XKER^ NEW YORI^. f<^ SUCITIQI? '£IBFT (/f ^.^ ^ BROWN'S SMALL GRAMMAR IMPROVED O THE FIRST LINES ^ Ch ENGLISH GRAMMAIfertf BEING A ZjQ 5s» «■ O g ^ BRIEF ABSTRACT OF THE AUTHOR'S LARGER. W^Sk,"*"* «SC THE F^F "INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR." S DESIGNED FOR TOUNa LEARNERS. BY GOOLD BROWN, AUTHOR OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAilMAna. "Ne quis igitur tanquam pavva fastidiat Grammatice? eleraenta." — Quintilian. "The rudiments of every language must be given as a task, not as an amusemonf -Goldsmith. A NEW EDITION. ITII EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING BY HEXRY KIDDLE, A. M., ASSISTANT BTJPEEINTEXDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, NEW YOEK CITT. NEW YORK WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 61 WALKER STREET 18G8. -Entered, according to Act of Congress, in tlie year 1856, by GOOLD BE OWN, In the ^^lerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by S. S. & W. WOOD, In f*^ Klerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York, Eleotbottpkd by Smith & MoDottsal, 82 & 84 Beekman Street Add to Lib* GHFT Btif JOHfl S. PRELL /Uf Civil & Mechanical Engineer, ^Mu,. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. UiM^ PREFACE TO THE BEYISED EDITION. Since the completion and publication of my Grammar of EngliBh Grammars, it bas frequently been suggested to me, that a new and critical revision of the Institutes and First Lines, to present them in a state of stricter conformity to that more elaborate 'vork, and to obviate at the same time some remaining defects vhich had occasionally been noticed, might be the means of increasing the usefulness, and sustaining the reputation of these pretty widely known school-books. Such an improvement of the Institutes the Jiuthor carefully prepared for the stereotypers during the last year. Having now performed, in like manner, and with proportionate pains, a new revision, or a sort of recasting, of the First Lines of English Grammar, he may perhaps, without lack of modesty, commend this little book to the managers of schools, as being, in his own estimation at least, the best and cheapest epitome of English Grammar yet offered to thtir choice. GooLD Brown. Ltxw, Mass., 1855, 878 ORIGINAL PREFACE. The following epitome contains a general outline of the princi. pies of our language, as embodied and illustrated in " The Institutes of English Grammar." The definitions and explanations here given, are necessarily few and short. The writer has endeavoured to make them as clear as possible, and as copious as his limits would allow; but it is plainly impracticable to crowd into the compass of a work like this, all that is important in the grammar of our lan- guage. Those who desire a i^.ore complete elucidation of the subject, are invited to examine the autlior's larger work. For the use of young learners, small treatises are generally pre- ferred to large ones; because tliey are less expensive to parents, and better adapted to the taste and capacity of children. A small treatise on Grammar, like a small map of the world, may serve to give the learner a correct idea of the more prominent features of the subject; and to these his attention should at first be confined; for, without a pretty accurate knowledge of the general scheme, the particular details and nice distinctions ot criticism can neither be understood nor remembered. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to mem- ory, that they may ever afterwards be readily applied. And the pupil sljould be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is ren- dered familiar. The learner who shall thus go through this little work, will, it is imagined, acquire as good a knowledge of the subject as is to be derived from any of the abridgements used in elementary schools. And, if he is to pursue the study further, he will then be prepared to read with advantage the more copious illustrations and notes contained in the larger work, and to enter upon the various exer- cises adapted to its several parts. This work is in no respect necessary to the other, as it contains the same definitions, and pursues the same plan. The use of it in the early stages of pui)ilage will preserve a more expensive book from being soiled and torn ; and the scholar's advancement to the larger work may be expected to increa&e his pleasure and accelerate, his progress in the study. GOOLD BkD.TN' TABLE OF CONTENTS. Original Preface of 1826 ; Pretace to the Eevised Edition ; .... Defiuitiou and Division of English Grammar ; . Piil?T L— OETHOGKAPHY. PAGH . iii . iv . 9 Chapter I.— Of Letters ; Names of the Letters ; Classes of the Letters ; Forms of the Letters ; Eules for Capitals ; . Chapter IL— Of Syllables ; Diphthongs and Triphthongs ; 12 Sales for byllabication ; . ,13 PAGE 9 10 10 11 11 12 2 Chapter III.— Of Words ; . Species and Figure of Words ; Eules for the Figure of Words ; Chapter IV.— Of Spelling ; . Eules for Spelling ; . Chapter V. — Exercises in Ortho- graphy ; . . . . PAGE , 13 13 14 15 15 17 PAET II.— ETYMOLOGY. PAGE The Parts of Speech ; 18 . 20 . 22 . 22 . 23 . 24 . 25 . 26 . 27 . 28 . 29 . 30 . 32 . 33 . 36 . 37 . 39 . 40 . 41 Chapter I. Parsing ; . Chapter II.— Of Articles ; Chapter 111.— Of Nouns ; Persons Numbers ; Genders ; Cases ; l)eclension of Nouns ; Analysis and Parsing ; Chapter IV. — Of Adjectives Comparison of Adjectives Analysis and Parsing ; Chapter V. — Of Pronouns ; Declension of Pronouns; Analysis and Parsing : Chapter VI.— Of Verbs; Moods ; Tenses ; Chapter VI.— Of Persons and N umbers ; . . . Conjugation of Verbs ; I. SnnpJe Form, to Love; Second Example, to See ; Third Example, to Be ; II. The Compound Form ; III. Form of Passive Verbs ; Irregular Verbs ; Eeduudant Verbs ; . Defective Verbs; Chapter VII.