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NEW YORI^.
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BROWN'S SMALL GRAMMAR IMPROVED
O
THE
FIRST LINES ^ Ch
ENGLISH GRAMMAIfertf
BEING A ZjQ 5s» «■
O g ^
BRIEF ABSTRACT OF THE AUTHOR'S LARGER. W^Sk,"*"* «SC
THE
F^F
"INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR." S
DESIGNED FOR TOUNa LEARNERS.
BY GOOLD BROWN,
AUTHOR OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAilMAna.
"Ne quis igitur tanquam pavva fastidiat Grammatice? eleraenta." — Quintilian.
"The rudiments of every language must be given as a task, not as an amusemonf
-Goldsmith.
A NEW EDITION.
ITII EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING
BY HEXRY KIDDLE, A. M.,
ASSISTANT BTJPEEINTEXDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, NEW YOEK CITT.
NEW YORK
WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 61 WALKER STREET
18G8.
-Entered, according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1856, by
GOOLD BE OWN,
In the ^^lerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by
S. S. & W. WOOD,
In f*^ Klerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern
District of New York,
Eleotbottpkd by Smith & MoDottsal, 82 & 84 Beekman Street
Add to Lib*
GHFT
Btif
JOHfl S. PRELL /Uf
Civil & Mechanical Engineer, ^Mu,.
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. UiM^
PREFACE TO THE BEYISED EDITION.
Since the completion and publication of my Grammar of EngliBh
Grammars, it bas frequently been suggested to me, that a new and
critical revision of the Institutes and First Lines, to present them
in a state of stricter conformity to that more elaborate 'vork, and
to obviate at the same time some remaining defects vhich had
occasionally been noticed, might be the means of increasing the
usefulness, and sustaining the reputation of these pretty widely
known school-books. Such an improvement of the Institutes the
Jiuthor carefully prepared for the stereotypers during the last year.
Having now performed, in like manner, and with proportionate
pains, a new revision, or a sort of recasting, of the First Lines of
English Grammar, he may perhaps, without lack of modesty,
commend this little book to the managers of schools, as being,
in his own estimation at least, the best and cheapest epitome of
English Grammar yet offered to thtir choice.
GooLD Brown.
Ltxw, Mass., 1855,
878
ORIGINAL PREFACE.
The following epitome contains a general outline of the princi.
pies of our language, as embodied and illustrated in " The Institutes
of English Grammar." The definitions and explanations here
given, are necessarily few and short. The writer has endeavoured
to make them as clear as possible, and as copious as his limits would
allow; but it is plainly impracticable to crowd into the compass of
a work like this, all that is important in the grammar of our lan-
guage. Those who desire a i^.ore complete elucidation of the
subject, are invited to examine the autlior's larger work.
For the use of young learners, small treatises are generally pre-
ferred to large ones; because tliey are less expensive to parents,
and better adapted to the taste and capacity of children. A small
treatise on Grammar, like a small map of the world, may serve to
give the learner a correct idea of the more prominent features of
the subject; and to these his attention should at first be confined;
for, without a pretty accurate knowledge of the general scheme, the
particular details and nice distinctions ot criticism can neither be
understood nor remembered.
The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the
principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to mem-
ory, that they may ever afterwards be readily applied. And the
pupil sljould be alternately exercised in learning small portions of
his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is ren-
dered familiar.
The learner who shall thus go through this little work, will, it is
imagined, acquire as good a knowledge of the subject as is to be
derived from any of the abridgements used in elementary schools.
And, if he is to pursue the study further, he will then be prepared
to read with advantage the more copious illustrations and notes
contained in the larger work, and to enter upon the various exer-
cises adapted to its several parts.
This work is in no respect necessary to the other, as it contains
the same definitions, and pursues the same plan. The use of it in
the early stages of pui)ilage will preserve a more expensive book
from being soiled and torn ; and the scholar's advancement to the
larger work may be expected to increa&e his pleasure and accelerate,
his progress in the study.
GOOLD BkD.TN'
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Original Preface of 1826 ;
Pretace to the Eevised Edition ; ....
Defiuitiou and Division of English Grammar ; .
Piil?T L— OETHOGKAPHY.
PAGH
. iii
. iv
. 9
Chapter I.— Of Letters ;
Names of the Letters ;
Classes of the Letters ;
Forms of the Letters ;
Eules for Capitals ; .
Chapter IL— Of Syllables ;
Diphthongs and Triphthongs ; 12
Sales for byllabication ; . ,13
PAGE
9
10
10
11
11
12
2
Chapter III.— Of Words ; .
Species and Figure of Words ;
Eules for the Figure of Words ;
Chapter IV.— Of Spelling ; .
Eules for Spelling ; .
Chapter V. — Exercises in Ortho-
graphy ; . . . .
PAGE
, 13
13
14
15
15
17
PAET II.— ETYMOLOGY.
PAGE
The Parts of Speech ; 18
. 20
. 22
. 22
. 23
. 24
. 25
. 26
. 27
. 28
. 29
. 30
. 32
. 33
. 36
. 37
. 39
. 40
. 41
Chapter I.
Parsing ; .
Chapter II.— Of Articles ;
Chapter 111.— Of Nouns ;
Persons
Numbers ;
Genders ;
Cases ;
l)eclension of Nouns ;
Analysis and Parsing ;
Chapter IV. — Of Adjectives
Comparison of Adjectives
Analysis and Parsing ;
Chapter V. — Of Pronouns ;
Declension of Pronouns;
Analysis and Parsing :
Chapter VI.— Of Verbs;
Moods ;
Tenses ;
Chapter VI.— Of Persons and
N umbers ; . . .
Conjugation of Verbs ;
I. SnnpJe Form, to Love;
Second Example, to See ;
Third Example, to Be ;
II. The Compound Form ;
III. Form of Passive Verbs ;
Irregular Verbs ;
Eeduudant Verbs ; .
Defective Verbs;
Chapter VII.— Of Participles ;
Analysis and Parsing ;
Chapter VIIL— Of Adverbs;
Chapter IX. — Of Conjunctions ;
Chapter X. — Of Prepositions ;
Chapter XL — Of Interjections ;
Analysis and Parsing ; . ,
PAGS
42
42
43
43
50
53
55
59
61
63
63
65
67
69
70
71
71
Chapter I. — Of Eelation and
Agreement; .
Eule I.— Of Articles ;
Eule II. — Of Nominatives ;
Eule III.— Of Apposition ;
Eule IV.— Of Adjectives ;
Etde v.— Of Pronouns; .
PAET III.— SYNTAX.
PAGE
74
74
75
76
77
78
Eule VI.— Of the Pronoun after
a Collective Noun ;
Eule VTL— Of the Pronoun
after Joint Antecedents ;
Eule VIIL— Of the Pronoun
after Disjunct Antecedents ;
Eule IX.— Of Finite Verbs ; .
78
79
79
79
VUl
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Eule X.— Of the Verb with a
Collective Noun ; . . .80
Kule XL— Of the Verb with
Joint Nomiuatives ; . .80
Kule XII.— Of the Verb with
Disjunct Nominatives ; . 81
Kule XIIL— Of Verbs Con-
nected ; 81
Kule XIV.— Of Participles ; . 82
Kule XV.— Of Adverbs ; . .83
Kule XVI.— Of Conjunctions ; 84
Kule XVII.— Of Prepositions; 84
Kule XVIII.— Of Interjections ; 85
Chapter II.— Of Government ; . 85
Eule XIX.— Of Possessives ; . 85
Kule XX.— Of Objectives; . 86
Kule XXI. — Of Same Cases ; . 86
Kule XXII.— Of Objectives; . 87
Kale XXIII Of Infinitives ; . 88
Kule XXI V._Of Infinitives; . 88
Kule XXV.— Of the Case Ab-
solute ; 88
Kule XXVI.— Of Subjunctives ; 89
Chapter III. — Examples of False
Syntax ; 90
Chapter IV. — Analysis and Pars-
ing ; 96
PAKT IV.— PKOSODY.
PAGE
Chapter I. — Of Punctuation ; .107
Section I. — Of the Comma; .108
Section II. — Of the Semi-
colon; 108
Section III.— Of the Colon ; . Iu9
Section IV.— Of the Period ; . 109
Section V.— Of the Dash; . 109
Sectioii VI.— Of the Eroteme ; . 109
Section VII. — Of the Ecpho-
neme ; 109
Section VIII.— Of the Curves ; 110
Section IX. — Of the Other
Marks; 110
Chapter II.— Of Utterance ; . .111
Section I. — Of Pronunciation ; 111
Section II.— Of Elocution ; .112
Chapter III.— Of Figures ; . .113
FAGB
Section I. — Figures of Ortho-
graphy; .... 113
Section II. — Figures of Ety-
mology ; .... 113
Section III. — Figures of Syn-
tax ; . . . f . . 114
Section IV.— Figures of Khet-
oric ; 115
Chanter IV.— Of Versification ; . 117
Section I.— Of Quantity ; . . 117
Sec'Jonll.— OfKhyme; . .117
Section III.— Of Poetic Feet; . 117
Section IV.— Of Scanning ; . 118
I. Iambic Verse ; . . 118
II Trochaic Verse ; . .118
III. Anapestic Verse ; . . 118
IV. Dactylic Verse ; . . 118
APPENDIX.— A KEY to False Syntax ;
120
THE
FIRST LINES
OP
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
X
E:n'glish GEA^niAR is tlie art of speaking, read*
ing, and writing the English language correctly.
It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthog*
rapliy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separ-
ate words, and spelling.
Etymology treats of the different parts of
speech, with their classes and modifications.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, gov-
ernment, and arrangement, of words in sentences.
Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, fig-
ures, and versification.
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separ-
ate words, and spelling.
CHAPTER I.— OF LETTERS
A Letter is an alphabetic mark, or character,
commonly representing some elementary sound
of a word.
10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I.
An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or
primary sound of the human voice, used in speak-
mg.
The letters in the English alphal^et are twenty-
six \ Aa.Bh, Oc, D d, E e, F f\ G g, Hh, I i,
Jj, K\ LI, Mm, Nn, o, F p, Q a, Br,
j$s,Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww,Xx, Yy,Zz,
Ohservation 1. — The names of the letters, as now cominonly
spoken find written in English, are vl, Bee^ Cee^ Dee^ J?, Eff^ GeCy
Aitch, /, Jay^ Kay, Ell, Em^ En, 0, Fee, Kue, Ai\ Ess, Tee, If,
Vee, I)ouhle-u, Ex, Wy, Zee.
Obs. 2. — Tliese names, like those of the days of the week, thouj^h
they partake the nature of nouns ])roper, may foi-m regular plurals;
tlius, Acs, Bees, Gees, Dees, Ees, Effs, Gees, Aiiches, les. Jays, Kays,
EUs^ Ems, Ens, Ocs, Pees, Kues, Ars, Esses, Tees, lies, Yees, Double-
ties, Exes, Wles, Zees.
Obs. 3. — Unlike the other letters, all the principal vowels —
whether capitals, as A, E, J, O, U, or small forms, as a, e, i, o, u —
name themselves; cacli of them, as the name of itself, having the
long, primary sound with which it usually forms an accented sylla-
ble ; as in Abel, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Uvim. The other letters,
though they never actually or fully form their OAvn names, are
often used in lieu of them, and are read as the words for which
they are assumed ; as, C, for Gee ; F, for Eff; J, for Jay ; H, for
Aitch.
CLASSES OF THE LETTERS.
The letters are divided into two general classes,
■vowels and consonants.
A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound,
when uttered alone ; as, a, e, o.
A consonant is a letter which cannot be per*
fectly uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, h, c, d.
The vowels are a, e, ?', o, ii, and sometimes w,
and y. All the other letters are consonants.
Wor y is called a consonant when it precedes
a vowel heard in the same syllable ; as in wmej
twine, ivlime, ye, yet, youth: in all other cases,
these letters are vowels ; as in newly, dewy, eye*
hi'ow,
Oia^ 1,— XL© consonants are divided into mutei and semivowels^
CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS. 11
Ols. 2. — A mule is a consonant wliicli cannot be sounded at all
■without a vowel. The mutes are &, d, Tc^ j^t 9i i-> ^^^^ ^ ^"<^1 i7 hj^J'd.
Ohs. 3. — A semivowel is a consonant wiiich can be imperfectly
sounded without a vowel. The semivowels are y, A, j, ?, 7n, n, r,
s, V, w^ X, y, 2, and c and g soft. Of these, Z, ^/2, ?/, and r, ara
termed liquids^ on account of the fluency of their sounds.
FORMS OF THE LETTERS.
In the English language, the Koman characters
are generally employed ; sometimes the Italic ;
and occasionally the ©15 ^uqUsI). In ivritiiig^ we
use the S^cu/i^.
The letters have severally two forms, by which
they are distinguished as capitals and small let-
ters.
Small letters constitute the body of every work ;
and capitals are used for the sake of eminence
and distinction.
PvULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.
Rule I. — Titles of Books.
The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions,
should be printed in capitals. When books are merely mentioned,
the principal words in their titles begin with capitals, and the
other letters are small ; as, '' Pope's Essay on Man."
Rule II. — Fikst Wokds.
The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separ-
ately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital.
Rule III, — I^ames of the Deity.
All names of the Deity should begin with capitals; as, God^
Jehovah^ the Almighty^ the Supreme Being.
Rule IV. — Proper Names.
Titles of office or honour, and proper names of every description,
should beizin with canitals; as, Chief Justice Hale^ William^ Lon-
don^ the Parh^ the Albion., the Spectatoi\ the Thames.
Rule Y.— Objects Personified.
The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea
strictly individual, should begin with a capital; as,
*' Come, gentle Sjmng, ethereal mildness, come."
I*
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART ^
Rule YI. — Words Derived.
Words derived from proper names of persons or places, should
begin with capitals ; hq^ JSfcw Ionian^ Grecian^ lioman.
Rule YIL— I and O.
The words /and should always be capitals; as, "Out of the
depths have /cried unto thee, Lord." — Psalms.
Rule VIII. — Poetry.
Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but
one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital ; as,
*' Our sons their fathers' failing language see,
And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."— Poj*^.
Rule IX, — Examples.
A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, should
begin with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Knowthy"
self.' " — " Yirgil says, ' Labour conquers all things.' "
Rule X. — Chief Words.
Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the
principal subject of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals,
rroper names frequently have capitals throughout.
CHAPTER IL— OF SYLLABLES.
A SyllaUe is one or more letters pronounced
in one sound, and is either a word or a part of a
word ; as, a^ an^ ant.
In every word there are as many syllables as
there are distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-on-an.
A word of one syllable is called a monosylla-
lie I 2L word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a
word of three syllables, a trissyllahle ; and a
word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable,
DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
A dvpJithoiig is two vowels joined in one sylla-
ble ; as, ea in beat^ ou in sound.
A proper diplitliong is a diphthong in ^vhich
both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice.
An improper dipliilioiigh a diphthong in which
only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf.
CHAP. III.] ORTHOGEAPHY. — WORDS. 13
A tri'plitliong is three vowels joined in one syl-
lable ; as, eau in heau^ lew in view.
A proper trifplithong is a triphthong in which
all the vowels are sounded ; as, uotj in hnoy.
An improper triplitliong is a triphthong in
which only one or two of the vowels are sounded;
as, eau in beauty.
Ols. 1.— The diphthongs in Enghsh are twenty-nine. Some of
them, being variously sounded, may be either proper or improper.
Ohs. 2.— The pi'oper diphtliongs are thirteen; ay — ia, ie^ io—oi^
ou, ow^ oy — ua^ ue^ ui^ uo^ uy.
Ohs. 3. — The improper diphthongs are twenty-six ; «a, ae, ai, ao^
au^ aic^ ay—ea^ ee, ei^ eo, cw, ew^ ey — ie — oa, oe^ oi, oo, ou, ow — ua,
ue, ui, uo^ uy.
Ohs. 4. — The only proper triphthong is uoy., given in the example
above ; unless uoi., as in quoit., may be added.
Ohs, 5. — The improper triphthongs are sixteen; aice., aye — eau^
ecu, ewe., eye — ieu^ ieic, iou — oeu^ owe — wa/, uaw^ uay^ uea.^ uee.
Ohs. 6. — In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed
chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to observe, as far as
practicable, the following rules:
I. Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diph-
thongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal.
II. Two vowels coming together, if they make not a diphthong,
must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al.
III. Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be
separated from the radical words to which they have been added;
as, harm-less^ great-ly, connect-ed.
IV. Pretixes, in general, form separate syllables ; as, mis-jilace.,
out-ride., up-lift : but if their own j)rimiuve meaning be disre-
garded, the case may be otherwise ; thus, re-create and rec-reaie
are words of diiferent import.
V. Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple
words which compose them ; as, no-where.
VI. At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary;
but a syllable* must never be broken.
CHAPTER III.— OF WORDS.
A Word is one or more syllables spoken or
written as the sign of some idea, or of some man-
Ut^r of thought.
SPECIES AND FIGURE OF WORDS.
Words are distinguished as primitive or deriv*
14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [PART 1
ative^ ancl as simple or compound. The former
division is called their species ; the latter, their
figure.
A primitive word is one that is not formed
from any simpler word in the language ; as, harm^
great^ connect.
A derivative word is one that is formed from
some simpler word in the language ; as, liarmless,
greatly^ connected.
A sintple word is one that is not compounded,
not composed of other words ; as, ivatcli^ man.
A compound word is one that is composed of
two or more simple words ; as, watchman.^ never-
tlieless.
Obs. 1. — Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, loolcseller^
sclwolmaster : others, which may be called temporary compounds,
are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house^ negro-merchant.
Obs. 2. — Tiie compounding of words produces new ones, which
are not always good ; and the sundering of just compounds pro-
duces solecisms, or ungrammatical phrases. Hence the figure of
words sliould be subjected to rules. To supply so obvious a want,
I have framed the following hints :
I. Compounds. — Words regularly or analogically united, and
commonly known as compounds, should never be needlessly broken
apart.
II. Simples. — When the simple words would only form a regu-
lar phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them
ought to be avoided.
III. The Sense.— Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood,
must be joined together, or written separately, as the sense and
construction may happen to require.
IV. Ellipses. — When two or more compounds are connected
in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis
of half a word.
V. The Hyphen.— When the parts of a compound do not fully
coalesce, as to-day, to-night, to-morrow ; or when each retains its
original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one
that is movable, a^ Jirst-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, the hyphen
should be inserted between them.
YI. No Hyphen.— When a compound has but one accented syl-
lable in pronunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the
parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hypheq
should be inserted between them.
CHAP. IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — SPELLING. 15
t
CHAPTER iy.~OF SPELLING.
Spelling is the art of expressing words by their
proper letters.
Ohs. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means of
the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than
by the study of written rules. The orthography of our language is
attended with much uncertainty and peri)lexity : many words are
variously spelled by tlie best scholars, and many others are not
usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to
be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are uniformly
spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. The
following rules may prevent some embarrassment, uud thus be of
service to the learner.
RULES FOR SPELLING.
Rule I. — Final F, L, ok S.
Monosyllables ending in y, Z, or s, preceded by a single vowel,
double the final consonant: as^ sta^^ 7nill, j^ass ; except three in/"
— clef^ if^ of; four in l—hul^ nul^ sal^ sol; and eleven in s—as, gas^
has, icas^ yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus.
Rule II. — Other Finals.
Words ending in any other consonant than f^ I, or s, do not
double the final letter ; excei)t abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr,
pu7'r, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names.
^-- — " ~~ Rule IIL— Doubling,
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when
they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or
by a vowel after qu, double their linal consonant before an addi-
tional syllable that begins with a vowel: as, rob, robber ; permit^
f/ermitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting.
Exception. — X final, being equivalent to Jcs, is never doubled.
Rule IV. — Xo Doubling.
A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or
when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single
before an additional syllable : as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited ; gen-
^^al^ generalize.
Exo. — But I and s final are often doubled, (though perhaps im-
properly,) when the last syllable is not accented: as, travel, tra-
velled; bias, biassed.
Rule V. — Retaining.
Words <n<ling with any double letter, preserve it double before
16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I.
any additional termination not beginning with the same letter; as
in the following derivatives-, seeing, blissful, oddly, hilly, stiffness^
illness, smallness, carelessness, agreement, agreeable.
Exc. — The irregular words, Jied, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, sjnlt^^
shall, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the word ponti^]
are exceptions to this rule.
Rule. YI.— Final E.
The final e mute of a primitive word is generally omitted bo
•fore an additional teruduation beginning with a vowel : as, rate^
ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying.
Exc— Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before able or ovs^
to preserve tlie soft sound of c and g : as, peace., peaceable / change^
changeable ; outrage., outrageous.
Rule VII.— Final E.
The final ^ of a primitive word is generally retained before an
additional termination beginning with a consonant : as, pale, pale'
ness ; lodge, lodgement.
Exo. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omit
ted ; as, true, truly ; awe, awful : and sometimes retained ; as, rue,
rueful; shoe, shoeless.
Rule YIII.— Final Y.
The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant,
is changed into i before an additional termination : as, merry, mer-
rier, merriest, merrily, merriment; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, piti-
less, pitiful, pitiable.
Exc. — Before ing, y is retained, to prevent the doubling of i ; as
pity., pitying. AVords ending in ie, dropping tlie e by Rule YI,
change i into y, for the same reason; as, die, dying.
Obs. — When a vowel ])recedes, y sliould not be changed; as, day.,
days ; xalley., 'valleys ; money, moneys ; mofikey^ monkeys.
Rule IX. — Compounds.
Compounds generally retain the orthogra]jhy of the simple words
which compose them; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, recall, ujjhill^
shellfish.
Exc. — In permanent compounds, the ^vonhfull and all drop one
I; as, handful, careful, always, withal: in others, they retain both;
B,ii, full-eyed, all-wise, save-all.
Obs. — Other words ending in II sometimes im])roper1y drop one
Z, when taken into composition, as iniscal, downhil. This excision
is reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and be-
cause botii letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show
the derivation of tlie compnund. AVhere is the consistency of writ-
ing recall, miscal — inthrall, bethral — windfall, doivnfal — laystall,
thumbslal — loaterfall, overfal — moleJi ill, dunghil —windmill, twibil
— clodpoll, enrol ? — [See Johnson's Dictionary, first American edi-
tion 4to.]
CHAP, v.] ORTHOaRAPHT. — EXERCISES. 17
CHAPTER Y.— EXERCISES.
Exercise I.
Exercise IL — State from what primitive word each of the folloic-
in<r derivatives is formed, and according to tchich of the Hides for
Spelling.
Compelled, skillful, holiday, happiness, courageous, rebellion,
traveler, believing, achievement, spoonful, galloping, beautiful, de-
luder, salable, changeable, narrator, juiciness, improvement, love-
liness, beggar, spotted, preference, preferred, variable, conveyance,
thralldom, agreeable, deriving, shoeing, business, icicle, impel, be-
ginner, manumitting.
Exercise TIT. — Form as many derivati'ces as jpossihle from the follow-
ing primitives.
Excel, visit, commit, worship, bury, beaut}^ travel, judge, sin-
cere, refer, vary, agree, full, delay, busy, tie, differ, occur, expel,
benefit, dut)% plan, despoil, narrate, beg, i)eri], receive, instruct,
assemble, pity, define, mimic, compose, form, value, charge, animate,
combat, acquit, abridge, critic, allege, merchant, tyrant, fanc}', drj',
omit, achieve, whole, compel, tall, debt, write, cancel, rob, spell.
Exercise TV. — Corrpct the errors in the following words according
to the Rales for Spelling.
Scof, repell, til, untill, rareity, chimnies, crosness, outstriped^
pasport, blisful, slothfull, merryness, instiling, refered, preferruble,
referible, duely, welspent, benefitted, improveing, defering, con-
troll, controlable, dulness, forgeting, bigotted, untieing, moveable,
pontifficate, forceible, awet'ul, annull, handfull, al-powerfull, fruit-
fullness, miscal, wherin, perillous, fulfil, appall, uphil.
Exercise V. — Analyze the following words., and state to which oj
the Rules for Spelling they are exceptions.
Excellence, judgment, bounteous, gaiety, said, q^^., yes, argu-
ment, wholly, abridgment, traveller, gaseous, unpaid, crystalline,
cancelling, development, mutinous, denying, kidnapping, daily,
charitable, plenteous, babyhood, truly, this, add, unparalleled, bias-
sed, dryly, awful, welfare, wherefore, chilblain, welcome, Christmas.
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
Exercise VI. — Copy the following sentences^ and insert or omit
capital letters according to the Rales for Capitals.
Goldsmith's "deserted village'' is a beautiful poem. The lord is
a great god above all Gods. The city of loodon is situated on the
river Thames. The hudsoii river was discovered by Henry hudson.
the roman empire was divided into two portions at the death of
theodosius the great, the empire of the West being governed by
Honorius and that of the east, by arcadius. O liberty! o sound
once delightful to every roman ear ! epimanonda?, the thebau
General, was remarkable for his love of Truth, he never told a lie
even in Jest, o grave ! where is thy victory ? And god spake
unto moses, and said unto him, i am the lord. Pope says, " order
is heaven's first law." The "lady of the lake" was written by sir
waiter scott, who was also the Author of the waverley novels.
get thee back, sorrow, get thee back !
why should i weep while i am young ?
i have not piped— i have not danced —
my morning Songs i have not sung.
PART 11.
ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats of the different parts of
speech, with their classes and modifications.
CHAPTER I.— THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in En-
glish, are ten ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the
Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle,
the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition,
and the Interjection.
1. The Aeticle.
An Article is the word the^ an^ or «, which we
put befoi'e nouns to limit their signification: as,
the air, the stars ; an island, a ship.
chap. i.] etymology. — parts of speech. 19
2. The Noux
A Noun IS the name of any person, place, oi'
tiling, that can be known or mentioned: as,
George^ Yorh^ man^ apple^ truth,
8. The Adjective.
An Adjectiye is a word added to a noun of
pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, /x
wise man ; a new book. — You two are diligent
4. The Pronoun.
A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun :
as, The boy loves lil'^ book ; lie has long lessons,
and lie learns tliem well.
5. The Yerb.
A Yerb is a word that signifies to he^ to act^ or
to he acted iipon : as, I cim^ I ride^ I am ruled '^ I
love^ thou love-si^ he loves,
6. The Participle.
A Participle is a word derived from a verb,
participating the properties of a verb, and of an
adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by
adding ^V^^, J, or ed^ to the verb : thus, from the
verb rule are formed three participles, two sim-
ple and one compound; as, 1. ruling^ 2. ruled^ 3.
having ruled,
7. The Adverb.
An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a par-
ticiple, an adjective, or an other adverb ; and
generally expresses time, place, degree, or man-
ner : as, They are noiu liere^ studying vei^y dili^
gently,
8. The Conjunction.
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words
or sentences in construction, and to show the de-
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
pendence of the terms so connected : as, '^ Thou
and he are happy, hecau-SQ you are good." — Mur.
9. The Preposition.
A Preposition is a word used to express some
relation of different things or thoughts to each
other, and is generally placed before a noun or a
pronoun : as. The paper lies before me on the
desk
10. The Interjection.
An Interjeciion is a word that is uttered merely
to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the
mind : as. Ok ! alas ! ah ! poh ! iisliaw !
PAESING.
Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a
sentence according to the definitions and rules of
grammar.
A sentence is an assemblage of words, making
complete sense ; as, " Beauty fades." — -" Reward
sweetens labor."
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
ExEECTSE I. — Point out, ifv the following sentences, the verb, the nouUy
and the article^ and parse eaxih as in the example.
