THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES FROM THE LIBRARY OF ELI SOBEL A GRAMMAR OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE OXFORD : HORACE HART PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY A GRAMMAR OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE DESIGNED FOR A THOROUGH AND PRACTICAL STUDY OF THE LANGUAGE AS SPOKEN AND WRITTEN TO-DAY BY GEORGE O. CURME PROFESSOR OF GERMANIC PHILOLOGY IN NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY !Die pradje i)l fetn fcrttgefl, mf)mbe$ >ing, fonbcrn etia$ in jcbem Jlugenblicfe 2Bcrbenbe3, Sntfie^enbed unb a3erge^enbcg." (^umbclbt.) Sicfcr SDIenfc^ rebet tute fin Slid)," ifl ein franfeS Sob. Untgefefyrt fci bie ficfung : !Dic^ Suc^ rebct toie ein SDIenfc^." (Dtto c^roebcr.) THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED 1905 All rights reserved SRLfc URt PP 3105 05 DEDICATED TO HERMANN COLLITZ AND GEORG EDWARD WITH GRATITUDE AND REGARD PREFACE THIS book is intended to furnish to students of the German language and literature an outline of German grammar, based not upon some ideal conception of how the language should be spoken, but upon the actual varying usage of the intelligent classes in the German Empire, Austria, and Switzerland. An earnest attempt has been made to make the work a valuable book of reference, so that the general student might find in it an impartial and rather full presentation of the facts of the language founded upon the works of scholars and also an independent study of the polite and colloquial literature itself. In order to attain to the greatest possible completeness in the given space, it was thought best, not to present the materials gathered in the course of the work on the subject, but only to give precise statements of results illustrated in most cases by a few apt examples. In this way a great many more points have been treated than in large scholarly works where the prominent aim is to present the materials gathered in long researches. The plan to make the book as complete as possible has been materially furthered by the slow development of the work throughout a period of over fifteen years. From year to year new points presented them- selves and old ones appeared in fuller outline, so that continued search and occasional accidental finds have added much to the original draft of the work. The full index will place the contents of the book at the disposal of the student. This treatise often differs considerably from German works in subject matter and manner of presentation, as it is written entirely from the stand- point of the needs of English-speaking students. Hence considerable space is often devoted to points scarcely mentioned by German scholars, or not treated at all. Throughout the book much attention has been paid to classification in order that the individual life of the grammatical categories might be carefully studied. It is hoped that the results of this course will prove to have not only a scientific but also a practical value. Thus, for instance, in order that both of these aims might be attained, the inflection of nouns is presented in the minutest detail. Here it is hoped that full treatment will lead to clearness. This part of German grammar is so inconsistent and confused that only a full picture can give an adequate idea of the inflection as it actually is. However clear the inflectional groups may appear to one versed in historical grammar who is familiar with the various causes that have produced the present forms, to the general student these groups are not entirely clear unless the list of words composing each group is complete, as there is often no formal sign by which one may be guided in assigning a viii PREFACE word to its proper group. Here, indeed, the German himself constantly blunders, how then can a foreigner without the fullest light expect to see clearly ? The confusion is often increased and natural tendencies arrested by learned men, who, looking at the questions from different stand-points, suggest different forms as the correct usage. Also the best authors of our time reflect in their works the general uncertainty with regard to form. Of course, final decisions cannot be given in such cases, and it only remains to record the fluctuations of usage. The dire confusion at this point will ultimately lead to considerable changes in the language itself, and indeed certain tendencies toward uniformity and simplicity are apparent. In treating this difficult subject the words of foreign origin have been included. The unscientific method of excluding such words, so generally followed by German scholars, has led to false impressions as to the real size and im- portance of the existing classes of German nouns. Although this book is designed as a study of the German of to-day, it was found necessary, in order to give a faithful picture of the living language in all its varied styles, to include to a certain extent a study of the earlier forms of the language. It is difficult to state the precise date when a certain form or expression can fairly be said to be dead. Colloquial language often preserves earlier forms that have elsewhere passed away. The master-pieces of earlier parts of the present period are still heard everywhere in the theaters, and otherwise still occupy the thought of the present generation, and thus still influence the language of poetry and higher diction in general. The language of Luther is still heard in the churches and has stamped itself upon the language of certain classes of people and styles of speech. Beautiful gems of thought in the form of proverbs have been handed down from earlier times like precious heir-looms unchanged. Literature now abounds in description of the language and customs of people in the out- of-the-way provinces, who speak quaint dialects which often faithfully preserve grammatical forms now no longer in general use. In the historical novel and drama we find a conscious or unconscious imitation of the peculiar language of older parts of the period. Among the earliest forms of the present period treated here the examples taken from Luther's translation of the Bible are especially frequent. Also as this translation is fairly available to all, many references to interesting constructions in it have been made by merely quoting chapter and verse after a short remark explaining the construction. The edition here used is that of 1545, the last published by Luther himself. The available editions which will probably be used by students are all largely modernized, but even from these imperfect texts general impressions can be obtained. The language of the N. H. G. period has been uniformly conformed in spelling to the new official ortho- graphy, as far as it could faithfully reproduce the original form of the words, with the exception of passages taken from Luther's translation of the Bible. These are given with Luther's spellings, capitalizations, and punctuation in the hope that they might prove interesting and instructive. Of course only the most general points in this important part of the period are touched upon. A word from a period earlier than N. H. G. is never introduced for PREFACE ix its own sake, or to give a picture of an older state of things, but always solely for the purpose of throwing light upon some dark construction in present usage or the literature that is still generally studied. Thus there is not the slightest attempt to give a connected outline of earlier periods. However, in thus introducing glimpses of earlier forms of speech, a good deal is gained toward teaching the student to look at language in the true light, and he may thus in an easy and forcible way learn that grammar is not made up of the infallible decrees of book-makers, but that it is a growth, and has reached its present form by various evolutions, here piously preserving fossilized remnants of by-gone ages, there struggling toward uniformity out of a tangle of prehistoric conditions no longer understood, now enriched by the genius of the individual, and now by the rich quota of the different dialects, now working constructively along plain and simple lines not hitherto known. Although attention has thus been carefully directed to early N. H. G. and also to the language of the classical period and the conspicuous authors of the first half of the IQth century, the main stress lies in the direction of present usage. Seven hundred works of varied styles published since 1850 by authors from various parts of the German Empire, Austria, and Switzerland, have been carefully read. Representative newspapers from different parts of these same countries have been studied. In this work, however, the political lines that have been drawn across the map of Germany, dividing it up into Austria, Switzerland, etc., have in all points of a general nature been disregarded, and terms North, South, etc., have been used as designations of the different parts of one country one at least in language. In little points, usage differs considerably, not only in different parts of this territory, but also in the same section, and % the author has not been able to share the assurance of certain grammarians who are so positive that they have prescribed the correct forms. The plain fact is that there is considerable fluctuation in present usage, though not so much as earlier in the period, and this fluctuation is found even in the highest forms of current literature. Everywhere throughout these pages will be found double and triple forms for the same thing, that is a picture of the language as it is. A table of many fluctuating forms has been kept by the author constantly before him, and data inserted from time to time. In some cases the prevailing form has become apparent, and has been recorded. In other cases the situation will not become clear until many minute investi- gations have been made by many scholars. In still other cases nothing can be fixed, as the language itself has not assumed definitive form. To prescribe forms at this point, as many German grammarians do, is quite pernicious, for the capricious decisions of different scholars, differing widely as they often do, add to the general confusion and arrest natural linguistic tendencies. However, between forms that fluctuated in Lessing's day a final decision has often been made, or both forms have been retained with different shades of meaning. The usage of the best authors of our time has been taken in all cases as the highest authority. By this, however, poets and philosophers are x PREFACE not alone meant. The best authors in the different fields of literature, even the much maligned newspapers, have been taken as guides. The pessimistic views of certain scholars with regard to the language of the daily press are not supported by the facts. The German newspaper man fills his place worthily and furnishes additional evidence of the power and flexibility of the German language. Indeed, his influence is especially needed in these days of intense realism, when polite literature often abandons the literary language entirely, or intersperses into it copious samples of dialect from every part of two empires and the Swiss republic. It is, however, far from our intention to criticize these naturalistic tendencies in literature which are so truly characteristic of our time, for we are not indifferent to a movement which in such a marked manner has widened human sympathies and increased the interest in polite literature in general. This broadening of the sphere of literature has increased the burdens of the grammarian, and made it seem to the author of the present work quite necessary that at least the salient features of popular language should be treated. Still greater attention has been paid to colloquial speech, and this study has been made more easy by the extensive literature of the naturalistic school, which has consciously striven to reproduce the language of actual life. Indeed, an earnest attempt has been made to treat the different styles of speech and to define as carefully as possible their proper boundaries. Although, in general, matters pertaining to style belong to rhetoric, a large number of the points in question belong strictly to grammar. Just as each locality has its particular dialect, so has each style its own individual grammatical forms. One style requires a genitive, another the accusative, one style a strong verb, another a weak one, &c. The conservative literary language clings to old grammatical forms, while colloquial speech prefers newer, more regular ones. Foreigners are particularly liable to stumble here and the native German grammarian in his quite uniform recommendation of the older more dignified inflection may lead English-speaking students astray. The conservative German grammarian may be pardoned for his zeal in defending the decaying forms of the language. To the foreigner, however, who is not able, as is a native, to discover the misguided enthusiasm of the grammarian, many of these lauded forms are very misleading, as they represent the language of the past, or of poetry, or elevated discourse. Even the great learned works of the best German scholars give the student only too often erroneous ideas of the present state of the language, so great is their zeal in unfolding the usage of earlier periods and so strong their apathy towards the questions of to-day. These decaying forms are throughout this work always treated as such and not recommended as models of present usage. To every people and every generation language is bequeathed, not as an article of antiquarian interest that must remain untouched and be carefully kept unchanged, but as the most useful and plastic of things, that which is connected with all that is interesting in life and which can be readily adapted to the new and changing needs of the generation. Also with regard to new forms and constructions, the usage of the best authors has been taken as authority rather than the dictum of conservative gram- PREFACE xi marians. A rich and plastic language like the German is capable of great and varied development if it remains the language of the nation and is not degraded to the position of the language of a few narrow-minded theorists. In the nation lie ever concealed countless hidden forces that are unceasingly at work on the strengthening, upbuilding, and beautifying of the language. In its present interesting period of linguistic growth, may the German language remain unchecked and free ! However, for the sake of those who still believe in the dictatorial powers of the grammarian, in every instance there is a note after such new forms indicating that they are not approved by certain grammarians. The conclusions with regard to the pronunciation are the result of the author's personal observations in different parts of Germany along with a study of the rich literature upon this subject. The signs of the time seem to point so decidedly to the Berlin pronunciation that it seems folly not to recognize it as the most representative form of the spoken language. The author, however, has not in Other respects slighted the South, as can be seen in the book itself. The beautiful style of certain Swiss and Austrian authors was a great enticement to prolong unduly work in this direction. The illustrative sentences used in this book are in most part taken directly from the literature of the language. In a number of cases where the cited sentence is long or intricate, parts not necessary to the thought of the sentence have been omitted. Thus sentences sometimes appear as complete which in the original are only parts of sentences. It is hoped, however, that this liberty will be pardoned on pedagogical grounds and for economic reasons, especially as otherwise not the slightest liberties have been taken with the authors' language, and great care has been employed to follow closely the text of the authorized prints, and wherever possible the latest editions, in order to avoid the danger of typographical errors or careless proof-reading. In a number of cases the examples have been taken from well-known grammatical and lexical sources, as the originals were not accessible. In a number of very common idioms no illustrative sentences could be found in the dictionaries, and in these cases they have been taken directly from the spoken language. It was not thought necessary to cite always the author in case of common usage, though in many interesting sentences this is done. The authors' names are, however, given where the usage in question is disputed. In such cases only one or two sentences are usually quoted, as it was impossible in the given space to enter into elaborate discussion. The conclusions, however, rest usually upon an ample collection of facts. In other cases the facts were not entirely convincing, but seemed to offer the proposed solution. In a number of instances where general misconceptions prevail a fuller presentation of the facts was made, contrary to the general plan of the work. In a number of instances also three representative authors are cited, one from the early part, one from the middle, and one from the present part of the period, in order to show that the usage has not fluctuated throughout the period. This occurs especially where some particular usage is represented in grammars and dictionaries as obsolete, dialectic, or as belonging to some particular part of the period xii PREFACE where the facts of the language clearly show that the word has been in general and continual use. Also in a number of cases several authors from widely different parts of the country have been cited, in order to show that the form is not provincial as stated by certain scholars. Where usage is limited to a particular style, section of the country, or a part of the period, a short statement of the facts is always made and a representative author cited. In certain parts of the book, however, as in the treatment of the noun, the strong verb, and portions of the syntax, no authors could be cited, although these portions rest upon a collection of facts as extensive as the others. These materials can only be used in a dictionary. The great majority of quotations have been taken from common prose. The usual practice among grammarians of quoting so much poetry seems unsound in a book of this kind, especially as the unusual and exceptional forms here found may by the inexperienced student be taken for common forms of speech. The author recalls the smiles of his German friends of years ago who could not restrain the irresistible impulse to twitch the muscles of the face at the familiar-unfamiliar sound of his ' classic' language in a modern conversation. Their Goethe and Schiller seemed inexpressibly odd in the new environment. The object of a grammar should not only be to show the power of the language to express man's highest thoughts and deepest feelings, but also to show its manner of giving expression to the needs of human life in its varied aspects. At the close of his labors the author confesses that the ideal which appeared to him in his first youthful conception of the work that of giving a faithful picture of the language as it is written and spoken to-day has not been completely realized. The linguistic phenomena presented by the language of a great people are too complex to be fully comprehended and faithfully described by one individual. However, the author has allowed the original title to stand upon his work, as it represents an ideal toward which he has constantly striven. Although the aim throughout was to build up this work out of the actual facts of the language as gathered in the free and independent study of its polite and colloquial literature, nevertheless much of that which is good in it is due directly to the labors of many scholars who have thrown light upon the different phases of the study, such as Grimm, Vernaleken, Andresen, Heyne, Sanders, Paul, Wilmanns, Matthias, Wunderlich, Behaghel, Siitterlin, Minor, Victor, Engelien, Blatz, Heintze, Hempl, Valentine, and others. The school -grammars of Lyon, Weisse, Brandt, Thomas, Bierwirth, Eve, Aue, Beresford-Webb, Fasnacht, also the notes of Mr. Wolstenholme in his annotated school-texts, have furnished valuable assistance. The author feels himself especially indebted to the following scholars who have read all of the manuscript or parts of it, and by encouragement or fruitful criticism have contributed much toward making the book what it is : Professor Hermann Collitz, of Bryn Mawr; Professor H. C. G. von Jagemann, of Harvard ; Professor Gustav F. Gruener, of Yale ; Professor George Hempl, of the University of Michigan ; Professor C. H. Grandgent, of Harvard ; Professor Camillo von Klenze, of the University of Chicago ; PREFACE xiii Professor James T. Hatfield, of Northwestern University ; Professors Ernst Voss and Edwin Roedder, of the University of Wisconsin ; and Dr. Francis Wood, of the University of Chicago. The author finds it very difficult to define the full amount of his indebtedness to his colleague Mr. Georg Edward. For years Mr. Edward has by his accurate knowledge of his native language and literature assisted the author at critical points and kept him away from gross blundering. The author feels the same deep gratitude toward Professor Collitz, who gave encouragement and support at a time of great discouragement, when it appeared that the work could never be carried to a successful close. In conclusion, the author recalls the helpful services of Mr. William Klingebiehl, of Clutier, Iowa, in the earlier draft of the grammar, also the kindness of the authorities of the Public Library of Chicago and the Public Library of Cincinnati, and last but not least the valuable aid rendered by the following scholars in the reading of the proofs : his colleagues Professor James T. Hatfield, Dr. Marcus Simpson, and Mr. Georg Edward ; Professor Starr Willard Cutting and Dr. Francis Wood, of the University of Chicago ; Professor William Wirtz, of Parsons College (Fairfield, Iowa) ; Dr. Fred. C. Hicks, of Monmouth College ; Professor Charles R. Keyes, of Cornell College (Mt. Vernon, Iowa) ; Professor Elfrieda Hochbaum, of Wells College ; the following students in Northwestern University : Mr. Walter E. Roloff, Mr. Friedrich Ruff, and Miss Hedwig H. Hochbaum. A number of their remarks upon the proofs have been embodied in the Grammar. The careful work of the Oxford University Press has rendered comparatively easy the efforts to present a faithful text. EVANSTON, ILLINOIS, April, 1904. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION i THE ALPHABET 5 PART I BEST PRONUNCIATION . 7 SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION . 7 FORMATION OF SOUNDS. 13 QUANTITY OF VOWELS 14 PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS ... 17 MUTATION OF VOWELS 24 PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS 25 BRIEF HISTORY OF GERMAN CONSONANTS, THEIR RELA- TION TO THOSE OF OTHER LANGUAGES .... 34 SYLLABLES IN INDIVIDUAL WORDS ..... 40 SYLLABLES IN CONNECTED DISCOURSE ..... 41 SEPARATION OF SYLLABLES AT THE END OF A LINE . . 41 ACCENT . ..... ..... 42 PITCH OR TONE ......... 54 USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 54 APOSTROPHE 55 PART II THE PARTS OF SPEECH THEIR GRAMMATICAL FORMS, USE, NATURE BRIEF STATEMENTS CONCERNING NUMBER, CASE, GENDER . 56 INFLECTION OF THE ARTICLES 56 USE OF THE ARTICLES 58 INFLECTION OF COMMON NOUNS 67 DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBSTANTIVE FORMS .... 95 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INFLECTION OF PROPER NOUNS 99 INFLECTION OF TITLES . . 103 PLURAL OF NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES . . . 106 PECULIARITIES IN THE INFLECTION OF NOUNS . j . 108 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE-SUBSTANTIVE . . . 113 PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER IN NOUNS . . . .113 GENDER OF NOUNS 120 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES 127 INFLECTION OF QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES .... 127 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS . . . 141 INFLECTION OF LIMITING ADJECTIVES .... 150 NUMERALS . . . 150 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 157 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 183 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ....... 183 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 193 RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS . 195 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 195 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 197 RELATIVE PRONOUNS ........ 200 CONDITIONAL RELATIVE ....... 212 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS ....... 212 STEREOTYPED PRONOMINAL FORMS 213 THE VERB 215 CLASSIFICATION 215 TENSES 216 MOODS SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PRINCIPAL TENSES .... SUBJUNCTIVE OF HISTORICAL TENSES INDIRECT DISCOURSE INDIRECT FORM INDEPENDENT FORM ....... CONJUGATION SIMPLE FORMS OF THE WEAK VERB .... SIMPLE FORMS OF THE STRONG VERB SIMPLE FORMS OF fyafcen, fcin, reerben TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii PAGE GENERAL REMARKS RESPECTING THE SIMPLE FORMS . 257 VERBALS .......... 264 GERUNDIVE 264 PARTICIPLES ......... 266 INFINITIVE . 273 FORMATION OF COMPOUND TENSES . . . . . 285 USE OF tyafcen AND fein ....... 289 PASSIVE VOICE ......... 299 GRADATION CLASSES 305 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION 323 SPECIAL USES OF THE MODAL AUXILIARIES . . . 328 CONJUGATION OF COMPOUND VERBS 336 SEPARABLE COMPOUNDS ....... 336 INSEPARABLE COMPOUNDS 339 COMPOUNDS SEPARABLE OR INSEPARABLE . . . 340 VERBS INDIRECTLY COMPOUNDED ..... 342 REFLEXIVE VERBS 343 IMPERSONAL VERBS 347 PARTICLES .......... 352 ADVERBS 352 PREPOSITIONS 374 CONJUNCTIONS ......... 418 INTERJECTIONS 434 PART III WORD-FORMATION PRIMITIVES 436 DERIVATIVE SUBSTANTIVES FORMED BY SUFFIX . . . 437 DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES FORMED BY SUFFIX . . . 452 DERIVATIVE VERBS FORMED BY SUFFIX .... 462 DERIVATIVE ADVERBS 465 FORMATION OF PREPOSITIONS 467 FORMATION OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND PRONOUNS BY MEANS OF PREFIX 468 FORMATION OF VERBS BY MEANS OF PREFIX . . . 471 FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS ..... 479 b xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS PART IV SYNTAX PAGE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE .... 490 SUBJECT 490 PREDICATE 496 AGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBJECT AND PREDICATE . . 501 SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE .... 509 ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS 509 ADJECTIVE AND PARTICIPLE 509 ATTRIBUTIVE GENITIVE 510 APPOSITION ......... 519 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE AS MODIFIER OF A NOUN . 522 INFINITIVE AS MODIFIER OF A NOUN .... 523 ADVERB AS MODIFIER OF A NOUN . . . . 523 CLAUSE AS MODIFIER OF A NOUN .... 523 A NOUN AND ITS MODIFIER REPLACED BY A COMPOUND NOUN 524 OBJECTIVE MODIFIERS 524 ACCUSATIVE OBJECT 524 DATIVE OBJECT 527 EITHER DATIVE OR ACCUSATIVE 538 GENITIVE OBJECT 545 PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT ....... 554 DOUBLE OBJECT 555 ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE 555 ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE 557 DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE 563 SYNESIS 571 ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS . 577 INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 577 CLASSES OF SENTENCES ....... 582 COMPOUND SENTENCE 582 COMPLEX SENTENCE, SUBORDINATE CLAUSES . . . 583 SUBJECT CLAUSE 584 PREDICATE CLAUSE 586 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE 586 TABLE OF CONTENTS xix PAGE OBJECT CLAUSE 590 ADVERBIAL CLAUSE ....... 593 CLAUSE OF PLACE ....... 594 CLAUSE OF TIME 594 CLAUSE OF MANNER ....... 596 CLAUSE OF DEGREE 597 CLAUSE OF CAUSE ....... 599 CLAUSE OF CONDITION ...... 600 CLAUSE OF CONCESSION 601 CLAUSE OF PURPOSE ....... 602 CLAUSE OF MEANS 604 CLAUSE OF MATERIAL 604 WORD-ORDER ......... 604 NORMAL ORDER 606 INVERTED ORDER 612 QUESTION ORDER 615 TRANSPOSED ORDER ........ 617 GENERAL INDEX 619 CORRECTIONS . . . 662 INTRODUCTION THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. THE Germanic family of languages is descended from the same original language with the Indian (i.e. Sanskrit), Persian, Slavonic, Celtic, Greek, and Latin, from the last of which have come modern Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The Germanic languages are themselves divided into three groups. Of the first group, the East Germanic, only Gothic, now extinct, is well known to us. The second group, the North Germanic, includes modern Danish-Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic. The third group, the West Germanic, embraces High German and Low German, to the latter of which belong English, Dutch (the literary language of Holland and a large part of Belgium), and Low German in the narrow sense, i.e. the dialect of North Germany. Of these Germanic languages Gothic has the oldest literary documents, reaching back into the fourth century A. D., and thus, by reason of its age and highly developed grammatical structure, is much studied by all who desire to obtain an idea of the oldest Germanic language known to us. High German, usually for the sake of brevity called German, is the language of the German Empire, a large part of Switzerland, and parts of the Austrian Empire. It is characterized among the Germanic languages by its richness in grammatical forms. However, in earlier periods these forms were still richer. Upon the basis of its grammatical forms German is divided into the following three periods. 1. O(ld) H(igh) G(erman) is the period from the sixth century till about I ico. In this period Latin was the language usually used in official docu- ments and all literary and scientific productions, and hence comparatively little in the way of literature proper is found in the German of this period. From the early part of this period, only a few individual words and a few meager fragments are preserved. Further on, poems and connected dis- courses appear. The center of the literary life of this period is in the South. O.H.G. was distinguished by rich, full vowels in its inflectional endings, such as a, 0, u : (pi. of tag day) N. taga, G. tago, D. tagum, A. taga. 2. M(iddle) H(igh) G(erman) is the period from 1100-1350. In this period Latin still prevails as the leading literary language, but there is also a rich literature in German, which is much used, especially in poetry. Between 1180 and 1250 this literature culminated in the first classical period of German poetry. German was used also to some extent in prose, especially in writings of a religious character. Since 1238 official documents occa- sionally appear in German, which later gradually led to its use as the official language of the empire. The center of literary life is still in the South, but the middle part of the empire also begins to play an important role. M.H.G. is distinguished by the decay of the full, rich vowels a, o, u in the inflectional endings to the monotonous e: (pi. of tag day) N. tage (O.H.G. taga), G. tage (O.H.G. tago), D. tagen (O.H.G. tagum), A. tage (O.H.G. taga). 3. N(ew) H(igh) G(erman) is the period from 1350 to the present time. In general the period of N.H.G. may, from the standpoint of language, be divided into three parts. The first part, from 1350-1750, which may be called early N.H.G. , is a period of considerable change and growth. The second part, from 1750-1810, may be called the classical period, by reason 2 INTRODUCTION of the classical beauty and strength of the works of the great masters Lessing, Goethe, and Schiller, and in less measure of other writers of this time. Language questions had already in the latter part of the early N.H.G. period been earnestly discussed, and greater uniformity of usage had gradually been coming about. The great literary monuments of the classical period established in large measure a firm standard of speech. The third part, from 1810 to the present, which may be called late N.H.G., has no marked peculiarity, but shows everywhere a tendency to level away little inequalities, and bring about greater simplicity and uniformity. The language is, however, still far from having a complete standard of usage either in grammar or pronunciation. The center of literary life shifts within the course of the early N.H.G. period towards the middle of Germany, and one man, Martin Luther, plays a very important rdle in the development of the language. Latin is still much used, but the stirring questions of the Reformation brought the mother-tongue into prominent use, and gradually Latin retired to the rear. The year 1691 was the last one in which more Latin books appeared than German. Luther's bold stand for German has had far-reaching effects. His translation of the Bible into German was his most valuable contribution in this direction. This great and successful task, however, was not an easy one. Latin had so long been the medium of communication in the higher forms of literature that the native language was left largely to the common people. Thus under this neglect it fell more and more into dialects. The books that were published in German before Luther's time bore strong dialectic traces. The only common language in Germany was the official language of the government. The native language, though neglected by the best thinkers, had now long been used and developed by tradesmen, jurists, and government officials. This official language was quite generally used by those who wrote in German for a general public, but it was strongly modified everywhere under local influences. The confusion was increased by the fact that the people of North Germany spoke a form of Low German, a quite different language indeed. Luther desired to be generally understood, and wrote in the official language. He employed that particular form of it used in Saxony, which differed from that of the imperial chancery in having a Middle German coloring. This language was also modified by Luther's own dialect, another form of Middle German speech, and was probably also influenced by the Low German which he heard in his daily intercourse with the people of Wittenberg. Thus the language in which Luther wrote was largely Middle German, and was accordingly without the extremes of either the South or the North, and had something in common with both, although it was much nearer that of the South. Luther's translation was in general well received, and became with respect to its language the basis of modern German. As it was essentially the language of Protestantism it helped to extend the use of High German into the northern Low German countries, which were Protestant, and for the same reason was opposed in the Catholic South. This form of German, although in large part a South German language, met in some sections of the South, especially in Switzerland, strong resistance on account of its great divergence from the native dialect. But on account of the evident necessity of a literary standard, and the leadership of Middle Germany in the mental and literary life of the nation, Luther's language gradually spread over all parts of the country. The Low German (Plattdeutsch) of our own time is a mere dialect or a group of dialects, and though used by several talented authors in their best works, it has in general relinquished to High German the pulpit, school, and press. Low German writers, however, who at present occupy a commanding place in literature, are fond of interspersing into the literary language words of Low German origin with High German inflection, or rather they allow their characters to do this in accordance with actual usage in everyday life. THE GERMAN LANGUAGE 3 In a part of the N.H.G. period, especially in the eighteenth century, High German was threatened by French, which was much used at the different princely courts and by the upper classes of people in general. The pheno- menal achievements, however, of Goethe in literature, of German scholars in science, and of German soldiers upon the battlefields of the nineteenth century, have at last given to all that is German a good name. There is at present a lively interest manifested by Germans in the process of the purifica- tion of their native language from foreign words which remind them of their former dependence. This movement is not merely a superficial one of pride, but a general and deep joy in the development of the mother-tongue in its purity and strength. The naturalistic school of literature has also introduced into literary speech the fresh tones of life, of which it stood in such great need. The Germans of Austria and Switzerland are taking part in these movements, and are contributing their full share. N.H.G. is in general distinguished from M.H.G. by the following changes, (l) The most far-reaching change was the lengthening of all short vowels in open syllables : M.H.G. dtser, N.H.G. bicfer. This development is discussed in the grammar in 4. i. b. Note ; 4. 2. B. b. Note (i) ; 198. Historical Note ; 199. Historical Note. (2) The change of the long M.H.G. vowels i, u, z'u (pro. u) into the diphthongs et, au, eu: M.H.G. zit, has, hiute have become N.H.G. 3tit, Jpaitg, fyeute. (3) The_change of the M.H.G. diphthongs ie, uo, He into the long vowels ie ( = t), ii, u : M.H.G. diep, huo/,griiene have become 2)teb, uf, griin. The old diphthongs ie, uo, He are still preserved in S.G. dialect, usually in altered forms : ie, ue, iie (or ie). The Bavarian dialect sometimes has a as a final element in these diphthongs : ia, ua, iia (or id). These dialect forms occur of course in popular songs: SBeljuet (for befjut') bid) ctt ! e u>dt' ju fd)6n geroefen (Scheffel's Trompeter, Lieder Jung Werners, XII). (4) M.H.G. ou has become an : M.H.G. bourn, N.H.G. 23aum. (5) M.H.G. e and i have become rounded in a number of cases : (a) e sometimes becomes 6 in the neighbourhood of sch or /: fd)cpfen (M.H.G. schepfen), cl(e (M.H.G. helle). In a few cases also elsewhere : crgojjm (M.H.G. ergetzen). (b} i some- times becomes ii, especially after w : 2Bikbe (M.H.G. wirde). Earlier in the period, forms with e and i are still found. In dialect the opposite feature is found, i.e. the unrounding of 6 and ii; see 12. \.a and 8. \.a. (6) M.H.G. u and u have in most cases become N.H.G. o and 6 before n or ntt, and in a number of instances before m or mm: evt, f)errfd)en. See also 40. z.g. Since Luther's day many more or less important changes have appeared in the literary language and orthography, as the language has been constantly growing and developing, and stricter and more scientific principles now obtain. Only a few of the points where Luther's language and orthography differ from present usage are here given, as they are treated more fully in the Grammar: (i) The difference of vowel which existed between the singular and plural of strong verbs has been levelled away and now only one vowel is found throughout singular and plural. Thus id) fanb, twt funben of Luther's day have become id? fanb, unr fantcit. (2) Remutation (see 208. i. a) has disappeared in a few verbs, the vowel of the infinitive now standing in all the forms of the verb. Thus Luther's id) fefce, past id) fafcte, have become id) fe$e, id) fefcte. (3) Unaccented e has dropped out in a multitude of words. Luther's foretell, forget, have become Ijcrten, forgt. On the other hand Luther drops_/fwa/e very freely, where it must now stand : ber erft(c), bafjVlbig(e), &c. (4) A number of minor changes have taken place. Initial u is now always written u, not as formerly : cttb, now unb. We now write uniformly au and cu where Luther often has am and e : fcawm, Irctt? ; now 23aum, treit. B 2 4 INTRODUCTION We now write a where Luther has e: Jjenbe now Jpdnbe. The doubling of consonants, which is so frequent in Luther's writings, is now limited to the one case that double consonants are used to show shortness of vowel. This difference can be noticed by comparing, in the present revised editions of the Bible, Mark iv. 26-27 with the following from the edition of 1545: 2S9tS> er fyrad) | >ag reid) @otte$ tyat fid) olfo | a(3 toenn ein Menfd) famm aup lattb ttnrfft | nb fd)left | nb fteljet auf | nadjt ttnb tag | S3nb ber Same gefyet auff nb toedjfet | ba3 er$ nidjt tons. It will also be noticed in the preceding passage that capitals were not as now uniformly used in the beginning of nouns, and that a perpendicular line could be used instead of a comma or colon. Luther used to write especially the more emphatic nouns with capitals. In the learned literature of our day, there is an attempt being made to restore the usage of a still older period, when capitals were used only in the case of proper nouns and at the beginning of stanzas. This learned literature usually, however, makes one exception, namely that sentences begin with capitals. There does not seem to be at present much outlook for a triumph of this usage. The orthography, which has gradually developed since Luther's day, has had since 1880 a formidable rival. In that year Prussia, the largest German state, issued a little book containing rules for a reform of the orthography. Also other states had adopted a reformed spelling, but the Prussian ortho- graphy naturally found the widest support. School-books followed closely the proposed reforms ; books, newspapers, and periodicals designed for the general public held more or less conservatively to the old order of things ; scholars dissatisfied with the lack of thoroughness in the reforms went still further in the direction of conforming the orthography to the spoken language. In 1901 a few additional changes in the direction of simplicity were proposed by an orthographical conference, which have been approved by the govern- ments of the German Empire, Austria, and Switzerland. Thus these move- ments for reform have culminated in an official orthography for the German- speaking peoples. Although there is at present considerable confusion in this matter there can be little doubt but that the official orthography will in time supersede all others. The confusion in the orthography is accompanied by a difference of usage with respect to the style of the letters. The so-called German alphabet, which gradually arose in early times among the monks throughout Europe as a modified form of the Latin alphabet, was continued after printing was invented, but was later dropped by other nations, who returned to the Latin letters. In Germany the love for the old German alphabet is deeply rooted, and the Latin characters find favor only in learned circles and newspaper advertisements. In our time, another interesting process is going on. The North has at last gained the political and literary ascendency in Germany, and it in its turn, after South and Middle Germany have each in their turn had their day, is moulding and fashioning the language. Maritime terms from the Low German coasts and other speech-forms from the North in general are finding their way into the literature and, what is much more important, the pronunciation of the North is gradually making itself felt, and hence in this book is offered as the model pronunciation for a foreigner. Thus the literary German of our day is the product of all three parts of Germany. South and Middle Germany created it, and North Germany is giving it its sounds, and is enriching its vocabulary. GERMAN ALPHABET GERMAN TYPE. GERMAN GERMAN SCRIPT. NAME. GERMAN TYPE. GERMAN SCRIPT. GFRMAN NAME. 21 a (/[/ sets ah 31 n ^ ^^ enn 23 b c& /&' bay O o ^ ^ I c b ess 9 M/ x^x gay f>^ *. H/ v tay $ ^^ ^^ hah U u / 2t- ^z- oo 3 t c/ ^^ ee 2] W X*- fow 3 i // ^* y ott 3B S/f)// frrjfyS *S&*%P vay ft f ^ ^ kah X r d/ ^ iks 2 i o^ ^^ ell 9 V f T ypsilon 3R m v%x st44s emm 3 j / f tsett MODIFIED VOWELS f O u it u au A a O 6 U u Au au COMPOUND CONSONANTS (d) ft ff tsay-hah tsay-kah pay-hah tay-hah tay-tsett ess-tsay-hah ess-tay ess-tay ess-ess ess-tsett * 6 at the end, f at the beginning and middle. t In naming the modified vowels give their phonetic values, i. e. e:, /:, y:, or say mutaied a, &c. { See 4. 2. D. / / / /v ,/ / J ( Cfatfa&/ / PART I PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 1. Best Pronunciation. In Germany there is no standard of pronunciation that is acknowledged and absolutely followed by the mass of intelligent people. The so-called standard of some people is the pronunciation of the stage, which again is divided into the pronunciation of tragedy and comedy.' In the latter of course is heard the more natural pronunciation of everyday life. The sectional differences in pronunciation are very marked, but in general there is a North German and a South German pro- nunciation. The historic memories of Germany lie in the South, but the present and future seem firmly seated in the North. For a foreigner who is not interested in party, it is only natural that he choose the language of the enterprising, vigorous North. A widespread impression prevails that the Hanoverian pronuncia- tion is to be preferred among these northern pronunciations. There appears no real justification of this general impression in the facts of the case. Hanover is not a great center of power that can now or in the future exert such a magic charm over the development of things as to turn toward itself the thought and speech of Germany. On the other hand, mighty centralizing forces are at work in the nation's great capital city which sooner or later will make themselves felt in a tangible way. The logic of events seems to point to the North in general, and to Berlin in particular, for the best pronunciation. The following short treatise takes into account the pronunciation of different sections, but deals principally with colloquial North German as spoken by the mass of intelligent people, as nearly as such a common standard can be ascertained under the existing circum- stances. Many Germans may differ in particulars as to this standard. Oratorical German, which is in general more conformed to the written language, is only briefly considered here. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION. 2. A. Sounds of the Letters. The growth of letters has not kept pace with that of sounds, hence one letter may represent several sounds. Phonetic symbols are used in the following treatise to distinguish the different sounds of the letters. In the fallowing table only an approximate equivalent is given for each German sound, the more accurate description being reserved for fuller treatment in the succeeding articles. The first number after the 8 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 2. A. phonetic symbol refers to an article which gives a more accurate description of the sound. The second number refers to an article which gives the various spellings for the sound. PHONETIC SYMBOLS. a a (16. 2. (a) ; 16. 2. (b)) as a in father, but sharper. n, aa, nl) a: (16. i. (a); 16. i. ()) as a in father. ae = a (26. A) ; in Dutch names = a (16. i. b. (7)); elsewhere = a + e : 3Kicb/aeI, erae'ber, Qlero* newt' (e = ), &c. ai . at (22) as tin pme. ai in French words=ci (13. x.0M 4 ));sX(U.(*)) din in French words =eng (see 25) am, on in French words = ang (see 25) ait au (23) as ou in loud. ail = 6 (18. i. (b). (8)); = a + u (23. Note) att> = a in @l)arcl ; 33. 4. (4) at) = ai ; see 22. (4) a e (14. ; 14. ) . . . as e in let. 5, a'J) e: (13. i. (a); 13. i. (b)) a prolonged e. an 01 as oy in boy. an = d + u (24. .Afote 3) b or bb 6(29; 80.4) . . . as b in bat. b final or next a voiceless consonant = c before front vowels (see 8.a) = 2(fc) C in some French words = 8 (s) ; see 33. 2. (8) or 5 = 3 (s). c in some Italian words = /or(/-(33. 4 .( 5 )) c elsewhere = f d> after au or a back vowel # (32. 3. b) . . . . (see 6. b) cf) elsewhere in German f (32. 3. a) .... words e in foreign words ; 32. 3. a. Note ^f or cfc=f3; see 80.3. (2) cf after short vowels = i & or t>& fi? (29 ; 30. 5) . . . as a 7 in day. 2. A. PHONETIC SYMBOLS \ b final or next a voiceless consonant = t e= a e, ee, el) e: (11. 1. (a); 11. 1. (6)) as fl in bake. e unaccented 9 (21) e in French words = e can in French words = o ee in English words = t ; see 7. i. (b). (7) et = at ; in a number of foreign words = e + 1 : QltfyeijY, >ei8'mu3, &c. ciit in French words = eng (e^) ; see 25 em, en in French words = ang (ay) ; see 25 co = c + o : ifyeorie (te:o:Ri:') f)eobot (te:'o:do:R) cu = au ; final or before a single consonant in French words = 5 (12. I - (^)- (5)); elsewhere in French words = 6 (15. (b). (2)) ; in certain foreign words = e + it (24. Note 2) et) in proper names = at; see 22. (3) et) final in 3ocfety = e or at (see 11. i. (b). (5)) f . . . /(82.IJ 33.i) . . as/m/me. Q initial g (29; 30. 6) . . . as^in^ood. g medial after front vowels = j ; see 35. 3. (2) 9 medial after back vowels g (34. 4 ; 35. 4) final after front vowels = cfy in id? g final after back vowels = dj in ad) after n is silent; see 36. b in some French words 3 (34. 5 ; 35. 5) . . as g in rou^e. before e or i g in some English words = d$ (see 39. 4) 00 medial after short vowel = g ; see 30. 6. (3) 0i) in German names = g; in foreign words = y 0n in foreign words = yn and /; see 36. cr. (5) 10 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 2. A. *(7.i.(a); 7. i. 0u before front vowels in foreign words = g; see 30. 6. (4) ft initial h (28) ft elsewhere silent i i' (8- L(); .!.(*)) t, ift i unaccented before a vowel = j ; see 9. 2 if, icft = I te and ie in foreign words ; see 7. i . (b). Note i ift in French words =je: or t:x ; see 7. i. (o). Note i ieit = jo ; = eu (24. (5) ) il, ill in French words; see 39.5 im, in in French words = eng (ey) ; see 25 as h in hat. as i in pin. as i' in machine. 35. 3 ) j in French words = French g before e or i ; see 34. 5J 35.5 j in English words = d$ ; see 39.4 ? (29; 30.3) I / (37. i) . . m m (36. a) . . it except before c, g, f, q . n (36. a, it before c, g,f, q; see 36.tr. (3) y (36. b; 36. c. (2), (3)) "0 = y ', see 36. b o o (17. a ; 17. b) . . . o/ oft/ oo ...... o: (18. i. a; 18. i.) . oa in (oafg (or Jtof g) = o ; in Joafl = o or b:a' ; else- where = o + a : Jtloa'fe, &c. oe = 6 (26. A)J in L.G. names = o (18. i. (b). (5)) ; in Dutch words =u (20. i. (6). (8)); else- as jv m jyes. as k in as / in /et. as m in wan. as in no. as as o in Noah. as o in heroic. oe^ = b n ot in L.G. names = o(18. i. (b). (6)) ; in L.G. words = eu (24. (3)) ; in French words =o:a: or 6:a (16. i . (b). (5) and 2. (b)} ; else- where = o:i:': &C. 2. A. PHONETIC SYMBOLS om/ on in French words = ong (oy] ; see 25 oil in French words = u (20. i.(*).(7));=*(i.0M3)) otp in L.G. and Eng. words =6 (18. i. (6). (7)); in Sla- vonic words = ov medi- ally and of finally or before a consonant oij in foreign words = o:j (35. 3. (5)); = m (24. (4)) o ......... ce (15. (a) ; 15. (oj) . . o, i>l) ........ 0(12. i. a; 12. i. (A)) . ^ ......... /> ( 29 ; 30. i) . . . as p in />en. pf=p + f; 39.i M, ppft = f ; see 33. i. (4). (5) qu = fir* and f ; see 39. 7 r uvular ....... /?(34. 6) ..... S/ f/ ff/ ; see 33. 2 . . . s (32. 2; 33.2) . . as ss in moss. f initial and medial ; 35. 2. z (34. 2 ; 35. 2) . . as s in rose. (I)- (2) frfj ......... y(32. 4; 33.4) . . as sA in s/mve. flj in English words = fd) fp, ft initial in stem syllable = \toft, ftt ; 33. 4. (2) t, tt), tt, bt ...... / (29 ; 30. 2) . . . as / in fen. ti = ji(/s;'); see 39. 3. (10) <* = 5 ; see 39. 3. (2). (3) u ......... u (19. a ; 19. b) . . . as u in pwt. fi/ ill) ........ u: (20. i.(); 20. i. (b)} as oo in booty. u = t;(36. i. (5). (6). (7). (8)); in French words = it we = it (26. A) ;_in the name Jto^ef tte =_Ft ; in French words = it (8. i . (b). (6)) ; elsewhere=tt + e:S)uctr ui = u (8. i.(o).(4)); =ett (24. (6)); =vi: (35. i. (8)); elsewhere = u + t: ^tttfe (Iu:i:'z3\ 8-u'tt^oIb (the i = i: or t) mil, mi in French words = 6ni\ (ccy) ; see 25 no = w/0V: Jl'uoni (name) ii ......... y (10. a ; 10. b} . . ", iift ........ jr (8. i. (a); 8.1. (b)). = f; seeSS. i.(a).(3) v medial in Low German words=it>; see35.i.(4) 12 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 2. A. initial and medial in fo- reign words = rc; see 35. i. (3) tt) ......... v (34. i ; 35. i) . . as v in very. 5 = f 8 ; see 39. 2 $ =/in )on C.uirote (don 1 - ki:fot] t>, tj = i, I or it, it (see 9. i. (A). (6); 10. (b). (3); 7. i. (6). (5,) (6); 8. i. (b). (5). Note) 9 in some foreign words = i; see 35. 3. (5) 9 in some Dutch words = at ; see 22. 5 g = t8 ; see 39. 3. (i) 5 = f(0); see 35. 2. (3). B. Classification of Sounds. I. Vowels. Vowels may be classified from different points of view The vowels are here classified according to the horizontal movement (see 3. i. a, below) of the tongue in forming them. The various modifications of these sounds are treated later under each vowel. SIMPLE VOWELS. Front Vowels. . DIPHTHONGS. * ; * y : t i> y> e: i r : > f: > e > &> au t 01 (eu or du), at (ei or ai). Back Vowels. a:, a, o, o:, u, u:. The Mixed Vowel d (see 21). II. Consonants. The aspirate h (a voiceless vowel, but in function always a con- sonant with the acoustic effect of a voiceless spirant). Consonant- Vowels. Stops (explosives) Spirants. Nasals. Liquids. Voiceless. Voiced. Voiceless. Voiced. Voiced. Voiced. Labials . . P b f V m Linguals t d s,/(32. 4 ) z,5(35) n l,r (37. 2) Palatals . . k 9 {$2:!$ V <-(34.4) i \ R(a4._f>\ y(36.b) Glottal stop . ? (see 38) Note. The sounds have here been divided into the two usual classes of vowels and consonants upon the basis of the function usually performed by the various sounds. A vowel can form of itself a syllable. A consonant does not of itself form a syllable, 3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS 13 but is only used in conjunction with vowels to form syllables. Hence the above classification does not always hold good. The consonants I, m, It, rj, r, are sometimes used as vowels ; see 41. 4. The vowels found as the less sonorous element of diphthongs are in fact consonants. The vowel i often becomes a consonant in certain positions ; see 35. 3. (4). The classification of sounds upon the basis of function does not always help us in gaining a correct conception of the nature or formation of the various sounds. Thus I, tit, n, and lingual r (r) do not differ in any essential point from vowels in their formation, though upon the basis of function they must in most cases be classified as consonants. Thus also I) does not materially differ in formation from the simple vowels a, 0, U, &c., except that the vocal chords do not vibrate, but it is here classified as a consonant, as it always has the function of a consonant ; see 28, Note. FORMATION OF SOUNDS. 3. i. In forming a vowel the mouth remains more or less open, and the vocal chords vibrate. Each new position of the tongue produces a new vowel, which may again be modified in various ways. The tongue movements and various modifications can only be briefly treated here. a. Tongue Movements. The tongue moves horizontally and vertically backwards and forwards, upwards and downwards. The horizontal movement results in three general classes of sounds, back vowels formed by the back part of the tongue, front vowels formed by the front part of the tongue, mixed vowels formed by allowing the tongue to drop into a neutral position, in which neither articulation predominates. The vertical movement of the tongue results in three general classes, high vowels formed by raising the tongue close to the roof of the mouth, mid vowels by raising the tongue moderately, low vowels by lowering the tongue. These positions will be discussed later with each vowel. b. Rounding. Vowels are rounded by protruding the lips as in whistling. Thus by rounding, r, /', e:, e, become y:, y, , &} see 8, 10, 12, 15. c. Narrowness, Wideness. A sound is said to be ' narrow ' when the muscles of the tongue become tense and bulge up, and thus narrow the resonance chamber. When a sound is formed without this tenseness it is said to be 'wide/ The difference between e: and e.' is that the former is narrow and _the latter wide. In North German all long vowels except a and a (e:) are narrow and all short_ ones wide. This explains the strong tendency to pro- nounce d as e: instead of e:. These modifications will be given later in connection with each vowel. d. Nasality. In forming nasal vowels the breath passes through the nose as well as the mouth. Nasality is the characteristic of vowels in many words from the French ; see 25. 2. In forming consonants the mouth is either closed as in the case of stops and nasals, or narrowed as in the case of spirants. The distinguishing feature of a consonant is the friction, or stopping of the breath in some part of the mouth or throat. If voice enters into the formation of a consonant, that is, if the vocal chords vibrate in producing it, it is said to be voiced, otherwise it is voiceless. The formation of the different consonants is described later. H PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY - 4. i. QUANTITY OF VOWELS. 4. i. General rules. a. Accented vowels are long when final, or before a vowel or one consonant : bci, eer, but ^erjpg; Quljrt, but ferttg, &c. b. An accented vowel standing before two or more consonants is usually short and the syllable is closed, i. e. terminates in a consonant, but it is long in the special cases (see 2. A. d. (2), (3), be_low), where the syllable is open : SBatt, alt, fln=fen, faf=ten, but -jj=bra. Thus a vowel in an accented open syllable is always long, whether it stands before one consonant or more : ma4en, 2Ke-trif, &c. A vowel is short in a few words before one consonant, and the syllable is closed : %Ww (also Si'afer), rammat'tf, gram* martfa, oter, tfcunt'el, SWeta^'er (p$ = f), Otelief, Note. The great majority of the long vowels of the language have corresponding short ones in M.H.G. At the beginning of the present period all short vowels became long in open syllables, i. e. where the final consonant of the stem was carried over to the next syllable. Thus M.H.G. banen, geben, honec, gibel, became bafcnett, ge~;ben, Jp&ntg, ie;bel. Before one consonant the syllable was usually open and the vowel became long. Before a combination of consonants and before the heavy simple consonantal sounds, d), f (only, however, the new f developed from Germanic p ; see 4.0. !.<:), f}, usually t, and sometimes m, the syllable was closed and the vowel remained short: M.H.G. halten, lachen, geschlifen, ezzen, geriten, vromen, remain short, batten, ladjen, gefdju'ffen, effen, geritten, frommen. In foreign words, however, a syllable is often open and the vowel long before a combination of consonants ; see i.K.d. (3), below. Wherever a vowel became long in an open syllable the same quantity was later extended for the sake of uniformity to the closed syllables of the same inflectional system. See 2. B. b. Note (i), below. The above described lengthening of short vowels in open syllables did not take place in parts of the S. W., which still preserve here the old historic short sound. c. Unaccented simple vowels are short, except when final : 4.2. B. b* QUANTITY OF VOWELS 15 glcwfcen, 5urfl?n, Stuffing, &c. Unaccented final vowels except e are long. See 2. B. c. and Note thereunder. 2. Rules for Quantity in Detail. A. The following are long : a. A diphthong : @aul, aule. b. Doubled vowels and te : $aar, >eer, SBoot, Bieten. Only a, e, o can be doubled. They must, however, be written single when mutated : $aar, but $ard;en. c. Simple accented vowels when final, or before a vowel or one consonant : ta, Seen, taben, SWifroffop'. Exceptions : Qtprtr, Qrob (but long in open syllables, as in grower, &c.), Jlaptt'el, iit)er, Sitfyv, &c. The length of the vowel may also be indicated by a silent : l, ijjm, ityn, &c. d. Simple accented vowels are sometimes long before more than one consonant : (1) The vowels n, e, and less frequently other vowels, are long before r + a dental (b, t, g, f, fcfy) : irerben, cfyrcert, Dtiaq, &c. Thus these vowels are long, although they stand in closed syllables ; see B. b. Note (2) below. This pronunciation is a new develop- ment, and is not yet universally recognized. (2) Vowels are sometimes long before ft, 6)1, fl, tftfj, and in still other cases. The words will be given later under the respective vowels. In all these cases the consonants should be carried over to the next syllable wherever it is possible, so that the accented syllable may be open : D=ftern, busier, &c. Note. These vowels were long or were diphthongs in earlier periods of the language, and hence their length has nothing to do with the process of lengthening explained in i . b. Note, above. In general, long vowels have come down to us long, whatever their position may have been. There is, however, in our own period a tendency to shorten a long vowel before a combination of consonants, especially before i and n + consonant, and also before the simple consonantal sound fd) (/). In some words the vowels have already become short, as in btdjt (M.H.G. dihte), ftllttb (M.H.G. stuont), ging, futg, tying for older gteng, fiettg, fytettg, &c. In_othersthe quantity is at present doubtful : brafcfy or brafdj, toud)3 or h)lld)^, ttrnfff) or uJufdj, &c. (3) In many words from the Latin or Greek, the consonants between vowels, especially a stop (p, t, f, 6, b, g) + r or I, are carried over to the next syllable, as in the original. This leaves the pre- ceding syllable open, which according to German usage (see i. b. above) becomes long: SWutra, *8ie=tnm\, &c., also in words with secondary stress, as in 2Jir*fros(fov / / &c. B. Short: a. Simple vowels before double consonants, or two or more different consonants : atter, 4?unbe. b. Simple vowels before one consonant in some uninflected forms, and in a few inflected monosyllables that do not form open syllables in the course of inflection : an, in, a>, urn, if eg, utit, Son, 06, fctS, baS, bafj, rcag, bin, bift, iff, the article ber, beS, &c. (pronounced <&/?, afcs, &c. in careful speaking or declaiming, but ordinarily d^R, das, &c., with weak stress). Such monosyllables are, however, always long if they contain a ty, final r (except in the article), or accented 16 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 4.2.B.6. s em, sen : ttym, ttyn, rcer (ve:R\ fcor, empor', the demonstrative and rela- tive ber (de:R\ bem (de:m), ben (de:n\ &c. Note, (i) The reason that the vowel of most of the above words is short is that it always stands in a closed syllable. Formerly the vowel of monosyllabic nouns ending in a single consonant could also be short, as in ram, @ttt. At the beginning of the present period these same vowels became long in all lengthened forms in accordance with the new law that lengthened all short vowels in open syllables: rentes, @tte4e3. See I. b. above and Note thereunder. The long vowel of the lengthened forms, following the general trend toward uniformity throughout the same inflectional system, spread later to the closed syllables. Thus ram, @ttt became ram, er, &c. It also had the same effect medially in certain cases ; see A. d. (i) above. In S.G. vowels become long in closed syllables also before other consonants : Jlopf, c. Unaccented simple vowels are short except when final : Hjalten, efana,'nt3, , cfyiffafyrt, &c. Also the heavy suffixes at, jan, fear, fa I, tiim, fit, usually also fam, which were in part once independent words, form exceptions to the rule : 4?ei'rat, ^or/fear, &c. Note. Other vowels than e are, however, often found in unaccented syllables in foreign words, and it should be noted that they do not, except in final syllables, conform to the German rule for quantity. Foreign vowels except e are long when final : Sln'tta, (Sa'lomo, STtibl, &c. Also final e is long in a -few words : Stthe'ne, ftafft'mile, ge'the, &c. Elsewhere unaccented a, a, e, i, o, 6, u, it, which stand in an open syllable before a single consonant or a combination of consonants, vary from half long to short. Except in final syllables they are, however, unlike the usual short vowels in quality, but in this respect are exactly like the usual long vowels, only pronounced a little more quickly, and hence to distinguish them from the usual short sounds they will hereafter be marked by the breve w over the usual character for the long sound: 2JJigrdne (nii:gnt:'n3\ SDtfret (deiskRe:?). In long words the vowel that has secondary accent is often really long : @tt)tttologte (e:^ty:mH:l3:gi: r ). In a number of common words, however, the c, sometimes also e, is pronounced as short German o or e and the syllable becomes closed : Jlotonie (kolfcni:'}, Jtolonabe (kolona:' da\ Jlolonne (kolon'y], &olo$ (?//r), fotojfal (Mosa:! 1 ), Jtomttee (komt:te:'\ Jlrcfobil (kEokS:di:l'), djofolabe (faU:iafat\ Xropljae (tBofc'i), djealete$f (ftv&:bR*stT). In unaccented final syllables terminating in a consonant they have uniformly the usual pronunciation of the corresponding short German vowels : 35cftor (dok'tOB), SKetrilOT (me:'tRuni), Sober (ko:'dtks), 3flt)fhf (mys'tik}, &c., but fieobor (te:'S:do:s'} t &c. In many common words c becomes s instead of /: or if it follows an accent and sometimes even a secondary accent : Sljolera (ko'hsa:), Slvattcement (avay'symay'), &c. d. Long vowels become short in words which by reason of their 5. QUANTITY OF VOWELS 17 lack of logical importance in the sentence remain entirely without accent, but such vowels retain the quality they originally had as long vowels, and to distinguish them from the usual short vowels they are marked by a breve w over the usual character for the long sound : 3ir i'ft, a!3 o'b id) bie (d!:) a'nbe | Qlufg a'upt bit le'gen fo'ttt'. 3d? fya'b bid? geli'ebet fo (zo:) ma'ndjeg 3a'fyr. C. Rules for doubling to show that the vowel is short. A single consonant must be doubled after a short vowel, but in the following cases variations occur : a. The final consonant in the suffixes nig, in, ag, eg, ig, og, and ug remains single when no inflectional ending follows, but when an additional syllable is added, the g and n are doubled : bag efdngntg, but teg efdngmffeg, pi. bie efdngmffe ; bie .ftomgin, pi. bie Jtonigtnnen. b. Instead of double 3 the combination is used : bie Jtae. c. Instead of double f the combination rf is used : fcfyreden, but erfdpraf with only one f as the vowel is long. d. The combinations ng, jd?, $ are never doubled after a short vowel like the other characters representing simple consonantal sounds. Doubling does not take place here from an aversion to heaping up too many unsightly letters. Before ng and fcfy a simple vowel is quite uniformly short. Before d? the vowel is sometimes short, sometimes long, as will be noted below under the different vowels. e. When from a verbal stem containing a double consonant a derivative word is formed by means of the suffixes b, t, or jl, the double consonant becomes single : efatnft from ftrinnen ; ercinft from genrinnen ; efdjdft from fdjaffen ; funb from fennen ; eflalt from Men, &c. /. When a vowel in the suffix is dropped, bringing doubled consonants and a following consonant together, one of the doubled consonants is dropped, as there will still be two consonants left to show that the preceding vowel is short : rumt, .Rumt, ijj, bit biffefl; ityr 5t, fte apen. b. Before d? the vowel is sometimes short, sometimes long : bred?en, brad), gebrocfyen. PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIFFERENT VOWELS. 5. The following description of the vowels is only approximately correct. Even the most scientific analysis cannot take the place c PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 5. of viva voce pronunciation of sounds. The pronunciation given is for accented vowels unless otherwise stated. 6. (a). The front vowels, so called because in their formation the tongue is advanced to the front part of the mouth, are t, in, \, u, I, o, d (e), o in the order of the positions of the tongue, beginning in the front of the mouth and moving backward. (b). The back vowels in the order of the positions of the tongue, beginning a little behind the middle of the mouth and moving back- ward, are a, 5, o, u, u. (c). There is a vowel in which neither front nor back articulation prevails. This is unaccented e (2), which from its manner of articu- lation is called mixed e. See 21. FRONT VOWELS. The sounds of the front vowels follow in their order : 7. i. (a), i: (t), the high-front-narrow vowel (see 3. i.a and c), is pronounced like * in machine. It is found in accented open syllables and in closed ones before ty and r : ie=6e, tfym, mir ; also in other closed syllables which become open when an inflectional ending follows : @ttel, beg iogI>)'lJfien ; = f:e: in Qtopufat. (6) Unaccented ie =_/>, but = tV if it has secondary stress, totie (glo:'RJ9), but urg ; (5) 9 in Greek words (see Note) before one consonant, as in Qtfyt ; (6) u in open syllables, sometimes followed by a silent e, in words from the French : Note. In the more common words and in general in a natural unaffected pronuncia- tion l) is commonly pronounced /':, as in (Jenifer. Many, however, prefer to pronounce ty as y:, as they have become accustomed to this pronunciation in their study of Greek. 2. In unaccented open syllables u and ty have this same sound, only pronounced a little quicker : SBureau (by:Ro:\ See 4. 2. B. c. Note. 9. i. (a), i (t), the high-front-wide vowel, is pronounced much as i in pin. It is found only in closed syllables, as in ntit, Srrtitm, &c. (b). It is written : (i) usually i before two or more consonants : bitter ; (2) i in monosyllabic words which never form open syllables : tin, in, &c., see 4. 2. B. b ; (3) i in suffixes, as ig, ni3, in, &c. ; (4) i also in ^pril', Clique (klik'9), Jlaptt'et, S^er; (5) ie often in oiefleicfyt, QSicrtel, oierjefjn, fcterjig, friegji, friegt, friegte, gefriegt (but only in the meaning to get) ; (6) $ before two or more consonants in native German names, as in cfyir>ert, SBert, and in proper names, as in ^aiferSircrt^ ; also in erft, SBre^el (also $ve$el), Jtebgtreife, ^trebg (also kRtps), nebji, ftetg, and in the proper names 2)relben, i%le, $o=ne. Instead of this sound we often hear e: in Middle and South Germany and in parts of the North, especially among the lower classes. (b). This 5 is written : (i) 5 when final, or before a vowel or a single consonant, as in S 36, dvopo'e, tonen ; (2) 6 also before more than one consonant in 9Be^6rbe, SSorbe, and in proper names in sfotbe, sporbe; also in 336rfe, fyocfyfl, and the three proper names oen, )ft(et)retcfy, SBiirtf); (3) ol}, as in <6f)Ie, -^^e, &c. ; (4) oety in the Low German proper name Oetyntyaufen ; (5) eu in words from the French when final or before one consonant, as in abieu (adjJ)d'fhi3, &c. ; (3) dfy, as in mdfyen, &c. ; (4) ai in French words in open syllables, as in Calais (pak:'}\ (5) e before r (not silent r, but only when pronounced) in French words, as in 2)effert (). 17. (a), o (o), the mid-back-wide-round vowel, is somewhat like o in Noah, as usually heard in American English. The short o heard in New England in such words as 'coat," road/ &c., is still nearer the German sound. The German o must not be pronounced as o in English not, which is a low-back vowel, and hence has a lower position of the tongue than the German vowel. Be careful to give it its full sound in final unaccented syllables, and not to slur it as in unaccented syllables in English in such words as cannon. (b). It is written o : (i) before a double consonant, or two or more consonants, as in rott, @orte ; (2) before a single consonant in 33rombeere, 2)on, groB (in uninfl. form), rog, -^ocf^eit, Sot, orfceer, con, 33ortetl, and in final unaccented syllables, as in Softer. 18. i. (a), o:, the mid-back-narrow-round vowel, is like the o in heroic, as heard in American English, but the lips are more dis- tinctly rounded. In the English of England o is not a simple sound, but a diphthong. The German sound is pure o:. (b). It is written : (i) o when final or before a single consonant, as in fo, 9loaf), Otofe; o before cfy in fyocfy, but short in ito (but pronounced u in fyui, pfui), 25ube; (2) u in the suffixes turn and ut, as in Oleicfytum, 5lrmut ; (3) u before cfy in SBucfy, 29u$e, Sutcfy, Jtucfyen, fucfyen, $ucfy, SOBucfyer; (4) it before a combination of consonants in SOBucfyg, itucfyg (both also pronounced vuks), fyuften, puflen, cfyufier, 2Bitft, e&itrt, Sitbreig, rucfyfe, and proper names in ttj, n, as ^ung (also short) ; (5) uf), as in Jhtfy, &c. ; (6) ue in the name jfo^ebue; (7) oit before a single consonant or when final in French words, as in our, 9tenbqt>ou3 (Rayde:vu: f ) ; (8) oe in Dutch words, as in 33oer (more commonly written 3Bur), c. 2. In unaccented open non-final syllables, u has the same sound, only pronounced a little more quickly : SKitlatte (mu'.lat'z). See 4. 2. B. c. Note. THE MIXED VOWEL t (9). 21. 9 (unaccented e), the mid-mixed-narrow vowel, is a sound somewhat like the a in sofa. It is only found in unaccented syllables, as in lie'Sen, ge'fce, pin'fcet, fceltebt'; in the enclitics (see 57. B and C) ber, beg, bent, ben, eg, &c. In the final unaccented syllables el, em, en, er, the e often naturally drops out in ordinary language : rtttn for rttten, &c. DIPHTHONGS. 22. ei is pronounced much as i in mine. It is written : (i) ei, as in (Si, (Stein; (2) at, as in SKat; (3) ety in proper names, as in SKetyer; (4) aty in proper names, as in SBatyern ; (5) ij (19) in Dutch names, as in 3ifiel (S)f[el). 