
 wing, which are whiter in the male than in the female. The breast 
 of the female is of much importance in breeding good birds; the 
 lacing should be distinct, and the white centers of each feather free 
 from black or brown penciling. The standard weight of cocks is 
 &1/2 pounds; hens, 6^ pounds; cockerels, 7V& pounds; pullets, 5^ 
 pounds. 
 
 Javas. This breed is one of the oldest of the American class, 
 and at one time was considered the most profitable of all breeds. At 
 present Javas are not raised extensively ; the more modern or newer 
 breeds have seemingly supplanted them in popularity. There is no 
 reason why this should be so, as they are useful and good general- 
 purpose fowls. In size they are about like the Plymouth Rocks, but 
 differ in general symmetry and appearance. They are good layers
 
 524 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and do well in winter, and for table purposes they are quite satis- 
 factory. They mature early, are good sitters and mothers, and are 
 easily kept in confinement. 
 
 There are two varieties of Javas, the Black and the Mottled. 
 The Black is more generally seen than the Mottled. The plumage of 
 the Blacks is glossy black throughout ; the Mottled is of broken black 
 and white throughout, with black predominating. The Java has a 
 small single comb, standing upright on the head in both male and 
 female. The shanks and toes are free from feathers, black in color, 
 with the bottom of the feet yellow in the Black Java, while the color 
 of the shanks and toes of the Mottled variety should be broken leaden 
 blue and yellow. The standard weight of cocks is 9^ pounds; hens, 
 7% pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; pullets, 6% pounds. 
 
 Dominiques. Similarity in plumage of the American Domin- 
 ique and Barred Plymouth Rock has been the cause of the former's 
 popularity. The color is grayish white, each feather regularly 
 crossed with parallel bars of dark blue-black, producing the effect of 
 a bluish-tinged plumage, the color being the same throughout. They 
 have rose combs, in both male and female, and bright-yellow legs. 
 Those who are partial to their color of plumage will find the Dom- 
 iniques good birds to keep. They are good layers, are hardy, mature 
 early, and dress well for the table. The standard weight of cocks is 
 8 pounds ; hens, 6 pounds ; cockerels, 7 pounds ; pullets, 5 pounds. 
 
 Rhode Island Reds. This is one of the new standard breeds 
 which has gained prominence as a general-purpose fowl. They are 
 of medium size, hardy, mature early, lay brown-shelled eggs, and are 
 good sitters and mothers. There are two varieties of this breed, the 
 Single-comb and the Rose-comb, the only difference being in the 
 shape of the comb. 
 
 The color of the plumage of the male should be a rich, brilliant 
 red, except in the wings and tail, portions of which should be black. 
 A harmonious blending of red is desirable, but in most specimens the 
 color is accentuated on the wing bows and back. The plumage of 
 the female should be somewhat lighter in color than that of the male. 
 Portions of the hackle, wings, and tail are black in color. The beak 
 of both male and female should be reddish horn, the shanks yellow 
 or reddish horn, and the toes reddish horn in color. The standard 
 weight of cocks is S 1 /^ pounds; hens, G 1 /^ pounds; cockerels, 7 l /z 
 pounds; pullets, 5 pounds. 
 
 Buckeyes. This breed was originated by Mrs. Metcalf, of Ohio, 
 and was produced by crosses of Plymouth Rocks, Buff Cochins, 
 Black-breasted Red and Indian Games. In shape the Buckeyes re- 
 semble somewhat the Indian Games, but have a more fluffy plumage. 
 In color they should be a dark, lustrous red, never buff or brick color. 
 The unexposed flight feathers and the main tail feathers may be 
 partially black. The color of the beak, shanks, and toes of the male 
 is yellow, shaded with red horn, and of the female yellow. Both the 
 male and the female should have a small pea comb. The standard 
 weight of cocks is 9 pounds; hens, 6 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; 
 pullets, 5 pounds.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 525 
 
 Orpingtons. These fowls constitute our most recent importa- 
 tion of a breed from England. They were originated by William 
 Cook, of Orpington, county of Kent, England. They are a good 
 general-purpose fowl, being of good size and good layers of brown- 
 shelled eggs. There are ten distinct varieties of this breed the 
 Single-comb Buff, Single-comb Black, Single-comb White, Single- 
 comb Spangled, Single-comb Diamond Jubilee, and the Rose-comb 
 varieties of the same colors. Of these ten varieties the first three have 
 gained admission to the American Standard of Perfection. 
 
 The standard Orpington should have a medium-size single 
 comb, perfectly straight and upright ; the neck should be well arched 
 and have an abundance of hackle feathers ; the body should be long 
 and broad, with a broad, deep breast and a long, broad back; the 
 wings should be of medium size and nicely folded ; the tail should be 
 of medium length, fairly well spread, and carried at an angle of 45 
 from the horizontal in the male and at an angle of 40 from the 
 horizontal in the female; the thighs and shanks should be rather 
 short and stout, and the toes should be of medium length and 
 straight. Shanks and toes should be perfectly free from any feathers 
 or down. The skin should be white or pinkish white in color, and 
 the face, comb, wattles, and ear lobes bright red. 
 
 The color of the surface plumage of the Buff variety should be a 
 rich golden buff throughout, the head, neck, hackle, back, wing 
 bows, and saddle being richly glossed with a metallic luster. The 
 beak, shanks, and toes should be white or pinkish white in color. The 
 color of the surface plumage of the Black variety should be black or 
 greenish black throughout. The beak should be dark horn, shading 
 to a pinkish tint near the lower edge. The shanks and toes should 
 be bluish black in color; web and bottoms of feet, pinkish white. 
 The plumage of the White variety should be pure white throughout ; 
 the beak, shanks, and toes, white or pinkish white in color. The 
 standard weight of cocks is 10 pounds; hens, 8 pounds; cockerels, 
 8 ! /2 pounds; pullets, 7 pounds. 
 
 Houdans. The three varieties of poultry in the French class 
 are the Houdans, Crevecceurs, and La Fleche. Of these the Houdans 
 are conceded to be the most popular and profitable, being bred to a 
 great extent throughout the entire country. They are nardy and 
 prolific layers of large, white eggs. For table purposes they are 
 among the best fowls. They have small bones and the flesh is tender 
 and delicious. The chicks are sprightly and active and feather 
 rapidly. They are nonsitters and light feeders. Like the Leghorns, 
 they may be fed at a small cost as compared with some of the larger 
 breeds. They are of medium size and of a mottled plumage, black 
 and white intermixed, the black predominating. Houdans are a 
 crested variety. The crest of the cock is large, well fitted upon the 
 crown of the head, falling backward upon the neck, and composed 
 of feathers similar in shape and texture to those of the hackle. The 
 crest of the female is large, compact, and regular, inclining backward 
 in an unbroken mass. The Houdan has a small V-shaped comb, 
 which rests against the front of the crest, A peculiarity of the breed
 
 526 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 is their having five toes, like the Dorkings ; shanks and toes are of a 
 pinkish-white color, mottled or shaded with lead color or black. The 
 standard weight of cocks is 7 pounds ; 'hens, 6 pounds; cockerels, 6 
 pounds; pullets, 5 pounds. 
 
 THE MEAT BREEDS. 
 
 Brahmas. The leading variety of the Asiatic class is the Light 
 Brahma. This fowl has a history that would fill many pages were it 
 recorded. These are the fowls which caused the "hen fever" of the 
 fifties, about which so much has been written in later years. Their 
 early history is a matter of controversy, the best authorities differing 
 as to their origin. 
 
 They were first known as "Brahma Pootras," "Gray Shanghais," 
 "Chittagongs," "Cochin Chinas," and what not. The early breeder 
 named them according to his fancy for high-sounding and sensa- 
 tional names in order to sell his stock. Fabulous prices were paid for 
 them when the craze for fine poultry was at its height in the early 
 days of the last half of the nineteenth century. They have stood 
 high in popular favor since then without abatement. The vast num- 
 ber of breeders who are raising them fully attest their worth to the 
 industry as a practical bird. The Brahma is unlike other breeds, 
 and it should not be confounded in shape with the Cochin. In shape 
 the body of the Brahma is rather long and deep, with full, broad, 
 and round breast, carried well forward. The fulness is. typical of 
 the Brahma and is characteristic of prolific birds. 
 
 In plumage the Light Brahma male is white and black, white 
 largely predominating. Any color but white and black is a fault in 
 the standard-bred bird. The hackle is white with a black stripe ex- 
 tending down the center of each feather and tapering to a point near 
 the extremity. The tail feathers are 'black, and the sickle feathers 
 are glossy greenish black. The shanks are well feathered, with the 
 feathering extending down the middle toe. The toe feathering may 
 be white, or white sprinkled with black. A small pea comb, a broad 
 crown projecting over the eyes, bright-red face, wattles, and ear lobes 
 are essential to a good head. The shanks and toes are bright yellow. 
 
 The Brahma female is much like the male in head qualities, 
 having a broad crown, projecting well over the eyes, and a small pea 
 comb. The head is white ; hackle, white striped with black, as in the 
 male ; tail, black, excepting the two highest main tail feathers, which 
 may be edged with white ; tail coverts one or more rows, distinctly 
 covering a part of both sides of the main tail, two rows being prefer- 
 able are black, edged with white. 
 
 The Light Brahmas are valuable birds for the farm. They 
 have always been made to pay for their keep and have seldom been 
 set aside by any who have bred them. They are the largest of do- 
 mestic poultry and do as well in confinement in small runs as on free 
 range. As layers they will average from 12 to 13 dozen eggs a year, 
 and they lay exceptionally well in winter. Their eggs are large, 
 about 7 to a pound, of a rich brown color and excellent flavor. For 
 table purposes the birds are good ; they do not mature as early as do 
 the varieties of the American class, yet they are hardy, and can be
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 527 
 
 raised with as much ease as any of the earlier maturing varieties. As 
 sitters and mothers they are fair. 
 
 For practical purposes the Dark Brahmas are not to be com- 
 mended as highly as the Light Brahmas. The close breeding for 
 points in feathers is likely to interfere with their productiveness, yet 
 with proper attention and care they can be bred profitably as well as 
 for beauty. The standard weight of Light Brahma cocks is 12 
 pounds; hens, D 1 /^ pounds; cockerels, 10 pounds; pullets, 8 pounds. 
 The standard weight of Dark Brahma cocks is 11 pounds; hens, 8^ 
 pounds ; cockerels, 9 pounds ; pullets, 7 pounds. 
 
 Cochins. The four varieties of Cochins are popular with breed- 
 ers. They are second to the Brahmas in the meat breeds, weighing 
 but a pound lighter than the Light Brahma. Old and experienced 
 breeders of Cochins are pronounced in praise of their equalities as 
 profitable fowls. They are hardy, fair winter layers of rich, brown, 
 medium-sized eggs, and fairly good table fowls. The chicks grow 
 well and develop rapidly under proper care. 
 
 The Buff variety is the most generally bred; their color tone 
 offers an attraction to fanciers that is hard to resist. Both male and 
 female are of a rich golden buff, uniform in shade throughout, un- 
 dercolor same as surface color, but of lighter shade and should ex- 
 tend to the skin. In breeding, select females as near as possible to 
 the desired shade of buff, as free from dark or white in wing and tail, 
 and of as even a color as can be. To such females mate a cock of 
 deeper shade. This mating will produce good results in cockerels 
 and pullets. The heavy leg and toe feathering so characteristic of the 
 breed should have constant care and attention. While the feathering 
 should be abundant, all semblance to vulture hock, or stiff feather- 
 ing, should be avoided. 
 
 Black Cochins are much more easily raised than either the Buff 
 or the Partridge. Being of one color, the care bestowed in breeding 
 particolored or penciled birds is not necessary, and the time may be 
 spent in furthering their general utility in egg production. A solid- 
 color bird is the more practical bird for the farmer and market 
 poulterer. The Black Cochin is of a rich glossy black plumage 
 throughout. The White Cochin is pure white in plumage. The 
 standard weight of Cochin cocks is 11 pounds; hens, 8^ pounds; 
 cockerels, 9 pounds ; pullets, 7 pounds. 
 
 Langshans. These are the smallest and most active of the 
 Asiatic class. They are practical in more senses than one, and their 
 fair laying and other excellent qualities make them profitable for 
 the farmer and market poultryman. They constitute one of the old- 
 est breeds of poultry and have always been held in popular esteem. 
 The shape of the Langshan is distinct from that of the Brahma or 
 Cochin and should not be confused with either of the last-named 
 breeds. Figure 8 shows the accepted contour of the Langshans, and 
 a comparison with the birds in figures 6 and 7 shows at a glance the 
 characteristics of the Langshan as compared with the other Asiatics. 
 Langshans have white flesh and dark shanks, while the others have 
 yellow skin and yellow slianks. The quality of the flesh of the Lang-
 
 528 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 shans is excellent, 'being fine-grained, tender, and nicely flavored. 
 As layers they rank with the Brahma, averaging from 12 to 13 dozen 
 eggs a year and as winter layers they are to be recommended. The 
 chicks are hardy and mature early. Langshans are good sitters and 
 mothers, being of gentle disposition ; they are easily kept, either in 
 confinement or on free range. Being excellent foragers, they are 
 ideal fowls for the farm and will gather during the year a consider- 
 able proportion of their food. 
 
 The Langshan is a stylish, medium-sized bird, not overgrown or 
 gawky in appearance, of active nature, and lively disposition. Many 
 confound the Black Langshan with the Black Cochin. This need 
 not be, as the following comparison between the two varieties shows : 
 The Black Cochin is square in shape, with heavy-looking neck and 
 legs, plenty of fluff and leg feathering, cushion rising from middle 
 of back to tail; tail short and almost concealed by cushion; neck, 
 breast, cushion, and tail all represented by convex lines. The Lang- 
 shan head is small for the size of the body and the comb is rather 
 large, well up in front, and arch shaped ; the Cochin head is larger 
 than that of the Langshan and not so arched over the eye ; the comb 
 is smaller, low in front, and almost straight on top of serrations. The 
 back of the Langshan is concave, that of the Cochin is slightly con- 
 vex, and the Cochin has a large convex cushion. The Langshan fluff 
 is moderate and close ; that of the Cochin is extremely full and loose. 
 The wings of the Langshan are of medium size, quite prominent at 
 the shoulders; the Cochin's wings are smaller and almost hidden by 
 the fluffy plumage of the cushion and the fluff. The Langshan 's legs 
 are medium in length, the toes are long and tapering, and the color 
 of the shank is bluish black showing pink between scales ; the Co- 
 chin's legs are shorter and stouter, with larger bone; the toes are 
 shorter and stouter, and the color of the shanks is black or yellowish 
 black. 
 
 There are two varieties of Langshans, the Black and the White. 
 In the black the plumage of neck, back, saddle, and sickles is a 
 glossy metallic black with greenish sheen; the breast, primaries, 
 secondaries, tail, fluff, shank, and toe feathers are black. The under- 
 color is black or dark slate. The White Langshan is pure white 
 throughout. The standard weight of cocks for both varieties is 10 
 pounds ; hens, 7 pounds ; cockerels, 8 pounds ; pullets, 6 pounds. 
 
 Dorkings. This is one of the oldest of domestic fowls. There 
 are no definite records to show when it first lived in England, or 
 whence it came, but the supposition is that it was carried to England 
 by the Romans, who evidently possessed chickens of similar charac- 
 teristics. 
 
 The chief distinctive mark of the breed is the presence of a fifth 
 or supernumerary toe, springing behind, a little above the foot and 
 below the spur. The feature in which this bird is most popular is its 
 table qualities. The flesh is white and very delicate in texture. It is 
 claimed by many to equal if not to excel the French varieties. The 
 broad, deep, and projecting breast of the Dorking admirably fits it 
 for table purposes, and in this respect it is conceded by some to rival
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 529 
 
 the Indian Games. As layers the Dorkings are considered rather in- 
 different, but they are careful sitters and attentive mothers. 
 
 There are three varieties of Dorkings the White, Silver Gray, 
 and Colored. The White Dorking is really the purest blooded of 
 the three, as for years this was the only variety which produced in- 
 variably the fifth toe, although the Colored and Silver Gray varieties 
 seldom fail to breed this peculiarity. In color the White Dorking 
 is of clear, unblemished white. The comb and wattles are a bright 
 red ; the shanks and toes are white. 
 
 Silver Gray Dorkings are beautiful in plumage. The head of 
 the cock is silvery white; hackle, silvery white and as free from 
 stripes as possible; comb, face, ear lobes, and wattles, bright red; 
 beak, white, streaked with horn ; eye, bright red. 
 
 Colored Dorkings differ from the others only in color, the gen- 
 eral color of the male being black and straw color, while the female is 
 marked with black and mixed gray, with breast of dark salmon 
 edged with black. The combs of Dorkings differ in the three varie- 
 ties ; the White has a rose comb, Silver Grays and Colored have single 
 combs. 
 
 The standard weights for Dorkings differ. The weights for 
 Whites are: Cocks, 7% pounds; hens, 6 pounds; cockerels, 6Mj 
 pounds ; and pullets, 5 pounds. For Silver Grays : Cocks, 8 pounds ; 
 hens, Q l /o pounds; cockerels, 7 pounds; pullets, 5% pounds. For the 
 Colored: Cocks, 9 pounds; hens, 7 pounds; cockerels, 8 pounds; 
 pullets, 6 pounds. 
 
 Cornish and White Indian Games. The Indian Game has 
 many fine qualities to recommend it to the breeder, and for many 
 years past has been a popular fowl. In plumage the Cornish Indian 
 male is green-black intermixed with red and bay. The plumage of 
 the hen should be a combination of bay and black throughout. 
 
 The breast is very wide, round, and prominent, the thighs are 
 well rounded, and thick and meaty next to the body ; the shanks are 
 very stout, smoothly scaled, and yellow in color ; the back toe should 
 be almost flat on the ground ; the tail close and hard, carried at slight 
 elevation, and sickles narrow; wings tightly folded, the ends of the 
 secondaries rounding off abruptly and resting close against the tail 
 or just below it ; eyes yellow, beak yellow, or yellow striped with horn 
 color. The Indian Game is a beautiful bird, and its every movement 
 bespeaks its high breeding. The White variety is identical with the 
 Cornish except that the plumage should be pure white. The stand- 
 ard weight of cocks is 9 pounds; hens, Q l /2 pounds; cockerels, 7 1 / 
 pounds; pullets, 5 l /2 pounds. 
 
 EGG BREEDS. 
 
 Leghorns. These are the best known of the egg-producing 
 varieties, or Mediterranean class. They are the premiers in laying 
 and the standard by which the prolificness of other breeds is judged. 
 As to the origin of the Leghorns there are differences of opinion, and 
 there is but little information to be found anywhere concerning their 
 early history. It is generally conceded that a race of fowls bearing a 
 close resemblance in many respects to the Leghorn has existed in
 
 530 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Italy and other parts of the continent of Europe for a long period. 
 That this race has been widely disseminated admits also of littlo 
 doubt, inasmuch as at the present day it is known in Denmark and 
 other countries as the Italian. There seems to be good ground for the 
 statement that Leghorns were first introduced into America from 
 Italy. The story goes that as early as 1834 a vessel from Leghorn 
 brought to this country as a part of its cargo a small shipment of 
 fowls, which were at once named "Leghorns." They immediately 
 became popular, their prolific laying and nonsitting qualities being 
 recognized at this early date. 
 
 White and Brown Leghorns were the first varieties known. 
 Modern breeders are responsible for some of the subvarieties of the 
 breed ; and, in point of color at least, exhibition birds of to-day, even 
 of the older varieties, vary considerably from those seen at the 
 present time in Italy. 
 
 The question of profit in poultry has been decided in favor of 
 the egg-producing breeds. Leghorns are lively, active, and of a rest- 
 less disposition, the best of foragers, and will pick up a good part of 
 their living during the year. They are light eaters, and the cost of 
 raising them to maturity is about one-half that of the Asiatic varie- 
 ties. They mature early and feather quickly ; the pullets often begin 
 laying when 4% months old, and cockerels crow at a much younger 
 age. They are the best of layers, averaging between 150 and 200 
 eggs a year. Their eggs are pure white in color and weigh about 10 
 to the pound. As table fowls they are fairly good ; by many they are 
 considered excellent ; the only thing that can be said against them is 
 that they are small in size. Altogether, they are one of the most 
 profitable breeds of poultry that can be kept on the farm, and the 
 cheapness of their keeping will allow the raising of two Leghorns for 
 the cost of one Asiatic. They must be dryly housed in winter to lay 
 well and to protect their pendulous wattles from frostbite. 
 
 In shape a Leghorn cock should be graceful, with body of 
 medium length, broad at the shoulders, and tapering toward the 
 tail. The body should be well balanced on a fair length of shank and 
 thigh, the length of leg giving the bird its sprightly and proud car- 
 riage. Closeness of feathering adds to the general shape. The breast 
 should be full, beautifully curved, rather prominent, and carried well 
 forward; neck, long and well arched; back, of medium length, with 
 saddle rising in a sharp, concave sweep to the tail ; tail, large, full, 
 carried at an angle of 45 from the horizontal; the full, flowing tail, 
 and long, well-curved sickles are characteristics of the bird that are 
 much desired. Ear lobes should be white or creamy white. 
 
 The Leghorn hen in many respects resembles the cock, except- 
 ing carriage of comb and sexual differences. In shape and carriage 
 the hen is even more graceful and sprightly than the cock, very close 
 in feather, and rather small in body. Her breast is full, very round, 
 and carried high; legs fairly long, and shanks thin; tail carried at 
 an angle _of 40 from the horizontal. Her comb is the marvel of her 
 beauty; in the single-comb varieties it falls gracefully to one side, 
 but not in a limp manner nor so as to obscure the sight. Legs, comb,
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 531 
 
 and face are the same color as in the male, but the ear lobe is much! 
 smaller. There are eight standard varieties of Leghorns: The 
 Single-comb and Rose-comb Brown, Single-comb and Rose-comb 
 White, Single-comb and Rose-comb Buff, Single-comb Black, and 
 Silver Duckwing. 
 
 The Brown Leghorns are one of the prettiest of the Leghorn 
 varieties, but they are the most difficult of all to breed to feather. 
 They have merited the confidence of poultry lovers for a long time ; 
 their hardy constitutions have withstood rough usage, and promis- 
 cuous interbreeding has not effaced their characteristics. They are 
 a fixed variety, and their merits are noticeable from the newly 
 hatched chick to the oldest specimen. 
 
 The White Leghorn is the most generally bred of the Leghorn 
 varieties. It is, no doubt, the most advantageous to breed for profit, 
 and the easiest to raise on the farm. Being of one color in plumage, 
 these birds are more successfully raised and cared for than the parti- 
 colored varieties. Their plumage is pure white throughout, and 
 feathers other than white will disqualify them. It has been a matter 
 of much speculation as to which variety of Leghorns is most prolific 
 in egg production. This is a difficult question to adjust properly to 
 the satisfaction of the specialty breeders, but from a conservative 
 standpoint it is generally considered that the Whites have slightly 
 the advantage over the others. Phenomenal individual egg records 
 have been made by almost all varieties, but the foregoing opinion is 
 based upon the general results obtained from various sources. 
 
 The Buff Leghorn is a beautiful bird and one that will win its 
 way wherever bred. Buff-colored birds have many admirers, and 
 those who have bred them are pronounced in praise of their qualities. 
 Besides having the general characteristics of the Leghorn type, the 
 Buff Leghorn cock has a plumage of an even shade of rich golden 
 buff throughout. The undercolor is of a slightly lighter shade, but 
 even in color throughout. White and black feathers in plumage are 
 objectionable. The hen is of the same color as the cock. 
 
 The Black Leghorn is a popular bird and a favorite with those 
 who are partial to its color of plumage. The Black Leghorn is mis- 
 taken by many for the Black Minorca, but is quite different in type. 
 The Minorca is larger in size, has a longer body, larger comb, and 
 dark slate or nearly black shanks and toes. The plumage of the 
 Black Leghorn is a rich glossy black throughout. The comb, face 
 and wattles are bright red, the ear lobes white, and the shanks yellow 
 or yellowish black. 
 
 Silver Duckwing Leghorns are not generally bred in this coun- 
 try, though they are frequently seen in the showrooms. They are 
 considered as profitable as any of the other Leghorn varieties, and in 
 point of beauty they are very interesting and fascinating. The 
 hackle feathers of a Silver Duckwing Leghorn cock are pure silvery 
 white, without the slightest straw or creamy tinge, with a narrow 
 black stripe along the center of the lower hackle feathers; back, 
 saddle, and wing bow, silvery white; breast, under parts, wing bar, 
 and tail, lustrous black. The Silver Duckwing Leghorn hen nas a
 
 532 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 silvery gray hackle, with a narrow black stripe through the center of 
 each feather. The breast is light salmon, shading off to gray toward 
 the sides ; the body color, when viewed at a short distance, should ap- 
 pear gray, with a faint bluish tint all over. A tendency to ruddy 
 gray, either in ground color or penciling, is objectionable. The tail 
 is black, except the two upper feathers, which are light gray. The 
 penciling or markings are irregular or wavy. 
 
 The only distinguishing difference between the single-comb and 
 rose-comb varieties is in the comb. The Rose-comb Leghorns have 
 a small rose comb, square in front, firm and even upon the head, 
 tapering evenly from front to rear, without inclining to one side, the 
 top comparatively flat and covered with small points, terminating in 
 a well-developed spike in the rear. There is no standard weight given 
 for Leghorns. 
 
 Minorcas. This breed belongs to the Mediterranean class, and 
 they are placed next to the Leghorns in laying qualities. They are 
 in appearance very similar to the Leghorns. Their general outline 
 is, in fact, that of the latter, but with more length of body and 
 heavier in mold. The origin of the Minorcas, like that of so many 
 others of our profitable poultry, is much in doubt. Some persons are 
 of the opinion that they originally came from Minorca, one of the 
 Balearic Isles, in the Mediterranean Sea, while others contend that 
 they are a variety of the Black Spanish. Be that as it may, they are 
 one of the most profitable breeds of poultry for the farm. 
 
 The Minorcas are good for table purposes, the flesh being white 
 or light colored and fine grained. Their chief advantage is their egg 
 production. They are nonsitters and year-round layers. As winter 
 layers they are exceptionally good when kept under fairly favorable 
 circumstances. While the Leghorn surpasses them in the number of 
 eggs laid, the Minorca's eggs are larger and equal the output in bulk. 
 Their eggs are white and average 8 to the pound. They lay from 14 
 to 15 dozen a year. Being of an active, restless disposition they keep 
 in splendid condition and make good foragers. For suburban poultry 
 keeping they are very useful birds, and net good results to the keeper. 
 They are hardy, easily raised, and mature quickly. 
 
 The Minorca fowl is large in outline, well bodied, stands well up 
 on its legs, has a broad chest, and a long, broad back, with tail carried 
 at an angle of 40 from the horizontal. The body of the Minorca 
 male is long, broad, deep, tapering from front to rear. Thighs are 
 stout; shanks, long, stout in bone, and in color dark slate or nearly 
 black in the black varieties, and white or pinkish white in the white 
 variety. The comb of the Minorca is larger and more bulky than 
 that of the Leghorn. The wattles are thin and pendulous, corres- 
 ponding with the size of the comb ; the ear lobes are pure white. The 
 female is in body of the same general appearance as the male, rather 
 long, broad, and deep. Her comb is perceptibly larger than that of 
 the Leghorn female. Black Minorcas are in plumage a rich, glossy, 
 greenish black throughout, and gray tips are considered serious de- 
 fects. The White Minorca is not quite as popular as the Black. The 
 standard qualifications as to shape are the same for the two; in color
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 533 
 
 the white variety must be pure white throughout, feathers other than 
 white disqualifying. The comb, face and wattles are bright red, the 
 face being free from white ; the eyes are dark hazel in the Black va- 
 riety and red in the White variety. 
 
 Before concluding in regard to Minorcas it is worthy of note 
 that the latest acquisition to the breed is the Rose-comb Black Min- 
 orca, which is now a standard variety. The only objection that has 
 ever been raised against the varieties of the Mediterranean class is 
 their susceptibility to frostbite of the comb. Their combs are so large 
 that continued cold or exposure is sure to result in this injury. To 
 obviate this one defect, if it may be so termed, in this valuable class 
 of birds has been the purpose of breeders in producing a bird that 
 possesses the other qualifications, but with a low rose comb. The 
 comb of the Rose-comb Black Minorca male should be rose, square in 
 front, and set close and even on the head. The head of the female is 
 similar to that of the male. The standard weight of Single-comb 
 Black Minorca cocks is 9 pounds; hens, 7 l /z pounds; cockerels, 7V& 
 pounds, and pullets B 1 /^ pounds. The standard weight of Rose-comb 
 Black and Single-comb White Minorca cocks is 8 pounds ; hens, 6Mi 
 pounds ; cockerels, 6% pounds ; pullets, 5 l /2 pounds. 
 
 Black Spanish. The Black Spanish fowls constitute one of the 
 oldest varieties of domestic poultry. Their name has been identified 
 with the industry for hundreds of years, and their practical worth 
 on the farm has long been recognized. Their haughty bearing, large 
 red comb and wattles, and the white face and lobes peculiar to the 
 breed, contrasting with their glossy black plumage, render them most 
 striking birds. 
 
 White-faced Black Spanish have longbeen favorably known for 
 their exceptionally fine laying qualities. The pullets are early layers, 
 averaging 150 to 180 eggs a year; the hens begin somewhat later, 
 after molting, but compensate for any loss in number by the in- 
 creased size of the eggs. Hens and pullets alike are well above the 
 average for winter laying. Their eggs are large and white and of 
 good flavor. The white face is a distinguishing feature and should be 
 long, smooth, free from wrinkles, rising well over the eyes in an 
 arched form, extending toward the back of the head and to the base 
 of the beak, covering the cheeks and joining the wattles and ear 
 lobes; the greater the extent of surface the better. It should be puiv 
 white in color. The color of plumage throughout is rich greenish 
 black, and any gray is considered a serious defect. The shanks and 
 tH> are blue or dark leaden blue. The comb is single and bright red 
 in color. The wattles of males are bright red, except the inside of 
 the upper part, which is white ; and of females bright red ; the ear 
 lobes are pure w T hite. 
 
 The standard weight of Black Spanish cocks is 8 pounds; hens, 
 6% pounds; cockerels, 6^ pounds; pullets, 5V 2 pounds. 
 
 Andalusians. This as one of the prettiest of the feathered race, 
 being of a beautiful light and dark blue plumage. Tt is called the 
 Blue Andalu-qan, and is the only variriy of its breed. It is not as 
 popular in this country as it should be, owing to the ae&tunent
 
 534 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 against white skin and blue shanks. English and French poultry- 
 men prefer these qualities in a bird, and with them it is very popular. 
 The hens are nonsitters and splendid layers of large white eggs, near- 
 ly equaling in size those of the Minorcas. The chicks are hardy and 
 mature early, and the pullets begin laying when five or six months 
 old. 
 
 For farm purposes the Andalusians rank with the Leghorns and 
 the Minorcas, the preference being only in the color of their plum- 
 age. For fancy purposes they are an ideal bird on account of their 
 beauty. The hackle and saddle feathers are dark blue, approaching 
 black; breast a lighter shade of blue, each feather having a well- 
 defined lacing of a darker shade ; body and fluff similar in color to 
 breast ; primaries, slaty blue ; secondaries and wing coverts, similar in 
 color to breast ; wing bows, darker blue, approaching black ; tail and 
 sickle feathers, dark blue, approaching black ; shanks and toes, blue 
 or leaden blue. The standard weight of cocks is 6 pounds ; hens, 5 
 pounds ; cockerels, 5 pounds ; pullets, 4 pounds. 
 
 Anconas. The Mottled Anconas are one of the least common 
 varieties of the Mediterranean class. They are hardy, quick to ma- 
 ture, and prolific layers of white-shelled eggs. 
 
 In shape Anconas should be the same as Leghorns. The color of 
 the plumage should be a beetle-green ground, each feather tipped 
 with white ; the mottling should be even throughout, with no tenden- 
 cy to lacing. The eyes, face, comb, and wattles should be red, and 
 the ear lobes white. The color of the beak should be yellow, with the 
 upper mandible shaded with black, and that of the shanks and toes 
 should be yellow, or yellow shaded or mottled with black. There are 
 no standard weights for Anconas. 
 
 Redcaps. Redcaps are an old breed, mention of them being 
 made by some of the old authors. The large comb stands in their 
 way as popular birds, and unless it is square and even it makes a 
 miserable sight They mature early and are good layers. For 
 market purposes they are good, the size and quality of flesh being 
 recommendations for popular favor. They are reputed to be non- 
 sitters, though occasionally they are known to sit and hatch broods. 
 
 The comb is rose, large, not overhanging the eyes, square in 
 front, and uniform on each side. It must be firm and even upon the 
 head, without inclining to one side, the top covered with small points, 
 terminating at the rear in a well-developed, straight spike, and bright 
 red in color. Wattles and ear lobes are also bright red. In plumage 
 the male and 'the female are red, brown, and Black; the head of the 
 male is red, with blue-black hackle, each feather edged with red ; the 
 back is red and black, and the breast purplish black. 
 
 The head plumage of the female is brown in color; the neck 
 black, each feather laced with golden red; the back brown and black, 
 and the breast the same color. The shanks and toes are slate-colored 
 or leaden-blue. The standard weight of cocks is 7^ pounds; hens, 
 6 pounds ; cockerels, 6 pounds ; pullets, 5 pounds. 
 
 Hamburgs. These are in the front rank of egg producers. 
 There are six varieties of this breed: The Golden-spangled, Silver-
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 535 
 
 spangled, Golden-penciled, Silver-penciled, Black, and White. They 
 are all very pretty birds, and seldom fail to prove attractive and 
 profitable to the average breeder and fancier. Hamburgs are eco- 
 nomical fowls to keep ; besides being light eaters and great foragers, 
 they are prolific layers and nonsitters. The only thing against them 
 is trie smallness of their eggs. They lay a pretty, white-shelled egg, 
 but smaller in size than those of the Leghorn. There are some which 
 lay larger eggs than others, and by careful selection from year to yejar 
 of the birds which lay the largest eggs this defect may be remedied 
 and the size of the eggs improved. 
 
 The Silver-spangled Hamburg is perhaps the most beautiful as 
 well as the most popular variety of the Hamburgs. Its proud car- 
 riage and graceful and symmetrical form command attention when- 
 ever seen. Breeders of Hamburgs universally adopt the following as 
 a standard for the breed : Comb, rose, square at front, tapering nicely 
 into a spike, which inclines upward slightly; top of comb covered 
 with small points, firmly and evenly set on the head ; face, red ; ear 
 lobes, moderate size, round as possible, and clear white; shanks and 
 toes, leaden blue; carriage, graceful; plumage, profuse. Golden- 
 spangled -color, bay and black; back, glossy reddish bay, spangled 
 with greenish black ; neck and saddle nicely striped. 
 
 The feather markings of the penciled varieties differ greatly 
 from those of the spangled, the latter being commonly called "moon- 
 eyed," from the round or oval appearance of the spangles, while the 
 markings of the penciled varieties are in parallel bars of reddish bay 
 or black, or clear silvery white and black, as the case may be. White 
 and Black Hamburgs are solid white or solid black in plumage. No 
 standard weight is given for Hamburgs. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL BREEDS. 
 
 Polish. One of the oldest breeds of poultry is the Polish, its 
 ancestry being traced as far back as the sixteenth century. Among 
 the varieties mentioned in those early days was the "Woolly" fowl, 
 similar to the silky fowl of to-day. Mention in history is also made 
 of the "Frizzled" fowl, the "Persian" fowl, the "Turkish" fowl, and 
 tho "Crested" fowl. The latter is described as being a fowl with a 
 lark's crest. Another variety is known as the "Patavinian" fowl, 
 which is believed to bo the progenitor of the Polish breed. The cock 
 is described as exceedingly beautiful, being richly decorated with 
 five colors, black, white, green, red, and ocher. The 'body is black, 
 the neck covered with white feathers, and the wings and back partly 
 black and partly green; the tail is the same, but the roots of tho 
 feathers are whitish, and some of the flight feathers are also white. 
 The eyes are surrounded with red circles, the comb is very small, 
 the bill and feet are yellow, and the head is adorned with a beautiful 
 crest. In the hen there is no white except the white pellicle at the 
 opening of the ears. She is altogether of a greenish-black color, 
 with yellow feet and a very small comb slightly tinged with red. 
 
 The general characteristics of the Polish are those of small to 
 medium sized fowls, larger than tho Hamburgs; a full, round breast, 
 carried well forward; the neck of the cock beautifully arched; a
 
 536 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 straight back, broad at the shoulders, and narrowing rapidly to the 
 tail; large and closely folded wings; a large, well-expanded tail, 
 which in the cock is furnished with an abundance of tail coverts 
 and sickle feathers; shanks of a blue or slaty-blue color in all vari- 
 eties but the White-crested Black, in which they are of blue or dark 
 leaden blue ; and, above all, a large crest and a small V-shaped comb. 
 
 Polish chickens are bred extensively in this country and by 
 some are considered practical for general purposes; but, while some 
 breeders may secure good results, the Polish is not to be fully recom- 
 mended as a general-purpose fowl. They are considered more as 
 fancy birds and are generally bred for pleasure and the showroom. 
 Their large crests are against them, hindering their vision and 
 causing them to become listless, inactive, and suspicious. Extra 
 care must be given to be fairly successful in raising them, and their 
 houses and coops must be kept absolutely dry; the least water in 
 their crests is likely to result fatally .to them. They are fairly good 
 layers of medium-sized eggs and are nonsitters. For table purposes 
 they are considered good, their flesh being fine-grained, tender, and 
 sweet. . 
 
 Of the varieties of the Polish, the White-crested Black is the 
 most popular. The color of the plumage of this variety is a rich, 
 glossy black throughout, with the exception of the crest, which is 
 pure white; a narrow band of black feathers at the base of the crest 
 in front is allowable, but the fewer the better. The shanks and toes 
 are blue or dark leaden blue ; comb and wattles are bright red, and 
 ear lobes are white. 
 
 The Golden and Silver varieties are beautifully marked in 
 plumage. In the Golden the feathers are marked with rich golden 
 bay and laced with black. The feathers of the Silver are silvery 
 white, instead of the golden bay, and are laced w r ith black. The 
 White Polish is pure white throughout the plumage. The feathers 
 of the Buff Laced should be of a rich buff color with a narrow white 
 lacing. 
 
 There are two distinct subbreeds of Polish, the plain (non- 
 bearded) and the bearded. The latter has a thick, full beard, run- 
 ning back of the eye in a handsome curve, and in color correspond- 
 ing with the balance of the plumage. The eight varieties of Polish 
 are: White-crested Black, Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, Bearded 
 White, Buff Laced, Nonbearded Golden, Nonbearded Silver, and 
 Nonbearded White. No standard weight is given for Polish; they 
 are of medium size, about that of Leghorns. 
 
 CrevecoBurs. This variety is not so generally known in this 
 country as the Houdans, but in France, their native country, they 
 are bred extensively for market purposes. They are considered of 
 superior quality for the table, their flesh being white and delicately 
 flavored. They are of gentle disposition and do well in confine- 
 ment. They have weak constitutions and require extra care and 
 attention. As layers they are only fair, and are nonsitters. They 
 are a crested variety, have a leaf comb like the letter V in shape, 
 and in plumage are a rich, glossy black throughout. The standard
 
 MAINE STATION POULTRY HOUSES AND YARDS. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 BEEHIVES IN HAWAU ON STANDS TO AVOID ANT ATTACKS. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 539 
 
 weight of cocks is 8 pounds; hens, 7 pounds; cockerels, 7 pounds; 
 pullets, 6 pounds. 
 
 La Fleche. These fowls differ in character from the other two 
 varieties of French poultry mentioned. Houdans and Crevecoeurs 
 are more compactly built than La Fleche, the latter being tall and 
 rather gaunt looking, and in style and character denote the prepon- 
 derance of Spanish blood. Their plumage is a rich, glossy black 
 throughout. The comb is peculiar, being V-shaped, of moderate 
 size, branching and antler-like, somewhat like two horns pointing 
 upward. The birds are of extremely delicate constitution and diffi- 
 cult to raise. The flesh is more delicate and juicy than that of any 
 variety except the Game. They are moderate layers of very large, 
 white eggs, but are by no means so good as the Spanish in this 
 respect; as table fowl they are superior, but do not mature early 
 not nearly so early as the Houdans or the Crevecoeurs. The stand- 
 ard weight of cocks is 8^2 pounds; hens, 7 1 / pounds; cockerels, 
 T l /2 pounds; pullets, 6*/2 pounds. 
 
 GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS. 
 
 The Game is one of the most interesting breeds of domestic poul- 
 try. Its origin -and history are seemingly linked with all topics 
 concerning poultry and its origin. For a long time Games have 
 -been favorites in this country. They are noted for their vigor and 
 courage, having formerly been bred for fighting. By careful selec- 
 tion in breeding for many generations they have been brought to a 
 high state of perfection. The beauty of an exhibition Game is 
 much praised in this and other countries and the pens are generally 
 filled at the shows. They are sought after and courted by fanciers, 
 and as ornamental fowls they have few equals in the number of 
 their admirers. The practical qualities of the Game have never 
 been demonstrated with accuracy, their tall figures standing in the 
 way of popularity and general usefulness. It should not be under- 
 stood that they are unprofitable to keep, but rather not a fowl for 
 farm purposes. They are usually good layers and excellent table 
 fowl, their meat being fine-grained, tender, and juicy. They are 
 splendid sitters and mothers. Their tall, commanding, and striking 
 figures are decided contrasts to those of other poultry, and afford a 
 diversion to admirers of fine poultry. The varieties are Black- 
 breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden and Silver Duckwing, Red Pyle, 
 White, Black, and Birchen. 
 
 Bantams. These are purely ornamental poultry and are kept 
 for pleasure exclusively, though some maintain that they are profit- 
 able egg producers. They are sometimes spoken of as "The chil- 
 dren's fowl." The Sebright, Rose-comb and Cochin are among the 
 most popular. 
 
 Rose-Comb Bantams. These are miniature Hamburgs. There 
 are two varieties, the Black and the White. The cock has a small, 
 round head; a short and slightly curved beak; large prominent 
 bright eyes; rose comb, square in front, fitting firmly on -the lic.-itl 
 and ending in a spike with a slight upward curve; ll.it. closely fit- 
 ting ear lobes; broad, thin, and well-rounded wattles; neck small
 
 540 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 at the head, increasing in size as it approaches the shoulders, nicely 
 arched, and carried well back; abundant hackle of good length, 
 sweeping over the shoulders, with long and plentiful saddle 
 feathers; full round breast, carried prominently forward; plump, 
 compact, and symmetrical body; wings large, the points carried 
 low, the secondaries slightly expanded; full expanded tail carried 
 at an angle of 40 from the horizontal, and furnished with long 
 curving sickle^ and coverts ; short thighs, and short, clean, tapering 
 shanks. 
 
 The head of the hen should be small and neatly rounded ; eyes 
 bright and full; comb of the same character as the cock's, but 
 smaller; flat, smooth ear lobes; small wattles; the neck should be 
 short, tapering, and carried well back; the back short; the breast 
 full and prominent; the -body compact; wings large; tail full and 
 expanded; thighs short, and shanks short and tapering. 
 
 The plumage of the Rose-comb Black Bantam is lustrous 
 black, and of the White, pure white. The beak of the Black is 
 black, or dark horn color; of the White, white. The ear lobes of 
 both varieties are pure white. The shanks of the Black are dark, 
 leaden blue, or -black; of the White, white. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 51.) 
 
 (Publications quoted and consulted: F. B. 51; Pa. B. 87; 
 Minn. B. 91 ; Ark. B. 99; Colo. B. 164; Minn. B. 119; Kan. B. 150; 
 N. Dak. B. 78.) 
 
 INCUBATION. 
 
 Selection of Laying Hens. The first thing to notice concern- 
 ing the shape is, as to whether or not the hen is rangy or blocky. A 
 blocky hen indicates a meat producer, while the more rangy one 
 indicates the production of eggs. Since the development of the 
 egg, to a large extent, takes place in the region of the body below 
 the broad part of the back, that part of the body should be broader 
 than the fore part. This gives to the body a V-shaped appearance 
 as viewed from the top, the small part of the V lying toward the 
 front. When a hen is in heavy laying condition, her abdomen is 
 lower than the breast line. This gives the body the appearance of 
 being V-shaped as viewed from the side along the top and bottom, 
 lines, with the small part of the V toward the front. This enlarge- 
 ment of the body in the abdominal region makes the back appear 
 somewhat narrower, giving the body a V-shaped appearance from 
 the back downward on the sides as viewed from the rear. Thus, a 
 body V-shaped in three directions indicates large productive powers. 
 
 A large hen usually lays the larger eggs. This rule may not 
 hold true if she happen to be a heavy producer, for then the ten- 
 dency is to produce smaller eggs. With such fowls as the Leghorns, 
 whose tendency is to lay smaller eggs, the selection should be for 
 large size of body rather than small. A good layer is longer in 
 body, neck and legs than a meat-producing hen. She stands up 
 well and has a well spread tail. Observation has shown that a pinch- 
 tailed Leghorn is not generally as good a layer as is a fan-tailed one. 
 
 The character of the head furnishings is an indication of the 
 hen's laying condition. When a hen is in full laying her comb is
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 541 
 
 full and bright red. Some Plymouth Rocks when laying heavily 
 will have lopped combs, and therefore become disqualified as show 
 birds. When hens are molting they lose all their color in face and 
 comb and the size of their combs become very small, but as soon as 
 laying commences, the combs enlarge and the color returns. Many 
 instances have been noted with Leghorns and Minorcas which indi- 
 cate that the birds with the largest and reddest combs are in heavy- 
 laying condition. Exceptions to this rule sometimes occur, but they 
 are rare. 
 
 A laying hen is nearly always a singing hen. She works and 
 hunts for food all day, is the first off of the roost and the last to go 
 to roost. She is nervous and very active, keeping herself up to the 
 greatest passible pitch. 
 
 The pelvic bone test is one which some have claimed as final 
 and conclusive. Immediately below the tail at the end of side 
 pieces of the back are two somewhat bony protuberances. These 
 are called the pelvic or "lay" bones, and are just above the vent 
 through which the eggs must pass. When an egg is laid, these 
 bones must be forced apart to allow its free passage. When these 
 bones are soft and pliable, and spread sufficient to allow three 
 fingers to be placed between them, it is an indication that the hen 
 is laying. If they are hard and bony, and close together, the hen 
 would not be considered as laying at that time. Experience has 
 shown that this method will usually tell whether or not a hen is 
 laying at the time the examination was made. 
 
 To sum up, an ideal laying hen should conform as nearly as 
 possible to the following: (1) She must be healthy; (2) comb, 
 wattles and face, red in color; (3) eye bright and lustrous; (4) 
 neck not .<hort, but rather medium to long; (5) breast broad and 
 long, sloping upward; (6) back, long and broad; (7) abdomen, 
 wide and deeper than breast; (8) shanks, well spread and rather 
 long; (9) V-shaped in three ways, viz., (a) on sides, front to rear, 
 (6) top and bottom, front to rear, (c) base of tail, downwards; 
 (10) well spread tail. (Kansas B. 164.) 
 