Example 1. — " The man walks."
1. Walki^ is the verb, because it signifies action.
2 Man is the nonn, because it is the mime of a person.
8. llie is the article, because it limits the eignification oi *h<i noun, ntun.
The sun shines. William reads. The firo burns. The ship
sailed. John studies grammar. The boy tolu an untruth. The
horse is a quadruped. A is an article. The fir vfers bloom. Ducks
swim. Does the sun shine? Birds build nests. Cohimbus dis-
covered America. Hawks kill chickens. Cain slew Abel. The
Bun ripens the fruit.
CHAP. I.j ETYMOLOGY. — EXERCISES IN" PARSING. 21
Exercise II. — Point out the verb, tJie noun, the article, th& adjec-
tive, and the pronoun, and parse each as in the Jirst and second
examples.
Example 2, — " An idle scholar disgraces liis teacher."
4. Idle is the adjective, because it expresses the quality of scholar.
5. ^s is the pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun scholar,
A good boy obeys bis parents. Sarali learns ber lessons. Uis-
tory is a useful study. A disobedient boy disgraces bis parents.
The earth is a round body. Boys are heedless. They disregard
their teachers. Wisdom is the principal thing. A noble mind
scorns a mean action. Washington was a true patriot. A good
book is an interesting companion. William found the money which
his careless brother lost. A friend should bear a friend's infirmi-
ties. A faithful servant studies his master's interest. A cheerful
temper is a great blessing.
Exercise III. — Distinguish the parts of sjjcech in the following sen-
tences, and parse each as in the first, second, and third exampAes.
Example 3. — " The good scholar attends dihgently and carefully
to his lessons."
6. Diligenil'i and carefully are adverbs, because they are added to the verb
attend^ and express manner.
7. And is a conjunction, because It connects the adverbs diligently and
carejully.
8. To is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the verb attend to
the noun lessons.
John and Peter are good scholars, James is a dishonest and
idle lad. The rose is a beautiful and fragrant flower. Prosperity
gains friends, and adversity tries them. William studies diligently^
but diaries is idle. A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange is
yery delicious. The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. Candor,
sincerity, and truth are amiable qualities. Tlie horse runs swiftly.
Caisar was a very famous general. He conquered many nations,
and invaded the island of Britain. Hark ! the trumpet sounds.
Alas! how unfortunate he is! The industrious and attentive
scholar learns with great ease and rapidity. Virtuous youth grad-
ually brings forward accomplished and flourishing manhood. Sloth
enfeebles equally the body and the mental powers. If thou faint
in the day 'of adversity, thy strength is small.
Exercise iY. — State rchat part of speech is required in each of the
following sentences, fill the tlanlcs and parse each word.
The man walks . John writes . Quicksilver is
bright shining. boy is amiable talented;
' he does not study. • is beautiful fragrant.
22 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PART II.
Set the book the . The bird flew a tree.
The ship sailed tlie harbor. The fear punishment
crime. My father lias gone Boston, will
return. The travelers sat a fire. The
scholars have studied lessons, and know well.
The hare is a timid animal. He runs away very
when he the least noise.
CHAPTER IL— OF ARTICLES.
An Article is the word tlie^ an, or a,, wLicli we
put before nouns to limit their signification : as,
The air, the stars ; an island, a ship.
An and a are one and the same article. An is used whenever
'$he following word begins with a vowel sound; as, An art, an end»
tm heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. A is used whenever
tfte following word begins with a consonant sound; as, A man, a
liouse, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus tlie sounds of
w and 2/, even when expressed by other letters, require a and not
an before them.
The articles are distinguished as the definite
and the indefinite.
The definite article is the^ which denotes some
particular thing or things; as, TJte boy, the
oi'anges.
The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes
one thing of a kind, but not any particular one ;
as, A boy, an orange.
Ohs. — A common noun without an article or other word to limit
Its signification, is generally taken in its widest sense; as, " A. can-
did temper is proper for man ; that is, for all mankind,'''' — Murray.
CHAPTER III— OF NOUNS.
A Noun is the name of any person, place, or
thing, that can be known or mentioned ; as,
George^ Yor'k^ man^ apple, truth.
CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — NOUNS. 2
Q
CLASSES.
IN'ouns are divided into two general classes;
proper and common.
I. K proper noun is the name of some particu-
lar individual, or people, or group ; as, Adcmi^
Boston^ the Hudson^ the Momans^ the Azores^
the Alps.
II. A commonnoun is the name of a sort, kind,
or class of beings or things ; as, Beast, hlrd^ fi-^^h
insect^ creatures^ persons^ children.
The particular classes, collective^ ahstmct, and verbal^ or
participial, are usually included among common nouns.
The name of a thing sui generis is also called common.
1. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name
of many individuals together ; as, Council, meeting, com-
mittee, fioch.
2. An abstract noun is the name of some particular
quality considered apart from its substance ; as, Good-
ness, hardness, pride, frailty.
8. A verbal or participial noun is the name of some ac-
tion or state of being ; and is formed from a verb, like a
participle, bat employed as a noun : as, " The triumphing
of the wicked is short." — Job, xx, 5.
4. A thing sui generis (i. e., of its own peculiar Jcind,) is
something which is distinguished, not as an individual
of a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in
either the noun or the sort of thing ; as, Galuanism^
music, geometry.
MODIFICATIONS.
Nouns have modifications of four kinds ; name-
ly, Persons^ JSfurahers^ Genders^ and Cases.
PERSONS.
Persons, in grammar, are modifications that
distinguish the speaker, the hearer, and the per-
son or thing merely spoken of.
There are three persons ; the first^ the second^
and the third.
24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
The first person is that which denotes the
speaker or writer; as, ^^ I Paul have written it."
The second person is that which denotes the
hearer, or the person addressed; as, ^'' Robert^
who did this V
The third person is that which denotes the per-
son or thing merely spoken of; as, ''''James loves
his Z>(96>i."
Oha. 1. — The distinction of persons belongs to nouns, pronouns,
and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either by pecu-
liarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles
of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are
like their subjects, in person.
Ohs. 2. — The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, as the
speaker ; consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person.
Ohs. 3. — When inanimate things are spoken to, it is by a figiu*e of
Bpeech, called person ijication,
NUMBERS.
Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that
distinguish unity and plurality.
There are two numbers ; the singular and the
plural.
The singidar number is that which denotes but
one ; as, " The hoy learns."
Theplu7rd number is that which denotes more
than one ; as, " The hoys learn."
The plural number oi nouns is regularly formed
by adding s or es to the singular : as, booh^ hoohs;
hox^ boxes.
Obs. 1. — The distinction of numbers belongs to nouns, pronouns,
and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either by pecu-
liarity of form, or by inference from the principles of concord.
Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their sub-
jects in number.
Obs. 2. — When a singular noun ends in a sound which will unite
•with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and
the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen^ pens ; grape^
grapes.
Obs. 3. — But when the sound of s cannot be united with that
of ihe primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to other
CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — NOUNS, 25
terminations, and forms a separate syllable : as, page^ pages ; fox^
foxes.
Ohs. 4.— Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, but
do not increase their syllables: as, wo., woes ; hero, heroes. Other
nouns in o add s only : as, folio, folios.
Ohs. 5. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y
into i, and add es, without increase of syllables : as,fi/,Jlies ; duty^
duties. Other nouns in y add s only : as, day, days ; valley, valleys,
Ohs. 6. — The following nouns inf, change f into v., and add eSj
for the plural ; sheaf, leaf, loaf, heef thief, calf half, elf, shelf, self
icolf wharf; as, sheaves, leaves, etc. Life^ lives; knife, knives;
iDifp, icives ; are similar.
Obs. 7. — The greater number of nouns in / and/^ are regular;
eLS,Jifes, strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, etc.
Obs. 8.— The following are still more irregular: man, men;
woman, women ; child, children ; brother, brethren [or brothers'] ;
foot, feet ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse,
mice ; die, dice ; penny, pence. Dies, stamps, and ^i^«7iiV5, coins,
are regular.
Obs. 9. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural ; as, ar-
canum, arcana ; radius, radii ; vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; pheno'
menon, phenomena , serajih, seraiJhim.
Obs. 10. — Some nouns have no plural : as, gold, pride, meekness.
Obs. 11. — Some nouns liave no singular: as, embers, ides, oats,
scissors, tongs, vespers, literati, minutiae.
Obs. 12.— Someareahke in both numbers: as, sheep, deer, sicine,
hose, means, odds, neics, species, series, ap)paratus.
Obs. 13. — Compounds in which the principal word is put first,
vary the principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form
the possessive case : as, father-in-law, fathers-in-law, father-hi'
laic's.
Obs. 14. — Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the
principal word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as
other nouns : as handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow -servants^
man-servants.
Obs. 15. — Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, admit the
plural form : as, meeting, meetings. But when taken distributively,
they have a plural signification, without the form: as, "The jw7-y
were divided."
GENDERS.
Genders, in grammar, are modifications that
distinguish objects in regard to sex.
There are three genders ; the 7nasculine^ the
fe^ninine^ and the neuter.
The masculine gender is that which denotes
persons or animals of the male kind ; as, man^
father^ Mng.
26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART 11.
^V^ feminine gender is that which denotes per-
sons or animals of the female kind ; as, icoman^
mother^ queen.
The neuter gender is that which denotes things
that are neither male nor female ; as, ]^en^ inh^
paper.
Ohs. 1. — The different genders belong only to nouns and pro-
nouns ; and to these they are usually applied agreeably to the
order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns
for which they stand.
Ohs. 2. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as,
cousin, friend^ neighhoi\ parent., person., servant. Tlie gender of
these is usually determined by the context.
Ohs. 3. — Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes,
(if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which
are known to include both sexes, should be culled masculine in pars-
ing; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the
most worthy, and is generally employed when both sexes are in-
cluded under one common term.
Ohs. 4. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways :
I. By the use of different names : as, hacheloi\ maid; hoy., girl}
hrother, sister; huch., doc; hull., cow; code., hen.
II. By the use of dilferent terminations : as, ahhot., ahhess ; Jiero^
heroine ; administrator., administratrix.
III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, coclc-sjoarroic^
hen-sparroiD ; man-servant^ maid-servant ; he-goat., she-goat ; male
relations., female relations.
Ohs. 5. — The names of things without life, used literally, are al-
ways of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often repre-
sented figuratively as having sex. Things I'emarkable for power,
greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine: as, the svn.,
time., death,, sleep., fear,, anger., winter., icar. Things beautiful, ami-
able, or prolific, ai"e spoken of as feminine; as, the moon., earth,,
nature., fortune., Imowledge., hope, spring, peace.
Ohs. 6. — N<mns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity,
or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender; but when tiiey
convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gen-
der of the individuals that compose the assemhlage.
Ohs. 7. — Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be
regarded, are generally spoken of as neuter : as, " He fired at the
deer, and wounded it.''^ — "■ If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep and
kill it or sell i^," etc. — Exod.., xxii. 1.
CASES.
Cases, in grammar, are modifications that dis*
tinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to
other words.
CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — NOUNS. 27
There are three cases ; the nominative^ the
jyosseS'Sive^ and the ohjective.
The nominative case is that form or state of a
noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the sub-
ject of a finite verb : as, The hoy runs ; /run.
The possessive case is that form or state of a
noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the re-
lation of property : as, The hoifs hat ; my hat.
The ohjective case is that form or state of a
noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object
of a verb, participle, or preposition : as, I know
the hoy ; he knows Que.
Ob&. 1. — The cases belong only to nouns and pronouns. Pro-
■douns are not necessarily like tlieir antecedents, in case.
Oh. 2.— The nominative and the objective of nouns are always
iilike, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in
A sentence, or their simple dependence according to the sense.
Ohs. 3.— The subject of a verb is that which answers to who or
«^a^ before it : as, *' The boy runs."— TF5^(? runs? The &oy. Boy
is therefore here in the nominative case.
Ohs. 4. — The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that
which answers to whom or what after it: as, "I know the boy." — •
I know whom ? The hoy. Boy is therefore here in the ohjective
case.
Obs. 5. — The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular
number, by adding to the nominative s preceded hy an apostrophe ;
and, in the phiral, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an
apostrophe only : as, &6>j/, hoy^s.^ hoys'.
I DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
The declension of a noun is a regular arrange^
ment of its numbers and cases. Thus : —
EXAMPLE I.—
-FRIEND.
Singular.
Plural.
Kom.
friend,
ISTom.
friends,
Poss.
friend's,
Poss.
friends^
Obj.
friend ;
Obj.
friends*
EXAMPLE 11.
— MAX.
Nom.
man,
ISTom.
men,
Poss.
man's,
Poss.
men's,
Obj.
man;
Obj.
men.
23 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAE/ IL
EXAMPLE III.— FOX.
Kom. fox, Norn. foxes,
Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes',
Obj. fox; Obj. foxes.
EXAMPLE IV. — FLY.
ISTom. fly, ISTom. flies.
Poss. fly's, Poss. flies',
Obj. fly; Obj. flies.
ANALYSIS.
Analysis is the separation of a sentence into tlie parts
wliich compose it.
Every sentence nmst contain at least two principal
parts ; namely, the subject and \hQ predicate.
The subject of a sentence is that of which it treats ; as,
" The sun has set."' — " Can you write ?"
The predicate is that which expresses the action, be-
ing, or passion, as belonging to the subject. It is
therefore always a verb.
Any combination of the subject and predicate is called
a proposition.
A simple sentence is one that contains only one propo-
sition; as, "Fire burns." — " The truth will prevaih"
A simple sentence may be declarative^ interrogative^
imperative^ or exclamatory.
It is declarative when it expresses an aifirmation or
negation ; interrogative^ when it expresses a question ;
hnperative^ Avhen it expresses a command ; and exclama-
tory, when it expresses an exclamation.
Obs. — In analyzing simple sentences, the subject and predicate
should be found first, and then the object^ if the sentence contala
one. The object is defined in Obs. 4. on the preceding page. The
Bubject, in imperative sentences, is not expressed, but must be sup-
plied in analysis. It is thou or you, (understood.)
EXERCISES.— AN'ALYSIS AXD PARSING.
Exercise J. — Analyze each of the following sentences by pointing out
the subject, the predicate, and the object (if there l& <^^y), «^^
vy -
CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 29
. state ichetlier it is declarative^ interrogative^ imperative, or ex-
clamatory.
Example. — " Contentment brings happiness."
Tliis is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is contentment; the predicates
bi'ings; the object, happinens.
Crimes deserve punishment. Robbers are imprisoned. Generos-
ity makes friends. Vice brings misery. Does William study gram-
mar? Can he speak French? Love truth. Justice will prevaih
Perseverance overcomes obstacles. Honor merit. Can you avoid
errors? Matilda possesses beauty. Despise meanness. Jane has
friends. Vanity excites disgust. Plants produce flowers. Can
indolence bestow wealth ? Diligence should be rewarded. Could
he have avoided disgrace ? Will you give assistance ?
Exercise IT. — Parse each word in the above sentences according to
the following example.
Example. — " Contentment brings happiness."
Contentment is a common noun ; of the third person, because it is spoken of; of the
singular number, because it denotes only one ; of the neuter gender, because
it is neither male nor female; of the nominative case, because it is the sub-
ject of the verb brings.
B'-ings is a verb, because it signifies action.
ffajypine^s \& 9. common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gender,
and of the objective case, because it is the object of the verb brings.
N'S^
CHAPTER ly.— OF ADJECTIYESc
An Adjective is a word added to a noun or
pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, A
tvise man ; a 7ieio book. — You two are diligent
CLASSES,
Adjectives may be divided into six classes ;
namely, common.^ propei^ numeral., ])ron()minal.,
participial., and compouncL
I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet,
or adjective denoting quality or situation ; as,
Good., lad., peaceful., warlihe — eastern., western^
vuter., inner,
II. K proper adjective is one that is formed from
a proper name ; as, American., English., Platonic,
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [PART IL
III, A numeral adjective is one that expresses
/a definite number ; as, One^ two^ tliree^fowi\ etc.
"Ss IV. K pro]iominal adjective is a definitive word
which may either accompany its noun, or repre-
sent it understood ; as, ''''All [men] join to guard
what each [man] desires to gain." — Pope.
V. A jparticijpial adjective is one that has the
form of a participle, but difi^ers from it by reject'
ing the idea of time ; as. An amusing story.
VI. A compound adjective is one that consists
cf two or more words joined together ; as, Nut-
hrown^ lauglitei^-loving^ four-footed,
Ohs. — -Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely,
1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, etc.
2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh,
etc.
3. MuUiplicative ; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple
or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, etc.
MODIFICATIONS.
Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications
but the forms cf oomparison.
Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to
express quality in a^arent degrees ; as, AarJ,
liardei\ liardest.
There are three degrees cf comparison ; the
positive., the comparative., and the '^superlative.
The positive degree is that which is expressed
by the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard^ soft^
good.
The comparative degree is that which exceeds
the positive ; as, liarder^ softer., letter.
The superlative degree is that which is not ex-
ceeded ; as, liardest., softest., hest.
Those adjectives whose signification does not
admit of difterent degrees, cannot be compared;
as, two^ second., all., total., immortal., infinite.
CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 81
Those adjectives which may be varied in sense,
but not in form, are compared by means of ad-
verbs; as, skillful, onore skillful, fno6i skillful, —
skillful, less skillful, least skillful.
Adjectives are regularly compared, when the
comparative degree is expressed by adding e7\
and the superlative by adding est^ to them ; as,
Positive. Comparative, Superlative.
great, greater, greatest.
*wide, wider, widest.
hot, hotter, hottest.
The following adjectives are compared irregu-
larly: good^ better^ best; had or ill^ worse^ worst j
little^ less., least ; mucli., more., most ; many., more.,
most ; far., farther., farthest / IcUe., later or latter.^
latest or last,
01)5. 1, — As the simple form of the adjective does not necessarily
imply comparison, and as many adjectives admit no other, some
think it is not requisite in parsing, to mention the degree, unless it
be the comparative or the superlative.
Ohs. 2. — The method of comparison by er and est, is chiefly ap-
plicable to monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e«
Ols. 3. — The ditferent degrees of a quality may also be expressed,
"with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective, the
adverbs more and most: as, wise., more wise., most wise ; famous^
more famous^ most famous; amiable., more amiable., most amiable.
Obs. 4, — Diminution of quality is expressed, in like manner, by
the adverbs ^^s^ and least: as, wise^ less wise, least wise; jfamouSy
less famous., least famous.
Obs. 5. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a vari-
ation of the adjective. The words may with more propriety be
parsed separately, the degree being ascribed to the adverb, or to
each word.
Obs. 6. — Most adjectives of more than one syllable, must be com-
pared by means of the adverbs ; because they do not admit a
change of termination: thus, we may say, virtuous., more virtuous,
most virtuous; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest.
Obs. 7. — Common adjectives are more numerous than all the
other adjectives put together. Very many of these, and a few pro-
nominals and participials, may be compared ; but adjectives formed
from proper names, all the nu.. erals, and most of the compounds,
are in no way susceptible of co" parison.
* See Kules for - ^'ellmg, III aud VL
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART IL
Ohs. 8. — Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, An iron bar—
An evening school — Kmahogany chair— A South- Sea diVQQm. These
also are incapable of comparison.
Obs. 9. — The numerals are often used as nouns ; and, as such, are
regularly declined: as. Such a one — One's own self— The little ones
■ — By tens — For twenty''s sake.
Ohs. 10.— Comparatives, and the word other^ are sometimes also
employed as nouns, and have the regular declension ; as, Our svpe-
riors — His betters — The elder'' s advice — An* other's yvoQ — Let other*
do as they will. But, as adjectives, these words are invariable.
Obs. 11.— Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed,
simply relate to them, and have no modifications ; except this and
ihat^ which form the plural these ajid those; and much^ inany^ and
a few others, which are compared.
Obs. 12.— Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not ex-
pressed, may be parsed as representing them in person^ number^
gender., and case.
Obs. 13. — The following are the principal pronominal adjectives:
All., any., both., each., either., every., few., former., first., latter., lasty
many., neither., none., one., other., same., some., such., this., that., whichy
what. Which and ichat., when they are not prefixed to nouns, are,
for the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns.
ANALYSIS.
Words, added to either of the principal parts
of a sentence to modify or limit its meaning, are
called adjuncts.
Primary adjuncts are tlicse added directly to
either of the principal parts ; as, " Good books
always deserve a careful perusal."
Secondary adjuncts are those added to other
adjuncts; as, ''Suddenly acquired wealth very
rarely brings happiness."
Adjuncts are sometimes called modifications.
Obs. 1. — The subject or the object may be modified by different
parts of speech ; as, 1. By an article or adjective; as, " The diligent
* There seems to be no good reason for joining n7i and other. An here excludes
any other article ; and analojiy and consistency require that the words be sc[)arated.
Their union has led sometitnes to an improper repetitioa of the article ; as, '■'■AJioth^i'
such a man,'" — for, "An other such man."
CHAP, v.] ETYMOLOGY. — PEOXOUXS. 33
scholar improves." 2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive
case ; as, '^ WilUcuii's sister has lost her book." 3. By a noun or
pronoun, used merely for explanation ; as, " His brother, Charles^ is
idle," 4. By a preposition and its object, used as an adjective; as,
"The heavens declare the glory of Gociy 5. By a verb; as, "Tho
desire to excel is laudable."
Obs. 2. — The predicate may be modified, 1. By an adverl) ; as,
"The sun shines hriglUlyy 2. By a 'pre'poution and its object, used
as an adverb; as, " He came^ro^i Boston.
Obs. 3. — The modifications enumerated are those of the simplest
form. Others are mentioned and described as the pupil proceeds.
Exercise. — Analyze each sentence.^ pointing out first^ the subject.^ the
predicate., and the object.^ and secondly^ the adjuncts of each; pars&
each word.
Example. " The good scholar attentively studies his lessons."
This is a simple declarative sentence.
1. The subject is scholar ; the predicate, studies; the object, lessons.
2. The adjuncts of the subject are the and good ; the adjunct of the predicate
\& attentively ; the adjunct of the object is /as.
Many severe afflictions overtook that unfortunate man. He
suddenly lost all his property. Every person highly praised "Wil-
liam's noble conduct. Ctesar fought many great battles. William
has carelessly torn John's beautiful new book. The Athenian3
carefully observed Solon's wise laws. The queen has wisely pro-
claimed a general peace, John yesterday found Sarah's new book.
That ferocious dog has severely bitten Charles's right arm. "When
will his brother return ? Where did your kind father buy that
interesting book ? Always cheerfully obey your parents. ISTever
neglect the smallest duty. This benevolent young lady kindly
teaches many poor children. Twelve pence make one shilling.
The English Reader was formerly much used. John has bought
two entertaining books. The Prussian ambassador has presented
his credentials. His brother attends the Lutheran church. Both
these bad boys deserve severe punishment. The traveller related
many amusing incidents. This merchant has just returned from
Europe. In winter, the snow covers the ground. The love of
truth should be carefully cultivated. All the objects of nature de-
serve dihgent study. Grammar teaches the right use of language.
V
CHAPTER Y.— OF PRON'OUXS. ^
A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun :
as, The boy loves his book ; lie has long lessons,
•ard he learns them w^ell.
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II,
Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its an-
tecedent^ because it usually precedes the pronoun.
Ohs. 2. — Pronouns often stand for persons or things not named ;
the antecedent being understood.
Obs. 3. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for
some person or thing unknown to the speaker, and may bo said
to have no antecedent ; as, " Wliat lies there ?" Ans. ^' A man
asleep."
Obs. 4. — One pronoun may stand as the immediate antecedent to
an other; as, "Blessed are they that mourn."
CLASSES.
Pronouns are divided into three classes ; ^er-
wnalj relative J and interrogative.
I. A ijersonal pronoun^ is a pronoun tliat shows
by its form of what person it is.
The simjijle personal pronouns are five : namely,
I^ of the iirst person ; thou., of the second person ;
lie., site., and it., of the third person.
The comj)ound personal pronouns are also five :
namely, myself^ of the first person ; thyself., of the
second ])erson ; liimself., herself., and itself., of the
third person.
II. A relative ])ronoun^ is a pronoun that re]>
resents an antecedent word or phrase, and con-
nects different clauses of a sentence.
The relative pronouns are, who., %chic\ what^
and that / and the compounds whoever or whoso-
ever^ whichever or whichsoever., whatever or what-
soever.
What is a kind of double relative, equivalent
to that lohicli., or those which / and is to be 23arsed
first as antecedent., and then as relative.
IIL An interrogative ])ronoun., is a pronoun
with which a question is asked.
The interrogative pronouns are, who^ iohic\
and what '^ being the same in form as relatives.
Ohs. 1. — Wlio is usually applied to persons only; w]iic\ though
formerly applied to persons, is now contined to animals and inani-
CHAP, v.] ETYMOLOGY. — PRONOUNS. 85
mate things; what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only;
that is ai)plied inditferently to persons, animals, or things.
Obs. 2. — The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often
used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being
equivalent to that ichich^ or the thing tchich. In this double rela-
tion, what represents two cases at the same time ; as, " He is
ashamed oi what he has done ;" that is, of that ichich he has done.
Obs. 3. — What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a rela-
live at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it re-
. presents; as, " What money we had, was taken away;" that is,
All the money that we had, etc. — " What man but enters, dies :"
that is, Any man who, etc. — " J\liat god but enters yon forbidden
field," — Pope. Indeed, it does not admit of being construed after
a noun, as a simple relative. Tiie compound ichatever or whatso-
ever has the same peculiarities of construction ; as, '' We will cer-
tainly do whatsoever thing goeth fortii out of our own mouth." —
e/er., xliv, 17.
Obs. 4. — Who.^ whic\ and what^ when the affix ever or soever \^
added, have an unlimited signitication ; and, as some general term,
such as any person or any thing is im[)lied in tlie antecedent, they
are commonly followed by two terbs: as, " Whoever attends will
improve ;" that is, Any person icho attends will improve.
Obs. 5. — That is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who
or which; as, ''The days that [which] are past, are gone forever."
It is a definitive or ])ronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun
expressed or understood; as, " That book is new." In other cases,
it is a conjunction ; as, " Live well, that you may die well."
Obs. 6. — The word as, though usually a conjunction or an ad-
Terb, has soTnetiines the construction of a relative pronoun; as,
" The Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should bo
saved." — Acts., ii, 47.
Obs. 7. — Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun,
refei-ring to one of two things; as, " Whether is greater, the gold
or the temple?" — Matt.., xxiii, 17.
MODIFICATIONS.
Pronouns Lave the same modifications as nouns;
namely, Persons^ N^unihers^ Genders., and Cases.
Obs. 1. — In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are
distinguished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the in-
terrogative pronouns, they are ascertained chiefly by the antecedent
and the verk
Obs. 2. — " The pronouns of the first and second persons, are both
masculine and feminine; that is, of the same gender as the person
or persons they represent." — Levizac. The speaker and the hearer,
being present to each other, of course know the sex to whicii they
respectively belong; and, whenever they appear in narrative, w©'
are told who they are.
9*
S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL
Ohs. 3. — Murray and some others deny the first person of nouns^
and the p;ender of pronouns of the Jirst and second persons; and at
tJie same time leach, that, " Pronouns must agree with their nouns,
iu person^ number, and gender^ Now, no two words can agree iu
i*ny property which belongs not to both !
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
The declension of a pronoun is a regular ar*
range ment of its numbers and cases.
The personal pronouns are thus declined : —
I, of the FIRST PERSON, any of the genders^
Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we,
Poss. "my, or mine, Poss, our, or oiirs,
Obj. me; Obj. us.