23. au is pronounced much as ou in loud. It is always written au. Note. In some foreign words au represents two vowels each forming a syllable : Jlaper'naum, SKenela'uS, &c. 24. ett is pronounced much as oy in boy. It is written : (i) ett, as in eu, but for exceptions see Note 2, below ; (2) tin, as in glaufcig, but see Note 3 for exceptions ; (3) ot in a few Low German words, as 3Boi, afyoi, 'JSotfcenhtrg, &c., and the foreign word ^eofoi'e (or more commonly et>foje hfko:'J3] ; (4) 09 in Low German names and a few foreign words, as |>ot)er.3>cerba, SD^igDtoi) ; Xrotygeretcfyt, asoty'en ; (5) iett in Cteutenant (loitnanf), better SJeutnant ; (6) ui in Dutch words, as in 3iberfee. Note i. (Ju and dlt are variously pronounced in the different dialects. Note 2. In some words eu represents two vowels each forming a syllable : S^ebi'ltBt, 33accalau'rcu$, &c. Note 3. In some foreign words dlt represents two vowels each forming a syllable : Subild'ttm, 2Rattf)d'u<3, &c. NASAL VOWELS. 25. In many of the later loan-words from the French, nasal vowels, which are indicated by a following m or n, are pronounced as in the 24 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 26. A. original : am, an, em, en = a, i. e. nasal a ; ain, etn, im, in = e ; om and on= 3 ; urn and un =&, when the m or n is not doubled or followed by a vowel. This pronunciation, however, prevails only in the South and parts of the Midland. In the North a, e, o, &, are quite generally replaced by the nearest native sounds, ay, cy, oy, ay, i. e. a, f, o, & followed by y (see 36. b): Chance, @ntm, 93afftn, Nation, ^erbun, $arfum, pronounce fay'sa, aytRe:', basey', baloy', vtRdcey', paR/oey' (more commonly Sparfum pa,Rfy:m'\ In a few thoroughly naturalized words these endings are pronounced as in German : 33atiuUon (batal- jo:ri\ 23atfou (balko:n f or balkoy'), arnifon (gaRrii:zo:ri\ &c. MUTATION (Umlaut) OF VOWELS. 26. A. Mutation of the Back Vowels. The vowels a, o, u, and the diphthong au, are modified or mutated, as it may be called, when an i or j follows in the next syllable, or in the second succeeding syllable : <5tunbe, fliinbltd) ; SJhtttcr, mutterUd) ; Sftaum, raumlid) ; but there are some exceptions, as gebufbtg, fcfyulbio,, &c. The cause of mutation cannot usually be seen in the present period of the language, as the i or j which formerly stood in the following syllable has disappeared or decayed to the form of e : dfie (pi. of aft), but O.H.G. gesti; ndtjren, but O.H.G. nerian. The mutation of a was in earlier times written e, which is in part still preserved: brennen, brannte, &c. The mutated vowels have in different periods been designated in different ways. In earlier N.H.G. it was common to write an e over or alongside of the vowels, but at present the usual sign of mutation is two dots above the vowels, which are the remnants of the e of former times. Older usage survives in a_ few names: oetlje, &c. Also sometimes after capitals : 9le, De, Ue; usually Si, D, li. The pronunciation of these mutated sounds has been treated above. When the i or j, which are pronounced in the front part of the mouth, followed the back vowels a, o, it, and the diphthong ait, the result was that the back sounds were modified, the tongue shifting more to the front in unconscious anticipation of the following i or j. Note. Mutation is still an active force, but its spread is brought about by quite a different cause. The cause of mutation in former times was the physiological one mentioned above, the present cause of mutation is the psychological one of analogy. Thus certain grammatical groups which from physiological reasons suffered mutation in former periods have so influenced other groups that they too have assumed mutated form. For an example of mutation by analogy see 66. a. B. A-Mutation. This is also a change of sound in the stem under the influence of the following vowel. The vowels i and u were in earlier periods changed to e and o respectively, when an a, e, or o followed in the next syllable. This change is called a-mutation from the frequency of the mutation under the influence of a following a. The change of / to e, while not an extensive one, took place in a number of cases. Illustrative examples are given in 198, I. Division, d\ 2. Division, d\ 199, 1. Division, , but eAiTrov. In English vowel grada- tion often exists, although it is not indicated by the orthography : historian (histo:'rt3n), history (his'tart). As can be seen from the examples, loss of accent is accompanied by a reduction of the vowel element. This force can now often be seen only in its effects, as the difference of accent has in most part disappeared : ca'pio, acci'pio (formerly ac'cipio, hence reduction of stem vowel). Vowel gradation is now most clearly to be observed in strong verbs, and for practical reasons this subject is discussed under that head ; see 187. A. CONSONANTS. 27. General Rule. Unlike vowels, which do not change their quantity and pronunciation from the addition of inflectional endings, consonants may change considerably their sound in certain posi- tions, as noted below (in articles 29-37) under the different consonants : lefen to read, bit Iteft ; lie^en to lie, bu liegft ; here the f and g in the different words have different sounds. THE ASPIRATE $. 28. > is pronounced like // in hand, only more forcibly. Only the initial f) of a stem syllable, be it a simple word, a compound, or a suffix, has this pronunciation : alt, Ulntyalt, SBetSfyett. The fy is pronounced medially in Dt;cim and Qlfjorn, as they are compounds, or are felt as compounds. The fy is still sounded in 5Bill)elm, &c., but in some compound names, as 9Baltfyer (now also written ^Baiter), SJiatfjilbe (also written SKatilbe), &c., it is silent, as the names are not vividly felt as compounds. The medial fy is naturally pronounced in the onomatopoetic forms ltf)u, <8cfyut)u, also the exclamations afya', of)o'. Medial t) is also pronounced in foreign words : 3efeoa^, 9ttfofyol, (Sahara, fontrnt)ieren, &c. In all German words medial and final f) have elsewhere become silent except in the South-west (especially in Baden, Switzerland, Tyrol), where it can still be heard medially between vowels, as in fcfyen. It must, indeed, have thus been pronounced medially throughout a large part of Germany up to a comparatively recent date, or it would not have come down to us so well preserved here in the orthography. Since the fifteenth century, however, t) does not possess exclusively an etymological value, as many new unhistorical fy's have been inserted merely as a sign to show that the preceding vowel is long. As it often stands where the preceding vowel would be clearly marked as long without its assistance, the new official rules require here its omission in many cases, as Otat instead of Otatfy, while in others they incon- 26 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 28. sistently allow it to stand. This inconsistency is easily justified in those cases where the fy is not a mere sign to show the length of the preceding vowel, but is an etymological part of the stem which has in course of time become silent, although in other words of the same origin the f) appears in the older form of a pronounced cfy : fefjen (pro. ze:~9ri) to see, but <2id?t sight. The silent ty has been allowed to stand, especially in words with a stem ending in I, m, n, r, where, however, there does not seem to be any good reason for using it : 5lt)Ie, ritfjmen, fitfynen, futyren, &c. An h is in N.G. often pronounced after , t, f (as also in English), although no printed character here represents it ; see 29. a. Note. According to its formation ^ is a vowel, differing, however, from other vowels in that it is voiceless. It always has the mouth position of the following vowel. Thus lju is a voiceless it followed by a voiced it, and Jja is a voiceless o followed by a voiced a, &c. The one character 1} stands thus, not for one sound, but for a number of different voiceless vowels. Jp is classed here as a consonant because it is invariably used as a consonant and also has the acoustic effect of a consonant, namely, that of a voiceless spirant. STOPS : voiceless , t, f ; voiced B, b, g. 29. The voiceless stops p, t, f are pronounced much as in English. The voiced stops 6, b, g are, according to the standard of the stage, pronounced as in English, when they stand at the beginning of a word, or elsewhere before a vowel or voiced consonant, but when final (end of word or syllable) or next to a voiceless consonant they become voiceless , t, i : (voiced) bteten, bag, gut ; but final 6, b, g in ob, >un&, ag, and >e&irig to be pronounced voiceless, as op, hunt, ta:k, and he:tvif, also B, b, g in 5l6t, [beg] (SibS, Itegt to be pronounced voiceless, as apt, aits, li:kt. This change of sound from fc to }) and b to t at the end of a syllable, or next to a voiceless consonant, is well established in the North, but that of g to f has, although supported by the stage and many scholars, not yet become general usage. The g in these positions is in the North still usually a spirant and is pronounced as the voiceless spirants cfy in idj and ad? (see 32. 3. a and b). Good usage in the North has, however, decided for the stage pronunciation g initially, and there is a tendency to it medially, especially strong in foreign words, but the general pronunciation of medial g is still j or g as described in 34. 3 and 4 and 35. 3 and 4. In the South the g in all these positions is pronounced as k ; see a. After the palatal nasal n, g is usually entirely silent : jtng, ftngen ; see 36. b. a. In Middle and South Germany b, b, g lack voice element, and hence it is often difficult for us to distinguish in these sections between b and \\ b and t, g and f. There is sometimes, however, a real difference between M.G. and S.G. voiceless b, b, g and v, t, f, namely, the explosion of the latter is more sudden and is followed by an h sound. Thus a German from Prague pronounces 2)u bifi ein guteg ^inb as tu: pist afot kuitas khint. North Germans usually pronounce (as we do also in English) the 1) after , t, f, but Middle and South Germans only initially at the most, and some only after initial f before vowels, and some do not distinguish at all between b, t, g and p, t, f. As differing from the above, it should, however, be noted that in M.G. and 30. 6. STOPS 27 in part in S.G. (large part of S.E.) medial b between vowels, or after I or r before a vowel, is pronounced as the voiced v spoken in M.G. and S.G. : Siebe, Sarbe, pro. U:v3,faKvs. In sections of the South- West it is voiceless v. In the North the popular pronunciation of g is that of a spirant : initially j, f , g, or x ; medially and finally according to the general usage described above, with the exception that it often becomes voiceless medially in the Midland. b. In derivatives and compounds these stops are pronounced voiceless if they stand at the end of either component: 9Jbatt (dpattt). In that case (see 41. 3. a), however, where the final stop is carried over to the next syllable, it is pronounced voiced : be;0;foad}ten. HOW THE STOPS ARE WRITTEN. 30. i. The p sound is written or ^ (after a short vowel), as in , OJappe ; b finally and also medially before a consonant except sometimes before the suffixes lein, lid), ling, where b is pronounced p or b : ab (ap), ob (op), Qlbt (apt), ^ndblein (kne.-p'lam or kncb'lain). 2. The / sound is written t or tt (after a short vowel), as in fctt; t^ in German names, as oetfye, but Christian names rather than ert^a, &c. ; 4 in many foreign words, as in Sterna, Sfyemfe, &c. ; b finally and also medially before a consonant, except sometimes before the suffixes lein, licfy, ling, where b is pronounced / or d, as in 2>hmb (munt\ tfubttig (lu:tvif), Jtinfclein (kintlain or kind- lain} ; bt in a few words, as in @tabt, fanbte, ferebt, &c. 3. The k sound is written : (i) f or cf (after a short vowel), as in faljl, bicf ; (2) d; in a number of words where it is followed by an f or 8 which forms a part of the stem, as in Dd?3, Dcfyfen, but not in (be3) 5?ud?8, icacfysfam, &c. ; (3) d) also in many foreign words, as in Gt)or, see 32. 3. a. Note. (2); (4) q before it, as in Giiette (kveh] ; (5) in parts of the North, g after n when final or before voiceless con- sonant, as in ging (gt'yk), brtngft (bRiyksf)', (6) g also elsewhere in a few isolated words, as flugS, Augsburg, rog ; (7) gg finally, or medially before a consonant, as in SBrigg, flaggt ; (8) c in many foreign words, as in dognac (kon'jak], or now better in German spelling Jtognaf ; (9) also cc in some foreign words, as in QlccorY, now better in German spelling 5tfforb. 4. The b sound is written only b or bb (after a short vowel) : 2Bat)n, 5. The d sound is written only b or bb (after a short vowel) : bit, Rlabbe. Note. The b is silent in a few words from the French : JJonbS (foy), ), &c. 6. The g (voiced stop as in English g in go) sound is written : (i) g initially, as in gut ; (2) also medially in many foreign words, especially those in which g stands before a consonant or an accented vowel, as in Agraffe, (Suange'ltitm ; (3) gg medially after a short vowel when followed by a vowel, as in frlagge; (4) gu before a front vowel in foreign words, as in mtar're, or now better in German spelling itarre ; (5) gt) in foreign words, as in fytbefline, fyetto (or etto). 20 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 31. SPIRANTS. 31. Voiceless f, 8 (f, ff, $), <$, g, fd> ; voiced n, f, \, g, t. Spirants like stops vary in part in pronunciation according to their position, as will be noted in the following articles. 32. Voiceless spirants f, 8 (f, ff, f ), d), g, fd?. 1. f is pronounced as/ in fine: fitnf, &c. 2. 8 (s) sounds nearly like ss in moss, but is narrower in its tongue articulation, that is, has a somewhat smaller air-channel between the tongue and the teeth-roots, which gives the hiss a higher pitch : aug, @i, &c. 3. The spirants d? and g are not found in English. Their pro- nunciation depends upon their position : a. Medially and finally after a front vowel (see 6. a, above) or any consonant, initially in some foreign words (see Note, below), and always in the diminutive suffix d?en, d? has a sound somewhat similar to that of English y in yes pronounced without voice (see art. 3. 2), but it is much stronger, the tongue is also brought closer to the front part of the hard palate : ftecfyen, id?, erd?e, Qfyirurg, 2ftat>d)en. Also g final or before a consonant has the same sound when it follows a front vowel or any consonant : @teg, legt, 93crg. The phonetic symbol for this sound is f. Note. In foreign words i) can also form the initial sound of a syllable. Its pronunciation in this position depends in part upon the origin of the word : (i) In Greek words it is pronounced f before a front vowel and sometimes before a consonant : (Shemte, (Sfyrie (fBt:'y), &c. (2) In Greek words before a back vowel and usually also before a consonant it is pronounced k: (fjaraf'ter, dljctfra, (Sfjor, Gftrifi, &c. (3) In Greek words between vowels &) is pronounced as in German words, i.e. f after front vowels and all consonants, and x after back vowels : SKedjanif (me:fa:'nik}, 3lrd)e, Drdje'fter (also oskts'tes), ^typodjonbrie (hy:p8:xondni?\ (4) In French words it is pronounced f initially and medially : (Sfytca'ne (now better written (cfyifane), (SfiofoU'be (Span, but with French pronunciation of dj ; better @d)tff, &c. ; (2) & in a few German words, as in Q3ater, letter, 33.4.* SPIRANTS 29 eoatter, 93efyne (better fteme), & C r*, 93telj, trie!, trier, 23Iie3 (93Itefi), 93ogef, 23olf, oU, om, con, cor, t>orr>er, jitoorberfi, ttorn, gre&el, and in a few proper names, as 3Silmar, SSircfyoro, 23o, QSifcfyer, &c. ; 4?a&el, $elt>ecfe (town), &c. ; (3) finally in all foreign words, as in affit>, medially in Jiaroe, sometimes in bratte (Jterle), Oietoen, $uler (often), toloncctt (vi:o:lonftl r ) c here better = ^except in (licerone (tsl:t&Ro:'n9)} (6) x in 2)on .Ouirote (day' kifof) ; (7) contained in d? in English words (see 32. 3. a. Note (5)) and also in uttapercfya (gutaptR'tfa:, also gutapexfa:); (8) contained in the Slavonic tfcfy or C J ( = { f)t as m f and t is usually pronounced as in German words, but in a few cases, especially compounds where the origin of the word is not vividly felt, and hence fp or \i are not felt as the initial part of a stem syllable, there is some fluctuation in usage : SnjUnft (inftiykt' or instiykf), &.C. b. In Hanover, Holstein, Friesland, and Mecklenburg, initial f before \> and t is pronounced as voiceless s instead of/: stain instead offfafn (Stein). c. In the Southwest ft, fp are pronounced]// 1 , fp also finally and medially ; not only so in dialect, but often also by the educated classes : kunft, bynfe?, hafpsl instead of .Runfi, QJurflc, afpd. In some M.G. dialects f is heard for z after r : bjitfe instead of SBcrfe. In the dialect of Berlin f is heard after r for s and 3 for z: SDurft (duRft), itfe (htsy). 30 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 34. i. VOICED SPIRANTS n, f, j, g, j or g (both = 5), r. 34. i. w (v) is much like v in wry. It is formed with the lips and teeth in much the same way, but is not quite as distinctly buzzed as the English v. It is pronounced in South and Middle Germany as v, a bilabial sound, pronounced with both lips, some- what like our English w, but with the important exception that it lacks the rounding of the lips and does not raise the tongue to the position of u as in English. The S.G. m is not accompanied by a buzz as in the North. N.G. ic is sometimes bilabial after a con- sonant, or when written it after q, as in , as in rcofyf ; (2) f in a large section of the North when the f stands before a vowel of an inflectional ending, in case of nouns and adjectives whose simple stem ends in f, as in (teS) SSrtefeS (bRi.-'vas), fleifer (ftai'vaR), but the/ sound should be preferred here, as the v sound, although supported by historic considerations, is now generally considered dialectic, and does not seem likely to spread ; (3) initially and medially in foreign words, as in 93a(e, ^affi'oa, but never when final, as in pciffto (past:/'}; (4) o medially in Low German words, as in lufcen ; (5) u after q, as in Dual (kva:l); (6) it after f in SiSfuif; (7) u after 9 in inguift', $tnguin, fangui'nifd) ; (8) u after z, as in erfee, also in a few other foreign words, as aje, >ajatb', 99a$ar', SSejiet', &c., now better written Oafarb, 93afar, SBeftr. a. In a final syllable, e is often dropped, and the omission expressed by an apostrophe, or left unexpressed. In these cases an f before the suppressed vowel is pronounced voiced or voiceless according as the force of the omitted vowel is felt or the consonant is felt as a final one: blafe (2nd person imper.) or blaf (voiced) or blag (voiceless). If in a contracted word voiced f comes to stand before a suffix, it is pronounced and written as a voiceless & : afe, but b. In all the above positions f is voiceless in the South, as can be seen in the rhymes of the poets from this section: Unb ttrie mit be3 fernen 3)onner etofe | entjliirjt ts bruflenb bent fxnftetn djojje (Schiller). 3. j is written : (i) i only as initial letter, as in j;a ; (2) g medially when followed by a vowel and preceded by a front vowel or by a consonant, as in @iege, 93er$e ; (3) g medially also when followed by I, m, n, or r in the stem, but if these consonants do not form a part of the stem, the pronunciation of g here is f, as in regnen Re.-jnm (stem regen), QSbgletu ftjtjlain (stem 93ogd), inoglid? mfatif (stem mog) ; medial g in all of the cases given in (2) and (3) is also pronounced g ; (4) i unaccented between a consonant and a vowel, as in 8'cumlte fami:'lJ3, Nation natsjo:n' (the j more or less voiceless after the voiceless consonant); (5) ij in some foreign words, as in Q)anfcc (jey'ki:}, lotyal (lo:jaf) t Ototyaltjl' (Rojalistf] ; (6) also contained in the combinations U, ifl, and gn in French (and in the last case also Italian) words: 93outettte (bfcttl'ja), 3)itgnon (tninjoy'), Sampagne (kampan'p\ see also 39. 5. 4. There is but one way of writing g, namely, g after back vowels when followed by a vowel, as in iBflgen. The pronunciation g is also heard here. 82 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 35.5. 5. 3 (voiced fd?) is written : j in French words, as in Journal 7 ; g (before e or i) in French or Italian words, as in geniereu, 8ogt (ld:$i/) ; ge in French words, as in >ergeant (eenjanf); jor g in some English words, as in 3ocfety (ety = e: or of), entleman, also pronounced d$ (see 30. 4) in accordance with the English, or in S.G. and M.G./or tf. 6. The R sound is written : r, as in rot ; rr after a short vowel, as in Barren ; rf) in German proper names and in Greek words, as in jRfjetn, Sftfyavfo'be ; trf) in Greek words, as in Jtatarrfy'. NASALS. 36. a. The labial and lingual nasals m and n are pronounced as English m and n in mad and nag: -Kagb, anb. They are always written m, n, or after a short vowel mm, nn. b. The palatal nasal n is pronounced as ng in English singer. The character n that represents this palatal nasal is the same as the one that represents the lingual n, but they can easily be distinguished from each other, as the palatal n is always followed by another palatal (g, f, c, cf) : in <on, &c. ; (2) in Dfcacfyt, be ofcacfyten, einanber, fcollenben, &oftenb8, &c. ; (3) in foreign compounds, as tynobe, Sntereffe, &c. The glottal stop is not especially indicated in this treatise. CONSONANTAL COMBINATIONS. 39. The following consonantal combinations are discussed here, as they may present some difficulties. 1. pf represents a compound of the simple sounds p and f, the p passing over into f before the closure is completed. The pho- netists and grammarians still hold to this compound, but the people in a large part of the North and Midland pronounce only f, especially in the initial position : Serb (fe:Rt) instead of $ferb (pfe:Rt), &c. 2. x represents a compound of the two simple consonants f and 3. ks is written : (i) t, as in 5lrt ; (2) d)8 and cfyf, as in Dd?8, Defy fen ; (3) U, as in (i>e8) SlBerf 8 ; (4) tf f or cf 8, as in I tecffen, Jtlecf8 ; (5) 98, as in ffogg, Sagfl (Salt), QlugSfcurg. 34 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 39.3. 3. g represents a compound of the simple consonants t and 8. ts is written : (i) $ initially, or elsewhere after a long or half long vowel, as in $et)n, bujen, infyijterett (infpl-tsi:' wri) ; (2) $ after a long vowel in a few proper names, as @ra (now usually raj), &c. ; (3) I regularly after a short vowel, as in Jtafce ; (4) tf, t, as in iHatfel, (w8) od?mut ; (5) tt8, as in (be8) Stitta ; (6) bt, as in 93obenj*ebt8 (gen. of a proper name); (7) tfeg, as in Breiligratfyg (gen. of a proper name); (8) b8, as in (beg) SBabg ; (9) c or often better 3 in foreign words before front vowels, as in Accent' or ${f$ent (akisenf); (10) t before an i that stands before a vowel, as in patient (patsjtntf), but not in French words where t'e=t: f as in ^artie (paRti:'); (n) 33 in words from the Italian : ranbe^jci, (Sftjje, &c. 4. The compound sound d^, which is like g in gentleman, is represented in print by j or g in words taken from the English : SocfeS) (d$oke:), entlenum. However, these letters are often pro- nounced as 3 (34. 5) : $oke; or %okai. See also 35. 5. 5. In the popular language of the North fl after i, and it and tfl after another vowel not initial, are pronounced Ij medially and /f in the final position in all words taken from the French : SBiflet {biljut}) SKebaitte (me:datJ3\ ^auteuil (fo:tcel$'\ The pronunciation of the medial Ij has become established also in the language of the educated in a number of common words, as SfebatU'e, SBoutUon', Sfteoeitt'e, SBiflef, ^ofltnon', &c., but the final If finds little favor. Aside from the list just mentioned, educated people prefer to pro- nounce these sounds more in accordance with the French, j in the medial, *'(as the second element in the diphthong at) in the final position : ^eutfleton (fcejatoy'), ^cwteittl (fo:toei f ), detail (de:tai'\ &c. 6. In French and Italian words gn is pronounced nj: Gfyampagner (famparijzR), (Jam^agne, &c. For gn in other foreign words see 36. ft (5)- 7. qu is pronounced in the North more commonly kv than v (see 34. i), both in German and foreign words : Ouette (kvd f 3\ Ouabrat (kva:dRa:t\ &c. In a number of words from the French, however, qu is pronounced k : Ouarantcine (kaRayte: 'n9], Oueue (k:\ SSouquet or better SSufett', 2)?arqui6 (maRkt:'), S^carqut'fe, &c. These words are still felt as French words and follow more or less closely the French pronunciation, but in case of older loan-words the pronunciation has become German, as in Duitt (kvit). BRIEF HISTORY OF GERMAN CONSONANTS. THEIR RELATION TO THOSE OF OTHER LANGUAGES. 4O. i. Consonants form in every language the strong enduring trunks of linguistic growth, and thus remain tolerably constant throughout the centuries, both in the original language and in related tongues, also in words which have passed from one people to another. Thus the consonants in German and English are much the same. Although consonants in general have thus 40. i. a. HISTORY OF GERMAN CONSONANTS 35 not changed radically their nature as have vowels, a number of them have nevertheless a clearly marked development, which furnishes important data for determining the relation of languages to each other. There are three distinct periods of development. The first period, which represents the original order of things, is found in a large measure preserved in Latin, Greek, and other older languages, and their modern forms such as modern Greek, Italian, French, Russian, &c. The second period appears in Gothic, Scandinavian, Low German, and hence also in English, which in its original stock of words is Low German. This first change, or shifting, took place in prehistoric Germanic. The third period appears in High German. This second shifting began in the fifth, and is clearly marked in the seventh century. It did not, however, take place with the same completeness in the different dialects, the shifting in the case of certain consonants being defec- tive or entirely wanting in large sections of the country. After the second great shift had taken place certain other consonants manifested in certain parts of the country new peculiarities. These new sounds spread to other sections, while, on the other hand, certain districts preserved faithfully the older forms. At the present there is a great variety of dialects in the German-speaking territory, differing in grammatical form and phonetical elements, but in the midst of them all the literary language flourishes, drawing from them strength and beauty. It would greatly impoverish this language if all the purely dialectic words which have been embodied in it should be withdrawn. A brief history of the more difficult and characteristic consonantal changes and their relations to the different dialects and kindred languages is here given in the hope that it may prove helpful to the student in increasing his appreciation of the language. a. Where we have in the parent language (Indo-European) bh, dh, gh, which in Latin and Greek developed into f (in Latin also b), th (Q in Greek, but f, d, or b in Latin), \ ( m Greek x ? i n Latin h or g), we have in Gothic, Low German and English b (in English, however, appearing as b initially, v medially, and f finally), d, g (in English also written w, y, i, medially or finally), and in High German b, t (sometimes written tf)), 3. In passing from the second to the third period, bb (now written b in English) and gg (often appearing as dg in English) usually become pp, (f. Examples : First Period, Second Period, Third Period, Latin and Greek. English (First Shifting). German (Second Shifting). /rater, lu^et brother, love, grave, SSruber, Itebcn, gtaben, cal/ r\b (O.E. ribb) Jtalb, Oiippe. 6vpa, fores floor Siir (f)iir). \opros , Coitus ; orei'xo)} garden ; to sty or stey ; arteit, ftcifjen ; ve-sti^ium ; ve^o, way (O.E. weg), borrow, SBeg, borfjni, ha/1 ; we, df : Jtrabbe (Eng. crab), flugge (Eng. fledge). Such words have been borrowed from the Low German, which in general has much influenced the literary language. Note 2. Within the third period the t that had developed from Germanic d became voiced after nasals, and thus regained its former sound: (O.H.G.) bintan, hunt, &c. ; (N.H.G.) btnben, -unt), &c. In a few words, however, the t remained : fytnter, tyinten, untcr, unten, inunter, also in the conjugation of verbs, as riamite, fonnte, &c., after the analogy of Uebte, &c. Note 3. The characters b, d, g do not represent the same sounds in different periods and different parts of the same territory. At the commencement of the first shifting they were voiced spirants, and later developed quite generally into stops in S.G. In English they became stops initially, and d also elsewhere (for exception see Note 4) , and also Q sometimes elsewhere, especially after a nasal and in a number of cases D 2 36 HISTORY OF GERMAN CONSONANTS 40. i.a. when doubled : guest, longer, wag (O.E. *waggian). In N.G. and M.G., however, g is still in most positions a spirant. For full explanation see 29 and also a there- under. Also in English, g remained a spirant medially and finally. Later it developed into a w, y, or i, and still later after variously influencing the preceding vowel became entirely silent : borgian (O.E.), borrow (N.E.) ; weg (O.E.), way (N.E.) ; hagol (O.E.), hail (N.E.). In M.G. and a part of S.G., also medial b has remained a spirant, as explained in 29. a. In English we have the survivals of Germanic spirant b in medial v and final f, as calves, calf. For another group of b's, d's, g's which has joined this one, and had the same development, see 2. a, below. Note 4. In a number of English words, Germanic d (including the tfs which resulted from th in accordance with Vemer's Law ; see 2. a, below) has in com- paratively recent times developed into a voiced th before (e)r, and found a corresponding expression in the orthography : father (O.E. feeder), SSatet ; mother (O.E. modor), 2Rutter; weather, Sktter, &c. b. Where in Greek and Latin we have the voiceless stops p, t, k (c, q), we find in Gothic, Low German, and English the voiceless spirants f, th (d in modern L.G.), h (in English also written gh), and in High German f, b, I) ($) The character h does not represent the same sound in the different periods. Early in the second period, immediately after the first shifting, it was pro- nounced as (f). Even as early as the Gothic period it had become h, at least initially. It is in the German of our time always pronounced as h initially, and elsewhere is silent, except when final or before a t, where the older pro- nunciation is still sometimes preserved, and is indicated by the character d) : footer, but fyodj ; feljen, but efid)t. Also in English, h has become h initially, elsewhere it has disappeared, or is represented by gh, which is now silent or pronounced as f. The various changes of p, t, k (c, q) in the different periods are illustrated by the following examples : First Period, Second Period, Third Period, Latin. English (First Shifting). German (Second Shifting). jZtes /oot %fr$ /res />5ree bvei COT, se^uor (enu> ; see ^eart, si^/Jt and see, ^perg, cjt4>t and fefyen, 2. b, below) hi^/%, rough fyof|), tauj). Note i. The sounds p, t, k did not shift in the combinations sp, st, sk, ft, ht (d)t), but remained here unchanged throughout the two shiftings : spuo (L.), spew (E.), fpeieu (G.) ; hostis(L.).gasts (Gothic), guest (E.), aft (G.) ; piscis (L.), fisc (O.E.), rise (O.H.G.). Later sk developed into f (written sh in English, fd) in German) : fisc (O.E.), but fish (N.E.) ; fisc (O.H.G.), but ftifdj (N.H.G.). For the change of sound in case of f in fp and fl in initial position see 2. g, below. As will be seen from the above examples, the combinations sp, st, sk existed in the first period and survived two shiftings. The Germanic combinations ft and ht, however, resulted from Indo-European pt and kt, the first sound in each combination shifting regularly in the first shifting, the second sound remaining unchanged. The resulting ft and ht (djt) have since remained intact with the exception that the h ( ; needle, 9iabc{, &c. While Germanic th developed into German b, Germanic thth became tt : the, bcr ; lath (M.E. la]>J>e), gatte ; moth (O.E. mo)>)>e), 2otte ; feather, gittid) (O.H.G. fethdhah). Note 3. Indo-European p, t, k have been seemingly preserved in Germanic where they stood before an accented syllable with initial n. The Indo-European p, t, k became, according to rule, f, th, h (dj), which according to Verner's Law (see 2. a, 40. i.e. RELATION TO OTHER LANGUAGES 37 below) developed into b, d, g, as the preceding vowel was unaccented. By assimila- tion the bn, dn, gn became bb, dd, gg. Simple b, d, g were spirants, but bb, dd, gg developed into stops, and later became voiceless pp, tt, ck, perhaps at the same time that Indo-European b, d, g became p, t, k, as described in c below. In the second shifting pp, tt, ck became, according to c, below, pf, , cf, so that in case of k there is no difference of sound in the three periods : du^o (L.), tuc& (Eng.), jucf en. Related words will have different sounds here, according as the p, t, k were originally simple sounds or were followed by an accented n : tie (O.E. lifan, the regular h having developed into g according to Verner's Law) and tuc ; jpg Qiefyen), jUCfen. c. Where in Greek and Latin we find the voiced stops b, d, g, we find in Gothic, Low German, and English p, t, k (c, q, in English also ch, tch), and in High German two different groups, according to their position in the word pf, j, f, on the one hand, and f, & (ft, fj), $ on the other. In passing from the second to the third period, p became pf initially, also after nt, and when derived from pp, but elsewhere f ; t became g () initially, also after a con- sonant, and when derived from tt, but elsewhere became $, ff, or jj ; k became d) only medially and finally after a vowel, elsewhere remaining f ; kk (now written ck), however, did not shift in any position. These changes may be illustrated by the following examples : First Period, Second Period, Third Period, Latin. English (First Shifting). German (Second Shifting). b (rare) (i) pool, (2) stum/, (3) (i) Pfitfi(, (2) tumpf la&um (corresponding hy//en (Middle Eng. ; (3) lju&fen, (4)8efje, (5) to 4) now prov. Eng. hip = tief, (6) ftelfen. hop), (4) li/, (5) dee/, (6) he!/ Secern, cor (confls) /en, hear/, si//an (O.E. ; jefin, erj, ftfcen, effen, e$. now sit), ea/, i/ yo/e, bae, cold, drin/, Sort), barfjen or bacf fit , \\ck (Note 4) ; (A^/^5),fatt,trtnfen,me^ , stretch ? en, lecfett ; 33anf,flrerfen. Note i . As Germanic p became either pf or f, we would not expect to find any p's in German except those that came from Germanic bb and sp according to a and b (Note i), above, but in fact we find a considerable number of other p's and pp's. They are not exceptions to the rule, but are loan-words in large part from the Low German : picfen, pllffen, ^IWlpe, fyumpeln, JJnuppet, &c. Also from other languages : *)3aft (L.), 5|>avate (Fr.), &c. There is another list of words containing p from another source. As explained in 29. a, South Germans pronounce b as an unaspirated p. In earlier periods, when the orthography conformed more closely to the spoken language without regard for historical considerations, these South Germans often wrote p instead of the historical b. They also introduced into the language many foreign words in which the original b's appeared as p's. A number of these remained : Banter (Fr. banniere), *ebe(( (M.L. bidellus), $ofal (Ital. boccale), &c. On the other' hand, these same South Germans had lost their original aspirated p through its shifting to pf and f, and they were no longer familiar with this sound. They had difficulty in reproducing and representing the aspirated p's of other languages. Thus p appears in a number of words as b, the character often used by South Germans interchangeably with p as the designation of their own unaspirated p, for this was the nearest sound and most appropriate character available in their language and alphabet : 33tnt6 (L. pumex), &c. Note 2. Tt (or t) before (e)r (older r) did not shift in the change from the second to the third period : baitrs (Gothic), bitter (Eng.), bitter (G.) ; wintrus (Gothic), winter (Eng.), SB inter (G.) ; otter (Eng.), Otter (G.) ; true (Eng.), tretl (G.). Note 3. The student might naturally think there would be no double t s in German aside from those in the words given in Note 2, as the others shifted to fc.. There are, however, a number of tt's, not exceptions to the rule but mere orthographical forms. At the beginning of the N.H.G. period all simple consonantal sounds except x, f, y were written with a double character after a short vowel. Hence in this way Germanic d often became tt in H.G. : sled, djlitten J stead, jiatt, &c. 38 HISTORY OF GERMAN CONSONANTS 4O. i.e. Note 4. English lick and German (edf en are related to Latin lingere and Greek \d\nv to lick, and it would seem at the first glance that Latin g and Greek x, which came from Indo-European gh (see a, above), belonged to group a, and that ck of the English and German words belonged here. An intermediate change, however, is hidden from view. From the Greek and Latin words we see that the original word actually belonged to group a, and the Gothic laigon to lick, which is the corre- sponding Germanic form of the second period, confirms this view. The Germanic stem lig-, however, had another form, lign-, which was formed by adding the accented suffix n. Later this form became ligg- by assimilation. Double b, d, g did not remain spirant b, d, g throughout the early Germanic period as did the simple sounds, but developed along with the bb, dd, gg described in b. Note 3, above, and the original Indo-European voiced stops b, d, g into voiceless stops, i. e. pp, tt, kk (ck). In this way *liggon became lecken, and passed out of the group a and joined the words in this group (c), which had developed a k out of Indo-European g. Note 5. As the simple and double sounds had a different development, we find different consonants in related words or related languages, according as the sounds were simple or double : tvadjen, hKcfett ; bake, batch ; bddjett (early N.H.G. and still in S.G. ; see 203. i), bacfett (literary word). 2. The above consonantal changes, the main points of which were dis- covered and made known to the world by Jacob Grimm in 1822, have been sketched only in their roughest outlines. There are many exceptions and also additional changes. Attention is here called to a few of the more important : a. Venter's Law. In 1877 the Danish scholar, K. Verner, discovered that the cause of the deviation of a certain group of words from the laws given in the preceding articles lay in a difference of accent in the prehistoric period, when the accent must have been in general the same as that originally found in the Indo-European family of languages and still preserved in part in Sanskrit and Greek. In this prehistoric period, as can be later seen in Gothic and less perfectly in Old English and other Germanic languages, the voiceless consonants f, th (pronounced as in English), h (= d)), s, remained voiceless only initially and after an accented vowel, but after an unaccented vowel became voiced b, d, g, z : kle^'to (Greek), hli/an (Gothic) to steal, but he^ta' (Greek), si^un (Gothic) seven; fra'/er (Latin), broMar (Gothic), but pa/er' (Greek), fadar (Gothic) father; deVem (Latin), tai^un (Gothic) ten, but de>u' (pre-Germanic), ti^us (Gothic) decade ; qui.y (Latin) some one or other, hwas'uh (Gothic) any one at all, every one. English should also in general show the same consonants here as the Gothic, but in the course of their development b, d, g have changed considerably or disappeared altogether, as described for the b's, d's, g's in i. a, above, and also Notes 3 and 4 thereunder, for both of these groups which had come from originally quite different sources had merged into one in prehistoric Germanic. From then on, the b's, d's, g's from both of these sources had the same develop- ment. Germanic z became r in English, and all the other members of the German family before the period of the second shifting : Eng. was, were. After the second shifting of the consonants had taken place in High German, the b, d, g, which resulted from f, th, h (d)) according to Verner's Law, appear as b, t, g, while the f, th, h (dj) which followed the accented vowel appear as f, b, fy (d}). Germanic z had already become r previous to this shifting, while Germanic s remained s. Hence different consonants may still be found in the different grammatical forms of the same word or in related words, owing to the original difference of accent. Thus we find an occasional change of f to b, b to t, I) to g, f to r : Jpcf and fyubfd?, fdjnei&en and (djnitt, jieben and $eg, jefon and ^caujig, Sroft and fricrni. The English con- sonants here as elsewhere did not participate in the second shift. Low German differing from English suffered also the change of th to d, but the change took place much later than in High German. b. The labialized gutturals g v h, k v , g y of the parent Indo-European language shifted irregularly in different languages, although they in general 40. 2.g. RELATION TO OTHER LANGUAGES 30 followed the laws described in the preceding articles. They consisted of a guttural and a labial element. In the course of their development they lost sometimes one of these elements, sometimes another, and were other- wise variously affected. The following table presents a general view of these changes : I.-E. g v h Gr. (/>, 6, x Lat. f, gu, v, g Germanic gw, g, w ; b. k v IT, T, < qu, c hw, h, gw, g, w ; f, b. g v ft 8, 7 ,, g", v> g q (kw), k (c) ; p. The Germanic g's in the second line are the result of the operation of Verner's Law (see a, above) and hence once followed an unaccented vowel. Also the change here from f to b shows the effects of the same law. Only a few examples can be given here : angustus (L.), aggwus (Goth.), eng (G.) ; rt'j, quis (L.), who (Eng.), toet (G.) ; Xenrw, linquo (L.), leihwan (Goth.), loan , t. The present orthography reflects this change of sound in case of fdjl, fd;m, fdjn, fdju>, but not in case of initial fp ( =fp) and ft (=//): sleht (O.H.G.), but fdjtecfyt (N.H.G.) ; smuz (O.H.G.), but gmuft (N.H.G.) ; sprehhan (O.H.G.) and fpredjm (N.H.G.). The beginning of this 40 HISTORY OF GERMAN CONSONANTS 40.2.^. change cannot be accurately assigned to any definite time. It was a gradual development. It began in the South and then spread. The orthography was slow to recognize these changes. As late as the sixteenth century we still find instances of ft, fm, &c., even in the South. This movement has not yet come to a close, for fp and fi are still pronounced sp and st in Hanover, Holstein, Friesland, and Mecklenburg, and the general pronunciation^ and ft has not yet found expression in the orthography. Medial and final s became fdj in a number of cases after r : SButfcfje (M.H.G. burse), Ijertfcfym (M.H.G. hersen), &c., but SDurji, Serfe, &c. In dialect the/ sound has spread further still ; see 33. 4. c. The old voiceless s has also elsewhere changed its character. It has become voiced in the North in certain positions. In 35. 2 the exact state- ment with regard to the present voiced sound is given. The old pronuncia- tion of s only remains in the cases stated in 33. 2. h. Foreign words of course form exceptions to the general rules for the development of German consonants and their relation to kindred languages. Recently adopted loan-words usually have the same form as they have in the language from which they were taken, sometimes, however, conforming to German orthography: (Sfyaujfee (Fr. chausse"e), ftabtit (Fr. fabrique), &c. The older the words the more of course they have changed and taken on German form. If the words were borrowed before the period of the second shifting they developed in the same manner as German words : ^flaume (L. prunum), ,f?eldj (O.H.G. kelich, from the L. calicem), Jlerfer (from L. car- cerem ; Jtorjer, derived from the same word, was introduced into the language later by those acquainted with the form of the Latin but employing the modern pronunciation of it), Jtreuj (from the L. crucem ; a later introduction than Jferfer, as can be seen by the modern pronunciation of the c^. &c. SYLLABLES IN INDIVIDUAL WORDS. 41. A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels or diphthongs : <2>e=en, 6au=en. In dividing words into syllables when there are consonants at the close of the syllable, the division is based upon the following principles : 1. A single consonantal sound between vowels belongs after a long vowel or diphthong to the following syllable : f)6Ien, @pra=d}e, fjeUIig. After a short vowel it is divided equally between the two syllables : fyaffen, nl'le, lad)en (Iax9n\ ftngen (ziy'^ri). Such divided consonantal sounds are usually represented by double consonants except in case of cfy and ng. 2. Two or more consonantal sounds between vowels are after a short vowel divided up conveniently between the two syllables : fasten, (Sanction, furcfMen. After a lojig vowel they are carried over to the following syllable : fciUflen, Dsftern. In words of Latin or Greek origin, any combination of consonants that can begin a word is carried over to the following syllable : 2Ee*trwn, &c. See 4. 2. A. d. (3). In both native and foreign words, however, they must, without regard to the quantity of the vowel, be divided up between the syllables, if it is difficult to carry them over : $fer=bc, 3. Compound words form exceptions to the above rules, as the syllabic division is made on etymological principles, and hence falls between the components : Qaufctur, ent*dufjern. a. Exceptions are fcor, tear, f)er, Ijin, when they stand before a vowel in 43. 6. a. SYLLABLES IN INDIVIDUAL WORDS 41 compounds : ba^ru'ber, nxuru'nt, Ijejtu'm, fyunei'n. In the careless pronunciation of ordinary conversation other exceptions occur, as the distinct etymological elements are not always in the consciousness of the speaker : btto' tb&fytm, aitsfetjftcf^en, c. 4. In unaccented el, em, en, er, the e in rapid talking often drops entirely out, and the consonants I, m, n, r form of themselves syllables, which is indicated by phonetists by the sign under the letter. mgel, liebent, liefcen, pro. hu:gl, li:bm, li:bn. In careless speech the syllabic lingual nasal n often becomes the labial nasal m after the labials 6, , m, and becomes the palatal nasal y after a palatal (y, k t R] : li:bm, lipm, namm instead of Iteben, u;pen, iftamen ztyy, dayky, vaRy instead of ftngen, banfen, iraren. All syllabic consonants fill out about the full time required to pronounce an unaccented syllable, and hence words containing them cannot form good rhymes with words containing unsyllabic consonants : thus barren (karn) should not rhyme with ($arn. SYLLABLES IN CONNECTED DISCOURSE. 42. In ordinary language, words often lose their etymological identity in our consciousness and different words blend together, and are often treated in actual practice as one word with different syllables, in which case the rules given above for separating syllables apply also here : $eute uafjm er bag 23ud) nut is pronounced eute im=mcr bag SSiicfy tnit. SEPARATION OF SYLLABLES AT THE END OF A LINE. 43. The separation of long words at the end of a line usually takes place according to the natural laws of separation in the spoken language as given above, but a few variations occur, and hence the complete rules are given as follows : 1. A consonant between two vowels belongs to the following syllable : l)u-ten, e*fcen, &c. 2. If several consonants stand between vowels usually only the last one is carried over : Otit=ter, >V>erlin=ge (pro.^e/?'/;^, i.e. y being pronounced as any double consonant with both syllables), fltr=ren, 3. , cfy, fcfy, vty, ft t are never separated : 33u=|je, S3e*d?er, (but 4a'" s d;en ; see 6, below), co^ra=p^ie, a*ften, &io*fter, 2 4. (f is separated into 1*1 : 5)ef*fel. 5. In foreign words all combinations of 6, p, b, t, g, f with I or r are carried over : $u=blifum, 2tte*trum, ^i)=brant. 6. Compound words are separated first into the different elements of which the compound consists, and within each element the rules given above are observed : S'urjten*fcl)lofj, itr=an=gel (pro. ay'0l), >du6-cben. Notice <2cfyiffa6rt, &c., but @d;ifffa^rt, &c. a. This separation at the end of the line of compound words into their component elements will not always be the same us the pronunciation : baritm (=bar + um) is separated barium, but pronounced bcunttn; 3nter;ejfe ( = L. inter + esse), but pronounced 3nte;rejje. 42 ACCENT 44. ACCENT. ' GENERAL STATEMENT. 44. Particular syllables in a word or particular words in a sentence may be made prominent above others and distinguished by especial stress. Thus there is a word accent and a sentence accent. I. WORD ACCENT. 45. In polysyllabic words there may be not only the principal accent, but also a secondary accent, and even a third, besides the unaccented syllables. The principal accent in the following articles will be marked by ', or, if there are three accents, by ", the secondary by \ or, if there are three, by ', the third accent by v , the unaccented syllable by - : QSot'itrteir, Un'Vbmfyeit'. Accent must not be confounded with quantity. A syllable may be long, i.e. contain a long vowel, or diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two or more consonants, and yet have weaker accent than a short syllable, as in 5lb'grunb\ A long heavy syllable, however, has a tendency to attract force to itself from the principal accent, and in cases even becomes more strongly accented than the syllable that should logically have the chief stress, as in SBacfyol'ber instead of QBad/otber. The placing of the accent in German is regulated by the following principles : 1. Logical accent. Some particular syllable in a word, usually the root syllable in a simple word and the modifying component element (see 248) in a compound, contains that part of the word which is logically the most important, and hence receives the principal accent : fmoj'en, efancj", @d?ul'(?au3. The next important syllable after the principal one receives secondary accent, and, if a compound, that syllable in the basal compound element receives secondary accent, which would have principal accent if the component element were an independent word : 2)urd/me( v fer, B'afyr'ttaf fer, aue'(;et v ren. It will be noticed from these examples that this logical accent usually brings the chief stress upon the first syllable. This logical principle of accenting words is the leading one, but the following deviations occur : 2. Emphatic Accent. The speaker may for some emotional reason place unusual stress upon some particular word, but he is then not content with accenting the logically important syllable, but also puts equal or perhaps a little stronger stress upon some other syllable, even though it be an unimportant one, and thus arises a double accent : im'banf ba'reS Jtinb ! eine ausVfprocl/ene @d?6nl)ett, enb'ii/fer rant, imm'berlid/er ebanfe, fle'red/ter 4?tmmcl! In a number of words this emphatic accent which does not rest upon the logically most important syllable has become permanent, and then in common unemphatic language becomes the principal accent of the word : , cwfjeror'fcentUdj, &c. 47.2. WORD ACCENT 43 3. Rhythmical Accent. For physiological reasons it is difficult to pronounce two strongly accented syllables in succession. There- fore in such a case the accent is divided so that there will be a rhythmical succession of strong and weak syllables. This rhyth- mical principle is quite an important one in German and often disturbs the logical accent. Thus it is more common to-day to say (Jnb'nrteir, <5ci)immm'anftalt v than Cmb'nr'teU, er SKenfd) ift nodj Mutjung', but ein blut'junger SKenfdj. These words are : aa. Compounds of which the first element is a substantive that does not contain an essential modification of the basal component, but only strengthens it by giving a concrete illustration of the general idea already contained in it : maitfetot, blutvot, yedjfdjftarj, baumftarf, unmberfcfycm, feberleidjt, fonnenflat, florf blinb, gra^gritn, &c. bb. Thus also compounds of which the first element is an adjective or adverb that does not contain an essential modification, but only defines more definitely the general idea contained in the second element : fyellgelb, bunfelgetb, fd)arlad)vct, tetgenattnt, fletmmnjig, &c. c. Sometimes there is a difference of meaning in connection with a difference of accent : flein'reid) stony, but fteinreid/ very rich ; ein cw'jjerorbentUdjet Qko; fzffbr an assistant professor, but ein aujjevor'bmtltcfyet ^rofefior a professor of extraordinary merit ; 2)on'netetttr thunderstorm, but 3?ennertt>et'ter (exclama- tion or oath) ; auS'gejeidjnet (participle) distinguished, but au3gqeid/net (adj.) splendid. The accent upon the first syllable marks the element as a modi- fying one, while the lack of the accent there shows that it contains no essential modification of the basal component, or, as in the last three examples, the removal of the principal accent from the first syllable may be for emphasis. d. The adjectives and adverbs a((, grcj}, and especially words that have intensifying force, as fyod), ftwfyt, &c., usually have chief stress in compound nouns, while they have secondary or fluctuating (see b. aa and bb, above) stress in adjective compounds : SUl'madjt, vojj'madjt, .od)'t>futfdj, SSoljl'fianb, but attmdd/tig, gvofjmdd/tig, fyodjraei'fe, tooljle'cel, fyodfyfein', &c. It must be noticed, however, that nouns made from these adjectives also have the accent of the adjectives : aflgemein' and 9U(gemein'fyeit. The difference in accent usually found between nouns and adjectives comes from the fact that the logical force of the component is felt in nouns, while in adjectives it is destroyed by emphatic accent, or the first component has only strengthening force, as in b. aa and bb, above. Also in adjectives the first component must have accent when it really contains an essential modification of the basal component : all'feitig, gtcjj'tnutig, fyod/beutfd), ttJofyf geboven. Notice, however, that the second component in other compounds may take the accent for quite a different reason from that given for the above-mentioned adjectives, namely, because it becomes logically emphatic : altin'bifd) in contrast to aitnot'cifd), but nit'* engltfd) in contrast to neu'cnglifd). e. A large number of compounds are not in fact true compounds, but merely the syntactical fragments of a sentence which have been written as one word. Such improper or loose compounds are not accented as true compounds, but retain the accent which they had as elements in the sentence, i. e. sentence accent. A few illustrations of this sentence accent in improper compounds may serve to explain many deviations from the rules 47.3- A.^. WORD ACCENT 47 given above for accent in compounds: (i) Adjectives compounded with a substantive have usually the accent, but, as adjectives standing before nouns in the syntactical structure of a sentence shift the accent upon the noun, so may such syntactical constructions retain their original accent when they are written together and spoken as one word : Sung'fcau, rau'bart, but ber $oj)fprie'jier, (Mjetmerat' (but efyeim'vat, when the syntactical structure is broken and a regular compound is formed). (2) The articles in loose compounds remain unaccented as in sentence accent : berfel'be, beSglei'cfyen, etnntal' (but etn'mat once, as cm is a numeral and not an article) once upon a time, but ber'jmtge, as the demonstrative force is felt. (3) An attributive genitive in loose compounds takes the accent if it follows the dependent noun, as in sentence accent : SWuttergot'teg, jettle'benS. If the governing noun follows, it is accented in case of compounds denoting a period of time, as in agegan'fa"9, thus retaining here also the original sentence accent, while other compounds of this form are usually true compounds and take the accent upon the first component. (4) A name of a material or something measur- able when compounded with some word denoting a measure, quantity, or weight, takes the accent as in sentence accent : aHerteljhm'ce, SHertetiafyr', but 4?alb'jafi,r, as it is a regular compound. (5) Prepositions in loose compounds remain unaccented, as in sentence accent : abfyan'ben, abfei'tcn. (6) Numeral compounds take the accent upon the last element except in the attributive relation, where the first element is accented : fiinfunbstoan'jig, breifyun'bert, britte; Ijatb', but fimf uttbjwanjig 2ftann, brei'fyunbert SWann, brit'tefyalb fitter. (7) The last part of the name of an individual takes the accent as in sentence accent : .ijanSttHirfi' (also ^)an0'it>urfl) jack-pudding. (8) When a whole sentence be- comes a loose compound, the accent varies according as the origin of the compound is felt, or it is felt as a true compound: Sebefyod)', gcttlcb', but Jleljr'auS, aufauS, ^affan. (9) Points of the compass have accent upon the last element : 9iorbo|V, Suboft', 9tcrbtt?eft'. f. A few peculiar modern formations have the accent upon the second element : Ssafyrfyim'Dert, Safyrtau'fenb, Safyqefynt'. g. Names of places vary much in their accent, and no reliable rules can be given as a guide. Usually the many words before ;burg, ;berg, sfyeim, ;fiabt, sborf, &c., are modifying components, and take the accent, as jto'mg<5bvg, ffranf flirt, &c. But in many words no logical relation between the parts is felt, and the second component takes the accent in accordance with a growing tendency to shift the accent toward the middle or end of the word, as in 9Utfhe'li, ffiernigero'be, JJafcenfl'lenbcgcn, &c. This is especially the case when the second component ends in an unaccented syllable : Scrnfaf'tet, Jpcljmin'ben, ^aifevglau'tern, 2Bittenber'ge (but 2Btt'tenberg), c. In the following cases the final component is usually accented, however not uniformly in all parts of the country : compounds of which the first element is an adjective, as Dbcrwe'fel, rofebee'ven ; those in ;born, sbronn, ;brud), sbrticf, sbrunn, *bufd), sforbc, ;gtafc, ;t)a((, jfyaufen, 4 or fti J tnube, reut1j, ;rcbe, ;fce, ;ftalbe, ;lt>ertl), *tt>6rt1j, as in $aberborn' r J&eilbronn', JtomgeljorfV, (5ber3lat'bf, &c. The first component, how- ever, must in all cases take the accent when it becomes essential to the thought, as for instance to make a contrast, or to distinguish two names having the same basal component : 3d) ircfyite nic^t in Dleu'tfrclil?, fenbetn in SUt'ihelijs. The local pronunciation of names of places often varies from that generally heard elsewhere. The people of the well-known university town ($retf3Hxilb, for instance, accent the name of their city upon the first syllable to distinguish it from the names of other places having the same basal component, \vhile people generally accent here, as in numberless other cases, the second element, as they are not acquainted with the other less known places having the same basal component, and hence do not feel the logical force of the first component. On the other hand, the inhabitants of a place which has for a name a compound word with a familiar basal component, as in the case of ^apenburg', may accent the basal component, as to them the 48 DETAILS CONCERNING ACCENT 47. 3. A.^. mere name with the accent upon the second element is perfectly clear, while elsewhere people generally accent the first element to distinguish it from other names having the same basal component. Thus, there is here a good deal of irregularity. Even where the first element is a modifying component it does not uniformly take the accent : 9lorb'beutfd)tanb, but 9iorbame'rifa. This irregularity is frequently caused by the tendency to arrange the accents so as to make an easy and rhythmical succession: bit Jtiifte son 9tovbVfrifa', but bie norb"a' frifa'nifcfye jtiijh. Also in names of persons the usual accent is disturbed by rhythmical accent, as the titles have a weak stress and may cause a rearrangement of the accents of the name: $o'l)enlo'l)e, but fturfT Jpo'tyenlo'lje. B. Accent of Compound Verbs. The accent here depends upon the nature of the compound : (l) If the modifying component is separable, it is accented : auf'fiefyen, un'tergefyen, aus'gefyen. (2) If the modifying component is inseparable, it is unaccented: uberfefc'eri, o(l$tefc/en. The adjective o((fom'men complete, perfect, belongs here, as it is in fact the perf. participle of the lost inseparable oollfom'tnen. As its origin is forgotten and it is felt as an adjective, it also shifts the accent upon the first syllable. The adjective participle hnllfom'men welcome has been influenced in its accent by o(lfom'men. (3) If the verbal compound is not directly compounded, but has been formed from a compound noun, it has noun accent : ftiife/jiucfen. This subject is treated at length in articles 215-218. a. Nouns formed from these verbs retain the accent of the verb : soKjiefy'en, S5o(ljug' ; or'fa((eit, 2Wfa((. However, here, as in 2. B. c, above, we find in one group of words a different treatment of noun and verb. Nouns in composition with bitrdj, ftinter, fiber, urn, unter, iviber, have uniformly the accent upon the prefix, although the corresponding verb is accented upon the verbal stem : 2Bi'berfprucf), but wibetfarecfy'en ; Surcfy'ftid), but burdjftecfy'en ; Un'tev^alt, but unterfyal'ten. Nouns compounded with these prepositions take, however, the accent of verbs if they have a suffix : Utnge'bung, Unterfyaf tung, Jjintevlaf fenfdjaft. b. In older periods of the language the perfect participle like other adjec- tives took the accent upon the first syllable and hence upon the prefix, while in case of verbs compounded with a proclitic adverb (i.e. an inseparable prefix) the pure verbal forms had sentence accent, i.e. accent upon the verbal stem, as explained in 2. B. c, above. The old manner of accenting the participle may still survive in the one participial adjective un'tertan subject to, participle of the now obsolete itntevtun' (still found in early N.H.G. ; see I Cor. xv. 27). It is quite possible here, however, that the present accent of the adjective participle is modern, the accent shifting from the verbal stem to the prefix, as the word was felt as an adjective and noun, and all relation to the lost itntertun' was forgotten. Aside from this isolated example the accent of the participle now follows that of the verb : voHjo'gen, part, of ol(jte'f)en. C. Accent of Compound Ad-verbs and Interjections. The accent here rests usually upon the last syllable : bergauf ', firomab', ft. inu'bcv, fy evuot', barauf , ttietteicfyt', tiielnteljr', jitd)ei' ! The logical importance of some other syllable often causes exceptions to this rule : baburdb/, bartn', &c. become ba'Durd), ba'tin when the demonstrative force is felt ; see 141. 5. A. b. D. Accent of Decomposite Words. Although a compound may consist of two words or several, it can as a rule have only two component elements- the basal component, which contains the more general idea, and the modifying component, which contains an essential modification. Either component may be a compound. The modifying component of decomposites takes the accent according to the principles given in A and B, above, for simple compound nouns, adjectives, and verbs : S3iin'be$tagg6efd?{u (93un'be6tag + 33efdjlufj'), ov'urteil3fm (SScr'urteil + fret), iibervor'teilen (u'ber + wor'tetten), and many compounds (see 245. IV. 3. B) which are not yet generally written as one 48. i. A. WORD ACCENT 49 word, such as in ftonb' fefcen, gu run'be Itgen. Nouns made from this last class of verbs retain the verb accent and are usually written as true compounds in one word: Snfianb'fejjmtg, 3itgntn'bel?gung. If the compound has more than two components, it is usually a loose compound, i.e. a whole sentence or a syntactical fragment of a sentence which is written as one word, or it may be a mere co-ordination of words. Such a loose compound has in some cases sentence accent and in others accent upon the first syllable after the manner of a true compound: (SiumaleuuJ', ffdj$l)unbertunbbm'{5ig, fdjroarjrotgol'Dene 5pring'm$felb. When a loose com- pound becomes a modifying component, it usually retains its original sentence accent: Slrmjun'berfyfmb, 9Utnjei'bergefd)foak, auregur'fenjttt, Summer* juug'enfhetdj, SJiuttergot'tegbilb. a. Many exceptions are found to the above general rules. There is an evident tendency in long words to shift the accent from the first com- ponent to the second, if the latter is compound, on account of the physical difficulty of accenting a syllable so far removed from the end. This occurs especially in case of: (i) The names of certain church festivals or holidays: ^almfonn'tag, Jfavfrei'tag, 9lfd)ermitfodj, &c. (2) Many titles or official positions: SlmteJjaupt'mann, J&offommiiTions'rat, enerafycfl'meifter, especially those in ober* and uniev;, as JDberftaatg'antoatt, Unterjiaate'fefrrtitt- For the same reason a compound modifying component shifts its accent occasionally upon its second (i.e. basal) component, when the basal component of the decom- posite is a simple element: ftret'ljafen, but Sretfya'fenflabt ; 8anb'gerid)t, but JJanbgeridjts'rat, &c. This shifting of the accent upon the second component becomes a rule where the first element does not contain an essential modifica- tion of the basal component, but has only strengthening force : mutterfeeleiu ollein', @vjtau'gemd)t$. E. Accent of Derivatives formed from Compounds and Compounds formed from Derivatives. A derivative formed from a compound is accented as a derivative, but a compound in which the basal component is a derivative is accented as a compound : Siebfyabem' (Steb'fyaber + et), but tabt>olijei (Stabt + Spolijei') ; <$riftfleUevti' (@djrift'fieH-f et), but ^ajj' 4. Pronunciation of Foreign Words. The accent here depends upon whether the word is still distinctly felt as a foreign or as a German word. Many foreign words have been thoroughly naturalized and have received German accent, many others are sometimes pronounced as foreign words, sometimes as German words ; the greater number, however, still retain the accent of the language from which they were borrowed. Some words which are now accented as German words had foreign accent in earlier periods of the language. In view of the great irregularity that here prevails, this subject cannot be treated in a grammar, and the student must be referred to his lexicon. The German dictionaries in use in Germany avoid these foreign words, but they are usually treated in a separate work called grembworterbudj. Secondary Accent. 48. Secondary accent is not bound so closely to certain syllables as is the principal accent, but is often under different circumstances shifted from one syllable to another. There are two factors involved in determining secondary accent a logical and a physiological principle. Sometimes both unite in fixing the accent upon a certain syllable, sometimes one principle gains the victory over the other. I. Logical Principle in Secondary Accent. This principle is applied in compound and derivative words as follows : A. In compound words, that syllable receives secondary accent which would receive principal accent if the component were an independent word : E 50 DETAILS CONCERNING ACCENT 48. i. A. pfer, aus'f)fr'ren, aua'mer'gen. In decomposites, although there may be a number of different words, there will be usually only two components, so that the principal accent falls upon the principal syllable of the modifying component and the secondary accent upon the principal syllable of the basal component: SSa'tertanbstte'be (93a'ter(anb + 8ie'be), gelb'bteb'ftefyL The accent here is, however, often disturbed by the tendency (described in 2, below) to distribute the accents so as to make a regular and rhythmical succession of accented and unaccented syllables: ICcr'anjei'ge, nb'uttei'le instead of aSor'anVige, (Snb'ut'teUe. B. Accent of Suffixes. After a root syllable which contains the principal meaning and chief accent, certain prefixes from their logical force as modi- fying elements take secondary accent, some of which are the remnants of once independent words. These suffixes are : a. Substantive suffixes : at, fit, ob, Ijeit, In, feit, lein, ling, m$, fat, fdjaft, turn : ^ei'ma'tftt, Jtlei'no'be, Jlo'nigirf, @'mgfeit'. b. Adjective suffixes: bar, tyaft, tcljt, tg, tfcfc, fid:}, fam, fe'tig: braudj'barc, lebVfte. 2. Physiological Principle in Secondary Accent. For physiological reasons it is difficult to pronounce two accented syllables one after the other. It is easier and at the same time more rhythmical to place an unaccented syllable between the first and second accent. Thus to avoid the clashing of principal and secondary accent the latter is often removed from the syllable logically important to one of minor importance : SSoc'anjei'ge instead of SSor'an'jeige. On the other hand it is difficult to pronounce more than two unaccented syllables one after the other, and hence the natural tendency is to give one of several unaccented syllables a secondary accent, provided, however, that it will not clash with another accent of the same strength : beffere' efialt', but the secondary accent upon a final syllable must be sup- pressed or shifted when it would stand before another accent: jte eroar'tete aWa'rian'nen ; bag Gnb'urteir frfotgt', but ba3 (Snb'ur'teU fyridjt'. Thus secondary accent depends largely upon the accents in the preceding or following syllables. The following details should be noted : a. In polysyllabic words the secondary accent depends upon the logical value or the position of the syllable. The important syllables as described in I, above, are accented if their position admits of it. Also a short logically unimportant syllable receives an accent if it is at a distance of two or more syllables from the principal accent, providing it is not followed by an accent : fyei'tere' efe(l'fd)aft. The intensity of all secondary accents increases with their distance from the principal accent, and sometimes becomes stronger than the accent upon a logically more important syllable: in 2luf"fef) 1 erin'nen the suffix tit has a stronger accent than the root syllable fef). Here, however, as elsewhere, the secondary accent is influenced by the accent of the following word, as two accents must not come together: offnungen' enuecft', but ^offnung'en taufdjt'. b. A single syllable between two accents is unaccented : 3)o$ SU'ter fcfyiifct' nidjt'. c. If there are two syllables between two accents, they are both unaccented if short, but the first may be accented if it is long : aSi'bevlfdjfeit', but lln"? e'benfyeit', feU"fa'me Slvt'. The second of the two syllables standing between accents can be accented only when the word stands before a pause in the sentence or at the end of the sentence, in which cases it does not really stand between two accents, but between an accent and a pause : 25em lucfltc^cH fann' eg an nidjtg' gebredj'm, or Sent lucFllrfjeii' | fann' (3 an nid)t$' gcbrccfy'en. 35mt toccfc'feliiben fie'ben, but ar wdjfeutb ifl beS 3D?anne3 rafter inn, bnn Seben untertan, &em tt>ed)'felit&cti'. d. If there are three syllables between two accents, the middle syllable usually takes the secondary accent unless it be considerably lighter and 49. WORD ACCENT 51 shorter than the first syllable, in which case the first syllable is accented : ein un'banfba'res J?inb', but etne im'glii(f (tu nuifdjt (mujjt) bei mir bteibe (for b(eiben) Auerbach. In many words full vowels have been preserved in the unaccented syllable, but such words are quite uniformly of foreign origin : 2JJu(at'te, Softer, 2Rinu'te, &c. Only in such words as U'fjit, and in a number of names, as Dtto, a3 3Berf lobt ben SKei'fler. @t fpticfjt lau't. t bltrd), &c.; (proclitics)bur gte'be, e3 i'jt, er ttei'jj, but e'v befe'nnt because the pronoun is followed by an unaccented syllable. Often monosyllabic pronouns or articles become enclitics after prepositions, and are sometimes even con- tracted and thoroughly fused into one word with the preposition : ini't cud), bet' ifjm, au'f bag or aufs, in bent or tm. See also 57. B and C, and 58. B. b, c. 7. When two or more elements are closely related, there is often a marked tendency to bind them, as in a loose compound, still more closely together by one principal accent, which rests upon the last element, especially in the following cases : 51. SENTENCE ACCENT 53 a. "When the one word is in apposition with the other : SWuttet SKaht'r. SBcr foil bein uter fein, SBater Zlfai'n ? b. When a title and a proper name form one idea : Jfaifer SBi'lljetttt. c. In case of Christian and surname : Scrfob ri'mm ; but (S'ridj @d)tmbt, nicfyt 3of)a'nne djmibt. d. Usually in case of a noun and its modifying genitive, although here occur many exceptions according to logical requirements : (Sc unrb bic (2rf)tt>eUe meiite$ >au'fe$ nid)t ubtrtreten, or @r iuirb meitted aufc$ <2>cf)tt>e'Ue nicfjt iibertveten. The genitive of specification, however, for logical reasons usually takes the accent: 2)ie ft tin ft fceS Ste'rbeitS tft allgemein, or less commonly >e$ <3te'rbeil3 ftunft ift attgemetn. . Usually in case of a noun with its modifying prepositional phrase, when they together form one idea : S5aS 58udj auf bent SH'fd). f. When a noun denoting a weight or measure and the following noun denoting a material or something measurable together form the idea of a complete whole : cut <5turf u'dj, em lag SBei'tt, erne fiinftel SKei'le. g. In case of several words which are connected by a preposition or con- junction and form together one idea : 3>eig auf 3ei'a,e one branch upon the other, \. e. all upon one pile, toeit unb brei't, ntnb unb fflo'bcn property, real estate ; jung unb a'lt, grofi unb flei'n, arm unb ret'cfy- The unity of the idea arises here from the fact that the words are either synonyms, and thus represent the same thing from two different standpoints, or are opposites or complements, and thus show the whole range of the idea from the two extremes. Of course the logical importance of the first word may sometimes require it to be accented : 3ttei'g auf Bwei'g (compare with first example above) one branch at a time. The accent upon the first word here shows that it is to be taken separately. h. When several nouns denoting things of the same kind are placed together to express one idea : 2>a3 ?lbc' ; bunt, bu'm ; e'ft. B. Logical and Emphatic Accent. Logical and emphatic accent are sovereign and can set aside all the preceding rules, disturbing both the grammatical and word accent. Any word or syllable can for logical or emotional reasons receive the accent : 3)er 2J?a'nn (the man, not the woman] tft nicfyt alt. )er 9J?ann i'ft alt. et 9Wanu ifl nt'djt (contradicting) alt. )er 2ftann tft ntdjt a'lt, fcnbern ju'ng. S)e't (that) 9Kantt ift ntcfyt alt. Thus also that syllable or, in a compound, that component may for logical reasons take the principal accent, which under normal conditions uniformly has the secondary accent, or remains unaccented : 5)er afe tft ntcfyt fitrdfjtba'r, fonbern furcfytfa'nt. (St Ijat utdjt eine 93re'nnevei, fonbevu cine 93rau'eret angelegt. 