 Eggs for Hatching. One should be as careful in selecting 
 oggs for hatching as in selecting parent stock. Select eggs of a 
 medium size and an average as to color and shape. Let the selec- 
 tion be influenced by the average product of the hen or breed. An 
 unusually large egg for the breed or hen may be a monstrosity and 
 can not be expected to hatch. An unusually small egg may be 
 defective and should not be incubated. An egg of unusual length 
 or one of unusual rotundity should not be placed under a hen nor 
 in an incubator. An even, uniform lot, assorted as to size, color, 
 and shape, will be apt to give the best results. Freshness is a prime 
 necessity. While an egg six weeks old may hatch, the chick will 
 be weak and hard to raise. Fresh eggs hatch earlier, and the chicks 
 from them are stronger than those from older eggs. As a rule, 
 eggs more than twelve days old should not be placed in an incu- 
 bator. This is one of the reasons why eggs from a flock numbering 
 from ten to twelve hens are more apt to hatch than are eggs from a
 
 542 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 flock of only three or four hens. They do not have to be stored so 
 long before getting a sufficient number for a setting. Eggs for 
 hatching should be clean; if not clean they should be washed in 
 tepid water and carefully dried with a clean, soft cloth. This wash- 
 ing does not injure the egg, but it must be done quickly and care- 
 fully, or the jarring of the contents may ruin it for hatching. As 
 fast as the eggs are washed and dried they should be covered with 
 a layer of clean cloth or absorbent cotton to prevent their becoming 
 chilled. It is good practice to stand the eggs in a cool quiet place, 
 each with the large end uppermost, for a period of twelve hours 
 before placing for incubation. This balances the yolk in the center 
 and locates the air cell. 
 
 In this connection it is well to bear in mind that eggs laid the 
 day they are set will hatch several hours earlier than those that are 
 a week older. Eggs waiting for incubation should be kept at a 
 temperature of about 60 F., although they will stand a variation 
 of temperature from 40 to 100 F. They should not be allowed to 
 dry out, nor' should they be exposed to a current of cold air, steam, 
 or vapor. During storage, eggs for incubator use should be partly 
 turned every day. A little attention to these simple directions will 
 make quite a difference in the possibilities of fertile eggs and will 
 greatly augment the percentage of chicks. (Mich. B. 266, Agr. 
 Dep. F. B. 236.) 
 
 Color of Eggs. It is a matter of common observation that 
 hens' eggs vary rather widely in color, ranging from a clear white 
 to a decided light brown. Domestic poultry have descended from, 
 several wild strains, the various breeds being formed by numerous 
 crossing. The color of the eggshell, it is generally believed, is a 
 characteristic which has been transmitted from the early ancestors 
 of our modern breeds. 
 
 There is no constant relation between the color of the shell 
 and the composition of the egg, although there is a popular belief 
 in some localities that the dark-shelled eggs are "richer." That 
 there are no differences in the physical properties and chemical 
 composition between brown-shelled and white-shelled eggs was 
 shown by investigations carried on at the California and the Mich- 
 igan experiment stations, this work having been summarized in 
 earlier publications of this Department. 
 
 The color of the shell has, however, an effect upon market 
 value, the brown-shelled eggs bringing the higher price, for in- 
 stance, in the Boston market, and white-shelled eggs in the New 
 York market. In England the preference is decidedly in favor of 
 the tinted eggs. Of common breeds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, 
 Cochins, Brahmas, and Langshans, among others, lay brown-shelled 
 eggs, and Leghorns and Minorcas white-shelled eggs. 
 
 At the Maine Experiment Station breeding experiments with 
 Wyandottes and Plymouth Rocks have been carried on for a num- 
 ber of years for the purpose of establishing strains with highly de- 
 veloped laying qualities. The recorded data show that though both 
 breeds lay tinted eggs the depth of color varies decidedly with indi-
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 
 
 543 
 
 vidual birds in the case of each breed. By careful selection of 
 breeding stock, therefore, it should be possible to control the color 
 of the eggshell to a great extent, so that it may be made to meet 
 any market demand. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 262.) 
 
 Incubation. The history of incubation is rather obscure. Nat- 
 ural incubation, which is dependent upon the instinct of the mother 
 hen, seems to be conducted by the modern hen in just about the 
 same manner as that of the barnyard fowl of fifty or more years 
 ago. Artificial incubation, or hatching by machinery, is known to 
 be an old idea, and yet very little information upon original proc- 
 esses is to be found in our libraries. Eggs were hatched by arti- 
 ficial means centuries ago. Machines were invented and used suc- 
 cessfully for this purpose by the Egyptians long before the Christian 
 era. Very recently some of these hatching ovens have been found 
 by explorers. Some of them depended upon the customary fuel for 
 their supply of heat, while others relied upon stones heated in the 
 sun, and some, even, were found that obtained the necessary heat 
 from lamps. Besides the above sources of incubation heat, mention 
 can be made of decomposing animal and vegetable matter used 
 long ago with unknown success. Not many winters ago the writer 
 had the pleasure of forking out a live and healthy chicken from a 
 heap of compost near the door of his stable. Numerous other in- 
 stances of accidental incubation have been related, and man's in- 
 genuity has been exercised to devise machines and methods that 
 will insure the transition of the dormant egg into the living chick. 
 
 The whole theory of incubation is based upon the fact that, if 
 a fertile egg is kept for a sufficient period of time under certain 
 conditions of heat, moisture, and position, it will be transformed 
 into a healthy fowl. 
 
 The period of incubation varies with different species of fowls. 
 The average period of natural incubation is a little over twenty, or 
 about twenty-one days, for the egg of the common hen. This period 
 may be somewhat shortened or prolonged by variations in the con- 
 duct of the mother hen, and possibly by changes in the weather. 
 Should the woather be moderate and the hen quiet and faithful, we 
 need not be surprised if the eggs are all hatched by the close of the 
 twentieth or even the nineteenth day. Again, if the weather be 
 extreme or the hen restless and neglectful, we need not look for all 
 the eggs to hatch until the close of the twenty-first or the beginning 
 of the twenty-second day. The same applies to eggs from other 
 fo\vl>', except, of course, that each has its own period of incubation. 
 
 Period of Incubation. 
 
 Name of fowl. 
 
 Days. 
 
 Name of fowl. 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 28 
 
 Turkey 
 
 28 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 544 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 In spite of all notions to the contrary, the process of hatching 
 can be suspended and held in check for several days without total 
 destruction of the germ. This fact is of practical importance, and, 
 if remembered, may save the breeder a good hatch when, because of 
 some accident or oversight, a lot of eggs has been left without out- 
 side heat and allowed to cool. Such eggs, if placed at a proper 
 temperature, may hatch fairly well, provided this temperature is 
 maintained a few days longer than the usual period of incubation. 
 The writer has known hatching to be delayed to the twenty-second, 
 in one instance, until the twenty-fourth day by accidents to his 
 incubators. Hence, where accidents of this kind occur it is wise to 
 keep the eggs warm a day or two overtime, with the expectation 
 that, while incubation may be delayed, the germ is still alive and 
 will develop. This brings to mind one of the greatest advantages 
 of the incubator to the farmer or the farmer's wife to people who 
 are accustomed to rely upon the mother hen and prefer to raise 
 chickens by natural incubation. Many times the hen will get sick, 
 will die, or without any apparent excuse will leave the nest, and 
 unless another hen is ready to take her place the eggs will spoil. 
 A small incubator in the house will be found useful upon such 
 occasions. The eggs can be removed from the nest and placed in 
 the warm incubator and hatched or kept there until another hen 
 is ready to take up the work. For this purpose alone an incubator 
 is worth its price to any farmer who raises poultry. Many times 
 has the writer saved valuable clutches of eggs by the use of one of 
 these machines when it was found some perverse hen had deliber- 
 ately abandoned her nest. 
 
 Natural Incubation. After selecting the eggs they must either 
 ibe entrusted to hens or an incubator; this must be decided according 
 to circumstances. If it is not the intention to keep many hens or 
 raise early chicks, by using one of the heavier breeds of fowls, one 
 can get along very well without an incubator. Some poultry raisers 
 claim they can care for a machine with less trouble and expense 
 than the necessary hens, no matter what breed they may keep. One 
 thing is certain, however, the machine will bring off chicks at any 
 season of the year that may be desired, while one must wait until 
 the hens get ready to sit. If Leghorns or other nonsitting breeds 
 are kept, an incubator is an almost indispensable part of the equip- 
 ment. Some individuals of nonsitting breeds may make good 
 mothers, but so many of them cease sitting after the first few days 
 that they are very unsatisfactory, as a rule. If individuals of other 
 breeds as Cochins, Wyandottes, etc., seem inclined to sit and would 
 make good mothers, they may be used, providing chickens are 
 wanted at that time. It is claimed that the hen's time is too valu- 
 able to waste in sitting, but if she is properly cared for while 
 broody, it will serve as a resting period, and she will probably lay 
 about as many eggs in the year as she would if confined to the coop 
 for a few days to break up the desire to incubate. After a hen hag 
 hatched and reared a brood of chicks she will usually begin laying 
 again and apparently seem to try to make up for lost time. It is a
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 545 
 
 mistake to kill a hen just because she raised a brood of nice chicks. 
 She probably will be one of the best layers the next winter. Some 
 hens, however, seem to be chronic sitters; these are of little value 
 for anything but hatching chicks and might as well be killed if 
 they are not wanted for that purpose. Such hens develop but few 
 eggs at a time and can never make a good year's record. 
 
 Breeds Adapted to Incubation. The question of the relative 
 merits of the different breeds as sitters often arises. There is much 
 difference of opinion on this subject and also a great difference in 
 the individual hens themselves. In general, however, the Cochins 
 and Wyandottes make very good sitters. Some may prefer Plym- 
 outh Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, etc., but we believe that no other 
 breeds are as nicely feathered for incubation purposes as the Wyan- 
 dottes and Cochins. It is generally conceded that Leghorns, Minor- 
 cas and others of the special egg producing breeds do not make 
 good mother hens. Some of these make good sitters, but far too 
 many will prove worthless for the purpose. 
 
 The Nest. In the first place one should select a good location 
 for the sitting hen. When they are located where others can lay 
 in with them, trouble is sure to occur, as they generally quarrel 
 over the nest, thus breaking and soiling the eggs. Therefore, it is 
 essential to secure a place where there cannot be any possibility of 
 disturbance. The nest may be made of soft hay sprinkled with 
 sulphur and powdered tobacco stems, or some other good insect 
 powder to prevent the ravages of lice. After nightfall select those 
 hens that have been sitting steadily for a few days and remove 
 them to the prepared nests. If they do not settle down contentedly 
 at first do not entrust them with eggs, until safe to do so. Some 
 hens prove too cranky to be profitable even though they do not 
 cease incubation entirely, or spoil the nest of eggs; they should be 
 taken off the nest and fed once or twice to test their dispositions. 
 If they go back on the nest of their own accord it is safe to entrust 
 them with eggs. If they do not go back at the end of half an hour, 
 catch and place them gently on the nest. Some hens learn to go 
 back quickly and take their own nest, while others are very slow. 
 
 A very serviceable nest is made by cutting a door in the side 
 of a barrel and hinging it fast with light hinges or straps. Place 
 old newspapers on the bottom and then make a nice firm nest of 
 soft hay. Be sure and make the nest so large that the eggs will not 
 pile up on each other \mder the hen, but not large enough to allow 
 them to roll away from her body. The top of the barrel can then 
 'be covered Avith boards, old sacks or anything of the kind con- 
 venient. The top hoop may be removed and a sack fastened down 
 the same as in shipping potatoes to market in barrels. Small holes 
 can be bored in the side to admit plenty of air. Good nests may be 
 made from boxes about 15"xl5"xlo". Remove one side with the 
 exception of a 6" piece at one edge which serves as the bottom of 
 the nest on the front side and holds the nest material in place. 
 Hinge the part removed to one edge, thus making a door that can 
 be quickly opened or closed. Nests of this style may be made in.
 
 546 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sections of five or six and placed one above the other, when one 
 has to be economical of space. A small room may be lined around 
 next to the wall with such nests and the blank space in the center 
 left for feed and water dishes. 
 
 Food and Management of Sitting Hens. If the hen is well 
 disposed and can be left to come off the nest at will, little or no 
 trouble is involved. If for any reason the hen has to be confined 
 to the nest she should be taken off regularly once a day and allowed 
 to eat and drink. Good sound corn is about the best food for sitting 
 hens, although they may be fed such grains as wheat, oats, barley, 
 or buckwheat. Rye is not recommended, as the hens do not like it 
 and it does not prove to be a very healthful food for them. Grit, in 
 the form of coarse sand or broken stone, should be kept convenient. 
 Water must also be supplied. If the weather is hot, keep water 
 inside the nest so that the hen can drink whenever she desires. 
 Otherwise she becomes very thirsty and drinks to much at once, 
 often resulting in bowel trouble and diarrhoea. Some take the 
 hens off the nest in the morning and allow them a little run in the 
 wet grass. In that way the hen's feathers become moistened slightly, 
 thus adding a little moisture to the eggs each day. If the nest is 
 in an extremely dry place moisture should be added in some way. 
 There are several ways of keeping the eggs sufficiently moist. The 
 practice of allowing the hens to run in the wet grass each morning 
 is one of the best. Another is to place damp earth and sods under 
 the eggs. A third method, and one probably most largely used, is 
 to sprinkle or dip the eggs in water heated to 103 F. This is done 
 at least twice, once about the 14th and again the 18th day of the 
 hatch. If the eggs are on the ground or in a damp place no mois- 
 ture should be added. When removing the hens from the nest, 
 handle them carefully. Many good hens are spoiled by careless 
 or rough handling. If the hen has to be caught in order to put her 
 back on the nest do not place her directly on the eggs but on the 
 edge of the nest, thus allowing her to cover them in her own cau- 
 tious way. 
 
 Precautions Against Lice and Mites. Sitting hens must be 
 kept free from lice and mites. In order to rid them of these pests 
 take each one gently by the legs and with the head hanging down- 
 ward, dust the feathers well with some good insect powder 
 and replace on the nest. It would be best to repeat this about the 
 10th and 18th days of the hatch. Attention to lice at this period 
 may save many chicks later in the season. A hen cannot be a satis- 
 factory sitter if she is infested with lice. Very often those that are 
 well fitted by nature for good mothers are driven from the nest by 
 insect pests. The lice running around over the body and gnawing 
 at the skin and feathers cause intense itching and in trying to get 
 away from these pests the hen forgets all about her desire to sit and 
 deserts the nest. If strongly inclined to sit she may desert one nest 
 and move to another, trying to escape her enemies. If a hen shows 
 any sign of uneasiness be careful to inspect her body for lice and 
 also the cracks and crevices about the nest for mites. If either is
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 547 
 
 found, thoroughly dust her once more, sponge off the eggs with a 
 damp cloth and move to a clean place. Burn everything about the 
 nest and either thoroughly disinfect or burn it. Wage constant 
 warfare against lice and mites during the period of incubation and 
 the result will be a clean lot of chicks. It has been said that three 
 lice will break up a sitting hen or kill a brood of chicks. This 
 probably is not always true, but it is certain that a hen that starts 
 to incubate with three lice on her body will probably have enough 
 by the end of the hatch, unless properly cared for, to infest all the 
 chicks and render the whole brood either very unsatisfactory, or 
 worthless. An ounce of lice powder at the beginning of the hatch 
 is worth a good many pounds after the chicks are a few weeks old. 
 (Mich. B. 245.) 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. 
 
 THE INCUBATOR. 
 
 The machine used in artificial incubation or hatching is called 
 an Incubator. There are so many different kinds of machines used, 
 that a description of them all is quite impossible in an article of 
 this kind. At the present time they are all constructed upon similar 
 principles and along the same lines, and nearly all of them derive 
 their heat from lamps that burn kerosene. In some of the hot-air 
 machines the heat is applied through the medium of heated air, 
 while in others the hot-water machines the eggs are supplied 
 with heat from pipes filled with hot water. 
 
 Hot-Air and Hot-Water Incubators. In the hot-air incubator 
 a common kerosene lamp is used to furnish the current of hot air 
 which passes over and around the egg chamber and which keeps 
 the eggs at the proper temperature for hatching. Like the hot- 
 water machine, it is supplied with a regulator, which, acting upon 
 a valve or damper, regulates the admission of heat to the egg 
 chamber. 
 
 In this incubator water is heated and forced through metal 
 lubes over the eggs, thus distributing heat throughout the egg 
 chamber. It is supplied with a regulator which works upon the 
 same principle as does that of the hot-air machine. 
 
 PARTS OF AN INCUBATOR. 
 
 The selection of the lamp is so important that all poultry men 
 should be warned against buying a poor lamp. Manufacturers, as 
 well as purchasers, should remember that while the lamp is half 
 the incubator the burner is half the lamp. The lamp is the primary 
 source of heat in both hot-air and hot-water machines. Many kinds 
 of lamps have been tried and many patents have been granted 
 upon lamps and parts thereof for incubator use, but the tendency 
 is to discard all that are in any manner complicated and to return 
 to the plain, old-fashioned burner and chimney. The oil reservoir 
 should be made of metal, either copper or galvanized iron, as those 
 made of glass are too liable to break and are too heavy to handle 
 conveniently. This reservoir should have a flat bottom and a flat 
 top. It should have a capacity exceeding the twenty-four hours'
 
 548 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 demand of the machine. This is very important, for sometimes it 
 happens that the operator is detained for some reason and can not 
 reach his machine at the proper hour, and in such a case the lamp 
 must contain oil enough for a few hours overtime. This reservoir 
 should be plain and smooth outside and inside. It should be well 
 made and well finished, having no rough projections or slivers of 
 metal or solder to catch the hands, the clothing, or the cleaning 
 cloths. Attached to this reservoir, or body of the lamp, should be 
 a good, strong handle large enough for the hand of the operator. 
 Better no handle at all than one that is slender, sharp-edged, flim- 
 sily attached, or too small for the use of more than one or two 
 fingers. Select a lamp with a handle that is broad, strong, smooth, 
 and firmly attached. The lamp is for use, and it should be built 
 to stand handling. It must be strong in order that it may be con- 
 venient. 
 
 Burner. The burner is the very important part of the incu- 
 bator lamp. It should be made with the greatest regard to stability 
 and accuracy. The flat>wick tube is the most common, and, when 
 the burner is properly constructed, it answers every purpose. But 
 many manufacturers are careless about the quality of their burners, 
 and are sending out flimsy and poorly made articles that are diffi- 
 cult to manipulate and are imperfect in action. A little careless- 
 ness in selecting a burner has led to the condemnation of many a 
 good incubator. The burner should be made of good material, 
 such as brass or copper, and never of poor material, such as iron or 
 plated tin. The wheel or lever used in raising and lowering the 
 wick must be stout, large enough for its purpose, easy to find, and 
 must turn exactly and easily. Never waste any time upon a burner 
 that does not work promptly and readily, so far as the wick is con- 
 cerned. If it turns hard, or does not turn to the thirty-second of 
 an inch, it is useless and will cause trouble. 
 
 The tube holding the wick should be strongly made of material 
 that will not break, spring, or bend, and it should be so adjusted to 
 the size of the wicks furnished with the outfit that the wick can 
 pass up and down freely without pinching or binding. On the 
 other hand, it should not be so large or loose as to allow the escape 
 of gas along the side of the wick. In one case the pinching of the 
 wick will interfere with capillary attraction, and in the other the 
 looseness of the wick will cause an uncertain or unsteady flame. 
 The wick tube should be perfectly true and smooth across the top. 
 A rough edge with notches, depressions, or projections of metal or 
 brazing will make it difficult to trim the wick; and a poorly 
 trimmed wick gives off an uncertain degree of heat. Alongside the 
 wick should be a small tube for the escape of surplus gas or vapors 
 from the reservoir, but this tube must never project above or even 
 to the top of the wick tube, for if it does it will interfere with trim- 
 ming and be likely to fill with cinder or soot. 
 
 The space under the wick screen should -be wide open. The 
 hinge to the cap should be very strong and work freely to the fullest 
 extent. The snap, or catch, to the cap should have proper strength;
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 549 
 
 and tension, and should fasten the wick cap firmly to the burner. 
 Every detail should be examined before the burner is sold. The 
 following questions should be settled before the lamp is packed 
 for shipment: Does it leak? Does it fit? Does the elevator turn 
 easily and accurately? Is the wick tube perfect? Is the top of the 
 wick tube level and smooth? Can the wick be trimmed nicely? 
 Has the burner a chimney that has been made to fit? Does the 
 screw or snap that fastens the chimney work easily and properly? 
 Does the thread of the burner fit the thread in the socket of the 
 lamp? This last question may seem unnecessary, but the writer 
 has purchased incubators having burners which could not be turned 
 into the lamp. All these little matters count and have much to do 
 with the success or failure of the hatch. While some of the imper- 
 fections of a lamp are visible, others can not be discovered until 
 an attempt is made to use the lamp in heating an incubator, or to 
 clean, trim, and fill it. 
 
 Chimney. The chimneys of different makes of incubators 
 vary greatly in form. Few are well made, whatever their shape. 
 The base or lower circumference should be smooth and level. The 
 spiral or bevel of conical chimneys should be so cut that the chim- 
 ney stands plumb when on the lamp. The top circumference 
 should be smooth and without slivers upon the edge to cut the 
 hands or catch the cloth in cleaning. The mica front should be 
 large enough to show the full width and height of the flame, and 
 this mica should be fastened neatly and securely. Allowance should 
 be made for contraction and expansion. Referring again to the 
 forms of chimneys, the most satisfaction is derived from those of 
 a cylindrical outline. They are preferred to those of a conical out- 
 line, although those of the inverted-cone form are convenient to 
 handle and, because of their wide, open tops and short canal, very 
 easy to clean. 
 
 Nearly every incubator catalogue describes its lamp in glowing 
 terms, but a large number of the lamps sold are useless and dis- 
 credit their manufacturers. It would cost but little more to make 
 them better, and, if they were properly inspected and tested before 
 shipment, it would hardly be necessary to devote so much space to 
 this subject. 
 
 Wick. Nothing has been found yet that takes the place of the 
 plain cotton wick. Other materials have been tried in the so-called 
 "wickless machines," but while wicks of these new materials are 
 more durable than cotton, they need about the same attention in 
 cleaning if not in trimming. The wick should be of medium 
 weave and some firmness and be made to fit the burner in which it 
 is to be used. 
 
 Body of the Incubator. The body of an incubator should be 
 mounted upon good strong legs and at a reasonable height from 
 the floor. If too high or too low, the machine is very inconvenient 
 to operate. The writer prefers that the top of the incubator be 
 about 36 inches from the floor. Manufacturers of incubators 
 should remember that these machines are moved about and are
 
 550 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sometimes required to carry weight, and they should furnish them 
 with legs for utility rather than for ornament. The body of an 
 incubator should be made of nonshrinkable material and should 
 be air-tight and have well-fitted joints. None but the very best of 
 workmen should be allowed to work upon an incubator. More de- 
 pends upon a good carpenter than upon a good painter, and the 
 value of any incubator lies, not in how well does it look, but in how 
 well it is made. The walls of the body should be three in number, 
 making two air spaces, and each of these three walls should be well 
 constructed and with good tight joints. If each of these walls is 
 not tightly made, then the manufacturer should not boast of his 
 air spaces, for an open space can not be called an air space. The 
 outside surface of the body should be of smooth finish. Seams, flut- 
 ing, beadwork, and unnecessary ornamentation should be avoided. 
 It is easy to see how vermin can infest an incubator that is made 
 of beaded matching. The top of an incubator should be smooth 
 and unincumbered. It is useful as a work table in testing, cooling, 
 or turning eggs, and it should be a clear, free surface. It is quite 
 an inconvenience to have part of the regulator upon the top of the 
 machine. A good feature of some incubators is that they have the 
 regulator either at the end of the machine or under cover, if at the 
 top of the table. 
 
 The inside of an incubator, or the space known as the egg 
 chamber, should be well finished. No bad joints and no slivers or 
 other evidences of bad workmanship are allowable. The trays 
 should be smooth, well made, and should slide easily upon the 
 tracks. If the trays stick or hang when being drawn out or pushed 
 in, the machine is defective and should not be accepted by the pur- 
 chaser. Such a defect will not cause loss of time and patience merely, 
 but it may cause the loss of a trayful of eggs. The space called the 
 "egg chamber" should be deep enough from above downward, or, as 
 carpenters express it, "high enough between joints," that the trays 
 and eggs have plenty of space, and so that when necessary the hand 
 or thermometer can be passed back over the eggs. This is impor- 
 tant. There should be at least S 1 /^ inches space between the top of 
 the eggs and the heating tank. Convenience and evenness of tem- 
 perature both demand that the top of the eggs should not be too 
 near the source of heat. Besides this point, the air around the eggs 
 will be better because of this space. 
 
 Nursery. The nursery, or chick, space below the trays should 
 be ample. From the bottom of the tray to the floor of the nursery 
 should be a space of nearly 4 inches. This space will give the chicks 
 in the nursery a chance to stand erect and also allow the trays to 
 be moved in or out without danger to the youngsters below. One 
 of our best incubators is faulty in this respect, and, while it is a 
 very successful hatcher, it decapitates or otherwise injures several 
 of the chicks every time the tray is drawn out or replaced. Better 
 no space below than a space that is too limited. The removable 
 nursery is one of the most valuable improvements that has been 
 made in incubator attachments for many years, and all who have
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 551 
 
 used it agree that no machine is complete without it. It gives an 
 abundance of room for the chicks as they drop from the tray above 
 and it permits the removal of the chicks from the nursery without 
 disturbing any unhatched eggs that may be left in the tray. The 
 bottom of the nursery is covered with a canvas carpet so that the 
 chicks will not be lamed or injured by slipping. The floor of the 
 removable nursery is usually attached to the front of the egg cham- 
 ber at right angles and in such a way that the w r hole nursery 
 can be drawn out as easily as one usually pulls out the drawer of 
 his desk. Such an arrangement makes cleaning and inspection 
 easy, besides giving one access to the chicks in cases of partial or 
 delayed hatches. It also makes it possible to use the nursery to its 
 greatest advantage. The first twenty-four hours are very impor- 
 tant ones in the life of a chick, and a properly constructed remov- 
 able nursery is the best place that has been found for its safety and 
 welfare. 
 
 The tray should be strongly made of well-dressed material well 
 put together. It should not spring nor sag when loaded with eggs. 
 It should be made of soft wood, and the nails and screws used 
 should be long enough to hold the parts firmly together. A flimsy 
 or poorly made trav is to be avoided. It means loss of time and 
 loss of eggs by breaking. The writer once bought an incubator the 
 trays of which were put together with carpet tacks and screws too 
 short to hold the different parts in position. The attempt to use 
 was accompanied by the loss of nearly a trayful of eggs, and he 
 hopes that his readers will profit by his experience and examine all 
 trays carefully before setting up a new incubator. Many trays are 
 partitioned by wire into small spaces, each capable of holding five 
 or six eggs. As a rule such trays are unsatisfactory. A simple 
 division by three-cornered wooden strips into transverse rows or 
 ranks is highly satisfactory, and it is preferable to any other form 
 of tray. The edged strips of wood stiffen the tray without encum- 
 bering it, they take up no egg room, and do not interfere with the 
 process of turning. The tray must not be allowed to slide all the 
 way back against tho wall of the egg chamber. A space of at least 
 2 Ms inches should be allowed between the tray and the back wall 
 of the machine. A block should be fastened to the top of the trark 
 at its farther end to prevent the operator from forcing the tray back 
 and closing up this space. This is important, as the chicks are apt 
 to be pinched, crippled, or killed if the tray can be pushed too far 
 back. A similar space should be allowed between the front edge 
 of the egg tray and the door. The chick needs this space when it 
 drops from the tray to the nursery. 
 
 Returning to our consideration of the body of the incubator, 
 much can bo said about the arrangement of the door, or hinged 
 window, in front. Select a machine with a double-glass door. The 
 two layers of glass must have 1 inch of space between them so that 
 they can be cleaned. Many manufacturers are careless about the 
 fit of the door. It should open and close easily, but snugly. If it 
 docs not open and close easily, one is liable to jar the eggs and dis-
 
 552 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 turb the level of the incubator. The sash of the door should be 
 heavy enough for strength, but not so wide as to interfere with the 
 view of the eggs or the thermometer. The glass in the door should 
 be wide enough in the perpendicular to afford the operator a full 
 view of the egg chamber without stooping or kneeling. It is not 
 a view of the wooden edge of the tray that the operator wants ; it ig 
 a view of the thermometer, the eggs, or the chicks. The glass 
 should be located so as to permit this view, but if the glass is too 
 narrow or not properly placed, or if the margin of the sash is too 
 wide, the window will be of little value to the operator. This 
 matter is worthy the attention of the manufacturer, for there is quite 
 a prejudice against a machine the temperature of which can not be 
 watched without the removal of the thermometer from it. Many 
 manufacturers send machines with doors imperfectly fitted, the glass 
 of which is covered with paint, putty, or varnish, which can not be 
 removed, and it is impossible to read the thermometer through such 
 doors. Once more purchasers are warned to avoid the machine that 
 will not permit them to read the thermometer without opening the 
 door. Manufacturers should bear in mind that the light should 
 strike the egg tray from above instead of from below. 
 
 Thermometer. It is really surprising that up to the present 
 time so little improvement has been made in thermometers. An in- 
 strument of this kind should be plainly legible and it should be con- 
 venient to handle. The usual practice of glazing the back of the 
 tube with white porcelain makes the reading of the temperature very 
 difficult. There seems to be no good reason for this. This white 
 background makes a grayish shade, the color of the mercurial col- 
 umn, and unless the light is very good and strikes the figures from 
 the right direction it is almost impossible to ascertain the tempera- 
 ture without removing the thermometer from the machine. This is 
 bad, as the column is likely to contract or expand while being con- 
 veyed to the light. The column should be large enough to be seen 
 from a distance of at least 4 feet, and the markings and figures 
 should be few and very plain. Many of the frames in which the 
 glass is set are cumbersome, take up too much room, obscure the 
 view, have sharp corners or long legs to catch upon the tray or 
 sleeve, and yet are too unstable to stand alone or stay where placed. 
 A thermometer with a red or green background, a large mercurial 
 column, a few plain marks and figures, and mounted upon a con- 
 venient yet substantial frame will be a boon to poultry men. Im- 
 provements will be made, and it is well for purchasers to ask for the 
 latest and the best. In connection with thermometers it is well to 
 state that the so-called "magnifying lens" is a failure and much more 
 difficult to read than the plain round tube unless it is held in exactly 
 a certain position with reference to the light. The thermometer tube 
 need not be over 4 inches long, and the less metal it has attached to 
 it the better. In regard to the accuracy of the thermometer, almost 
 any physician will test it for you by the side of his clinical ther- 
 mometer, which has about the same scale and range.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 553 
 
 Regulator. Many are the methods that have been tried for auto- 
 matically regulating the temperature of the egg chamber. So far 
 all of them depend upon the principle of contraction and expansion. 
 The demand is for some simple device that will allow the tempera- 
 ture to rise so high and no higher, and that will maintain the tem- 
 perature at that degree regardless of the weather or external influ- 
 ences. Most regulators act upon a damper over the top of the lamp, 
 and, by opening or closing the same, regulate the amount of heat 
 that passes into the incubator. The expanding horseshoe-shaped 
 bar, the elliptical spring bar, and the metallic disk are the most com- 
 mon regulator powers of the present. Perhaps in the course of time 
 some one will make a regulator from a coil or spiral spring that, 
 reaching clear across the top of the egg chamber, will very accu- 
 rately control the admission of heat. 
 
 At the present time the best regulator is the double disk, whether 
 filled with air or with liquid. Excellent results are obtained by using 
 the single disk, but the double disk is still better. The disk, in 
 order to be useful, should be large enough to have some force and to 
 note the slightest variation in temperature. A disk of only 1 or 2 
 inches diameter has hardly power enough, nor is it delicate enough 
 for quick and perfect action. The writer prefers the double disk 
 and that with a diameter of 4 or 5 inches. Such disks will be very 
 susceptible to changes in temperature and will be strong enough to 
 act upon the damper. Of course there are machines that use the 
 horseshoe or buggy spring expanding bar, which work fairly well; 
 but as fast as possible the writer has these attachments removed and 
 the disk substituted for them. Many purchasers have no patience 
 with a regulator that will not work from the start, and, owing to the 
 fact that first impressions are prejudicial, it is safer to ship articles 
 that will go together readily and work from the start. There is 
 something in the location of the regulator. The disk should be 
 placed near the center and well toward the back of the egg chamber. 
 It should be placed so high that it is not in the way of the eggs or 
 the tray. Another reason for placing the disk high is that, because 
 the chicks as they hatch will tumble around more or less before drop- 
 ping into the nursery { one or more of them may hit the regulator, 
 thus disturbing its adjustment and bringing disaster to the remain- 
 der of the hatch. The regulator should be strongly fixed in its 
 bearings, so that an accidental touch will not put it out of order. 
 
 Most machines have the long bar or damper lever upon the top 
 of the body. This is a serious fault. The top of the machine is the 
 most convenient table for cooling, testing, or turning eggs, and it 
 should be free and clean for that use. Besides this, the lever, when 
 located outside and upon the top of the machine, is easily affected 
 by a current of air and also liable to become bent or dislocated. A 
 child, a stray fowl, a mouse, a cat, or a slight breeze will be likely to 
 interfere with the action of the regulator if it is exposed upon the top 
 of the incubator. Some makes of incubators have the damper lever 
 at the end of the case ; others have it above the egg chamber, where 
 it is covered and protected. The adjustment of the regulator should
 
 554 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 be perfect and accurate. Threads should be true and cut to fit the 
 bur; rods should be of proper length and, if weights are used, they 
 should be so arranged that they can be fixed in the proper position. 
 The writer sees no use for the weight, nor does he favor a very long 
 lever. By principle of direct action the damper is its own weight, 
 and with the disk regulator no other weight seems necessary. In 
 some machines the regulator is cumbersome, takes too much space in 
 the egg chamber, and interferes with the handling of the trays; in 
 others it is loosely set and constantly getting out of balance and 
 dropping down upon the eggs or chicks. The disk regulator is less in 
 the way and less liable to fall down than any other that the writer 
 has used. 
 
 Few machines are perfect in all their parts, but when one is 
 found that suits in most details it is kept and remodeled to suit every- 
 day requirements. Most manufacturers make a mistake in their fail- 
 ure to test every machine as a whole before sending it out. Made of 
 the same materials, from the same patterns, by the same machinery 
 and the same workmen, all mechanical products are liable to vary 
 somewhat in their action. Each incubator has an individuality, and 
 it requires a thorough test at the factory. The purchaser can feel 
 assured that plenty of incubators are now made by firms that test 
 them in the shops and whose regulators can be relied upon as surely 
 as can a watch or clock. So much has been written upon the subject 
 of ventilation that the reader need not expect the writer to add much 
 that is new to the literature upon this subject. One thing is sure, 
 namely, that in nature the mother hen is compelled to allow fresh 
 air access to her eggs. But she frequently makes her nest in places 
 where the air is far from good, and yet she gives us a fair hatch 
 regardless of atmospheric surroundings. It is not likely that fre- 
 quent currents of fresh air over the eggs are necessary to successful 
 incubation, nor does it seem certain that air in motion, even if it has 
 been warmed, is inclined to promote hatching. If the machine is 
 opened twice a day and the eggs taken out to be cooled or turned, 
 they get about all the ventilation they really need. But accidents 
 may happen ; there may be leaking of steam or smoke, or a breaking 
 of an overlooked decomposing egg, and, for fear that such an acci- 
 dent may happen between the hours of inspection, it is well to have 
 a system of moderate ventilation in operation. One of the best 
 methods is a circular hole in the bottom of the machine, this hole 
 being about 1% inches in diameter and covered with fine wire screen- 
 ing on the inside and provided with a slide of tin or other metal 
 upon the bottom or outside. This slide should be open when the 
 machine is first heated. It should work easily and be slightly open 
 all the time, and should be altered according to the weather. One 
 thing often overlooked is the quality of the air in the room occu- 
 pied by the incubator. The room should be clean, free from dust 
 and mold, moderately dry, and contain air of absolute purity. This 
 has more to do with the condition of the air in the egg chamber than 
 many are inclined to admit, and is, in the writer's opinion, the 
 major part of ventilation.
 
 PAIR OF BLACK LANGSHANS. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 PEN OF LIGHT BRAHMAS. DEPT. OF AGR.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 557 
 
 Moisture. This is another topic that has been freely discussed 
 in the poultry journals. A great many different plans have been 
 advocated for keeping the air in the egg chamber properly charged 
 with water. The simple plan of placing in the bottom of the egg 
 chamber a saucer containing a small wet sponge is as good as any. 
 There does not appear to be any better method than this of rendering 
 the air around the eggs humid. The amount of moisture required is 
 so little and varies so much under different circumstances that the 
 ingenuity and judgment of most operators can be relied upon to 
 provide moisture as needed. If the incubator is operated in a cellar 
 or basement, the air will probably be damp enough without the 
 further introduction of moisture into the egg chamber. 
 
 Summary of the Defects of Incubators. Poor material, poor 
 workmanship, and poor arrangement are all to be condemned. Ma- 
 chines of poor construction, or constructed out of refuse material 
 from other lines of manufacture, will no longer satisfy the up-to-date 
 poultry man. Incubators made out of the odds and ends of other 
 goods, or with coarse, dull tools, are no longer in demand. Ma- 
 chines made by men who know nothing about the poultry business, 
 or who take no interest in that business and lack experience in oper- 
 ating incubators, are likely to prejudice the public against the use of 
 all incubators. The inspector should be competent. If he does not 
 know how to test every part of a machine and exercise thoroughness 
 in his work, one can hardly expect the output of his factory to give 
 satisfaction. 
 
 Summary of the Good Points of an Incubator. Good material, 
 good workmanship, and adaptability of parts, or such arrangement 
 of the various parts of the machine as shall make it efficient, prac- 
 tical, and convenient, are desirable. Two dead-air spaces, good 
 strong legs, plenty of space in the egg chamber, good windows prop- 
 erly placed, a good thermometer located where it can be read with- 
 out disturbing the machine are all necessary and among the strong 
 points of a good incubator. In addition to these, there are a good 
 lamp one with a good burner and good chimney a good regula- 
 tor, a good strong tray properly placed, and a good roomy removable 
 nursery 7 tray below. All chips and shavings should be removed when 
 the machine is inspected or before shipment. Makers of incubators 
 must not lose sight of the fact that the construction of an incubator 
 is a living problem. It has to do with the promotion of life and is 
 not a mere matter of iron and wood. This business requires more skill 
 and better workmanship than does the construction of thrashing ma- 
 chines and fanning mills. This machine operates upon living prod- 
 ucts and it must bring forth living creatures, else it is useless. 
 
 Purchasers should be cautioned against buying an incubator of 
 large size for experimental or farm work. The so-called 100-egg 
 size is large enough for the beginner. One tray and one egg cham- 
 ber are enough. 
 
 How to Operate an Incubator. The agricultural papers and 
 poultry journals are full of information upon the management of 
 incubators, and many books have been published to furnish instruc-
 
 558 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 tion upon this subject; but a great many farmers do not see these 
 journals or the books. Once let it be known that the operation of an 
 incubator is easy and simple, and once the almost superstitious dread 
 that some people have of taking up something new is overcome, 
 there will be little trouble in teaching the uses and management of 
 the common hatching machine. 
 
 The successful operation of an incubator depends upon accuracy 
 and exactness. Not only should the work be done properly, but it 
 must be done "on time." The woman who fills her lamps at a cer- 
 tain hour of the day, and the man who winds his watch or clock at 
 the same hour every evening, need not fear the task of running an 
 incubator. But unless one is willing to study, to read, and to prac- 
 tice, and is willing to attend to the few wants of his machine at the 
 right time, making a specialty of promptness and punctuality, it will 
 be unreasonable to look for chickens from the best incubator under 
 his management. 
 
 The person who runs an incubator must be clean and careful ; 
 he must be at home with his machine at the same hour every morn- 
 ing and the same hour every evening ; he must learn the peculiarities 
 of ms incubator and carefully follow instructions., For such a per- 
 son the operation of the ordinary hatching machine will be simple 
 and easy enough. With each shipment the manufacturer sends out 
 a book or card of directions. Read this carefully before attempting 
 to set up the machine. Put the parts together in exact accordance 
 with these directions. Count the parts and inspect them carefully; 
 then put them together ; see that the machine stands level ; that the 
 doors open and shut easily; that the regulator is in working order. 
 
 About this time comes the question, Where shall we set this ma- 
 chine? This matter of location is very important. It has much to 
 do with success in hatching. First, it must have some permanency. 
 It must be placed where it will not be disturbed, away from jars and 
 vibrations, out of all drafts or where the breeze can not strike it and 
 where the opening and closing of doors and windows will not affect 
 it. The room occupied must be large enough and have a level floor. 
 One needs room to work about an incubator. It should have a clear 
 space around it, especially in front, and at the lamp end of the ma- 
 chine there should be plenty of room. The apartment should not 
 be damp or dark. A clean, dry, light cellar is excellent for this 
 purpose. Any dry, clean room will do, but, as before stated, drafts 
 or currents of air over or around the machine are very detrimental. 
 There should be no stove or other source of artificial heat in the 
 room occupied by an incubator. The entire room should be clean 
 and free from dust. Some of these items have been mentioned in 
 the preceding lines, but their importance warrants a repetition here. 
 
 Common sense and circumstances will dictate the location of the 
 machine, but the above suggestions will be found worth considering. 
 One ^thing is certain, if the incubator is not afforded proper quar- 
 ters it can hardly be expected to give good results. The room de- 
 cided upon, the machine set up, its parts adjusted, and its level 
 taken, it is now in order to clean, trim, and fill the lamp. The wick
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 559 
 
 should be dry-trimmed with a pair of sharp shears before it is 
 inserted in the burner. Then after being passed up and down the 
 tube a few times it should be trimmed again and its corners slightly 
 nicked or rounded. Now is the time to prove whether the burner is 
 in perfect order and that the wick works freely and easily. The 
 wiok should now be moistened in kerosene and drawn back to its 
 proper position for lighting. All dust and moisture should be 
 wiped from the burner. Especially important is it that the start be 
 made with a clean tube and sieve. The lamp should be filled within 
 one-fourth of an inch of the top, arid then after the burner is at- 
 tached to the lamp the whole should be cleaned with a dry, clean 
 cloth. The chimney also should be carefully cleaned with a dry 
 cloth. It should be free from dirt, dust, or grease. If the chimney 
 is not kept perfectly clean the lamp will smoke, and a smoky lamp 
 means a poor hatch. Dry cleaning cloths should be set apart for 
 this purpose. All these details looked after, the lamp can be lighted 
 and placed in position if the machine is a hot-air machine ; but if it 
 is a hot-water machine the lamp must not be lighted until the tank 
 is filled with water in accordance with the instructions that accom- 
 pany the machine. Study the structure of your lamp and exercise 
 great care in putting it together as well as cleaning and filling it 
 the first time. Familiarity gained and habits formed will be of 
 value to the operator in the future management. Accuracy and 
 thoroughness are important. 
 
 Use nothing but the best grade of oil. No incubator will do 
 good work with poor kerosene. The best will cost less in the end. 
 It will give more heat, less smoke, and make less dirt and less work. 
 If oil is bought by the barrel do not accept it in an old barrel. It 
 may be short in measure or it may contain water and rubbish in the 
 bottom of the barrel. 
 
 With the incubator in its place, all parts adjusted, the tank, if 
 any, filled with water, and the lamp lighted and wick turned up so 
 as to give a clear, white flame just high enough, but not too high 
 we are ready to balance the machine or to establish the ratio between 
 the thermometer, the regulator, and the lamp. 
 
 Adjusting the Incubator. The incubator should be run with 
 the trays empty for at least twenty-four hours before the eggs are 
 placed in the egg chamber. This gives it a chance to get well warmed 
 throughout, and it also gives the operator time and practice in adjust- 
 ing the regulator so that it will keep the egg chamber at the proper 
 temperature. This temperature should be exactly 100 F. for several 
 hours before the eggs are put into the egg chamber. All this time 
 the lamp should be kept in order and made to burn with a clear, 
 white flame, so that it does not smolce and so that it can be turned a 
 little either up or down without smoking. This is essential. The 
 blaze must be good from the start and the regulator balanced to a 
 good flame, and this must be done before the eggs go into the egg 
 chamber. It is easier and safer to experiment with the lamp and the 
 regulator when the egg chamber is empty than when the machine is 
 full of eggs. A few hours spent in adjustment will be time saved
 
 560 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 later on. Nearly every machine is accompanied by a card of direc- 
 tions for operating it, which should be studied and followed. 
 
 It is not the province of this article to explain the individual 
 peculiarities of the regulators of different makes, but rather to show 
 what results are to be sought. The damper over the top of the chim- 
 ney should be kept free from the chimney, say about one-eighth of 
 an inch of space being left between or around the margin of the 
 damper. If you are using a hot-water machine, allowance must be 
 made accordingly and leakage looked for before setting the eggs. 
 The general principle, so far as the regulator and the lamp are con- 
 cerned, is the same in all machines. At the end of the experimental 
 twenty-four hours, again fill the lamp and trim the wick, and with 
 the machine running steadily at 100 F. the egg tray, loaded accord- 
 ing to directions given below, can be placed in the egg chamber. 
 The eggs should be clean and dry and should have been prepared 
 and balanced as suggested in the early part of this article. 
 
 Filling the Trays. When filling the trays put in eggs enough 
 to fill completely every space, with every egg lying upon it side. 
 Do not stand the eggs upon end nor pile them one upon another. 
 The filled tray being now placed in the egg chamber, close the door, 
 being careful not to slam it and so disturb the regulator or the lamp. 
 The machine can now be left by itself an hour. At the end of that 
 time visit it, and if the thermometer still stands at 100 leave it 
 again for another hour. At the third visit it may be necessary to 
 turn the regulator thumbscrew, or the wick may need raising or low- 
 ering a little. It will be a matter of judgment at first whether you 
 change the wick or the regulator. In most cases, if the blaze is about 
 right, it is best to leave it so and to more completely balance the ma- 
 chine by a slight manipulation of the regulator, for if this is nicely 
 done upon the start the temperature can be controlled during the 
 entire period of incubation by slightly turning the wick. Note the 
 repetition : Have your flame to suit you at the outset, leave it so ; -and 
 adjust the regulator accordingly. 
 
 It takes twenty-four hours properly to test the lamp and adjust 
 the regulator. During this time the eggs are gradually warming up, 
 and the operator is supposed to be watching the machine and study- 
 ing his instruction book. If a hot-water machine is used, some allow- 
 ance must be made for the time occupied in warming the tank, unless 
 it is filled with water already warmed. Let the operator bear in 
 mind that each incubator has its own peculiarities and must be 
 learned and managed accordingly. Another thing to note is that 
 the manufacturer of an incubator is likely to understand its manage- 
 ment and the operator is quite safe in following the printed direc- 
 tions for setting up and starting the machine ; but, while the manu- 
 facturer understands the mechanical details of the construction and 
 adjustment of his goods, his notions about the future management 
 of his or any other machine may not be at all like, nor at all superior 
 to, those of some other manufacturer. This is illustrated in natural 
 incubation. One farmer sets all his hens in straw nests, another sets 
 them all in chaff nests, another sets them all upon the ground and in
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 561 
 
 earth nests, but the results are about the same. Methods may seem 
 to differ and yet results may be very much alike. 
 
 The hatch can now be said to be begun. The incubator has been 
 set up, adjusted, and tested under heat for twenty-four hours. It 
 has been found capable of maintaining an even temperature, and 
 the eggs are already warm in the egg chamber. The thermometer 
 has been placed at a level with the top of an egg near the center of 
 the tray. At first the w r ork will require a few visits at intervals of not 
 more than one hour apart, but after the third of these, if everything 
 seems all right, the machine can be left alone for three or four hours, 
 but the operator should be sure to visit it just before he retires for 
 the night. 
 