Thou, of the second person, amj of the genders.
Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye, or j^ou,
Pos^. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours,
Obj. thee; Obj. you.
He, of the third person, mascidine gender.
Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they,
Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs.
Obj. him; Obj. theuu
She, of the third person, feminine gender.
Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they,
Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs,
Obj. her; Obj. them.
It, of the third person, neuter gender.
Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they,
Poss. its, Poss. their, or theirs,
Obj. it; Obj. them.
The word s^Z/" added to the personal pronouns, forms a class of
comjmund personal pronouns, that are used when an action reverts
upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distincrnishcd
frotn others: as, sin*!;, myself, plur. ourselces ; sing, thyself, plur.
yourselves; m\g. himself , herself , itself, \)\civ. themselves. They all
want the possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and ob'
jective-
CHAP. V 1 ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS. 37
The relative and the interrogative pronouna
are thus declined : —
Who, applied only to persons.
Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Noni. who,
Poss. Avhose, Poss. whose,
Obj. whom ; Obj. whom.
Which, applied to animals and things.
Sing. Nom. which, Plur. ISTom. which,
Poss. * Poss.
Obj. which j Obj, which.
What, generally applied to things.
Sing. ISTom. what, Plur. ISTom. what,
Poss. • Poss. • • — .
Obj. what ; Obj. what.
That, applied to persons, animals, and things.
Sing ISTom. that, Plus. Worn, that,
Poss. ■ Poss, •
Obj. that; Obj. that.
The compound relative pronouns, wJioever or whosoever^ wMcJi'
ever or ichichsoever^ and ichatever or tchatsoever^ are declined iu the
same manner as the simples, who^ which^ what.
ANALYSIS.
When simple sentences are connected, they form com-
pound or complex sentences, and are then called clauses.
A cla ":, therefore, is a division of a compound or a
complex Sentence. Compound or complex clauses are
sometimes called members.
Clauses may be connecLcd by conjunctions, relative
pronouns, or adverbs.
A clause, used as an adjunct, or as one of the princi-
pal parts of a sentence, is called a dependent clause.
* Whose is sometimos used as the possessive case of wliicli, as, "A religion whosd
origin is divine." — Blair.
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
The clanse on wliich. it depends, is called the principal
clause.
A sentence composed of a principal and a dependent
clause, is called a complex sentence.
When neither of the component clauses of a sentence
is dependent, it is called a compound sentence.
A clause, introduced by a relative pronoun, is often
called a relative clause; it may be dependent or in-
dependent.
Ohs. — The sentence, " This is the man that committed the deed,"
is complex ; because the relative clause is an adjunct of man^ modi-
fying it like an adjective ; but " I gave the book to John, who
has lost it," is a compound sentence, the relative clause not being
an adjunct, but expressing an additional fact^ and equivalent to
" and he has lost it."
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
Exercise I. — State icliether the sentence is complex or compound ;
separate it into its component clauses ; analyze each as in the
previous exercise.
Example. — " The messenger who was sent, has returned."
This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is, Tlie 'messenger has
returned, and the dependent clause is, Who was sent, an adjunct of messenger ; tlie
connective word is icho.
The subject of the principal clause is, wessew^^r; the predicate is, Aas returned;
the adjuncts of the subject are the, and the relative clause, who was sent; the predi-
cate has no adjuncts. The subject of the dependent clause, is w7io, and the predicate,
was ^ent ; neither has any adjuncts.
Jhildren who disobey their parents, deserve punishment. The
young man who embezzled his employer's money, was yesterday
arrested. Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins.
He that walketh uprightly, walketh surely. Them that honor me
I will honor. I immediately perceived the object which he pointed
out. <Who can respect a man tliat has lost his self-respect? "Who-
ever dreads punishment, suffers it already. He imprudently reported
what his friend told him. You may purcliase whatever you need.
What cannot be prevented must be endured. You should carefully
avoid rudeness, wliich always excites ill-will. Caesar, who con-
quered many nations, was assassinated. When spring returns, the
trees resume their verdure. We alwaj^s respect a man who scru-
pulously observes the truth. When my friend returns, I shall know
all the facts. Washington was universally admired, because he
faitlifully served his country. Every one despised Benedict Arnold,
who betrayed his country.
Exercise II. — Parse each icord in the above sentences as in th^
pj'evious exercise; state the class -and modifications of the prw
nouns.
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. B'O
CHAPTER YL— OF VERBS.
A Verb is a word that signifies to he^ to act^ or
to he acted upon : as, I am, I rule^ I am ruled.
CLASSES.
Verbs are divided, witli respect to theirybrm^
into four classes ; regular^ ivrecjulai\ redundant^
and defective.
I. A regidar verb is a verb tliat forms the pre-
terit and the perfect participle by assuming d or
ed ; as, love^ Joved^ loving^ loved.
II. An irregular verb is a verb that does not
form the preterit and the perfect participle by
!iLssuming d or ed; as, see^ saiv^ seeing^ seen.
III. A rediiiidant verb is a verb that forms the
preterit or the perfect participle in two or more
ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular ;
as, thrive^ thrived or throve^ thriving^ thrived or
thriven.
IV. A defective verb is a verb that forms no
participles, and is used in but few of the moods
and tenses ; as, beware^ ought^ gnoth.
Ohs. — ;Reg:iilar verbs form their preterit and perfect participle by
adilin;; d to final ^, and ed to all other terminations. The verb
hear^ heard^ hearing^ heard^ adds d to r, and is therefore irregular.
Verbs are divided again, with respect to their
signification^ into four classes; active-transitive^
active-intransitive^ passive^ and neuter.
I. An active-transitive verb is a verb that ex-
presses an action which has some person or thing
for its object; as, " Cain sleio AbeV''
II. An active-intransitive verb is a verb thai
expresses an action which has no person or thing
for its object; as, "John ivalhs.^''
III. A passive verb is a verb that represents its
40 EIJGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART IL
subject, or nominative, as being acted upon; as,
'' I a?n compelled^
IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses
neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a
state of being ; as, " Thou arV — " He sleeps^''
MODIFICATIONS.
Verbs have modifications of four kinds ; name-
ly, Moods^ Teiises^ Persons^ and Numbers,
MOODS.
Moods are different forms of the verb, each of
which expresses the being, action, or passion, in
some particular manner.
There are five moods; the Infinitive^ the In-
dicative^ the Potential^ the Suhjunctive^ and the
Imperative.
The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb,
which expresses the being, action, or passion, in
an unlimited manner, and without person or num-
ber ; as. To read^ to speah.
The Indicative 7nood is that form of the verb,
which simply indicates, or declares a thing : as, I
lorite ; you jcnow : or asks a question ; as. Do you
knoiv ?
The Potential mood is that form of the verb,
which expresses the power, libei'ty, possibility, or
necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as, I
can read ; we must go.
The Suhjimctwe mood is that form of the verb,
which represents the being, action, or passion, as
conditional, doubtful, and contingent : as, " If thou
go^ see that thou offend not."
The Imperative mood is that form of the verb^
which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreat-
mg, or permitting : as, " Depart thou." — ^' Be com-
fortedJ^ — " Forgive me." — '-^Go in peace."
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 41
Ols. — A verb in any other mood than the infinitive^ is called,
by way of distinction, o. finite verb.
TENSES.
Tenses are those modifications of tlie verb,
wliicli distinguish time.
There are six tenses ; the Present^ the Imper-
fect^ the Perfect^ the Pluperfect^ the Firstfuture^
and the Second-future.
The Present tense is that which expresses what
now exists^ or is taking place : as, '' I hear a noise ;
somebody is coming.^''
The Imperfect tense is that which expresses-
what took place, or was occurring^ in time fully
past : as, " I saw him yesterday ; he was walking
out."
The Perfect tense is that which expresses what
has taken j)lace, within some period of time not
yet fully past : as, " I have seen him to-day."
The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses
what had taken place, at some past time men-
tioned: as, "I had seen him, when I met you."
The Firstfuture tense is that which expresses
what loill take place hereafter: as, "I shall see
him again."
The Secondfuture tense is that which expresses
what will have taken place, at some future time
mentioned: as, ''I shall have seen him by to-mor-
row noon."
Ohs. — The tenses do not all express time with equal precision.
Those of the indicative mood are in general tlie most definite. The
time expressed by the same tenses (or what are called by the same
names) in the other moods, is frequently relative, and sometimes
indefinite, IhQ present infinitire often expresses what is rehitively
future. The potential i//i]ye?'/ect is properly an aorw^.' no definite
time is usually implied in it. The subjunctive imperfect is also an
aorist, or indefinite tense : it may refer to time past, present, or
future.
42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL
PERSONS AND NUMBERS.
The Person and J^umber of a verh are those
modifications in which it agrees with its subject
or nominative.
In each number, there are three persons ; and
in each person, two numbers : thus, —
■' Singular. Plural.
1st per. I love, 1st per. We love,
2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love,
8d per. He loves; 8d per. Thej love.
Ohs. 1. — Tims the verb, in some of its parts, varies its termina-
tion to distinguish, or agree with, the different persons and num-
bers. The change is, however, principally confined to tl.e second
and third persons singular of the present tense of the indicative
mood, and to the auxiliaries hast and has of the perfect. In the
ancient biblical style, now used only on solemn occasions, the second
person singular is distinguished through all the tenses of tlie indic-
ative and potential moods. In the plural number, there is no vari-
ation of ending, to denote the dilFerent persons, and the verb in the
three persons plural, »is the same as in the first person singular. —
See Inst, of E. Grani.^ p. 55, et seq.
Ohs. 2. — The second person singular is regularly formed by add-
ing st or est to the first person ; and the third person, in like man-
ner, by adding s or es : as, I see, thou seest., he sees ; I give.^t\\o\x
givest, he gives ; I go, thou goest^ lie goes ; I fly., thou fliest, he flies;
1 ve.i\ thou vexest, lie Texes ; I lose, thou losest, he loses.
Ohs. 3. — The tliird person singular was anciently formed in th or
eih ; but this termination is now confined to the solemn style.
Obs. 4. — The only regular terminations that are added to verbs,
are ing, d or ed, st or est, s or es, th or eth. Jng, and th or eth,
always add a syllable to the verb, except in doth, hatii, saith.
The rest, whenever their sound will unite with that of the final
syllable of the verb, are added without increasing the nucnber of
syllables; otherwise, they are separately pronounced. In solemn
discourse, however, ed and est are, by most speakers, uttered dis-
tinctly in all cases: except some few in which a vowel precedes;
as in glorifl^d.
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrange-
ment of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and
participles.
There are four Principal Parts in the conju-
gation of every simple and complete verb ; name-
CHAP, yi.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS 43
ly, the Present^ fhe Preterit^ the Imperfect Par-
ticiple^ and the Perfect Participle. A verb which
wants any of these parts, is called defective.
An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one
of the principal parts of an other verb, to express
some particular mode and time of the being, ac-
tion, or passion. The auxiliaries are do., he., liave.,
^Iiall., ivill^ may., can^ and must^ with their varia-
tions.
Ola. — Some of these, especially do^ he, and liave^ are also used as
principal verbs.
Verbs are conjugated in the following manner:
I. SIMPLE FOnM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER.
The simplest form of an English conjugation,
is that which makes the present and imperfect
tenses without auxiliaries ; but even in these, aux-
iliaries are required for the potential mood, and
are often preferred for the indicative,
FIRST EXAMPLE.
Conjugation of the regular active verb
LOVE.
Principal Parts,
Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle
Love. Loved. Loving. Loved.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. To love.
Perfect Tense. To have loved. *
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
1. The simple form of the present tense is varied
thus : —
44 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PART IL
Singular. Plural.
1st per. I love, 1st per. We love.
2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love.
Sd per. He loves ; 8d per. They love.
2. This tense may also be forraed by prefixing the
auxiliary do to the verb ; thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I do love, 1. "We do love,
2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love,
S. He does love ; 3. They do love.
Imperfect Tense.
This tense in its simple form, is the preterit. In all
regular verbs, it adds d or ed to the present, but in others
it is formed variously.
1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied
thus : —
Singular. Plural.
1. I loved, 1. "We loved,
2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved,
8. He loved ; 8. They loved.
2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the
auxiliary did to the present : thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I did love, 1. We did love,
■ 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love,
8. He did love; 8. They did love.
Perfect Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect
participle : thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I have loved, 1. We have loved,
2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved,
8. He has loved ; 3. They have loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect
participle; thus, —
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 45
Singular. Plural.
1. I had loved, 1. We had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved,
8. He had loved; 8. They had loved.
First-future Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the
present : thus, —
1.. Simply to express a future action or event :
Singvlar. Plural.
1. I shall love. 1, "We shall love,
2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love,
8. He will love ; 8. They will love.
2. To express a promise, vohtion, command, or threat :
Singidar. Plural.
1. I will love, 1. "We will love,
2. Thou sbalt love, 2. You shall love,
8. He shall love ; 8. They shall love.
Second-future Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will
have to the perfect participle : thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved,
2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved,
8. He Avill have loved ; 8. They will have loved.
POTENTIAL MOOD. 4^
Present Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or mustj to
the radical verb : thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I may love, 1. "We may love,
2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love,
8. He may love ; 8. They may love.
Imperfect Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would^
or should, to the radical verb : thus, —
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL
Singular. Plural.
1. I might love, 1 "We might love,
2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love,
3. He might love ; 3, Thej might love.
Perfect Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries may have, can Jiave^
or must have, to the perfect participle : thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved,
2. Thou may St have loved, 2. You may have loved,
8. He may have loved ; 8. They may have loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries might have, could
have, would have, or should have^ to the perfect partici-
ple : thus, —
Singular. Plural.
1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved,
2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved,
3. He might have loved; 8. They might have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
This tense is generally used to express some condition
on which a future action or event is affirmed, and is
therefore considered by some grammarians as an ellipti-
cal form of the future.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I love, 1. If we love,
2. If thou love, 2. If you love,
3. If he love, 8. If they love.
Imperfect Tense.
This tense, as well as the imperfect of the potential
mood, with which it is frequently connected, is properly
an aorist, or indefinite tense, and may refer to time past^
present, or future.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I loved, 1. If we loved,
2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved,
8. If he loved; 3. If they loved.
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 4:7
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. 2. Love [thou J 07^ Do tliou love.
Plural, 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love,
P ARTIC IPLES.
1. Tlie Imperfect y Loving.
2. The Perfect, Loved,
3. TJie Preperfect, Having loved.
-&!/<' y JkJL^ Af
SYI^OPSIS OF THE FIEST EXAMPLE.
First Person Singular.
Ind. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, I shall
have loved. Pot. I may love, I might love, I may have loved, \
might have loved. Subj. It I love, If I loved.
Second Person Singular."*
Ind. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst. Thou hast loved, Thou hadst
loved. Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. Pot. Thou mayst
love, TJiou mightst love, Thou mayst have loved, Thou mightst
have loved. Subj. If thou love, If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou],
or Do thou love.
* In the familiar use of the second person singular, as retained by the Society of
Friend-% the verb is usually varied ouly in the present tense of the indicative mood,
and in the auxiliary hast of the perfect: thus, —
Ind. Thou lovest, Thou loved, Thou hast loved. Thou had loved, Thou will love.
Thou will have loved. Pot. Thou may love. Thou might love. Thou may have loved,
Thou might have loved. Subj. If thou love, If thou loVed. Imp. Love [thou], or Do
thou love.
To avoid an unnecessary increase of syllables, the formation of (he second person
singular of the present tense, is also ir ome degi'ee eimplitied, and rendered closely
analogous to that of the third person singular ; at or ent being added for the former
exactly as s or en is added for the latter: as, 1 know, thou knowist, he /.nows ; I read,
thoureadnt, he reads ; I take, thou ta/,€«t,he takes; 1 bid, ihou bidst, he lids; I
pity, thon pitietit, he. pities. Thus there is no Increase of syllables, when the verb
ends with a sound which will unite with that of the letters added. — See Jnat. ef E.
Gram., p. 56.
This method of forming the verb accords with the practice of the most intelligent
of those who retain the common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address.
It disencumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless terminations,
which serve only, when uttered, to give an uncouth prominency to words not often
emphatic, and, without impairing the strength or perspicuity of the language, in-
creases its harmony, and reduces the form of the verb, in the second person singular,
nearly to the same simplicity as in the other persons and numbers. This simplifica-
tion is supported by usage as extensive as XhQ familiar use of the pronoun thou, and
is also in accordance with the canons of criticism. " All words and phrases which ai e
remarkably harsli and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, should be rejected."
'-CampbeWs Philosophy of Rhetoric, B. 11, Oh. ii, Sec 2, Canon SisUh.
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
Third Person Singular.
Ind. He loves, He loved, He has loved, He had loved, He will
love. He w^ill have loved. Pot. He may love. He might love, He
may have loved, He might have loved. Sdbj. If he love, If ho
loved.
First Person Plural.
IxD. "We love, "We loved, TVe have loved, "We had loved, "We
shall love, "We shall have loved. Pot. "We may love, "We might
love. We may have loved, "We might have loved. Subj. If v^e love,
If we loved.
Second Person Plural.
Ind. You love. You loved, You have loved. You had loved. You
will love. You will have loved. Pot. You may love, You might
love. You may have loved. You might have loved. Subj. If you
love. If you loved. Imp. Love [ye or you], or Do you love.
Third Person Plural.
Ind. They love, They loved, Tliey have loved. They had loved,
They will love. They will have loved. Pot. They may love, Ti)ey
might love, They may have loved, They might have loved. Subj.
If they love, If they loved.
SECOND EXAMPLE.
.5^ Conjugation of the irregular active verb
I SEE.
Principal Parts.
Present. Preterit. Imjjerfect Participle. Perfect Participle,
See. Saw. Seeing. Seen,
infinitive mood.
Present Tense. To see.
Perfect Tense. To have seen.
^ indicative mood.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 see, 1. We see,
2. Thou seest, 2. You see,
3. He sees j 3. Thej see.
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 49
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I saw, 1. We saw,
2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw,
8. He saw ; 8. Thej saw.
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1, I have seen, 1. We have seen,
2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen,
8. He ha.s seen ; 8. They have seen.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 had seen, 1. We had seen,
2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen,
8. He had seen ; 8. They had seen.
First-future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 shall see; 1. We shall see,
2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see,
8. He will see ; 8. They will see.
Second-future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen,
2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen,
3 He will have seen ; 8. They will have seen,
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
» 1. 1 may see, 1. We may see,
2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see,
8. He may see ; 8, They may see.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 might see, 1 We might see,
2. Thou mightst see, 2, You might see,
3. He might see ; 8. They might see.
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen,
2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen,
8. He may have seen ; 8. They may have seen.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1, 1 might have seen, 1. We might have seen,
2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen,
8. He might have seen ; 8. They might have seen.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I see, 1. If we see,
2. If thou see, 2. If you see,
8. If he see ; 8. If they see.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I saw, 1. If we saw,
2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw,
8. If he saw ; 8. If they saw.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. 2. See [thou,] or Do thou see.
Plural. 2. See [ye or you,] or Do you see.
PARTICIPLES.
I, The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect,
Seeing. Seen. Having seen.
THIRD EXAMPLE.
Conjugation of the irregular neuter verb
BE.
Principal Parts.
Pivsent. Preterit, Jm2)erfect Participle. Perfect Participle.
Be. Was. Being. Been.
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 51
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, To be.
Perfect Tense. To have been,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 am, 1. We are,
2, Thou art, 2. You are,
8. He is ; 8. They are.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 was, ■ 1. We were,
2. Thou wast,* 2. You were,
8. He was ; 8. Thej were.
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 have been, 1. We have been,
2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been,
3. He has been ; 8. They have been.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 had been, 1. We had been,
2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been,
3. He had been ; 8. They had been.
First-future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 shall be, 1. We shall be, ''
2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be,
8. He will be ; 8. They will be.
Second-future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 shall have been, 1. We shall have been,
2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been,
8. He will have been ; 8. They will have been.
* Wert is sometimes used indicatively for toast; as, "Vainly wert thou wed."-«
JByron. * Whate'er thou art or werV^ — Id.
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART II.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may be, 1. We may be,
2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be,
3. He may be ; 8. They may be.
hnperfect Tense.
Singvlar. ' PUral.
1, I might be, 1. We might be,
2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be,
8. He might be ; 3. They might be.
Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 may have been, 1. We may have been,
2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been,
8. He may have been ; 8. They may have been.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 might have been, 1, We might have been,
2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been,
8. He might have been ; 3. They might have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Ifl be, 1. Ifwe be,
2. If thou be, 2. If you be,
3. If he be; 3. If they be.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I were, 1. Ifwe were,
2. If thou wert, or were, 2. If you were,
3. Khe were; 3. If they were.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Present Tense.
Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be.
Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be.
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 53
PARTICIPLES.
1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The PreperfecU
Being. Been. Having been.
II. COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER.
Active and neuter verbs may also be conju-
gated, by adding the Imperfect Participle to the
auxiliary verb be, through all its changes ; as, I
am writing ; He is sitting. This compound form
of conjugation denotes a continuance oi t\i% action
or state of being, and is, on many occasions, pre-
ferable to the simple form of the verb.
FOURTH EXAMPLE.
Compound form of the irregular active verb
EEAD.
Principal parts of the simple verb.
Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participlet.
Bead. Eead^ Beading. Read.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, To be reading.
Perfect Tense. To have been reading.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I am reading, 1. We are reading,
2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading^
8. He is reading j 3. They are reading.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 was reading, 1. We were reading,
2. Thou wast readino^, 2. You were read in or
TT 1
o. He was reading ; 3. They were reading.
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL
Perfect Tense.
Singular, Plural.
1. 1 have been reading, 1, "We have been reading,
2- Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading,
8. He has been reading ; 3. They have been reading.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I had been reading, 1. "We had been reading,
2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading,
3. He had been reading ; 8. They had been reading.
First-future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall be reading, 1. "We shall be reading,
2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading,
8. He will be reading ; 8. They will be readings
Second-future Tense.
Singular. 1. I shall have been reading,
2. Thou wilt have been reading,
8. He will have been reading ;
Plural. 1. We shall have been reading,
2. You will have been reading,
8. They will have been reading.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. 1 may be reading, 1. We may be reading,
2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading,
^. He may be reading ; 8. They may be reading.
Imjperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading,
2» Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading,
8. He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading.
Perfect Tense.
Singular. 1. I may have been reading,
2. Thou mayst have been reading,
8. Hg may have been reading ;
CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 55
Plural, 1. We may have been reading,
2. Yoa may have been reading,
8. They may have been reading.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. 1. I might have been reading,
2. Thou mightst have been reading,
8. He might have been reading;
Plural, 1. We might have been reading,
2. You might have been reading,
8. They might have been reading.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading;
2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading,
8. If he be reading ; 8. If they be reading.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Flural.
1. If I were reading, 1. Fwe were reading,
2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were readmg,
8. If iie were reading ; 8. If they were reading,
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading.
Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading,
PARTICIPLES,
1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect.
Being reading. Having been reading.
III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS.
Passive verbs, in English, are always of a com-
pound form. They are formed from active-trans-
itive verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to
the auxiliary verb be, through all its changes :
thus, from the active-transitive verb love^ is formed
the passive verb he loved.
Olis. — In the compound forms of conjugation, tlie imperfect par^
ticiple is sometimes taken in a passive sense : as, " Tiie goods am
56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
selling ; The ships are Imilding .''^ and the perfect participle of an
active-intransitive verb, may have a neuter signification as, '^I
am come ; He is risen ; They are fallen.'''' The former are passive^
and the latter, neuter verhs.
FIFTH EXAMPLE.
Conjugation of the regular passive verb
BE LOVED.
Principal Parts of the active verb.
Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle,
Love. Loved Loving. Loved.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. To be loved,
Perfect Tense. To liave been loved,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I am loved, 1, AVe are loved,
2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved,
8. He is Icved, 8. They are loved.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was loved, 1. We were loved,
2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved,
8. He was loved ; 8. They were loved.
Perfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1. I have been loved, 1. "We have been loved,
2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved,
8. He has been loved ; 8. They have been lovecL
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
•L I had been loved, 1. We had been loved,
2. Thou hadstbeen loved, 2. You had been loved,
8. He had been loved ; 8. They had been loved.
Firstfuture Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I shall be loved, 1. Wc shall be loved.
2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved,
8. He will be loved ; 8. They will be loved
CHAP. VI.]
ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS.
57
Second-future Tense.
Singular, lo I shall have been loved,
2. Thou wilt have been loved,
8. He will have been loved ;
Plural, 1. We shall have been loved,
2. You will have been loved,
8. They will have been loved.
POTENTIAL MOOD
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved,
2. Tbou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved^
S. He may be loved ; 8. They may be loved.
Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved,
2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved,
8. He might be loved ; 8. They might be loved
, Perfect Tense.
Singular. 1. I may have been loved,
2. Thou mayst have been loved,
8. He may have been loved ;
Plural, 1. We may have been loved,
2. You may have been loved,
8. They may have been loved.
Pluperfect Tense.
Singular. 1. I might have been loved,
2. Thou mightst have been loved,
8. He miofht have been loved:
plural, 1. We might have been loved,
2. You mi2:ht have been loved,
8. They might have been loved,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. Ifl beloved, 1. Ifwe beloved,
2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, .
Z. If he be loved , 8. If they be loved.
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II,
Imperfect Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1, If I were loved, 1. If we were loved,
2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved,
S, If lie were loved ; 8. If they were loved,
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular, 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved.
Flural, 2, Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved,
PARTICIPLES.
1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 8. The Preperfect.
Being loved. Loved. Having been loved.
IT. FORM OF NEGATION.
A verb is conjugated negatively., by placing the
adverb not after it, or after the first auxiliary;
but the infinitive and the participles take the
negative first : as, —
Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. I love not, or I do not
love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have not loved, I had not
loved, I shall not love, I sliall not have loved. Pot. I may, can,
or must not love ; I might, could, would, or shouid not love ;
I may, can, or must not have loved ; I might, could, would, or
should not have loved. Subj. If I love not. If I loved not. Part.
Not loving. Not loved, Not having loved.
V. FORM OF QUESTION.
A verb is conjugated interrogatively., in the in-
dicative and potential moods, by placing the nom-
inative after it, or after the first auxiliary : as, —
Ind. Do I love ? Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved ? Shal!
I love? Shall I have loved? Pot. May, can, or must I love?
Might, could, would, or should I love '^ May, can, or must I have
loved ? Might, could, would, or should I have loved ?
VI. FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION.
A verb is conjugated interrogatively and neg^
atively^ in the indicative and potential moods, by
placing the nominative and the adverb not afte?
the verb, or after the first auxiliary ; as, —
CHAP. VI.]
ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS.
59
Ind. Do I not love ? Did I not love ? Have I not loved ? Had I
not loved? Shall I not love? Shall I not have loved? Pot. May,
can, or must I not love? Might, could, would, or should I not love?
May, can, oi' must I not have loved? Might, could, would, or
should I not have loved ?
IRREGULAR VERBS.
An irregula?' 'verh is a verb that does not form
the preterit and the perfect participle by assum-
ing d or ed / as, see^ saw^ seeing^ seen.
Qj)s, — The simple irregular verbs, about 110 in number, are
nearly all monosyllables. The following is a list of them, as they
are now generally used.
List of the Irregular Y'sipbs.
Present.
Arise,
Be,
Bear,
Beat,
Begin,
Behold,
Beset,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Buy,
Cast,
Chide,
Choose,
Cleave, t
Cling,
Come,
Cost,
Cut,
Do,
Draw,
Drink,
Drive,
Eat,
Fall,
Feed,
Feel,
Fight,
Find,
Flee,
Fling,
Preterit.
