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 THE 
 
 NATURALIST'S GUIDE 
 
 COLLECTING AND PEE SERVING OBJECTS 
 OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 BY 
 C. J. MAYNARD. 
 
 HlustrateU, 
 
 BOSTON: 
 CUPPLES AND KURD, PUBLISHERS, 
 
 THE ALGONQUIN PRESS. 
 
 NEWTONVILLE : 
 C. J. MAYNARD AND COMPANY.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, In the year 1870, by 
 
 FIELDS, OSGOOD, & CO., 
 i the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusett 
 
 COPYRIGHT. S. E. CASSINO, 1877. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, C. J. MAYNAUD & CO., 1887.
 
 f\rz You Interested 
 
 IN 
 
 Datura! J-listory? 
 
 THEN you want to send ten cents for our new Catalogue 
 (with over 125 illustrations) of Tools and Supplies for 
 Naturalists. We carry in stock or can supply at short 
 notice any Tools or Supplies used by Naturalists. 
 
 
 TAXIDERMIST POCKET-CASE. 
 
 SCALPELS. 
 
 Ebony handle, large, medium, small. All steel, medium.
 
 CARTILAGE KNIFE. 
 
 Extra heavy. Also the Hornaday Skinning Knife. 
 
 SURGEON'S DISSECTING SCISSORS. 
 
 CLASS EYES. 
 
 If you Mount Birds you will need GLASS EYES, and we would ask that 
 you examine the HURST EYE, which we claim to be THE BEST in the 
 market, not only for the natural effect which they give but for their freedom 
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 STUMPS. 
 
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 Finished Rock-work or Stands for Birds or Animals, Shields and Panels for 
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 SQUARE CLASS SHADES. 
 
 With oval, convex centres, for wall pieces. With or without Frames, and 
 Painted on Plush Backs. 
 
 10 x 14, for Quail, Snipe, Woodcock, etc. 
 16x22, for medium-sized Ducks, Grouse, etc. 
 18 x26, large size and pairs of Ducks, etc. 
 22x38, for large-spread Birds, Gulls, Hawks, Owls.
 
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 Will find what they want, as well as the Ornithologist. 
 
 COLLECTION BOX. 
 
 COLLECTING NETS. 
 
 COLLECTING CANS. 
 
 FORCEPS. 
 
 EGG DRILLS. 
 
 Best style, extra fine steel, No. 1, 3-32 inch burr, short or long handle. 
 
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 Egg Blowers, Insect Pins, Drying and Mounting Paper, Data Blanks, etc. 
 
 BOOKS 
 
 On every branch of Natural History.
 
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 T M N N I N B. 
 
 Every sportsman, taxidermist and naturalist should have on hand a bottle 
 of this Liquor. With it a skin can be tanned quickly and without trouble. 
 
 Every sportsman has experienced the sensation of the most poignant 
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 NATURALISTS' SUPPLY DEPOT, 
 
 4O9 Washington Street, Boston, Mass.
 
 OU 
 n 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE great need of a good illustrated work to guide 
 young naturalists in collecting and preserving objects of 
 natural history has induced me to prepare the present 
 Manual. In this attempt I hope I have been in some 
 degree successful. I have spared no pains to bring to- 
 gether, in a comprehensive form, the results of many years 
 of experience in collecting and preserving objects of natu- 
 ral history, both for private cabinets and for scientific 
 museums. 
 
 No popular work of this kind has before been published 
 in America. Throughout the present work I have endeav- 
 ored to encourage the young to engage in the ennobling 
 study of Natural History, and to join the band of young 
 naturalists so rapidly increasing in our land. 
 
 I trust the reader will not by any means keep the teach- 
 ings of this book secret, as some taxidermists are wont to 
 counsel, but spread it broadcast among those who would 
 profit by the information I have herein attempted to con- 
 vey. It is intended for the NATURALIST, whoever and 
 wherever he may be ; and as it comes from a colaborer in 
 the common field, it will, perhaps, be well received.
 
 iv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 All of Part First is original. In preparing objects of 
 natural history I have in a great degree invented methods 
 of my own, and have not given in this work a single 
 one that I have not tested and proved equal to all oth- 
 ers, if not superior. To avoid confusion, I have given 
 only the method which experience has taught me to be 
 the best. 
 
 In this connection my thanks are due to Mr. E. L. 
 Weeks, whose excellent illustrations will be found to add 
 greatly to the value of the work.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS. 
 SECT. PAGI 
 
 I. HOW TO COLLECT 3 
 
 II. How TO PREPARE SPECIMENS. INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS, ETC. 10 
 
 III. MEASURING, SKINNING, AND PRESERVING BIRDS . . 18 
 
 MEASURING 18 
 
 SKINNING 22 
 
 DETERMINING THE SEX 27 
 
 CONTEXTS OF STOMACH, ETC. ...... 31 
 
 EXCEPTIONS TO THE USUAL METHOD OF SKINNING . 81 
 
 TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS 82 
 
 IV. MOUNTING SPECIMENS 34 
 
 MOUNTING FRESH BIRDS . 84 
 
 MOUNTING DRIED SKINS 40 
 
 MOUNTING BIRDS WITH THE WINGS EXTENDED . . .41 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 
 SECT. 
 
 I. COLLECTING 43 
 
 II. MEASURING MAMMALS 45 
 
 SKINNING 46 
 
 METHOD OF PREPARING A BOOK FOR MEASURING MAMMALS 47 
 
 TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS 47 
 
 III. MOUNTING MAMMALS 50 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS FOR THE CABINET. 
 
 BEETLES, OR COLEOPTERA .55 
 
 BUGS, OR HEMIPTERA 57 
 
 GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS, ETC., OR ORTHOPTERA . . . .68
 
 Vi CONTENTS. 
 
 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES, OR LEPIDOPTERA .... 68 
 
 DRAGON-FLIES, ETC., OR NEUROPTERA 60 
 
 BEES, WASPS, ETC., OR HYMENOPTERA 61 
 
 FLIES, MOSQUITOES, ETC., OR DIPTERA . ... 61 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FISHES AND REPTILES. 
 SCT. 
 
 I. FISHES 63 
 
 II. REPTILES 64 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 
 SlCT. 
 
 I. CRUSTACEA 69 
 
 COLLECTING MOLLUSKS 69 
 
 PRESERVING SHELLS 70 
 
 WORMS, ANIMAL PARASITES, JELLY-FISHES ... 71 
 CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, HYDROIDS AND BRYOZOA, STAR- 
 FISHES, SEA-URCHINS. HOLOTHURIAS, OR SEA-CUCUMBERS,- 
 
 SPONGES AND SEA-WEEDS 72 
 
 II. PREPARING SKELETONS 73 
 
 MOUNTING SKELETONS 73 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS 76 
 
 METHOD OF PREPARING A BOOK FOR RECORDING THE MEASURE- 
 MENTS OF EGGS 78
 
 LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. INSTRUMENTS used in preparing birds, etc., and for 
 blowing eggs. Fig. 1, Common Pliers; Fig. 2, Cutting Pliers ; Fig. 
 3, Tweezers; Fig. 4, Scalpel; Figs. 5 and 6, Egg-drills; Fig. 7, 
 Blow-pipe ; Fig. 8, Hook for removing embryos from eggs. 
 
 PLATE II. WINGS, showing the positions of the different feathers, 
 as follows : 
 
 Fig. 1. Wing of a Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo borealis, Vieill.). 
 a indicates the primaries, or quills ; b, secondaries ; c, tertiaries ; 
 d, scapularies ; g, greater wing-coverts ; f, lesser wing-coverts ; e, spuri- 
 ous wing, or quills. 
 
 Fig. 2. Wing of a Coot, or Mud Hen (Fulica Americana, Gmelin). 
 a indicates the primaries, or quills ; b, secondaries ; c, tertiaries ; 
 d, scapularies ; e, spurious wing, or quills. 
 
 The tertiaries and scapularies are elongated in most of the aquatic 
 birds, and in some of the Waders. They are always prominent, if not 
 elongated, on long-winged birds, such as the Eagles, Hawks, Owls, 
 Vultures, etc. ; while they are only rudimentary on short-winged birds, 
 such as the Thrushes, Warblers, Sparrows, etc. 
 
 PLATE III. HEAD OF THE BALD EAGLE (Halicetus leueocephalus, 
 Savigny), showing the different parts, as follows: a, the throat; 
 b, chin; c, commissure, or the folding edges of the mandibles; d, 
 under mandible ; s, gonys ; p, gape ; g, upper mandible ; h, culmen ; 
 i, tip; j, base of bill; k, cere (naked skin at the base of the upper 
 mandible, prominent in the rapacious birds); 1, frontal feathers; 
 m, lores ; n, crown ; o, occiput.
 
 viii LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 The irides are the colored circles that surround the pupil. The 
 color of these decides the so-called " color of the eye." 
 
 PLATE IV. ILLUSTRATES PREPARING SKINS. Figs. 1 and 2. 
 Corrugated board, used in drying skins ; d, skin on the board, in the 
 proper position. Fig. 3. A "skin" prepared for scientific use ; , la- 
 bel, on which is marked the number and sex. 
 
 PLATE V. DISSECTED SONG SPARROW (Mdospiza mdodia, Baird), 
 illustrating the sexes in the breeding season, as follows : Fig. 1 . An 
 adult female ( 9 ) ; 1,1, peculiar yellow glands ; 2, ovary ; 3, oviduct ; 
 4, lungs. Fig. 2. An adult male ( <J) ; 1, lungs; 2, peculiar yellow 
 glands; 3, 3, testicles. 
 
 PLATE VI. DISSECTED SONG SPARROW, illustrating the sexes 
 of the young-of-the-year, in autumn, as follows: Fig. 1. A young 
 male ( ) ; 1 , lungs ; 2, 2, yellow glands ; 3, 3, testicles. Fig. 2. A 
 young female ( 9 ) ' 1> 1> yellow glands ; 2, ovary; 3, lungs; 4, ovi- 
 duct 
 
 PLATE VII. OUTLINE OF GROUSE, showing the position of the 
 different parts, as follows : a, the back ; b, rump ; c, upper tail- 
 coverts ; d, under tail-coverts ; e, vent ; f, tibia ; g, tarsi ; h, breast ; 
 i, side ; j, neck ; k, hind neck ; I, abdomen ; m, feet ; n, throat. 
 
 PLATE VIII. ILLUSTRATES MOUNTING BIRDS. Figs. 1, 2. Arti- 
 ficial body ; a, bone of leg ; b, wire bent ; c, wire clenched ; f, h, tail 
 wire. Fig. 3. Mounted bird; a, perpendicular line, showing the 
 position of the head compared with the feet and base of the stand; 
 b, b, wires for retaining the upper part of the wing in position ; c, c. 
 wires for retaining the lower part of the wing in position ; e, e, wires 
 for the tail ; d, showing the tail-feathers plaited ; f, stand. Fig. 4. 
 Stand for mounting birds with the wings extended ; b, b, parallel 
 wires ; c, wires bent ; a, block of wood for the bottom of the stand, 
 Fig. 5. Head of Cedar-Bird, to illustrate the elevating of the crest; 
 g, cotton on the pin ; b, feathers of the crest in position on the cotton. 
 
 PLATE IX. ILLUSTRATES, MOUNTING MAMMALS. Fig. 1. A, 
 plank for supporting iron rods ; 8, iron rod for supporting head ; 14, 
 cap, nut, and screw for fastening the end of the rod in the skull; 
 7, 7, 7, 7, iron rods to support the body ; 5, 6, 5, 6, caps, etc. for fastening 
 the upper ends of the rods to the plank ; 17, 17, 17, 17, caps, etc. for 
 fastening the lower part of the rods to the stand (10) ; 15, wire for 
 supporting the tail ; 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, artificial sections of
 
 LIST OF PLATES. IX 
 
 hemp, grass, or plaster used as a substitute for the natural body. 
 Fig. 2. A, nut ; B, cap ; C, thread. 
 
 PLATE X. SKELETON OF A GROUSE, OR PRAIRIE HEN (Cupi- 
 donia cvpido, Baird), showing the different bones, as follows : 
 a, the skull ; b, vertebra of the neck ; c, humerus ; d, forearm ; f, pha- 
 langes ; g, furcula ; h, sternum ; i, marginal indentations ; j, thigh ; 
 k, tarsus ; y, tibia ; m, rump ; n, coccygus ; A, ribs ; B, lower joint of 
 thigh.
 
 DIRECTIONS 
 
 FOR COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND MOUNTING 
 
 BIRDS, MAMMALS, FISHES, 
 
 KTC., ETC., ETC.
 
 THE NATUEALISTS GUIDE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS. 
 
 SECTION I. How to collect. Personal experience is a 
 good, and in fact the only adequate, teacher we can have 
 in learning any art. The need of such a teacher is felt by 
 none more than by the naturalist who wishes to bring to- 
 gether a complete collection of the birds of even his own 
 immediate district. Hence I trust I shall not be accused 
 of egotism, if, in, this section, I endeavor to impart to the 
 reader some things that experience has taught me. 
 
 It is of first importance for the collector to gain as com- 
 plete a. knowledge as possible of the notes and habits of 
 birds, and of the localities frequented by those he wishes 
 to procure. This knowledge may be gained by carefully 
 studying the writings of men who have paid particular 
 attention to the subject. Too much dependence must not 
 be placed on books, as the best of these contain error as 
 well as truth ; besides, birds are very variable in their hab- 
 its in different localities. The collector must then depend 
 mainly upon himself. He must visit every locality, the 
 mountain-top and the dark swampy thicket, as well as the 
 meadow, the plain, or the open forest, as in each of these 
 localities he will find species that he may no* meet else- 
 where. A little patience will help any ona through the 
 worst of places. 
 
 The quaking bog, where a misstep may plunge the adven- 
 turer into the slimy ooze, is also an excellent locality for
 
 4 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 certain species. But when the collector returns home wet 
 and hungry, fatigued and disheartened, as he now and 
 then will, let him not be discouraged. Try again ! the 
 next day, and even the next, if need be, until the desired 
 specimen is obtained. After all, the earnest naturalist will 
 be amply rewarded for the exercise of patience and perse- 
 verance by securing a rare specimen. 
 
 The true naturalist never thinks of cold and disappoint- 
 ment, of days of fatigue and hours of patient watching, 
 when at last he holds in his hand the long-searched-for 
 bird. Ample reward is this for all his former trials ; he is 
 now ready to go into bog and through brier. And thus the 
 enthusiastic naturalist travels on, not discouraged by toil 
 and trouble, laughed to scorn by the so-called "practical" 
 men, who are unable to appreciate his high motive. This, 
 however, he forgets when in field or study he meets with 
 the cordial greeting of his brother naturalist, as the}' with 
 mutual interest relate their discoveries and adventures. 
 
 To the travelling collector a few special hints are neces- 
 sary. While visiting a remote region, but little known, 
 one should not neglect to shoot numbers of every bird met 
 with, even if they are common species at home, as they 
 will not only furnish data on the distribution of the species, 
 but they may present interesting characters peculiar to 
 that locality. If a certain species appears common, do not 
 delay collecting specimens, for peculiar circumstances may 
 have brought them together in unusual numbers ; at some 
 future time they may be rare. 
 
 A well-trained dog is of great value while collecting 
 birds, especially the Quails, Marsh Wrens, Sea-side and 
 Sharp-tailed Finches, in fact, all birds 'that are difficult to 
 start in open meadows and grassy places. While search' 
 ing thickets, great watchfulness should be observed, espe- 
 cially in the autumn, when many birds have no conspicuous 
 note, otherwise many of the more wary of the Warblers
 
 THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 5 
 
 will escape notice. The slightest chirp should be care- 
 fully followed ; the slightest motion of the branches closely 
 watched. If a bird is seen that is not fully recognized, it 
 should be shot at once, for in no other way can it be de- 
 termined whether it is not a rara avis. 
 
 By carefully watching the motions of birds, the collector 
 will soon become so expert as to be able generally to dis- 
 tinguish the different species of Warblers, even at a dis- 
 tance. Carefully scrutinize also the tops of tall forest- 
 trees, as I have there taken, in autumn, some of the rarest 
 Warblers. 
 
 In spring male birds are quite readily found, as they are 
 then in full song ; but the same caution must be used in 
 collecting females that is practised in autumn, as they are 
 generally shy and difficult to find. Hence it is a good rule 
 always to secure the female first, when she is seen with the 
 male ; for, in spite of all the collector's efforts, he will find 
 that there will be four males to one female in his collection. 
 
 During winter some birds may be found in the thick 
 woods that one would hardly expect to find at this season, 
 such as the Robin, Golden-winged Woodpecker, etc. The 
 open fields should not be neglected even during snow- 
 storms, as it is then that such ordinarily cautious birds as 
 the Snowy Owl may be approached quite readily ; or the 
 capture of a Jerfalcon may reward the collector for a 
 disagreeable tramp. The salt marshes and sandy sea- 
 shores are the resort of a great many winter birds, and 
 the collector will perhaps find himself amply repaid for a 
 few visits to these localities at this season. 
 
 Do not neglect to collect the young of birds ; by pro- 
 curing specimens of these from the time they become fully 
 fledged until they attain the perfectly mature plumage, 
 one becomes familiar with all the stages through which a 
 given species passes, and will thus avoid many errors into 
 which some of our eminent ornithologists have fallen,
 
 6 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 that of mistaking the young of certain well-known birds 
 for a different species from the adult, from not being ac- 
 quainted with the immature stages. All birds should be 
 taken that exhibit any unusual characters, such as unusu- 
 ally large or small bills or feet ; or change of plumage, such 
 as very pale, or very bright, cases of albinism, etc. 
 
 The gun used by a collector should have a small bore, 
 not larger than No. 14, for shooting small birds ; for Ducks, 
 and other large water-birds, one of larger calibre will be 
 found more effectual. The best shot to use for small birds 
 is "Dust shot," if it can be procured ; if not, No. 12 will 
 answer. No. 8 will do for Ducks and large birds. For 
 Hawks and Eagles, Ealy's wire cartridges are the best. 
 
 In shooting small birds, load as lightly as possible. Put 
 in no more shot than is required to kill the bird. As you 
 can approach very near most small birds, you will find, 
 by experiment, that you can kill them with very little shot. 
 If too much powder is used, it will impel the shot with 
 so much force as to send it completely through the bird, 
 thereby making two holes, when less powder, by causing 
 less force, would have made only one, and the bird would 
 have been killed just as effectually. When shot goes into 
 the body of a bird, it generally carries feathers with it, and 
 in a measure plugs the hole ; but when it is forced through 
 and comes out, it often carries away a small patch of feath- 
 ers and skin, leaving an open wound, from which the blood 
 flows freely. 
 
 If the bird is not instantly killed by shooting, the 
 thumb and forefinger should be placed with a firm pres- 
 sure on each side of its body under the wings, when it will 
 soon die. This operation compresses the lungs and pre- 
 vents the bird's breathing. Besides mercifully ending its 
 suffering, its death causes the flow of blood in a great 
 measure to cease , for this reason it should be killed as 
 quickly as possible.
 
 THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 7 
 
 The mouth, nostrils, and vent should now be plugged 
 with cotton or tow. By blowing aside the feathers the shot- 
 holes may be detected ; if they bleed, or are in the abdo- 
 men or rump, a pinch of calcined plaster * should be placed 
 upon them ; this absorbs the blood, or any fluid that may 
 ooze out. When shot enters either the abdomen or rump, 
 it is apt to cut the intestines and set free the fluids con- 
 tained therein. If the blood has already soiled the feath- 
 ers, remove as much as is possible with a knife, then sprinkle 
 plaster on the spot, and rub the soiled feathers gently be- 
 tween the thumb and fingers ; this, if repeated, will gen- 
 erally remove any spots of blood, etc., if the operation is 
 performed before the blood becomes dry. "When the blood 
 is dry, it is removed after the bird is skinned, as will be 
 hereafter described. 
 
 Next make a note of the color of the eyes, feet, and bill 
 of the specimens, also note the color of the cere in birds of 
 prey, and the naked skin of the lores and about the bill of 
 the Herons, also about the heads of the Vultures. After 
 smoothing the feathers carefully, place the bird in a paper 
 cone,f head first, then pin or twist up the larger end, tak- 
 ing care not to injure the tail-feathers. The blood can be 
 washed from the feathers of all the swimmers, but the bird, 
 in this case, should be allowed to dry before packing in 
 paper. If grease or oily matter has oozed out upon the 
 feathers, the bird should not be washed, but the plaster 
 be used as before, only in larger quantities. 
 
 All traces of blood should be instantly removed from 
 white feathers, as it is very apt to stain them if it remains 
 upon them long. The paper containing the bird should 
 
 * This is burned plaster or gypsum, and is used by stucco-makers. 
 If it cannot be procured, the unburned plaster or common ground gypsum 
 used by farmers, or air-slacked lime, pulverized chalk, or ashes, in fact, 
 anything that will absorb the blood, will answer. 
 
 t The leaves of an old pamphlet are about the right size for making 
 /5ones for small birds, and can be easily obtained.
 
 8 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 be placed in a light basket, a willow fish-basket is the 
 best for this purpose, suspended by a strap over the shoul- 
 der, and resting upon the hip. If there are but one or two 
 birds in the basket, it should be filled with grass, or loose 
 paper, to keep them steady, as otherwise they might re- 
 ceive injury by rolling from side to side. In packing birds, 
 avoid putting the largest at the top, as their weight will 
 cause the smallest to bleed. Do not hold a bird in the 
 hand any longer than is necessary ; if possible, take it by 
 the feet or bill, for the perspiration from the hand tends to 
 impair the gloss of the plumage. 
 