— Of Participles ; Analysis and Parsing ; Chapter VIIL— Of Adverbs; Chapter IX. — Of Conjunctions ; Chapter X. — Of Prepositions ; Chapter XL — Of Interjections ; Analysis and Parsing ; . , PAGS 42 42 43 43 50 53 55 59 61 63 63 65 67 69 70 71 71 Chapter I. — Of Eelation and Agreement; . Eule I.— Of Articles ; Eule II. — Of Nominatives ; Eule III.— Of Apposition ; Eule IV.— Of Adjectives ; Etde v.— Of Pronouns; . PAET III.— SYNTAX. PAGE 74 74 75 76 77 78 Eule VI.— Of the Pronoun after a Collective Noun ; Eule VTL— Of the Pronoun after Joint Antecedents ; Eule VIIL— Of the Pronoun after Disjunct Antecedents ; Eule IX.— Of Finite Verbs ; . 78 79 79 79 VUl CONTENTS. PAGE Eule X.— Of the Verb with a Collective Noun ; . . .80 Kule XL— Of the Verb with Joint Nomiuatives ; . .80 Kule XII.— Of the Verb with Disjunct Nominatives ; . 81 Kule XIIL— Of Verbs Con- nected ; 81 Kule XIV.— Of Participles ; . 82 Kule XV.— Of Adverbs ; . .83 Kule XVI.— Of Conjunctions ; 84 Kule XVII.— Of Prepositions; 84 Kule XVIII.— Of Interjections ; 85 Chapter II.— Of Government ; . 85 Eule XIX.— Of Possessives ; . 85 Kule XX.— Of Objectives; . 86 Kule XXI. — Of Same Cases ; . 86 Kule XXII.— Of Objectives; . 87 Kale XXIII Of Infinitives ; . 88 Kule XXI V._Of Infinitives; . 88 Kule XXV.— Of the Case Ab- solute ; 88 Kule XXVI.— Of Subjunctives ; 89 Chapter III. — Examples of False Syntax ; 90 Chapter IV. — Analysis and Pars- ing ; 96 PAKT IV.— PKOSODY. PAGE Chapter I. — Of Punctuation ; .107 Section I. — Of the Comma; .108 Section II. — Of the Semi- colon; 108 Section III.— Of the Colon ; . Iu9 Section IV.— Of the Period ; . 109 Section V.— Of the Dash; . 109 Sectioii VI.— Of the Eroteme ; . 109 Section VII. — Of the Ecpho- neme ; 109 Section VIII.— Of the Curves ; 110 Section IX. — Of the Other Marks; 110 Chapter II.— Of Utterance ; . .111 Section I. — Of Pronunciation ; 111 Section II.— Of Elocution ; .112 Chapter III.— Of Figures ; . .113 FAGB Section I. — Figures of Ortho- graphy; .... 113 Section II. — Figures of Ety- mology ; .... 113 Section III. — Figures of Syn- tax ; . . . f . . 114 Section IV.— Figures of Khet- oric ; 115 Chanter IV.— Of Versification ; . 117 Section I.— Of Quantity ; . . 117 Sec'Jonll.— OfKhyme; . .117 Section III.— Of Poetic Feet; . 117 Section IV.— Of Scanning ; . 118 I. Iambic Verse ; . . 118 II Trochaic Verse ; . .118 III. Anapestic Verse ; . . 118 IV. Dactylic Verse ; . . 118 APPENDIX.— A KEY to False Syntax ; 120 THE FIRST LINES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. X E:n'glish GEA^niAR is tlie art of speaking, read* ing, and writing the English language correctly. It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthog* rapliy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separ- ate words, and spelling. Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications. Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, gov- ernment, and arrangement, of words in sentences. Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, fig- ures, and versification. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separ- ate words, and spelling. CHAPTER I.— OF LETTERS A Letter is an alphabetic mark, or character, commonly representing some elementary sound of a word. 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or primary sound of the human voice, used in speak- mg. The letters in the English alphal^et are twenty- six \ Aa.Bh, Oc, D d, E e, F f\ G g, Hh, I i, Jj, K\ LI, Mm, Nn, o, F p, Q a, Br, j$s,Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww,Xx, Yy,Zz, Ohservation 1. — The names of the letters, as now cominonly spoken find written in English, are vl, Bee^ Cee^ Dee^ J?, Eff^ GeCy Aitch, /, Jay^ Kay, Ell, Em^ En, 0, Fee, Kue, Ai\ Ess, Tee, If, Vee, I)ouhle-u, Ex, Wy, Zee. Obs. 2. — Tliese names, like those of the days of the week, thouj^h they partake the nature of nouns ])roper, may foi-m regular plurals; tlius, Acs, Bees, Gees, Dees, Ees, Effs, Gees, Aiiches, les. Jays, Kays, EUs^ Ems, Ens, Ocs, Pees, Kues, Ars, Esses, Tees, lies, Yees, Double- ties, Exes, Wles, Zees. Obs. 3. — Unlike the other letters, all the principal vowels — whether capitals, as A, E, J, O, U, or small forms, as a, e, i, o, u — name themselves; cacli of them, as the name of itself, having the long, primary sound with which it usually forms an accented sylla- ble ; as in Abel, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Uvim. The other letters, though they never actually or fully form their OAvn names, are often used in lieu of them, and are read as the words for which they are assumed ; as, C, for Gee ; F, for Eff; J, for Jay ; H, for Aitch. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS. The letters are divided into two general classes, ■vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound, when uttered alone ; as, a, e, o. A consonant is a letter which cannot be per* fectly uttered till joined to a vowel ; as, h, c, d. The vowels are a, e, ?', o, ii, and sometimes w, and y. All the other letters are consonants. Wor y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable ; as in wmej twine, ivlime, ye, yet, youth: in all other cases, these letters are vowels ; as in newly, dewy, eye* hi'ow, Oia^ 1,— XL© consonants are divided into mutei and semivowels^ CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS. 11 Ols. 2. — A mule is a consonant wliicli cannot be sounded at all ■without a vowel. The mutes are &, d, Tc^ j^t 9i i-> ^^^^ ^ ^"<^1 i7 hj^J'd. Ohs. 3. — A semivowel is a consonant wiiich can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel. The semivowels are y, A, j, ?, 7n, n, r, s, V, w^ X, y, 2, and c and g soft. Of these, Z, ^/2, ?/, and r, ara termed liquids^ on account of the fluency of their sounds. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. In the English language, the Koman characters are generally employed ; sometimes the Italic ; and occasionally the ©15 ^uqUsI). In ivritiiig^ we use the S^cu/i^. The letters have severally two forms, by which they are distinguished as capitals and small let- ters. Small letters constitute the body of every work ; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. PvULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. Rule I. — Titles of Books. The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, should be printed in capitals. When books are merely mentioned, the principal words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small ; as, '' Pope's Essay on Man." Rule II. — Fikst Wokds. The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separ- ately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital. Rule III, — I^ames of the Deity. All names of the Deity should begin with capitals; as, God^ Jehovah^ the Almighty^ the Supreme Being. Rule IV. — Proper Names. Titles of office or honour, and proper names of every description, should beizin with canitals; as, Chief Justice Hale^ William^ Lon- don^ the Parh^ the Albion., the Spectatoi\ the Thames. Rule Y.— Objects Personified. The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital; as, *' Come, gentle Sjmng, ethereal mildness, come." I* 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART ^ Rule YI. — Words Derived. Words derived from proper names of persons or places, should begin with capitals ; hq^ JSfcw Ionian^ Grecian^ lioman. Rule YIL— I and O. The words /and should always be capitals; as, "Out of the depths have /cried unto thee, Lord." — Psalms. Rule VIII. — Poetry. Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital ; as, *' Our sons their fathers' failing language see, And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."— Poj*^. Rule IX, — Examples. A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, should begin with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Knowthy" self.' " — " Yirgil says, ' Labour conquers all things.' " Rule X. — Chief Words. Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subject of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals, rroper names frequently have capitals throughout. CHAPTER IL— OF SYLLABLES. A SyllaUe is one or more letters pronounced in one sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a^ an^ ant. In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-on-an. A word of one syllable is called a monosylla- lie I 2L word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllahle ; and a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable, DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. A dvpJithoiig is two vowels joined in one sylla- ble ; as, ea in beat^ ou in sound. A proper diplitliong is a diphthong in ^vhich both the vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. An improper dipliilioiigh a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. CHAP. III.] ORTHOGEAPHY. — WORDS. 13 A tri'plitliong is three vowels joined in one syl- lable ; as, eau in heau^ lew in view. A proper trifplithong is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded ; as, uotj in hnoy. An improper triplitliong is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty. Ols. 1.— The diphthongs in Enghsh are twenty-nine. Some of them, being variously sounded, may be either proper or improper. Ohs. 2.— The pi'oper diphtliongs are thirteen; ay — ia, ie^ io—oi^ ou, ow^ oy — ua^ ue^ ui^ uo^ uy. Ohs. 3. — The improper diphthongs are twenty-six ; «a, ae, ai, ao^ au^ aic^ ay—ea^ ee, ei^ eo, cw, ew^ ey — ie — oa, oe^ oi, oo, ou, ow — ua, ue, ui, uo^ uy. Ohs. 4. — The only proper triphthong is uoy., given in the example above ; unless uoi., as in quoit., may be added. Ohs, 5. — The improper triphthongs are sixteen; aice., aye — eau^ ecu, ewe., eye — ieu^ ieic, iou — oeu^ owe — wa/, uaw^ uay^ uea.^ uee. Ohs. 6. — In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules: I. Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diph- thongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal. II. Two vowels coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. III. Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added; as, harm-less^ great-ly, connect-ed. IV. Pretixes, in general, form separate syllables ; as, mis-jilace., out-ride., up-lift : but if their own j)rimiuve meaning be disre- garded, the case may be otherwise ; thus, re-create and rec-reaie are words of diiferent import. V. Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them ; as, no-where. VI. At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable* must never be broken. CHAPTER III.— OF WORDS. A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some man- Ut^r of thought. SPECIES AND FIGURE OF WORDS. Words are distinguished as primitive or deriv* 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [PART 1 ative^ ancl as simple or compound. The former division is called their species ; the latter, their figure. A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language ; as, harm^ great^ connect. A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language ; as, liarmless, greatly^ connected. A sintple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words ; as, ivatcli^ man. A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words ; as, watchman.^ never- tlieless. Obs. 1. — Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, loolcseller^ sclwolmaster : others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house^ negro-merchant. Obs. 2. — Tiie compounding of words produces new ones, which are not always good ; and the sundering of just compounds pro- duces solecisms, or ungrammatical phrases. Hence the figure of words sliould be subjected to rules. To supply so obvious a want, I have framed the following hints : I. Compounds. — Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as compounds, should never be needlessly broken apart. II. Simples. — When the simple words would only form a regu- lar phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. III. The Sense.— Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require. IV. Ellipses. — When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. V. The Hyphen.