 Temperature of Incubator. On the morning of the second day 
 the temperature should have risen to 102 F. It must not be forgot- 
 ten that from now on the eggs will manifest a little heat of their 
 own and this must be considered, as it will influence the action of the 
 regulator. Or, in other words, if the egg is fertile the germ 
 will begin to waken into life and possess and give off heat. This 
 lessens the work of the lamp and should make the operator cautious 
 in his manipulations of the regulator. The temperature from now 
 on should be kept at 103 F. If the machine is balanced right, a 
 very slight turn of the regulator button or the wick elevator is all 
 that will be required. The operator must not become over-anxious 
 now; he should resist all temptation to tamper unnecessarily. It is 
 better to change the adjustment but a mere trifle and then wait a 
 little to observe the result than to make great and abrupt changes. 
 It is very easy to cook the eggs and quite as easy to chill them. All 
 changes should be gradual, and the machine always be under the 
 control of the operator. Once in good working order, the less an 
 incubator is disturbed the better. From now on it should be visited 
 at regular intervals, three times a day morning, noon, and night. 
 At the same hour every morning the wick should be trimmed, the 
 chimney cleaned, and the lamp refilled. The visit at noon is simply 
 one of inspection and observation. At this visit the operator should 
 look first at the thermometer and then at the lamp. If the tempera- 
 ture is right and the lamp is burning well, there is nothing more 
 to do. 
 
 Returning to the work of the morning after, the lamp is cared 
 for and started again, the operator should watch it carefully for a 
 brief period. Then, if the thermometer shows the proper tempera- 
 ture, it is in order to turn the eggs. During turning the tray should 
 be removed from the egg chamber and the door closed. Some of the 
 details of turning have been given. The hand should be clean and 
 the eggs gently rolled around. It should not require much time to 
 turn the eggs, three or four minutes being sufficient. As a rule no 
 other cooling is necessary, but this subject will be referred to later 
 on. Many devices have been invented for turning the eggs, but the 
 simple method of turning by hand is sufficient. Gently brush or roll 
 them around or change them from one side of the tray to the other. 
 The necessity for turning depends upon the fact that unless the egg
 
 562 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 is turned, its substance will gravitate, the egg will become too dry 
 upon one side, and the chick will become attached to this dry side. 
 Such an event will result in a dead or deformed chick. The whole 
 process of turning is so simple that further explanation seems unnec- 
 essary. As to how frequently they should be turned, once a day is 
 sufficient, though many practice turning twice a day. This turning 
 should be continued from the third until the nineteenth day. After 
 the usual signs of hatching can be heard the eggs must not be moved 
 or disturbed. After the nineteeth day the rule "do not turn them," 
 is imperative. The chick, ready to break its way out, has found its 
 proper position, and to move the egg may so place the chick that it 
 can not work to advantage or that it will drown or smother. 
 
 Cooling. Many successful poultry men pay little attention to 
 cooling the eggs further than to take plenty of time in turning. 
 Much depends upon the machine, and more upon the condition of 
 the atmosphere. If not exposed to draft or sunlight, the eggs can be 
 left outside the machine for fifteen or twenty minutes and be none 
 the worse for the exposure, but, as a rule, an exposure of five minutes 
 is sufficient. That some cooling is necessary seems borne out in 
 natural incubation by the practice of the hen, which leaves her nest 
 from ten to sixty minutes every morning. Of course, the hen may 
 do this for her own accommodation, but it seems to be part of the 
 programme in natural hatching, and better results are obtained when 
 the eggs are cooled somewhat every day. This practice of cooling 
 should be continued to the eighteenth day. Right here it may be 
 well to advise the inexperienced operator to keep the egg chamber 
 closed after the evening of the eighteenth day and until the close of 
 the hatch. 
 
 Moisture. This subject is one upon which opinions differ 
 vastly. In the opinion of the writer much depends upon the incu- 
 bator, its location, and the external atmosphere. All agree that a 
 certain amount of moisture is needed. In natural incubation the 
 hen leaves her nest early in the morning, while the dew is yet upon 
 the grass, and if caught upon her return to the nest her feathers will 
 be found to be wet. Yet some of the most successful hatches have 
 been made by hens that were not allowed to leave the hatching pen. 
 Hence the argument is not settled. But, from the fact that the early 
 morning atmosphere is damp and the eggs are exposed to this moist 
 atmosphere while the hen is off the nest, it is safe to infer that a 
 limited amount of moisture is essential. If the incubator stands in a 
 damp cellar, a very good hatch can be made without the introduction 
 of any moisture into the egg chamber ; while upon the other hand, if 
 the machine is located in a dry room and the weather is dry, a poor 
 hatch can be expected if no moisture is supplied. Many different 
 methods of supplying moisture have been suggested, but most ex- 
 perienced operators incline to the simplest methods. A small sponge 
 saturated with pure water can be placed in the egg chamber and al- 
 lowed to remain there over night, or a saucer containing a, little 
 water can be placed in the bottom of the egg chamber and left from 
 time to time, or the hand of the operator can be dipped in warm wa-
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 563 
 
 ter and brushed lightly over the eggs just before they are returned 
 to the machine in the morning. The last seems to be a natural 
 method and does not overcharge the egg chamber with moisture. 
 Too much moisture will ruin the hatch, and it is better to err upon 
 the side of too little than too much. A good rule is to note the baro- 
 meter and in damp weather supply very little moisture. As to what 
 is meant by much or little moisture, the writer thinks that a tea- 
 spoonful of water is plenty for 100 eggs in wet weather, while in dry 
 weather an ounce is none too much, this being for a period of twenty- 
 four hours. Or, again, if the machine stands in a cellar, a teaspoon- 
 ful of water will last 100 eggs three days, while in a dry, well-venti- 
 lated room a tablespoonful of water every twenty-four hours will do 
 no harm. The water supplied must be clean and pure and should be 
 warm when it is introduced. Surely with these few hints the opera- 
 tor ought to be able to settle the moisture question for himself. 
 
 Testing. The egg will show signs of hatching within thirty 
 hours of its first exposure to heat. Along about the twenty-eighth 
 hour a point denoting the head and another denoting the heart will 
 appear. About the forty-fifth hour the expert can detect a slight mo- 
 tion of the heart. In about seventy hours the membrane known as 
 the allantois is visible. This envelope is the temporary breathing 
 apparatus of the chick. On the fifth day the streaks denoting the 
 limbs can be seen. On the sixth day the liver can be located, and a 
 slight voluntary motion is observable. By the seventh day the lungs, 
 stomach, and brain show development ; the eyes can be found by the 
 tenth day ; and on the twelfth day feathers begin to form. The bill 
 opens and shuts by the fifteenth day, and the cry of the chick is 
 heard about the eighteenth day. Soon after, or early on the nine- 
 teenth day, the chick bursts the air cell at the end of the egg and 
 begins to use its lungs in breathing. From this time it grows rapidly 
 and soon becomes strong enough to break through the shell. 
 
 While the process of hatching is very interesting, the practical 
 operator need not concern himself with minute details. The eggs 
 should be tested at least three times during the period of incubation. 
 First, as a matter of economy. Eggs not fertile will not spoil for a 
 few days, and they will be as good for the table or feed after a few 
 days in the incubator as after as many days in the nest. Again, eggs 
 that are doubtful can be cooked for food for young chicks or cooped 
 fowls. Another reason why nonfertile eggs should be discovered 
 and removed is that they absorb some heat from the air of the egg 
 chamber and generate none of their own. Again, if nonfertile eggs 
 happen to be old when placed in the tray they are liable to decompose, 
 and, by giving off poisonous gases, foul the air of the egg chamber 
 and poison the chicks in the good eggs. However, it is not wise to 
 disturb the eggs too frequently. Testing upon the seventh, the tenth, 
 and the fourteenth days is quite sufficient. All nonfertile and all 
 doubtful eggs should be removed from the machine as soon as their 
 condition is detected. 
 
 The process of testing is simple enough after a little experience 
 is acquired. It depends upon the appearance of the egg when it is
 
 564 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 held between the eye and a light. In order that the view may be 
 most advantageous, it must be contrasted with a dark border. Many 
 different egg testers have been devised, but they all depend upon the 
 above principle. The simplest in construction is a plain tube about 
 1^ inches in diameter and made of tin, wood, or cardboard. The 
 egg is placed snugly against the opening in this tube, and it is so held 
 that the egg is between the tube and the light and the tube is be- 
 tween the egg and the eye. With the eye close to the uncovered end 
 of the tube, a picture of the egg can be seen through the transparent 
 shell. If the test is made in a dark room, a much better view can 
 be obtained. A very fair test can be made in a dark room by hold- 
 ing the egg before a small aperture in a window shade, provided the 
 sun is shinning against the window. In cloudy weather, when the 
 sun can not be depended upon, some kind of an egg tester is required. 
 All manufacturers furnish some kind of egg tester with every ma- 
 chine sent out, and the most of them work upon the same principle 
 and are operated in the same way. Evening is the best time for 
 making the test. Have ready a low table and an empty tray, also a 
 basin or a basket. The operator can work best if seated at the table 
 with the lamp in front of him ; upon his left is the tray of eggs to be 
 tested, with the empty tray and basin upon his right. Every detail 
 should be arranged before the eggs are removed from the egg cham- 
 'ber, as a prolonged exposure is to be avoided. One by one the eggs 
 are taken from the tray, tested as above suggested, me appearance 
 observed, and the egg, if fertile, placed in the empty tray, or, if in- 
 fertile, placed in the basket. As soon as all are tested the tray con- 
 taining the fertile eggs is replaced in the incubator, the door of which 
 is then closed and the machine left as before. Experience soon 
 teaches one the appearance of the nonfertile and the spoiled egg, as 
 contrasted with that of the fertile egg which has already begun to 
 hatch. The fertile, or hatching, egg will show a spiderlike forma- 
 tion, a center with long crooked threads, or rays, leading outward, 
 and this formation will float as the egg is turned, seeming to have an 
 inherent power of motion. Such eggs are good and the germ is alive 
 and hatching. But if this formation is a black stationary spot and 
 the red lines come together in a circle, the egg is one that has been 
 fertile, but the germ of which is now dead. Such an egg should be 
 removed from the tray at once. The egg that remains clear except 
 for a small dark cloud is infertile and may possibly be used in cook- 
 ing. In case an egg is doubtful it can be marked and returned to the 
 tray and left there a few days to be tested again. All eggs that cool 
 too quickly should be marked for special examination, and remem- 
 ber that the egg that does not contain life will be cooler than the live 
 egg. Cracked eggs can be saved by the use of court plaster, but un- 
 less it be from a rare or valuable fowl the attempt to hatch a broken 
 egg will hardly be worth the trouble. At the second testing, about 
 the tenth day, the eggs that are hatching w r ell will be nearly half 
 darkened, while the others will look more or less as they did in the 
 first test. On the seventeenth day the chick will be seen to fill all the 
 egg but the air space, unless it has died in the shell since the previous
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 565 
 
 testing. The final testing should be carefully made and with the 
 shortest possible exposure. 
 
 The Air Cell. Books upon incubation devote much space to 
 this subject. If the air cell is too large the egg is too dry, while if not 
 large enough the egg is too moist, and the moisture supply can be 
 governed accordingly. Experience will teach the operator much 
 more about the air space than will written pages, and until he is ex- 
 perienced he need not attach very great importance to it unless it be 
 unusually large or small. By the end of the sixteenth day this 
 occupies about one-fifth of the space in the egg, and the chick ought 
 to occupy the remainder of this space. The air cell gradually in- 
 creases until the eighteenth day. Upon the eighteenth day, or the 
 nineteenth day at most, the eggs are turned and cooled for the last 
 time. After this do not disturb the eggs. If necessary, partly close 
 the ventilator slide. Leave the door closed. Of course, the thermo- 
 meter must be watched and the lamp filled and trimmed more care- 
 fully than ever. Do not be alarmed if the thermometer shows a tem- 
 perature of 104 at this time. No harm will be done if the eggs are 
 kept at that temperature a few hours. 
 
 The operator is again cautioned to let the eggs alone during the 
 last two days of incubation. If the door must be opened to rear- 
 range the thermometer or to supply moisture, it should be for a brief 
 period only, and great care should be exercised not to jar nor change 
 the positions of the eggs. But the lamp should be kept in good order 
 and the regulator and thermometer watched closely. Some of this 
 has been stated before, but it will bear repeating, for many a good 
 hatching prospect has been blighted by over-anxiety or curiosity. 
 
 At the end of the twenty-first day open the door and pull the 
 tray partly forward. Then remove the shells and, if any chick is 
 found with the shell dried upon it or in any way attached to it, 
 carefully liberate the chick and place it in the nursery below. Then 
 carefully close the door and let the machine alone for another six 
 hours unless the eggs are all hatched sooner. 
 
 The eggs about all hatched, now is the time to clean and set up 
 the brooder, which should be heated a few hours before the chicks 
 are removed from the nursery. After the hatch is completed and 
 the chicks are removed from the nursery, the machine should be 
 taken apart, carefully cleaned, and set right for future use. The 
 brooder should be started at about 98 F. and gradually lowered at 
 the rate of 1 a week, according to the weather and the experience 
 and judgment of the poultry man. 
 
 The chicks should not be fed until they are thoroughly dried 
 and have been out of the incubator at least twenty-four hours. The 
 first feed should be fine sharp grit or sand, upon which is sprinkled 
 a very little hard-boiled egg chopped fine. After this they should 
 be fed every three hours a little broken grain or, better yet, some of 
 the excellent prepared dry chick foods upon the market. Clean, fresh 
 water should be supplied from the start. Wet, sloppy food should bo 
 avoided. If none of the manufactured chick foods are at hand, a 
 substitute can be made by cracking a mixture of wheat, corn, and
 
 566 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 egg shells. Any good poultry journal will give valuable hints upon 
 the subject of raising chickens in brooders. 
 
 Summary. Study your incubator; acquaint yourself with all 
 its parts ; read the manufacturers' directions for setting it up ; set it 
 up carefully and according to instructions ; never try to run an incu- 
 bator in a drafty place, nor near a stove, nor where the sun shines 
 upon it; set fertile eggs only; waste no effort upon those that are 
 doubtful ; learn how to trim and clean a lamp ; keep the lamps full 
 and the wick and tube clean; avoid smoke; see that the eggs are 
 clean and dry before setting them ; balance all eggs, large end up, 
 a few hours before placing them in the tray; do not overfill the 
 tray ; turn every egg the third day ; cool the eggs every morning ; be 
 sure your hands are clean when handling eggs ; test all eggs by the 
 seventh day; test again by the eleventh day; test again by the fif- 
 teenth day ; if the air space is too large, supply moisture ; if too small, 
 put a saucer of dry lime in the room and run without moisture a day 
 or two ; do not expect to learn all about the air cell the first hatch 
 you will learn that later; do not disturb the eggs after the evening 
 of the 'eighteenth day; have a regular hour for incubator work; do 
 not tinker too much with the regulator; get the adjustment right 
 and keep it so; heat your machine and make your adjustment before 
 placing the eggs in the egg chamber. 
 
 General Remarks. The average farmer, his wife, his son, or his 
 daughter, should not expect to learn all about the management of 
 an incubator from the perusal of written pages. Experience comes 
 from the work itself. This work is easy, interesting, and fascinating. 
 It occupies the mind and leads to investigation. More than that, it 
 leads to success and profit. But great results can not be expected 
 in the beginning. The poultry business is a trade and must be 
 learned. Many a person is idle today and looking for some sphere 
 of usefulness who could learn how to operate an incubator to both 
 mental and financial advantage. But the work, slight as it is, must 
 be done properly and at the right time. The poultry business is hon- 
 orable and profitable, but it requires study and experience. We serve 
 a long and faithful apprenticeship to learn other more 'laborious and 
 less remunerative trades, when the same amount of application would 
 in less time make us experts with an incubator and give us a trade 
 in a line not affected by strikes or lockouts, or liable to be over- 
 crowded. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 236.) 
 
 (Publications quoted from and consulted on incubation: Mich. 
 B. 245; Agr. Dep. F. B. 236; Kansas B. 150; West Va. B. 98; Minn. 
 B. 91; Agr. Dep. F. B. 357; Ark. B. 99; Pa. B. 87: Utah B. 92, 102; 
 S. C. B. 81; Ont. Agr. Cal. B. 163.) 
 
 BROODING. 
 
 Natural Brooding. If the chicks are to be raised with hens a 
 supply of small coops will be needed. The common inverted V- 
 shaped coop is quite satisfactory in warm weather, or even in cold 
 weather, if it is placed in a sheltered location, or in a shed. The 
 sides forming the roof of this coop should be two feet in length at the 
 peak and three feet long from the peak to the ground on the slope
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 567 
 
 and the angle where the two meet should be about 75. The back 
 should be boarded up tight. The front should be boarded down 
 about one-third of the way from the top and the remainder slatted. 
 This is probably the most common coop in use in this country. 
 
 Another very good coop for hens with chicks in cool weather, 
 consists of a house three feet six inches by four feet two inches. It 
 should be three feet high in front and two feet six inches in the rear. 
 Hinge the front side on as a door which should have a light in it; 
 then board the remainder tight and cover with building paper. The 
 hen may be confined in a crate within and the floor covered with fine 
 litter. This will prevent the hen covering the chicks with chaff 
 when scratching. As soon as the chicks are a week old the crate can 
 be removed as the chicks will then be active enough to keep out of 
 the way. 
 
 Early chicks can often be kept in an unused stable or building 
 that is well lighted. A fairly constant temperature aids growth 
 and thus gives more satisfactory results. Later in the season, after 
 the cold winds and rains are over, place the hen and chicks in a 
 small coop out of doors. The coops may be used without floors un- 
 less rats are troublesome, in which case they will need perfectly solid 
 floors. The coop should be moved every day or two to prevent kill- 
 ing the grass under it, and secure clean premises. If hawks and crowa 
 are troublesome, a run can be made in front of each coop, using 
 inch mesh wire netting when the danger is great. If the danger 
 of loss from this source is not serious use a two-inch mesh netting 
 to allow the chicks to go through and forage outside. The runs 
 should be moved to fresh ground every few days. 
 
 A barrel may be converted into a coop for housing a hen and her 
 chicks. Dig a hole in the ground large enough to admit one-third of 
 the barrel. Then place the barrel on its side in the hole and put the 
 earth in it, even with or slightly above that outside. The head 
 should be left intact in one end. Remove the other end and drive 
 stakes in the ground before the opening two inches apart, thus con- 
 fining the hen and allowing the chicks to pass through. Packing 
 boxes may be used in various ways if covered with building paper, 
 but in general it will be found more satisfactory to build good, sub- 
 stantial coops which can be used for several years. (Mich. B. 245.) 
 
 Brooders. For those who wish to raise large numbers of early 
 chickens, or who keep only non-sitting breeds, the brooder is a neces- 
 sity. In buying a brooder the chief points to be observed are: a 
 good lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, 
 and an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder 
 should be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. 
 The work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an in- 
 cubator. The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without 
 damage, but they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with 
 brooders in operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder- 
 lamp should have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder- 
 lamps are often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or
 
 568 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 poorly enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or per- 
 haps a fire. 
 
 The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a 
 brooder is a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smother- 
 ing each other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be 
 accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the cen- 
 ter rather than at the side or corner. If the heat come from above 
 and a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same 
 temperature, no crowding will take place. 
 
 The temperatures given for running brooders vary with the 
 machine and the position of the thermometer. The one reliable 
 guide for temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold 
 they will crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will 
 wander uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick 
 will sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not 
 sleep at all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source 
 of heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder 
 the chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and 
 struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny 
 chicks that dwindle and die. 
 
 The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommoda- 
 tions of the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be 
 considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and 
 especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for 
 the daytime accommodation of the chick. This part of the brooder 
 must be well lighted and somewhat cooler than the hover. (Kan. 
 B. 150.) 
 
 Temperature. In brooding chicks either in individual brood- 
 ers or in brooder houses the main thing which must be watched is the 
 temperature, for if the temperature is either too high or too low, the 
 results will be totally unsatisfactory even though all of the other con- 
 ditions governing the health of the chicks are ideal. Chicks three or 
 four days old are fairly hardy little creatures and can endure a con- 
 siderable degree of cold provided that as soon as they become too 
 cold they can quickly get warm again. But if they are forced to re- 
 main where the temperature is too low they catch cold very quickly, 
 the lungs soon become inflamed, little nodules of light colored cheesy 
 matter form in them and death results. 
 
 The temperature of the brooder or brooder house when the 
 chicks are first transferred from the incubator should be practically 
 as high as the temperature of the incubator from which the chicks 
 have just been removed, or from 95 degrees to 100 degrees F. This 
 temperature should be maintained for the first week, never allowing 
 it to fall below 95 degrees. The second week the temperature should 
 not be allowed to drop lower than 90 degrees. These temperatures 
 refer to the air temperature taken on a level with the chicks. After 
 the second week the temperature should be reduced gradually until 
 the chicks are old enough to do without artificial heat. (West Va. 
 B. 98.)
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 569 
 
 Rearing Chicks With Brooders. Many people prefer the arti- 
 ficial method of raising chicks, but want something cheap. It is not 
 always \vise, however, to use the cheapest. A packing case brooder 
 which will accommodate fifty chicks can 'be built for about a dollar. 
 This brooder has given excellent results, but must be used in a shed 
 or colony house. The brooder proper is made of four ten-inch 
 boards, three feet long, on which is nailed a tin or galvanized-iron 
 cover. Above this, around the sides, are strips one inch thick, and 
 on these strips sits the floor of the brooder. There should be a couple 
 of one inch holes in each strip to admit air. The floor should be 
 made of matched lumber. In the center an eight inch hole should be 
 cut, and over this an old tin pan, about ten inches across at the top 
 (which is now to become the bottom) and four inches deep, should 
 be placed. The sides of this tin should be punched full of holes. 
 For a hover a table two feet six inches square, with legs about four 
 and one-half inches long, may be used. Cheap felt may be tacked 
 on for a curtain, care being taken that it is cut from top to bottom 
 every five or six inches. For an outside wall four four-inch strips, 
 three feet long, nailed together and set on the brooder, will be satis- 
 factory. When the chicks are ten days old, one side may be taken 
 away, and a bridge used so that they may run from under the hover 
 direct to the floor of the room. Any good lamp may be used in this 
 brooder. The burner can be bought for twenty-five cents, and the 
 bowl may be made of a two-quart tin basin covered with a small pie 
 plate turned bottom side up. This plate should have a hole punched 
 in it and should be fastened to the collar of the burner with a drop 
 of solder. It is also advisable to fasten the plate to the basin in the 
 same way. (Conn. B. 3'6.) 
 
 A temperature of 100 degrees is essential to successful brooding 
 of chickens in either large or small flocks. The larger the flock the 
 more important it is that a high temperature be maintained, because 
 the greater is the danger of crowding. When the chickens become 
 cold they like to go quickly to a warmer temperature than they could 
 occupy with comfort or safety if compelled to remain there. Chick- 
 ens will crowd when they become cold if sufficient heat is not sup- 
 plied. It is but natural that they should. A chicken's body tempera- 
 ture is normally about 105 to 106. Therefore, a cold chicken can 
 not be blamed for rubbing up against another chicken 105 degrees 
 warm instead of standing alone in a temperature of 80 to 85 degrees. 
 The more the chickens crowd the hotter the pile becomes and, there- 
 fore, the more attractive is the source of heat to the chickens on the 
 outside. If a temperature of 100 degrees is maintained, the chickens 
 will spread out of their own accord. They can be trusted to remain 
 in the temperature which is most comfortable to them, which also 
 will be the temperature best suited to their needs. The first sense to 
 be developed in a young chick, seems to be the sense of touch, as 
 manifested by the sensation of warmth, which to the chick means 
 comfort and comfort to the chick means home. The first instinct, 
 therefore, to be awakened in the chick appears to be that of location.
 
 570 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 When once it feels and sees the source of heat and comfort, it will 
 almost invariably return to it. 
 
 The importance of a high temperature in a brooder cannot be 
 overestimated. It is vitally important. Heat brought the young 
 chick into the world and lack of heat will take it out of the world. 
 Without warmth chickens do not sleep well. They huddle, i. e., they 
 are compelled to stand up to avoid being trampeled to death. A 
 chicken cannot sleep standing. Without sleep a chicken does not 
 rest. Without rest a chicken cannot grow. Sleep and rest are as 
 important to a chicken as to a baby. A large part of the slow growth 
 and mortality with young chickens is caused by lack of sleep, due to 
 lack of heat. (Cornell B. 246.) 
 
 Care of Chicks. Where the chicks are to be raised on a large 
 scale the brooder house heated by hot water pipes is the most eco- 
 nomical, for in this case there is only one fire to attend, and the work 
 of feeding and watering the chicks can be done much easier than 
 when the chicks are scattered about in individual brooders. In fact 
 outside brooders are not very satisfactory. Unless an enormous 
 amount of care and attention be given to them the temperature is 
 sure to vary so much that the chicks do not thrive. In addition the 
 work has to be done out of doors in aill sorts of weather, making it 
 disagreeable and costly to perform. 
 
 Feeding. Next in importance to the temperature at which the 
 little chicks are kept is the food which they receive. In the case of a 
 chick nature provides for its sustenance until it is able to run about 
 and obtain food partly by its own efforts. The food material thus 
 provided consists of the contents of the yolk sack which is slipped 
 into the abdominal cavity a few hours before the chick is hatched. 
 The yolk sack is connected with the intestine toy a duct through which 
 the semi-fluid mass passes into the digestive system where it is 
 absorbed. It is due to this provision that it is not wise to feed chicks 
 until they are two or three days old. If fed too soon or too much 
 there seems to be a tendency for the material which is present in 
 the yolk sack to remain unabsorbed. When this occurs putrefactive 
 changes soon begin to take place, some of the products thus formed 
 pass into the circulatory system of the chick, bowel trouble results, 
 and the chick dies. Not only may the non-absorption of the con- 
 tents of the yolk sack be caused by feeding too soon or too much, 
 but it is quite probable that this trouble may also be caused by the 
 breeding stock being too fat or otherwise out of condition, or by 
 too variable a temperature or by a lack of sufficient ventilation dur- 
 ing the incubation of the eggs. 
 
 During the first two or three days after the chicks are hatched 
 they require warmth and the opportunity to gain strength rather 
 than to receive food. They should be supplied with water, however, 
 and it will do no harm if they have a little fine chick grit at which 
 to peck. After the second day they are usually fed as follows: The 
 infertile eggs are boiled and run through a food chopper, shell and 
 all. The ground egg is then thoroughly mixed with five or six 
 times its bulk of rolled oats. This mixture constitutes the first and
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 571 
 
 last meals of the day for the first two weeks, and is fed on shallow 
 troughs or on plates. At the morning meal care should be taken that 
 the chicks do not eat too much. They should be left somewhat hun- 
 gry at this meal so that they will exercise during the middle of the 
 day by scratching for the hard grain which is scattered in the litter. 
 At the evening meal they may be fed more liberally on the egg and 
 rolled oats mixture. The hard grain consists of a mixture of cracked 
 corn, cracked wheat, oatmeal, millet seed, broken rice, etc. For small 
 chicks the grains should be cracked fine, the pieces of corn not being 
 larger than one-half of a kernel of wheat. At times the prepared 
 chick foods for scratching material have been found most satisfac- 
 tory. The fine cracked grains should be scattered in the litter as 
 often as convenient so that the chicks may be kept busily engaged all 
 day long hunting for the grain, and care should be exercised that 
 they do not find it too easily. 
 
 After two or three weeks cracked wheat and cracked corn are 
 gradually substituted for the prepared chick food, and a mash com- 
 posed of corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings and 'beef scrap is 
 substituted for the egg and rolled oats. Excellent results have been 
 secured in feeding little chicks according to the method advocated 
 by the Maine Experiment Station. Briefly this method is as follows: 
 A mixture of three parts of corn meal, one part wheat bran, and one 
 part wheat middlings or flour is used from which to make bread. This 
 is mixed very stiff with skim milk or water and salted as usual for 
 bread. It is baked in a slow oven, and when done the loaves are 
 split open and returned to the oven where it remains until the bread 
 is thoroughly dry. The crusts are then pounded until they are 
 pulverized. The infertile eggs are hard boiled and ground shell and 
 all in a sausage mill. One part ground egg and four parts bread 
 crumbs are then mixed together and the mixture run through the 
 sausage mill or food chopper. 
 
 The chicks are fed in the morning and at night on the bread 
 and egg mixture, and during the middle of the day they scratch 
 in the litter for the dry cracked grain or chick food which is pro- 
 vided for them. The egg mixture is used for about two weeks, 
 and although it is expensive when infertile eggs are not available 
 yet it makes the chicks thrive wonderfully well. Grit and charcoal 
 must be freely provided and after the chicks are a few days old 
 green food in some form becomes a practical necessity. (W. Va. 
 B. 98.) 
 
 Frequency of Feeding. Young chicks should be fed a little at 
 a time and often. They should be fed early in the morning and 
 just before going to bed at night, and not less than three times in the 
 intervening period. For the first two weeks they may be fed three 
 meals of soft feed and two of hard, and after that ago two of soft and 
 three of hard, feeding loss soft food as they grow older. No more 
 moistened soft feed should be given at one time than they will eat 
 up clean. If any is left it should be removed, for nothing causes 
 more bowel looseness and dysentery among young chicks than sour 
 feed. The finely cracked grains may be safely used from the start,
 
 572 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 but the chicks do not as a rule grow as rapidly as when a part of the 
 feed is ground. When the chicks are from four to six weeks old, the 
 frequency of feeding may be decreased to four times a day. 
 
 Green Feed. Green feed must be supplied in some form. If 
 the chicks are cooped on young grass they will help themselves, but 
 if confined in small yards green feed should be given them. To be 
 easily assimilated, some tender and easily broken green stuff should 
 be furnished, such as finely cut grass from the lawns, lettuce leaves, 
 onion tops, chopped fine, or boiled vegetables. 
 
 Animal Food. When chicks have a free range they pick up 
 insects and worms. These are most abundant during the spring 
 and summer and it is at this time that the chickens thrive. When 
 they can not get these abundantly animal feed must be furnished 
 in some other form. Beef scraps, animal meal, green cut bone may 
 be fed. 
 
 Milk. Young chickens are fond of milk. It is highly nutri- 
 tious and promotes growth, and may take the place of other animal 
 feed to some extent. Skim milk is excellent ; if whole milk is fed it 
 is well to dilute it with one-third to one-half of water. 
 
 Grit. Grit is another necessity. A dish of chick size grit 
 should be always before them, that they may help themselves. 
 
 Water. Fresh, cool water should be constantly accessible, so 
 that a drink can be taken whenever wanted. Many cases of cramps 
 are caused by letting the chicks become thirsty and then fill up on 
 water. 
 
 Charcoal. Many successful poultrymen keep it before the 
 chicks, while others never use it. If chicks are not thrifty it is one of 
 the simple things to supply before changing the feed or beginning to 
 give medicine. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 287.) 
 
 After the chicks become old enough and hardy enough to do 
 without artificial heat they are removed from the brooder house and 
 placed in colony houses. These should have a door and window in 
 front and be provided with perches. When the chicks are placed in 
 these houses temporary runs are made by means of poultry wire. 
 The chicks are thus confined for a week or two until they become 
 waywised to their new home. Then the wire is removed and the 
 chicks are allowed unrestricted range for the rest of the season. 
 
 If the colony houses are too near together the chicks sometimes 
 get in the habit of crowding into certain houses at night instead of 
 remaining uniformly distributed among the different houses. This 
 can be prevented, quite largely, by closing all openings so as to ex- 
 clude animals prowling about at night, for the entrance of a skunk 
 or weasel into a house will cause the chicks to shun that particular 
 house when they go to roost on the following night. Also the chicks 
 are enabled to find their own homes more promptly when the houses 
 are painted different colors. 
 
 A Chick Feed-Hopper. The hopper-feeding of finely cracked 
 grain to young chicks calls for a device with a large available feeding 
 surface, handy to fill, easy to clean and which will prevent the chick- 
 ens from scratching out the grain. Such a device is made by cutting
 
 ________ 
 
 A GOOD TYPE OF TAMWORTH BOAR. DEPT. OF AGR. 
 
 HOG SICK OF HOG CHOLERA. (CHRONIC TYPE.) F. BUL. 379.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 575 
 
 a galvanized iron feed-trough in suitable lengths and soldering a strip 
 of three-quarter-inch mesh galvanized chicken-wire over the top. 
 The surface of the wire should be about an inch below the edges of 
 the trough to prevent the throwing out of grain. 
 
 The ordinary wooden V-shaped trough can be similarly 
 adapted; care being taken to cut the wire so that there will be no 
 long points of wire to injure the chickens. (Cornell B. 248.) 
 
 (Publications quoted from and consulted: Agr. Dep. F. B. 
 357; Colo. B. 164; Ind. B. 146; Ark. B. 99; Pa. B. 87; West Va. B. 
 98; Cornell B. 246; Me. B. 193; Conn. B. 36; Kansas B. 150.) 
 
 FEEDING AND CARE. 
 
 The problem of feeding is one of great importance, and should 
 be carefully considered, for on it depends to a large extent not only 
 the general health of the birds, but also the economy which pro- 
 motes success. It is a subject, however, which should be studied with 
 a large amount of common sense, for there are no hard and fast rules 
 which can be laid down as applying to every case. The price of 
 feeds and the general environment should be considered in deter- 
 mining the right rations. 
 
 For the largest profit a good proportion of the eggs should be 
 secured during the winter. If two extra eggs per week can be ob- 
 tained from each hen a good profit will be made, while if the prod- 
 uct is increased by only one egg per week in winter, this one egg 
 will pay for all the feed the hen eats. To obtain this greater produc- 
 tion, not only should the fowls be young and of a good laying breed, 
 but the feeder should have a full knowledge of the proper feed and 
 its preparation. 
 
 The nutriment in the feed of laying hens serves a twofold pur- 
 pose to repair waste and furnish heat to the body and to supply the 
 egg-making materials. As only the surplus over what is needed for 
 the body is available for egg production, the proper feeds should be 
 fed in sufficient quantities to induce this production. 
 
 In supplying feed to fowls there are three kinds of constituents 
 which should be present in certain fairly well fixed proportions if 
 the desired results are to be obtained most economically. These 
 constituents are mineral, nitrogenous, and carbonaceous, all of which 
 are contained in corn, wheat, oats, and barley, but not in the right 
 proportions to give the greatest egg yield. In addition some animal 
 feed and green feed should be supplied. 
 
 In feeding poultry a valuable lesson may be learned from na- 
 ture. In the spring the production of eggs on the farm is an easy 
 matter. Fowls which are at liberty to roam find an abundance of 
 green and animal feed on their range, which with grain furnishes a 
 perfect ration for laying hens. In addition to this they get plenty 
 of exercise and fresh air. So far as lies within his power, then, the 
 feeder should aim to make the winter conditions springlike. 
 
 Systems of Feeding. There are two systems in use for the 
 feeding of fowls, in one of which all the feed is given dry and in the 
 other of which one or more of the daily feeds consists of a moistened 
 mash. For convenience they may be termed the "dry-feed" and the
 
 576 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 "mash" systems, although in the dry-feed system a dry mash is often 
 fed. Dry feeding is used by many where it is not convenient to 
 make and feed a moistened mash. The greatest advantages to be de- 
 rived from the dry system are the saving of labor and the lessened 
 danger of bowel trouble resulting from sloppy or soured mashes. 
 
 Dry Feeding. In the dry-feed system for laying hens, as suc- 
 cessfully practiced on a New York poultry farm, the whole grains 
 fed are as follows, in the proportions indicated : 200 pounds cracked 
 corn ; 360 pounds wheat ; 130 pounds oats. 
 
 This mixture is scattered in the litter early in the morning and 
 again at about 11.30 a. m., and this inducas abundant exercise. A 
 hopper containing a dry mash is hung against the wall. The mash 
 is made up of the following ingredients, in the proportions indicated 
 (by measure) : 32 parts corn meal; 30 parts meat (animal) meal; 
 30 parts ground alfalfa; 2 parts oyster shell; 1 part grit; 1 part char- 
 coal. 
 
 The hopper containing this mash is opened about an hour after 
 the noon feed of grain, or about 12.30 p. m., and the fowls have 
 access to it for the remainder of the day. Of all grain feeds that are 
 usually supplied to farm poultry, corn has been and still is the most 
 popular, which is probably due to its abundance and relative cheap- 
 ness, and because it is the most relished of all the grains. Corn is 
 heating and fattening, and when fed to closely confined fowls in 
 large quantities fat rather than eggs is the usual result, and it should 
 be balanced with meat, bone, linseed, gluten, and such feeds as are 
 rich in nitrogenous matter, for corn is deficient in this constituent. 
 When corn is fed to laying hens that have opportunity to take plenty 
 of exercise and to secure insects and green feed, much more satis- 
 factory results are likely to be obtained than when it is fed to the 
 same fowls closely confined. It may be fed quite largely in the 
 cold climates during winter, but should be fed sparingly during 
 summer. 
 
 Wheat is generally considered the safest grain to be fed alone. 
 It is not quite so fattening as corn, still is too fattening when fed 
 alone. This grain should be supplemented by some meat feed or 
 skimmed milk to increase the proportion of protein. Wheat con- 
 tains more protein than corn, about the same amount of carbo- 
 hydrates, but less fat, and on the whole is considered not so valuable 
 for fattening, but better for growth. Wheat screenings, if they are 
 of a good grade, can frequently be purchased and fed to advantage. 
 Of course there is always the danger of introducing weed seed on the 
 farm. "Burnt wheat" can seldom be fed advantageously, the differ- 
 ence in price between this and good wheat being usually too slight 
 to warrant one in feeding it. 
 
 Oats are often fed for variety, but are not well liked unless 
 (hulled, the hulls being tough and rather indigestible. Hulled oats, 
 on the other hand, are relished by poultry and are excellent for pro- 
 ducing eggs. When they can be obtained at a reasonable price in 
 comparison with other grains they may be fed quite largely. Barley 
 does not seem to be greatly relished by hens, but may be used to
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 577 
 
 give variety to the grain ration. It has a little more protein than 
 corn and a little less than oats. Buckwheat is quite well liked by 
 fowls, but is not very widely fed. It may be fed to vary the ration. 
 Buckwheat middlings are rich in protein and make a good mixture 
 with corn meal. Rye is not fed largely, and does not seem to be 
 much relished by poultry. It is supposed to cause bowel trouble 
 when fed freely. 
 
 Mash Feeding. It is the practice of a large percentage of the 
 most successful poultrymen to feed a part of the daily grain ration 
 ground. Most of them feed the ground grain moistened with either 
 milk or water, although some feed it dry. A fowl's gizzard is capable 
 of grinding all kinds of grain, but it is generally considered to be 
 more economical to have a part of the grinding done by steam or 
 water power. The soft-feed idea, however, must not be overworked. 
 A beginner often reasons that it is cheaper for the miller than for 
 the fowl to grind the grain ; but the powerful muscles of the gizzard 
 are there to be used, and experience has shown that the balance of 
 power of functions in the fowl's economy makes the vigorous exer- 
 cise of the gizzard beneficial. When feeding moistened ground feed 
 have it a comparatively dry, crumbly mash, and not a thin slop. 
 Give what they will eat readily in 15 to 20 minutes. 
 
 Poultrymen do not agree as to the time of day when the soft 
 feed should be fed. Some assert that it should be fed in the morn- 
 ing, others at noon, and still others at night. The greater proportion 
 give the ground feed in the morning, a large number at night, and a 
 few at noon. The number who feed at noon, however, is becoming 
 larger. Those who give the soft feed in the morning reason that the 
 fowls which have been on the perches during the night have largely 
 digested the feed consumed the day before, and consequently have 
 comparatively empty crops and digestive organs, and in order that 
 the morning meal may be easilv and quickly digested the fowls 
 should be fed only ground and moistened feed. Other careful 
 feeders state that if a moistened mash i? fed in the morning the hen 
 is likely to become gorged with feed early in the morning and take 
 to the roost for the remainder of the day. It is probably more import- 
 ant that a part of the grain should be ground than that it should be 
 fed at any particular time of day. In an experiment in West Vir- 
 ginia the egg production was practically the same whether mash was 
 fed in the morning or at night. 
 
 The following are given as sample mashes : 
 
 100 pounds corn meal. 100 pounds wheat bran. 
 
 150 pounds ground oats. 100 pounds corn meal. 
 
 150 pounds wheat bran. 75 pounds wheat middlings. 
 
 30 pounds linseed meal. 75 pounds cut clover or al- 
 
 30 pounds beef scraps. falfa. 
 
 100 pounds corn meal . 100 pounds wheat bran. 
 
 100 pounds ground oats. 100 pounds ground corn. 
 
 100 pounds wheat bran. 100 pounds ground oaK 
 
 100 pounds ground barley.
 
 578 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Miscellaneous Feeds. Chickens eat a large amount of animal 
 matter in the form of insects, worms, and other low forms of animal 
 life when allowed to range at will. If the poultry keeper is to get 
 the best results from his fowls in winter he must furnish a substitute 
 for this class of feed. For this purpose green cut bone, meat scraps, 
 and animal meal may be used. Green cut bone is usually fed by 
 itself, while the scraps and meal may be readily mixed with the mash. 
 Cut bone consists of green or fresh bone sliced or shaved into thin 
 pieces by a bone cutter. Bones fresh from the butcher have more 
 or less meat adhering, and the more of such meat the better, for the 
 combination of bone and meat is excellent for producing eggs. Where 
 a good supply of fresh bone can be obtained regularly it is very use- 
 ful but it can not be kept sweet for as long a period as the beef scraps 
 and animal meal. Green cut bone should be fed carefully and in a 
 sweet condition, otherwise bowel trouble may result. One pound a 
 day is sufficient for 20 hens, but not over one-half pound should be 
 fed to that number when first beginning to feed it. From one-half 
 to three-fourths pound of animal meal or meat scraps may be fed to 
 12 or 15 hens. Any form of meat is likely to loosen the bowels of 
 the hen when first fed, and the hens should be watched carefully and 
 not fed too much. After the fowls have become accustomed to the 
 animal meal or meat scraps it may be kept constantly before them. 
 
 Green Feed. If the best results are to be obtained with poultry 
 they must be furnished with a plentiful supply of green feed. Where 
 fowls have unlimited range on a farm they will secure green feed 
 during the spring, but during the winter it must be supplied for 
 them. The question of how to supply the best feed at the least cost 
 is one that each poultry keeper must decide largely for himself. It 
 will probably make but little difference what kind of green feed is 
 supplied provided it is relished by the fowls. Cabbages, turnips, 
 beets, potatoes, etc., are suitable for this purpose. The larger roots 
 and the cabbages may be suspended by means of a wire or string, or 
 they may be placed on the floor, in which case it would be well to 
 split the turnips or beets lengthwise with a large knife. Potatoes and 
 turnips should be fed cooked. The mangel is an excellent root for 
 feeding raw. Cut clover soaked in boiling water fed alone or with 
 the mash is good. Clover meal and ground alfalfa make very good 
 feeds for this purpose. Where the fowls are yarded and not enough 
 green feed is furnished by the yards, a small patch of clover, alfalfa, 
 or rape may be sown. Any one of these, if frequently mowed, will 
 furnish a great quantity of green feed in a form which is relished by 
 the fowls. ^ Canada field peas may also be sown for this purpose, and 
 when fed in a tender, crisp condition are eaten readily. Rye is a 
 good crop for late fall and early spring, for it will germinate and grow 
 in^very cold weather and will live through the winter. As a general 
 thing, fowls should have once a day about all the green feed they 
 will eat. 
 
 Hay. Clover Hay may be fed economically to laying hens and 
 may be prepared as follows: Cut into as short lengths as possible 
 (one-fourth to one-half inch) and place in a bucket. Then pour
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 579 
 
 boiling water over it and allow to stand for two or three hours or 
 over night. When ready to feed, drain off the water and mix the hay 
 with the mash. The hay may constitute about one-half the bulk of 
 the feed, although the exact proportion is immaterial. Clover hay is 
 best, but any kind is valuable. The feeder must be careful not to 
 give too much bulky feed, for the hen, having a small crop, can not 
 make use of as large an amount of it as the cow and other rumi- 
 nants can. 
 
 Water. Plenty of fresh water should always be accessible to the 
 hens. If supplied irregularly they are likely to drink too much at a 
 time. It should not be exposed to the sun's rays in summer or be 
 allowed to freeze in winter if this can be avoided. In very frosty 
 weather it is often worth while to give them slightly warmed water 
 two or three times a day rather than permit them to drink water at 
 the freezing point. A flock of 50 hens in good laying condition will 
 require 4 to 6 quarts of water a day. 
 
 Milk. When properly fed, milk makes an excellent feed for 
 poultry. In feeding sour milk or buttermilk, however, the feeder must 
 exercise care not to give too much or bowel trouble will very likely 
 result. Skimmed milk is an economical feed. In skimming, the 
 most valuable food constituents the nitrogenous substances are left 
 in the skimmed milk. Not only does this skimmed milk contain 
 much nutritive material, but it contains it in a form which, as a rule 
 is easily digested. Skimmed milk may often be advantageously sub- 
 stituted in part for meat. Milk may be used in mixing the soft feed, 
 or it may be given the fowls to drink in addition to water. 
 
 Grit and other Substances. Grit is essential to the health of 
 fowls and to economy in feeding. Grit takes the place of teeth in 
 preparing the feed for further digestion and is required for the proper 
 preparation of feed in the gizzard. When the feed is not properly 
 taken care of in this organ an undue strain is thrown on the fowl's 
 system, often resulting in disease, and also allowing much of the 
 nutriment to pass through the bird's body without being absorbed. 
 In every pen or yard a box of grit should be kept. Recent investi- 
 gators have asserted that grit is a part of the necessary feed, giving the 
 fowls strong bones and a bright plumage. 
 
 Lime. Ordinarily, the hen does not consume enough lime to 
 form the shells of eggs if she is laying abundantly unless something 
 besides the ordinary grain feeds is accessible to her. Oyster shells are 
 very good for this purpose. A box of crushed shells may be placed 
 before the fowls, allowing them to eat at will. Old mortar and fine 
 gravel are also useful in supplying lime. 
 
 Charcoal. This has a great absorptive power for gases, impuri- 
 ties, and acids, and thus acts as a corrective when the stomach is sour 
 and digestion has been impaired. 
 
 Methods of Feeding. Fowls should have empty crops in the 
 morning, and the crops should never be quite full until it is time to 
 go to roost at night. For the first feed, grain scattered in the litter 
 early in the morning is preferred, the sooner the better after the birds 
 leave the roosts. This induces them to exercise, which is especially
 
 580 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 important on cold winter mornings. In the middle of the day a 
 warm moistened mash should be given, about what they will eat 
 within fifteen or twenty minutes, and at night, about an hour before 
 they go to roost, a liberal feed of grain should be scattered in the 
 litter. , 
 
 Frequency of Feeding. Some poultrymen feed their flocks twice 
 a day, while others feed them three times a day. The best plan is to 
 feed fowls in confinement three times a day and those having free 
 range in summer twice a day. When there is a very long interval 
 between feeds it is difficult to keep fowls busy which are kept in con- 
 finement. Idle fowls often contract bad habits, such as feather pull- 
 ing and egg eating, besides going out of condition from lack of exer- 
 cise. In case it is not convenient to feed three times a day, the 
 moistened mash may be fed in the morning, and at the same time 
 the noon feed of grain may be scattered in the litter, which will keep 
 the fowls busy a great part of the day. For those who can not con- 
 veniently feed their fowls early in the morning a good plan is to 
 scatter grain plentifully in the litter after the birds have gone to 
 roost. This grain will furnish feed for the early morning. Some 
 poultry keepers can look after their fowls only once a day. If this is 
 in the morning, moistened mash may be fed, followed by throwing 
 grain in the litter to furnish feed for the remainder of the day. If 
 it is in the evening, before dark, a moistened mash may be given, 
 and either after the fowls go to roost or in the morning, before day- 
 light, grain may be scattered in the litter for eating during the day. 
 
 Amount of Feed. It is impossible to state any exact quantity 
 of feed that should be given to each fowl per day, as the appetites of 
 the birds vary according to the conditions under which they are kept, 
 the season of the year, and the kind of fowl, some being much greater 
 eaters than others. The general rule is to keep the birds slightly 
 hungry during the day, not giving all they will eat until just before 
 roosting time. The birds should be handled now and then when they 
 ore on the perch, and if they are either too fleshy or too poor their 
 rations should be modified. 
 