 A good collector must practise, in order to become a good 
 shot. He must always keep his gun in readiness, for at 
 any moment a bird that he desires may start up at his feet, 
 or peer out from the bushes for only an instant before 
 flying away; by being ready, he will thus secure many 
 birds that he would otherwise lose. 
 
 To be in readiness at all times, the gun should be car- 
 ried in the hollow of the left arm, with the muzzle pointed 
 backwards, or with the stock under the right arm, with the 
 muzzle pointed towards the ground, which is undoubtedly 
 the safest way, especially if you are hunting with a com- 
 panion. Too much caution cannot be used in handling a 
 loaded gun, especially by a professional collector, who may 
 spend two thirds of his time with a gun in his hand. A 
 gun should never be carried in other than three ways. 
 the two above mentioned and directly over the shoulder. 
 If the collector becomes accustomed to these ways, which 
 are all perfectly safe, he will never think of any other. 
 Surely, this caution is necessary to one who is travelling 
 through all sorts of places, when a slip or a fall with a care- 
 lessly held gun might cripple him for life, by an accidental 
 discharge. 
 
 While passing through thick bushes, ahvays carry the 
 gun under the arm, as this prevents its accidental dis-
 
 -'- CAL. 
 
 THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 9 
 
 charge by the bushes catching the trigger or hammer. 
 Never allow the muzzle of the gun to point at any one, 
 even for an instant. All these things depend upon habit, 
 and will cause a thoughtful man, who has handled a gun for 
 a long time, to be much more careful than a person who 
 seldom takes one in his hands. The thoughtful man 
 prefers rather to avoid accidents to himself and others 
 by care in advance than to risk the chance of having to 
 mourn his carelessness afterwai'ds. The various devices for 
 snaring birds are undoubtedly the best ways to secure them 
 without injuring their plumage. But the collector will 
 have to rely mainly upon his gun ; and by following the 
 above instruction regarding the light charges, he will find 
 that he will generally kill a bird without injuring its 
 plumage seriously. If he carefully attends to it afterward 
 in the way described, he will save himself much trouble 
 when he wishes to preserve it. 
 
 In an old French cook-book may be found a receipt for a 
 rabbit-stew, commencing with, " First, catch your rabbit," 
 etc., which rule is applicable to the collector. First, study 
 with attention the art of collecting. Many and long have 
 been the lessons in collecting that I have taken in long tramps 
 through sunshine and storm, in the bracing air among the 
 mountains of Northern Maine and New Hampshire, on 
 sandy islands and rocky shores, amid the luxuriant forests 
 and along the rivers and lagoons of semi-tropical Florida. 
 Hours of danger and perplexity have been mingled with 
 days of inexpressible pleasure, which all must experience 
 who study from the Great Book of Nature. Not easily, 
 then, I may add, have I learned what I am trying to im- 
 part to others in these pages. 
 
 Since writing the preceding, I have been informed by 
 my friend, Mr. W. Brewster, of Cambridge, that in collect- 
 ing such small birds as the Warblers, Sparrows, Wrens, etc., 
 he has used a "blow-gun" to great advantage, constructed
 
 10 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 somewhat after the pattern of the celebrated instrument 
 that is used by the natives of some portions of South 
 America to shoot poisoned arrows. His "gun" is made 
 of pine-wood, and is about four feet and a half long ; it is 
 bored smoothly the whole length with a quarter-inch hole. 
 For ammunition Mr. Brewster uses balls made of soft 
 putty. These, blown at birds, will hit them hard enough 
 to kill, if the gun be aimed rightly, which art can be 
 acquired by practice. This is certainly the preferable way 
 to collect small birds, as it does the plumage no harm. I 
 would suggest, however, that a tube of thin brass be used 
 in place of wood ; if it were longer, say six feet, it would carry 
 with greater force and more accuracy. Glass would be still 
 better, if it could be supported by wood to prevent break- 
 age, as it would be much smoother. The balls of putty 
 should be made to fit moderately tight. I have never 
 tried this method myself, but Mr. Brewster has, in a satis- 
 factory manner, as described above. I only wait an oppor- 
 tunity to test them myself, and trust that others will do 
 the same. 
 
 SECTION II. How to prepare Specimens. Instruments, 
 Materials, etc.* The instruments needed in preserving 
 birds and mammals are : a pair of common pliers, Plate I. 
 Fig. 1 ; a pair of cutting pliers, Fig. 2 ; a pair of tweezers, 
 Fig. 3; a scalpel, Fig. 4; two brushes, one soft, the other 
 stiff; a flat file, and needles and thread. 
 
 The materials needed are : wire of annealed iron of sizes 
 between 26 and 10, also .some very fine copper wire; 
 common thread, coarse and fine, also some very fine, soft 
 thread from the cotton-factories, this is wound on what 
 are called "bobbins"; it is used in the manufacture of 
 cloth, cotton tow or hemp, and fine grass ; for the latter 
 the long tough kind that grows in the woods is the best. 
 
 * All the instruments and the wire may be procured at the hardware 
 stores in the cities or larger towns.
 
 MATERIALS, ETC. 
 
 11 
 
 Plate I.
 
 12 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 Arsenic is the best substance that can be used in preserv- 
 ing skins, and the only one necessary. Other preparations 
 are no better, and often much ivorse. Strange as it may ap- 
 pear to some, I would say avoid especially all the so-called 
 arsenical soaps; they are at best but filthy preparations ; 
 beside, it is a fact to which I can bear painful testimony, 
 that they are. especially when applied to a greasy 'skin 
 poisonous in the extreme. I have been so badly poisoned, 
 while working upon the skins of some fat water-birds that 
 had been preserved with arsenical soap, as to be made 
 seriously ill, the poison having worked into the system, 
 through some small wounds or scratches on my hands. 
 Had pure arsenic been used in preparing the skins the 
 effect would not have been as bad, although grease and 
 arsenic are generally a blood poison in some degree ; but 
 when combined with "soap," the effect at least, as far as 
 my experience goes is much more injurious. 
 
 Arsenic alone will sometimes poison slightly the wound 
 with which it comes in contact, but no more than com- 
 mon salt. There will be a slight festering and nothing 
 more ; but, on the contrary, when combined with fat, a 
 poison is generated that must be carefully guarded against. 
 It sometimes works under the nails of the fingers and 
 thumbs, while one is at work skinning (especially if the 
 birds are fat). Rubber cots should be put upon the fingers 
 or thumbs the instant the slightest wound is detected, 
 whereby much pain may be avoided at a small cost. The 
 cots alluded to can be procured of almost any druggist for 
 ten cents each. 
 
 Arsenic, however, cannot be used with too great care, 
 as it is a deadly poison. In no case should it be left in 
 the way of children. I have a drawer, wide, long, and 
 shallow, in the bench at which I work upon birds, where 
 my arsenic is kept safely, and it is always accessible. But 
 there is probably not so much danger attending the use
 
 MATERIALS, ETC. 13 
 
 of pure dry arsenic as people generally suppose. I have 
 been told repeatedly, by competent physicians, that the 
 small quantity taken, either by inhalation while using it, 
 or by numerous other accidental ways, would be beneficial, 
 rather than injurious; but be that as it may, I have used 
 dry arsenic constantly for ten years, and have not yet, I 
 think, experienced any injurious effects from it. It must 
 be remembered that I have, of course, used it carefully. 
 When used with care, in the ordinary manner, it is un- 
 doubtedly the safest and the best material that can be 
 used in preparing skins for the cabinet. I have never yet 
 had a skin decay, or attacked by moths, that was well pre- 
 served by the use of arsenic. Arsenic is very cheap, vary- 
 ing from five to ten cents per pound by the wholesale, and 
 retailed at twenty-five cents by druggists, but when bought 
 by the ounce the price is enormous. 
 
 There is, however, another poison to which one is exposed 
 while skinning animals, which cannot be too carefully 
 guarded against, for it is much more injurious in its effects 
 than fat acd arsenic. I speak of the animal poison that 
 results from the first stage of decomposition. If on a warm 
 day one skins birds from which an offensive odor arises, 
 and a peculiar livid or purplish appearance of the skin 
 upon the abdomen is seen, and the intestines are distended 
 with an extremely poisonous gas, which is the source 
 of the offensive, sickening odor, there is danger of be- 
 ing poisoned. When this gas is inhaled, or penetrates the 
 skin through the pores (which are generally open on a 
 warm day), a powerful and highly dangerous poison is apt 
 to be the result. 
 
 In a few days numerous pimples, which are exceedingly 
 painful, appear upon the skin of the face and other parts 
 of the person, and upon those parts where there is a chaf- 
 ing or rubbing become large and deep sores. There is a 
 general languor, and, if badly poisoned, complete prostration
 
 14 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 results; the slightest scratch upon the skin becomes a fes- 
 tering sore. Once poisoned in this manner (and I speak 
 from experience), one is never afterwards able to skin any 
 animal that has become in the least putrid, without ex- 
 periencing some of the symptoms above described. Even 
 birds that you handled before with impunity, you cannot 
 now skin without great care. 
 
 The best remedv in this case is, as the Hibernian would 
 say, not to get poisoned, to avoid skinning all birds that 
 exhibit the slightest signs of putrescence ; this is especially 
 to be guarded against hi warm weather, and in hot cli- 
 mates, where I have seen a single hour's work upon putrid 
 birds nearly prove fatal to the careless individual. 
 
 If you get poisoned, bathe the parts frequently in cold 
 water; and if chafed, sprinkle the parts, after bathing, 
 with wheat flour. These remedies, if persisted in, will effect 
 a cure, if not too bad ; then, medical advice should be pro- 
 cured without delay. 
 
 It is just as easy to skin fresh birds as putrid ones, 
 and much pleasanter, and in this way the evil will be 
 avoided. If it is necessary to skin a putrid bird, as in 
 the case of a rare specimen, a good bath of the hands 
 and face in clear, cold water will entirely prevent the 
 poison from taking effect, provided the skinning is not 
 protracted too long. But generally, if the bird is putrid, 
 I would advise the collector to throw it away, and obtain 
 others that are safer to skin. 
 
 If birds and mammals are injected, by means of a small 
 glass syringe, with a small quantity of carbolic acid at the 
 mouth and vent, it will prevent decomposition from taking 
 place immediately. After injecting, the rnouth and vent 
 should be plugged to prevent the acid from staining the 
 feathers. Birds injected in this way for three successive 
 days will continue fresh for a long time, and, if kept in a 
 dry place, will harden completely without decomposing.
 
 MATERIALS, ETC. 15 
 
 They may afterwards be skinned, as will be described here- 
 after. Impure carbolic acid will answer as well as the 
 refined, and it is much cheaper. 
 
 The cost of this acid is trifling, and it will often prove 
 beneficial in preserving birds in warm weather when they 
 cannot be skinned immediately. But I would not advise 
 its use in preserving birds when it can possibly be avoided, 
 as it dulls the plumage, and is offensive in its odor in con- 
 nection with the juices of the birds while they are being 
 skinned. It is, perhaps, needless to add that this acid 
 is a dangerous internal poison ; it also burns the skin 
 badly -when allowed to come in contact with it, but all 
 injurious effects may be removed by applying oil to the 
 spot. 
 
 As a collector walks much, he must have something on 
 his feet that is easy and at the same time serviceable. I 
 have found that in stony countries like New England the 
 best things are canvas shoes that lace up in front, tightly 
 about the ankles and over the instep, to prevent slipping up 
 and down, which is the worst possible thing that could 
 happen while on a long tramp ; the soles should be broad, 
 so that the toes may have room enough without crowding. 
 With such shoes I have found that I could walk farther 
 than with anything else, and be less wearied in the end. 
 If the feet are wet from walking in water, with canvas 
 shoes on them they will soon dry, as the water will all run 
 out upon walking a short time on dry ground. Anything 
 that is water-proof will be much too heavy to travel in, 
 besides being injurious to the feet. 
 
 In sand\t localities, or on marshes, or in winter when the 
 snow covers the ground, Indian inoccasons are the easiest 
 and best things that can possibly be worn ; but in stony 
 places they are not of sufficient thickness to protect the 
 foot from receiving injury from the hard surface, otter- 
 wise they are exceedingly easy. They are not water-proof^
 
 16 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 so that unless the snow is frozen in winter they are of no 
 use. These moccasons can be procured almost anywhere 
 in Maine and New Hampshire, and sometimes in Boston. 
 They are manufactured mostly in Canada. For clothes, 
 perhaps the best that can be worn in summer is a suit 
 of fine canvas of some dark color, to correspond with the 
 foliage ; in winter, white, to correspond with the snow ; 
 in both cases the wearer is less conspicuous, and can ap- 
 proach his game much more readily. This cloth will not 
 wear out or tear easily, and is every way fitted for travel- 
 ling in the woods. 
 
 I would next call attention to making stands on which 
 to put birds after they have been mounted, as one of the 
 necessities of the cabinet. Simple stands in the form of 
 the letter T (Plate VIII. Fig. 3, f) are generally wanted. 
 Any carpenter can make them. Different sizes will be 
 needed, from one with the standard two inches high with a 
 cross-piece one inch long, to a foot standard with a six-inch 
 cross-piece, with bottoms to match. If made of pine, these 
 stands may be painted white, of a very pure unchanging 
 color, in the following manner. Buy white zinc at thirty 
 cents per pound, and nice frozen glue at from twenty-five 
 to thirty cents per pound ; dissolve the glue thoroughly in 
 hot water, then strain ; to a pint and a half of water use a 
 quarter of a pound of glue, to this add one pound of zinc, 
 stir well, with the vessel that contains it in boiling water, 
 then, with a brush, apply to the stands ; put on two coats. 
 If the paint has a yellowish cast, put in a few drops of 
 bluing; it will change it at once. Thus you will find 
 that you have a nice white coat of paint that will remain 
 unchanged longer than oil colors. Any other color can be 
 used, if preferred, in the same manner. 
 
 Fancy stands are made in the following way. For mossy 
 stands, select a wooden bottom of suitable shape and size, 
 those with the edges bevelled are generally used, and
 
 MATERIALS, ETC. 17 
 
 with the pliers force a piece of wire into it in the centre, 
 then bend the wire in imitation of a branch or small tree, 
 then wind it with hemp to give it the required shape ; 
 additional wires may be fastened on to represent the smaller 
 twigs. 
 
 The whole is now to be covered with a coating of glue, 
 and sprinkled with pulverized moss, or small pieces of 
 moss are placed upon it smoothly. If the work is per- 
 formed neatly, a perfect imitation of a little tree will be the 
 result, upon which the bird is placed. If artificial leaves 
 are to be used, they may be placed upon the twigs with 
 glue. 
 
 If, instead of a wire, a twig bent in the required form 
 can be procured, and fastened to the bottom with wire, 
 it may be covered with moss without winding with hemp. 
 The fancy stands seen with dealers in birds are generally 
 made of a substance called papier-mache, that is, manu- 
 factured of paper pulp and glue as follows : Tear paper 
 in small pieces and place it in water, let it stand over- 
 night. Then, as it will be entirely soaked, reduce it -to 
 a perfect pulp, either by forcing it through a sieve 01* by 
 stirring it. When reduced to a pulp, drain the water 
 away. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of glue in a pint of 
 water ; mix with this a pint of pulp, heat it, and stir it 
 well ; then it is ready for use. Prepare a stand as de- 
 scribed. Mould the pulp upon it in any shape to suit 
 The fancy. It should have the consistency of putty, in 
 order to work well. If it is too thin, put in more of the 
 pulp -. if too dry, more water. 
 
 With this substance you can imitate almost anything in 
 the shape of miniature trees, with hollows, knots, crooked 
 limbs, etc. By drawing over the whole, when finished, a 
 comb, the bark of a tree can be imitated exactly. When 
 perfectly dry, the limbs of the tree can be painted brown 
 in the manner described. The bottom of the stand is
 
 18 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 painted green, and sprinkled with a substance resembling 
 green sand, called "smolt," which may be procured at 
 the painter's ; over this is sometimes sprinkled thin glass, 
 broken fine, which is called " frosting," and is also used by 
 painters. 
 
 Eocks can be imitated well with papier-mache. If stud- 
 ded with small pieces of quartz the effect is heightened; 
 they then may be painted in imitation of granite, sand- 
 stone, etc. The sandstone is easily imitated by sprinkling 
 on sand before the pulp is dry. There are many other 
 things that may be imitated with this wonderful substance, 
 but, having given the preceding hints, I leave the reader to 
 experiment at his leisure upon them. 
 
 For the scientific cabinet I would advise the use of 
 the plain white stands as being much neater. The others 
 are only fit for ornament. 
 
 One other thing is necessary. Take a thin board, and 
 at intervals of two inches tack transversely strips of wood 
 (Plate IV. Fig. 1); then cut a strip of paper as wide as 
 the board, and with glue make it adhere at the top of the 
 strips and at the middle of the intervening space, so as to 
 form a corrugated appearance (Fig. 2). These are used in 
 drying skins of birds. Each board should have a-bout 
 twelve such spaces, varying in width from two to four 
 inches, the boards varying in width from four inches to 
 one foot. These boards, with careful use, will last a long 
 time. 
 
 SECTION. III. Measuring, Skinning, and Preserving Birds. 
 For measuring, a pair of dividers, or compasses, a steel 
 rule, divided into hundredths of an inch, and a longer 
 rule, divided into inches and half-inches, will be wanted. 
 To measure the bird, proceed as follows : Place the bird 
 upon its back upon the longer rule, with the end of the 
 tail at the end of the rule; the neck is stretched at full 
 length, without straining ; the bill must be pointed with
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 19 
 
 . 2 
 
 Plate H.
 
 20 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 the rule. Record the number of inches upon a strip of 
 paper ; if there is a fractional part of an inch, measure it 
 with the dividers, and find how many hundredths it con- 
 tains upon the smaller rule, and record it. This is "the 
 length of the bird." 
 
 Stretch the wings out to the full length, with the bird 
 still upon its back; measure these from tip to tip as "the 
 stretch of wing." Measure the wing from the tip to the 
 carpel joint, or bend, with the dividers (Plate X. d), for "the 
 length of the wing." The tail is to be measured also 
 with the dividers from the tip to the root for "the 
 length of the tail." Measure the tarsus (Plate VII. g) as 
 "the length of the tarsus." Measure the bill, from the tip 
 of the upper mandible to the base (if the base is not well 
 defined, as in the Ducks, measure to the feathers) ; this is 
 "the length of bill along the culmen" (Plate III. h). 
 Measure from the tip of the upper mandible to the gape 
 (e) for " the length from gape " ; also from the tip of 
 the lower mandible to the angle of the gonys (s) for " the 
 length of gonys " (c). In the Hawks, measure to the 
 cere. 
 
 The color of the eyes, feet, and bill is now observed 
 apd recorded, also the date of collection and the locality in 
 which the bird was collected. If the bird is in worn plu- 
 mage, the fact should be recorded, as this will affect the 
 measurements ; also if it is moulting or in perfect plu- 
 mage. As the records now made are only temporary, signs 
 
 may be used to save time, such as X would denote an 
 
 adult bird in perfect plumage, Y| would denote a 
 
 young bird in worn plumage, YY| 1 would denote a 
 
 young bird not a year old and moulting, this stage in the 
 life of the bird is called tne "young-of-the-year." By 
 using some such signs as these much time will be saved. 
 When the collector becomes expert at measuring, he will 
 find that all small birds can be measured and recorded in
 
 THE ABT OF FBESEBVING BIRDS. 21
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 about three minutes, and the larger ones in a little longer 
 time. 
 
 Skinning. First, have plenty of plaster near at hand. 
 Kemove the cotton from the mouth and vent, and place 
 a fresh plug in the mouth alone. The method now about 
 to be described is one that will apply to all birds, excepting 
 those to be hereafter named. 
 
 Place the bird upon its back; with the forefinger and 
 thumb part the feathers on the abdomen, and a bare longi- 
 tudinal space will be discovered, extending from the breast 
 to the vent. With the scalpel divide the skin in the 
 centre of this bare space, commencing at the lower part of 
 the breast-bone, or sternum (Plate X. o), arid ending at the 
 vent. Now peel the skin off to the right and left, and 
 sprinkle plaster upon the exposed abdomen. Force the 
 leg on the right side up under the skin, at the same time 
 drawing the skin down until the joint (p) appears ; cut 
 through this joint and draw the leg out as far as the 
 tarsus or first joint (k) ; with the point of the knife sever 
 the tendons on the lower part of the leg, then by a single 
 scraping motion upwards they may all be removed, com- 
 pletely baring the bone ; treat the other leg in a like man- 
 ner, leaving both turned out as they were skinned. Place 
 the finger under the rump near the tail, then with the 
 scalpel cut through the backbone just in front of the coc- 
 cygus (n) entirely through the flesh to the skin, the 
 finger beneath is a guide to prevent cutting the skin. This 
 may be done very quickly after long practice, and there 
 is no danger of severing the skin if proper care be used. 
 Put on a fresh supply of plaster. Now grasp the end of 
 the backbone firmly between the thumb and forefinger, 
 and with the other hand pull the skin down on all sides 
 towards the head, until the joint of the wing, where the 
 last bone, or humerus (r), is joined to the body, appears ; 
 sever the bones at this joint, and draw the skin down
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 23 
 
 over the neck and head. When the ears appear, with 
 the thumb-nail remove the skin that adheres closely to 
 the skull without breaking it, pull down to the eyes, then 
 cut the skin off close to the eyelids, taking care not to 
 cut or injure them; but be sure and cut close enough to 
 remove the nictating membrane, as it will otherwise cause 
 trouble. Skin well down to the base of the bill. Re- 
 move the eye with the point of the knife by thrusting 
 it down at the side between the eye and the socket, then 
 with a motion upward it can be removed without breaking ; 
 cut off enough of the back part of the skull to remove the 
 brains easily. Proceed to skin the wings ; draw them out 
 until the forearm (Plate X. d) appears, to which the sec- 
 ondaries are attached; with the thumb-nail detach them 
 by pressing downward forcibly. Remove the muscles and 
 tendons as explained on the leg to the joint, where 
 the forearm joins the humerus (B), then divide, removing 
 the humerus entirely. 
 