3d) Ijabe bag nut md)t c'rbeten, fonbevn ve'rbcten. 9lufgefd)o'ben tft md)t aufgejjo'bm. SRicljt bie artentit'r, fonbern bie attenmau'cr ift befd)abigt. One says in correcting an incorrect grammatical form : gebe'n, nid)t gebe'. 51. Sentence Accent affected by the Rhythm. Words that are comparatively unimportant to the meaning, and hence do not absolutely demand stress, may be with or without accent, according to the requirement of the natural rhythm of the sentence. They remain unaccented if their accentuation would bring two accented syllables together ; but when they are preceded or followed by other less important unaccented syllables they may receive accent in order to make an easy and rhythmical succession of accented and unaccented syllables. Thus in the following sentences the predicate verb, which in general is weakly accented when it has modifiers, has in the one instance no accent, because it is followed by an accent, while in the other it is accented, as it is followed by an unaccented syllable : 93o'rgen macfyt o'rgen, but JHei'bev ma'cfyen Seu'te. However, when the logical force of the words becomes strong, they must receive accent, even though the accent disturbs the rhythm. Thus we answer an inquiry after the number and sex of the children that a man has with the words : (Sr l)at brei' 6'd)ter. 54 DETAILS CONCERNING ACCENT 52. 52. Sentence Accent affected by the Tempo. Aside from the points men- tioned above, there are other factors which influence the accent. Among these the tempo plays an important role. As the movement in the sentence increases in speed, the number of accents decreases, and their intensity becomes greater. Also at the beginning and end of a sentence or before a pause the accent becomes more pronounced. PITCH, OR TONE. 53. The pitch in a foreign language is one of the most subtle of things, but in English and German, so closely related by a common origin, pitch is for the most part the same. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 54. The use of capital letters in German differs from the English in several points. The following are begun with a capital : 1. Every complete sentence in prose, and in poetry every verse. 2. Every direct quotation : 2)er SBettelfad 5 fagt me : ,,3d) tyafce genug." 3. Every noun and any word used as a noun, if it can take the definite article, an adjective, or any other modifying word before it: ber 2)iann, ber 9Ute, ber Sunge, but alt unb jung old and young, because no article can stand before these words in this set expression ; baS SBeinen ; bag traulid)e 2)it ; cfyoneS, ettraS <2>d)one8. . Pronominal adjectives, indefinite pronouns and numerals, though often used substantively, are written with a small letter : manner, niemanb, man, etner, etn tnenig, &c. b. Also many nouns in certain set expressions, used adverbially, are written with a small letter : jit liefce tun ; jit flatten fommen, Son alters fyer, anfangS. 4. Adjectives and ordinals preceded by the article, when they stand after proper names, forming with the name the designation of one individual : rtebrtcfy ber rofje or ber Svelte. 5. Adjectives and possessives in titles: (Seine SKajeftat; ba Jtonig* licfye Soflamt; ber SSirtlicfye efyeimrat ; bie 0lorbbeutf^e (d)uljeititng. 6. Certain pronouns in direct address, as explained in 138. i, and also those referring to the speaker in the proclamations and words of emperors and kings. Also other pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and the numeral etn sometimes take a capital to indicate emphasis, but more commonly are written with a small letter or spaced, as ein. Differing from English, the pronoun of the first person, id) /, is written with a small letter, unless it begins a sentence or direct quotation. 7. Adjectives in 'fd) derived from names of persons and those in *er from names of places : bie rimmfcfyen or rimm'fc&en SWdrcfyen ; ber Joiner (sometimes also folner) Dom. a. But adjectives made from proper names, whether of persons, peoples, or countries, are written with a small letter when used, not with reference to one person or thing, but in a general universal sense : bie lutfje'rifd^e Jttrcfye ; romifd), ^reufjifd), folnifd?, &c. 8. Usually only the first element of compound nouns is written 55. 3 . USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 55 with a capital, but sometimes other elements take a capital, especi- ally in the following cases : (i) When a misunderstanding might arise from the use of small characters : @rb*3Rucfen to keep it from being confounded with rsbrucfen ; ber 3*aiit, &c. (2) Proper names and adjectives : in eifel ! (ib., Faust, 1. 2428). (Sr fabelte gettnjj in tejjten Siigen (ib., 1. 2962). Such contractions can still be heard in colloquial and popular language. b. Contraction is the rule in all the above cases in the numerous set phrases where the article loses its demonstrative (see D) force entirely, and hence its importance, pointing to no concrete object in particular which thus needs to be pointed out or described, in order to be identified, but to one which has taken on abstract and general force: (Sr fd)Iug bie egnet auf$ anl)t He defeated his opponents (lit. hit them upon the head). (Sc fajjte ijjn fdjavf ins 9Iuge He looked at him sharply. (r gef)t jur djule (no reference to a particular school, but, in general, to the place where one learns). Outside of these set expressions the article is also, on the same general principle, very often contracted when it has no demonstrative force, especially in familiar language where the relations of the persons and objects to each other are perfectly clear and need not be pointed out. However, when the least demonstrative force enters into the article, it cannot be contracted, especially in choice language : 3d) fyabe im guten touben geJjanbelt / acted in good faith, but 3d) fyabe in be'm guten lauben gefyanbclt, bajj id) in metnem 9ted)te irdve. c. f Instead of being contracted the article is sometimes lengthened. The lengthened gen. and dat. forms berer (for ber) and benen (for ben) are found more or less frequently up to the beginning of the nineteenth century: bie 33efo(gung berer efefce (Klopstock). 23ie(leidjt baji ott benen rcjjeti bie Slugen auftut (Goethe). C. The definite article is also a proclitic (i. e. leans upon the following word), the voice passing rapidly over it and resting upon the next word : er SWe'nfd? ifl flerfclify. Hence the article is often contracted or written as a part of the following word : 'g Sfiorijeng = beg 2ttoro,eng of mornings, berfe'IBe the same. The article is a proclitic or enclitic according as it precedes or follows a stronger accent to which it naturally attaches itself. D. The definite article is in fact only the unaccented and shorter form of the demonstrative pronoun ber that (see 129. i), and still, though in greatly reduced degree, retains its demonstrative force. Owing to its enclitic nature the pronunciation of the def. article differs according to circumstances just as the English the, though 58 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 57. D. always more or less short and obscure, thus differing from the demon, pronoun ber, which has a strong accent. INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 58. A. Its declension is as follows : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. Neut. M., F., and N. Nom. . ein eine ein a ... meine my Gen. . eineg einer eineg of a ... tneiner of my Dat. . . etnem einer etnem to (for) a ... meinen to (for) my Ace. . . einen eine ein a ... meine my B. Of course there can be no plural of ein, but as all the other words declined like ein have a plural, tnein is declined as a model for the whole group in the plural. The words declined like ein are : I ein no and all the possessives, mein my, unfer our, bein thy, euer your, fetn his, its, ttyr her, U)r their. Notice that this group has no ending to show gender in nom. sing, of the masc. and nom. and ace. sing, of the neut. Of these words ein is the only one that is an enclitic, and hence is the only one that can suffer apheresis (see b). a. The indefinite article like the definite is an enclitic, being the un- accented form of the accented numeral adjective ein one, which is sometimes distinguished from the indef. article by being written with a capital or, more commonly, spaced letters: (Sin, ein. b. Owing to its enclitic nature the indef. article suffers apheresis with the preceding word, forming in the familiar language of every day a complete enclitic declension as follows : SINGULAR. Masc. Fern. Neut. Nom. . . . 'n 'ne 'n Gen. . . . 'ne3 'nee 'ne$ Dat. . . . 'mm (or 'at) 'net 'mm (or *m) Ace. . . . 'nen or 'n (=n'n) 'ne 'n Example : (S3 tear 'ne furdjtbare 3eit (M. Dreyer*s Drei, i). c. This group of words had in early N.H.G. other abbreviated forms, as ems (nom. and ace. neut. and gen. masc. and neut.) for etneg, eim or em for einem, cum or eiu' for einen, &c. These forms are often found in the language of Luther and occasionally in the works of Goethe : @3 ifl beffet toonen im tmtjien Sanbe | 2)enn bet) eim jencfifdjen nb gotnigen 2Beibe (Proverbs 21. 19). 9JHt eim tetblid? etb (Goethe's Urfaitst, 1. 258). ffienn t<$ fo fafj bei 'em etag (ib., 1. 1372). Of these contractions only substantive forms in the nom. and ace. neut. sing, remain in the literary language ; see 106. Note 2. In the careless spoken language of every-day life, however, these contractions still continue to take place : SUJit eim 9Wal ? (M. Dreyer's In Behandlung, i.) In the same manner we find earlier in the period contracted forms of the other words inflected like cm, namely, fein and the possessive adjectives, and in poetry and popular language such contractions still appear: Jlonig ifrib Uegt in feint xoten SMute ! (Uhland's Die drei Lieder). d. In more choice language the indefinite article is pronounced in full, but with weak accent. USE OF THE ARTICLES. I. GENERAL STATEMENT. 59. A. The indefinite article ein a, in form the unaccented numeral in one, true to its origin singles out one object, action, or quality 59. I.E. USE OF THE ARTICLES 59 from among a number. It designates an individual object in different ways : a. It points to a person or thing without fixing its identity : (Sin j?inb fcegegnete un8. 3rf) fyafce etnen er Jlonig fjatte fetn Jtinb. b. In its more indefinite sense, ein is equal to trgenb ein any, designating no individual in particular: 0tte ijl etn j?aifer (o retcfy gereefen. B. The definite article ber the, in form the unaccented demon- strative fcer that, true to its origin, points out a definite object or thing, not directly by a gesture, as the demon, ber, but by implication, referring to a person or thing which has already been brought before the mind by previous mention, or which is clearly indicated by the context : $rut>cfyen tyatte eine arme Gutter. $lfcer bie Gutter tear fef;r fromm unb gotteSfiirdjtig. )er jefcige .ftatfer Son 25eutfd?Ianb. >a3 SBudj auf bent tfcfye. C. Both articles are used in a generalizing sense with much the same force, the indefinite to single out of a class one individual to serve by way of comparison or contrast as a representative of its class, the definite article also before a substantive in the singular to point out an individual as a fit representative of its class or genus in all its entirety or all its characteristic features : (Sin Sflenfdj tfl in feinem Seben reie rag As for man his days are as grass. @in S)tefc ifl furdjtfom, ein Soree fkrf. 5ur einen Jtnaben ftirbt | ein $ofa (a man like Posa) nicfyt (Schiller's Don Carlos, 5, 9). 3>er SKenfcfy ifl flerblicfy. >er SKenfc^ fott ntc^t flotj fein. S)u fctfl boc^ bie gefcorene alte Sungfer (Fontane's Effi, chap, i) You are, indeed, a regular old maid. 2)a3 ifl bie rente Sttge That is a downright lie. The plural of the article is also used : SBeibe iraren |a nocfy bie retnen ^tnber (R. Voss's Psyche, XIII) Both were still mere children. D. Omission of Article. Proper names do not usually take an article, as the name itself points out clearly the object in question ; and, on the other hand, there can be no article in many cases before the names of materials and abstract nouns, as these substantives do not suggest definite objects or things, but only general ideas. Also words which in the sing, usually require the article often drop it in the plural for the same reason, namely, because the reference is not to definite individuals but only in a general way to a class or in- definite number: -ftinber unb Dlarrcn fagen bie SSafyrfyeit. In all these cases when the reference becomes a definite one the article must stand. E. Nouns which do not usually take an article require it at once when they become modified by an adjective, a genitive, a phrase, or relative clause, provided the modifier thus with the aid of the article marks the noun as a definite and distinct thing: ftrtebrtdj Frederic, but ber grofj e 5rtebrtcfy Frederic the Great ; fetncS SBeijenme^I fine wheat flour (indefinite), baS fetnfle SBetjenmef;! ju bem btfligflen $retfe 60 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 59. I.E. the finest wheat flour at the lowest market price (the superl. in both cases with the art. as a definite quality and price are stated), but fetnfkS 2Beiflenntef)l 311 fciflicjfhm $reife very fine flour at a very low price (not entirely definite) ; in fyotyem QUter at an advanced age (indefinite), but im l)of)en Sitter on 78 Satyren (definite) ; ott fei >anf ! thanks be to God ! but bent otte 30taelg to the God of Israel. 2)er ott, ber (Stfett wacfyfen Ite, ber reoflte feine ,ftned)te (Arndt's Vaterlandslied). F. The article must sometimes be used on merely formal grounds to make clear the case : (Sr jie&t ben 0tofen SRelfen or, but when the substantive clearly shows the case, the article in such instances drops out, as the reference is an indefinite one : @r jtefct Sfoftlv SPftrficije or. The use of the articles is especially frequent before names of persons to bring out clearly the case : 3d? gietye Corner bent II. DETAILED STATEMENT OF THE USES OF THE ARTICLES. A. Common class nouns take the article both in the sing, and pi., when they are the names of definite objects, or stand as representatives of their class or genus, but drop it in all cases where they express an indefinite number or an abstract, general idea : >te flatter ftnb bet >d)nturf bet 93dmne, but >et 93aum treibt SMdttet. !t>ag 93ud) aitf bent ifd), but Sebet ^aufmann ntujj gefiottg 93ud) ftifyren Every merchant must keep his book account (no definite book, but his accounts in general) properly. 3)a$ tjl bet 5Belt Scuif That is the way of the world, but Slug jebem ihver SBcrte fptad) bte !Dante cn 38elt From every word that she spoke it was clear that she was a lady familiar with the ways of POLITE SOCIETY ( = 3Mt, here used in its abstract application). 25er 9J?enfd) tjl ftetbUd) Man (as the representative of his race) is mortal, but QRenfd) fettt fyeijji JTdtttpfet fetn To be a man (here = alive to all that is of human interest) means to be a fighter in life's battles. In the last sentence 2ftenfd) neither refers to a definite individual nor does it picture a man as the representative of the race, but is used in a general abstract sense almost with the force of a predicate adjective ; see 111. a. a. If a genitive precedes its governing noun, the latter must drop the article, as the genitive points out definitely the particular object, and hence must itself require the article : 35et ett bes $aufe3, or beg $aufeg Jpett. Note. In an earlier period the article was not required before the gen. which preceded its governing noun, and many survivals of this construction occur in the form of compound nouns : SDfanneSftott the -word of a man, ^tettnbeSljetj the heart of a friend, 2RenfdjenIjetj the human heart, and thus also many fern, compounds ending in en, the old weak gen. form for the singular as well as the plural (see 76. II. i) : 5rauenfHmnte the voice of a -woman, eine SWaftnung au3 S^auenntunb an exhortation from the mouth of a woman, &c. b. The definite article stands very frequently for a possessive adjective when no ambiguity could thus arise, especially before parts of the body or articles of clothing, often accompanied by the dat. of the pronoun or noun referring to the person affected : ct Jtopf tut tntt fo toel) My head aches so badly. 2)?an nahm ben 33cftegten bte SBaffen ab. @t fledft bie 9lafe in adcg. @r fcfyloj} ihm bie 9lugen He closed his (a friend's) eyes. Gt fdjtof? bie Slugen He closed his (own) eyes. (St etlot bog SeBen. (St fam fyetein mit bem ^>ut in bet anb. (St rieb ftdj bie 91ugen. c. In a distributive sense the definite article in German often corresponds to the English indefinite a (in 2nd example not the indef. art. a, but a form of the prep, on): >tefeg $ucl) foftet 90 ^fennig(e) bie (Sfle This cloth costs 90 pfennigs a yard. Sunfntal bo3 3a!)t five times a year. 59.II.E. USES OF THE ARTICLES 61 d. A title in the form of an attributive gen. takes the indef. art. in German, while in English no article at all is used: SBilljefat I. nofjm ben Xitd eineg .ftaiferg an William I. accepted the title of emperor. e. The indefinite article in German is used in many idiomatic expressions : tin jebet or ein iegUdjer each, everybody, ein fold)er (SKann, &c.) such a (man, &c.), fo tin (grejjeg 2anb), or ein fo (gvofeg Sanb) such a (large country), &c. B. Collective nouns are treated as common class nouns, the article being used if the reference is to the entire body, but dropped when the reference is to an indefinite portion : Sftacfy bem iTteffen erfdjien bag ^>awenft,eimfd)e gujjsolf After the engagement Pappenheim's infantry came up, but (S'g etfdn'en ^Sappm* fyeimfdjeg 5u{?clf Some of Pappenheim's infantry came up. Notice the use of the article in bag ^arlantent parliament, ber Jtongrejj congress, c., where in English the article is usually dropped. C. Names of materials usually have no article, from the idea of an indefinite mass which is usually connected with their use, but take an article like any common class noun when they denote (i) a definite portion, or (2) variety of the material, or (3) when they represent the material in all its entirety in contradistinction to other materials : feineg olb fine gold, gruneg ^olj green wood, .ftcfy tenftanb becft SBeg unb rag. Xrtnfen @te ee ober Jtaffee ? But : cut (or ba$) fag a glass (drinking utensil), ein (or bag) ud) a shawl, ein Stein a stone, ein fen horse-shoe, bte ungarifdjen 2Betne the different sorts of wine from Hungary. Sag plb ift bag fcfibarfte SWetaU. a. The indefinite article is often placed directly before a noun indicating a food or drink, where in English such nouns are commonly preceded by some other noun or an indefinite pronominal adjective indicating the usual amount of the substance served at one time to one person, or the usual amount prepared at one time in one mass: cine @uvpe a dish of soup, ein 93uttetbrot a piece of bread and butter, etne Jlartoffel some potatoes, a dish of potatoes, ein 93ter a glass of beer, ein 2Mtterer a glass of bitters, ein 2kot a loaf of bread. Sftetne tfrau bringt ntir einen Jtaffee ntit einem 9?um My wife is bringing me a cup of coffee with rum. 5Jh)torb bereitete ftdj einen See My lord made some tea for himself. D. Abstract nouns do not take an article when the idea of amount, extent, degree, or kind of the quality, condition, or activity is defined in only a general way, but they at once demand an article or a pronominal adjective when the idea is individualized, that is, when the extent or kind becomes definite, or the attention is directed to some particular case or cases, or when the abstract noun is used in the sing, to represent the idea in all its entirety, in its widest sense, and not as limited to one individual case or several : Set aftenfd) mufj Siitfrtn nnb abel ertragen levnen Man must learn to bear both praise and censure. Kef ntadjt SD?ut. r tragt afleg nut ebu(b. 3d) fange nut nut freier ->anb, abet elenfigfeit gefyert bajn I catch fish with my hands, but it takes some skill. Set Sllte werfanf in 9tad;finnen. 3ammern tfl unnitfc. But : 3d) finbe baju bie Sett nidjt I have not the time (for this particular task). (Sine @ebulb, toelcfye ntdjtg erfdjuttern fann; ber griebe ber @ecte, bie Siebe otteg. <3otdje Ungered)tigfeiten ftnb unevfyort. Sag Santmevn ifl nnmiji Your lamenting will do no good. )te 3eit tfi flnd^tig Time always speeds along. (St u?at ganj Uebecodet @o^n, bie flRMfidjt unb (S^recbietung felbfl He was quite an affectionate son, the very personification of consideration and respect. 3Me Ungerecfyttgfeit fhaft ftd) felbft. 3 ft benn bag btc SKcglidjfeit ? Is it possible, within the range of the possible ? ! or in shorter, weaker form : 3ft'g bie 5Rcgu'd)fctt ? You don't say so ! E. The names of persons in general need no article, as the name itself indicates with sufficient clearness the individual ; but as, on the one hand, a proper name needs at times to be pointed out more definitely to distinguish it from others of the same name, and on the other hand it may be used as a common noun, the article is often for these reasons and others found before it, especially in the following cases : 62 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 59.II.E.0. a. When the reference is to a person already mentioned, or one that is explicitly designated by some adjective modifier, or in familiar language one not designated by any modifier, as it is supposed that he is a party well known to the person in question : S)a3 ift ber Jtatl That is Carl (of whom we were speaking). gtiebtic| bet toe, or ber grope gtiebtidj, ber bicfe SBilfyefat, ber alte err <2>d)mibt. 2Benn bie Jtinbet ifyn nut turn toeitem faljen, fo riefen fie fdjon : SRutter, ber SBtejelfafyat fommt! Whenever the children saw him even afar off, they cried out : Mother, Jasper the brezel-seller is coming ! 5Kit bem Sfyobot witt id) gat ntdjt mefyt untgehen. 3d) tnag unb iH'$ nid)t gtauben, bajj mid) bet 9Rai verlafien fann. In familiar language the definite article sometimes takes the place of etr Mr. and ftrau Mrs. or grdutein Miss before surnames, when the persons spoken of are well known to persons addressed and need not be described : )er cfymibt or Syrc djmibt, bie @d)tnibt or grou @d)tnibt. It is quite common to use the article before the names of celebrated persons : bie SDtorlitt, bie (Sbnet (grau SJatonin 2flarie on (Sbnet;fdjenbadj), bie lliot, &c. ; ber SMsmarcf, &c. Note. The definite article before names of persons and animals is more common in the spoken than written language, and very much more common in the South than in the North : bet Jtatl instead of Jtarl, bet SPlllto (name of a dog). In the North, on the contrary, the custom of using proper nouns without the article is extended to common class nouns when used as familiar names just as in English : SWllttetg KUtb mother's dress ; see 90. In the South the article always stands in such cases. b. In direct address the name or title is usually of itself definite enough, and hence is without article : Dtto, hie bag jiicfyt ! Thus also in letters : 3>uerfte Suife! eefyrter Jpett! Siebet (or giebflet) djmibt! My dear friend Schmidt. In conversation the manner of address is as in English : err (Scfymibt Mr. S., ifrau er ett Jpauvttnann hnrb geuMjj bte {ite Ijaben, &c., Captain, you will certainly be so kind, &c. 9ld), grautein ftnb fo gut! O, Miss, you are so good ! In accordance with older usage we sometimes hear in provincial language the article in direct address : uten Slbenb, bie Jperten ! Good evening, gentle- men. c. Also titles in the third person which precede names of individuals, whether persons or things, usually have no article, as they are felt as a part of the name : -Profefibt SWiiUer Professor Miiller, err @d)mibt Mr. Schmidt, .Ronig 2Bil!jehn, ie $rari3 be3 &bofaten 3J?uUet, but SlDCofat SRuttetS $rarti3. The omission of the article is here not common in the dat. except after prepositions, where the title sometimes has the article and sometimes drops it : 3Me italienifcfyen Xruwen untet Dbetft Slttmanbt. 3>er Jtonia. unb bie Jtcntgin son @d)tt>eben unb 9ior; tregen nebft bent Iprinijen Sugen. In' all the above cases when the title is felt in its full force and not as a part of the usual name the article must be used. In the plural also such titles naturally take the article, as they are 59. II. F.I. USES OF THE ARTICLES 63 felt in their full force: Softer 93. meint Doctor B. thinks, &C., but bie Softoren 23. unb 35. metnen Doctors B. and D. think, &c. d. Aside from the previous logical reasons, the article is also often used on formal grounds to distinguish the different cases. The article is much more frequently used in the gen., dat., and ace. than in the nom., and is avoided also in the dat. and ace. if the colloquial weak ending ;en be used : 35te SBerfe beg *prariteleg, but where an g can be easily added bie SBerfe f. A proper name takes the article as any common class noun when the reference is to one, a definite group, or the entire number of individuals who have the same origin, and hence a name in common : ein 33ourbon a Bourbon, bie Siourbonen the Bourbons. This is the rule in case of illustrious or well-known houses, but in case of private families the article is more commonly omitted : 33raung omte3 the Peloponnesus, bie @\) Haben the Cyclades, but Jtreta Crete, (guropa Europe, &c. 2. The neut. names of the political divisions of the earth, such as cities, countries, and minor divisions of countries, usually have no article when they are unmodified, but require it when modified by an adjective, a gen., or a relative clause : S&erlitt Berlin, eutfd)(anb Germany, but bag fdjcne 2>eutfdjfanb beautiful Germany, &c. Many names of places had an article in an older period, as they were originally common class nouns, or had for their final element a common class noun ; see 88. i. In most cases all feeling for the origin of such words is lost, but a few groups of words and a few isolated names still retain the article in accordance with older usage : a. Only one town or city, bee aog The Hague (lit. the forest), takes the article. b. All feminine and masculine names of countries and districts take the article : a number of fern, in ;ei or ie, as bie Sombatbei Lombardy (i. e. land of the Lombards), bie SRormonbte Normandy (i.e. land of the Normans); some fern, in ;cm, as bie 5Rolbau Moldavia ; fern, in ;marf march, as bie Silts matf; a few isolated fern., as bie eij Switzerland, bie $fal$ the Pala- tinate, bie Saiifijj Lusatia, bie Setta'nte the Levant, bie 53retagne Brittany, c. ; masc. in fQ>&n district, which are also sometimes neut. in accordance with the earlier gender of the word, as bet (bag) {Rfjeingau ; bee or more commonly bag @{fajj Alsace. Note. The poet sometimes takes liberties with these words and drops the article, thus vividly treating them as real proper nouns instead of common nouns according to their origin : 2BeU tt>ii eg fatt jtnb, bafj SRarf 93tanbenbutg jebem getbgiet'gen @er 9Jf enfd) ifl ein ott, fobafb er 3Kenfd) ifl Man is a god when he is humane. 3d) bin Cartel I am biased. 3d) bin 23raut I am betrothed. @t fturbe vuJ5tfd)et Untertan. a3 ifl bet SSaumeifler That is the architect (of whom we were just talking). Note. This omission of the article in the predicate is especially frequent in apposi- tional and parenthetical phrases, which are often contracted clauses in which the appositional substantive is the real predicate, and hence the omission of the article is natural, but the omission often thus occurs even when in a complete sentence the same word in the predicate would require the article: 9Utf Slnfdnfltc (= Dbgltid) t Slnfdnget ifl) bejjanbelt er bit ar fletsJ bein 58i(b ntit naf). 2Wit fd)arfem @d)titt with a quick step. d. In prepositional phrases the indefinite article can be omitted when the reference is evidently to only one object : ein ebaube ntit flad)em !Dad). (Sin auf bettatbetem S3erge liegenbed Sd)(of. 2luf ^agerem alfe {job ftd) ein btaffe^ evgilbte3 e. The article is dropped before a noun as in English when it introduces a formal definition of itself: Jlnnfl ifl (or fycifjt) bie >arjle(lung bc3 djoneit. f. The article is dropped before a noun which does not represent a definite object or thing but is used in a broad, general sense : SMutigcl ijl Slntigct A leech is a leech wherever you find it. Grnbe gut, aflcg gut If the end is good, all is good. The article is absent thus in many pithy sayings which date back to a time when the article was little used, and thus bear the stamp of an earlier coinage. The article is frequently omitted before the absolute superlative to express a high degree in a general way without reference to any particular com- parison : tSinfadjfle, tieffle armenie ifl int (Sturm, h?ie in bee -ffimbfttlle (Raabe). 5luf fabefle Summfcvfe mad)te er Sinbrucf, auf ?lvnolb nid)t (G. Hauptmann). g. The article is dropped in an enumeration of things or particulars belong- ing to the same class or category, but must stand before each noun if they are considered individually rather than as belonging to one class : 33ei bet IflugfuUung ber gtad)tbricfrubn ,,9lvt ber aSerpacfung" Ijat bet QJetfenbet einen F 66 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 59.111.^. mogltdjfl bejetdjnenben Sludbrurf (5aji, adf, Jttite, Jtafhn, fallen u. bgt.) ju fcafylen. SHe falfdje, abet bidder lanblduftge 9lnftd}t, bag 9tyein, 9teufj, (Jtycne unb efim ant @t. ottijarb entfpringen, gab audj ju einer trrigen Sluffaffimg ber trafjenoerfydlrmjfe Slnlafj. err djreiber SBittJjoff, Xcpfntarfterfe, interljaud, werte (Stage linfd. Surid) am Sludjutjj ber Sintma* aud bent Suridjer ee, jefct bie olfreid)fle tabt ber d?tteij (90,000 ($.), aJHttelpunft finer grojjartigen Snbuftrie in eibe, SSaunttootte, 2JJafdjinen it. a., bebeutenber anbel, (Sifenbafjnfnotenpnnft unb lebfjafter ftrembensericljr. But the article is used in the following sentence, as the objects are considered individually : 25o (unter bent (Sfirtfibaume) lag ein brauned 9D?uffd)en, em fd)ar$er amtfyut, ein bunted Jtleib, ein 2Rdrd)enbud), ein S3ttt>erbudj, fedjd d)veibebud)er, ebern unb djiefetjtifte, tricfgarn unb audj eine h>unberfi^6ne $u^ve. h. Similar to the above is the very common use of dropping the article of each of a pair of words connected by unb, or ttiebet nodj neither nor, nidjt nod) not nor, nidjt cber not or: ag unb 9tad)t, eib unb t Dberft tyatte in feinet furjen, ettoag tnUitdtifdjen 2trt itnb SBeife gefprcdjen, auS bet jebod) erj Hang, ba$ gum J&ergen ging. 0. The article is almost always dropped before proper names in direct address, and as a rule elsewhere, but there are many exceptions, as enumerated in II. E and the sub-articles. Also the following points come under this head : aa. In familiar language, titles and designations of relationship, and in poetry and folk-lore the names of familiar objects, may, in order to impart more vividly the idea of personality, be treated as proper names and thus drop the article (see II. E. a. Note, and 9O) : nad) $ol)eit3 23efeljl according to the command of your Highness. errfd)aftsS jinb fyeute gang imter fid) (words of a hired girl) My employer and his family are to-day entirely to themselves. SanteS .f (eib Aunt's dress. Jhtabe fyrad? : id? bred?e bid), Oio^letu fpvad? : id? fhdjc kid? (Goethe's Heidenrosleiri). bb. In official language or a familiar style, definite persons or organizations are called not by their proper name but by some common noun that repre- sents the capacity in which the person or thing appears. This common noun like a proper name drops the article : Seflagtet trete ttor Let the defendant step forth. anberung History of the Migration of the Nations, (Sifengiefjerei on 9h 2J?., Slrtifel bet =!? -W -(') -(e)n -(e)n =i;r Plural. Plural. Plural. istCl.andCl. Nom. 12. Gen. m Dat. -^-n ACC. '. e en e C -^er ern JLer -(e)n -(e)n -(e)n -(f)n -(e)n -8 (e)n 8 -(e)n -8 -(e)n -6 F 2 68 INFLECTION OF COMMON NOUNS 6O.I.A. The declensions are distinguished by the case ending in the gen. sing, and nom. pi. A. The Strong declension has g or eg in the gen. sing. : ber <2>paten spade, gen. beg Vateng. It subdivides into four classes in the plural according to the formation of the nom. plural : a. The First Class has no additional ending in the nom. pi., but sometimes modifies the root vowel : ber <.paten, pi. bie paten ; ber SSater father, pi. bie SSdter. b. The Second Class adds e in the nom. pi. without modification of the root vowel : ber QIrm arm, pi. bie Qlrme. c. The Third Class adds e in the plural and modifies the root vowel : ber 8ru foot, pi. bie fr'ufie. d. The Fourth Class adds er to form nom. pi. and modifies the root vowel : bag SBucfy book, pi. bie Silver. B. The Weak declension has n or en in every case sing, and pi. except nom. sing. : ber Jtnafce boy, gen. beg Jtnaben, dat. bent Jtnafcen, ace. ben JtnaSen, pi. nom. bie Jlnafcen, &c. C. The Mixed declension is strong (i. e. takes g or eg in gen.) in the sing, and falls into two groups in the pi. a. The first group takes the weak pi., i. e. ends in n or en throughout the pi. : ber @taat state, gen. beg @taat(e)g, pi. bie taaten. b. The second group has the foreign ending s throughout the pi. : bag (Scfco echo, gen. beg (Sefyog, pi. bie Gcfyog. D. In any of these declensions where the case ending of the noun is deficient, the article (which is ever playing a more im- portant role) marks distinctly the case: ber Dmnitmg, beg Dmnifcug, &c. See 2, below. 2. There is at present considerable confusion in German de- clension. The strong declension and the first class of the mixed are growing at the expense of the weak, and the strong declen- sion itself is losing in many words its g of the genitive sing. : @g fcbien ifym (cem (f)amdleon) ju gefaflen auf ben fcfyrcanfen Sftanfen beg (Sfeu (Uber Land und Meer). The grammarians severely condemn the suppression of g in such examples as the preceding, but in a number of categories this omission has been sanctioned by usage, as tfre feeling has prevailed that the article alone marks the case clearly ; see 84, 85. a; 86. i, and a; 86. 2. a and c; 02.2. a. b; 78. In case of common nouns the g is most frequently suppressed when the word ends in an unaccented sibilant : beg (Slofcug (or lo&uffee) j etneg S^ttfcfy (Fontane's Unterm Birnbaum, II) or 8 GENERAL RULES FOR ALL DECLENSIONS. 61. a. Feminine nouns never vary in the singular, the article or context alone showing case. Thus feminines belong to their respec- tive classes and declensions only in the plural. Occasionally traces of inflection in the sing, can still be found, indicating a different state of things in earlier periods; see 76. II. i. b. Nouns ending in unaccented ar, e, el, em, en, er, cfyen, il, ir, lent, fel, ul, always lose the e of the case ending : ber &lu8el wing, gen. beg 62. D. GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSIONS 69 Slugelg, dat. pi. ben ftlugeln, not beg ftlitgeteg, ^ n ^lugelen ; bie freber pen, pi. bte ftebern; ber ttn'gar Hungarian, pi. bie lln'garn, but ber Tartar' Tartar, pi. bie Xarta'ren. c. The last noun of true compound substantives is alone declined, and also gives the gender to the compound. For loose compounds, see 80. 2. STRONG DECLENSION. General Rules. 62. A. In every strong masc. or neut. (for fem. see 61. a) noun the nom. and ace. sing, of the respective genders are the same, and in nouns of all genders the nom., gen., and ace. plural of the respective genders are alike, the accompanying article or adjective alone marking case relations. B. Every strong noun ends in eu or n (see 61. b) in the dat. pi, C. The case ending e according to 61. b is dropped after the suffixes e, el, em, eit, er, cfyen, lein, fel: ber (Sngel angel, teg (Sngelg (not (Sngeleg), tent (Sngel (not ngele), &c. In case of those ending in n, no additional n is added in the dat. pi.: ber pnten spade, gen. beg ct?en, &c. Note. Words of the form e e or e (ending in f(, et, as efieber,) often have modification of the stem vowel by mutation (see 26. A and C), as they once had after them an i, which has become e or dropped out : ebrdttge (O.H.G. gidrengi), eftlbe (O.H.G. gifildi) derived from fttl'D, efieber (O.H.G. presumably gifidari or gifidiri) derived from 5ebet. However, a large number of verbal nouns, usually new formations formed from the infinitive stem, do not mutate : baS etaufe. When the mutated form and the unmutated form exist side by side there is often a little shade of difference in meaning ; see 83. i>. 66. The list of nouns in this class that have the nom. sing, like the nom. pi. is much larger than those that modify the root vowel. Among those that suffer mutation in the plural can be safely counted : only one neuter, Softer cloister, but also quite often 5Baffer water, and sometimes Sager camp ; two feminines, SWutter and $ocbter ; the following masculines : Qlrfer field, bet 5IpfeI apple, SSoben (pi. also 23oben) bottom, soil, SBruber brother, aben (earlier in the period without mutation in the pi.) thread, arteu garden, raben ditch, afen harbor, pot, jammer hammer, fen stove, ^} and in part also for the antibacchius ( w) as a word foot ; see 62. D. (i). This change of form consists in changing a dactyl or antibacchius into- 67. INFLECTION OF THE FIRST CLASS 73 a trochee ( ^) or a spondee ( ). The masculines and neuters in e, el, em, en, er went over entirely into the new class, but masc. and neut. words in at, idj, ig, ing, ling, ri<|, fal were only in part affected by this move- ment. They dropped the e in the singular, but retained it throughout the plural, in order to mark more clearly the plural idea : bet SBagen, bed SBageng, pi. bie 2agen ; but bet Bungling, beg 3unglingg, pi. bie 3unglinge. Those in ;nis took ;eg in the gen. on account of the difficulty of uniting simple g with the suffix, but dropped it usually in the dat. : bag efangnig, beg efangniffeg, bem efdngnig (efangniffe), pi. bie efangnifie. The retention of e in the plural was facilitated by the secondary accent upon the suffix. The e was in general suppressed in the singular more easily than in the plural, because the 8 of the gen. sing, clearly marked this case, and there was little difficulty in recognizing the dat. on account of the preceding article, while in the plural the article is often dropped and a clear plural ending is often needed. These reasons also apply to nouns in 4ein, but the case is quite different, as the nouns in t\t\\\ were neuter and in the M.H.G. period had no plural ending in the nom. and ace. pi. and often throughout the entire plural, and thus in N.H.G. simply retained in the nom. and ace. pi. the historic form, and extended it uniformly to the other cases. Nouns in ;d)en and many in -A, an, ;er are also neut., and like those in 4cin had no ending in the nom. and ace. pi., and thus by their example facilitated the dropping of the pi. ending here in case of masculines. On the other hand, the great majority of nouns in ;at, :\i), 4ing, md) were masculine, and retained their, historic ending e in the plural. The neuters in ;nig and of the form e (69. 5. b. Note) had in earlier periods both in the sing, and pi. the ending e like j?afe, which they have dropped in the sing, and retained in the pi. Neuters and feminines in -,\&\. took e in the plural after the example of masculines in *\\{, which were once common, but have since almost disappeared. The words in this new class were later reinforced by stragglers from other classes and declensions, especially from the weak declension. In a number of weak nouns, as M.H.G. balke beam, the ;en of the oblique cases was so frequently used that the form in *en was erroneously taken for the stem of a strong noun in tt\\, and was accordingly inflected strong : (M.H.G.) N. balke, G. balken, D. balken, &c. ; (N.H.G.) N. Salfcn, G. Salfeng, D. SSatfen, &c. The words which have thus come from the weak declension are almost wholly the names of lifeless objects, which fact accounts for their change of declension. The most common case form of names of living beings is the nom., since a living being is naturally thought of as acting, while the most common case forms of names of lifeless objects are the ace. and dat., since we think of them as things we use, as the objects of an activity or a preposition. Hence in case of these weak nouns representing lifeless objects the frequent dat. and ace. form in ;cn became fixed in the mind as the usual form, and gradually displaced the less familiar nom. form in ft. In most of the words in the list in 68, the old and correct nom. form is still struggling with the ace. form for the mastery in the nom. case. As the nom. form remained firm in case of designations of living beings, and the ace. form supplanted the nom. form in case of names of things, the same word was split into two forms if it had two meanings, one the name of a person, one the name of a thing : ber ftranfe Frank (race), bet Sranfen (in Switzerland) franc (coin) ; ber 2ump (formerly 8umpe) ragged beggar, good-for-nothing fellow, bet Sitmpen rag ; ber (Nappe black horse, originally raven, and still so in S.G. dialect, ber Happen (in Switzerland a coin upon which is a picture of a raven) jfoj franc ; ber ropf (formerly Srcpfe) simple- ton, bet Stopfcn drop. The change of words from the second class and weak declension to this class was a gradual one, and the former order of things can still be seen in Luther's works in a number of cases : beg garten (2 Kings ix. 27), &c. On the other hand, a large number of feminines which in early N.H.G. 74 STRONG DECLENSION 67. had their sing, and pi. in most part alike, and hence properly belonged here, especially those in ;e, ;in, and ;iing, passed over later into the weak declension, following the general tendency of feminines towards the weak declension : (dat. sing.) funbe (2 Cor. v. 21), (ace. pi.) funbe (i Cor. xv. 3) ; (nom. sing, of 6ttnn) bte Sennnne (Ezek. xix. 2), (nom. pi.) Sewinne (Joel i. 6) ; (ace. pi.) ttwnunge (Ps. Ixxxvii. 2). 68. Irregularities in the Declension of the First Class. Though often deficient in the nom. sing, ending n or en, the following masc. nouns may now be safely put into the first class: ^ricbe peace, ffunfe spark, ebanfe thought, efatte kind act, favor, laufce faith, cfyaben suffering mutation according to art. 64, subdivision b, and the others without mutation according to a. Singular. N. ber 92ame(n) her Sfelfen or jyels ber @d)aben G. be Stamens be8 'ffelfeng (ftelfen) be8 @d;abeng D. bem Stamen bem ^etfen (tfcle) bent <8d?aben A. ben Stamen ben frelfen or ftelg ben <5d?aben a. Forms varying from the regular forms above result from the previous declension -of these nouns, most of which were once weak or both weak and . strong, and hence we sometimes find beg gelfen, eineg gelfefl (early N.H.G. ; 2 Chron. xxv. 12), in einem %d$ (Schwab, Sagen, III. 149) ; pi. an bie elfe (Steinbach ; now obs.). In a few set expressions the old nom. e is very firm : (S3 tjl djube ! It is too bad ! gviebe feinft 9lfci>e ! griebe (O.H.G. fridu) was not originally weak but strong. It had in early N.H.G. the following inflection : bet griebe, beg Svitbcg, bem, ben griebe alongside of the forms ber fttiebe, beg griebeng, bem, ben Srieben. The forms in ;en show that the nom. e had led to the conception that the noun was weak. The old strong gen. in *e$ is now obsolete, the nom. in ;t is still quite common, and the old strong dat. and ace. forms in ;e not infrequent in the classical period when no article precedes the noun, and still occurs so occasionally : Unb une fange fyaben ttrit fdjon gwbe? (Lessing's Minna, 2, i). Sljnt fatten | tangfl bie fitOen cottar jWalbtannen | Sriebe ing emiit gerauf^t (Scheffel's Tromfieter, i). The n of the oblique cases has gradually become fixed in the nom., but has not yet displaced the old ending e. SECOND CLASS OF THE STRONG DECLENSION. 69. To this class, which forms its plural by adding e without mutation of the root vowel, belong : i. Masculine monosyllables : a. Almost all masculine monosyllables not capable of mutation in the plural, that is, those monosyllables not containing one of the vowels a, o, it, an: ber 9Beg way, ber >ienft service, ber $rei3 prize, ber $lufcfy plush. This is a very large group, but the words need not be enumerated, as they are easily recognized by their form. 69.1.6. SECOND CLASS OF STRONG DECLENSION 75 b. The following masculine monosyllables containing one of the vowels a, o, it, flu, but forming their plural without mutation. Those marked with * have sometimes a mutated plural, those marked with t fluctuate in the plural between mutated and un- mutated form: *5Jal eel, Mar eagle, 9(ft act, 2llf (pi. also wk.) auk, QHp incubus, Mr (also neut.) are, Mrm arm, 93afj (also fern.) coupling (time or place of birds), 23cm ban, ruler of a banat, *33ann proscription, 58arfd) perch, 33a8 master, *23aft bast, 2Bau (pi. SSaue dwellings of animals, pi. tauten buildings) building, SSIaff bark (of a dog), 33olD fellow, dwarf, 93orb (rarely neut.) edge, border, 3Borb (sometimes neut. and fern. ; see ort, 74. i) board, shelf, * 33orn fount, * Sorfl crack, fissure, 23ucfy3 box-tree, 33ult (also wk. and 3rd cl. str. ; nom. also 9Bitlten and bie SBitlte) hill(ock), 33utt (pi. also wk. ; also a wk. fern, tie SButte) turbot, @fyan khan, (Elan (pi. also (ElanS) clan, *2)acfyg badger, 5)anf (pi. rarely 2)anfe or 2)cinff, usually >cmffaijungen ; see 96. 5. B), )od?t wick, 5)old) dagger, >om cathedral, *2)orn (see 83), *2)orfcfy torsk, Dratt (also a wk. fern, bie >rafle) groove in the bore of a rifle, 2)rofi (also wk.) magistrate, )rucf (see 83), tS)rufd) thrashing, (pi. also wk.) dunce, 5alj groove, *8 : ant coxcomb, 5am fern, (sometimes wk.) faun, *&jorb (pi. also sometimes 5jorb8, fiord, S'lac^S flax, gla^S boor, *8rlau8 'or *S : rauf(^ tuft, glor (pi. rare) bloom, blossom, fthir (sometimes a wk. fern.) entrance hall, ftorjl (79. i. a), *^unb find, &uf? (83), @au (pi. also eaten in both meanings, especially, however, in poetry in the second one ; sometimes neut.) district, field, olf gulf (of sea), rab degree, ran (perhaps more commonly neut.) grain (weight), *rat ridge, rctt (pi. rare) resentment, riuij groan (sign of disapproval), ucf look, urt girth, belt, olf (see 79. i), olm holm, op8 hop, orfl aerie, ort safe retreat, treasure, *&uf (pi. sometimes wk.) hoof, unb dog, leek, i l aut sound, %o$ (provinc. ; also neut, pi. 61)er) coppice, oldj cockle, or orf (N.G.) toad, *ud;a lynx, tfitmp (79. i. a), un$ (pi. also lunch, urcf? batrachian, a)iaat mate (naut. term), Wltfy night- 76 STRONG DECLENSION 60.1.5. mare, SWafl (79. i. a], 1 SKafc Mat, little fool, SKotyn poppy, 2>tof)r moreen, WlolAj salamander, 3)?onb (see 83), 2ftorb (pi. SWotbe /Ws q/" murder, pi. 2ftorbtcitcu ozs (pi. rare) robbery, *9Rofi grate (of a stove), *9tucf jerk, 0iiif call, *3lufdj rush (plant), Otutfd? land- or snow-slide, @alm (sometimes wk.) young salmon, (Sarnt velvet, tSdjad^t (pi. sometimes wk.) shaft (in mine), td)Iucf swallow (of water, &c.), <5cfyluf(f) hiding place, hole through which an animal can slip, @d)IumV (pop. N.G.) lucky chance, t<8d)ma smack, @d}mucf (pi. more commonly <2d?mucf* fact^en) ornament, @^mul (colloq. ; pi. also c^miilg) Jew (contempt.), 6d)mu3 (pop. and colloq.) foolish talk, Scfyof flock (of teals), @ci?orf scab, * f (S.G.) shove, * <2dwrj apron (for men), <2d)trald) opening (in a furnace), tet3' reproof, SJkrjtcfyt' renunciation. b. A few compounds the last component of which is rarely found as an independent word or as such does not belong to this class: *5litfrut)r uproar, revolt, H?anSurji buffoon, 3nfult / insult, aWitnrod) Wednesday, 9kd)njetg proof, ttnfiolb mischievous being, fiend, llnterfcfyluvf shelter, 93telfrafj glutton, *$acf in compounds (as 2>rei$acf trident), *3urcad?8 increase, 3rci*f>acf (pi. also 3roie&acfe) piece of cold toast. c. A number of disyllabic or polysyllabic nouns with accent upon the first syllable which do not have component elements of an appreciable meaning, but are made up of elements not distinctly felt, whether it be from the fact that they have been in the course of time corrupted, or because they are of an origin that is not clearly felt, including a number of foreign words : -Menb evening, vHfyorn maple-tree, Slm&op anvil, QltlaS (pi. ^Itlafje, also QUIan'teu in the second meaning) satin, atlas, iBal'fant (pi. also SBaljVme) balm, akftarb (pop. 9?oflevt, pi. 3?afterte) and SBaufert (vulg.) bastard, ajrtiutujam intended, SBuffarb buzzard, >errctfd) dervish, @ibam (poetic) son-in-law, Jetifc^ fetish, 4?ageftolj (also wk.) bachelor, arnifd) armor, -Oerolb herald, 78 STRONG DECLENSION 69. 2 . romp, uefinbieroelt greenhorn, c. : udinbiercelte (Storm's Viola tricolor, II. p. 71). Most compounds of this kind still prefer non-inflection : afle $f)atifaer imb ernegroj? (Fontane's Stechlin, XXXII. p. 398). See also 80.2. ^ 3. Masculine derivatives formed by the aid of unaccented suffixes other than those employed in the first class and =tunt of the fourth class, namely, those in ?at, *(i)cfy, =id}t, 4g, =ing, *linQ, *\%, =rid?, &c. : 2ftonat, JHettirt), -gabicfat, grilling, sJBegertcfy, &c. Also usually unaccented masculine foreign suffixes, as *al, =tan, *h>, &c., except those in 79. 2 and 71. 4 : $lu'ral (also $lutaf ), ro'fctan, ar (=^)aare, acc.pl.; Gen. xlii. 38). This former manner of inflecting the pi. is still very common in one construction, namely, where nouns are used as weights and measures, as fedj$ 5>fimb six founds; see 96. 4. 1. Here, however, the uninflected forms of the nom. and ace. pi. have spread to the gen. and dat. The present plural ending e of the following neuter groups is after the analogy of the masculines in this same class. See also b. Note, below, and 67. The following neuters belong here : a. All ending in =tcbt, ^nig, =f a * : 2>itfd)t thicket, Sreignig event, (scfrcffal fate. b. All beginning with ge* and not ending in *e, =el, *er, as efefc law, except the few in 74. 4. Note. Nouns in this group had in an earlier period both in the nom. sing, and pi. an e, which was originally not a case ending but a part of the stem. Thus this group was once identical with the words of the form e e (as in ebttfle) in the First Class. The words in this group were separated from the others by dropping the e of the nom. sing., so that the e which remained in the nom. pi. was construed as a pi. ending. The words whose root syllable ended in b, b, Q, and $, usually retained the e in the sing., the others dropped it: ebdube, ebirge, but ebeK, &c. The e which was once in the sing, of these words was originally an i, and hence the mutation in most of these words: efpradj (O.H.G. gisprachi). c. The majority of monosyllabic neuters. , Among these words are many names of materials the plurals of which we translate by kinds or grades of', see i.b.Note, above. The list is as follows: 213 (beg Qlffeg, pi. bte 5lffe) ace, SBarf (also a wk. fem.) forecastle, 29eer 69. 5. *. SECOND CLASS OF STRONG DECLENSION 79 (in early N.H.G. and still in dialects as in the works of Rosegger; now a wk. fern, in the form of bie S3eerc, which is in fact the old pi.) berry, 93cet (pi. sometimes wk.) bed (in a garden), 23eil axe (with short handle), SBein leg, 2Mer beer, SBlei lead, 9Boot (pi. often 936te) boat, 33rau (71. a), SBrot (pi. sometimes SBrote) loaf of bread, SBunb bundle, bunch, 2)erf deck, ing (83), 2>ocf (pi. more commonly 2)o(fs) dock, (Scf (in use earlier in the period and still occasionally found ; now usually restricted to compounds such as )tetecf triangle, &c. ; elsewhere now replaced by the wk. fern. (Jcfe) corner, (rj ore, g-ett hide, ftenn fen, gefl festival, ftett fat, ftjefl (or frjelb) elevated plain (in Scandinavia), ftlcufy flat bottom of a boat, $Ieet (N.G.) navig- able canal, 5% horizontal stratum, Brett ferret, am yarn, a3 gas, ift poison, leig track, luef happiness, olb gold, ramm gram, ran (see i. , above), @ro3 (feeS roffeg, pi. bie roffc) gross, aar hair, aff (pi. also &affS) fresh water bay (along the Baltic), arj gum (of tree) 4?erf stern, ^>eer army, eft note-book, e^l (also masc.) secret, eU happiness, salvation, irn brain, 3ai)r year, 3ocfy (also a pi. 3ocf)er, a mining term used of certain beams) yoke, Jtirm chin, Jtlijj (pi. also Jtltp) cliff, Jtnie knee, ^rcuj cross, Jtuff (also a wk. fern. Jtiiffe) koff, Jtummet or ^umt hame, Sanb (83), JJauit (earlier in period with the plurals Hufcer or cw6e in the first meaning, now usually in the second meaning without pi.) leaf, foliage, ecf (also masc.) leak, iMefd? flowering rush, ob (pi. usually ^obeSetfyehmgen or tfofcfaritcfye) praise, og[g] (ship's) log, SoS lot, Sot plumb-line, SFtcfy (see 74. i), Wlafyl (pi. more com- monly SKa'fjIer) repast, 3KaI (pi. more commonly SWtiler, but always SWerfmale characteristics, SCBunbcnmale scars, SWgelmale marks of nails) mole, mark, sign, Wlal time (two, three times, &c.), Wlalft malt, 3Wap measure, Wlm sea, 2D?e^t flour, SKoor moor, SWooS (pi. 2ftbfer swampy lands) moss, 2Ku3 (pi. also SWufer) stewed fruit, 9te$ net, 9tocE yard-arm, D^r eye (of a needle), Dl oil, ^8aar pair, $ec^ pitch, $fetb horse, ^funb pound, tyult desk, Ouart quart, Oie^t right, 9ftecf horizontal bar, JHeep rope (naut. term), 9teff reef (in a sail), 9te^ doe, 3tei^ empire, Sftteb (pi. sometimes Otiebcr) reed, swampy land, Olieg ream, 9ftiff reef (of rocks), 9lo^r (pi. rarely Otbfyre) reed, pipe, 3fto|} (pi. in early N.H.G. 0tof[er,as in Deut. xvii. 16; still so in Austria, as in Rosegger's Martin der Mann, p. 80) horse, steed, 3Runb (sometimes masc.) circle, @alj salt, 6d}of sheep, (Scfyaff (provinc. ; pi. sometimes gaffer) tub, @^a^)) (N.G.) case, cupboard, arte1)en, ist cl. str.) loan, -gunbert hundred, JUeinob (79. i. b), eilacfy (pi. also wk.) sheet, Oturfgtat backbone, Scwfenb thousand, Urteit judgment, SSerliefj' dungeon, 23erftecf' (sometimes masc.) hiding-place, 23 ielflacfy polyhedron, SSottblut thoroughbred horse. e. A few disyllabics the component parts of which do not have an appreciable meaning : >ufcenb dozen, 2ftamnwt (pi. also 2Rammut) mammoth, SKeffing brass, $etfd?nft seal, Sefcfying (sometimes masc.; pi. also Sefcfyingg) a gun of very small bore. 6. A few loose compounds (see 80. 2) : 3}ergtmeinnid?t forget-me- not, e6ercof;t farewell. Non-inflection or a form in *8 is more common here in the plural, and non-inflection is also found some- times in the singular ; see 80. 2. 7. A large number of foreign words accented upon the last syllable. The striking feature of these words is the very strong preponderance of neuters. Almost all the neuters in the language accented upon the last syllable belong here, except a few in 74. 5 and 79. 2. e and f, and a number of words in these groups are trending in this direction. In some of these foreign words there is a tendency to shift the accent upon the first syllable after the manner of German words. Some take occasionally the plural in *3 instead of the regular ending *e, as bie taoeitrS instead of the more common raseure. In general, however, there is now a strong tendency in choice language to discard =8 in favor of the German ending e. To this group belong : a. Masculines and neuters ending in accented ag, aft at, ct (ft), et, it, ifi, it, itt;, fl, ng, og, otn, op, oft, $$, pt, tt, ut, only, however, when they represent things, for nouns which have these same endings are weak when they represent persons or other living beings : bet ranit' granite, teS ranite', but ber sBanbtt' bandit, beS aSanbi'ten, &c. For exceptions see 76. 1. 4. a. Note. The list of the above endings is not complete, but in general it holds good that masc. and neut. nouns accented upon the last syllable belong here if they represent lifeless objects. b. Masc. and neut. nouns representing either beings or things ending in accented at (see Note i), an (see Note 2), an, ar (see Note 2), dr, aft, em, ert, eur (pronounce 6r), ier, i"o, It, mm, ot, on (see Note 2), or, and the sibilants 8, f, x, j : genual' pen-case, ^ttmiral', JUtyfUer' clyster, Officer' officer, c. Occasionally the accent shifts upon the first syllable after German fashion : ber &08i'jxt$ compass, teg Jtompaffe, &c. But if the sibilant was originally unaccented the word does 71.i.a. SECOND CLASS OF STRONG DECLENSION 81 not belong here : ber ftonfeng 7 consent, beg .Ronfen'feg, but aWu'ftf'ug (82) musician, beg SPhiftfug. Note i. A few foreign nouns in ; al' belong to the third class, and several, as Slbmirat, fluctuate between the two classes, but the tendency is toward non-mutation; see 71. 4. Note 2. A few nouns representing living beings are weak : Ulan' uhlan, SSetercm' veteran, SBatfcat' barbarian, Jpufar' hussar, djolat' (archaic) pupil, Slutixfytfiott' (also 2lutod)tc'ne) autochthon, 2)iafon' (sing, also str.) deacon. A few others fluctuate between the strong and the weak inflection, but the former is gaining upon the latter. Note 3. Rafter 7 and Setter' sometimes form the irregular plural *JJaflore, denote; see 71. 4. If Rafter is accented upon the first syllable, which is more common, it does not belong here at all, but to the group in 79. 2. a. Rafter' is sometimes weak. c. The isolated masc. Sfyaraf'ter character has the accent upon the final syllable of the stem only in the pi., SljaratVre, but in the language of the common people the pi. is (Sfyaraf'ter, and the word with them has thus passed over into the ist cl. General Note. It will be observed by even a glance at the preceding groups that some of them, especially the masc, monosyllabics and, to a less extent, masc. di- syllabics and polysyllables, stand under the influence of the 3rd cl., the mutation in the pi. spreading from that class by analogy to this. Thus a number of words are uncertain in their pi., and it cannot easily be determined whether the regular pi. without mutation or the new one with mutation is the more common, but at present the tide has turned and in general the drift is toward the unmutated forms. See 71. i. a. Note. Earlier in the period a number of the words belonging to 7 were entirely or partially weak: bet Oioman (pi. wk. ; sing. str. except in compounds: beg {Romans, but iRotttanenljelbin), 93aron (wk.), @pion (wk.), JMof (wk.); bag Sltom (wk.), (Sptgramm (str. in sing., wk. in pi.), ^Ijantctn (str. in sing., wk. in pi.), &c., all now in and cl. sir. 70. Models of Inflection for Second Class : Singular. Qlrm arm, m. efdngnig prison, n. S)rangfal distress, f. N. ber Qlrm bag efdngmg bie S)rangfal G. beg 9irm(e)3 beS efdngniffeS ber 2)rangfat D. bent QJrm(e) bent efdngniS (or *niffe) ber 2)rangfal A. ben Qlrm baS efdngniS bie 2)rangfal Plural. N. bie Qtrme bie efangntffe bie >rangfale G. ber Qlrme ber efdngniffe ber 2)rangfale D. ben Airmen ben efangmffen ben 5)rangfalen A. bie 3lrme bie efdngniffe bie >rangfale Note. Words in 3 preceded by a short vowel double the g when a vowel follows ; see the inflection of efanQJiig above. Thus also bet 3lti$, be3 3fttfTed; ber 2lt{a$, bed Sltlaffee, &c.; see also 4. a.C.a, p. 17. THIRD CLASS OF THE STRONG DECLENSION. 71. To this class, which mutate the root vowel in the plural and add e, belong : i. The following masculine groups : a. The following masc. monosyllabic nouns, which contain a mutatable vowel (a, o, n, an). Those marked with * have sometimes an unmutated plural, those marked with t fluctuate in the plural between mutated and unmutated form. Qlfct abbot, Qtrjt physician, bowl,. 31ft branch, S3a$ brook, SBoIg skin, aSafl ball, 23anb volume, G 82 STRONG DECLENSION 71. i.e. SSart beard, 93afj bass, 95cmcf) belly, 95aitm tree, aBaufd) bolster, pad, 93tocf block, 2?ocf he-goat, SSranb fire, * 33rait (now more commonly ber or bag 33rdu, and cl.) brewing, SBraitd) custom, SBritd? fracture, 33rud} (74. i), 23ug bend, SBitnb alliance, $8uf$ bush, Gfyor (see 3, below), S)amm dam, SDampf vapor, )arm intestine, 5)raf)t wire, 2)rang impulse, strong desire, t>rufcty thrashing, S)uft fragrant odor, S)unft vapor, B'aKfall, jfang catch, tusk (of boar), tooth (of wolf), talon, claw, $loi) flea, * $Ior crape, gauze, frto (see 3, below), 5'lucfy curse, ^lug flight, frlunf hook, fluke (of an anchor), ftutfj river, $racf (pi. also gracfg) dress-coat, Srofcfy frog, grofi frost, ftuc^S (S.G. also wk.) fox, &ujj (83) foot, @ang walk, aft guest, *aucf) (pi. sometimes wk.) cuckoo, fool, *aul horse, nag, rimb ground, reason, ru greeting, ui casting, t&ag enclosure, fence, grove, at)tt (earlier in the period also wk.) cock, >al3 neck, 4?ang declivity, of court, afc gossip, @c^irul|l (in the first meaning also fem. ; see 2, below) swelling, bombast, (2cfy n: ' un 9 flight, soaring, (Scfyrcur oath, trducf)er) bush, shrub, @traujj (69. i. b\ <2trom stream, <3ttumpf stocking, *<8trunf stump, tebflaf)I theft, (Sinrcanb objection, Mpangrourfl (69. 2. b), sfyanS Johnny in compounds (as $rat)U)ang braggart), erjog (earlier in the period wk., later 2nd cl. str., now also 3rd cl. str. ; still wk. in compound names of places, as erjogen&ufcfy) duke, earlier in the period in its original meaning leader of an army, leader, captain, odjmut (pi. rare) pride, 2Kar|'c^att (early N.H.G. SWatfdjalfj pi. also 2)iarfcfyaU3) marshal, 33orrccmb pretext, Swefaitf (69. 2. b). 2. The following feminines : Qlngjl (see a, below) anxiety, 3lrmBrufl cross-bow, Qlrt ax, 33anf bench, 35raut bride, 3?runft fire, heat, desire, lust, SSntft breast, Saufl fist, >ftufyt in the compounds 5lu8fluctyt evasion, 3ufUtct)t (pi. rare) refuge, as a simple noun and elsewhere in com- pounds wk., Iufy (Swiss ; see also c, below) wall of rock, precipice, 5rud)t fruit, anS goose, efcfynnilfl (less commonly Sdjreuljt) swelling, ruft vault, mtral admiral, join this group, but present feeling is opposed to the mutation of foreign words. 72. Models of Inflection for Third Class : Singular. otyn son, m. Slof? raft, n. 4?anb hand, f. N. ber enfmdlcr, ewanbc and ewdnbcr. A number of words which now are firmly fixed here were in earlier periods in the second class, lacking, however, endings in nom. and ace. pi. ; see 69. 5. Historical Note, and 74. i. a. 74. To this class, which has no feminines, belong : i. All other native German neut. monosyllables not found in the second class in 69. 5. c and the few in the third class in 71. 3 and in the mixed declension (see 79. i. b\ namely : 9(ag (pi. also -2lafe) car- cass, Mint office, 93ab bath, aug deuce, 5)ing (83), >orf village, @i egg, ftad) compartment, ftdjj barrel, 5db field, @elb money, id)t convulsion, tag glass, lteb link, rab grave, rag grass, ut property, >emb (79. i. b), 0(3 wood, orn horn, ufen fowl, Jtalb calf, J?inb child, ^t(ett) dress, Jtorn grain, ^raut herb, Sainm lamb, Sanb (83), JMcfat (83), Sib eyelid, Steb song, Socfy hole, of) (69. i. b), ucfy (sometimes 2nd cl. str.) marsh, SKafyl (69. 5. c), 2M (69. 5. c), SDiaul mouth (of animals), STOenfdj (83), Dtefl nest, $fanb pledge, Oftab wheel, 3Heig shoot, Olicb (pi. usually 3u'ebe) reed, Otinb beef, <2cfyett (83), dupteu, which, however, in meaning has now the force of the sing. The pi. form here is probably after the analogy of ju 5ufjen, where the plural has a real meaning. 2. All in *t\\m, of which two only are masc. (Srrtiuu error and 9teid)tum wealth} and the rest neut. : bag Sljrifientum, &c. 3. A few isolated masculines : SBort (see i, above), 9B6feitid)t (pi. now perhaps more commonly SBofenricfyte) rascal, >orn(83), etfi spirit, ott God, god, unbgfott (pi. unbgfotter) scoundrel, etb body, 9)iann man, 2Jhmb (69. i. b\ Drt (69. i. b), Ouacf youngest child, 'kid/ dtanb edge, 6traucfy (71. i. a), traiifj (69. i. b), SSormunb (in early N.H.G. wk. with form 9Sormunb(e), later str. with pis. SSormunbe, more com- monly QSornumbe, most commonly SSornmnber) guardian, 2Balb (see b) forest, SBurm (pi. rarely SBitrme ; see 83). a. Masculines did not originally belong to this class. Some of these masculines, as )rt, ott (M.H.G. der got God, but daz abgot idol), were once neut. as well as masc., and later retained the neut. pi. form, although they dropped the neut. article in favor of the masc. Several masculines were attracted into this class, assuming the neut. pi. after the analogy of neut. nouns of a similar meaning : SBdlber woods after the analogy of ^toljcr woods ; eiftev spirits after the analogy of otter gods ; 2Rdnner men after the analogy of SBetber women. b. 2BaU> was formerly in the second class, as can still be seen in the fossilized proper name Unterttalben (dat. pi. = untec ten SSdtbern). 4. A few neuters, exceptions to the 2nd cl. (69. 5. b) : efyatt (earlier and sometimes still masc. with pi. exalte) salary, emad) room (of a house), ernut disposition, eftytecfyt (poet. pi. efc!bled)te) generation, eftd)t(83), efyenft ghost, eiranb (pi. Sometimes ercanbe) garments, eirolfc (usually ercotfce, ist cl. str.) vault. 5. A few foreign words : (i) exceptions to 2nd cl. : bag .ftamifof (now usually 2nd cl. str.) jacket, bag J?apitaf or Jt aptteti' (both forms usually 2nd cl.) capital of a pillar, JloUett' (usually 2nd cl.) doublet, ber ^ennal' (pi. sometimes $ennale, $ennale; nom. sing, also ^knndler) gymnasium student, bag ^rafent 7 (usually 2nd cl.) present, bag Sftegi* ment' regiment, bag @pital r or ofpitar hospital ; (2) ber SBif ing (pi. also 2nd cl.; nom. sing, also SBiftnger) viking. 76.1.3- FOURTH CLASS OF STRONG DECLENSION 87 75. Models of Inflection for Fourth Class : Singular. SBucf) book, n. Srrtitm error, m. SBilb picture, n. N. bag $811$ bet Srrtitm bag SBtlb G. beg SBu$(e)8 beg Srrtuntg beg 9Bitt(e)g D. bem aSitdj(e) bent Srrtum bent 2Bttb(e) A. bag SBud? ' ben Srrtum bag SBilb Plural. N. bie 93ud)er bie Srrtttmer bie SBitber G. ber Slider be* Srrtitmer ber SBilber D. ben SBudjern ben Strtumern ben 9Bittern A. bie 23utf?er bie Srrtitmer bie SBtlber WEAK DECLENSION. 76. I. The weak declension ends in =n or *en (see 61. b] in every case sing, and pi. except the nom. sing., and never modifies the root vowel in the pi. : ber ^nafce boy, beg, bent, ben, pi. bie, ber, ben, bie Jtnafcen. Feminines not being declined in the singular have only the plural of this declension. To the weak declension belong : 1. All the native and foreign fern, nouns in the language, with the following few exceptions : (i) 2JJutter and Softer in theirs/ class; (2) those ending in *n\3 and *fal in the second class } (3) the list in the third class (see 71.2) ; (4) a few foreign words (see 80. i and 69. 4). a. Foreign fern, in ?a and t\8 drop these letters in the pi. and add ;tn : bie Strata firm, pi. bie ^inneu ; bie Siafa, pi. bie 23afen. All in =tn double the n in the pi. : giirfitn princess, pi. SurfHnnen. 2. All masculines of two or more syllables ending in unaccented *e, provided they represent persons or other living beings : ber Jtnafce boy, ber $reue Prussian, ber l l on:e lion, &c. Also three names of lifeless things belong here : ber 9Bud)fta(?e (see 68), ber elb (sometimes still 2nd cl. str. as in M.H.G.) hero; err (fceg errn, pi. bie >of)enjoftern is also used as a collective noun inflected as a proper name : et5 (rarely wk., in compounds, however, often so, as in 3^er* genfonig Wildenbruch's Kb'nig Laurin, i, 2, i ; usually 2nd cl. str.) dwarf; also a few names of nationalities and famous families which are usually found only in the plural : 2lngeln Angles, Stmfcern Cimbri, 0ZiMitngen (pi. sometimes SRtbetunge as in M.H.G.) Nibelungs, &c. Most of the weak nouns denoting nationalities have e in the nom. sing, (as ber 2)dne Dane, ber 9fluffe Russian, &c.), and hence belong to 2, above. a. Also others sometimes drop the e of the nom. sing., as bcr <2>d)ranj or cfjtanje, &c. irfdj stag, Seng (poetic) spring-time, SKai May, 5Karj March, <&<&m young salmon, Star starling, and traufj ostrich, are occasionally weak, but are more commonly 2nd cl. str., 2J?ai and 2JMrj, however, are still more commonly uninflected (see 85. a}, gudjgyfor is sometimes weak in S.G. b. Some of the words which used to belong here, especially names of living beings, after throwing off the ;e which distinguished them as weak, drifted over into the strong declension, but still show their original weak 76. II. i. WEAK DECLENSION 89 inflection in compounds : reifenatter, ^afynenfujj, djtoanengefang, ternenfyimtwl, &c., from mS, aljn, >d)tt>an, (Stern, &c., all now 3rd cl. str. except the first and last, which are in 2nd cl. str. For fuller statement see 249. II. I. B. a. Provincially, especially in the S.W., some of these words which represent animals are still as simple nouns inflected weak when used as names of taverns ; ju ben brei araje'n(e) Saracen, SBulgoV Bulgarian, c. A few which have the accent upon the first syllable or on either (see 61. b} : Un'gar (sometimes str. in sing.) Hungarian, Coffer (see 79. i. a), a(r)tar' or $a(r')tar Tartar. c. Masculines ending in accented anb, enb, ant, ent, i3f, grapfy representing persons or things : SKuIti^Itfanb' multiplicand, 2>of toranb' one who is passing his doctor's examination, Jtonfomint' consonant, Dftant' octant, tubent' student, Ouottent' quotient, Dteltgf obelisk, Selegrap^ 7 telegraph, &c. Neuters having these endings belong to the and cl. str. : Jlompltmmt', &c. Note. The above lists of endings are not complete, but in general all foreign nouns accented upon the last syllable which represent persons or living beings are weak except those in 69. 7. b. In familiar conversation, however, this declension is, as a whole, on the decline, especially in the sing. 5. Only several isolated neuters are weak : QlutograVl)' (also in 2nd cl. str.) autograph, Ouabru^cb' (also in 2nd cl. str.) quadruped. This group was once larger; see General Note under 69. 7. c. II. i. In an earlier period of the language and often as late as early N.H.G. the feminines were also inflected in the singular, and forms showing weak inflection here are often still found in poetry, in prose in a very few set expressions, such as auf (Srben itpon earth, and quite commonly in some dialects : (Sin werfcret >! ftnbet nicfyts guts? | >itb ber uerferetet Butigcn ijl | tmrb in vuglurf fallen (Prov. xvii. 20). Sat) eitt Jtnab' etn JKoSlcin fteljn, | OfcSfetn auf ber etben (Goethe's Hetdenroslein). In S.G. dialect the n of the oblique cases has spread to the nom., so that singular and plural end in en : @cJ)arf auf ten tfd) fallen lajfen mup cv ja bos ^Bugeteifen, fonjl toirb bte ofctt nid)t gtatt 90 WEAK DECLENSION 76.II.I. (Rosegger's Der Bauernspottler). Btoifdjen IjeraB gogen bie tangen 9?tffeit (timber- slides) (id., Stadt im Wald}. The dropping of the weak endings in the singular of feminines, according to usage in the literary language, resulted originally from the confounding of the feminines of the weak declension with those of the second class strong, which always remained uninflected in the sing. Thus in a strict sense there is to-day no weak declension of feminine nouns, but only a mixed declension, as they are usually strong in the singular and weak in the plural. In the same manner the feminines of the third class strong, which were once inflected in the sing., as described in 71. 2. c, became uninflected there after the analogy of the second class, and thus all feminines have become uninflected in the sing. On the other hand, of the large number of feminines which were originally in the strong declension the large majority have become weak in the plural, leaving in the strong declension only the few that have already been enumerated under the first three classes. 2. Earlier in the period strong nouns have not infrequently the weak genitive ending ttn in the plural : ofi fiijjer SBorten itnb ittenfpriicfyen (Goethe). 3d) bin fo frof) unb guter 3Mngen (Chamisso). This usage has entirely disappeared except in a few adverbial expressions : atterortm everywhere, ielerortert in many places, aKertoegen everywhere, always. 77. Models of Inflection for the Weak Declension : Singular. ftnabtboy, m. recount, m. $rau woman, f. fteber/^w, f. N. ber Jtnafce ber raf bte 8rau bie S'eber G. beg Jlnafcen beg rafen ber Stau ber Sreber D. bem Jlnafcen bent rafen ber ^rau ber Stber A. ben .ftnafcen ben rafen bie 8rau bie Seber Plural. N. bie .Knafcen bie rafen bie Srrauen bie G. ber Jtnafcen ber rafen ber Srauen ber D. ben Jtna&en ben rafen ben Straiten ben ^ebern A. bie Jtnafcen bie rafen bie ftrauen bte ftebern MIXED DECLENSION. 78. This declension, which is a mixture of the preceding and foreign declensions, falls into two groups one strong in the sing. and weak in the pi., the other also strong in the sing, but with the foreign ending s in the pi. : ber >taat state, beS innen, now usually the former) sense, @po (sometimes wk. and 2nd cl. str.) sparrow, <2$>orn (pi. usually (Sporen, but also sometimes (gtyornen and @^orne, the latter always when it refers to persons, as eipfporne hot spurs) spur, atiefeln (Raabe), tin $aar Ijeljet tiefetn (Spielhagen's Faustulus, p. 45). b. Neuters : Qlitge eye, SBett bed, 6nbe end, att (pi. also atte, attg) 92 MIXED DECLENSION 79.i.. hole, passage, or (N.G. ; also a wk. fern, bie ore) a little child, urchin, brat, 6emb (rarely 4th cl. str.) shirt, =fant in compounds with the force of *ecf (as SSierfant square, &c.), ^tei'nob (pi. Jtletno'men, also .ftleino'be, always when figurative) jewel, 2etlacb (69. 