 Importance of a Varied Ration. In feeding grain the aim of 
 the feeder should be to give a variety. No one kind of grain alone is 
 best. Variety may be secured by mixing the grains or by feeding the 
 different kinds of grain on different days. This variety is in accord- 
 ance with nature. When on free range the fowls obtain a little of 
 several different kinds of feed. Grain should not be made the sole 
 feed, for then fat and not eggs is the usual result. 
 
 Effect of Feed on Character of Egg. In extreme cases the flavor 
 and the odor of the feed have been imparted to the egg. Onions have 
 been fed in sufficient quantity to bring about this effect. Feeds of 
 high and objectionable flavor should not be fed by those who desire 
 to produce a first-class article. In no case should tainted feed be 
 allowed to enter into the ration. Feed also has an influence on the 
 color of the yolk. Corn fed exclusively will give a deep yellow or 
 highly colored yolk, while wheat fed alone will produce a much 
 lighter-colored yolk, A fairly high-colored yolk is usually preferred
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 581 
 
 and can generally be obtained by feeding the moderate amount of 
 corn. Plenty of green feed also enriches the color of the yolk. 
 
 The Droppings as an Indication of Health The condition of the 
 droppings furnish a good indication of the hen's health. They should 
 be of sufficient consistency to hold their shape, but should not be too 
 solid. In color they should be dark, tapering off into grayish white. 
 If the droppings are soft or pasty and of a yellowish or brownish 
 color, it indicates too much carbohydrates or a lack of meat. If, on 
 the other hand, the droppings are watery and dark with red splashes 
 diarrhea usually indicates unsanitary conditions, either in the sur- 
 roundings, the feed, or the water. 
 
 Molting. Where a specialty is made of producing winter eggs 
 it is important that the hens shed their feathers early, so that the new 
 plumage will be grown before cold weather begins. Henry Van 
 Dreser has proposed a way by which it is possible to cause a flock of 
 fowls to pass through the molting period early and uniformly. This 
 method consists in withholding part of the feed for about two weeks, 
 which stops egg production and reduces the weight of the fowls, and 
 then feeding heavily on a ration suitable for the formation of the 
 feathers and the general building up of the system. This method 
 was tried at the West Virginia Experiment Station with good results. 
 The hens molted more rapidly and with more uniformity, entering 
 winter in better condition than similar fowls fed continually during 
 the molting period on an egg-producing ration. Whether this 
 method is employed or not, the fowls should receive a more nitroge- 
 nous ration than the one ordinarily fed. The addition of a little lin- 
 seed meal during the molting period will aid in the production of a 
 new coat of feathers. An increase in the amount of animal feed will 
 also be beneficial. 
 
 Exercise. During the spring season fowls having free range 
 get abundant exercise. Close confinement without exercise is not 
 conducive to the best results, although the feed provided may be the 
 best, for idle hens soon grow too fat to lay. It is almost impossible 
 to give laying hens which are confined too much exercise. The fowls 
 may be encouraged to exercise in various ways, such as feeding corn 
 on the cob, suspending cabbage heads, beets ; etc., so that the birds 
 have to jump for them, and scattering grain in the litter. The litter 
 should be from 4 to 8 inches deep, and may consist of straw (either 
 cut or whole), hay, leaves, buckwheat hulls, shredded corn fodder, 
 or any convenient material of this nature. The hens should be kept 
 hungry enough so that they will work diligently all day for the grain 
 scattered in this litter, which should be removed whenever it becomes 
 damp or soiled. 
 
 Age of Birds for Profitable Egg Production. There are people 
 who have the right variety of fowls, who house and feed them prop- 
 erly, and yet who can not obtain eggs early in the winter because 
 their fowls are too old. It is seldom that it pays to keep hens for 
 laying after they are two and a half years old ; not that they will not 
 give a profit, but that younger fowls will give a greater profit. A 
 great many poultrymen who make a specialty of winter-egg produc-
 
 582 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 tion keep nothing but pullets, disposing of the 1-year-old hens before 
 it is time to put them in the winter quarters. Early hatched pullets, 
 if properly grown, ought to begin laying in October or early Novem- 
 ber and continue to lay through the winter. Yearling hens seldom 
 begin laying much before the 1st of January and older hens not until 
 later. It is the November and December eggs that bring the high 
 prices. The laying breeds should begin laying when about 5 months 
 old; general-purpose breeds at 6 months, and the meat breeds at 7 
 or 8 months. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 287.) 
 
 Broilers. The rearing of broilers may be regarded as one of the 
 specialties of the poultry business and does not appeal particularly 
 to the farmer, but it can often be made a paying occupation in con- 
 nection with an egg farm or as a winter employment for those whose 
 regular occupation gives them plenty of leisure at that season. Great 
 skill is required to bring this work to its highest perfection, and any- 
 one contemplating the production of broilers on an extensive scale 
 should not depend on written directions for his guidance, but should 
 make a careful study of the market demands and should visit one 
 of the successful broiler producers, for the practical experience of 
 such men is the safest guide. 
 
 Broilers are young, plump chickens, weighing, when dressed, 
 from three-quarters of a pound to 2 pounds, and are usually killed 
 when from six to twelve weeks old. The name is derived from the 
 fact that they are usually split down the middle and the halves 
 broiled. The market demand today is for broilers of three sizes 
 squab broilers, small broilers, and large broilers. Squab broilers 
 wnen dressed weigh from three-quarters of a pound to 1 pound each ; 
 small broilers, the size most in demand the greater part of the year, 
 weigh from 1 to 1% pounds each, and large broilers from 1% to 2 
 pounds each. In most American markets a yellow-skinned and 
 yellow-legged bird is preferred, but this is not of as much importance 
 as good quality of meat. The raising of broiler chickens until the 
 finishing period is reached is practically the same as the raising of 
 chickens for other purposes. The main point is to keep them grow- 
 ing rapidly. 
 
 To Finish Broilers for Market. A fat broiler is quite a rarity ; 
 the best that can be done, in general, is to have it plump, for the 
 natural tendency of the chick is to use all nutriment for growth and 
 development. When the birds are nearly large enough for the 
 market they should be given all the fattening feed they will eat, 
 and for this purpose corn in various forms should be fed freely. 
 They will digest more feed if fed ground than if whole or cracked. 
 A moistened mash consisting of about two-thirds corn meal and one- 
 third bran by bulk is good. Cooked potatoes are good, and milk, 
 with a little sugar added, will hasten fattening. Broilers may be sold 
 alive or dressed according to the discretion of the grower. If dressed 
 this should be done according to the demands of the market to which 
 they are to be shipped. 
 
 Roasters. For roasting, a young fowl about full grown, but still 
 soft meated, is used, and to roast satisfactorily it must be moderately
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 583 
 
 fat. Roasters are roughly classed as "small roasters" and "largo 
 roasters." The greatest demand is for small roasters weighing 4 
 or 5 pounds each, though the demand for large roasters weighing 8 
 or 9 pounds each is steadily increasing. Yellow skin and yellow legs 
 are more generally demanded than a white skin and dark legs. 
 
 If the chickens have been properly grown and are in good 
 healthy condition, about ten or twelve days' confinement in a pen 
 and small yard, with fattening feed, will put them in as good condi- 
 tion as is desirable. They should then be dressed and packed accord- 
 ing to market demands. The growing and marketing of roasters is 
 an important business in some parts of the country, especially in the 
 vicinity of large cities. Near Boston, in what is known as the "South 
 Shore" district, the production of roasters engages the attention of 
 many people, several of whom make it an exclusive business. A 
 poultryman living near a good market or having good shipping 
 facilities which bring a good market near him can often dispose 
 of his surplus cockerels as roasters to good advantage. (F. B. 287.) 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON EGG PRODUCTION. 
 
 Flocks that laid best during the first two periods also laid best 
 in the last period. In other words the flocks that laid poorly in the 
 early winter, when they did begin to lay did not surpass those that 
 had been laying at least fairly well all the time. It is also shown that 
 it was the flocks that laid best in December and January from which 
 the greatest profit was secured. (Cornell B. 204.) Leghorn pullets 
 hatched in April gave better results than those hatched in late May. 
 The profit was about one and a half times greater from the April 
 hatched than from the May hatched. (Utah B. 51.) The egg pro- 
 duction of pullets was notably in excess of that of hens particularly 
 in the earlier periods when the price of eggs was highest . (Cornell 
 B. 212.) Forced pullets produced more eggs of a larger size, at less 
 cost per dozen than retarded pullets. (Cornell B. 249.) There is 
 nothing in the results that leads to the conclusion that it is necessary 
 or advisable to crack the corn fed to hens kept for laying eggs. (Me. 
 B. 114.) The average food cost of one dozen eggs for the year was 9.2 
 cents. (Cornell B. 211.) The average cost of feeding a hen for the 
 year was 99.6 cents. For laying hens the rations containing animal 
 food proved superior to others in which all the organic matter was 
 derived from vegetable sources. The vegetable food ration supple- 
 mented by bone ash proved equally efficient for limited periods. 
 (N. Y. State B. (Geneva).) The result of two year's experiment 
 with floored and unfloored houses shows that fowls remain in as 
 healthy condition, and lay as many or more eggs when kept in un- 
 floored houses, as they do when kept in houses provided with floors. 
 (West Va. B. 60.) Hopper-fed dry mash gave better results in 
 gain of weight, production of eggs, gain in weight of eggs, hatching 
 power of eggs, days lost in molting, mortality, health and profit per 
 hen, than wet mash. (Cornell B. 249.) Mature hens, which are fed 
 very sparingly for about two weeks and then receive a rich nitroge- 
 nous ration, molt more rapidly and with more uniformity, and 
 enter the cold weather of winter in better condition than similar
 
 584 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 fowls fed continually during the molting period on an egg produc- 
 ing ration. (West Va. B. 83.) 
 
 (Publications on feeds and feeding quoted from and consulted: 
 Utah B. 51; Cornell B. 204; West Va. B. 115, 60; Ind. B. 71; R. 
 I. B. 84, 127 ; Cornell B. 249 ; West Va, B. 83 ; Cornell B. 211, 212 ; 
 N. Y. State (Geneva) ; Agr. Dep. F. B. 287; Me. B. 193). 
 
 FATTENING POULTRY. 
 
 Four methods of fattening poultry are practiced in this country, 
 viz.: Pen fattening, crate fattening, machine cramming, and hand 
 cramming. The first two are probably the most common to-day, 
 while the third is gaining rapidly as its results are becoming better 
 known, and the fourth is used only where but few birds are fattened. 
 
 Pen Fattening. This is practiced by a great many people who 
 do not have the time and inclination to use other methods. The es- 
 sentials of pen fattening are quiet, darkness, except at feeding time, 
 and plenty of soft feed given at regular intervals, usually three times 
 a day. Birds may 'be kept in flocks of 15 or 20, but the sexes should 
 be separated. 
 
 Crate Fattening. In crate fattening a few fowls are confined 
 in crates and fed from a trough. A crate 6 feet long, 18 inches high, 
 and 18 or 20 inches wide is suitable and is large enough for a dozen 
 birds. Sometimes such a crate is divided into two or three compart- 
 ments, 4 to 6 birds being placed in each compartment. But little 
 room for the 'birds to move about is desirable, for the less exercise 
 a bird obtains the more readily does it fatten. The top, back, and 
 ends of the crates should be solid if they are to be placed outdoors, 
 but if they are to be in a building they may be built of lath or slats. 
 These slats should be 2 inches apart in front, so as to permit the birds 
 to eat from the troughs which are hung just outside of the coop. The 
 slats of the bottom of the coop should be about 1 inch apart to permit 
 the droppings to fall through. In indoor feeding the crates should 
 be placed in a dark room, and just before feeding enough light 
 should be admitted to allow the birds to see to eat. They are usually 
 fed three times a day, and are permitted to eat for half an hour at 
 a time, when the room is again darkened and the uneaten feed 
 removed. 
 
 Machine Cramming. For the best results a machine is essen- 
 tial, especially for the last ten days, for otherwise the birds will not 
 eat nearly so much as they can digest and assimilate. 
 
 The machine is thus described: A reservoir under which is 
 placed a small force pump operated by means of a lever worked 
 'by the foot is placed on a tripod. A tube is fixed to one end of 
 the pump, through which the feed passes when the lever rod is 
 lowered. This tube is of rubber or metal. If rubber, it may have a 
 metal point. Metal tubes are more easily kept clean. The feed is 
 placed in the reservoir, and is made into the consistency of thick 
 cream. There are several ways of holding the bird, but the following 
 will be found simple and effective: Fold the wings and grip the 
 bird firmly either between the right elbow and side of the body, or 
 between the left elbow and the body, whichever is the more conve-
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 585 
 
 nient. The head is grasped in the left hand, the first finger being 
 placed in the mouth to keep it open. The tube is placed in the 
 mouth and the bird is gently drawn on until the end of the tube 
 reaches the crop, the neck being elongated as much as possible. The 
 lever bar is gently lowered 'by the foot and the food is thus forced into 
 the crop. One hand is kept on the crop and as soon as it is suffi- 
 ciently full the foot is removed from the lever and the bird is gently 
 removed. The operator soon learns to know when the crop is full. 
 No stated amount that should be fed to an individual can be given, 
 for the quantity varies with the size of the crop. Great care should 
 be taken in preparing the feed to see that there are no lumps, for the 
 tube is small and easily becomes blocked. 
 
 Hand Cramming. This is a good system where but few fowls 
 are being fattened, but would be found rather laborious where many 
 are fattened. The feed is made into boluses, or balls, which should 
 be about 2 inches long and one-half inch in diameter. A large num- 
 ber of these are prepared before commencing to feed. The operator 
 sits on a stool or box, firmly grips the fowl Between his knees, and 
 elongates the neck, holding the head in a similar manner to that 
 described in using the cramming machine. He then dips a bolus in 
 skim milk or water and forces it into the bird's mouth, pressing it 
 down the throat with his finger. The neck above the bolus is then 
 gripped with the thumb and first finger, which are run downward 
 along the neck, forcing the bolus into the crop. It will probably 
 take from 14 to 18 of these boluses to fill the crop, depending on its 
 capacity. Some feeders practice this method in connection with 
 crate fattening. The attendant, after feeding in the crates, feels the 
 crop of each bird, and any not having a sufficiently filled crop are 
 crammed in the manner described. 
 
 Feed for Fattening. Fattening birds should always receive soft 
 feed. As they have no exercise they require a feed that can be 
 quickly and easily digested. The following mixture is fed at the 
 New York establishment referred to under the description of the 
 cramming machine : 100 pounds finely ground barley, 100 pounds 
 finely ground corn, 100 pounds finely ground oats (with hulls sifted 
 out), to which mixture is added 10 per cent of beef scraps. Butter- 
 milk or skim milk is used for mixing, the former being preferred. 
 A little salt is sometimes added. The birds are fed twice a day at 
 intervals of twelve hours, and are crammed for about three weeks. 
 It is important that the intervals between the feedings should be as 
 nearly equal as possible. 
 
 Another ration may be made as follows: 100 pounds ground 
 oats, 100 pounds ground corn, 50 pounds flour, 4 pounds tallow. 
 (Dep. Agr. F. B. 287.) 
 
 HOUSES. 
 
 A poultry house should be warm, dry, light, and well ventilated 
 without draughts. A neglect of any of these requirements is enough 
 to destroy the usefulness of the house, in part at least. There are 
 many theories advanced, for building poultry houses that will not 
 bear a practical test. Great care should 'be used to have all buildings
 
 586 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 and fixtures connected with the house as simple as possible thus 
 reducing to the lowest point, the labor in caring for the fowls. 
 
 Location. One of the first and most important questions to 
 decide in starting a poultry plant is the location. The factors deter- 
 mining the location are; the markets, soil, and climate. It is be- 
 lieved these are here named in the order of their importance. It is 
 of little use to produce a good article if one is out of reach of markets 
 that are willing to pay reasonable prices for poultry produce. People 
 living near cities and large towns will therefore have an advantage 
 over those living in remote regions. While this should be considered 
 carefully in starting it should not discourage people from keeping 
 poultry because they do not live near a large city. Many large and 
 successful poultry farms ship their produce from one to three hun- 
 dred miles. By making contracts ahead they are enabled to realize 
 a good profit on the investment. 
 
 Soil. The soil should be a sandy loam and high enough so that 
 all surface water may drain away. When such a location is not at 
 hand and it is necessary to build upon low or level land, a foundation 
 for the house should be built of brick about two feet high and the 
 inside filled in with earth (preferably gravel or sand) to the top of 
 the foundation and graded up to the same level outside. The ground 
 should be sloping away from the building on all sides. This will 
 materially aid in keeping the house dry. Do not locate a house in 
 a bank as it is almost sure to be damp. Dampness must be guarded 
 against in all dealings with poultry or disease and failure are apt to 
 follow. 
 
 Climate. While it is true that poultry will live and thrive in 
 nearly every clime, about 40 North latitude is best adapted to their 
 requirements. A colder climate than this rather than warmer for 
 several reasons would be preferred. The hot summers in the South 
 furnish ideal conditions for the rapid multiplication of all kinds of 
 vermin which prey upon the birds. Disease germs are more numer- 
 ous and seem to develop much faster than in a colder climate. A 
 very hot climate has a depressing influence on laying hens and will 
 greatly retard the growth of chicks, if it does not ruin them entirely. 
 Eggs laid when the weather is moderately cool are of better quality ; 
 that is they have what is called "more body" than those laid in hot 
 weather unless the latter are kept in refrigerators until used. 
 
 Size and Dimensions of House. The size of the building re- 
 quired will depend largely on the number of fowls to be kept and on 
 the size of the flocks. From 40 to 50 seems to be about as many as 
 is safe and economical to keep together. With flocks of this size 
 about 5 square feet of floor space should be allotted to each bird, 
 which will suffice in most cases where careful attention is given to 
 cleanliness and ventilation. If the fowls are kept in smaller flocks 
 more floor space per bird will be needed. Where the climate is so 
 mild that it is unnecessary to keep the fowls confined, except for a 
 few days at a time, less space per bird will be sufficient. The smaller 
 breeds, being more active and restless, require about as much room 
 as the larger breeds.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 587 
 
 For the greatest amount of floor space for the least cost, a build- 
 ing should be square, for, other things being equal, the nearer square 
 a house is the less lumber it will take. It is, however, out of the 
 question to have a large house built square. The building should not 
 be so wide that the sun can not reach the back of the house, otherwise 
 it will be damp. Fourteen feet is a convenient width if there are no 
 alleyways. The house should be built as low as possible without 
 danger of the attendants bumping their heads against the ceiling. 
 A low house is more easily warmed than a high one. 
 
 The two most common plans of building are what are known 
 as the scratching shed plan and the continuous long house. The 
 scratching shed plan is to build a small roosting and laying room 
 and connected with it, a room somewhat larger with an open front 
 facing the south. The floor of this room is covered with straw for 
 the hens to exercise in during the day time. The open front is cov- 
 ered with wire netting to confine the birds. It is also fitted with cloth 
 covered frames hinged at the top to be closed during stormy weather. 
 The object of this plan is to furnish the fowls with fresh air and exer- 
 cise in a natural way, with a warm place in which to sleep at night. 
 The continuous closed front house with a shed roof sloping to the 
 rear, and fitted with windows enough in front to furnish sufficient 
 light for the fowls is a common style. (Minn. B. 91.) 
 
 Foundation Walls. When permanent houses are to be built it 
 is usually most economical to erect them on foundations made of 
 brick, stone, or concrete. These should be built deep enough to pre- 
 vent heaving by frost and high enough to prevent surface water 
 from entering. Where large stones or bricks are not readily avail- 
 able good walls may be made from small stones. In case none of 
 these foundation materials is available the building may be erected 
 on posts. 
 
 The Hoof. There are three general styles of roofs the single 
 pitch, the gable roof, or double pitch with equal sides, and the com- 
 bination, with one long and one short pitch. 
 
 The single-pitch roof is the easiest to build. It gives the highest 
 vertical front exposed to the sun's rays and throws all the rain water 
 to the rear; but in order to have the back wall of sufficient height to 
 allow a pei-son to work conveniently in the rear portion of the house 
 it is necessary to have the front wall very high unless a very slight 
 pitch is used which requires much more lumber for the front side 
 than in the case of the other two styles. The gable roof provides for 
 a garret space, which may be filled with straw, thus helping to make 
 the house warm and dry. 
 
 Most roofs can be one-fourth pitch. Shingle roofs, however, 
 should generally be one-third pitch. In any case the steeper the 
 pitch the greater will be the cost of roofing and the longer the roof 
 will last. 
 
 There are several prepared roofing materials which are good, or 
 the roof may consist of matched lumber or shingles. 
 
 Style of Roof. The most suitable style of roof depends entirely 
 upon the type of house. The commonest form used is the shed roof,
 
 588 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sloping one way, best adapted to the narrow house facing the south. 
 A roof of this kind with the high side to the south sends all the 
 water to the rear, is simple to construct and will not absorb as much 
 heat as the combination or gable roof, upon a portion of which the 
 sun's rays strike more directly. The shed roof should not be used on 
 houses over fourteen feet wide as the length of span will permit 
 sagging and in order to secure a sufficient pitch to the roof the front 
 would need to be excessively high thus causing greater cost of con- 
 struction. 
 
 Another type of roof frequently used is the gable form which 
 does away with the long span, thus being adapted for use on wider 
 buildings. In addition it affords a greater pitch which is desirable in 
 the use of shingles. The objections to its use are that it is necessary 
 to have the back side of the house as high as the front, thus causing 
 a waste of material upon the back, ends and partitions. 
 
 The combination roof is in reality a roof combining the features 
 of the shed and gable roof having unequal spans, the shorter usually 
 being about one-third the length of the longer. This roof has the 
 advantage of both types in that it can be used on a house wider than 
 the shed roof type, affording a steeper pitch with less cost for siding. 
 In addition the back side of the building is no higher than with the 
 shed roof thus making it much more economical to construct than 
 the gable roof. It should be remembered that as long as the pitch of 
 the roof remains unchanged the material used for all three styles of 
 roofs is exactly the same and the saving in material occurs in the 
 sides, ends and partitions. Bearing this in mind an examination of 
 the figure herein will show the desirable features of this type of roof 
 as compared to the shed or gable when used on a house sixteen feet 
 wide and having one foot rise to every three feet horizontal run. The 
 dotted line shows the average angle of the sun's rays for Dec. 21 at 
 the latitude of about 44 which indicates the necessity of placing the 
 windows 6 feet 6 inches high in order for the sunlight to reach the 
 far side of the house within. The front of the house is 7 feet high to 
 permit this arrangement of windows, while the back of the house is 
 only high enough to work in conveniently. The shed roof would be 
 9 feet 8 inches high to the top of the plate, or 2 feet 8 inches higher 
 than the combination roof. The gable roof in the back would be 7 
 feet high, while 4 feet 8 inches is as high as necessary, causing a 
 waste of material in the back of the house. It is apparent that for 
 these specific conditions the combination roof has the advantage over 
 the other two types commonly used in poultry houses. 
 
 Ventilation. The most important essential in a poultry house 
 is an efficient system of ventilation, affording an abundance of fresh 
 air without drafts. Fresh air insures dryness in the poultry houses. 
 A damp cold atmosphere is much more disastrous than a dry ex- 
 tremely low temperature. 
 
 Ventilation may be secured by patent ventilators, straw lofts, 
 muslin curtains, and open fronts. Patent ventilators are seldom 
 used on account of the cost of construction and the unsatisfactory 
 manner in which they operate in the low types of building.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 589 
 
 The straw loft is made by leaving spaces of one-inch or more 
 between the ceiling boards which are covered with a foot or so of 
 loose straw. Both ends of the loft should have openings, the one on 
 the windward side being kept closed during cold weather while the 
 other should remain open. This method of ventilation has a double 
 advantage in that it not only affords an abundance of fresh air, but 
 the straw takes up the moisture readily, thus rendering the house 
 dry and producing a satisfactory system of ventilation. In addition 
 the house with a straw loft is very desirable during hot weather, the 
 temperature being influenced less by the heat from the sun. 
 
 Muslin is being used, in part, in place of glass windows to 
 secure fresh air and is exceedingly popular because of its economical 
 features. Houses with one square foot of muslin and one square foot 
 of glass to every eighteen square feet of floor space are common, the 
 amount varying from one foot of muslin to twenty feet of floor space 
 in a house ten feet wide to one foot of muslin to ten square feet of 
 floor space, in a house twenty feet wide. Some poultrymen are build- 
 ing houses with all the windows covered with muslin and where this 
 is done double the amount of muslin previously mentioned should be 
 used. A combination of glass and muslin is preferred and is satis- 
 factory if properly used. The house should be aired out each day 
 more than the muslin permits, for as soon as the cloth becomes damp 
 it will not allow the air to pass back and forth thus rendering the 
 ventilation imperfect. Should the walls and ceiling become damp 
 insufficient ventilation is being used or the house is not suffi- 
 ciently aired out during the day. Any odors in the house indi- 
 cate deficient ventilation and more fresh air should be admitted. 
 Fresh air is essential to insure a healthy flock, but in supplying it 
 one must not overlook the danger of drafts. Drafts can be avoided to 
 some extent by placing all openings on the side of the house opposite 
 that of the prevailing winds. Frames can be hinged at the top or 
 side or made to slide up and down as part of the window, in any con- 
 venient manner to suit the individual requirements. A moderate 
 sized frame also permits more efficient control of ventilation as one 
 often finds that with large curtains the air is too close, if kept closed, 
 but if kept open the quarters are uncomfortable. In building any 
 poultry house its summer use should also be considered and provision 
 be made for openings in the back so as to afford a free air circulation. 
 
 Fresh Air House. This style has recently come into promi- 
 nence. It is built with the low side, not over 4 feet high, to the south, 
 and the high side to the north, the south side being covered with a 
 wire screen. The open front works most advantageously on a house 
 16x20 feet wide although it can be used on a narrower house, pro- 
 viding the amount of open space is reduced. About 1 square foot 
 of open front is used to every 6 to 10 square feet of floor space. 
 
 As the south side is low it is necessary to insert extra windows 
 which are usually placed in the west end. These can be removed 
 during the summer thus affording free movement of air and counter- 
 acting some of the objectionable features of the extra amount of heat 
 resulting from having the long slope of the roof to the south instend
 
 590 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 of to the north as is usually the case. The house is self-regulating so 
 far as ventilation is concerned, adapting itself to temperature changes 
 without necessitating the constant attention of an attendant. The 
 roosts being located on the 'backside are out of the drafts and the 
 snow and storms do not drive in to any great extent. For breeding 
 stock it is exceedingly popular and in some localities it is strongly ad- 
 vocated for egg production. From the standpoint of healthy flocks 
 this type of house is not to be excelled and as a colony house it is 
 being used to a considerable extent. (Mich. B. 266.) 
 
 Floors. The floor may be of earth, wood, or cement. It is im- 
 portant that the floor be dry, otherwise it will be impossible to keep 
 litter on the floor fit for use. Straw and similar material gathers 
 moisture, and when the litter becomes damp enough to be limp it is 
 practically useless for fowls to scratch in for their grain feed. 
 
 Earth floors are excellent, provided they are kept dry. Except 
 in very dry climates, however, they are apt to be damp. Where an 
 earth floor is used it should be 3 or 4 inches above the level of the 
 ground outside. An objection to earth floors is the difficulty of 
 cleaning them, for it is usually necessary to remove 2 or 3 inches of 
 the top and to replace this with fresh soil, and even then one cannot 
 be certain that all of the droppings have been removed. 
 
 Board floors are usually short-lived unless air is allowed to cir- 
 culate under them. This may be provided for by means of openings 
 in the foundation walls, which should be closed during the winter 
 months. A hoard floor covered with one-fourth inch of fine sand, 
 with scratching material on this, makes a good floor. The litter and 
 sand can be readily removed when desired and fresh materials pro- 
 vided. If the wooden floors are constructed within 2 or 3 inches of 
 the ground it is essential that the foundation walls be constructed in 
 such a way that rats can not gain access beneath the floor. 
 
 A good cement floor is the best, for it is easily cleaned and very 
 durable. It should be covered with one-fourth or one-half inch of 
 fine soil or sand and plenty of litter. In constructing this floor the 
 ground should be excavated to the depth of 3 or 4 inches and then 
 filled in with small stones or coarse gravel to make a good foundation. 
 Cover with about 2 inches of mortar, made by mixing thoroughly, 
 while dry, one part of good cement to three or four parts of sand, and 
 then wetting with water and mixing thoroughly. (Agr. Dep. F. 
 B. 287.) 
 
 Walls of the Poultry House. They must keep out rain, snow 
 and cold winds. They should also give strength and rigidity to the 
 house, and must be made in such a way that they can be readily 
 disinfected and cleaned. They must also be reasonably durable and 
 not too expensive. To fulfill the first requirement the walls are usu- 
 ally made wind tight. Cement blocks have been used in some locali- 
 ties and are giving good service. Solid cement walls should never 
 be used in the poultry house as they become damp and frost covered 
 and can never be said to be satisfactory. Sometimes drain tiles are 
 used in ordinary cement walls making air spaces which help keep 
 out dampness. This method, however, is not used very extensively.
 
 SHEEP BARN. EWES IK FOREGROUND. 
 
 ONE OF THE LATEST TYPES OF BROODER HOUSE. NOTE THE CLOTH WINDOW IN UPPER 
 PART OF DOOR; ALSO CHICK EXIT WHICH is PROVIDED BY OPENING SIDE WINDOW.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 593 
 
 Metal covered walls are becoming more common and give fair 
 service. They must be kept constantly painted in order to be dura- 
 ble. Most poultry houses are built with wooden walls. It is usual 
 to use 2x4's about two feet apart for studding and either matched 
 lumber or rough lumber with roofing paper or battens to make the 
 wall windproof. Matched lumber, such as drop siding, is usually 
 placed on horizontally and is used quite extensively as a house pre- 
 sents a good appearance and can be built rapidly. Where siding of 
 this kind is used it should always be painted before being placed on 
 the house, care being taken to have the tongues, grooves, and edges 
 carefully painted. The boards should be placed on the house before 
 the paint becomes too dry. Matched siding of any kind should be 
 dry, well driven together and well nailed so as to be wind proof. 
 Care should be taken that all matched lumber used in this way is of 
 good grade and free from loose knots or other such defects. To add 
 warmth, tar building paper or one-ply roofing paper are often placed 
 between the siding and studding, thus insuring a wind-proof wall. 
 
 Many old poultry houses are built with rough boards running 
 up and down and the cracks covered with battens. As a rule, this 
 method of construction is not satisfactory as the battens become loose 
 leaving cracks which are very undesirable. Rough boarding, either 
 perpendicular or horizontal, is also being used quite extensively. 
 When using roofing paper to cover rough boards it is advisable to 
 cement the joints thoroughly and then batten with thin strips, at 
 least every two feet, and then paint the entire outer surface with two 
 coats of good paint. Other walls are constructed by nailing rough 
 boarding to the outside of the studding, covering with tar building 
 paper, and then with ordinary siding such as is usually used on 
 houses. Just which form of wall is best to use will depend very 
 largely upon the locality. With any of these, or with their modifica- 
 tions, which are many, a tight wall can be constructed so that which 
 is advisable depends to a large extent upon the necessity of presenting 
 a good appearance or the necessity of keeping the construction at a 
 low figure. Where the boarding runs up and down, less studding are 
 used and in this way this type of construction becomes advantageous. 
 In the poultry house, however, this requires more cutting and more 
 labor to build. Where the boarding runs horizontally it is hard 
 to construct a wall which will always be wind proof. (Wis. B. 215.) 
 
 Perches. They should be all on the same level in the warmest 
 part of the pen away from drafts, and should be readily removable. 
 If the perches are not all on the same level the fowls will fight for 
 the highest perches, and may be injured by falling from the perch. 
 The perches should be in the warmest part of the pen as they need 
 the most protection from the cold during the night when the fowls 
 are inactive. At this time the house is also usually colder than dur- 
 ing the day. The perches should be easily removable to facilitate 
 cleaning, disinfecting, and fighting mites. They should be so con- 
 structed that a disinfectant can be readily applied to all parts. They 
 should be as simple as possible and made in such a way as to have
 
 594 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the smallest number of cracks and crevices which offer hiding places 
 for mites and other vermin. 
 
 As a general rule small hens should have about six inches of 
 perch space while the larger hens should be allowed eight inches. 
 In the winter they huddle closer together, but in the summer there 
 should be plenty of room to allow them to spread out. Perches 
 should be twelve inches apart and not closer than fifteen inches to 
 the wall or ceiling. Show birds, especially Leghorns, or similar types 
 should be kept at a greater distance from walls and ceilings. Many 
 good birds are spoiled by "brooming" their tails against the walls. 
 
 There are several methods of making movable perches. One of 
 the most common is by hinging them to the wall at the back. 
 (Wis. B. 215.) 
 
 Partitions. Although drafts are prevented to a considerable 
 extent by having all the openings on one side of the house, yet in 
 long houses drafts can be created by the wind driving in one window 
 and out another. In order to avoid this solid partitions of boards 
 or a combination of wire screen and canvas can be installed at 
 intervals of about 50 feet. Occasionally these solid partitions extend 
 out only the width of the roosting chamber, but all partitions should 
 be solid for two or three feet from the floor to break drafts and pre- 
 vent fighting through the wire netting. 
 
 Nests. Convenience in handling and usefulness are the main 
 requirements for satisfactory nests. Portable nests greatly facilitate 
 cleaning while darkened nests not only afford a feeling of security 
 on the part of the hen but also tend to reduce the amount of egg 
 eating. Nests may be placed under the droppings boards and 
 still maintain these requirements. After the droppings boards 
 have been made, the nests are constructed and placed under- 
 neath, merely resting upon cleats at each end, so that they can be 
 removed and cleaned without interfering with the rest of the struc- 
 ture. The nest portion is made with a board one foot wide as a base 
 on the front and back of which is nailed four-inch strips. The parti- 
 tions at intervals of one foot, are 1 by 12 by 13 inch pieces, while 
 aJong the top on each side of these are nailed two-inch strips. Be- 
 tween the strips on the front a door is hinged at the bottom, thus 
 permitting the sections of nests to be opened for the removal of eggs. 
 Back of the nests, on the cleats, is placed a four-inch board for the 
 birds to walk along until they reach their particular nest. The sec- 
 tion can be built any desired length and placed any convenient dis- 
 tance from the floor. If the nests are placed high enough to permit 
 the free use of the scratching floor, the roosts are apt to be too high, 
 but this interferes only with certain breeds and is offset by its econom- 
 ical and efficient features. 
 
 In order to prevent the nests from interfering with the ar- 
 rangement of the droppings boards a type adapted to this purpose 
 possessing the desirable features of the nest heretofore described but 
 requiring more time and material for its construction should be 
 used. Being hung on the wall it can be placed at any desired dis-
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 595 
 
 tance from the floor depending entirely upon the breed kept. 
 (Mich. B. 266.) 
 
 Dust Boxes. Chickens never wash, as many other birds do, but 
 cleanse themselves of insects by wallowing in soil. Where board or 
 cement floors are used, some means for dusting should be provided 
 during the winter months. For a flock of 50 to 60 fowls a dust box 
 3 by 5 feet or 4 by 4 feet will be found large enough in most in- 
 stances, and should be placed where it can be reached by sunlight 
 during as much of the day as passible. Fine, light, dry dust is the 
 best, but sandy loam is good. Road dust is recommended by many, 
 but it is apt to be filthy. Coal or wood ashes may be mixed with the 
 soil if desired. 
 
 Watering Devices. A convenient place should be provided for 
 water. It is best to construct a small stand about 1 foot above the 
 floor and place the water dish on this. This stand can be constructed 
 in the partition so that the hens in two pens drink from one dish. 
 It is, however, usually better to give each pen a separate drinking 
 dish. The water stand should be placed where it is light, and also 
 where it is convenient to empty the dish and re-fill it. As a rule the 
 water dish will keep cleaner if near the south side of the building, 
 as the hens scratch the litter toward the north much more than to- 
 ward the front of the house. A hen faces the light usually when dig- 
 fing in the straw for her feed and the result is that the litter works 
 ack. 
 
 There are numerous drinking devices on the market, many of 
 which are valuable. A large number of farmers, however, use either 
 a small pail or pan. A low pail makes a very convenient water dish 
 as the bail enables it to be readily handled with one hand. A pan 
 also makes a convenient watering dish. Care should be taken not to 
 use watering devices of any kind which have parts that cannot be 
 readily cleaned. A dirty drinking dish is frequently a source of 
 disease and should never be permitted in any poultry house. 
 
 (Publications Consulted. Wis. B. 215 ; F. B. 287 ; Mich. B. 266 ; 
 Ark. B. 99; Minn. B. 91; F. B. 357; N. Y. Cornell B. 248; Mont. 
 Circular 9; Colo. B. 164; Md. B. 146; Oreg. B. 96; Utah B. 51; Pa. 
 B. 87.) 
 
 Yarding. As perfect sanitation is one of the prime requisites 
 to success, the larger the yards are the more easy it will be to main- 
 tain healthful conditions among the flocks. If the yard areas must 
 be small more care will have to be exercised. While there is no 
 fixed rule relative to the amount of yard space required, if whole- 
 some conditions are maintained one hundred and forty square feet 
 per chicken will suffice. 
 
 Yard fences are not invariably used. There may be exceptional 
 surroundings and special lines of production rendering them unnec- 
 essary. Single, double, and triple yard systems are in use. The 
 single yards or those extending out from one side of the house the 
 width of the individual pen are unsatisfactory, being too narrow, 
 thus rendering it difficult to use horses and implements with which
 
 596 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC, 
 
 to cultivate and reseed. Green forage cannot be started in these 
 yards without confining the chickens or vacating the house. 
 
 Double yards, with one located on each side of the pen, are 
 more satisfactory. They can be used alternately during the season 
 with chickens foraging on one yard while a fresh crop is being 
 started in the other, thus using the pen continuously, or the yard 
 may be used alternate years. Occasion may permit the combination 
 of two adjacent pens thus allowing yards of double width as in the 
 case of the commercial house with individual pens 18 feet in width 
 and the adjoining yards 36 feet. This arrangement reduces the cost 
 of fencing considerably and greatly facilitates the working of the 
 soil, and in addition affords the chickens a greater amount of rang- 
 ing area. By this plan all cross-fences can be eliminated should spe- 
 cial conditions permit. For long continuous houses double yards 
 are most satisfactory. (Mich. B. 266.) 
 
 TURKEYS. 
 
 No other kind of domestic poultry has come into such general 
 use throughout the entire world for Thanksgiving and holiday 
 feasts as has the turkey. Records show that in England, in 1541, 
 it was enumerated among the dainties, while in 1573 it had become 
 the customary fare of the farmer. It is well known that the Ameri- 
 can Bronze turkey originated from the union of the wild turkey 
 of North America with the domestic turkey of this country. 
 
 North American Wild Turkey. This is the original species of 
 the Eastern United States, known as Meleagris americana, whose 
 colors are black, beautifully shaded with a rich bronze, the breast 
 plumage being dark bronze, illuminated with a lustrous finish of 
 coppery gold. This finish of bronze and gold emblazons the entire 
 plumage throughout as if burnished into brightness. In the rays 
 of the sun it shows a most beautiful combination of bronze, black, 
 copper, and gold. 
 
 Mexican Turkey. The wild turkey of the southern, or Mexi- 
 can, country, called by some naturalists Meleagris mexicana, is 
 somewhat shorter in shank than the northern species, in body color 
 metallic-black shaded with bronze, its tail and other feathers being 
 tipped with white. This appears to be the species that was first 
 taken to Spain and other European countries. It is also thought 
 that the white markings of the plumage of this fowl show its in- 
 fluence on the variety of domestic turkeys known as the Narragan- 
 sett. 
 
 Ocellated Turkey. The wild species known as the Honduras 
 turkey scientifically as Meleagris ocellata was originally a native 
 of Honduras and other parts of Central America. Some describe it 
 as most beautiful in coloring, equal to the Impeyan pheasant, if not 
 richer. The head and neck of this wild variety are naked and no 
 breast tuft is present. This is a beautiful brilliantly colored bird, 
 but cannot be successfully bred in domestication in the northern 
 climate. 
 
 Domestication. There is apparently no contention regarding 
 the original transportation of the turkeys from America to Spain
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 597 
 
 between the years 1518 and 1526. It also seems to be admitted that 
 they were introduced into England in 1524. Among the earliest 
 recorded varieties of domestic turkeys we find the Black Norfolk 
 and the large Cambridge turkey. Undoubtedly the turkey had 
 been domesticated in this country prior to the recording of these 
 varieties in England. 
 
 Present Condition of the Industry. The growing of turkeys 
 seems to have improved within the last few years as a result of a de- 
 termined effort on the part of producers of what is termed standard- 
 bred, or exhibition, stock to demonstrate that it is more profitable 
 to use purebred breeding stock than the smaller 'and less vigorous 
 stock of days gone by. Their efforts to introduce throughout the 
 country the several standard varieties of turkeys has greatly benefited 
 the turkey-growing industry of this country. This effort has sup- 
 plied rich, new, vigorous blood throughout the whole country, add- 
 ing strength and vigor to innumerable flocks, and thereby, to some 
 <'.\k'iit, building up the stock that had become deteriorated through 
 the carelessness and inattention of the producers themselves. 
 
 Deterioration Through Inbreeding. The fact that one fecunda- 
 tion is sufficient to render fertile all the eggs of one laying has made 
 possible the undermining of the health and vigor of the present- 
 day domestic turkey. Being advised of this, hundreds of people de- 
 pend upon their neighbors' flocks for the services of a male and! 
 pay no attention to the matter of breeding stock except to keep one 
 or two turkey hens. This has reduced many of the turkeys through- 
 out the country almost to a condition of imbecility. The lack of 
 vigor in a large portion of the breeding stock throughout the coun- 
 try has jeopardized to a certain extent the production of a sufficient 
 number of market turkeys to supply the demand. In fact, not 
 fully realizing that their failure was largely due to undermining the 
 vitality of their breeding stock through inbreeding, people have be- 
 come so disheartened in some localities with the meager results of 
 their efforts to grow turkeys for the market that they have desisted 
 from the attempt. 
 
 Throughout the country the attention of turkey growers has 
 been called to the successful production of market turkeys in the 
 State of Rhode Island. Unquestionably some of the best market 
 turkeys produced in the world have been sent out of Rhode Island. 
 But even there the art was in danger of being lost through careless 
 handling of breeding stock. 
 
 Weights for Market. Turkeys that are hatched early in the 
 spring should grow to weigh from 14 to 20 pounds by Thanksgiving 
 week. These weights are often exceeded by the best growers, but as 
 they are the most popular and most readily produced, they are sug- 
 gested as the mast advisable. The average yield of turkey hens is 
 from 18 to 30 eggs, each of which can usually be counted on to pro- 
 duce a living poult. The question of profit from keeping turkeys 
 simply resolves itself into the ability of the grower to bring them to a 
 marketable size. This can readily be done if care and attention be 
 given to all the requirements for success,
 
 598 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Standard Varieties of Domestic Turkeys. The Spaniards have 
 the credit of taking the turkey from Mexico to Europe. From the 
 Mexican variety the turkeys of England were bred, and what is 
 known in England as the Norfolk variety we call the Black turkey. 
 Quite likely this variety came from England to us, and was used 
 as the foundation for the cross with our wild turkeys to establish or 
 create the Bronze turkey. The influence of the light markings of 
 the Mexican turkey is shown in the plumage of some our our domestic 
 varieties. 
 
 Six Standard Varieties. Six standard varieties of turkeys are 
 more or less grown in this country, viz, Bronze, Narragansett, Buff, 
 Slate, White, and Black. The main differences are in size and color 
 of plumage. The Bronze and the Narragansett are the largest, the 
 Buff and Slate are the medium, and the Black and White the small- 
 est. Of late so much improvement in size has been made in the 
 Whites that they have moved up to contend for third position, some 
 of them having passed the 30-pound mark. The same statement may 
 soon be made of the Blacks, as they have greatly improved during 
 the last few years. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing there is a nonstandard variety 
 known as the Bourbon Reds. They might well claim the position 
 now held by the Buff turkeys, being quite like them and more 
 largely grown for market than are the Buffs. There is scarcely 
 enough preference shown in the open market for any one of these 
 varieties for table use to cause it to be favored in production of tur- 
 keys for the market. There is, however, a strong preference at all 
 times for the best grown and best finished specimens of all varieties. 
 In Rhode Island, where the highest quality is produced, there does 
 not seem to be much preference for any particular variety. 
 
 The Bronze Turkey. This variety holds the post of honor. 
 ! As already stated, it probably originated from a cross between the 
 wild and the tame turkey. Its beautiful rich plumage and its size 
 have come from its wild progenitor. To maintain these desirable 
 qualities, crosses are continually made. In this way the mammoth 
 size has been gained. Their standard weight ranges from 16 to 36 
 pounds, according to age and sex. Probably more of this variety 
 are grown each year than of all others. They have been pushed on 
 all sides almost to the exclusion of the others until within a year or 
 two. If possible the Bronze turkey has been developed too much in 
 the direction of size. While size, within reasonable limits, is to be 
 desired and encouraged, when it is confined to length of thigh and 
 shank, it is a gain of weight with but little additional value. 
 
 Coloring. The coloring of this variety is a ground of black 
 blazoned or shaded with bronze. This shading is rich and glowing, 
 and, when the sun's rays are reflected from these colors, they shine 
 like polished steel. The female is not as rich in color as the male, 
 but both have the same color and shadings. Much of this richness 
 of color is lost through inbreeding, as it is improved by each cross 
 with the wild specimens,
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 599 
 
 Selection of Breeding Stock. Naturally the Bronze turkey 
 should be the largest in size, the most vigorous in constitution, and 
 the most profitable to grow. This would be the status of the variety 
 at present were it not that too little attention has been given to the 
 selection of the females for breeding stock. It should be fully under- 
 stood that size and constitutional vigor come largely through the 
 female, and, to have this influence to the fullest extent, well-pro- 
 portioned, vigorous females in their second or third year shjould be 
 selected as 'breeders. Do not select the very large specimens for this 
 purpose; those of a medium size are usually the best. Discard the 
 undersized females at all times, as they are of but little value as 
 producers. 
 
 The Narragansett Turkey. The turkeys of this variety are next 
 in size to the Bronze. They are of black ground color, each feather 
 ending with a band of steel gray, edged with black. This imparts 
 a grayish cast to the entire surface plumage. Mixed with this is 
 the finish of metallic black and 'bronze luster. They are beautiful in 
 form and feather and breed true to shape and color. The female has 
 a lighter shade of gray in her markings than the male. Her entire 
 color throughout is of lighter shading. 
 
 Size. The standard weights of this variety are, for males, from 
 20 to 30 pounds, according to age; for females, 12 to 18 pounds. 
 Some old males of both this and the Bronze variety weigh over 40 
 pounds. These weights are excessive and practically no advantage 
 in breeding. None of the several varieties of turkeys is more de- 
 sirable than this for all purposes, and it should be more generally cul- 
 tivated throughout the country for market. Turkeys of this variety 
 are fine in form of breast and body, not so long in the leg as the 
 Bronze, and of a rather more contented nature. They do not average 
 so large in size as the Bronze, but where grown they are highly val- 
 ued. Some declare that the Narragansetts will reach market size 
 and condition in less time than the Bronze turkeys. 
 