— When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as to-day, to-night, to-morrow ; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, a^ Jirst-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, the hyphen should be inserted between them. YI. No Hyphen.— When a compound has but one accented syl- lable in pronunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hypheq should be inserted between them. CHAP. IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — SPELLING. 15 t CHAPTER iy.~OF SPELLING. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. Ohs. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written rules. The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and peri)lexity : many words are variously spelled by tlie best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are uniformly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, uud thus be of service to the learner. RULES FOR SPELLING. Rule I. — Final F, L, ok S. Monosyllables ending in y, Z, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant: as^ sta^^ 7nill, j^ass ; except three in/" — clef^ if^ of; four in l—hul^ nul^ sal^ sol; and eleven in s—as, gas^ has, icas^ yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus. Rule II. — Other Finals. Words ending in any other consonant than f^ I, or s, do not double the final letter ; excei)t abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, pu7'r, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. ^-- — " ~~ Rule IIL— Doubling, Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qu, double their linal consonant before an addi- tional syllable that begins with a vowel: as, rob, robber ; permit^ f/ermitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. Exception. — X final, being equivalent to Jcs, is never doubled. Rule IV. — Xo Doubling. A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable : as, toil, toiling ; visit, visited ; gen- ^^al^ generalize. Exo. — But I and s final are often doubled, (though perhaps im- properly,) when the last syllable is not accented: as, travel, tra- velled; bias, biassed. Rule V. — Retaining. Words (96>i." Oha. 1. — The distinction of persons belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either by pecu- liarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person. Ohs. 2. — The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, as the speaker ; consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person. Ohs. 3. — When inanimate things are spoken to, it is by a figiu*e of Bpeech, called person ijication, NUMBERS. Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality. There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. The singidar number is that which denotes but one ; as, " The hoy learns." Theplu7rd number is that which denotes more than one ; as, " The hoys learn." The plural number oi nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular : as, booh^ hoohs; hox^ boxes. Obs. 1. — The distinction of numbers belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either by pecu- liarity of form, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their sub- jects in number. Obs. 2. — When a singular noun ends in a sound which will unite •with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen^ pens ; grape^ grapes. Obs. 3. — But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of ihe primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to other CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — NOUNS, 25 terminations, and forms a separate syllable : as, page^ pages ; fox^ foxes. Ohs. 4.— Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, but do not increase their syllables: as, wo., woes ; hero, heroes. Other nouns in o add s only : as, folio, folios. Ohs. 5. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i, and add es, without increase of syllables : as,fi/,Jlies ; duty^ duties. Other nouns in y add s only : as, day, days ; valley, valleys, Ohs. 6. — The following nouns inf, change f into v., and add eSj for the plural ; sheaf, leaf, loaf, heef thief, calf half, elf, shelf, self icolf wharf; as, sheaves, leaves, etc. Life^ lives; knife, knives; iDifp, icives ; are similar. Obs. 7. — The greater number of nouns in / and/^ are regular; eLS,Jifes, strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, etc. Obs. 8.— The following are still more irregular: man, men; woman, women ; child, children ; brother, brethren [or brothers'] ; foot, feet ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice ; penny, pence. Dies, stamps, and ^i^«7iiV5, coins, are regular. Obs. 9. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural ; as, ar- canum, arcana ; radius, radii ; vortex, vortices ; axis, axes ; pheno' menon, phenomena , serajih, seraiJhim. Obs. 10. — Some nouns have no plural : as, gold, pride, meekness. Obs. 11. — Some nouns liave no singular: as, embers, ides, oats, scissors, tongs, vespers, literati, minutiae. Obs. 12.— Someareahke in both numbers: as, sheep, deer, sicine, hose, means, odds, neics, species, series, ap)paratus. Obs. 13. — Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the possessive case : as, father-in-law, fathers-in-law, father-hi' laic's. Obs. 14. — Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the principal word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other nouns : as handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow -servants^ man-servants. Obs. 15. — Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, admit the plural form : as, meeting, meetings. But when taken distributively, they have a plural signification, without the form: as, "The jw7-y were divided." GENDERS. Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex. There are three genders ; the 7nasculine^ the fe^ninine^ and the neuter. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind ; as, man^ father^ Mng. 