5. d), 2N6fcel (pi. earlier in the period SKobelg and SMofceln, of which the latter is still used, but is being gradually replaced by Sftobel) article or piece of furniture, >t)r ear, eg er$eng, D. bem ergen, pi. bie, ber, ben, bie er$en. Note. In Austrian and Bavarian dialects, nouns with the diminutive suffix ; et are declined according to this group : bag ^ettbel chicken, pi. bit ^)enbctn ; bag SWattbl male fowl, pi. bie 2Ranbeln; bag SBetbel female fowl, pi. bie SBeibeln, &c. Even sometimes in serious prose : eineg ber launiojlen fitebeln ber ammlung (A. Bettelheim in Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung, 29. Nov. 1901, p. i). 2. Many foreign nouns : a. Masculines ending in *on and *or (both short and unaccented in the sing, and long and accented in the pi.) : ber 2)of'tor doctor, pi. bie 5)of to'ren ; ber 2)d'mon demon, pi. bie S)dmo'nen. Note. Sometimes those in t$n take a pi. in tiint : bie JDattto'tte instead of the more common IDdmc'ltett. Of course words in accented tct and ;on (see 69. 7. b) belong to the 2nd cl. str. : ber 3Kajor_' major, beg 9JJaj[org', pi. bie 2Wajo're; ber Canton' canton, beg Wantons', pi. bie .Ranto'ne. b. Masculines in sig'muS : ber ,f atecfnS'muS, be8 ^atec^tg'mug, pi. bie Jlatecfyi8'men. They do not add an additional in the gen. sing., and they change in the pi. =mu3 to *men. c. Neuters in ==a which often drop the 8 of the gen. sing, and usually change *a in the pi. to *en : ba3 )rama drama, beg 3)rama8 or beg >rama, pi. bie 2>ramen. Sometimes is added to form the pi. : bie >rama8. d. Neuters ending in e'um, =ium, imm, =on (unaccented) and mas- culines in unaccented =it3 and =iuS, all of which take 8 (except those in ug and tug) in the gen., or sometimes remain unchanged, and change in the pi. *\im, =on, and =u3 to *tn : bag 2ftufe'um museum, beg SD^ufe'umg, pi. bie 3Kufe'en ; bag $orti jt'pium participle, beg ^artt^piumg, 1. bie $artijt'}rien ; bag Snbttit'buum individual, beg SnbtttfDiutmg, pi. bie nbioi'buenj bag 2Dtfttcfyon distich, beg 2>tflictjong, pi. bie 2Hfu'cfyen (als,o 2)i|licl)a), &c. Those in *ug and 4ug usually remain unchanged in the gen. sing. : ber SRuntiug, beg hunting, pi. bie 0}untien. A number of very common nouns in =ug are manifesting a decided tendency to add the endings of the 2nd cl. str. to the foreign ending =u3, more frequently, however, in the pi. : ber f rof ug, beg Jtrofug, pi. bie Jtrofuffe ; ber Dnmtbug, beg Dmnibug or Dmnibuffeg, pi. bie Dmni&uffe or Omntbug ; like Jtrofug also 5ofug, Jtaftitg, lobug (pi. also tofcen). This tend- ency is also marked in a number of proper names in =iig, *eg, *ag, whether used as proper names or as common class nouns : Srutug, erfuleg, 3ubag, pi. bie Svutuffe, &erfuleffe, Subaffe. A number of words 80.i. MIXED DECLENSION 93 may drop the foreign ending in the sing., and then add g in the gen. sing, and ten in the plural, or may be inflected according to the and cl. str.: bag $artt$i:|/, beg $artijtyg', pi. bie ^artigt'pien or bic Some neuters in turn take g in the gen. and change urn to a in the plural : bag 3fta3tult'nuin, beg Sftagfuli'numg, pi. bie SWagfuli'na. Some of these nouns often drop the =um of the sing., then take g in the gen., and change the a of the pi. to en : bag 23erfc or 93erbum, beg 93erfcg or SSerbumg, pi. bie 93er6en or 33er6a. A few of these neuters in um take g in the pi. : bag Qllfnmt, beg 9ll&um8, pi. bie Qllbumg (also QUfcen, Alburn, QU&ume). e. Neuters formed from neuter adjectives which in the Latin end in e in the sing, and ia in the pi. The German nouns drop the e of the sing., thus ending usually in ==Tl' and *&[', and change the Latin pi. ia into ten: bag ftoffil' fossil, beg ftoffilg', pi. bie ftoffi'Iien; bag Mineral' mineral, beg Sftineralg', pi. bie SWinera'lien, &c. A number of these words are drifting toward the and cl. str. : bag Mineral, beg SKineralg, pi. bte Sftineralien or SJfinerate. f. A number of isolated foreign words : the masculines Qlntaront' (also and cl. str.) amaranth, Qlfyeft' view, omen, Qlu'gur (also wk. ; pi. sjlu'gurn or 5litgu'ren) augur, 93erfcer (also str.) Berber, SBrtflant' (also wk.) brilliant, Gentaur' (also wk.) centaur, (Dejem'inr (also wk.) decem- vir, (Diamant' (also wk. ; poet, form 2)emant usually and cl. str.) diamond, Safan' (also and cl. str.) pheasant, rofjmogul (pi. also =g) Great Mogul, Jtonful consul, Jtorfar' (also wk.) pirate, $antoffel (also ist cl. str.) slipper, $apaget' (sometimes wk. and and cl. str.) parrot, $rdfef t' (also wk. and and cl. str.) prefect, Ohtfctn' (usually and cl. str.) ruby, (Sattyr (also wk. and and cl. str.) satyr, Sribtm' (also wk.) tribune (magistrate), Xrium'uir (sometimes wk.) triumvir; the neuters, Sn-feft' insect, 3ntere| v (e interest, Surcel' (sometimes and cl. str. ; sometimes masc. and cl. str.) jewel, (Statttt 7 statute. g. A number of neuters in *eng' remain unchanged in the sing. and change in the pi. *eng to $ien (tien): bag Oteageng' reagent, beg 3Heageng', pi. bie Oteagen'jten (JHeagentien). h. A number in unaccented =og and =ag remain usually unchanged in the sing, and change in the pi. the stem and shift the accent upon the suffix : ber ^e'rog hero, beg ^e'rog, pi. bte eri/en ; ber J?uf' tog custodian, beg Jtuftog, pi. bie JlujVDen ; ber ^It'Iag atlas, beg Qttlag or beg "Mt'Iaffeg, pi. bie QU'Iaffe or ^Ittan'tenj ber ^rt'mag primate, beg SPri'mag (or beg ^rima'ten), pi. bie ^rima'ten, ^rt'ntag, or $rt'maffe ; but bag Otfyino'jerog rhinoceros, teg Ofl^ino^erodTeJg, pi. bte Sftfyun/jeroffe. 80. To the group that takes the g in the gen. sing, and throughout the pi. belong : i. A large number of masc. and neut. words from the French, English, and other modern languages that are still felt as foreign on account of their foreign sound, accent, or endings (often a, o, it, i ; the French nasal vowels, ain, ein, im, in, om, on, urn, un, for which see 25 ; a vowel before a silent final consonant) that cannot easily be fitted into the German declensions : ber (Domino domino, beg >ominog, pi. bte >ontinoS ; bag Otefiaitrant (/?es/a-./?ay') restaurant, 94 MIXED DECLENSION 80. i. pi. We ateflauwntS' ; ber paletot (pabtoS), beg paletots', pi. bie paletots'. Also a few feminines belong here : bie Sabty, pi. bie at>tyg ; bie pi. bie STOamaS' ; bie SKijj, pi. bie 2tfiffeg or Stiffen; We SSifla, pi. bie or QSiflen. In the choice language of our time there is a marked tendency to replace the foreign pi. ending g by German e in case of masculines and neuters, and thus place these words in the and cl. str., or in case of feminines to inflect according to the weak declension. A number of these words are already entirely or partially naturalized, especially words from the Low German and English : bag )o(f (English), beg >ocfg, pi. bie S)ocfg or 2)ocfe. The words ending in a vowel sound or the French nasals offer the most stubborn resistance. Where, however, the nasal vowel has been replaced by a German vowel plus lingual n, the words may be inflected according to and cl. str. : bag 23ataitton (bataljo:n'\ pi. bie Satattlo'ne. If the nasal has been replaced by a vowel + palatal n (y) the words resist German inflection : bag SBaffin (basty) basin, pi. bie Safftng. a. Sometimes the g drops out in the sing, of the masculines and neuters, but it stands oftener in the plural: bag plateau (plato:'), beg *plateaug or some- times plateau, pi. bie Splateaug. 2,. A few German words not really substantives may take an g in the gen. sing, and throughout the pi., such as letters of the alphabet, exclamatory particles, other parts of speech used as substantives, or the syntactical fragment of a sentence or a whole sentence used as a loose compound (see 249. 11.2; for rule as to gender see 98. 2. C. e) : bag 91 the letter a, beg 918, pi. bie S(g ; bag 3a the word yes, beg Sag, pi. bie Sag; bag 21$ the exclamation Oh!, beg 5ld)g, pi. bie 9C<$8. 2)o gifct'g utentogg unb utenabenbg, ba fein (?nbe ifi (Goethe). (Sin gating eer tton ftreilicfyg, >enno$g unb 9t6erg (Gutzkow). The authors of our own time seem to prefer non-inflection here : bag 91, beg 91, pi. bie 9t. 2)ag SBilb eineg freemen Sumcfjtgut (Fontane's Vor dent Sturm, IV. 19) ; afle $f;artfaer unb ernegrofj (id., Stechlin, XXXII). In a number of cases there is a tendency more or less strong to inflect such formations according to the regular declensions : atlc if;re rama ber Sritjpp bie SSitta G. beg (Stoat(e)g beg 2)rama(g) beg Srit^g ber SSifla D. bem @taat(e) bem 2)rama bem ru ber 33iUa A. ben (Stoat bag 2)rama ben rup bie SSitta Plural. N. bie @taaten bie 5)ramen bie $ru8 bie Q3ittag G. ber (Staaten ber 2)ramen ber Xru^g ber 93 (flag D. ben @taaten ben >ramen ben $ru^))g ben SSittag A. bie ramen bie ^ruttg bie 23iKag FOREIGN WORDS. 82. A few foreign words that, on account of the retention of their foreign endings (us, is, um, o, &c.), cannot be declined in any of the preceding declensions remain as they are found in their native language, the form of the nom. sing, being used throughout the sing., and the nom. pi. throughout the pi., the article alone marking the other cases : ber (beg, bem, ben) 2)iiijtfug musician, pi. bie (ber, ben, bie) SWuftci ; ber gcifug, pi. bie 6afu8, &c. Scholars, however, often prefer to decline Latin words through- out as in the original, more frequently so earlier in the period : Smperfectum, Smperfecti, &c. This is most common with grammatical terms. a. Note the following irregular formations : ber SljeruB, be3 (Ijerub3, pi. bie Gljentbim (also Sfjerube, SfyerubS, (Sfjerubi'nen) ; ber (Serapfy, be$ oer Gfyrift (pop. ; also in Faust, Abend) Christmas present, beg (Sfjrifteg, pi. bie (Sfyrifte ; ber Sfyrijl Christian, beg (Sfjriften, pi. bie Sfjrijlen. JDag JDenhnal monument, pi. usually 35enfmd(ev, but often 2)enfmate in choice language. !Der SMenftmann man on the streets who carries bundles for hire, vassal ; pi. bie Sienftmdnner in the first meaning ; pi. bie SDienfUeute servants of a house ; pi. bie ienftmannen vassals. 35ag 3)ing thing, pi. SMnge ; pi. Singer when speaking of the young of animals, birds, or of girls (as ' queer things ') ; bag, ber, or bie iDing, or more commonly 2)ingg (a genitive used now for all cases; see 255. II. i. H. 6-) ba (when memory fails to recall a thing or person) what-you-may-call-it, what-you- may-call-him or -her. The form Stngg is also used of girls : bag Heine 3)ingg (Storm's Ein Doppelganger, p. 215). 5)er !Dovn thorn ; pi. bie 3)ornen used of the bush ; pi. bie 35orne with reference to different varieties, as bie age*, Jtreu^, @tt>arji, SBei^borne ; pi. Corner and 3)orne of the individual thorns, and also in the mechanical arts of a punch, tongue of a buckle, &c. Usage in all these points, however, is not yet firmly fixed. 3)ei - !Dru(f print, pressure, pi. of the simple form usually bie JDrucfe ; pi. in compounds usually unmutated where the word is felt as belonging to brucfm to print, as in bie QwSlftxx&t pirated editions* bie Slbbrwfe reprints, bie 0ieubrucfe reprints ; pi. in compounds usually mutated where the word is felt as belong- ing to briicf en to press, as in bie Slbbmcfe impressions (by stamping), proofs (of photos), copies (of books), Slugbriicf e expressions, (Sinbwcf e impressions (of the mind), ^dnbebriicfe. 5>et Sffeft effect, impression, pi. bie dffefte ; pi. Sffeften effects, movables, stocks. 2>ei- (Srbe heir ; bag (Srbe inheritance. >ie (Srfenntiu'g perception, comprehension ; bag Srfenntnig decision of a judge ; bie Srfenntnig ber djulb gefjt bent (rfenntnig beg OJidjterg oran. >ie (Srfpavnig saving, pi. SrfparnijTe ; bag (Srfyarnig that which is saved, pi. (Srfparniffe. This differentiation is not yet established. i>er gaben thread, pi. bie gdben ; ber gaben fathom, pi. bie 8uben. ec glecf and ber glecfen both have the meanings stain, spot, blemish, place, and large village, but the tendency is to use Slerfen in sense of village and glecf or $lerfcn in the other meanings. In the compound SRavftflerfen market- town, borough the form in ftn is always used. 83. DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBSTANTIVE FORMS 97 35er (sometimes bie) ftiwc entrance hall of a house, pi. bie 5htte if masc. ; bie hir field (poetic), pi. bie ftluren. 5)er gufj foot (of a person), pi. bie $u$e ; jtoci gu (see 96.4. (i)) (ang two feet long; gujje erfd)tebenet ange feet (standards of measurement) of different length. 2)ie ang goose, pi. bie dnfe ; bag ang word goose, pi. bie ang or anfeg : !Dag erfie ang ijl nidjt fo fdjpn gefdjrieben wie bag jjtoeite. Thus any noun of any gender becomes neut. when it stands not for a person or object but for the written word which represents it. 2kr efyalt intrinsic worth or value, also bet ag eftd)t face, pi. bie cftdjter ; bag eftdjt vision, pi. bie eftdjte. 2)ag ettxmb garment ; pi. bie etodnber ; pi. bie eroanbe (poetic) ; see also 78.6. 25ie ift (rare except in the compound bie SDHtgift) present ; bag (see 100. l) iff poison. 35ev Jpaft clasp ; bie aft arrest. 2)er ^alt support, halt, halting-place, pi. bie Jpafte ; ein (neut.) att a stop or end, as in cin att gebieten to put a stop to. This is a case of only seeming differentiation. The second form is in fact the imperative of the verb fatten, which is here used as a noun, and hence is neut. according to rule (see 98. z. C. e). !Der ^>eibe heathen ; bie Jpeibe heath. 2)ag $om horn, pi. bie Corner ; pi. bie J&orne kinds of horn. 2>er Jput hat ; bie ut guard, bie SKorfyitt vanguard. 2)ec 3ube Jew, in popular language ber 3ube (Raabe's H'oxter und Corvey, chap. xiv). 2)er ^olbett gunstock, piston ; bie Jlotbe facetiously for head. 35er ^unbe customer ; bie ^unbe information. 3)et fiaben shutter, pi. bie Saben (also Sdben) ; ber Saben store, shop, pi. bie ?dben. 2)ag ?anb land, pi. bie Sdnber ; pi. bie Sonbe, the older pi. form, which still remains (i) in poetry, as in uber atte fianbe (in prose fianber) ; (2) in proper names, as in bie 9tieberlanbe the Netherlands, bie iRfyeinlanbe ; (3) to designate the different divisions of one political whole : bie beutfcfyen Sanbe. )ag Si^t light, candle ; pi. bie id)ter lights ; pi. bie Sidjtc candles. 2>er itm poor, ragged, worthless fellow, pi. bie Swnpen, also fiunt^e; bet Sunken rag. 2)er 9i)ianit man, pi. bie SWdnner ; pi. bie SRannen warriors, vassals ; pi. SWann (see 96. 4. (i) ) ; pi. 4eute (see 96. 9). SDer 3Renf^ human being ; bag 2fienfcf) wench, pi. bie SRenfdjer. 2)er 9)?ittag noon ; bag (also ber) 2JHttag dinner. 5>er foment' moment (of time) ; bag SKoment' moment (consequence, weight). $)er 3Wcnb moon, satellite, month, now 2nd cl. str., was also weak earlier in the period. The weak gen. still occurs in the first meaning in compounds in poetic style, as in SDJcnbenglanj. In the last meaning SWonb is still sometimes weak in poetic style, especially in the plural. !l)ag 9Kocg moss, pi. bie 2Roofe ; bag 3J?ccg (or Oiieb) swampy land, pi. SKofer (SJiete). !Die SDhtttct mother, female screw ; pi. bie SKutter mothers, bie 3Ruttern (earlier here also 2J?utter) female screws. >er Dfl east wind, 9lorb north wind, ie -$firf(i)cfje or more commonly ber ^firftdj (pi. bie $Pfttftd)e) peach (fruit) ; ber ^ftrftd) peach-tree, more commonly $ftrftd)baum. 2>a3 sprobuft' production, pi. bie *)hobuf'te productions of the mind ; pi. bie *|3robuften productions of the soil, produce. This distinction is common in familiar language, but the pi. ^Brobufte is the only form used in the literary language for all these meanings except in compounds : *]8robufte, but s ,)3robuftens dnbler, -)3robuftenmarft. S5te {Ratte (or less frequently SRafce) rat ; ber 9fafc, now usually broader in meaning than Statte, including animals of a similar nature. $)er {Refl that which is left, ruin, pi. bie (Refte, pi. bie Qieficr or Oiefte remnants of cloth in a dry goods store. 3Me au sow, pi. bie due (early N.H.G.) sows, swine, in the latter meaning still due in expressions following more or less accurately biblical utterances, as in Sftan mujj bie $etlen nidjt ot bie due toerfen (G. Ompteda's Eysen, chap, xxxiii); (eighteenth century) pl.bie due sows, domestic swine, <&men.wild swine; now the wk. pi. is usually used for domestic sows and wild swine. 2)ag djeit piece of wood ; pi. djeite or Better pieces cut for a purpose, as to burn, &c., pi. Better pieces broken by violence : bod djiff geljt ju d^eitern. er @d)enf cup-bearer ; bie cfjenfe beer house. 25er cfjilb shield ; bad djilb shop sign. 25ie d)hmlfl swelling, or more commonly bie efdjrtwtjl ; ber d)toulfi bombast. 2)er d^urj apron for men, pi. djitrje ; bie t^iirje apron for women and children. !Der @ee lake, pi. bie een ; bie @ee sea, )ie patte (sometimes ber patt in the first meaning) split, column (in a news- paper) ; ber patt (pi. bie patte) split in a figurative sense, contentious divi- sion, quarrel, especially common in the compound Btotefyalt dissension. 3>er proffe or prof offspring, scion ; bie proffe round of a ladder. 3)er tocf stick, cane, story (of a house), pi. bie tocfe canes, pi. torfe or tod stories : pagterfiocfe walking sticks, but ein aus on bret tocfen or torf a house of three stories, and 2)a3 Jpau3 tji bret tocf t>oc^. 35et Setl part ; ba$ Xetl share. 35et Sropfen drop ; ber ropf dull, stupid fellow. 2>et Xrupp gang, unorganized crowd, pi. bie rupp3 (or Xruppe) ; bie organized company or troop. 3)ai3 ud) piece of cloth (handkerchief, shawl, &c.), pi. bie udjer; pi. kinds of cloth. (Sine Ufjr a clock, watch, pi. bie Uljren ; ein (neut., uninflected) tlfyr (uninflected) one o'clock, pi. gtoei llf)r two o'clock, &c. 2)er 93erbien(l wages ; bus SSevbienfl merit, desert. 3)ie aBalnii (pi. SBalnujfe) walnut (fruit) ; ber S&alntift (pi. aBalniiffe) or more commonly ber SBalnuf baum walnut (tree). !Die 9Bef)r defence ; baa SBeljt dam (in a river). 35a$ SBort word with reference to meaning in connected discourse, pl.bie2Bcrte ; *.. bie SSorter words apart from their meaning : @c fprac^) in fcerebten SBorten, but a^ Xetegrantnt t)at 16 SBorter. This distinction is not yet universally observed, SBorte seeming to be the favorite in both meanings. 35er SBurm worm ; bag Sunn helpless babe, ' poor thing ' (man or woman). a3 Seng material, substance, stuff, bo3 3eug3 (gen. now used for all cases ; see 255. II. i. H.^) stuff"m a contemptuous sense. The similarity in form is sometimes merely accidental : bad or gate, ber or fool ; bie QRarf mark (coin), bag 3Karf marrow, &c. a. There is a tendency to make a difference between the neut. pi. in *e and that in m, when they both occur with the same word. The former has in a number of cases collective force, denoting a number of connected parts or 84. DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBSTANTIVE FORMS 99 related individuals, the latter form has separating, individualizing force : bag SBort word ; pi. SBorte words in connected discourse with reference to their meaning ; pi. 2B6rter words as individuals without reference to their connection in one sentence, as SOBortetbud), lit. word-book, dictionary ; bag 3knb tie, ribbon, pi. 33anbe ties of affection which bind us together, pi. 93dnbet ribbons. Thus also bag Sanb country ; pi. 8anbe different divisions of one country, pi. Sanber countries. Thus also a number of words found in the above lists. The difference between words in w and ?e is also sometimes merely a matter of style ; see 73. b. The forms in *e are older than those in ;er, and hence often naturally incline to use in poetical or less common expressions. Some- times the older and newer form for the pi. are both used without difference of meaning, contrary to the above mentioned tendencies, but in accordance with former usage : ein elegtamm on 16 SSortcn (or more commonly 2B6rtetn). b. There is a tendency to distinguish between the meaning of words of the form e e and on the other hand e . The form e e (never mutating the stem vowel) has a more abstract 'meaning, indicating a repetition or continuation of some action, or often inlying contempt or dislike for the performance, and hence on account of its abstract nature without a pi., while the form e (always mutating the stem vowel if capable of it) has a more concrete meaning, and admits thus of a plural : bag ducflertgeraufcfye the noise of the murmuring spring (which unceasingly murmurs on), bag eMirre bet iajfen ttnb tcfyter beg Sauft the author of Faust ; ber @ru beg K @c^u6ert6unb" the greeting from the Schubertbund (musical organization), &c. Also foreign names of rivers and mountains as a rule drop the g in the gen. : bie <6(}en beg SKonte (Saoo the heights of Monte Cavo, bag $al beg untern 3ftf)6ne, &c. This usage, though strongly condemned by grammarians, is spreading even to German geographical names : fiir etnen Qlnreofyner beg <5tecbltn (lake) (Fontane's Stechlin t \Il\tf tern @ifel beg <&ol)enjlaufen (Raabe's Pechlin, chap, xiv), am Ufcr beg iHecfar (ib., II, chap, vii), beg (Speffart (forest), &c. Examples can even be found in textbooks on geography. It is a natural 86. 2. a. INFLECTION OF PROPER NOUNS 101 impulse towards uniformity, as all other proper nouns drop 8 in the gen. when preceded by an article (see 86. i). b. The names of the months often drop the article and remain uninflected after Qtnfang, Wittt, nbe : @nbe 9Wai the last of May. See 94. 3. A. b. c. The great mass of foreign names of peoples, and tribes have been conformed to German inflection, but those which still retain endings (a, t, o, it, &c.) which resist inflection according to German models take an 8 in the gen. sing, and throughout the plural, or perhaps more commonly remain uninflected, especially in the plural, the article alone indicating the case and number : ber (8fimo, be8 eutfd?tanb8, but bte ^Irnteen be8 mddjtigen )eittfcfylanb ; bic (Sinrcoijner ber 4?aitptftabt Serlin ; ba8 Jtinb be8 @cfyuf)macber8 cfymtot. . If the person has two or more names, the last one only takes the 8 : bte 3Regterung griebrid? 9lu'gufl8 ; 2ftarie son bnersdffcfaenfcad.^ gefamutelte (Sd)riften, &c. a. If a masculine noun in the genitive modified by a preceding article or other pronoun, adjective, or an appositive, precede the noun upon which it depends, it usually takes an 8, unless it ends in a vowel or a sibilant : bfg grojjcn .ftatte Jatcn (but bte aten beg grrfjen Jtar(), beg ?lbolf S3urgerg aug, beg etratencn Slrtfyurg 93atev (Lienhard's Konig Arthur, 5),bc3 ^aj^or ^rtcfcrti^S mdl)ungcn. We still, however, sometimes find the e in the genitive also when it follows the noun : (Sr (bev SRonb) flttrfte tnitb in bte ^ittfd^e beg je^nten Jtarlg (Charles X of France) (Raabe's Hungerpastor, chap. vi). The $ in the genitive in all these cases is the survival of an older usage which always required an g in the genitive of strong masculine names (see 89). Now, however, not even the above men- tioned remnant of this rule is observed closely : bc3 etnsl Gutter (Meinhardt), bf8 altcn (Sparr Slugen (Wildenbruch), tee alten ^eterfeit Softer (Fontane). In case of neuter names of countries, continents, and cities the genitive ending is much better preserved, occurring not infrequently even when it follows the governing noun : au3 einet atofjeven @tabt beg mittlercH eutfd)(anbg (Storm's Eine Malerarbcit, vol. ii. p. 65), bte brei berufymteften entcn beg je^tgm (Suropag (Lienhard's Munchhausen, \). ^>ter (in L'Adultera) bctritt cr (Fontane) ben 5i3obcn beg mobernen JBerling (A. Bartel's Deutsche Dichtung, p. 214). b. If a proper name is used as a common class noun it may, like class nouns, be inflected in the sing, and pi. : bte SReben nnfcreg (Stcerog the speeches of our great orator (lit. our Cicero), bic Stcerog, bte GromtocKe unb QMgmarde ber Suftmft. But like a proper noun it is often uninflected after an article : etne alte ?lnflage beg 23abefet (Rodenberg's Klostermanns Grundstuck, III). 2. For names of persons and places not preceded by an article, the following variations of the general rule for the formation of the gen. occur : a. Names of persons ending in a sibilant 8, , fd), i, \, may 102 INFLECTION OF PROPER NOUNS 86. 2. a. remain unchanged in the gen. sing., adding, usually, however, the apostrophe : 23of}' ebicfyte, nad) $enfc' 2Betfung (Fontane), t>on 3neg' fleinen fraftigen o<%ett (G. Hirschfeld), bag SBilbnig aug bem bitnfeln SBinfel ber (Stubierftube 9lfcam Dleariug' (Jensen), Sfolbe ora$eng Dben the odes of Horace, instead of bie Dben beg 4?oratiug ; Qtne'eng, gen. of ^tne'ag, &c. d. Foreign names of persons do not now retain their original Latin or Greek declension except in a few biblical names : N. 3efu8 gfyrifhil, G. 3e(u SfrtfH, D. 3efu (J^rtpo, A. Sefum S^rifium ; bag @an* gelittm SJJatt^ai the gospel of Matthew, &c. Even here the rule for German nouns is often preferred : Gl^rtjhig' eburt, &c. e. As it is not customary for names of places to insert en before g of the gen., such names of places as end in a sibilant form no gen., but express this relation by the prep, tton of: bie trajjen ton ^Jarig, but bie Strafjen amtwrgg, or am6urgg (Strafen. In poetry, however, the apostrophe may be used after sibilants : an Jlolcfytg' jtiifie (Grill- parzer's Argonauten, 2), fiir ettag' a3 tvanfm wit imnter bet 93i$uiavcfen (Sudermann's Es lebe das Leben, p. 60). 9ll3 ftraii 3mme offuete, ftanb Ohibotf auf bem Hetnen ghtr unb fagte, baf er patent tjolen fo((e unb J&ebnrigen audj (Fontane's Stechlin^ chap. xiv). For the origin of the forms in :m see 84. 88. In a number of instances words which are in an oblique case are not felt as such, and are inflected as if they were simple stems : I. The many geographical names in ;en are in fact datives : Dfruenfirdjen, @ad)fen, from older ze (= ju) der niuwun kirchun, ze den Sachsen. They originated in prepositional phrases, later the preposition and article disap- 92.i.a. INFLECTION OF PROPER NOUNS 103 peared and the dative became the stem of the new form : bie ^ 2. Thus an original gen. is often not felt as such and treated as a simple stem : 2Bir tterben ung ndd)fien Soljamu (St John's day) uneber fpred)en (Spiel- hagen's Was will das werden, II. ii). 93ig funftige 3ol)anni6. Here Sofyanni, or 3ofyannig, is a masc. gen. treated as an ace., the gender being masc. after the analogy of the word ag understood, or fern, after the analogy of 2Betl)nad)tSjeit Christmas-time, ^jxngfyeit Pentecost. 89. Formerly and still in the classical period the gen. which was preceded by an article usually took an 6 : 3Me fieiben beg Sungen JSertfyerg The Sufferings of Young Werther (title of one of Goethe's works). 90. Colloquially, especially in the North, masculine and feminine common nouns (the latter of which according to the general rule are not inflected in the sing.) are often treated as proper nouns, the substantive dropping the article and taking an g in the gen. and sometimes (e)n (see 87) in the dat. and ace., when it refers to a definite person : 93ater fcmmt. 2Benn jte J?aifevg eburtg; tag feiern (Fontane's Effi, chap. yii). >u bifl SBatevg od)ter (Hauptmann's Michael Kramer, Act i). 3a, beine od)tet imb Saterg bin id) (ib.). 9tad)bar$ dngd)en, @d)ufterg 2)ortd)en, 2J?amag (2J?utterg, anteg) 3itnmer. 3d) toetbe bag 5Kuttevn fagett. l(g Srau Sntme offnete, ftanb OJubolf attf bent fteinen %\\\x unb fagte, ba^ er SBotern Ijcten fofle iinb ^ebtoigen and) (Fontane's Stechlin, chap. xiv). 3d) luerbe rojjmutter bitten. Likewise fern, titles : SKajejidtd 93efe^I His Majesty's order. A title with a preceding article is sometimes treated as a name, if it is used as such : beg !Defan (Marriot's Der geistliche Tod, chap, ii), ntit ben @ad)en bed 35oftot (Hauptmann's Friedensfest, p. 15), but more commonly with in- flectional 6 : bie (Stimme beg 2>oftcr$ (ib., p. 48), beg SDoftorg anb (ib., p. 52). 91. The residence of an individual is often written in one word with his name : -ert Sammer&SSremen Mr. Lammers from Bremen ; 35ireftor SBirtfys ^Ic^enfee bci 33erltn Director Wirth from Plotzensee near Berlin. Formerly on was placed before the name of the place. The ton is not now used, as it might be construed as representing a title of nobility. INFLECTION OF TITLES. 92. A full treatment of the proper titles which must be given to people of different social standing can be obtained in any of the numerous -Brief jlefler which usually treat this delicate subject. The leading points as to the inflection of these titles are as follows : i. When a title (or titles) not preceded by an article stands before a name of a person, the name alone is inflected, except the one title >ert Mr., which is always inflected : J?atfer SBtlfyelmS (gcfylofj Emperor William's castle, ^rofeffot 2)r. 5(. JtuIjnS ^orlefungen the lectures of Professor A. Kuhn, Ph.D. S)aS e6en ^erjog 93ern* tyarfcS. r faracfy sou $rdfibent rant, son raf 9ftecl;berg. But errn (SdjmtbtS &ut, ber t, bie ^odjflubten beg Srdulctn Jllara, ber SSrief beg %im runefcaum (Raabe), mit ulfe beg Dljeimg rimefcaum (ib.), unter bem Jtommanbo etneg ^duptling nameng Stamen (Kdnische Zeitung\ an SSorb beg cfyiff (or d^iffeg) SKotce, obertyalb beg ^at SBigmarcf, bag @i beg 3Soget 0toc^ im Sftarcfyen (Sinbbabg beg emar" (boat). Earlier in the period and sometimes still we find inflection of both title and name, even when the gen. follows : bie Sobfarttcfye beg Jturfitrfien 5Hf>red}tg (Lessing), auf ber ftau&igen (S^auffee beg SCetterg SBaffertreterg (Raabe's A. T., chap, xxxvi). Sometimes we find the inflection of the name alone : ber JUang ber 4?aitgglocfe beg 2)oftor 5)ad;reiterg (Raabe's Pechlin, II. chap. xix). Note. In the rare case where a title in the gen. is preceded by a dependent gen. which is modified by an article or pronominal adjective, the governing title must of course drop its article. In this case usage does pot commonly require a gen. ending on the governing gen., as the force of the article or pronominal adjective before the preceding dependent gen. is felt, but more conscientious writers use the gen. ending here : an S3otb (Seiner SWajeftat @$tff (instead of <<$iff$) 5W6n?e, ber ItebenStourbige Jtcntmanbant .[einer] 9K.[aieflat] Jlreujerg Satfe (Kolnische Zeitung). Others prefer here to replace the governing gen. by a dat. after cn : an S3otb on (Seiner 2Raiejidt Sdjiff b. If several titles preceded by an article stand before a name, usually only the first title is inflected, but there is here much fluctuation in usage, the tendency, however, being towards non- inflection : bie SSorlefungen beg $rofefforg >ofrat cfymibt ; beg errn (Staatgnuntfterg on @tein; bie SKttteilung unfereg bereft, rten >errn $)tref torg Softer 9Rofenberg (Hirschfeld) ; beg errn ^rofeffor 9}teberm6fl?t (M. Dreyer); bag gro^erjige ntgegenfomnten beg efeeimen SKebijinalratg ^rofefforg Dr. .ftitlj ( Weser Zeitung) ; an tefle beg e^etmen 2)?ebijtnalrat $rof. Dr. enoc^ (National-Zeitung} ; ber Sob beg Dr. SSaron 3aromir 5Kunbi). The title -err, as in the second and third examples, is always inflected, as is also an adjective which stands in the title, as in the fifth and sixth examples. 3. An appended title is inflected whether the preceding name is declined or not : bie lange Diegierung $riebrtd?g beg rojjen, or bie lange 92.6. INFLECTION OF TITLES 105 SRegierung beg .Ronigg ^rtebrid) beg rofjien. Some prefer to drop g in the first example, as the inflection of the appended title clearly marks the case relation : ber 93rubet Sriebrid) beg roen (Fontane's Vor dem Sturm, II. 14). The title alone may be inflected in case of junior, fenior : auf bent SBette SSu^entann juniorg (Raabe's Deutscher Adel, chap, xx), 0ha6e jumorg ag ift frreunb SDiuflerg 5rau. 5. The name following t>on in titles of nobility originally marked the residence or locality, but it has largely lost its force to-day and is felt as a part of the name, and hence the g is appended to it : Otto on SBigmarcfg Sfteben. When, however, the governing noun precedes, we find the part of the name before the Son inflected according to older usage : bag Se&en oeng tton SSerlicfyingen (Goethe), bte 93raut ftriebricfyg son limmern (Raabe's A. T., chap, xii), ein 3ugenbportrdt UBiltyelntg fcon Dranten (Kolnische Zeitung, No. i, 1895). Present usage also allows here inflection at the end of the entire name: im 3 e ittter Otto son Sigmarcfg (Fontane's Ce'cile, XIII), greet SBrtefe SSil^elm sjon um6olbtg (Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung, 1901, No. 84). >ag ifl eine SBeteibigung beg Qtnbenfeng imfereg 23aterd;eng unb ^rofeffor t>on Otangen^ofeng (G. Ompteda). 6. The title 5rau is placed before the name and rank of the husband, and Srau or Srauletn before a designation of relationship, and usually alone have inflection, if the article or a pronominal precedes : (fie) 8rau ie) 5rau Oberji, &c. ; 3^)re grau Gutter, 3re 5rau ^ante, 3^)r (3^re) graulein ^ante, &c. Earlier in the period *in was often added to the title and still occasionally occurs: bte 8'tau $rofefforin (Goethe). In a number of cases the old ending *in is still usually employed : (me) ftrait jHdtin, (Die) ft'rau @e()eime 3fid tin, (bie) grau enatortn, bie rdftn or bie ftrau rafin, bie-^erjogin or bie 8rau ^er^ogin,bie ^onigin or bie ^rau Jtonigin, bie ^atferiu ^rtebrid; the wife of Emperor Frederic, &c. ; 3^re ^rau ema^Iin, 3^re 5rau c^irdgerin, 3^)r (5t)re) ^rdulein (Scfyrcdgerin, &c. If the title is preceded by an adjective, as in the second example, it must be inflected. Instead of Srau or Srdulein the fem. article is often placed before the name, which in popular language often adds in (usually cor- rupted to en) and in N.G. dialect also fdje : bie 2NarIitt Miss Marlitt (the pseudonym of a well-known authoress), bie cfyuljjen (corruption of <8d?ul$in) Mrs. Schulz, bie 2?ecferin or SBecferfcfye Mrs. Becker, bie 8'tan 93aftovfd)e ( Raabe's Odfeld, chap. xxii). Formerly in was added to the name also in the literary language : bie ottfcfyebin (authoress, 1713-62), bie Jtarfdjin (poetess, 1722-91). In case of males jperr is placed before the designation of relation- ship or rank, and is always inflected : 3tyr ert 93atet, 3reg errn 106 INFLECTION OF TITLES 92.6. 33ater3 ; 3fyr err 33ruber, &c. ; 3$r err entail, &c. ; 36r your employer; ber err Dberft, &c., err Dfcerft (direct address); ber oftor8 We are going to Schulze's, to the family of the doctor. 3rcei SOBoIfS, girei 3Karte3 (or very commonly 3#arien according to b. (2) below), two persons by the name of Wolf, Mary ; bie beibeu (Jlifa6etfy3 or glifabetlj (or often (Slifatjetfcen and sometimes @Iifa6ett)e according to b. (2)), but usually bie fceiben 5tgneg, 3ne8 with non-inflection, to avoid the repetition of the sibilant, non-inflection being also more common here than the form in *en according to b. (2); bie bielen Jthibrcig in ber frcm^oftfcfyen efdjicfyte, im ^amiltenfcaufe ber SBetylanb (Raabe's Wunnigel, chap. i). Geographical names especially remain uninflected in the pi. : bie fceiben $ranffurt the two cities of Frankfurt, bie fceiben SRecflentnirg (or SRecflenburgS) the two Mecklenburgs. If the title used as a name is wk., the plural will end in eng : $rafibenteng treten tyeute eine fleine 3ftetfe inS e&trge an The family of the president starts out on a little trip into the mountains to-day. a. In such examples as 2B[t gefjen ju <&ule, bie dudfte (pi. of Clitaft) (Fontane's Wanderungen, vol. I. chap, arj). These mutated plurals are not infrequently used in a sarcastic or humorous sense : 3 toitb gettunfcfyt, baf famtltcfye Jtothndnnet (pi. of jfortntann) in Bufunft ifyte unetfd)dmten 3ubtingiid?feiten gefafligfl iintertaffen (Stader). @te tji eine runebaum, unb bie tunebdume fonnen im SRotfall bie Bdljne giifammenbeifien (Raabe's Hungerpastor, chap. i). (6) Only the names of nationalities and a few famous families are inflected weak ; see 76. 1. 3 (toward end). Raabe in his Eulenpfingsteili chap, ix, has formed the plural of the family name Rebelling weak, perhaps facetiously after the analogy of the mythical dynasty bie 9libelungeu (see 76. 1. 3, toward end). Fontane in his Vor dem Sturm forms the plural of the family name 93ifcenn{j according to the 2nd cl. str., but in one place (I. l) we find a weak plural where it is represented as a part of an inscription upon a house of the year 1634 : S)a3 i)} bet 98iennen au3. Some N.G. authors employ the weak plural quite commonly : Sconie besJ 53eaur ! 2Bie flitigt bit bag Boa etnet (Sdjneibertocfytet fyiet im 2anbe bet ^tifcen unb ^atlinen? (Raabe's Die Akten des Vogelsangs^. 71). >a3 irat bie (Stppfdjaft bet Ufyten (Frenssen's,/^r Uhl, chap, i, and often elsewhere). 3)te Ut6(euen bet otten 3eit roaten ie((eid)t teligiofe djwdtmet (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. ii). c. The names of countries and places usually form their plural with $ or remain uninflected. The plural of bie @d)tt>etj, however, occurs with the ending of the 2nd cl. str. : 2)ie <5d)tt>eij\e toetben immet fleinet (Fontane's Wanderungen, vol. I, chap. Die Ruppiner Schtveiz). 2. Some make a shade of difference in meaning between the uninflected plural form and the plural in 3. In the sense of men like, all proper names remain uninflected in the plural, while they end in 3 to designate all or several members of a family : bie tf)erer, bie rtmnt men like Scherer, Grimm, but SBraung ftnb nicfyt retcfy The Browns (a definite family) are not rich. Here again we find a difference of usage. Sometimes we find in the former meaning also plurals in e and 8 : bie algmonne men like Salzmann, bie 4?umbolbt3 men like Humboldt, Heine SHnbcmS unb 29Iument^alS (A. Bartels) little Lindaus and Blumenthals. Some add 6 to indicate different members of the same family and inflect the name according to the regular declensions, to distinguish different families of the same name : bie <8cfynttbt3 the different members of a definite family by the name of Schmidt. 3 cjifct ttele cbmibte (or (Scfymit't) There are many families of the name of Schmidt. 3. Several names are often found in the singular after one plural article, which indicates the case of each of the proper names and by its plural form shows that all are included in the statement : (Stcfyfyorn icar au3 ber 3 c it to SefreiuncjSfriege fyer tefannt al8 etn Sreunb ber Qlrnbt, ie $rie efcruber rimnt. Both words are often inflected : SWeine 23ettern OlamfcergS (Hartleben's Rosenmontag, 3. 5). rafen SBaffeboitg Ijate eS im Sanbe gegeben, fo* lange 2Kenf^en juritctDenfen !6nnten (Spielhagen's Herrin, p. 209). PECULIARITIES IN THE INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 94. i. Many nouns, especially those that have no article or other modifying word before them, remain uninflected in certain rela- tions, described briefly as follows : a. Unmodified nouns connected by unb: bie renje ^nifc^en $lffe unb SKenffy baS 33erf;dltni8 on err unb aw Jenny, chap. ix). . Modified or unmodified nouns that have become so closely associated with a verb as to form one idea with it, especially in the predicate relation : 2Btr flnb nictyt mefyr funb frleifcfy (instead of ftleifdjeS), ein IaS guter SBetn, ber $rei3 bcS $funbeS ^leifd? (instead of Ieifd?e), ber $reig einer SBagentabung fcfyteftfcfye Jtotyte, fantt einent filter ofterreidjifd^cm 2Bein, mit einent S)u|enb guten Qfyfetn (or often guter &$fel, as the gen. is better preserved when it stands in the pi. and is modified), SSafen aug (made out of) einer 5trt ffyonem 3)tonnor, ein (Stab on 40 Gentinteter Sdngc, fcielen 2!aufenb 2)cutfdjen befannt, nad; einer @tunbe 3flafl, nad; Diet Safyren ?yri{l after a period of 110 PECULIARITIES IN NOUN INFLECTION 94. 3. A. four years, 6 Sage 6i3 i (read einen) SKortat efdngniS from six days to one month's imprisonment, felt 2fttfltarben Safyren. (Sr !aitft ein >itfcenb gute tafclfebern. hartal ift etne tunbe (Jifenbafyn t>on ^onftan= tino'^el mtfernt Cartal is an hour's ride by rail from Constantinople. (5:r 6at urn etne SKinute gndbigeg efyifr He begged for a moment's kind hearing. The gen. ending 8 of the noun denoting the weight or measure is often suppressed, while the dependent word has the regular gen. form : jum Stnfauf eineS ein (Raabe's Eulenpfingsten, chap. x). It must be noticed that in case of a pi. noun of weight, measure, or quantity, the following noun in apposition can sometimes alone show the case, as the noun denoting weight, &c. has the same form for sing, and pi. and cannot distinguish case relations in the pi. : mit jtrei >uenb &pfeln, mit brei (ScfyocE (item. The noun or pronoun denoting the weight, measure, &c. some- times follows the dependent noun and may even be separated from it by one or more words, in which case words modified by a pronominal adjective (see B) can also take the appositional con- struction : armomfcfye8 eton rcar reentg bafcet (Raabe's Horn von Wanza, chap. xvi). on$ tot eg (i. e. bag ebicfyt) angretfbate ^itnfte bte SKenge (Fontane's Vor dent Sturm, I. chap. xvii). (Jinfadje %aty* aboerfcia gibt e nitr rcenige (Braune's Althochdeutsche Grammatik, p. 202). olcfye ftefcler fonnen bte 3Kenge im ^lintitS fein. a. Instead of the appositional construction the dependent noun often prefers the nom. form of each number throughout that number, except in the masc. ace. sing, and the dat. pi., where the appositional construction is the rule : bet ^reiS eineg ut>$ ojhrreidjtfdjer SBein the price of a fuder (a mea- sure) of Austrian wine, famt einent Suber oftermdjifdjer SBein, ein 5uber (ace.) SSein, bet $teig einee *paat tcoKene Sttiimpfe, mit einem $aat looUenen b. With names of streets, months, and seasons the article often drops out and the gen. then gives way to the appositional construction, or more commonly retains the nom. form throughout : @cfe cljer @tetneg on the corner of the High Causeway, mit bem Stnfang 3uli with the beginning of July, Snbe 3)ejembet, Slitggangg ommer, and always so in naming the day of the month : bet etfie [Sag understood] 2Kai the first of May. In a more careful style also inflection : an bet @cfe bet 93itcfcft>etfitajje imb be$ Suifenufeig, am @nbe bee 25e jembet. c. The gen. also gives way to the appositional construction in certain cases of proper nouns where possession is not to be emphasized, but where it is desired to show that the proper name is closely identified with the thing expressed by the preceding noun : bag ?portrat 28. Simmetmann the portrait of (i. e. representing) W. Zimmermann, bet Slnttag Qiumelin the motion made by Riimelin, im SSetlage bet befannten .ftimflanjlalt Slubolf cfcufter, fflcrlin published in the well-known art institution conducted by Rudolph Schuster, Berlin, bet ^tojefj OJeinflbotff the law suit carried on by or against Reinsdorff, bag ot einigen agen orgefommene itefl Jtofce5@djrabet the duel which took place a few days ago between Messrs. Kotze and Schrader, Qttbtnanb @d)mtbt 9lad)fc!ger (on a sign) Ferdinand Schmidt, now followed by a successor, bet 94.6. PECULIARITIES IN NOUN INFLECTION 111 Gtyfen (G. Ompteda) the branch of the Eysens that has the rank of counts, bie Sltdje 9loal) Noah's ark, bie 93iHa dnrmadjer the villa of Mr. S.. @ie fufyren in ben 23al)nf)cf Jtaffel (into the railroad station at Cassel) ein unb, ebenfalltf guicflidjertoetfe, balb better (Raabe's Gutmanns Retsen, chap. iv). STOetljcbe Suites ntann jut Qrletnung ber engltfdjen pradje Schliemann's method of learning English, ba3 SKtntftertum 28inbifd)gtd|j the ministry formed by prime minister Windischgratz. And often by Luther where we would expect a gen. : bit od)ter $f)arao,bie tSebern Stbancn. This idiom is also very common with geographical names after the word Sum: S)ag (Slfdffifdje erjhecft jtdj cn tiner Sinie 3abern, 2Beifjenburg, elfc fubttdrte bi3 jut flfteid^gtenje The Alsatian dialect extends from a line passing through Zabern, Weissenburg, Seltz, southward to the boundary of the Empire. B. The gen. alone can be used in all the above cases if the dependent noun is modified by an article or a pronominal adjective : etn $funb guter See or fcefferer See, but beg fceften SeeS, em $funb unfcreS See3, &c. The dat. after tton here often takes the place of the gen. : einer fcon btefen SKannern. For an important exception to the general rule see last part of A. a. The gen. is also still used in case of infinitive-substantives and certain set expressions : faum eine Ijalbe tunbe efyenS entfant scarcely a half hour's walk distant, ein tiinbdjen 2Bege3 a short hour's walk, &c. 4. Titles of books, &c. are inflected, or more commonly unin- flected: in autmann8 ..(Sinfamen SKenfci^en/' in ,,2>er ^lecf auf ber (S^re." See also 255. III. i.A.^-. 5. The inflectional ending is sometimes affixed only to the second of two nouns connected by unb, to emphasize their oneness of meaning (see 249. II. 2. F. a): ber 23eft etgenen runb unb SobenS; tjon ott unb JftedjtS iregen by rights ; trofc @turm unb aReqeng ; aug ber SKttte feineS energtfc^en Sun unb SretSenS (Raabe's P.M., xviii) ; 33ertiift i^reS -OaS unb uteg. The inflection of the second of a pair of words connected by unb was employed freely in early N.H.G. : &mfc ,J?orn nb 2Wofi3 nriUen (Luther), nut gefcfyencf onnb gabenn (id.), or also with inflection on the first word, ntit gefefcen ober tcercf (id.). This usage is still not infrequent in the classical period : mit mancfyerlei SKangel unb efcrecfyen (Goethe); an Sier unb 93ogeln fe^It e8 nt^t (id., Faust, 1. 238). 93on @onn unb 3CBeIten rcetjj ic^ nic^ta ju fagen (ib., 1. 279). With the exception of a few set expressions, as those given above, it is now rare : 5)ann fyort man fte auf Srcpp unb dngen ^ofjnen (Storm's Im Nachbarhause links). 6. When compound nouns have been formed by writing as one word a noun and a preceding modifying adjective which enters the compound with its inflected form, the adjective is declined through- out as if it stood apart from the noun : ber obe}mefier the high priest, beg ol)enpriefter8, ein J&o^er^riefler. If such a compound enter again into a new compound of which it is itself the first component element and another noun the second, the inflected adjective of the first component element usually agrees illogically with the second component element : ber arme @unber the condemned criminal, but etn bleicfyeS QlrmeSfunbergeftdjt a paleface of a condemned criminal, bag Heidje Qlrmefimbergefldjt, ju ben 2lrmenfunbfrfrufyjuicfen ; Saufenb unb eine 112 PECULIARITIES IN NOUN INFLECTION 94.6. The Arabian Nights, but rote etn Sltenb ou3 bent Scutfenbunbetnen* nacfytfcucl? (Raabe's Zum Wilden Mann, chap. vii). Such compounds are mere syntactical fragments struggling toward the estate of a true compound. The adjective is inflected, since it is customary for adjectives to be inflected, and usage here as elsewhere requires inflectional forms to follow the last component. A more logical system of inner inflection is to construe as often as possible the first noun of the compound as plural and allow the adjective of the compound to agree with it : etn Qlrmefimbergeftcfyt a face such as poor condemned criminals have. S3on 5lrmeleutemalerei o(3 fimjttyiftorijtfjeni Segriffe ijt in einem eben erfcfyienenen >efte bie 9ftebe. A still more logical way of declining such compounds, bound to triumph though in many cases not as yet so common as the above, is to form them into genuine compounds and dispense with the inflection of the adjective of the first element : bag bteicfye Qlrmfunbergeftdjt. In many cases such compounds are not written together as forming one word, although they are entitled to such recognition as well as the preceding : ber fttberne Jfreitjfcunb Society of the Silver Cross, &c. A number of similar formations, as ein gerducfyerter 8fifd$dnbler, teitenbe 2lrttfleriefaferne (inscription formerly upon the barracks near the ' Oranienburger Tor* in Berlin), ein cutggeffovfter $terf)dnbter, ein roofylrtecfyenber $Bafferfabnfant,&c., are capable of a comical construction, a smoked fishdealer, instead of a smoked-fish dealer, &c. The comical feature of this clumsy construction has helped to bring it into disrepute and facilitate the movement toward the form of a genuine compound, mentioned above. 7. In a few loose compounds (249. II. 2), which in reality are each only a fragment of a sentence written together as one word, that element of the compound may be inflected which in the syntactical structure of the sentence would be inflected, or the compounds may remain wholly uninflected : bie dnbe ttofl or te enrigen Oftern be3 er$en8 (Keller's Seldwyla), fcorige SBettynacfyten (Fontane's Effi, chap, xi); jebe SBeUjnacfyten (Lewald). ebenffl bu nod) on einen 3Beifynad?ten ? (Storm's Unter dent Tannenbaum, vol. I, p. 180). 5tuf ein frotjeS ffiei^nadjten (Fontane's Unwicderbringlich, chap. vii). Dftern fdt(t (or bie Djtern fatten) biefeS 3a$r fya't. Thus also 23ud) book, literally letters, now always sing, for one object, was in Gothic and O.H.G. in the pi. to designate one book. On the other hand, the pi. is so associated with the original sing. I 114 PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER IN NOUNS 96. r. form efdjttjifter (in Lessing's Nathan, i, 2, still used in sing.), a collective noun meaning brothers and sisters, that the pi. article is now used (bte efdjnnfter), while we in other cases use the sing, article before collective nouns of the same form : bag ebrange throng, bag e&trge mountain-system, &c. 2. Names of materials do not from their very nature admit of a plural in the usual sense, but may take a plural to designate different species, varieties, or grades of the same thing : ber SBetn wine, pi. SSeine different kinds of wine, Oifcetnireine Rhine wines, Ototreeine ; bag olj wood, pi. $6I$er different kinds of wood ; bte 23aum= icofte cotton, pi. bie amerifamfdjen 93aumrcoflen American varieties of cotton ; feine 58teie fine grades of lead (for pencils, &c.). a. This simple pi. is often replaced by compound plurals, formed by adding to the name of the material the substantive 9tct for the species of life or growth, or kinds of manufactured articles, and ofl handful, Sftanbet (pi. also Stfanbeln) a numerical whole con- sisting of 15 units, 2ftarf mark (coin) : jrcei 5affer two separate casks, but jrcei 5ap SGBetn two casks (as a measure) of wine ; grcei 9Biere two kinds of beer, but jroei 93ter two glasses of beer; jicei on 140 Jtitogramm (or Jttlo) a weight of 140 kilograms ; 400 SWann Snfanterte 400 men of infantry (who move as one man under the command of one man), but 4 2Enner four men (taken individually) ; jefyn pfennig ten pfennigs in one piece, but $e$n $fennige ten one-pfennig pieces ; eintge )uenb ^abetten several dozen cadets in one group, but 2)ufcenbe folcfyer ^afle dozens of such cases ; jtcei StRarf, ein $ferb 15 Sfaufl ty$, bte bm anbt>ott ft 5"Iafd)en 2Betn, jwei affen ^nffce. If it is not a question of weight or measurement, but of a mode of 96.5-A.0. PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER IN NOUNS 115 weighing or measuring, the regular pi. form is used : @in Jlito l?at greet 93funb unb bag $funb 500 ramm A kilogram contains two pounds and a pound 500 grams, but SSei itnS rciegt man nad) $funben In our country we weigh by pounds. a. This usage of leaving nouns in the sing, form in the pi. when used collectively started with the neuters, which in an earlier period had their regular pi. like the sing., as in English one sheep, two sheep. Later this plural, which in form was like the sing., did not seem to suffice, and hence alongside of the old form a new plural was formed in one of two ways, either by adding ir, which still later changed to the present form er, or the word took on the common masc. pi. ending c, and thus for each word there arose two pi. forms, as @(a$ and Idfcr glasses ; *pfitnb and ^fuube pounds. Later both of these forms were put to a good use in that a different shade of meaning was given to each. The form in ec or e was applied to objects taken separately, the one that took no pi. ending, in accordance with its apparently sing, form, was invested with collective force to express weight, measure, extent. This usage was found so convenient that it spread to masculines and to the few feminines above mentioned. (2) There are a few exceptions to the rule stated above : a. Foreign nouns and native masc. take sometimes their regular pi. ending to express weight, measure, and extent, or may remain uninflected, apparently without any difference in meaning between the different forms : jefyn Xaleutc 10 talents, cine e love, bag 06 praise, ber of)n reward, ber 2ftorb (see 69. i. b} murder, bie 9Rot necessity, distress, ber 9ftat advice, Plural. SBerufgarten. 25efrretwna,en. 25etrugereien. SBttnbniffe. $)anrfagungen, expressions of grati- tude. (5:r6fd)aften. ^euergSrunfle. griebengfcfyluffe, Srtebeng&ertrage trea- ties of peace. SBefitrcfytungen. ewaltttittgfeiten. lucf gfatte pieces of good fortune. unft&ejeigungen. Summer ruffe. SKenf^enIe6en lives. Seiben (pi. of bag iieiben). SteBf^aften amours. 93elol)niingen. SWorbtaten. SRottrenbigfeiten necessities, neces- sary things, 9Jote distress. 9tatfdjldge counsels. 96. 7 .6. PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER IN NOUNS 117 ber Otaufc robbery, SRdufcereien. ber or|ieflungeu. ber 3anf quarrel, 3<*nfereien. bag (ber, bie) %\rt>tf)bv, or less com- %\tfx$br monly bie 3 u fofyorbe all that fcefyorungen all the various things belongs to a thing, which belong to a thing. Note. 35er 93cw building, though not an abstract noun, forms also its plural with a borrowed form, bie S3ailten; see also 69. 1. 1>. 6. A few nouns have no plurals at all : bie Qlfdje ashes, ber 23obenfa$ sediment, dregs, ber atnpelmdnner jumping-jacks, (Stfmeemdnner snow-men, &c. Note. Synonymous with geitte is the collective noun bd3 SSotf people and bte 2Rertfd)en people. 93olf, as its use in the sing, would indicate, expresses strongly the collective idea with many shades, as ba$ beutfdje SSptf the German people, bag Uterarifcfye SSotf literary people, erlief>te3 SSclf people in love, bag Qemetne Sotf the common people, ba0 Sanboolf the rural population. @g ijl fdjlecfyteg SBolf They are a bad set, &c. 8eute may also refer to a crowd or class of people, but rather as individuals, and thus the collective idea in it is much weaker than in 93olf : bte Seitte in btefem ^>aufe the people in this house, arme, reid?e, alte fieute poor, rich, old people, frembe Seitte strangers, ttteine Setlte my servants, factory men. Qs toaren nut jei 2eute tm Simmer, a($ tdj fam. >ie Seute fagen'g People say so. J?Ieiber tnadjen Seute Clothes make the man. Unfete SSdter ioaten Seute ! (Goethe's Egmont, 2) Our fathers were men of sterling qualities. As can be seen in the last example under 93olf and the last two under fieute, the former often expresses contempt and the latter honor and importance. SWenfdjeit differs from Seitte in that it lacks entirely collective force and thus refers to individuals only : Slfte 2Wenf(f)en (every individual) ntllffen jhvbert, but 9Ut Seitte (as a class) muffen flerben, junge Seute fonnen fterben. SKenfc^en differs from SWdnner only in that it includes males and females, while 9J?dnnet refers only to the former. Note that 93olf in the sense of nation has a pi. 10. If a noun is modified by two numeral adjectives, the first indeclinable with pi. force, the second declinable with sing, force, added to the first to complete and make more exact the statement, the noun may be either sing, or pi. If the sing, form of the noun be chosen, then the second adjective must agree with it, but if the pi. form be preferred, which is more common, then the second adjective like the first remains uninflected : Xaufenb unb etne iJtatfyt The Thousand and One Nights (' The Arabian Nights '), ^unbert unb ctn Garnet one hundred and one camels, in jrcet unb einem fyalfceu 3al)r in two and a half years, bret unb eine acfytet 3JJeile three and one-eighth miles, or more commonly (except in the first example in this one meaning) in jireiunbeinfyalb Safyren, bmunbetnadjtet 2)ietlen. For a case where the noun must be in the pi., see 121. 2. d. Note. 11. In German the sing, is used where in English the pi. is employed, in that case where a pi. noun refers to as many different things as it has modifying adjectives, as bte engltfcfye unb bie beutfcfye d?nxjler sister ; ber .ffnedpt servant, bie QJZagb maid-servant ; ber 23ocf male goat, bie 3i*3* female goat ; ber Ddjfe ox, bie Jtiu) cow. There are a few exceptions : a. A few isolated words : bag 9Bei& and ftrauenjimmer woman, bag SKenfcfy wench, in the language of the common people bag Sftannfen man, bag SBeifcfen woman. b. Nouns representing not an individual but a species or class are not of uniform gender, some being masc., some fern., some neuter : ber 2ftenfd? man, ber 5lbler eagle, bie $erfon person, bie SBaife orphan, bie @d;real6e swallow, bag $ferb horse, &c. c. In nouns denoting the young of animals and also of human offspring the idea of sex is not prominent, and hence the gender is usually neuter : bag Jtalfc calf, bag ^uflen colt, bag Sunge eineg @d)afeg, eiu ganj ^leineg baby, &c, d. All nouns representing living beings become neut. when they take a neut. suffix : Sraulein Miss, young lady, liebeg fufjeg antd?en dear good Auntie. 2. The gender of nouns indicating lifeless objects is difficult for the foreigner to detect, but may be learned in part by the following rules : A. Masculines are : The names of the days of the week, months, seasons, winds, points of the compass, mountains, stones, and foreign rivers (see B. a) : ber SDiontag Monday, ber Sanuar January, ber ^Gutter winter, ber $affat the 'trade-wind/ ber 0lorben the north, ber SBrocfen the Brocken, ber 2)iamant diamond, ber )on the Don (river). Of course if such names are compounds they are not necessarily masc., but are governed by their last component : bag ^ritfjjafjr Spring, bag 2ftattert)orn (peak of the Alps), &c. B. Feminines are : (i) The names of most German rivers, most trees, plants, flowers, fruits (except ber Qfyfel and ber ^firftcfy, the latter of which also has a fern, form, bie ^ftrftc^e), cigars (see b, below), postage stamps (see b, below), and cardinal numerals used as substantives : bie SBefer the Weser river, bie @lbe the Elbe river, bie (td;e oak, bie 9ftofe rose, bie Jtartofet potato, bie Xraufce grape, bie eutfd;Ianb, bie Keltic, an SSorb ber 2ftoltfe " (Hamburgischer Correspondent, 24. Juni 1903), auf ber .^ofyen^oflern" (ib.), bie Dgfcorne (ib.), bie Hamburg (ib., 29. Juni 1903), bie 9laija^oe (ib.). Instead of the feminine we some- times find the masculine gender : an bent llntergang beg 2ftaine " (Neue Ziircher Zeitung, 23. Marz 1898), ber Saracag (Hamburgischer Corre- spondent, 24. Dez. 1902). C. Neuters are : a. The names of minerals except : ber (Statyl steel, ber om6af (sometimes neut.) tombac, ber Jtofcalt (sometimes neut.) cobalt ; and 9Ucfet (masc. in the meaning 3el?nfennigfiucf) nickel, SBigmut bismuth, 3inf zinc, which are either neut. or masc., but perhaps more commonly the former. b. The names of countries, islands, provinces, and places except those that always take the article (59. II. F. 2. a and b). Note. In poetic style cities are often personified and treated as fern. : e( jewel, ber and bag Jtamin fire-place, bcr and bag .Ratfyeber chair (in a college), ber and bag Jlnauet ball (of yarn, &c.), ber and bag Jlomvromifi com- promise, bag and bcr (rare) Serifou lexicon, bag and ber Sob praise, bag and bcr SKeter metre, bag and bcr (after the analogy of bcr 2)om) 2Mnfter cathedral, bag and ber *j}u(t desk, bag and bie DReitnauge lamprey, bie and ber $ad)t lease, bag and bcr ^enbel pendulum, bag and bcr ^crvenbifet plumb-line, pendulum, bag or bcr SRucfgrat backbone, bag and ber Scepter or 3eptev sceptre, bag and ber (rare) emejhr semester, bcr and tag llngcftum vehemence, bag and bcr SSerftecf hiding- place, ber and bie Bievvat ornament, and a number of others. a. In dialect many deviations from the literary language occur in the gender of words : bie (for ber) 23ad), ber (for bie) Gutter, bag (for ber) SWonat, c. 2. The following have not only double gender, but also double forms, with perhaps a preference for the first mentioned at least in ordinary language, and in some cases a leaning to the second in elevated diction : bie Skrfe and ber (as a rule earlier in the period) Skcfen cheek, ber Barrett and (especially in 102. a. FLUCTUATION IN GENDER 125 N.G.) bie J?avre cart, bev Olero and bie 9lert>e nerve, ber $ftrftdj and bie $firfidje peach, bee ^fofteu and bie $fojh post, ber ^frient or 5pfriemen and bie $frieme awl, bie Cluajle and ber Cluafl tassel, bie Oue((e and bee Clued spring (of water), bie UJijje and ber 9ii$ chink, bie djldfe and ber cfylaf temple (on the forehead), bie djerbe and ber (S.G.) djerben shard, ber Barren and bie (Spam rafter, bie (and bag) SBerft and bie SSerfte dock-yard, bie 3fK and bev 3efy toe, and others. The different dialects and sections often diverge here widely. 3. For nouns which have different genders and forms with differentiation of meaning, see 83. GENDER OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 101. Foreign nouns retain the gender which they had in the language from which they were borrowed : ber Jterfer from the Latin career, m. ; bag Jltofhr from the Latin claustrum, n. a. A number of foreign words, however, have changed their gender in accordance with the rules for German words, influenced in some cases by their meaning and in other cases by their ending: bag j?arjer school prison (L. career, m.) on account of bag efangnig prison; ber SJJarmor marble (L. marmor, n.) on account of ber teitt stone ; bag fflannec and *panier banner, standard (from the French banniere, f.) under the influence of bag S^tbjeicfyen banner ; names of foreign countries usually neuter after the analogy of German geographical names, as bag atte (Surctya (in Latin fern.) old Europe ; ber JWler cellar (L. cellarium, n.) after the analogy of German words in w, bie Stage (masc. in French) story (of a house) after the analogy of German words in -,t ; bie Jlanjel and bie 93ibet, as they are in fact plurals (the Latin pi. cancelli altaris the railing of the altar and the Greek and Latin pi. biblia), which here, as often elsewhere, are used as feminine singulars. Words from the English, which no longer has grammatical gender, take their gender from some resem- blance in meaning or form to German words : bag 23eeffteaf after the analogy of bag (Hinbjleifdj, ber treif or Strife after the analogy of ber treid). As the French has no neut., names of things which in it are masc. often become neut. in German : bag ^ottrat from le portrait, bag (Refultat from le rhultat, the former following the analogy of bag 93ilbnig, the latter the analogy of other words in ;at. On the other hand, words which originally in the Latin are neut. have become masc. influenced by the French, which has converted the neut. into the masc. : ber $ataft from Latin palatium, n. through French palais, m. b. In quoting from a foreign language, if it is not possible to avoid placing an article before a foreign word or the first word of a quoted phrase, the gender is commonly conformed to the gender of the corresponding word in German : eet in feiner History (bie efdjidjte) of English Sounds. GENDER OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 102. Compound nouns have the gender of the last component : bie cm3titr door of the house, ber 4?au3flur entrance-hall of a house, bag aii6tiet domestic animal. The exceptions are : a. A number of words having for their final component 3Hut, namely, 35emut, ?angmut, anftmut, Slnmut, rofjmut (sometimes masc.), (cl)ermitt, SBefymut, are fern., while others, as ftwntut, leid)mut, .>od)tnut, Sagbmut, JUeinmut (sometimes fern.), SWipmiit, Ubermut, Unmut, &c., are masc. Here the fern, words have a different origin from the masc. words, being originally abstract nouns derived from adjectives formerly in use and having in M.H.G. the fern, ending e, while GENDER OF COMPOUND NOUNS 102. a. the masculines are compounded with the masc. substantive SKut and are according to rule masc. At length the final e of the fem. nouns entirely dis- appeared, and they became identical in form with the masculines, but retained their fem. article. However, the meaning of the word has also exercised some influence over the gender of these words, for, after the masc. and fem. forms had become identical, some masc. became fem., and some fem. became masc., and of words of modern coinage some took on the masc., some the fem. article. At present the feminines, as can be seen from the above complete list, express the milder virtues and qualities, while the masculines denote the more vigorous or violent traits or feelings, or their opposites. b. 9lbfd)eu disgust, 35ogetfd)eu (Goethe's Egmont, act 4, Strasse; now tie aScflclfdjeudje) scarecrow, are masc., but other compounds of it Seidjtjtnn, inn ein gut eil reiser a good deal richer. Also its compounds are usually masc., except : the contracted and uncon- tracted form in fractions, as bag iSrittel or >rittetl third, &c. ; bag egenteil oppo- site, Jpinterteil (perhaps more commonly masc.) back part, SSotberteil (perhaps more commonly masc.) forepart, *Pjitd)tteil (more commonly masc.) that which necessarily falls to a legal heir, whether the testator will or no, (Jrbteit inheritance, Sftutterteil inheritance from the mother, SSatetteil patrimony. Ur'* tetl (n.) is not a compound of iteil, but is derived from the corresponding verb ertei'ten (px* reduced to ev; by reason of loss of accent), which formerly also had the meaning to pass sentence or judgment besides its present significa- tions. This old meaning is now expressed by utteilen, which is a derivative of ttrteit. e. SWtttwod) Wednesday is masc. after the analogy of the other days of the week. /. etvat marriage is fern, although 9?at is masc., since the origin of the word was forgotten and the force of 0?at was no longer felt. The abstract nature of the present meaning led to its use as a fem. g. Compounds which are the names of places are neut. even though the last component is of some other gender, since they follow the general rule for the gender of places : bag fdjone amburg beautiful Hamburg, but bie SBattburg (a single castle). h. A number of compounds, which are in fact each a syntactical fragment of a sentence or a whole sentence written as one word, are neut., or if they represent persons have natural gender without reference to the gender of the last component : bag Skrgtfmeimttdjt forget-me-not, ber <2tynncu'ngfelb romping boy, ber Saugenidjtg a good-for-nothing fellow, &c.; see 98. 2. C. e. In other cases where the natural gender is not pronounced, the gender of such a syntactical fragment is sometimes regulated by that of the first word: bie ^anbroH handful, ber 26ffelctt spoonful, ber gufbreit the width of a foot. 104.2. A. a. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES 127 INFLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 103. Adjectives may be divided into two general classes quali- fying (or descriptive) and limiting (see 118) adjectives. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 104. i. A qualifying or descriptive adjective is one that expresses some quality or attribute of the object designated by the noun. Contrary to English usage these adjectives are, except in the predicate, inflected, forming two distinct declensions the strong and the weak. The leading points as to the inflection of the adjective are as follows : A. The strong declension, which has by far the fuller inflection (see 1O6), is employed when the adjective is not preceded by a modifying word, or when there stands before the adjective a limiting word which has no ending to show gender and case : N. guter 9Bein; metn Heiner SBruber. Hence the strong adjective not only limits the meaning of its noun, but it also marks its case and gender in the absence of the article or some other limiting word that has full endings to show case and gender. B. The weak declension, which has only two endings, e for the nom. sing, of all genders and for the ace. sing, of the fern, and neut., and en for all other cases of the different genders, sing, and pi., is employed when there stands before the adjective some limiting word such as the def. article or a pronominal adjective with strong inflection which can show the case and gender : N. ber gitte Jtnafce, G. beg guten ^nafcen. a. Sometimes the limiting word is understood, having already been pre- viously used in the same sentence, in which case the adjective is weak : bcr (Srbfeinb unfeteg SftetcfyeS unb tjeiltgen taubenS. Sometimes in colloquial language the article is omitted even where there has been no previous use of one : Lotte : 3d) benf ' mir bass gat nidjt fo fd)6n, au$ ban grofjcn 8cbm itnebcr juriicf in bte @infamfeit. Db'ring : 3m egenteil ! Gtnjtg Siidjttge (Halbe's Die Heimatlosen, p. 37). b. Earlier in the period the strong forms are often found after str. limiting words in accordance with an older usage : unfte cigne 2Beibet (Lessing), bicfe cinjclne titcfe(id.). C. If the qualifying adjective is preceded by two pronominal adjectives with different inflection, its declension is controlled by that of the second pronominal : liefer meiu guter Breunb. D. Two or more qualifying adjectives which limit the same noun take the same inflection : guter, alter 3Sein ; etn guter, alter 2ftann ; btefer gute, alte STOann. 2. The qualifying adjective or participle is not declined in the following cases : A. In the predicate in the positive and comparative, but it is inflected here in the superlative (see 112. i). In the predicate relation the adjective or participle is used : a. As the predicate complement of intransitives of incomplete predication (as fein to be, blei&en to remain, fdjetneu to seem, njerben INFLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVES 104. 2. A. a. to become) or of passive verbs : (5r ifl alt. 2)a8 ^Better fdjetnt fceffer. @r ifl ber dltefle. @r rcirb glitdlid; genannt. Here also belongs the past participle in the compound tenses of such intrans. verbs as are conjugated with fetn : gemad;t. 3d; fe^e bid; gegurtet unb geriiflet (= 55it fcifl, wie id; fe^e, gegurtet unb geriiflet). But in the superlative : 2JJan ^reifl biefen SWann ben gludUdjflen. 3d; futjle mid; ^eute am fd;rcdd;flen. Here also belongs the past participle in the compound tenses of transitive verbs : (r tyat ben SSrief gefd;riet)en. Note. The objective predicate often indicates the result of the action of the verb upon its object, and hence is in this use by some called the factitive predicate : (Jr fdjlug ifin tot. B. After the noun which it limits, but only in the positive and comparative, never in the superlative : a. Instead of standing attributively before a noun, an adjective or participle often follows it in the relation of an appositive. A single adjective or participle rarely stands after the noun, as 0!68lein rot, except in poetry, but it usually takes this position when it is itself modified by an elliptical clause or by a phrase which is limited by a clause, also sometimes if it is merely modified by another word or words, or if there are several adjectives or parti- ciples separated from each other by commas or by unb: eine 9ftofe rot rcie 35Iut [ifl], ein 2ftann alter alS id; [bin]. (Sin panifd;er djrerf, fcermefyrt burd; bag fal(d;e erud;t, bafi fcor ben oren ftd) GdfarS Sfteiter gejeigt fatten, fam ufcer bie ttorneljme SQSelt. llnb f itft te fte an (now usually auf) ben SWunb fo Heid; (Uhland). (tne (stange brci SKeter ^od;. nblidj erfd;eint ein n)etilid;e 2)ing, flud;n'g, unfcebadjtfam, irilb, rei^ig 6i3 jur lln&erfdjamttyeit, luflig 6iS jum Gotten. )er -immel na|) unb fern, er ifl fo flar unb feterlid;. (Sin (Sbelfne^t fanft unb fed. But in the superlative : SMefer 2J?ann, ber dttefle unter atten. The adjectives in 111. 7. c can only in this position be used attributively. Note i. With the exception of the two cases mentioned above which require the adjective or participle to stand after the noun, this position of an adjective and participle is peculiarly adapted to poetic style, and in prose is often replaced by the usual attributive position before the noun, an arrangement of words which often is markedly different from the English, as is nicely illustrated by the following sentence : 104. 2. E. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES 129 [In her revery which carried her back to her youthful days] @ie fa!) ftd) Ijetantoadjfen itn J&aitfe i&red S3atet3, bed atten, reidjen JJaiiffierrn, ein on urud uragebened, burdj djmetcijeleien ern>6ljnte3 unb bod) inmitten ailed yteid)tutnd ein armed, toeil son feiner SWuttet befyuteted 3Kabd)en (Helene Stokl's ^z heiligen Abend). Note 2. The non-inflection of these adjective or participial appositives is readily explained by the fact that they are not real attributive adjectives, but stand in elliptical clauses of which they are felt as predicate : @ie Ijat einen 9Jarf en [, ber] toeifjet [ift,] aid Sdjnee. Note 3. For exceptions to the rule that the adjective is here uninflected, see 111. 9. Note 4. If the adjective or participial appositive have an article, which is especially the case in poetic style, where for emphasis an epithet instead of preceding follows the noun, it is always inflected : Sluf bem $eid), bem regungdlofen, toeilt bed SWonbed holber lanj. Also in prose in case of titles : grtebrid) bet rofje, .Rarl bet Siinfte. Note 5. In M.H.G. the postpositive adjective could be inflected, and this older usage survives in rare instances in poetry: 3d) fjabe einen foldjen 93aum jfingfl gefefyen, gebogenen uber eined SBadjed aunt unb fdjroanfenben in Srufiltngdlufte SSBefyen (Ruckert). A little more common is the inflection here of felig deceased: 3Rein SWann feliget Itar bet 3afjten unb nid)t teidjt jit vu^ren (Goethe). The nom. masc. form feltger has become a mere fossil, as it is also used in the oblique cases : 3d) Ijabe bte @ad)e tjon tnetnem 93ater fetiget ererbt (Immermann). Non-inflection here, however, is the rule : mein CBater feltg (or still more commonly wein fettger SSater). b. In case of those nouns (see 96. 