 The Buff Turkey. This variety is not generally grown 
 throughout the country. In many localities it is almost unknown. 
 The standard calls for a pure buff color throughout, but this shade 
 of coloring is seldom seen. As bred for market, these turkeys are 
 of a reddish buff or light chestnut color mixed with white and some 
 dark shadings. They are highly valued in some localities for their 
 quick growth and for their attractiveness when dressed. Their aver- 
 age weight is several pounds less than that of the Narragansett. They 
 show evidence of having been crossed with other varieties, perhaps to 
 increase size. Some who raise this variety have paid special atten- 
 tion to its individuality and have maintained the true type and color, 
 adding greatly to its beauty of appearance. Some of the Rhode Island 
 turkey growers are now paying attention to this variety to determine 
 its value for that state. 
 
 The Slate Turkey. This might be called a Blue turkey. These 
 turkeys about average in size with the Buffs and Blacks as we general- 
 ly find them. They range from 10 to 30 pounds according to age and 
 sex. The standard weights range from 12 pounds for a pullet or
 
 600 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 young hen to 27 pounds for an old torn, and in color they are slaty 
 or ashy blue throughout, usually spotted with black. The black 
 color ranges from small spots to larger markings, but the less of this 
 the better for exhibition purposes. The female is usually of a lighter 
 shade than the male. It might be surmised that the Slate turkey 
 originated from a cross of White and Black turkeys. These, like the 
 Buff turkeys, are not largely bred, though some value them highly ; 
 in fact, scarcely enough of them are grown to fairly determine their 
 merit as market turkeys. It might be of advantage to all if more 
 attention were given to the cultivation of these two neglected varieties. 
 
 White Turkey. In America the white variety is called the 
 White Holland turkey, because they were thought to have originated 
 in Holland, but this is doubtful although they were probably brought 
 to this country from Holland. White turkeys were formerly quite 
 delicate and rather small, but now are more generally developed. 
 This change is attributed to an infusion of the blood of White sports 
 from either the Bronze or Narragansett varieties, which has improved 
 both size and vigor, but detracted from the color of shanks and 
 plumage. In some instances the shanks are not quite so true a 
 pinkish white as is demanded, and the plumage is clouded; but this 
 in no way detracts from their value for market purposes. 
 
 Size and Color. The standard of weight is less for the Whites 
 than for other varieties. They range from 10 pounds for young hens 
 to 26 pounds for old toms. Recently some toms have been seen that 
 weighed 35 pounds in show condition, but this weight is quite un- 
 usual. In color of plumage they should be white throughout (ex- 
 cept that each has a black beard on the breast), with shanks and 
 toes pinkish white. Those that have the dark or slate-colored shanks 
 show undoubtedly that they have resulted from a cross with some 
 other variety. 
 
 Comparative Value. In some localities White turkeys are 
 largely grown. They show a vitality equal to that of other varieties, 
 and are no more difficult to rear. In one section visited the writer 
 found by careful investigation that as large a percentage of Whites 
 was grown during the very bad season of 1903 as of the other kinds. 
 With some the Whites did the best. When the vigor is perfect and 
 the mating birds nonrelated, the young of White turkeys are quite 
 as easy to grow as any young turkeys. 
 
 One can not select a better variety for all uses than the White 
 Holland. They grow to the most profitable sizes, dress beautifully 
 for market, their light, pinkish white shanks add to their appear- 
 ance, and with them, as with all white poultry, the pin feathers 
 show less than in darker varieties. The very largest turkeys are not 
 the most profitable either to grow or to sell. The medium sizes 
 from 9 to 18 pounds dressed are most desirable for family use. It 
 is said that they are particularly adapted to restricted ranges and 
 do as well as any breed when confined. 
 
 The Black Turkey. This variety was for a time almost forgot- 
 ten and quite neglected, but of late more attention has been given it, 
 greatly to its advantage and improvement along the lines of valu-
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 01 
 
 able market qualities. The Black turkey of to-day is almost as large 
 as the Bronze and fully its equal in many ways. This is due to 
 crosses made with Bronze turkeys, and to proper selection thereafter. 
 This variety is much the same as the English Norfolk turkey. No 
 turkeys are more desirable for table purposes. When dressed they 
 present the yellow color of skin and meat and the plumpness and 
 finish that are desirable. The Blacks round up nicely at an early 
 age, are quite hardy, and mature in time for early markets. Black 
 turkeys, like the White, do not have so great a tendency to roam as 
 the Bronze. The young are quite hardy. 
 
 Rules for Selecting Stock. A few plain rules which may be 
 observed to advantage are as follows: First, always use as breeders 
 turkey hens over one year old. Be sure they are strong, healthy, and 
 vigorous, and of good medium size. In no instance select the smaller 
 ones. Do not strive to have them unnaturally large. Second, the 
 male may be a yearling or older. Do not imagine that the large 
 overgrown males are the best. Strength, health, and vigor, with 
 well-proportioned medium size are the main points of excellence. 
 Third, avoid close breeding. New blood is of vital importance to 
 turkeys. Better send a thousand miles for a new male than to risk 
 the chances of inbreeding. Secure one in the fall so as to be assured 
 of his health and vigor prior to the breeding season. 
 
 Suggestions in Regard to Breeding Stock. No matter what 
 variety of turkeys may be selected for keeping, they should, above all 
 things, be strong, vigorous, healthy, and well matured. Better secure 
 the females from one locality and the male from another to insure 
 their nonrelationship, rather than run the risk of inbreeding. In all 
 fowls it is well to remember that size is influenced largely by the 
 female and the color and finish by the male. Securing overlarge 
 males to pair with small weakly hens is not wise policy. 
 
 A medium-sized male with good fair-sized females of good con- 
 stitutional vigor and mature age will do far better than the largest 
 with the smallest females. 
 
 Kind of Males to Select. When we stop to consider that the 
 male turkey is one-half of the entire flock in the matter of breeding 
 we may be led to greater care in his selection. None can be too good 
 for the- purpose; constitutional vigor is of first importance; without 
 this he can not have any value whatever for the purpose intended. 
 Plenty of bone, a full, round breast, and long body are important. 
 No matter of what stock or breeding the hen may be the male should 
 be selected from some standard variety. 
 
 Number of Females to One Male. The best rule for mating is 
 to have four or five females to one male; some say twelve, and the 
 writer has heard of a fine hatch and vigorous poults from a two-year- 
 old torn with twenty hens; but this is unusual. When they are 
 yarded and from eight to ten females are kept, it is better to have 
 two toms and keep one shut up while the other is with the hens, 
 changing them at least twice a week. When they run at large on a 
 farm they will naturally divide into flocks; under such conditions 
 one male to not more than six females is best.
 
 602 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Pairing. A feature of vital importance is assured fertility of 
 the eggs. As soon as the hen turkey has paired with the male she 
 pays but little attention to him for the time, being fully intent on 
 locating a quiet nesting place where she can lay her eggs. If 
 perchance the pairing with the male has not been complete, her whole 
 clutch of eggs will be infertile and her time and labor a total loss. 
 The importance of vigor in the male is manifest at this most critical 
 time. There is danger in having extra males that may disturb each 
 other at the time of pairing. Therefore, never allow but one male 
 turkey at a time to run with a group of breeding hens. 
 
 Danger from Insect Parasites. -Whether the eggs are hatched 
 by turkey hens or chicken hens, equal caution should be used to 
 prevent the possibility of insect parasites of any kind being in or 
 about the nest or upon the body of the hen. A dirt foundation cov- 
 ered with some slaked lime is a good beginning in the construction 
 of a nest. Upon this should be placed a fresh nest of soft straw or 
 hay. No other enemy is so destructive to young poults as lice, 
 which are very apt to infest them as soon as they are hatched, 
 if a determined fight is not made to prevent it. After the poults 
 have begun to grow, they must be watched continually to guard 
 against the presence of the lice. 
 
 Period of Incubation. It takes twenty-seven to twenty-nine 
 days for turkey eggs to hatch. Those that are perfectly fresh will 
 hatch a few hours sooner than those that have been kept a week or 
 longer before placing them under the hens. 
 
 The Use of Incubators. The eggs of turkeys can be hatched in 
 incubators quite as well as the eggs of other fowls. It is preferable, 
 however, to have them hatched by the hens that are to brood them ; 
 in fact, this is the prevailing custom. There is a feeling of confi- 
 dence when the eggs are in the care of a broody hen which does not 
 exist when artificial methods are employed which depend for suc- 
 cess on the care of an attendant. 
 
 Use of Brooders. The growing of poults in brooders has been 
 tried to some extent. The difficulties in the way are as follows : The 
 poults do not seem to realize that they should look down to the floor 
 for food ; they run about with their head up, peeping continually for 
 food, until many die from exhaustion. To overcome this, the food 
 is taken between the fingers and held close to their beaks to induce 
 them to eat. 
 
 Copying Nature. It should never be forgotten that in the wild 
 state their food was the bugs, worms, seeds, etc., which they could 
 find for themselves, and which were hunted for and scrambled after 
 continually. There was then no overfeeding upon rich unnatural 
 foods that impaired health and produced bowel troubles or other ail- 
 ments that naturally follow unwholesome food. They subsisted by 
 their own efforts in the wild state, while now they are quite too often 
 forced to eat unnatural foods that are furnished in hope of forcing 
 them to an unnatural growth. If the grower wishes to copy nature 
 as nearly as possible, the young poults may be given for their first 
 meal very fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat or corn, with a little
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 603 
 
 fine grit of some kind and a very little granulated meat scrap. Some 
 of the commercial brands of poultry food are also good. They should 
 have clean water convenient where they can help themselves at will. 
 
 Advantage of the Early Market. Keep them growing from 
 start to finish, and have them ready for the Thanksgiving market, 
 when prices are usually the best. This may be accomplished quite 
 easily with all the early broods, provided they are properly and 
 liberally fed as the fall weather begins to remove their natural food 
 supply of worms, bugs, seeds, and herbs of all kinds. 
 
 What and When to Feed. As a general rule do not feed them 
 wet food or slops. Poults are seed-eating chicks, not slop eaters. 
 Old corn is better than new for heavy feeding, as the latter is apt to 
 cause looseness of the bowels. If necessary to use new corn, it should 
 be introduced into the ration gradually. If the poults have gained 
 a strong, well developed physique by early fall, they will be in fine 
 condition for heavy feeding. As soon as they have become accus- 
 tomed to grain feeding, they may be fed once or even twice a day on 
 ground oats and corn meal mixed with milk. 
 
 Dry-picking. Dry-picking is always to be preferred when pre- 
 paring the fowls for market. When in fine condition, nicely picked, 
 and sent to market without having been packed in ice, a turkey is at 
 its best, and consequently commands the highest price. As soon as 
 the fowl is stuck' and the blood is still flowing, pluck the feathers 
 dry from its body, taking care in doing this not to break the skin or 
 tear the flesh. Nothing detracts so much from dressed poultry as torn 
 places upon the carcass or shank ; picking must be clean and nicely 
 done. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 200; Washington B. 96; R. I. B. 123.) 
 
 DUCKS. 
 
 Standard Varieties of Ducks. There are twelve standard varie- 
 ties of ducks raised in this country, as follows: The White Pekin, 
 White Aylesbury, Colored Rouen, Black Cayuga, Colored Muscovy, 
 White Muscovy, Indian Runner, Gray Call, White Call, Black East 
 India, Crested White, and Blue Swedish. Of these varieties, the first 
 seven are considered profitable to raise. 
 
 White Pekin Ducks. Of all ducks for farm and practical pur- 
 poses none stands higher in popular esteem than the White Pekin. 
 It is valuable for raising on a large scale and is the most easily raised 
 of all. It is a very timid bird and must be handled quite carefully. 
 It was imported from China in the early seventies, and has steadily 
 grown in popularity since its introduction into this country. 
 
 Description. The Pekin duck has a distinct type of its own and 
 differs from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. By some 
 it is credited with having a shape much like an Indian canoe, owing 
 to the full growth of feathers under the rump and the singular 
 turned-tip carriage of the tail. The legs are set far back, which causes 
 the bird to walk in an upright position. In size these ducks are very- 
 large, some reaching as high as 20 pounds to the pair. Their flesh 
 is very delicate and free from grossness, and they are considered 
 among the best of table fowls. They are excellent layers, averaging 
 from 100 to 150 eggs each in a season. They are nonsitters, hardy,
 
 604 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 easily raised, and mature early. The standard weight of the adult 
 drake is 8 pounds; adult duck, 7 pounds; young drake, 7 pounds, 
 and young duck, 6 pounds. 
 
 White Aylesbury Ducks. They are second] to the popular 
 Pekins for market purposes, and are bred in large numbers in Eng- 
 land and Europe. In this country they are not so extensively bred 
 as the Pekin, neither have they been found so good as the latter. 
 These ducks receive their name from Aylesbury, the county town of 
 Buckinghamshire, England. They are of large size, pairs occasion- 
 ally reaching the weight of 18 pounds, the male birds weighing 9 or 
 10 pounds and the females 7 or 8. Birds weighing 15 to 16 pounds 
 to the pair are the average. 
 
 Description. The head of the Aylesbury duck is long and 
 neatly formed ; the eyes of a deep leaden color ; the long wide bill is 
 of a pale flesh color or pinkish hue, and should be free from dark 
 spots, bill of drake marred with black being a disqualification ; the 
 neck is slender, long, and gracefully curved; the body is long and 
 deep ; the breast is full and round. 
 
 For farm purposes the Aylesbury is to be recommended, second 
 only to the Pekin ; it possesses the many good qualities of the Pekin, 
 and can be bred with almost the same success. The advantages 
 claimed for the Aylesbury are the ease with which it is acclimated, 
 thriving in every country and climate ; its early maturity ; its great 
 hardiness; its large size; its great prolificacy, and the real beauty 
 which it possesses. Raisers recommend for raising exhibition birds 
 one drake to two ducks, or two drakes to five ducks, all being allowed 
 to run together. Duck raisers who raise large numbers for market 
 breed them as they do Pekins, using from four to eight females to 
 one male, according to the season of the year. Fresh blood is 
 introduced every year to keep up the size, and breeding stock is sel- 
 dom kept longer than the second or third year. The standard weight 
 of the adult drake is 9 pounds ; adult duck, 8 pounds ; young drake, 
 8 pounds ; and young duck, 7 pounds. 
 
 Colored Rouen Ducks. This duck is deservedly popular 
 throughout this country, and is considered one of the most profitable 
 varieties to keep. These ducks are said to have come originally from 
 the city of Rouen, in Normandy. It is known that large quantities 
 of poultry are raised in Normandy, and while there may be no posi- 
 tive proof that these ducks came originally from that city, large num- 
 bers of birds closely resembling them are to be found in the market 
 places there. Some writers contend that the name should be Roan, 
 owing to their color, but the color itself does not support this conten- 
 tion. The correct name is Rouen, and Roan is undoubtedly a 
 corruption. 
 
 Description. The Rouen duck is a fine market bird, but does 
 not mature as early as does the Pekin or the Aylesbury. The flesh 
 is considered very delicate, and the breed is acknowledged to be ex* 
 celient for table purposes, being easily fattened. The Rouen will 
 be found a profitable bird to raise on the farm, being hardy, prolific.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 605 
 
 quiet in disposition, and of beautiful plumage. Their eggs are not 
 as large as those of the Pekin, and are diverse in color. 
 
 Both the Rouen drake and duck, clothed in plumage attractive 
 and pleasing to the eye, are as much fanciers' fowls as any of the 
 varieties of chickens, yet they are of much value as market birds. 
 The only objection to them, aside from their slow maturing quali- 
 ties, is that of the dark pinfeathers. This should not stand against 
 them any more than it does against the many valuable varieties of 
 chickens that have dark plumage and dark pinfeathers. To the 
 farmer who intends raising ducks for market purposes they are to be 
 recommended. The standard weight of the adult drake is 9 pounds ; 
 adult duck, 8 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young duck, 7 
 pounds. 
 
 Black Cayuga Ducks. This is distinctly an American duck, 
 having been bred so long in this country that all trace of its origin is 
 lost. It is said that it was first found in the central part of New York, 
 on Cayuga Lake. It was sometimes called the Big Black duck, and 
 again the Lake duck, but is now known only as the Black Cayuga 
 duck. By some it is supposed to have originally come from the wild 
 Black duck, and another story has it that it was first found in Dutch- 
 ess County, in the State of New York, where a miller was raising a 
 flock of thirty, which he said were bred from a pair he had cap- 
 tured several years previous in a mill pond. They were kept in the 
 poultry yard, easily tamed, and built their nests on the edges of the 
 pond and raised large broods. For many years the Cayuga has been 
 raised in this country and has been considered by those who have 
 bred it to be a profitable duck to keep. 
 
 Description. By some raisers the Cayuga is considered to be as 
 good as the Pekin for early markets, and the claim is made that it 
 can be grown as cheaply. This assertion is not verified by any prac- 
 tical demonstration, as these ducks are rarely, if ever, seen on any 
 farm where ducks are raised exclusively. Though raisers generally 
 speak of their merits as making them profitable, and place them next 
 to the Pekin for early markets, they prefer the latter for exclusive 
 duck raising where early maturity and plump carcasses are wanted. 
 Their black plumage is against them also, and many assign this as 
 the reason why they are not more extensively bred. The standard 
 weight of the adult drake is 8 pounds; adult duck, 7 pounds; young 
 drake, 7 pounds, and young duck, 6 pounds. 
 
 Colored and White Muscovy Ducks. These form a distinct 
 genus, having several peculiarities or characteristics which make 
 them different from others. They are sometimes called the Mn.-k 
 duck, owing to the odor of musk which pervades the skin, but which 
 is not noticeable when cooked. These ducks are found wild in the 
 warmer regions of South America. 
 
 Description. They are very unsatisfactory birds to keep on the 
 farm with other poultry, owing to their quarrelsome and pugnacious 
 natures. In the wild state, before pairing, the males fight desper- 
 ately, doing great harm to each other; and this fighting, quarrel- 
 some disposition is inherited by the domestic duck. The temper of
 
 606 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the drake is spoken of as abominable ; his persecution of other poul- 
 try is never ceasing. The standard weight of the adult drake is 10 
 pounds; adult duck, 7 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young 
 duck, 6 pounds. 
 
 Indian Runner Ducks. These ducks came originally from In- 
 dia; hence the name Indian. The term Runner comes from the 
 fact that they literally run instead of waddling like most ducks. 
 
 The Indian Runner is a breed of small, utility duck noted for 
 its egg production, and is often termed the Leghorn of the duck 
 family. These ducks have been credited with records of more than 
 200 eggs each in flocks of ten, and of 192 eggs each in flocks of one 
 hundred. The Runners are active in their habits, are good foragers, 
 and on an extensive run are able to find a large proportion of their 
 food. They are nonsitters, are hardy and easily reared, but do not 
 stand confinement well. Their flesh is of a deep yellow color and is 
 of fine quality, but their small size is rather against them for market 
 purposes, except for broilers. The standard weight of the drake is 
 4% pounds and of the duck 4 pounds. 
 
 Gray and White Call Ducks. They are bred more for the fancy 
 than for the profit there is in them for market, and are bantams. 
 There are two kinds of Call ducks, the Gray Call and the White 
 Call, and it is only a choice of plumage as to which is the better of 
 the two. They are both of one character as to size, shape, and habits, 
 and differ only as regards color. The Gray Call is very similar in 
 color of plumage to the Rouen, and is indeed called by many the 
 Bantam Rouen, and the White is generally called the Bantam Pekin. 
 Their uses are only for the showroom, or as decoy ducks for wild- 
 duck shooting. For the latter purposes they are sometimes crossed 
 with the common "puddle duck" or with the wild Mallard. This 
 latter cross is considered excellent, the progeny being distinguished 
 for tameness and domesticity. 
 
 Description. When breeding Call ducks, smallness of size is the 
 first consideration; the smaller they are bred the better. The arts 
 of skillful breeding for the showroom are being used in keeping down 
 the size. 
 
 Management of Ducks. Duck raising has been developed within 
 the last thirty years into a flourishing industry. Prior to that time 
 the duck was not considered a profitable fowl to raise; its flesh was 
 never prized very highly by the masses. Ducks were raised without 
 constraint in waterways, feeding mostly on fish and water insects. 
 This food gave the flesh a strong fishy flavor; hence it was not par- 
 ticularly sought after, save by the few who were partial to that class 
 of diet. The duck centers of Long Island and New England were 
 then producing a limited number each season, and it was with diffi- 
 culty that these were sold with any profit. In fact, one of the most 
 prominent duck raisers may be quoted as saying that he was obliged 
 to visit the city markets personally and tease the dealers to purchase 
 his birds, in order to secure anything like satisfactory prices. 
 
 Artificial incubation and brooding, combined with judicious 
 feeding, have been instrumental in the development of the industry.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 607 
 
 Machinery has enabled the duck raiser to accomplish his ambition of 
 having his stock in the markets when prices are the best, and also 
 of raising large numbers of birds in a limited space of time. The 
 season for raising ducks is about six months from February to 
 July, inclusive. 
 
 Duck raising is to be recommended to farmers as a profitable 
 source of revenue; and by careful attention to the work, as knowl- 
 edge increases, the scope of the industry may be extended. There 
 are numbers of farms in this country to-day that are devoted ex- 
 clusively to raising ducks, averaging from 5,000 to 30,000 ducks as 
 an annual output. An idea of the proportions of the business may 
 be had from the fact that as high as three tons of feed are used daily 
 by a single raiser during the busy season. The profits are the very 
 best, and good incomes may be made when once the business is thor- 
 oughly mastered. But the reader should not jump imprudently to 
 the conclusion that these results can be easily obtained. Duck rais- 
 ing is an arduous task ; one that requires an apprenticeship and abso- 
 lute knowledge of the business before/ success is reached. Those who 
 have been successful in raising ducks/have learned the business much 
 as one does any other vocation. The beginner should start modestly, 
 and increase his plant as his knowledge of the work increases. The 
 average farmer has all the facilities for raising a goodly number of 
 ducks, and may with a little oujtlay add considerably to his income. 
 
 It is not at all necessary tha^ducks should have access to water 
 to be raised successfully, for they grow and thrive as readily without. 
 There are successful plants where thousands of ducks are raised that 
 have no water, save that which is given them as drink. It has been 
 a matter of much dispute which is the better way. Some duck raisers 
 tise water and allow their breeders the freedom of it; some allow 
 their growing stock intended for market free access to water until 
 they are eight weeks old, when they are penned and fattened for 
 market. On the other hand, there are raisers who have no water on 
 their farms, excepting wells, who are just as successful and raise as 
 many birds as those who have the water. The only noticeable dif- 
 ference between "upland" and "water" ducks is that the latter are 
 of prettier and cleaner plumage than the former. 
 
 Buildings for Breeding Ducks. Houses for ducks are simple 
 affairs. They are built plain and comfortable, and have no furnish- 
 ings whatever. A duck is differently constituted from a hen, and 
 must be cared for under different conditions. The hen needs warmer 
 houses and drier surroundings than does the duck. A duck does not 
 mind the cold if she can keep her feet warm. Cold feet will affect 
 a duck as a frozen comb does a hen, retarding laying and inducing 
 ailments. The feathers of a duck are almost impenetrable and will 
 -withstand almost any degree of cold. Again, a duck can not stand 
 the amount of confinement in a house that a hen can ; she is more 
 restless in disposition and is given to exercise in a greater degree than 
 is a hen. Indigestion is not so prevalent with ducks as with chickens ; 
 the duck's ceaseless motion aids the digestive organs and keeps her 
 generally in good health.
 
 608 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 How Much to Feed. The amount of food needed each day for 
 young duck varies as much as does their growth. Their growth aver- 
 ages a half pound a week ; and to make this increase of weight each 
 week requires an additional quantity of food over the preceding one. 
 The rule is, feed each meal what they will eat up clean with a relish, 
 and do not allow them to linger over the feed trough. It is better 
 they should have not enough than too much, as they will be 
 in a much better condition to relish the next meal. One thing is con- 
 sidered to be of as much importance as the feed, and that is removing 
 the feed left over and thoroughly cleaning the troughs after each 
 meal. This is scrupulously attended to by successful duck raisers. 
 
 One raiser gives, as a generous allowance for one day's ration 
 for one hundred laying ducks, the following : For the morning meal, 
 35 quarts of the mash, and for the evening meal 40 quarts, making 
 a total of 75 quarts for the day's portion, or three-fourths of a quart 
 to each duck a day. Another raiser allows 400 quarts, fed in halves, 
 twice a day, to six hundred breeding or laying ducks, averaging two- 
 thirds of a quart to each duck a day. 
 
 It cost from 6 to 12 cents a pound to raise a duck for market at 
 ten weeks of age. It costs from $1.75 to $2.50 each to keep breed- 
 ing ducks a year. The three different methods of feeding ducks are 
 as follows: (1) Feeding ducks for market (ten weeks old); (2) 
 feeding young ducks to be kept as breeders; (3) feeding old ducks. 
 The first method, for the sake of convenience and to explain more 
 fully the composition of the rations, is subdivided into four parts, 
 as follows: 
 
 (1) From time of hatching to five days old provide the follow- 
 ing mixture : Cracker or bread crumbs and corn meal, equal parts 
 by measure ; hard boiled eggs, 15 per cent of the total bulk of crack- 
 ers and meal ; sand, 5 per cent of the total of crackers and meal. Mix 
 with water or milk, and feed four times a day. 
 
 (2) From five to twenty days old, the following mixture : Wheat 
 bran, two parts by measure; corn meal, one part; rolled oats, 50 per 
 cent of this bulk; beef scraps, 5 per cent; sand, 5 per cent; green 
 food, 10 per cent. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed 
 four times a day. 
 
 (3) From twenty to forty-two days old, the following mixture: 
 Wheat bran, two parts by measure ; corn meal, one part ; beef scraps, 
 5 per cent of this bulk; sand, 5 per cent; green food, 10 per cent. 
 Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. 
 
 (4) From forty-two to seventy days old, the following mixture : 
 Corn meal, two parts by measure; wheat bran, one part; beef scraps, 
 10 per cent of this bulk ; coarse sand or grit, 5 per cent ; green food, 
 10 per cent. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed fouu 
 times a day. The hours for feeding are 6 a. m., 10 a. m., 2 p. m., 
 and 6 p. m. 
 
 When ducks are raised for breeders they are fed differently 
 from those intended for market. They are not forced so much as are 
 the latter, and less fattening food is given them. The corn meal 
 and beef scraps are reduced to one-half the quantity used in the above
 
 GREAT HORNED OWL.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 611 
 
 rations. The following is an excellent ration: Equal parts corn 
 meal, wheat bran, green food, 5 per cent of beef scraps, and 5 per 
 cent coarse sand or grit. A ration for breeding (laying) ducks is 
 recommended as follows : Fifty per cent by measure, corn meal ; 15 
 per cent wheat bran ; 15 per cent green foods (cooked vegetables, such 
 as potatoes, turnips, etc.) ; 12 per cent beef scraps, and 8 per cent 
 coarse sand or grit. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed 
 twice a day, morning and night. After the breeding season is over 
 and the ducks have stopped laying they are changed from this to 
 the equal-parts ration, as given above for ducklings from seven to 
 fifty-six days old. 
 
 Oyster Shells and Grit. Grit in some form is essential to ducks, 
 and should be kept before them at all times. Many overlook this 
 fact, and do not seem to understand that it is of as much value to 
 them as it is to chickens. 
 
 Incubation. Of the natural method we shall treat first: Hens 
 of medium size of the American class, barred Plymouth Rocks and 
 Wyandottes, are considered the best for sitting. Nine duck eggs are 
 about the right number to place under a hen in early spring weather, 
 but when the season is far advanced as many as thirteen are used. 
 The hens should be provided with large, roomy nests, and slatted 
 fronts that can be removed and replaced easily when the hens are 
 fed and watered. The nesting material should be of hay or straw, 
 and the nest should be slightly concaved ; in the bottom place a little 
 finely cut hay. 
 
 Before the hen is put on the eggs she should be thoroughly dusted 
 with insecticides; the nest also should have a good dusting of the 
 game. Both hen and nest should undergo a thorough dusting sev- 
 eral times during the process of hatching as a safeguard against lice. 
 When the ducklings are hatched they should also have their share 
 of the insecticides before they are given to the hen. 
 
 For artificial incubation, have a room with a temperature as 
 nearly uniform as possible. Balance the heat in the machines, or, 
 in other words, see that the heat is uniform at both ends, and, in fact, 
 all over them. See that each is running steadily before placing the 
 eggs in it, as there is a great deal in starting right. The machines 
 should be run at a temperature of 102 for the first three weeks, and 
 103 the last week. The eggs should be turned twice each day at 
 regular periods. Introduce a pan of water from the fifteenth to the 
 twenty-second day, no matter what the location of the machine, 
 whether in a damp cellar or in a dry room overhead, in a moist at- 
 mosphere near the seashore or in a dry one at an altitude in the 
 country. The temperature may go as high as 104 just previous to 
 and while hatching without injury. 
 
 Considerable weight has been put upon the ventilation question 
 in incubators by manufacturers and operators, but it has been found 
 that when the egg chamber is roomy, and the eggs are taken out and 
 cooled twice each day, it is not of so much consequence. There is 
 no doubt but that there must be some ventilation in the egg chamber, 
 but from the experience and observation of the writer the value of the
 
 612 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 subject has been overestimated by many. Some machines have top 
 ventilation, some bottom, and others both top and bottom, and there 
 is seemingly no marked difference in the hatching. 
 
 When the ducklings are hatching, the broken egg shells should 
 be removed once in every six or eight hours, so that they will not slip 
 over the pipped eggs, as it would be sure death to the imprisoned 
 ones. Occasionally a little bird is unable to free itself from the shell 
 and needs help ; the expert can readily detect when this is necessary. 
 The one point to note in this connection is this : The egg just be- 
 fore hatching radiates a great deal of heat, while the duckling, when 
 first out, being not unlike a little sponge, absorbs it, or, in other 
 words, the rapid evaporation which takes place generates cold; so 
 that when the ducklings are out the machine should be gauged one 
 degree higher. 
 
 When the ducklings are all out and dried off, the machine will 
 run at least two degrees lower than when they were in the egg. Plenty 
 of ventilation is needed in the machines while hatching. Keep the 
 ducklings in the machine at least twenty-four hours after hatching, 
 when they will be strong enough to be removed to the brooder. The 
 heat in the brooder should be started twenty-four hours previous to 
 use, so that it will be perfectly heated and ready for the ducklings 
 when they are taken away from the machine. (Dep. AST. F. B. 64; 
 N. Y. B. 259.) 
 
 GEESE. 
 
 There are seven standard varieties of geese, as follows: Gray 
 Toulouse, White Embden, Gray African, Brown Chinese, White Chi- 
 nese, Gray Wild, and Colored Egyptian. 
 
 Gray Toulouse Geese. They are named for the city in France 
 of that name, where they are extensively bred. In this country they 
 are bred in large numbers by farmers and are fairly well thought of 
 for market purposes. Their flesh is a trifle too coarse and flabby, 
 when compared with some other geese, to be prized very highly for 
 table purposes. They are termed a Christmas goose, as, being later 
 in maturing than the others, they are just about right at the holiday 
 time. They are fairly good layers, averaging about 40 eggs a season. 
 
 Description. Toulouse geese are more compact in shape than 
 other geese, and are preferred by many for this reason. The body of 
 the Toulouse goose is moderate in length, broad, and very deep and 
 compact, the more compact the better; and in birds in good condi- 
 tion the belly almost touches the ground. In color of plumage they 
 are a dull gray. The head is gray and the neck dark blue-gray, 
 which shades to a lighter gray as it approaches the back ; the back is 
 of dark gray, while the breast is light gray. The body plumage is 
 light gray, which grows lighter and becomes white on the belly; the 
 white extends back to and around the tail, covering the fluffy parts. 
 The standard weight of the adult gander is 20 pounds; adult goose, 
 18 pounds ; young gander, 18 pounds ; and young goose, 15 pounds. 
 
 White Embden Geese. They are considered very practical birds 
 for farmers, and pay well for their keeping. They are nice looking, 
 of large size, tall and erect carriage, and snow-white plumage. They
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 613 
 
 originally came from Embden, in Westphalia, and have been bred in 
 this country for many years. 
 
 Description. The Embdens are not so prolific as the Brown Chi- 
 nese or Toulouse, 20 eggs in a season being a good average for them. 
 Their eggs are very large, white, and have a very thick, rough shell. 
 In carriage they are very tall and erect, and have fine square bodies. 
 
 Weight. The standard weight of the adult gander is 20 pounds; 
 adult goose, 18 pounds; young gander, 18 pounds; and young goose, 
 16 pounds. 
 
 Gray African Geese. They are by many raisers considered the 
 most profitable of all geese to keep. They grow the heaviest in the 
 shortest space of time, and are ready for market in ten weeks, weigh- 
 ing at that age between 8 and 10 pounds. They are very much like 
 the Pekin duck in this respect, and as compared with other geese 
 give the most satisfactory returns for the least labor and time spent 
 in growing them. They are, according to standard weights, as 
 heavy as the Toulouse and Embden, but specimens are not uncom- 
 mon that exceed these weights by several pounds. They are first- 
 class layers and average about 40 eggs in a season. For table pur- 
 poses they are esteemed very highly, their flesh being fine and 
 nicely flavored. 
 
 Description. These geese have a large head, with a large knob, 
 and a heavy dewlap under the throat. These and the Chinese geese 
 are different from the others in the head, and are the only two 
 breeds that have the knob on the head. The standard weight of 
 the adult gander is 20 pounds ; adult goose, 18 pounds ; young gan- 
 der, 16 pounds, and young goose, 14 pounds. 
 
 Brown and White Chinese Geese. They average in weight 
 from 6 to 7 pounds lighter than those previously named. Appar- 
 ently their want of size has prevented them from becoming favorites 
 with those who raise large numbers annually, but with those who 
 keep a limited number they are found to be very practical. What 
 they lack in size they gain in egg production, being the most prolific 
 of all breeds of geese, averaging from 50 to 60 eggs a year. In size, 
 aptitude to fatten, and ease of management they appear in no re- 
 spect inferior to other geese, while the quality of flesh is decidedly 
 superior. 
 
 Description. They are exceedingly graceful in appearance, 
 quite hardy, and the young mature early. There are two varieties 
 of Chinese geese the Brown and the White. They have, medium- 
 sized heads, with large knob at base of a medium-length bill, and 
 long, gracefully arched necks. The color of the head of the Brown 
 Chinese geese is brown ; knob dark brown or black ; neck light brown 
 or grayish brown, with a dull yellowish-brown stripe on the back of 
 the neck from the head down to the body. The back is dark brown. 
 The standard weight of the adult gander is 12 pounds; adult goose, 
 10 pounds; young gander, 10 pounds, and young goose, 8 pounds. 
 
 Management of Geese. Goose raising is not so extensively en- 
 gaged in as duck raising, the conditions under which they can be 
 successfully raised being almost entirely different from those neces-
 
 614 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 sary for successful duck raising. The duck, being smaller, can be 
 raised in a more limited space than can the goose, the latter needing 
 free range and water, while the former has been proved to do equally 
 well without water. 
 
 While the goose can not profitably be raised in as large numbers 
 as the duck, still it can not justly be termed unprofitable. There 
 are many places on a farm that are worthless for cultivation that 
 could be utilized with excellent results for goose raising. Fields 
 that have streams, branches, or unused springs on them could be 
 turned to good advantage by making them into goose pastures. 
 Many farmers are profiting by this and adding to their incomes an- 
 nually. The care and attention necessary for raising geese are very 
 small when compared with the returns, and the cost of food is also 
 proportionately small in comparison with the cost of food used for 
 other birds bred for market, A goose on range will gather the 
 largest portion of its food, consisting of grasses, insects, and other 
 animal and vegetable matter to be found in the fields and brooks. 
 
 The simplest kinds of houses are used for shelter ; these should 
 be built after the plans of those given for ducks, but should be pro- 
 portionately of larger size to accommodate comfortably the num- 
 ber of birds to be kept. Geese are long-lived birds, some having 
 been known to attain the age of 40 years, while birds 15 and 20 
 years of age are not uncommon. They retain their laying and 
 hatching qualities through life. Ganders should not be kept for 
 breeding after 3 years of age; young ganders are more active and 
 insure greater fertility of the eggs than old ones do; besides, gan- 
 ders become more quarrelsome as age advances. 
 
 The feathers of geese are an important source of revenue and 
 find a ready sale in the markets. A goose will average about 1 pound 
 of feathers a year. The feathers should be plucked when there is 
 no blood in the ends of the quills; this can be readily ascertained, 
 as they will then leave the flesh without hard pulling. Almost all 
 breeds of geese are good sitters and attentive mothers, and if left to 
 themselves will make their nests, much as when wild, and hatch a 
 large percentage of their eggs. But hens are now more frequently 
 used for hatching goose eggs; as by taking the eggs from the goose 
 when laid and giving them to hens to hatch, the goose will lay a 
 greater number of eggs than if she were permitted to sit. 
 
 All breeds of geese, except perhaps the Egyptian, are to be 
 recommended to farmers who keep a limited number in addition to 
 other poultry and allow them the freedom of the farm; but when 
 goose raising is to be more extensively engaged in, the African 
 goose is to be especially recommended. It is the quickest to mature, 
 most prolific, and the easiest to handle of all the varieties. (F. 
 B. 64.) 
 
 Mating and Setting. In breeding African geese mate two 
 geese to one gander, and it will be still better if pairs are used to 
 secure better fertility of the eggs. Those who contemplate raising 
 geese should secure their stock in the fall, so that the birds may be- 
 come accustomed to the place before the breeding season begins.
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 615 
 
 The breeding stock should foe at least two years old, and fully ma- 
 tured birds. When stock is purchased in the fall, they should be 
 turned out in a pasture, and no other food than what they gather 
 themselves will be needed until the grass goes down. Their rations 
 should then consist of equal parts, by measure, of bran, middlings, 
 and corn meal, with 5 per cent of this bulk of beef scraps. They 
 should be given a light feed of this ration in the morning and at 
 night they should be fed cracked corn. Ten per cent of the bulk 
 of the daily ration should be green foods, steamed clover, and cooked 
 vegetables. 
 
 The breeding season begins about February 1, though some 
 geese will begin laying as early as December, then stop, and begin 
 again the first of February. They make their own nests from the 
 straw and litter on the floor of their houses, and will lay from 12 to 
 20 eggs before becoming broody. As soon as the goose shows an 
 inclination to sit, remove her and place her in a dark box or small 
 coop, and keep her there for two or three days with water for drink, 
 but no food. Then she may be placed back in the yards and she 
 will begin another laying of eggs. The first and second layings of 
 eggs should be set under hens. After the goose lays the second 
 laying she should be confined again, when she will lay a third lay- 
 ing. When she has laid the third laying, she should be permitted 
 to sit on them instead of giving them to hens. A goose will lay 
 from 10 to 15 eggs in each of the second and third layings. 
 
 It is recommended that after the eggs have been sat upon for 
 tw r enty-five days they be taken from the nest and placed for about 
 one minute in water heated to a temperature of 104. Thirty days 
 are required for incubation. After the eggs have hatched leave the 
 hen and goslings in the nest for twenty-four hours ; after the young 
 have become thoroughly dry remove hen and brood and pen them 
 in a large, roomy coop for four or five days. When the goslings 
 have reached this age four or five days they are perfectly able to 
 take care of themselves. The hen should then be taken from the 
 goslings, which should be allowed freedom to roam at will, but 
 they should always be cooped up at night 
 
 Feeding and Dressing for Market. The first feed for goslings 
 is grass, fed on sod; a small allowance of corn meal, slightly mois- 
 tened, is also given them. Sand and charcoal are sometimes mixed 
 with the corn meal. They are fed on the above food three times a 
 day for a couple of days, when they are given a ration composed of 
 equal parts, by measure, of bran, middlings, and steamed cut clover 
 or cooked vegetables. This feed is given them morning, noon, and 
 night until they are 8 weeks old, when they are penned to be fat- 
 tened for market at 10 weeks old. 
 
 To fatten young geese, place them in a pen, not too large, so 
 that they will not exercise too much, and feed three times a day all 
 they will eat up clean of the following : Corn meal mixed to a dry, 
 crumbly state, and beef scraps amounting to 20 per cent of the bulk 
 of the corn meal. While fattening young geosc they should be kept 
 as quiet as possible; no excitement whatever should disturb tlit-ni.
 
 616 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 When feeding approach them quietly, and do not irritate them in 
 the least or they will not fatten, but will "throw out" or grow an- 
 other crop of feathers. At 10 weeks of age, or when the tips of the 
 wings reach the tail, they are ready for market and should weigh 
 between 8 and 10 pounds. 
 
 When young goslings are to be dressed for market, they are 
 killed by cutting them in the roof of the mouth, severing the artery, 
 or by stunning them by hitting them a sharp, quick blow on the 
 head. The picker uses a box in front of him about the height of the 
 knees, holding the bird with the left hand and clasping the feet and 
 wings together; he places the head of the bird against the box and 
 holds it in place with the knee. Pick the feathers from the body of 
 the bird, then dampen the right hand and brush the body to re- 
 move the down. Leave about two inches of feathers on the neck, 
 and also leave feathers on the wings at the first joint. Lay the 
 wings against the body of the birds and tie a string around to hold 
 in position. Place the birds, when picked, in cold water for an 
 hour or so to plump them ; if they are in the water too long they are 
 liable to bleach and become water-soaked. They are then iced up 
 in barrels ready to ship to market. Young geese should be marketed 
 in October. It is best to market all possible before cold weather seta 
 in. It is much harder to dress a gosling in cold weather. The 
 feathers set tighter, and in picking them! the flesh is torn. (Dep. 
 Agr. F. B. 64.) 
 
 GUINEA FOWL. 
 
 The guinea fowl, sometimes called guinea keets, as the name 
 implies, are probably natives of the west coast of Africa. They 
 were raised as table produce by the ancient Greeks and Romans. 
 They are also well known as game produce in England, where large 
 flocks are kept in game preserves. In the United States few breed- 
 ers raise them in large numbers, although a few are raised on each 
 of many farms where poultry is kept. Some people object to them 
 on account of their rather harsh cry, which sometimes may be an- 
 noying, and also to their wandering and somewhat quarrelsome hab- 
 its. Their pugnacious disposition sometimes leads them into trouble 
 with other poultry, but also causes them to resist attacks of hawks 
 and other natural enemies. 
 
 The guinea fowl is % inclined to stray and to steal their nests in 
 out of the way places, and in this respect perhaps show their wild 
 instincts more than do other breeds of fowls. 
 
 Varieties. Few varieties of the guinea fowl are raised ; the so- 
 called "pearl" variety is by far the most common. They have a 
 steel, purplish-gray plumage, regularly dotted over or "pearled" 
 with white. The sexes resemble each other very closely ; the males, 
 however, may generally be distinguished 'by their comb and wattles. 
 The cries of the two sexes differ ; that of the male is simply a shriek, 
 while the female has a peculiar call often thought to resemble 
 "buckwheat." 
 
 Habits. These domesticated fowls retain many of their wild 
 traits. If permitted, they wander over long distances and flv almost
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 617 
 
 as well as wild birds. They prefer roosting high in trees. They 
 make their ne^ts on the ground, which often consists of little more 
 than a slight depression. As a rule the nests are secluded and 
 usually are some distance from dwellings. The breeding season be- 
 gins about the same as that of wild birds, that is in April or May. 
 Breeders usually expect upwards of 50 or 60 eggs a year from each 
 hen, and sometimes secure even more than a hundred. Guinea 
 hens make poor sitters, as they are restless and are inclined to range 
 when they should be on the nests ; when they do set, however, they 
 are likely to leave the nests as soon as a few chicks are hatched, and 
 they go off with them and frequently leave many eggs that would 
 hatch in a few more hours of incubation. Guinea chicks are hardly 
 more than half as large as chickens. They grow rapidly, however, 
 but like young turkeys are sensitive to cold and dampness. 
 
 Feeding. Wheat, corn, oats and buckwheat are recommended 
 as suitable grains for guineas, in fact, as with other classes of poul- 
 try, a mixture proves more satisfactory than any single grain. Little 
 guinea chicks need feeding almost immediately after hatching. 
 
 Marketing. In Europe guinea fowls are considered very de- 
 licious table birds and they are also prized in some parts of the 
 United States, especially in the South, and are much relished by 
 those who have discriminating tastes. The demand for them in the 
 markets is increasing considerably. In support of that statement 
 may be said that a fashionable hotel in New York uses about a thou- 
 sand a month during the late winter and spring months. When 
 well cooked the birds are attractive in appearance and the flesh, par- 
 ticularly of young birds, is tender and of especially fine flavor. 
 (Agr. Dep. F. B. 234.) 
 
 SQUAB RAISING. 
 
 In selecting the site for the home of pigeons as much care and 
 judgment should be exercised as in choosing the location for one's 
 own home. An unhealthy location for man would most likely prove 
 unhealthy for the birds. The spot selected should be well drained, 
 should face the south or east, if possible, should be free from ob- 
 structions which shut out the rays of the morning sun and be shel- 
 tered either by trees or buildings from the north and west winds. 
 Such a place with a shallow stream of pure running water will make 
 an ideal site and will require a minimum of expense and work in 
 caring for the stock. 
 
 Size and Capacity of House. Some successful breeders prefer 
 single houses holding not more than 50 pairs of birds, but five of 
 these houses will cost considerably more to build than one house of 
 five sections accommodating the same number of birds in each sec- 
 tion. So the larger house will be found the most economical both 
 as to construction and care, providing a large number of birds are 
 to be maintained. A building 12 feet square and 9 feet high to the 
 peak of the roof will be found ample for 50 pairs of pigeons. It is 
 not thought advisable to keep more than 50 pairs in one house or 
 in one section. The house for rearing squabs should be well lighted. 
 One of sufficient size to accommodate 50 pairs should have ait least
 
 618 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 two 6-light sashes on both the south and north sides of the building. 
 These windows should be made to slide so that they may be opened 
 to any extent desired. Of course, they should be covered with wire 
 netting to prevent the escape of the birds. 
 
 Materials and Construction. The building should be placed 
 on walls of cement, of masonry, or on piers. It is thought best to 
 have the floor made of wood rather than of cement. Matched floors 
 should be used. The side walls and roof should be made weather- 
 proof and so constructed that the building will be practically free 
 from draft. 
 
 Nest Boxes. Nesting places are made of one inch boards 12 
 inches wide so constructed that they form tiers of large pigeon holes 
 on the side walls; each pigeon hole being about 12 inches deep, 12 
 inches wide and 9 or 10 inches high. Each of these will supply a 
 nesting place for each pair of birds. Of course, there should be a 
 number more nesting places than there are pairs of birds to occupy 
 them. 
 
 The Fly. Connected with the house there should be a covered 
 fly or loft where the birds may take proper exercise on the wing 
 in the open air and sun-light. This is constructed of wire netting 
 and so arranged that the birds may exercise whenever they desire 
 to do so. For the accommodation of 50 pairs a fly or loft 30 feet 
 long and 12 feet wide and 8 feet high will be found quite sufficient. 
 This can easily be made by the use of long posts, narrow hemlock 
 boards and wire netting. If the netting has a sufficient fine mesh 
 to exclude the English sparrow considerable annoyance will be 
 avoided. Narrow hemlock boards should be used to connect the 
 posts at the top as well as at the bottom ; so that the netting when 
 once put in place will remain taut and comparatively free from 
 sagging. _ 
 
 Varieties of Pigeons. The best variety of pigeon to keep for 
 squab raising is the "straight" Homer. They are fine, large, healthy 
 birds, good workers, are the best of feeders and have a quiet dis- 
 position and when properly mated their eggs are seldom infertile. 
 The Dragoon is much esteemed by some, particularly to cross with 
 the Homer. "Straight" Dragoon squabs are usually five weeks in 
 growing to a sufficient size for the market, while "straight" Homer 
 squabs are ready for the market in four weeks and sometimes less. 
 The Runt is a giant among pigeons and is highly spoken of by 
 some breeders because the squabs are so large. 
 
 Breeding. In the selection of breeding stock the beginner 
 should consult some one having experience and critical knowledge 
 and, if possible, secure his active assistance. 
 