 Now open the drawer containing the arsenic, and with 
 a small flat piece of wood cover the skin completely with 
 it; be sure that the cavities from which the brains and 
 eyes were removed are filled. Take up the skin and 
 shake it gently. The arsenic that remains adhering to it 
 is sufficient to preserve it, provided the skin is damp 
 enough ; if not, it may be moistened slightly. Now fill the 
 eye-holes * with cotton, tie the wing-bones with thread, as 
 near together as the back of the bird was broad, then 
 turn the skin back into its former position. Smooth the 
 feathers of the head and wings with the fingers. With a 
 few strokes of the feather duster, holding the skin up by 
 the bill, remove the plaster and arsenic that may be ad- 
 hering to the feathers. 
 
 If there is blood upon the feathers, it may be removed 
 if there is not much of it, and if it is dry with the 
 * By which I mean the holes occupied by the eyes in the skull
 
 24 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 stiff brush by continuous brushing, assisted by scraping 
 with the thumb-nail. A living bird cleans blood from its 
 plumage by drawing each feather separately through its 
 beak, thereby scraping off the blood ; the thumb-nail 
 performs the part of the bill. If much bloody, with a soft 
 sponge and water wash away all traces of blood ; then 
 throw plaster upon the wet spot, and remove it before it 
 has time to harden or " set." By repeating this opera- 
 tion, at the same time lifting the feathers so as to allow 
 the plaster to dry every part, and by using the soft brush, 
 the feathers will soon dry. In this way any stains may be 
 removed. 
 
 If the plumage is greasy, wash it with warm water and 
 strong soap long enough to remove every particle of fatty 
 matter that adheres to the feathers ; then rinse thoroughly 
 in warm water, afterwards in cold. Be sure and remove 
 all traces of the soap before putting on the plaster to dry, 
 as the soap will be changed by the plaster into a gummy 
 substance, which will be very difficult to remove. 
 
 After smoothing the feathers carefully, place the skin 
 upon its back. With the tweezers take up a small roll 
 of hemp or cotton, as large round and as long as the neck of 
 the body that was taken out, and place it in the neck of 
 the skin, taking care that the throat is well filled out ; then, 
 by grasping the neck on each side with the thumb and 
 finger, the hemp or cotton may be held in place, and the 
 tweezers withdrawn. After placing the wings in the same 
 position as the bird would have them when at rest, with 
 the bones of the forearm pushed well into the skin, so that 
 they may lie down each side, and not cross each other, 
 with a needle and thread sew through the skin and the 
 first quill of the primaries by pushing the needle through 
 the skin on the inside and through the quill opposite, but 
 be sure that the wing is in the proper place. (If it is too far 
 forward, the feathers of the sides of the breast, that ought to
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 25 
 
 lie smoothly over the bend of the wing, will be forced up 
 and backward. If the wing is placed too far back, there 
 will be a bare spot upon the side of the neck, caused by 
 the wing-coverts, which help, in connection with the feath- 
 ers of the back, to hide the snot, being drawn either 
 down or back too far. If the wing is placed too low, the 
 same spot is seen, only it is elongated and extends along 
 the back between the secondaries and feathers of the back ; 
 if too high,, the feathers of the back will appear pushed up, 
 and will not lie smooth for obvious reasons. When the 
 wing is in the right position, the feathers of the wing- 
 coverts and back will blend nicely and smoothly, and the 
 feathers of the sides of the breast will lie smoothly orer 
 the bend of the wing ; the ends of the closed quills will 
 lie flat upon the tail, or nearly so.) Now draw the thread 
 through so that but an inch is visible inside the skin, 
 then push the needle through the skin from the outside 
 just below the quill that it came out through, draw the 
 thread through, and tie to the projecting end, thereby 
 fastening the wing firmly to the side ; proceed in this way 
 with the other wing. 
 
 Roll up loosely an oblong body of cotton or hemp of 
 the same size as the body taken out, place it in the skin 
 neatly, then draw the edges of the skin together where the 
 incision was made, and sew them once in the centre ; tie 
 the ends of the thread together. Take care to put the 
 needle through the edge of the skin so as not to disturb the 
 feathers. Smooth the feathers on the abdomen. Cross 
 the feet upon the tail (Plate IV. Fig. 3), which is spread 
 slightly, then place tne SKin upon its back in the 
 rounded places of the drying-board, spoken of on page 
 18 (Fig. 1, d), taking care that the feathers of the 
 back are perfectly smooth. This rounded bed gives the 
 back a natural rounded appearance, which cannot be 
 made easily in any other way. Place tha head with the
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 i. 2
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 27 
 
 bill horizontal with the back or bottom of the rounded 
 space, with the culmen (Plate TV., Fig. 1, d) nearly touch- 
 ing the paper. The skin must remain in this position 
 without being disturbed until perfectly dry, which in very 
 warm weather, with small birds, will be in about twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 If this corrugated board cannot be procured, the skin 
 may be placed on its back upon a flat surface, with a 
 little cotton on each side of it to prevent its getting dis- 
 placed. This is what is technically termed "a skin" 
 (Fig. 3), and this method of making them is the best I 
 have ever seen practised, and one that I have used for 
 years as being the most expedient. The skins so made 
 are less liable to injury, being stronger than some others, 
 and are also very easily mounted. I have made in a 
 single day, in the manner described, fifty skins, and with 
 practice almost any one will be able to do the same ; ten 
 minutes being ample time for each, including the meas- 
 iiring. 
 
 Before the skin is placed upon the board, it should be 
 labelled (Fig. 3, ) with a number corresponding to the 
 one placed upon the slip of paper containing the meas- 
 urements, etc., marked also for the sex of the bird, which 
 is done by using for the male the sign of the planet 
 Mars, thus $ ; for the female the sign of the planet 
 Venus is used, thus ? . These signs are used by natural- 
 ists throughout the scientific world, and it is best to be- 
 some accustomed to them. 
 
 Determining the Sex. The sex of the bird is determined, 
 lot by the plumage, which will sometimes set the student 
 vt fault by its changes, and should never be trusted in de- 
 termining the sex, but by dissection, as follows : Take the 
 body of the bird after it has been removed, and cut with 
 the scalpel through the ribs (Plate X. A) on the sides 
 of the abdomen, thereby exposing the intestines; raise
 
 28 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 these gently with the point of the knife, and beneath them 
 will be seen the sexual organs, which are fully illustrated 
 in the following diagrams. 
 
 PLATE V., Fig. 2, is an adult male (<J) in the breeding 
 season. 1 shows the position of the lungs, 2 the pecu- 
 liar yellowish glands, in some birds bright yellow, in the 
 present case that of a song sparrow (Melospiza melodia, 
 Baird) they are yellowish white, which, being present 
 in both sexes, if not examined closely, may be easily mis- 
 taken, in the young female, for the testicles of the male. 
 3, 3, are the testicles, much enlarged in this, the breeding 
 season. The sex of a bird in this stage is easily deter- 
 mined. 
 
 PLATE VI., Fig. 1, is a young male (<J) in the young- 
 of-the-year plumage. The figures refer to the same parts 
 as explained in the preceding. It will be perceived that 
 the testicles (3) are much smaller. At different seasons, 
 the testicles vary in size between this and the preceding. 
 In some birds they are elongated, and black in color, 
 as in the Herons ; but they always occupy the same posi- 
 tions so nearly as to be readily distinguished. The pecu- 
 liar white glands (2) are in this instance very prominent, 
 but they are readily known in all birds by their being flat, 
 while the testicles are always spherical. 
 
 PLATE V., Fig. 1. This is an adult female (9) in the 
 breeding season. 1, 1, are the same peculiar glands observed 
 in the males ; 2 is the ovary, a mass of spheres at this 
 season quite yellow and prominent ; 3 is the oviduct, or 
 egg-passage, much enlarged in the present case, as it always 
 is during the breeding season, when it assumes a thick, 
 swollen appearance, while at other times it is translucent, 
 much smaller, and resembles a narrow, whitish line, not 
 readily perceived. 
 
 PLATE VI. , Fig. 2, is a young-of-the-year female in au- 
 tumn. 1, 1, the same white glands that at this stage of the
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 29 
 
 Fig. 1 
 Alult I 
 
 Plate V.
 
 30 
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 Eg.l 
 Young 6 
 
 Plate VL
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 31 
 
 bird's life might at first sight be mistaken for the testicles 
 of the male, but, upon looking closely the ovary (2) can 
 be perceived, very small; upon applying a magnify ing-glass 
 it appears granular. 
 
 With these remarks and diagrams, I think any one with 
 ordinary ability will, with a little practice, be able to de- 
 termine this very important character in the scientific 
 study of birds. 
 
 Contents of Stomach, etc. The contents of the stomach 
 must next be examined,' which is done by opening the giz- 
 zard and crop. A little practice will enable the collector 
 to state correctly what it contains, although the glass is 
 sometimes necessary, as in the case of small birds. This 
 is then recorded upon the slip of paper, which is put on 
 file, to be copied into a book, in the following manner, 
 leaving a page, or, if the book is not wide enough, two 
 pages, for each species, first placing the scientific name at 
 the head, as seen on the following page. 
 
 A book prepared in this manner, carefully indexed and 
 paged, will, when it is filled with the measurements of 
 birds, be of immense value for comparative measurements, 
 besides giving the collector a complete history of each of 
 his specimens. 
 
 Exceptions to the usual Method of Skinning. All birds 
 are to be prepared in the preceding manner, with the fol- 
 lowing exceptions. 
 
 All Woodpeckers with a large head and small neck of 
 which the Pileated Woodpecker (Hylotomus pileatus, Baird) 
 is an example should be skinned in the same manner as 
 far as the neck, which should be severed, as it is impos- 
 sible to turn the skin over the head ; cut through the skin 
 on the back of the head, making a longitudinal insertion 
 of an inch or more, and draw the head through this. It 
 should be carefully sewn up after the skin is turned back. 
 Such specimens, when laid out to dry, should have the
 
 32 
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 I 
 
 aig J 
 
 ma | 
 
 ira | 
 
 a? ~ $ 
 
 3 8 
 
 S S 
 
 if 1
 
 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 
 
 head so placed that the bill is turned at right angles with 
 the body, with the head resting on one side, and not on the 
 back as before. 
 
 All Ducks with large heads should be skinned in the 
 same way, with the exception that the insertion must be 
 made under the head, on the throat. Ducks, Herons, Geese, 
 large Sandpipers, and all other long-necked birds, should, 
 when placed to dry, rest upon the breast, with the head 
 and neck placed upon the back, and the head turned on 
 one side. Herons with very long necks should have them 
 bent once. The bill must be placed parallel with the neck 
 and pointing forward. 
 
 While travelling it is not always convenient to fill out 
 the bodies of large birds ; it is better to pack them flat, 
 with but little cotton in them, just enough, however, to 
 keep the opposite parts of the skin from coming in contact. 
 The neck should always be filled. When it is impossible 
 to procure stuffing for small birds, they may be packed flat 
 also. 
 
 Birds that have been preserved with carbolic acid, even 
 after they have been lying for years, and have become 
 perfectly dry, may be skinned in the following manner : 
 Place wet cotton or hemp under the wings, in the throat, 
 and around the legs, and finally envelop the whole body 
 in a thick coating. Place it in a close box, and let it 
 remain a day or two until it is softened, then take it out 
 and remove the skin as before directed; but more care will 
 have to be exercised than in skinning fresh birds. Alco- 
 holic specimens may be skinned; but the wet plumage had 
 better be dried in the air without plaster. Mr. A. L. Bab- 
 cock has a number of mounted birds in his collection at 
 Sherborne, Massachusetts, that were preserved in alcohol, 
 and sent from South America. 
 
 The beginner will find that some birds, such as the 
 Cuckoos, Pigeons, and Doves, are very difficult to skin over
 
 34 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 the rump without loosening the feathers; but this difficulty 
 will be overcome by using particular care while skinning the 
 spot that is tender. Some birds also have tender skin on 
 the breast, and in such cases it almost always adheres so 
 closely to the flesh that it is necessary to cut it away ; 
 this operation is somewhat tedious, but it is better than 
 to risk tearing the skin by pulling it. An example of this 
 is sometimes seen in the Wood Duck. 
 
 The best time to skin a bird is as soon as it is shot, 
 when the muscles are relaxed, as the plumage is then in 
 the best condition. In a short time the muscles become 
 rigid, when it is extremely difficult to remove the skin; 
 but the muscles soon relax again, and then you must skin 
 at once, as this is the first stage or the state imme- 
 diately preceding the first stage of decomposition. In 
 very warm weather this rigidness of the muscles sel- 
 dom occurs, then the bird rapidly decomposes. In warm 
 weather, birds should be kept on ice until wanted; for if 
 a bird remains only an hour in a warm room, or in the 
 sun, it will sometimes spoil, especially if the blow-flies 
 are allowed access to it. There is a species of blow-fly 
 that is viviparous ; I have seen such a fly alight upon 
 a fresh bird, and, after introducing her ovipositor into the 
 mouth of the specimen, exude an immense number of liv- 
 ing, though minute, maggots. These maggots spread over 
 the skin in all directions, moistening it with their slimy 
 bodies, and soon render the specimen unfit for use by 
 loosening the feathers. 
 
 It is difficult to remove the eggs of the common blow- 
 fly when they are once placed upon the feathers. It is 
 much better to prevent the flies from attacking specimens 
 which, if they are exposed during warm weather, they 
 will do very quickly by covering them, or placing them 
 immediately upon ice. 
 
 SECTION IV. Mounting Specimens. Almost any one
 
 THE WAY TO MOUNT BIEDS. 35 
 
 Plate VII.
 
 36 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 can mount a bird, after receiving proper instruction ; but 
 to make it look lifelike and natural requires constant and 
 unceasing study of birds in their native haunts. The true 
 art, then, can only be acquired by the earnest student 
 of nature. The mere taxidermist, who constantly sits at 
 his bench and works on birds without studying from na- 
 ture, may acquire a certain degree of skill, but the atti- 
 tudes of many of his stuffed birds will appear awkward and 
 grotesque to the naturalist. 
 
 Therefore I say to those who would learn to mount birds 
 in natural attitudes, study nature. Have all attitudes that 
 every bird assumes engraved upon the brain, to be repro- 
 duced in the stuffed specimens; from the one assumed 
 by the delicate Warbler, that hops lightly from limb to 
 limb, or swings gracefully from the topmost bough of some 
 tall oak, to that of the mighty Eagle in his eager, down- 
 ward swoop upon his trembling prey. Watch the scream- 
 ing Gull in his almost innumerable positions upon the wing, 
 the nimble Sandpiper running along the shore, and the 
 gracefully floating Duck upon the water. After watching 
 these in their various natural attitudes, work ; but do not 
 cease to study for improvement, for the work of man is yet 
 far from being perfect. 
 
 In mounting birds, skin as instructed in the preceding 
 section, but do not tie the wing-bones together. Having 
 cleaned and dusted the feathers, proceed to fill the neck to 
 the natural size, without stretching, with " shorts," or the 
 bran from wheat flour, or with hemp cut fine. Roll up 
 some fine grass moderately hard in the shape of an oblong 
 body (Plate VIII. Figs. 1, 2), then wind it smoothly with 
 thread. This body should be of the same proportionate 
 size as the one taken out, although not exactly of the same 
 shape, for reasons that will be seen when the bird is 
 mounted, but which cannot be easily explained. Have the 
 body perfectly smooth, and the curves regular dn every part.
 
 THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. 37 
 
 Place the body inside the skin. Now cut wires of the 
 right size (that is, large enough to support the bird when 
 mounted ; which can be learned by experience, although I 
 would advise putting in as large wires as can be used with- 
 out splitting the skin of the tarsi) and proper length for the 
 wiring of the following parts : to go through the legs, for 
 the neck, and for the tail. Straighten the wires by rolling 
 them on the bench with a file, then sharpen them by hold- 
 ing the end obliquely against the edge of the bench and 
 filing from you, at the same time twisting the wire ; force 
 the wire cut for the leg up through the sole of the foot, 
 through the tarsus, along the leg-bone into the centre of 
 the side of the grass body (Plate VIII. Fig. 1, a), through 
 this so that the end will protrude for an inch ; bend the 
 end down in the form of an L (Fig. 1, b), and again force 
 it into the body (Fig. 1, c), thereby clinching it so that it 
 can have no motion whatever. The wire should protrude 
 out of the sole at least two inches (Fig. 1, d). 
 
 Proceed in the same manner with the other leg ; if this 
 seems difficult at first, practice will soon overcome the 
 difficulty. Be sure and clinch the wires firmly, as they 
 will otherwise cause trouble. Force the wire cut for the 
 head down through the skull near the base of the bill 
 (Fig. 3, g) through the neck, but it must not come out 
 through the skin anywhere, through the body (Fig. 1, e), 
 out the other side, where it is clinched as before (Fig. 1, c). 
 Force the wire cut for the tail through the bone left in 
 the tail, and under the tail, into the body (Fig. 1, f); 
 clinch as usual (Fig. 3, g). Bend the wire which should 
 protrude about two inches beyond the end of the tail 
 into the form of a T (Fig. 1, h) ; the cross-piece is placed 
 about half the length of the tail ; on this the tail rests. 
 Pin up the incision by drawing the edges of the skin 
 together and forcing pins through them into the body; 
 then smooth the feathers over the place.
 
 38 
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 Plate VIIL
 
 THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. 39 
 
 Fasten the bird upon the stand by passing the wires of 
 the feet through the holes in the cross-piece (Plate VIII. Fig. 
 3, h), then twist the ends of the wire around the ends of the 
 cross-piece (Fig. 3, s) to fasten it firmly. Place the bird in 
 position with the tarsi inclining backward (Fig. 3, i), so that 
 a line dropped from the back of the head, passing through 
 the body, would pass down the centre of the stand (Fig. 3, a, a). 
 This is a natural rule, and one that applies to all perch- 
 ing birds. Next arrange the wings in position by applying 
 the same rules that were given when making a skin ; in 
 this case, however, the following additional rule may be of 
 use. The end of the bone of the forearm should reach just 
 half the length and width of the body where it meets the 
 lower end of the thigh (see Plate X. B). Having arranged 
 the wing, pin it near the bend to the body (Plate VIII. 
 Fig. 3, b), also through the first primary quill (Fig. 3, c). 
 The wings should in some cases be placed at a little dis- 
 tance from the body, as is natural with the Thrushes, and 
 some other species. This may be done by lengthening the 
 second wire (Fig. 3, c). Put the head in the proper posi- 
 tion, cut off the protruding wire (Fig. 3, g). Plait the tail- 
 feathers by placing the inner web over the outer (Fig. 3, d); 
 then place a piece of fine copper wire across the tail, and 
 fasten it to the ends of the cross-piece (Fig. 3, e). Fix 
 the artificial eyes in their proper position with glue or 
 putty ; then wind the bird with the fine cotton on the 
 breast and shoulders and over the secondaries (Fig. 3, k); 
 this is to keep the feathers smooth while it is drying. 
 
 To mount a bird with the wings extended, proceed as 
 before explained, but raise the wings, and use longer wires 
 to pin them in position. Then, to hold the quills and sec- 
 ondaries in place, bend a wire over the whole width of the 
 wing, passing on each side of them. In skinning and 
 mounting Ducks, open under the wing. This is accom- 
 plished by making an incision on the side, from the place
 
 40 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 where the humerus joins the sternum (Plate X. B) to just 
 beyond the lower joint of the thigh (p), after which skin as 
 before. 
 
 If any feathers become twisted or bent, they may be 
 instantly straightened by holding them in steam. If the 
 feathers are to be smoothed, raise them with the fingers or 
 tweezers, and let them fall back in place ; they will gene- 
 rally come down smoothly. If the feathers come out, put a 
 drop of glue upon the end of each, and place it in the 
 proper position ; it will stay, when dry. In this way large 
 bare places may be covered. 
 
 Mounting dried Skins. To mount dried skins, remove 
 the stuffing with which they are filled, and supply its place 
 with dampened cotton, also wrap the legs well with it ; 
 place the skin in a box, where it must remain until it 
 becomes pliable, but not too soft, as it is then liable to drop 
 in pieces. It is to be mounted as described, excepting that 
 the neck is filled with cut hemp instead of bran. Birds 
 mounted from dried skins require more care in mounting, 
 and more binding to bring the feathers into proper posi- 
 tion, than fresh birds. 
 
 Never paint or varnish the feet or bill of a bird ; the 
 scales on the feet of birds are one of the most interesting 
 characters in the study of ornithology, and they cannot 
 readily be seen when covered with paint or varnish. In 
 mounting birds larger than a Robin, the muscles of the leg- 
 bone must be supplied by winding the tibia with hemp 
 until the original size and shape is attained. Particular 
 attention must be paid to the legs of the Waders and rapa- 
 cious birds. The exceptions to this rule are all swimming 
 birds ; as the tibia is buried in the body, it does not need 
 winding. 
 