Imperf. Part.
arose,
arising,
was,
being.
bore or bare,
bearing,
beat,
beating,
began or beguu.
beginning.
beheld,
beholding,
beset.
besetting.
bid w bade.
bidding.
bound.
binding.
bit.
biting.
bled.
bleeding.
broke.
breaking.
bred.
breeding,
brought,
bought.
bringing.
buying,
cast,
casting.
chid.
chiding,
chose,
choosing,
cleft or clove.
cleaving.
clung.
clinging.
came.
coming,
cost.
costing,
cut,
cutting.
did.
doing,
drew.
drawing,
drank,
drinking,
drove,
driving,
ate or eat.
eating.
fell,
falling,
fed.
feeding,
felt.
feeling.
fought.
fighting,
found,
finding,
fled,
fleeing.
flung.
flinging.
flew,
flying.
P^r-'ect Participle.
anseu.
been.
borne c^r born.*
beaten c^ ^eat.
begun.
beheld.
beset.
bidden or Hd»
bound.
bitten or bit.
bled.
broken.
bred.
brought,
bought.
cast.
chidden or ch'd-
chosen.
cleft or cloven.
clung.
come.
cost.
cut.
done.
drawn.
drunk or drank.
driven.
eaten or eat.
fallen.
fed.
felt.
fought.
found.
fled.
flung.
flown.
* Borne sigmfiQ% carried ; born s\gv.\Q.ea brought forth.
t Cleave, to split, is irregular, as above ; cleave, to stick, is regular, but dove yr^
formerly used in the preterit, for cleaved.
3*
60
Present.
Forbear,
Forsake,
Get,
Give,
Go,
Grow,
Have,
'Hear,
Hide,
Hit,
Hold,
Hurt,
Keep,
Know,
Lead,
Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie, (to Test,)
Lose,
Make,
Meet,
Outdo,
Put,
Eead,
Rend,
Eid,
Ride,
Rise,
Run,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
Send,
Set,
Shed,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Shut,
Shred,
Shrink,
Sink,
Sit,
bling,
Slink,
Smite,
Speak,
Spend,
Spin,
Spit,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stride,
Strike,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PART ]
Preterit.
Tmper/. Part.
Perfect Participle.
forbore,
forbearing,
forborne.
forsook.
forsaking,'
forsaken.
got,
getting,
got or gotten.
gave,
giving.
given.
went.
going,
gone.
grew,
growing,
grown.
iiad,
having,
had.
heard.
hearing.
heard.
hid.
hiding.
hidden or hid.
hit.
hitting,
hit.
held,
holding.
held or holdsn.
hurt.
hurting.
hurt.
kept.
keeping.
kept.
knew,
knowing,
known.
led.
leading.
led.
left,
leaving.
left.
lent.
lending.
lent.
let.
letting.
let.
li^y,
h'^^g,
lain.
lost,
losing,
lost.
made.
making.
made.
met,
meeting,
met.
outdid.
outdoing.
outdone.
put,
read,
putting,
put.
reading.
read.
rent.
rending.
rent.
rid,
ridding.
rid.
rode.
riding,
ridden or rode.
rung or rang.
ringing,
rung.
rose.
rising,
risen.
ran or run,
running.
run.
said.
saying.
said.
saw,
seeing,
seen.
sought.
seeking,
sought,
sold.
sold,
selling.
sent,
sending.
sent.
set.
setting.
set.
shed.
shedding.
shed.
shod.
shoeing,
shod.
shot,
shooting.
shot.
shut,
shutting.
shut.
shred,
shredding.
shred.
shrunk or shrank,
shrinking.
shrunk or shrunkea.
suno- or sang,
sunk or sank.
singing,
sinKing,
sung,
sunk.
sat,
sitting.
sat.
slew.
slaying,
slain.
slung,
slunk.
slinging.
slung.
slinking,
slunk.
smote.
smiting.
smitten or smit.
spoke,
speaking,
spoken.
spent.
spending.
spent.
spun.
spinning.
spun.
spit or spat.
spitting,
spit or spltten.
spread,
spreading.
spread.
sprung or sprang.
springing.
sprung.
stood.
standing.
stood.
stole.
stealing.
stolen.
stuck.
sticking.
stuck.
stung,
stinging,
striding,
stung.
strode or strid,
stridden or strid.
struck,
striking,
struck or stricken.
i
CHAP. VI.]
ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS.
61
Present.
Preterit.
Imperf. Part.
Swear,
swore.
■ swearing,
Swim,
Hwuin or swam.
. swimming,
Swing,
swung or swung.
swinging,
Take,
took.
taking,
Teach,
taught,
teaching,
Tear,
tore,
tearing.
Tell,
told.
telling,
Think,
thought,
thinking,
Tiirust,
thrust,
thrusting,
Tread,
trod.
treading,
Wear,
wore.
wearing.
Win,
won,
winning,
Write,
wrote,
writing,
Perfect Participle.
sworn.
swum.
swung.
taken.
taught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thrust.
trodden or trod.
worn.
won.
written.
REDUNDANT VERBS.
A redundant verb is a verb that forms tlie pre-
terit or the perfect participle in two or more
ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular;
as, thrive^ thrived or throve^ thriving^ thrived ov
thrive7i,
Obs. — Of this class of verbs, there are about ninety-five, beside
sundry derivatives and compounds. The following table exhibits
them as they are now generally used, or as they may be used with-
out grammatical impropriety. The preferable forms are placed
tirst.
List of the Redundant Yerbs..
Present.
Preterit.
Abide,
abode or abided,
Awake,
awaked or awoke.
Belay,
belayed or belaid.
Bend,
bent or bended.
Bereave,
bereft or bereaved.
Beseech,
besought or beseeched,
Bet,
betted or bet.
Betide,
betided or betid.
Bide,
bode or bided.
Blend,
blended or blent.
Bless,
blessed or blest,
Blow,
blew or blowed,
Build,
built or builded,
Burn,
burned or burnt.
Burst,
burst or bursted,
Catch,
eaught or catched,
Clothe,
clothed or clad.
Creep,
crept or creeped.
Crow,
crowed or crew.
Curse,
cursed or curst.
Dare,
dared or durst.
Deal,
dealt or dealed,
Dig,
dug f/r digged,
Dive,
dived or dove,
Dream,
dreamed or dreamt,
Dress,
dressed or drest,
Dwell,
dwelt or dwelled.
Freeze,
ivQZQ or freezed.
Imperf. Part.
abiding,
awaking,
belaying,
bending,
bereaving,
beseeching,
betting,
betiding,
biding,
blending,
blessing,
blowing,
building,
burning,
bursting,
catching,
clothing,
creeping,
crowing,
cursing,
daring,
dealing,
digging,
divingV
dreaming,
dressing,
dwelling,
freezing,
Perfect Participle.
abode or al)ided.
awaked or awoke,
belayed or belaid,
bent or bended,
bereft or bereaved,
besought or beseeched.
betted or bet.
betided or betid,
bode or bided,
blended or blent,
blessed or blest,
blown or blowed.
built or builded.
burned or burnt,
buret or bursted.
eaught or catched. '
clothed or clad,
crept or creeped.
crowed.
cursed or curst,
dared.
dealt or dealed.
dug or digged,
dived or diveu.
dreamed or dreamt,
dressed or drest.
dwelt or dwelled,
frozen or freezed.
62
ENGLISH GRAMMAE.
[part IL
Present.
Geld,
Gild,
Gird,
Grave,
Grind,
Hang,
Heat,
Heave,
Hew,
Kneel,
Knit,
Lade,
Lean,
Leap,
Learn,
Light,
Mean,
Mow,
Mulct,
Pass,
Pay,
Pen, (to coop),
Plead,
Prove,
Quit,
Eap,
Keave,
Eive,
Eoast,
Saw,
Seethe,
Shake,
Shape,
Shave,
Shear,
Shine,
Show,
Sleep,
Slide,
Slit,
Smell,
Sow,
Speed,
Spell,
Spill,
Split,
Spoil,
Stave,
Stay,
String,
Strive,
Straw,
Sweat,
Sweep,
Swell,
Thrive,
Throw,
Wake,
Wax,
Weave,
Wed,
Preterit.
gelded or gelt,
gilded or gilt,
girded <??• gii't,
graved,
ground or grinded,
hung or hanged,
heated or het,
heaved or hove,
hewed,
kneeled or knelt,
knit or knitted,
laded,
laid or layed,
leaned or leant,
leaped or leapt,
learned or learnt,
lighted or lit,
meant or meaned,
mowed,
mulcted or mulct,
passed or past,
paid or payed,
penned or pent,
pleaded or pled,
proved,
quitted or quit,
rapped or rapt,
reft or reaved,
rived,
roasted or roast,
sawed,
seethed or sod,
shook or shaked,
shaped,
shaved,
sheared or shore,
shined or shone,
showed,
slept or sleeped,
slid or slided,
slitted or slit,
smelled or smelt,
sowed,
sped or speeded,
spelled or spelt,
spilled or spilt,
split or splitted,
spoiled or spoilt,
stove or staved,
staid or stayed,
strung or stringed,
strived or strove,
strowed,
sweated or sweat,
swept or sweeped,
swelled,
thrived or throve,
threw or throwed,
waked or woke,
waxed,
wove or weaved,
wedded or wed.
Imperf. Part.
gelding,
gilding,
girding,
graving,
grinding,
hanging,
heating,
heaving,
hewing,
kneeling,
knitting,
lading,
laying,
leaning,
leaping,
learning,
lighting,
meaning,
mowing,
mulcting,
passing,
paying,
penning,
pleading,
proving,
quitting,
rapping,
reaving,
riving,
roasting,
sawing,
seething,
shaking,
shaping,
shaving,
shearing,
shining,
showing,
sleeping,
sliding,
slitting,
smelling,
sowing,
speeding,
spelling,
spilling,
splitting,
spoiling,
staving,
staying,
stringing,
striving,
strewing,
sweating,
sweeping,
swelling,
thriving,
throwing,
waking,
waxing,
weaving,
wedding,
Perfect Participle.
gelded or gelt,
gilded or gilt,
girded or girt,
graved or graven,
ground or grinded,
hung or hanged,
heated or het.
heaved or hoven.
hewed or hewn,
kneeled or knelt,
knit or knitted,
laded or laden,
laid or layed.
leaned or leant,
leaped or leapt,
learned or learnt,
lighted or lit.
meant or meaned.
mowed or mown,
mulcted or mulct,
passed or past,
paid or payed,
penned or pent,
pleaded or pled,
proved or proven,
quitted or quit,
rapped or rapt,
retl or reaved.
riven or rived,
roasted or roast,
sawed or sawn,
seethed or sodden,
shaken or shaked.
shaped or shapen.
shaved or shaven,
sheared or shorn,
shined or shone,
showed or shown,
slept or sleeped.
slidden, slid or slided,
slitted or slit,
smelled or smelt,
sowed or sown,
sped or speeded,
spelled or spelt,
spilled or spilt,
split or splitted.
spoiled or spoilt,
stove or staved.
staid or stayed,
strung or stringed,
strived o" striven,
strowed or strown.
sweated or sweat,
swept or sweeped.
swelled or swollen,
thrived or thriven,
thrown or throwed.
waked or woke,
waxed or waxen,
woven or weaved.
wedded or wed.
CHAP. YII.] ETYMOLOGY. — PARTICIPLES.
63
Present.
Weep,
Wet,
Whet,
Wind,
Wont,
Work,
Wring,
Preterit,
wepc or weeped,
wet or wetted,
whetted or whet,
wound or whided,
wont or wonted,
worked or wrought,
wringed or wrung,
Imperf. Part.
weeping,
wetting,
whetting,
winding,
wonting,
working,
wringing.
Perfect Participle.
wept or weeped.
wet or wetted,
whetted or whet,
wound or winded,
wont or wonted.
W'orked or wrought,
wringed or wrung.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
A defective verh is a verb that forms no parti-
ciples, and is used in but few of the moods and
tenses; as, heicare^ ougli% quoth.
Ohs. — When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the
tenses usually derived from those parts are also, of course, wanting.
All the auxiliaries, except <^o, 5e, and have., are defective ; but, as
auxiliaries, they become parts of other verbs, and do not need the
parts which are technically said to be " wanting." The following
brief catalogue contains all our defective verbs, except methinks,
with its preterit methought, which is not only defective, but im-
personal, irregular, and deservedly obsolescent.
List of tite Defective "Verbs.
Present.
Preterit.
Present.
PreUrit.
Beware,
Can,
Shall,
Will,
should
would.
could.
May,
might.
Quoth,
quoth.
Must,
must.
Wis,
wist.
Ought,
ought.
Wit,
wot.
.J CHAPTER YIL— OF PARTICIPLES,
f
A Participle is a word derived from a verb,
participating the properties of a verb, and of an
adjective or a noun ; and is generally formed by
adding ing^ d^ or ed^ to the verb : thus, from the
verb rule^ are formed three participles, two sim-
ple and one compound; as, 1. riding.^ 2. ruled, 3.
having Tided.
CLASSES.
English verbs have severally three participles ;
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
the First or Imperfect^ the Second or Perfect^ and
the Third or Preperfect!'''
I. The Imperfect participle is that which ends
commonly in ing^ and implies a continuance of
the being, action, or passion ; as, heing^ loving^ see-
ing^ ivriting — heing loved^ being seen^ heing writing.
II. The Perfect partici]ple is that which ends'
commonly in ed or en^ and implies a completion of
the being, action, or passion ; as, heen^ loved^ seen^
written,
III. The Preperfect participle is that which
takes the sign liaving^ and implies ti previous com-
pletion of the being, action, or passion ; as, having
loved^ having seen,^ having ivritten — having been
loved^ having been writing^ having been written.
The First ov Imperfect Participle, when simple,
is always formed by adding ing to the radical
verb; as, loo\ loohing : when compound, it is
formed by prefixing being to some other simple
participle ; as, being veadAng^ being read.
The Second or Perfect Participle is always sim^
pie, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to
the radical verb : those verbs from which it is
formed otherwise, are inserted in the lists as being
irregular or redundant.
The Third or Preperfect Participle is always
compound, and is formed by prefixing having to
the perfect, when the compound is double, and
having been to the perfect or the imperfect, when
the compound is triple ; as, having spoken^ having
been spoken.^ having been speaking.
Ohs. 1. — Participles often become adjectives^ and are constrned
before nouns to denote quality. The terms so converted f. rm the
class of participial adjectives. Words of a participial form, may be
regarded as adjectives: 1. When they denote something customary
* See copious observations on the names and properties of the partieiples, in the
Ins .itutes of English Oranimar. under the Etvmoloijy of this part of speech ; and r«-
marks etlll more extended in the Qiammar of English Grammars, pp. o92-39T.
CHAP. VII.] ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS. 65
or habitual, rather than a transient act or state; as, A lying rogue^
i. e., one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of co!n-
parison; as,^ A more learned man. 3. When they are compounded
■with sometliing that does not belong to the verb ; as, unfeelinfr.^
unfelt. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns : par-
tici[)les, after them.
Ohs. 2. — Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded
by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive
case, they are construed as nouns, and ought to take no regimen,
or object after them. A participle immediately preceded by a prep-
osition, is not converted into a noun, and therefore retains its
regimen; as, "I thank yow for helping him.^'' This construction of
the participle corresponds with the Latin gerund.
Ohs. 3. — To distinguish tlie particijtlc from the participial noun,
the learner should observe the followingyo'^r things: 1. Nouns
tak» articles and adjectives before them; participles^ as such, do
not. 2. Nouns may govern the possessive case, but not tlie object-
ive; participles may govern the objective case, but not the possess-
ive. 3. Nouns may be tiie subjects or objects of verbs; participles
cannot — or, at least, the projiriety of any sucli use of them, is doubt-
ful. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things; pjarticiples
refer actions to their agents or recipients.
Ohs. 4. — To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit
verb of the same form, observe the sense^ and see wjiich of the
auxiliary forms will express it : thus loved for heing loved, is a par-
ticiple ; but loved for did love^ is a preterit verb.
ANALYSIS.
An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, mod-
ifying the predicate of a sentence and relating
to the subject, is called an attribute; as, "Gold
is yelloiu.^' — '' Cain was a murderer.'' — '' The sun
is shining. "^^
Obs. 1. — The verb that connects the subject and the attribute,
must be active-intransitive, passive, or neuter. It is sometimes
called the copula, because it couj^les or joins the other principal
parts of the sentence
Ohs. 2. — The verb Ve generally affirms only the connection be-
tween the sulrject and the attribute. When the latter is a noun, it
n:ay express 1. Class ; as, "CJain was a murderer.'- 2. laentity ; as,
"Cam was ^^e murderer of Abel." 3. Name; as, "The child was
caJled John.^^
Ohs. 3. — Class, identity, name, or quality may ba attributed to
66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
the subject in various ways ; as, 1. By affirming directly a connec-
tion, as in the preceding examples ; 2, By affirming it to belong to
the subject, in connection with a particular act or state of being ;
as, ''^ She looked a goddess, and she walked a queen." — "The sun
stood still." 3. By affirming a connection, but not its previous
existence ; as, " He has decome a scholar." 4. By affirming not
only the connection, but the cavse or manner by which it was es-
tablished ; as, " He was elected President." — " The twig has grown
a tree."
Ohs. 4. — The attribute is often used indejinitely^ that is, without
reference to any particular subject ; as, " To be good is to be happy. ''"'
— '' To be a poet requires genius." In analyzing, this may be called
the indefinite attribute.
Obs. 5. — The attribute, when a noun or a pronoun, is in the same
case as the subject ; as," It is /, be not afraid."
In analyzing a sentence, the attribute should be
considered one of the principal parts.
EXERCISES m ANALYSIS AN"D PARSmG.
Exercise I. — Analyze the following sentences as in the preceding
exercises., and point out the attributes and their adjuncts.
Example, — "Filial ingratitude is a shameful crime."
This is a simpie declnrative sentence ; the subject is ingratitude; the predicate is
is; and the attribute, cTim^'. The adjunct of the subject is ^/ia^; the predicate has
no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the attribute are a and shameful.
Honesty is the best policy. Napoleon was a great general.
"Washington was a true patriot. He was elected the first president.
vThe Bible is God's holy word. New York is a great commercial
^ city. My brother has been appointed inspector. Aristides was
styled the Just. -Peter the Great, who built St. Petersburgh, was a
remarkable man. He returned a friend, who came a foe. • The flow- ^
ers which my sister plucked yesterday, s^ll remain fresh.-J Art isV^"""^*
long, and time is fleeting. Can that be the man who deceived me ?
He might have been guilty, but no sufficient proof could be found.
Virtue is bold, and Goodness never fearful. Frequent and loud
were the maiden's cries. How gorgeous seems the setting sun !
"What evil is this which he had committed? Thomas Jefferson,
who wrote the Declaration, was the third president. General Leo
was taken prisoner. Religious instruction is very necessary in
childhood. Vicious habits infallibly lead to ruin. In spring, th^
weather becomes warm. David the Psalmist was King of Israel.
John the Baptist was the forerunner of Christ. John Smith was
exploring Virginia, when he was taken prisoner. That office is
considered by some a sinecure. The Lord is my shepherd ; I sliall
not want. Who is this King of glory ? He that loveth pleasure,
shall be a poor man. The wise in heart shall be called prudent.
CHAP. VIII. ETYMOLOGY. — ^ADVEKBS. 67
The seed whicli was planted, has become a huge tree. Everything
that we do often, we do easily. Repeated acts thus become habits.
Habit has been called '' second nature." The memory of mischief
is no desirable fame. We, who never were his tavorites, did not
expect these attentions. A crown of glory are his hoary locks !
I would act the same part, if I were he. A lie is an intention to
deceive. The scholar who plays truant, is guilty of falsehood ; be-
cause he deceives his parents. Prompting during recitation is
another example of falsehood.
Exercise II. — Parse each icord in the ahove sentences as in the prev-
ious exercises', state in addition the class and modijications of the
verbs.
CHAPTER YIIL— OF ADYEEBS.
An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a par-
ticiple, aa adjective, or an other adverb ; and
generally expresses time, j^lace, degree, or man-
ner : as, They are 7ioiv liere^ studying very dill'
gently,
Ohs. — Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require
several words : as, here^ for in this place. Tliere are several cus-
tomary combinations of short words which are used adverbially,
and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing : as, Not at
all., at lengthy in vain.
CLASSES.
Adverbs may be reduced to four general
classes ; namely, adverbs of tirne^ oi])lace^ of de-
gree^ and of TYianner,
I. Adverbs of time are those which answer to
the question. When ? Hoiv long ? How soon f or
Hoio often ? including these which ask.* Adverbs
of time may be subdivided as follows : —
/ 1. Of tim^ present: as, Now., yet., to-day., instantly.
2. Of time past: as. Already., lately., heretofore, since, ago»
8. Of time to come : as, To-morrow., hereafter, henceforth.
4. Of time relative: as, When, then, before, after., while.
'5. Of time absolute: as, Ahcnys, ever, never.
0. Of time repeated: as, Often, seldom, daily, thrice.
[;7. Of the order of time: as, First, secondly^ thirdly^ etc.
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
II. Adverbs of 'place^ are those wLicli answer
to the question, Where? Whither? Whence? ov
Whereabout ? including these which ask. Ad-
verbs of place may be subdivided as follows : —
1. Of place in wliich : as, WJiere^ liere^ there^ somewhere.
2. Of place to which : as, Whithei\ hither^ tliither.
8. Of ]Mace from which : as, ^Yhence^ hence^ thence.
4. Of the order of place : as, First^ secondly.^ thirdly.
III. Adverbs of degree^ are those which answer
to the question, How much ? How little ? or, to
the idea of moi'e or less. Adverbs of degree may
be subdivided as follows : —
1. Of excess or abundance : as, Much, chiefly, fully.
2. Of equality : as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so^ as.
8. Of deficiency, or abatement: as, Little., scarcely., hardly.
4. Of quantity : as, How., everso^ somewhat.
IV. Adverbs of manner^ are those which an-
swer to the question, How ? or, by affirming,
denying, or doubting, show how a sul)ject is re-
garded. Adverbs of manner may be subdivided
as follows : —
1. Of quality: a^. Well., ill., wisely., foolishly., justly, and many
others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality.
2. Of affirmation: as, Yes, yea., verily, truly., indeed^ surely.
3. Of negation : as, No, nay., not., nowise.
4. Of doubt : as, Perhaps., haply, possibly, jierchance.
5. Of mode: as. Thus, so, somehow, like, else., otherwise.
G. Of cause : as. Why., wherefore., therefore.
Obs. — The adverbs here., there, ?ix\{[ where., wlien prefixed to prep-
ositions, have tlie force of pronouns; as, whereby, for by which.
Compounds of this kind are, however, commoidy reckoned adverbs.
Adverbs sometimes perform the office of con-
junctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well
as to express some circumstance of time, place,
degree, or manner ; adverbs that are so used, are
caWed conjunctive adverbs : as, When^ tuhere^ after^
before^ since., therefore^ etc,
MODIFICATIONS.
Adverbs have no modifications, except that a
CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY. — CONJUNCTIONS. 69
few are compared after the raanner of adjectives :
as, Soon^ sooner^ soonest j — often^ oftenei\ oftenest'j
— long^ longer^ longest.
The following are irregularly compared : loell^
better^ best ; — hadhj or ill^ worse^ worst ; — little^
less^ least ; — mucli^ more^ most • — /ar, farther^ far-
iliest ; — -forth^ further^ Jurtliest
Obs. 1. — Most adverbs of quality will admit the comparative ad-
verbs mare and most^ less and least^ before tlietn : as, wisely^ more
wisely^ most wisely^ — culpably^ less culpably^ least culvably. But
these should be parsed separately.
Obs. 2. — As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it
should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few
which are varied by it.
CHAPTER IX.— OF CONJUN^CTIOISrS.
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words
or sentences in construction, and to show the de-
pendence of the terms so connected: as, ^'Thou
and he are happy, because you are good." — Miu\
CLASSES.
Conjunctions are divided into two general
classes, copulative and disjunctive j and some of
each of these sorts are corresponsive.
I. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction
that denotes an addition, a cause, or a supposi-
tion : as, '' He and I shall not dispute ; /or, if he
has any choice, I shall readily grant it."
II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction
that denotes opposition of meaning : as, ^* Be not
overcome [by ] evil, but overcome evil with good."
— Rom,^ xii, 21.
III. The corresponsive conjunctions are those
which are used in pairs, so that one refers or an-
70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART 11.
swers to an other : as, " Jolm came neither eating
nor drinking." — Matt^ xi, 18.
The following are the principal conjunctions : — •
1. Copulative ; And^ as^ both^ because^ even,
for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so.
2. Disjunctive; Or, nor, either, neither, than,
though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest,
unless, save, notioithstanding.
3. Corresponsive ; Both — and j as — as; as —
so; if — then; either — or; neither — nor ; whether
— or ; though, or although — yet.
CHAPTER X.— OF PREPOSITIONS.
A Preposition is a word used to express some
relation of different things or thoughts to each
other, and is generally placed before a noun or a
pronoun : as, The paper lies before me on the
desk.
The following, are the principal prepositions :
Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, aloyig,
amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at,
athivart ; — before, behind, below, beneath, beside
or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by ; — con-
cerning ; — doivn, during ; — except, excepting ; —
for, from ; — in, into ; — notioithstanding ; — of off,
on, out-of over, overthwart ; — -j^as^y — round; —
since; — through, throughout, till, to, touching,
toivard or towards; — under, underneath, until,
unto, up, upon ; — with, within, ivithout
Ohs.—TliQ words in tlie preceding list are generally prepositions.
But when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of
relation they are adverbs. Foi\ when it signifies because^ is a con-
junction; without^ when used for unless^ and notwithstanding^
when placed before a nominative, are usually referred to the class
of conjunctions also.
CHAP. Xr.] ETYMOLOGY. — INTERJECTIONS. 71
CHAPTER XI.— OF INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely
to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the
mind : as, Oh I alas !
The following are the principal interjections,
arranged according to the emotions which they
are generally intended to indicate : 1. Joy ; eigli !
Tiey ! to ! — 2. Sorrow ; oh ! ah ! alas I alack !
welladay ! — 3. Wonder ; heigh I ha^ ! strange I —
4. Wishing or earnestness ; I — 5. Pain : oh I ah I
eh I — 6. Contempt ; jpugh I jpoh I pshaw ! pish I
tush ! tut ! — 7. Aversion ; foh ! fie ! off ! begone !
avaunt I — 8. Calling aloud ; ho ! soho ! hollo I —
9. Exultation ; aha I huzza I heyday I hurrah ! —
10. Laughter; ha^ ha^ ha. — 11. Salutation;
welcome! hail! all hail! — 12. Calling to atten-
tion; lo ! behold! look! see! harlc ! — 13. Call-
ing to silence ; hush ! hist ! mum ! — 14. Surprise ;
oh ! ha ! hah ! what ! — 1 5. Languor ; heigh-ho I
— 16. Stopping; avast! wholi!
-7
ANALYSIS.
The principal parts of a sentence are the sub-
ject, the PREDICATE, and the object or attribute,
if there be either.
The other parts may be, 1. Primary or second-
ary adjuncts I 2. Words used to express relation
or connection ; 3. Independent words.
Adjuncts, as to their nature, are adjective^ ad-
verbial^ or explanatory.
Adjuncts are adjective or adverbial when they
are used as adjectives or adverbs.