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART 11. ^V^ feminine gender is that which denotes per- sons or animals of the female kind ; as, icoman^ mother^ queen. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female ; as, ]^en^ inh^ paper. Ohs. 1. — The different genders belong only to nouns and pro- nouns ; and to these they are usually applied agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand. Ohs. 2. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, friend^ neighhoi\ parent., person., servant. Tlie gender of these is usually determined by the context. Ohs. 3. — Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be culled masculine in pars- ing; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, and is generally employed when both sexes are in- cluded under one common term. Ohs. 4. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways : I. By the use of different names : as, hacheloi\ maid; hoy., girl} hrother, sister; huch., doc; hull., cow; code., hen. II. By the use of dilferent terminations : as, ahhot., ahhess ; Jiero^ heroine ; administrator., administratrix. III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, coclc-sjoarroic^ hen-sparroiD ; man-servant^ maid-servant ; he-goat., she-goat ; male relations., female relations. Ohs. 5. — The names of things without life, used literally, are al- ways of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often repre- sented figuratively as having sex. Things I'emarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine: as, the svn., time., death,, sleep., fear,, anger., winter., icar. Things beautiful, ami- able, or prolific, ai"e spoken of as feminine; as, the moon., earth,, nature., fortune., Imowledge., hope, spring, peace. Ohs. 6. — Nj/, hoy^s.^ hoys'. I DECLENSION OF NOUNS. The declension of a noun is a regular arrange^ ment of its numbers and cases. Thus : — EXAMPLE I.— -FRIEND. Singular. Plural. Kom. friend, ISTom. friends, Poss. friend's, Poss. friends^ Obj. friend ; Obj. friends* EXAMPLE 11. — MAX. Nom. man, ISTom. men, Poss. man's, Poss. men's, Obj. man; Obj. men. 23 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAE/ IL EXAMPLE III.— FOX. Kom. fox, Norn. foxes, Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes', Obj. fox; Obj. foxes. EXAMPLE IV. — FLY. ISTom. fly, ISTom. flies. Poss. fly's, Poss. flies', Obj. fly; Obj. flies. ANALYSIS. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into tlie parts wliich compose it. Every sentence nmst contain at least two principal parts ; namely, the subject and \hQ predicate. The subject of a sentence is that of which it treats ; as, " The sun has set."' — " Can you write ?" The predicate is that which expresses the action, be- ing, or passion, as belonging to the subject. It is therefore always a verb. Any combination of the subject and predicate is called a proposition. A simple sentence is one that contains only one propo- sition; as, "Fire burns." — " The truth will prevaih" A simple sentence may be declarative^ interrogative^ imperative^ or exclamatory. It is declarative when it expresses an aifirmation or negation ; interrogative^ when it expresses a question ; hnperative^ Avhen it expresses a command ; and exclama- tory, when it expresses an exclamation. Obs. — In analyzing simple sentences, the subject and predicate should be found first, and then the object^ if the sentence contala one. The object is defined in Obs. 4. on the preceding page. The Bubject, in imperative sentences, is not expressed, but must be sup- plied in analysis. It is thou or you, (understood.) EXERCISES.— AN'ALYSIS AXD PARSING. Exercise J. — Analyze each of the following sentences by pointing out the subject, the predicate, and the object (if there l& <^^y), «^^ vy - CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 29 . state ichetlier it is declarative^ interrogative^ imperative, or ex- clamatory. Example. — " Contentment brings happiness." Tliis is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is contentment; the predicates bi'ings; the object, happinens. Crimes deserve punishment. Robbers are imprisoned. Generos- ity makes friends. Vice brings misery. Does William study gram- mar? Can he speak French? Love truth. Justice will prevaih Perseverance overcomes obstacles. Honor merit. Can you avoid errors? Matilda possesses beauty. Despise meanness. Jane has friends. Vanity excites disgust. Plants produce flowers. Can indolence bestow wealth ? Diligence should be rewarded. Could he have avoided disgrace ? Will you give assistance ? Exercise IT. — Parse each word in the above sentences according to the following example. Example. — " Contentment brings happiness." Contentment is a common noun ; of the third person, because it is spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes only one ; of the neuter gender, because it is neither male nor female; of the nominative case, because it is the sub- ject of the verb brings. B'-ings is a verb, because it signifies action. ffajypine^s \& 9. common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and of the objective case, because it is the object of the verb brings. N'S^ CHAPTER ly.— OF ADJECTIYESc An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality : as, A tvise man ; a 7ieio book. — You two are diligent CLASSES, Adjectives may be divided into six classes ; namely, common.