 In mounting Humming-Birds with the wings extended, 
 especially from dried skins, there is no need of wiring the 
 leg. Place a single wire in the back part of the body, with
 
 THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. 41 
 
 the point firmly clinched, and the end protruding back 
 from the abdomen for three or four inches. This wire will 
 sustain the bird. Always wire the feet in the usual way 
 if the bird is to be mounted in the attitude of rest. In 
 mounting other small birds, this method of wiring will an- 
 swer when the bird is represented as flying. Large birds, 
 when mounted in,the attitude of flying, should be wired 
 in the usual manner, with the wires that extend beyond 
 the soles of the feet cut short ; then a wire is forced down 
 through the back and clinched under the body, with the 
 end pointing upward ; cut off this end so that it will pro- 
 trude but a half-inch beyond the skin, then bend it under 
 the feathers into the form of a hook or ring ; to this fasten 
 a thread, and suspend the bird. To make the bird incline 
 downward, place the wire well back; upward, farther for- 
 ward, or nearer the head. Fine copper wire will answer 
 to suspend large birds in this manner. In mounting a 
 bird in this position, with the wings fully extended, care 
 should be taken that they are properly arched. 
 
 While arranging the wings, it is not convenient to keep 
 the bird suspended, as it will not be sufficiently firm. 
 Sharpen two stout wires and fasten them at both ends 
 (Plate VIII. Fig. 4, b, b), perpendicularly in a block of 
 wood (a), parallel to each other, and about two inches 
 apart. These wires should be at least four inches long. 
 Bend about an inch and a half of the ends down, parallel 
 with the block (c). Force these ends into the abdomen of 
 the bird that is being mounted, and it will be firmly held 
 in place while the different parts are being arranged, after 
 which it can be suspended as described. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to mount the skins of rare 
 birds when they are badly decayed. To mount skins in 
 this condition requires skill and patience, as well as a knowl' 
 edge of their different parts. The manner in which I hav<* 
 mounted them is this : First, moisten the skin as de
 
 42 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 scribed, then make a body, as before, and place a wire of 
 the proper size and length in the usual place for the neck, 
 and wind it with hemp to the natural size ; place the head, 
 wings, feet, and tail in the proper position; then, after 
 spreading glue upon the body, place each feather or piece 
 of skin carefully in its proper place, commencing at the 
 tail and working towards the head ; when this is finished, 
 bind the bird as usual. 
 
 Birds that have been mounted require at least ten days 
 for the skin to dry before the thread is removed, which is 
 done by cutting down the back with scissors, after which 
 cut off all protruding wires, and unplait the tail-feathers 
 and smooth them. To elevate the crest of a bird, or any 
 other naturally elevated feathers, such as the elongated 
 feathers on the necks of some species of Grouse, etc., roll a 
 piece of cotton into a ball, and force a pin or piece of sharp- 
 ened wire through it (Plate VIII. Fig. 5, g). Place this wire 
 or pin in the bird in such a manner that the feathers to 
 be elevated may rest on the cotton in a natural position 
 (Fig. 5, b). After the skin becomes hardened the cotton 
 may be removed, and the feathers will retain the desired 
 position.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 
 
 SECTION I. Collecting. Because mammals are not quite 
 as interesting at first sight as birds, the study of this 
 class of auimals has been somewhat neglected; and but 
 comparatively few naturalists are even aware of the ex- 
 istence of some of the smaller mammalia that live about 
 them. They are, however, worthy of special attention, and, 
 if studied, will soon be found particularly interesting. 
 
 In collecting mammals, excepting some of the larger 
 species, the gun is of but little use ; they must be taken 
 almost entirely with traps. Shrews and Moles may be 
 frequently found where they have been dropped by cats, 
 who catch them, but do not eat them. In this way a 
 great many valuable specimens may be obtained. 
 
 Another way to procure Mice and Shrews is to turn over 
 old logs and stumps, under which these little animals fre- 
 quently hide, and while dazzled by the light's coming in 
 suddenly upon them, they may be readily seized in the 
 hand. Mice may also be trapped. 
 
 Squirrels may be shot or caught in traps ; Foxes, trapped, 
 shot, or dug out of their holes. Woodchucks are easily 
 trapped or dug out. Skunks are very disagreeable animals 
 to handle, but when one once becomes accustomed to 
 capturing them he can do it in perfect safety. The best 
 way is to catch them in a " box-trap " baited with the 
 head of a chicken ; when caught, immerse trap and skunk 
 in water until the animal is dead. Treated in this man- 
 ner, they will not emit any of their disagreeable scent. 
 By breaking the backbone with a stout stick, when the
 
 44 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 animal is caught in a steel trap, the disagreeable emission 
 will be prevented. All animals should be killed either 
 by breaking the backbone or by compressing the ribs, to 
 stop the breath ; never by a blow on the head, as this is 
 liable to injure the skull, which must be preserved entire 
 for scientific investigation. 
 
 The following animals may be decoyed into traps by 
 means of peculiar scents : Foxes, Fishers, Martens, Minks, 
 Weasels, Wildcats of all species, Otters, Beavers, Bears, 
 Muskrats, and Raccoons. These scents are made of differ- 
 ent substances. The musk of the Muskrat, contained in 
 two glands situated just below the skin upon the back 
 part of the abdomen, will decoy Muskrats and Minks, and 
 perhaps Wildcats. This musk may be procured from the 
 male in early spring. After the two glands spoken of 
 are removed, they may be cut open, when the musk 
 which is a milky fluid will. appear, and may be squeezed 
 out, mixed with alcohol, and kept for use. This musk is 
 used in the following manner : Cut a stick of pine about 
 six inches long, make a small cavity in one end ; into this 
 drop a little of the musk, fasten the stick in such a position 
 that the animal to be decoyed must place his foot upon 
 the trap in order to reach it. 
 
 Foxes, I have been informed by old trappers, are read- 
 ily decoyed by using the fetid scent of the Skunk in the 
 same manner. This scent is a greenish fluid, and is con- 
 tained in glands situated in the anal region ; it may be 
 obtained in the same manner as the musk, although the 
 operation is not pleasant. All of the above-named ani- 
 mals may be successfully decoyed by using an excessively 
 fetid scent prepared during warm weather in the follow- 
 ing manner: Take a good-sized eel or trout, and cut it 
 in small pieces ; place it in a quart bottle, cover the top 
 with gauze to keep the flies out, hang the bottle on the 
 south side of a fence or building, and let it remain two
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 45 
 
 or three weeks, when the whole mass will become decom- 
 posed ; then on the top will be found a thin layer of a 
 clear liquid having an ineffably disagreeable odor. This 
 fluid should be poured off carefully into a small phial and 
 closely corked ; it is to be used in the same manner as the 
 other scents.* 
 
 Bats may be shot, or taken during daylight beneath the 
 shingles of buildings, or in hollow trees. One or two spe- 
 cies, however, remain outside, suspended to a branch or 
 leaf of a tree. 
 
 Plaster may be used to absorb the flow of blood from 
 mammals, as well as from birds. 
 
 SECTION II. Measuring. To measure a mammal pre- 
 paratory to skinning : Place it upon its back, then with the 
 dividers measure the distance from the tip of the nose to 
 the front side of the eye, record this as " the distance from 
 the tip of the nose to the eye," then from the tip of the nose 
 to the ear ; this is "the distance from the nose to the ear"; 
 then from the tip of the nose to the occiput, or back of the 
 head, for " the distance from the nose to the occiput." With 
 the rule find the distance from " the nose to the root of the 
 tail," also the distance from "the tip of the nose to the tip 
 of the longest toe of the outstretched hind leg"; then 
 with the dividers find the length of the vertebra of the tail 
 from the root ; this is " the length of the tail to the end of 
 the vertebra." With the dividers, measure the hair on the 
 end of the tail for "the length of the hair." Measure the 
 length of the hind leg from the knee-joint to the tip of the 
 longest claw of the longest toe for " the length of the hind 
 leg." Measure the length of the front leg from the elbow- 
 joint to the tip of the longest claw of the longest toe ; this ia 
 " the length of the front leg." The width of the hand is 
 found by measuring the width of the outspread forefoot or 
 
 * This receipt was kindly given to me by Mr. George Smith of Wal- 
 tham, who has used it successfully, as I have personally witnessed.
 
 46 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE 
 
 hand. Now measure the length of the ear on the back 
 side, from the skull to the tip, for " the length of the ear." 
 Measure "the width of the muzzle" between the two nostrils. 
 In animals larger than a gray squirrel, measure the "girth" 
 with a tape-measure, or piece of string, just back of the 
 forelegs. 
 
 These measurements will answer for all excepting the 
 bats, in measuring which proceed as before ; but, instead 
 of the forelegs, find " the length of one wing," " the length 
 of the wing to the hook, or thumb," and " the stretch of 
 wings " as in birds. 
 
 Seals also vary slightly ; instead of the word " leg " 
 use " flipper," and find the width of the hind flipper as 
 well as the width of the fore one ; also, in addition, " the 
 distance between the fore-flippers." The sex of a mammal 
 is easily determined without dissecting. These measure- 
 ments are to be first recorded upon a strip of paper, as 
 in the birds, and afterwards copied into a book, as seen 
 on the next page. 
 
 Skinning. To skin a mammal, place it upon its back ; 
 make a longitudinal incision in the skin over the abdo- 
 men, extending from the root of the tail about one fourth 
 of the length of the body. Peel down each side, as in 
 skinning a bird, pushing forward the leg so as to expose 
 the knee-joint; sever the leg from the body at this place, 
 and clean the bone ; proceed in this manner with the other 
 leg. In small animals, sever the tail as close to the body 
 as possible, leaving the bone in ; but in large animals it 
 can generally be removed by placing two pieces of wood on 
 each side of the bone against the skin, holding them firmly 
 in place with one hand, and after giving a strong pull with 
 the other the tail will slip out easily. With some animals, 
 such as the Beaver, Muskrat, Skunk, etc., this cannot be 
 done ; then the skin of the tail has to be opened the whole 
 length, and the bone removed. Proceed to draw the skin
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 
 
 47 
 
 1 I 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 KD 
 
 -K3 
 
 o* 
 
 8 
 
 w o S ' 
 
 1 
 
 g 8 
 
 ? 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eye. 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 Ear. 
 
 CO CO tO 
 
 ft 8 
 
 Occiput. 
 
 Cn 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Root of Tail. 
 
 I 1 l 
 
 Outstretched Hind Leg. 
 
 9 1 
 
 1 
 
 : End of Vertebra. H 
 
 CO | g 
 
 i s i 
 
 End of Hair. S 
 
 s s s 
 
 Hind Leg. 
 
 Sis 
 
 Length. 
 
 3 
 
 is 
 
 a 
 
 Width. 
 
 8 S! 8 
 
 Height of Ear. 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 Muzzle. 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Girth. 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 Length. $ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Width. 
 
 Top of head black. 1 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 Light colored. 
 
 I 
 
 ^
 
 48 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 down towards the head, until the forelegs appear; sever 
 these at the knee-joint, and clean the bone as before. Dra\v 
 the skin over the head, cutting off the ears close to the 
 skull. Use caution in cutting the skin from the eyelids 
 and in severing the lips from the skull, so as not to in- 
 jure their outward appearance. The skull is to be detached 
 entirely. Cover the inside of the skin well with arsenic, 
 and, if large, rub it in well with the hand; but be sure 
 that every part is poisoned. 
 
 If there is any blood upon the hair, after the skin is 
 turned into its former position, if it is dry, remove it with 
 the stiff brush ; if wet or very bloody, wash and dry with 
 plaster, as explained in birds. 
 
 Wind the leg-bones with sufficient hemp or cotton to 
 supply the place of the muscles ; then fill out the head, 
 neck, and the rest of the body to their natural size. Sew 
 up the orifice through which the body was removed neatly 
 over and over, drawing the edges of the skin together 
 aicely. 
 
 Label the skin by sewing a bit of card-board upon one 
 of the feet, or, if the animal is large, upon the ear, with 
 the number of the specimen and the sex marked upon it. 
 Clean the skull as much as possible with the scalpel ; if 
 it is a large animal, the brains may be removed through 
 the orifice where the spinal cord enters the skull. If this 
 opening is not large enough to remove them, they should 
 be left in. Roll the skull in arsenic, then label it with a 
 number corresponding to the one upon the skin, and lay 
 it by for future cleaning. The arsenic prevents insects 
 from attacking it. 
 
 Place the skin, if a small one, upon its side, with the 
 legs bent neatly ; if a large one, upon its breast, with the 
 legs stretched out on each side, the forelegs pointing for- 
 ward, the hind ones backward. This is what is technically 
 called a " mammal's skin."
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 49 
 
 Very large animals, such as Deer or Bears, should not 
 be filled out in this way, but placed flat. In skinning large 
 animals, make an incision in the form of a double cross, 
 by making a longitudinal cut between the hind legs, from 
 the root of the tail to the breast, between the forelegs; 
 then a transverse cut from the knee of the foreleg down 
 the inside of the leg to the opposite knee. The same 
 operation is repeated upon the hind legs. Then proceed 
 as before, only, when the skin has been removed from the 
 flanks, the animal must be suspended to facilitate the re- 
 moval of the rest. 
 
 In skinning a mammal with horns, make a longitudinal 
 incision from the back of the neck to the occiput, or back 
 of the head ; then make a transverse cut across the head, 
 commencing about four inches beyond the right horn, and 
 ending about four inches to the left of the left horn, the 
 cut passing close to the base of the horns, thus forming a 
 T. Remove the skin from the body as far as the neck, 
 which is cut at its junction with the body. The skull, horns, 
 and neck are drawn through the above-mentioned orifice. 
 
 In skinning large animals, it is well to take the diameter 
 of the eye before it is removed, so that an artificial one 
 may be inserted of the same size, if the animal is to be 
 mounted, as the eyelids shrink very much while drying. 
 All mammals should be skinned as soon as possible after 
 they are killed, especially small ones, as in a few hours 
 decomposition will commence ; then the hair will come out. 
 
 While skinning the legs of ruminants, such as Deer, 
 Sheep, etc., it will be found that the skin cannot be drawn 
 over the knee-joint ; then cut longitudinally through the 
 skin below the knee, and after severing the bone at the 
 hoof and knee, remove it through this incision. The in- 
 cision should be about one fourth the length of the dis- 
 tance from the knee to the hoof. 
 
 Bats are to be skinned in the ordinary manner, rernov- 
 3 D
 
 50 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 iug the skin even to the tip of the phalanges of the wings ; 
 then tie the wing-bones together, as explained in birds. 
 Place the bat upon a flat board to dry, and pin its wings 
 in the proper position for flight. When dry, stitch it upon 
 a piece of card-board. 
 
 While skinning mammals, it is sometimes necessary to 
 use plaster to absorb the blood and other juices that are 
 apt to flow ; but if care is taken not to cut the inner skin 
 over the abdomen it will not be needed. It is also some- 
 times necessary to plug the mouth and nostrils, especially 
 if blood flows from them. 
 
 SECTION III. Mounting Mammals. The art of mount- 
 ing mammals in lifelike attitudes can only be acquired by 
 experience. Hence the learner must practise the utmost 
 degree of patience and perseverance. As in the first 
 chapter I earnestly advised those who would be perfect to 
 study nature, I would here repeat that advice. And if 
 necessary while endeavoring to mount a bird, where the 
 feathers cover the minor defects, it is essentially much 
 more of a necessity to study nature carefully while striv- 
 ing to imitate the graceful attitudes and delicately formed 
 limbs of the smaller species of mammalia, or the full 
 rounded muscles and imposing attitudes of the larger 
 ones ; for in mammals the thin coat of hair will tend rather 
 to expose than hide the most minute imperfections. 
 
 Perfectly stuffed specimens can only be obtained by care- 
 ful measurements of all the parts, such as the size of the 
 legs, body, etc. 
 
 In skinning mammals to mount, it is best not to remove 
 the skull. Open it on the occipital bone, so as to remove 
 the brains ; clean well ; cover with arsenic ; then supply 
 the muscles removed, by using hemp wound tightly on 
 with thread. As the skin will shrink badly if it is stuffed 
 loosely, carefully fill out the space occupied by the mus- 
 cles of the legs in the same manner. Cut wires for the
 
 THE WAY TO MOUNT MAMMALS. 51 
 
 feet, head, and tail, sharpen them on one end as directed 
 in mounting birds ; now roll up grass until it is not quite 
 as large round as the body, and about one third as long. 
 Fill the fore part of the skin with bran or cut hemp as far 
 back as the shoulders, and place the ball of grass against 
 this filling, inside the skin. Now force the wires through 
 the soles of the feet and top of the head into this ball ; 
 clinch them firmly. After filling the skin of the tail with 
 bran, force the wire through the grass ball to the very end ; 
 then clinch the opposite end in the ball by cutting off the 
 part that protrudes and turning it in. 
 
 Fill the remaining parts of the skin with bran to the 
 natural size, and sew up the orifice carefully; place the 
 animal in the proper position by passing the protruding 
 wires of the feet through holes in a board, clinching them 
 firmly on the under side. The skin may now be moulded 
 into shape with the hands, the hair carefully smoothed, 
 the eyes set in the head with putty, the protruding wires 
 cut off, and the specimen set away to dry. There are 
 but few rules to be followed in placing animals in posi- 
 tion, because they are almost infinite in variety. The most 
 imperative rule applies to the positions of the legs, which 
 are almost always the same ; and it should be studied with 
 particular care, as a slight deviation from it will impair 
 the lifelike attitude of the specimen. The rule is : Never 
 place the bones of the first joint (Plate IX. No. 1) and 
 those of the second joint (2) of the hind legs in a straight 
 line, but always at an angle, more or less ; while the two 
 bones of the forelegs (3, 4) should almost always be placed 
 in a straight line, always when the animal is standing 
 upon them. 
 
 In imitating that peculiarly graceful attitude assumed 
 by tjie squirrels while sitting upon their hind legs feeding, 
 after imitating the curve of the back, which not one in 
 a hundred can do naturally, place the joints of the hind
 
 52 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 legs so far up, and at such an acute angle, and the joints 
 of the forelegs down at such an angle, that the two will 
 almost touch. This rule should always be followed. 
 
 The preceding method may be applied when mounting 
 all animals below the size of a Newfoundland dog. Larger 
 animals are. mounted in the following manner : Fill out 
 the space occupied by the muscles of the head and legs 
 in the manner already described. Procure five iron rods, 
 with a shoulder cut at each end, upon which fit a cap 
 (Plate IX. Fig. 2, B) ; on the extreme end have a thread 
 cut with a nut to fit (A), the distance between the nut 
 and cap should be about an inch and a half. Cut a piece 
 of plank, an inch and a half thick, about two thirds as 
 long and wide as the body of the mammal to be mounted ; 
 bore five holes in it, as indicated in Fig. 1, A. Fasten 
 one rod (8) firmly to the skull by drilling a hole through 
 the top and placing the cap in the proper position. Screw 
 the nut on well (14), and place the lower end of the rod in 
 the hole in the plank prepared for it (11) ; fasten it firmly. 
 Now stuff the neck out with hemp to the proper size. Drill 
 a hole through the hoofs, or bottom of the feet, into the 
 hollow of the bones (2, 4); force the rod (7, 7, 7, 7) up 
 through this hole, through the stuffing of the legs, and 
 fasten them into the plank (5, 6). Force a wire into the 
 tail and clinch it firmly in the wood (15). By winding up 
 grass or hemp, imitate the various sections of the body 
 taken out, and place them in the proper positions (1G), 
 making allowance for the plank and rods. Or a better 
 way is to take casts in plaster of the different parts and 
 place them in the proper position. 
 
 Everything must be solid, to avoid sinkings and depres- 
 sions in the skin. In this way the student can mount 
 an animal of any size by increasing the size of the rods and 
 plank. The ends of the rods must be fastened into a 
 plank stand (10) by passing them through holes drilled 
 in it (17, 17, 17, 17).
 
 THE WAY TO MOUNT MAMMALS. 53
 
 54 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 To mount a dried skin, first soak it in alum-water until 
 it is perfectly pliable, and then mount as before. The 
 water should not be tou strongly impregnated with alum, 
 or it will crystallize upon the hair. About a quarter of a 
 pound of alum to a gallon of water are the proper propor- 
 tions. If the skull has been detached, replace it, or make 
 an artificial one of grass or plaster to take its place. Mam- 
 mals that have been preserved in alcohol may be skinned 
 in the usual manner and mounted. 
 
 To skin mammals for the fur alone, cut in a straight line 
 from the inside of the knee of one hind leg to the other. 
 Skin as before explained, only cut off the feet and detach 
 the skull. Stretch smoothly on a thin board, with the 
 wrong side out. The skin should be lengthened rather than 
 widened.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS FOR THE CABINET. 
 
 THIS interesting class of animals has for a long time 
 engaged the attention of students, yet it is surprising how 
 comparatively little has been written about those of Amer- 
 ica. The almost infinite number of species still affords 
 the young naturalist a wide field for careful investigation. 
 
 In collecting insects, the instruments used are : An insect- 
 net, made of fine muslin or of silk gauze, and stretched 
 upon a light steel wire frame, with a light handle, about 
 four feet long, attached ; several wide-mouthed bottles and 
 phials filled with strong alcohol; insect-pins of the best 
 quality, which can be procured at natural-history stores; 
 tweezers smaller than those used for birds (Plate I. Fig. 3); 
 also, a small pair of pliers (Fig. 1) ; several soft-pine boards 
 about twelve by twenty-four inches, planed perfectly smooth, 
 will also be needed. 
 