4. (i)) which remain uninflected when used in a collective sense to express weight, measure, extent, the modifying qualifying adjective follows the noun, and hence is not inflected : fimf $funb fldnufcl), $ef)n ftujii rfyetnifd). C. Uninflected adjectives or participles often stand in the relation of an appositive to a following or preceding noun or pronoun, when the adjective or participle represents a subordinate adverbial clause of which it would be the predicate complement or verbal predicate : [rceil fte] Srol) [rear], ganj afletn unb jeber la'fiigen 9Beo6acfytung entriicft ju fein, ijatte fie fid? in bte (Stfe juri'icfgelefynt unb bie QUigeit gefcfyloffen. 2>ieS fyorenb (= a!3 er bieS fyotte), 6rac^ er in ilrdnen auS. @r flriite, ftrf) tief tterfceugenb (= inbent er ftc^ tief tterfceugte). QlUjujlraff gefpannt (= roenn er afl^ufiraff gefpannt njirb), gerf^ringt ber SBogen. Note. The participle usually refers to the subject of the sentence, as in the above examples, but, as it is also used as objective predicate and in this capacity must refer to the object, ambiguity may arise : 3d) tterliefj ifin, fein Unglitcf beHagenb. Here beftagenb may refer to id) or ifjn. The participial construction should be avoided here, but of course is unobjectionable where no ambiguity is liable to arise : 3d) fanb if)H, feine 93iid)et orbnenb. D. In the absolute construction, where the participle or adjective is not in apposition with any word in the main clause, non-inflection is the uniform rule. This absolute construction is treated at length in 265. B. E. Sometimes non-inflection of adjectives and participles occurs in the attributive relation, in poetry, dialect, familiar language, and in many set expressions that have come down to us from an earlier period when non-inflection here was more common. In all of these cases, however, non-inflection is now usually limited to the nom. and ace. neut. sing, in the strong declension : (?in unnufc e&en iff ein fritter Sob (Goethe's Iphigenie, 1. 115). Jtein grofjer Iucf at8 ein Sertrauenb <>erj (Dahn's Jugendgedichte, 190). te6 2Bet6, licit Jltnb, auf gut Iucf at random, auf balbig SBieberfefyen I hope to see you again 130 INFLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVES 1O4.2.E. soon. Especially frequent in old maxims : SSar elb fauft rcotylfeil. The tminflected attributive form occurs only rarely elsewhere : a3 filter ifl tin $6fUc$ STOann (Goethe). te& Jtnafce (Schiller's Tell, i, i), ber gleifjenb 2Bolf (Uhland). innenb ftrad) ju il)m jung SBerner (Scheffel's Trompeter, Sechstes Sttick). teber jung 2Berner3 (ib., p. 212). Itnb id) njetfji ein anber ieb fcon | einem jung jung 3ittmtt*3*feHen (ib., Zweites Stack). a. Luther was much freer in the use of uninflected forms than even elevated discourse allows to-day. He often dropped the strong masc. nom. sing, ending and also final e both in the strong and weak declensions in any gender, case, or number : mandj frum (= frommer) jmeftet, ein jornig man, weltlid) getoatt, tie toeltltdj gefoalt, etttd) gotlidj nb (ljrifttidj articfel. This older usage survives in compounds : (Ibelmamt, rojjftabt, &c. A historical view of the case is at this point helpful. The so-called unin- flected form is here in a number of cases the natural historic form. The adjective followed in earlier periods the inflection of nouns, as can also be seen in Latin. In course of time the endings of the nouns became much weather-beaten, so that they seem to-day endingless in the nom. and ace. sing, of masculines and neuters, and in case of neuters (see 69. 5. H. N.) also in the plural : ber, bett ag, bag SBort, jehn $ 4Jfunb. The adjective should here also be endingless, and the uninflected forms we find in Luther's writings are in part the correct historic forms. Even in the earliest historic period the Germanic adjective had borrowed endings from the pronouns to mark gender and case more clearly, and these new endings and those borrowed still later have in large measure displaced the correct historic endingless forms. On the other hand the old endingless form has supplanted the inflected forms in the predicate relation in the positive and comparative. In certain pronominal adjectives we still find both old and new forms, but with differentiated function : mem 53ud), but bag 93uc ift meineg. 105. General Rules* The fern, and neut. have each their respective ace. sing, like the nom., the nom. and ace. of all genders are alike in the pi., also the gen. and dat. sing, of the fern, are always identical. 106. Strong declension of gut good. Singular. Plural. Masc. Fem. Neut. Common form for all genders. N. guter gutc gute$ gute G. gutett (e) J gutct gutcn(c*) 1 guter D. gutcm gute gutem gutett A. guten gute gute* gute Note i. The strong qualifying adjective is now really weak in the gen. of the masc. and neut. sing., as the old strong form ;eg is usually replaced here by the weak ; ett except in a few set expressions, as reined etjen3 of a pure heart, &c., which have come down to us from earlier periods unchanged. J. Grimm and other grammarians have sought to bring the strong gen. into favor again, and a few recent authors as von Sybel have followed their example, but in general the weak form is very firm in present usage. Grammarians usually state that the gen. of the adjective is strong when it For full explanation of this form, see Note I. 108. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES 131 limits a weak noun : grojjeg jjurfltn, & c< This case, however, is extremely rare, as weak nouns by virtue of their meaning are usually accompanied by an article. Limiting adjectives (the numeral eitt, the articles, and pronominal adjectives), however, still retain as a rule strong inflection in the gen. : biefcS 93ttd)eg, toe(d)C 33udje3. But the new weak gen. is now also often found in pronominal adjectives, especially in adverbial expressions : aKettfaffc and jebenfalfg in any event, fcinedfaHg or feinen; falls, &c. Also occasionally elsewhere : 2Bintmelte eg bod) . . . on Jtinbern . . . jeben 2llterg ! (Spielhagen's Was will das werden, I. chap. iv). Note 2. In early N.H.G. the strong ending eS (masc. and neut. gen., and neut. nom. and ace.) was often in both qualifying and limiting adjectives contracted to : 93nb er tfiet Slbrant gut$ mb jren toillen (Gen. xii. 16). This contraction is still found in Goethe's time, and even up to the present day in poetry and dialect : Uttt utg JU tttlt, braudjt's feiner liberlegung (Goethe's iphigenie, 1. 1989). aft bu fein freunbtidjs 2Bort, bu @ute (Grillparzer's Die Argonauten, Act 2). ie etenber, unbanf barer SKenfd), tft bag ber Sofin, bag toir Sfytten in unferit Jpau3 ein 3af>r unb fedjg QKcnat' elb ^ab'n erbienen laffen (Anzengmber's Das vierte Gtbot, i, 8). 107. Weak declension of gut : Singular. Plural for all genders. Masc. Fern. Neut. N. ber gute bie gute baS gutc bic \ G. be guten ber gutett beS guten ber f au i et| D. bem guten ber gutett bent guten ben ( " A. ben guten bie gute bag gute bie ) Note. In early N.H.G. the ace. fern. sing, sometimes ended in en instead of e, thus occasionally preserving here the M.H.G. form: ber bie ganfoen (instead of ganfee) Grbe (Gen. i. 26). 108. Mixed Declension. It must be especially noted that after ein and the words inflected like it, i. e. fein and the possessive pro- nominals(see 58. A and B), the adjective is strong in the nom. of the masc. and the nom. and ace. of the neut., because these words are here deficient in endings to show gender and case. The plural is of course weak. K 2 132 nuin guter ftreunb, my good friend meine gutc (Sdjinjefter, my good sister Singular. N. meitt guter ^reunb meine gute cfyreefler G. meineg guten Sreunbeg meiner guten (Scfytneft D. metnem guten ?yreunb(e) meiner guten A. metnen guten ^reunb meine gute N. meine guten ^reunbe G. meiner guten Sreunbe Plural. meine guten <&d)ireftern u. meiner guten tyreunce meiner guten 3 bitters ; egemv>artkje3 (referring to bag cfyreiben letter) bejtoerft emt (5., >of)n einea unferet Ijtejxgen greunbe, Sljnen befiens ju entpfe^ten. 3ie^i 25ir rafc^ 2)etu 3Keev; grune^ (referring to ba3 ^(eii>) an. The neut. form is used for the young of animals and for children (see 98. i.*) : iljr Sungefl her (i.e. the cow's) calf, ein ganj JlteineS a baby. (z) The neut. adjective-substantive preceded by the definite article has a comprehensive, generalizing force : bad <3cfyi5ne the beautiful, all that is beautiful. The form without the article contains a collective idea : @d)6ne8 beautiful things. jfteinfteS wirb an bent getabelt, ber in 9J?enge rcjjtca abelt (Riickert) People censure very little things in him who puts nobility into many very great things. 5ut ^wutein JDora irar naturlid^ tne^rete^ babei Among them were of course several things for Miss Dora. The neuter adjective-substantive often has a meaning that cannot be embodied in one English word : fein &uf?eve$ his exterior appearance ; if)t 3mtetfte3 her inmost feelings. ange, lange tonte ed nad) in bem ntetaHenen OJeifen, ale fyabe bie tocfe nun aud (Sigenem noc^ jit fprec^cn For a long time, after the ringing of the bell ceased, it kept on resounding as if it had now something to say of its own initiative. SKorgen ein ntc^rcrcg I will write something addi- tional to-morrow. @c fyat tton einet Safe ein toeniges? gecrbt He inherited a little property from a female relative. (Sr tut nie ein ubrtgea He never does more than he must do. b. Participles when used as substantives still retain their former verbal nature, and hence retain their adverbial modifiers and take direct objects : ettraa lanajl 33efannte<5 something that has been known for a long while, ein SWebuin tubierenbet a student of medicine (lit. one studying medicine). See 111. J.d. 110. A. c. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES 133 c. The unmodified adjective-substantive following on in a phrase which stands as an appositive to a preceding noun is regulated in its inflection by the article of the preceding noun, and also agrees with it in case : )er dju'nget on SSebtcnte the rogue of a servant, ein alter eid)ercd, or twicfy'rer, iccicfy'reg ; ttctd)cvcm or tuetcfy'rem rather than iteicfycrm. The noun, however, is true to the older rule (see 62. C), which requires the dropping of e after ;cl, ;en, =er, and thus the new tendency of the adjective to retain the e of the case ending after these suffixes has isolated a few nouns and adverbs which are derived from such adjectives, so that their origin is not always felt : ber Hunger (bes SungersJ, dat. pi. ben 3iutgeni) disciple, lit. the younger in contra- distinction to the master (evr), but ber jungete (dat. pi. ben jungeren) 53vuber (dat. pi. 93rubetn) the younger brother ; thus also bic (Sttern parents, lit. older ones, but bie dtteten 93ruber the older brothers, ba<5 $)imfel (be3 2)unfcl3) darkness, but ba$ bunf(e)te Simmer the dark room, gen. beg bitnf(e)len Simtnevd ; also anberd (adv.) otherwise, but the adj. nom. neut. form cmbeteeutfd)e (Fontane), unr jtoei (Sinfamen (Lienhard's Konig Arthur, 5) ; D % namfcfyen 2eitte (Raabe), less commonly strong after tfjt : 31jt Ijcdjwutbige etten (Anzengruber's Der Schandfleck, chap, ii), tfyt plumpe, rcfye SKenfdjen 1 (Scheffel's Trompeter, Zehntes Stiick), iljt 9lu3eradfylte (Halbe's Das tausendjiihrige Reich, p. 71); fiir un$ atme Stauen (Fontane) rather than itn3 atmen ftrauen, to distinguish it from un3 (dat.) armen gtauen. Fluctuation often occurs even in the same author : Set junge 23utfd) mit bem 2Rttd)geftd;)t, et fleftt un$ 5l(te in fatten (Meinhardt). (Sr fd^icft un6 anbeten in bie 93erge jut (St^olung (Meinhardt). The weak forms here are survivals of a construction common in earlier periods ; see 6. a, below. b. When an adjective which modifies an appositive noun is not preceded by an article and follows a noun or pronoun, it is usually str. except in the gen. and dat. sing, of the fern., where the wk. form is also found, and perhaps more frequently so : con bem errn Gmcfj c^mibt, ctbentltcfyem ^rofejfor, but mit bet fdjonen 33arcneffe (SfyrtjHne Slrne, jiingflen ejl:et feineS ittSnadjbarn 2ltne (Fontane's Umviederbringlich, chap. i). 9Wan jVridjt jje^t cn 5 r iu ^tegcentta SHoffel, geborenen c^opv (P. Heyse). 9Jht einet 9ltt ttttben Stonte (Raabe's Die Leute aus dem Walde, III. chap. yii). But also the strong form : on . . . beffen . . . SBeibe 2lnna, geborenet SBeibtftn (Raabe's Meister Author, III). Occa- sionally wk. forms occur in the masc. and neut. dat. : einem @tucf gebarfnen gifcfe (Goethe), mit einem <&tud britcfyigen @ifen (Raabe's A. T., chap, xx), Heine 33otteile, bie tfym afe dtteflen J^au^tmann eigentli^ jufamen (Tdgliche Rundschau). The wk. forms in all these cases are survivals of a construction common in earlier periods ; see 6. a, below. 6. The adjective following a gen., especially bejfm or beten, gen. of the demonstrative or relative, is sometimes wk., though the preceding word can in no way show their gender and case : in bet Oiatut balfam'fcfycn SBcfyltfyat (Goethe). @S Hang toie (Srlofung aug fyea$ rafd) fyersorgeftofjenett Stage (from a recent novel). 3Ba0 in *preufjen nur toentge, aufetfyalb ^JteugenS niemanb, ait^ nidjt beffen bejlcn 5unbe, ju setlangen tcagten, fotbette nac^ futjem djwanfen Stcitfc^fe (name) mit rucf fyaltfofet (Sntfcfcieben^eit : bie SSetetnigung (Sdjle&mg^olfteinS mit ^teu^en (Bailleu in Deutsche Rundschau, 1896, Heft I, p. 61). Sfyte . . . Slugen . . . , von beten itjm gef^ctenbcit SBunbetteic^tum er nid^ts ttiujjte (Raabe's Die Akten des Vogelsangs, p. 114). a. This is the survival of a once common construction, which required the adjective to be weak when it had individualizing force, that is, when it ex- pressed a quality that was to be especially attributed to the person or thing 111. 7. c. (i). PECULIARITIES IN THE DECLENSION 137 in question. This limitation of the quality implied in the adjective to a distinct object was usually made still more definite by a preceding gen., a noun in direct address, or a preceding article or other demonstrative or word that pointed out the distinct object to which the quality was to be attributed. In accordance with this former rule the adjective is still always wk. after the article and demonstrative, and sometimes in the following cases : when used as a substantive (see 4. a and b, above, and 10. Note below), in the attributive relation before a vocative (see I, above), before an appositive (see 5. b), following a gen. (see 6 and 4. b), and in the ordinal compounds fclbanber, fetbbritt, &c. (see 126. 2. c and Note), where the distin- guishing wk. ending has disappeared. The former individualizing force of the adjective is now little felt, as can be seen by the fluctuating forms given in 5. a, above. Its inflection to-day is usually a mere question of form, the str. or wk. being used according as no limiting word or a str. limiting word precedes. 7. The adjective is not declined : a. When it is derived from the name of a city and is formed by adding er to the proper name : bet alte 93erliner Secret the old Berlin teacher, be$ altm SSevlinec ?cfyrer3, c. In substantive use, such adjectives are manifesting a tendency toward inflection, to the vexation of strict grammarians, who are mindful of the origin of the form (see Note) : (Sfydfyte tnit bason, after nid)tg on ben gvcnlanbifdjen cfpenflern ; id) Ijabe an unferen JpcfjensSSiefcern [name of place .^cfjeiu'-Biefc] uber imb ubergcnug (Fontane's Vor dem Sturm, II. chap. xvi). Note. Here 33erluter is felt as an indeclinable adjective, and hence written some- times with a small letter, but it is in fact a noun in the gen. pi., and means of the people of Berlin. That it is now felt as an adjective can be seen from the adverb which is often placed before it instead of the originally more correct adjective : ed)t 2)?undjnet Soiuenbrdu, or edjteS 2ftiind)ner 26tt>enbrdu genuine Munich beer of the lion brand. b. If it is the first of two or more adjectives which together unite in forming one idea : rot unb tteijj e Jtufce cows spotted red and white, bie nmp unb toten 3>olben be$ SB after lief d) (Fontane's Stechlin, chap, i), in gang unb gdber 9J?unje in current coin. 35eutfd)e fdjmudfcn ifyre Jpdnfer mit fcfyujarj, twfj unb roten Sufynen Germans adorn their houses with the national flag consisting of black, white, and red stripes. The inflection of the first adjective in a number of cases would entirely change the sense : rote unb fteifje Jtiifye red cows and white cows. Instead of the uninflected forms we also find now quite commonly compound adjectives : ein fd)ttxirjrotgolbene3 23annev (Treitschke's Deutsche Geschichte, II. 422), bie fdjtt?arjrotgolbenen Satbftt (ib., III. 756). In some cases two adjectives form a real compound, the second element alone assuming the inflection, but are written as separate words : bie grofsfyeqoglid) babifd)e {Regicrung the government of the grand-duchy of Baden, bie fomattd) prcujjifdje glaggc the flag of the kingdom of Prussia. Note. In the early N.H.G. literary language it was quite common to leave unin- flected the first of two adjectives connected by unb : ein 0to3 unb tnecfytigeS SSclcf (Gen. xviii. 18). This usage continued throughout the classical period and even later in poetic language : in flar unb truben agen (Goethe). Also where unb is omitted : >a$ 2Bid)t'ge nnegt nid?t gleid) in btin', in ifyrem SJhutbe (Grillparzer's Libussa, i). This usage survives only where the two adjectives form a real compound, as in rot unb h>etfe Jtufje. In such compounds the language of our time prefers the outward form of a compound and drops the unb : fd)arjh>eifje 5al)nen. This fondness for the compound form goes so far that the first of two adjectives is now often left uninflected where they do not in a strict sense form a compound : in fdjUd)t (instead of fdjltdjtem) treufyerjigettt c. In the case of the following adjectives, since they are only used as predicate complement or objective predicate, or in some cases in the apposi- tive relation following the noun (see 104.2. B) : (i) Adjectives which were formerly nouns and still resist adj. declension : angft uneasy, brad) fallow, feinb hostile, gram filled with dislike toward, net 138 ADJECTIVES 111. 7.c.(i). necessary, fcfyabe too bad, a pity, fd)utb at fault, to blame for, toett even, quits : 2Rit ifi nod? angft. Gt i\t bm Siigen feinb. 35a3 ifi m'djt not. 3d) r)abe bag nidjt not (objective predicate). The absolute proof that these substantive forms are now felt as adjectives is the occasional comparative forms that occur : 3JZii tat' ein 86jfele[in] SBarmeS nod) ncter (H. Kurz's Sonnenwirt, 318). Note. A number of substantives have thus first become predicate adjectives, and later were felt as genuine adjectives, and are now used attributively with full adj. inflection : frctttm (from M.H.G. vrume use) good, pious, lit. useful. A number of nouns have not gone so far as the nouns in the above list, but have dropped their article in the predicate and now stand on the boundary line between adjective and noun : 3d) bin 93raut (=erlobt). (Sr tft meljr ^Diplomat ala (z) Also the following, which are now usually confined to the predicate or appositional relation, although a number of them were earlier in the period used attributively and hence inflected : abfcolD averse to, unfavorably inclined toward, abfpenftig alienated from, abtoenbig alienated from, allein (from which comes the attributive form attetnig single, sole) alone, anfyetfcfyig obligated, anftdjtig with toerben to get a sight of, auSfinbig with madden to find out, barfufj (in attributive use barfuflig) bare-footed, barljaupt (attributively batfyiuptig) bare- headed, etno,ebenf mindful of, gang unb gdbe (sometimes inflected ; see b, above ; similar formations, as fltpp unb flat, null unb nid)tig, redjt unb biflig, also uninflected) current, gar done (of things cooking; but in other meanings inflected : gates Sebcr dressed leather, &c.), gefonnw willing, inclined, getroft of good cheer, cheerful (in this meaning sometimes inflected : @eien @ie getrcften 2Kute3 !), geh)af)t aware of, with ttjerben to perceive, gewdrtig on the lookout for, expecting, geonflt willing, inclined, tyabfyaft with toerben to get possession of, tyanbgemem engaged in close fight, irre astray, wrong, futtb known, leib sorry for, disagreeable (in this meaning inflected in early N.H.G. and still in S.G. dialect), nufce or nufc (more common earlier in the period ; in early N.H.G. both forms are inflected, now replaced attributively and in large measure predicatively by nu^lid), although the negative form unnufc is still quite common in both relations) of use, quitt rid of, even (with somebody), tetUjaftig sharing in, nnpafj unwell, untertan subject to, erlit|Ug deprived of, (with verbs) to lose, forfeit, gugetan devoted : (St ijl mit abfyolb. 3d) ntadje midj baju an6cifd)ig I pledge myself to do it. 2>t J?nabe, eingebenf bet fmljer ertittenen trafe, get>ord;te. d. When adjectives or participles which are modified by an adverb are converted into adjective-substantives, the limiting adverb does not make the corresponding change into the state of an adjective, but still like an adverb remains uninflected, though it modifies a substantive : bie geiftig 2lrmen those weak intellectually, from the adjective expression getjHg arm ; ettwg langjl S3efannte$. The words geijKg and Idngft, though they apparently limit their respective substantives, do not take on adjective force and inflection, because the former still as an adverb limits the quality in the word Slrntcn, and the latter modifies the verbal force in 33efannte3 (perf. part.), and neither refer to the living being or the thing implied in the noun. However, if the word before the adjective-substantive limits the substantive as a whole, including both the quality (or action) and the individuals or things represented by the noun, it is inflected : gctgige {Retdje stingy rich people, ein peipigec (Stubierenber (pres. part.) a diligent student. e. In the case of a very few foreign adjectives, especially those denoting colors : ptima 9JJateria( first-class material, bag rofa ^tetb the rose-colored dress, Ula (Sdjtcifcn lilac-colored bows. Thus also farmeftn crimson, penfee pansy- colored, and a few others less common. They are of course inflected when compounded with the German words farbig or farben colored: in Wafarbtgen Jlletbern, in orangefarbnem ^>ut. f. In a few geographical terms where adjective and noun together form one name : in Stuffifd; $olen, or written together Slujfifd^olm in Russian Poland, and many other similar expressions. 111.8. PECULIARITIES IN THE DECLENSION 139 g. An apparent exception is the non-inflection of eigen own : Sag ijl tnetn etgen. Here, however, eigen is a neut. substantive, which, though once in common use, is now so little used that it is quite usually felt as the common adjective eigen, and hence is written with a small letter. h. In the case of the following adjective-substantives : (1) When no article precedes and they are mentioned in pairs, or occur in set prepositional expressions : 35er Slbjlanb ton reidj unb arm (see 54. 3), on ttornefym uub gering the contrast between rich and poor, genteel and humble, gtetd) unb gleid) ' birds of a feather,' jung unb alt young and old, fd)roarj auf ireijj in writing, on flein auf from early childhood, &c. (2) When the adjective-substantive characterizes a general condition of things, always without the article : (a) As subject or predicate : @ut ijl gut unb beffet tfl beffet A good thing is good, but a better thing is better yet. SlHju fdjarf ntadjt fdjartig An extreme condition or position of things is like a knife with too fine an edge, it will break off. (Sfyrlidj rocirjrt ant langjlen Honesty is the best policy. Thus also of participles : tt>aq black, run green, bag 23lau beg Jpintmelg. Often with an ;g in the gen. instead of the indeclinable form, except after sibilants : beg 3Mau(g), 93raun(g), arj, run(g). SDtefeg rim entftefyt aug bet 2Jhfdjung r)el(en elbg unb bunflen 93Iaug. But with concrete meaning: bog Scfyroarjje the bull's-eye of a target, bet 93raune brown horse, bag rune the green fields, runeg greens, ein rimer a greenhorn, a hunter (from color of his uniform), bog Sfikijje im Sluge. (4) Of languages when used in the abstract with regard to their quality, their varying forms in different periods and in different dialects, their employment as a mode of personal expression, but when they take on more concrete meaning and become names of definite things, as the languages of nations, they are declined according to the adj. declension : ein fdjlecfyteg iDeutfdj a bad German, bag SDcutfcf) ber fyeutigen 3eit, bte 2lncignung etneg biateftfreien 25eutf8?, in mavfigcm 5)eutfdj in pithy German. ($r uberfc^te bag ebicfyt in fein geliebteg 2)eutfd) He translated the poem into German, his favored mode of expressing himself, but (Sr ubcrfefcte bag ebtdjt ing 2)eutfcr)e He translated the poem into the German language, (ft befd)aftigt ftd) mit bem Setttfc^en He is studying the German language. 8. The adjective in the predicate is now uninflected, but in M.H.G. was here inflected as elsewhere, as one or two fossilized remnants still show : (Sr tfl DOllrr Xucfe. This strong masc. nom. sing, seller is still much used in the predicate before nouns not preceded by a modifier, but all feeling that it is a masc. nom. sing, is lost, as it is used of all genders and numbers as predicate complement, as objective predicate, or in the appositive relation : $>ag Stucf roar voder $aubtung. S)te ginger ftitb coller Oitnge, but before an adjective modifier ttoK won fdjonen 9iingen. 2LUr roerbett bag Jjaitg ol(er dftc t)aben. Sn letter Beit roar bte uugliicf(id)e grau in @cf>ulben unb Diet gevaten, aug bcr jte, tjoder 93er^v>eiflung, rocrjl feinen anbern 5lugiveg fafj alg ben 3!ob. Sometimes also before modified nouns, where the adjective is usually strong, but sometimes also weak : coder bcgfyafter @d)numn (Lessing), ol(er ttefen Sorgen (id.). 2Ran 140 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 111.8. irar ol(er peinlidjm (Srtwartung (Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung, Jahrg. 1901, 9. Nov., p. 5). In the language of the common people fyalber and a((er are also used like oller: 5)ie 9kd?t ijl tyalber fyin. iDarnad} ftann fie fcin afler cell (Bayerns Mundarten, I. 190). IDet JRaffee ftefyt au after nod) ba (Anzengruber's Fleck auf der Ehr, 2, 14). In the last example af(er may be a case of real predicate inflection, which still survived in early N.H.G. and may live on more or less intact in the dialects. In the neut. sing, and in the pi., predicate inflection of all is still common even in the literary language : 2>ag gange 9Mlb ift alleg id)t (Goethe). 3)iefe roaren alle antoefenb. Elsewhere non-in- flection in the predicate is now the rule : !ie 9Belt ifl all ein pcfytig djeinen (Freiligrath). This uninflected all, sometimes in the form of alle, is also used sometimes for the neut. sing. alleg : SSie bag 2anbclf all fyerbetlief (Goethe). SEBie bag 3eug alle fyieg (id.). The inflected pi. form afle has become a fixed form for all genders and numbers in the meaning all gone-. 2)et SSeiu ijl alle. SKetne J&tyajintfyen ftnb alle. Also the uninflected form is used here : Sfyr fleineg bifdjen 33vot ttarb ntdjt all (Gebriider Grimm). In some Alemannic dialects the predicate adjective is inflected still as in earlier periods : Jperr letter, Sljr feib grebe (= grober, here in rhyme with lobe) ! (Scheffel's Trompeter, Liederjung Werners, VII). 35' 9lad)t ifl ftjieri ( = finftere) (Frei's Schulgrammattk, art. 67), <' Scatter ijl ugfiuemg ( = imgejVwme) (ib.) The weather is stormy. 9. As explained in 104. 2. E.a. Note 2, the adjective is not inflected when it follows its noun, because it is felt as the predicate adjective of an elliptical clause ; but if such is not the case and it is felt as an attributive adjective it must be inflected here as elsewhere : Bum britten 2Wate burdjfurdjten ttnr bag tyrtfyenifdje SWeer, bag rtiir nun in all fetnen ?aunen, freunbltdjen unb fdjUmmen, fennen gelernt fatten, pion, tnfanter! (Lienhard's Munchhausen,\). Often in the market reports : Xee, inbifd^er, ruljtg (Hamburgischer Correspondent, 22. Juli 1903). 10. Some adjective-substantives cannot be either strong or weak like adjectives, but are inflected according to one of the regular declensions for common or proper nouns : bev -err (compar. of the adj. fyefyr august, honored) master, gentleman, beg errn, pi. bie erren; bie (Sltcrn (compar. of alt old) parents, ber Sunge lad, beg Sungen, pi. bie Sitngen (colloquially in N.G. bie Sungeng), ein Sunge a lad, but the word applied to the young of animals has the regular adj. inflection, as ein Sungeg, pi. bie Sungcn, jwei 3unge ; ber fturfl (M.H.G. viirste the first, wk. superlative) ruling prince, beg Surften, c. ; ber Dberfl (superlative) colonel, beg Dberjlen, &c. ; ber rcig old man, beg reifeg, pi. bie reife; ber Sunger disciple, lit. the younger in contradistinction to the master or teacher, beg Sungerg, pi. bie 3iina,er ; bag ut i estate, beg utg, pi. bte @uter, but bag ute that which is good, beg uten ; bag libel evil, beg Ubelg, &c. ; bag Olecfyt right, beg ytecfytg, pi. bie 9Jed)te, and thus also Unrest injustice ; the fossil gen. tRed)teng (in such common expressions as bag tjl $ed)teng That is the law, in accordance with the law, &c.), the wk. gen. of the adj. red)t to which a strong gen. has been added ; bag 2)unfel darkness, beg S)unfelg, but still with adj. declension in certain set expressions : ing Sunfle getyen to go out into the dark, tm SDunfeln tappen to grope in the dark ; many names of persons, now inflected like other names of persons : Jperr SBetfie, Qiotfje, d)arje, 93raune. Note. The weak declension was originally the form of declension usually em- ployed in the inflection of adjective-substantives. The final t (wk. nom. ending) in proper names, as SBraune, (^warje, &c., still shows that the former inflection here was weak. Also a number of the words enumerated in the above article have still retained in their oblique cases in the sing, and throughout the pi. their original wk. inflection. Some of these nouns which are now usually strong were weak in an earlier period and occasionally even still : 35eg retfen (now usually reifeg) SBange (Uhland). Adjective-substantives in .N.H.G. have more and more conformed their inflection to that of adjectives, until at present it is strictly required of them aside from the special cases described in the above articles. 112. 2. a. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 141 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. ASCENDING COMPARISON. 112. Adjectives are compared by adding *er to form the com- parative and *$ to form the superlative : Relative Adverbial Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Superlative, ffylanf slender fdjlanfer ber, bie, bag fcfytanffie ant fcfylanf ften fletn small fleiner ber, bie, ba fleinfie am Heinflen A few monosyllables modify the stem vowel in the compar. and superl. ; see 113. 4. 1. Inflection. The above are, with the exception of the super- lative, the simple uninflected forms as found when the adjective stands in the predicate : SBiltyelm ifl ftetn, Jtarl ifl f leiner. In the attributive relation the positive and comparative are declined by adding the regular strong or weak endings to the simple positive and compar. : ein fleiner Jtna&e, ein fletnerer tfnabe, ber Heine tfnafce, ber fleiuere Jtnabe, &c. The relative superl. adds ft to the simple positive and is inflected strong or weak, both attributively and predicatively, except, how- ever, the one form aflerltefcft (see 3. C. a, below), which is uninflected when used predicatively: 2Eein fleinfteS 33ud). 4an3 ifl ber fletnfte Jtna&e. llnter alien SSdumen ift biefeg ber fteinfle. The adverbial superl. always remains unchanged (see 231.11, an, i. A. b). 2. The comparative is used in general just as in English with the following exception. The comparative is sometimes used in German absolutely, i. e. to indicate that the degree of the quality is not conceived with reference to any particular object or objects, but only in a general comparative sense : 2)ie dltere 2>ame the comparatively old lady, the elderly lady, nenere pracfyen modern languages, feit lingerer 3ett for some time. @r getyort u ben fceffern, roenngleicfy nod? nicfyt ju ben guten (Sdjulern He is a pretty good or comparatively good student, but not among the really good students. 2Bir flnb in biefen 3inmiern geroo^nlid; nur an fiifjlern @ommer* ober tcdrmern erfc|ltagen. This comparative is used much more widely in poetry than in prose, and often where in the latter we would use a positive, especially in hexameter verse, where the compar. so readily forms a dactyl : @in frember | eiji tterfcreitet fid; ftynell itber bie frembere Slur (Schiller's Spaziergang). a. Earlier in the period, even in the classical authors, the superlative was sometimes loosely used of two objects, from the desire of making the superior degree more prominent : 2Bir tooKen fefyen, fteldjer eniu3 ber jldrfjle (instead of bet jldrfete) ijl, bein fc^arjtr ober mein eif er (Goethe). 142 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 112. 3. 3. The different forms of the superlative and their use : A. The relative superlative expresses only relatively the highest degree, and thus represents the highest degree attained by some person or thing as compared with other persons or things of the same class : 4?an8 ifi ber fleifjigfie son att ben Jtnaben. >er fletjjigfle ^nafcc ifi ang. B. The adverbial superlative, which is restricted to the predicate, represents the highest degree attained by some body or thing as compared with itself at different times, places, and under different circumstances, which are usually indicated by some accompanying adverbial element : S)er (Sturm rear am tyefttgften gegen SWorgen. ter ifi ber (See am tieffien. 3d) ftible mid? am glitrfltcbfien, irenn id? atlein tin. a. The adverbial superlative is not strictly confined to the above use, but is often used in the predicate in a relative sense in accordance with its literal meaning (see 231.11, an, l.A.), whenever the attribute is felt dis- tinctly as a real predicate form, no one particular noun being understood, and hence must always be employed when the objects or acts compared are not of one kind: Jtatl ifi bet fletfjigfie (understand djuler), but SSer iji tm (Edjteiben am beften ? (lit. at that which is best, i. e. in the first place). Slnt tterlegenflen tear bee 3iiftijtat ; abet et fammelte fid) rafd) (Fontane's Unterm Birnbaum, XI). SBaten bie (Stbbeeten nidjt befjet al$ bit tadjelbeeten ? 3a, abet bie Xrauben taten am befien. b. There is one exception to the rule that the adverbial superlative is only found in the predicate : am metften and am nxnigficn are often used substan- tively, and hence can stand in any position where a substantive would be found : 9hd)t6 beburfen ifi gottlid) ; unb am ipenigftm (object) beburfcn bringt ber ottf)fit am nddjjien. aren (Matt. xi. 20). <5>te n>arteten bie 3it ab, in h)etd)er am metjten (subject) SKenfdjen (in apposition with am meiflen) bie ^absburgerfiraf e paffierten. C. There is also an absolute superlative (with the same form and inflection as the relative superl.), which expresses in and of itself a very high, not necessarily the highest, degree : very pretty indeed, eine atterliebfie Sluine. i>te 23Iiwie iji (112. I). a. This superlative is not common in German in the predicate relation except in the category cc, below, and in the one word atterliebfl, which is thus used attributively or predicatively, as can be seen in the above examples. In the attributive or substantive relation the absolute superlative is not infrequently used, but is usually confined to particular categories. It is employed especially : aa. In direct address or at the close of a letter : liebfter <2ofjn dear son, teuetfh <3dm>efler dear sister, 3ir ergebenfter greunb 91. 91. Your most devoted friend N. N. 66. In many prepositional phrases, used adverbially : in tteffler Xrauer in the deepest sorrow, in befier ttmmung in the best humor, mtt grojjtet cd)adjtung with very great respect. cc. Before names of materials and other articleless nouns, to indicate in a general way a high degree : feinfie3 SBeijenmefyl git btUigfiem $ret<3 very fine flour at a very reasonable price, erfle djriftfMet authors of the first rank, befte 113.2. ASCENDING COMPARISON 143 crten brands or sorts that are among the best. (S3 toar liebltdjfter ftrufyting. 6infa<$fte, tieffte armonie ift im turm, nrie in bet SBinbftitte (Raabe's Leute aus dent Walde, III. 5). 2luf fabefte JJiimmfcpfe madjte er (Sinbrurf, auf Slrnotb ntdjt (Hauptmann's Michael Kramer, Act i). dd. Sometimes after ein, fetn, jeber, atte (pi.), and other pronominal adjec- tives : eine leifefte (Spur a very faint trace. Jlein leifcfter audj regte ftd) Not the faintest breath of wind stirred. 3ebe leifefte SBeriifjriing every touch, even the faintest, alle bebeutenbftm Biige au0 ber ^elbenfage all of the most important features of heroic legends. er Slrtifet ift on ieten erften Slutoritdten irarm empfofylen This article is warmly recommended by many of the very best authorities. 9tun itirb jldj gleid) em rdiilidjfteg erdugnen (= ercignen ; Goethe's Faust, II, 1. 5917). b. More usually this idea is expressed by placing fet)r, ufceraug', or some such word having the general meaning of very, before the positive : fin fetyr or fyotfyjl fritcibtbareS Sanb a very fertile land, indeed. In colloquial language in German as also in English a high degree is often expressed, not by an adverb and the positive of an adjective, but by certain simple adjectives which have become very emphatic, such as famoS' splendid, capital, rieftg gigantic, very great, tyramibal' very great, large, lit. pyramidal, foloffar very great, &c. : famofer J?erl, famofeg ^Better, ein rieftfleS 33ergnugen. 5ltte fcrtcfyt in ^tyranubalen SuBel, in ftanatigmuS au3 (Gutzkow). Such words can also be used adverbially, like fetyr, &c., to strengthen an adjective : ein f oloffal netter SWenfdj a ' mighty ' nice fellow. 4. The force of the comparative is often heightened by prefixing rceit or bei witem by far, and that of the superl. by alter (gen. pi.) of all-, ^arl ifl trett fletjjiger atS Chnil. ufiao ifi ber aUerflei^tgfle. 5. The proper conjunctions to be used with the different degrees are discussed in articles 239. i. a, b and 2. a. 113. The following variations from the regular comparison as given above occur : 1. a. Adjectives ending in ct, en, er sometimes form their comparative by suppressing the e of the suffix as in the positive, and sometimes in addition also the e of the case ending before it : ber eb(e)lere, betf, bem, ben, bie, ber tb(e)ler(e)n. See 110. A. b. b. The superlatives of adjectives ending in el, en, er retain the e of the suffix : ber IjeUerfte SWorgen. 2. Monosyllabic adjectives ending in a sibilant, f, fi, fdj, jl, or in b and t, add eft to form the superlative : ber dltefte, &c. Often, however, contraction takes place in familiar language : ber fydrtfte, dttfte, fufjte, &c., instead of ber fyortefte, dttefte, fiijj efte, &c., the hardest, oldest, sweetest, &c. The contraction of grofjt from grofjeft is now the usual form even for the literary language. Grammarians generally give it as the only form, but gwjieft is not infrequent : mit bem grojjeften SSergnugen (Raabe's Alte Nester, I. chap, xiv), mit bem allcrgrofjeften (Jifer (Wildenbruch's Netd, p. 90), &c. Adjectives of more than one syllable ending in b and t uniformly add ft to form the superlative provided the syllable preceding the ft is unaccented : ber bltnbefte, but blenbenbfte. Even after an unaccented syllable we find eft here if otherwise a combination of consonants would arise which would be difficult to pronounce : in ber boflfyafteften emits; terfa flung (Raabe). Adjectives ending in ifdj may add ft : bie f inbifd)fte orl)eit. Some recommend here t as a superlative ending, as the f is often absorbed in the preceding fdj : 144 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 113.2. bet baii(e)rifd)te. Our time, however, seems averse to the mutilation of gram- matical forms, and hence we even find here the ending eft as a way out of the difficulty : bag $raftifd)efle. . Sometimes to avoid such and other clumsy forms writers and speakers prefix am meiflen or tm J)6d)jien rabe to the positive to form the superlative : ate bie am meijlen praftifdje ber brei Damen (Roquette) ; am metjtat, or tm fi,od)jien rabe barbarifd). 3. We often find the comparative repeated, the two forms being separated by unb : fteiter unb nxiter farther and farther, or ever farther. Instead of this form we also find the positive instead of the first comparative : rot imb roter (Goethe), nafy unb ndljer (Johannes Schorr's Schiller, II. chap. iii). )te ffllicfe ber 2J!utter fturben fuljt unb fufjter, bie ^dnbebrucfe ber SSater fludjtig unb pcfyttger (O. v. Leixner). In the language of the early part of the period the first member of such expressions is often a positive in form, but in fact a com- parative, the suffix ttv being understood in accordance with older usage, which often in case of two words separated by unb expressed the suffix or case ending but once (see 111. 7. b. Note) : (Srbenft nocfy fd)cn unb fd)6ner 2Bet3 (Spec's Trutznachtigal, 5.83), iet ttei|j unb bteidjer ate ber SKon (ib., 38. n). Thus also in case of the superlative : in ben aUerfdjon unb lufitajlen 2anbfd)aften (Zesen's Adriat. Rosemund, 154. 13). 4. The following monosyllables are mutated in the comparative and super- lative : alt old, arg bad, arm poor, grob coarse, grofj large, tyart hard, fyocf} (see 5, below) high, jung young, fait cold, flug wise, franf sick, furj short, tang long, nafy (e) (see 5 , below) near, fdjarf sharp, fd)tt>ar g black, jiavf strong, uwrm warm. Example : arm, compar. drmer, superl. ber, bie, bag armfte or am drmflen. The following are sometimes mutated and sometimes unmutated : bang anxious, bknf bright, polished, bfafj pale, bumm stupid, fromm pious, gefunb healthy, gtatt smooth, farg stingy, fna^p close, tight, frumm crooked, nafj wet, rot red, fauber clean, fdjmat narrow, ^art tender, and a number of others, all of which mutate more or less frequently in the individual cases in familiar speech, though not so commonly in the written language. Of these doubtful words bang, bumm, and rot are, perhaps, more commonly mutated, but the unmutated forms are not infre- quent. 9?ot is usually unmutated in figurative meaning and in compounds, as in bie rotejien eftnnungen the most extreme socialistic views, bie bunfelrctefte {Rofe the rose of the darkest red; but sometimes with mutation : ber rctefte ojialbemofrat (Telmann's Was ist Wahrheitf, V). Also a number of other adjectives which usually mutate in simple forms usually remain unmutated in compounds, as in case of rot : ber ftugfie the wisest one, but auf bie attHugjle SSeife in the most precocious manner, &c. Note. In a former period of the language the comparative and superlative had each two methods of formation : the comparative ended in -ir or -or, the superlative in -ist or -ffsf. Those that had ir and ist were of course mutated (see 26. A), and the others did not suffer mutation. Later ir and or became er, and ist and ost became est, mutation alone distinguishing still the former groups. Many words which were not entitled to mutation assumed it later after the analogy of the mutating group. Since the classical period, however, mutation has been slowly declining. 5. The two adjectives {70$ high and nal)(e) near are irregular: in f)od^ the d) becomes I) when a vowel follows in the degree or case ending, as ber fyofye, ber hofyere, but ber I)6d}fh ; nafy becomes nacfyfl in the superlative. We sometimes find an unmutated absolute superl. of nal) with $ instead of d) : bag tylofynafym bringen t>on tt?ei fo aKernafjefien erjen (Suttner's Die Waffen nieder ! Ill, p. 270). 6. Sometimes words for especial emphasis or to convey a little different idea than is usually implied in them are compared when in their ordinary meaning they do not admit of comparison : 3)u bifi mein unb nun tjl bag 2Jleine meiner ate jemate (Goethe's H.u.D., IX. 311). At the close of letters we sometimes find: rilt. Some of these words also have lengthened forms in enS, some of which are used relatively and some abso- lutely : (absolutely) beftenS as best I can, meijhnd for the most part, ndd)ften<5 presently, fdjenflenS as nicely as possible, -very tnuth, as in 3d) banfe fdjonftend ; (relatively) erftenS in the first place, firstly, b,6d?ften6 at the most, IdttgftenS or fpdtcflenS at the very latest, fruftejiend at the very earliest, minbeftenS or tt>enigften3 at the very least, c. : (Sr ift mmbcjhna ;;e()n Safyre alt. b. A few absolute superlatives are formed with int (with dat. of the adj.) instead of auftf, usually in negative sentences : ntcfyt int gcringftcii or im nttnbc)lfii not in the least, uicfyt im mtfetnteften not even the most remotely, nitt)t im leifeftcn not in the slightest. c. The absolute superl. is sometimes formed with $um (with dat. form of the adj.) instead of aufd, and sometimes this form with jum is used instead of the relative superl. with am : 3d) fyafce fte junt fdjonjlen gcbcteti I asked them as nicely as I could. 9lid)t ber, h>eld)er juetfl, fonbcra jum (= am) ftd?er|1en auf ben geinb trifft, fyat fid) bem iege gend^ert. d. The absolute superlative is often replaced by the positive modified by another adverb denoting a high degree, such as fefjr, red)t, fyod)ft, aufkrjt, aujjer orbenttid), ungemfin : @ie tan^t fef)t fdjott. erh>iegenbfi, tiefgreifenbft, ttefgefufyltefler )anf, tootjlgemeintefU (Srmalmungen, feinfufylenbere eute, bte gutgeartetfhn Jtinber, bte fyodjgeflellteften Scanner, fyodjfttegenbfie $ldne, lueitreid^enbfte 93evbinbungen. A natural tendency to exaggerate leads some to give both words degree endings : gvof tmoglicfyjl for nuJgHdjj! grofj, c. PERIPHRASTIC COMPARISON. 115. Besides the case mentioned in 113. 2. a, where the periphrastic form of comparison occurs, are the following : 1. When two qualities of one thing, or two adverbs or adverbial phrases modifying one verb, are compared with each other, the comparative is usually formed by placing nteljr, also efyer, before the simple positive instead of adding ft* : >ae Simmer ift mefyr tang ale brett. @r ift efyer flein ale gtofj He is rather to be called small than large. (5r fprad) mefyr aufridjtig ale flug. @ie briirfte midj an ben 93ufen meljr mit fd)merjlid)er ale jdrtlidjer Setoegung. @r lae efyet taut ale beutlid). The regular comparative suffix ;er is also used here in the classical period, and not infrequently still : 2Mef(etd)t fyat er waiter ale Hug unb fromm gefprocfyen (Goethe's Egmont, i, Palast der Regentin). )ae j-weifenjhige emad? ftar fcebeiitenb langec ale breit (Raabe's Die Leute aus dem Walde, chap. vii). 2. In comparing two objects as to the one quality which each possesses in an eminent degree, meljr may be placed before the positive of each adjective, or the comparative may also be formed regularly with ;er, the former method, however, emphasizing the comparison of the predicates, the latter emphasizing the subjects : Jtarl ifi tnef)t fliig, 2Btlf)elm tjt mefyr fd)latt ; or j? arl tft Huger, 9Bilf)elnt iji [planer. SJtefyr is also used in the same manner in the attributive relation to call attention to the characteristic feature of some object : SBuKeveborf ftar Hnebet barauf aue, bae cfprai^ auf mefyt glei^giiltige Singe gu lenfen (Fontane's Effi, chap, xxviii). SDleljr ^raftif^e Stele erfolgt bie Svof^ure, luelcfie ^vof. 2)r. ^ungifer in 9larau tm Sluftrage bee ?U(beutfd)en 93cretne ^evauegab (A. Biichi in Anzeigerfiir Indo-Germanisthe Sprach- und Altertumskunde, xiii. Band, p. 62). (Sine ntefjr nebenfdcfyltcfye 9ic((e fpielen bei ber Slbtautfrage fol; genbe giuet uribg. ?auterf(i)etnuiigen (Brugmann's Lautlehre, p. 145). S't tear feljr rui)ig unb benafjm ftd^ scrflanbig unb ttar in fetnen Uvteilen fo befcfiigt, ba^ er bie mef)r tl)eoretifd)en Slusfii^rungen von ^afior grijlue unb bie meljr ^raftifcfeen 9lnf^au; ttngen, bie Seller gaffer entwirfelte, bei attem guten 3Bi((en, ben er ale fjofltctyer SKann ^atte, nicfyt Bertoenben fonute (Frenssen's Die drei Getreuen, chap. Hi). SKeftr is also used in the predicate with reference to one person or object when the question is raised as to which of two qualities is more character- istic of the subject : 3$ Chtdj urn ben -Spate fa [Ken] fcib Sljt tnefjr narrtfd) ober. mcfyr fred)?! (Lienhard's Till Eulenspiegel, Der Fremde). 3. If an attribute of one object, or an activity, is compared with itself under different circumstances or at different times, the comparative is formed with ntefyr, or also regularly : 3dj ttat fviifjer metjr bcfannt unb vertrant (or befannter unb crtrauter) init tfim. 2)ie ei6 iji bcr dltejie, fldrejie (now f(arjle) unb ber gemeinen 2Jlenfd)enernunft am mciften angcmeffeue (Kant). >a$ mid) am meijien SBerbriejjenbe. Where the verbal nature of the participle, as in the last example, is distinctly felt, the compar. and superl. are more commonly formed by prefixing mefyr and am metjlen to the positive. 5. Adjectives (111. 7. c. (i)) or adverbs which are derived from substantives or other parts of speech and are not yet felt fully as adjectives or adverbs are usually compared with mefyr in the compar. and am metjlen in the superl. : 3d) bin ttjm mefyr gram als biv. !Da$ tut mir meljr letb ate id? fagcn fann. Dem jugenbltd) rajHofen retfe S3lud)er (proper name) ftmrbe bie Unentfdjiebentyeit bev >tnge juerft unb am nteiften gimnber (also preposition and adverb). The regular forms in ;er and ;ji are sometimes found, though rarely. a. Thus also nouns and the pronoun e3 which stand in the predicate with the force of adjectives are compared : (Sr iji meljr Diplomat aU Selbfyerv. @g toar me()t pafj a(3 rnji. fctit, irenn bie etcige ered)ttgfett (3 ntd)t fo prad)tig serftdnbe, t^nen and) an mc^r dttjjeiltdjer teffc ben @adjer^att f(ar jit madden ! (Raabe's Die Leiite aus dem Walde^ 1 1. chap. viii). See also 117. 2. a. 7. (3 iji mi"g(td)ev, bajj, &c., is not so common as <$$ iji eljcv mcglid), &c. 8. Occasionally we find periphrastic comparison elsewhere, where we should expect the suffix ;er : Unb bir iji Saterlanb mel)v al3 bte grembe fremb (Goethe). 9. Double comparison is rare : eine mefyt fd)icfltd)ere Urfad)c (Lessing). 3n ben SDonaitiSurfientumern u-avb bie ?age bc^ ruJTtf4eit Beeves mef>r unb ntefyr uttt)a(tj barer ( Volks-Zeitung, 24. 267). See also 117. 1. b. DESCENDING COMPARISON. 116. Descending comparison of adjectives and adverbs is formed by placing iceniger or miitbcr less before the positive to form the com- parative, and am icenigften or am mtnbejleii to form the superlative : ^art hard, rccniger (or mtnber) l;art less hard, am U'entgfteit (or am mtnbeficn) t;art least hard. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 117. I. Irregular adjectives and adverbs (the simple stem only is here given) : L 2 148 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 117.1. batb (adv.) soon efyec rather, sooner . balbigfi as soon as possible. fruf) (adj. & adv.) early, frufyer (now less commonly frufjefl (bdlbeft, ba(beft) soon bdlbet or batber) earlier, earliest, soonest, sooner first. gern (adv.) willingly. Iteber (see a$ begegnet tnir cfterS That happens to me comparatively or quite often. 93erfud)uiigen tteten un3 ofter nafye, ate Jt)ir gtauben Temptations come near to us more often than we think. The comparative ofter; is also used in adjective function in an absolute sense : oftere SBefudje, feme oftere egenitart. b. SOJe^rer; (due to double comparison) greater (before a sing, noun), more and mefytft (superl. formed from the compar. mefyv) most are not infrequent earlier in the period : S3nb ba bie Slufuvt v>ngelegen n>ar $u tt)intern | befiunben jr bad mef)ter teit auff bem 9iat | on baunen ju faren (Acts xxvii. 12). 2)ap ein Slufent^alt in biefent Slnti!enfaal bem fiubierenbeu Jtunftlet tne^reve 93orteite gettdljrte, at^ etne SBaHfafjrt . . . tmd) {Rom (Schiller, 3. 577). 35 te ntetjreften biefer Unglurflid)en (id., Kab. 2, 2). This older usage is still occasionally found : 3ur <2eite fummtt ber fjeimlicfye Seefeffel unb on 3ett git 3eit fudte ev bie Heine d)tneftfeld)en 5lrraf gujufe^en ))flegte (H. Seidel's Der Luftballori). otcfje SJiberfpru^e in ben (Sntfcfyltejjungen beg JlonigS geigten ftcf> nun batb immer mefyrere unb tmmer gredere (Karl Biedermann's Dreifsig Jahre deutscher Geschichte, I. p. 93). This older usage is most common in a few set expressions : Savon funftig ein mefyrereS more about that some other time, be3 mefyteren more in detail, more fully, 3Jlel)rere (pi. of mefyrer;), however, is still quite common as an indefinite numeral adjective in the sense of several ; see 139. \.h. c. 28olj( is a predicative adjective which is only used in the meaning -well with reference to the health or bodily comfort, and is entirely regular in comparison. It must not be confounded with gut, which besides its usual adjective meaning good is used as an adverb of manner with the meanings well, nicely, and also used as an adjective in the comparative and super- lative with the force of ttoljl : @r fdjreibt gut, beffer, am beften, but Ofynt tft {jeute u?ofj(, ftofyUr or beffcr. (3t befinbet fid) tt>oi)l, toolset or beffer, am Mftljien or am beften. Historically considered, ftofyl was originally not an adjective as at present, but the adverbial form of the adjective gut. This original usage occurs frequently as late as the classical period, and is still retained in adjective, participial, and substantive compounds and in a number of set expressions : ftofjtgemut, wot)tfd)mecfenb, itoljtcrljatten, tt>cf)lbefamtt, SBofylflang, ofyk gerud), &c. SBofyl is found before adjective participles also where they are not written as a part of a compound : @etn Jpinterftiibdjen tear tt>ofy[ gegicvt (Raabe). In set expressions : (Sr lwl( mtv ttofyt. (Sr tut JpoT;t baran. 3d) n?unfdje loo(;t ju fdjlafen I wish you a good night's rest. 3Jlcge es} 3f)nen jvo^t 117.2.*. IRREGULAR COMPARISON 149 befommen ! May it agree with you well ! SOlir gefdttt ber J?er( auSnefymenb toofyl (also gut) (Raabe's Ztim wilden Mann, chap. x). d. An old adverbial comparative of gut is bafj. It is sometimes in antique style or dialect still used with the meanings better, more, rather, more fre- quently very much, again, further : 3d) fyabe mid; mandjmal bajj (very much) genwnbcrt fiber bid) (Hauptmann's Vor Sonnenaufgang, i). The adverb was not mutated in the compar. in older periods of the language as was the adj., as can be still seen in this fossilized form bajj (adverb) in contradistinction to beffer (adj.). e. In earlier periods the comparison of gern was regular. It is also fre- quently regular in early N.H.G. and occasionally even later, and is still often so in popular language, which thus preserves here older usage. /. The regular superlative of gut is not infrequent in colloquial speech, especially in comic or sarcastic language, only, however, in direct address : otberfte foremost ccrbere (earlier in the < scrber fh (still surviving as an period) ( adverb ; see b, below) a. Of these erfl and Ie$t are superlatives treated as positives, from which compar. forms crflev; and letter* have been made. The compar. forms of the others have been made from adverbs and are in force really positives, and of the one word mittcl all three degrees can sometimes be found without difference of meaning : ber mittete (or mittfcre, or mitte(jte) Singer. When it is desired to impart real comparative force to these comparatives, which does not often occur, it is necessary to prefix mefyv ; see 115. 6. b. Only the superl. of adverbs is formed from these adjectives : ju aufjerfi the farthest away, ju (jinterft the farthest behind, \\\ initerfl the farthest within, ju mittelfl the farthest towards the middle, c., and three in which ju and the adverb are written together, juerfl first, ^ufe^t last, jUttcrberft or juorberft fore- most, in the first rank, in front, before all (things), in the first place, first and foremost. In the case of juuorberjl and juvwberft there is a tendency to differentiate, so that the former is used with regard to time and the latter with regard to place. However, corresponding to these defective adjectives denoting a position are other adverbial forms of kindred origin, which with the aid of para- phrasing can form all three degrees : aufjen without, out of doors, tnnen within, Ijinten behind, oben above, unten below, orne in front. Their comparatives are formed by placing before the adverb the comparatives tt>eitet farther or mefyr more, and their superlatives by the superlatives of the same adverbs : cben, ireiter cben, ant ivctteftcn oben ; untcn, meljr unten, &c. Likewise in case of other adverbs denoting position : linftf to the left, setter linfd, am u?eiteften tinfo. In case of some of these adverbs we sometimes find here in facetious language the regular comparative ending *er : SBenn tint fie erft UnftJ fyaben, bann ift'<5 md)t mefyv fcfyttxt : bann graulen ttir fie ifym audj icoljl immer Unf fer (Wilbrandt's Hermann Jfinger, chap. iii). 150 LIMITING ADJECTIVES 118. LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 118. A limiting adjective is one that merely defines or restricts the meaning of a noun. Limiting adjectives differ in form or meaning from qualifying adjectives in that: a. They do not stand uninflected in the predicate, and hence the masc. form for the nom. is usually, except in the case of uninflected words, given in the dictionary to represent the word instead of giving the simple stem, which only occurs in a few cases, as will be found recorded in the proper places. The simple stem of these latter words is often given to represent the word, as indeed these forms do sometimes occur. b. They cannot all be inflected strong or weak. Some are always declined strong, even in the masc. and neut. gen. sing. ; some are inflected str. or wk. according to circumstances. Thus the different groups of this class must be treated separately. Note. The weak forms in this class of -adjectives are in general of comparatively recent origin and have been gradually increasing, as they have been influenced by the declension of qualifying adjectives. c. They cannot be compared, except a few which are treated under the head of comparison of qualifying adjectives ; see 117, and 113. 6. 119. Limiting adjectives are divided into two classes numeral and pronominal adjectives. 120. Cardinals: NUMERALS. 0, niifl 20, 1, ein, eine, em, but ein in count- 21, ing when no noun follows 22, 2, jroet ; early N. H. G. jrceen 23, breiunbjiranjig (masc.), grco (fern.) ; see 121. 30, breifjig 2. a. Note 31, einunbbretfng 3, brei 40, irierjtg 4, ter 50, funfjig (funfoig, pop. fitfjig) 5, fiinf or funf (early N.H.G.) 60, fed^ig 6, fed?8 70, jtefytg (jlefcenjig) 7, ftefcen 80, acfytjtg 8, ad)t 90, neun$tg 9, neun 100, fyunbert 10, jefyn 101, (etn)imbertunbetn3 11, elf, etlf (now obsolete) 102, (etn^unbertunfytw 12, jroijlf 200, $reet$unbert 13, foreign 300, bretfyunbert 14, irierj4n 400, oier^unbert 15, funfyefjn (funfjt^n, pop. fitfjefyt) 1,000, tcwfenb 16, fecfyjefyn 1,001, (etn)taufenbunbem8 17, fte%$n (ftefcenje^n) 10,000, je^ntaufenb 18, dcfytjefyu 100,000, |unberttaufcnb 19, twmjefyn cine SWttltou a million, jreet SKitttonen two millions, eine 2J?itftarbe a thousand millions, eine aBifliott a billion. 121.2. NUMERALS 151 121. Inflection : 1. (Sin is inflected strong or weak as any qualifying adj. with several variations : A. If it is used attributively and is not preceded by a limiting word, it is inflected exactly as the indefinite article, differing from it only in being more strongly accented: etn (see 58. B. a) 2J?ann ntcfyt jtvei, etn 25ucfy nicbt jtrei, eiu guter SK-ann. a. Before numerals used as collective nouns, before fractions and the substantive Ufjr o'clock, and also before certain pronominal adjectives and nouns denoting an indefinite quantity, ein is found uninflected : mit ein (i.e. about a dozen, but for an exact dozen we say cincm) Sujjenb guten 2lpfctn. @tn ecfyfhl tton ein fyalb, bleibt ein )rittcl One-sixth from one-half leaves one-third. 20 multiplijiett mit ein 93iertel gibt 5. 9tad) ein Ul)r after one o'clock, mit ein bifjd)en SJJut with a little courage, in ein paav Sagen, mit ein ttenig ebulb. b. The uninflected ein is found in a few set expressions connected by unb and cbet (see 2. d, below) : 3d) faf) e3 ein unb anberent Slugenpaat an, ba$ fu'er gettjetnt icorben ftav. Sranjerl (proper name) lr>ar fein ein (or ein3 ; see B, below) unb a((e3. Sin einunbbemfelben Sage ; j;u (at) brctnnbeinfyalb ^rojent ; ein ober jtt>ei 2Bod)en ; in eitt ober jftei tunben ; in colloquial language in ein ager (contracted from Sag cber) fecfc^ in about six days, &c. c. The uninflected form ein (or eine) is used in colloquial language to give a collective idea to nouns in the pi. : (Sr bteibt nodj toot)( ein (or eine) 8 Xage He will probably remain yet about a week. 33or ein 7, 8 Safjren about 7 or 8 years ago. fflenn id) nur cine 2 obec 300 Sater tyatte ! If I only had the sum of two or three hundred thalers 1 B. If ein is preceded by some limiting word which cannot mark the gender and case of the noun, as the possessive gen. of a noun or pronoun, or the nom. masc. and nom. and ace. neut. of a possessive pronoun, it is inflected strong : 2)e8 JtontgS eineS >cfytofj Ucgt in o^n (or eine ocfyter or etneS Jtinb) jlnb fc^on angefommen. 9Btr feiern ^eute etnen tragtfd? bc^^eltfejllt^en 3!ag. . . . Snbem ft^ metn etneg Qtuge fiir bie rabrcbe feu^tet, fdngt ba anbere fiir bte frctyUcfye ebitrtgrebe ^u la^en an (Wilbrandt's Die Maler, 2, 7). C. Preceded by the definite article or some other limiting word which marks gender and case, ein is inflected weak : ber eine Jtnabe ; ber eine, ber anbere the one, the other. In S.W.G. we find sometimes the form ber einte instead of ber eine when used in contrast to ber anbere. a. In German, differing from English, the definite article may stand before the pi. of ein, referring collectively to one of two groups : bie etnen ... bie anbern the persons in the one group . . . those in the other. D. Used substantively, standing alone, ein is declined as a strong adj., the neut. nom. and ace. usually, however, in the contracted form einS : einer oon btefen ^erren, etn(e)3 on biefen 93ud?ern, fo etner such a one. a. The uninflected neut. form eintf occurs in some very common idioms : jwclf SUUnutcn nacfy ein3 twelve minutes after one o'clock, tnit etna suddenly, con ein<3 big fyunbcrt jafylen to count from one to one hundred. 2. The cardinals except ein are not now usually inflected : $ef)n finger, eintge jtranjtg 3afyre some twenty years, etntge i)unbert 3afyre several hundred years. In case of the absence of some preceding article or pronominal 152 LIMITING ADJECTIVES 121.2. adj. to show case, the prep. turn marks the gen. relation of these indeclinable numerals: ber britte eil fcon fecfyS ifl jtrei. In the other cases the context as in English shows the case. a. Sometimes ^oei and brei are in the attributive relation declined strong in the gen. and dat. pi., if there is no preceding word to show case: 3>r ) eier 3eugen OJlunb tut alle a&afyrtjeit funb The testimony of two witnesses establishes the truth. The gen. j^eier, breier, occur more frequently than the dat. gttxien, brcien, as so*me preceding preposition in the latter case usually makes the dative relation sufficiently clear without the aid of the case ending. Some- times we find the strong gen. pi. form of other numerals, but non-inflection is much more common : roafjrenb jtoolfer Sage (NiendorPs Gudrun, 1. 10). The neuter of btfi, and much more rarely of vier, has when used substan- tively developed strong sing, forms with collective force after the analogy of beibeg (see 139. i.d): 3d) ttntt aHeS brcieg nterfen I will note all three points. 9l((e$ breie3 toirfte mdd)tig gufammen All three things worked powerfully together. Unb id) bin eigentlid) alleS brei'$ (i.e. Jtinb, 9tarr, $oet) (Fontane's LAdultera t XXI) And I am really all three (of the things you have mentioned). In popular language the neut. of jtoei is often used instead of beibeg : biefeg gtueieg nefyme id). Note. In early N.H.G. the forms jtoeett (masc.), giro (fern.), jtoet (neut.), were much used for the nom. and ace., and still occur in poetry and S.G. dialects. In the eighteenth century and later they are not clearly understood and hence often confounded. The neuter form has at last crowded out the masc. and fern, forms. In a few compounds the older form jtoie is found instead of gtoet, as 3wteltdjt twilight, 3wtetrad)t dissension, &c. b. The numerals in ;jig lengthen this form to ;jtger to show the decades of the century or of human life, and remain uninflected : in ben adjtjiger Saljren beg ttcrigen SafyrfcunbcrtS in the eighth decade of the last century, bie nadjjub$iger 3eit the period in Germany after the great political changes of 1871, in ber SJlitte bev sierjiger SebenSjafjre in the middle of the forties ; see also 5, below. c. When these numerals stand alone, either substantively or with some other noun understood, they are sometimes, especially in the dat. and least frequently in the gen., declined, usually with the inflection of nouns of the second class strong ; but in general this inflection is limited to certain set expressions, and should rather be considered as quaint, and hence avoided : biefe viere these four (boys), fed)3 (more common than fedjfe) fanten six (people) came, nrir ftnb unfer fed)$ (or fedjfe) there are six of us, ber 9Jat ber $ittfipa$trt the council of the 500 (in France, in 1795), baertunbein trtftkjrn 121. 5- NUMERALS 153 runben, or au3 tjunbert imb einem triftigen runbe for a hundred and one good reasons, breiunbeinfyalb (or brei unb etu halbcg) ^rojent, in fed)3unbeinf)alb Saljren, or in fed)3 unb cinem Ijalben 3al)t, fin fur allemal once for all, in ein cbet jicei agen. Note. If an article or inflected pronominal adj. in the pi. precede such mixed numerals, the noun must be in the pi. and the numeral may remain entirely uninflected, or the declinable numeral, namely ein, may show the gender, not case or number, as it has no pi. forms, and hence no attempt ought to be made to make it agree with the governing noun in case and number : au3 btcfcn fyunbertunbem ttiftijttn runben, untev ben funfeinljalb or ben funf unb eine Ijatbe (agreeing with the noon in gender only) SKillioncn ejejfioniflen among the five and a half million Secessionists. 3d) fyabe tttefjt ju tun at<3 eure taufenb unb eine ^dfeteien gu fdjlidjten. Some, however, make etn agree also in case, which sounds very harsh, as this attempt to make adj. and noun agree brings a sing. adj. before a pi. noun in the same case and brings about a clash instead of an agreement : cn ben taufenb unb einent SHijiigefdjicEen (Sealsfield's Transatlantische Reiseskizzen , I. 64). e$embet (beS Safcrcc) 76 Sinbenfttajje 74 (short for im Jpanfe 74 ber Sinbenflrafje). )ie trecfe 93cvliiu!pct6battt, 1838 ercjfnet, irar bie erfte prenjnfdje SBaljn The line between Berlin and Potsdam was the first Prussian railroad, opened in 1838. (Sin SHertcl (auf) einS or ein SSiettel nad) ^nolf a quarter after twelve, tyalb (auf understood) jtoei half-past one, brei SBtertel auf brei, or ein SMettet \?cv or bt3 bvet a quarter to three, or in railroad language as in English : $eljn (Ufyv) j^anjig (written 10.20). 3. When used substantively as names of figures, all numerals are declined weak, as they are all fern. : >te (StnS ift ntcfyt fccutlic^ the figure i is not plain. 2)u fyaft bie S'unf ju grofi gefd)rtekn You have written the 5 too large. Sine romtfdje 3?fy" a Roman X. The form in =e is less common : on Sreunben, eine bcfe ieben a vixen, gtvei !Dreien a pair- royal of treys. ol( jufammen (Schiller's Wallensteins Tod, i, i). 2)er etujig (Sine bift bu, bed) bu lenfft | atg eine nt^fUfd) grope 2)rei bie 2Bett (Platen). 3h>ei and 3)rei are sometimes used as neuter substantives in a collective sense : Siebe, menfdjtid) ju bcgludfen, i ndljert fte ein ebteg 3fi; I bod) gu gottlid)em Qutjucfen, | bilbet fte ein foftlid) 2)rei (Goethe). 2)as fdjtuefterlidje rei the three Graces (or the three Parcae or Fates). 4. unbert, Scwfenb, Sfttflton, ^tdiarbe, ^Bittion, can be used substan- tively, and are then inflected as nouns, the first two according to the 2nd class strong and the others weak : 2>a3 crfte Ounbert, ganje |unberte Don SPicnfcfycn. 3 ge^t in bie aufenbe It reaches up into the thousands. SKcm fd)cit bie 3 a ^ fiiintlid)er jJlumdncn (Roumanians) auf 10 ^ittttonen. 5. Masc. substantives are formed from the numerals by adding er, all inflected according to ist class strong: bie (5tner, 3^"ev, wnbcrter units, tens, hundreds, ein frunfcr a 5-pfennig (in the Empire) or kreuzer (in Austria) piece, ein QSterjigcr a man of forty, ein ^{d)tunbvncr^iijer one who took part in the stirring events of 1848, bie Qlcfytimbjicanjiger the troops of the 28th regiment, ein 154 LIMITING ADJECTIVES 121.5. 2)rciunba^)t^iger a nice glass of wine of the year '83, em ret0 nafye ben 5Id?t$igern (or ben acfat,$tger 3atyren, or ben acfytgtgen, or ben acfytgjg) an old man near the eighties, ein mtttlerer QSiergiger (Fontane) a man in the middle of the forties, ein SSterer a boat with four rowers, ein tefcener a member of a body or committee of seven. Some of these formations are also common in compounds : 23terergug team of four horses, iefceneraugfcfyup a committee of seven men. 122. C3rdinals : 1. The ordinals except those for 'first/ 'third,' and 'eighth/ which are irregular, are formed by adding t to the numbers 2-19, and ft from 20 on. They are declined strong and weak as adjectives. Only the last number is inflected if compound. ist ber (bte, bag) erfte 22nd ber greeutnbgrcanjigfle 2nd ber jrceite; earlier in the loist ber Jjitnbertimberfte, some- period also ber groeete, bie times ber ^unberteinte or (fern.) jrcote; also ber, bie, tyunbertetnfte bag anber (still found in io2nd ber fjunbertunbgnjette anberttyalfc ; see 126. 2. b) io3rd ber ^unbertunbbritte, some- 3rd ber britte times ber ^unbertbreite 4th ber inerte loyth ber unbertunbftet(en)te 7th ftefcente, or ftefcte, early N.H.G. io8th ber $unbertunbad)te jlefcenbe 2ooth ber grceifyunbertfte 8th ber acfyte (adds no t) sooth ber breityitnbertjie 2oth ber grcangigjie loooth ber taufenbfie 2ist ber einunbgnwngtgfte a. Ordinals are sometimes uninflected in the idiom gu jtreit, brttt. &c., with the force of ju gtreten, breien, or ju jreei, bret two or three together: 3d? tin jet rcaljrlicf? nic^t in ber ttmmung jit britt git fein Indeed I am not in a mood to have a third party with us. b. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding en3 to the simple stem : erfienS in the first place, grceitenS in the second place, groan* gtgftenS, &c. c. After the analogy of ber fcierte (&c,) and ber grcanjigfte are formed ber nriettielte and ber nnesieljie what date, what number, how many: 3)er irteoielte ijt f)eitte? or2)en roieoielten ^aben icir fyeute? What is the day of the month ? >er irteuielte roaren ie nnetrieljle fiie6(c^aft ifl bte ico^I? About how many love-affairs does this make that he has already had? Also other similar formations occur: in ber etft>reiiertelten (Stunbe in the last quarter-hour, literally, in the last quarter-hour before twelve. See also 126. 2. b. 2. The ordinals are often in certain set expressions replaced by cardinals, which in this case stand after the noun : Jlapttet fecfyS chapter 6, 23anb fitnf vol. 5, c. 123. The ordinals all require an article or pronominal adj. before them, but erfl often drops it and is then used in the sense of an absolute superl. : erfte Scfjrtftftefler authors who are among the best, but bie erjtat d)riftfietter the best authors. 126. 2. a. NUMERALS 155 124. The days of the month. As in English, the ordinal is used for the days of the month. Letters are usually dated after the following model: SSerlin, ben 5. (read fiinften) 2JMrj 1894. 3^r on aflerlet guten Suc^ern, atlerlei guter 2Bcin every kind of good wine, Jlinber beiberlei efd?led?t3, bie mandjerlei S'olterfcfyrauben, &c. Substantively : mit fmnberterlei foldjer 93orfdfce (Hauptmann's Friedensfest, 3). b. Multiplicatives, which add *f a 4 and *fdltig to the cardinal : einfad) single, simple ; etnfa'ltig simple (silly) ; ^roetfad? and jreeifa'Itig twofold ; bretfacfy and breifaltig threefold, &c. The inflection is strong and weak. c. Iterative adverbs, which add *mal to the simple cardinal : einmal once, jrceimal twice, breimal three times, &c. Also with inflection : bag eine 9HaI, mit einem 2)iale all at once, ju i?ier oerfd^tebenen ^Jalen, &c. Also the ordinal is thus used : bag erfte 2ftal the first time, &c. See 2. d, below. Note i. Adjectives are formed from iterative adverbs by adding the adj. ending I\Q to ;inal : em breimatiger Slngrtff a thrice-repeated attack. Note i. Observe the difference of accent between etn'tttal once and etnmaf once upon a time. In the former case etlt is a numeral and hence is accented, while in the latter case it is an article, and hence is unaccented. The article in etntltal is, however, accented when the word indicates future time and is used in the meaning trgettb einmal' some time : (Jr. toirb bod) etu'wat fotttmen He will surely come some time. 2. Numerals formed from ordinals are found in : a. The neut. substantives expressing fractions, formed by adding =tel (reduced form of %tilpart) to the stem of the ordinals, suppressing, however, the final t of the ordinal before the t of the suffix : em Drtttel a third, etn SSiertel (pro. firtdl] a fourth, fteben 9lrf;tel = |, &c., but instead of ein 3'veitel is used etn l)alf> (121. i. A. a and 139. 