 Feeds and Feeding. While it is true that some breeders have 
 had fair success for a while by feeding only cracked corn and wheat, 
 under continued use of these two grains alone they fail to produce 
 as good squabs as could be secured with a greater variety of grain. 
 In their free state pigeons select a variety of grains, hence it be- 
 comes important that the breeder exercise good judgment in select- 
 ing the kinds he sets before them. The six principal feeds though
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 619 
 
 are cracked corn, Canadian peas, wheat, German millet, Kafir corn 
 and hemp. 
 
 Cost of Feeding. The cost of feeding should not exceed from 
 one-eighth to one-fifth of a cent a day for each bird or about .52 
 cents a year. 
 
 Water. A generous supply of fresh pure water for drinking 
 purposes should be given every day. In addition a pigeon should 
 have a supply of water in which to bathe. Shallow pans about 
 three inches deep and 20 feet or 30 feet square make suitable bath- 
 tubs. 
 
 Killing and Dressing. The details of killing and dressing and 
 marketing are quite similar to those of broilers, green ducks, and 
 other fancy 138865 of young fowls. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 177.) 
 
 OSTRICH FARMING. 
 
 This industry in the United States is only in its infancy, as it 
 has only been thirty years since the first American ostrich farm, 
 was started. The pioneer breeders in this country were obliged to 
 get most of their knowledge from their own experience. The larger 
 part of the ostriches now in the United States are the progeny of a 
 single pair owned in Arizona in 1891. 
 
 AY here alfalfa pasture has been available the birds bred in 
 America have grown larger than those first imported. A full grown, 
 fat ostrich would weigh from 375 to 450 pounds; he will stand 8 
 feet high, but can easily reach to a height of 10 or 11 feet. Ostriches 
 thrive best in a warm dry climate, but can be grown in many of the 
 Southern States and Territories of this country. Salt River Valley 
 of Arizona is thought by many to be the best location in the United 
 States for ostrich farming. 
 
 Eggs and Incubation. Ostriches come to maturity when about 
 four years of age. The female matures from six months to a year 
 before the male; she will, however, seldom lay fertile eggs until 
 three and a half years old. After she commences to lay, in about 
 thirty days she will have laid from twelve to sixteen eggs and will 
 be ready to commence incubation in about thirty days. Both nat- 
 ural and artificial methods of incubation have proven satisfactory. 
 The period of incubation is about forty-two days. 
 
 Care and Feeding of Chicks. A chick should never be allowed 
 to become damp or cold and should not be fed for the first three 
 or four days, but may be allowed to pick up sand and gravel. Dry 
 feed is preferable for the first week. Cracked wheat and moistened 
 bran arc excellent. Sour feed, however, should never be given. 
 After they are a week old, fine cut green alfalfa may be given. 
 
 Plucking. The ostrich is first plucked when six months old, 
 and should be plucked about every eight months thereafter during 
 its life-time. The only feathers removed are those of the wing and 
 the tail. The process of plucking consists in cutting the tail feath- 
 ers and one row r of the largest quill feathers in the wing with prun- 
 ing shears, and drawing by hand the remaining two or three rows 
 in the wing. The value of American feathers depends on the Lon- 
 don market, although they bring about 15 per cent more than Lon-
 
 620 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 don prices. The prime feathers sell from $100 to $200 per pound ; 
 it takes about 90 of these feathers to weigh a pound. 
 
 Handling and Feeding Ostriches. The lands used for ostrich 
 farms in Arizona are worth from $40 to $125 per acre. The land 
 value depends largely on the location and water rights. The cost 
 of bringing the water used for irrigation to the land is an important 
 factor. 
 
 Fencing. The usual way to fence an ostrich farm is to use a 
 woven wire for the outside fences about 5% feet high, with meshes 
 small enough to keep out wolves and dogs. 
 
 Flesh and Eggs as Food. The value of the ostrich depends on 
 its production of feathers for ordinary purposes; the flesh, how- 
 ever, is said to be much relished by those who have eaten it. The 
 eggs are fine for making omelets ; one egg will make as much ome- 
 let as two and a half dozen hen eggs. One ostrich has been known 
 to produce over 300 pounds of egg food in a year. 
 
 Value of Ostriches. The value of the ostrich has only begun 
 to be appreciated. American ostrich farmers seldom care to part 
 with their birds, as does the growers of other domestic animals. 
 Chicks six months old are often estimated to be worth $100 each. 
 Birds three years of age are worth from $300 to $350; while birds 
 four years old, the age at which they pair, are worth $800 or over 
 per pair. 
 
 Profits of Ostrich Farming. The question, "Does ostrich farm- 
 ing pay?" is often asked. When an acre of alfalfa will furnish a 
 home for four birds, with food enough to maintain them, and when 
 an ostrich will yield annually one and one-half pounds of feathers 
 with an average value of $20 per pound, and from 36 to 90 eggs 
 averaging 3% pounds to the egg, it may be left for each reader to 
 decide for himself as to the profit of the industry. (Y. B. 1905.) 
 
 CAPONS AND CAPONIZING. 
 
 Much the larger part of this industry is confined to that por- 
 tion of the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing 
 numbers of capons are being raised in the North Central States. 
 During the winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets 
 of the larger eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the 
 great centers for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, 
 and Philadelphia are the important markets. 
 
 What Is a Capon ? A capon is an altered or castrated male 
 chicken, bearing the same relation to a cockerel that a steer does to 
 a bull, a barrow to a boar, or a wether to a ram. As with other male 
 animals so altered, the disposition of the capon differs materially 
 from that of the cockerel. He no longer shows any disposition to 
 fight, is much more quiet and sluggish, and is more docile and easy 
 to keep within bounds. The true capon never crows. Along with 
 this change in disposition there is a change in appearance. The 
 comb and wattles cease growing, which causes the head to appear 
 small. The hackle and saddle feathers develop beautifully. In- 
 deed, these feathers and the undeveloped comb and wattles serve to
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 621 
 
 identify the capon and in consequence should never be removed 
 when the bird is dressed for the market. 
 
 As a result of the more peaceful disposition of the capon he con- 
 tinues to grow and his body develops more uniformly and to a some- 
 what greater size than is the case with a cockerel of the same age. 
 There are two reasons, then, why it is better to caponize surplus 
 cockerels than to raise them for market as such: (1) There is an 
 increase in weight, and (2) the price per pound is materially in- 
 creased. 
 
 Selection of Breeds. In selecting the breed best suited for 
 caponizing, several factors must be taken into consideration. Large 
 capons bring the best prices. Consequently the breed should be 
 large. It does not pay to caponize small fowls. Yellow legs and 
 skin, as in other classes of poultry, are most popular. The Plym- 
 outh Rocks, Light Brahmas, Cochins, Indian Games, Langshans, 
 and \Vyandottes are all recommended by different producers, as 
 are also various crosses of these. The Brahmas and Cochins possess 
 good size. By some the Brahmas are claimed to be difficult to oper- 
 ate upon ; by others this is denied. The Plymouth Rocks and Wy- 
 andottes are somewhat smaller, but sell readily and possess the ad- 
 vantage of yellow skin and eggs. The Langshan is large and is easily 
 operated upon. The Indian Game is probably most useful as a cross 
 upon some one of the other breeds, thereby improving the breast 
 meat without materially reducing the size of the fowl. 
 
 Time to Caponize. In so far as the effects of the operation and 
 the rapidity and ease of healing are concerned, the time of year 
 when the operation is performed is of little importance. The capons 
 seem to recover and do well at any time. Certain other considera- 
 tions, however, do influence the time. The age and size of the cock- 
 erel are very important. As soon as the cockerels weigh 2 to 3 
 pounds, or when 2 to 4 months old, they should be operated upon. 
 The lower age and weight limits apply particularly to the American 
 breeds, while the higher apply to the Asiatics. If smaller than this, 
 their bodies do not give room enough to work handily. On the 
 other hand, they should never be over 6 months old, as by this time 
 the testicles have developed to a considerable extent, the spermatic 
 arteries carry greater amounts of blood, and the danger of pricking 
 these arteries and causing the fowl to bleed to death is greatly in- 
 creased. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 452.) 
 
 Caponizing Instruments. The manufacturers of caponizing 
 instruments place them on the market in the complete sets that meet 
 the requirements of the beginner. They also furnish with these 
 sets of instruments brief directions for operating. 
 
 Marketing Poultry and Poultry Products. A large part of the 
 profit in poultry keeping often depends on the marketing of the 
 products, and the producer should study the market demands as to 
 how, where, and when to dispose of the products to the best advan- 
 tage. An attractive appearance is of prime importance, and the 
 producer should study the details of killing, dressing, and packing 
 in order to arrange the products in the best possible manner. The
 
 622 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 requirements for dressing and packing vary somewhat in different 
 markets, and the producer should learn any special requirements 
 of the market to which he intends shipping. 
 
 Killing, Dressing, and Packing Poultry. The birds should be 
 kept without feed from eighteen to twenty-four hours before kill- 
 ing, unless they are to be drawn, in which case they should have no 
 feed for at least ten hours before killing. In either case they should 
 have no water to drink for at least eight hours before killing. When 
 ready to kill, suspend the fowl by the legs and, using a knife, cut 
 the vein at the back of the throat through the mouth. As soon as 
 this vein is cut run the point of the knife through the roof of the 
 mouth into the brain, which causes the bird to lose all sense of feel- 
 ing. Instead of piercing the brain the fowl can be paralyzed by a 
 blow on the head. 
 
 Dry Picking. In most markets dry-picked birds are preferred. 
 Immediately after killing, while the bird is still bleeding, the picker 
 should remove the feathers, being careful not to tear the skin. If 
 the picker waits until the bird is partially cold, the feathers will be 
 removed with difficulty. As soon as picked the fowls should be 
 hung in a cool place until thoroughly cold. If the weather is warm 
 and fowls are to be packed in ice, they should be placed in a tank of 
 ice water and left until all the animal heat has left the body. 
 
 Scalding. When birds are scalded before removing the feath- 
 ers they are immersed in hot water, which should be a little below 
 the boiling point, as soon as they are through bleeding. The birds 
 should be immersed three or four times and then picked clean, care 
 being taken not to break the skin. The fowl should next be 
 "plumped" by dipping it in nearly boiling hot water for eight or 
 ten seconds and then placing it in cold water, where it should re- 
 main for fifteen or twenty minutes. Be careful not to overscald, as 
 this will cause the outer surface of the skin to rub off. If the fowls 
 are to be shipped dry they should be hung up until the skin be- 
 comes thoroughly dry. If they are to be packed in ice they 'may be 
 left in the cold water for several hours or until they are to be 
 packed. 
 
 Drawing. When the poultry is to be drawn this should be 
 done before the bird is cooled. A slit should be made from near 
 the end of the keel bone toward the vent, large enough to admit the 
 fingers. Then cut carefully around the vent and pull out the intes- 
 tines, leaving in everything else unless the market requirements are 
 otherwise. 
 
 Packing. When the birds have been thoroughly cooled they 
 are ready for packing. Packages for dressed poultry vary greatly, 
 but they should be neat and clean and small enough to be easily 
 handled. The inside of the box or barrel should be lined with clean, 
 unprinted paper. Pack the birds solidly so that they will not shift 
 in the package, but be careful not to bruise them. For delivery to 
 retail customers pasteboard boxes of sufficient size to hold one or two 
 birds are very satisfactory. When poultry is to be packed in ice,
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 623 
 
 barrels are generally used, packing them with alternate layers of 
 birds and ice, the latter forming the top and bottom layers. 
 
 Shipping Live Poultry. Poultry of all kinds can be shipped 
 alive, and will often net the shipper as much as when dressed. Good 
 live fowls will usually bring more than the same fowls poorly dressed. 
 For shipping live poultry to market well constructed slatted crates 
 are desirable, as these crates provide for ventilation. This is im- 
 portant, for in crowded express cars the crates are frequently piled 
 on top of one another. Over-crowding is to be avoided, and if large 
 coops are used they should bo equipped with partitions to prevent 
 the birds being thrown together at one end when the crate is tipped 
 in handling. If possible place only one variety in a coop or in one 
 division of a coop. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 287.) 
 
 Bad Habits, Egg Eating. This habit sometimes becomes a seri- 
 ous vice, fowls becoming very fond of eggs when they have learned to 
 eat them, and it often spreads from fowl to fowl. It usually begins 
 through accident by eggs being broken or frozen. Be careful to see 
 that this does not happen. See that the nests are properly supplied 
 with straw or other nesting material and have them darkened, so that 
 if an egg is accidentally broken the fowls wilt not be likely to dis- 
 cover it. Supply plenty of lime in the form of oyster shells, bone, or 
 similar substances to insure a firm shell. As soon as it is discovered 
 that a fowl has formed the habit the fowl should be removed, in order 
 to prevent the spread of the vice. Once formed, it is difficult to eradi- 
 cate, and the safest remedy is the death penalty. 
 
 Feather Eating. Fowls sometimes pluck feathers from them- 
 selves and from each other, which is often caused by too close confine- 
 ment, by the presence of insect pests, or by improper feeding. When 
 some of the lowls of a flock have formed the habit slightly, a wide 
 range with a change of diet, including a plentiful supply of animal 
 feed, and freedom from insect pests, will usually correct the evil. 
 Above all see that the fowls have plenty of inducement to exercise. 
 If the habit becomes well formed it is very troublesome and may 
 necessitate the killing of some of the fowls in order to stop it. (Agr. 
 Dep. F. B. 287.) 
 
 Classes of Deteriorated Eggs. Heated eggs occur most com- 
 monly during the summer months. Whenever a fertile egg is sub- 
 jected to proper conditions of heat, whether it be under a hen or in 
 the hot sun on a railroad station platform, the embryo development 
 proceeds. Light floats are those in which there is only a slight de- 
 velopment. Heavy floats show a greater development usually suffi- 
 cient to be noticed on breaking. Blood rings are shown by the ap- 
 pearance of a ring of blood next to the shell membrane. 
 
 Held or Shrunken Eggs. The contents of a fresh-laid egg com- 
 pletely fill it, but as the egg cools the contents shrink slightly, caus- 
 ing a small bubble or air cell to appear at the large end. As the egg 
 grows older the water is continually evaporating from the white 
 through the shell membrane and the shell, and this causes the air 
 cell in the large end of the egg to increase in size. Such an egg is 
 characterized as held, or shrunken. Shrunken eggs are most com-
 
 624 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 mon during the fall and early winter when the price of eggs is rising. 
 At this time both the farmer and the storekeeper are often guilty of 
 holding eggs in the hope that the price will have advanced by the 
 time they are ready to sell. Needless to say, they largely defeat 
 themselves, for buyers have learned to anticipate this condition, and 
 consequently depress the price below what it would otherwise be. 
 
 Rots. A number of different kinds of rots are recognized by 
 the trade, but the two most common classes are those known as black 
 or mixed rots and as spot rots or spots. The black rot is often caused 
 by bacterial growth. These eggs appear dark or black before the 
 candle and are characterized on breaking by a most offensive odor. 
 In the case of spot rots, the bacterial growth has remained localized 
 and shows as a spot or patch next the shell and usually attached to it. 
 These are easily detected on candling. Spots are also often caused by 
 the development of molds. 
 
 Dirty Eggs. Many eggs are soiled and dirty. These are caused 
 by dirty nests, thus allowing the eggs to be soiled by droppings, by 
 dirt from the feet of the fowls, particularly during rainy weather, 
 and by smearing with the contents of broken or cracked eggs. 
 
 Broken Eggs. Many eggs are cracked or broken before reach- 
 ing the packing house. Those cracked only slightly, so that the egg 
 contents do not leak out, are known as "checks." Those in which the 
 egg contents are leaking or have partially leaked away are known as 
 "leakers." Broken or "checked" eggs depreciate rapidly and must, 
 therefore, be separated out and sold for immediate consumption at a 
 reduced price or they must be dried or broken out in cans and frozen. 
 
 Other Deteriorated Eggs. As eggs are very prone to take on 
 the taste and odor of their surroundings, a considerable number de- 
 teriorate in this respect. If stored in damp cellars, they are likely to 
 develop a musty flavor which is practically impossible to detect with- 
 out tasting. Other flavors caused by storing with vegetables, such as 
 onions, are common. 
 
 Requisites for the Production of Good Eggs. As requisites for 
 the production of good eggs and marketing them in good condition 
 the following may be mentioned: 1. Hens that produce not only 
 a goodly number of eggs but eggs of moderately large size (weighing 
 2 ounces each on an average) . Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode 
 Island Reds, Orpingtons, and Leghorns or Minorcas that are used 
 on egg farms are varieties that may be expected to do this. 2. Good 
 housing, regular feeding and watering, and, above all, clean, dry 
 nests. 3. Daily gathering of eggs, and, when the temperature is 
 above 80, gathering twice a day. 4. The confining of all broody 
 hens as soon as discovered. 5. The rejection as doubtful of all eggs 
 found in a nest that was not visited the previous day. Such eggs 
 should be used at home, where each may be broken separately. 6. 
 The placing of all summer eggs, as soon as gathered, in the coolest 
 place available. 7. The prevention at all times of moisture in any 
 form coming in contact with the eggshells. 8. The disposal of young 
 cockerels before they begin to annoy the hens. Also the selling or 
 confining of old male birds from the time hatching is over until cool
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 625 
 
 weather in fall. 9. The using of cracked and dirty as well as small 
 eggs at home. Such eggs, if consumed when fresh, are perfectly 
 wholesome, but when marketed are discriminated against and are 
 likely to become an entire loss. 10. The marketing of all eggs at 
 least once a week, and oftener when convenience allows. 11. Keep- 
 ing eggs as cool and dry as possible while on the way to town and 
 while in country stores. 12. Keeping eggs away from musty cellars 
 or bad odors. 13. The use of strong, clean cases and good fillers. 
 14. The shipping of eggs to the final market at least once a week 
 and as much oftener as possible. 
 
 General Summary. The loss in this country due to the actual 
 spoiling of eggs constitutes an enormous waste, which could in a 
 large measure be saved were eggs given reasonable care from the 
 time of laying until they reach the consumer. 
 
 There are two main reasons why such care is not being given : 
 (1) Lack of realization of the importance of the egg crop and ignor- 
 ance of the correct method of caring for the product; (2) because 
 with our present system the individual farmer, and in the West the 
 individual storekeeper as well, are not financially rewarded for their 
 greater pains nor held accountable for gross carelessness, which may 
 amount to actual dishonesty. 
 
 The ideal condition of the egg trade is to bring the intelligent 
 dealer who wants quality and will pay for it into close touch with 
 the producer. Every factor in the egg trade that prevents this is 
 detrimental to the progress of this important branch of intensive 
 agriculture. 
 
 The greatest handicap to the egg trade is the general store, with 
 its custom of bartering merchandi.se for eggs. The storekeeper 
 reckons his profits on goods as more than his loss on eggs. He does 
 not try to enforce improvement upon his patrons by buying on a 
 quality basis, and by the advantage his peculiar position gives him 
 he keeps other egg buyers from doing so. The cure for this evil 
 consists in teaching the farmer and the merchant that the present 
 method of trading is upon a false basis, which is of no real advantage 
 to either, but is in reality a great disadvantage to both in that it 
 causes an actual loss of wealth which must be borne by the commu- 
 nity. When such an understanding is established the community is 
 ready for some plan of buying eggs that will pay the producer in 
 accordance with the actual worth of the product. This done, and a 
 market found where the improved goods will bo recognized and paid 
 for, the future of the egg and poultry industry in that community 
 is simply a matter of patience and perseverance. (Dep. Agr. Bu. 
 An. Ind. Cir. 140.) 
 
 Selection and Care of the Eggs to be Preserved. Keep the 
 whole flock as near a perfect state of health as possible. Give enough 
 shell-forming food to the hens so that the shells will be strong and 
 uniform in thickness. Make proper nesting places and keep them 
 clean, so that the egg? may not be infected while in the nests. Gather 
 the eggs each day. Keep the gathered eggs in a dry cool room or 
 cellar where the sun's rays do not fall directly upon them. Use only
 
 626 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the clean eggs and place them in the preservative within twenty-four 
 hours after the time they are laid. Preserve only April, May, and 
 early June eggs. 
 
 The Use of Water Glass. Of the liquid preservatives, water 
 glass (sodium silicate) has been very generally and very successfully 
 used. It is reliable, comparatively cheap, and is easily prepared. 
 The water glass can be bought at most drug stores for one dollar to 
 one dollar and a quarter a gallon. This is comparatively cheap, for a 
 gallon of water glass will make ten gallons of preserving fluid. 
 
 Preserving and Storing of Eggs. A cellar is a good place to 
 keep the eggs though any darkened room where the temperature does 
 not go over 60 F. will do. A stone jar is preferable to other recepta- 
 cles for it can be sealed and cleaned more thoroughly than most 
 receptacles. Those using barrels which have previously contained 
 other liquids run a great risk in using these for the preservation of 
 eggs. 
 
 Use Boiled Water. A five-gallon receptacle will hold about 15 
 dozen eggs. The preserving fluid itself should be made from clean 
 water that has been boiled and allowed to cool. To every nine quarts 
 of water add one quart of water glass, stirring thoroughly to insure 
 a proper mixture of the two. A great deal of care should be 
 taken in mixing the water glass and the water, and the more 
 thoroughly this is done the better the chance of preserving the 
 eggs. Some have found that an egg beater was very useful in aiding 
 the mixing. If properly mixed the water glass seals the egg and with 
 the temperature comparatively low the egg is preserved. 
 
 When the eggs are to be preserved in several receptacles, the 
 water and water glass should be mixed in each receptacle 
 separately, for if they are mixed in one receptacle and poured into 
 several, there is the liability of getting different percentages of water 
 glass in each receptacle, with the result that some eggs are likely to 
 spoil. Do not try to preserve cracked eggs. Into this fluid place the 
 eggs, examining each egg to see that it is clean and is not cracked. A 
 good method is to tap two eggs together gently before putting them 
 into the water glass. If they are not cracked they will give a true 
 ring, while if one of them is cracked the sound will be entirely differ- 
 ent and the cracked egg can be discarded. Almost every one has 
 noticed the difference in the sound of the cracked and the uncracked 
 egg. Keep the eggs well covered with the solution by adding a small 
 quantity of boiled water when necessary. 
 
 If several receptacles are used in which to preserve the eggs, it 
 is a good plan to mark the receptacle bearing the April eggs and 
 those containing the May and June eggs. These receptacles should 
 be covered to prevent the evaporation of the water from the solution. 
 Where the receptacles are not covered the solution turns milky or 
 changes to a thick, white pasty mass making it more difficult to take 
 out the eggs. This does not however, necessarily detract any from 
 the preservative qualities. Do not allow the sun]s rays to fall directly 
 on the receptacles and keep all eggs submerged in the solution. The 
 preservation should never be stirred after the eggs are once placed
 
 POULTRY KEEPING 629 
 
 therein. It is advantageous to begin to use the water glass eggs for 
 cooking purposes soon after the price of eggs has reached the original 
 price plus the price of preserving, usually not more than two or three 
 cents, and to use them the remainder of the year until the eggs reach 
 that price the following spring. 
 
 In this way the maximum saving will be made although it will 
 necessitate preserving more eggs. Too many people wait until eggs 
 get to be thirty-five cents a dozen before they use the water glass eggs. 
 In this way they save only a part of what might have been saved had 
 they preserved more eggs and begun using them earlier. The shrink- 
 age should be less than one per cent if the eggs are good and properly 
 handled. The preservative should not be used for more than one 
 year,
 
 PART VI 
 
 OTHER ANIMALS. 
 
 BIRDS IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BIRDS play an important part in relation to agriculture. This 
 has long been known. There seems to be a tendency to dwell 
 on the harm they do rather than the good. Whether the bird 
 is injurious or beneficial depends almost entirely upon what it 
 eats. Because the harm that a bird does is often more evident than the 
 good it does, it is frequently classed by farmers among the injurious 
 birds to agriculture, when really it is decidedly beneficial. As in- 
 sects constitute a large part of the diet of our common birds they 
 often become destroyers of noxious insects, which is too often not 
 appreciated. 
 
 As objects of human care and interest birds occupy a place 
 filled by no other living things, and the various movements to pro- 
 tect and foster them would be fully justified were there no returns 
 other than esthetic. Only the thoughtless and the ignorant still hold 
 that the graceful forms and beautiful plumage of these masterpieces 
 of nature serve their highest purpose when worn on a hat for a brief 
 season, to be then cast aside and forgotten, the plumage dimmed and 
 faded, the beautiful songs quenched forever. 
 
 While by no means insensible to the higher value of birds, the 
 farmer who is asked to aid in measures for their protection is entitled 
 to inquire as to the practical purpose they subserve and how far they 
 may be expected to return his outlay of time, trouble, and expense. 
 
 Since most birds eat insects and since many eat practically 
 nothing else, it is their insect-eating habits that chiefly invite in- 
 quiry, for so active and persistent are birds in the pursuit of insects 
 tnat they constitute their most important enemies. 
 
 When birds are permitted to labor undisturbed they thoroughly 
 police both earth and air. The thrushes, sparrows, larks, and wrens 
 search the surface of the earth for insects and their Iarva3 or hunt 
 among the leaves and peer under logs and refuse for them. The war- 
 blers, vireos, creepers, and nuthatches with their microscopic eyes 
 scan every part of the tree or shrub trunk, branches, and leaves 
 and few hidden creatures escape them. The woodpeckers, not con- 
 tent with carefully scrutinizing the bark and limbs of trees, dig into 
 decayed and worm-eaten wood and drag forth the burrowing Iarva3, 
 which in their hidden retreats are safe from other enemies. The 
 flycatchers, aided by the warblers, are ever on the alert to snap up 
 insects when flying among trees and branches; while th^ swallows 
 and nighthawks skim over the pastures and patrol the air high above 
 
 630
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 631 
 
 the tree tops for such of the enemy as have escaped pursuit below. 
 Thus each family plays its part in the never-ending warfare, and the 
 number of insects annually consumed by the combined hoste is 
 simply incalculable. It is well that this is so, for so vast is the num- 
 ber of insects and so great is the quantity of vegetation required for 
 their subsistence that the existence of every green thing would be 
 threatened were it not for birds and other agents specially designed 
 to keep them in check. 
 
 While birds are not numerous in the sense that insects are, they 
 exist in fair numbers everywhere or would were it not for the inter- 
 ference of man and so rapid is the digestion of birds and so perfect 
 their assimilative powers that, to satisfy the appetite of even a small 
 bird, great numbers of insects are needed. Much of this food is 
 hidden and must be searched for; much of it is active and must be 
 vigorously pursued. Hence only by the expenditure of much time 
 and labor do birds procure their daily food. With birds the struggle 
 for existence is peculiarly a struggle for subsistence; shelter is ob- 
 tained with comparative ease, and if climatic conditions are not to 
 their liking they migrate to other regions. 
 
 When by reason of favorable conditions insects have multiplied 
 and become unusually abundant, birds eat much more than at ordi- 
 nary times ; hence the importance of their services during insect in- 
 vasions. It is not, however, at such periods that their services are 
 most valuable. It is their persistent activity in destroying insects 
 every day, at all seasons, and in every stage of growth the long, 
 steady pull rather than the spasmodic effort that tends to prevent 
 insect irruptions and to keep the balance true. 
 
 Few birds are wholly beneficial, and there are very few among 
 the harmful ones that have no redeeming traits that do not, Occa- 
 sionally at least, do good. Most birds most of the time are beneficial; 
 a few birds most of the time are injurious. Certain species may be 
 beneficial in one region and harmful in others, or perform useful 
 services at one season and be injurious at another. Instead, there- 
 fore, of being simple, as at first sight they may appear, the relations 
 of birds to man are complex. 
 
 INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS AND THEIR FOOD HABITS. 
 
 Hawks and Owls. The strong beaks and sharp talons of the 
 hawks and owls at first sight might be thought designed for more 
 serious work than the destruction of insects, and yet many of the 
 birds of prey make insects an important part of their food. The 
 little sparrow hawk lives largely upon grasshoppers and crickets, and 
 some, even of the larger species, as the Swainson hawk of the West- 
 ern States, in summer time live almost exclusively upon them. It is 
 very fortunate that so many birds the hawks among them are 
 fond of grasshoppers, since these insects multiply so fast and aro so 
 very destructive to vegetation that but for the check on their in- 
 crease by birds the cost to the farmer of fighting them would be 
 much greater than it is. 
 
 Important as is the work of some of the hawks in destroying 
 noxious insects, this is by no means the chief service the group ren-
 
 632 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ders man. Within our boundaries are some 50 species of hawks and 
 35 species of owls. With the exception of perhaps half a dozen 
 hawks, which subsist mainly upon birds, and the great horned owl, 
 hawks and owls are to be classed as beneficial. It is not to be denied 
 that occasionally the larger species carry off a chicken and kill some 
 game, but such acts are exceptions to the general rule. Mice and 
 other small rodents constitute the chief food of such of the species 
 as are not largely insectivorous, and it is by the destruction of these 
 pests of the farmer that hawks and owls earn protection. 
 
 Of late years the acreage under cultivation in the United States 
 has increased rapidly and the value of the crops raised has augmented 
 by leaps and bounds. With increased acreage under cultivation the 
 number of rodents has multiplied correspondingly, because of the 
 abundance of nutritious food and also because their natural foes have 
 been destroyed by man. The services of hawks and owls were never 
 so much needed as now, and these faithful helpers of man are likely 
 to be needed still more in the future; yet thousands of hawks and 
 owls are yearly slaughtered because the part they play in nature's 
 scheme is misunderstood or ignored. Unquestionably individual 
 hawks that have learned the way to the poultry yard should be sum- 
 marily dealt with, but because occasional individuals of two or three 
 species destroy chickens it is manifestly unfair to take vengeance on 
 the whole tribe. The very name "hen hawk" is a misnomer so far as 
 the birds to which it is chiefly applied are concerned. Moreover, it is 
 made the excuse by the farmer's boy and the sportsman for killing 
 every hawk, large and small, that flies. Thousands of these useful 
 birds are killed annually by the thoughtless for no better reason than 
 that, when sitting motionless, they offer an easy target for the small- 
 bore rifle, or, flying, present a tempting mark for the shotgun. So 
 far has popular misapprehension in regard to these birds gone that 
 again and again States and counties have offered bounties for their 
 heads, thus depleting treasuries, and inviting heavy losses to the 
 farmer through the increased numbers of insects and rodents, which 
 it is the function of these birds to hold in check. 
 
 Wood Warblers. America is peculiarly fortunate in possessing 
 this beautiful group, in some respects unlike the birds of any other 
 land, and excelled by none in grace of form, sprightly motions, and 
 beauty of plumage. The family is large and numbers of the species 
 included in it visit every part of our domain at some season or other. 
 While some live on or near the ground and share with the thrushes 
 the task of hunting for ground-frequenting insects, the great ma- 
 jority haunt the trees and shrubbery, and spend their time gleaning 
 an insect harvest from foliage and twigs. Eggs, larvae, and adult 
 insects alike are welcome, and when flying insects are dislodged from 
 their hiding places the warblers successfully essay the role of fly- 
 catchers and snap them up on the wing. No insects are too minute 
 to escape their prying eyes, and they are particularly successful in 
 discovering and devouring plant lice, immense numbers of which 
 infest our fruit and shade trees. Finally, it may be said of the war-
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 633 
 
 biers that they are truly insectivorous, as they eat very little vege- 
 table food, and the little they do eat has no special economic value. 
 
 Thrushes. The thrushes and their near allies, the bluebirds, 
 are two groups of insectivorous birds, all the members of which are 
 fond of fruit. All sorts of wild berries are highly esteemed by them, 
 and no one will deny that they are quite within their rights in appro- 
 priating them. Unfortunately, however, the most prominent mem- 
 ber of the group and in some respects the most highly esteemed 
 has developed an uncontrollable appetite for cherries, strawberries, 
 and other cultivated fruits which often renders him a nuisance to the 
 grower of small fruits. The fruit grower can hardly be expected to 
 accept the confiding habits and the sweet song of the robin as full 
 payment for a crop of cherries upon which depends a considerable 
 part of his own livelihood and that of his family. In connection 
 with the depredations of the robin, it is confidently believed that 
 mulberry, wild cherry, and other fruit-bearing trees of little or no 
 commercial value can be planted near orchards so as to protect the 
 valuable cherry crop and so save the robin from the orchardist's just 
 resentment. 
 
 The smaller members of the thrush family, the wood thrush, 
 hermit thrush, and others, are highly insectivorous, and are to be 
 credited with nothing but good. Moreover their melody raises them 
 to the highest rank among American songsters. 
 
 Titmice. The titmice, like the warblers, are tree frequenters, 
 and the insects they pursue are of the same general character as 
 those eaten by their more nervous and sprightly cousins. Instead of 
 hurrying from tree to tree, and from one branch to another like the 
 warblers, the titmice conduct a comparatively slow and painstaking 
 search and go over their sylvan hunting grounds much more care- 
 fully. Another and a far more important fact to their credit is that, 
 like the nuthatches, they are practically non-migratory, and instead 
 of scurrying off to the sunny Tropics on the first hint of cold 
 weather, as do most of the warblers, they usually winter where they 
 summer. Thus the farmer enjoys the benefit of their services the 
 year round, and hence has twice the incentive to protect them that he 
 has in the case of the migratory species. 
 
 Swallows. The swallows are among the most insectivorous of 
 birds, and it is difficult to overestimate the extent of their services to 
 agriculture. They are flycatchers pre-eminently, and Nature has been 
 at the utmost pains to qualify them for the delicate task she has set 
 for them the capture of small insects moving with rapid and uncer- 
 tain flight through the air. Endowed with the power of swift and 
 enduring flight, swallows cleave the air without apparent effort, 
 turning this way and that, now falling, now rising, following the 
 movements of their prey. The list of species is not lengthy, six only 
 in the States east of the Mississippi and but one more west of that 
 river, but not one of the number could be spared without loss to the 
 farmer. Valuable at all times and at all places favored by their 
 presence, swallows have a peculiar value to the southern cotton 
 planter, for they prey upon the cotton boll weevil as it flies over the
 
 634 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 fields on its errand of destruction. The more that swallows can be in- 
 duced to nest in the cotton States, and the more they can be increased 
 in the North, so as to add to the number that migrate through the 
 South, the better will it be for the cotton planter, and incidentally for 
 the whole country. Especially important is it that swallows be pro- 
 tected from the assaults of the English sparrow, which covete their 
 nesting sites. Not only do these pests drive away swallows from their 
 nests, but they even throw out their eggs and kill the helpless young. 
 
 VEGETARIAN BIRDS AND THEIR FOOD HABITS. 
 
 It is not possible strictly to divide small birds by their diet into 
 vegetarian and insectivorous kinds, for while many birds live largely 
 upon vegetable substances some almost exclusively there are very 
 few that do not, at least occasionally, eat insects (all of them feed 
 their young upon insects) ; and, it may be added, there are not many 
 insect-eating birds that ao not, at least occasionally, vary their diet 
 by berries or other vegetable substances. Pigeons perhaps are more 
 exclusively vegetarian than other birds, the common turtle dove, for 
 instance, apparently never eating insects except when they happen to 
 be contained in seeds or other vegetable food in the form of eggs or 
 larvae. For present purposes, however, those birds may be considered 
 vegetarian which live chiefly and most of the year upon vegetable 
 food. 
 
 It is among this group naturally that we look for enemies of the 
 farmer, for cultivated grains and fruits are often so much more ac- 
 cessible than the wild varieties that it would be strange indeed if 
 birds had not discovered their good qualities and promptly availed 
 themselves of their opportunities. 
 
 The Mourning Dove. The mourning dove is found throughout 
 the United States, though not abundantly in New England. The 
 food of the dove consists largely of the seeds of weeds together with 
 that of some grain. The principal and almost constant diet is that 
 of the seeds of weeds, which are eaten at all seasons of the year. The 
 dove does not eat insect or animal food so far as is known. 
 
 The Cuckoo. There are two quite distinct species in the United 
 States, yet they differ greatly in food habits. Their food consists al- 
 most wholly of insects, quite largely in the larval form. From the 
 examination of a large number of stomachs of these birds practically 
 no beneficial insects have been found. It is therefore safe to say that 
 these birds are beneficial to agriculture in its various branches. 
 
 The Woodpecker. Practically without exception the food of 
 woodpeckers consists of injurious insects. They feed largely on, 
 wood-boring larvae, and on this account become great friends of the 
 .orchardists and nurserymen. An examination of many stomachs of 
 woodpeckers showed that the contents consisted almost wholly of 
 noxious insects. Some of the large woodpeckers, like the flicker and 
 redheaded woodpecker, sometimes feed on grasshoppers and crickets. 
 
 The Nighthawk. The nighthawk, or bull-bat, is wholly an in- 
 sect-eating bird; their food, which consists of insects taken on the 
 wing, consists largely of flying ante, grasshoppers, chinch bugs, va-
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 635 
 
 rious kinds of moths, mosquitoes, etc. From the food habits of the 
 nighthawk it is evident that it is one of the most useful birols. 
 
 The Kingbird. The kingbird is essentially a lover of the or- 
 chard. Its antipathy for hawks and crows is well known, and for 
 this reason it often becomes a protector of the poultry yard. Song 
 birds that nest near the kingbird are protected in a similar manner. 
 The food habits of this bird are largely insectivorous ; it is a true fly- 
 catcher and takes a large part of its food on the wing. The chief 
 complaint against this bird is that it preys upon honey-bees, although 
 the examination of many stomachs of these birds did not ehow that 
 honey-bees made up any considerable part of its diet. About 90 per 
 cent of the food consists of injurious species of insects. 
 
 The Phoebe. This bird subsists almost exclusively upon in- 
 sects, most of which are caught upon the wing. In their season grass- 
 hoppers are eaten to a considerable extent, while wasps of various 
 species, many species of flies that annoy cattle are eaten regularly. 
 There is hardly a more useful species about the farm than the phoebe. 
 It should receive every encouragement. 
 
 The Crow. There are few birds so well known as the common 
 crow. Unlike most other species it does not seem to decrease in 
 number as the country becomes more densely populated. The crow 
 is commonly regarded as a thief. It is well known that he pulls up 
 sprouting corn, destroys chickens, robs nests of small birds and also 
 feeds on frogs, toads and some smaJl snakes that do good by eating 
 insects. Notwithstanding all of these charges against this bird, the 
 examination of a large number of stomachs shows that the insects 
 which he consumes makes amends for the injury which he does. The 
 insect diet of this bird is nearly all of a noxious character. The crow 
 is no exception to the rule that most birds subsist to a large extent 
 upon grasshoppers in the month of August. Crows eat fruit to some 
 extent, but the damage which they do to cultivated fruits is not se- 
 rious. In the more thickly settled parts of the country the crow 
 probably does more good than harm. In some States this bird is pro- 
 tected by law. 
 
 The Meadowlark. The meadowlark is a common and well 
 known bird, occurring from the Atlantic Coast to the Great Plains. 
 While it is a bird of the plains, yet it is found in considerable num- 
 bers in the meadow and mowing lands of the Eastern States. As 
 this is distinctly a ground bird, its food consists largely of insects. 
 Grasshoppers, beetles and various kinds of caterpillars make up a 
 large part of this food. The dreaded cut-worm is readily eaten by 
 this bird. Briefly stated, it may be said that more than half of the 
 meadowlark's food consists of harmful insects. Its vegetable food 
 consists almost wholly of noxious weeds or waste grain. 
 
 The Catbird. The catbird is a lover of thick foliage and usually 
 makes its home in some tangle of bushes, vines or trees. It is found 
 throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. A large 
 part of the food of these birds consists of in.-i cts. Ants, beetles, cater- 
 pillars and grasshoppers constitute a considerable part of this diet. 
 Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroy-
 
 636 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 ing fruit, it is not considered injurious, but on the contrary in most 
 parts of the country does far more good than harm. 
 
 The Robin. The robin is found throughout the United States, 
 although the robin of the far West is slightly different from that of 
 the Mississippi Valley and farther East. The food habits of the 
 robin sometimes causes apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is 
 fond of cherries and other small fruits. A large part of the food of 
 this bird consists of animal matter, principally insects. Grass- 
 hoppers, caterpillars, snails and earthworms form a considerable part 
 of its diet. Without doubt the robin is a valuable friend of the agri- 
 culturists, although he sometimes makes annoying inroads on some 
 choice fruits. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 54.) 
 
 Blackbirds. Blackbirds also, of which there are several species, 
 at times and in certain districts destroy grain. On the other hand, 
 blackbirds consume insects in a wholesale way, and so incline the 
 balance strongly in their favor. 
 
 Orioles. Orioles eat insects to a much greater extent than vege- 
 table food and are noted for their fondness for caterpillars. That 
 the good done by orioles far outweighs the harm can not be doubted, 
 especially since it has been ascertained that in the cotton fields orioles 
 are persistent and successful enemies of the cotton boll weevil, and 
 eagerly search the bolls for them, thus invading the very heart of 
 the enemy's citadel. 
 
 Bobolink. The bobolink, though in summer a deserved favor- 
 ite at the North and there chiefly insectivorous, in autumn is respon- 
 sible for damages to the southern rice patches that annually aggre- 
 gate many thousands of dollars. The bobolink is thus almost in a 
 class by itself, earning deserved protection in summer at the North 
 by reason of its beautiful song and its insect-eating habits, while in- 
 curring the severest penalties at the South in the fall for serious 
 depredations on the rice crop. No fair-minded critic can condemn 
 the southern planter who protects his own by means of powder and 
 shot. The extermination of the bobolink is not possible nor is it 
 desirable, at least from the standpoint of those who cherish the bird 
 in its northern home, but a material reduction of its numbers would 
 probably effect a cure and satisfy the rice planters by making the 
 bird practically harmless. 
 
 Blue Jay. The blue jay is another of our pronounced vege- 
 tarians whose fare, taking the whole year round, is largely composed 
 of insects ; and were judgment to be pronounced merely as between 
 the good it does by destroying insects and the harm it inflicts by eat- 
 ing corn and fruit, the verdict would be in favor of the bird. A 
 fact, however, recently brought to light seems to indicate that the 
 blue jay is essaying a new role. As is well known, the brown-tail 
 moth was introduced in this country a few years ago, and in the New 
 England States has already inflicted serious injury. It will be for- 
 tunate for the country at large if the ravages of the insect can be 
 limited to the States already infested. Contrary to the habits of our 
 native moths the eggs of this foreign intruder hatch in the fall, and 
 the young safely winter in their nests in the trees, to issue in the
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 637 
 
 spring and begin their devastations on the opening foliage. Recent- 
 ly it has been learned that hundreds and thousands of these nests are 
 torn open in winter and the young eaten, and the blue jay has ac- 
 tually been seen doing this. The blue jay will earn the title of bene- 
 factor indeed should he be able to contribute materially toward a 
 reduction of this pest, which not only threatens destruction alike to 
 village shade trees and country forest, but seriously afflicts humanity 
 by poisoning the flesh with its barbed hairs, which are scattered 
 broadcast by the wind. 
 
 Grouse and Quail. Grouse and quail are largely vegetarian, 
 though the several species have enviable records as successful hunters 
 of insects. The habit of eating the buds of fruit trees in spring is 
 sometimes cited against our ruffed grouse as a serious fault, but 
 usually trees are not harmed by the process. 
 
 The value of all the members of the grouse family, as of water- 
 fowl and waders, for food is great and is constantly increasing as the 
 birds diminish in numbers. Quail have always been favorite objects 
 of pursuit by sportsmen, and by preserving the quail on a large farm, 
 or on a number of adjoining farms, and asking a fair fee from sports- 
 men for the privilege of snooting, a considerable revenue may be 
 derived, and it is not unlikely that the game on a large tract of, say, 
 several hundred acres may be made to yield a revenue as large as that 
 from a good-sized poultry yard, or even larger. However, perhaps 
 the most valuable service to the farmer rendered by bobwhite is the 
 destruction of the seeds of weeds, although the total number of in- 
 sects eaten in a year by a covey on the farm is enormous, and it is 
 questionable if the value of game birds to the farmer, especially the 
 quail, as weed and insect destroyers be not greater than their value as 
 a source of revenue from sportsmen or as food. It is pretty safe to 
 assert that, except where grouse and quail are so numerous that a cer- 
 tain percentage of the increase can be spared, the farmer can not af- 
 ford to sacrifice them to sport or to the market. 
 
 Sparrow Family. The finch, or sparrow, family is very im- 
 portant to the agriculturist. The group is large, and in North Amer- 
 ica comprises more than a seventh of all the birds. Most of them are 
 small and plainly colored; some are gregarious, and most are mi- 
 gratory, leaving the United States in winter. Their chief value to 
 the farmer lies in the fact that the majority of them are indefatigable 
 in their search for seeds of w r eeds, which indeed constitute a large 
 part of their fare the year round. Practically all of the food of at 
 least one of them the tree sparrow consists of seed. If we es- 
 timate that a single tree sparrow eats a quarter of an ounce of weed 
 seed daily and stomach examinations by Professor Beal show that, 
 this is a fair estimate this species in a State the size of Iowa con- 
 sumes more than 800 tons of seed annually. And there are many 
 other sparrows whose appetite for weed seed falls little short of that of 
 the tree sparrow. 
 
 As every farmer knows, the cost of farming is largely aug- 
 mented by the expense of fighting weeds, the seeds of many of which, 
 especially of certain noxious kinds are very numerous and are ca~
 
 638 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Eable of germinating after being long buried in the soil. As weeds 
 ave been estimated annually to damage crop land on the average 
 about a dollar per acre, and as the lands under crop in the United 
 States in 1899 were 290,000,000 acres, the good work accomplished 
 by the sparrows is of very great value to the farmer. Without their 
 aid the cost of fighting weeds would be vastly increased, and no 
 doubt in places profitable agriculture would be almost impossible. 
 
 Some of the sparrow tribe, as the purple finch and grosbeak, are 
 fond of buds, and in spring may be frequently seen in apple, cherry, 
 peach, and other trees, greedily eating the buds or the stamens of the 
 blossoms. No doubt a certain percentage of fruit is lost through the 
 agency of these birds, but budding by birds in iteelf, if not carried 
 too far, is by no means objectionable ; and neither of the birds men- 
 tioned, nor any native bird that shares the habit, is numerous 
 enough (except in California) or sufficiently confirmed in the habit 
 to seriously reduce the fruit crop. Indeed budding by hand to pre- 
 vent overbearing and to improve the size and quality of fruit is a 
 common practice, and it is probable that, as stated above, in most 
 cases no actual loss of profit follows budding by our native birds. 
 Whether so or not, the purple finch destroys many insects, cater- 
 pillars among them, and hence earns favor in the eyes of the farmer; 
 while a still stronger case may be made out for the rose-breasted 
 grosbeak, which is a most determined foe of the Colorado beetle, and 
 probably destroys more of these dreaded insects than does any other 
 bird possibly than do all other birds combined. The insects eaten 
 by the old birds, however, are but a tithe of the number they feed to 
 their young, for nestlings thrive best and grow faster on a diet com- 
 posed almost exclusively of insects. 
 
 Until the English sparrow was introduced it would have been 
 safe to say that all the sparrows were friends of the farmer and de- 
 served protection at his hands. Unlike our native species, however, 
 this bird has bad habits far outweighing any possible good that it 
 does, even if the most liberal estimate be made of the comparatively 
 small number of insects that it destroys or the weed seed it eats. It is 
 a conspicuous member of the seed-eating group, as its structure abun- 
 dantly proves, and this well-known fact should have prevented its 
 introduction into the United States to perform the service of an insect 
 eater. By preference the bird is a scavenger of the city streets. Out- 
 side the city the bird's fondness for seeds does not stop with weed seed. 
 The smaller grains are liable to attack at all stages of growth, from 
 sowing time to harvest, and the total damage to the grain crop of the 
 country inflicted by this pest at the present time amounts to many 
 thousands of dollars annually. 
 