 Boxes or drawers are necessary for the reception of the 
 dried specimens, lined with thick felting or cork to receive 
 the point of the pin that holds the insect and keeps it 
 upright. An excellent box lined with paper is sometimes 
 used to advantage, a description of which may be found in 
 the "American Naturalist," Vol. I. p. 156. 
 
 I hardly need state that a good microscope is indispensa- 
 ble in prosecuting the study of insects, although it may be 
 commenced without one. I shall take each order of insects 
 separately, and endeavor to explain how they are collected 
 and preserved, commencing with the 
 
 Beetles, or Coleoptera. The best way to preserve bee- 
 tles temporarily is by putting them instantly into strong
 
 56 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 alcohol ; and as the collector will meet with specimens 
 everywhere, he should never be without a phial ready for 
 instant use. During spring and early summer thousands 
 of minute species may be captured in the air with the 
 net, especially just at night. During summer and autumn 
 a great many nocturnal species may be captured near a 
 light placed at an open window, or in the open air. Vari- 
 ous species may be found feeding upon plants during the 
 summer and autumn. A great many of the so-called car- 
 rion-beetles may be taken, during the same seasons, by ex- 
 posing the carcass of an animal. Some species inhabit 
 decayed wood, where diligent search should be made for 
 them, especially in the woods, under old stumps or in them. 
 Numbers of very beautiful beetles may be found in the 
 excrements of animals, and under them, also under stones 
 and logs of wood ; they are found beneath the bark of trees 
 and on sandy places, or in dusty roads. There are also a 
 few aquatic species to be found in the water or near it. 
 
 To mount large beetles, force the pin through the right 
 wing-covert near the thorax, and place the point in the 
 cork, with the beetle's feet resting on it; place the feet 
 in the attitude of life, with the antennae in the proper 
 position, with a pin on each side of them to keep them 
 in place until dry. If the wings are to be extended, 
 place the beetle on the pin as described; then, with an 
 awl, bore a hole in the pine board ; lay the insect upon 
 its back, with the head of the pin in the hole ; now open 
 the wing-coverts, and spread the wings ; over the latter 
 lay a piece of card-board, and fasten it by placing pins 
 through it into the wood on each side. The wing-cov- 
 erts should not be fastened with a card, as it will flatten 
 them. When dry, remove the card, and the wings will 
 retain their position, when the beetle can be. put in the 
 proper position in the insect-box. 
 
 Smaller beetles, less than an eighth of an inch long,
 
 BUGS, OR HEMIPTEBA. 57 
 
 should be fastened to a piece of mica or to a round bit of 
 card-board with a little gum-arabic, and the pin placed 
 through the mica or card, or they may be transfixed with 
 very fine silver wire ; this wire must then be inserted in 
 a bit of cork, through which the common insect -pin is 
 placed. 
 
 Beetles that are collected in remote countries should 
 always be transported in alcohol. When they are to re- 
 main long in alcohol it should be changed once, then 
 they will keep for years uninjured. After they have been 
 in alcohol for two or three weeks there is no need of its 
 covering them, as a little in the bottom of the bottle will 
 keep them sufficiently moist ; but they should never be 
 allowed to dry. 
 
 Beetles may be preserved in a weak solution of carbolic 
 acid as readily as in alcohol. This has the additional ad- 
 vantage of preserving the specimens that have been im- 
 mersed in it from the ravages of noxious insects for some 
 time. Glycerine can be used to advantage in preserving 
 beetles that have delicate colors which fade in alcohol ; 
 but they cannot be pinned without cleansing. 
 
 Bugs, or Hemiptera, may be found generally upon plants. 
 The common thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum] furnishes a pas- 
 ture for several species. Numerous representatives of this 
 order may be found on low bushes, and in the grass during 
 summer and autumn. At least one species may be found 
 in cheap boarding-houses during the midnight hours. The 
 almost endless variety of Plant Lice corne under this head, 
 and may be taken everywhere on plants during summer 
 and autumn. 
 
 These insects, like the beetle, are first immersed in 
 alcohol, and afterwards placed upon pins, with the legs 
 arranged in natural positions, and the peculiar sucking- 
 tube, with which they are all provided, brought well for- 
 ward so as to be more easily examined. The numerous 
 3*
 
 58 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 aquatic species may be secured with a net ; they should 
 be carefully handled, however, to avoid the sharp sting, or 
 piercer, with which some of them are armed. 
 
 Grasshoppers, Crickets, etc., or Orthoptera. Members of 
 thia order may be found everywhere, the grasshoppers in 
 the open fields and woods, where they may be caught in 
 nets. The best way to kill them is to prick them on the 
 under side of the thorax with the point of a quill that 
 has been dipped in a solution of oxalic acid. If they 
 are not to be mounted instantly, wrap them in paper. 
 Crickets may be found in the ground in holes or burrows, 
 under stones, and in the grass ; a few species may be taken 
 on the leaves of trees or bushes ; some species of the well- 
 known Cockroach may be found in houses, and some under 
 stones and beneath the bark of trees. 
 
 All of the above may be mounted by placing the pin 
 through the thorax, and arranging the legs as before de- 
 scribed. The wings are also extended in the same man- 
 ner as the beetles', with the exception of the wing-coverts, 
 which are fastened with cards like the wings. 
 
 Walking-Sticks are found on low bushes or on trees, some- 
 times upon the ground. They are to be put into alcohol 
 to kill them, then mounted like the beetles. These in- 
 sects, when dry, require delicate manipulation while being 
 moved, as they are very fragile. When the colors of the 
 Orthoptera are to be preserved perfectly, place them in 
 pure glycerine. This is especially necessary in preserving 
 the larva} of grasshoppers. Grasshoppers may be put into 
 alcohol if convenient, but it must be very strong. This 
 method will generally change the colors completely. Cock- 
 roaches and crickets should always be killed by placing 
 them in strong alcohol. 
 
 Moths and Butterflies, or Lepidoptera. All butterflies 
 are diurnal, and are generally caught with the net. They 
 may be killed by pinching the body just below the wings,
 
 MOTHS AXD BUTTERFLIES, OR LEPIUOPTERA. 59 
 
 or by pricking between the forelegs with the quill and 
 oxalic acid used in killing grasshoppers. If they are 
 not to be mounted instantly, they should be packed in 
 pieces of paper doubled in a triangular shape, with the 
 edges folded. Butterflies may be reared from the egg by 
 capturing the impregnated female and confining her in a 
 box pierced with holes to allow fresh air to enter. In 
 this box she will deposit her eggs ; these are allowed to 
 hatch, and the larvae fed upon the leaves that they natu- 
 rally subsist upon. When sufficient time has expired they 
 will cease to feed, and form a pupa or chrysalis, and either 
 in a few weeks or the ensuing year come forth perfect 
 insects, when they should be instantly killed. In this man- 
 ner the collector will be able to secure fine specimens. 
 
 Although some few of the moths are diurnal in their 
 habits, the greater part are strictly nocturnal. A great 
 many specimens may be decoyed by the use of a bright 
 light. During the months of May, June, July, August, 
 and September, the following method may be practised 
 with advantage in securing many specimens. Mix coarse 
 brown sugar with alcohol enough to form a thick paste, 
 saturate rags thoroughly with this paste, and hang them 
 on trees or stakes in an open grove or wood at twilight ; 
 ;>r daub some of the mixture upon the stakes or trees. 
 This mixture, thus exposed, will attract the moths. The 
 places should be visited every few minutes with a dark 
 lantern, taking care not to throw the light upon the spot 
 until near enough to catch the moths in the net if they 
 should attempt to escape. 
 
 Mr. F. G. Sanborn who informs me that he uses the 
 strong-smelling New England molasses in the above-de- 
 scribed manner with success rightly remarks "that moths 
 may be divided into three classes by certain species of 
 them being affected differently by the appearance of arti- 
 ficial light in the night. One class are powerfully attracted
 
 6C THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 by it ; another class go about their usual avocations un- 
 mindful of it ; while a third class are instantly expelled 
 by it." The third class are by far the most difficult to 
 capture. 
 
 Moths are easily reared from the eggs. In autumn and 
 winter numerous cocoons may be found upon trees and 
 bushes ; these, if kept in a warm room, will hatch in early 
 spring. 
 
 In mounting butterflies and moths I have practised the 
 same method as described in mounting beetles, and think 
 it superior to all others. In mounting these insects, how- 
 ever, it is well to use what is called a " setting-needle," to 
 avoid rubbing the scales off the wings with the fingers. 
 
 The " setting-needle " is simply a common needle fas- 
 tened into a light stick ; two of these will be found use- 
 ful, one to hold the body of the insect firm, and the other 
 to place the wings and antennae in the proper position. 
 The eggs and larvae of the Lepidoptera should be placed 
 in alcohol. 
 
 There is a class of moths called Hawk-Moths, Sphinxes, 
 or Humming-Bees, some species of which are diurnal, and 
 some nocturnal. They are all difficult to capture un- 
 injured, as they fly rapidly, and, when caught in the net, 
 struggle fiercely. 
 
 The larva), when about to form the pupa, go into the 
 ground ; for this reason the box that contains those that 
 are being reared should be partly filled with moist earth. 
 They are mounted in the same manner as the other 
 Lepidoptera. All bright-colored insects when in the cabi- 
 net should be kept from the light as much as possible, 
 especially those belonging to the above order. 
 
 Dragon-flies, etc., or Neuroptera. Dragon-flies are, on 
 account of their quick motions, somewhat difficult to cap- 
 ture ; they are found flying over the fields and mead- 
 ows ; most abundant, however, in the immediate vicinity of
 
 BEES. WASPS, ETC., OR HYMEXOPTEBA. Gl 
 
 bodies of fresh water. The lace-winged flies are also found 
 in the vicinity of water. The larvse of almost all of these 
 insects are aquatic. They emerge from the water perfect 
 insects. The larvse should be preserved in alcohol. The 
 perfect insects are killed with oxalic acid, and for trans- 
 portation are packed in paper like the butterflies. When 
 they are to be mounted, a copper wire is placed through 
 the body and head ; the wings are then spread, as before 
 described. 
 
 Bees, Wasps, etc., or Hymenoptera. Members of this 
 order may be found everywhere in the fields and woods. 
 Their larvae generally resemble grubs, or maggots, and 
 should be preserved in alcohol or glycerine. 
 
 The larva) of the Ichneumon-Fly are found in the bodies 
 of caterpillars. The larvse of other species are found in 
 the excrescences on various plants and trees. This class 
 of insects may be caught in a net and placed in alcohol, or 
 killed with oxalic acid. They are to be mounted as the 
 other winged insects ; the tongue must be brought forward 
 so that it can be examined when the insect is dry. 
 
 The nests of the Wood-boring Bees, the Paper-making 
 Wasps, and Hornets, the mud nests of the Mason Wasps, 
 the excrescences on trees and plants, should all be col- 
 lected and preserved dry after the lai vse has been taken 
 out. Ants with their eggs and larvse may be put into 
 alcohol ; it is best to capture these fierce little insects with 
 the tweezers, to avoid their stings, which are sometimes 
 poisonous. 
 
 Flies, Mosquitoes, etc., or Diptera. These are the most 
 difficult of all insects to preserve, especially when they 
 have to be transported from a distance, as they must all 
 be instantly pinned, with the exception of the Fleas, which 
 may be put into alcohol. 
 
 They may be caught everywhere by beating bushes by 
 the side of the roads and woods, then using the net.
 
 62 -THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 Some of the species are nocturnal (as those who have slept 
 in the open air in the woods during the warm months can 
 bear painful testimony), and may be attracted by artificial 
 light, as in the case of the moths, etc. Their larvae are 
 found in various situations, some being aquatic, others 
 feeding upon putrid flesh and fish ; they may be preserved 
 in alcohol. 
 
 In closing this chapter, I would impress upon the stu- 
 dent the absolute necessity of labelling every specimen 
 carefully, with the date and the locality in which it is 
 found ; this may be done by numbers referring to a 
 catalogue, as in birds and mammals, or upon a slip of 
 paper. Also take notes of various circumstances relative 
 to the habits observed at the time of capture, etc. 
 
 The best substance to protect cabinet specimens from 
 the attacks of injurious insects is benzine, placed in an 
 open vessel in each drawer or box. Camphor is also 
 good, but I think that its fumes tend to fade the brighter 
 colors of moths and butterflies. Spirits of turpentine is 
 good, but it evaporates much quicker than benzine. Car- 
 bolic acid is, next to benzine, perhaps the best substance, 
 if exposed in the same manner. 
 
 To mount insects that have been dried, place them in a 
 box containing wet sand, and let them remain until soft, 
 when they are mounted as before directed. I am informed 
 by Mr. F. G. Sanborn that a few drops of carbolic acid 
 mixed with the water used in moistening the sand will 
 prevent mould from forming upon them while they are 
 being softened. The same preventive might be put in 
 the water used in moistening the cotton for softening bird- 
 skins.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FISHES AND REPTILES. 
 
 SECTION I. Fishes. Very many are they who at the 
 present day follow in the footsteps of the " Father of all 
 Anglers," the good Izaak Walton, concerning the mere 
 sport of angling ; but, alas ! there are few who, like him, 
 look with contemplative minds upon the great works of 
 Nature ; for the worthy Izaak was quite a naturalist, after 
 his fashion, and loved exceedingly to prate, in his quaint 
 style, of the wondrous birds, beasts, and fishes of which 
 he had seen or heard. Few, indeed, are they who, al- 
 though some of their happiest moments are spent by the 
 side of the clear mountain brook, with rod in hand, see in 
 the beautiful trout, that they with exultation draw from 
 its sparkling home, anything more than a good dinner on 
 the morrow. 
 
 Yet there are a few earnest naturalists who love to 
 study the finny tribes as they ought to be studied. 
 Indeed, the science of Ichthyology can claim among its 
 most earnest students the greatest naturalist in our land. 
 Those who live inland do not possess the advantages of 
 making as extensive a collection of fishes as those who 
 reside upon the sea-shore ; nevertheless, they can all do 
 something for this branch of natural history. 
 
 In collecting fishes the instruments generally used are 
 nets and hooks and lines ; with these try and secure every 
 variety that can be found. Many species can be secured 
 from the markets, where fishes are exposed for sale, by 
 picking out the specimens that are needed. The best 
 way to preserve fishes is to put them into alcohol. All
 
 64 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 large fishes should also be injected with alcohol before put- 
 ing them in it. 
 
 There is, however, another method by which fishes may be 
 preserved ; that is, by skinning and stuffing. Thus : Open 
 the fish on the under side from the throat nearly to the end 
 of the body, or within a short distance of the root of the tail ; 
 then skin down each way, taking care not to scrape off any 
 of the pigment that covers the inside of the skin and gives 
 the fish its color ; cut off the fins close to the skin on the 
 inside, also the head at the gills ; clean out the brains by 
 enlarging the hole in the occiput, where the spinal cord 
 enters the skull; remove the eye from the outside, dust 
 arsenic into the orifice left, and fill it with cotton ; cover 
 the inside of the skin with arsenic ; fill it to the natural 
 size with cotton, and sew it up ; place a wire transversely 
 through the fins to keep them in position. 
 
 Another method is to remove the skin from one side, 
 and to clean the flesh out in this way ; the fish is then 
 stuffed and placed upon its side, so that the opening will 
 not show. This method will answer very well for flat 
 fishes, but large ones must always be stuffed in the man- 
 ner first described. 
 
 SECTION II. Reptiles. Many a harmless snake or toad 
 has been sacrificed to ignorance and superstition. Indeed, 
 so strong is the general prejudice against the most com- 
 mon snakes, which are as incapable of inflicting an injury 
 as a mouse, that but few persons will hesitate to kill the 
 supposed venomous reptile at sight, if indeed they have 
 the courage to remain long enough in its vicinity to do so 
 valiant a deed. Such persons really believe that they are 
 removing a dangerous adversary of man from the face of 
 the earth. I would, however, advise them to glance for a 
 single instant at the history of these interesting al- 
 though, I will allow, somewhat disgusting-looking ani- 
 mals before they again shed innocent blood. All the snakes
 
 REPTILES. 65 
 
 in Massachusetts may be handled with impunity, with the 
 exception of two species, which are very rare. I refer 
 to the Copperhead and Rattlesnake. The prettily marked 
 Milk Snake, or Checkered Adder, and the imaginary ter- 
 rible Water Snake, are quite harmless, although we are 
 everywhere informed by those who are ignorant upon this 
 subject that they are exceedingly venomous. So long as 
 people are erroneously educated in this belief, so long will 
 the poor snakes suffer unjustly. Snakes, with but few 
 exceptions, are neutral regarding the interest of man. 
 
 The best method of preserving snakes is to put them 
 into alcohol moderately strong, as otherwise the scales start 
 easily. Snakes may be benumbed by thrusting a pin into 
 their brains; in this way they may be carried from place to 
 place more readily than if they were uninjured. 
 
 Snakes may be skinned after making a longitudinal in- 
 cision, about two inches long, in the largest part of the 
 body, on the belly ; then by drawing back the skin, the 
 body may be divided, and the parts drawn out each way. 
 The head should not be skinned. The eyes are removed, 
 as in the fishes, from the outside. The skin is now cov- 
 ered with arsenic and turned back. It is then filled with 
 bran to the natural size. It may, after sewing up the 
 incision, be placed in any position desired. Artificial eyes 
 are fixed in the head. 
 
 If the head is to be raised, run a sharpened wire 
 through the top of it, and through that section of the 
 neck and body that is to be elevated, through the skin into 
 a board, cut off the protruding end, and close the skin of 
 the head over it. After the skin becomes dry, the wire 
 can be taken out of the board, and cut off close to the body. 
 
 Turtles may be preserved in alcohol, or they may be 
 skinned and mounted thus : With a small steel saw cut 
 out a square section on the under shell ; remove this and 
 draw the intestines, bones, and flesh of the legs, etc., out
 
 66 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 of the hole thus formed ; skin the legs down to the toe- 
 nails, removing everything ; skin the head and neck ; cover 
 the inside of the shell and skin with arsenic. Turn the 
 feet and neck back, and stuff them to the natural size 
 with cotton. Fill the neck with bran ; roll up a small ball 
 of grass, place it inside of the shell; then force a piece 
 of wire through it into the head, and clinch the end in 
 the ball. Pack cotton or hemp around the grass in the shell, 
 to keep it firm, and to fill up the empty space ; then re- 
 place the piece of shell taken out, and fasten it with glue 
 or putty. 
 
 Now put the animal in the proper attitude upon a piece 
 of board, and arrange the feet in the natural position, and 
 pin them until dry ; place the head naturally. The eyes 
 should be removed from the outside, and artificial ones 
 substituted. If it is not convenient to skin a turtle, place 
 it in boiling water a few moments, when the softer parts 
 can easily be removed from the shell. In this case, how- 
 ever, the bones and skull should be cleaned, labelled, and 
 preserved with the shell. 
 
 For scientific specimens, toads and frogs must be pre- 
 served in alcohol. But they may be skinned in the follow- 
 ing manner : Open the mouth as wide as possible, and cut 
 through the bone of the neck or back from the inside ; do 
 not cut the skin ; then separate the flesh on the inside 
 all around. Take hold with the thumb and forefinger, or 
 with a pair of pliers, of the backbone, and press the skin 
 downwards, and draw the body out. When the forelegs 
 appear, cut the bone and flesh oft' to the toe-nails, and pro- 
 ceed to perform the same operation with the hind legs. 
 Cover the skin with arsenic, and turn it back, the legs 
 may be easily turned by blowing into them with the 
 breath. Fill the body with bran, and support the head 
 in a natural position with cotton until dry. Remove the 
 eyes from the outside, and supply their place with artificial
 
 REPTILES. 67 
 
 ones, but be sure to place them in the proper position. 
 To place a frog or toad in a fancy attitude, place a ball of 
 grass in the body, and wire the legs as described in small 
 mammals. 
 
 The best time to collect toads and frogs is during the 
 breeding-season in spring. The salamanders may be found 
 under stones and logs in damp places ; also some species in 
 springs and clear running brooks, under stones. They 
 must be placed in alcohol at once. 
 
 Lizards and alligators may be skinned in the following 
 manner : Make an incision the whole length of the belly, 
 and skin as described in mammals, leaving the skull in. 
 Do not try to remove the skin from the top of the head, as 
 it will be likely to tear. The leg-bones should be cleaned 
 and left in. The reptile is then mounted in the same 
 manner as a mammal. Lizards and small alligators may 
 be put in alcohol. 
 
 The eggs of frogs and of salamanders may be preserved 
 in alcohol. The eggs of lizards, alligators, and turtles 
 may be blown in the same manner as birds' eggs ; but it is 
 well to place some in alcohol if they are in an advanced 
 state of incubation, as they will serve to illustrate the 
 growth of the embryo. But the egg must be broken 
 slightly to admit the alcohol to the embryo. 
 
 Last winter I accidentally made a discovery relative to 
 the preservation of fish and reptiles. While travelling in 
 Florida, I accidentally lost some alcohol. Being unable 
 to replace it, and having some reptiles to preserve, I put 
 about an ounce of carbolic acid into a glass jar, with half 
 a pound of arsenic ; to this I added a quart of water, I 
 will here remark that the waters of Florida are strongly 
 impregnated with lime. Into this composition I put some 
 reptiles and a few young mammals. After two weeks, the 
 jar was packed with others in a box, and sent North by 
 express.
 