2. d, Notes i and 2} or bie dlfte (except in the technical language of business and music, where etn 3"^*^ is also employed, as in 3igarren in 3^eitelf iften, eine 3^'telnote) ; ttier ^unbertfitnftel = j^ ; fyunbert unb tyunbertmer ^unbertfi'tnftel = ioo-f}| ; etn <&unberteintel = T i T ; ein ^unbert3rceitel= T ^; ein Srcanjigfle^^ ; ein ^unbertfte^i^-. Sometimes teil is still used in full instead of the reduced form tel, 15G LIMITING ADJECTIVES 126. 2. a. especially after $imbert (formerly also used as ordinal instead of fyunbertft) in the meaning per cent. : ein )rttteil one-third, 92 ^unberttetle 92 per cent. Note. These substantives are often considered as indeclinable adjectives : etlt fiinftet .Kilometer, cine fiinftet 2Kei(e, brei siertet $funb, bret Biertet a3 ftnb fct)on brittfyalb 3afyre (Hebbel's Agnes Bernauer, 4, 3). llm brittfyalb Safyre (Fontane's Frau Jenny, chap. ii). . . . l;atte er feiner SBttttre etnen . . . ttiertefyalS ftufj fyofyen ttafj* Burger 3Hunfler j)intertaffen (id., Vor dem Sturm, III. chap. iv). This construction is not now so common as gtret(unb)etnl)al6 two and a half, bre i(unb)etn^aI6 three and a half, in fed?(unt>)etnf)al& 3al)ren, or in fecfyg unb einent fyalfcen Safyre, &c. Qlnbertfyalfc, however, is much more common than the other words of the same formation. When these words in *fyal6 stand alone substantively they may be inflected strong : 2ftein 33atter fyett nur einen Qtrm, (o f)afc' tc^ anbert^aI6cn (Fischart, Garg., 94 b). The original nature of this construction requires the sing, form, and this still occurs, but the plural is now more common : aitf etnen el (Bismarck to his wife, Nov. 17, 1848), aflem biefen Sammer fern (Marriot's Der geistliche Tod, p. 266, 5th edition). a. The forms btcfeS (or more commonly bicg) and jeneS remain uninflected when they are used in connection with the verb fein and a predicate noun, to indicate that the subject is identical with the predicate : rtauben <8ie mir, Sfynen bie erren oorjiifteUen. 2)ie6 ift ie3 ifl eine fcfyotte SMume. 2)ie8 ftnb fd)6ne SStumen. 3|1 bieS 3f)ve 5eber? Note in these sentences that the verb agrees with the predicate. The regular inflected form showing the proper gender and number can also be used : ber or bieg ifl ber <8d?ulbtge. b. !)ie3 is also uninflected when it is used as a subject or object referring to something that is introduced to one's attention by a gesture or explained by the context immediately preceding : SBofiir fatten >an3 fyter unb jeneS bort ; in biefer unb jener SBelt in this world and the one to come. Hence biefer is often translated by the latter and jener by the former: 2>er 8"rufyling unb ber >>erbfl fyat feitte ^reitben : biefer gifct ftri'tdjte, jener 33lumcn. Both are used much more in the attributive than the substantive relation. The neut. sing., however, is often used substantively (see A. a and b). Also the other genders are frequently employed in the substantive relation in the meanings the former, the latter. a. Setter is also much used to indicate something well known, either by referring backward to some definite person or thing 158 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 128. B.. already mentioned or represented as well known, or by pointing out somebody or something that is so described in a following adj. clause as to be represented as standing in general for a class of familiar persons or things rather than for definite individuals : jene efcen citterten tetten. 3ene QBtdtter, nad? benen <5ie fragten, fyafce id) nod) nid?t gefunben. (g roar jene 9kd)t, in ber btc birf&audnge, fd?icar$geteerte ^ottdnber Jhtff gegen ben 23u(ener 2)eid) jagte (Frenssen's Diedrei Getreuen, III, i). Qlba tear nid?t ton jenen C|3upen, bie ntit fid? madden Itejjen, n?a8 man reoflte. 8^d?ten t>on jenent fdjonen Jlafhmientraun, une man eg in )eutfd?Ianb fo felten ftnbet. 3f)m fam ber ebanfe, fetn Dfyeim miiffe aud? 311 jenen 5Wenfd?en getjoren, bie em S3erfldnbni fur bie (&prad;e ber 0?aturbtnge l&efd^en (Jensen's Das Bild im Wasser, p. 87). (t ntetnt jene @orge, bie imS ^u furd^tfamen on itjm roar (Ompteda's Sylvester von Geyer, LXXVI 1 1). >er or gefd?u|t (Jensen) (also beren and more frequently ber, but better ber Dame. It is often better in the gen. of the fern, to use a noun here, as the thought will otherwise be impaired, for the forms berer and beren are felt as plural, and ber has not yet become fixed here as a sing, in contrast to the plurals berer and beren). 2)a3 @d?tcffal beren, bie if) it trug (Auerbach's Dorfgcschichten, i, 61). a 3a^rt)unbert | ijl meinem Sbeal nid?t reif. 3d? lebe | ein SSitrgcr berer (now more commonly berienigen), iveld?e Fommen icerben (Schiller). Olet^t atte, atte [Stumen] at), | fogar bie ^nofoen berer (now more commonly berfenigen), bie erfl Fommen (Hebbel's Nibelungen, II,V, 7). Third group. If they are used determinatively followed by a gen. or a prepositional phrase, the forms are : (sing.) beffen or be3 (masc.), ber (fern.), beffen or beg (neut.) ; (pi.) berer for persons, beren (also ber and sometimes berer) for things. Exs. : 2>te !8efpred?ungen meineS QtnrcattS unb beffen (or be) metneS egnerS t)a6en gu einem 33ergleid? gefii^rt. 3d; Bin in >orge ntd?t foivo^I rcegen betner -}(ngelegenl)eit, rcie ivegen ber betneS ruber6. a* gereefenen Seiibalttdt (Fontane's Poggenpuhls, chap. i). a. The short gen. form beg is now quite rare aside from the use in the second and third groups given above and its employment in adverbial and con- junctional compounds, as itm begftnden on account of that (with reference, not to a particular object, but to a thought : 2Bte fann id) je^t aud) an mein ttrirbelnbeg 2>afem etn anbreg ju fetten toagen?" ,,S3egreifjt bu ntd)t," pfterte fie, ,,bafj idj gerabe um begnntten $u bit ftefyen ttnft?" Telmann's Wahrheit, XXIV), begwcgen on that account, be6t)alb (earlier in the period be^albenjyfrr that reason, beggletdjm like-wise, inbeg (more frequently, however, inbeffm) while, in the meantime, uttterbeS (more commonly, however, imterbeflen) = inbe3, also in the combinations b?3 unb be^, or beg unb jeneS of this one and that one, and in poetic language and old sayings, as 2Be3 58rot id^ ejfe, be3 8teb i<^ |inge I sing the praises of him whose bread I eat. These are survivals of early N.H.G. usage, where the short gen. forms ber, beg (later also falsely written bejj) were the rule. The short form De3 has become quite firm in the above-mentioned adverbial compounds beSwegen, &c., where the reference is to a thought, less firm, how- ever, in tnbeS and itnterbeg, where the same idea is found. The long form bejfeu is also often used here in tnbeffen and unterbeffen. The corrupted form befjent is sometimes used in the adverbial compounds beffenhtegen, &c., where the reference is to a thought, but it is more commonly employed where the reference is to a definite antecedent. Either beg or bcffeit is used in con- nection with um ttnden when a relative clause introduced by u>as3 follows : (Sr (T. Mommsen) uiar fett langec 3it in SBafyrfyett ber galjrer ber Untoer{ttat, nid)t uut um beg lanjeg feineg 9lameng nritten, fonbern um beghntten, tt?ag er tt)t leiftete (Adolf Harnack in National- Zeitung, 1903, No. 588). 3d) fage bag aber, Jttnb, um beffen ict((en, ttsag mir nodj ju erjaf)Ien bteibt (Spielhagen's Was will das werden, \, chap. xi). The new lengthened forms beret (fern. gen. sing, and gen. pi.) and benen (dat. pi.) were formed by adding the regular strong adjective endings to the original short forms. The origin of beffen and beren is not yet clear. In early N.H.G. also the lengthened forms bere and bero were used with the force of beren : Senn tt>eld)e biefe meet tfynn bere fee(en foden auggerottet werben on jrem v>olcf (Lev. xviii. 29). Of these 25eto Your, His, used in speaking to and of persons of high rank, still lingers on in official style and in the language of the princely courts : >ero (Srlaubnig the permission of Your (or His) Highness. b. Earlier in the period the distinction that the short forms should be used in the gen. and dat. for attributive and the long ones for substantive use was not known, and even in the classical period was not yet fully developed: 3d? fyabe oben gefagt, ber (Haunt fet bte prbnung bcrer 2)inge, bte jugleid? finb, bie 3eit fjingegen bte Drbnung beffen, toag auf einanber fotgete (Chr. Wolff). 35enen S3atu)erten gefiel mein SBorfcfylag fefyr toofyl (Goethe). Present usage is nicely reflected in the following sentence from Wildenbruch : Seine bunflen, bfaugriinen Slugen fatten ben fdjarfen Stid ber 2Jlenfd)en f bie tel unb aitfmerffam mit ber 5Jlatnr erfet)ren, unb fetne fyageren eftdjtgjuge jeneg nad) tnnen gefefjrte 2ad)e(n berer, bie utel erlebt fjaben, unb beren (151. l) &r\ etn guteg ebadjtmg beft^t. The lengthened forms are to-day found attributively only in antique or, as in the following sentence from Hans Hopfen's Studiosus Taillefer, p. 37, in comic style : @g fam i()m or, atg fottt' er con t^m tute on bem 9ieprdfentanten ader berer brazen 93urfd)en, bie eben nid^t om gleid^en Sanbe umfd^(ungen geirefen roaren, bag i^rtge aber in (Sfyren getragen fatten, gleidjfaUg gerii^rten 2lbfd;ieb ne^men. 129.2.c.( 4 ) DEMONSTRATIVES 161 c. The genitive forms befien and beren, which are used instead of a possessive (see 138. 2. d), are, though they are genuine pronouns, sometimes treated by the authors of our time as adjectives and inflected like fein and ifjt : 2JHnna blteb con ifyrem atten bi<3 ju bejTem Xobe getrennt (Stahr's Goethes Frauengestalten, 2. 286). 3ene Sefenfyeimer $farrertod)ter, on bercm natuen, Uebeooden S&efen mefyr a(S eiu 39 auf ba3 .klard)en bet >trf)tung ubergegangen ift (ib., i. 119). @r ntadjt eine 9Jeife nad? Statten, au3 berem @cf>tt?ei$er Slnfange weber entjucfenbe SBriefe flammen (Gegemvart). This is as yet confined to the dat. of the masc. and neut. See also 151. i. c. In the same manner within historic times the possessive i(;r her, their was developed out of the gen. of jte. There does not seem to be any prospect of a repetition of this historic development, as bejfem and berem are losing ground. B. Dative Forms. The form depends upon the grammatical function in the dat. pi. The distinction is the same as for the gen., namely, the short form is used attributively before the noun, the lengthened form substantively : SJOH ben Lenten, bie, c. ; mit feinen SSerreanbten unb bcnen feiner B'rciu. a. Earlier in the period the lengthened form beren was also used in the fern, dat. sing. : .ab beren ju Sieb ein ncn'3 SHeblin gebicfyt, fo (Siter @nab ba3 begefyrt $n l)cven, ivodt' icfy'tf beren gur ^c^e ftngen (Wickram's Rollwageri). Still in dialect in the form of bere, beren, or berer : 2Bann tdj nnr cn berer n?egf imm ! (Anzengruber's fCreuzelschreiber, 2, 9). Also in adjective function : 3cfy frag' bti^ nnv, ob bu glanbft, ba bu in berer Skifelrad vid)t'ft? (id., Schandfleck, xiv). b. Earlier in the period the distinction between attributive and substantive use of the double forms had not developed so sharply as to-day : von benen (now ben) Senten, bie, c. (Goethe). C. The Nominative and Accusative Form bag. The neut. nom. and ace. ba3 (in dialect frequently spoken beg or bos) often remains uninflected in the following cases : (1) Like bieg (see 128. A. a) the nom. is used to express identity: 2)ag ift metne Seber. S)a3 ftnb meine frcbern. It is often very similar in meaning to bteg : 3ft bag (or bteg) ber SBea, auf ben 5Bafyn&of ? (2) It is often used as subject or object, a more emphatic form than eg, referring without regard to the gender of the noun to some object at hand, some matter in hand, a condition of things, or an activity : 3Bie fyeipt man bag ? What do you call that ? 2)ag gefcfnetyt itym rectyt That serves him just right. 5)ag gefyt bei mir ntd^t fo That won't do with me. >ag founen unr ntct)t ru&tg mit anfebeit We cannot tolerate that. 2) a 3 ijeranrfelt ftd; Matters are becoming complicated. (Sr arbcitet unermiibUc^, bag ift feine &reute. (3) 2>aS with sing, verb is used to represent a class of people as a whole : jftnber Ie6eu fovglog bafcin ; bag ftngt unb fpielt bet bett crnfteflcu i l aijen beg Sebeng. Often also with reference to one or more in a contemptuous sense : 5Sttt bag (referring to Riccaut) ju ling ? (Lessing's Minna, 4, 2). 2lber bag (i.e. bie -Slrfebufiere) bcuft, wie ein (geifcnftefcr (Schiller's Lager, 1. 1006). (4) As a predicate, to refer emphatically to an idea already expressed in some preceding noun, adjective, or participle : (r ifl ein Settler, or (r i|t arm. Sag war er fritter ntd?t. Siefeg S'rauen* jimmer gtbt fid; fiir bie ^od;ter beg engltfcben Jlonfiilg aug. 2>ag ift fie and) in ber Stot. Also eg can be here used instead of bag, and indeed much more M 162 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 129. 2.0. frequently, differing, however, from it in that it is less emphatic and has not the freedom of word-order, only standing after the verb : @r ifl jet em Settler, or (Sr tfl jefct arm ; er rear eg (or bag) after fritter nicfyt. >iefe fttauenjimmer gtfct ftcfy fur bte Socfcter beg englifdjen Jtonfulg aug. @te tft eg aucfy in ber Sat. @te metnt, bu fetft entflotyn ; unb fjalfc unb fyalb fcifl bu eg fcfyon. D. Dative and Accusative after Prepositions. After prepositions the demonstrative usually takes the adverbial form, if it points to things ; see 141. 5. A. b, c, d. Note. This adverbial form is, however, usually replaced by the inflected form of the demonstrative when it points to a following relative clause : )er SKintfter t)at bie JfcmtmfficngmitgUeber. gebeten, son bem (instead of baton), a$ er jut SBegtunbung ber Shortage gefagt fjat, ntdjts in bte DfFentlidjFett fommen ju laffen. This rule is not rigidly followed : Slucf) nwten fie md)t3 ba'con (instead of von bent), tt>as an biefent fdjonen cmttage orging (G. Keller). 3. 2)er, bte, bag this, that, are the most popular demonstrative forms, although the least definite, as they are used in a general way for both btefer and jener, indicating the position of objects as near or distant only by the aid of a gesture or the context. er is used substantively more than attributively, yielding in large measure to biefer and jener in the latter function. In several substantive relations, however, biefer and tener are common ; see 128. A. a and b ; 128. B. Besides the meanings of biefer and jener, ber has other meanings, often replacing the personal pronouns (see 141. 2) and being used like berfentge (see 130. 2) as a determinative followed by a genitive, prepositional phrase, or relative clause. Before a genitive and a prepositional phrase it is much more common than berjcnige. In all these common substantive uses of ber the primarily adjective forms biefer and jener are little used. a. 5)er is not infrequently omitted before a dependent gen., not only in poetry as stated by grammarians, but also in plain prose : llnb rcelcfy ein SBanb tjl flcfyrer alg [ba] ber uten ? (Goethe's Tasso, 3, 2). S)urcfy njeffen cfyutb ijl fie fo qercorben, rcenn nicfyt burd) (i^arbg unb aleibeng? (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. xxiv). 130. i. ^er'jentge, bte'jemge, bae'jenige that are declined as if each element (ber and jentge) were written apart and the latter element were a wk. adj. Used adjectively or substantively, their declension is as follows : ) 1U11 wvo Singular. Plural. Masc. Fern. Neut. Common form. N. ber'jentge bie'ienige bae'jemge bte'jenigen G. be^jenigen ber'ientgen bee'jenigen ber'jenigen D. bem'jemgen ber'Jemgen ben/jcmgen ben'jenigen A. ben'jentgen bte'jentge bag'jenige bie'jenigen a. Earlier in the period up to the close of the seventeenth century we find here the simple wk. form of Jen; : bent jenen, ietd)er . . . (Opitz i. 105). From the sixteenth century we find the lengthened form jenig. Earlier in the period it could be used without the def. art. : id) ttctfiucfy alle jenige, tie anbcver 3Jletnung fein (Fischart). b. The form biefcrjenige this one (here] is used in popular speech : 3cfj benfe tmmer, bcv fyat fid) au3 etner anbcrn 9SeIt in biefejenige erirrt unb fann ben 2Bcg ntd;t hJteber juriiciffinben (Raabe's Schudderump, chap. ix). 131. i. a. DEMONSTRATIVES 163 2. )erjenige, unlike ber, which is either a determinative or a pure demon., has only determinative force, i. e. is followed always by a gen., prep, phrase, or a relative clause : berjenige, rcelcfyer that one who; ntd;t inein <>ut, fonberu berjenige uteineS SBruberS ; md;t biefeg SSud;, fonbern baSjentge im rotcn tnfcanb ; berjentgc 9Wann, ireld;er. There is no difference of meaning between the determinative bcr and berjenige except that the latter is a heavier and consequently more emphatic word. 2>er, however, is much more common with a gen. or prep, phrase. a. Sometimes also jener is used determinatively instead of bcr or bcrjeniger either modified by a gen. or a relative clause. >cr fyehe Slbcl jurnte fiber ben potttifcfyeit Qinflup bc3 23uvgertitm3, uield;e3 im 9ieid)Srat bag Slnfetjit bn3 .>emnl)aufe$ burd; jeneS ber 9lbgeorbncten in fatten fieffte (von Sybel). 2Jlir bicnen | al3 Beugen jene, bie'3 mtt 9lugen fafy'n (Fulda's Der Talisman, 4, 6). 9lur gering ift bie 3af)( berjcnigen, \vtlfy fid; mit bev S3emt3 befcfydftigt t|abm, nod; gertnger bte 3af;l jener, toclcfye attf biefem $(anetett erta$ gcfcl;en Ijaben, unb am adcrgertngften bie &&\]l jener, beren eobac^tungen UnrfUc^ einen 2fiert bcft^en (Leo Brenner). 2Benn er on jenen JDingen fprac^), bie er ber SBelt unb bem Sebcn atjurtngen . . . Ijoffte, ft> h>ar tmmer nur von inncren, feetift^en en?tnnen bie 9?cbe (Ganghofer's Der Gliick- sucher). Also in general usage jener or its governing word is followed by a relative clause, but it here differs in meaning from the determinatives ber and berjenige in that it only points out somebody or something that has already been mentioned, or refers to something well known, or some class of familiar persons or things. For examples and further explanation of this use of jener see 128. B. a. 131. i. old) such, such a is strong or weak as any adjective, but is uninflected before eiit and inflected or uninflected before an adjective. If strong, the gen. of the masc. and neut. sing, ends properly in e3, but, as in the case of qualifying adjectives, a weak gen. is often found. Exs. : folcr/er fleine ^uitb, or em folcfyer fleiner unb; foId^eS or foldjen lurfeS ungercotynt. Not such is trans- lated by feiu fold; : 3d) bin fein fold;cr Rcirr. Substantively : old; ciner fottte nur fommen! Just let such a fellow show his face to me! SKujjte nid;t Gf)tifht3 fotfyeS letben? (Luke xxiv. 26). 2>aS fmb fin $aar D^rge^dnge, wie ber 4?err fetne jtvctten fotdje ftnbet in 33enebig (H. von Hofmannsthal's Der Abenteurer und die Sdngerin, p. 171). a. In colloquial language fold) is very commonly replaced by fo ein, nega- tively often in popular language in the form fo fcin : 93on fo einem SDJanne fvricfyt man 3a()r()itnbcrte. o ciner such a one, &c. (So fein cftcfyt fat; ic^ in nteinem Seben ! (Goethe's Faust, 2808). 3d) I)abe einen J&unger, fo I)ab' id; mein Sebtag fctnen serfpurt. Instead of the neuter substantive form folcfyca we now more com- monly hear in colloquial speech fo etwasJ : at man je fo etu?a<3 geljcrt? <2o etwa vcrlcrnt ftd; nid;t fo leid;t. Instead of the attributive fold; we often find the adverbial form fo in popular language: (S<3 gibt fo ans?d)cn (i.e. girls), bie Ijiibfd; it>eid;e d;nabcl I;abcn (H. Hoffmann's Wider den Kurfurstcn, chap. i). Note i. entgflen3 unfere ftreng Qtfittetcn Jlreife Jjalten ftd; fo nen fo'ne e (= e) unb . . . (Goethe). Crin ^aufe ^ranctireurS lUerfiet bie SBrucfe unb f^rengte fold^e (= fie) in bie Suft (Kolnische Zeitung). Unter ben ja^Irei^en Selegrammen fcefinbet ftd} aud^ ein fold)e3 (= etneg) au3 01ercsg)orf (ib.). SSei attebent terbraurt)te er aber elo, o^ne j;undd)ft foIdjeS (= rceldjeg) etnjune^men (R. Huch's Schlaraffis, p. 140). 2)abet fa* fdjrceren fid) bie Surfen itfcer SBeoorjngung ber S^rij^en, bie (SerBen fiber fotcfye ( = bie) ber Xitrf en. Grammarians have written a good deal upon the false use of fold)?, but their censure is often indiscriminate. In very many instances the use of fold) is not incorrect as in the preceding examples, but manifests a keen sense for a fine shade of meaning, the fotd)= referring not to some particular individual as in case of er, jte, eg, ein*, ber, berjenige, but rather to an object or objects of some particular kind, often described by the modifying element of the compound in case of a compound antecedent, or by a modifying word following or preceding a simple antecedent : 3d? burfte ben arnten tubenten bod) ntd?t fiir etnen fed?grcdd?tgen JlurfuS tbre lefcten Srcan^tgmarfftucfe aug bcr afrt)e flietyen, njenn fte itberfyaupt nod; fold?e befafjen (H. Hoffmann). 3d) banfe Sfynen fefyr bafur, baf? @ie fo giitig roaren, bem >ut, une icfy folcbe an unferen 2)rofrt;fenfutfcfaern 311 fefjen gercofynt irar (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. xxvi). <8oW} often refers similarly to a simple noun, where in English we use the word mere before the repeated noun : (r meinte, fte ivcire felbftfitcfytig, fte gonue ifym ba3 93ergnita,en (of studying Spanish dialects in Spain) mcfyt, bag ifym met)r alS ein fotcftcS (mere pleasure) n?ar (Ompteda's Frieden, chap. xii). <8olcfy also as a determinative refers to a simple noun ; see 2, above. 132. i. A. SerfefOe, btefel'be, bagfel'fce the same are inflected like berjenige; see 130. i. a. If contraction with a preceding preposition takes place the parts are separated : am fclbcn, $ur fclben, c. b. Sometimes the article is dropped and fclb is inflected strong : urn felbe 3cit (Schiller). 3d) nefinte tnetnen Jtinbcrn a(le 33ud)cr ab, fcbalb fte fclbe nid)t me^r braud^en, unb lecje fit in 33ertt>al)rung (Rosegger). c. Lengthened forms both with and without the article were common earlier in the period : betfetbtge, fetbiger. With the article the form is weak, without it strong. The lengthened forms are little used to-day in plain prose, but still occur not infrequently in poetic language or in antique or solemn style. It is sometimes used as an emphatic form of bcrfctbc : Slucfy ftenn man jtoctmal basfclbe tut, ift t$ gfetcf)fa(te ntcfyt mefyr baSfctbtge (Raabe's Alte Nester, I. chap. x). d. In S.G. dialects berfetbe or fclbigcr have developed various forms, as bcrfuH, bcrfc((, fcder ; befeb, fcb. These forms usually have demonstrative force = bcr or jener ; see B. a. Note, below. These dialects use bet namlidje instead of the literary berfelbe. e. The form biefer felbe is occasionally found, usually with a slight shade of difference, in that it, as the English this same or this very same, has more distinctly demonstrative force and conveys more emphasis : Sicjc plcjjlicfye grage fcfcte ba3 SJlabdjen faum in rfkunen, ba<3 ftcfy fycute unb gcftcvn mit ntdjt^ anbcvent a(<3 nur mit bicfem fclben cgcnjianbe bcfc^aftigt I)atte (C. F. Meyer). f. The form jener fctbc that same is occasionally found : 3n jcnem fclbcn 3a^re ncd) h?ar e3, h?o ufw. It was in that very same year that, &c. B. 2)erfeI6e has a wider range of meanings than the English the same as used in ordinary prose. Besides its primary meaning it is also used in the following derived meanings : a. 5)erfelfce is often used instead of a personal pronoun. See 141. 2, 3, 4, 5. B. b, 6, 7. This use developed out of its employment as a demonstrative, which was common in early N.H.G. See Note. Note. The demonstrative idea and that of identity approach each other at times very closely. In reply to the question <2tnb err SBalbfueb, bes cfytt bf$ SSejtrbfcrjhrS? the answer may be: 3d} bin berfelbe, or )er bin id). From such or similar cases berfelbe assumed in early N. H. G. pronounced demonstrative or deter- minative force : 2IM) abet bent Menfdjen | burd) cld)en beg menfdjen on tterrljaten tmrb | ES lucre bent felben 3flenfd)cn bcjTer | bag er me aebcrn icere (Mark xiv. 21). SBenn bn in einem ungeiciiTen unb jireifelljaften SScrfe, ba bu jiceierlei fur bit fyafi, begriffen, fo erircljle (ertraljle) benfelbcn Seil, iwldjcr am letd?tejiten in t^un ift (Olearius, Rosenthal). Also used substantively : \jnb itenit bu feinen Munb auffj ttjujl | hJtrftn einen ,@tatcr finben | S)cn felbta.cn utm nb gib jn fur mid) unb bid) (Matt. xvii. 27). As can be seen in the first two sentences of this Note, both ber ana berfelbe may have the force of emphatic personal pronouns. Both of them often lose their original force and are then used merely to replace personal pronouns, as described 166 ADJECTIVES 132. i. B. a. in 141. r, 2, 3, 4, 5. B. b, 6, 7. The older use of berfelbe as a demonstrative or deter- minative pure and simple has in a large measure disappeared in the literary language of our time, surviving only in dialect (see A. d, above). Its use, however, instead of the personal pronouns has increased. See 141. 8. b. 2)erfel6e is used in connection with nflerf)ocfyft, ^ddjft, J)ocfy in addressing an emperor, king, and other potentates, and also legis- lative bodies, to replace the title (Sir. Jfaiferltcfye aKajefid't, ol;er Oteidjgtag, &c., or the usual @ie employed in common intercourse. The exact form depends upon the title in question : 9lUerf)ixl)|t* biefelfcen (to the emperor; pi. in form, also with pi. verb), ocfyberfel6e (to the Reichstag), &c. NOTE. Wherever berfelfce in the cases in a and b is used to replace a personal pronoun it is more weakly accented than in the primary demonstrative use. 2. 2>er namlicfye the same, the very same, the identical is inflected like berfel&ej the parts, however, are separated in writing. The parts of berfetfce were also written separately early in the period. )er ndmlicfye has a much narrower range of meanings than berfelfce, not being used at all in the groups a and b under i. B, above. It is sometimes used with the primary meaning of berfelbe, sometimes with a different shade in the sense of identical: itnter bemfel&en SBIaii, fiber bent namlicfyen rim (Schiller's Spaziergang, 199). SBit gefyen toufenbmat ben ndmlicfyen (identical) 3Beg, aber nimmer rcieber benfelben (Raabe's Alte Nester, I. chap. x). 133. 2>erartig of such a nature, strong or weak, or less frequently berart uninflected : berart or berarttge ^Beletbigungen insults of such a nature. >ag 93ert)dltnig tear nid)t berart or etn berartigeg, ba eg Sonatina grofje SSerlegenljeit erurfad?t tyatte. (Sine berartige erartigeg fommt ntc^t tior Such things do not occur. Note. The form berart or bet Slrt should remain uninflected, as it is in fact a fern, noun in the gen. However, it is sometimes felt as a demon, adj. and accordingly inflected : cn berarten 3ftajmaljmen (Volks-Zeitung). INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE ADJECTIVES. 134. i. The interrogative adjective trelcfyer, tretdje, iretd)e3 which, what, used adjectively or substantively, in questions direct or indirect, is always strong when declined, but must be uninflected before ein, and may be before an adjective and sometimes before a neut. noun in the nom. and ace. sing. : teetdjer cfyiiler ? rcelcfyeS eble er ? SBelcfy ebten or treld;e eblen SKanneS Sat ifl bag ? 3d; moc^te nriffen, tceld^er 2)iann bag gefagt ^at (indirect question). The uninflected form is especially frequent in exclamations : SBelcfy ebler 2>iann ! SBetd) litrf! What good fortune! 2. The parts of the interrogative tt>ag fur ein (eine, etn) what kind, used in questions direct and indireqt, are indeclinable except ein, which is declined as the indefinite article when used adjectively, and like strong adjectives when used substantively : 2Bag fiir ein SBu$ ift bag? (Sin beutfcfyeg. 3Bag fiir eing? What kind of a book is that? A German book. What kind? 3d) motyte retffen, tcag fur etn 2?ud) eutfd?e Sitter. SSag fiir rceld;e? What kind? @r fyat Sreunbe, a&er reag fiir ireldje? 2)ttt tvag fitr einem SBteifh'ft fd?rei6t er? The fitr in these examples is not a preposition, but a particle introducing the following appositive. For the history of this construction and the relation in meaning between tcag fitr ein and irelcfy-, see d, below. The use of iceldj* in the substantive relation after names of materials and abstract ideas and in the plural, as found in the above examples, is quite common and general. Some, however, prefer to drop the tt>e(d}: 5Bimfd)en >ie SSittter? 28ag fiir fyaben <3ie? (instead of 2Ba3 fur irelcfje tyafcen @ie?). 3d? faufte jrcei 93iid?er. 9Ba3 fitr ftnb eg? (instead of SBag fiir rcelcfye flnb eg?). In popular language eine is often heard in the plural instead of vrelcfye : 3n bent $arf ir>ad)fen Saume. 2Ba3 fiir eine ? When the reference is not to a material or an abstract idea, but to a single thing, tcag fiir icag is used in the substantive relation : ,,2Bte tyeijjt er benn?" $i6eriuS." ,,2Ba8 fiir wag?" frug er, unb baS Jtinb n:teber^olte baS 5Bort (Storm's Botjer Basch, p. 27). a. In the nom.and ace. fur can be separated from luaS : 2Ba3 tft bag fiir fin SSogel? b. 2Ba3 fiir ein is often used like roeld)* in exclamations : 22a^ fitr ein fd)oueS .>au3 ! c. In questions direct and indirect, also in indefinite or general relative clauses, toaS fur, often strengthened by the adverb odlee, is used in the general indefinite sense of what, -what all, -what different, all the various (things, &c.) "which : 2Ba3 ifl bag a((etJ fur ein djreten unt> Sloben? Sffiag ftnb bas nii^t al(e3 fiir Slutfflucfyte ! 2Ba^ bu btr bod) aKeS fur crgen ntad)ft ! aufe feien, toa3 jte fetbji fitr ->auptfad)en in einer flcinen !ruf)e bejtfce. d. In M.H.G. and early N.H.G. WAS with the partitive genitive was used, where we now find na$ fitr ein : 28ag 9ht{$enS fyaft bit cn nttr V (Steinhowel) In what have you received any benefit from me ? Here as elsewhere the genitive passed over into the appositional construction, later the appositive being usually introduced by fitr : 3n U>a<3 2anb [now n?a<5 fur ein Sanb] jtefyeit nid)t bie Stgctncr [3igcuncr] ? (Fischart, 1590). 91$, iua3 iji'd ein 9Kanu ! (Goethe's Egmont, I, Biirgerhaus). Now, and even in Goethe's time, the usual form is 2Bad ifi'(J fiir ein SDJaitn ! The simple appositional construction is, however, still common in colloquial language, especially in exclamations : Qfi >va3 mnJTenfyaftigfcit ! ( Ludwig's Ziuischen Himmel und Erde, XIX). 2Bas5 ein cfid?t ! (M. Dreyer's Drei, 3). D nxiS fomifc^e ad)en ! (id., In Behandlung, i). For a fuller history of the construction see 147. I.E. In such sentences iv-aS fiir ein may be replaced by Iveld) when it inquires after a particular thing: 2iMd?en Dtufcen (what particular benefit) fyaji bu won mir? There is often, however, no difference between tt>a<5 fitr ein and uield);, but the growing tendency has been to differentiate the meanings of the two expressions, the former expressing an inquiry after a particular kind or sort, the latter an inquiry after a particular thing: SBa<3 fitr ein *l>ferb ifl bag? What kind of a horse is that? but 2Beldje3 $fcrb wolien Ste rcitcn? Sen Sraunen Which horse are you going to ride f The bay. In some dialects n?eld}er is not used here at all, toaa fiir ein still being used for toeldjer : SBaS for en SDtann t<3 beg? (dialect of Mainz). 3. The early N.H.G. form tvafer has been entirely replaced by toad fiir ein : 168 POSSESSIVES 134. 3. 9lu<3 toafer (now ftaa fiir) mad)t tfyujhi ba$? (Mark xi. 28). See also 147. 1.E for explanation of the form. 135. The relative adj. rcetcfcer, tretdje, reetcfyeg is declined like the interrogative : @r fagte guten Sag/' rcelcfyen rufj fte freunbltcfy enriberte ; with noun understood : SHe 93et6Iferung 9ftumdnieng 6efief)t ju | aug SRumdnen, einem SKtfcfytinggttolfe aug latetnifcben unb flattifcfyen SBeftanbtetlen, irelcfye Ie|teren (the latter of which) romantftert rcurben. a. 3SeId)er is usually a pure pronoun with the additional function of a subordinate conjunction, and requires the verb at the end of its clause. Even as real adjectives, as in the preceding examples, enough of the pronominal and conjunctional nature is left to re- quire the verb at the end. POSSESSIVES. 136. The possessives are mein my, bein thy, your, fetn his, its, i^r her, its, their, unfer our, euer your, Sfyr your. These words are used either adjectively or substantively, but with different inflection for each use. For their use see 138. a. In S.G. dialects other possessives are in use : enfer = euer your, tljner their, [oner their. DECLENSION. 137. i. Used adjectively the possessives are inflected exactly like the indefinite article in the sing, and like the strong adjective in the pi. : mein ut, meine Seber, mein 93uc^), btefer mein (Sofen this my son, pi. meine efier mein (Uhland). This word-order is also found in the first words of the Lord's Prayer, always when used as a noun : 33atcr unfer u(tt. Our Father, &c., bag SSaterunfer the Lord's Prayer. Also the form duer (sometimes found in the contracted form <2ht>., which form is explained by the older spelling etuer) is still sometimes uninflected when used in addressing people of high rank or station : 55te jJlad^ri^ten au3 9>art3, ftefdje (uer (frccdenj butcfy bag Slu&Ddtttge 8lmt ntitgetetlt toorben flub, &c. (General Tresckow to General Roon). 2. A. Used substantively they agree in gender with the noun to which they refer and are inflected like any adjective, and hence have three forms the strong, weak, and in the predicate the uninflected form. a. When standing alone without a preceding modifying word they are, especially in familiar language, inflected like strong adjectives, except in the gen. of the masc. and neut. sing., where they still have the strong form eg instead of the wk. en (see 108) : nom. meiner, meine, meineS, &c. 3ft bag 3f?t ang unb 3f)reg. b. If preceded by the def. article, which form is now a favorite substitute for the simple possessive (see a, above), they are declined 137. 2. A. c. DECLENSION 169 exactly as the wk. adj. : ber meine, bie meine, bag metne ; mein SBruber unb ber feine, meine <5d)irefter unb bie feine, tiietn 93itd) unb bag feine. Often the stem mein, bein, &c. is lengthened by adding tg and then inflected in the same way : ber meinige, bie meinige, bag meinige ; llnfer enn bag >iininelreid) ifl jr (Matt. v. 3). @agen (Sic meinem ft'ran^en, bafii id) nod) immer tfyr tin (Goethe to K. Fabricius, June 27, 1770). 3t;r bin id), fcilbenb fott fte mid) bcfifcen (id., Tasso, 2, 2). Instead of 3t)r and if)r in the predicate we now often find 3t)re and tfyrcr (see Note 2, below). Perhaps most people would avoid this construction here and use another. But inflection for the expression of identity : 9Jietn efd)inacf ift immer and) ber feine (Fulda's Talisman, 2, 6). ar (id., Crete Minde, chap. vii). 5Bir benfa Ijalt al(e, bag SRabcfien trdr' 3fyre (Hauptmann's Fuhrmann Henschel, Act 2). This is a survival of older periods when there was no possessive adjective for the fern. 3rd person and for the 3rd pers. pi., although there were elsewhere regular adjective possessive forms. The possessive idea was in these places, where special forms were lacking, expressed by the gen. of the personal pronoun. The surviving pronominal forms ifyre, 3fyre were, however, after the formation of a possessive adjective for the 3rd pers. fern, and 3rd pers. pi., construed as a weak predicate adjective, and hence similar forms were sometimes made from the other possessives : @it bocfj toeuigfieng hrijfen, bafj bag, toag ntetne if}, aud) 3fcre ifl (Lessing). Instead of the colloquial tfyre we find in choice language the form ifyrer, the modern genitive of the personal pronoun fte : 58ir felbjl, atg arb bag flfietc^ (Grillparzer's Libussa, 3). enn ihter (i. e. bet Seibenf^aften) ifi ja bag 9Jeic^ unb bie ^errlid^feit ber SSett (Raabe's Schiidderump, chap. xii). Sljtft ifl bie djulb, Qanj afletn ihver ! (Telmann's Wahrheit, X). B. These possessives can also be used as real substantives without antecedent, in which case they are written with capitals, with inflection as follows : a. Referring to one's relatives, friends, party associates, and also, in neut. form, to one's property or duty, they are inflected weak : (r lefct nitr fur bie (Seintgen He only lives for his family. >ie 5Ketnigen trerben erfreut fetn, bie 3f)tigen ju begritfjen My folks will be glad to greet yours. 5)ie Sfteintgeu ? 3d? fjafce fetne 9Mnen (Wildenbruch's Konig Laurin, 3, i). 2>ie bret Sjerbunbeten errfd;er |ielten fel6fl auf etner Qln^o^e in ber 3*id^e unb fafyen bie iibermenfc^Iie^en. Qlnflrengungen ber 3^rigen. In letters: anj ber 3f)rtge, bie 2)einige. SKeine (Scfytrefler ^at att baS 3^rige serloren My sister has lost all her property. 3d) fya&e bag 2Reintge getan I have done my duty. Note. Provincially these substantives may be heard strong : 5Re iner my husband, my master, 2Retne my wife, my mistress. 35te hat elite ^uftn, ber 3f)ter (whose husband) trijft nut a(le tier 9Boc^en einmal nad^ aug(Ebner-Eschenbach'sA'*V/;m/*/-2?rad?,V). b. The short forms 2)iein, 2)etn, &c. are uninflected neut. sub- stantives when used in the abstract or general sense of possession, right of possession : <8tmt urn 2Bein unb 2)ein contention as to what is mine and yours. 5)ctn unb 3Wein fcringt ntteS Unglit(f berein Contention as to the right of possession of property brings about a good deal of misfortune. NOTE. From the above it will be seen that aside from the special case in B. b, above, there are four substantive forms for the predicate, but only three for the subject, while there is only one form for the adj. use : 2>a3 Slid; tft mein, metneg, bag meine, or bag indulge (predicate). 3tyr (adj.) SBitd) ifl neuer atg meineg, bag metne, or bag meintge (subject). 138. 2. USE 171 USE. 138. The following points as to the use of possessives may be of practical value : 1. As there are three forms corresponding to the three forms for the second person of the personal pronoun, care must be exercised as to their proper use. >ein your, thy is the form of the possessive, corresponding to the familiar form bit (140. a) : >u urirjl bag Detne empfangen You will get what is due you. 3d? Ijabe twin 9Bud? 9er= geffen ; leifye (bit) niir beine3. The form of the possessive corre- sponding to <2ie, the polite form of address, is 3fyr : 9Bo ^abeu <5te Sfyreu Uberrocf gcfauft ? The form of the possessive corresponding to if)r, the familiar address to two or more, is euer: 3d? rate end?, Mummer t ifyr cud? mit ettreu ^mjefjorujeu md;t urn meine, fmtbern um cure 5lngelegentyeiten. Thus in familiar language beiu or euer is used according as the address is to one or more persons, but each must agree in gender, number, and case with the following noun which it limits : beiu 33ud? your (speaking to one friend) book, pi. beine 93ttd?er your books; euer 23udj your (speaking to several friends who own one book) book, pi. eitre 23iid?er your books. All pronouns and their corresponding possessives are written with capitals when employed in direct address in letters (not usually, however, elsewhere except in case of the polite form of address) : teber 93ruber ! 3d? ^)abe feit >eiuem le^teu 4?icrfetu feme 9tad?rid?t Sou 5>ir erfyalteu. The polite form of address @ie (with reference to one or more) and the corresponding possessive 3|r are always written with a capital, and usually also the other forms of conventional address explained in 140. a. Note, namely (Jr, ol(eu (Voss to the Duke of Oldenburg, May 20, 1802). Notice here, however, that (S'liet is used only immediately before the title, and is elsewhere replaced by S()t. 3fyt and 3f)ro (uninflected) were earlier in the period also used here like (Suet. See 140. a. Note. 2. There are two pronominals for the third person. Referring either to a masc. or neut. noun, feiu is used and hence must be translated by his, one's, or its : @r fyat feiu ie ad?e f)at 172 POSSESSIVES 138.2. ifyre gutc re Sntcreffen They further their own interests, or it may mean their mutual interests. In case of the third person of the reflexive possessive and the reciprocal possessive throughout, the reference cannot always be made clear by the use of the simple pronominal. It may not be clear whether fein his and U)t her refer to the subject or to another party, and whether unfer our, euer, 31)t your, ifyt their, are to be considered as personal, reflexive, or reciprocal pronominals, hence it is often necessary to add etgen own to the reflexive and gegcnfeitig mutual to the reciprocal possessive : Gr forbert feine eignen Snterefien. a, nimm meinen 9Hng, eral)re ifjn unb gib mir beg SWajorg feinen (for gib ntir ben beg SWajorg) bafiir (Lessing's Minna, 4, 5). 31)r artet ntef^r nad) (Sureg 95aterg eift, | a(g nad) bcr SJluttcr i()rcm (Schiller's Wallen- steins Tod, 3,2). cgen bent feine eie^eit (Lessing). This construction is still common in popular and colloquial language, the dative, however, being now the favorite : ffiem fein ^>nt ift bag ? for the literary form SBfjfeti Jput ifi bag ? @g ijl bem SSttljelm feincv for 6r gefycrt bent SBil^elm. Sent fein ut, bcr i()v ^inb, &c. a fd)(agt 5ri|" fttne ^pcnbute elf Ufjr (von Moltke in a letter). Su btfl nteine rau unb nid)t bcr Sivtomaten ifyre (Bismarck's Briefe an seine Braut undGattin, 14. Mai 1851). 2)u f>ajl cine gute Stirn, ganj wic bent s -l5dterd)en feine (Schulze-Smidt's Dentf ich an Deutschland in tier Nacht, II). d. The demon, genitives beffcn his, bcren her, their, are much used instead of the declined forms of fein and il)r to avoid ambiguity, bejfen, bcrcn referring 139. USE OF POSSESSIVES 17a to an oblique case, and fein, tljr to the subject : er raf tjat biefem SWanne unb beffen effen and beren are also used elsewhere instead of fein to avoid ambiguity : fcie rdfin, ifyre 33ertt>alterin unb bereit (i. e. the latter's) Softer. SDeffeu and beren are often used of persons of high rank or position even where no ambiguity would arise by the use of fein, ifyr : ber JWnig nnb beffen einafyltn. e. Instead of the possessive the demonstrative ber or berfetbe is much used if the reference is to things : il( id) verteibigen, uic^t beren funjllerifc^e Slutffufyrnng (Fulda's Die Kameraden, Vor- wort). /. Earlier in the period 31>r or the uninflected 3f)ro was used instead of on attetlet'. See also 126. i. a. For accent see 47. 2,. A. a. c. ait&er* other, str. and wk. : etn (inb(e)rcr SWann ; bcr dnbe, bic (meinc, biefe, jene) fceiben Jtnafceu both of the (my, these, those) boys. The neut. sing, is used collectively, embracing two nouns or the ideas contained in two verbs : fceibeg, SBrief imb $afet both letter and package. dr irrtc ftcfy in fceibem He was mistaken in both points. 2>a3 fcctbeS ijl ri^tig Both points are correct. SSMr muffen tufjen unb irir fonnen fit^ncn ; btefe rau i)at e fceibcS getan (Ompteda's Frieden, chap. xiii). Much used in idiomatic combinations : wr tetbc, or less commonly fceibe wir both of us, biefe fceifen ^nafcen more common than bicfe Jlnaben fcetbc, or 6cibc biefe ^nafcen, the latter forms, however, being more emphatic ; fciner Son fceiben neither of them, aHe fceibe (or in popular language jttiei fcetbe, or atte jtuei fceibe) both of them, icel^c fceibe both of which. Note i. Following pronouns, the inflection of Betfc; is strong except after frit and tljt, where after the manner of qualifying adjectives we also find the weak inflection, and even more frequently so after if)r : toir beibe (Raabe), ftir beibm ertornen (M. Halbe), i^r beibe (Grillparzer's Konig Ottokar, i), i^r betbeit barren (Raabe), iljr beiben (Hauptmann's Michael Kramer, $), tieg beibcg both of these, ba3 beibeg both of those, a((e3 beibeS both. @ein Xob i(i etn fdjtoeter Sc^Iag fiiir bie emablin unb fur bie Jtonigin, bie beibe (both of whom) niebergefdjntettert finb. Note a. Seibe and a((e have a position in the sentence differing sometimes from English : (i) They usually follow pronouns, standing in the appositional construction, when all are embraced in the statement : 3$ fanit mcfyt Sfytten alien fyelfen I cannot help all of you (or as in German you all). @ie fcbicften ttttr anbfd)ube, tt>etcbe ttttt al(e JU flto^ ftnb You sent me gloves all of which are too large for me. ! or examples of the position of beibe see examples in Note I above. When a partitive idea is to be expressed, they usually stand in the dat. after on : diner on betben fommt One of the two will come. (2) They may for emphasis follow a noun : 3dj fafy bie (Sltern beibe I saw both of the parents. @r ttcmbte fid) son feinen 5nnben alien ab. (3) When they are modifiers of the subject they may for emphasis stand after the verb : 55te (Sdjlllbigen erfhtmmten alle Every one of the guilty ones became silent. 3)eine (Sltern ftnb beibe h?o^t Both of your parents are well, or as in German Your parents are both -well. (4) For especial emphasis they may, when they are modifiers of the subject, also stand first in the sentence followed by the verb and later by the subject : Stile tooflen fie beS .KaiferS Slntlifc, fefcen (Wildenbruch's Kaiser Heinrich, 2, 2). SJeibe ftanfcen nnr am genfier. (5) S3eibe differing from alle usually follows a gen., a posses- sive, or other pronominal, less frequently does it precede : all feineS 93atcr6 lit and alle meine Sucker, but meines Saterg beibe (Sitter and ntit ntetnen betben Slugen, or sometimes earlier in the period mit betCen ntetnen Slligcn. But beib; precedes the 139. i./. INFLECTION AND USE 175 possessive when it is itself preceded by the article : SKeutert Ijatte itberrafdjt bte fetue S3efud)er3, bie er big batjtn in ben beiben feinen geljalten, loegetaffen (Telmann's Wahrheit, 1). The last examples show how betbe in a greater degree than af(e is becoming more like attributive adjectives, in that it now usually follows the article and the pronominals. They were both originally predicate appositives, which accounts for their peculiar position in the sentence. e. tin one, any, some, often in connection with the adverb irgenb, which gives the generalizing force in the sense of any, some, any at all, inflected like the indefinite article when used adjectively, and like a strong adjective when used substantively : 311 irgenb einer Beit at any time whatever. SScnu id) nur irgenb etn SJiittel bagegen rciifjte ! If I only knew some remedy for it 1 Substantively : irgenb einer any one ; jeneS 93nd) ober irgenb eineS. The wanting plural of irgenb em is supplied by irgenb roetdje or simple ivelcfye in declarative sentences, and in questions either by irgenb rce(d)e or irgenb alone : 3rgenb eine $erfon l;at, or in the plural irgenb rceldje $erfonen tyaben eS iijnt fcerraten. 2)ie Sifdjletn ivaren . . . fo fd)on, ivie er nod) nie rceldje gefefjen tjcitte (R. Huch's Schlaraffis, p. 94). ^a6en irgenb vceld)e $erfonen or irgenb ^Jerfonen attjjcr 3f)nen barnnt getcufjt'? In the substantive relation rceldje cannot be dropped here. The wanting plural of ein in the meaning several, a few is supplied by rec!d;= (used as a rule only substantively) or etnige (used adjectively) : >aft bit ein ))aat ^fennige? 3d; f)abe ^tetdje, but usually (Sr ifl fd^on etnige Sabre tot. In popular and colloquial language ivetcr; is often used here adjectively : 3$etd?e (in choice language eintge) 3)( x en(d)en ftnb nid)t gufriebcn. Other forms than rcelcfye and eintge occur in dialect, such as ere (a partitive gen. = ifyrcr), eine: >afl bit ein ^aar ^fennige? 3d; ^a6e ere or eine. With reference to materials ein is replaced in the singular by iveld)* in the substantive and by eticaS in the attributive relation : Benn <8ie elb fyafcen, fo geben s every, each, any, strong (see 108), or if preceded by the indefinite article mixed, used adjectively or substantively. The indefinite article must precede the genitive in the substantive rela- tion. Exs. : ein jeber red?tfd?affcne SBitrger (Goethe's Egmont, 2], or jeber red)tfd?affene SSiirger j ba8 efiifyl eineg jeben, but ba efitfyl jebeg or eineS jenen eblen 93ienfd)en. 6tn jcber ifl feineS litrfeS (Sdmtieb. 3ebe 5'eber ijl gut genng Any pen will do. 3eber (anybody) fann 3t)tten fagen, roo id) icobne. Earlier in the period jeb= could be used in the plural with the force of atte : iebe anbern 2)iittcl (Goethe's Egmont, i, Palast der Regentin), jete jef)n Sdjritte (Heine). 176 INDEFINITE NUMERALS 139. i./ Earlier in the period jebtrebs, jebireber*, and jeglid)*, all with the inflec- tion and meaning of jeb=, were frequently used, and with the exception of jebweber* still occur in choice language, especially in a solemn or dignified style: iebirebe Qlrt t>on <8imre (Ranke), ein jeglidjer ivunberlidje 23ogel (Raabe's Unseres Herrgotts Kanzlei, chap. v). Note. Instead of etn jebet we find jet; eills in N.G. dialect, just as in English : S)amit friegt man jeben einen miirbe (M. Dreyer's In Behandlung, 2). g. innucf) many a, many, a number of, strong and weak, but uninflected before ein, also often before an adjective : manner 2ttann, mcmd)e ^rau, mand)e3 Jttnb, manner many a man. 3d) fya&e 3fynen fo mand)e3 gu fagen I have a number of things to tell you. 2Eand)e gute Seute a number of good people ; bie mcmd;en tnnben, bie id) barcmf oenrenbet fyafre. But mand) etn ftorfer 2Wann, or mand) ftarfer SWann, or more commonly manner ftarfc 2ftann. It is rather uncommon in general to place the indefinite article before manrf)=, although in some sections, as in the S. W., it occurs occasionally : (in manner fcliefc fyaften (Scheffel's Ekkehard, 13). SWand) differs from Diel in that it denotes only number, while the latter denotes also quantity: Diet (not inondj) (^elt>. Both tel and mand) denote number in the plural. The former denotes a large number and stands in contrast to voeniQtfew, while mcntdie indicates an indefinite number larger than einige several. 2J?ancf) differs from iriel also in having individualizing force, which explains its frequent use in the singular, just as many a in English. On account of its individualizing force, it cannot be used in questions asking after the number : Bte ttiele (not mancfje) roaren ba? h. mefyrer: (117. i. b] several, strong and weak : mefjrere icid)tige 2)tnge, met)rere 2Bid;ttge several important things. SBie fottte man bie mefyrern SSagen fortkingen ? (Goethe). A little earlier in the period the form mefyr was not infrequent : mit inefyren ")amen (Bismarck to his be- trothed, Feb. i, 1847). i. eiit paar a few, several, uninflected (see 121. i. A. a) : mit etn ^aar SBorten. A demonstrative may precede ^aar : 5lter biefe ^aar cmfyaifHfcfyen 5t6reetd)itngen ftnt) faunt t>on 93elang (Wacker- nagel's Altindische Grammatik, I. p. xlv). The demonstrative is always inflected. When $aar is written with a capital and ein is inflected, the expression takes again its original meaning, i.e. a pair: mit cineut $aar Jlanarienooge[. See also 253. I. i. g. Note i. 2.. The following contain the idea of quantity : a. Mfjcfecu (S.G. ftiffel) little, little bit, more confined to the style of every day than etn rcentg, and, moreover, implying a smaller amount. It is uninflected, but may be preceded by an inflected article, demon., or possessive, which, however, does not agree in gender with the noun following fctfjd^en, but is neut., agreeing with bid)en itself, thus distinctively indicating its original substantive nature : >te 3ofyanni8irurmd)en ftnb urn beS fctjjcfyen lanjc3 ifiOen nod; feme terne Glow-worms are not by any means stars because of the little light they shed. >cmUet tytncwS mofyte id) fur0 erfte aflerbtngg ben fcerbletbenben SRefl metneS tipd;en JtapttalS nid;t angreifen (Boy-Ed). 139. 2. d. INFLECTION AND USE 177 ^K\i ttirem Hjiidjen tfraft. Used substantively : 5)ie gan^e SBett fontmt nttr init einent 2Wal fo bumm iinb imftnnig fcor, bafj auf baS 6tf?d)en, rcaS id? con ber a3 was felt as a neut. substantive and could have a follow- ing gen. depending upon it : etn>a3 ro)l3 (Luther). Later the gen. passed over into the appositional construction : tth)a3 Xrofl. To-day etoa3 can in such cases be regarded as an uninflected adj. with the same general meaning as the inflected adj. einig;, with this modification, that ethxiS is now in general used with singular nonns for an indefinite amount, mass, while cintg; may be used for an indefinite amount, but is more particu- larly used with pi. nouns or the singular of adjective-substantives for an indefinite number: etfrag 58 utter, ettta3 (Sfore, etroag 9Kut, einigea elb, einige 23ud)er, einiged SntetefTante several interesting things. However, before abstract nouns in the sing., cinig* is often used instead of ettpad : einige 3eit, einige (Srfaljrung, nad) einigem (Btclfcerrt iiber aHer^anb Unebenfyeiten (Raabe's Finkenrode, chap. ii). In the sub- stantive relation ttwa8 is replaced by iodfyi ', see 1. 1, above. For etoa$ as a real substantive (with dependent noun) see 145. f. c. gaitj all, whole, entire, strong and weak, but may also be uninflected before names of countries and places which have no art. before them, when used in a figurative or inexact sense : ein ganjer Qlvfel a whole apple, ber ganje Wpfel, ein ganger 2Wann a man every inch of him; bag ganje $eutfd)tanb the whole of Germany, Germany one and undivided, but anj )eittfd?Icmb lag in <8rt;madj unb (2d?merj All Germany lay in disgrace and grief. 3d; burdjreifte gang >eutfd)lanb. But the ending cannot be dropped in case of those countries which always take the art. : bie gcuije djnjeij all Switzerland, not ganj Scfyiceij. It is much used in idiomatic expressions : im gan^en on the whole, im ganjen einfaufcn to buy by wholesale, im ganjen nnb groen nberfd^Iagcn to make a rough estimate, &c. anj is often used in the plural, but it never denotes number, indicating also there entirety, i. e. the completeness of each whole : see 3. d. Note, below, toward end. Note i. The usual adverbial form is ganj quite, entirely, very: ganj gut. Formerly gamlidj was the usual adverbial form and is still sometimes used. This form is also used adjectively, only, however, before abstract nouns denoting an activity or a quality, where the original adverbial nature of the form is largely preserved (see 245. II. n. 2. A./) : gdmlidje SSefreiung, gdnjlidje 93erfd}iebenljeit. Note 2. (jJatlJ is also used as a neut. noun, but with its original adj. declension : SttJet fialbe (halves) ftnb ein anjea (a whole). SSier albe finb jteei an$e, or jtnb jn?d an$en gteid) (equal to). Sin fyarmonifd) gcotbnetfe anje or anjes (see 111. 4. a), ber britte Xeil eined J^alben. Also masc. referring to djcppen : einen angen, einen Jpalbett trinfcn to drink a whole, a half-measure (of beer or wine). d. f)flH> half, strong and wk., and like ganj remains uninflected before names of countries and places which have no article before them, when used figuratively or in an inexact sense : ein N 178 INDEFINITE NUMERALS 139. 2. d. half of an apple, ber ^alfce 5fyfel, bie Jjalfce tabt, tin tyalfcer bag tyalfce $ari half of Paris, bag tyalBe ^ari or more commonly al& $art8 half of the people of Paris, burcl) ^al6 $art3. 2Me franjoftfdjc ^Resolution erfcfyutterte tyalfe (Suropa. But always bie fyalbe <5cfyn>eij. A0/ i. It is uninflected in the form tin tyalb used as a fraction, also in the form lja(b when used adverbially, and in a few expressions substantively. 3tl)n Jtttt tin ftalb ntultipttjiert gibt funf. 2)ie tunbe ift fcfyon tyalb urn The hour is already half up. 3>ie Mr fcfofagt tie fyatbe @tunbe, or fcbtagt fyalb. @3 iji Ijalb ntun (o'clock). Formerly and still in popular language inflected in the predicate : 3d) bin Ijalber itn vaum ; see 111. 8. Note 2. Jpalb is also used as a neut. or masc. noun, but with its original adj. declension ; see Note 2, under c. e. tin tocttig a little, uninflected ; see 2. a, above. Note, in toenig is much used adverbially : eutfd}lanb all Germany; bie gange Samilie all the family. Note 7. In dialect the neut. form afleg is frequently contracted to alg, which often by reason of this change of form becomes isolated from the original form, and takes on more general meaning, especially that of the adverb imtnerfcrt : 25a faitgt Tttir baS SWdbel ei ott, was ate (for af(ea) fur? uberfiimmltfdje SUfangereien ein (Miller in Schiller's Kabalc und Liebe, i, i). oUtefl nut bie ttunberljubfdje 93Uleter aud) lefen, bie bcr gndbige err an beine od)ter aid (= tmnterfort) fdjreiben tut (ib., Frau Miller). b. eitttgs, earlier in the period = O. H.G. einag one, only, single, later, in N.H.G. harmonious (in this meaning still in use), and O.H.G. einig = irgenb ein (see i. e, above), from the latter of which come the common meanings of our day, a few, some, several, inflected strong and weak : ber etnige ott (Matt. xix. 17), ein einiger fc^Trar^ gu mac^en (Matt. v. 36). Jtetn Hanbreerrf^man einigeg HanbtcercfS (Rev. xviii. 22), au8 fturcfyt beS 2obe ober fonfl eintgeS 2)inge8 (Claudius) from fear of death or some other thing; etnigeg frif^e )6fi some fresh fruit, einige c^rttte baoon several steps away, in etniger Snt* fernung, einige B^it barna^. 3n biefem Sud^e finbet ftcb nefcen eintgem uten auc^ einigeS 2ftittelmafjtge unb einigeg e(d)i (strong and weak = irgenb ein or trgeab totli);, or einigs in the sing, and irgenb iwelc^e and eiuige in the pi.) still occur in the literary language. The former was very common in Luther's language and is still sometimes used, and quite frequently so in archaic and biblical style. The latter form was not common earlier in the period, but it still lingers on in choice language : (StwclcfyeS Heine efd)enf mitgubringcn fei immet empfefylensnjert bei gtofjen Jpevren (H. Hoffmann's Teufel vow, Sande, p. 174). 3um itberfhtfj ^atte et bie ewoJjnfyeit, jebedmal (elbft gleid)fam feine SSifitenfavte abgugeben, ^ermoge etweldjen Heineu UnfugS, ben er in bent betretenen JRaume gn eruben fur gut fanb (id., RohledershoheMinne). 2)cnn biefer ^flegte an bergleidjen niebUd^en efc^cpfen SBo^tgefallen gu fyaben, ioeldje int runbe bo^ nteljr ,11)11 mefjtten, al3 er if|nen fiulbigte, ba fein SUter unb feine getjHge Sebeutung eine liberlegen^eit mit ftc^ bra^ten, bie n\i)t einmal burd) etroel(^e ^erUebttjett fetnerfeits augjugleidjen ar (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. xv). 35ann etnjel^e ^ortionen ^affee, fagen irir fortaufig fiinf (Fontane's Frau Jenny, chap. xi). 3)a3 anuertraute ut t?ar l>icl gu fojibar, um e3 etivclc^cn efafyren au^gufe^en (H. Hoffmann). In the language of Switzerland it is often preceded by ein and ber : Jpierauf trat eine etrcel<$e S3effevnng ein. fficgen ber etroeldjeit Unjt^cr^eit, in iceldjcr bie 2Rdnnet bie Sett fatten (Keller's Seldw.> -2. 311). c. fl(c|mifl (sometimes genung earlier in the period and still in poetry for the sake of a rhyme) enough, uninflected : @r ^at genug 180 INDEFINITE NUMERALS 139. 3. c. elb, or elb gemtg; genug 9Bitcf?er. It formerly governed the genitive, which is still sometimes used : (S3 i]i be SLBeinS genug, or genug bei SBeinS, or genug SBein, or SBein genug. See i. Note. d. fjefamt and famtlid) all, entire, complete, both strong and weak : bie fdmtUcfyen jrcolf ^effel beg 2)ampffd?tffe3 icaren int 83etrie&. <8ct)ifter3 famtlicfye QBerfe, bie gefamte ^antilie, mit gefamter -^eereSmacfyt, bie gefamten 5Irmen be3 DrteS; eine Qlrfceit, bie ityre gefamten eifieSfrafte in Qlnfyrucfy naljm. Note. Usually, as in the above examples, gefantt, in accordance with the force of its prefix gt;, denotes a union of homogeneous or integral parts into one whole, and even when used in the plural has the force of one mass or a corps of forces working as one, while fdmtltd) in the sing, or pi. indicates that there are different distinct units which form the whole. They both differ from the more common and general a((; in that the latter simply indicates that the quantity or number is complete and lacks the distinct idea of a union of integral or homogeneous parts or individual forces working toward a common end. Different from the preceding is ganj, which does not refer at all to the parts that make up a whole, but represents in idea an undivided whole, or in the plural undivided wholes : bet ganje ^ovper the whole body, mit ganjent J&erjen with all my heart, baa ganje au0 the whole house, bie ganie Sfamtlie, bie etn$ige fd)6ne Stan bet ganjen (Jtyffn (G. Ompteda) the only beautiful woman in all the different branches of the Eysen family, gatt$e @d)utje shoes that are not rent. 2)te .ftrtege bet egentwrt ritfen bie ganjen SSolfet ju ben SBaffen (Moltke). e. f tin no, none, not a, not (see Note), no one, not a one, inflected like the indef. article ein when used adjectively in the sing., but like a strong adjective when standing alone (see 108) in the sing, or pi., or when used adjectively in the plural : fetn 33udj. in 23ud? ifl teffer ol3 fein(e)8. 2)a3 fie$t in fetneS or feineS 2Eenfcfyen SJiacfyt. ^eine 33iicfyer. For the partitive genitive after lein see Note under i t below. Note i. The adverb no is translated by netn. The adjective no is rendered by fetn, but f cin has a broader field than the English adjective no, as it also generally corresponds to not a, not (with intervening words) a, not any, and not (before a noun or a noun and its modifiers) : 35a3 tft fetn ubter (StnfaU' That is not a bad idea. 2Bei($e fetncn Stngerbreit on otteg SBegen ab Do not deviate a finger's breadth from God's ways. SMtte, gebcn a3 J?tnb Ijat fetne (SItetn. ^ein is replaced by md)t or ntd)t ein when it is desired to bring out especial emphasis or a contrast : Sin 25atct fd)itf bie 2Bett, fetn (or emphatically nid)t ein) ott be3 trafgetidjtes. 2)itd) tettet ntdjt eaU, md?t 8ijl. Note 2. In early N.H.G. and still in dialect fetn has also the meaning any. For example see 277. 1. B. a. This double meaning of no and any comes from the fact that two different M.H.G. words (dechein any and nechein no) have received the same form, namely, fetn. f. lantcr and now less commonly citcl nothing but, indeclinable : lauter fcfyone SSIumen. 0}aturlicfy ifl bag afleS eitel SBinb (talk, wind) ! (3 tyerrfcfyte eitel 9iut;e unb Note. These words are still inflected in early N.H.G. : ailS laitterm afj (Ezek. XXXV. II). g. meljr more, usually uninflected : metjr elt); nte^r eute. See i. Note. For the form mefyrer* see 117. i. b. Note. Throughout the period attempts have been made by good authors to introduce inflection, and such forms still occur : (Sin JDufeenb >dufet fieljen fd)on in Sranb, unb 139.3-*. INFLECTION AND USE 181 cd fontmen ityrer nodj feljr iel nteljre bran (H. Hoffmann's Wider den Kurfursten, chap, xxviii). Inflection is most common in the adverb mdjrenteU<3 = ntetjlenteild. h. iibrifl the rest, remaining, superfluous, strong and weak: (?r tut nie em ufortgeS He never does more than he has to do. 3m it&rigen (Europa in the rest of Europe; bie uOrigen $erfonett; int it&rtgen, or tcaS ba8 ufcrige fcetrifft as to the rest. i. Dtcl much, pi. many, strong and weak, inflected or uninflected, but inflected always when preceded by the definite article or a pronominal adjective and almost always in the pi. when used substantively : tiiel or xriele SSuefyer, *>tcle (or Jriel) gitte 5}ud)er, bte ttielen SSttcfyer, iriel (Suteg, trieleS ute, mit fciel utem, Otele many persons, bte Jrielen. afj betn uieleS 9Reben. Note. 93ief, toentg, tneljr, genug are here for practical reasons classed as adjectives inflected or uninflected, but the following is a more scientific statement of the case. They were in earlier periods construed as indeclinable substantives, requiring a dependent partitive gen., and still admit of this construction, but take now usually the appositional construction after them, especially in the sing., or in case of Btel and ftemg are also used as inflected attributive adjectives : early in the period ttiel 93oljd (Mark viii. i), iel falfdjcr *|Jrojjljetm (Matt. xxiv. 11); now iel elb, iel ebte 2Kdnner (in apposi- tion with Btfl), or iele (adjective) ebte 2Rdmter. When the article or a pronominal adjective precedes, twl and toemg are always inflected: (Er [ebt VOtt beat toeittgen 93erntegen, bad tfynt ubrig geblieben ijl. In certain set expressions coined in an earlier period, the older construction of the indeclinable substantive with its dependent partitive gen. remains intact, and cannot be replaced by the newer one of attributive adj. before its substantive : iel Slufljebend Son etinad mad)en to make a great fuss about something, tel SBefenS Won etttdS madjen to make much ado about something. After the analogy of such expressions, a gen. stands after eitt and fetn, which are themselves uninflected after the manner of iel : J?ein QRenfd) Ijat batton tin 9luffjebett$ gemadjt (Bismarck's Reden, 2. 76) No one has made a fuss about it ; but also 3$ ntetnte, enn bu fcift bag rcenigft twter fltten fcotrfern (Deut. vii. 7). Stfeine rcenige $erfon (Adelung); rcenig uteg, rcenigeg ute, nrit rcenig utem ; wenig or ivenige 2}ud)er ; mit feinem ttenigen elbe ; bag rcenige clb, rcag id) fcefap (Raabe). 3d; malte eg mit aug mit ber rcenigen ${)antafte, bie mtr gege&en (Ompteda's Frieden, VI). )te rcentgen 33itd?er, irenige few persons, bie toenigen. See i. Note. Note. The comparative form luentger, though inflected in the earlier part of the period, now prefers decidedly non-inflection except where ambiguity would arise there- from : @g toaren fyeiite rceuiger Slbgeorbnete tterfammelt al3 geiiern There were fewer representatives present to-day than yesterday. But tt>ett tteiligere Sreifinnige much feiver Liberals is clearer than hKtt iveniger Sreiftnntge, which might mean far less liberal- minded men, as Itentger can be construed as an adverb. As the positive is sometimes inflected and sometimes uninflected, the form lt?entger is sometimes ambiguous, as it may be construed as a fern. gen. or dat., or as the uninflected comparative. Thus in ntit fteniger 9D?iiIje the meaning may be -with little trouble or -with less trouble. The ambiguity can be avoided by dropping inflection in the former meaning and by substi- tuting the inflected comparative of gettng little for the uninflected comparative loettiger or the rare inflected form ttenigeret : mit irenig 2RuBe with little trouble, mtt geringeret SD?U^e with less trouble. On the other hand, the uninflected form should be avoided in the positive when it would stand before an adjective, as it might be construed as an adverb : not 6r erifel)rt mit toenig gebitbeten emn, but r uerfeljrt mit toentflen -iperren He associates with few educated men. k. tpelcf) some, strong : $a&en . Betorbnen uf. A person of high rank speaking thus of himself in the 1st person pi. must use the possessive unfet instead of ntein : ($3 ijl un$ jii Dljrm gefommcn, bafj unfere getreuen lieben Untertanen uf. In the ninth century such persons in high standing who thus spoke of themselves in the 1st person pi. were by others addressed by 3 for (2nd pers. pi.) instead of the 2nd person sing. Later all persons of rank or even of good standing were addressed by 3fir, and thus Sifir became the universal polite form till the fourteenth century. In the Middle Ages children also addressed each of their parents by 3>{jt, which custom lingers still in places in the country: SBater, ba3 erfte 9tet3, bag (Slid) aitf (Surent etntn?fg an ben Jput ficpt, bad brecfot fur mid) ab (from Grimm's Marcheri). Within the period between the fourteenth and the sixteenth century a new form of address became gradually established towards persons of high rank. From a feeling of hesitation to approach them directly they were addressed indirectly by their pompous titles, which caused the verb to be placed in the jrd person, at first either in the singular or plural, later only in the plural. SBenn (Slier furfurfHtdje nabe gtaubte, fo ir-iirbe @ie cttetf errlid)feit fefcen (Luther). Jpaben (Slier furfttidje 2)urd)leiid)tigf eit (>lird)laild)tigfeit) aildj {yalfen? (1594, H. J. v. Braunschweig). As in the preceding examples, the possessive (Slier, which was used in connection with the old polite form of address Sfyr/ was still inconsistently retained in connection with the new polite form in the 3rd person, but the new possessive 3Jjr referring to a fern, or pi. noun in the 3rd person soon sprang up. The possessive form 3>f)t was used either because the title to which reference was made was usually fern., or it was thought that the pi. form of the verb which was so often used with these titles required a possessive which referred to more than one. In the seventeenth century the uninflected possessive 3r)r0 sprang up to vie with @uer and 3Jjr. See also 138. I. a. Towards the close of the sixteenth century the direct address in the 3rd person, so common with persons of rank, began to be used also in polite address generally. The titles evr Mr. and rau Mrs. were used, and farther on in the same sentence or following ones replaced by the pronouns (5r and @ie. Finally ert and 5WU dropped out, and dr and @ie with the 3rd person sing, of the verb were used in direct address : SBcfiin gefyt (Sr? Where are you going? (addressed to a gentleman). 2BcI)tn Qefit @ie? (to a lady). Frederic the Great addressed his highest officers by @r. 2fjr was the next polite form, and bit was used towards friends or to inferiors. Towards the close of the seventeenth century a new polite* address arose, which began a struggle for supremacy with the polite forms (5r, @ie, and 3fjt already in use. The new polite form was (ie, the 3rd person pi. instead of the 3rd person sing., thus only having one form for the two genders. This new form gained the final victory somewhere near 1740 and became firmly fixed by the rich prose literature which sprang up at this time. However, (Sr, @ie, 31JV, bit still continued to be used with varying shades of meaning. Towards the third quarter of the eighteenth century, ie (with verb in 3rd pers. sing.) were the ordinary polite forms for ordinary people not well acquainted, for older people in addressing respectfully those younger, for those in higher station in addressing in respectful tone those in lower station, or for young people who desired to be respectful to older people but not coldly formal. 3f)r was still less formal, and bit with its pi. ifir was used towards intimate friends or towards young people. This state of things can be seen in Lessing's play Minna von Barnhelm, and continued over into the nineteenth century, and even lingers still in the conservative country districts, as can be seen in recent authors who give us pictures of rural life, as in 140. b. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 185 Ludwig's Der Erbforstcr and Ebner-Eschenbach's Die Unverstandene aufdem Dorfe. The student must remember, however, that this relation of a$ iljr tooflt (Hauptmann's Michael Kramer, Act i). SWein3tegen (ib.; also Hirschfeld's Agnes Jordan, Act 3). We sometimes find the double ending tS : inein 'tgtoegett (Anzengruber's Schandfleck, chap. xiii). e. On account of the enclitic or proclitic nature of the personal pronouns they often in colloquial language suffer aphaeresis, syncope, or a shortening of the vowel. If monosyllabic the initial 141. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 187 vowel, if disyllabic the unaccented e, may drop out, as in the following examples taken from Hauptmann's Einsame Menschen: Unb ber Suttee . . . na ja ! )em gifct man feinc 2Wild? ; man fyalt'n (for if)n) fauter . . . afcer bag fanu 'nc 2)Jagb aucfy madjen, unb fpdter . . . fpdter fann id?'m (for ifym) bod) nidjtg metyr fcieten. 3d) muf? 3fyn'n fagen. 3d? f)a6'3 (for eg) fd)on lange fcemerf t. The one form '3 (for ee) is now common even in the literary form of speech. In colloquial language un- accented @ie often becomes @e (s0). Note. In dialect the personal pronouns are often curiously deformed, as in the following : tnir (for Itir), arising from assimilation to the final consonant of the preceding verb, as in fyabm tnir (for fyaben ttrir) ; bit (or ber) or tit (or ter) = iljr, arising from such forms as fei bit (for feib iJjr) ; n3 (for fie), from such forms as JjabnS (for fyaben fie). f. In over-polite language, when the address is to a superior, the direct form @ie is avoided in the first instance and the title in the third person used instead. Later on in the sentence when the same person is again addressed, the third person pi. form of the personal pronoun is used and also the possessive corresponding to this form, both pronoun and possessive, however, being written with a capital letter to indicate direct address : 2) em Jtarl mup man gut few, ber ift fo alert, nne ica, err 5lmt3rat rcerben 3^re Sreube tyafcen (Arnold). SWein erj iretSfagt, @n>. S)urc^Iau(^t Jcerben bie @r^)altung uteineS iJetenS, bag ganj 3^nen gefyiirt, nid?t erfd)ntd^en, itnb mid; in ber $erne alg 3bren unerduertcn llntertanen ietradjten wotten (J. H. Voss). In early N.H.G., however, the pronouns of the third person sing, could also be used here, as the verb could also be in the sing, (see Note under a, above) : 3)a nun @re. f itrfurfllicfye nabe fcegefyrt ju roijfen, Jvag er itt bent fann man ntcfytg macfyen You can't do anything with him. llnb ein ut, em >ut ! 2>iit bem gtng ict; ntcfyt in ber 9Sii|te (Sahara urn 2)ittternacfyt What a hat ! I wouldn't wear it in the desert of Sahara at midnight. 2. The gen. sing, and pi. of pronouns representing things is regularly replaced by the demon, genitives beffen, beren, or begfelfcen, berfelfren: 23ealte bein elo; ict; fcebarf beffen nicfyt Keep your money; I am not in need of it. te Unterne^muni\en nteineS SBufeng ftnb jit grop, nig bap bu i^nen int SSege ftefjen fottteil (Goethe's Gotz, 4, 4). S3eibe Iie6ten bag Sintmer, unb gaben i^in auf Jloften after anfcern ben 5 43orjug (Fontane's Schach von Wuthenow, IV). The dat. forms ifytn, i^r, t^nen are so thoroughly identified with persons that they are in general avoided in reference to things. It seems that present usage prefers here the dat. of berfel&e : ^erfucfye, ben 93eretn ju fcerfolgen, irerben bemfelfcen nur neueS 5Sadj8tum terletl)en. 2)ur(^ o^e ber eMube fuc^te man jit erfefcen, rca benfelfcen an 93reite unb Jtiefe abgtng. The dat. bent is usually used with reference to the thought of a preceding clause or sentence: 2>a3 frraulein tat einen affeftierten (Secret unb nnct; ^ururf. 