 This sparrow, like some of our native species, is fond^of the buds 
 of fruit trees. Where it exists in small numbers the injury it does 
 in this way, like that of our own sparrows, is too small to count much 
 against it ; but the bird is very prolific and in many suburban towns 
 its colonies are so large that the resulting damage it inflicts upon 
 fruit trees in spring is very great. It is fond also of all the small
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 639 
 
 fruits, and in some regions the damage to fruit as the result of its 
 attacks is considerable. 
 
 There is yet another field for the exercise of this pest's pernicious 
 activity. Its aggressive and meddlesome disposition and its habit of 
 acting in concert enables it to overpower and drive away many of our 
 native birds, which before its advent were as numerous about dwell- 
 ings as they were welcome. 
 
 The house wren, the bluebird, the phcebe, and certain swallows 
 are the chief sufferers from the aggressive warfare waged by the 
 sparrow. Even that excellent fighter, the purple martin, is unable to 
 long resist the persistent attacks of a united colony of sparrows, since, 
 when unable to overcome the martin in open warfare, the sparrows 
 enter the nests during the absence of the owners, kill the helpless 
 young, and pitch put the eggs. The result is that not only are the 
 above-named species and other small birds driven away from the 
 localities they used to inhabit, but their numbers have steadily dimin- 
 ished and must continue to do so because of their inability to find 
 other suitable breeding places. Thus the sparrow has usurped the 
 places about our homes by right belonging to our own birds, and its 
 increase has been at the expense of native American species, with the 
 result that a number of highly important useful species have been re- 
 placed over large areas by a single destructive one. Not only should 
 all aid and comfort be withheld from this foreign invader, but a con- 
 certed effort should be made to reduce its numbers and to exter- 
 minate it wherever and whenever possible. 
 
 Cranes and Herons. Some of our birds are neither insect eaters 
 nor vegetable eaters. Some of the hawks, and owls, as is well known, 
 live chiefly upon flesh, while the cranes, herons, storks, and king- 
 fishers live largely upon fish, crustaceans, and frogs. By eating small 
 fish which are the fry of valuable kinds or serve as their food, these 
 birds do more or less harm, as the fish breeder, whose ponds are in- 
 vaded, knows well enough. So also their habit of eating frogs is in- 
 jurious. 
 
 But while thus injurious to some extent in certain localities 
 where their pernicious activity may necessitate reprisals, cranes and 
 herons do good service in the destruction of small rodents, especially 
 meadow mice and pocket gophers. As in other cases the relation of 
 these birds to the community varies according to circumstances, and 
 they are to be dealt with accordingly, bearing in mind, so far as pos- 
 sible, the good to the community as a whole and not solely individual 
 interests. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OP BIRDS AS DESTROYERS OP INSECTS. 
 
 Prom the foregoing it will be seen that the benefits the farmer 
 derives from birds far outweigh the occasional damage they do. Not- 
 withstanding this, the public, as a rule, is much more alive to the 
 depredations of birds than to the benefits that accrue from them. 
 Nor is this surprising, since the disastrous effect* of a raid on sprout- 
 ing corn by crows, or upon ripening cherries by robin.s and cedar 
 birds, are too apparent to be overlooked, and the resulting loss can bo 
 estimated in dollars and cents. Not so the benefits. Occasionally,
 
 640 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 it is true, the effects of a combined attack of birds upon caterpillars, 
 cankerworms, or other insects which are present in unusual numbers 
 or have played havoc with the foliage, are too evident wholly to es- 
 cape attention; but more often birds work unnoticed, and the good 
 they do is not at once obvious to the busy farmer. There are few 
 visible tokens of the process by which the crop of hay or green feed 
 has been saved from the cutworms by crows, or the potato crop res- 
 cued from the Colorado beetle by the grosbeaks. The birds have 
 done their work quietly but none the less effectively. They have 
 saved, or greatly assisted in saving, the farmer's crop, and nobody is 
 the wiser, save the few who make it the business of their lives to study 
 the habits of birds. 
 
 The time has long passed when the practical fanner can afford 
 to ignore the relation of birds to agriculture. Larger and larger areas 
 are being devoted to tillage every year, and the amount of capital in- 
 vested in agricultural pursuits in the United States is constantly in- 
 creasing. Irrigation, until recently almost unpracticed in the United 
 States, is fast assuming national importance. The whole world is 
 being laid under contribution for new fruits, forage plants, and 
 crops for the benefit of the American farmer, in order that by his 
 superior energy and foresight he may not only feed our own people 
 but create a surplus of American products for consumption in less 
 favored lands. 
 
 Along with these new introductions and as a necessary result of 
 international commerce, new pests have been introduced. Here, un- 
 der a favorable climate and new conditions, they multiply till they 
 inflict great damage. The Hessian fly, 'San Jose scale, and codling 
 moth are examples in point. 
 
 Such pests usually go unnoticed until the damage they do forces 
 them on the attention of a community, when usually they are so 
 numerous and widespread that their extermination is impossible. 
 Once introduced into the country they are here to stay, and the vast 
 sums already spent in efforts to stay the ravages of such pests em- 
 phasize the importance of utilizing to the utmost all the allies nature 
 places at our disposal. 
 
 As a means of checking these introduced insect pests, as well as 
 native ones, birds are of vast importance. Yet it must be remem- 
 bered that, when once the productive powers of insects have had full 
 play and an invasion occurs, the farmer can not suddenly augment 
 the number of birds and summon the winged hosts to his aid. Birds 
 reproduce but slowly, and in the natural course of events often suffer 
 immense losses during their migrations, by climatic extremes and 
 through the assaults of birds of prey and predaceous mammals. 
 Hence a marked increase in the number of birds, either as a class 
 or in the case of a given species, must come slowly and as a result of 
 favoring conditions extending over a term of years. Moreover, as 
 stated above, birds alone are inadequate to cope with sudden insect 
 irruptions. It is their province rather by incessant watchfulness and 
 constant warfare to prevent over-production of insect life rather than 
 to reduce excess, although in the latter regard their aid is important.
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 641 
 
 It is the part of prudence, therefore, to protect useful birds at all 
 times, and so to augment their numbers that they may constantly 
 play their respective parts in the police system ordained by nature 
 and be ready, when emergency arises, to wage active and aggressive 
 warfare against sudden invasions of insect enemies. 
 
 PROTECTION OF BIRDS FROM MAN. 
 
 Most of our States have laws which, if fully enforced, would go 
 far to secure adequate protection for birds. The wholesale destruc- 
 tion of our songsters and insectivorous birds for millinery purposes 
 has been largely stopped, although even now in some States the 
 statutes are frequently violated by unprincipled bird hunters for the 
 sake of gain. But laws, while wholesome and necessary, are not so 
 effective for the protection of birds as is an enlightened public senti- 
 ment. In a country like our own, where education is general, a 
 knowledge of the part birds play in the economy of nature is more 
 effective for their protection than are any laws, however well ad- 
 ministered. Instruction of this kind should be given to every school 
 child in the land, and it is gratifying to note that the importance of 
 this practical side of nature study is fast being recognized by educa- 
 tors. When the value of birds is universally known and they are 
 everywhere cherished as friends, protective laws will be compara- 
 tively unimportant. 
 
 In this connection brief allusion may be made to a class of im- 
 migrants to our shores who are ignorant 'both of our laws and of the 
 need for enforcing them, and who look upon birds, large and small, 
 only as food. Cheap guns and ammunition in the hands of thr.-o 
 newcomers furnish means for the indiscriminate slaughter of birds 
 for the pot, and public sentiment is either not recognized or is ig- 
 nored. Nothing but strict laws, rigidly and impartially enforced, 
 can save our birds from these pot hunters. 
 
 MEANS OF ATTRACTING BIRDS TO THE FARM. 
 
 There are many ways of attracting birds to the farm and about 
 the farmhouse. A convenient drinking and bathing place near the 
 house is one of the most effective lures for birds known, as well as one 
 of the cheapest. For wrens, swallows, bluebirds, chickadees, and! 
 other kinds, which build in cavities of trees, boxes may be put up, 
 care being taken to protect them as far as passible from the aggressive 
 English sparrow. Above all should the fanner pay attention to the 
 cats on his farm. It is only recently that the extent of the depreda- 
 tions of the house cat on wild life, especially on birds, has been recog- 
 nized. Many who have studied the matter believe that taking the 
 year round cats are responsible for the death of more birds, especially 
 young ones, than all wild animals put together. This may or may 
 not prove to be an exaggeration, but unquestionably cats every- 
 where, especially on the farm, destroy vast numbers of birds. Even 
 the well-fed and well-housed pet is responsible for many valuable 
 lives, but the greater number are destroyed by strays which mistaken 
 kindness has turned adrift, when not wanted in the house, to live as 
 best they may. An adequate remedy against the bird-catching cat 
 is neither easy to suggest nor to apply, but at lca.-t the farmer, who
 
 642 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 rightfully counts the birds of his farm as his friends, should be ex- 
 pected to destroy the stray cats that infest the country in summer, 
 and, so far as possible, to see to it that the natural instincts of his own 
 house pets are suppressed by ample feeding and reasonable restraint. 
 
 MEANS OF PROTECTING CROPS FROM BIRDS. 
 
 There are various devices by means of which the farmer may 
 protect his crops from the attacks of birds, reserving the use of the 
 gun as a last resort when all other methods have failed. Scarecrows, 
 a dead crow hung on a pole, a white cord stretched around a field, the 
 drilling of seed, and the tarring of seed corn are some of the old and 
 approved methods of preventing losses by crows and blackbirds. 
 To be effective, no one of these should be employed exclusively or too 
 long at a time in the same locality, since long contact with man has 
 taught the crow a number of things. Fruit trees when few in num- 
 bers may be protected by netting. The planting of wild fruit trees, 
 or those possessed of little commercial value, for the protection of 
 orchards has not received the attention in this country that it de- 
 serves. 
 
 Even when such protective devices fail the farmer is not driven 
 to the wholesale destruction of birds. For it is being more and more 
 recognized that there is much individuality among birds, and that 
 generally the aggressors in a certain locality are a comparatively few 
 individuals. If the lives of a few destructive hawks, crows, or robins 
 are taken, after other means have been tried and failed, it is often 
 enough to protect the poultry yard or the crop. 
 
 FARMERS' GAIN FROM PROTECTING BIRDS. 
 
 The brief survey of the subject possible here only imperfectly 
 sets forth the nature and importance of the service of birds to agri- 
 culture. Nevertheless it must appear that to the question "Does it 
 pay the farmer to protect birds?" only one answer is possible. Even 
 from the point of view of an investment for profit the time and ex- 
 pense necessary for their care and protection are richly repaid. There 
 is the added consideration that without the music and companionship 
 of birds the world would be the poorer. Anything that adds to the 
 attractiveness of the farm and increases the interest of farm life is 
 worthy of cultivation, even if no actual return is received in dollars 
 and cents. Happily the farmer who protects birds secures a double 
 return increased profit from his crops and increased pleasure of 
 living. (Dep. Agr. Year Book 1907.) 
 
 PHEASANT RAISING IN THE STATES AND CANADA. 
 
 Within recent years a new industry, the raising of pheasants, 
 has begun to engage attention in the United States, and propagating 
 ventures, ranging from the single pen with one or two pairs of birds 
 to the pheasantry of many acres and thousands of birds, are scattered 
 throughout the country. Some of these experiments have been con- 
 ducted by the States through their game officials ; others by associa- 
 tions and individuals. 
 
 Species of Pheasants. A few words as to different kinds of 
 pheasants are essential to a proper understanding of the subject of
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 643 
 
 pheasant propagation. The ringneck pheasant (Phasianus torqua- 
 tus), usually imported from China, its natural home, has a broad 
 white ring about the neck. It is variously called ringneck pheasant, 
 Chinese pheasant, China pheasant, China torquatus pheasant, Chi- 
 nese ringneck, Mongolian pheasant, Denny pheasant, and Oregon 
 pheasant. The English pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) has no ring 
 about the neck. It is imported from Europe, but in comparatively 
 fcmall numbers, and is known as the English pheasant, dark-necked 
 pheasant, and Hungarian pheasant. The English ringneck pheasant 
 (Phasianus colchicus X torquatus), a hybrid between the English 
 and ringneck pheasants, has been brought from Europe in large 
 numbers. It is generally correctly named, but is sometimes desig- 
 nated as English pheasant, ringneck pheasant, and even Mongolian 
 pheasant. It often has more or less of the blood of the versicolor 
 pheasant of Japan (Phasianus yersicolor) . In England both the 
 English pheasant and the English ringneck are referred to as the 
 common pheasant. The Mongolian pheasant (Phasianus Mongoli- 
 cus), which has a more or less complete white ring about the neck, 
 but in other respects resembles the English pheasant more than it 
 does the ringneck, is the rarest of the four kinds in American pre- 
 serves and aviaries. It is a native of the region about Lake Balkash, 
 Central Asia. The silver pheasant (Gennaeus nycthemerus) is often 
 seen in parks and aviaries, but the numerous other members of the 
 genus, usually called kaleeges (or kalijes), are not often imported 
 into this country. The home of the genus is the Indo-Chinese coun- 
 tries and the lower ranges of the Himalayas. The eared pheasants 
 (Crossoptilon), large, dull-colored birds of the higher ranges of 
 central and eastern Asia, are known in American aviaries mainly 
 through the Manchurian pheasant. Two of the best known and most 
 commonly imported pheasants are the golden and Lady Amherst, 
 both of the genus Chrysolophus, originally from the mountains 
 of eastern Thibet and western and southern China. Both are 
 favorite aviary birds, and the golden pheasant has been liberated in 
 various game covers in America and Europe, but with indifferent 
 success. 
 
 United States. Effort* to acclimatize pheasants in the United 
 States are of comparatively recent origin, though earlier than is 
 popularly supposed. More than a hundred years ago, Richard 
 Bache, an Englishman who married the only daughter of Benjamin 
 Franklin, imported from England both pheasants and partridges, 
 which he liberated on his estate in New Jersey, on the Delaware 
 River near where the town of Beverly now stands. But although ho 
 provided both shelter and food for them, the birds had all disap- 
 peared by the following spring. A second attempt was made early in 
 the nineteenth century by the owner of a New Jersey estate situated 
 between the Hackensack meadows and the Passaic River, opposite 
 Belleville. A park was fenced and stocked with deer and English 
 pheasants, but despite feeding and careful protection these birds like- 
 wise disappeared during the winter. These initial importations were 
 followed by similar attempts to stock private preserves, but met with
 
 644 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 like failure. About thirty years ago, however, a successful effort was 
 made to introduce the ringneck pheasant into Oregon, and since then 
 acclimatization experiments have followed broader lines and have 
 assumed greater importance. It will be convenient to consider these 
 later ventures by states. 
 
 Pheasants in Fields and Covert. The failure of many efforts to 
 add pheasants to our fauna is largely due to insufficient knowledge of 
 their habits and the character of their normal environment. It is 
 useless to undertake to acclimatize a bird in a region differing widely 
 in climatic and other physical conditions from those to which it has 
 been accustomed. Thus, an attempt to introduce into one of the 
 prairie States the common blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), 
 which inhabits the Himalayas at from 10,000 to 14,000 feet eleva- 
 tion, would result in failure. 
 
 It must be remembered, also, that introduced birds have to adapt 
 themselves to a new flora and fauna, and that this is often a slow 
 process and frequently fails. If liberated in the wilds, they must be 
 provided with reserve food and shelter until able to care for them- 
 selves, which may take several years. In Oregon the ringnecks put 
 out came at first regularly to farmyards to feed with the domestic 
 fowls; and English ringnecks liberated on Grand Island, Michigan, 
 were driven back by severe weather to the pens from which they had 
 been allowed to escape a few months before. 
 
 If pheasants are imported for stocking preserves, suitable coverts 
 should be prepared for them. In their native country pheasants 
 frequerrt, the margins of woods, coming into open tracts in search of 
 food and retreating into thick undergrowth when alarmed. An ideal 
 pheasant country is one containing small groves with underbrush 
 and high grass between the trees, thorny hedges, berry-growing 
 shrubs, water overgrown with reeds, and occasional pastures, mea- 
 dows, and cultivated grainfields. Bleak mountains, dry sandy wastes, 
 and thick woods are not frequented by pheasants normally; nor do 
 they seek pines, except for protection. A small grove of mixed ever- 
 green and deciduous trees on the southern slope of a hill furnishes 
 favorable shelter. 
 
 On the preserve additional shelter should be provided in winter. 
 Rude huts or even stacks of straw will serve. Suitable food should 
 be planted such as buckwheat, millet, corn, cabbages, and turnips. 
 Stacks of unthreshed grain or of beans may be placed about the 
 preserve. 
 
 When shooting is permitted, it is not wise to shoot only the 
 cocks. If all the hens are spared, they will increase out of proper 
 proportion, to the detriment of both quantity and quality of the prog- 
 eny. Very old cocks and hens should be destroyed. Old cocks are 
 inferior for breeding purposes, and old hens will frequently beat off 
 2- and 3-year-old hens and prevent their mating. 
 
 METHODS OF PROPAGATION. 
 
 Obtaining Stock. A pheasantry may be started with mature 
 birds or with eggs, the latter to be hatched by barnyard fowls. Many 
 are tempted to begin with eggs because of smaller cost, but the uncer-
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 647 
 
 tainties attendant on hatching the eggs and raising the young are 
 such that it is probably cheaper to secure full-grown birds at the out- 
 set. If eggs are to be tried, they should be ordered in January or 
 February, to be delivered in April or May. They should be placed 
 under the hen as soon as possible. 
 
 Pheasants may be obtained from reputable dealers, of which 
 there are a score or more in the United States and Canada, or they 
 may be imported from Europe or Asia. If stock be imported, trouble 
 may be saved by securing it through experienced and reliable bird 
 importers, who are familiar with the business. A pen should be pro- 
 vided and supplied with food and water. On the arrival of the birds 
 the crate should be placed in the pen, an opening should be made in 
 the crate (preferably in the evening) sufficient to allow the birds to 
 escape one at a time, and the attendant should withdraw, leaving the 
 birds to find their way out alone. For the first few days they should 
 be disturbed as little as possible. 
 
 Prices. The prices of pheasants vary with the season. They 
 are lowest at the close of the breeding season and increase gradually 
 until the next. They vary also according to the dealer; but so many 
 things are to be considered, such as purity of stock, freedom from 
 disease, care in shipment, and other details, that the lowest prices do 
 not always mean the cheapest birds. English ringneck pheasants are 
 least expensive about $5 a pair. English pheasants and ringnecks 
 (the pure-blooded birds) cost a little more; Reeves and versicolor 
 pheasants, about $18 a pair; and Mongolian, $40. Of the more 
 common aviary birds golden and silver pheasants are the cheapest, 
 at about $12 per pair; next in price are the Lady Amherst and 
 Reeves, which retail at about $18 or $20 a pair, while others range 
 from this price up to $150 or $200 a pair. These prices are only ap- 
 proximate, and serve merely to give an idea of the relative values of 
 the birds mentioned. 
 
 Pens. Any well-drained ground is suitable for pheasant pens, 
 but a gentle slope of sandy loam, comparatively cool in midsummer, 
 furnishes ideal conditions. Clay is the poorest soil for the purpose, 
 as it is likely to foster diseases. The pens should be provided with 
 plenty of both sunshine and shade. They should be constructed of 
 chicken wire, like ordinary poultry runs. Each pen should cover at 
 least 100 square feet, more if possible; contracted quarters induce 
 disease and afford their timid occupants too little protection from 
 alarms. The pen should be from 6 to 8 feet high, and should be 
 inclosed above with wire. If the pheasants are likely to be disturbed 
 much, cord netting should be stretched 6 inches or more below the 
 top wire, to prevent the birds from injuring themselves by flying 
 violently against the top, as they are apt to do when frightened. 
 
 The pens and sheds should be kept scrupulously clean. There 
 is no more fruitful source of disease among pheasants than unclean- 
 liness. As has been aptly said, the pheasant pen should be ko]>t as 
 neat and clean as the front dooryard. Nevertheless chips and twigs 
 may be scattered about to attract insects, and boughs for shelter 
 should not be omitted. Each pen should be thoroughly spaded and
 
 648 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 limed every two or three years. Cover should be provided for the 
 birds. The pens may be sown with clover, timothy, and other grass 
 early enough to furnish ample cover by the time the birds are turned 
 in. Small evergreens may be grown inside with decided advantage 
 or cut branches of evergreen or deciduous trees may be placed within. 
 If growing grass or clover can not be conveniently provided in the 
 pen, a piece of sod should be placed there occasionally. The birds 
 enjoy tearing sod to pieces for the seeds, insects, and grass it contains. 
 
 Food. Pheasants are small feeders, and there is greater danger 
 of overfeeding than underfeeding. Overfeeding is productive of dis- 
 ease. In order to guard against it, the attendant should at first 
 sprinkle a little food on the ground, wait for that to be eaten, and 
 then repeat until the birds lose their eagerness, when feeding should 
 be discontinued. The proper quantity of food for each pen may 
 thus soon be ascertained. Pheasants are omnivorous, and as variety 
 is advantageous, almost any edible substance may be fed grain of 
 all kinds, finely chopped meat, cooked cereals, table scraps, boiled 
 potatoes, boiled rice, apples, turnips, rose hips, the tubers of Jeru- 
 salem artichokes, and finely chopped green food, as lettuce, grass, 
 cabbage, onion tops, garlic, and chickweed. Green food is important 
 and should be constantly supplied, even if it must be raised under 
 glass. All green food must be chopped fine, as otherwise the birds 
 are likely to become crop bound. Ground bone is excellent. Seeds 
 of various weeds, when obtainable, may be furnished ; hay seed also 
 is good. 
 
 Care in Winter. Many species of pheasants are able to with- 
 stand cold. Even when the mercury is below zero, they generally 
 prefer to roost in the open runs, and they seem to be little discom- 
 moded by snow. Nevertheless, it is well to afford them some shelter 
 from severe storms and from excessive dampness ; and some species 
 normally inhabiting warm regions require housing in cold weather. 
 Scrupulous cleanliness must be maintained throughout the winter, 
 as at other seasons, and dust baths must be provided at all times. 
 It is necessary to remember also that grit or fine gravel is essential 
 to the proper digestion of food by pheasants. In winter it is not 
 usually necessary to separate the cocks from each other or from the 
 hens. (Agr. Dep. F. B. 390.) 
 
 HONEY BEES. 
 
 Bee keeping for pleasure and profit is carried on by many 
 thousands of people in all parts of the United States. As a rule it 
 is not the sole occupation. There are, however, many places where 
 an experienced bee keeper can gain a good livelihood by devoting 
 his entire time and attention to this work. Generally it is unwise to 
 undertake extensive bee keeping without considerable previous ex- 
 perience on a small scale, since there are many minor details that 
 should be thoroughly understood before one could really > expect to 
 be successful in the work. Bee keeping is extremely fascinatmg^to 
 some people as a pastime, furnishing outdoor exercise as well as in- 
 timacy with an insect whose life habits have formed an absorbing 
 study from earliest times. It is only fair, however, to say that when
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 649 
 
 we consider a new industry we frequently learn only of the bright 
 side of the work, and consequently we should make as thorough a 
 study as possible of the trials and discouragements as well as the 
 pleasures and successes. 
 
 Where financial profit is derived, bee keeping requires careful 
 and persistent work. Few lines of outdoor work require more study 
 to insure success. In years when the available nectar is limited sur- 
 plus honey is secured only by judicious management, and oftentimes 
 it is somewhat difficult for the bee keeper to so manage that his entire 
 apiary may be preserved. Above all it should be emphasized that 
 the only way to make bee keeping a profitable business is to produce 
 as largely as possible a first class article. While the bee keeper can- 
 not control what the bees bring to the hive to any great extent, 
 by proper manipulations he can cause them to produce fancy combed 
 honey, or if extracted honey is produced, he can prepare it for the 
 fancy trade. 
 
 Location of Apiary. In choosing the location in which to keep 
 bees on an extensive scale, it is essential that the resources of the 
 country be known. It will not be found advantageous to keep bees 
 in localities where plants do not yield nectar in large quantities. 
 The location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance ; as 
 a rule it is better that they be so placed that they will not face the 
 prevailing wind. In the northern states a southern slope is desir- 
 able. It is also advisable that hives be so placed that the early morn- 
 ing sun will shine directly on them so that the bees become active 
 early in the day, and thus gain an advantage by getting the first 
 supply of nectar. They should also be so placed that the bees will 
 not prove a nuisance to passers-by or disturb live stock. It is quite 
 essential that the grass be kept closely cut and be kept free from 
 weeds, especially about the entrance to the hives. 
 
 Size of Apiary. As a rule it is not considered best to keep more 
 than one hundred colonies in one apiary. Large apiaries should be 
 at least three miles apart. It is difficult to learn how many colonies 
 any given locality will sustain without actual trial. However, the 
 judgment of an experienced person would be a fairly safe guide, 
 after the study of the honey producing plants had been made. 
 
 Generally it is best to have each hive on a separate stand. The 
 entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive. The 
 stands may be made of wood, brick, tile or concrete, or for that mat- 
 ter, of any other convenient material that will answer the purpose. 
 It is not necessary to raise the hive more than a few inches from the 
 ground. 
 
 Habits of Bees. The successful manipulation of bees depends 
 entirely on a knowledge of their habits. The amateur bee keeper 
 therefore should familiarize himself with the habits of bees as this 
 knowledge will greatly add to the pleasure of bee keeping as well as 
 to increase the profits. A colony of bees normally consists of one 
 queen, the mother of the colony, and thousands of sexually unde- 
 veloped animals called workers that normally build the comb, gather 
 the storage, keep the hive clean, and in fact do all the work. During
 
 650 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 part of the year there are also some hundreds of males called drones. 
 These are often removed or greatly restricted in numbers by the bee 
 keeper. These three types are easily recognized by a novice. 
 
 Handling Bees. Bees should be handled so that they will be 
 little disturbed in their work; as much as possible stings should be 
 avoided during manipulation. This is true not so much because they 
 are painful to the receiver, but because the odor or poison which gets 
 in makes them more irritable and difficult to manage. Superfluous 
 quick movements tend to irritate the bees and the hives should never 
 be jarred or disturbed any more than is necessary. The best time 
 to handle bees is during the middle of warm days, particularly dur- 
 ing the time of honey flow. Do not handle them at night or on cold, 
 wet days, unless absolutely necessary. In handling bees for the ex- 
 amination of the comb, inspection of the brood cells, etc., it is usually 
 best to be provided with a smoker by means of which a few puffs of 
 smoke may be directed into the hive at the pleasure of the attendant. 
 This causes the bees to fill themselves with honey and makes han- 
 dling much easier. The art of handling bees is easily learned and 
 can hardly fail to become a source of pleasure to those who have con- 
 veniences for keeping bees and can devote some time to their manage- 
 ment. 
 
 On many farms the production of honey for the home table 
 is the primary object, although it often happens that more is pro- 
 duced than is required at home which may be sold to good advantage. 
 
 The Production of Honey. The obtaining of honey from bees 
 is generally the primary object of their culture. Bees gather nectar 
 to make into honey for their own use as food, but generally store 
 more than they need, and this surplus the bee keeper takes away. By 
 managing colonies early in the spring as previously described the sur- 
 plus may be considerably increased. The secret of maximum crops 
 is to "Keep all colonies strong." 
 
 Honey is gathered in the form of nectar secreted by various 
 flowers, is transformed by the bees, and stored in the comb. Bees 
 also often gather a sweet liquid called "honeydew," produced by 
 various scale insects and plant-lice, but the honeydew honey made 
 from it is quite unlike floral honey in flavor and composition and 
 should not be sold for honey. It is usually unpalatable and should 
 never be used as winter food for bees, since it usually causes dysen- 
 tery. When nectar or honeydew has been thickened by evapo- 
 ration and otherwise changed, the honey is sealed in the cells with 
 cappings of beeswax. 
 
 It is not profitable to cultivate any plant solely for the nectar 
 which it will produce, but various plants, such as clovers, alfalfa, and 
 buckwheat, are valuable for other purposes and are at the same time 
 excellent honey plants ; their cultivation is therefore a benefit to the 
 bee keeper. It is often profitable to sow some plant on waste land ; 
 sweet clovers are often used in this way. The majority of honey-pro- 
 ducing plants are wild, and the bee keeper must largely accept the 
 locality as he finds it and manage his apiary so as to get the largest 
 possible amount of the available nectar. Since bees often fly as far
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 651 
 
 as 2 or 3 miles to obtain nectar, it is obvious that the bee keeper can 
 rarely influence the nectar supply appreciably. Before deciding 
 what kind of honey to produce the bee keeper should have a clear- 
 knowledge of the honey resources of his locality and of the demands 
 of the market in which he will sell his crop. 
 
 Extracted Honey. This is honey which has been removed from 
 the combs where the bees stored it. While it is possible to adulterate 
 extracted honey by the addition of cheap syrups, this is rarely done. 
 If the main honey flow is slow or the honey dark it will probably be 
 best to extract the honey from the comb if it is to be sold. 
 
 Comb Honey. A honey for the fancy trade. It must be made 
 rapidly and in districts where white clover abound or there is an 
 abundance of basswood trees (Filia americana). (Dep. Agr. F. B. 
 447.) 
 
 Honey Vinegar. When a barrel of honey vinegar is to be made 
 for family use or by the small producer the following formula may 
 be useful : 
 
 Strained honey 40 to 45 Ibs. 
 
 Water 30 gallons. 
 
 Ammonium chloride 4 oz. 
 
 Potassium bicarbonate 2 oz. 
 
 Sodium phosphate 2 oz. 
 
 One-quarter cake of dry yeast softened in lukewarm water. 
 
 The chemicals for making thirty gallons will cost about 25 
 cents in a small way, but on a large scale not more than 10 cents. 
 Somewhat larger amounts of potassium bicarbonate and sodium phos- 
 phate, would give better results, but the amounts are here cut to the 
 minimum to bring the cast low enough to make it profitable. 
 
 In from three to four weeks all visible fermentation will have 
 ceased and the yeast settled out. Now rack off the wine, add ten gal- 
 lons of good vinegar, and let stand undisturbed in a place having as 
 nearly as possible an even temperature of from 7o to 80 degrees 
 Fahrenheit. The acetic fermentation may be started by floating 
 mother or the scum from an older cask on the surface of the mix- 
 ture by moans of thin cork shavings. Carried out in this way 
 and at a suitable temperature (temperatures over 85 degrees Fahren- 
 heit will retard the process and cause loss of both alcohol and acid) 
 a good honey vinegar can be produced in from four to six months. 
 (Arizona B.) 
 
 THE AMERICAN TOAD. 
 
 It is well known that insects of one kind or another destroy, 
 more or less, nearly all kinds of agricultural crops. While man has 
 learned how to combat many of these pests by administering vari- 
 ous poisons and rcpellanis, yet nature's remedy is still relied upon, 
 in a large degree, to maintain a somewhat even or stable balance. 
 That is, one class of animal or insect life to feed upon another. 
 As insect destroyers, birds, small predaceous animals and toads play 
 an important part. The common toad, nocturnal and quiet of 
 habit, renders valuable service to gardeners and farmers through-
 
 652 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 out the growing season or during the period of destructive insect 
 life. 
 
 It seems probable that the toad does not breed until the fourth 
 year. As the breeding season approaches they migrate to ponds 
 where the eggs are laid, usually in March, April, or May, according 
 to latitude. Mating is commenced as soon as the water is reached 
 or even before. The tiny black eggs with their gelatinous covering 
 are laid in ropes; this covering swells and forms a large mass. In 
 two weeks or sooner the eggs hatch and the tadpoles grow rapidly 
 until June or July, when legs appear and the tail is absorbed. As 
 many as 7,000 to 12,000 eggs have been removed from a single 
 female. 
 
 The toad has a strong home instinct and lives year after year 
 in the same locality. The toad is not poisonous, but sometimes 
 when attacked emits through the skin an acrid fluid that is poison- 
 ous or disagreeable to some animals, notably to dogs. Toads are 
 voracious feeders and consume large numbers of insects. Earth- 
 worms, snails, sowbugs, thousand-legged worms, spiders, grasshop- 
 pers, crickets, ants, beetles, cutworms, tent caterpillars, etc., mostly 
 injurious insects, form their chief food. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 196.) 
 
 BATS. 
 
 Bats are common almost everywhere in the United States, 
 except possibly in the very dryest regions, within reach of water. 
 Owing to the nocturnal flight of bats their habits are not well 
 understood, but it is safe to say that all species are not only harm- 
 less but highly beneficial. They feed entirely on insects caught on 
 the wing. Bats shot in the evening after they have been flying for 
 twenty minutes will usually be found so gorged that it does not 
 seem possible that their stomachs can hold more. If their diges- 
 tion is as rapid as that of other insectivorous mammals, the number 
 of insects consumed in a night by a single bat must be enormous. 
 The great deposits of bat guano found in caves and under roosting 
 places represent in some cases hundreds of tons of insect remains. 
 (Dep. Agr. F. B. 335.) 
 
 SILK CULTURE. 
 
 Attempts at silk culture were made in Pennsylvania and New 
 Jersey as early as 1771. Many other attempts have been made, but 
 none of them have proven financially successful. Government aid 
 has been given by way of distributing mulberry trees and the dis- 
 tribution of silk worm eggs, but even this assistance was not suffi- 
 cient to place the enterprise on a paying basis. From experiments 
 tried in the United States, the cost of labor has been quite out of 
 proportion with the returns from the sale of cocoons or reeled silk. 
 While this country imports millions of dollars' worth of silk an- 
 nually, largely from Japan, yet chiefly on account of the high 
 price of labor, silk culture in this country has not been made 
 profitable. (Y. B. 1903.) 
 
 VIRGINIA DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) . 
 
 The Virginia or whitetail deer is the common deer of the 
 United States. It is distributed over most of the country and is-
 
 THE COMMON TOAD, A PRACTICAL " BUG CATCHER " AND THEREFORE A USEFUL FRIEND. 
 ENCOURAGE His PRESENCE IN YOUR GARDEN.
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 653 
 
 adapted to widely varying conditions. It has not been bred in 
 inclosures for commercial purposes to any great extent, although 
 breeders are beginning to realize that they may be made profitable 
 under proper management. The deer are polygamous like elk, 
 breeding in November; period of gestation about seven months. 
 The first coat of the fawn is spotted. In the wild state they are 
 chiefly browsing, in captivity they eat almost all kinds of forage 
 and vegetables. A good supply of running water should be pro- 
 vided. The animals should also have access to rock salt. 
 
 The remarks about castrating elk apply equally as well to deer. 
 A number of vigorous bucks however must be kept with any con- 
 siderable herd of does. Frequent changes of blood, by introducing 
 new bucks, should be practiced to avoid too much in-breeding. 
 (Dep. Agr. F. B. 330.) 
 
 SILVER FOX (VTJLPES FULVUS). 
 
 The name silver fox is commonly applied to the dark phases 
 of the ordinary red fox. Variously called silver, silver-gray, silver- 
 black. It should not be confused with the gray fox or the tree fox 
 of the southern part of the United States. The prices usually paid 
 for fox skins vary greatly. The red fox selling for a few dollars 
 each, and those of the silver fox for bringing from ten to fifty times as 
 much. Foxes have been maintained in zoological gardens for 
 many years, but not until recent years has silver fox farming been 
 attempted. Some attempts have proven failures, while others have 
 attained quite marked success. 
 
 The natural habitat of the red and silver foxes includes the 
 greater part of North America. The most successful fox farms 
 consist of quite restricted areas inclosed with high woven wire 
 fences, quite near dwellings where close personal attention can be 
 given. Foxes breed only once a year, the mating season includes 
 the months of February and March. The period of gestation is 
 about 51 days. The number born in a litter varies from two to 
 eight, the average number born to adults being five. The sexes 
 are usually kept separate, except during the breeding season. The 
 young are separated when weaned. 
 
 Fox raisers estimate the cost for food when everything is pur- 
 chased at about one cent per day per fox. So far as known, fatal 
 diseases are unknown among foxes. It seems probable that under 
 proper management fox raising will be developed into a profitable 
 industry. (Agr. Dept. F. B. 328.) 
 
 WAPITI OR ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK (CERVUS CANADENSIS). 
 
 The Wapiti include two related species and are generally 
 known as the Elk ; and is next to the moose the largest of our deer. 
 It was once abundant over the greater part of the United States. At 
 present their range is very limited. Only comparatively small herds 
 exist outside of the Yellowstone National Park. Wapiti are found, 
 however, in Colorado, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Northern California, 
 Washington and in Canada. 
 
 The Elk is a browsing and grazing animal; sometimes it will 
 subsist wholly on pasture. It is extremely polygamous. The bulls
 
 654 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 shed their antlers in March, or April, new ones attain full size in 
 about three months. The female does not usually 'breed until the 
 third year. Period of gestation about 8% months. Only one calf 
 produced at a time. While the Elk is not prolific, yet it i.s very 
 hardy. The flesh of Elk is superior in flavor to most venison, 
 though somewhat coarse in texture. In well appointed deer parks, 
 elk increase fully as rapidly as cattle. Fully 90% of the females 
 produce healthy young. An adult male weighs from 700 to 1,000 
 pounds, females from 600 to 800 pounds. 
 
 Management of Elk in Inclosures. In choosing a range for 
 Elk, the natural food supply is important. Rough lands covered 
 with grasses, bushes and trees, well watered with clear streams, and 
 having some forested area, are adapted to their needs. Elk will 
 browse and pasture when snows are not deep. Hay and corn fod- 
 der make excellent forage. Oats and corn make a good grain feed. 
 
 Elk are not so nervous as other deer, hence a low fence will 
 keep them; ordinarily a five foot fence is sufficient. 
 
 Elk may be obtained for stocking preserves at a reasonable 
 price; from $20 to $75 apiece will usually purchase satisfac- 
 tory animals. In inclosures the males sometimes become vicious; 
 when this occurs they should be castrated and thus be saved to 
 produce the finest venison. (Dep. Agr. F. B. 330.) 
 
 MOSQUITOES. 
 
 For many centuries humanity has endured the annoyance of 
 mosquitoes without making any intelligent effort to prevent it ex- 
 cept in the use of smudges, preparations applied to the skin, and 
 in removal from localities of abundance. And it is only within 
 comparatively recent years that widespread community work 
 against mosquitoes has been undertaken, this having resulted al- 
 most directly from the discoveries concerning the carriage of dis- 
 ease by these insects. 
 
 As obvious a procedure as it might seem to be, the abolition of 
 mosquito-breeding places is a comparatively new idea. The treat- 
 ment of breeding places with oil to destroy the larval forms is, 
 however, by no means recent. As early as 1812 the writer of a 
 work published in London entitled "Omniana or Horse Otiosiores" 
 suggested that by pouring oil upon water the number of mosqui- 
 toes may be diminished. It is stated that in the middle of the 
 nineteenth century kerosene was used in France in this way, while 
 in the French quarter in New Orleans oil was placed in water 
 tanks before the civil war, the idea having possibly come from 
 France to New Orleans or vice versa. 
 
 Practically beginning with 1901, there has been a rather rapid 
 increase in antimosquito work by individuals and communities, but 
 this work has not progressed with anything like the rapidity de- 
 manded by the distressing conditions of many localities and in 
 fact of great areas. Yet it is probably accurate to state that more 
 effective work of this kind has been done in the United States 
 than in any other country. This is probably due to the greater 
 prevalence of mosquitoes in the United States than in any other
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 655 
 
 highly civilized country, but the well-known practical character 
 of the American people is also an element. 
 
 The Breeding Place of Mosquitoes. The post^embryonic de- 
 velopment of the mosquito, that is, the interval between the egg 
 state and the adult winged form, occurs entirely beneath the sur- 
 face of water. The young during this portion of their life-cycle 
 are true aquatic insects with one exception, they do not breathe 
 the air dissolved in the water as do fish, but by a special structure, 
 a respiratory siphon, breathe the free air above the surface of the 
 water; deprived of this they perish. By nature of their structure 
 the young of mosquitoes can develop only in water and then only 
 under certain conditions. As a rule mosquitoes breed in small col- 
 lections of standing fresh water. Specimens are sometimes found 
 in streams and some species are known to breed in salt or brackish 
 water. For all economic purposes the statement is correct that 
 mosquitoes breed only in water, usually stagnant fresh water. Do 
 u.iraij with tliese places and it becomes impossible for mosquitoes to 
 breed. 
 
 Life History of Mosquitoes. The determination of methods 
 for destroying an injurious insect implies a careful study of its 
 life-history in order to find the vulnerable point in the life-cycle 
 of the pest. All insects undergo during their developmental period 
 remarkable changes in form, structure and habits. One can cer- 
 tainly detect no resemblance between the wriggling larva of the 
 mosquito in the water and the adult winged insect in the air. In 
 the higher animals there are no distinct periods or stages of devel- 
 opment. The young on hatching from the egg or at birth resem- 
 ble the parent with the exception that they are smaller in size and 
 undeveloped, but as growth continues they gradually acquire the 
 size and characteristics of the adult. The life history of insects, on 
 the other hand, is, generally speaking, divided into three distinct 
 ,-tages after hatching from the egg; the young or larva, the grow- 
 ing stage in the life of the insect; the pupa, a period of development 
 during which a wonderful change or transformation in the form, 
 structure and habits occurs; and the adult or winged insect, the 
 form we usually recognize. 
 
 The eggs of the common mosquito, Culex, are deposited on 
 the surface of standing water. Under the right conditions of tem- 
 perature they hatch in about twenty-four hours. The larvae de- 
 velop to their full size in the course of eight to fourteen days dur- 
 ing which time they moult or cast off their outer covering several 
 times to provide for increase in size. The development of the 
 larvae depends on the temperature of the water and the food sup- 
 ply. Their food consists of the plant and animal matter, often 
 microscopical in size, common to standing water. The pupa of the 
 mosquito is also aquatic, normally resting inactive at the surface. 
 This is the period during which the mosquito transforms from 
 an aquatic insect to one of the air. The young or growing slauo, 
 has passed. The pupa takes no food and moves only when dis- 
 turbed as a matter of protection. The pupal stage is much shorter
 
 656 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 than the larval. In two or three days the pupa transforms to the 
 adult mosquito and becomes the notorious household pest, the 
 entire life-cycle being a matter of eleven to eighteen days. 
 
 The only remedy for adult mosquitoes is protection by screen- 
 ing, or the burning of insect powder. These remedies bring only 
 temporary relief and do not remove the source of the nuisance. 
 The importance, then, of not allowing mosquitoes to develop be- 
 yond the pupal or final aquatic stage is evident. No practical 
 method of destroying adult mosquitoes is known. 
 
 The length of the life of adult mosquitoes varies. It is diffi- 
 cult to get insects to repeat correctly in confinement what their life- 
 history and habits would be under natural conditions; therefore 
 the length of the life of the adult cannot be determined by experi- 
 ment. As a rule the males of insects do not live any great length 
 of time after maturity, and the females die soon after depositing 
 their eggs. In a tropical country, like Hawaii, where no difficulty 
 is encountered by the gravid female in securing favorable breeding 
 places throughout the year, the length of the adult life is probably 
 at the most only a matter of several weeks. In cold countries the 
 male mosquitoes are known to die in the early winter and the 
 females hibernate during the cold season, a period of several 
 months, until suitable conditions for egg-laying prevail. 
 
 Migrations of Mosquitoes. The adult mosquito is a very 
 feeble flyer and is usually found in the vicinity of its breeding 
 place. Instances are on record where mosquitoes have been car- 
 ried in large numbers for long distances by the wind, but invasions 
 from one locality to another are exceptional. It is well known that 
 on windy days mosquitoes are less in evidence. It is evident from 
 the structure of their organs of flight that mosquitoes cannot long 
 endure in a high wind. In an infested locality, mosquitoes are al- 
 ways in evidence immediately after a wind subsides, especially in 
 places where the vegetation is abundant, in the foliage of which 
 they seek shelter from the wind. Smith says that the habits of 
 mosquitoes in regard to their flying any distance varies with the 
 different species. He discusses a salt-water species, Culex sollicitans, 
 which is apparently a true migratory form. It can be stated with- 
 out qualifications that the source of mosquitoes is generally the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the infested places. Invariably the source of 
 mosquitoes infesting any district has been found to be near by nat- 
 ural and artificial collections of water, usually artificial collections 
 in the immediate vicinity. (Sp. Bui. T, N. J. E. S.) 
 
 The Food of Adult Mosquitoes. Their food consists of the 
 blood of animals and the juices of plants and fruits. Mosquitoes 
 are normally plant-feeding insects and only the female is a blood- 
 feeding insect when that is obtainable. The male satisfies his appe- 
 tite on the juices of fruits or other liquids since the proboscis is not 
 constructed, as is that of the female, for piercing anything with 
 any degree of resistance, as the skin of animals or the epidermis 
 of plants. Howard says, speaking of female mosquitoes: It is safe
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 657 
 
 to say that only an infinitesimal proportion of them ever taste the 
 blood of a warm-blooded animal. 
 
 Mosquitoes and Disease. The greatest impetus to the warfare 
 against mosquitoes was given by the recent positive demonstrations 
 that certain species are the camera of disease, that is, the agents 
 (germs) responsible for the disease are parasitic to certain mos- 
 quitoes during an intermediate stage in their developmental cycle. 
 In fact it has been proved in the case of yellow fever and malaria 
 that without certain species of mosquitoes as hosts, the life-cycle 
 of the organisms responsible for the disease is interrupted. This 
 has changed the mosquito problem from one of discomfort alone to 
 one of health also. The most complete work in preventive medi- 
 cine is the result of experiments along these lines. That yellow 
 fever and malaria are conveyed from diseased persons to healthy 
 people by bites of certain species of mosquitoes is an acknowledged 
 fact in recent medical literature. Aside from yellow fever and 
 malaria, mosquitoes are credited with the dissemination of ele- 
 phantiasis, filariasis, and possibly the dengue fever and leprosy. 
 The relation of certain insects to diseases, both plant and animal, 
 is a study which in the future will do much to prevent their present 
 serious work. 
 
 The A bundant Mosquito, Culex Pipiens. The members of the 
 genus Culex are distributed generally over the world and seem to 
 be limited by neither altitude nor climate. The species so abundant, 
 Culex pipiens, is the common species of the genus and the mos- 
 quito whose life-history and habits are most generally known. This 
 mosquito is reported from all parts of the United States and is 
 recorded by Theobald as occurring generally in Europe. 
 
 Breeding Places. The places chosen by the female of this 
 species for depositing her eggs are many and varied. There is, 
 however, a decided preference for certain places. Where there ia 
 a choice between water containing a supply of decomposing vege- 
 table or animal matter and uncontaminated water, the insect will 
 invariably choose the water containing the organic matter, serving 
 as it does as food for the young. The places mentioned by differ- 
 ent writers as the breeding places of this species of mosquito are 
 water-tanks, tubs and buckets under water-taps, wells, cisterns, bar- 
 rels, open sewers, cess-pools, swamps, small pools, wayside ditches, 
 empty oil tins, biscuit tins, sardine and tomato cans, gourds, flower 
 pots, vases, cuspidors, broken and unbroken bottles, crockery, pot- 
 tery and tins on rubbish heaps, hollow stumps, post-holes ana other 
 excavations left unfilled, fire-buckets, gutters and eaves which are 
 imperfect or which have become clogged, water-taps in sinks and 
 closets, wateringotrottghfl for stock, neglected lily ponds and foun- 
 tains, and catch basins from leaders. 
 