 68 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 Upon arriving home, and opening the box, I found that 
 the jar had become broken, and the liquid had escaped. 
 The smaller reptiles, etc. I placed in alcohol ; but a rep- 
 tile known as the " Glass Snake " and a young Rabbit 
 were left out for want of room, set away and forgotten. 
 Upon looking them up about a month afterwards, I found, 
 to my surprise, that the " snake " had dried completely 
 ivithout shrinking in the least, and, moreover, it retained all 
 the peculiar glossiness of life ! The Rabbit had not shrunk 
 any more than if it had been in strong alcohol. 
 
 Such is the result of an accident. Whether this discov- 
 ery will prove of general practical use in preserving reptiles 
 is yet to be proven.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 
 
 SECTION I. Crustacea. But few of these interesting 
 objects of natural history live away from the salt water. 
 The Crawfishes and a few others form the exceptions to 
 the rule. All Lobsters, Crabs, Shrimps, and Crawfishes 
 may be preserved dry. Wash them in fresh water, and, 
 if the specimen is large, remove the flesh as much as 
 possible by lifting the shield, or upper part of the shell. 
 The specimens should be placed in as natural an attitude 
 as possible to dry. When dry they should be handled 
 with care, as they break easily. If arsenic is put into the 
 body, it will help to preserve it and keep away noxious 
 insects. 
 
 Small Crabs, Shrimps, etc. should be injected with car- 
 bolic acid and dried carefully. Never place a specimen in 
 the sun to dry, but always in a draught of air in the shade. 
 A great many kinds of Shrimps or Sand-Fleas may be col- 
 lected from under sea-weeds on sandy beaches. 
 
 Collecting Mollusks. Many shells may be collected 
 on the sea-shore among the rocks at low tide. Some 
 of the more minuje species may be found clinging to the 
 sea-weed that grows on the rocks. These require delicate 
 manipulation, as they are very fragile ; they are best re- 
 moved with the tweezers, and should be placed in wide- 
 mouthed bottles containing alcohol. Some species of cone- 
 shaped, univalve shells may be found clinging closely to 
 the rocks. They should be seized suddenly with the hand, 
 and, before the animal has time to contract itself, which 
 it will do very quickly, and then it adheres so closely as
 
 70 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 to render its separation from the rock without injuring 
 the shell extremely difficult, removed with a sliding 
 motion. 
 
 Many species may be found buried in the mud and sand 
 below high-water mark. The exact locality where these 
 are hidden may be determined by searching for their 
 breathing-holes on the surface of the mud or sand ; then, 
 by carefully removing a few inches of the soil, the shell 
 may be detected. Numerous species may be taken in 
 deep water by dredging, or with a rake, such as is used in 
 gathering oysters, etc. 
 
 A great many shells may be procured just as they are 
 cast on shore from the action of the waves; these must 
 be washed in fresh water and dried. The different species 
 of smaller fresh-water shells may be found upon rocks, 
 aquatic plants, and on the surface of the mud. They 
 should be placed in alcohol. The larger species such 
 as the mussels may be taken by dredging. Numerous 
 shells of mussels may be found at the entrances of the 
 holes of the muskrats ; of these the collector may take his 
 choice, as many of them are in excellent condition for the 
 cabinet. 
 
 The land shells, or snails, may be taken from the differ- 
 ent plants upon which they feed, or from under stones or 
 logs, especially in damp places. The smaller species should 
 be carefully removed with tweezers, as they are very fragile, 
 and placed in alcohol. 
 
 Preserving Shells. It is well to preserve in alcohol 
 numbers of all species of shells containing the animal. To 
 remove the contents from shells that are to be dried for 
 the cabinet, boil them a few moments, and clean them 
 with a bent pin or wire. The contents of the different 
 species of bivalves may be removed with a knife without 
 boiling, as by this method the shell retains its color much 
 better. The bivalves should have their shells closed and
 
 MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 71 
 
 tied until dry. If the shells of mussels have a chalky ap- 
 pearance, it may be removed by immersing the specimen 
 for a few moments in a bath of diluted muriatic acid. All 
 shells should be carefully washed in fresh water with a 
 tooth-brush. 
 
 Never varnish a shell ; it shows bad taste to try to im- 
 prove upon nature in this way, besides injuring the speci- 
 men for scientific use. As some of the more fragile land 
 shells are liable to crack when drying, it is well to apply 
 a slight coating of gum-arabic dissolved in water. This at 
 some future time may be easily removed. There are also 
 some species from which the epidermis is liable to peel ; to 
 prevent this, Mr. F. W. Putnam informs me that they 
 should be immersed in oil for a short time. 
 
 Worms. Marine worms may be found in the sand or 
 mud and under stones. They should be kept in strong 
 alcohol. Earthworms, Leeches, etc. must also be kept in 
 alcohol. 
 
 Many species of marine worms may be found in the 
 hulls of ships, or in wood that has been immersed in salt 
 water for some time. 
 
 Animal Parasites. Recently in this country, and for 
 some time in Europe, attention has been directed by emi- 
 nent naturalists to the parasites found on birds and other 
 animals, and in their intestines. These should be placed in 
 alcohol. The parasites from each bird or animal should 
 be kept separate, in small phials, with the name of the bird 
 or animal from which it was taken attached, also the date 
 and locality. 
 
 The Jelly-Fishes may be found in deep water or near the 
 shore in countless numbers. There are a great many spe- 
 cies. They may be preserved in the following manner : 
 After catching them in a bucket, pour off the water, and 
 add strong alcohol, a little at a time. The animal will give 
 out water continually during this operation, and alcohol
 
 72 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 should be added until it dies, when the water will cease 
 flowing. It should then be removed from this solution 
 and placed in strong alcohol, where it must be kept 
 permanently. 
 
 Corals which generally grow at some distance from 
 the shore, and sometimes ha deep water should be se- 
 cured with nets. They must first be washed in fresh water, 
 then dried in the shade. It is also desirable to preserve 
 specimens in alcohol. 
 
 Sea-Anemones are found attached to the rocks or buried 
 in the mud ; they should be plunged in strong alcohol 
 when fully expanded, but the alcohol should afterwards be 
 changed, as they give oxit large quantities of water. 
 
 Hydroids and Bryozoa. Incrustations on the rocks, sea- 
 weeds, and delicate tufts found growing on rocks, etc., 
 are called by these names. They may be dried or pre- 
 served in alcohol like the Corals. 
 
 Star-Fishes may be found among the rocks at low tide. 
 They should be killed by immersing in alcohol or fresh 
 water. Some species should be preserved in alcohol, where 
 they should be placed in as natural attitudes as possi- 
 ble, as when they become rigid it is impossible to alter 
 the position of the arms. They may be dried in the 
 shade by placing them in natural positions upon a board. 
 When dead, they should be dried instantly, as they will 
 decompose in a few hours if kept in a damp place. 
 
 Sea-Urchins may be taken in rocky pools at low water. 
 They may also be found under the sand on beaches, from 
 which they are frequently washed by the waves. They may 
 be preserved in alcohol, or dried like the Star-Fishes. 
 
 Holothurias, or Sea-Cucumbers, are found on flats or 
 under stones. They must be preserved in alcohol. 
 
 Sponges and Seaweeds should be dried in a draught. Very 
 pretty ornaments are made of the sea-mosses by washing 
 them in fresh water, and spreading upon dampened paper
 
 PREPARING SKELETONS. 73 
 
 with a fine needle ; the glutinous matter contained iu the 
 plants will cause them to adhere so firmly to the paper 
 when dried and pressed as to look like a very fine engrav- 
 ing or painting. When a collection of these are executed 
 by a skilful and artistic hand, and bound in a book, they 
 form a beautiful and interesting volume.* 
 
 SECTION II. Preparing Skeletons. I will give the meth- 
 ods by which bones may be cleaned. To clean the bones 
 of large animals, first take off as much of the flesh as is 
 possible with a knife ; then put them in slatted boxes, and 
 place the boxes in a running stream, or between tide-marks 
 on the sea-shore. The boxes, being open, will allow the 
 entrance of Shrimps, other aquatic animals, and insects, 
 who will devour the meat, while the water, having free 
 passage through, will perform its part. When well cleaned, 
 wash them in warm soap-suds, and, after rinsing, dry in 
 the sun and air ; this will tend to bleach them. 
 
 The bones of smaller animals may also be cleansed in 
 this manner; but the better way is either to boil them until 
 the flesh comes off easily, or to put them into water that 
 has been impregnated with chloride of lime ; in both cases 
 the bones will have to be cleaned afterwards with a knife 
 and a stiff brush ; they should be scraped as little as 
 possible. If kept in a dry place, exposed to the action 
 of the air, the bones will bleach constantly. 
 
 Mounting Skeletons. To mount the skeleton of a bird, 
 place a wire through the hole occupied by the spinal cord, 
 and fasten it in the skull ; this will hold the vertebra of 
 
 * As there is not a general interest manifested in the objects alluded to 
 in this section, I have given but few directions for collecting and preserv- 
 ing them, but such as will, perhaps, satisfy the general collector. Those 
 who are particularly interested in them will find in the pages of the vari- 
 ous numbers of the "American Naturalist" more particular directions for 
 collecting and preserving each branch of this truly interesting class of 
 animals, written by the most competent and well-informed men in our 
 country 
 
 4
 
 74 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 the neck and tail, and other bones of the back, in position. 
 Next, force a wire through the hollows in the bones of the 
 tarsi, tibia, and hips (Plate X. k, y, j) by drilling a hole 
 through each end; now fasten this wire to the broad bone 
 that covers the back (m), by drilling a hole through on 
 each side and bending the wire down firmly (x), first over 
 then under the bone, where it meets the end of the oppo- 
 site wire ; twist the ends together. The wing, breast, and 
 other bones are now fastened on by drilling holes trans- 
 versely through the ends and running wires through and 
 twisting them (r, d). 
 
 The skeletons of mammals, fishes, etc. are mounted in 
 much the same manner. If large, they are supported on 
 iron rods. The wire used must be composed of brass or 
 copper, as iron corrodes easily. The fleshy or cartilaginous 
 parts of the feet should be removed, but not the outer or 
 horny portion of the bill
 
 PREPARING SKELETONS. 
 
 75
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS. 
 
 No portion of natural history has received more atten- 
 tion than the science of Oology ; yet in very many cases 
 collections of eggs are made in such a careless manner as 
 to render them worthless, except as ornaments, on account 
 of the collector's not paying sufficient attention to identifi- 
 cation and authentication. 
 
 Let identification, then, be the collector's first care ; let 
 him make it a rule never to take an egg or nest until 
 he can surely tell to what species it belongs. The best 
 method of learning the name of the owner of the nest is to 
 shoot her, especially by collectors who have had but little 
 experience in studying birds; while the more practised 
 ornithologist can generally tell at a glance, if the bird is 
 large, what it is. While collecting the eggs of the War- 
 blers and other small birds, the most experienced oblogist 
 should never neglect to shoot the bird, even if he has to 
 watch for it a long time. 
 
 Nests and eggs should never be labelled on the author- 
 ity of a person who has found them, and only seen the 
 birds, but who is in a comparative degree unacquainted 
 with them. The nest should be seen in situ, and the bird 
 identified. I have known a great many errors to arise from 
 this source. 
 
 Commence early in spring to look for the nests of the 
 rapacious birds, and continue the search for these and 
 other nests until late in summer. I know of no rule to be 
 followed in finding nests. Search long and diligently in 
 every locality frequented by birds ; and watch them while
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS. 77 
 
 building. Place straw, hay, cotton, hemp, or any of the 
 materials that birds use in constructing their nests, in 
 an exposed situation in a swamp or wood, then by watch- 
 ing the birds when they come to take it, and following 
 them, many nests will be found that would otherwise 
 escape notice. 
 
 To remove the contents of an egg, drill a small hole 
 in one side with a drill made for this purpose (Plate I. 
 Figs. 5, 6) ; two sizes of these drills will be required. Now, 
 with the blow-pipe of which two sizes are also needed, 
 (Fig. 7) applied to the lips, force a small stream of air 
 into the hole; this will cause the contents, if fresh, to 
 escape at the (me hole. To prevent breakage while drill- 
 ing the eggs of the Humming-Birds, or other small birds, it 
 is well to cover the outer surface with thin paper, gummed 
 securely on, and dried. 
 
 To remove the contents of an egg that has the embryo 
 partially developed, drill as before, only a larger hole is 
 necessary ; then with a small hook (Fig. 8) remove the 
 embryo in small pieces ; after which introduce water with 
 the blow-pipe to rinse the interior of the egg. If the con- 
 tents are allowed to remain in a few days, it will facilitate 
 their removal. If the egg is covered with paper, as in the 
 case of the Humming-Birds, the edges of the hole will be 
 less liable to be injured by the shell being broken while 
 using the hook. 
 
 Never make holes at the end of the egg, or on opposite 
 sides , but if this old method is still preferred, ^hey should 
 both be made on one side, with the larger one nearest the 
 greater end. 
 
 The best method that I know of for authenticating eggs 
 is the following : After the egg is blown, place a number, 
 written with ink, upon it, corresponding with one placed 
 in the nest, then draw a line beneath it ; under this line 
 place the number of the egg in the nest : thus would
 
 78 
 
 NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 mean that the nest is No. 29, and the egg is the No. 4 of 
 that nest; both of these, numbers will refer to a book, 
 where all the particulars of the finding of the nest, the 
 locality, measurements of the nest, eggs, etc. in inches, 
 are recorded. 
 
 The method of preparing a book like that referred to 
 above may be seen in the following specimen : 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 III 
 
 IP 
 
 "ill 
 4*1 
 
 111
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS. 79 
 
 The measurements of an egg are taken with the dividers 
 in hundredths of an inch. The number is attached to the 
 nest. Nests, if composed of loose materials, must be kept 
 in boxes, separated from each other ; if lined with feathers, 
 benzine should frequently be applied, to prevent their being 
 attacked by moths.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS. 
 
 SECTION I. How to collect. First, let me say a few 
 words to the young Naturalist. When I last appeared 
 before him as an adviser, I rather intimated, that 
 members of our brotherhood were looked upon by the 
 world at largo as slightly insane, or at best, as very 
 foolish. This was much more the case then, than it 
 is to-day. Now, the tables are turned, as it were ; the 
 ecientist need no longer dread the scoffs of the " prac- 
 tical men," for the knowledge which he possesses is the 
 " open sesame " for him to all ranks of society. The 
 tide of popular opinion now flows strongly towards 
 the gate of learning opened by modern zoological 
 science, and all are eager to listen to what may fall 
 from the lips of our eminent professors. 
 
 Thus, many obstacles which were formerly thrown in 
 the path of the young and enthusiastic collector, are 
 removed. A word to parents or guardians, however, 
 may not come amiss just here. I have often been 
 asked, " Do you think the study of Natural History 
 will prove beneficial to my son ? " My answer is, 
 " Most certainly it is beneficial ; but, aside from direct 
 benefits, which are, perhaps, too numerous to mention, 
 there is one important point which ought to be kept 
 in mind. While your son is engaged in this enchant- 
 ing study, his mind will be so fully occupied with the 
 
 81
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 multiplicity of objects which are constantly inviting 
 his earnest attention, that he will find but little time 
 to devote to mischief. Young and active brains will 
 find occupation; the old hymn wisely says, 'Satan 
 finds some mischief still for idle hands to do.' Leav- 
 ing his Satanic Majesty out of the question, it is best, 
 as all will agree, to allow our children to occupy them- 
 selves, during leisure hours, in some amusing recrea- 
 tion. . What can be better than the enjoyable and 
 health-giving exercise connected with the study of 
 Natural History ? " 
 
 So much for moralizing; now for the subject. I 
 want to reiterate what I have said in the latter portion 
 of the third paragraph, page 4. No matter how com- 
 mon a desirable species may be, when you meet with it 
 in a locality with which you are unacquainted, proceed 
 at once to collect all you want. I have known of many 
 instances where delay, in such cases, was dangerous, 
 the birds having disappeared in a single night. 
 
 I have somewhere seen a remark made by a distin- 
 guished Naturalist to the effect, that any one could 
 collect birds after a short experience. This I deny, 
 and will further state, that not one person in fifty will 
 ever make a good collector, for the gathering together 
 of birds is a high art. In order to become an emi- 
 nently successful collector, many acquirements are 
 necessary. A quick eye, a good ear, perfect coolness, 
 accompanied with ready action in emergency, pa- 
 tience in an extreme degree, a tenacious memory, and 
 an utter disregard of such minor troubles as wet feet, 
 scratches from thorns, stings from insects, etc., arc 
 among the requisites in the make-up of a first-class 
 collector. 
 
 But the tyro must not become discouraged by read- 
 ing this array, for many of these attributes, if not all
 
 APPENDIX. 06 
 
 of them, can be acquired by practice. Study well the 
 habits of each and every species which comes under 
 your eye. Note carefully song or motion, and learn to 
 even distinguish the various Sparrows and "Warblers by 
 the chirp alone. Although this is somewhat difficult, 
 it can be done, for I know of several who do it. 
 No two species possess habits which are exactly alike 
 in every respect, and the nicer points of distinction 
 can be learned so that the flirt of a tail or the droop 
 of a wing will often betray a rare bird, even if it be sur- 
 rounded by hundreds of more common species which 
 are quite similar in appearance. 
 
 This art may be carried to such perfection, that it 
 appears like something marvelous, to one who is not 
 skilled in it, to see how readily certain obscurely-col- 
 ored species may be detected, even at a long distance, 
 from among others having similar form and markings. 
 I have frequently known two experts, when collecting 
 in company, to shoot, both at one instant, at the same 
 bird the moment it appeared, although neither was 
 aware that the other saw it. By learning to distinguish 
 all species instantly, the ornithologist is spared the 
 trouble and pain of shooting birds which are too com- 
 mon to be of any value to him. 
 
 In addition to the young, in all stages of plumage, 
 moulting birds should also be taken, as many valuable 
 facts can be learned by studying the various changes 
 undergone at this stage. 
 
 More recent improvements in breach-loading guns, 
 now render them desirable ; in fact, a muzzle-loader is 
 scarcely to be thought of for a collector. I do not 
 here recommend any particular make, but will simply 
 state, that I am at present using a Parker gun, and 
 find that it works like a charm. In collecting little 
 birds, however, I use a gun of an exceedingly small
 
 84 
 
 THE NATURALISTS GUIDE. 
 
 calibre, thirty-eight hundredths of an inch being large 
 enough. With a proper charge, which can be ascer- 
 tained by experiment, using equal bulk of powder and 
 shot, birds as large as Blue-birds can be killed at twenty 
 yards. Besides being more economical, the specimens 
 r collected with this gun are better shot than with a 
 heavier one. The report is lighter, and does not 
 frighten the birds as much. 
 
 I do not now recommend Ely's wire cartridges. 
 For large birds, use a rifle with a small calibre. This 
 will kill farther, and will usually insure good speci- 
 mens. 
 
 In addition to the advice given on page 7, first par- 
 agraph, I would remark, that unless the shot-holes in 
 the abdomen are found and carefully plugged, the es- 
 caping fluids, being often exceedingly acrid, are quite 
 apt to soften the skin in a short time. I have known 
 the epidermis to slip on the abdomen before the spec- 
 imen was cold, from this cause. 
 
 In picking up a Heron, Duck, or "Wader which has 
 fallen into muddy water or ooze, care should be used 
 to take it by the bill, as then a greater portion of the 
 filth Avill slide off the oily feathers, which process may 
 be facilitated by gently shaking the bird. I have 
 seen white herons completely ruined by collectors who 
 took them out of the mud by the feet, thereby allow- 
 ing the dirt to slip under the immaculate feathers. 
 
 Allow me once more to repeat the caution about 
 handling guns. A good breach-loader, if properly 
 handled, is perfectly safe : but never point your gun at 
 a human being (there is no necessity of getting in front 
 of the muzzle yourself when it is loaded), and there 
 is no danger to any one. In shooting, the gun should 
 never be brought to a full cock until you are about to 
 fire. Practice will make perfect in this respect. I can
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 85 
 
 cock my gun, even Avhen Snipe shooting, after the bird 
 rises, and kill ; further, I can shoot two Quail which 
 both jump at once and fly in opposite directions, cock- 
 ing each barrel for each bird after they are a- wing. 
 Almost any one can do this with practice. 
 
 Birdlime may be used to advantage in securing 
 birds, especially during the breeding season. A small 
 twig is covered with a thin layer of this exceedingly 
 viscid substance, and placed in such a position that 
 the bird will alight on it when she goes to the nest. 
 The limed twig should be lightly poised, so that it will 
 fall a short distance, as this will cause the bird to 
 stretch out its wings, and thus become entangled more 
 firmly. The lime should be spread with the fingers, 
 which should be first wet, to prevent its sticking to 
 them. I have also used various traps, snares, etc., to 
 advantage in capturing birds. The blow-gun is also 
 very good, although it is somewhat uncertain, as pro- 
 jectiles fired from it are apt to glance from twigs, 
 leaves, etc. 
 
 SECTION II. How to prepare Specimens, Instru- 
 ments, Materials, etc. 
 
 To the instruments mentioned add three or four 
 sizes of awls, made long for boring the feet and tarsi 
 of dried skins. 
 
 I have now given up the use of arsenic, as being 
 very poisonous, for I am convinced that my health 
 has suffered from using it. I have, however, discov- 
 ered another substance which I think far superior to 
 arsenic. This is a product of coal-tar, and resembles 
 carbolic acid in its effect as a preservative. The odor 
 is also disagreeable to insects, and specimens preserved 
 with it are free from their attacks. This new preserv- 
 ative is in the form of a powder, and is not a danger- 
 ous poison.
 