Explanatory adjuncts are those used to explain
72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II.
a preceding noun or pronoun; as, "The emperor
Napoleony — "Paul the Apostle.'' — "We, the
people of the United States."
Adjuncts, as to their form, are ivords^ phrases^
or clauses.
A plirase is two or mqre words which express
some relation of ideas, but no entire proposition ;
as, "Of a good disposition." — "By the means
appointed." — " Having loved his own."
A phrase may be used in three ways ; namely,
1. As one of the principal parts of a sentence ;
2. As an adjunct; 3. It may be independent.
Yfhen a phrase is used as an adjunct, it is ad-
jective^ adverbial^ or explanatory.
A phrase, used in the place of a noun, is called
a substantive plirase j as, " Jb do good is the duty
of all"
An independent plirase is one the principal part
of which, is not related to, or connected with, any
word in the rest of the sentence ; as, "^e failing,
who shall meet success ?" -
The principal part of a phrase is that on which
all the others depend; as, "Under every misfor-
tuney — ^^ Having exhausted every expedient." \
Ols. 1. — A preposition that introduces a phrase, serves only to
express the relation between tlie principal part, and the word of
the sentence, on which the phrase depends.
Ols. 2. — Phrases are also classified as to their form, depending
upon the inlrodacing word, or the ^9ri/ic//>a^ part; t!ms :
1. A phrase, introduced by a preposition, is called a prejyositionat
jjhrase ; as, "By doing good." — '" Of great learning."
2. A phrase, the principal part of which is a verb in the infini'
tive mood, is called an infinitive plirase ; as, '' To he goody
3. A phrase, the ])rincipal part of which is a ])articiple; is called
a, participial phrase ; as, '"'A ineaaurejoundedonjusticey
01)s. 3. — A phrase, used as a subject or object, can, with strict
adherence to grammatical rules, he only infinitive in form ; as, " To
disobey parents is disgracofii}." — " William loves to study gram-
mar." (See Obs. 4, Rule XIY.)
CHAP. XI.] ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 73
Ohs. 4. — A phrase, used as an attribute, may b© substantive or
adjective in its nature, and may be, in furin,
1. Infinitive ; as, "The object of punishment is to reform the
giiilti/.'" — ''BU conduct is to be admired.'''' In the second ex-
ample it is adjective, being equivalent to admirable.
2. Prepositional ; as, ''He is in good healtJi.'" — "The train was
behind time.'''' These are adjective phrases.
Ohs. 5. — An adjective 2ylirase may have the following forms:
1. Prepositional ; as, "Carelessness in the use of money \s a vice.''
2. Infinitive ; as, " Tlie desire to do good is praiseworthy."
3. Participial ; as, ^''Seeing the danger^ he avoided it."
Obs. G, — An adverbial phrase may have the following forms :
1. Prepositional ; as, " ITe was industrious in study.''''
2. Infinitive ; as, "Be swift to hear., and slow to spjeaJc."
3. Idiomatic; as, "In vain." — "Day by day." — ""By and by."
Obs. 6. — An explanatory phrase is substantive in its nature, and
infinitive in form; as, "It is pleasant to see the sun!'''
Obs. 7. — The independent phrase is various in form and character.
It niay be distinguished as,
1. Infinitive ; as, " To be candid., I was in fault."
2. Participial ; as, " Considering the circumstances.^ much credit
is due."
3. Vocative; as, " Boast not, wy <?e«r/nV77iZ, of to-morrow."
4. Pleonastic; ns, " The blessing of the Lord., it maketh rich."
5. Absolute ; " The sun rising., the mists were dispersed."
Ohs. 8. — The last form of this phrase is generally adverbial in mean-
nig, being independent only in construction.
Exercise. — Analyze the following sentences., and point out the ex-
planatory adjuncts and the phrases ; parse each word as in tha
pjreceding exercises.
Example. — " Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, lived in a tub."
This is a simple declarative sentence; the subject is Dioqenes; the predicate,
Z/«<'f/; T^/ti^o.wyMcr is an explanatory adjunct of the subject ; the and Greek are ad-
jiihcts of 7>/tt7o.w/>/i,e/'. The adjunct of ^iye*^ is the adverbial phrase, in. a tub. The
principal part of the phrase is tab, of which a is an adjunct.
The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters among the flowers.
Mahomet was a native of Mecca, a city in Arabia. The Oabots,
natives of Venice, were the first discoverers of North America.
Spain was, at one time, the wealthiest country of Europe. In the
path of life, no one is constantly regaled with flowers. Industry is
needful in every condition of life: the price of all im.provement is
labor. In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, in-
vaded France. The book which William has lost, was a present
from his brother Henry. When Alfred the Great ascended the
throne of England, he was greatly harassed by the Danes, a piratical
people from Scandinavia. A brave man, he would not wantonly
injure others.
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. JPART III,
PART III.
SYNTAX.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, gov-
ernment, and arrangement, of words in sentences.
The relation of words, is their dependence, or
connexion, according to the sense.
The agreement of words, is their similarity in
person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or
form.
The government of words, is that power which
one word has over another, to cause it to assume
some particular modification.
The arrangement of words, is their collocation,
or relative position, in a sentence.
The leading principles to be observed in the
construction of sentences, or to be applied in their
analysis by Syntactical Parsing, are embraced in
the following twenty -six Rules of Syntax.
CHAPTER L— OF RELATION AND
AGREEMENT.
Rule I. — Articles.
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit :
as, " At a little distance from the ruins of the
abbey, stands an aged elm."
Ohs. 1. — Articles often relate to nouns undzrutood ; as, "The
\riter'] Thames." — "Pliny the younger" [/n««] --"The honourable
[body'] the Legislature." — " The animal [icorld] and the vegetable
world."— " The Old [Testament'] and the Kew Testament."
Qls. 2. — Articles belong tefore their nouns ;; but the definite
article and an adjective seem sometimes to b(> placed after the
noun to which the/ both relate : as, " Section the Fourth ;"w
CHAP. I.] SYXTAX. — NOMINATIVES. 75
''Henry ^Ae Eighth." Such examples, hoTvever, may be supposed
elliptical ; and, if they are so, an article cannot be placed after its
noun, nor can two articles ever relate to one and tlie same noun.
Qls. 3. — The definite article is often prefixed to comjjaratives and
the most fit." — "A claim tJie strongest, and the most easily compre-
hended." In these cases, the article seems to relate only to the
adjective or adverb following it ; but, after the adjective, the noun
may be supplied.
Qj)s, 4. — The article the is applied to noims of both numbers : as,
The man, the men -^ — Th-e good boy, the good boys.
OJ)g^ 5. — jin or a implies one, and is prefixed to nouns of the sin-
gular number only ; as, A man, a good boy.
Q^s. 6. — An or a is sometimes prefixed to an adjective of num-
ber, when the noun following is plural : as, A few days, — a hun-
dred sheep. Here also the article relates only to the adjective ;
unless yeto, hundred^ etc.^ are nouns Avith <?/ understood after them.
Ols. 7. — A^ as prefixed to participles in ing^ or used iii composi-
tion, is fi preposition ; being, probably, the French a, signifying to^
at, on^ in^ or of; as, "He is gone a hunting." — "They burst out
a laughing." — ''She lies a-bed all day."
Ols. 8. — An is sometimes a conjunction^ signifying if; as,
"Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou." — Shah.
KULE II. — KOMINATIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun wHch is the subject of a
finite verb, must be in the nominative case : as,
" I know tfiou sayst it : says tliy life the same V
O^s. 1. — Every nominative belongs to some verb, unless it bo
put in ajjposition according to Rule 3d, after a veri according to
Kule 21st, or absolute according to Fade 25th.
Obs. 2. — The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before
the verb ; as, " Peace dawned upon his mind." — Johnson. " Wliat
is written in tlie law." — Bible.
Obs. 3. — But, in the following nine cases, the subject is placed
after the verb, or after the first auxiliary : —
1. When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in
the nominative case ; as, " Shall mortals be implacable ?" — " Wiiat
art thou doing ?" — HooTce.
2. When the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, " Go thou.^*
3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed ;
a?, " May she be happy !" — " How were ice struck !" — Young.
4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction ; as, " Were
it true, it would not injure us."
5. When neither or nor, signifj'ing and not., precedes the verb ;
as, " This was his fear ; nor was his apprehension groundless."
6. When, for the sake of eniphasis, some word or words are
76 ENGLISH GEAMKA.R. [PART III,
placed before the verb, which more iiatiirnlly come after it; as,
"Here am /."'—'' Narrow is the way.'" — ''Silver and gold have /
none." — Bible.
7. "When the ve"b has no regimen, and is itself emphatical ; as,
''''Echo the mountains round." — Thompson.
8. When the verbs say^ thinlc.^ reply.^ and the like, introduce the
parts of a dialogue ; as, " ' Son of affliction,' said Omar., ' wlio art
f hou ?' ' My name,' replied the strangei\ ' is Hassan.' " — Johnson,
( 9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, " There lived a
man.''' — Montgomery. " There needs no ])roo/of this."
EuLE III. — Apposition.
A JN'oun or a personal Pronoun, used to explain
a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition,
in the same case : as,
"But A(?, our gracious Master^ kind as just,
" Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust."
01)S. 1. — Appositlo7i is the using of different words or appella-
tions to designate the same thing. Ajjposition also denotes the re-
lation which exists between the words which are so employed. In
parsing, the rule of apposition should be applied only to the explan-
atory term ; for the case of the principal word depends on its re-
lation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some other
rule.
Ohs. 2. — This rule involves a variety of forms of expression, as
may be seen by the following examples : " I, thy schoolmaster^ have
made thee protit." — ShaJc. ''I, even /, am he."— /sG^iaA, xliii. "I
am the Lord, your Holy One^ the Creator of Israel, your K'mg.'''' —
Jd. '' They shall every man turn to his own people." — Id. " Be-
liold, I create Jerusalem a rejoicing., and her. peoi)le a joy.''''— Id,
''Righteousness and peace have kissed each other." — Psalms.
" That ye love one an other."— iv^. Test. '' Be ye helpers one of an
other."— /^Z. "To make him king.''^ — Id. "With modesty thy
guide.'''' — Pope.
Ohs. 8, — Tiie explanatory word is sometimes placed Jirst^ espe-
cially among the poets ; as,
" From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd,
" Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." — Thomson.
Ohs. 4. — The pronouns of the first and second persons, are often
prefixed to nouns merely to distinguish their j^erso/i. In this case
of apposition, the words are not separated by a comma; and either
of them maybe taken as the explanatory term : as, "//o/msaw
these things'!" — " His praise, ye brooks^ attune." So also, when two
or more nouns form one proper name ; as, John Home Toolce.
Ohs. 5. — When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put
in apposition, the possessive terminatiim added to one, denotes the
case of both or all: as, " llis hrollwr Philips wife ;"— "e7b/i«
I
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVES. 77
baptist's head ;" — " At my friend Jolmsori's^ tho loohseller."^ By a
repetition of the possessive sign, a distinct governing noun is im-
plied, nnd tlie apposition is destroyed.
Obs. 6. — When an object acquires a new name or character from
the action of a verb, the now appellation is put in apposition with
the object of the active verb, and in tlie nominative after the pass-
ive: as, "They named the child John f"* — "The c/iiVtZ was named
John.'''' — -'They elected him president ;'' — " iZt; was elected presi-
EuLE IV. — Adjectives.
Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns : as,
" He is a wise man^ though lie is youngj''
Ohs. 1. — When an adjective follows a verb, it generally relates
to the subject going before ; as, " / am glad that the door is made
'Wide.''''
QJ)s. 2. — An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence^
which is substituted for a noun; as, " That he should refuse.^ is not
strange^
OJ)s, 3. — Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often
used, by ellipsis, as having the force of nouns. They designate
those classes of objects whicii are characterized by the qualities
they express. They are mostly confined to the plural number, and
refer to p>€rsons^ places.^ or things., understood ; as, " The good \j)er-
sonii\ must merit God's peculiar cave,.''''— Pope.
Obs. 4. — By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposi-
tion before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb ; as, "//i ptar-
t'lcular f that is, 2/1 a particular manner; equivalent to particu-
larly. In parsing, supply the ellipsis. [See Obs. 2d, under Rule
xxii.]
Obs. 5. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree
with their nouns in number ; as, That sort, tliose sorts. -
Q^^^ 6. — When the adjective is necessarily ^j^i^m?, the noun
should be made so too; as, "Twenty jjounds ;'^ not, "Twenty
pound.^'' In some peculiar phrases, this rule appears to be disre-
garded ; as, " Tioenty sail of vessels ; — " A hundred head of cattle ;"
. — " Two hundred 2)ennyworth of bread."
Ql)S^ 7, — To denote a collective number., a singular adjective may
precede a plural one ; as, ''^One hundred men," — '-Eiery six weeks."
Ql)s. 8. — To denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like
manner, precede an or «, with a singular noun ; as,
" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." — Gray.
Obs. 9. — Tiie reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be
applied to two objects, nor eacJi other., or one the other., to more than
two : because reciprocity between two is some act or relation of
each or one to the other'., which is an objective definite, and not of
©ne to an other, Avhich is indefinite ; but reciprocity among three
or more is of one, each, or every one, not to one other, solely, or to
tTie other, definitely, but to others, a plurality, or to an other, taken
indefinitely and implying this plurality.
7'g ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL
Ghs. 10. — Tlie comparative degree can only be used in reference
to two objects, or chi-ses of objects; the superlative compares one
or more thinj^rs vvitli all others of the same class, whether few or
many; as, "Edward is taller than James ; he is the largest of mj
scholars."
EuLE Y. — Pronouns.
A Pronoun must agree with, its antecedent, or
the noun or pronoun whicli it represents, in per-
son, number, and gender: as, ''This is the friend
of whom I spoke ; he has just arrived." — " This is
the book which I bought ; it is an excellent work."
— "Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your
sons to love it too." — Coivper,
Ohs. 1. — When the antecedent is used Jigurativehj^ the pronoun
often agrees with it in the figurative, and not in the literal sense;
as, " Grim Bareness furls 7ds leaden shroud." [See Syllepsis among
the figures of Syntax.]
Obs. 2. — The pronoun idc is used by the speaker to represent liim-
self and othei*s, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used,
by a sort of fiction, instead of the singular, to intimate that the
speaker or writer is not alone in his opinions.
Obs. 3. — The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural,
i-^ now generally applied alike to one person or more. [See Inst,
K Gramm.^ pp. 5G and 137.]
()])s, 4, — A pronoun sometimes represents a ^^ilirase ov sentetice, or
a quality expressed before by an adjective. In this case, the pro-
noun is always in the third person, singular, neuter : as, '■'■ She is
very handsome; and she has the misfortune to know ity
Obs. 5. — The pronoun it is often used without a definite refer-
ence to any antecedent ; and, still more frequently, it refers to
something mentioned in the subsequent part of the sentence. This
pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commencement of a sen-
tence, in which the verb is followed by a clause which, by trans-
position, may be made the subject to the verb; as, '■''It is impossible
to please every one^ — "/^ was requisite that the jmpers should be sentj'^
Obs. 6. — In familiar language, the relative in the objective case
is ivQ(:\nQX\t\y understood ; as, "Here is the letter \iohich'] I received."
The omission of the relative in the nominative case, is inelegant;
as, ''This is the worst thing [thatl^ could happen,"
EuLE YI. — Pronouns.
"When the antecedent is a collective noun con-
veying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must
agree with it, in the plural number: as, "The
council were divided in their sentiments."
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — PEON. — ^VERBS. 79
01)s. 1. — A collective nonn conveying the idea of unity requires
a pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter; as, "The nation
will enforce its laws."
Ols. 2. — Most collective nouns of the neuter gender, may take
the regular plural form^ and he represented hy a pronoun in the
third person, plural, neuter; as, "The nations will enforce their laws,"
EuLE YII. — Phono UNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents
connected by and^ it must agree with them in the
plural number: as, ^'"flames and John will favour
us with ilieir company."
Ohs. 1. — When the antecedents are of different persons, the first
person is preferred to the second, and the second to the third; as,
"John, and thou, and I, are attached to our country." — "John and
thou are attached to your countr}-."
Ohs. 2. — The gender of pronouns, except in the third person
singular, is distinguished o^iy by their antecedents. In expressing
that of a pronoun which has antecedents of different genders^ the
masculine should be preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to
the neuter.
EuLE VIII. — Peonouns.
When a Pronoun has two or more singular
antecedents connected by or or nor^ it must agree
wdth them in the singular number: as, ^^ James or
John will favour us with his company."
Ohs. — When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or gen-
ders, are connected by or or nor^ they cannot be represented by a
pronoun that is not applicable to each of them.
^^ BULE IX. — YeKBS.
A finite Verb must agree with its subject, or
nominative, in person and number: as, "I hnoiu ;
thou Jcnowst, or knowest ^' he Icnows.^ or IcnowethP
''The bird //^.i"/ the birds /^'."
Ohs. 1, — The adjuncts of the nominative, do not control its agree-
ment with the verb; as, "Six months' interest was due." — " Tlie
propriety of these rules is evident." — " The wi7?, with all its ap-
purtenances, teas destroyed.'"
Ohs. 2. — The infinitive mood, ^plirase, or a sentence, is sometimes
the subject to a verb: a subject of this kind, however composed, if
it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in the third person, singu-
lar; as. " To lie is base." — ''To see the sun is pleasant." — ''Thatyou
have violated the laic, i« evident." — ''For what purpose they emr
harlced^ is not yet known."
80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
Qlg^ 3, — A neuter verb between two nominatives should be made
to agree with that which precedes it; as, "Words are wind:" ex-
cept when the terms are rhetorically transposed, and the proper
subject is put after the verb ; as, " His pavilion were dark icaters
and thick clouds:'—'' Who art thou .?"
Obs. 4. — When the verb has different forms^ that form should bo
adopted which is the most consistent with present and reputable
usage, in the style employed : tlius, to say familiar^', " The clock
hath stricTcen^'''' — " Thou laughedst and talhedst, when thou oughtest
to have been silent," — "He readeth and icriteth^ but he doth not
cipher,"— would be no better, than to use, donH^ icorCt^ canH^ shanH^
and didfi't, in preaching.
Obs. 5, — The nominative to a verb in the imperative mood, is
geueraWy omitted; as, "Guide [thou] my lonely way." With tho
verb in all the other personal tenses, the nominative must be ex-
pressed: except where two or more verbs are connected in the
Barae construction; as, "They bud, blow, wither, foil, and die."
EuLE X. — Verbs.
When the nominative is a collective noun con-
veying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree
with it in the plural number ; as, " The council
we?^e divided."
Qbs. — A collective noun conveying the idea of tinitij^ requires a
verb in tlie third person, singular; and generally admits also the
regular plural construction: as, "Ilis army was defeated."— "Ills
armies were defeated."
EuLE XL — Yerbs.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives
connected by and^ it must agree with them in the
plural number : as,
'' Judges and senates have heen houglit for gold ;
Esteem and love ivere never to be sold." — Pope.
Obs. 1. — Tho conjunction is sometiuics understood ; as,
"Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." — Beattie.
Obs. 2. — When the nouns connected arc descriptive of one and
the same thing., they are in apposition, and do not require a plural
verb : as, "This piiilosopher and poeticas banished from his country."
Ql)s. 3. — When the same nominative is repeated., the words are in
apposition, and do not require a plural verb : as,
" Love, and love only, is the loan for love."— Young.
Qbs. 4. — When Ihe verb separates its nominatives^ it agrees with
that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest; as,
"Forth in the pleasing spring
Thj beauty icalh^ thy tenderness, and love." — Thomson.
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — VERBS. 81
Ohs. 5. — "When two subjects are connected, one of wliicli is taken
affirmativel}', and the other negatively, they belong to different
propositions; and tlie verb or pronoun must agree witli the ajjirm-
a^trd subject, and be understood to tlie other: as, "Diligent in-
diistry^ and. not mean savings, 'p'^'oduces honourable competence."
So also when subjects are connected by as well «.?, hut^ or mte ; as,
'''CeesaVy as well as Cicero, icas admired for his eloquence." — '•''Noth-
ing but wailings loas heardy — '■'■None but thou can aid us." — "No
mortal maii, save he, had e'er survived^ — Scott.
Ohs. 6. — When the subjects are severally preceded by the adjec-
tive each.^ every ^ or no, they are taken separately, and require a verb
and pronoun in the singular number; as,
"And every sense, and every heart, is joy." — Thomson.
"Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." — Po2)e.
Ohs. 7. — Two or more distinct QwV^Qct 2^hrases connected by and^
require a plural verb ; as, "2b he icise in our own eyes, to he loise in
the opinion of the world, and to he icise in the sight of our Creator^
<tre three thing? so very different as rarely to coincide. — Blair.
EuLE XII. — ^Yerbs.
When a Verb has two or more singular nomi
natives connected by or or 7101% it must agree with
them in the singular number : as, "Fear 6>?' jeab
ousy affects him."
Ohs. 1. — When a verb has nominatives of different persons or
numhers, connected by or or nor, it must agree Avith that which ia
placed next to it, and be understood to the rest in the person and
number required ; as, "Neither he nor his brothers icere there." —
" Neither you nor I am concerned."
Ohs. 2. — But when the nominatives require different forms of the
verb, it is, in general, more elegant to express the verb, or its auxil-
iary, in connection with each of them; as, "Either thou art to
blame, or I am.''"' — " Neither were their numbers, nor icas their des*
tination known."
Ohs. 3. — The speaker should generally mention himself last ; as,
"Thou or /must go." — "He then addressed his discourse to my
father and we." But in confessing a fault he may assume the first
place; as, "/and Robert did it." — J/. Edgeicorth.
Ohs. 4. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or
or no)\ require a singular verb; as, " That a drunkard should ha
poo7\ or that a fop should, he ignorant^ is not strange,"
Rule XIII. — Yerbs.
When verbs are connected by a conjunction,
they must either agree in mood, tense, and form,
or have separate nominatives expressed : as, '* He
himself Jield the plough, sowed the grain, and aU
82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
tended tlie reapers." — " She loa-s proud, but she u
now humble."
Ohs. 1. — From this rule there are many exceptions. "We may,
witliout repeating the nominative, connect the present, the perfect,
and the first-future tense of the indicative mood ; the corresponding
tenses of the indicative and ])otential moods; the aflSrmative and
the negative form ; or the simple and the compound form. Bui
the simple verb must, in general, be placed first; a'^,
^' What nothing earthly ghes or can destroy T — Po'pe.
"Some ave^ and must ie^ greater than the rest." — Id.
'■''Plays round the head, but comes not to the heart." — Id.
Obs. 2. — Those parts which are common to several verbs, are
generally expressed to the first, and understood to the rest; as,
"Every sincere endeavour to amend shall be assisted, [.sAa^^ he]
accepted, and \shall he] rewarded."— r" Honourably do the best you
can" [-^ry]. — "lie thought as I did" [/^/ti/iZ;]. — " You have seen it,
but I Juive not" [seen it]. — " If you will go, I will" \jjo].
EuLE XIV. — Participles.
Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else
are governed by prepositions : as, " Elizabeth's
tutor at one time paying her a visit, found her
emjployed in reading Plato." — Hume.
Obs. 1. — The word to which the participle relates, is sometimes
understood ; a?, '• Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred
from it?" tliat is, "/, granting this to be true, aslc.., what is to be
inferred from it?" Some grammarians have erroneously taught
that such participles are j^wi absolute.
Obs. 2. — Particij)les have the same government as the verbs from
which they are derived. The preposition o/, therefore, should not
he used after the participle, wheu the verb does not require it.
Thus, in phrases like the following, of is improper : " Keeping of
one day in seven ;" — " By preaching of repentance ;" — " They left
beating (T/'Paul."
Obs. 3. — An imperfect or a compound participle, preceded by aa
article, an adjective, or a noun or ])ronoun of tiie possessive case,
becomes a verbal noun., and, as such, it cannot govern an object
after it. A word which may be the object of the participle in its
proper construction requires the preposition of to connect it with
the verbal noun ; as, 1. (By the participle,) " By exercising the body
Ave promote healtli." 2. (By the verbal noun,) "By the exercising
^the body, health is jiromoted.
Obs. 4. — Participles that liave become noiins^ may be used as
such with or without the article. But we sometimes find those
which retain the government and the adjuncts of ^jr/?'^//?/jtjZ^6% used
as nouns before or after verbs ; as, " Exciting such disturbances, is
unlawful." — "Kebellion is r/i'i/?^ against government." This mon-
grel construction is liable to ambiguity, and ought to bo avoided.
CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ADVERBS. Sh
Obs. 5. — According to the analogy of Gi'eek and Latin, tliere aro
several intransitive verbs after which the participle in inr/, relating
to tlie nominative, may be used in stead of the infinitive connected
to the verb ; as, " Cont'imiQ foUoicmg the Lord yonr God." — 1 Sam.^
xii, 14. Greek, j^oreuomenoi — Latin, sequentes. Not understanding
the nature of this construction, or not observing what verbs admit
of it, some persons use the participle erroneously as the ohject of the
transitive verb ; and Murray has very unskillfully laid it down ns a
rule, that "Tlie participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as
a substantive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposi-
tion or verb;" whereas, he himself on the preceding pnge, had
cautioned the learner against treating words in ing, '* as if they were
of an ampJiibious species, partly nouns and partly I'^/'is-;"— that is,
" partly nouns and partly i)<-<-^'ticiples ;" for, according to Murray,
participles are verbs.
EuLE XV. — Adverbs.
Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives,
or other adverbs : as, " Any passion that hahitU'
ally discomposes our temper, or unfits us for
livopeiiy discharging the duties of life, has most
certainly gained a very dangerous ascendency."
Obs. \. — The adverb yes, expressing a simple affirmation, and the
adverb no, expressing a simple negation, are always independent.
They generally answer a question ; and are equivalent to a repeti-
tion of it, in the form of an affirmative or a negative proposition.
Obs. 2. — y^o is sometimes an adverb of degree, and, as such, it
can relate only to comparatives; as, '"''No greater" — ''iVo sooner."
2so^ when prefixed to a noun, is an adjective ; as,
''''No clouds, no vapours intervene." — Dyer.
Obs.d. — A negation in English admits but one negative word;
as, "I could not wait any longer," — not, "?ic> longer." Double
negatives are vulgar.
01,8, 4. — The rejjetition of a negative word or clause, strengthena
the negation; as, "No, no, no." But two negatives in the same
clause, destroy the negation and render the meaning affirmative ;
as, "A^(3?'did they ?ioi perceive their evil plight." — Milton. That
is, they did perceive it.
Obs. 5. — By the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative
before but, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of
only ; and it may, when used with that signification be called an
adverb. Thus the text, " He hath not grieved me but in part," [2
Co?'., ii, 5,] might drop the negative and still convey the same
meaning: "He hath grieved me but in part."
Obs. 6. — We sometimes find adverbs used after the manner of
nouns; as, "The Son of Man hath not iche7'e to lay his head." —
Mntl., viii, 20. "The Son of God— was not yea and nay, "but in
him was yea."" — 2 Cor., i, 19. "An eternal now does always last."
-^Cowley,
B4 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART III.
EuLE XVI. — Conjunctions.
Conjunctions connect either words or sentences ;
as, " Let tliere be no strife, I pray tliee, between
me and thee, and between my herd in en and thy
herdmen ; for we are brethren.*' — Bible.
Ohs. 1. — Conjunctions tliat connect particular iconls. generally
join similar parts of speech, in a common dependence on some other
term. Those which connect sentences or clauses, commonly iinito
one to an other, either as an additional affirmation, or as a condi-
tion, a cause, or an end.