^ propei^ numeral., ])ron()minal., participial., and compouncL I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation ; as, Good., lad., peaceful., warlihe — eastern., western^ vuter., inner, II. K proper adjective is one that is formed from a proper name ; as, American., English., Platonic, 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [PART IL III, A numeral adjective is one that expresses /a definite number ; as, One^ two^ tliree^fowi\ etc. "Ss IV. K pro]iominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or repre- sent it understood ; as, ''''All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to gain." — Pope. V. A jparticijpial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but difi^ers from it by reject' ing the idea of time ; as. An amusing story. VI. A compound adjective is one that consists cf two or more words joined together ; as, Nut- hrown^ lauglitei^-loving^ four-footed, Ohs. — -Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely, 1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, etc. 2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, etc. 3. MuUiplicative ; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, etc. MODIFICATIONS. Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the forms cf oomparison. Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in a^arent degrees ; as, AarJ, liardei\ liardest. There are three degrees cf comparison ; the positive., the comparative., and the '^superlative. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form ; as, hard^ soft^ good. The comparative degree is that which exceeds the positive ; as, liarder^ softer., letter. The superlative degree is that which is not ex- ceeded ; as, liardest., softest., hest. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of difterent degrees, cannot be compared; as, two^ second., all., total., immortal., infinite. CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 81 Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of ad- verbs; as, skillful, onore skillful, fno6i skillful, — skillful, less skillful, least skillful. Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding e7\ and the superlative by adding est^ to them ; as, Positive. Comparative, Superlative. great, greater, greatest. *wide, wider, widest. hot, hotter, hottest. The following adjectives are compared irregu- larly: good^ better^ best; had or ill^ worse^ worst j little^ less., least ; mucli., more., most ; many., more., most ; far., farther., farthest / IcUe., later or latter.^ latest or last, 01)5. 1, — As the simple form of the adjective does not necessarily imply comparison, and as many adjectives admit no other, some think it is not requisite in parsing, to mention the degree, unless it be the comparative or the superlative. Ohs. 2. — The method of comparison by er and est, is chiefly ap- plicable to monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e« Ols. 3. — The ditferent degrees of a quality may also be expressed, "with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective, the adverbs more and most: as, wise., more wise., most wise ; famous^ more famous^ most famous; amiable., more amiable., most amiable. Obs. 4, — Diminution of quality is expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs ^^s^ and least: as, wise^ less wise, least wise; jfamouSy less famous., least famous. Obs. 5. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a vari- ation of the adjective. The words may with more propriety be parsed separately, the degree being ascribed to the adverb, or to each word. Obs. 6. — Most adjectives of more than one syllable, must be com- pared by means of the adverbs ; because they do not admit a change of termination: thus, we may say, virtuous., more virtuous, most virtuous; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. Obs. 7. — Common adjectives are more numerous than all the other adjectives put together. Very many of these, and a few pro- nominals and participials, may be compared ; but adjectives formed from proper names, all the nu.. erals, and most of the compounds, are in no way susceptible of co" parison. * See Kules for - ^'ellmg, III aud VL 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART IL Ohs. 8. — Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, An iron bar— An evening school — Kmahogany chair— A South- Sea diVQQm. These also are incapable of comparison. Obs. 9. — The numerals are often used as nouns ; and, as such, are regularly declined: as. Such a one — One's own self— The little ones ■ — By tens — For twenty''s sake. Ohs. 10.— Comparatives, and the word other^ are sometimes also employed as nouns, and have the regular declension ; as, Our svpe- riors — His betters — The elder'' s advice — An* other's yvoQ — Let other* do as they will. But, as adjectives, these words are invariable. Obs. 11.— Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply relate to them, and have no modifications ; except this and ihat^ which form the plural these ajid those; and much^ inany^ and a few others, which are compared. Obs. 12.— Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not ex- pressed, may be parsed as representing them in person^ number^ gender., and case. Obs. 13. — The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: All., any., both., each., either., every., few., former., first., latter., lasty many., neither., none., one., other., same., some., such., this., that., whichy what. Which and ichat., when they are not prefixed to nouns, are, for the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns. ANALYSIS. Words, added to either of the principal parts of a sentence to modify or limit its meaning, are called adjuncts. Primary adjuncts are tlicse added directly to either of the principal parts ; as, " Good books always deserve a careful perusal." Secondary adjuncts are those added to other adjuncts; as, ''Suddenly acquired wealth very rarely brings happiness." Adjuncts are sometimes called modifications. Obs. 1. — The subject or the object may be modified by different parts of speech ; as, 1. By an article or adjective; as, " The diligent * There seems to be no good reason for joining n7i and other. An here excludes any other article ; and analojiy and consistency require that the words be sc[)arated. Their union has led sometitnes to an improper repetitioa of the article ; as, '■'■AJioth^i' such a man,'" — for, "An other such man." CHAP, v.] ETYMOLOGY. — PEOXOUXS. 33 scholar improves." 