 86 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 I will once again refer to the poisonous gases engen- 
 dered by birds in progress of decay. I have been 
 surprised to learn from competent physicians, that 
 little or nothing is known of the baneful effects of 
 this gas. Several years ago, when suffering from the 
 effects of it, I visited an old physician, and described 
 the symptoms to him. I was then ignorant of the 
 cause of my illness, so was not surprised when he in- 
 formed me that I had been poisoned with ivy (Rhus 
 toxicodendron). His treatment of the difficulty, while 
 laboring under this mistake, had little or no effect. I 
 then consulted another doctor, who, although well 
 acquainted with my pursuits, also decided that I was 
 poisoned with some vegetable substance. His treat- 
 ment also failing, and being then convinced that both 
 were wrong, I discovered the cause for myself, and the 
 remedy, which is as stated on page 14. 
 
 I now recommend the wide, thick shoes called army 
 shoes for collectors ; they are doubtless, the best in 
 summer; in winter either leather or rubber boots, ac- 
 cording to the season. 
 
 I now use forms slightly different from those men- 
 tioned on page 18 ; these are strips of tin, rolled up in 
 half-cylinders, resembling a single section of those 
 figured in Plate IX., Figs. 1 and '2. 
 
 SECTION III. Measuring, Skinning, and Preserv- 
 ing Birds. In skinning small birds, time may be 
 saved by breaking off the end of the tibia ; then, by 
 stripping downwards and twisting, the muscles may 
 be all cut at once. The brains may be removed 
 much more easily by three cuts; one down through 
 the base of the skull, as described, and two on each 
 side, beneath the skull; these last meet under the eye 
 sockets; thus a triangular piece is removed, to which 
 the brains adhere.
 
 APPENDIX. 87 
 
 In large birds, like Eagles, I now skin over the met- 
 acarpus (beyond the carpal joint). This may readily 
 be accomplished with practice. Indeed, every bone in 
 the wing, including the phalanges, may be removed 
 from the inside. I have, also, frequently performed 
 the somewhat difficult feat of removing every bone in 
 the body, including those of the bill and claws, leav- 
 ing only the horny .covering ; thus securing a perfect 
 skeleton, as well as a mounted specimen. 
 
 I do not now tie the bones, as mentioned on page 23, 
 but simply place the wings in position. 
 
 When placing the cotton in the neck, as described 
 on page 24, be sure that the end of the roll enters 
 the cavity of the skull ; this will make the neck more 
 solid. 
 
 I now sew through a pinch of skin from the out- 
 side, when fastening the wings in position, by the sides 
 and over the quill, not through it. Thus the thread 
 is tied outside. 
 
 In filling small birds, I now first sew the wings, and 
 then place neck and body in together. This saves time, 
 and makes a better skin, it being stronger. 
 
 Too much care cannot be exercised in placing the 
 skin in the form. To make a perfect specimen, every 
 feather should be carefully put in place, and smoothly 
 arranged. For drying, place the skin in a closet, 01 
 some place where it will not be disturbed by the slight 
 est breath of wind. I now recommend writing date, 
 locality, and sex, on labels attached to the skin ; also, 
 in case of rare birds, color of feet, bill, eyes, etc. 
 
 In preparing the wings of large birds, like Hawks, 
 first fill the neck and body, using grass or excelsior for 
 the latter. Then, after placing the wing in position 
 without drawing the forearm within the skin, sew at
 
 88 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 the sides as in small birds; and also at the carpal 
 joints. 
 
 Ducks are treated in the same manner ; but always 
 turn the head on the back, and stitch the feet together. 
 Open on the back of the head, instead of on the throat, 
 when skinning. 
 
 I do not .now bend the necks of Herons, but simply 
 lay the head on the back, stitch the legs together at 
 the tarsal joint, bend the legs forward outwardly, then 
 fasten the toes to the wing. This gives the skin a 
 compact form. 
 
 Some three or four summers since, I was accident- 
 ally left on a small islet lying in the midst of the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence. As this lonely rock was swarming 
 with birds, all of which were desirable, I soon collected 
 a large quantity ; but, unfortunately, when I visited the 
 rock I only intended remaining a few hours, so did 
 not go provided with arsenic for making skins. This 
 omission, although I then considered it a misfortune, 
 proved of great benefit to me, as it resulted in a dis- 
 covery which has since become invaluable. Having 
 skinned a large quantity of birds, and as the vessel 
 which was to take me off did not arrive, I was at loss 
 to know what to do with them. But, as necessity w 
 the mother of invention, it occurred to me that I 
 might salt them, and thus carry them home. There 
 was a light-house on the rock, and the keeper had a 
 supply of salt; I procured some, and rubbed it on the 
 skins. These were afterwards simply packed in bar- 
 rels, and sent to Massachusetts. When I came to use 
 them, I found them in perfect condition, only requir- 
 ing to be washed, when they came out like fresh skins. 
 
 I have since applied this method to all large skins, 
 and find that it proves effective, even in Florida. The 
 skin is removed as usual, and simply salted; the salt
 
 APPENDIX. 89 
 
 being applied as if it were arsenic or any other pre- 
 servative. The skin is then folded neatly, and wrapped 
 in paper. "When ready for use, it is put into the damp- 
 ing box for a day or two; then the inside is care- 
 fully washed, the preservative is applied, and the 
 bird is mounted. 
 
 SECTION IV. Mounting Specimens. I do not now 
 fill the neck with -any loose substance. The body is 
 made as before; then a wire is pushed through it 
 lengthwise, firmly clinched behind, and protruding in 
 front as long as the neck, skull, and one half the bill- 
 This is wound with hemp or cotton as far as the skull, 
 care being taken to make it somewhat smaller than 
 the neck. This is coated with a layer of clay, mixed 
 to the consistency of putty, well kneaded, making it 
 the size of the natural neck, excepting that it should be 
 larger at the base. The brain and eye cavities, as well 
 as the space occupied by the tongue, should also be 
 filled with clay; by using this pliable substance, the 
 neck and head can be placed in any position. Well- 
 kneaded clay becomes as hard as stone, when dry ; it 
 also possesses the advantage of not shrinking. Clay is 
 especially useful in mounting dried skins. I also fill 
 the tibiae of Hawks, Herons, etc., with it. 
 
 Instead of pinning up the wings, as described on 
 page 39, they should be wired. Cut wires of a suitable 
 length, of a smaller size than is used for the legs, and 
 pass them through the wings, entering them just below 
 the carpal joint, on the under side ; thus on through 
 the body, clinching as described for the legs. The 
 outer end of the wire is now passed through a small 
 opening which occurs in the carpus (seen near F, Plate 
 X.), brought out above, and bent firmly down. This 
 wire will always be concealed from above by the spu- 
 rious wing which lies over it.
 
 90 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 Care should be taken to find this opening in the 
 carpus, for if it be passed between the phalanges it 
 will separate them and the quills. 
 
 In raising the wings, this method of wiring will be 
 found of great advantage ; the secondaries, etc., should, 
 however, be kept in place by supplementary wires, un- 
 til dry, as before described. In large birds, supply the 
 place of the wing muscles with clay. 
 
 I do not now recommend opening Ducks, or any 
 other birds, under the wings; but if any grease re- 
 mains on the skin, coat it with soapstone dust, and it 
 will never give trouble. 
 
 NOTE TO SEC. II. Another instrument which I now 
 consider necessary in mounting and making skins is a 
 scissor-like tool, having long flat blades or points, 
 called a stuffer, and which may beobta ined of almost 
 any dealer in naturalists' supplies. 
 
 I have now not only given up the use of arsenic but 
 have also abandoned the use of napthaleine, the product 
 obtained from coal tar, of which I speak in the 
 appendix to this chapter. In place of this I have 
 succeeded in manufacturing a Preservative of several 
 ingredients, which, besides not being a poison, is a 
 deodorizer, completely absorbs oil from greasy skins, 
 preserves them better than arsenic, and is equally 
 good in preventing insect attacks. 
 
 As will be seen upon referring to the next section, a 
 new method of skin-making renders the use of tin 
 forms unnecessary, or, in fact, any other forms. 
 
 NOTE TO SEC. III. A JVeto Method of Skin-Making. 
 I have, in the last few years, considerably changed my 
 method of making skins, and now proceed as follows :
 
 APPENDIX. 91 
 
 The skin is removed as directed, but before it is turned 
 a piece of wire, varying in thickness according to the 
 size of the bird, is twisted around each wing bone, 
 connecting them together, but they should be kept as 
 far apart as they were when attached to the body. 
 The skin is now turned as before ; no sewing is now 
 done to the wings, as the wire will keep them in place. 
 Place the cotton in the skin in one piece, as directed, 
 taking care that the wing bones lie parallel with the 
 body, for if they cross one another the wings will not 
 set well. Sew up the orifice, smooth the feathers, and 
 see that the wings lie according to directions given 
 previously. A piece of cotton sufficiently large to 
 envelope the skin is now split into very thin layers, the 
 skin placed on one of these, and wrapped in it by draw- 
 ing first one side, then the other, over the bird, thus 
 covering every part, even the head. Skins prepared 
 in this way are simply laid one side upon any level 
 surface until dry, when the wrapping may be removed ; 
 or, if the skin is to be packed for transportation, a 
 thicker layer of cotton is added. The cotton which is 
 used for this purpose is of a nice grade, and is adver- 
 tised in our supply catalogue. 
 
 Large birds are treated in the same manner, and the 
 necks as well as the legs of all birds should be kept 
 straight, in as natural a position as is possible. The skins 
 of ducks should be placed on their breasts, as more 
 characteristic colors are to be seen above. 
 
 Salted skins should not be kept for more than a year 
 without making over, or mounting, and the feathers 
 should be kept as smooth as possible. 
 
 NOTE TO SEC. IV. Of all the methods of mount- 
 ing which I have practised, I prefer the one now to be 
 described : No hard body is made, but the cotton is 
 wound around the neck wire as mentioned in the
 
 92 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 appendix; placed in the skin, leaving the lower end 
 protruding as far back as the root of the tail. Wires 
 are fastened in the wings as directed in the preceding 
 instructions, and the ends which protrude into the body 
 are wrapped firmly about the neck wire ; next the leg 
 wires are pushed in and also wrapped around the other 
 wires ; after which a tail wire is also fastened on. The 
 space around these wires is now packed with cotton to 
 the natural size of the bird, care being used to place 
 the cotton in layers, not in bunches ; sew up the orifice, 
 mould the bird into form somewhat, and place it on a 
 stand, where it can be finished as previously directed. 
 In using this method, smaller wires can be taken, as the 
 body is not as heavy as when excelsior is used.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 
 
 SECTION I. Collecting. A good way to capture 
 small Mammals in an unsettled section of the coun- 
 try, is, to dig a pit, which may be partly filled with 
 water. A great many of the smaller Rodents, as well 
 as Shrews, Moles, etc., will fall into this during the 
 night. I have practiced this with success while in 
 Florida. 
 
 SECTION II. Skinning. I now say that the tails 
 of both skunks and musk-rats may be skinned in the 
 ordinary way : i. e., stripped out. 
 
 My method of skinning Mammals has changed 
 somewhat. Only small Mammals are to be skinned as 
 described, and the following exceptions are to be made : 
 Do not leave any bones in the skin ; I even remove 
 the bones of the claws, if I wish to mount the skel- 
 eton. This can easily be accomplished, with practice, 
 for the horny covering of the claws will come off read- 
 ily, especially if they be split on the under side. Al- 
 ways remove the skull. 
 
 To make a skin of small Mammals, fill it with cot- 
 ton, and proceed as directed. Label the skull, or, what 
 is better, attach it to the skin. This filling should 
 only be used when a permanent skin is needed for the 
 cabinet. If it is to be mounted at some future time, 
 simply coat the skin with salt, and either wrap it in 
 paper, or pack in a box by itself. 
 
 In skinning large Mammals, the crosscut should bo 
 continued to the foot, and all the bones removed.
 
 94 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 SECTION III. Mounting Mammals. There is no 
 part of this \vork wherein I have made so much im- 
 provement as in the present section. 
 
 For many years I have endeavored to find some 
 method by which Mammals could be mounted, and 
 still retain the life-like fullness of the muscles, espe- 
 cially those in the region of the head. In order to ac- 
 complish this, I knew that I must fill the parts with 
 some substance which would not shrink upon drying, 
 and yet be readily moulded. Happily I have found 
 two materials which admirably answer the purpose, 
 viz., clay and plaster. 
 
 In mounting very small Mammals, either supply the 
 place of the muscles of the skull with plaster, or make 
 a cast of the entire head, taking care in both cases to 
 insert a wire so that it shall protrude out of the back 
 of the occiput. Fill the legs with clay, place the 
 skull or cast in position, then fill the neck with clay, 
 and proceed as before directed, only using clay in place 
 of bran. It must be remembered that Mammal mount- 
 ing is extremely difficult, and that it requires long prac- 
 tice to* acquire anything like perfection ; yet, if com- 
 plete measurements have been taken, and the pupil is 
 familiar with the subject, he will learn, although nec- 
 essarily more slowly than in mounting birds. 
 
 I have made this subject a life-study, and have yet 
 to learn a better method, although I think lam famil- 
 iar with all the various styles of Mammal mounting 
 practised by others. At the risk of being considered 
 egotistical, I will say, that, with very feiu exceptions, f 
 have never seen a Mammal mounted well that was 
 done in any other way. 
 
 The preceding will only answer for Mammals smaller 
 than a Mink. In large specimens, when the recent 
 animal is at hand, I arrange the rods as directed, with-
 
 APPENDIX. 95 
 
 out fastening them to the stand. Then, after making 
 a mould in plaster of the entire body, head, legs, 
 and all, taking care to place the body in some life-like 
 attitude, I place the frame within the mould, and run 
 plaster around it, thus completing the cast. I would 
 advise those who wish to arrive at early perfection in 
 this art, to take a few lessons in plaster-casting. The 
 ears of Mammals should be skinned, and the mem- 
 brane supplied with thin sheet-lead, fastened to the 
 cast or skull with wire. 
 
 Dried skins of large Mammals are mounted upon 
 models made of plaster and clay. 
 
 NOTE TO SEC. II. The Dermal Preservative will be 
 found excellent in preserving the skins of mammals, in 
 fact it completely tans them. Take a moderately sized 
 skin, for example that of a fox ; after skinning as directed 
 for tanning, keep the skin right side out and rub it well 
 with Preservative, keeping it in a warm room and near 
 a fire ; as soon as the skin begins to dry a little, which 
 will occur in a short time, it should be scraped with a 
 blunt knife to remove the inner skin. This peels off in 
 strips ; and, as the skin dries, the scraping should be 
 continued, at the same time the skin should be 
 stretched and rubbed, continuing until the whole 
 becomes soft. Skins that have been dried should be 
 soaked in water in which a quantity of Preservative has 
 been dissolved, then treated as above directed. 
 
 I now mount mammals in a similar manner as I do 
 birds, with equally good results. Clay and plaster are 
 excellent, but great care must be exercised not to over- 
 fill the animal, for if this be the case the skin in 
 shrinking will invariably pull out the stitches where it
 
 96 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 is sewed up, or will break in some thin place ; experi- 
 ence will, however, enable one to overcome this 
 difficulty, yet in ordinary mounting I prefer the soft 
 filling. Small mammals are stuffed with cotton, large 
 ones with excelsior, as described in Chapter II., 
 Section III.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS FOB THE 
 CABINET. 
 
 Beetles, or Coleoptera. If Beetles are put into alco- 
 hol, they should not remain in it long, but should be 
 either pinned or packed carefully into cotton-wool, 
 when they may be transported in this way. 
 
 I have given general directions for collecting Bee- 
 tles, but will now mention each family in detail. 
 
 CiciNDELiD^;,;7Y<7er Beetles, are found in dusty roads, 
 on sand-beaches, in rocky pastures, in fact I have 
 collected them in nearly all places which were devoid 
 of vegetation, from the rocks of Grand Menan, to 
 the barren salt-marshes of Florida. They are very 
 agile insects, but may be caught in nets quite readily. 
 The larvae live in holes, in sections inhabited by the 
 Beetles. They should be preserved in alcohol. 
 
 CARABID^;, Ground Beetles. This is a very large 
 family. They are found upon the ground, under 
 stones, chips, and other debris. I have also found 
 some species washed ashore by the sea, often in great 
 numbers. I have taken many of the species of the 
 genius Lebia from the flowers of the Golden Eod. All 
 these Beetles prey upon other insects, or feed upon 
 dead animal matter. The Iarvs6 are found in similar 
 situations with the adults. 
 
 AMPHIZOID.E. Is a subaquatic family, and is re- 
 stricted, in its distribution, to California. 
 
 DYTISCID^E, Diving -Beetles, are found very common 
 
 97
 
 98 /UTENDIX. 
 
 in the water, and with the larvae, which are known 
 as Water-Tigers, may be captured with a net. 
 
 GYRINID.E, WJiirligigs. These well-known Beetles 
 are found upon the surface of the water ; but the 
 larvae live beneath it. Both may be taken with the 
 net. 
 
 HYDKOPHILID^, Water-Beetles. These are small 
 insects, found in ponds and other bodies of fresh 
 water, and, with the larvae, may be taken with the 
 net. 
 
 PLA.TYPSYLLID.E, Parasitical Beetles. The only 
 species which represents this family is found as a par- 
 asite, on the American Beaver. I have never found 
 them common, however. Indeed, many Beavers do 
 not have them at all. 
 
 SILPHID^, Carrion Beetles. Members of this family 
 are usually large and showy Beetles. They may be 
 captured by exposing the carcass of an animal during 
 the summer. They may be found crawling over it at 
 night, or beneath it in daytime. 
 
 PSELAPHID.E. I have captured species of this fam- 
 iry flying at twilight. Some are found beneath stones 
 and some in the nests of ants. They are all small in - 
 sects. 
 
 SLAPHYLIXID.E, Rose-Beetles. These long-bodied 
 singular-looking Beetles are found beneath stones, 
 leaves, bits of wood, etc. 
 
 Mr. Henry Hubbard, of Cambridge, informs me that 
 he has captured a great many of this family, and mem- 
 bers of other families having similar habits, by gath- 
 ering leaves and other debris in the woods, and sift- 
 ing it through a rather co.trse sieve over a white cloth. 
 The insects will then fall through. I have found 
 them in large numbers, with species having similar 
 habits, beneath stones, during a dry season iu lutumn.
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 99 
 
 Some species are found on flowers, and some in the 
 dry sand of sea-beaches. One, at least, occurs in fun- 
 gus, and a few species under the excrements of ani- 
 mals. 
 
 HISTERIDJS. I have found many of these Beetles 
 beneath the excrement of cows, especially in Florida. 
 A great many also occur in carcasses, while one is only 
 found in ants' nests in early spring. 
 
 SCAPHIDIID.E. These small insects are found only 
 in fungi. 
 
 TRICHOPTERYGID.E. These are the smallest Beetles 
 known, and are found beneath the bark of trees, or in 
 ants' nests. 
 
 PHALACRID^E. These small Beetles are found both 
 under bark and on flowers. 
 
 NITIDULARI^B. These small, flat insects are found 
 beneath the surface of the ground, under bark and 
 stones. 
 
 MONOTOMID^E are found under bark of trees. 
 
 TROGOSITIDJS occur in grain, and under bark. 
 
 COLTDIID.E may be found in fungi, or under bark. 
 
 DERMESTID js, Skin-Beetles. This is the family 
 which gives so much trouble to collectors. 
 
 Dermestes lardarius is a dark-colored Beetle, with 
 greyish buff markings on the base of the wing coverts. 
 The perfect insect gives but little trouble ; but the lar- 
 vae, which is long, and cylindrical, and covered with 
 red hairs, is particularly destructive. I have known 
 these larvae to destroy small skins in a few hours. 
 
 Anthrenus varius is another museum pest. Both 
 the Beetles and the larvae attack the skin of the feet, 
 and bills of birds. 
 
 The best way to rid skins of both these species is, to 
 saturate them with benzine. This will not injure the
 
 100 APPENDIX. 
 
 feathers in the least. All skins should be kept in in- 
 sect-proof cases, which I now furnish. 
 
 SCARAB^EID^:, Horn-Beetles, are found in decaying 
 wood, animal excrement, on flowers, beneath stones, 
 on sandy beaches, flying at twilight, and in the night. 
 They are mainly large and showy insects. Some are 
 found feeding on the flowing sap of newly-cut trees. 
 The larvae are found in decayed wood and beneath 
 the surface of the ground. 
 
 BCPRESTID^E, are found on trees, flowers, and in de- 
 cayed wood. These are very beautiful Beetles. 
 
 ELATERID^S, Snap-Beetles, occur in decaying wood 
 and beneath stones. The larvae are called Wire- Worms, 
 and live in the ground. 
 
 LAMPYRID.E, Fire-Flies. These well-known insect, 
 are found on grass and flowers. The larvae are called 
 Glow-Worms. 
 
 CLERID^E, Flower-Beetles, are, as the name implies, 
 found on plants and flowers. 
 
 TENEBRIONID^, Meal-Beetles. The larvae are called 
 Meal- Worms, and are, with the Beetles, found about 
 mills, and in grain, flour, etc. 
 
 MELOIDJE:, Blister -Beetles, are found in the nests of 
 bees, and on flowers, especially on the golden-rod. 
 
 CORCULIOXID^E, Weevils. This is an extensive fam- 
 ily. I have captured members in many and various 
 situations. During the early summer months I have 
 taken several from along the seashore, where they were 
 washed ashore. The large Palm- Weevil of the South 
 may be captured in palmetto groves in the evening, or 
 they congregate about the freshly-cut trees, to feed upon 
 the flowing sap. Many species are found in the bark 
 of trees and in fruit. They also occur on flowers and 
 in the stalks of plants. 
 