Ohs. 2. — The conjunction as, often unites words that are in ap-
position ; as, "lie offered himself as i\ journeyman.''^
Ohs. 3. — As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun ; as,
"Avoid such as «r<? vicious." — "But to as many as received him.,
etc." — "He then read the conditions asfolloioy
Ohs. 4. — The conjunction iliat^ is frequently wnc7e7*5?(9C»(Z; as, "We
hoped \tliat\ you would come."
Ohs. 5. — Tiie conjunction thai., when it introduces a sentence as
the subject of a verb, does not connect it to any other term ; as,
" That mind is not matter, is certain."
Ohs. 6. — iVfter than or as expressing a comparison, there is usu-
ally an clliiisis of some word or words. Tbe construction of the
words employed, may be known by supplying the ellipsis; as, "She
is younger tlian I" \(Lni\. — " lie does nothing, who endeavours to do
more than ['pAa/] is allowed to humanity." — Johnson.
Ohs. 7. — When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their
usual order, the former should be parsed as referring to the latter,
which is more properly the connecting word; as, ^''Neither sun nor
stars in many days appeared." — Acts., xxvii, 20.
Ohs. 8. — Either., corresponding to or.^ and neither., corresponding
to nor or not., are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the dis-
junction or negation at the end of the sentence ; as, " Where then
was their capacity of standing, or his either."" — Barclay. " He is
very tall, but not too tall neither,'''^ — Spectator.
Rule XYII. — PKErosirioNS.
Prepositions show the relations of things: as,
*' The house was founded on a rock."
Ohs. 1. — In parsing any ordinary preposition, the learner should
name the two terms of the relation., and apply the foregoing rule.
The former term of relation is sometimes understood ; as, [/ say]
"In a word, it would entirely defeat ray purpose." — "For all shall
know me, [i^eclconing] from the least to the greatest." — Hebrews^
viii, 11.
Ohs. 2.— *When a preposition introduces the infinitive, a phrase,
or a sentence, which is made the entire subject or predicate of a
proposition, it has no antecedent term of relation ; as, " To be good.
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — POSSESSIVES. 85
is, to be liappy," — " To be reduced to poverty, is a great afBIction."
— '•'•For All old man to be reduced to poverty, is a very great afflic-
tion." Dr. Adam remarks, that " To is often taken absolutely ; as,
* To confess the truth,' — ' To proceed.' " But bis examples ai-e not
appropriate; for wbat be and many otiier grammarians call thd
ijijijiuive absolute,, evidently depends on sometbing understood.
Ohs. 3. — In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative
or an interrogative pronoun, is often separated from ils object, and
connected with the other term of relation ; as, " Whom did bo
speak tof^ But it is more dignified, and, in general, more grace-
ful, to place the preposition before the pronoun ; as, '' To whom did
be speak 1"
Obs. 4. — Two prepositions som.etimes como together, so that
they ouglit not to be separated in parsing; as, "Lambeth is ore?'
against AVestminster-abbey." — L. Murray.
" Andy>'o??i before the lustre of her face." — Thomson.
Obs. 5. — Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint refer-
ence to the same noun ; as, " He boasted of and contended for,,
tlie privilege." This construction is formal, and scarcely allow-
able, excei)t in the law style. It is better to say, " lie boasted of
tJie privilege, and contended for it."
EuLE XYIII. — ^Interjections.
Interjections have no dependent constrnction ;
as, " O! let not thy heart despise me." — Johnson.
Obs. — "Interjections in English liave no government." — Lowth.
"When a "word, not in the nominative absolute, is connected with
an interjection, or used in exclamation, its construction generally
depends upon something understood , as, " Ah me .■'" — that is " Ah I
^it^ me r — •' Wo is vie P' — that is, " Wo is to me P'
CHAPTER IL — OF GOYERNMENT.*
Rule XIX. — Possessiyes.
A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is
governed by the name of the thing possessed : aSj
" Tlieirs is the vanity, the learning tliine ;
Touched by tliij hand, again Home's glories shine."
■ Obs. 1.— The governing noun is sometimes understood ; as, " At
the Alderman's" [Acwse.]— " A book of ?ny brother's" \l)oolc!i\.
Obs. 2. — When nouns of the possessive case, are connected by
conjunctions., or put in apposition., the sign of possession fhust al-
* The arrangement of words is treated of ia the observations under the Eules, but
more fully in the author's lar.-er works.
S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
■ways be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately precede
the governing noun, expressed or understood ; as, " John and
Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than James's, or An-
drew's." — " For David my servant's sake."
Obs. 3. — The apostrophe and s are sometimes annexed to that part
of a compound name^ which is, of itself, in the objective case ; as,
" The captain-of-the-gnard's Iiom^q:'— Bible. " The Bard-of-Lo-
mond's lay is done." — Hogg.
Obs. 4. — To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is some-
times omitted, and the apostrophe only retained ; as, " For con-
science' sake." — " Moses' minister." — " Felix' room." — '' Achilles'
wrath." But in prose this ellision should be sparingly indulged.
Obs. 5. — The relation of property may also be expressed by the
preposition of; as, " The will of man," — for " man's will." Of
these forms, Ave should adopt that which will render the sentence
the most perspicuous and agreeable ; and, by the ivse of both,
avoid an unpleasant repetition of either.
EuLE XX. — Objectives.
Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and
preperfect participles, govern the objective case :
as, '' I found he?' assisting hwi^ '* Having finished
the tvorkj I submit ^^^."
Obs. 1. — The objective case generally /olloics the governing word:
but when it is emphatic, it sometimes precedes it; as, " Tina 2^oint
they have gained." A relative or an interrogativej9ro/?^w^i is com-
monly placed at the head of its clause ; as, " Whom will the meet-
ing appoint ?"
Obs. 2.— Active-transitive verbs are sometimes followed by two
objectives in cqjiJosiiion ; as, "Thy saints proclaim thee hingy —
Coioper. — " And God called {\\e Jirmament Heaten.'''' — Bible.
Obs. 3. — When a verb is followed by two words in the objective
case, which are not in apposition, nor connected by a conjunction,
one of them is governed by a jyrejwsit ion understood,; as, "I paid
[to] him the money.'''' — "They offered [to] me a seat.'''' — "He asked
[of] them the question."
Obs. 4. — In expressing such sentences 2^^ssivel7/, the object of the
j^reposition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative:
».3, " He was paid i?ie money,'''' instead of, " The money Avas paid [to]
Obs. 5. — Some verbs will govern a Mndred noun, or its pronoun,
but no other: as, " He Uced a virtuous Z(/<?." — "Hear, I pray you,
this dream ichich I have drearned.^^ — Geji., xxxvii, G.
KuLE XXI. — Same Cases.
Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs,
and their participles, take the same case cffter as
before them, when both words refer to the same
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — OBJECTIVES. 81
tiling : as, " He return'cl n friend^ lolio came ayb^."
— " The child was named JohnP — " It could not
be heP
Ols. 1. — This is, perhap?, more properly n, rule of agreement ; the
■words connected by the verb, agree as if they were iii apposition.
—[See Rule 3d]
Ohs. 2. — In tlie foregoing rule, the words after and 'before refer
ratlier to the order of the sense and construction, than to the plac-
ing of the words. Tlie proper subject of the verb is the nominative
to it, or before it, by Rule 2d ; and the other nominative, howevei
placed, belongs after the verb, by Rule 21st.
Ohs. 3. — In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually trana>.
posed, or both are placed after the verb ; as,
" Whence, and iDhat art fTiou, execrable shape ?" — Milton.
"Art thou that traitor angel? art thou hef'' — Idem.
Ohs. 4. — In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally
come before the verb ; as, " I know not wJco she ?s." And they are
sometimes placed in this manner by transposition ; as, " Yet Me
it w."
Rule XXII. — Objectives.
Prepositions govern the objective case : as,
*' Truth and good are one :
And beauty dwells t/i tkein^ and they in her^
With like participation.^^ — Akenside.
Ohs. 1. — ^lost of the prepositions may take the imp>erfect partU
ciple for their object ; and some, the preperfect : as, " On opening
the trial, they accused him of having defrauded them."
Ohs. 2. — Prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with
adjectives ; as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high; — i. e., in a vain
manner, in secret places, at the first time, on high jylaces. In pars-
ing, supply the ellipsis. [See Obs. 4:th, under Rule 4:tli.]
Ohs. 3, — In a few instances, prepositions precede adverbs ; as ,at
once, from above, for ever. These should be united if the terms are
to be parsed together as adverbs ; but we may suppose the latter
words to be used substantively, by Obs. 6th, on Rule 15th.
Obs. 4. — When nouns of time or measure are connected with verbs
or adjectives, the prepositions which govern them, are generally
suppressed ; as, " We rode sixty miles that day ;" tliat is, " through
sixty miles on that day." — " The wall is ten feet high ;" that is,
" high to ten feet." In parsing, supply the ellipsis. Such expres-
sions as, "A board of six feet long," — "A boy of twelve years old,"
—.-are wrong. Strike out of; or say, " A board of six feet in
length,^'' — " A boy of twelve years of age.''"'
Obs. 5. — After the adjectives lihe, near, and nigh, the preposition
to or unto is generally understood ; as, " It is like [to or untol sil-
ver." — ''Near [fo] yonder copse." — " Kigh \j.'o1 this recess "
5
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL
Ohs. 6. — The word icortli^ wliicli most grammarians call an ad-
jective, is followed either by the objective case or by a participle,
supposed to be governed by 0/ understood ; as, " The book is worth
a dollar." — "It is wor^/i mentioning." But, after a careful exam-
ination of the term, we know no reason why worth should be called
an adjective^ rather than a prejJosUioii governing the word which
follows it.
Ols. 7.— After verbs of giving, pj'ociirin-g, and some others, there
is usually nn ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person;
fts, " Give \to'\ him water to drink." — "Buy [/or] me a knife."
EuLE XXIII. — Infinitives.
The preposition to governs tlie infinitive mood,
and commonly connects it to a finite verb : as,
" I desire to learnt — Dr. Adam.
Ohs. 1. — Most grammarians liave considered the sign to as apart
of the infinitive ; and have referred the government of this mood to
a preceding verb. But the rule which they give is partial and
often inapplicable ; and their exceptions to it are numerous and
puzzling. Though the infinitive is commonlymadean adjunct to som.e
finite verb, yet it may be joined to alnDOst all the other parts of
speech. — [See Instituted of E. Gram., p. 18G.]
Ohs. 2. — The infinitive sometimes depends on a y^rh understood ;
as, " To he candid with you, [^I confess] I was in fault."
KuLE XXIY. — Infinitives.
The active verbs hid^ dare^ feel., lieai\ let^ mahe^
need^ see^ and their participles, usually take the
infinitive after them, without the preposition to ; as,
" If he bade thee depart., how darest thou stay .^"
Ohs. 1. — The preposition is always employed after the passive
form of these verbs, and in some instances after the active; as, " lie
was heard to say." — " I cannot see to do it." — " What would dare
io molest him who might call on every side, to thousands enriched
by his bounty ?" — Dr. Johnson.
Ohs. 2.— The auxiliary he of the passive infinitive is also sup-
pressed after feel^ hear^ maJce^ and see ; as, " I heard the letter read^^
»ot, " he read.''''
BuLE XXY. — Nominative Absolute.
A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nom-
inative, when its case depends on no other word :
as, " He failing.^ who shall meet success ?" — ''Your
fathers^ where are they ? and the jpropliets^ do
they live forever ?" — ZecJi..^ \ 5.
CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 89
" Tills saicl^ he form'd thee, Adam! thee, O man!
Dust of the ground." — Milton,
Ohs. 1. — A noun or pronoun is ]mt absolute in the noniinatire,
under the {oWov/'mg/our circumstauces : —
1. When, with a participle^ it is used to express a cause, or a
concomitant fact ; as,
" Thou looTiing on^
Shame to be overcome or overreach'd,
Would utmost vigor raise." — Milton.
2. "When, hj a direct address^ it is put in the second person, and
set off from the verb; as, "At length, Seged^ reflect and be wise."
3. When, hy pleonasm^ it is abruptly introduced, for the sake of
emphasis; as, "^ethat is in the city, famine and pestilence shall
devour him." — " Gad^ a troop sliall overcome him." — '' The north
and the south, thou hast created them." — BihU.
4. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and
•without other words expressed or implied to give it construction ;
as,
" Oh ! deep enchanting ^9?'e?«<:75 to repose,
The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes!" — CampT)ell.
Ohs. 2. — The nominative put absolute with a participle, is equiv-
alent to a dependent clause commencing with wli^n, while, if^
iince, or because; as, "I being a child," — equal to, " When I was a
child."
Obs. 3. — The participle being is often understood after nouns or
pronouns put absolute ; as,
"Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such,
Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope.
Obs. 4. — All nouns preceded by an article, are in the third person;
and, in exclamatory phrases, such nouns sometimes appear to have
no determinable construction : as, " O the depth of the riches both
of the wisdom and knowledge of God !" — Rom., xi, 32.
Obs. 5. — The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes
and abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to de-
pend, on something luiderstood ; and when their construction can
be satisfactorily explained on the principles of ellipsis, they are not
put absolute. The following examples may perhaps be resolved in
this manner, though the expressions will lose much of their vivac-
ity: "A horse! a horse! my hingdom for a liorse !" — Shale:
" Heaps upon heaps," — " Shin for skin," — " An eye for an eye, and
a tooth for a tooth,"— " i)ay after day,"—" World without end."—
Bible.
HuLE XXYI. — Subjunctives.
A future contmgency is best expressed by a
verb in the Subjunctive present; and a mere
supposition, with indefinite time, by a verb in the
90 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PART III.
Subjunctive imperfect; bu': a conditional cir-
cumstance assumed as a fact, requires the Indi-
cative Mood: as "If thou forsake him, he will
cast thee off forever." — "If it were not so, I
would have told you." — "If thou loent^ nothing
would be gained." — "Though he is poor, he is
contented."
CHAPTER III.— EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.
Designed to exercise the pupil in aijplying jw^-acificaZZ?/ the Rules of
Syntax liable to ie violated. To he corrected orally.
Lesson I. — Under Rule IL — Nominatives.
1. Thee must have been idle.
[FoRMULE. — Not proper, because the pronoun thee is in the ob-
jective case, and is the subject of the verb must have been. But,
according to Rule 2d, " A noun or a pronoun w^hich is the subject
of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Therefore, thee
should be thou; thus, Thou must have been idle.]
2. Him that loiters by the waj^, may be belated.
S. Them that labour, should be rewarded.
4. Us who are spared, ought to be thankful.
5. You and me are equally concerned.
6. Are not thee and him related?
7. My brother is older than me.
8. He cannot read so well as thee.
9. Who fastened the door ? Me.
10. Whom do you suppose did it?
Lesson H. — Under Rule HI. — Apposition.
1. I have heard from my cousin, she that was here last week.
[FoRMULE. — Not proper, because the pronoun she is in the nom-
inative case, and is used to explain the nonn cousin which is in the
objective case. But, according to Rule 3d, " A noun or a personal
pronoun, used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by
apposition, in the same case." Therefore, she should be her ; thuS(
I have heard from my cousin, her that was here last week.]
2. That was the tailoress, her that made my clothes.
3. I saw your friend, he that was here last winter.
4. Dennis, the gardener, him that gave me the tulips, has Drom'
Jsed me a piony.
Lesson KL— Under Rule Y. — Pronouns.
1. Ought not every man to b« careful of their reputation ?
CHAP. III.] BTNTAX. — CORRECTING. 91
[FoRMrxE. — ISTot proper, because tlie pronoun their is of the
plural number, and does not correctly represent its antecedent noun
man^ which is of the third person, singular, masculine. But, ac-
cording to Rule 5th, " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent,
or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and
gender." Therefore, their sliould be his; thus, Ought not everj
man to be careful of his reputation ?]
2. Every one must judge of their own feelings. — Byron.
3. We may be displeased with a person without hating them.
4. 1 poured water on the embers to quench it.
5. Ask hsr for the scissors, and bring it to me.
6. He had sown the oats, and it had alreac/ sprung up.
Liissox IV. — Under Rule YI. — Proxouxs.
1. The jniy will be confided until it agrees on a verdict.
[FoEMULE. — Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singu-
lar number, and does not correctly represent its antecedent jury,
which is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality. But,
according to Rule 6th, " When the antecedent is a collective noui\
conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it, in
the plural number," Therefore, ii should be they; thus, The jury
will be confined until they agree on a verdict.]
2. The people will not relinquish its rights.
8. The clergy had declared its intention.
4, The party disagreed among itself.
6. The committee were unanimous, and this is its awara.
6. The company then renewed its claims.
Lessox V. — UxDEE Rule YII. — Proxouxs.
1. Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance.
[FoRMULE. — Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the
singular number, and does not correctly represent its two anteced-
ents, discontent and sorrow^ which are connected by and^ and
taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 7th, " When a pronoun
has two or more antecedents connected by and^ it must agree with
them in the plural number," Therefore, itself q\\o\\\(\. be themselves ,
thus. Discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his counten^
ance.]
2. Av y[(\. lightness and frivolity : it is allied to folly.
8. Truth ard honesty cannot fail of its reward,
4. Learni'^.g and good sense always adorn its possessor.
„. Bauis'i envy and strife, lest it utterly destroy your peace.
C. Cherish love and unity : it is the life of society.
Lessox VI. — UxDER Rule VIII. — Proxouxs.
1. Neither wealth nor honour can satisfy their votaries.
[Fokmule. — Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the pla»
ral number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedent?
92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
wealth and honour^ wliicli are connected by nor^ and taken dis-
junctively. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a pronoun has
two or more singular antecedents connected by or or noi\ it must
agree witli them in the singular number." Therefore, their should
£)e its ; thus, Neither wealth nor honour can satisfy its votaries.]
2. Can justice or truth change their nature?
3. One or the other must relinquish their claim,
4. Neither the lion nor the tiger will bow their neck to the yoko.
5. The horse or the ox will lend thee their strengtli.
6. Neither my father nor my master would give their confi^nt.
Lesson VII. — Under Rule IX. — Verbs.
1. You was kindly received.
[FoRMULE. — ^Not proper, because the verb teas received is of the
singular number, and does not agree with its nominati'^ e you^ which
is plural. But, according to Rule 9th, " A finite ve' b must agree
with its subject, or nominative, in person and numbT." Therefore,
teas received should be were received; thus, You were lindly re'
ceived.]
2. Appearances is often deceptive.
3. The propriety of such restrictions are doubtful.
4. There is windows on three sides of the room.
5. Thou sees the difficulties with which I am surrounded.
6. What does all my exertions avail ?
Lesson VIII. — Under Rule X. — Verbs.
1. The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow.
[FoRMULE. — Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the singu-
lar number, and does not correctly agree witli the nominative
people^ which is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality.
But, according to Rule 10th, " When the nominative is a collective
noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it
in the plural number." Therefore, rejoices should be rejoice; thus,
The people rejoice in that which should cause sorrow.]
2. The nobility was assured that he would not interpose.
8. The committee has attended to their appointment.
4. The majority was disposed to adopt the measure.
5. All the world is spectators of your conduct.
6. Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound.— BilleL
Lesson IX. — Under Rule Xf. — Verbs.
1. Industry and frugality leads to wealth.
[Formule. — Not proper, because the verb leads is of the singular
number, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives,
industry and frugality^ which are connected by and, and taken
conjointly. But, according to Rule 11th, " When a verb has two
or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with tliem
in the plural number." Therefore, leads should be lead; Urns, In-
dustry and frugality lead to wealth."]
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. — COREECTINa. 93
2. Temperance and exercise preserves health.
3. My love and afiectioii towards thee remains unaltered,
4. Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsakes the indolent.
5. My flesh and my lieart faiieth, — Bible.
6. In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigour.
Lesson X. — Under Rule XII. — Yehbs.
1. Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.
[FoKMULE. — Not proper, because the verb Tiate caused is of the
plural number, and does not correctly agree with its two nomina-
tives, ignorance and negligence^ which are connected by or, and
taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 12th, " When a verb
has two or more singular nominatives connected by or or nor^ it
must agree with them in the singular number." Therefore, have
caused should be has caused; thus, Ignorance or negligence hoA
caused this mistake.]
2. ITo axe or hammer have ever awakened an echo here.
3. What the heart or the imagination dictate, flows readily.
4. Neither authority nor analogy support such ?.a opinion.
5. Either ability or inclination were wanting.
6. He comes — nor want nor cold his course delay. — Johnson.
Lesson XL — ^Undee Rule XIII. — ^Veebs.
1. They would neither go in, nor suffered others to enter.
[FoEMULE. — ^Not proper, because the verb suffered^ which is in
the indicative mood, is connected, without repetition of the nomin-
ative, to would go^ which is in the potential mood. But, accord-
ing to Rule 13th, "When verbs are, connected by a conjunction,
they must either agree in raood, tense, and form, or have separate
nominatives expressed." Therefore, suffered should be icould suffer ;
(iDould understood ;) thus, They would neither go in, nor suffer
others to enter.]
2. Does not he waste his time, and neglects his lessons?
3. Did not she send, and gave you this information ?
4. Their honours are departing, and come to p,n end.
6. He had retired to his farm, and appeared to be happy there.
6. He was elected to the office, but would not serve.
Lesson XII. — Under Rule XX. — Objectives .
1. She I shall more readily forgive.
[Foemule. — ^Not proper, because the pronoun she is in the nom-
inative case, and is tlie object of the active-transitive verb shall
forgive. But, according to Rule 20th, "Active-transitive verbs,
and their imperfect and preperfect participles, govern the objective
case." Therefore, sAd should be her ; tims, Her I shall more readily
forgive.]
2. Thou only have I chosen.
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAilT IIY.
8. "Who shall we send on this errand ?
4. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany hira.
5. He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply.
6. Who should I meet but my old friend !
Lesson XIII.— Undee Rule XXI. — Same Cases.
1. "We did not know that it was him.
[FoEMULE. — Not proper, because the pronoun Tiim^ which follows
the neuter verb was^ is in the objective case, and does not agree
with the pronoun it^ which precedes the verb, in the nominative ;
both words referring to the same thing. But, according to Rule
21st, " Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their
participles, take the same case after as before them, when both
words refer to the same thing." Therefore, him should be lie ; thus.
"We did not know that it was he.']
2. "We thought it was thee.
8. 1 would act the same part, if I were him.
4. It could not have been her.
5. It is not me that he is angry with.
6. They believed it to be I.
Lesson XIY. — Under Rule XXII. — Objectives.
1. It rests with thou and me to decide.
[FoRMULE. — ^Not proper, because the pronoun thou is in the nom'
inative case, and is governed by the preposition with. But, ac-
cording to Rule 22cl, '^ Prepositions govern the objective case."
Therefore, thou should be thee ; tlius, It rests with thee and me to
decide.]
2. Let that remain a secret between you and I.
8. I lent the book to some one, I know not who.
4. Let no quarrel- occur among we three fellows.
5. Who did he inquire for ? Thou.
6. From he that is needy, turn not away.
Lesson XV. — Under Rule XXIII. — Infinitives.
1. Ought these things be tolerated?
[FoRMULE. — Not proper, because the infinitive le tolerated., is not
preceded by the preposition to. But, according to Rule 23d, " The
preposition to governs the infinitive mood, and commonly connects
It to a finite verb." To should be inserted; thus, Ought these
things to be tolerated ?]
2. Please excuse my son's absence.
8. Cause every man go out from me.
4. Forbid them enter the garden.
5. Do you not perceive it move ?
6. Allow others discover your merit. •
7. He was seen go in at that gate.
CHAP. III.] SYNTAX. — CORRECTING. 95
Lesson XVI. — Under Rule XXIV.— Infinitiyes.
1. They need not to call upon her.
[FoRMULE. — Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted
before call^ wliich follows the active verb Jieed. But, according to
Rule 24th, "The active verbs hid^ dare^feel^ hear^ let^ maTce^ need,
see^ and their participles, usually take the infinitive after them,
without the preposition to;' Therefore, to should be omitted j*
i^us, " They need not call upon her.]
2. I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me.
8. I have heard him to mention the subject.
4. Bid the boys to come in immediatel}^
6. I dare to say he has not got home yet.
6. Let no rash promise to be made.
Lesson XVII. — Under Rule XXV. — Nom. Absolute.
1. Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed.
[Formule. — Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case
depends on no other word, is in the objective case. But, accord-
ing to Rule 25th, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the
nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Therefore,
him should be he; thus, He having ended his discourse, the assem-
bly dispersed.]
2. Me being young, they deceived me.
8. Them refusing to comply, I withdrew.
4. The child is lost; and me, whither shall I go?
6. Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew.
6. Arise, and gird thyself, O thee tliat sleepest!
7. O wretched us! shut from the light of hope!
8. "Thee too! Brutus, my son!" cried Caisar overcome.
9. But him, the cliieftain of tliem all.
His sword hangs rusting on the wall.
Lesson XVIII. — Under Rule XXVL — Subjunctives.
1 . He will not be pardoned, unless he repents.
[Formule. — Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used
to express a ^.uture contingenc}', is in the indicative mood. But,
according to Rule 26th, " A future contingency is best expressed
by a verb in the subjunctive, present." Therefore, I'epents should
be repent ; thus, He will not be pardoned unless he repent^
2. I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains.
3. If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide.
4. I knew thou wert not slow to hear.
5. Let him take heed lest he falls.
6. If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable.
V. I believed, whatever was the issue, ail would be well.
8. If ho was an impostor, he must have been detected.
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
CHAPTER lY.— ANALYSIS AND PARSING-.
Two or more subjects, connected bj a conjunc-
tion, may belong to the same predicate; or two
or more connected predicates may have the same
subject. In this case, the sentence should be con-
sidered simple^ with a compouyid subject or predi-
cate.
Phrases are either simple^ complex, or com-
pound.
A phrase, containing a phrase as an adjunct of
its principal part, is called a complex phrase; as,
''By tiie bounty of Heaven. ^^
A phrase, composed of two or more coordinate
phrases, is called a compound phrase; as, ^'•Stoop-
ing dovon and looking in.'''
EXEECISK I.
Analyze tlie following sentencea^ jjointing out the comj^oinid suh-
jects and predicates^ and distinguishing the di^erent kinds of pfirascs.
Example. — " The Gauls, a barbarous people, in the fourth cen-
tury before Christ, invaded Italy and burned Rome."
'i'^^is is a simple declnrative sentence, having a compound predicate. The subject is
Gauls; the compound predicate is iiivaded and burned; the objects are lUdt/
and Rome.
The adjuncts of the subject are the and people, a and barbarous being adjuncts of
people; the adjunct, of the predicate, is the complex adverbial phrase, in the fourth
century before Christ; the principal part of the phrase is, century, the adjuncts of
■which tixe'the, fourth, and the simple adjective phrase, before Christ; neither of the
objects has any adjuncts.
Temperance and exercise preserve the health both of the body
and the mind. The wild animals turned, looked, and ran away.
The faculty of reasoning accurately, is possessed by very few. The
sun was pouring its meridian rays upon the Arabian desert, when
a caravan lialted for refreshment and repose. Obidah, the son of
Abensina, left the caravansary early in the morning, and pursued
his journey through the plains of Hindoostan. I went by the field
of the slothful, and by the vineyard of the man void of understand-
ing. The Puritans rejected with contempt the ceremonious homage
of other sects. Afflicted by this spectacle of suffering, he proffered
immediate relief. By what authority doest thou these things ? In
the autumn of 1783, the war of the Revolution had closed with
glory to the several States. The creation is a grand museum filled
with wonders, and beauties, and glories. Fine writing is generally
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 97
the effect of spontaneous thoughts and a labored style. A large,
branching, aged oak is, perhaps, the most venerable of all inanimate
objects. We should forgive freely, but forget rarely. Get justly,
use soberly, distribute cheerfully, and live contentedly.