2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, '^ WilUcuii's sister has lost her book." 3. By a noun or pronoun, used merely for explanation ; as, " His brother, Charles^ is idle," 4. By a preposition and its object, used as an adjective; as, "The heavens declare the glory of Gociy 5. By a verb; as, "Tho desire to excel is laudable." Obs. 2. — The predicate may be modified, 1. By an adverl) ; as, "The sun shines hriglUlyy 2. By a 'pre'poution and its object, used as an adverb; as, " He came^ro^i Boston. Obs. 3. — The modifications enumerated are those of the simplest form. Others are mentioned and described as the pupil proceeds. Exercise. — Analyze each sentence.^ pointing out first^ the subject.^ the predicate., and the object.^ and secondly^ the adjuncts of each; pars& each word. Example. " The good scholar attentively studies his lessons." This is a simple declarative sentence. 1. The subject is scholar ; the predicate, studies; the object, lessons. 2. The adjuncts of the subject are the and good ; the adjunct of the predicate \& attentively ; the adjunct of the object is /as. Many severe afflictions overtook that unfortunate man. He suddenly lost all his property. Every person highly praised "Wil- liam's noble conduct. Ctesar fought many great battles. William has carelessly torn John's beautiful new book. The Athenian3 carefully observed Solon's wise laws. The queen has wisely pro- claimed a general peace, John yesterday found Sarah's new book. That ferocious dog has severely bitten Charles's right arm. "When will his brother return ? Where did your kind father buy that interesting book ? Always cheerfully obey your parents. ISTever neglect the smallest duty. This benevolent young lady kindly teaches many poor children. Twelve pence make one shilling. The English Reader was formerly much used. John has bought two entertaining books. The Prussian ambassador has presented his credentials. His brother attends the Lutheran church. Both these bad boys deserve severe punishment. The traveller related many amusing incidents. This merchant has just returned from Europe. In winter, the snow covers the ground. The love of truth should be carefully cultivated. All the objects of nature de- serve dihgent study. Grammar teaches the right use of language. V CHAPTER Y.— OF PRON'OUXS. ^ A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy loves his book ; lie has long lessons, •ard he learns them w^ell. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II, Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its an- tecedent^ because it usually precedes the pronoun. Ohs. 2. — Pronouns often stand for persons or things not named ; the antecedent being understood. Obs. 3. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some person or thing unknown to the speaker, and may bo said to have no antecedent ; as, " Wliat lies there ?" Ans. ^' A man asleep." Obs. 4. — One pronoun may stand as the immediate antecedent to an other; as, "Blessed are they that mourn." CLASSES. Pronouns are divided into three classes ; ^er- wnalj relative J and interrogative. I. A ijersonal pronoun^ is a pronoun tliat shows by its form of what person it is. The simjijle personal pronouns are five : namely, I^ of the iirst person ; thou., of the second person ; lie., site., and it., of the third person. The comj)ound personal pronouns are also five : namely, myself^ of the first person ; thyself., of the second ])erson ; liimself., herself., and itself., of the third person. II. A relative ])ronoun^ is a pronoun that re]> resents an antecedent word or phrase, and con- nects different clauses of a sentence. The relative pronouns are, who., %chic\ what^ and that / and the compounds whoever or whoso- ever^ whichever or whichsoever., whatever or what- soever. What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that lohicli., or those which / and is to be 23arsed first as antecedent., and then as relative. IIL An interrogative ])ronoun., is a pronoun with which a question is asked. The interrogative pronouns are, who^ iohic\ and what '^ being the same in form as relatives. Ohs. 1. — Wlio is usually applied to persons only; w]iic\ though formerly applied to persons, is now contined to animals and inani- CHAP, v.] ETYMOLOGY. — PRONOUNS. 85 mate things; what (as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only; that is ai)plied inditferently to persons, animals, or things. Obs. 2. — The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that ichich^ or the thing tchich. In this double rela- tion, what represents two cases at the same time ; as, " He is ashamed oi what he has done ;" that is, of that ichich he has done. Obs. 3. — What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a rela- live at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it re- . presents; as, " What money we had, was taken away;" that is, All the money that we had, etc. — " What man but enters, dies :" that is, Any man who, etc. — " J\liat god but enters yon forbidden field," — Pope. Indeed, it does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative. Tiie compound ichatever or whatso- ever has the same peculiarities of construction ; as, '' We will cer- tainly do whatsoever thing goeth fortii out of our own mouth." — e/er., xliv, 17. Obs. 4. — Who.