 CERAMBYCID.E, Long-Horneed Beetles. I have cap-
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 101 
 
 tured many species in wooded districts during the even- 
 ing, when they were flying from one piece of woodland 
 to another. They occur in various species of trees, to 
 which the larvae do much damage by boring into them. 
 Many species are also found on flowers in autumn. 
 
 CHRTSOMELID^;, Leaf-Beetles. These Beetles are 
 found on leaves and flowers of plants. They may be 
 collected by beating with a stout net. The infamous 
 Potato-Beetle is an example. The larvaB occur on 
 plants. 
 
 COCCINELLID^:, Lady-Birds. These well-known 
 Beetles are found on plants and trees. 
 
 Hemiptera, Bugs. The well-known Ciccadia be- 
 longs to this order. They may be captured with the 
 net. Many species of this order may be taken by 
 beating shrubbery with a stout net. 
 
 Orthoptera, Grasshoppers, etc. I now kill mem- 
 bers of this order with the fumes of benzine. They 
 should be placed in a close box which is partly filled 
 with cotton cloth which has been saturated with ben- 
 zine. In pinning, I now double up the legs of the larger 
 species. 
 
 GRYLLID.E, Crickets. They may be found under 
 stones, pieces of wood, etc., or in open fields. The 
 Mole-Cricket occurs beneath the ground, in damp lo- 
 calities. Its hiding-place may be detected by its song- 
 notes. 
 
 LOCUSTEAI^I, Grasshoppers. The collector should 
 learn to distinguish members of this family by the 
 song. Some sing only at night, and may thus be cap- 
 tured with a light. They are always found on grass, 
 trees, or plants, and by carefully approaching them, 
 they may be taken in a net or with the hand. Some 
 species which inhabit high trees, like the Katy-did 
 (Cyrtophyllus concavus] are difficult to procure. The
 
 102 APPENDIX. 
 
 various species of the genus Ceuthophilus and allied 
 genera, called Cave-Crickets, are found under stones, 
 logs, in cellars, and in caves. 
 
 ACEYDII, Locusts, are found in the grass, on barren 
 rocks and hills, on sandy beaches, on marshes, in 
 meadows, and often in the pine woods, especially in 
 the South. They are best taken with the net. As 
 many of the species have cohered wings, the rarer ones 
 are quite easily detected. They are often exceedingly 
 local in their distribution, and members of certain 
 species may be found, year after year, in the same lo- 
 cality. 
 
 PHASMJDA, Walking-Sticks, may be found on bushes, 
 generally in rocky pastures. Some of the species are 
 found in Florida quite abundantly, on the trunks of 
 trees, or on the grass in the pine-barrens. 
 
 MANTID^, Walking-Leaves, are found on leaves of 
 plants and shrubs. 
 
 BLATTARI^;, Cockroaches, are found in houses, ships, 
 etc. ; but some species are found under bark and stones. 
 
 FOKFICULARI^E, Earwigs. I have found these in- 
 sects in great numbers, beneath stones, in southern 
 Florida. Large flights occasionally occur at night, in 
 the north, and as they are attracted by light, they are 
 easily taken. 
 
 I do not now recommend placing even the larvae of 
 Oitlioptera in glycerine, as it will not preserve the 
 color for any length of time. 
 
 Lepidoptera, Moths and Butterflies. Especial care 
 should be taken to collect the larvae of the various 
 species ; notes should also be taken as to the food- 
 plants of the larvae. Mr. Scudder recommends opening 
 the larger species of larvae behind, and removing the 
 contents of the skin by compression. Then the skin 
 is inflated by means of a straw, and while in this con-
 
 THE NATUKAUST'S GUIDE. 103 
 
 dition it is subjected to the heat of a small oven, be- 
 neath which is an alcohol-lamp. The specimen is 
 thus dried slowly, and moulded into a natural form. 
 Then by inserting a copper wire it can be mounted. 
 The smaller larvae, as well as the pupa, should be placed 
 in alcohol. The latter, if covered with a hard shell 
 may be removed after a few days, and dried. 
 
 Casts may be taken of the larger larvae, and colored 
 as describe dunder " Eeptiles and Fishes."
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FISHES AND REPTILES. 
 
 SECTION I. Fishes. I now make casts of Fishes, 
 proceeding as follows : Place the Fish side down, on 
 a plate of glass or other smooth surface, and cover it 
 with plaster. When this is set, remove the Fish from 
 the under side, and varnish the inside of the mould 
 thus formed, and put in cream-plaster ; then lay a slab 
 of freshly-cast plaster over the whole, and after the 
 cast has set, chip away the mould. The cast thus 
 made can be colored to represent life. Reptiles may 
 be modeled in a similar manner. 
 
 Salamanders may be found under logs and stones 
 in damp woods, and also in the water. 
 
 104
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 
 
 SECTION I. CRUSTACEA. Many crabs are found 
 under stones, logs, etc., in the South. Some in- 
 habit holes on the shore or in the woods, and a few 
 climb trees. Some can only be obtained by dredging 
 in deep water, while others always inhabit the shallow 
 margins of bays, etc. Many interesting species are 
 found clinging to seaweed picked up floating in deep 
 water, while others are taken from the shells of living 
 Mollusks. A few species occur in fresh water far from 
 the sea, and at least one has been taken from the 
 caves of Kentucky. 
 
 A good way to preserve the smaller species is, to 
 stitch them to cardboard. In transporting Crusta- 
 ceans, they may be packed in salt ; then, afterwards, 
 washed and dried. 
 
 COLLECTING MOLLUSKS. 
 
 SOLIGINID.E AND SOLIGOPSIDJE Squid and Cuttle- 
 fishes, may be found floating in the open ocean, or 
 drifted ashore on beaches. They may be taken in nets, 
 or by dredging. They should be preserved in alco- 
 hol, or casts taken of them. 
 
 PHOLADID.E, Boring-Shells. The species of Teredo 
 and Xylotrya are found in timber that has been be- 
 neath the surface of the water for some time. Some 
 of them should be preserved in alcohol, and the shells 
 of others saved, care being taken to keep the parts of 
 individual shells together. Members of Pholus and 
 
 105
 
 106 APPENDIX. 
 
 ZirfcBa are to be found burrowing in clay, mud, or 
 rock. Care should be taken in extracting them, as 
 the shells are fragile. If the shell be immersed in hot 
 water for a moment, the animal can be removed with 
 the help of a knife. 
 
 SOLENID^E, Razor-Shells, may be found burrowing 
 in the sand between tide-marks. They may be col- 
 lected and treated as above, care being taken to tie the 
 valves together, in both cases. 
 
 MYAD.33, Clams, are found both in mud and sand, 
 usually between tide-marks. They should be treated 
 as other bivalves. 
 
 COKBULID^:, PAXDORIDJE, AN-ATINIDJS, MACTRAD.E, 
 are found either by dredging, or thrown on sandy 
 beaches. 
 
 G-ASTROCH^XID^: are found adhering to marine ob- 
 jects, or embedded in marsh or clay. 
 
 TELLINID.E may be collected along sandy beaches, 
 between tide-marks. 
 
 LUCINID^E are inhabitants of deep water, or mud- 
 flats which are seldom left dry by the tide. 
 
 CYCLADID.E are all small, fresh-water bivalves, with 
 quite fragile shells. They should be carefully cleaned 
 and packed in cotton. 
 
 CYPRIXID.E, VEXERID^:, CARDIAD.E, and ARCADE, 
 are all salt-water bivalves, and are generally only to be 
 collected by dredging, often in deep water. 
 
 UNIOXID^:, Fresh-water Mussels. These may be 
 collected in large numbers on river-bars when the 
 water is low, or by dredging in lakes or ponds. I do 
 not recommend boiling them, but they should be ex- 
 posed to the sun for a short time; then, when dead, 
 they may be cleaned with a knife. Care should be 
 taken to tie the valves together. The outer surface 
 should be oiled slightly.
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 107 
 
 MYTILID^E, Salt-water Mussels, may be found on 
 banks left exposed by the tide, or adhering to posts, 
 etc., which stand in the water, or embedded in salt 
 marshes. They may be scalded and cleaned ; but care 
 should be taken to preserve the byssus, that is, the 
 ligament by which the shell fastens itself to rocks, etc. 
 
 PECTENID^E, Scallops. These are found on grassy 
 mud-flats that are not left exposed by the tide. They 
 may be scalded and cleaned. 
 
 OSTREID^;, Oysters, are found on bars, at the mouths 
 of rivers, where the fresh and salt water mingles. 
 They may be scalded and cleaned. Some, however, 
 are found in salt water, clinging to other shells, stones, 
 etc. 
 
 TEREBRATULID^E. Found usually in deep water, 
 off the coast. 
 
 BULLID^:. These are fragile, univalve shells, found 
 on mud-flats, at low water. They should be boiled, 
 cleaned, and wrapped in cotton. 
 
 DORIDID^E, TRITONIID^;, ^EOLIDID^E, ETC. These 
 are shell-less Mollusks, found adhering to seaweeds. 
 They are to be preserved in alcohol. They form fine 
 objects for the aquarium. 
 
 CHITO:STD., Chitons. This interesting class of Mol- 
 lusks which are covered with armadillo-like bands, are 
 found clinging closely to the rocks between tide-marks. 
 The animal should be removed with a knife, and the 
 shells laid flat on a plain surface ; then, a board laid 
 over them, to keep them from curling when they dry. 
 
 DESTTALID^E, Tooth-Shells, are dredged from great 
 depths. They are cleaned by boiling. 
 
 PATELLID^E AISTD CALYPTR^ID^E, Cap-Shells, cling 
 to rocks, shells, etc. They must be taken unawares 
 from the surface to which they cling, or it will be
 
 108 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 difficult to remove them, as the animals will contract 
 and adhere very firmly. 
 
 ZANTHINIDJE. These are thin little shells, highly 
 colored, which float on the open ocean by means of a 
 mass of vesicles. They are quite frequently driven 
 ashore during gales. I have seen vast quantities of 
 them on the Florida Keys. 
 
 TROCHID^ are found in deep water, but, being small, 
 are frequently washed ashore on sand beaches. 
 
 PALUDIXID^; are fresh-water shells, and are pro- 
 vided with an operculum, which appendage should be 
 preserved and kept with the shell, either by gluing 
 in place after the specimen is cleaned, or by wrapping 
 the shell in paper. The same remarks apply to all 
 operculated shells. 
 
 LITTORI^ID^E. Small shells, found either in salt 
 water or near it, adhering to plants or shrubs. They 
 often occur in great numbers. I have seen the man- 
 groves of the Florida Keys covered with the Litorina 
 scdbia, and the grass of the salt marshes at Cedar 
 Keys was covered with millions of Litorina liiorea. 
 
 TURRITELLID^;. The so-called Worm-Shells occur 
 in great numbers on the Keys of Florida, growing 
 quite frequently in sponges. Other members of the 
 family are found in deep water. 
 
 CERITHIID^ are found both in the salt water, often 
 at great depths, and also on salt marshes, near the 
 water. I have seen the ground absolutely covered 
 with some species. Others are found clinging to sea- 
 weeds. 
 
 PYRAMIDELLID^E. These are all small shells, and 
 are either found clinging to seaweeds or sheltered by 
 other larger shells. 
 
 NATICID^;. Members of this family are quite fre- 
 quently found on sandy beaches, or in shallow water,
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 109 
 
 near the shore. The animals may be removed by 
 boiling. 
 
 TUBRITID^E AND COLUMBELLID.ffl. Found On 
 
 beaches, and also in mud-flats and in deep water. 
 
 PUBPURID^E. Found on ocean rocks in muddy 
 creeks, along sandy shores, and in deep water. Pur- 
 pura capillus is very abundant on the rocks, and 
 countless numbers of Nassa obsoleta are found in the 
 creeks, from Maine to North Carolina. 
 
 MURICID^E are found in deep water, and along shores 
 and flats which are not exposed by the tide ; - while 
 some are found on mud-flats. 
 
 HELICID^E, Land-Shells. Land-Shells are found 
 beneath stones, logs, etc., in cellars, and clinging to 
 trees and plants. They are very abundant in some 
 localities. Some are also found in fresh water, es- 
 pecially in springs, where they are sometimes very nu- 
 merous. They should be carefully cleaned, as much 
 of their beauty and value depends upon this. 
 
 ARIONID^E. This is a family of Land-Shells, some 
 of which have little or no shells. They may be found 
 on trees and plants, and should be preserved in alcohol. 
 Others, like the genus Zonites, have shells. 
 
 PHILOMYCID^E are shell-less, and should be preserved 
 in alcohol. 
 
 AURICULID.E. Members of this family are found 
 on the land, and also near the salt water, and occa- 
 sionally in it, as in some species of Melampus. 
 
 LIMK^EID^;. These genera are all represented by 
 species which live in fresh water, often in rivers and 
 lakes. 
 
 SPIRULID^B are found in the open ocean, and occa- 
 sionally drift on shore. 
 
 All shells should be carefully labeled with date and
 
 110 APPENDIX. 
 
 locality in which they are collected. Notes as to the 
 relative abundance, etc., should be made. 
 
 Many species of the deep-water species may be ob- 
 tained from the stomachs of such fishes as the Cod. 
 Others may be found in the gizzards of Ducks. 
 
 Small shells which cannot be cleaned should be 
 placed in alcohol, and allowed to lie for at least twen- 
 ty-four hours, then taken out and dried in the shade. 
 
 Some shells, like the thin-shelled Unices, are liable 
 to crack when dry ; if the fresh shell be dipped into a 
 solution of chloride of calcium, this will be prevented. 
 
 COBALS. 
 
 GOBGONIAS, Sea-Fans, Sea-Pens, frequently grow 
 in comparatively shoal water. I have often seen them 
 left exposed by the falling tide; at such time, they 
 may be gathered in large quantities, for they are 
 almost always abundant. They may be dried care- 
 fully in the shade; then they will not lose their brill- 
 iant colors. 
 
 MILLEPORAS and other branching Corals. Some 
 species are found on reefs that are exposed at low tide, 
 but some must be obtained by dredging. A good ma- 
 chine for collecting is made in the following manner : 
 Procure a bar of iron five feet long, one inch thick, 
 and three inches wide ; have holes one inch in diam- 
 eter drilled, one inch apart, for the entire length. 
 Next, have two eye-bolts fastened in near each end. 
 Now, pass ropes, one inch in diameter and five feet in 
 length, through the holes, taking care to knot them 
 at the ends, to prevent their going entirely through. 
 Then, unravel the ropes and fasten stout lines or 
 chains to the eye-bolts. This is thrown over-board, 
 and dredged over the bottom, when the Coral will
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. Ill 
 
 become entangled in the trailing-ropes, and brought 
 up. 
 
 ASTR.ECEA, FUNGACEA, ETC., Brain and Mushroom 
 Coral. This form of Coral is, perhaps, the hardest to 
 collect. They may be procured by expert divers, who 
 break them loose with hammer and chisel, or they 
 may be broken off with a sponging-hook, and thus 
 brought to the surface. 
 
 PRESERVING CORAL, BLEACHING, ETC. 
 
 CORAL that is to be preserved with the natural color 
 should be carefully dried in the shade ; but all Corals 
 may be bleached nicely, by dipping in salt water once 
 a day, and exposing to the sun. They should be first 
 killed by exposing them for a few hours to the heat of 
 the sun; then allowed to lie for twenty-four hours 
 in water, when the gelatinous animals will be dis- 
 solved, and will run out of the cells. Then they 
 should be rinsed and exposed to the sun. 
 
 ACTING, Sea-Anemones, may be looked for at low 
 tide on rocks, or found by dredging (as the deep-water 
 species adhere to shells, stones, etc.). They may be re- 
 moved from a smooth surface by carefully sliding 
 along until some is introduced beneath the .sucking 
 disk, when they will become loosened ; or they may be 
 taken off by means of the blunt edge of a spoon or 
 some similar instrument. These objects, which are so 
 beautiful while living, possessing colors which vie with 
 the flowers, are exceedingly difficult to preserve. They 
 change very much in alcohol ; but Prof. A. Hyatt in- 
 forms me that he has found picric acid the best me- 
 dium by which the colors may be kept. 
 
 HYDROIDS AND BRYOZOA. I have found quanti-
 
 112 APPENDIX. 
 
 ties of these in shoal water. They are very delicate, 
 and should be carefully handled. 
 
 Star-Fishes. I have at times, found the beaches 
 covered with some of the common species, but the 
 best way to find them is to visit the rocks where they 
 occur at low tide ; in favorable localities they may be 
 collected by thousands. The larger species occur on 
 flats, while some are only to be obtained by dredging. 
 Some species shed their arms quite easily; these should 
 either be kept in salt water, or thrown at once into al- 
 cohol. Indeed, all species are best kept in water until 
 they assume a form in which they are to be dried; 
 then they should be instantly plunged into strong 
 alcohol, where they must remain for at least twenty- 
 four hours. Then they may be removed and dried in 
 the shade. When quite dry, I have found it advan- 
 tageous to dip them into a solution of hot paraffine, 
 as this prevents their disintegrating, as they are sub- 
 ject to this trouble. 
 
 ECHINODEKMS, Sea-Urchins, cling to rocks, and 
 may be found at low water or dredged in deep water. 
 In killing them, observe the same precaution as prac- 
 tised in Star-fishes, and then treat them in the same 
 way. 
 
 Sponges. Those who are only familiar with the 
 dried and prepared skeletons of the sponges of com- 
 merce would be surprised to see one of these animals 
 in its native state ; indeed, I scarcely think the un- 
 initiated collector would "recognize the accustomed 
 sponge in the gelatinous mass which grows on the 
 banks of the Florida Keys. Sponges are of various 
 forms, some of which are very beautiful. They are 
 also of varying colors. Some are exceedingly fragile, 
 while others are, when dry, as hard as wood. Some 
 are largely made up of siliceous matter; indeed, long,
 
 THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE. 113 
 
 needle-like crystals of silica are to be found in greater 
 or less quantities in almost all species. 
 
 They grow in various situations ; some few occur in 
 fresh water, but they mainly inhabit the sea. I have 
 found them encrusting rocks, pieces of shells, growing 
 on submerged posts, and one or two species I have 
 taken from the backs of the more sluggish species of 
 Crabs. A few float, or rather roll, about on the bot- 
 tom ; these usually occur in secluded bays or sounds, 
 where there is but little sea. The greater portion are 
 found attached to the bottom, often in great depths 
 of water; but many are found growing on banks, in 
 from three to four fathoms. I have also collected a 
 great many in exceedingly shoal water, near the shore. 
 I have seen thousands of the deep-water species, washed 
 ashore by the actions of the waves, during hurricanes. 
 
 The sponges which occur in shoal water may be re- 
 moved by help of a knife ; but the deep-water species 
 are gathered with a sponge-hook, which is simply a 
 two-pronged fork, bent into a hook. The spongers of 
 the Bahama Islands and the Florida Keys use what is 
 called a water-glass, to discover the sponges on the 
 bottom. This is a cylinder of wood or metal, of about 
 ten inches in diameter, having a glass bottom. This 
 is placed in the water, bottom down, and thus the 
 operator can see the sponges quite easily through the 
 glass, even if there is a ripple on the water, which 
 would otherwise prevent his seeing to any depth. 
 
 Sponges should be dried in the shade, without ex- 
 posing to the sun, care being taken that they do not 
 absorb dampness from the atmosphere, as then they 
 are apt to decay. 
 
 The skeletons are procured in the following way : 
 The sponges are first exposed for a day or two to the 
 influence of the sun, then are thrown into what is
 
 114 APPENDIX. 
 
 known as a " sponge crawl," which is simply a large 
 pen with slatted sides, placed in some swift tide-way. 
 They are kept here until thoroughly macerated, which 
 -process occupies about a month. They are then stirred 
 about, and beaten until all the animal matter is re- 
 moved, when they are dried. Many of the sponges of 
 [commerce are bleached with chloride of lime, which, 
 Although it improves their looks, is at the expense of 
 the durability of the tissues. 
 
 SECTION II. Preparing Skeletons. I do not now 
 recommend using chloride of lime. The bones should 
 remain under water, in some glass or wooden vessel? 
 until every particle of fleshy matter is dissolved. If 
 the bones are oily after they are bleached, they should 
 be once more immersed in water, and kept there until 
 clean. Skeletons of large Mammals often require 
 more than a year to macerate them properly. I now 
 remove all horny portions, even of the feet and bill. 
 In articulating small bones, I now make use of a very 
 strong cement, which is advertised in my catalogue ot 
 taxidermists' supplies.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS. 
 
 Too much care cannot be taken to clean eggs. The 
 contents must be thoroughly removed, to accomplish 
 this, and all eggs should be rinsed. Eggs of all spe- 
 cies should be kept in sets ; and, where it is possible, 
 the nest should be collected with them. In packing 
 eggs for transportation, wrap each one separately in 
 cotton, and place in a box lined with the same ma- 
 terial. Capt. Chas. Bendike, who is the most careful 
 egg-collector that I ever met, and his beautifully- 
 prepared and extensive collections bear ample testi- 
 mony to this statement, packs eggs in the following 
 manner : The box is first lined with cotton-batting ; 
 then the eggs are placed, side by side, in partitions 
 made of the same material, which is cut in strips for 
 tnis purpose; then a layer of cotton is placed over 
 them, more eggs packed, and so on until the box is 
 filled. 115
 
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