PARSmG.
After analyzing each of the ahove sentences^ let the pvpil le required
to distinguish tJie different jjai'ts of sjyecch, and their classes ; to
mention tJieir modifications in order ; to point out their relation^
agreeinent^ or government ; and to avvly the Rules of Syntax.
Thus:--
EXAMPLE PAESED.
" Man's highest interest consists in virtue."
Marl's Is a common noun, of the third person, siniriilar number, masculine gender, and
possessive case : and is governed by interest; according to the Hide ]9th,
wliich says, " A noun or .1 pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
name of the thing possessed."
Highest \^ a, common adjective, of the superlative defrrec; compared higli, higJiev,
highei^t : and relates to interest ; according to iiule 4tb, ■which says, "Adjec-
tives relate to nouns or pronouns."
Interest is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and
nominative case : and is the subject of consists ; according to IJule 2d, wJiich
says, " A noun or pronoun vhich is the subject of a finite verb, must be in
the nominative case."
Consists is a regular neuter verb, from consist, consisted, consisting, consisted;
found inthe indicative mood, jiresent tense, third person, and singular num-
ber; and agrees with its nominative interest; according to liule 9th, which
Bays, " A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominalive, in person and
number."
/?i is a i)reposition : and shows the relation between virtue and consists; according
to Rule 17th, which says, "Prepos^itions show the relation of things." Be-
cause the phrase 171 virtue modifies consists.
Virtue is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gdider,
and obji'ctive case: and is governed by in; according to Eule 22d, which
says, "Prepositions govern the objective case."
ExEKCisE ir. — The Subject Phkase.
In this, and each of the folloicing exercises, let the pujjil de required
to analyze according to the example., and p)o,rse as in the preceding
exercise.
Example. — " To be at once a rake and glory in the character,
discovers a bad disposition apd a bad heart."
This is a simple declarative sentence, having a compound pubject. The subject is
composed of the two coordinate phrases. To he at on-ce a rake and to glory in the
c7t</.'YK-^pr, connected by atid : the principal part of the first phrase is to he; and
its adiuncts are the adverbial phrase at once and the indefinite attribute rake, (sea
Obs. 4, page 66,) modified by a; the principal part of the second phraso is, to glory ;
an.l its adjunct is the simple adverbial phrase, iyi the character, the princijial j.art
being modified by the. The predicate of the sentence is discovers ; the objects, dis-
position and heart, each modified by the adjuncts a and had.
To do good to all men, is the duty of a Christian. Riding on
horseback is a beneficial exercise. To live soberly, righteously, and
piously, comprehends the whole of our duty. To be totally indif-
ferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character. To have
remained calm under such provocations, was a proof of remarkable
98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV.
self-control. To be continually subject to tlio breath of slander,
will tarnish the purest reputation. To perceive nothing or not to
perceive, is the same. To profess regard and act injuriously, dis-
covers a base mind. To know one's own ignorance, is generally
conducive to improvement. To be happy without the approval of
conscience, is impossible. To err is human ; to forgive, divine.
Exercise III. — The Object Phrase.
Example. — "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from
Dryden."
This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is Pope; the predicate is pro-
fessed; the object is the complex phrase, to liave learned his poetry from Dryden.
The principal part of the phrase is, to have learned; its adjuncts, the object poetry
and the wimple adverbial i>hrase//'o«2. Dryden; poetry is modified by the adjunct A^«.
I^either the subject nor the predicate of the sentence, has any adjuncts.
"We should always desire to obey the dictates of conscience. Ho
wlio desires to be happy, should cultivate integrity and self-respect.
We swear to preserve the blessings for which our fathers toiled and
bled. The teacher enjoined upon his pupils, to be industrious in
study, to cultivate a virtuous disposition, and especially to love
truth. Seek earnestly to improve your talents. Cease to do evil,
learn to do well. I dare not proceed so hastily, lest I give offence.
Never attempt to conceal a fault, but confess it freely. AVe should
love to do what God commands. Artaxerxes being thus entreated,
could not refuse to pardon him. By the faults of others, wise men
learn to correct their own. He began again to teach by the
seaside.
Exercise IY. — The Attribfte Phrase.
Example. — " His object was not to surprise his readers."
This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is object, modified by the ad-
junct Ids; the predicate is wr<A-, modified by the adverb not; the attribute is the
phrase to .ni?'pri.se his readers ; the principal part of the phrase is to surpriae ; ita
adjunct, the object readers, modified by fiis.
The object of punishment should be, to reform the wicked. To
be good is to be happy. To surrender without making resistance,
would be, to submit to a base and inglorious death. To attempt
further to illustrate so plain a truth, Avould be only to spend time
uselessly. To smile on those whom we should censure, is to bring
guilt ui)on ourselves. The tendency of evil is, to make men miser-
able. Tiie highest art of the mind of man, is, to possess itself with
tranquillity in the hour of danger. He was known to be kept in
close custody at Oxford. My power is to advise, not to compel.
Is life to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? The
ship is to sail to-morrow. His conduct was greatly to be admired.
My friend is in very good health. The train might liave been off
the track. The vessel was behind its usual time. To submit to
insult, is, to give occasion for it. The silver age is reckoned to havo
commenced at the death of Augustus.
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 99
ExEKCiSE Y. — Adjective and Adverbial Phrases.
Example. — " Where there is no knowledge of the haw, a man
aoiing in opposition to it, cannot be properly said to trans-
gress it."
Tliis is a complex declarativo sentence. The principal clause Is, a man acting in
opjiosition to it, cannot be j)roperlii said to traimgre'^s it; the depcndeut clause is,
where there is no Jcnoicledge of the law. The connective is where.
The subject of the principal clause is man; the predicate, can he said; the attri-
bute, to transgress it. The adjuncts of the subject are a, and the complex adjectiro
phrase, a -ting in oppositioii to it; the princijtal part of the phra.-e is acting, modi-
fied by the complex adverbial phrase, in opposition to it, the principal part of which
is opposition, modified by the simi)le adjective phrase, to it. The adjuncts of tho
predicate are not aaA properlij, and the dependent clause ; the adjunct of the attribute
is tlie object it.
The subject of the dependent clause is Icnoxdedge ; the predicate is is. The ad-
JTincts of the subject are oio and the simple adjective phrase, of the law ; the ailjunc*"
of the predicate is Vure.
• Genius lias often been discovered in persons of a very humble
condition in life. In summer the fervid sun darting his direct rays,
oppresses us with heat. f-A man of integrity will never listen to
any reason against conscience. The ambition to excel was manifest
in all his acts. An old man was busily emi)loyed in planting and
ingrafting an apple-tree. We should always strive to do right.
Eliza's benevolence in relieving the poor was much to be com-
mended. Christians should exhibit an ability to endure the various
vicissitudes of life. Newton's ideas regarding the nature of comets,
were quite fanciful. Honors bestowed on the ihustrious dead, have
in them no admixture of envy. A habit of sincerity in acknowl-
edging faults, is a guard against committing them.
Exercise Vi. — The Explanatory Phrase.
Example. — " It is a Christian's vocation to do good to all."
This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is it; the predicate is is; tha
attribute is vocation. The adjunct of the subject is the explanatory phrase, to do
good to all ; the principal part of the phrase is to do, its adjuncts are the object
goo'i and the simple adverbial phrase, to all. The adjunct of the attribute is Chris-
tian s, modilied by a.
■v'lt is a great crime to decejve the innocent and confiding. It is
good to sing praises 'unto our God. "~ It is impossible to instruct
those who have no desire to learn.^It is of little use to form plans
of life. It deserves our best skill, to inquire into those rules, by
which we may guide our judgment. It is a sign of great prudence,
to be willing to receive instruction. It is the duty of public speak-
ers, in addressing any popular assembly, to be previously masters
of their subject. It pleased Darius the King, to set over the king-
dom a hundred and twenty princes, who should be over the whole
kingdom.
Exercise YII. — The Independent Phrase.
Example 1. — "Night coming on, the battle was discontinued."
.This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is battle ; the predicate is, wa»
discontinued. The adjunct of the subject is the. Kight coming on, is an indeppnd'
en' phrase ; its principal part is night, the adjunct of which is the participle coming^
modified by on.
100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV.
Example 2. — " To speak candidly, I did not quite understand the
subject."
A simple declarative sentence. The subject is I; the predicate is did understo/nd ;
the object is subject. The adjuncts of the predicate are not and quite ; that of tho
object is the. To ^peak candidly is an independent phrase ; the principal part beiu<»
to speak, moditied by candidly. "
To confess tlie truth, I ■was very mucli in fault. Generally speak-
ing, the conduct of that man is unexceptionable. Theron and As-
pasia took a morning walk into the tields ; their spirits cheered,
and their imaginations lively ; gratitude glowing in their hearts,
and the whole creation smiling around them. The Senate con-
sented to the creation of tribunes of tho people, Appius alone pro-
testing against the measure. To be plain with you, your conduct is
very much to be censured. Considering the circumstances, the de-
gree of success which you liave attained, is highly deserving of
commendation. All obstacles having been overcome, he finally
reached the goal of his ambition. My dear friend, how glad I am
to see you ! Pause for a while, ye travellers of earth, to contem-
plate the universe around you ! Green be the turf above thee,
friend of my better days ! Shame being lost, all virtue is lost.
Exercise VIH. — The Subject Clause.
Example. — "That vice conducts to misery, is certain."
This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject is the dependent clause, Yic6
conduct>s to misery ; the predicate is in; the attribute is certain. The subject of
the dependent clause is vice; the predicate is condticts, modified by tho simple ad-
verbial phrase, to misery. That is the connective of the two clauses.
That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. "Whence pro-
ceeded this sad calamity, has not been ascertained. "Wliy he com-
mitted so dreadful a crime, is a mystery. AVho wrote the letters of
Junius, is not positively known. That it is our duty to be kind to
our fellow-creatures, does not admit of a doubt. That I know not
what I want, is the cause of my complaint. How tliis difticulty is
to be solved, is beyond conjecture. That idleness leads to ruin, and
that industry insures success, are certain truths. That Julius Csesar
invaded Britain, is a well-known historical fact. That integrity is
essential to success in life, ought to be continually inculcated on tho
young.
Exercise IX. — The Object Clause.
Example. — " Remember that indolence can lead to nothing but
disgrace and misery."
This is a complex imperative sentence. The subject is thou (understood) ; the pre-
dicate is r^Heju^e/' ; the object is the dependent clause, Indolence can lead, &.c.
That is the connective. The subject of the dependent clause is indolence ; tho
Eredicate is ca7i lead, which is modified by the complex adverbial phrase, to nothing
ict disgrace and misery ; the principal part of this phrase is nothiyig, modi&ed by
the phrase, out disgrace and misery. [But — a preposition.]
The orator felt that every eye was upon him. John says that
his brother is not Avell. Always bear in mind that you owe very
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAKSING. 101
inucli to your parents. The fool Ijath said in liis heart, There is no
God. See! Aspasio, how all is calculated to administer the highest
delight to mankind. He said, that he was well apprised ot" the obe-
dience which he owed to the laws. She had now to learn what it
is to be a slave. Consider well whether you are able to perform
this great undertaking. Remember, Almet, that the world in
which thou art placed, is but the road to another. And Nathan
said unto David, Thou art the man. Then said Joab to Cushi, Go
tell the king what thou hast seen. The scribes spake unto him,
Baying, Tell us by what authority doest thou these things? The
cynic observed that the philosopher who could dine on herbs,
might despise the company of a king.
Exercise X. — The Object Clause. — Ixfinitive Form.
Ohs. — In the infinitive form of this clause, the subject and predi-
cate are connected indirectlij. The predicate, instead of being a
finite verb, is a verb in the infinitive mood, and its subject is in the
objective case. Thus, in the sentence, '' He commanded the army
to marcli," army is the subject, and to marcli^ the predicate; be-
cause it is indicated (although indirectly) that the act of marching
is performed by the agent army^ the sentence being equivalent to,
"He commanded that the army should march."
Exa-Mple. — " Conversation makes a man grow wiser."
This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject is Conversation; the predi-
cate is makea; the object is the infinitive clause, a mow. (^o) groio wiser. The subject
of the dependent clause is m«7i-, modified by (/ ; the predicate is, to groxo ; the attri-
bute, Winer.
' Tlieard him relate the story of his wrongs. I heard a faint voic^
call my name. Let us then be up and doing.-^^n this melancholy
state, he commanded messengers to recall his eldest son, Abouzaid,
from the army. Let the dead past bury its dead. We often see
bad men intrusted with very important duties. The united testi-
mony of many witnesses, proved him to be guilty of the crime with
which he was charged. Forbid them to enter the garden. The
Sovereigns requested Columbus to return, and be present at the
Convention. It was the peculiar artifice of Habit, not to suffer
her power to be felt at first.
Exercise XL — The Attribute Clause.
ExA:MrLE. — "His reply was, that he was sure of success."
This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject is reply; the predicate Is
mas; the attribute is the dependent clause. He, was sure of success. The connective
ia that.
My hope is, that you will regain your liberty. His decision was,
that the culprit should be punished. The physician's directions
were, that the patient should travel to the South, tliat he ^should
avoid excitement, and that he should be careful in diet. Kepler'3
opinion with regard to the tides was, that they are caused by the
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART IV.
attraction of the moon. The general sentiment is, that the rebellion
is entirely unjustiHable. The cause of so great an error might have
been, that the subject had not been sufficiently studied. The cause
of the defeat, was that the army had not been supplied with the
means of transportation.
ExEECiSK XII. — Adjective and Adyerbial Clauses.
Example. — " And when the king came in to see the guests, he
saw there a man that had not on a wedding garment."
Complex declarative sentence.
Subject, Ae / predicate, saw; object, «^a?^. Adjuncts of predicate, there, and tho
ndverbial clause, xolien the king came in to see the guests; adjuncts of object, a and
the adjective clause, that had not on a wedding garment. (Let the pupil analyze
each dependent clause as in the preceding exercises.)
When they arrived at the orchard, they commenced to gather
the fruit which they found scattered on the ground. While you
are striving to acquire knowledge, endeavor also to become vir-
tuous and good. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be
also. lie who talks loudly of qualities that he does not possess, is
a boaster. The globe on which we live, is called the earth. What
we are afraid to do before men, we should be much more afraid to
think before God. The place in which this event occurred, is not
mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that time. The
scholar who is attentive and persevering, is sure to excel. We
naturally look with strong emotion to the spot, where the ashes of
those we liave loved, repose. He that lies abed all a summer's
morning, loses the chief pleasures of the day ; he that gives up his
youth to indolence, undergoes a loss of/a like kind. What would
dare to molest him who might call, on every side, to thousands en-
riched by his bounty? He who knows not what it is to labor,
knows not what it is to enjoy. The promise that he should be
rewarded, was kept. The merchant received intelligence that his
ship had been wrecked.
Exercise XIII.— The Explanatory Clause.
Example. — " It is an old saying that, ' Truth lies in a well.' "
Complex declarative sentence.
Subject, it ; predicate, is ; attribute, saying.
Adjunct of the subject the explanatory clause, truth lies in a well; adjuncts d
attiilkite, an and old. That, a conjunction connecting the principal and the depend-
ent clause.
It is said by some, that Columbus had a haughtiness of manner.
It has been conclusively proved, that the earth is not the centre of
the universe. It has always been the earnest wish of parents, that
their children should bo well educated. It makes a great difference
to us, whether death is a perpetual sleep, or the beginning of an-
other and better life. And it was told Joab, Behold, the king
weepeth and monrneth for Absalom. The question whether purity
or mixture of race is most conducive to national greatness, appears
not to be fully settled. It is a source of astonishment to all his
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 103
friends, tliat lie sliould have been guilty of so disgraceful an act.
It was observed, that he derived no joy from the benefits which lie
diffused. It was in the spring of the year, that Xerxes commenced
his march to the Hellespont. It was with the utmost difficulty,
tliat our union was formed.
Exercise XIV.— The Paeenthetical Clause.
Example. — " ' Life,' says Seneca, ' is a voyage, in the progress of
which, we are perpetually changing our scenes.' "
A compound declarative sentence.
Subject, ^(Z^; predicate, ?s ,• attribnte, voyage.
Adjunct ofvoydge is the simple adjective clause, inihe progress of which ice are
perpetually changing our scenes. Tlie subject is u-e; ])re(licate, are changing;
object, scenes. Adjuncts of predicate, j:)erj)etually, and, in the progress of Schick —
a complex adverbial phrase; principal part, progress; adjunct, of uhich. Saya
Seneca, is a simple parenthetical clause. Subject, Seneca ; predicate, says.
Ohs. — Sentences of this form may be analyzed by considering the
parenthetical clause, the principal one, and the rest of the sentence
a dependent clause. The mode indicated above is, ho\vever, prefer-
able ; as, although the parenthetical clause is united in construction
with the other part of the sentence, it is not necessary to complete
the sense.
Study, I beseech you, to store your minds with useful knowledge.
" Thirst for gloi'y," says a great writer, " is often founded on ambi-
tion and vanity." " Son ot affliction," said Omar, " who art thou
and what is thy distress ?" "Almet," said lie, '' remember what
thou hast seen, and let this memorial be written upon the tablet of
thy heart." How dangerous soever idleness may be, are there not
pleasures, it may be said, which attend it? A man who cannot
read, let us always remember, is a being not contemplated by the
genius of the American constitution
Exercise XY. — Compound Sentences.
Ols. 1. — In analyzing compound sentences, the leading clause
should be distinguished from the suhordinate clause. It must also
be understood that the dependence of the latter upon the former,
is logical., not grammatical.^ differing in this respect altogether from
the relation of the principal and the dependent clause of a complex
-sentence, which is grammatical, the latter being an adjunct^ or used
as one oi th.Q principal parts.^ in the principal clause.
Obs. 2. — Some clauses are simply connected without logical or
grammatical dependence. They may then be called coordinate
clauses.
C^~ In the followins e^ramples of analysis, for the purpose of abbreviation, and in
order to furnish the pupil with a ready method of clearly representing, in written
exercises, the parts of a sentence and their relations, the compound clauses or mem,'
bers tire marked by Capitals; the simple clauses, by numerals ; and the phrases, by
small letters. "When these are all written out in their order, the general character of
the sentence will beat once exhibited. S. stands for subject; P., lor predicate; 0„
object; Att., attribute; Ad., adjunct.
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
Example. — " The only aniarantLine flower oo earth is virtue, the
only lasthig treasure, truth."
Compound declarative sentence, consisting of two coordinate clauses, without a
counective.
1. 77*6 only amaraiUliineflotoer on earth is virtue ;
2. The only Im^ting treasure {its) truth.
1. Simple declarative clause.
^.flower; P. is ; Aii. virtue.
Ad. S. the, only, amarajithine, on eartJi (a)
n. Simple adjective phrase.
2. Simple declarative clause.
S. treasure; P. is (understood); Att. truth;
Ad. S. the, only, lasting.
Example 2, — "If you study diligently ia youth, you "will be
happy and pros[)erous in manhood."
Compound declarative sentence; consisting of
1. (Leading.) Yoii will he happy and j^rosperous in manhood ;
2. (Subordinate.) You study diligently in youth ; Connective,*/".
1. Simple declarative clause.
S. You; P. will be; Att. (componnd) hapjyy and jyfosperous ;
Ad. P. in manliood (a)
a. Simple adverbial phrase.
2. Simpl-e declarative clause.
S. yoit, ; P. study ; Ad. P. diligently, in youth (b)
b. Simple adverbial phrase.
Tlie clouds of sorrow gathered round his head ; and the tempest
of hatred roared about his dwelling. The tree was so crooked, that
the farmer cut it down. Happiness is more equally divided among
mankind, than some suppose. The meeting was so respectable,
that the propriety of its decision can hardly be questioned. Science
may raise thee to eminence, but religion alone can guide thee to
felicity. Cecrops, who founded Athens, is thought to have been
an Egyptian. No man of sense ever took any pains to appear
wise; as no honest man ever used any tricks to display his own
integrity. A reply is properly a return to an answer: to answer
and to reiily are therefore not always equivalent expressions.
Others sometimes appear to us more wrong than they are, because
we ourselves are not right in judging them.
Exercise XVI.— Miscellaisteous Sentences.
Example 1. — "To learn is to proceed from something that is
known to something that is unknown."
Complex declarative sentence.
S. to learn; P. is; Att. to proceed unknown, (a)
a. Complex phrase. — Prin. part, to proceed; Adjuncts, />'0?7j. something that U
knoivn, (I)) ; to something that is unknoivn, (c)
b. Complex adverbial iihrase. — Prin. part, 60«te^Ai?i(7 ;
Ad. that is known. (1)
1. Simple adjective clause.
S. that ; P. is ; Att. Jcnown.
c. Complex adverbial jihrase. — Prin. part, something ;
Ad. that is unkjtown. (2)
2. Simple adjective clause.
Example 2. — "I was now so confident of a miraculous supply of
food, that I neglected to walk out for my repast, which, after
the tiist day, I expected with an impatience which left mo
little power of attending to any other object."
CHAr. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 105
Compound declarative sentence.
1. I w,is .food; A. Ineglected object; connective, i/m^.
1. Simple clause.
3. /; 1'. icas; Att. confident. Ad. P. noio ; Ad. Att. so, and of a mira-
culous fiupplij of food. (;i)
a. CoTnplex adverbial phrase. — Prin. piivt, suppli/ ; Ad. a, miraculous, of food.
A- Oonipound iric!tiib3i-.
2. Ineglected repast; B. xoldch object; connective, which.
2. Simple clause.
S. /,• P. neglected ; 0. to walk ontfor my repast, (b)
b. Complex objective phrase. — Priu. part, to walk ; Ad. out, for my repast.
JB. Complex member.
S. /; P. expected ; 0. xcldcJi. Ad. P. after the first day, tcith an impa-
tienee xvhich left me object, (c)
«. Complex adverbial plirase. — Prin. part, impatience ;
Ad. an and ivhich left vie little pjower of attending to any other object. (3)
3. Simple adjective clause.
S. xhhich ; P. left; O. power; Ad. P. {to) me ; Ad. 0. little, of attending
to any other object, (d)
d. Complex adjective phrase. — \^v\n. \)^rt, attending ; Ad. to any other object, (e)
e. Simple adverbial phrase. Prin. part, object; Ad. any, other.
Example 3. — " Order is Heaven's first law ; and this confessed,
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest,
More rich, more wise; but who infers from hence
That such are happier, shocivs all common sense."
Compound sentence; consisting: of two coordinate members.
A. Order xoise ; B. xoho sense; Con. but.
A. Compound declarative member.
1. Order Uno ; C. this wise; Con. and.
1. Simple declarative clause.
S. order; P. i-s ; Att. law; Ad. Att. Jieaven's, first.
C. Compound declarative member.
2. Some are, and must be greater, more ricJi, more wise ;
3. The rest {are); Con. than; This {being) cow/met/, is an independent
phrase.
B. Complex declarative member.
S. //t! (understood) ; P. shocks; O. sense;
Ad. S. Who infers hajjpier ; (D) ; Ad. 0. all, common,
D. Complex adjective member,
S. toho ; P. infers ; O. that such are happier. (4)
Ad. P. from hence.
4. Simple object clause.
S. such; P. are; Att. happier ; Con. that.
Ohs. — It will be perceived from the examples analyzed in this
and in the foregoing exercise^!, tliat complex sentences may be ana-
lyzed in two ways ; 1. By dividing the sentence immediately into
the principal and dependent clauses, explaining their connection,
and then analyzing them separately; and 2. By treating the sen-
tence as a whole, pointing out the subject, predicate, &c., and
analyzing the dependent clause in its proper place, as one of the
principal parts, or an adjunct to either. The former method is per-
haps preferable for beginners, but for more advanced students
should give place to the latter, which is more logical and easier for
intricate sentences.
Let the pupil analyze orally., or prepare a icritten analysis of the
sentences in the folloioing paragraphs.^ according to the preceding
examples.^ and p)arse each word syntactically.
1. It is an empty joy to appear better than you are ; but a greai
blessing to be what you ought to be.
106 EITGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III.
2. Take counsel of the oracle ia thine own heart, foi- there is not
a more faithful monitor than that wliich speaks in secret there.
3. It is said that some thieves who once rohbed a traveller, very
gravely charged him with dishonesty for concealing a part of his
money.
4. Were a man of pleasure to arrive at the full extent of his sev-
eral wishes, he must immediately feel himself miserable. It is one
species of despair, to have no room to hope for any addition to
one's happiness. His following wish must then be, to wish that he
had some fresh object for his wishes. This is a strong argument,
that the mind and the body were both designed for strenuous
activity.
5. Few men, that would cause respect and distance merel}^ can
say anything by which their end will be so effectually answered as
by silence.
--^^f). Sometimes, a distant sail, gliding along the edge of the ocean,
would be another theme of idle speculation. How interesting this
fragment of a world, hastening to rejoin the great mass of exist-
ence ! "What a glorious monument of human invention, that has
thus triumphed over wind and wave ; has brought the ends of tho
world into communion ; has established an interchange of blessings,
pouring into the sterile regions of the north, all the luxuries of tho
south; has diffused the light of knowledge and the charities of cul-
tivated life; and has thus bound together those scattered portions
of the human race, between which nature seemed to have thrown
an insurmountable barrier.
7. His story shows how one lapse from duty may counterbalance
the merits of a thousand services; how one moment of weakness
may mar the beauty of a whole life of virtue ; and how important
it is for a man, under all circumstances, to be true not merely to
others, but to himself.
8. When Education delivered up those for whose happiness slie
had been so long solicitous, she seemed to expect that they should
express some gratitude for her care, or some regret at the loss of
that protection which she had hitherto afforded them. But it was
easy to discover, by the alacrity which broke out at her departure,
that her presence had been long displeasing, and that she had been
teaching those who felt in themselves no want of instruction.
9. Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still. Slavery! still thou art a
bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have been mado
to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account.
10. See, Aspasio, how all is calculated to administer the highest
delight to mankind! Those trees and hedges, which skirt the ex-
tremities of the landscape, stealing away from their real bulk, and
lessening by gentle diminutions, appear like elegant pictures in
miniature. Tliose which occupy the nearer situations, are a set of
noble images, sv/elling upon the eye, in full proportion, and in a
variety of graceful attitudes ; both of them ornamenting the several
apartments of our corai-non abode, with a mixture of delicacy and
grandeur.
CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 107
11. '•' My friends," said lie, "I Lave seriously considered our man-
ners and our prospects ; and I find that we have mistaken our own
interest. Let us therefore stop, while to stop is in our power."—
They stared awhile in silence, one ui)on another, and at last drove
him away by a general ciiorus of cimtinued laughter.
12. Vexed at so untimely a disturbance, and disappointed of
news from Spain, the duke frowned for a moment; but chagrin
soon gave way to mirth, at so singular and ridiculous a combination
of circumstances, and yielding to the impulse, he sunk upon the bed
in a violent lit of laughter, which was communicated in a moment
to the attendants.
13. Let us not confide presumptuously in the sufnciency of a
national education ; for though ignorance may destroy us, knowl-
edge alone cannot save. Knowledge is, indeed, power; but it 13
power to kill as well as to make alive, as it is wielded by the mad-
ness of the heart, or by moral principle.