3oact)im f^enfte bent fetne SSeac^tung, fonbern fagte 6Io, &c. (Harriot's Der geistliche Tod, chap, xviii). 5. A. The dat. and ace. of the personal pronouns of all genders and numbers, when they represent things, are not usually used after prepositions, but are replaced by an adverbial compound formed 141. 5- A. c. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 189 by appending the prep, to the demon, adverb ba (before consonants except in case of barnacfy, which occurs about as frequently as banacfy) or bar (before a vowel) : ier ift etn $tfcb unb b(a)rauf (for auf ifem) ifi ein 2?ud). (r fain or einc ur unb fiiejii bage'cjen (for gegen fie). A : (r tyatte mir fcerfyroeben, biefe nncfytigen 23riefe auf bie $oft git geben. B : SBentt Sfyneri baran' liegt, unit id) bamit' (with them) ijtna/foen. (Seine rcaren utalt, after er lub taglid) jemanben ein, barauf gu ftfcen (Goethe). In colloquial language these adverbial compounds may in a few cases be used with reference to bag 2J?abcben, and hence in this one instance may refer to persons : 9lcimttd) ber junge SWenfd) ... in unferer efdjidjt&rjaijlttng frtegt fetn SKdbc&en ebenfaflg, unb roivb fo glitrflid) bantit alS nioglid) (Raabe's Gutmanns Reisen, Intr.). The one preposition in is changed to ein in these compounds to express the ace. relation (223. 1. 9) : 2Ber onbern eine rufce grdfct, faUt felbjt b(a)rein' Who digs a pitfall for others may fall into it himself t but 3 ft er im aufe? Stein, er ift nicfyt b(a)rin. Sometimes another adverb can be used instead of ba : (Snbltd) fanbcn icir bag 3itnw unb gingen ^inein. In connection with the rule for the use of these adverbial compounds study carefully e and B, below, where exceptions to the rule are given. The literary language of our time is not in general favorable to adverbial compounds as substitutes for pro- nouns, and the rule is not so broad and not so uniformly followed as the grammarians represent. See also 153. 2. A. a. This same construction is used when the reference is to persons, if they are taken collectively : 93iele J?na6en tvaren ba, aber SSit^etm irar nidjt banm'ter Many boys were there, but William was not among them, or in the crowd. It is also used with reference to words representing persons where the reference is more to the abstract idea contained in the word than to an individual : fatten fie fcinen J?aifer ? Siebe SKW ! dr tji nuv ber fatten bawn (Goethe's Gotz, 4, 4) He is only the shadow of one. b. In the preceding compounds the accent rests upon the vowel of the preposition, and hence the vowel of the preceding adverb being slighted is often entirely suppressed. By shifting the accent from the preposition to the adverb ba a new point of view is gained. In ba(r), which is of the same origin as the demonstrative bcr, the demonstrative force becomes strong with the aid of the accent, and the attention is called to the place or all the attendant circumstances: nicfyt ba'tmrd), (jtct'bimJ) not through that entrance, but through this. 55ar'an erfenn(e) id) ifyn By that very thing I recognize him. 3Ba3 cr eittmal fagt, ba'bei bleibt er. Often doubled, especially in popular lan- guage : 3>a'btin, nidjt fyiet'bttn. Note. In early N.H.G. the demonstrative adverb ba was here not so closely united with the preposition as now, but could be separated from it by several words, and so occasionally even later in the classical period : 3)a foil e$ bet bletbeit (Luther). !Da befyiite mid) ott cr (Goethe). In popular speech this usage is still common: $5a Utuj} ein 80$ in fetn (Jensen's Schatzsucher, p. 266). When thus separated the ba has demonstrative force, and hence is strongly accented. Where, however, the demon- strative force is weak the ba is often omitted altogether in easy colloquial and popular language : Jpdngen at fte on meinen ebanfen augfte^en muJTen ! unb leas bag Sirgfte ftar, bag SIKerdrgfle war noc^ jurucf unb gtng i^t iibec afleS librige ^tnaug, bis fie fid) auc^ in tg, ie in a((e metnt anberen Unjlnnigleiten, mit gu Siebe, gefunben ^atte (ib., chap. xiii). SSon neuem iwdtjte eg jtd) son af(en (Seiten ^et gegen bag I)etjoglid)e 9ieitf)aug ^eran unb in eg fyinein (id., Gutmanns Reisen, chap. xv). 3n bet Qftttte jlanb cin gebedfter ifd) unb auf tf)m eine Slnjafyl ivbcner Xe((et (Ebner-Eschenbach's Ver- schollen). 3f>te btauen Slugen iraren stedetdjt gu ^e((, abet eg lag eele in ifjnen (G. Ompteda). 3n tta^burg biibete jtc^ jeneg 2eben in unb mit bet SJiatitr, jeneg efii^t bet SSetfoanbtfdjaft, beg (Singfeing mit i^t (personifying nature) bet oetfje gn bet Jtraft itnb Xtefe aug, bie itnt in fetnet 2)ic^tung bet nddjften 3at)te alg einen bebeutenben ^ottfc^titt gut mobetnen Stuffaffung bet 9ktut betcunbetn. 2)ie 35t<^tung tft fetn )jf)otogtap^tfc^et 9lppatat, bet Slutot fommt in if>t bo^ fietg gum a^otf^ein (Richard Weissenfels). In the same manner we often find the adverbial compound fyter + preposi- tion replaced by a preposition followed by a case form of the neuter of biefj : S'iadf) btefem eg roar totebet ein @onnabenb gtngen Seunn unb Jpttfdjfelbt in bie ^farte (Fontane's Vor dem Sturni, IV. chap, xxvii). The adverbial construction, however, is quite uniformly used to refer to a verb, or to the thought contained in a preceding or following phrase or proposition, also to refer collectively to things already mentioned : 2Bitb et fommen ? 3te icotlte ftd) burd; bag elb 23orteile erfd)affen, auf bie fte cf)ne bagfelbe ntc^t rec^nen ifonnte. 3n meinem britten Sa^re 6eftel mid? eine fd;irere ^ranf^eit unb id) fclieb in jyolge berfeI6en an atten Itebern gela^mt. Note. We often find betfetbe even after prepositions which can form with ba the adverbial compounds described in A : SSnb fcgnete ben ftebenben ag nb I)ei(iget jn | tatumb I bag et an bem fetben getugei Ijatte son alien feinen SSerrfen (Gen. ii. 3). 141.7- PERSONAL PRONOUNS 191 SBcdjen fpdter Ijatte er bag alte att3 im geridjtlidjen Slufgebct gefauft unb fytelt mit cincm alten efelten unb einer nod) dlteren efter feinen Sinjug in basfelbe (Storm's Botjer BascK). The use of berfelbe is especially common to represent a noun after one preposition in instances where two prepositions which take different cases govern one noun : in bet Jlivdje unb um btefelbe instead of the incorrect in Itnb lim bie Jlirdje. In case of persons the personal pronoun should be used instead of betfelbe : mit bem 33ater unb efjne tfjn. Good authors, however, often disregard these rules of the grammarians and place both prepositions before the noun, which is then governed by the second preposi- tion : um unb neben bcm Jpodjaltare (Goethe). 3fjre od)ter unrb meine Sfwu mit ober gegen 3t)teit SBtllen (H. Seidel's Lang, lang tst's her). Sometimes the noun is repeated : mtt @ott unb bltrdj ott ( Andresen's Sprachgebrauch, p. 193). Often in case of a pronominal object : 2Ba$ in iljttt unb um tfyn unb fiber tljm ifl (W. Wackernagel). 6. Similar to the distinction between fein, Hjr and beffen, beren (see 138. 2. d] is the difference between er, ftc, c and berfelfce, biefel&e, baSfelbe. @r refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, or in a complex sentence to the subject of the main clause, while berfel&e (or biefer) refers to some oblique case in the preceding sentence, or in a complex sentence to some word in a preceding subordinate clause or infinitive phrase, be it a nom. or an oblique case : QJtein SBruber ill $u fetnem Sreunbe gcgancjcn. )erfelfce (or bie(er) will c^tte iljn ben Jt auf nictjt abfdjlief en My brother has gone to his friend's. The latter will not close the bargain without him. $agtaglicfy ritt er (raf 9Beuft) auS auf feinem Befaunten te 2)iplomaten forberten bie 23olfer auf, bemiittg ott 311 preifen unb i^ni So6 $u ftngen (Raabe). a. The oblique cases of either cr or berfefbe may refer to an oblique case in the preceding sentence: SJZetn 93ruber ift ju feinem greunbe gegaugen. c ttiiU bann mit tf>m (now more common than bcmfetben or biefem) in bie (Stabt gefjen. In case, however, the reference is to a thing, berfelbe is quite common : SDurd) >or;e bet ebdube fud)te man ju erfe^en, u>a<5 benfelben an Srette unb Xtefe abging. 2)ie ^ronomina bemon^ratba bejeid)nen cinen egenfiaub baburd), bap jte auf benfelben fyintoeifen. Always so in case of a gen. which points back to some definite thing and depends upon a noun modified by an article or pronominal adj. : !Die fjeittigen SKunbartcn fyabcn bie cttuiuj be^ $pvatetitum$ nod) weiter etngcfd)ranft : nmte ebiete ^aben ben 3nbtfati benfelben aud) aid gorm bee tinfadjen rjdfjhtng ganj ober teilwetfe eingebuf t (Behagel's Die deutsche Spracke, p. 324, 2nd ed.). b. If there are two substantives in a sentence besides the subject, both of which are referred to in a following sentence or clause, it is often best to represent the one which in the following sentence or clause must be in the nom. by biefer and the other one by berfelbe : 35cr 4?err nafym bem S3ebienten bag elb hnebct ab, al<$ biefer il)tn batffelbe gcflclilcn Ijatte, or a($ u)m biefe$ con bemfelben geftol^len itotben h?ar. It is best to avoid such clumsy sentences wherever ambiguity would not arise, and use the simple personal pronoun for reference to persons : 3d) ucljme metnen Jtinbetn alle sMdjer ab, fobalb jte ftlbe uidjt me^r braudjcn (Rosegger). 7. In general bcrfclfce is used instead of a personal pronoun for sake of euphony or harmony. The following cases of this use occur not infrequently. 192 PRONOUNS 141. 7. a. a. To prevent two fte's, or a @ie and a fte from coming together : 3ct) titte um bie Settling, vcenn <2ie biefelbe gelefen tjafcen. Many good stylists, however, do not feel the repetition of fie as harsh : ^nna GUfafcetty . . . fafjte begrcegeu Dnfel ^arreg 9lnbeutungen einerfeit3 ernflcr anf alg doa, anberfettS fceitrteilte fte fte ireniger flreng al3 ber ropoater (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. xxi). b. )erfel6e is often used in a comprehensive sense to refer to some preceding word with all its modifiers, as it is felt as a more appropriate form than the light personal pronouns to represent a weighty expression or a heavy combination of words : jtmt tdgttcfyen llmgang icacferer eute forcotyl al3 jur 93rteftrecfy8umg jroifdjen benfel&en. 2)a3 rfcfyeinen ber SSorterfcucfter Don J!Iuge itnb e!?ne fonnte mid) nidjt Don nieinem 33or^a6en (intention to publish a dictionary) aftfrringen, ba biefel&en (i. e. bie SBortet&iicfyer ttoit JtiuAe unb ei^ne) in ifyrer Qtnlage ganj oerfdjieben Don bem meinigen ftnb (Paul's Worterbuch, Preface). 8. In early N. H.G., berfel&e, aside from its primary meaning the same, was often employed as a pure demonstrative or deter- minative = ber or berjenige. See 132. i. B. a. The word gradually extended its boundaries so that it included the meanings of ber and er (fie, eg). The older use as a pure demonstrative or determinative has in large measure disappeared, but its use instead of the per- sonal pronouns has increased so that it is often used without reason where a personal pronoun would be simpler and better : ftleinigfelten, bie er Don 2ftarianen erfyalten ober berfelfcen (= ifyr) geraiifct tyatte (Goethe). 2)er $rinj Jtarl ifl Don feinem llmto^Ifein fo roeit rcieber ^ergefieflt, bafj berfel&e (= er) nicfyt me^r ba 93ctt 311 tyuten genotigt ifl (Ktilnische Zeitung). At the present time grammarians quite generally censure this free use of berfelfce, and urge that the simple forms ber and er be used where it is possible. The best usage of our time has been given in the preceding articles. 9. Except after prepositions the uninflected e3 has, differing from other personal pronouns, a wide field of usefulness. It is used : a. Like bteS (128. A. a) to express identity : d3 ijit eine fcfyone 93Iume. G (they) ftnb fdjone 95Iiimcn. 6inb e (they) Styre ^tnber ? (S3 ifl metn SBruber. b. As object in various constructions, especially referring to some fact or thing already mentioned or more or less understood, or to a condition of things : 2ftarie ifl fyter. 3ct; rcetfj e3. 3cfy fann eS litest Idnger mit cinfe^en. 3d? ^ielt e8 enblirf) ntdjt Idnger auS. @r fcringt e3 rceit He is getting along in the world, aftacfycn @ie ftdj'3 tequem Make yourself comfortable. <5r inac^t e ju arg He carries things too far. @r Idfjt e8 ge^en, roie'S ott gefdllt He lets things go as it pleases God. c. As a predicate, representing an idea already expressed ; see 129. 2. C. (4). d. As a grammatical and anticipative subject ; see 251. 1. 2. A and B, and I I.E. e. As an anticipative object ; see 185. A. I. 3 and 272. C. a. f. As indefinite subject in the various impersonal constructions described in 219. 142. 2. c. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 193 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. (Compare with 218.) 142. i. A personal pronoun can also show that the action which goes forth from the subject bends back upon that subject, and is then called a reflexive pronoun : 3d? loOe tnicjj I praise myself. Special pronominal forms to show this reflexive action are wanting except in the third person, where fid? himself, herself, itself, themselves is used for all genders and both numbers and for both dat. and ace. : cr lofrt ftcfy ; fte lofct flcfy ; fte lofcen ftcfy they praise themselves ; cr fyricfyt hunter mtr tou ftd; ; fte fprtcfyt winter nur on fid;, &c. For the gen. of the third person and the gen., dat., and ace. of the first and second persons, the reflexives are identical in form with the personal pronouns : bu lofcft bid) ; n?ir lofcett tm ; ifyr Io6t eudj, &c. The reflexive by its very nature has no nom., as it is always an object, either of a verb or a prep., or dependent upon some adjective. Reflexive verbs in German usually take an ace. object, but certain verbs, contrary to the English idiom, take an object in the dat. or gen. : )u lobft bid;, but bu fyottefl beiner, bu fd)iueid)elft bir. To the gen. of the third person the indeclinable felbft is usually added, or other- wise it is ambiguous : @r fpottet fetuer felfcft. Without felbfi it would mean, He is ridiculing him (some one else), but with fetbft himself. a. In early N.H.G. there was no dative of the reflexive, its place being supplied by the dative of the personal pronoun, which usage occasionally occurs as late as the classical period, and in popular language is still found : SBer fid) JtnaK unb a((, ifym (= ficfy) felbft ju Icbeu, nicfyt entfcfylicjjeu faun, ber lebet aubvcr flaw auf ittrmet (Lessing's Nathan, 2, 9). b. In dialect ftd) is often used also with reference to a pronoun in the first or second person : SBcil tmr un3 fcfycuen, ba3 jRcb' gu I)abcn, ixxiS ir uu<5 ci^cntlt^ git [a^cn fatten unb tooritbcr itir fidj au^reben foUten (Anzengruber's Schandfleck, chap, xviii). 2. A. The reflexive usually refers to the subject of the propo- sition in which it stands. The Germans also use a reflexive of the third person after prepositions if the reference is to the subject, while in English a personal pronoun is used : @r (fte) fyat elb tei jtcty He -(she) has money with him (her). a. In prepositional phrases modifying a noun a personal pronoun of the third person must be used according to C if the phrase is equivalent to a subordinate clause and the reference is to the subject of the principal proposition : IDietfyelm traf bie SSriibcr mitt fit im (Sefprad) iibcr tt)tt (Auerbach) [= a(3 jte ubcr itjn fprad)cn], but 3U(e UngHfrtcbenfwt fceS SftcnfdKit tjt fctncd ai&erfvitf) mit ftc^> fclbft (Thummel) [= grudjt bed ^ beit r mit ficfy fclbj^ finbet]. B. If there is a reference in the subordinate clause to the subject of the principal proposition, a personal pronoun should be used : (?r fcelobte bie on feinem greunbe rufcn He heard his friend call him, lit. He heard himself called by his friend. (2) If the infinitive has a subject and is active, it usually takes a personal pronoun as a reflexive object referring to the subject of the principal proposition : (3 fiu)lt ber SRenfd? mit bleid?em SBeben ben ob ifjm ften im enid: (Lenau). After laffen we more commonly find a reflexive here: laffen @ie ftdj biefe Sropfen SBIutS nidjt reuen (Goethe). This construction, however, is in general not common and often not used at all, so that the English-speaking student should be on his guard. Thus we cannot say (Sr fyorte fetnen greunb fid) rufen. Nor can we say Gr ^)5rte feinen ^reunb t^n rufen. We must avoid the construction, or express this idea by the construction in (i). A reflexive referring to the subject of the principal proposition can, however, be freely used if it depends upon a preposition : @r \ni) einen ftremben neBeit ftd? ftefyen, but not Gr fafy einen Brentben fid? naijet treten. In the latter case we could say : (Sir faf) einen ftremben, ber i^nt nci^er trat. A reflexive verb, however, can be used as an infinitive where the reflexive refers to the subject of the infinitive : )ie @tabt faf) ben hunger nefcft feinent ganjen efolge mit fd)reie cjebenfen einer beg anbern They (lady and gentleman, or two gentlemen) are thinking of each other. 8ie gebenfen eine ber anbern They (two ladies) are thinking of each other. c. For the dat. and ace. the reflexive pronouns are often used for the reciprocal when no ambiguity can arise : 3ljr fet)t eud) oft You see one another often. >te (Sfyeleute ftnb fid) (dat. = einanber) treit unb lieben fid; (ace. = einan'ber) innig. @te Iteben fid) is ambiguous, as fid) may mean each other or themselves, but by the addition of felbjt or felber the reflexive idea is brought out, and fid; may be changed to einanber, or einanber may be added to fid), to make the reciprocal idea clear : @ie lieben fid) felbft They love themselves, but (Sic lieben einanber, or sometimes fid) einanber They love one another, Only when the reciprocal depends immediately upon a verb or an adjective, as in the first sentence, can it be replaced by a reflexive, hence after prepositions the reciprocal form is as a rule einanber : <8ie fafen neben einanber, not neben fid). After the prepositions unter and fiber, however, either einanber or a reflexive can be used : 9Btr njotten bag unter einanber (or unter un) abmad)en. . a erinnert eineu an ettr>a, iroran man nidjt erinnert fein roitt; etneS au3 unb 4?of one's house and land. >a toirb etnent fauer. SBenn man (or einer) Ofetfen gema^t tyat, fo faun man (or er if the antecedent is einer) eticag er^a^ren. The personal pronoun referring to man, as can be seen in the preceding example and in the first, is man, but er if it refers to einer, and the corresponding possessive of both man and einer is fein: 2Ran or einer fann fetnen etgenen JEopf nicfyt effen. Note i. In popular language einer is often used with the force of jemanb. It also frequently indicates that the person referred to excels in something, often in something bad : ag fo(( einmat einer nacfymac&en Let somebody imitate that if he can. (Sr litgt icie einer He lies equal to anybody, lies like a trooper. 2)a$ ift ei'ner! He's z. fine fellow ! (ironical). Note 2. In dialect man often assumes the masc. form mer : ($6 fann ja etn' 2ftenfd)en tedjt fein, bag mer ibm merfen Iat, mer iueip, na^ er fiir a 9Kenf(^ ig (Anzengruber's Das vierte Gebot, i, -12). e. tt>er (for declension see 147. i), which is used for an interrogative and also relative pronoun, is moreover not infrequently in colloquial language used as an indefinite = jemanb or einer : 3cfy glaute, wenn metn SBrubcr ^Kfreb fttrfct, ober yiefteicfyt and) njer, ber btr nod) na'fyer jte^t, &c. (Fontane's Unwiederbringlich, chap. vi). 3d) fcafce and) feine e^eint* niffe rcle rcer anberer (Schnitzler's Liebelei, p. 68). 2)iid)ael fitmmerte fid) inenig um mid) bent mufjteft bn erft flar mad)en fommen, ba^ id) and) icer tin (Sudermann's Es lebe das Leben, p. 37). Note i. A following adjective-substantive has the same double construction as after jemanb and niemanb (b, t, above) : c^mibtg ^aben 93efud^ ; 'a ifi er grembeg ba. 2)a 2)tng tetrb iuer anberer gemadjt Ijaben (Rosegger). Note 2. From the indef. luer have come the interrogative and relative tter, in both of which the former indefinite force is still felt. f. cttoaS (often contracted to ira) something, some, somewhat, what, uninfiected : @r fyat etiraS getan. @ott td) 3^nen etrca3 oit biefem ammeI6raten juf ommen laffen ? @r ifl etn?aS (somewhat) i?oit 147.1. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 197 einem eleven. 3d) irifl bir icag fagen I'll tell you what. Note that the negative not anything is rendered, not by ntdjt etrcag, but by nidjtS: afren @ie nicfytS on Serein Sreunbe gefyort? Note. When a neut. adjective-substantive depends upon rroa3, it was formerly in the partitive gen., but this usage has now given place to the appositional construction, the adjective-substantive agreeing with etlWS': etrea<3 iitetf something good, son ftwag utettt. (5<3 ift etwaS 2Bahve$ (once felt as a gen., but now felt as a neut. nom. in apposition with ftroad) baran. 3d) fann cc ettcaa @d)6rtem ftunbenfang ftefjen. S)ie @d)am brennt SRafc^a auf ben SBangen, nad) rcdjts unb Unfa blidt fte fdjeu unb dngftlid), ctlpaS djmflidjeit (old weak gen. to avoid the strong form in -M, which is not distinguished from the nom. and ace. in f(S) getodrtig (Schubin's Boris Lensky, xi). 3d) imtjj bid) nod) toegen etftas anbeven (weak gen.) or attberetn (as the prep, also governs the dat.) fragett. Only rarely is the partitive gen, of the adjective-substantive now found here, but the following example from Hauptmann's Vor Sonnenaufgang, p. 90, proves that it is not entirely extinct : <)u fdjtpafceft Doit alter 5unbfdjaft imb fo tta$ @ut<3 (106. Mote 2). g. itirbtd nothing, uninflected ; ott $at t>te SBelt auS nirf;t erfrt)affen. It is avoided in the gen, . Note i. If a neut. adjective-substantive depends upon it, the same appositional con- struction is found as after etwag (see f. Note): SBtfjen. ie nidjtg 9ieue3? Do you know nothing new ? Jlannft bit bid) ntit nid)t^ S3efTerem befdjdftigen ? .AW* 2. It was once inflected as a few set expressions still show. The old nom. and ace. form md)t (contracted from ni lvid)t = nid?t etU 2Btd)t, not a thing, not a wight} is used in a number of set expressions, followed by the partitive gen. : ^>iet ift ttteineg Sleibmg nid)t (nom.) It's too warm (fig.} for me here, or / ' carft stay here. 2Bentt id) mit 2Kenfd)en; unb mit ngel^ungen rebete unb hdtte ber icbe nid)t (ace.) Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels and have not charity. The real gen. still survives in md)tSttmrbtg contemptible, lit. worthy of nothing. In the expression ju nidjte madjen to destroy, it is dat. with the usual dat. case ending. The dat. form in mit ttid)teit not at all has arisen from a contraction of the old doubled form, used for emphasis : mit md)te It(tdjt). The gen. nidjtg was formerly much used as a partitive gen. depending upon nid)t (nom. or ace.), md)te3 nicfyt nothing at all, lit. nothing of nothing. Later when nidjt was felt as an adverb the gen. nidjtg remained as the regular nom. or ace. of the pronoun. This change of construction was facilitated by the fact that nidjtg remained as an old gen. in a number of set expressions where it was construed as a nom. or ace. : Ultdjtg (old gen. felt as a nom.) gebridjt (formerly impers. verb with gen.) utl3 Nothing is lacking to us. (t vergipt (formerly with gen., ROW usually with ace.) ntd)tg (an old gen. felt as an ace.). The old ace. ntd&t has now become the regular form for the adverbial negative not. This adverbial negative is in fact the adverbial ace. of degree (amount), and was in an earlier period only added to strengthen the negative en or ne: (M.H.G.) er *ist niht guot He is not good, lit. He is not good, not in any respect or thing. Later the en dropped out and left to nidjt the office of negative. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 146. The interrogative pronouns are : iver who ; reag what ; redder, rcelcfte, tveldjeS which, what ; jaS fur enter, tt>a3 fiir. eine, ivaS fitr ein(e)3 what kind. 147. i. SBet is declined : Masc. and Fern. Neuter. N. iver who irag what G. ireffen, weS (poet.) whose ireffeu, iveS of what D. item (masc. and fern.), reer iro(r) + prep. (see C. b); rca3 (fern. ; see B. b] to whom (see C. a) A. rcen whom irafj what 198 PRONOUNS 147. i. A. A. The neut. gen. toeS, still common in early N.H.G., is now little used except in the adverbial compounds toeSfyalb for what reason, toeStoegen on what account, why, also in attributive use, as explained in E, below. The corrupted form toeffent, instead of the more correct toeffen, is still quite common in composition with the prepositions toegen and urn toilien, where the reference is to a person : toeffenttoegen, urn tocjfenttottten. Ex. : Urn ireffenttoiKen qudten toit intS benn itberfyaitpt tnit fotd)en ad)en? (Fontane's Stechtin, XI. p. 145). As toeffen is so often used with reference to a person, it is avoided with reference to a thing. The colloquial language employs here the ace. toa$ instead of the more correct but ambiguous toejfen : SBegen h>a3 fyajl bit bid) fo aitfgeregt ? See also C. a, below. a. In inquiring after an individual in a group of two or more we may use toeld); or toev : toeld)e$ (according to 148. a), or toeldjer, or toer son betben tjl ert @d)mib? SQ3eld)et von Sfynen?, but also the gen. if the definite article or a pronominal is used : 2Md)er bet beiben 93ritber ? SSer in connection with con is also used where we employ attributive what'. @ie ivar gefommen, itm ben @d)toeftetn bie toid)tige 9tad)rid)t ju itberbringen, toet am tnorgigen DteujafyrStage von jungen 2)?dbd)en (what young ladies) nun tnit after 93ej}itmntl)ett bei cfe ovgcfiet(t toerben toiirbe (Ompteda's Sylvester von Geyer, XXXVII). Although the gen. of toetd)s was common here in early N.H.G., it is now replaced by the gen. of toer: Nit in ber Slufferfiefyung | toenn jte aufferflefyen | toeld)$ (in revised editions toejfen) toeib toirb fte fein ttntet jnen? (Markxii. 23). B. a. The masc. dat. toem usually refers Only to living beings, but Lessing in his Nathan (5, 6) employs it also as a neutral form, expressing uncer- tainty as to whether the reference is to a person or a thing : (Recha) U(ein allein bag gefyt jit Jueit ! Sent fann id) md)ts entgegenfe|en, ntd)t ebulb, nid)t liberlegitng^ nid;tg ! (Sittah) SBaS [ge^t jit h>eit] ? 3Bent [fannjl bit nid)t3 entgegenfc^en]? This usage is common also in colloquial language. In the same way the gen. loefjen can be used as a neutral form. b. The fern. dat. rcer, though not usually given by grammarians, is occa- sionally found in good authors: SSon elio3 gejeugt? uon tter geboren ? (Goethe) Begotten of Helios ? Born by what mother? $5a bit fo eine Slrt SBruber on if)r btjl 9>on t^r ? Son U?er ? (Wilbrandt's Die Maler, 3, 3) Since you are a kind of brother to her To her ? To whom ? Also other ways of making the gender clear occur 1 : (Carl) (r gibt ingfltmbe ? SSetn? (Isolde) 2)er. (Carl) Sent ber ? (Ernst Rosmer's Dammerung, Act 3). Seftgeregtut i 2g ent unb iretdjer fteigt nid^t bet btcfem 2Borte eine gefyenjMfd)e Grinnerung in ber eete auf ? (Raabe's Keltische Knocheri). C. The dat. of the neut. does not usually occur except in connection with a preposition, in which case the form is either : a. That of the ace., not infrequently in the classical authors and with ever increasing frequency in the language of our time, which is in general becoming averse to adverbial compounds (see b) : 3it rtxt3 bie 5pofie? (Goethe). 23efte(lt, gndbiger Jtaifer? jit ta3 ? (Wildenbruch's Kaiser Heinrich, 2, 18). 3 hxtf frft ber eine tt>a3 coraiig I;aben? (Halbe's Hans Rosenhagen, I. p. 43). Brigitta : <2ie ttegt, it>eint, fd)J6rt : fte muffe if>n ertofen. Gottfried : Son ta3 ? (Hauptmann's Der arme Heinrich, I. p. 33). In colloquial language and dialect tcatf is often employed after prepositions and verbs without respect to the cases which they usually govern, in order to make the thought clear : iregen tt>a3 (as twgen toeffen might mean on account of whom ; not tt>e3egen, as it has adverbial force =why). 2Ba3 toofynte (elsewhere with dat.) et bet? See also A, above. b. Or especially in choice language the adverbial compound too (or toot before a vowel) + a preposition : toomit' with what, tooon' of what, toorin' in what, &c. The prepositions governing the ace. also form compounds with too(r) in the same way : tocrit'ber about what, toofur' for what, tooretn' (the one prep, in changes its form in these adverbial compounds to express the ace. relation, becoming ein) into what, tooritm' (more commonly in this case 147.;i. E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 199 urn Wag) concerning what, &c. These compounds cannot be freely formed, but occur only in case of the prepositions enumerated in 141. 5. B. But also here there is a growing aversion to the adverbial forms : ,,9Zebe, | bamit wir un3 Serjldnbigen." Uber wag? " (Wildenbruch's Konig Laurin, 3, l). D. The German like the English has no special form for the plural, but differs from the English in that the verb also remains sing., except in case of Wet and wag as predicate in connection with the verb to be : 3Bcr ftnb bte Santen ba? 3d) weifj nicfyt, wer jte itnb. 2Bag jtnb bte Singe ba ? 2>a3 finb 33lumen. But as subject : SBer war ba ? Who was or were there f A general indef. pi. idea can be brought out by placing directly after tt>er (or wag), or several words removed, the adverbial alleg : 2ikr fontmt benn af(eg ? Who all are coming ? 3d) Weip nid)t, wen adeg cr eingelaben fiat, or went affeg er eine Sintabung gefd)icft tyat. SBag man bod) nid)t atteg fyert ! Well, I declare, what strange things one hears ! In inquiries after definite persons or things, the sing, verb with Wcr or wag alone is used, as usually the connection will show whether one is speaking of one person or thing, or of more than one. Some form of Welder, e, eg should be used if some noun or pronoun can be understood : 2Ber fyat bag gebradjt? 3wei ancf3 fyabt jr bauon (bavon) ? (Luke vi. 34). This construction is still occasionally found : SUxtttxu? Ijaft bu nun 33orteit3 bason, Steber? (Lienhard's Till Eulenspiegel, 3). It is still the regular construction in case of adjective- substantives : Ba3 ifl itteg baici ? What good is there in it ? In case of these adjective-substantives all feeling for the genitive is lost, and the form is regarded as a nom. or ace. neut. in apposition with teas, as in similar cases after etivafl (see 145./. Note). Except in case of adjective-substantives simple apposition is now little used, although more common earlier in the period, and is usually replaced by the appositional construction introduced by fur or by the construction with fteld) : 2Ba$ gibt etf S3orjiiglidjeg im fyeutigm Jton^ert ?, but rarely SDlit iua3 liebs licfcem ffie^eigen | gab fie fid) ntit gan^ gu etgenl (Canitz), now SWit n>a<5 fur etncm Ueblid?en, or ftic(d) Uebtidjcm, &c. 5ld), tra^ iji'd ein 2Kann! (Goethe's Egmont, i), now 2Ba3 tft'3 fur ein Sftann ! (So rei id; bod) nun aud>, auf wag [now wag fur eine, or weldje] 9lrt ftd) bte 2!eufc( banfen (Schiller). SSag ^aft bu fyicr [now usually + fur] efd)dfte [in apposition with Wag or possibly a pi. partitive gen.] ? (Storm's >* 7->j/ auf Haderslevhuus, p. 258). In certain set expres- sions, however, the simple appositional construction has become established : 2Ba3 SBunbet 1 (the gen. here is also used : SDag SBunberg, ba unfer 35td)tcr fiir biefe in fafl tagltcfycm 45erfe^r cor t()m etttfatteten SBoquge nicfyt uncmv>finbUd) blieb Johannes Scherr's Schiller, II. chap, iii) what wonder! 2Ba3 Xeufet ! iBa<5 berSeufet! (Ebner-Eschenbach's Verscholleri). 3Pa3 J&eufer! SBeg eiflcg Jlinb ift er? Of what mettle is he? 2Be$ Dlamen?, (Stanbcg, SQotjnortd feib i^r? (H. v. Kleist). In some of these examples Wag or weg is used almost or quite as an attributive adjective, and earlier in the period even assumed in the dat. of the fem. the form of a strong adjective : I'lug Wafer (in revised editions Wag fur) ntacfrt ttjufhi bag? (Matt. xxi. 23). In English, what has, indeed, become an attributive adjective in many cases, and can be used freely as such, while in German the appositional construction has in general been retained, and is usually, aside from certain groups described above, clearly marked as such by the fiir preceding the appositive. The construction with/te? 3d? rceifj nid?t, n;en <&ie meinen. a. Set can be limited by a relative clause : Set, ber e$ nidjt ntit Slugen gefefyen Ijar, ermag ftdj bteS gcljeimm$eHe ebict aud) nut sorjufhtten ? (H. Hoff- mann's Rittmeister, III. p. 133) What person who, &c. & Sa^ is much used colloquially after the statement of an opinion or idea to ask for a confirmation of the same from the person addressed : iibfd)e trajje, iraS? It's a fine street, isn't it? 3d) liebe fcfjneUe (Sntfc^lujfe ie aitd) h?ag ? c. Sometimes toaS is used adverbially in the meaning why : 28a3 Iad)fl bu ? Why do you laugh ? It is also used sometimes like iwe how : 2Ba3 jinb @ie gliicflidj ! How happy you are ! 148. 2BeId)er, ireldje, icetc^eg which, what, used adjectively or sub- stantively ; for inflection see 134. i. Ex. : 2BeId;e 23ud) ifl bag 3t)rtge unb ireld)e0 iji bag feinige ? a. Setd)e^ used with identifying force is treated like bies (see 128. A. a) : 2Se(d)e3 tfl Idnget, bet SMeiftift obet bie gebet? aBeld)e$ ifl bet jungfle Softn ? 3Beld?eS ftnb 3^te Stiiber? 2Beldje3 finb bie (Stgebniffe btefeg ommetfentefletg ? (Wilbrandt's Franz, II). Also in indirect questions: 3Belcfye3 bie inbiibue((en Utfad)en son 0?aabe SBenbung jum ^ef[tmtgmug gen>efen, laft fid) eutfltceUen ntd)t fe^ftrnm (A. B artels, Deutsche Dichtung, p. 56). 149. SBa fur einer, etne, ein(e)S what kind-, for inflection see 134. -2. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 150. There are no independent forms for the relative pronouns, but as such are used : the demonstratives ter, bte, bag (151) who, which, or the interrogatives rcelcfyer, recldje, iveldjeS (152) who, which ; the interrogatives icer who, whoever (155 and 156), ivag which, what, whatsoever (153. r ; 157) ; the adverbial compounds ttjortn, icoruiiter, &c. (153. 2. A), or barin, barunter, &c. (153. 2. B) ; the adverbs wo, roofer, wo^tn (153. 3. A), me (153. 3. B and D. (i)), alg, irenn, ujann, ba (153. 3. C), fo tel (153. 4) ; fo (153. 5) ; also bap (153. 3. C. e), berajeidjert (153. 3. D. (3)), berfelbe (153. 6), rcag fur ein (153. 7), reo (153. 8), alg (153. 8). They have in course of time developed a different word -order from the original demonstratives and interrogatives and now require the verb to stand at the end of the clause : biejemgen eyiirjlen ftnb bie Beflen, rcelcfye mit Qtufopferung i^rer felfcfl beg SSolfeg So^I teforbertu 151.1.*. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 201 a. In early N.H.G. and still later in the classical period al<3 often preceded bet, tt>eld;er, or a relative adverb to make it more prominent : (Sv irodte uon ben Jjofyen, l)c(;lo,efd;Uffenen o btft bit, gauft, bea3 bauerte \voljl etne 9Jhnute, H)dl;renb bercr id) mid) nid)t jn vc^cn, faunt ju atmen, agtc (Spielhagen's Was will das iverdcn, I. chap. xi). (Sintcjc bdiu^lid)c SDItnuten, ivdl)renb beret gran 6uvtts3 bte Slu^en gefdilcjTcn Ine(t (id., Ein neuer P/iarao, p. 13). e. The early N.H.G. occasional long form bcrcn (fern. dat. sing.) has entirely given way to the short form ber, as there seemed a desire, as in case of the 202 PRONOUNS 151. i.e. demonstrative bet, to distinguish, contrary to usage elsewhere in the inflection of fern, adjective forms, between the gen. and dat. sing. : D ^urftin, bcrcn (now bcv) ]td) ein folder gurfl erbunben (Weckherlin), The older short form ben (dat. pi.) is now entirely replaced by benen. 2. 2)er is not used : a. Adj actively, in which function it is replaced by forms of tveldjer : @r fagte guten Sag/' irelcfyen rufj fte freunbltcfy errciberte. b. The relatives bag and tt>elc(?e were earlier in the period em- ployed like the identifying bag (129. 2. C. (i)) as the subject of the clause, remaining unchanged for all genders and numbers : llnter cmbern feat er eine @iinbfiut gemalt, bag etirag (Sinjigeg ifi (Goethe). 2)ie Sttftfandle anjutmngen, treld)e8 fleine 9R6f)ren on gefcrannter @rbe icaren (id.). >ie3 93uc6 nannte man ben (Styaffpeare, tt>elcfye ber 93erfaffer beSfel&en war (G. Keller). These relatives are now usually inflected and agree with the antecedent. The older usage is still sometimes found when the relative is used in a collective sense : 3cfy fenne ben SSritber unb bte cfytrefter, tcelcfyeS fceibeg (or more commonly icelcfye fceibe) fefir acfytnnggirerte ^erfonen ftnb (D. Sanders). Different is the case where the relative is the predicate ; see 153. i. (3), towards end of art. 3. On the other hand, in the substantive relation ber is more frequent than icetcfyer both in the literary language and in common conversation. The leading points as to use are as follows : A. >er, not rcelcber, is used in the gen. sing, and pi. if the gen. stands before the noun upon which it depends : 3)ag ie alte Waiter, inner^alb beren or rcelcfter jet nur ein Sell ber td)terS 2Berfe bit eft empfefjien tour ben. b. Earlier in the period also the gen. of toetdj; could stand before the governing noun : Sieber | erberbe ben nidjt mit betnet petfe | vmb u>e(dx3 nn((cn (l^rtftug cjeftorben ijl (Rom. xiv. 15). 2)eim ein 9Beib I^atte on jm gel)6rt | eld)et Xccf>tei-ttti einen wnfaubeni etfl fjatte (Mark viu 25). (Sine fo eble Xat . . . ivie bte ifl, urn toetcfyet tci((en id) gefangen fifce (Goethe's GiJtz, 4, 2). B. >er is also usually employed when the relative refers to an interrogative or personal pronoun, or a noun in the vocative : 2Ber, ber eg nicfyt nut 5lugen gefefcen fjat, tterntaa, ftct; bieg ge^eimntgootte ettet auc^ nur or$ujMen? (H. Hoffmann's Rittmeister, III. p. 133). ($:r, ber nur | gerco^nt ift jit fcefe^fen unb gu tun, | fennt nic^t bte Jlttnfi, yon weitem ein e|>rdd? | nad; feiner Qlfcftdjt langfam fetn ;;u lenfen (Goethe's I phi genie t i, 2). a, err raf, ber eld?= was used freely in subject and object clauses, but with a different shade ; see a, below. 2fier is also employed in subject and object clauses, but with a different meaning, namely, with generalizing or indefinite force ; see 156. a. In early N.H.G. lv>etd)et was used in subject clauses with general or indefinite force just as tt>er (see 156) is now employed : 3Be(djet tjfet j bev iffet bent (Sn:n (Rom. xiv. 6). See also Rom. xiv. z, 3. 2)cr was also much used in subject clauses, but with a different shade of meaning, namely, with individualizing force. Later u>cr replaced iwld^et here, and nxldjer assumed the force of ber and became interchangeable with it. 2Belcf)et is not, however, used here so much as ber, and cannot be used so freely, as it is limited to the cases where the predicate is a noun or pronoun and precedes the subject. Early N.H.G. usage, however, is still occasionally found. D. er is usually employed if the clause is a predicate clause (see 270. i) : 2)u fcifi nicfyt, ber bit fcfyetnjl (Fulda's Talisman, i, 4). 28et is used if the relative has a general or indefinite meaning: 3ld) SScitercbeit, nnr bleiben, icer roir ftnb (ib., i, 10). 152. i. SBelcfyer (, icelcfye, rcelcfyeS) who, which is inflected as a strong adjective except in the gen. masc. and neut. sing., where the strong ending =e is used instead of the weak =en. For those places where rcelcfyer is not usually found see 151. 3. A and B. In the constructions mentioned in 151. 2 icelcbet is either exclusively used or is occasion- ally found. 2,. SBelcfycr is much used in some parts of Germany, where it is preferred to ber, and is, in general, very useful where a number of relatives occur in the sentence in relieving ber, thus varying the construction, especially where one relative depends upon a word in another relative clause. Or, on the other hand, ber may relieve roeld)er ; and indeed it is more common in case there are two relatives to use first rcelcber and then ber : @S ijl eine Sfteifje on Safyren tyer, al3 jit bent Qlrttflerieregtment, icelcfyeg f)ter in arnifon ftefyt, ein eltentivicfelung nennt, njelcfyeS freilid; ein irenig intereffanter unb reidjer alg biefeg Sud; ift, bag aber and; nid;t, trie biefeg SBurt), in brei Seilen $u einem befriebigenben 5lbfd?lufj fommen mufj (Raabe's Hungerpastor, chap. i). a. Some grammarians claim that toeld^, not ber, should be used if the relative is preceded by the demonstrative ber and followed by the article ber, to avoid an unpleasant repetition ; but the colloquial language does not seem to be averse to this combination, as the words are so differently accented that they receive quite a different pronunciation : 2ld), bag [i. e. bie @d)neiber the daddy-long-legs} ftnb bie, bie bie langcn Seine fyabeu (Fontane's Stechlin, XXX). H. Seidel in his story Die iveifsen Ratten facetiously calls attention to a warning notice in a public park which shows a too liberal use of this repe- tition : 2)ie, bie bie, bie bie 9ln(ao,en befcfyabtgen, jur Slnjetge brtngen, erfyalten fiiuf Saler 153. Both ber and reeld)er are replaced by other words in the following cases : i. In the nom. and ace. relation traS is usually employed under the following circumstances : (i) If the antecedent is a word of general or indefinite meaning, or expresses a collective idea, such as ba, etntgeg, etn3, etiuaS (or wag), folrt)e3, ein anbereS, nid?t, atleg, meferereS, manrt;e, *>iele3, aflerfyanb, atterlei, baS tnfjdien, irenig, &c., a neuter abstract noun or adjective-substantive (tui8 ;rt)cme the beautiful, &.C., especially a superlative, ba siBefie that which is best], also a neut. noun denoting a material or a collective idea, provided the reference is to an indefinite mass or amount: (JinS aber imp id), traS ifit nid)t mefcr iript : ira3 Oted^t unb Itnredjt, @ut unb 336fe tfl (Hauptmann's Versunkene Glocke, p. 106). @ie fprad) irie Oon etiraS, ira fte gar nid?t3 anging (H. Bohlau's Rangierbahnhof, p. 43). @ie fa^) aber nidjtg, n:aS urn fie forging. (SS gifct tin iJeben fo mand?e8, n?a3 nnS rdtfcll;aft erfcfteint. @r oer^reifelt fiber^au^t an attem ei(, tvaS ber 2>ienfdil)eit burd) bie efet(fd)aft ^n teil irerben fann (Albert Geiger in Die Nation, loth March, 1900). SWan fann bag ja nid^t im (Sntfernteften augfriirfen: bag a)i^fteriiun, ruag fid) bamalS OoU^og (Hauptmann's Michael Kramer, Act 3). $ltte3 2Qefy, iraS er mir bereitet fyat (Fontane's Schach von Wuthcnow, chap. xxi). >aS , ivag id; Oefaf?, >rar in ben nddjflen 2agen oertan (Raabe's /?/i? Leute aus dem IValde, chap. x). QBenn bamalg ein Sdemann gefommen n:dre, ein finger, wa^r^aft finger, ^ergengfluger, unb bie atlein, 206 PRONOUNS 153. i.(i). 33ergebung, 23ergeBung, SSergefcung, ftott beg taufcen, toten Seugg, n?ag fo fcfyone @d?ulmetflernanten I)at, 3d?t unb Drbnung, tyeilfame (Strenge, unb rcie eg fyeifjt ufnx (Wildenbruch's Neid, p. 127). QBag often points to a definite person or thing, the speaker at first intentionally making the reference indefinite by the use of icag, reserving the definite information for the last part of the statement : >ag erfte, reag ifynen fn'er fcegegnete, tear bte Jtritgergfrau( Fontane's Vor dem Sturme, IV. 3). SBag is also used here contemptuously of a person : 2Bag ift bag fitr eiu ungefcacfeneg 25rotcfeen (referring to Emil), irag ba fjtnten ft|t unb mitfjmcfyt (H. Behlau's Rangterbahnhof, p. 208). The use of rcog as described above seems to be the outcome of a long process of differentiation. Earlier in the period bag and rceldjeg were also used here. This older usage is still, especially in elevated diction, not infrequently found, as the process of differen- tiation is not yet completed : QSieleg, bag btefem QSolfe gut fnejj (Nietzsche's Zarathuslra, p. 80). It is possible that there is often here an intentional use of bag or irelcfyeg by way of differentiation, to refer to something definite, definite at least to the speaker: 3n beni @d?Iaftmmer . . . ba ware an einer SBanb, fo |te eg, em 33orfyang unb unter bent SSorfyang etvtag, bag niemanb fannte, niemanb gefetjen ^atte, jreit feine anb ben 33orf;ang luften burfte (Wildenbruch's Neid, p. 14). 5(n biefer <5tefle fotlte icf; nun etrcag erlefcen, Jtetc^eg ntirf) ^eute nod? in ber (Sttnnerung init eifterfpanb in tiefjler @eele krit^rt (Raabe's Die Leute aus dem Walde, chap. x). We cannot here, however, in any case absolutely determine whether the bag or rceld?eg is used merely as a survival of older usage to indicate a collective idea or something indefinite or general, or is employed intentionally in accordance with modern usage elsewhere, to refer to something definite. Thus bag and irelcfyeg are now as formerly still used with both of these two groups of meanings, with a tendency, however, toward the second group, while ivag, which also once fluctuated between both of them, is now established in the first group, as described above. (a) In the genitive relation, tteffen is used under the same circum- stances which require rcag in the nom. or ace. relation : @g fyanbelt ftd?, elmutlp, nicfyt urn bag, vceffen 2)u fccbarfji, fonbern eg fyanbelt fid? unt bag, tteffen bte Jltnber fcebitrfen (Fontane's Unwiederbringlich, chap. vi). 3n- beffen fceunrufyigte ityn bag, njag id? ifym \?on bent SBetragen feineg ^Baterg in biefer Qlngelegentyeit fagte, unb atleg, rceffen er o^nef?tn ton i^m gerrartig fetn ju muffen gtaubte (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. xxvi). Also here the older form beffen is still used : bag Ieid?e, beffen fte tfyre egner anflagten (Keller's Seldwyla, I. p. 194) ; bag unaugfpredjltd? Snnige atter SKujtf, termoge beffen fte alg ein gan^ tfertrauteg 5?arabifg an ung t>oru6erjie{;t (Schopenhauer's Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, p. 347). (2) With reference to a thing, irag is now usually used in sub- stantive clauses. The student should remember this especially in case of clauses which are in apposition with eg : 0lid?t 8wd?t trar eg, rcag feine uerfleUte ^artnacfigfeit enbltd? beftegte (Schiller). @te^t auf ! jtnb'g biefe nidjt unb biefer Drt, | rag eud? jit 2Boben gtetyt (Grillparzer's Libussa, i). (5g n?ar etne grope 0leigung, Jvag fte jufammenfu^rte (Fontane's 153.2. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 207 Stechlin, XIII. p. 164). SOBat eg fin taum,wag fte erlebten? (Wildenbruch's Neid, p. 61). Throughout the entire present period bag is more or less fre- quently found in substantive clauses instead of wag as a survival of older usage : SBag ifl'g, bag ben SBefe^I beg Jtcnigg f)inbert (Goethe's Iphigenie, 4, 2). SBag war eg nur gewefen, bag afle SWenfdjen $u itym tyin* 509? (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap, xxxvii). When the predicate of the sentence precedes the relative clause, as in the preceding examples, the relative (either ber or weld?er) is often attracted to the gender and number of the predicate : 2)er Sweifel ift'g, ber uteg bofe ntad?t (Goethe's Iphigenie, 5, 3). 2)enu eben biefe faiferlicfce 2)iilb' nnb @nabe ift'g, bie fte bigfyer fo imgefyeiter ntip"6raud?ten (Goethe's Gotz, 3, i). 2>iefe Sragen unb anbere ntefyr waren eg, weldje bie itntern SRdume beg 4>aufe8 bewegten (Raabe's Friihling, chap. xiii). (3) If the reference is to the idea contained in a whole sentence : er, iromit' id; biefeS fcfyreibe, ifl fefyr fcfytecfyt. These compound adverbs cannot be freely formed, but occur only in case of the preps, enumerated in 141. 5. B. This adverbial construction can even be used of per- sons if taken collectively: @r fcefant 30 gcfangen, rcotton' auf ber <8tefle 20 aufgefedngt nntrben. These compounds are separable in popular speech : G war ctn Socb, n?o ber SSirtD burd) pftff. See also B, below. A. Besides these relative adverbs the appropriate forms of bet and ttetcftet, as mtt bent, mtt n?eld)em, &c., are also employed here. Although the relative adverbs are very common in popular and colloquial speech, the literary language seems to prefer the declined pronominal forms. The adverbial forms are, however, always used in the following cases : (i) When the antecedent is a whole sentence : >et SSatet fyatte nad) bem Seljne gefcfytcf t, Woven btefcr ftei(id) nidjtg etfafyten fyatte. In the cases given in 2, above, where the adverbial forms are not used, ber or weldjet must be employed. With the prepositions tttegen and fyalb the short gen. form of ttag, i. e. tt>eg, is usually used. See 151. i. b. (2) When the antecedent is an expression of general or in- definite meaning, such as afleg, nidjtg, &c. : @r loufjte a((eg, toovon id? nttt Sfynen gefyrodjen fyatte He knew everything of which I had spoken to you. (3) After names of places we find \vo, compounded with f)tn or Ijer according to the meaning : umbmnen, njofyin id) in arnifon fam Gumbinnen, to which place I came to join the garrison. a. The relative pronoun must be used if any ambiguity might arise from the use of the relative adverb : ($t fyat ifjm viele S3cmn"trfe gemadjt, von benen (with reference to 93orurfc ; _h>ovon would refer to the statement of the main proposition) abet ntcfyte in bie Dffcntlicfyfett gefomnten tft. The relative pronoun is also usually (not, however, always) used when the antecedent is a strongly accented determinative, as bet', bet'jeiuge, fotcfyer, or as cm in the meaning of ein frlcfyet : (S3 teat eine Stadjt, in toelcfyer (rather than ivotin) man nicfyt getn etnen ^>unb fytnausiagt. 2te3 ntd)t fold)e Siid)et, aitS bencn bu uicf>tg letnen fannfi. Even here, however, the relative adverb is used if the antecedent is a neut. pronoun of general or indef. meaning : 35et Hebe ott gebe U)ter Seele bag, tt>o$u et fte gefdjajfen, Stcitbe. B. Instead of the relative adverb we still find sometimes the demonstrative adverb, a construction which was very common earlier in the period : 9lu btefet @te((e, einet SBalbltcfytuno., tag bag ait3, bvin (now more commonly in bent or ttotin) ?ifoi)g unb fetn Stitbet @tevl)an ivo^nten (Fontane). These adverbial compounds are now little used with reference to the thought in a preceding sentence, but this usage was common earlier in the period : 2)te efeflfdwft lacfyte, nnb ct IjetjUd) nttt, big et in cinen ^uften etfte(, bcr unfetn St^furg eine 3eit lang untetbrad&, batauf benn ber junge SWenfd) iteber bas SBort natjm (Goethe's Werther>2itt\ I. Julius). Earlier in the period such adverbs also referred to persons, and were often separable : ein SBeib, ba ber SDfann feine greube an Ijat (Luther), ben Serg, ba bu auf ftofjnetf (Luther). C. This adverbial construction, except in the case mentioned in 2, above, must not be used of persons, as is often heard in the language of the common people : 2>cr ftreunb, rait bent or tueldjera (not tttomit) id) geretft bin. Earlier in the period, however, these adverbs were also used with reference to persons even in the literary language : ber, ftomit man fprtd)t (Hagedorn) ; bag 2Rabd)en, ttovon bu geftern bag ieb fangft (Goethe). 3d) bad;te ber lieben SBriiber, ber aBeftfatett, toomtt id) fo oft in ottingen getrunfen (Heine). 3. Other adverbs and conjunctions can also take the place of the relatives after prepositions and sometimes elsewhere. 153.3- MI)- RELATIVE PRONOUNS 209 A. 9&o, rocker, rootyin, or in choice prose and poetry ba, bafjer, bafjin, for place : )er $ta, rco (= an rceld;em) er jknb; bie tabt, itofyin (nad; rceld;er) er gefyt. B. 2Bie for manner: >ie Qlrt unb SEeife, nrie (= in reeldjer) er aitf* trat. C. For time : a. WU when, if actual occurrences or conditions are recorded : tm 3al)re 1890, alS id; in SBerltn flubierte. b. SCBenn or rcann (now rather infrequent, occurring only as a survival of earlier usage) when, if not a definite actual occurrence is before the mind, but something that is or was wont to happen, or a point in future time : 5tn fcfyonen 9(6enben, rcenn irtr or ber Stir ften. 2ftand;mai in tiefer 9lacfyt, rcenn afleg rings umtyer nu)te, fang fte mir. D fcfyoner Sag, tvenn enbtid; ber otbat | ing efcen fjeimfetyrt, in bie 2)?enf^lic^fett (Schiller's Piccolommi, i, 4). c. 9Bo when, the most common of the temporal particles used either of actual occurrences or conditions in the past or present, or of some point in the future, largely replacing al in case of present and often wenn in case of future time : llnb mit ber 5)dmmerung fam ein ^ugenBlicf, rco jebe @ttmme Derfiummte (Raabe). 3cft tin in einein QUter, ivo mir bte fc^onen 2Borte nicfytS me^r ^elfen (Halbe's Mutter Erde, p. 75). 3d) rear in ben glCirflicfyen 3afyren, io im3 atteS gefatlt. Ginft fommt fcet SKorgcn, njo i(^ . . . bte 9Burg fc^on frit!^' Uertaffe (Hebbel's Nibelungen, II. i, 2). 5)er Qtfcenb barf nie fommen, tuo id? fyier fo jiiinbe (H. von Hofmannsthal's Die Hochzeit der Sobeide, p. 63). d. 2) a is often used instead of ivo, quite commonly earlier in the period and not infrequently still in choice prose : @te mitffen Oerfucfyen, ftcfy in bte %t\t 5uritcfjuoerfe|en, ba (or more commonly ico or ate) and? anb in ber meintgen get)alten fyabe, l)at bag i&erj beg jungen Dtngeg fafl grceitaufenb (d;Idge getan (Raabe's Friihling, chap. xiii). 2)te brei 3Konate bie fttrje 3< : >t / bap id; ^ier 6ei eud; futteve (colloq. cat, board), Bin id; ^caiijtg ^funb fd;>t'erer getcorben (M. Dreyer's Drei, i). It is often more common now to use an adverb (u?o, &c.) here. In certain set expressions, however, baf} is still frequent : (3 finb jtcolf 3at)re, bafj id; fyter u-o^ne. See also 271. II. D. The English such as is translated in various ways : (i) By njte (earlier in the period ale) followed usually by a pronoun of the third person referring to the antecedent (see 251. II. A. if): 2)ag war ein Jlampf, nne itjn feiner nod; gcfefyen tjat. @r jeigte eine iRit^rung, line j.ener fleine 2)tenfl fte gar nid;t rccrt icar. A fold;, berarttg, berlei, fo may precede the line (ale!) : (2old;e (berartige, berlet, fo grof e) o ein arnteS alg (now usually une) id; Inn (Goethe). p 210 PRONOUNS 153.3. MI)- Instead of the personal pronoun we also find ein= in the sing, and ntlfy in the pi. : 2luf ber @tirn fyat eg ein orn, after mcJjt etn fo frummeS jrie bag Stagljorn einS tyat. . . . 93on feinen ttter rlrf)c um ben al3 tragt (Wildenbruch's ./Vtf, p. 100). (2) After fold?* also by the usual relatives: fold)e 9Bud)er, bie baju fceitragen, ba erj $u fcerufyigen. (3) By bergletcfyen (uninflected) : (3 iiterftel U)n ein Unfce^agen, bergleid)en er in feinent Seben nod) nicfyt em:pfunben fjatte. See also 161. 2. 4. a3 fiir ein is used relatively : 2Bo3 er fur anbetg* gefdfjdfte beginnt, er gewinnt bet alien. 8. The relatives ber and toelcfyer are not popular with the common people, and are often here replaced by the demonstrative ber, the relative adverbs too and als, the adverbial compounds toomit (see 2. C, above), &c., and the un- inflected h>aS : 9ld) SSater, fagte $anfe(, id) fe^e nac^> metnem toei^en ^d^d?en, ba^ ft^t oben auf bent S)ad) (Grimm's Mdrchen). iDas fc^Ied)te SKeffer, tto (= bag) er f>at (Hebel). 3fl bo<^ a(( ntand^e ju 0?ang unb @tanb gefontmen, too (= ber, fern, dat. sing.) ntan'g nidjt an ber SBtege gefungen fyat, baft bie ntat toirb gnabige 5rau ^ei^en unb ierlang fafyren (Halbe's Das tausendjdhrige Reich, p. 43). SBer ftnb bie, too (= toetc^e) eben gefomnten ftnb (ib., p. 63). 2)ag DuecffUber in ber 9Jct)re ifl bemjenigen, ats in bent ^olblein ftefyt, gteidj (Hebel). 5)er ^ned;t, toaS mit'm SBagen toar, ^at fo toa3 bergteid^en g'rebt (Anzengniber). 154. Neither ber nor rrelcber can be omitted as in English : a 93udj, ba (or rceldjeg) id) geflern gelefen fyabe, ifi intereffant The book I read, &c. 155. i. QSer who, whoever, somebody who and tra what, which, whatever are inflected exactly as the interrogative iver and ica3. See 147. i. a. The old gen. toes is sometimes still used instead of toefien in poetry and biblical language : 2Be3 bag Herfc o( ijl | beg gefjet ber Munb fber (Matt. xii. 34). The neut. gen. toeg is still common also in prose in the compounds nvgfyaib, toeStoegen ; see 151. i. b. The masc. and neut. gen. toeg is also still occasionally found in concessive clauses, where it is used seemingly as an adjective modifying a following gen. : (Sincnt SKdbcfjen, eS efynfud)t fennt, weip, wag id) leibc Only those (I know not just who they are) who know what yearning is know what I suffer, but 2)er mid; liefrt unb fennt, tjl in ber 3Bette He who (a definite person) loves me and knows me is far away. 5)te id) inetne, fyeift fyrait ^tnbelt'lee (Hauptmann's Versunkene Glocke, Act 2, 1. 1047). >ie (= bie weld)e, here definite persons) fo rebeten, wufjten fef)r wof)!, bap fte 6ig ju einem gewtffen rabe bie offentlidje SKeinting ifyreg SSoIfeg unb eereg Winter ftd) fatten. 28er bag gefagt fyat, ifl ein \Jugner Whoever (somebody, but I don't know who) said that is a liar. 2Ber nfcer tyereinfam, ba8 war ber SSil^elm Who do you suppose came in? But of course you don't know. Just think, it was William. Quite different is ber, ireldjer Ijeretnfam, icar 9J5iIf)etm It was William who came in. @3 tut bod) tco^I, rcen (somebody whom) man Iteb l;at, einmat itncber mit 5(ugen jit fe^en. In these sentences the relative nxr still contains something of its original indef. nature ; see 145. e. Note 2. a. The double construction is employed after toet as found after jentanb described in 145. b. Note i : vujkn @ie Sasatmt . . . unb tocm Ste enm ute3 (or utem) bcgegncn (Goethe an Karl August, I, 38). 157. 2BaS can be used in the same indef. sense as rcer : 2Ga3 er fagt, ifl gut. 3Sa3 can have an antecedent, if that antecedent be a word expressing an indef. general idea, such as an indef. pronoun, a neut. adjective used substantively, or a thought con- tained in a whole sentence, but it should never have for an antecedent the name of a def. object, though some good authors do thus use it instead of the more correct ujeld)er or ber (see 153. i. (4)) : QlUeS, u;a3 cr fagt, ifi gut. 2)a3 icar bag djltinmfie, n?aS id; befitrd)tete. SKein 9Bruber ifl retd), waS (here also n:e(d;eg but not now bag; for fuller explanation see 153. i. (3)) id) nid)t Inn. S)ag ut, wag (instead of bag or iceldjeg) ber abater ^intorlaffen ^iat (Freytag). For fuller treatment of the use of wag with an antecedent see 153. i and the various articles thereunder. . In early N.H.G. bag could also be used in plain substantive clauses, where it is now usually replaced by nxitf : 35 nb lucr md)t tyat | pen bent Untb man ncmen | and) bas cr l)at (Mark iv. 25). >a3 is most common in such substan- tive clauses as are in apposition with an eg, but even there only in poetry or choice prose ; see 153. i. (2). b. 2Ba3 is also used of persons in a collective sense : 2Ba3 cn Dffijieren im Sagcr ttav, Una-fee jufantmengctvcmntelt (Ompteda's Sylvester -von Ceyer, XLIX). Sometimes with the force of hxr in a general indefinite sense : gtufj ufrt fid, tt)ag ein 3Jtcifier toerben ttiU (Schiller's Tell, 3, i). 2Ba3 in this meaning is now p -z 212 PRONOUNS 157. b. more commonly employed contemptuously : 2Ba3 fo ^erumbuntmelt, bringt te ju nidjts. 158. i. The adverbs immer, aud), or combined aud) tmmer, also and) nur, nur immer standing after rcer and ica, or several words removed, give generalizing force to the relative, and are much like our ever, soever in whoever, whatever, &c. : 2Ber immer e3 gefagt ^at, er f)at gelogen. SSon irent er e3 aucfy immer gefjort fjafcen mag, e3 ifl gelogen. 2. The demon, adverb ba, which often, especially in popular lan- guage, follows the relative, has in general the force of a strengthening word, which often, however, can scarcely be translated (see Note below) : Jtomnte, rcag ba nritt Let come what will. 2Ber ba unfl Whoever will. >er -(!m: | ber ba ifl | ttnb ber ba roar | >nb ber ba fompt(Rev. i. 8). See also Mark xi. 10, Rom. xii. 2. This use of ba, though in early N.H.G. more common, is still frequently found : ag, and hence here has generalizing force. After ber and Jcetdjer (here not so frequently used as bet), ba has particularizing force, calling especial attention to the particular persons or things, or the particular class of persons or things in question. 2)a following an inter- rogative in indirect questions has particularizing force as after ber and lueldjer : 3Me itten ftehen ernft unb |W(, unb Barren, wag ba werben ftnfl. 3. The demonstrative adv. fo is placed after trag to denote the general idea of quality, so that both words together convey the idea of such things as : 2Ba3 mag njoljl bartn fein ? 5ltter^anb Kfetber, c^ii^en, Sanbev, ^littertanb, njag fo ^rauenjimmer fcraucfyen. CONDITIONAL RELATIVE. 159. 9Ber for anybody who, if any one has the same declension as the relative and interrogative rcer. It has the force of irenn man, njenn einer, and the clause in which it is found is treated as if it were a conditional clause, the verb standing at the end of the clause : gretfjett? (in fcfyijneg SBort, rcer'g recfyt oerflaube (Goethe's Egmont, Act 4). gragm ifl feine c^anbe, rcer ein S)ing ntc^t reetp (Grimm). 5)ag (eI6fi- Be^errfc^ung) ifl etne fc^one rrungenfc^aft, wer etn:a6 baoon ^at (Bismarck to his betrothed, Feb. 23, 1847). In early N.H.G. and as late as Goethe's day, ber was also used in the same way. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 160. i. A. Referring to a def. person or object : He (, she, that one [of a thing]), who (which), are represented in German by the following correlatives : a. Ser 7 (tie, bag) jentge, rcetcfyer (rcelcfje, iretdjeS) or ber (bie, ba3). b. er (bie, bae), rceldjer (tcelcfye, itelc^eS). c. 2>er (bie, bag), ber, &c. d. @r. (jte), ber (bie) ; see 2. a, below. 161. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS 213 e. Without antecedent (see 156) : 2)er (not ireldjer) mid) liefct, ift in ber SSeite; or ber, er (see 2. c, below). f. oldjer, ber (n?eld;er) one which, of such a nature that, such as : foldje, bte rcurbig ftnb such as are worthy. We often find trie or at3 instead of ber or welder, and berarttg, berlet, [o, ein instead of fold} ; see 153. 3. D. g. SDetfelfo, ber the same one who : r ift eben berfelfce, ben irir geftern fafyen. h. 2)er, fo (early N.H.G. ; see 153. 5) = ber, rceld>er. /'. The first member in all the above cases can also, except in d and e, be used adjectively. B. Referring indefinitely or in a general way to persons or to some thing : a. SSer, ber : SBer bag fagt, ber lugt. See 156, and 2, b, below. b. >a3 (or baS'jenige, ein, ettraS, nid)tS, adeS, mancfyeS, bieleS, ba3 9?ejie, or any adjective-substantive), wag (not now usually baS or rceldjeS, as in earlier part of the period) : 2Da8(ientge), vcag er fagt, ifl ira^r. (53 gifct im eteu (o mandjeS, iraS un3 rdtfel|aft erfd)etnt. See also 153. i. (i). 2. a. The form er, ber (i. A. d, above) is different from the others. The determinative is of itself indef., and its meaning is only determined by the clause that always follows it. Hence the forms a, b, c are used when it is a question of the who? When the subject is a person already mentioned and thus known and some particular statement with regard to him follows in the relative clause, er, ber are used : @r (Arneth, the Austrian historian, who is the subject of the sketch from which this sentence is taken), ber im cjcmjen etneg ber glitdlid^fien SKenfdjenleben t;tnter fid? fyat, genojj and) bag grofje litcf, etne SDhttter ju f)afcen, bie 311 ben Ijerrlicfyfien beutfdjeu frraueiv gerecfynet icerben mu. Note. Occasionally er is used determinatively with the force of bcr(icnige) : 5m* nti^ ftet)t fie (i.e. bte 3)Ziifif) auf ber unterflen tufe : gut fiir Jlinbev uiib itvaumcr, abev itic^t fur fie, bie fid) ju fyanbelnbeu ^enfc^cn au^gead)fett I}a&en (Spielhagen's Freigeboren, p. 176). b. The ber in i. B. a is not an antecedent of rcer, but only the repetition of the subject rcer, and not being necessary can be dropped. However, if icer and its seeming antecedent do not stand in the same case, it is not usually omitted: 2Ber ein 2)i x al litgt, bent glanbt man ntd)t unb reenn er and; bie iffiafjrfyeit fyridfyt. c. The definite subject ber can be repeated by a following er in the same manner as indefinite iver is repeated by ber, as described in b : er meinen alten Itebern 2)hit uertie^, | in eurc ^iifyle mid; ^inauf jn wagen, | er fle[;t nttr fcet, id) fuel's (Hauptmann's Versunkene Glocke, Act 3, 11. 1382-4). STEREOTYPED PRONOMINAL FORMS. 161. There are a number of compound pronominal forms which are now treated as indeclinables and are written with a small letter, although some of them are in fact substantives. 214 PRONOUNS 161. i. i. ntei'neS (bet'neS, fei'neg, ifi'reg, un'fereS, &c.) gtetdjen one of my (your, his, her, our) stamp, one who is my (your, his, her, our) equal, fossilized genitives (see a) used substantively without change of form for any case sing, or pi. : @etneggtetd)en (nom. sing.) la'fjt ftcfy faum nrieber ftnben. en merfnjurbtgfien $Iafc, beffen letd)en in ber SBelt ttiettetd?t nid;t rcieber u fe^en 163. 3- a. STEREOTYPED PRONOMINAL FORMS 215 ifl (Goethe). 3mmer rcar ityr 5lntltfc son Ieud)tenber te l)ter? How long have you been here? Note. Thus also the perfect infinitive after modal auxiliaries must be rendered into German by the present infinitive, to show that something might have taken place and might now be continuing in existence : SBenn bu sernunftig gewefen lodrcfi, bu fcnrtietr, fa Jung bit fcift, Idngft uttenttietfier fein If you had been reasonable, yon might, as young as you are, have been serving now for a long while as superintendent of the foundry. d. Very often instead of the future, especially in sentences expressing decision, or a result confidently expected, or an inquiry 165.3- A. TENSE 217 after the probable outcome of something, and also in sentences in which the verb is modified by some adverb or conjunction of time which contains the idea of futurity : SWorgen fomm' id? instead of 3d? iverbe morgen fommen. Jtommt cr? @r fommt Will he come? He certainly will. 2Bir ftnb balb ba We shall soon be there. SBarte, bi id? fomnte. e. Instead of the imperative (see 177. 1. B. b}. 2,. The present perfect is used to represent that something is finished at the time of speaking, or that the results of a past act still continue in the present (see also 3. A. a, below) : 3d? fjabe bcu SBrtef fd?on gefd?rieben. 3d? bin eben Son ber tabt gefommen. (SoIumbuS t)at 2lmerifa entbecft. 2)ie ,ftird?e ifi im i4te:t Safjrtyunbert erbaut rcorben. The present perfect is also used : a. Instead of the future perfect : 2>enn bit angefommen bift, trerbe id? bid? bcfud?en (instead of SBenu bu angefommen fetu irtrfl, &c.). b. Often in dialect and colloquial speech instead of the past tense in narrative : QBir fyaben gcgittert ant ganjen Seib," ful)r ber trait ne <2d?mieb fort, n?ir fyaben etn SSaterunfer bcten rcotten, aber bie 3 un 9 e ift *vic gelatyntt geirefen fcor Scared 5 " (Rosegger). 3a, nne trtr nu in fetnem 3?lt gefommen fmb, ba tfl er frfl cine jan^e iBeile fo tif itnb abjegangen unb l;at nifd?t ntd? gerebt (Finke in Wildenbruch's Die Quitzows, i, 8). 5>arauf ^at Santc 3ba mid? angefe^en unb gefragt, , na alfo icer irar'6?' SSeit id? aber bod? geirufjt fyabe, ba bu'g nid?t ^aben irodtefi, ^)abe id? nid?t8 gefagt. 2) a ftat Jante 3ta rote $lerfe anf ben 93arfen befommen unb gemeint, &c. (Young Georg von Drebkau in Wildenbruch's Vice-Mama). This usage is also found in earlier authors of the period. The use of the present perfect here seems to result from the desire of the speaker to bring events of the past into relations to the present. In S.G. dialect the use of the present perfect is further favored by the fact that the past tense indicative (not the subjunctive, however) has in large measure dis- appeared, as certain of its forms have by phonetic development become identical with those of the present. Thus Swabian authors as Schiller sometimes allow themselves to be influenced by dialect here even in their serious productions : 3d? felbjt, al3 mid? in [pater Sdmmrung einfl | ber 5Beg an biefent 9Baunt ttorubcrfufyrte, | tyab' ein ge= fyenftifd? SBeib tyier ftfcen fetyen (Schiller's Jungfrau, Prolog 2, 11. 102-4). 3. A. The past tense usually represents a past act or condition not in its completeness, but as being performed or continuing at the same time as some other act or condition, or it represents the act as completed in past time in connection with some other event. Hence the past tense has for its leading idea that of the simultaneity of two or more related past acts or conditions. It accordingly represents single acts or facts as links in a chain of facts, and for this reason it is the usual tense for the description and narration of all related events and conditions in the past, and is therefore the prevailing tense of narrative, history, and the novel. The past tense, however, is not confined to lengthy description, but is used even in a single sentence if it describes something as it once was without relation to the present : >U beutfd?en Jtaifer rcurbe it in 218 THE VERB 165. 3. A. furt gefront. Thus the past tense cuts us off from the present entirely, and leads us into the midst of past events and conditions which are developing at the same time with close relations to each other, but with no relations whatever to the present, and thus this tense differs rather sharply from the present perfect, where the relation to the present is never entirely broken off. The past tense does not, however, imply necessarily time very remote, but is used for time past, whether it refers to remote acts or to those of a few moments ago, if it turns the mind from the present to two past acts or events, or to a series of past events in their relations to each other : 2113 bte 93dume in flofljler SBIiite ftanben, trat tyeftiger jyrofl ein. 3d? fang, inbem er Plainer fpielte. 3d) fang Mm 5lnfletten. Gd'far fiarfc 44 . dfyr. a. The past tense is often confounded with the present perf. The latter is used when the results of a past act still exist in the present, or to represent a past event as an independent fact, not as a link in a chain of related events, and emphasizes the bearing of this past event upon the present. Thus the present perfect looks at the past from the standpoint of the present or of stern fact, while the past tense takes us into the past and enlists our interest in the events then taking place. Hence in the midst of a narrative where the past tense or past perfect has been uniformly used, the speaker changes to the pres. perf. at once, when he desires (i) to represent a past act not as a link in the chain of events, but according to his judgment as an important independent fact, or (2) to represent that the result of a past act still exists at the time of the narrative: (i) SJutfter tat gu SBcrmS einen @ang, bergteid)en manner JltiegSofterft in bet fcfyteevften @d)lad?t nidjt getan fyat. (2) 3n bent feiner 23of)nung gegenubet Uecjenben J&aufe, too fetn greunb SBilfyehn tooljnte, tt>at bag te ftnb gejlern in berDper getoefen. c. The lively tone that is associated with the past tense and its short convenient form are tending to extend its use at the expense of the pres. perf. This is especially marked in newspaper language and also in common conversation : 2)ucttn, 24 >e$. (Sin {Rcttunggbct, t>a$ ait^gelaufen war, urn bte Bebrangte 95emannung etned erj nnvb fid; freuen, irenn id; bid; tmeberfefyen irerbe. The future is also used of an action or event in past time that was yet to take place : 2>ie 2)irne fling mit fclojjem Jtopfe, fte nnrb alfo beu 4?ol$fd;nt6er "ur eine <8trccfe unb nid;t att^iireett begleiten (Anzengruber's Sternstcinhof, p. 69). The present tense often takes the place of the future; see i.d, above. a. The future is also used instead of the imperative (177. 1. B. c). b. It is often used to express a probability or supposition, often accompanied by iroljl : Jtarl nn'rb roofyl franf fetn Karl is probably sick. S)er <>unb nn'tb fed;g 3af)re alt fetn The dog is probably about six years old. c. In North German popular language the future in lively narration is often used instead of the past, the speaker thus in a vivid way taking again the standpoint he had before he acted and relating the intentions and plans he then entertained instead of the completed deeds : Hub tote er fo ungebufyrlid; gcgcn mid; aiuifadt (see I. b of this article), ba toerb' id) if)n tn3 anbeve Simmer nefyntcn unb toerb' tf;n fragcn, trover er bag toeitj (instead of ba nafynt id) ifytt ins attbere Bimmer unb ftagte i^n) (Engelien's Grammatik der neuhochdeutschen Sprache, p. 478). 6. The future perfect tense represents that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future. This clumsy form is usually avoided and replaced in common usage by the perfect : SSenu er biefe SBebtnflitncj mcfyt ttor 2)torgen crfiittt tyaben ivtrb (or erfiiUt f)at), fo i|l ber 9.5ertracj nicfytig. When the idea of completion is not prominent, it can be replaced by the present or future : (So&alb bit eticaS erftityrft or crfal;ren nnrfr, telegrav|iere. We also find the past tense instead of the future perfect : GS if* ntcfyt bag lefcte 9)?al, ba^ id? mid; ^)ier tefanb (Raabe's Frau Salome, chap. vii). 2)a8 Srubd^en ivar ba ganj gut aufge{;o6en, 6i3 ictr e8 afcljolcu (id., Mcister Autor, chap. vii). Q3iel gibt e8 ntd^t ; bod; nimm bamit uorlieb ; | unr fatten etn, big nid;t8 me^r iibrtg tlietj (Fulda's Talisman, i, 5). SCBcnu ber Dtcbel ijcqog unb bie Corner ber @ad;fen juut ^am^f laben, fo ruft mid; (Lienhard's Kdnig Arthur, 5). a. Though not so common in the sense of a future perfect, it is often, on the other hand, used to express probability or supposition, to represent an action as probably finished, or to state a supposition concerning some past act, often accompanied by icofyt : (r unrb jefct ivofyl gefcfyviebeu fyafcen He has probably written by this time. (Sr ictrb wotyl ber dter geicefen fetn He was probably the perpetrator. In the interrogative form it expresses wonder : Bo nnrb er bie 3Rad;t ju= gebradjt ^aben? (Lessing's Minna, i, i) I wonder where he has passed the night. 