^ whic\ and what^ when the affix ever or soever \^ added, have an unlimited signitication ; and, as some general term, such as any person or any thing is im[)lied in tlie antecedent, they are commonly followed by two terbs: as, " Whoever attends will improve ;" that is, Any person icho attends will improve. Obs. 5. — That is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who or which; as, ''The days that [which] are past, are gone forever." It is a definitive or ])ronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun expressed or understood; as, " That book is new." In other cases, it is a conjunction ; as, " Live well, that you may die well." Obs. 6. — The word as, though usually a conjunction or an ad- Terb, has soTnetiines the construction of a relative pronoun; as, " The Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should bo saved." — Acts., ii, 47. Obs. 7. — Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, refei-ring to one of two things; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or the temple?" — Matt.., xxiii, 17. MODIFICATIONS. Pronouns Lave the same modifications as nouns; namely, Persons^ N^unihers^ Genders., and Cases. Obs. 1. — In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distinguished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the in- terrogative pronouns, they are ascertained chiefly by the antecedent and the verk Obs. 2. — " The pronouns of the first and second persons, are both masculine and feminine; that is, of the same gender as the person or persons they represent." — Levizac. The speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course know the sex to whicii they respectively belong; and, whenever they appear in narrative, w©' are told who they are. 9* S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL Ohs. 3. — Murray and some others deny the first person of nouns^ and the p;ender of pronouns of the Jirst and second persons; and at tJie same time leach, that, " Pronouns must agree with their nouns, iu person^ number, and gender^ Now, no two words can agree iu i*ny property which belongs not to both ! DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. The declension of a pronoun is a regular ar* range ment of its numbers and cases. The personal pronouns are thus declined : — I, of the FIRST PERSON, any of the genders^ Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we, Poss. "my, or mine, Poss, our, or oiirs, Obj. me; Obj. us. Thou, of the second person, amj of the genders. Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye, or j^ou, Pos^. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, Obj. thee; Obj. you. He, of the third person, mascidine gender. Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs. Obj. him; Obj. theuu She, of the third person, feminine gender. Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. her; Obj. them. It, of the third person, neuter gender. Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, Poss. its, Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. it; Obj. them. The word s^Z/" added to the personal pronouns, forms a class of comjmund personal pronouns, that are used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distincrnishcd frotn others: as, sin*!;, myself, plur. ourselces ; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves; m\g. himself , herself , itself, \)\civ. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and ob' jective- CHAP. V 1 ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS. 37 The relative and the interrogative pronouna are thus declined : — Who, applied only to persons. Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Noni. who, Poss. Avhose, Poss. whose, Obj. whom ; Obj. whom. Which, applied to animals and things. Sing. Nom. which, Plur. ISTom. which, Poss. * Poss. Obj. which j Obj, which. What, generally applied to things. Sing. ISTom. what, Plur. ISTom. what, Poss. • Poss. • • — . Obj. what ; Obj. what. That, applied to persons, animals, and things. Sing ISTom. that, Plus. Worn, that, Poss. ■ Poss, • Obj. that; Obj. that. The compound relative pronouns, wJioever or whosoever^ wMcJi' ever or ichichsoever^ and ichatever or tchatsoever^ are declined iu the same manner as the simples, who^ which^ what. ANALYSIS. When simple sentences are connected, they form com- pound or complex sentences, and are then called clauses. A cla ":, therefore, is a division of a compound or a complex Sentence. Compound or complex clauses are sometimes called members. Clauses may be connecLcd by conjunctions, relative pronouns, or adverbs. A clause, used as an adjunct, or as one of the princi- pal parts of a sentence, is called a dependent clause. * Whose is sometimos used as the possessive case of wliicli, as, "A religion whosd origin is divine." — Blair. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. The clanse on wliich. it depends, is called the principal clause. A sentence composed of a principal and a dependent clause, is called a complex sentence. When neither of the component clauses of a sentence is dependent, it is called a compound sentence. A clause, introduced by a relative pronoun, is often called a relative clause; it may be dependent or in- dependent. Ohs. — The sentence, " This is the man that committed the deed," is complex ; because the relative clause is an adjunct of man^ modi- fying it like an adjective ; but " I gave the book to John, who has lost it," is a compound sentence, the relative clause not being an adjunct, but expressing an additional fact^ and equivalent to " and he has lost it." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Exercise I. — State icliether the sentence is complex or compound ; separate it into its component clauses ; analyze each as in the previous exercise. Example. — " The messenger who was sent, has returned." This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is, Tlie 'messenger has returned, and the dependent clause is, Who was sent, an adjunct of messenger ; tlie connective word is icho. The subject of the principal clause is, wessew^^r; the predicate is, Aas returned; the adjuncts of the subject are the, and the relative clause, who was sent; the predi- cate has no adjuncts. The subject of the dependent clause, is w7io, and the predicate, was ^ent ; neither has any adjuncts. Jhildren who disobey their parents, deserve punishment. The young man who embezzled his employer's money, was yesterday arrested. Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins. He that walketh uprightly, walketh surely. Them that honor me I will honor. I immediately perceived the object which he pointed out.