14. There is not in this wide world a safe deposit for liberty, but
the hearts of patriots, so enlightened as to be able to judge of cor-
rect legislation, and so patient and disinterested, as to practice sel£»'
denial and self-government for the public good.
15. The Spring — she is a blessed thing!
She is mother of the flowers ;
She is the mate of buds and bees,
The partner of .heir revelries,
Our star of hope through wintry liours.
16. Tell me not in vnournfu/ numbers,
Life is but an empty dream!
For the soul is dead that slumbers,
And things are not what they seem*
TAKT lY.
PROSODY.
Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures,
and versification.
CHAPTER I.— PUNCTUATIOK
Punctuation is the art of dividing composition,
by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing
more clearly the sense and relation of the words,
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV.
and of noting the different pauses and inflections
required in reading.
The following are the principal points, or marks;
the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:],
the Period [.], the Dash [ — ], the Eroteme, or
Note of Interrogation [?], the Ecphonerae, or Note
of Exclamation [!], and the Curves, or Marks of
Parenthesis [()].
The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the
Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ;
the Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon ;
and the Period, or Full Stop, a pause double that
of the colon. The pauses required by the other
four, vary according to the structure of the sen-
tence, and their j)lace in it.
SECTION I. — OF THE COMMA.
The Comma is used to separate those parts of
a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense,
as to be only one degree removed from that close
<sio^^exion which admits no point.
EXAMPLES.
That life is long, which answers life's great end.
The mind, though free, has a governor witliin itself.
In eternity, days, years, and ages, are nothing.
Good and evil, like heat and cold, differ totally.
To strengthen our virtue, God bids us trust in Him.
SECTION II. — OF THE SEMICOLON.
The Semicolon is used to separate those parts
of a compound sentence, which are neither so
closely connected as those which are distinguished
by the comma, nor so little dependent as those
which require the colon.
EXAMPLES.
In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity
forever blooms ; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant
stream, nor needs any mound to check its course.
Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom.
5*
CHAP. I.] PROSODY. — PUNCTUATIOIT. 109
SECTION III. — OF THE COLON.
The Colon is used to separate those parts of a
compound sentence, which are neither so closely
connected as those which are distinguished by the
semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which
require the period.
EXAMPLES.
Avoid evil doers : in such society, an. honest man may becomo
ashamed of himself.
Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the volup-
tuous have companions, and the Avicked have accomplices: none
but the virtuous can have friends.
SECTION IV. — OF THE PERIOD.
The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an
entire and independent sentence, whether simple
or compound.
EXAMPLES.
Every deviation from truth, is criminal. Abhor a falsehood.
Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most power-
ful charm. — Blair.
SECTION V. — OF THE DASH.
The Dash is used to denote an unexpected
pause, of variable length.
EXAMPLES.
"I must inquire into the affair, and if"— "And ifP'' interrupted
the farmer.
Here lies the great— false marble, where?
Nothing but sordid dust lies liere. — Young.
SECTION VI. — OF THE EROTEME.
The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used
to designate a question.
EXAMPLES.
In life, can love be bought with gold?
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold? — Johnson.
SECTION VII. — OF THE ECPHONEME.
The Ec23honeme, or Note of Exclamation, is used
110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV.
to der
mind.
to denote some strong or sudden emotion of the
EXAMPLES.
O! let me listen to the words of life! — Thomson.
Alas ! how is that rugged heart forlorn ! — Beattie,
SECTION VIII. — OF THE CURVES.
The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used
to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily
thrown in between the parts of a sentence to
which it does not properly belong.
EXAMPLES.
To otliers do (the law is not severe)
What to thyself thou wishest to be done. — Beattie.
Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness below. — Poj^e.
Ohs. — The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone,
and faster tlian the principal sentence. It always requires, both
before and after it, a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater.
SECTION IX. — OF THE OTHER MARKS.
There are also other marks that are occasion-
ally used for various purposes, as follow : —
1. ['] The Ax>ostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case
of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word ; as, The
girVs regard to her parents'* advice ; — ''gan^ lov''d, e'eii, thro'' ; for
hegan, loved,, etei^ through.
2. [-] The Hyphen connects the parts of compound words; as,
ever-li'ding . Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more
syllables of a word are carried forward to the next line.
3. [ " ] Tlie BicBresis, placed over the latter of two vowels, shows
that they are not a diplithong; as, aerial.
4. [^ ] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which requires the
principal stress in pronunciation; as^ equal, equal' ity. It is some-
times used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close
or short vowel, or to denote the rising inflection of the voice.
5. ['] The Grave Accent is used, in opposition to the acute, to
distinguish an open or long vowel, or to denote the falling inflection
of the voice.
6. [a] The Circumflex generally denotes either the broad sound
of «, or an unusual and long sound given to some other vowel; as
in ebldt^ all, htir, machine, move, hull.
7. [^] The Breve is used to denote eitlier a close vowel, or a syl-
lable of short quantity ; as, raven, to devour.
CHAP. II.] PROSODY. — UTTERANCE. Ill
8. [-] The Macron is used to denote either an open vowel or a
syllable of long quantity; a>J, rdven^ a bird.
9. [ ] or [****f The Ellipsis denotes the omission of some
letters or words ; as, A — g for l:ing.
10. [a] The Caret shovis vihere to insert words that have been
accidentally omitted.
11. [ n The Brace serves to unite a triplet, or to connect sev-
eral terms with something to which they are all related.
12. [§]The Section marks the smaller divisions of a book or
chapter ; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge refer-
ences.
13. [T] The ParagrapJi (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the
commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which
are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguislied, by
beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards
or backwards.
14. [""] The Guillemets, or Quotation Points^ distinguish words
that are taken from some other author or speaker. A quotation
■within a quotation is marked with single points ; which, when both
are employed, are placed within the others.
15. [[]] The Crotchets, or Braclcets, generally inclose some cor-
rection or explanation, or the subject to be explained ; as, " He
[the speaker] was of a different opinion."
16. [^^^] The Index, ov Rand, points out something remarkable.
17. [ * ] The Asterisk, [ t ] the Ohelislc, [ J J the DouUe Dagger, and
[II ] the Parallels, refer to marginal notes. The letters of the alpha-
bet, or the numerical ^f^wrds, may be used for the same purpose.
18. [*5|;*] Tho, Asterism, or Three Stars, a sign not very often
used, is i)laced before a long or general note, to mark it as a note,
"without giving it a particular reference.
19. [ c J The Cedilla is a mark which is sometimes set under a
letter to show that its sound, in the given word, is soft ; as in
fa(;ade, where the c sounds as s.
CHAPTER II.— UTTERANCE.
Utterance is tlie art of vocal expression. It
includes the principles of pronunciation and elo-
cution.
SECTION I. — OF PRONUNCIATION.
Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution,
is the utterance of words taken separately.
Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just
112 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PAET IV.
powers of the letters in all tlieir combinations, and
of the force and seat of the accent.
1. The Just Powers of the letters are those sounds which are
given to them by the best readers.
2. Accent is tlie pecuhar stress which we lay upon some particu-
lar syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguished from
and above the rest ; as, gram'-mar^ gram-ma' -ri-an.
Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables ac-
cented.
When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinctness,
we often give a secondary, or less forcible accent, to an other sylla-
ble ; as, to the last of tern' -per-a-tur^ ^ and to the second of in-dem'-
ni-Ji-ca' -tion.
A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear
articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well placed accent,
and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the
elegant speaker.
SECTION II. — OF ELOCUTION.
Elocution is the utterance of words that are
arranged into sentences, and that form discourse.
Elocution requires a knowledge, and right ap-
plication, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and
tones.
1. Bmphasis is the peculiar stress which we lay upon som^s par-
ticular word or words in a sentence, which are thereby distin-
guished from the rest as being more especially significant.
2. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to re-
lieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and pleasing.
The duration of the pauses should be proportionate to tho degree
of connexion between the parts of the discourse.
3. InjUctions are those peculiar variations of the human voice, by
which a continuous sound is made to pass from one note, key, or
pitch, into an other. The passage of the voice from a lower to a
higher or shriller note, is called the rising inflection ; — the passage
of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note, is called the
/ailing inflection.
These two opposite inflections maybe heard in the following ex-
amples: 1. The rising^ "Do you mean to gof'' — 2. The falling^
" When will you go .?"
Ols. — Questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the
rising inflection : those that demand any other answer, must be
uttered with the falling inflection.
4. Tones are those modulations of the voice, which depend upon
the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan denominates
" the language of emotions." And it is of the utmost importance
that they be natural, unafiected, and rightly adapted to the subject
and to the occasion ; for upon them, in a great measuue, depends
all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution.
t
CHAP. III.] PKOSODY. — FIGURES. 113
CHAPTER in.— FIGURES.
A figure, ia grammar, is an intentional devia-
tion from the ordinary spelling, formation, con-^
struction, or application of words. There ara
accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of
Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures of
Khetoric. When figures are judiciously employ-
ed, they both strengthen and adorn expression.
They occur more frequently in poetry than in
prose ; and sev^eral of them are merely poetic
licenses.
SECTION I. — FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
A figure of Orthography is an intentional de-
viation from the ordinary or true spelling of a
word.
The principal figures of Orthography are two ; namely, Mi-m^-sis
and Ar'cha-ism.
1. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispro-
nunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false
spelling, or the taking of one word for an other; as, '■' Maister^
says he, have you any ioe7'i/ good iceal in yoar vallet ?" — Columbian
Orator^ p. 292. " Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, Captain Gower."
— Shak. " I will description the matter to you, if you be capacity
ofit."— /cZ.
" Perdigious ! I can hardly stand." — Lloyd.
2. An Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to an-
cient usage, and not according to our modern orthography; as,
" Newe grene chese of smalle clammy nes comfortethe a liotte stomahe.*
— T. Paynel: TooJce^s Diversions, ii, 132.
" "With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight.
Bow-bent with eld^ his beard of snowy hue." — Beattie,
SECTION II. — FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.
A figure of Etymology is an intentional devia-
tion from the ordinary formation of a word.
The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, A-phcer^-
€-sis, Pros' -thesis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'ge^ Di-ar'-e-siSf
Syn-cer'-e-siSy and Tmef'Sis.
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV.
1. ApJimresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word ;
as, ^gainst^ ^gan^ hieath^ — for against^ began^ heneath.
2. Prosthesis is the prefixiug of an expletive syllable to a word ;
as, <2down, appaid, S^strown, evanished, — for down, paid, strewn^
finished.
3. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word ;
as, med'cine^ for medicine ; e'en, for enen ; o'er, for over.
•4. Apocope, is the elision of some of the final letters of a word ;
as, tho\ for though ; th\ for the ; t other, for the other.
5. Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word ;
as, withouten, for icithout; my deary, for my dear.
6. Diceresis is the separating of two vowels that might form a
diphthong; as, coojjerate, not cooperate; orfhoipy, not ortho&py.
7. SyncBvesis is the sinking of two syllables into one; as, seest^
for se'est ; tacked, for tack-ed.
Ohs. — When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation,
(whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected
with it, fall into an other syllable: thus, loved or lov''d, lovest or
lov''8t, are monosyllables, except in solemn discourse, in which the
e is made vocal.
8. Tmens is the inserting of a word between the parts of a com-
pound ; a.j, "On which side soever j'^—'-'' To us tcard;'^ — "'^(3 God
ward.'''' — Bible.
SECTION III. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
A figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation
from the ordinary construction of words.
The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely, El-lip'-s'L, PW-
o-nasyn, Syl-lep'-sis, Ea-al'-la-ge, and Hy-jyer'-ba-ton.
1. Ellipsis is the omission of some words which are necessary to
complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the mean-
ing ; as, " ' Who did this ?' ' I' [did it.^ Such words are said to
be understood; because they are received as belonging to ^he sen-
tence, though they are not uttered.
2. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. This figure
is allowable only, when in animated discmrse, it abruptly intro-
duces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more
strongly; as, ^ethat hath ears to hear, let him hear!" — ^'I know
thee icho thou art.'''' A pleonasm is sometimes impressive and ele-
gant ; but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of tho
worst faults of bad writing.
3. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative sense
of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not
according to the literal or common use of the term; it is therefore,
in general, connected with some figure of rhetoric: as, "The Word
was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld his gUny." —
John, i, 14. "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and
preached Ciirist unto them. ^^ —Acts, viii, 5. " W h'lle Evening draws
her crimson curtain round."
CHAP. III.] PROSODY. — FIGURES. 115
4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one inod idea-
tion for an other. This figure borders closely upon solecism.* It
is a license sparingly indulged in poetry, and fashion has given it
at least one torni in prose; as,
" You know that you are Brutus tliat ^pealc this." — Sliah.
"They fall successive [ly,] and successive [ly] rise." — Po2)e.
'•'Than whom [who] none Iiiglier sat." — ALiltoii.
"So furious was that onset's shock,
Destruction's gates at once unlochy — Hogg.
5. Hyperlaton is the transposition of words ; as, " He wandera
earth around^'''' — '■''Rings the icorld with the vain stir." This figure
is much employed in poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony,
variety, streugth, and vivacity, upon composition. But care should
be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity.
SECTION IV. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
A figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation
from the ordinary application of words.
Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction occur in
almost every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on
some similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imag-
ination, is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration.
The principal figures of Rhetoi'ic are fourteen ; namely, Sim'-i-Ie,
Met'-a-pho7\ Al'-le-go-ry^ Me-tort'y-my^ Syn-ed -do-che^ Hy-'pei^-ho-le^
Vis'-ion^ A-pos'-tro-phe, Person' -i-Ji-ca'-tion^ Er-o-te'sis^ Ec-pho-nd'
sis^ An-tith' -e-sis^ Gli'-max., and I'-ro-ny.
1. A Simile is a simple and express comparison ; and is generally
introduced by lihe^ as^ or so ; as,
" At first, liJce thunder^s distant tone^
The rattling din came rolling on." — Hogg.
2. A Metapjhor is a figure that expresses the resemblance of two
objects, by applying either the name, or some attribute, adjunct^
or action, of the one, directly to the other ; as,
" His eye was morning's hrightest ray^ — Bogg.
"Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Id.
3. Kn Allegory \B, a continued narration of ficlitious events de-
signed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the
Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of a vine:
"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the
heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst
* Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considereil solecisms ; otherwise tho
rutes of grammar would be of no use or autiionty. Desp iutei\ an ancient Latin gram-
marian, gave an improper latitude to tliis figure, under the name of Antiptofils ; and
Behourt and otheis extended it still further. But S'tnctius says, " Antiptosi granif
matico rum nihil imperitiufi, quod Jigmentum si easet verum, fricstra qucBreretuf,
gitem casum verba regerenV And the Jfe^isieu^rs Be Port Ro}jal reject tne tiguro
altogetiier. There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian is
not competent to condemn, though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of
eonfitruction.
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV.
cause it to take deep root; and it filled the land. The hills were
covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like
the goodly cedars." — Psalms^ Ixxx, 8.
4. A Metonymy is a change of names. It is founded on some
such relation as tliat of cause and effect^ of subject and adjunct^ of
j:lace and inhabitant^ of container and thing contained^ or of sign
and thing signirfied: as, ''God is our sahationf i. e., Saviour. —
"He was the sigh of her secret soul;" i. e., the youth she loved.^
"They smote the city f i. e., citizens. — "My son, give me thy
heart ;" i. e., affection. — " The sceftre shall not depart from Judah;"
i. e,, Tcingly jjoicer.
5. Synecdoche is the naming of a whole for a part, or of a part
for the whole; as, "This roof\\. e., house] protects you." — "Now
the year [i. e., summer] is beautiful.'' — Thomson.
6. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagina-
tion is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth ; as,
" The sky shrunh upward with unusual dread^
And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed.''"' — Dryden.
7. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker repre-
sents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and
present to his senses ; as,
" Andromache — thy griefs I dread ;
I see thee trembling, weeping, captive led." — Fope.
8. Ap)Ostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject,
into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory.
O Death ! where is thy sting ? O Grave ! where is thy victory ?"
—1 Cor., XV, 54.
9. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe
intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qual-
ities ; as,
"Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!" — Rogers.
"Hark! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease!" — Id.
10. JEJrotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of
interrogation, not to express a doubt, but in general confidently to
assert the reverse of what is asked ; as, " Hast thou an arm like
God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him ?" — Job, xl, 9.
11. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent
emotion of the mind; as, "O Liberty ! O sound once delightful to
every Roman ear! O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship! — once
sacred — now trampled upon!" — Cicero.
12. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten
their effect by contrast ; as,
" Contrasted faults through all their manners reign ;
Though 7>oor, luxurious; though submissive, vain;
Though grave, yet trijiing ; zealous, yet untrue ;
And, e'en in penance, planning sins anew." — Goldsjnith.
13. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by
BUccessivG steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more im-
portant and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more
CHAP. IV.] PROSODY. — YERSIFICATI02T. 117
minute and particular ; as, " Tribulation worketli patience ; and
patience, experience; and experience, hope." — liom.^ v, 3.
14. Irony is a figure in wliich the speaker sneeringly utters the
direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood ; as, " Wo
liave, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest man would not
ask him for a debt, when he pursues his \\iQy — Cicero.
CHAPTER lY.— VERSIFICATION.
Versification is the art of arranging words into
lines of correspondent length, so as to produce
harmony by the regular alternation of syllables
differing in quantity.
SECTION" I. — OF QUANTITY.
The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of time occu-
pied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is considered to be
either long or short. A long syllable is reckoned to be equal to
two short ones.
Ols. 1.— The quantity of a syllable does not depend on the sound
of the vowel or diphthong, but principally, on the degree of accent-
ual force with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or
less portion of time is employed. Tlie open vowel sounds are those
which are the most easily protracted, yet they often occur in the
shortest and feeblest syllables.
Ohs. 2. — Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made either
long or short, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater length, the
accented syllable is always long ; and a syllable immediately before
or after that which is accented, is always short.
SECTION II. — OF RHYME.
Ehyme is a similarity of sound, between the last syllables of dif-
ferent lines. Blank verse is verse without rhyme.
Ohs. — The principal rhyming syllables are always long. Doubl©
rhyme adds one short syllable ; triple rhyme, two. Such syllable*
ar© redundant in iambic and anapestic verses.
SECTION III. — OF POETIC FEET.
A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of syllables,
galled /<3e^. K poetic foot^ in EnglisTi, consists either of two or of
three syllables.
The principal English feet are tlie Iambus^ the Trochee^ the Ana-
pest^ and the Dactyl.
118 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. fPART IV
1. The lanibus^ or Imnb^ is a poetic foot consisting of a short
syllable and a long one ; as, betray^ conj iss.
2. The Trochee is a poetic foot consisting of a long syllable and a
short one ; as, hateful^ pettish.
3. The Ancqyest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables
and one long one ; as, contravene^ acquiesce.
4. The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable and
two short ones ; as, labourer., possible.
"We have, accordingly, four kinds of verse, or poetic measure ;
Iambic^ Trochaic^ Anapestic.^ and Dactylic.
SECTION IV. — OF SCANNING.
Scanning., or Scansion., is the dividing of verses into the feet "which
compose them.
I. In Iambic verse, the stress is laid ou the even syllables, and the
odd ones are short.
EXAMPLES.
"For praise | too dear]-]y lov'd | or w^arraj-ly sought,
Enfeej-bles all | inter|-nal strength | of thought."
*' With solj-emn adl-oraj-tion down | they cast
Their crowns | inwove | with amj-arant | and gold."
II. In Trochaic verse^ the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and
the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final
short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This kind of
verse is the same as iambic would be without the initial short syl-
lable.
EXAMPLES.
"Round a | holy [ calm dif]-fusing.
Love of I peace and | lonely | musing."
Single Rhyme.
"Restless I mortals | toil for | naught;
Bliss in | vain from | earth is { sought."
III. In Anapestic verse., the stress is laid on every third syllable.
The first foot of an anapestic line, may be an iambus.
EXAMPLE.
" At th^ close I of the day, | when the hara|-lSt is still,
And mor]-tals the sweets j of forget [-fulness prove,
When nought | but the torj-rent is heard 1 on the hill,
And nought | but the night|-ingale's song | in the grove.''
IV. In Dactylic verse., the stress is laid on the first, the fourth,
the seventh, and the tenth syllable. Full Dactylic forms triple
rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted, the rhyme
is double; when both, single. Dactylic with single rhyme, is the
same as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables. Dac-
tylic measure is rather uncommon ; and, when employed, is seldom
perfectly regular.
CHAP. IV."] PROSODY. — ^VERSmCATIOIT. 119
EXAMPLlJ.
Holy and 1 pure are the | pleasures of | piety,
Drawn from the | fountain of | mercy and | love ;
Endless, ex[-haustles3, exj-empt from sajtiety,
Rising un [-earthly and | soaring a[-bove.
Obs. — The more pure these several kinds of poetic measure are
preserved, the more exact and complete is the chime of the verse.
But, to avoid disagreeable monotony, the poets generally indulge
some variety ; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of
the rhythmical pulsations.
APPENDIX.
A KEY
TO THE
EXAMPLES OP FALSE SYNTAX.
[To task the learner, is right to puzzle him, is wrong. All embarrassment is
ahar to progress; all stopping or faltering in rehearsal, is a disagreeable waste of
time. These, therefore, should be prevented as fully as they can be; and the reciter,
especially if he be in a school-class, should be prompted to go always through his part
with a free, unhesitating, and manlike utterance. Instruction and exercise, in due
rotation, are the young grammarian's carriage-wheels, both fore and hind; but his
progress in the course, like that of hira who rides the velocipede, depends niainly oa
his own efforts. If any one need this Key, let him use it; those who do not need it,
will not care to turn to it.
The examples of False Syntax, of which the following sentences are the full amended
readings, sliould be corrected orallj^hy the pupil, according to the formules which aro
given in the fifth chapter of Part Third ; and afterwards these corrections may be used
as examples {ov parsing, if more texts for that sort of exercise be desired. The first
example of each lesson is not inserted here, because it is fully corrected in the for-
mule,]
Lesson L— Under Rule II. — IN'ominatives.
2. S^e that loiters by the way, may be belatecL 3. They that
labour, should be rewarded. 4. We who are spared, ought to be
thankful. 5. You and /are equally concerned. 6. Are not thou
and 7i(3 related ? 7. My brother is older than /. 8. He cannot read
s© well as tJioii. 9. Who fastened the door 1 I. 10. Who do you
suppose did it?
Lesson II. — Under Rule III. — Apposition.
2. That was the tailoress, she that made my clothes. 3. I saw
your friend, i'Jm that was here last winter. 4. Dennis, the gar-
dener, he that gave me the tulips, has promised me a piony.
Lesson III. — Under Rule Y. — Pronouns. ^
2. Every one must judge of his own feelings. 3. "We may be
displeased with a person without hating hiin. 4. I poured water
on the embers to quench them. 5. Ask her for the scissors, and
bring them to me. 6. He had sown the oats, and they had already
sprung up.
Lesson IV. — Under Rule VI. — Pronouns.
2. The people will not relinquish their rights. 3. The clergy
KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 121
had declared their intention. 4. Tlie party disagreed among them-
selves. 5. The committee were unanimous, and thia is their award.
6. The company then renewed their claims.
Lessox Y. — Under Rule YII. — Pronouns.
3. Avoid lightness and frivolity : they are allied to folly. 3.
Truth and honesty cannot fail of their reward. 4. Learning and
good sense always adorn their possessor. 5. Banish envy and
strife, lest they utterly destroy your peace. 6. Cherish love and
unity : they are the life of society.
Lesson YI. — Under Eule YIH. — ^Pronouns.
2. Can justice or truth change its nature? 3. One or the other
must relinquish his claim. 4. Neither the lion nor the tiger will
bow his neck to the yoke, 5. The horse or the ox will lend theo
Ms strength. 6. Neither my father nor my master would give his
consent.
Lesson YII. — Under Rule IX. — ^^'^ERBs.
2. Appearances are often deceptive. 3. The propriety of such
restrictions is doubtful. 4. There are windows on three sides of
the room. 5. Thou seest the difficulties with which I am sur-
rounded. 6. What do all my exertions avail ?
Lesson YIII. — Under Rule X. — ^Yerbs.
2. The nobility were assured that he would not interpose. 8.
The committee have attended to their appointment. 4. The ma-
jority were disposed to adopt the measure. 5. All the world are
spectators of your conduct. 6. Blessed are the people that know
the joyful sound.
Lesson IX. — Under Rule XI. — Yerbs.
2. Temperance and exercise preserve health. 3. My love and
affection towards thee remain unaltered. 4. "Wealth, honour, and
happiness, /(:)?'saZ:e the indolent. 5. My flesh and my h.'^oxt fail. 6.
In all his works, there are sprightliness and vigour.
Lesson X. — ^Under Rule XII. — Yerbs.
2. No axe or hammer has ever aicahened an echo here. 3. "What
the heart or the imagination dictates^ flows readily. 4. Neither
authority nor analogy supports such an opinion. 5, Either ability
or inclination was wanting. 6. He comes — nor want nor cold his
course delays.
Lesson XI. — ^Under Rule XIII. — ^Yerbs.
2. Does not he waste his time, and neglect his les.^ons? 3. Did
not she send, and give you this information ? 4. Tlieir honours
are departing, and coming to an end. 5. He had retired to his
farm, and he appeared to be happy there. 6. He was elected to
the office, but he would not serve.
X22 APPENDIX.
Lesson XII.^p— Under Eule XX. — Objectives,
2. Thee only have I chosen. 3. Whom shall we send on this
errand ? 4. My father allowed my brother and me to accompany
him. 5. Him that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 6.
Whom should I meet but my okl friend !
Lesson XIII. — Undek Eule XXL-^Same Oases,
2. We thought it was tJiou. 3. I would act the same part, if I
were he. 4. It could not have been she. 5. It is not /, that he is
angry with. 6. They believed it to be oiie.
Lesson XIV. — Under Eule XXII. — Objectives.
2. Let that remain a secret between you and me. 3. I lent the
book to some one, I know not whom. 4. Let no quarrel occur
among us three fellows. 5. Whom did he inquire for ? Thee. 6.
From him that is needy, turn not away.
Lesson XV. — Under Eule XXIII.— Infinitives.
2. Please to excuse my son's absence. 8. Cause every man to
go out from me. 4. Eorbid them to enter the garden. 5. Do you
not perceive it to move ? 6. Allow others to discover your merit.
7. He was seen to go in at that gate.
Lesson XVI. — Under Eule XXIV. — Infinitives.
2. I felt a chilling sensation creep over me. 3. I have heard him
mention the subject. 4. Bid the boys come in immediately. 5. I
dare say he has not got home yet. 6. Let no rash promise ie
made.
Lesson XVIL — ^Under Eule XXV. — ^^om. Absolute.
2. /being young, they deceived me. 3. Thei/ refusing to com-
ply, I withdrew. 4. The child is lost ; and /, whither shall I go ?
5. Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew. 6. Arise,
and gird thyself, O thou that sleepest! 7. O wretched we/ shut
from the light of hope ! 8. " Thou too ! Brutus, my son !" cried
CsBsar overcome.
9. " But he, the chieftain of them all.
His sword hangs rusting on the wall." — W. Scott.
Lesson XVIII. — ^Under Eule XXVI. — Subjunctives.
2. I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rain. 3. If
thou felt as I do, we should soon decide. 4. I knew thou tcast not
slow to hear. 5. Let liiin take heed lest h& fall. 6. If thou cast
me off, I shall be miserabk. 7. I believed, whatever were the
issue, all would be well. 8. If he were an impostor, he must have
been detected.
END OF TOE volume.
YB 36433
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