 Life-History of Culex Pipicn*. The eggs of the night mos- 
 quito are easily observed in the places where they occur. They 
 appear a raft-like mass floating on the surface of the wator and 
 resemble a small piece of charcoal about one-fourth of an inch in 
 length. This manner of depositing the eggs is characteristic of the
 
 658 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 members of the genus Culex. The egg-mass or raft is the product 
 of one female and, according to Theobald, is laid soon after sunri.se, 
 and also at dusk if the weather is warm and still. Examination 
 under a hand-lens shows a distinct structure to the mass, it being 
 made up of individual eggs, standing close together in an upright 
 position, the bottom of the egg being larger than the top, thus mak- 
 ing the raft boat-shaped. Each raft is estimated to contain from 
 two to three hundred eggs, the individual egg being hardly visible 
 to one unaccustomed to looking at objects so small. The lightness 
 of the mass insures its floating on the surface. Howard says that 
 if the eggs are kept completely immersed the larvae will never de- 
 velop, this being because of the inability of the developing em- 
 bryos to obtain the necessary air supply. The peculiar structure 
 of the bottom of the eggs prevents the water from actually wetting 
 them. 
 
 When the eggs hatch they open downward letting the larvae 
 into the water. This occurs from twenty-four hours, under favor- 
 able conditions, to two or three days, after the eggs are deposited. 
 Naturally the young on hatching are very small but develop in a 
 few days into fair sized wrigglers. These are the common natural 
 history objects of the rain-water barrel which, as youngsters, we all 
 believed were rained down. 
 
 The larva of this species is found normally at the surface of 
 the water with its head in a downward position. The explanation 
 of this peculiar position is this: the larvae of this and all species of 
 mosquitoes, though aquatic as regards living in and obtaining their 
 food from the water, are true air-breathers and must necessarily 
 come to the surface to obtain the air. The larva while breathing 
 at the surface continues to feed beneath; hence the position of the 
 head downward. It moves away when disturbed and can fre- 
 quently be seen foraging about in the water for food but coming 
 regularly to the surface to breathe. Its food consists of the decay- 
 ing organic matter and the microscopical organisms common to 
 standing water. Only one comment in favor of the generally con- 
 demned mosquito can be found and that is in regard to the larvae. 
 Comstock says: The larvae of mosquitoes are doubtless beneficial 
 insects, for they feed on the decaying matter in water, and thus act 
 as scavengers, and then he adds, but the annoyance caused by the 
 bites of the adult female more than balances this good. The length 
 of the larval life was found to vary under different conditions from 
 seven to fifteen days. 
 
 At the last larval moult, the pupal stage begins. The pupa is 
 an ungainly looking creature resting quietly at the surface, tail-end 
 downwards and further distinguished from the larva by its big 
 head. This head is really the head and thorax of the insect fused 
 together. The pupa has also two breathing-tubes, instead of one, 
 rising, not from the tail-end of the body but from the upper side 
 from that portion known as the thorax. The end of the abdomen 
 is supplied with two broad flaps used for swimming, with which 
 by vigorous motions of the body the insect drives itself down into
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 659 
 
 the water when disturbed. The manner in which the pupa rises to 
 the surface without effort demonstrates that its weight is less than 
 that of the water. The length of the pupal stage is a matter of 
 about two days. 
 
 The Yellow-Fever Mosquito, Stegomyia Fasciata. This mos- 
 quito is the notorious yellow-fever species of Cuba. Just how or 
 when it comes to these Islands is unknown. Dr. Howard under 
 date of January 27, 1903, writes: The two species of Stegomyia 
 occur throughout the East Indies. Prof. V. L. Kellogg of Stanford 
 University, in writing of his trip to the Samoan Islands a year ago 
 says: I am interested to learn that your day mosquito is the yel- 
 low-fever chap, Stegomyia fasciata. That is just what I found the 
 Samoan mosquito to be. * * * This is the abundant Samoan 
 mosquito and the one which presumably disseminates elephantiasis. 
 The dissemination of yellow-fever by the mosquito is not a new 
 idea. Dr. Carlos Finlay of Havana, Cuba, was of the opinion, as 
 early, as 1881, that this disease was conveyed by this pest. This 
 theory was proved a fact by a commission oif surgeons of the United 
 States Army by demonstrations made in Cuba in 1901. They 
 proved beyond all doubt that this species, Stegomyia fasciata, was a 
 conveyor and perhaps the only conveyor of this dreaded disease. 
 
 The propagation of the disease depends upon the introduction 
 of an infected individual to a locality where this mosquito is found, 
 at a season of the year when it is active. Owing to the short period 
 of incubation (five days or less), the brief duration of the disease, 
 and especially of the period during which the infectious agent 
 (germ) is found in the blood (three days), it is evident that ships 
 sailing from infected ports, upon which cases of yellow-fever de- 
 velop, are not likely to introduce the disease to distant sea-ports. 
 The continuance of an epidemic on shipboard as on land, must 
 depend upon the presence of infected mosquitoes and of non- 
 immune individuals. Under these conditions we can readily un- 
 derstand why the cHsease should not be carried from the West 
 Indies or from South America to the Mediterranean, to the east 
 coast of Africa, or to Asiatic seaport cities. On the other hand, if 
 the disease could be transmitted by infected clothing, bedding, etc., 
 there seems no good reason why it should not have been carried to 
 these distant localities long ago. 
 
 The yellow-fever mosquito is well named a towri species. It 
 breeds almost exclusively about dwellings, and authorities state that 
 it is seldom found far outside city limits unless in the vicinity of 
 dwellings. The female will invariably choose small collections of 
 clear water for depositing her eggs. The eggs are laid singly on 
 or near the water and if not on the water may remain dormant for 
 a long time until washed into the water or, as in the case of a rain- 
 barrel, until a shower brings the water to their level. Attention to 
 the artificial collections of water about dwellings will be the prin- 
 cipal factor in reducing the numbers of this species. 
 
 The Forest Mosquito, Stegomyia Scutellaris. This species and 
 the yellow-fever mosquito are known locally as the day mosquitoes.
 
 060 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 While Stegomyia Scutellaris breeds in such places as mentioned in 
 connection with the yellow-fever species, it differs from the latter 
 in that it is not restricted to such collections of water. It has often 
 been found breeding in small bodies of water in the forest. These 
 places have been sometimes far removed from habitations and on 
 several occasions have been discovered where not more than one 
 person would visit, on the average, in a year's time. These natural 
 breeding places are such small amounts of water as may be con- 
 tained in a hollow stump of a tree or limb, a depression in a stone 
 in the bed of a mountain stream, or the leaves of plants. 
 
 Natural Enemies and Diseases of Mosquitoes. The dragon- 
 flies or mosquito-hawks are the most effectual enemies of the mos- 
 quitoes that we have here. The dragon-flies, Odenata, are for the 
 most part members of the single genus Agrion. In searching the 
 swampy places for the larvae of the mosquito it was not unusual 
 to dip up with the same dipperful of water from the net, the larvae 
 of mosquitoes and the nymphs or young of dragon-flies, while the 
 adult dragon-flies could be seen flying in myriads over these places. 
 This is significant when it is known that the dragon-fly is preda- 
 ceous in both the young and the adult forms ; the young dragon-fly, 
 an aquatic insect, feeding on the larvae of the mosquito in the water 
 and the adult preying on the winged insect in the air. This highly 
 beneficial, strong flying and beautiful insect is met at all elevations. 
 
 A single gold-fish in an aquarium ate over one hundred and 
 fifty larvas in twenty-four hours' time. Other specimens placed in 
 pools containing mosquito larvae were afterwards dissected and the 
 stomach contents were found to consist almost entirely of the re- 
 mains of the bodies of larvae. From these experiments, gold-fish 
 were placed in watering-troughs, tanks and pools, with the result 
 that the young of mosquitoes did not develop in these places. 
 Search was made for larvae in lily-ponds and fountains where gold- 
 fish occurred and conditions verified the above experiments. 
 (Hawaii E. S. B. 6.) 
 
 Abolition of Breeding Places. In considering this general 
 question just as in considering so many questions relating to mos- 
 quitoes, a complication arises from the enormous mass of facts 
 concerning the life histories of the different species of mosquitoes; 
 facts discovered, for the most part, in the past three or four years. 
 There is much diversity in the breeding places of different species. 
 Those of the two commonest household mosquitoes, namely, Culex 
 pipiens in the North and C. quinquefasciatus and Aedes (Stegom- 
 yia) calopus in the South, correspond well to generalizations for- 
 merly named, breeding as these specias do in every chance recep- 
 tacle of water about residences, and their destruction means the 
 abolition of all such receptacles. Where the rain-water barrel or 
 the rain-water tank are necessary they should be screened. In New 
 Orleans and other southern cities the boards of health are now 
 enforcing such screening. This should be done with extreme care, 
 a fine mesh wire being used and the fitting being made very perfect.
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 661 
 
 About a given house the waste places in the immediate vicinity 
 should be carefully searched for tin cans, bottles, and wooden or 
 tin boxes in which water can accumulate, and all such receptacles 
 should be destroyed or carted away. The roof gutters of the build- 
 ing should be carefully examined to make sure that they are not 
 clogged so as to allow water to accumulate. The chicken pans in 
 the poultry yard, the water troughs for domestic animals, the water 
 cup of the grindstone, are all places in which mosquitoes will breed 
 and in them water should not be allowed to stand for more than a 
 day or so at a time. In the South the water accumulating under 
 water tanks should be treated or drained away. The urns in the 
 cemeteries at New Orleans have been found to breed mosquitoes 
 abundantly. The holy water fonts in Roman Catholic churches, 
 especially in the South, have commonly been found to breed mos- 
 quitoes; in some places sponges have been substituted for standing 
 water, and other churches have adopted a closed font, which allows 
 the holy water to issue through a small spigot. In still other 
 churches salt has been put in the water to prevent the breeding of 
 mosquitoes. In slightly marshy ground a favorite breeding place 
 is in the footprints of cattle and horses. In one country village, 
 which contained many small vegetable gardens in a clay soil, dur- 
 ing the rainy season mosquitoes were found breeding abundantly 
 in the water accumulating in the furrows in the gardens. 
 
 Even in the house mosquitoes breed in many places where they 
 may be overlooked. Where the water in flower vases is not fre- 
 quently changed mosquitoes will breed. They will breed in water 
 pitchers in unused guest rooms. They will breed in the tanks in 
 water-closets when the?e are not frequently in use. They will breed 
 in pipes and under stationary washstands where these are not fre- 
 quently in use, and they will issue from the sewer traps in back 
 yards in city houses during dry spells in the summer time when 
 sewers have not recently been flushed by heavy rains. In ware- 
 houses and on docks they breed abundantly in tne fire buckets and 
 water barrels. 
 
 In country houses in the South where ants are troublesome 
 and where it is the custom to insulate the legs of the tables with 
 small cups of water, mosquitoes will breed in these cups unless a 
 small quantity of kerosene is poured in. "Where broken bottles are 
 placed upon a stone wall to form a cheval-de-frise, water accumu- 
 lates in the bottle fragments after rains and mosquitoes will breed 
 there. Old disused wells in gardens are frequent sources of mos- 
 quito supply, even where apparently carefully covered, and hero 
 the nuisance is easily abated by the occasional application of kero- 
 sene. The same thing may be said of cesspools. Cesspools are 
 frequently covered with stone and cement, but the slightest break 
 in the cement, the slightest crack, will allow the entrance of theso 
 minute insects and unlimited breeding often goes on in these pools 
 without a suspicion of the cause of the abundance of mosquitoes in 
 the neighborhood.
 
 662 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 Fountains and ornamental ponds are frequent breeding places, 
 and here the introduction of fish, as indicated in another place, is 
 usually all-sufficient. It frequently happens, however, that the. 
 grass is allowed to grow down into the edges of ornamental ponds 
 and mosquito Iarva3 find refuge among the vegetation and so escape 
 the fish. Broad-leaved water plants are also often grown in such, 
 ponds, and where these broad leaves lie flat upon the surface of the 
 water, as they frequently do, one portion of a given leaf may be 
 submerged so that mosquito larvao may breed freely in the water 
 over the submerged portion of the leaf, protected from fish by the 
 leaf itself, the fish rising from below. It is necessary, therefore, to 
 keep the edges of such ornamental ponds free from vegetation and 
 to choose aquatic plants whose growth will not permit of mosquito- 
 larvae protection. In many small country towns, even where there 
 is a water supply, tanks are to be found under the roofs to supply 
 bathrooms. Such tanks should be screened, since mosquitoes gain 
 entrance to the tank-room either through dormer windows or by 
 flying up through the house from below in search of ovipositing 
 places. About a large old house there are so many of these chance- 
 breeding places that only the most careful and long-continued 
 search will find them all. Frequent change of water or the use 
 of kerosene will render them all harmless. 
 
 In community work in cities all of the points mentioned must 
 be borne in mind, and in the portions of the community where the 
 residences are for the most part detached villas, in the absence of 
 swampy suburbs the householders are in the main responsible for 
 their own mosquitoes. There are, however, breeding places for 
 which the municipality may be said to be responsible and these 
 entirely aside from public fountains, reservoirs, or marshes. It 
 seems unlikely that in any general sewage system mosquitoes may 
 breed in the sewers proper. That they do breed in the catch-basins 
 is well known. The purpose of the catch-basin is to catch and retain 
 by sedimentation sand and refuse which would otherwise enter the 
 sewer and deposit in it. It is intended to be watertight and to hold 
 a considerable body of water which stands in it up to the level of 
 the outlet pipe. Such catch-basins are very commonly used in back 
 yards and at the crossings of streets. The water is removed only 
 by rain or when street or yard surfaces are washed. In dry seasons 
 the period of stagnation may last several weeks, certainly long 
 enough for mosquito breeding. As a matter of fact, mosquitoes in 
 midsummer do breed in such basin traps or catch-basins by mil- 
 lions. 
 
 PROTECTION FROM BITES. 
 
 Protective Liquids. A number of different substances have 
 been in use to rub upon the skin or to put near the bed as a pro- 
 tection from mosquitoes. Spirits of camphor rubbed upon the face 
 and hands, or a few drops on the pillow at night, will keep away 
 mosquitoes for a time, and this is also a well-known property of oil 
 of pennyroyal. Oil of peppermint, lemon juice, and vinegar have 
 all been recommended for use as protectors against mosquitoes,
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 i
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 665 
 
 while oil of tar has been used in bad mosquito localities. A mix- 
 ture recommended by E. H. Gane, of New York, is the following: 
 
 Castor oil ounce. . 1 
 
 Alcohol do 1 
 
 Oil of lavender do .... 1 
 
 Fishermen and hunters in the north woods will find that a 
 good mixture against mosquitoes and black flies can be made as 
 follows: Take 2V 2 pounds of mutton tallow and strain it. While 
 still hot add one-half pound black tar (Canadian tar), stir thor- 
 oughly, and pour into the receptacle in which it is to be contained. 
 When nearly cool stir in 3 ounces of oil of citronella and 1M> ounces 
 of pennyroyal. Oscar Samostz, of Austin, Tex., recommends the 
 following formula: 
 
 Oil of citronella ounce. . 1 
 
 Liquid vaseline ounces. . 4 
 
 Apply freely to exposed parts. 
 
 Doctor Durham, of the 'English Yellow Fever Commission, 
 Rio de Janeiro, said that he and the late Doctor Myers found that 
 a 5 per cent solution of sulphate of potash prevented mosquitoes 
 from biting, and that they were obliged to use this mixture while at 
 work in their laboratory in Brazil to prevent themselves from being 
 badly bitten. 
 
 Remedies for Mosquito Bites. It must have been the experi- 
 ence of most people that ordinarily little swelling and irritation 
 result from the puncture of a mosquito where there has been no 
 scratching or rubbing of the part. But individuals vary greatly in 
 this respect, and it is undoubtedly true that not only do different 
 species of mosquitoes vary in their effect, but that different indi- 
 viduals of the same species may also vary. The application of 
 household ammonia has been found by many to give relief, and 
 alcohol is also said to stop the irritation. Dr. E. O. Peck, of Mor- 
 ristown, N. J., finds glycerin a sovereign remedy. Touch the bite 
 with glycerin and in a few minutes the pain is gone. Dr. Charles 
 A. Nash, of New York City, marks the puncture with a lump of 
 indigo and states that this instantly stops the irritation, no matter 
 whether the application is made immediately or after the lapse of a 
 day or so. The most satisfactory remedy known to the writer from 
 his own personal experience has been moist soap. Wet the end of a 
 piece of ordinary toilet soap and rub it gently on tho puncture and 
 speedily the irritation will pass away. Mr. Charles Stevenson, of 
 Montreal, writing to the Canadian Entomologist in September, 
 1901, stated that he found naphthaline moth balls to afford imme- 
 diate relief from the bites of dangerous Diptera, including mosqui- 
 toes, and that a friend of his had used it successfully on flea-liid 1 -. 
 He advises rubbing the moth ball on the affected part for a few 
 minutes. Naphthaline is also recommended by Professor Bnnvs. 
 director of the national board of health at Buenos Aires. lodin is 
 frequently recommended for this purpose, and a note in a recent 
 number of the Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene recom- 
 mends a modification in the shape of 30 to 40 grain* of iodin to
 
 666 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 the ounce of saponated petroleum, stating, a few drops rubbed in 
 a mosquito bite or wasp sting allays the pain instantaneously. Rev. 
 R. W. Anderson, rector of St. Thomas and St. Dennis, wrote us 
 from Wan do, S. C., some years ago, that he has often found that by 
 holding his hand to a hot lamp chimney the irritation of mosquito 
 punctures would be instantly relieved. (Agr. Dep. Bu. Ent. B. 88.) 
 
 HORSE FLIES. 
 
 The Black-Striped Horsefly (Tabanus Lasiophthalmus Mac- 
 quart). This species was reared from the egg to the adult. The 
 fly is one of the earliest of its genus to appear in the spring, adults 
 having been taken at Columbus, Ohio, as early as May 20, and it 
 is common during the first half of June. The eggs are placed in 
 masses on various plants that grow in low, wet ground, but have 
 not been observed over water. The masses are pure shining black 
 when fully covered, rather small for members of the genus, only 
 slightly convex, and accompanied with an unusual amount of 
 cementing material, which nearly obscures the form and arrange- 
 ment of the individual eggs. The mass in place suggests somewhat 
 a drop of tar or other black substance fastened to the surface of a 
 leaf of the common cattail reed (Typha latifolia), a sedge, or some 
 other pant. The eggs are usually deposited after the 10th of June, 
 and the specimens from which larvae for rearing hatched were 
 taken in Medina County, Ohio, on a common sedge found growing 
 near the outlet of a small spring. 
 
 The Autumn Horsefly (Tabanus Sulcifrons Macquart). This 
 is one of the common species of its family over a wide range. It is 
 not so generally distributed as some of the other species, but where 
 it occurs is apt to be abundant and very injurious to all kinds of 
 stock. I have studied the species in several localities, but most of 
 my knowledge of its habits was gained in Summit and Medina 
 counties, Ohio, where it is a pest of the first magnitude. This coun- 
 try, where the ground is highest, has an elevation of 1,000 to 1,200 
 feet, and is more or less broken by gullies crossing here and there, 
 and through each flows a stream of clear water. 
 
 The Black Horsefly (Tabanus Atratus Fabricius). The eggs 
 of this horsefly are placed in masses of various sizes on the leaves 
 and stems of grasses and sedges and other plants growing in marshy 
 or wet ground, but not necessarily in the water. A single mass may 
 contain as many as 500 eggs, but often they are smaller and they 
 may be larger; they are white when first placed, but soon turn 
 brownish. The mass is very convex and composed of several layers, 
 one above the other, the bottom layer being attached to the surface 
 of the leaf or stem and the other layers each to the one that was 
 placed before it. A female was observed ovipositing June 23 at 11 
 o'clock. It has been proven that the eggs of tabanids hatch more 
 quickly when exposed to the sun during the day, than where they are 
 usually deposited; therefore, the time given is probably too long 
 for eggs under natural conditions. There is no definite way, so far 
 as observed, of telling the eggs of the black horsefly from those of 
 other species of its genus, but being a large species the masses are
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 667 
 
 much larger than in some others, and are more convex than usual. 
 The particular place of oviposition is in a measure characteristic. 
 
 The Black and White Horsefly (Tabanus Stygius Say). This 
 horsefly is very common in the vicinity of the Lake Laboratory, at 
 Sandusky, Ohio, where most of my observations on the species were 
 made. The adults appear about the 1st of July each season, and 
 are on the wing for several weeks thereafter. The females were 
 often observed biting cattle and horses, and are known to be impor- 
 tant stock pasts. The males were often seen in the marshes, on 
 grasses infested by aphides, and it is known that this sex, and occa- 
 sionally the females also, feed on honeydew which these insects 
 excrete. The species oviposits principally on the leaves of Sagit 
 taria standing in shallow water, habitually placing the eggs just 
 above the point where the petiole meets the expanded part of the 
 leaf. The precision with which this habit is followed becomes a 
 matter of much interest. 
 
 FIELD MICE. 
 
 While the food habits of the various species of short-tailed field 
 mice are remarkably similar, their habits and breeding differ greatly. 
 Some species prefer high and dry ground, while others live in low 
 and moist places. Some species live in forests, others in the open 
 prairies ; some burrow underground like moles, others make smooth 
 paths or trails upon its surface. The nests of field mice are compact 
 bunches of grass blades and other dry vegetable fibers, and are ad- 
 mirably located in respect to drainage. Most surface nests are for 
 shelter only as for the most part the young are born in underground 
 nests. 
 
 The breeding season includes most months of the year, except 
 midwinter in cold latitudes. Some species normally produce from 
 two to four litters a year, while others produce from four to eight. 
 Period of gestation probably about twenty days. The common 
 meadow mouse of the United States is one of the most prolific of our 
 species. Estimating the normal increase at six young with four lit- 
 ters in a season, without making allowances for any loss, a single 
 pair would produce in five seasons nearly 1,000,000 individuals. 
 
 In summer the chief food of field mice is green vegetation and 
 unripe seeds of grain and grasses, later in the season ripe seeds be- 
 come an important diet. In winter bulbous and other roots with 
 stored seeds are largely eaten. During cold weather young forest 
 trees and young apple orchards suffer from attacks of mice. Black- 
 berries, raspberries, currants, grapes, strawberries, etc., are often badly 
 damaged by girdling done by field mice. In fact, sometimes whole 
 plantations are ruined. Field mice destroy bulbs, perennial plants, 
 woody shrubs, and ornamental vines. Neglected young apple or- 
 chards are sometimes almost completely ruined, the damage in fre- 
 quently very considerable. 
 
 Fortunately for the farmer there are several natural igencMl 
 that tend to hold the mice in check. Long and severe cold winters 
 with dry summers seem to be unfavorable for their production. Tim 
 chief natural enemies of field mice are: (1) mammals both wild and
 
 668 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 domestic; (2) birds; and (3) snakes. Among the wild mammals of 
 the United States known to feed upon field mice, are wolves, lynxes, 
 foxes, badgers, raccoons, opossums, skunks, weasels, mink, etc. 
 
 Skunks are efficient destroyers of field mice, as are the various 
 species of weasels. Badgers devote much time to digging out field 
 mice from their burrows. Foxes also destroy many field mice, in 
 some instances the contents of their stomachs show that their food 
 consists quite largely of these rodents. Of course, dogs and cats de- 
 stroy large numbers, particularly near dwellings, but it is question- 
 able whether the mice that cats destroy will even in a small measure 
 compensate for the destruction of beneficial birds done by these ani- 
 mals. Among the birds that destroy field mice may be mentioned 
 shrikes or butcher birds, crows, herons, bitterns, gulls, hawks and 
 owls. At the head of this list should be placed hawks and owls, as 
 nearly all of these birds feed largely on mice, and consequently are 
 very beneficial to the agricultural interests. 
 
 Snakes undoubtedly destroy large numbers of field mice and to 
 this extent at least they are the friends of the fanner. Mice may be 
 destroyed by trapping, fumigating and by poisoning. The orchard- 
 ist, however, finds it necessary to rely on protective measures for the 
 safety of his young trees. So it is customary to put bandages of 
 tarred building paper or of closely woven wire about the bodies of the 
 young trees close to the ground. These are usually removed during 
 the summer months. (Dept. Agr. Biol. Sur. B. 31.) 
 
 JACK RABBITS. 
 
 The great plains and deserts of the Western United States are 
 inhabited by several species of large hares commonly known as jack 
 rabbits. They occur almost everywhere, except in the higher moun- 
 tains and wooded regions from the 95th Meridian west to the Pa- 
 cific, and from the plains of the Saskatchewan and southward to the 
 Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The resemblance of their large ears to 
 those of the well-known pack animal of the "West has suggested the 
 name jack rabbit. 
 
 General Habits. Jack rabbits are seen throughout the day, and 
 hence are easily recognized by the most casual observer. Living as 
 they do on the open plain they are compelled to rely for safety on 
 acuteness of hearing and on quickness of speed. Unlike the "cotton- 
 tails" these hares do not live in burrows, but make their "forms" or 
 nests under bushes or in patches of weeds where they find some pro- 
 tection. Extremes of climate apparently do not affect them to any 
 great extent. Some species are at home in the deserts of Arizona and 
 California and others contrive to exist in the intense cold of the Mon- 
 tana winter. 
 
 Food. Like other rabbits they feed almost exclusively on the 
 bark and leaves of shrubs and on herbage; hardly any land is too 
 poor to supply this food in some form. On the great plain buffalo 
 and grama grass and such herbs as they can find constitute their diet. 
 If necessary they can travel long distances for food, but, as they sel- 
 dom drink, scarcity of water causes them little inconvenience. They 
 ara fond cf vegetables and alfalfa and when these can be obtained
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 669 
 
 they desert their usual food and establish themselves near the garden 
 or cultivated field. They thus become particularly destructive in the 
 fertile areas. As jack rabbits multiply rapidly they often become 
 great pests. They have comparatively few natural enemies, and if 
 not held in check by other agencies would doubtless over-run the 
 country. 
 
 Breeding Habits. The breeding habits of the various jack rab- 
 bits in many respects are much like those of the Old World hares and 
 rabbits. Compared with the domesticated rabbit, the jack rabbit does 
 not increase very rapidly. The number of young at a birth varies 
 from one to six ; the average probably is between three and tour. It 
 is almost impossible to determine the exact date of birth, unless the 
 animals are kept in captivity, but the time can be estimated approxi- 
 mately. The period of gestation is about thirty days. It may be as- 
 sumed that jack rabbits attain their full size in about two months. 
 Drives or hunts organized for the extermination of rabbits should 
 take place before the beginning of the breeding season, as just after 
 the young are born the rabbit population in any given place may be 
 several times what it was six weeks previous. Drives in Southern 
 California should therefore be made in December, January and Feb- 
 ruary ; in Colorado and Utah hunts made before the 1st of February 
 will accomplish much more than those made in April. In Idaho they 
 may be postponed somewhat later with equally as good results. 
 
 Jack rabbits may be used for coursing, for their skins, or for 
 food. The United States imports annually millions of rabbit skins 
 for felt and other purposes. The skins of jack rabbits could prob- 
 al.lv be used for many purposes for which the cheaper grades of im- 
 ported skins are now utilized, and could be collected so cheaply as to 
 leave a margin of profit. 
 
 The consumption of jack rabbits for food in some winters has 
 been estimated at 500,000. This game can be obtained in consider- 
 able quantities on the plains and on the deserts of the Great Basin, 
 and may be profitably shipped to Eastern markets to the mutual ben- 
 efit of the fanner and the consumer. Jack rabbits usually bring from 
 75 cents to $3 per dozen. In extreme cases they sometimes bring $1 
 to $1.50 per pair. (Dep. Agr. Div. Biol. Sur. B. 8.) 
 
 RABBITS. 
 
 The American farmer suffers severe losses from the depredations 
 of rodents, from insect pests and fungous diseases. Because of their 
 wide distribution and great abundance, rabbits hold a prominent 
 place among rodent pests. They are larger than rats and mice and 
 almost as prolific, and under some circumstances inflict greater dam- 
 ages to crops and trees, even greater than that caused by field mice. 
 
 Distribution of Rabbits. Rabbits are so widely distribute} 
 throughout the United States that nearly all cultivated districts con- 
 tain one or more species. They also occur in the mountains and des- 
 erts remote from agriculture. In all about 30 sji.-cics inhabit North 
 America. 
 
 The Common Gray Rabbit or Cottontail. This species occurs 
 from the southern parts of Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont
 
 670 
 
 southward to Florida and Gulf of Mexico and westward to the plains. 
 
 Breeding Habits. Our American rabbits are not so prolific as 
 the common European species. Some of them produce three or four 
 litters of young in a season, while others seem to breed but twice. 
 The period of gestation is about thirty days, and the breeding season 
 is from April to September or even later. The young are produced 
 in natural depressions under rocks, stumps, or weeds, or in shallow 
 burrows made by other animals. When these are lacking, the female 
 scratches a shallow hole under a bunch of grass or weeds. In the hol- 
 low thus chosen or prepared she makes a nest of leaves or grasses and 
 lines it with fur from her own body. Here the young, numbering 
 from 2 to 7 (averaging in most of our species about 4), are produced. 
 The young are fully furred and have their eyes open when born. The 
 female, while caring for her young, remains in the vicinity of the 
 nest. If enemies approach, she runs away for a short distance ; but 
 when the young are attacked and cry out, she has been known to 
 fight desperately in their defense, and even to vanquish such a for- 
 midable foe as a cat or a snake. When attacking, she jumps and 
 strikes the enemy with her hind feet members capable of a powerful 
 blow, as many a boy who has captured a live rabbit can testify. 
 
 Young rabbits are attended and suckled in the nest for about 
 three weeks, after which they are left to shift for themselves. Since 
 usually succulent food is abundant, this is not a difficult task, and, 
 subject to the vicissitudes of climate and the attacks of natural ene- 
 mies, they soon adapt themselves to an independent life. Apparently 
 the mother takes no further interest in the career of her offspring. 
 The male parent is probably never concerned in the care of the 
 young. 
 
 Food of Rabbits. Rabbits are strict vegetarians, animal food 
 never being eaten by the adults. They eat all sorts of herbage 
 leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds of herbaceous plants and grasses, and 
 leaves, buds, bark, and fruit of woody plants or trees. The most suc- 
 culent kinds, such as young shoots, tender garden vegetables, clover, 
 alfalfa, and fallen ripe fruits, are generally preferred ; but when these 
 fail, any green vegetable growth seems acceptable, and the bark of 
 trees is often resorted to when deep snows cover other supplies or 
 during long summer droughts. 
 
 The common cottontail is fond of frequenting farms and plan- 
 tations and makes its "forms" under brush heaps or in tufts of grass, 
 bunches of weeds, briers, or bushes. It occupies this form, or nest, 
 by day and at night moves about, feeding upon the succulent vege- 
 tables in the farmer's garden, or the clover, turnips, or corn in his 
 fields. In the fall it feasts upon apples, cabbages, turnips, and the 
 like left exposed in garden and orchard, and in winter, w r hen all else 
 is frozen hard or covered with snow, it turns its attention to twigs and 
 bark of woody plants, often doing much damage to young trees. The 
 other species of rabbits have similar habits, varying with the environ- 
 ment of the animals. In the West some of the smaller kinds live 
 largely in the abandoned burrows of prairie dogs, badgers, and other 
 animals.
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 671 
 
 Injury to Field Crop.?. Rabbits feed upon nearly all growing 
 crops, but the damage to small grains is usually so slight as to pass 
 unnoticed. Wheat and rye afford abundant pasture for rabbits dur- 
 ing open winters, and this without apparent effect upon the yield of 
 grain Rabbits eat very little mature grain, except corn in winter, 
 and this is but seldom damaged as long as green herbage can be ob- 
 tained. Clover and alfalfa are favorite foods with all our rabbits, 
 and these crops are badly damaged by them. In the West alfalfa is 
 the principal forage crop over considerable areas, growing often amid 
 arid surroundings. 
 
 RABBITS. 
 
 Injury to Gardens. Rabbits are fond of nearly all garden 
 vegetables^ but are particularly partial to peas and cabbage, eating 
 the plants in all stages of growth. They often invade market gardens 
 and truck patches near towns and do much damage. 
 
 Injury to Trees. Rabbits injure trees and shrubs in two ways, 
 by ^cutting off the ends of branches and twigs within reach and by 
 eating the bark. ^ Young nursery trees and forest seedlings, both 
 evergreen and deciduous, are destroyed in the first way, while orchard 
 trees and even forest trees are badly damaged and frequently killed 
 in the second way. (U. S. Year Book, 1907.) 
 
 Rabbit-Proof Fences. When rabbits are abundant and the area 
 to be protected is not too great, a rabbit-proof fence may be profitably 
 employed. Woven wire nettings are generally used for this purpose. 
 In the Australian colonies such fences are erected by the Government 
 to confine rabbits to certain districts, as well as by private owners to 
 protect crops. As the Australian pest is a burrowing species the 
 European rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) the requirements for a rabbit- 
 proof fence differ from those necessary in this country. Even with 
 our species there is some danger of their digging under fences, and 
 this may be prevented either by the use of a barbed wire in contact 
 with the ground or by plowing a furrow against the lower edge of the 
 wire netting. A netting of galvanized wire with l^-inch mesh and 
 from 2 to 3 feet high is a sufficient barrier against rabbits. Many 
 market gardeners and nurserymen use the 2-foot width. 
 
 Tree Protection. The devices that have been recommended for 
 protecting trees from rabbits are too numerous for separate mention. 
 The majority consist of paints, washes, or smears of various kind.*, 
 supposed to be distasteful to the animals. Unfortunately, those that 
 are sufficiently permanent to afford protection for an entire winter 
 often injure or even kill the trees to which they are applied. Coal 
 tar, pine tar, tarred paper, and various oils are likely to kill young 
 trees. Blood and animal fats when freshly applied will protect from 
 rabbits, but are objectionable, since thev are highly attractive to the 
 destructive short-tailed field mice. Carbolic acid and other volatile 
 substances afford only temporary protection, and must be renewed too 
 often to justify their use. Bitter substances, like commercial aloes, 
 or quassia, are useless against rabbits. Among the most promising 
 washes that have been recommended for tree protection is the "lime- 
 and-sulphur" wash, so effective in winter for the destruction of the
 
 672 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 San Jose scale. Several correspondents of the Biological Survey have 
 affirmed its efficacy in protecting trees from both mice and rabbits. 
 
 Mechanical contrivances for protecting young orchard trees are 
 many. Where protection from rabbits only is required, woven wire 
 netting is recommended. This should be made of No. 20 galvanized 
 wire, 1-inch mesh, such as is often used for poultry netting. For 
 cottontail rabbits rolls 18 inches wide are recommended, but as a pro- 
 tection against jack rabbits wider material is safer. The wire is cut 
 into 1-foot lengths, and one of these sections is rolled into shape about 
 the trunk of each tree, the ends being brought together and fastened 
 at several places by means of the wire ends. No other fastening is 
 needed. The wire is not in contact with the trunk and may be left on 
 the tree permanently. It will probably last as long as the tree 
 requires protection, and the cost of material need not be over 1% 
 cents for each tree. For young evergreens, material of the same kind 
 1 foot wide and cut in l^-foot lengths will give excellent protection. 
 If trees are to be protected from both rabbits and mice, materials of 
 closer mesh must be used. Wire window-screen nettings is excellent 
 for the purpose, and the cost, when permanence of protection is con- 
 sidered, is not great. 
 
 THE BROWN EAT. 
 
 The rat undoubtedly is the worst mammalian pest known to 
 man. The losses through the destruction of property by these rodents 
 amount to millions of dollars annually in the United States. Aside 
 from their destruction of property the rat sometimes becomes a potent 
 factor in the distribution of disease germs. This animal is not a 
 native to this country, but was introduced from the Old World about 
 the middle of the eighteenth century. It is also called the gray rat, 
 house rat, barn rat, wharf rat, and Norway rat. It was not known on 
 the Pacific coast until after 1851. 
 
 Breeding. Climate and food supply greatly affect the multipli- 
 cation of these rodents. It increases most rapidly in a moderately 
 warm climate and with an abundant supply of food. The number 
 of litters produced a year is not definitely known, but it probably 
 varies with local conditions. Some observations show that about 71 
 days intervene between litters. The average number of young at one 
 birth is between 8 and 9. The period of gestation may be said to be 
 about 21 days. The young are blind and naked when born, but 
 grow rapidly, and the females are capable of breeding when less than 
 three months old. 
 
 Food of Rats. The brown rat is practically omnivorous, that is, 
 they eat readily all kinds of grains and seed, fruits and vegetables, 
 meats, fish, and various animal products. The chief damage done by 
 rats in the United States is through the destruction of grains, poultry, 
 eggs, game, and other birds, although sometimes they become very 
 destructive to fruits and vegetables. 
 
 Natural Enemies. There are many natural enemies of these 
 rodents; among the more prominent may be mentioned the various 
 Jdncls of hawks an4 qwls, as well as skunks, weasels, minks, etc.
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 673 
 
 Domestic Animals. Among the domestic animals employed to 
 kill rats are dogs, cats, and ferrets. The value of good dogs as ratters 
 can hardly be appreciated by those who have had no experience with 
 animals trained for this work. Small Irish, Scotch, and Fox terriers, 
 when properly trained, are superior ratters. Cats become in 
 some instances valuable as rat catchers. However, it is often ques- 
 tionable whether the good that they accomplish in this direction is 
 not more than offset by their destruction of song birds. Ferrets are 
 inveterate foes of rats, and are used chiefly to drive the rodents from 
 their burrows or retreats, in order that they may be caught when they 
 are driven from cover. 
 
 Fumigation. Rats may be destroyed in their burrows in the 
 fields by the use of carbon bisulphide by saturating some absorbing 
 material with this liquid, putting it in the burrow and closing the 
 opening. This method, however, is not effective in buildings, as the 
 vapor of carbon bisulphide is heavier than the air, and therefore 
 could not be depended upon to follow the various retreats of these 
 pests. (Dep. Agr. Biol. Sur. B. 33.) 
 
 THE PRAIRIE DOG. 
 
 The prairie dog loves sunshine and a dry atmosphere, ranging 
 easterly from the arid plains toward the prairies of the Mississippi 
 Valley. He is fond of rich vegetation, as is shown 'by his great destruc- 
 tiveness to alfalfa, grains and other crops ; but the luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion has not been sufficient to lure him from his home of the dry 
 land and the dry air. He is pre-eminently a social animal, living in 
 colonies which vary in extent from a few acres to thousands of square 
 miles. While colonies many miles in length and breadth are not 
 rare, yet most of these animals live in very much smaller colonies. 
 
 Food. The principal food of the prairie dog is grass, chiefly the 
 bunch grass of the plains. In alfalfa fields, however, he becomes so 
 destructive that sometimes whole fields are practically destroyed. It 
 has been estimated that 32 prairie dogs will consume as much grass 
 as one sheep. The chief damage done by these rodents consists in 
 the loss of grains and other crops, and the danger to stock from 
 stumbling in the holes often amounts to a serious loss. 
 
 Methods of Destruction. Numerous remedies have been tried. 
 Most of them have met with some measure of success, and a few have 
 proved available on a large scale. Large colonies extending over 
 many square miles in area present serious problems as to complete 
 extermination, while smaller colonies may be exterminated by pois- 
 oning or fumigating. There are several poisons that have been used 
 with fairly good success. 
 
 Cyanide of Potassium. Cyanide of potassium kills quickly and 
 is an excellent poison, but on account of its odor is somewhat difficult 
 to administer. As the handling of this poison is dangerous to man, 
 it must be handled with great care. 
 
 Strychnine. Strychnine is probably, all things considered, the 
 best and mast satisfactory poison known for the destruction of these 
 pcvts. Two ounces of strychnine is sufficient to poi-on a bushel .f 
 wheat. The strychnine sulphate should be dissolved in warm \\.itrr
 
 674 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 in which the grain should be soaked for 24 to 36 hours, or until it has 
 all been absorbed. During this absorption the grain should be fre- 
 quently stirred. A tablespoonful of grain is sufficient to scatter about 
 each burrow. Allowing 50 burrows to an acre, a bushel of grain then 
 would poison prairie dogs infesting 40 acres of land. 
 
 Fumigation. Bisulphide of carbon is used almost wholly for 
 this purpose. It is a volatile liquid which should be kept in tightly 
 corked bottles or cans ; as it is highly inflammable, it should never be 
 opened in the vicinity of fire. Its fumes are heavier than the atmos- 
 phere and when introduced into the burrows sink quickly to the bot- 
 tom. The usual dose is about one tablespoonful to the hole or burrow. 
 This is poured on some absorbing substance and dropped into the 
 mouth of the hole, which should then be covered. (Y. B. 1901.) 
 
 GROUND SQUIRRELS. 
 
 There are three or more species of ground squirrels found in the 
 central and western United States. In many ways the ground squir- 
 rels resemble the prairie dogs of the prairie states. While not so 
 distinctively social, yet they live more or less in communities. The 
 burrows are two to three inches in diameter and have from one to 
 five openings to the exterior; these openings are usually on higher 
 ground and have a little mound of well packed earth around the hole 
 to exclude the water. The burrow has an average depth of from one 
 to two feet and often extends from ten to fifty feet in length. 
 
 The young are usually born in March or April. In the northern 
 United States they bring forth but one brood a year ; the number in 
 a litter varies from 2 to 15. They hibernate from September to 
 March. Observers are not agreed as to whether or not food is stored 
 for winter use. 
 
 The natural enemies are chiefly hawks and owls, and the carniv- 
 orous animals of the region inhabited by squirrels. These animals 
 are known to do the greatest injury to grain and forage crops and 
 interfere with irrigation. They eat the young shoots of plants as 
 they appear above ground and also feed on the ripening grain. In 
 irrigated lands the burrows or squirrels often cause great annoyance. 
 The most effective methods of destroying these pests are by poisoning 
 and by the use of carbon bisulphide, a highly inflammable and vola- 
 tile liquid. Grain, raisins, cornmeal, etc., may be soaked in a solu- 
 tion of strychnia sulphate and put in the holes, or small balls of cot- 
 ton may be saturated with carbon bisulphide, put in the holes and all 
 the exterior openings of the burrows closed. (Nevada B. 58; Wyo. 
 B. 12.) 
 
 COYOTES. 
 
 From the early days until the present time ranchmen of the 
 western states have suffered serious loss from the depredations of 
 these animals. They are abundant in most parts of the range coun- 
 try, except in the north and in thickly settled parts where waste lands 
 are scarce. 
 
 Coyotes breed once a year, the mating season being late in Jan- 
 uary or early in February. The period of gestation is about 63 days. 
 Young are brought forth in dens and number from 4 to 8 or even 10.
 
 OTHER ANIMALS 675 
 
 Dens are usually among rocks or in washed-out places, seldom far 
 below the surface of the ground. They sometimes hunt in numbers 
 when the game is large. Their food consists chiefly of animal matter 
 and ranges from the larger hoofed animals to the smallest rodents, 
 and even includes insects, reptiles, birds, fish, crustaceans, etc. 
 Coyotes destroy many injurious mammals, and in this way are some 
 benefit to farming interests. Considerable game is destroyed as well 
 as poultry, and the young of the farm stock ; great ravages have been 
 done to sheep. 
 
 Bounty systems are maintained in many states for the destruc- 
 tion of these pests. Ranchmen find dogs a protection against their 
 ravages, particularly the large, swift-running breed, as staghounds, 
 Russian wolfhounds, and greyhounds. Poison has probably killed 
 the greatest number of adult animals, although some have been 
 trapped and many have been captured in the hunt. Fencing against 
 wild animals has proved to be the most satisfactory in some coun- 
 tries, notably Australia and South Africa. (Agr. Dept. P. B. 226.) 
 
 GOPHERS. 
 
 The gophers are quite distinct from the ground squirrels, which 
 are sometimes called gophers. Unlike squirrels, they are usually not 
 found on high lands, very far from water or tender root vegetation. 
 Gophers prefer loose soils, the burrows usually run within a foot or 
 less of the surface, and sometimes extend a total distance of a hun- 
 dred feet or more. The pocket gopher subsists chiefly upon the roots 
 of various succulent plants, he is also fond of garden crops. The 
 large cheek pouches are used to carry the food to the store chambers, 
 as this animal stores up food for the winter. There are several meth- 
 ods used to destroy these animals, and generally they are very similar 
 to those used to destroy the ground squirrel; namely, poisoning, 
 drowning, and fumigating. (Nevada B. 58; Wyo. B. 12.) 
 
 MUSKRAT. 
 
 On account of the scarcity of many of the larger and more valu- 
 able fur bearing animals the muskrat is one of the most important 
 fur bearing animals of this country; while mink remains popular and 
 is a well wearing fur, yet muskrat is becoming more popular each 
 year because of its fair wearing qualities and the great variety of uses 
 to which it is adapted. The muskrat when full grown is about four 
 times as large as the common brown rat. The tail is characteristic of 
 the genus ; it is about two-thirds as long as the head and body com- 
 bined. This animal derives its name from its musky odor. The 
 name musquash is the Cree Indian name and has been used a long 
 time by fur dealers. 
 
 Muskrats are chiefly nocturnal, but are often active in daylight, 
 especially when building winter houses. These houses are com- 
 posed of rushes, grasses, nags, etc. ; this mass rests on the bottom of 
 shallow ponds or marshes, and projects a foot or two above the sur- 
 face. It is used as a winter home. Where burrows are available, the 
 muskrats use them instead of building houses. Normally the animals 
 mate in March. The first litter in April, the second in June or July, 
 and the third in August or September. In favorable seasons a fourth
 
 676 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, DAIRYING, ETC. 
 
 or even a fifth litter may be produced ; three to six young are usually 
 brought forth at one time. The period of gestation is about twenty- 
 one days. The young are born blind and naked, but develop rapidly. 
 Muskrats frequently do considerable damage to crops on low 
 lands bordering streams. They also do considerable damage to dams, 
 embankments, etc. The breaking of mill-dams and canal banks are 
 often caused by the burrows of these animals. The chief value of the 
 muskrat is for its fur. It is also valued in some localities for food, but 
 this has not become at all general. Muskrat skins for market should 
 be "cased," that is, not opened along the belly. Trappers begin at the 
 heel and slit up the middle of the hind leg to the tail, around it, and 
 then down the other hind leg to the heel; no other cut of the skin 
 is needed ; the skin is then turned over the body, leaving the pelt with 
 the fur side inward. The skin inside out is then drawn over a thin 
 board or shingle of proper shape to stretch it as large as possible with- 
 out tearing. Prime skins bring in the market from 25 to 75 cents 
 apiece. Some examples of profitable muskrat farming may be cited. 
 (Agr. Dept. F. B. 396.) 
 
 ANTS. 
 
 The species of large red and black ants which burrow into the 
 ground and whose well known and characteristic mounds of loose 
 earth, surrounded by husks of dried grass seed may be seen dotting 
 the mesas of southern Arizona, may be killed comparatively easy by 
 the use of carbon bisulphide, a liquid chemical of a peculiar, disagree- 
 able odor. To be entirely successful, however, the habits of the ants 
 must be taken into consideration. Immediately after a rain is the 
 accepted time to attempt their destruction, for it is then that the ants 
 are very active, bringing out into the sun to be dried any of their 
 stored up food supply which may have become damp. A half tea- 
 cupful more if the nest is a very large one of the carbon bisul- 
 phide poured into the nest at this time will usually accomplish the 
 result. The ground being damp and cool is also another decided ad- 
 vantage in that it prevents the too rapid absorption or volatilization 
 of the carbon bisulphide ; consequently a less quantity of the chem- 
 ical is required. 
 
 A word of caution in the use of the carbon bisulphide is deemed 
 necessary. It must at all times be borne in mind that the substance 
 is highly inflammable and under certain conditions explosive. 
 Matches, pipes, etc., are to be left at home when this chemical is to 
 be used. The carbon bisulphide can be procured from any druggist, 
 and costs here in Tucson 50 cents per pound, but can be bought for 
 much less, wholesale. It is probable that the remedy is not practi- 
 cable upon any very large scale, owing to the cost of material, but it 
 frequently happens that these ants select for their home, from our 
 point of view, most undesirable places, such as public walks, or near 
 one's door. In such cases a sure means of eradicating the pest is well 
 worth knowing, (Ariz, Timely Hints for Farmers 39.)
 
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