220 THE VERB 166. MOOD. 166. Mood is a grammatical form denoting the style or manner of predication. There are three moods in German, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. These moods are used much as they are in English, except that the subjunctive has a much wider field of usefulness. Only the subjunctive needs especial treatment. The so-called conditional (mood) is only a periphrastic form of the subjunctive, whose place it may take in conditional sentences, and hence it is treated along with the subjunctive. SUBJUNCTIVE. 167. The subjunctive is used when the speaker or writer wishes to represent something not as a fact but as only planned or desirable, supposable, probable, possible, conditional, contrary to fact, or as resting on the statement of another, or mere hearsay. All these different uses of the subjunctive may be classified under two general heads the optative subjunctive, which represents the statement as desired, and the potential subjunctive, which represents the statement as possible. Out of the potential subjunctive has developed more or less clearly the subjunctive of indirect statement, which is employed not to represent the statement as possible, but merely to indicate indirectness of statement. See 168. II. A, second paragraph. In the following discussion this subjunctive is treated under the head of the potential with which it is closely connected. This subjunctive of indirect statement should not be confounded with the subjunctive of indirect discourse treated in 17O and 171, which is a broader category including also the optative and po- tential ideas. The tense employed is often a point of vital importance to the meaning, and hence instead of grouping the different uses of the subjunctive under these two leading heads the different heads are treated under the different tenses. The two following groups stand out in general quite distinctly from each other : i. The Subjunctive of Principal Tenses (present, present perfect, future, future perfect). 2. The Subjunctive of Historical Tenses (historical present, past, past perfect, the conditionals). The student should bear in mind in reading the following articles that the subjunctive has been largely replaced in the language of the North by the indicative in colloquial speech, while in serious prose it still has a conspicuous place. This will often account for the use of the subjunctive and indicative in the same category. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PRINCIPAL TENSES. 168. In principal tenses the subjunctive represents the statement not as an actual fact, but yet as a desire so reasonable that it is entertained with hopes of realization, or it represents something that is with considerable assurance regarded as possible or suppos- able. The special cases under these general heads are the fol- lowing : 168. 1. 2. A. SUBJUNCTIVE OF PRINCIPAL TENSES 221 I. Optative Subjunctive. A principal tense of the subjunctive is used in the following expressions of will : 1. In principal clauses : A. Hortatory Subjunctive. A present subjunctive is often used to complete the wanting forms of the imperative ; see 177. 1. A. B. Sanguine Optative. A present subjunctive is often used to express a wish which in all probability may be realized : Sange tebe ber Jtonig Long may the king live, efce ott may God grant. So fet e3 Let it be thus. >a3 watte ott May God see to it. elj' e3 31)nen gut ! (Wilbrandt's Die Tochter des Fabricius, i, 10). This wish, however, is more commonly, except in a few set expressions as the foregoing, expressed by the subjunctive of mogen and tr often with a dependent infinitive : SKoge e3 mir nun fcergonnt fein, bag SBegonnene ju (?nbe 311 fiifyren (Wilmanns 5 Deutsche Grammatik, Vorrede). otteS uabe icotie nut (Jucfy fein (Bismarck to his wife, Oct. i, 1850). a. In A and B normal, or more commonly question or inverted order may stand : @r tebe fyod) ! (used in toasts and cries of approval). Jpcf iljn bet Seufel ! May the devil take him ! (3 tebe bie Sretfyeit ! (It tncge or ntoge er ttotlfommen gturf(id) fterben ! Of course the sentence has inverted order if it begins with an adverb : Sange lebe bee Jlomg ! b. Sometimes, though much more rarely than the pres. tense, the present perfect is used in wishes. It is employed to express the wish that some desired result may be accomplished in the future : !cd) et fyabe | itmfonjl ftdj bet aSetbannnmS iibergeben! (Schiller's Jutigfrau, 2, 2) May he in vain have given himself over to perdition ! C. The present subjunctive is in logical reasoning much used in laying down one or more desired propositions, from which conclu- sions are to be drawn : >ie 8'igur a b c fei ein gtetcfyfdjenfligeS Sretecf ; b d fei ein Sot auf ber rnnbltnte Let the figure a b c be an isosceles triangle and b d a perpendicular line on the base, &c. 2. In subordinate clauses : A. Concessive Subjunctive. The present subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses to concede, grant, admit that something may be true, but the indicative in the main clause, on the other hand, affirms that the assertion of the main clause is, in spite of this admission, to be maintained and defended : er 3?erg fei and; fo fjocfc, or @ei ber i*erg aucfy fo fyod; (or quite commonly 3ft ber 2?erg aucfy fo fjod}, or SWag ber SPerg and; fo fyod) fein, or "Der 2?erg mag aud? fo t)od? fein), id) erfteige U)n Be the mountain (or Although the mountain be, or Let the moun- tain be) ever so high, I will climb it. Sftein, e3 gtbt fein SBiefcerftnbcn, ^etj5e e3 -tmmel ober J^otle (Wiesner's Die schwarze Dame). SSo ber 2Berg and; liege (or quite commonly Itegen mag, or ttegt), ict^ crftetge it)n. 3Kan faun eS ifaiu ntct^t redjt macben, ii-aS man and) tue, tun mag, or tut. SSelcfye (Sntfdjeibung and; ^ier gefafjt u-crbe (also gefapt rcerten mag, or gefaft ivirb), fte icirb niemalS cine d}it)eftern fcbtcfe (Raabe's Horn von Wanza, chap. viii). The idea of willing, &c., is often contained in a noun : 2)Mjter Ou'cfytwn tyatte ju aufeg imb fianb ivartenb, tn$ afleS $Ia^ genommen !^a6e (Jensen's Jenseits des Wassers, V). a. This subjunctive is much used in indirect discourse after the verbs in (i), but it must be noticed that after a historical tense it is itself often attracted into a historical tense (see 169. 1. C. a). Thus like the subjunctive in indirect discourse in general its form fluctuates after historical tenses between that of principal and that of historical tenses, but without any difference in meaning. b. After the verbs in (i) the indicative is now preferred, to denote a positive expression of the will : 3d) ttnf(, bap cr fommt. If the indicative is used, the tense is often attracted into a past tense after a past tense : llnb biefe 5ard)t xw ben aftenfdjen crfcfyicn tfjr fo natutHd?, fo norroenbig fo gugctjovtg ju ifyrem djicffal. 2Bie fcnnte er evlangen, bajj jie fret baon war (H. Bohlau). 168. La. c. b. SUBJUNCTIVE OF PRINCIPAL TENSES 223 The subjunctive in (2) has been gradually declining. _At present the indicative is very often used instead of the subjunctive, especially colloquially in the North, as the present tendency is to look forward and imagine the design as accomplished rather than to regard the statement as merely planned : oil ic^ ben emetnra ^eibertcter (name) jurucf|"d)icfen, bafi et bie SUarmfanone lojl ? (Frenssen's Die drei Getreuen, chap. i). t ifl (H. Bohlau). ($ unit' bod) gut, luenn cr es balb erfdfyrt, bamit il;m bet 2Jhmb gejicpft iji (Hirschfeld's Agnes Jordan, 5). The subjunctive in (3) is now largely replaced by the indicative in colloquial language. C. Optative in Conditions. The optative subjunctive occurs here in two forms : a. Instead of a subordinate clause with rcenn we may use a clause with a hortatory subjunctive, which has normal order and was originally independent, but has become logically subordinate : (Siner trage be3 anbern Laft | fo rcerbet jr ba3 gefe Gfyriftt erfutten (Gal. vi. 2). SBalb, e fenne nur jeber ben eigenen, gonne bem anbern | fetnen 33ortett, fo iji eivigcr ft'riebe gemacfyt (Goethe's Vier Jahreszeiten, 74). b. In M.H.G. a hortatory subjunctive was very common in clauses introducing an exception : des sint ir iemer ungenesen | got welle dan der arzat wesen (Armer Heinrich, variant of the Strassburg manuscript) You cannot be cured (, if, however, a cure is possible) God must (or let God] then be the physician. We usually introduce the subordinate clause in English by unless, if not, and indeed a negative is found here in M.H.G. In the Heidelberg manuscript this passage reads : des sint ir iemer ungenesen | got enwelle der arzat wesen. In this reading, however, the subjunctive is a potential, as explained in II. E. b, below. Some scholars claim an ellipsis of the negative en in the first reading, and construe the subjunctive there also as a potential. Both constructions, the optative and potential, existed in M.H.G.; the former alone sur- vives. It was quite frequent in early N.H.G., not infrequent in the classical period, and still occasionally occurs in poetry or choice prose : &>nb fo jentanb and; fempffet | nnrb er bod) uid?t gefronct | er fempffe benu recfyt (2 Tim. ii. 5). llnb fommt man l;in, urn etiuaS $u er= fyaltcn, | erfycitt man niclng, man bringe benn icaS l;tn (Goethe's Tasso, i, 4). 28ot)in er (i. e. ott) unS fteftt, ba mi'iffen n:ir au^arren, er rufe imS benn felber ab (Spielhagen's Freigcboren, p. 176). Qlkr cin SKenfd) faun fid) nid)t3 ne^men, eg ttserbe i(;m benn gegeOen om >inunel (Sudermann's Johannes, 5, 8). Here, as so often elsewhere, the present subjunctive yields frequently to the past subjunctive : 2Me OUirenberger bcnfcn (in the North usually fjangen) feinen, | fie fcdtten i^n benn or (Schiller's Ra'ubcr, 2, 3). This old construction is not now common in prose, except in c6 fet benn, or eS leave benn unless, and in case of nutffen with a dependent infinitive. The two expressions e fei benn and eS unite benn differ from each other just as in general the pres. subj. differs from the past subj. The former expresses more assurance : 3d? tue e3 nictyt, (d fei benn bap er fommt nnb barunt bittet / will not do it, unices he comes and begs me to do it, but 3d; tue e8 nidjt, eg rcare benn ba^ cr fommen nnb 224 THE VERB 168. 1. 2. c. b. bantm Bitten fottte / will not do it, unless he should come and beg me to do it. The expression e$ icd're benn is often replaced by the past subj. (for present or future time) or past perfect subj. (for past time) of ntitffm with a dependent infinitive with normal word-order in the subordinate clause : 5)aS rcerbe id? me Son ifym glauben, er mitjjte e3 mir benn felfeft fagen. ne tying fiipen ^ragen unb QSorfteKungen nad), benn dlimar t;atte fceim 93linbeful) ; als er fie tyafdjte, SBorte fatten laffen, bie nid?t mifjbeutet icerben fonnten, er Ijatte benn ein fd)anblid?er unb ^eijimgiger Sugner fein miiffen (Fontane's L'Adultera, chap. viii). Elsewhere this construction is usually replaced by a clause with o^ne bap (169. 2. D), or remains in altered form, the frenit remaining or dropping out, and the subjunctive becoming indicative in accord- ance with the general trend toward the declarative form of state- ment : 3d; lajj nicfyt afc, ityr gefct ben efangenen benn $erau8 (Grillparzer). 3d) laffe bid? nidjt fort, QlnfaS," rief fte, bu fagjl mir benn, iraS bit int @inn fyafi" (Wichert's Ansas und Gritd). >enn niemalS fe|rt' er ^)eim, er fcradjt' eud? etreaS (Schiller's Tell, 4, 3). ^ein 33ed?er rcarb geteert, bu ^attefl i^n | gefuttt, fein 58rot gebrod^en unb fcerteilt, | e fam au3 beineni ^or6 (Hebbel's Nibelungen, III, V, 9). Even in case of the verb fein we find the indie, for the expression of reality : 5)er 5tr^t fyatte mentals etrcaS in ifyrem 4?aufe ^u fdjaffen, eS irar benn, bap er 6et ber 5lnfunft etneS neuen SSeltBurgerS ^ugegen rear (Telmann). D. Optative in Relative Clauses. This subjunctive is found in the following groups : a. Hortatory Subjunctive. A relative clause often contains a hortatory subjunctive, which is translated into English by we wish, it is desired, &c. 9Son bent @rfce'fd)en ^eftdjen : 23erbeutfd?ung ber ^un|% auSbritrfe in ber cfyule" ifl ein Sfteubrud! notrcenbig gercorben unb tcirb bemnacfyft auSgegeben, reorauf atte SKitglteber unb greunbe beS 5lttgemeinen beutfdjen (S^rnd^ijereinS aufmerffam gemad^t feien to which we especially desire to call the attention of all the members, &c. b. A sanguine optative is also used here to express a wish : unfer Jtonig, ben ott erl;alte our king, whom, we pray, God may keep. Also in clauses with reference to the thought in another clause : 2Ba3 ttwrben nrir tun, rcenn it>a3 ott ber^ute (or i?er^itten moge) ein llngliitf gefdje^en fottte? If some misfortune should occur which, however, I hope God may prevent what would we do ? c. For a subjunctive of purpose in relative, clauses see B. (3), above. E. Optative in Substantive Clauses : a. Hortatory subjunctive in subject clauses : @3 ift tnflig, ba man ifjn unterfKtfee (=man unterjiii^e u)n let the people help him) It is fair that the people help him. (8 ge^iemt bent -Kanne, baf er and? bag <8d)trerfie retttig tne (= er tue aud? baS @d?terfie ttjtlltg). b. Sanguine Optative : (1) In subject clauses : >aJ3 bu an unferer Sreube teilne^mefl, tjl unfer tnniger QBunfd?. (2) In object clauses: [3d) tt>itnfd)e,] 2>a{5 er Sjollfommen glftrfltd? njerben ntoge ! If the governing proposition is expressed, this subjunctive belongs to B. (i), above. 168. II.A. SUBJUNCTIVE OF PRINCIPAL TENSES 225 F. Optative in Adverbial Clauses. This subjunctive is occasionally used here in categories other than those previously described, especially after fo ivatyr and fo (=n?enn) : 3n ineinen Qtrmen antt id? bid? buvd; bag #efcen tragen, fo tracer C^ott mir tyelfe (Raabe's Die Leute aus dem Walde, chap. x). 9Mn, nein, fo ott mir fyelfe (Storm's Chronik von Grieshuus, p. no). 1 1. Potential Subjunctive. The potential subjunctive of principal tenses represents the statement not as an actual fact, but as something which is quite possible, probable, plausible, supposable, or as credible, but yet as only resting upon the testimony of others, or upon the subjective view of the speaker. This potential must not be confounded with the unreal potential (seelQQ. 2) of historical tenses, which represents on the other hand the statement as barely possible, quite doubtful, or even as in conflict with fact or impossible. In the present period of the language the tendency is to observe this distinction between the subjunctive of principal and that of historical tenses ; but, as will be seen below, there are still many survivals of an earlier usage, which always, irrespective of the meaning, required, as at present in English, a historical tense of the subordinate verb, whenever it depended upon a historical tense : @r fcigte, er fci franf, or often placing the tense of the subordinate clause in accord with that of the principal clause : @r fagte, er trare franf. The thought in both of these sentences is exactly the same, but in other sentences a sharp distinction is often made between principal and historical tenses of the subjunctive, the former expressing a probability, the latter an improbability of the truth of the statement. The tendency to distinguish between the principal and historical tenses of the subjunctive is stronger than the tendency to place the tense of the subordinate verb in accord with the tense of the principal verb, but as this growing tendency has not yet gained a complete victory, there is some confusion. The potential subjunctive of principal tenses is now only employed in subordinate clauses, but it has nevertheless a wide field of useful- ness, as will be seen in the following detailed statement of its uses : A. Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse. The potential subjunctive of principal tenses is used in indirect discourse after verbs of saying, thinking, feeling, c., to represent the indirect statement in the subordinate clause not as absolutely true, but only as possible, probable, plausible, or as the individual opinion or feeling of the person spoken of, or as a question in his mind : ttu3 Vflegte jit fagen, ter Sag, an njeldjcm cr nicljtS utc3 tue, fei fur ifyn fcerloren. 3d; jireiflc nod), ob er ber red)te SRann fyierfur fei. This subjunctive often differs markedly from other forms of the potential, as it is frequently no longer a potential pure and simple, but is often merely a grammatical form to express indirectness of statement. See G. a. (2), 2nd par., and b, below. The subjunctive in this use has a broad field, not being confined to one grammatical category, and hence may reappear in a number of the following groups. It should, however, be carefully noticed that this sub- Q 226 THE VERB 168. II. A. junctive may not only differ in each category from the other potential in the same category in its lack of real potential character, but also in its much greater frequency of use, as it has become very pro- ductive in its employment as a formal indication of indirect statement. This use of the subjunctive and the similar use in indirect questions are the most common in the language, and are treated at considerable length in 171-173. B. Clauses of Manner. The potential subjunctive is often used in these clauses to indicate that the comparison rests upon plausible grounds, or is the subjective view of the speaker: @g rcar ifym, alg tycre er nod; einmal burcfy ben 3fegen unb 2Binb beit !>ftad}tirad;ter fcon 3Ban$a in ber *yerne bte (Stunbe rufeit (Raabe's Horn von Wanza, chap. xi). 2)Jir rear jwreilen, alg fei id) i>on unferm Itefcen ott gefd;ieben (Freytag's Rittmeister, chap, ix) It seemed to me sometimes as if I were separated from God and his goodness. a. This use of the subjunctive must not be confounded with the unreal potential of a historical tense, which implies that the comparison is unreal and contrary to fact ; see 169. 2. B. b. Where the comparison is made in quite a positive tone, the indicative is now quite commonly used in such clauses : Xrojjbem gmnnnt e3 ben Slnfcfyeiit, a(3 cb bie au&cavttge ^ctitif (Snglanbe and) nad; bent Oiucftritte Serb OJcfeBettyS unb befien @r; fejjnng butd) Sorb Salisbury lion S^tf^l^gen f)eima,efud;t toivb (Deutsche Rundschau). C. Plausible Subjunctive in Clauses after a Negative or a Question. If the principal clause contains some expression of negative force, such as a negative adverb, adjective, or pronoun, a verb with negative force, or if it contains a question, a positive of an adjective or adverb preceded by gu and followed by alg bafj, or the com- parative of an adjective or adverb followed by alg (or less commonly bcnn) bafj, the verb of the subordinate clause may in choice language stand in the subjunctive of a principal tense to indicate that the statement is not thoroughly established and must be taken with some reserve, or regarded as a subjective view : Stimmer ftnbet er ben odj burfen tvir unfere djrcei^ertfyeotie nicfyt fcetlaffen, ofyne bap ifyr tjou imS and; erert)tigfeit mberfafjre (Goethe). (Sr ferret me | turn eincr Sfteife irieber, bap ifym md)t | etn 5)rtttetl fetuer (Sacfcen fe^Ie (Goethe's Tasso, 3, 4). evr fid? ar.f fein cnn eg ift tmmuglid) | ba8 ott liege (199, 2. Division, 4) (Heb. vi. 18). 2)enn e gefcfn'ef)!, bap Dor ott etn QlcferSmann fceffer tue ttlit feinem ^fliigen, benn cine 9tonne ntit iljret Jteufrt$eit( Luther). (3 ifl fajl unmogticfy, bap er bte ^Ibgefcfymacftljeit ganger (Seiten nnb SSogcn nid)t etnfe^e (G. Keller). Unter fotcfyen llmflanben ivar eS aitgefc^Ioffen, bajj ^riebrirfj benX)ienfl oerlaffe(Suttner's Die Waffen nicder! III). As predicate : (Seine Qlnticort [rear], er fiircfyte ftdj nid)t (Rosegger). (2) Object clauses. As object of a verb or a preposition : 2)te fcMudj* genbe junge 5rau terfianb ttjn ntd^t fo red;t, after fte oerltep ftd^ atS gute junge 5"rau and) biennial baranf, bajj cr rcdH l)abe (Raabe's Wunnigel, chap. xx). The subjunctive in (i) and (2) is often not the pure potential, but a mere grammatical form for the expression of indirect statement, and hence may stand after such verbs as fcerceifen to prove, fd)en, an(et)en to see, nerjtdjern to assure, iciffen to know, jeigen to show, &c., the meanings of which naturally preclude the idea of doubt : 3UJO Ijab id? mit itnfern alten Siebent fceiriefen, bajj altein ber lanO' an Sefuiu G^riftum [dig mad;' (Alberus, 1539). <2ie ttu^te, er iverbe bod; nidjt foinmcn (P. Heyse). 2113 bann akr it;re ftufyrertn, ^rau $aul|en, fte barauf aufmerffam ntad;te, bajj jebe @tift86etoo^ncrin aud? einen etgenen rletnen better fceftfce, ba irurbe fte crn^aft (Use Frapan's Mamsell Biene}. 3d; trar jngleid; et^ettert unb entjiirft, jinnal ber 3?ogel nad; furjer ty*\\\t jeigtc, ba^ feiit jHeid;tum nod; tange nid)t er(d;o)?ft fei (H. Seidel's Der Ncuntoter], b. In attributive clauses : 2)fetne erren, unr muffett un3 ben att fergevjenirdrtigen, bafj bte eine obcr bie anbere Sftegterung nid;t auf atle ^ebing^ ungen einge^e (Vorparlamcnt, p. 63). In one form of this clause this subjunctive is now very common in indirect discourse: ein cigeneS efi'tfyl: cr nriiffe beit Crt feunen lernen (Hirschfeld's Damon Klcist). 6ie glautten mid; ntit ber S^ad;ridjt 511 itberrafdjcn, bap id) fd?nnnb* 230 THE VERB 168. II. c.b. fiidjttg fci (ib.). The potential idea often disappears, the subjunctive not implying uncertainty, but merely indicating indirectness of statement: SDfan burd)benfe afle3 ba, rcag id; fyier nur anbeute, unb man rcitb flu ber (SrfenntmS gelangen, ber fyracfyltcfye 93erfetyr ^reifdjen jrcci Jeifen fei auf ba naturlid?jte, einfadjfie imb gered;tefle fo jit regeln, ba icber $eil in gletd)er, nicfyt afl^ufiarfer SBeife fcelafict trerbe (H. Schuchart in Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung, No. 230, Jahrg. 1901). SEein ganger &elt* guggplan . . . fiel in ftd? jufammen for ber fitfjen eietp^eit, bafj fie mid) Itefre (Paul Keller's Waldwinter, XIV). H Plausible Subjunctive in Clauses of Degree (see 238. 3. D). This subjunctive is only found here in clauses of result (see 238. 3. D. 2), and only occurs there in the early part of the period, having since entirely disappeared : @o rcitb mirS get)en | ba mid; tobfdjlage reer mid; finbet (Gen. iv. 14). THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF HISTORICAL TENSES. 169. The subjunctive of historical tenses is used to represent that which is wished for without much hope of realization, also that which is quite doubtful, possible, barely possible, impossible, con- trary to fact, or that which merely exists in the imagination, or rests upon appearances without foundation in facts. This sub- junctive is used both in principal and subordinate clauses. It has only two tenses the past to express present time, the past perf. to express past time : (pres. time) (5r ftetyt aug, al8 06 er franf ivate He looks as if he were sick; (past time) @r ftetyt on end; bei mir $u Ijaben ! 2Benn er bod; nod; lebte ! Such unreal optative sentences are in fact subordinate clauses of elliptical sentences, the principal proposition being suppressed : [3d; ivitnfd;te,] 2)afj er gefommen irdre ! [3d; itiirbe mid; freucn,] 2Bemt et bod; nod; lebte ! The subjunctive of the simple verb is often replaced by the sub- junctive of mogen or fonnen with a dependent infinitive : 2tt6d;te er bod; enfclid; jur Seftnnung fommcn ! 5ld;, fonnte id; end; bod; nur einmat befud;en ! The past subjunctive often loses in large measure the element of unreality, and is employed to express modestly an earnest wish or appeal : 2)i6d;te btefe fur^e Gfyaraftertftif jit rceiteren 8'orfdntngen 5tnlap geben! (Richard M. Meyer in Zeitschrift fur deutsche Wortforschung, II. p. 291). It is also often used in polite commands : 2)iod)ten o t)dtte id) benn n(le3 getan, iua8 mir jit tun ofcltegt ! And so I have actually done all that is incumbent upon me to do ! )a tra're nun in Drtnung ! That's in good shape now, I think ! JJhm macfyte fte ol3 energise &rau eincn @ttid) unter bie ganje S^ifote unb fagte fid) : 2)amit w aren icir fertig ! Now, as an energetic woman, she inwardly decided to put an end to the whole (love) affair, and said to herself: ' Well ! I guess that's ended ! ' @o uniren unr am @nbe,varen e8, crfaufte 9)J6rber! (Lessing's Emilia, 3, 8). Untcrroorfeu ^att' id) mid) | bent JHtd)terfprud) ter 3werbienjle urn Ojlerretd) envor6en ^dtte (cautious statement) a!3 ^rittj @ugen. @g fle^t fctn a^enfd; fo l)ocfy, bap id; mid? neben ifym jit fd)dmen ^dtte (the subjunctive tempers the statement) There is no one in the world so great that I along- side of him need to be ashamed. (3 fefjtte (with negative force) tne(, bap SBerncr etnen fcorteilfyaften intrucf gemadjt ^atte Werner came far from making a favorable impression. @3 fefylte nur nod?, bap er i^r gerabejn ben SJatt Jjerboten l;dtte He did all but positively forbid her going to the ball. (3 fe^It nur nod;, bap er jlurbe. 9Bo ijt ber SWann, ber baS tun fonnte? Where is the man who would be able to do that? et Qtnblicf n?ar jit ergreifenb, alg bap id; ifjn mit UBorten (dnltern fonnte The sight was too thrilling to be described by me in words. QlriojlenS 06 u3 feinem 9Jhtnbe l^at mid; me^r erge|t, | aid bap e mid) Metbtgt ^d'ttc (Goethe's Tasso, 2, i). 3' crjt 9)iale, folangc id; benfen fonnte, griff ber Urgropoater biefe ^erauSforberung nid?t auf, iveniger (with negative force) U'ofyl, iceil er burd^aug ntd;tS ju entgegnen gewupt l;atte, al au3 aflgemeiner SBetrubniS nnb 9)h"tbigfeit (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap, xxiii). (te tat ba3 iveniger, ireil fte felbfl QJerguugen babet gefunben l;dtte, alS iceit fte glaubte, ifyn baburd; ju jerflreuen (ib., chap. xxiv). 6r tat eg, o(;ne bap id; bag eringjle bacon gercupt ^dtte. Unb bte 2)httter fd)afftc i^nen nod; braunleberne, feine albfd;u^e an, jlatt bap fie ftd; felbjl 236 THE VERB 169. 2. c. cin (Sommermdnteldjen gefanft tyatte (H. Bohlau's Adam und Eva, chap. ii). Often after simple nid)t: [It is difficult to-day to find a good poet] 9tid)t, bafj ftd) fyeutyitage etiw fo iel iremger uteS fanbe cits frufcer, netn, nur ba6 Sftittelmafjige, USerfliiffige nnb lenbe J)at ftd) in einet SBetfe erntef)rt, bafj eg jammercott tfl (H. Seidel's Poeta laureatus). a. Often the intention of the subordinate clause is to express an actual result or one which is confidently expected, and hence the indie, is often used here : 0c tat e3, efyne baft id) e3 hwfjte. b. The conditional is frequently used here in the subordinate clause, although this usage is quite generally condemned by grammarians : 3f)OT Ijdtte eg Ijdufig, felbft butd) ben drgften, giftigjien @d)mtpfen fytubutd), treift nad) ntobevtgem trot) riedjeu fomun, cfyne bafj er fid) bavob getounbett fyaben fturbe (Raabe's Wunnigel, chap. viij. See also 190. 1. E. a. D. Unreal Potential Subjunctive in Negative Clauses after a Negative or Question. Quite frequently where the principal proposition is a question, or where there is a negative, or a positive of an adjective or adverb preceded by jit, or a comparative in the principal propo- sition and a negative adverb, or a negative conjunction (uaf} m'd)t or o^ne bajj), or a negative relative (fret nicfyt or irelcber tticfyt), or al bap in the subordinate clause, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the subjunctive of a historical tense : Bo tji ein 23erg tin gan^en Scmb, ben cr nicbt fcefltegen Ijatte ? 9lorf) me ift eine Umrafyrfjeit gefyrocfyen Jtorben, bie ittcfyt fritljet ober (vdter nacfytetlige ^otgen ge^afct ^atte (which has not had evil results, cautious statement). (Sr benft gu ebet, a!3 ba^ er nid;t bie SBafyrfyett fagte He thinks too nobly not to speak the truth. >te Gfyriflen glauben mefyr 5trm[elig!etten, j alS ba fte bie nict^t aud; nod) gfauten fonnten ! (Lessing's Nathan, ?, i) Christians believe too many miserable things not also to believe that. ;te fonnen ntcbt tyinbern, ba bie 9)ienfd;en ntdjt nad) bem 5}td;te bltcften (past subj.) (Klinger) They cannot prevent people from looking towards the light. <5r fonnte ntdjt oer^tnbern, ba ntdjt nod) on bent (Spiegel gur S^atur unb son ber S^atur jum (Spiegel ftd) nic^t gern ^tn unb aneber geitenbet ^dtte (Goethe). The two negatives in such sentences, or a question, or jit + positive, or a comparative followed by a negative clause, render the force of the subordinate clause affirmative. The negative in the subordinate clause after an ofyne baf? that follows a question or a negative, as in the last sentence, or after a word with negative force and also modified by a negative (nid)t, fd)icerlid), if a it m, rcenig), as in the fifth, sixth, and seventh sentences, is not so common now as earlier in the period ; see 223. XI. B.a. The negative in such clauses is now usually dropped, and the meaning remains the same. Sometimes we find the negative in the subordinate clause wanting when the verb in the principal clause is not negative in force, but then the verb in the subordinate clause is always in the indie. : 2>nn menials fetyrt' er eim, er frrad;t' end) etrcaS (=obne ba$ er end) or bafj er end; nid)t etira ge&racbt fydtte). For explanation of the indicative see 168. 1. 2. C. b. As the 169.2.E. SUBJUNCTIVE OF HISTORICAL TENSES 237 force of the subordinate clause in all the above cases is affirmative, we would naturally expect here the indicative, but usually we find the subjunctive, which modestly admits that there may possibly be some error. If, however, the statement is represented as a fact, the indie, must be used here : Gr fonnte nicfyt oerfyinbern, tap nod; eut 3Beine fcfylt md)tf3, al3 bap er nid)t el(ia, geflart iji, or al3 bag cc oflig geftart ware. E. Unreal Conditions. The unreal potential is also used in con- ditional sentences in which the conclusion rests upon a condition that is not likely to be fulfilled, or upon one which is contrary to the facts in the case. The principal clause has the conditional or subjunctive, the subordinate clause the subjunctive only, as illus- trated in the following sentences : Present Time. a. 3d) rciirbe bett SSrief fcfyrei&en, rcenn id) 3"* $&tte / would write the letter if I had time, or b. 3d; fdniebe ben 23rief, icenn id) 3eit tyatte (about equal in meaning to a ; see Note i). Past Time. c. 3d? iritrbe ben 93rtef gefdjtieOen tyaben, icenn id) %t\t ge^afct tydtte / would have written the letter if I had had time, or d. 3d; l;atte ben rtef gefd;riet)en, tvenn id; 3^ flefyafct ^a'tte (equal in meaning to c). Note i. In the principal proposition the subjunctive is much more common than the conditional in case of modal auxiliaries and the passive of all verbs in both present and past time. Elsewhere, however, the two forms may be considered. as equally good and common with the exception that the present conditional is more common in the principal proposition than the past subjunctive, at least so in ordinary prose, perhaps accounted for in part at least by the fact that the subjunctive forms are frequently not formally distinct from the indicative. Note 2. The past indie, sometimes takes the place of both the past and past perf. subjunctive, either in the main or subordinate clause, to add more assurance or certainty to the tone of the assertion : 2fiit bicfent *JJfetl buvdifcfycfj id) (Slid), lucim id) nteiit Iubf3 Jtint) gctrcffen Ijdtte I would have surely shot this arrow through you, if I had hit my dear child (Tell to the tyrant Gessler). Jtamft bit md)t im tetijtcu ?lugcnblt(fe, (o ivat id) vevlcrcn. Thus also in suggesting in a tone of assurance a course of action that might have with profit been pursued in some emergency of the past : Sir ftailbctt iwei 9ika,e often : enhvetet bit tratjl offen gegeu jene OJanfe auf, oter tu nahmft beinen Vlbfdjicb Two ways were open to you : you should have either openly stood up against those intrigues, or have given in your resignation. Note 3. From Luther's day up to the present, the conditional is found with increasing frequency even in good authors also in the subordinate clause as well as in the principal: SBo abey jcnianb nnirfce $u cud) fagen (i Cor. x. 28). ajjit SBergniigen, ivenit c>5 etUMsJ ficlfen iwurbe (Raabe's Horacker, chap. vi). 2Benn nun bcv Rafter on anfcuniufel, Jpert (Sf)rifliait 9Bin(ftet, allc^ ttc>3 unb jar in einem dhnltd)en one txne fetn (Sl)cn?cib vcrgetragcit fyaben irurbe, fo teuvben lic und ganj gcfjcrfamft bafuc tebanfen, irgenb tine Surgfd)aft fur ben Gvfolg bee Olcbe ju ubernct)mcn (ib., chap. viii). As explained in 190. i. E. a, the conditional is from a historical standpoint a form of the subjunctive, and hence the use of the former instead of the latter is, strictly speaking, not objectionable. They may continue as interchangeable, cr, as suggested 238 THE VERB 169. 2. E. in 190. i. E. a, they may in time be differentiated. Grammarians, however, discourage the use of the conditional in the subordinate clause. Note 4. Many sentences containing a subjunctive will upon study reveal themselves as a conditional sentence with the principal or subordinate clause suppressed: 9) finale ware id? gefallen (rcenn mid) nidjt iemanb gcfialten fyitte) I came very near falling (and would have fallen if some one had not seized me). The conclusion omitted : 3a ftenn hnr ntd?t todren, fagte tie Saterne jum Sftonb. S)a gina fie au$ (What would the world do) If we were not, said the lantern to the moon. Thereupon it went out. 1. The subjunctive of modest or cautious statement, which is a weakened potential with a suppressed conditional clause, is used quite frequently to make the statement of a truth modestly or cautiously, in a less positive and definite way than in the indicative : 3d? fonnte nod? mand?e3 fagen (ivenn id? rcotlte, or ttenn eg berflattet icdre) I think I could say considerable yet (if I desired, or if I were allowed). See also A. (i). c, above. 2. We have other conditional sentences than the ones described in the preceding articles. The conditional conjunctions given in 233. 3. F are used with the historical tenses of the subjunctive to denote a possible case, the subjunctive clause usually following a proposition containing an indicative : (Sr itar entfd?loffen, eine anbere tefle jtt fud?en, falls ba, icag tfjm bet ber ,,Jtultur" (name of a periodical) geboten tvurbe, rttcbt feinen 3Bunfd?en entfprdd?e (Ompteda's Eysen, chap. x). F. Unreal Subjunctive .in Relative and Interrogative Clauses. This subjunctive is much used to represent the statement as possible and often to state an opinion modestly or cautiously. a. Attributive relative or interrogative clauses. Relative clauses : >a iji ber Jtalm, ber mid? fyinubertrttge (Schiller's Tell, i, i). 2>ie SCelt fcum bir mdjtS barfcieten, rcaS fte toon btr nid?t entyftnge (Schiller's M enschen- feind, Act 8) which it does not receive from you, subj. of cautious statement. 9Bem roirb cwd? bag etnfatteu ? @inem junt rern^el, ber fdjrcacfy irdre (might be) unb etn flarf crciffen ^dtte (might have) (Goethe's Go'tz, -2, i). 3d? mod?te gern einen elbfceutel |aten, ber nie leer rcitrbe (Grimm's Mdrchen). @te fefann fid? nuf etrcag, reag fte eqd^Ieti fonnte (S. Junghans). llnter ben lefcenben @^rad?en eine ober metyrere au^uitd^len, ber ober benen eine betorjugte Oiotte jitjuteiten ware, f)eipt nid?t3 anbereg alS in einer fontinuirlid?en JRet^e eine @d?eibelinie giefjen (H. Schuchardt). The subjunctive is here most common after a negative or a question, and is treated from this point of view in C and D, above. The subjunctive in relative clauses also occurs in unreal con- ditional sentences : (r rcdre ber lefcte, ben id? urn 0tat fragte [, irenn id? in 23erlegenf)eit fommen fottte]. Interrogative clauses are introduced by ot whether, or some interrogative adjective or adverb : 3et warf man bie 5rage auf, ob man ba SCBerE ^u @nbe fitt;ren fonnte. b. In substantive relative clauses. It is very common in the following relations : (i) As subject or predicate. As subject : 9Ser fie md?t fennte | bie (Slemente, | i^re ^raft | unb @igcnfd)aft, | irdre fein SDteifter | uber bie etfter (Goethe's Faust, Studierzimmer). 2Ber mir oraugefagt I;dtte, bafj bie ','lrme mctneS eifteS fo balb jerfd?ntcttert iverbcn fottten, mit benen id? in3 llnenbltd?e griff, unb mit benen id) bod; geivip ein ropeS ju umfaffen ^offte, 169.2.G.0. SUBJUNCTIVE OF HISTORICAL TENSES 239 irer mtr bag t>oraugefagt tydtte, iritrbe mid) $ur QSerjrcetflung gcbradjt fyafreit (id.). As predicate : >ie 2Renfd?en flub nid)t immer, ira fie fein fonnten. (2) As object : Jtaufe bir, waS bit gern Ijdttefl (Lessing's Minna, 2, 3). c. In substantive interrogative clauses. This subjunctive is common in clauses introduced by 06 whether, or some interrogative pronoun or adverb. (1) As subject : (?3 ftet tfym nidjt cut, rcieoiel baton fid} fagen liepe. (2) As object : 3d) brutete, trie id} bid) retten fonnte (A. Hausrath). The subjunctive in (i) and (2) is often not a pure unreal potential, but, as in 168. II. F. c. (2), 3rd line, only a grammatical form for the expression of an indirect question, the tense having been attracted into the form of a historical tense after a historical tense : SBaS mit bent -2lnbree gefdjetyen icurbe [or irerbe], fitmmerte ifyn nidjt tut eringften (P. Heyse). In such indirect questions a historical tense is not now in choice language so common as a principal tense. G. Unreal Potential Subjunctive in Substantive ^a^- Clauses. This subjunctive is very common to indicate a possibility, or to express a statement modestly or cautiously. The bap may be suppressed. This subjunctive is often used instead of the plausible subjunctive described in 168. II. G. Of course the indicative is used if it is desired to represent the statement as a fact. This subjunctive is used in the following relations : a. In subject (or predicate) and object clauses : (1) As subject or predicate. As subject: (3 td te not, id) gtnge felbft fyin. See also Matt, xviii. 6. As predicate : SGBaS er am fefynltcfyften uriinfcfyte, irar, er fya'tte bid; nod} einutal fpredjen fonnen (L. Siitterlin). (2) As object: 3d} refynete barauf, bafj er ausbleifcen fonnte. 3d} gtaube, metne ^erren, bamtt iva're (subj. of modest statement) in ftarfen gropm Untriffen genug ton unferem ^lufenttjalt in SBien gefagt (Frankfurter Nationahers., p. 841). SRa, bent d^ctegeniater itteint, bit fii^lteft (subj. of cautious statement) bid} t)ter icie ber B'ifd? im 5Daffer (Hartleben's Rosenmontag, 2, 4). The context to this last passage shows very clearly that the speaker does not represent the statement as unreal or merely possible, but as his own personal view, and here seeks confirmation of it by cautiously representing it as the view of the father-in-law, in the hope of receiving an assuring reply. There are also a few traces of a tendency to give the subjunctive here the idea of unreality : a betaupten bie tfeute, 8fmutbe in ber 9Jot H'dren fdten And now people say that friends in time of need are scarce (which is not my experience). 3a, Jtnoten , ba fini> fie, bie 2Kenfd?cn, alle, trie fte geOarfcn ftub, QBeamtenfnoten, etDfnotcn, 9Seruf8fnoten ! Unb am fnottgflen, Jvenn fte ftd) Sarffliefct an^tc()en, etncn B : rarf barubcr tydngen nub rvomoglid) ein ^aar Drbcn bran fterfen unb ftd) einbilben, je^t n-dren fte fein (Wildenbruch's Neid, p. 80). See also A. (2), above, and 171. 2. B. c. The subjunctive in (i) and (2) is often not a pure potential, but, as in 168. II. G. a. (2), 2nd par., a mere grammatical form for the expression of indirect statement or discourse, the tense having been attracted into a historical tense after a historical tense : 6r fapte e8 ntcfyt, bap btefe iwn erfattct ivdven, bie fo oft, nod} geflern wit ifyu 240 THE VERB 169. 2.0. a. itfcer afle Sragen ber SKenfdjien gerebet (Ompteda's Eysen, chap. viii). 3d) uwfjte rcoftt, baft e ofyne drm nid;t abgefyen iritrbe (P. Heyse). In such indirect discourse historical tenses are in general not now in choice language so common as principal tenses. It would be a gain for the language if they would disappear entirely except in the cases mentioned in 171. 2. B. a. This would leave room for the clearer development of the idea of possibility, unreality, and caution here. See also 171. 2. B. c. b. In attributive clauses: >a8 fcat ifyn fo fnrcbtfcar gequa'It, 3JJarie. )te Qlna.fl, er fonnte me etrcag erreicfyen (Hirschfeld's Mutter, Act 4). H. Unreal Subjunctive in Clauses of Degree (see 238. 3. D) : a. In clauses expressing a comparison (see 238. 3. D. i. A. a). This subjunctive is common here to express a possibility, or to make a statement modestly or cautiously : @r ifl fo kfdjetben, ide etn SDJann feiu fonnte. b. In clauses expressing a restriction (238. 3. D. i. A. c). This subjunctive is used here to express a possibility : 3d) 6tn nid?t after* gtciu&ifcfy, i?erfete Charlotte, imb ge6e md)t3 auf btefe bunflen Qlnregungen, infofern fte mir folcfye red'ren (Goethe's Wahlverwandtschaften, chap. i). c. In clauses expressing a result (see 288.3. D. 2). This sub- junctive is common here to express a possibility, or to make a statement modestly or cautiously: >ie &uft ift fo flifl, bajj n?ir fte fontmeu ^)oren fomiten. @8 (Frenssen's Jorn Uhl] ifl, Son fetnem Jtunfiirert ganj a6gefei)en, ba&ei fo beutfd), bap feine anbere SRation ber (5rbe eS Jjatte ^eroorbrtngen fonnen. (58 ift fpejietl fo norbbeutfd?, bap feiu @iibbeittfd)er an feine innerfie Jlraft ^eranfonnte (Carl Busse im Tag, Nr. ii vom 8. Januar 1902). ifl nidjt, baf and; mtr etn etnjiger fd;Iaff u-erbc turd; SBctbertrancu nub SBetbergefd^rei (Sudermann's Teja, i, 5) I do not desire that a single man should become enervated through the tears and cries of women. The subjunctive is also more common with reference to the future than to the past : (3 ivar gercip, bap cr log, gelogcit tyatte, li'tgen rcerbe (or iviirbe). As can be seen from the preceding sentences, the subjunctive employed in indirect discourse has not one distinct meaning, but is either optative or potential or both, as the statement may be represented as the will of some one, or as something that is possible, or it may be represented as both at the same time. That which marks this use of the subjunctive as a distinct one is the element of indirectness which lies in the statement. If the element of indirectness is present the subjunctive may now be used, although the optative and potential ideas may be entirely absent : 3d; ujiif} te R 242 THE VERB 171. i. rcofyt, bap bcr unb fcon ebler 5lrt fei(Riehl's Der stumtne Ratsherr, III). See also 168. II. G. a. (2), and par.; 169. 2. G. a. (2), yd par. a. The indirect statement often depends upon a noun: Den SBonrurf, baf) cr bid) fyate taufcfyen reoflen, l)at cr nid;t fcerbient. Die 2Bef)aufctung, bafj bte (Srbe fid) brefye, fefcte alitei manigfad;en 23erfolgungen au3. . The report of the speaker in the subjunctive may be interrupted by explanatory remarks of his own in the indie., but all remarks, explanatory or otherwise, which are a part of the original direct statement are put in the subjunctive when transposed into the in- direct : Jtarl erjafylte, bafi er bag aug, treld;e er ton feinem SSater geerfrt fyat, serfaufen rcofle. @eit 3al)ren (fagte fte) fei fte mit cincnt @tanbegenoffen serlofct gercefen, ber gteid; ityr arm gereefen fei. c. Often a subordinate clause is in the subjunctive in indirect statement, although it has not the outward form of an indirect statement, which is easily explained by supplying some omission : Die 2ltf)ener (Athenians) fcerurteilten @ofrate8 jum $obe, rceti [fte fagten, bafi] er bte Sugenb tterberfce. SKenbel (name) foflte bofcet Be^ulflic^ fein, njidj oter aitS. [@r fagte,] (Sr ^a6e brei 2Bod?en ju 9Bett gelegen, fu^Ie ftc^ no^ fe^r matt unb fottte nad^ be8 5lr^teS Qtnnjetfung jebe Qtitfregung bermetben. In long continued indirect discourse it is not necessary in German to be continually intercalating such clauses as 'she said/ 'he continued,' &c., for the subjunctive, as in the preceding examples, indicates clearly that the speech is indirectly reported. d. The unreal optative and potential subjunctives of the direct change in the indirect their person but not their mood and tense : (Sir fagt (or fagte), er mcd)te @ie fpretfjen. Direct : 3d) mocfyte ifm fyrecfyett. (Sjr fagt (or fagte), er rciirbe gefyen, irenn er %t\t $atte. Direct : 3d; trurbe gefjen, reenn ict^ %tit ^atte. <5r fagt (or fagte), ba tonnten @te am 6efien roiffen. Direct : Da3 fonnte er am fceften tviffen. Past time : (Sjr fagt (or fagte), er J)a,tte Sie f^redjen mogen. Direct : 3d) tyatte t^n fprecfyen mogen. e. In N.G. dialect and colloquial language the subjunctive of indirect discourse is very largely replaced by the indicative : ar* aud) ein fold;er ^up^Ier unt) ber ifl nur etn 97arr, fooicl mid) bitnft (Hugo von Hofmannsthal's Die Hochzeit der Sobeide, p. 107). In the South the idea of unreality, as in case of rcdr' in the last sentence, finds a more natural expression in the subjunctive, while in the North the indicative may also be used here. 171. 2. A. c. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 243 2. Tense. The tense required in indirect discourse may as in English depend upon the tense of the principal verb. Thus a present, present perfect, or future follows a present, while a past, past perfect, or present conditional follows a past. Differing from English, the German may also, without regard to the tense of the verb in the principal proposition, use the same tense in the indirect as stood in the direct, so that the present, present perfect, and future usually stand in the subordinate clause, as explained in B, below. The former construction is the older, but the latter is steadily gaining upon it in the literary language. In the dialects, which often influence the literary language, the old historic usage has been entirely abandoned and new and different constructions have arisen. In the South-west the present, future, present perfect, and future perfect in the subordinate tense are the rule, whether they follow a present or a past, while to the East and North the past, present conditional, past perfect, and perfect conditional prevail under the same conditions. Thus it appears that the new literary sequence has developed under the influence of S.W. dialect, but it differs from it in one essential feature it abandons the new sequence and retains the old historic construction, if in any case f the subjunctive of the present, future, present perfect, and future perfect would not be clearly distinguished in form from the corresponding indicative tenses, as explained in B. a, below. The following points may serve to illustrate the form and use of these constructions : A. The old law of sequence : a. A present, future, present perfect, or future perfect follows a present : @r fagt, er fet franf, er irerbe inorgen fonnnen, er tya6e e3 fd)on getan, er iverbe e3 inner$al6 einer SQBocfye getan fyafcen. b. A past, present conditional, past perfect, or perfect conditional follows a past or past perfect : (r fagte, er ware franf, er rciirbe (would) inorgen fommen, er fjd'tte & fdjon getan, er rcurbe eS innertyalb einer SBodjc getan fjaoen. Note. Sometimes a past or past perfect subjunctive seemingly depends upon a prin- cipal tense. Such constructions are elliptical, some verb in a historical tense being understood: Unb fag' @r (140. a. Note) ifyr [, bap id) fagte], jte foflte fid) in 9ld)t iteljmen, ber fiafiarpe (name) ba$ ttare ein pifcbube (Gutzkow's Zopf und Schwert, i, 7). Sktnge SiknbcUn meine rujje unb [fage ibm, id) fagte,] ess rcare fyubfd) on iljm geifcfen, bap ft bit biefe 9teife gegtmnt (Fontane's PoggenpvMs, chap. viii). The historical tenses of the subjunctive are nowhere in indirect discourse so generally used as in these elliptical constructions. We often, however, find a historical tense after a real present tense, as the speaker or writer desires to give a dialectic coloring to the language : @ie burfeii nicfct theater fpieten unb feme S3a(le abfiatten ; ber ofcr (name) fagt, fur fo chinas n?are jefct fein SBcttcr (Rosegger). This is especially common in naturalistic authors : @ie fagt, bu twarfl fraitf. 3Da<3 tyab' id) bed) turner jefaqt, (Kcbert ' (G. Hirschfeld's Mutter, Act 4). SDeitt Cttfet ottfricb fagt, tad hsdren bie ^olgen bet J?abettent)au(3erjte{)ung. Cb et red)t ^at, iucip id) nid)t (Ompteda's Sylvester von Ceyer, L1X). For the dialect see 2, above. c. The unreal optative and potential subjunctives of the direct discourse do not change their tenses when transposed into the indirect statement, present time being always expressed by the past tense, and past time by the past perfect tense, a preceding R 2 244 THE VERB 171.2. A. C. present or past tense not influencing the construction. For examples see i. d, above. Thus after a past tense the unreal optative and potential subjunctives cannot be distinguished by their form from the sanguine optative and the plausible potential which have been attracted into a historical tense under the influence of a preceding historical tense. For examples see 169. i. C. a and 169. 2. A. (2), 3rd par. It will therefore be a real gain for the language if the old sequence be still further restricted in its use. B. The new law of sequence. The same tense may stand in the indirect discourse as stood in the direct with the exception of the past and past perfect. The past and past perfect of the direct discourse are both rendered by the present perfect in the indirect, or the past perfect may be rendered by the special form described and illustrated in e below. The past and past perfect subjunctive are avoided in indirect 'discourse, as they can easily be misunder- stood. The past subjunctive is used so much after a past tense to express present time that it is now no longer as in former periods felt as having a past force. The past perfect subjunctive might be mistaken for another form of the perfect conditional. The tenses of the subjunctive employed in indirect discourse according to the new law are therefore the present, future, present perfect, and future perfect, and the special forms described in e, below, a pre- ceding present or past tense having no influence whatever upon the following tenses : Direct. (1) 3d? 6tn franf (2) 3d? trerte fonunen r (a) 3d? tat eg ) (3) { (b) 3d? tyafte eg getan V ( (c) 3d? tyatte eg getan ) (3) (c) 9tod?bem id? gelefen fyatte, fd?riefc id? einen 23rief (an additional illus- tration of the pre- ceding point) (4) 3d? tcerbe eg innerfyalB enter 2Bod)e getan Indirect. fagt or fagte, er fei franf er rcerfce fommen er t?abe eg getan nad?bem er gefefen [fyafce], fjaBe er etnen SBrief ge* fd^rieten (another in- direct form for (3) (c) is given in e below). er irerbe eg itmerjjalfc einer SBodje getan tyafcen. a. Modified new law. Although the new sequence may be followed as stated above, it is more common to employ it only where its subjunctive forms are clearly distinguished from the corresponding indicative forms, and elsewhere to use the old historic sequence. Thus after a past tense a past tense is used instead of a present, a past perfect instead of a present perfect, a present conditional instead of a future, wherever the last-men- tioned tenses do not have a subjunctive form differing from that of the indicative : (Sofrateg erfldrte, afleg, njag er rciffe, fet, bap er nid?tg jctffe; iriete reufjten (the present subjunctive would be like the indicative) after aud? btefeg nid?t. @ie fagten, fte fatten (instead of *-*"* .B.rf. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 245 e nicfyt getan. nen gegenubet ftfcen ttjetbe" (for niuvbe) (G. Keller). This tendency is especially strong in authors from the South-west, where in dialect the principal tenses are alone used in direct discourse. See 2, above. For a different trend in other authors see b, below. b. Sometimes both constructions, the old and the new, alternate in the same sentence without any shade of difference or without any necessity at hand of resorting to the old rule as mentioned in a, above : (r fagte, SUtarte irare irofyl sjerfcfyloffen, a&er fte fet tief con emiit. This is quite natural. The old and the new construction are both felt and will continue to exist side by side until the new construction has gained a complete victory. In the East and North there is a natural tendency to use historical tenses more than is necessary, as these tenses are alone used in indirect discourse in the dialects of these sections. For examples of this usage see A. b. Note, above, towards end. c. The existence of the principal and historical tenses of the subjunctive side by side in indirect discourse without a shade of meaning is contrary to the development of these groups elsewhere, where there is a marked tendency to use the principal tenses to express something as desired, probable, or as a subjective view, and to employ the historical tenses to express unreality or possi- bility. There are traces of the idea of unreality also in indirect discourse : Unb ivenn bte alten elefcrteu ba nod) immer fcefyaupten, en bie eut' nicfct erjdfylt, ber 2>etd$aiU)tmann tfl fcorfcet geritten auf'n cfytntmet, 2ftama? (Halbe's Eisgang, p. 80). 3d; tytib' fd;on genwjjt/ e8 unrb bir red;t fein (Halbe's Mutter Erde, p. 89). irenn bit bie junge Same fommen ftefyfi, getyfl bit aitf fie ju, nimmft beineu 25ecfel ab unb fragft fte tyoflicf), 06 fie fciefleicfyt ju errn eutnant SRuborff trofle (Hartleben's Rosenmontag, 3, i). After a historical tense the subjunctive here is the rule : 3d; rcartete, 06 er fame. (Sir er^a^Ite mir, rcaS er gefefyen tyafce, trie e3 in ber belagerten @tabt au3fef)e. Qtucfy fal) er ftd) nidjt ein ein^ig 3Wal banac^ urn, 06 man ttjwt folge. The subjunctive is quite commonly used even after a present, when it is desired to represent something as false or as a subjective view : Set ar bod) nicfytS ilnrecfyteS gcfrfjeljctt, >a8 fotntte tfyr 2ftartanne unb jebermatm k^eugen. llnb ganj geivijj, fie l)atte nicfyt nut enter 2)Jtene, ntcfyt nut einent Bort t? 9Wn, er cmpfatib mtr etne fd)one, warnte felbjilofe greunbfcfyaft fi'ir fie. i'tntfyer toitrbe ftcf) banUer freiien, bap etn fo auSgejetcfyneter STOann fie einer eblen 5reunbfrf)aft reitrbtge She suddenly ceased crying, allowed her hands to fall into her lap, and then stared blankly before her. 'Why, indeed,' she thought to herself, 'should I cry? Surely nothing wrong has happened. Marianna and everybody else can testify as to that. And surely, I have never by a glance or a word given Mr. Bodmann reason to fall in love with me. Is he 173. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 249 after all in love with me? No, he only has a beautiful, warm, unselfish friendship for me. Giinther (her husband) will surely be glad that such an excellent man deems me worthy of a noble friendship.' The above passage taken from a novel is a good example of this now very common usage. The potential subjunctive is not changed when transposed from the direct into this form of the indirect ; see 171. 2. A. c. b. Instead of the tenses employed in a we also find the same tenses as used in the direct discourse according to the new law of sequence in the Indirect Form, as explained in 171. -2. B. The mood is also the same as in the direct discourse : llnb icte ber 5'rtebl nim fo mit ftcfy atlein war, ba ixrfanf er in ein Sraiimen, >rte fonft nod) nie. 9ht3 ber -^ofentafdje flog er etne fletne golbene Utyr unb fcfyaute fte an unb f)of> frfjon bte anb, urn fte in eftetn ju fdjleubern, tat'8 after nicfyt. D6 ntd)t bie Sftofet fo tra3 mocfrte? (Si naturlid), bte foil ftd)'3 nur felfcer faufen. @r tt>ir& ufcerfyanvt ntcfyt mcf)r fciel re&oit mit bent eijjs3WobI, er Ijnt ganj anbere 3luftd?ten ; ivenn er tPiU. 3Kanrt;mal eincn efaflen, njenn'S brauf aitfommt, faint man einer fa ivo^jl enreifen. Qlber itngut tt)ir& i^m fcfyier, a^enn er an biefe biefe (Stabtleute tenft. 6 ift ^alt boc^ icaf)r, ivaS man yon ifynen fogt. cr nidjt gu ffin, benn fte ^og nad$er bte in einent rafcenfd;n?arjen, ftnjleren GJelaj?, gn bent fte auf einer langen ^rep^e ^tnuntergefttegcn irar j ^lo^Itd; ging etn gretlcS ^id;t auf, nun tltdte fie umfyer unb fat), ba fte in einent Jtetter fionb, unb ringSfyerunt lagen unb ftanben egenfianbe, bie fte nie gefeljen (;atte (Wildenbruch's Schwestcr-Secle , p. 304). CONJUGATION. 173. The infinitive. The form of the verb usually given in the dictionary is the infinitive, which ends in en except after =el and *er, where the e of the en is dropped, as also in the two isolated verbs tun to do, fein to be: loben to praise, wonbern to wander, wanbeln to saunter. 250 THE VERB 174. 174. The stem. By cutting off en from the infinitive, or n after sd and =er, the simple stem of the verb is found, out of which grow all the varied forms of conjugation. 175. Forms of conjugation. Like the English, the German verb has a common and an interrogative form, and has besides in the second person a form for familiar language and another for polite intercourse, but lacks the emphatic and progressive forms of the English, the common form serving usually for the English common, emphatic, and progressive. The German has an em- phatic form that corresponds in part to the English ; see 185. B. I. 2. e. (2). See Note below for the German methods of expressing the idea of progression. The polite form is the same as the third person pi., and is distinguished from it by writing its subject, the pronoun fie, with a capital : fte lofcen they praise, @ie lofcen you praise. This polite form is the same in the sing, and pi. The familiar form, which is also used in solemn style, has bit for its subject in the sing, and ityr in the pi. The personal endings of the verb are added to the stem: Present Tense Declarative. Present Tense Interrogative. Singular. id) lofce I praise, am praising, lofce id) ? do I praise ? do praise /(familiar form) I bu lofcft you praise, are praising, (totft bu ? \ f do you praise ? 4 do praise (polite form) V@te lofccii (loBett @ie?J er, jte, eg lofct he, she, it praises, Io6t er, fte, eg ? does he, she, it is praising, does praise praise ? Plural. rait lofcen we praise, &c. lofceit njir ? do we praise ? (familiar formU ibrlobt . . lofcti&r? ) (polite form) y u P rmse > &c ' do you praise ? fte lofcen they praise, &c. lotett fte ? do they praise ? Hereafter the polite form will be omitted in the conjugation, as it is exactly the same as the third person pi., except that its subject <2ie is written with a capital letter. Note. To emphasize especially the idea of progression, the German employs a prep, phrase consisting usually of the prep, in or an and the infinitive-substantive of the verb to be conjugated : ie J?urfe itnb ittt tetflen, tm ftMni The value of stocks is rising, falling. (ie fjatte eg grabe mit ctnem J?infce ju tun, bag am Jtartoffeffdjaten luar She was just then occupied with a child who was peeling potatoes. It should be noticed that in this progressive form the object must form a compound with the infinitive-substantive as in the second example. The progressive idea is also expressed by means of the part, begriffen in connection with a prep, phrase : )ie Xrilppen fint) im Slnmarfdj begriffen The troops are advancing. 177. 1. A. REGULAR CONJUGATION REGULAR CONJUGATION. 176. There are two regular conjugations, the weak and the strong. 1. The weak forms its past tense by adding te to the stem, and its perf. participle by prefixing ge and adding t to the stem : loben to praise, past lobte praised, perf. participle gclobt praised. 2. The strong forms its past tense by a change of vowel within the stem of the verb, and its perf. participle by prefixing ge, usually changing the vowel of the stem, and by adding en to the stem : ftngcu to sing, past fang sang, perf. participle gefungen sung. The Simple Forms of the Verb. 177. The simple forms of the verb are all active except the perf. part, and gerundive, which are passive. In the following paradigms all the simple forms of the verb are given, and besides a few common compound forms which supply the place of the wanting simple forms. The words inclosed in parentheses are under certain circumstances a regular part of the verbal form, while under other circumstances they are omitted. The accom- panying reference will usually explain in full this point. I. The simple forms of the weak verb : Present. Past. Present. I praise, &c. I praised, c. Indie. Subj. Indie. & Subj. Imperative. id) lobe lobe lobte lobe id) (familiar) (polite) bit lobfl lobefl lobtefi lobe, lobeit <8te praise er lobt lobe lobte er lobe let him praise, or er fofl loben nrtr lobeit loben lobten loben irir let us praise (familiar) (polite) ifjr tobt lobet tobtet Iob(e)t, loben , | ba id; cergebeng feineggtetdjen fud;e (id., Libussa, 2). (r (Schiller) lebe fjod;, unb rcunfd;e id; Sfmen (/od), lafj rittyen bie oten, fetyen rcir in bie 3"funft (Bismarck to his betrothed, June 13, 1847). Soften on end) ! taube feiner, fein 9Jad;bar fei gliirflidjer al8 er (Isolde Kurz's Es und icti). 9liemanb glaube, je bie (finbrutfe feiner Jtinbfyeit oencinben 3 a fonnen fo ober atyntirf? l^at einmat ber alte ^radjtmenfdj t>on $Beimar ge* fd;rieBen (Franzos's Der Gott des alien Doktors, p. 41). 5)ee^)aI6 fe^)e ein jeber nad) feinen Qlujjenftcinben, 3Serpflid?tungen unb bergleidsen (Raabe's Villa Schonow, 1 1). On the other hand, it is in general not infrequent in poetry and choice prose : 5)er fptite SCBanterer erquitfe ftrf? | an bent ebanfen, bap nod^ jemanb readjt (Grillparzer's DesMeeres und derLiebe Wellen, 3). )ann ^erBred^e bie SBritannien, roenn e3 gu e^ren^aftem Sebert gu ntorfdj i^ (Lienhard's Konig Arthur, i). Less common in the plural, as the form is the same as for the indie. : efy'n etnige unb jiinben JRete^oIj an (Schiller's Tell, 2, 2). More common in a few formal expressions in polite language : (Srtauben mir bie rebtger 5)r. 35orffet (Fontane's Cecile, chap. 18). efiatten bie 4?erren, bap id; 3^nen errn Sot^ar SBranbt sorjlette (Sudermann's Die Ehre, 2, 6). 5)ie 4errfrf?aften Uerjei^en, aber, &c. (ib.). a. The pronoun in the familiar form is only expressed for especial emphasis or contrast : SBartet il)r, inbem wir ooranlaufen. The pronoun may not only follow the verb as in the example just given, but it may also precede : 3l)r ba ! feib aufmerffam ! 2)uba! fci aufmerffain ! Instead of a pronoun, a noun can of course be used : J?arl, fei aufmerffam! The (2ie of the polite form is usually expressed in the literary language, but colloquially it is not infrequently omitted, especially if it has been once expressed: Cfta, ba iiberlegen ftd; man (= nur)! (Halbe's Mutter Erde, p. 152). SHeiten @ie jur ^abrif unb bringen mir id; Htte flotte angart 3?eridH (Liliencron's Kriegsnovelleri). b. For the pres. perfect imperative, see 190. i. A. B. Substitutes for the imperative of strong and weak verbs are : a. The modal auxiliaries, which in connection with the infinitive of the verb to be conjugated are much used to replace the simple imperative and the wanting forms of the imperative. First person plural : lafj (sing, familiar form), kf t (pi. familiar form), laffcn (ie (polite) un3 loben, or ttnr troKfii lefrett instead of tobcn twr. The question order is also used with Jv>ef(en, although not so commonly as the normal order : SBcflen toir fca3 annefymen ! (Storm's 177. 1. B.C. REGULAR CONJUGATION 253 Es ivaren zwei Konigskinder, p. 2). Jtcmtn tocft'n ftir [edjten ! (Wilden- bruch's Konig Laurin, 3). Second person : @ed)3 age [off ft bu arbeiten ; am ftebenten Sage follfl bu feiern (revised edition, Ex. xxxiv. 21). The past subjunctive softens the force and imparts to the utterance the idea of advice offered modestly : 9leutid) fragte fte nod) nad) bir. $)ie [offteft bu toafylen (Goethe's H. und D., 2, 241). Sraute, minniglidie grau, tooltefl (subj.) ntmmev fliefyett (Holty). JBcttet (imperative; addressed here to one person) bag nid)t on tntr fyeifdjen (Storm's Zur Chronik von Grieshuus, p. 113). SScllct mir, geftebte 23rubet im errn, Slufmevffamfeit fdjeufett, bafj id) eudj ein feid)ni3 er$df)le (Ertl's Die Stadt der Heiligeri). Past subj. of ntcgen is very common in polite language : 2)?cd)ten @ie bie iite fyaben, mic j(U fcfgen ? The auxiliary bitrfen is much used here in prohibitions : 3I)t biirft nidjt laut fd)rcicn ! Children, you must not scream out loud ! 2JluiJen is much used here in the positive form of statement, to express the idea of compul- sion : el) ! " 3d) ttnfl md)t." 2>u mufit gefcen ! " Third person : @c [off (indie.) toben ! Let him praise ! (command), or er mcge (or fooKe ; both subj.) loben, or nicge (or tootle) er lebeu ! May he praise ! (wish). Plural : fte [often Icbcn, or mcgeu fte fcben. Sometimes also the indie, of ntcgen is used : 9iur I)abe id) eine ffeine 93itte an t^n jit tun. (Sr mag [o gut [ein unb e3 bent -errn 5pro[. clfcrt nid)t ufcf)reiben (Lessing). b. The 2nd person of the present indie, to express in a stern tone that the command must be obeyed : Kuhnert (trotzig) : 3d) lajj tnir nid)t'n 9)?unb crbicteii ! Die alte Kuhnert : @tift btfl ! (Halbe's Das tausendjdhrige Reich, p. 66). c. The 2nd person of the future indie, to express an admonition or give advice : 2)u tt>irft fyier bteiben ! You certainly will stay here. Often in a more positive tone : Sit tutrfl ben tyfel [djiefjen on bent Jlcvf | beg .Jtnaben id) bcgef)t'g unb und'g (Schiller's Tell, 3, 3). Three lines further on the pres. indie, is used in still more positive tone. Also tooften with dependent infinitive is used in admonitions ; see 213. 6.f (last sentence). d. The perfect participle in short, sharp commands or warnings : 9lu[* geftanbcn ! Stand up ! 2)en SBagen angefyannt ! <>d)nell ^ilfe gdjett ! SBorgefcfyen ! Look out ! 9iuc nidjt ju [ruf) gcfreut, Sendjen ! (Halbe's Das tausendjdhrige Reich, p. 48). 9lidjt geplaubevt ! No talking ! lbet reincn 9)iunb ge()alten ! But don't you tell a word of it. Lenten erfd)out ! Spare nobody ! Note. The perfect participle here, as in 183 . G, is used as a finite verb rather than as a participle with participial force. Notice (i) that the perfect participle of transitive verbs here does not have passive force as elsewhere, as this imperative form as all others takes a direct object. It is probably true, however, that these imperatives, although they are felt to-day as imperatives, were originally past participles nsed as predicate complement after the auxiliaries [ein and loerbeil, or in case of transitives as objective predicate after fjaben : [@et] aufgetfanben ! [Jpabe] ben SBagen Ottgcfrannt ! (2) In case of reflexive verbs, the reflexive pronoun drops out in this imperative form, as in the fourth and fifth examples above. e. The present infinitive, to express a command or warning to children and informal commands in general, such as entreaties, directions, especially those directed to the public : SRaul hatten ! Hold your tongue ! (Sd)tt>etgcn ! Be still ! 9lber bid) me nnebet [o btd)t am SBaffer auf bie (Svte l;gcn uub einfd)fa[en ! ^erjiattben ? (Wildenbruch) But don't ever lie down again so near the water and go to sleep ! Do you understand ? 3?ul)ig, tul)tg ! 9lur ja nid)t argent (Hauptmann's Einsame Menschen, i) (see (3) in Note below). 91ein, nein, bitte, [ectt ! (Sudermann) No, no, please be seated. 93itte, mid) aud) fliegcn laffen ! Please throw me up into the air too ! 3d) bitte, bitte : ejTen ! nut einen 23ifien bavctt, abcr effcn ! ,, 9iut nid)t att[regcn," irarnte bet ?lqt, bant^fen ! 3cr; ftreuitng brandit cr jcfct uid)t, laitgwciten [cl( er fid) " (Ebner-Eschenbach's Ritt- meister Brand, XVII). 55ann rte[ id) bem J?ut[d)cr git : umfef)rc." 2hie[e voft' lagernb Jtonfianj abvefiicven (in an advertisement) Address letters to Constance, 254 THE VERB 177. 1. u.*. to be called for. (finfieigen ! All aboard ! (to passengers). UmfUigen aad) J&aanoser ! Change cars for Hanover ! Often in telegrams : Skater fd)rt?et franf. .Itemmea. ottfrieb (Ompteda's Sylvester -von Geyer, LXIII). The infinitive in all these cases probably depends upon some auxiliary under- stood : [it foltfi beta] Sftaitf fatten ! Note. Observe in the above examples (i) that in a negative command the negative must precede the infinitive, (2) that the separable prefix is not separated, (3) that reflexive verbs in this imperative form sometimes take the reflexive pronoun and sometimes are without it, especially so in certain set expressions, as in the fourth and fifth examples. /. A substantive or adverb : 9ld)tuag ! Attention ! 93ortt>drt$ ! Forward ! g. A subordinate clause: Dafi ba fo fortfdfirfl unb beinea lieben (Sttern ttiet greube taadjft ! Keep right on in this way, and thus bring your dear parents much joy ! (Sbuavb ! baf bie SBriefe nod) cor 8 aaf bet $oji jtab Edward ! see to it that the letters are at the Post Office by eight. Such clauses depend upon some verb understood, such as id) (age bir, id} bitte bid), &c. C. The personal endings of the plural pres. indie, vary in different dialects from the above models. There is in some dialects a tendency to use uniformly the same personal ending throughout the plural, one form levelling the others. This is also true of str. verbs, as they .have exactly the same personal endings as the wk. Thus in most editions of Goethe's Gotz, i, i (not, however, in the Weimar edition) we find in the dialectic language there employed =en, the ending of the ist and 3rd pers. pi., also in the 2nd pi. : SBotten fljt 9fhi fyafon? The old ending ent for the 3rd pers. pi. is preserved in Alemannic and has there spread to the other persons of the pi. This old ending is also preserved in the literary language in the one word flnb (for irregular spelling see III, foot-note marked a ), which form has also spread to the ist pers. pi. In dialect the older correct ist pers. pi. form fein often occurs and has spread to the 3rd pers. : JDtr fein, fte fein. In the Swabian and some Swiss dialects the ending et is heard instead of ent in the 3rd pers. pi., and has also spread to the ist and 2nd pers. pi. The pi. ending here is also e. In Bavarian and Austrian dialects this levelling does not take place in the pi. The ending for the ist and 3rd pers. pi. is e(n) and for the 2nd pers. pi. et or tS (regular 2nd pers. pi. ending t + 3, the latter element of which is the contracted form of the old dual e3 ; see II. The simple forms of the strong verb : A. ftngen to sing. B. fatten to fall. C. ^elfen to help. Present. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. icfy ftnge ftnge fade fatte tyelfe tyelfe fcuftngft jfngefl faflft fafleft Wlfjl $elfef* erjlngt ftnge fdUt fafle mlfi n>ir ftngen ftngen fatten fatten ^elfen i^r. ftngt finget fattt fattet f elft fie flngen ftngen fatten fatten ^elfen ielfen 177. II. D. c. REGULAR CONJUGATION 255 Past. Indie. id? fang bu fangft er fang ttrir fangen it)r fangt fte fangen Subj. fdnge fdng(e)fi fdnge fangen fdng(e)t fangen Indie. flel (Mft ftel ftelen ftelt ftefen Subj. ftele fleleft flele flelcn ftelet ftelen Indie. Subj. jalfen Mft jalfen dlfe alfen W(e)t jalfen ist flnge id) (familiar) (polite) 2nd ftng(e), ftngen 6en, ^flegen, flerfen, flefyen, iceben, and often fd?eren, do not suffer an interchange of vowel at all in the present tense of either the indie, or imper. Now and then other verbs show no interchange in the present, especially in familiar conversation : id? fd?elte, bu fd?iltjt or fd?elteft, imper. fd?tlt or fd?elt(e). 3et fontm," Idd?ette fte, fd?on naeber jut>erf!d?tlid? ifyn an ber anb fortjiefyenb, unb fd?elt fcalt nod? einmal, rcenn id? e nid?t red?t gentad?t ijab' " (Berlepsch's Forlunats Roman, p. 18). -elf ben errfd?afte bte <8ad?en atne^men(Halbe's^f//^r Erde, i. p. 18). In the language of the common people this tendency to level out the irregularities of form and become regular is much stronger than in the literary language. e. The subjunctive never shows interchange of vowel. /. All strong verbs not described in a and b follow the inflection of ftngen in pres. tense indie. g. In early N.H.G. the past tense indie, often added an e in the 1st and 3rd person sing., after the analogy of weak verbs : Dct. gaujhu? name (for itafynt) jm (for ifym = ftd?) nnefceramb em efpradj fiir (for or) mtt feinern etft gu fyalten (Historia pn 2). Sotjann 5*uflf 1587). We find these forms only rarely in the classical period : id? titte (Lessing's Nathan^ 3, 8, I4th line). G<3 jlclje grmnb imb getnb (Goethe's Gotz, 3, 13). III. The simple forms of the irregular verbs b^afcen, fein, njerben : a. fyafcen to have. b. fein to be. Present. Past. Present. Past. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. id? tyabe fyafce tydtte ^dtte But fei rear njdre bu fydfl ^abejl ^dttejl ^tt(e)fl fctft fei(0i^ worjl irdr(c)ft er fjat ^abe ^atte ^)dtte t|1 fei war irdre icir ^)a6en tyaben fatten fatten ftnb feien rcaren waren t^r ^abt ^)a6et ^)dttet f)dttet feib 1 feiet n?art irdr(e)t fte ^a ben fyabcn fatten fatten finb 1 feien ivaren redren 1 The official spelling here needlessly obscures the etymological relations of the 178. i. REGULAR CONJUGATION 257 Infinitive. Imperative. Infinitive. Sing. Pres. (jit)^aOen ist fet id) Pres. (;$it) fein (185. A &B) 2nd fei, feien @ie (185. A & B) 3rd er fei Participles. Plur. ist feien ictr Participles. Pres. tyafcenb 2nd feib, feien <2te Pres. feienb Perf. ge^aSt' 3rd fte fotten fein Perf. gerce'fen Imperative. Sing. ist t)56e id) 2nd fyafce, fya&en (Sie 3rd er Ijafce Plur. ist tyafcen trir 2nd fjafct, fyafcen <8>te 3rd fie foflen Ijaben Gerundive, ju tyafcen (predicate form) ber (, bie, bag) jit tyafcenbe (attributive) Note. Instead of the usual subjunctive present singular of fein, we occasionally find the forms id) feie, bit feiefi, er fete: JDa meint er, e3 feie bie Sitrg fd)on gencmmen (Uhland's Graf Ebersteiri). c. nrerben to become. Present. Past. Indie. irarb or rcurbe ] warbjl or ttitrbefl rcarb or njurbe rcurben Indie. id) iverbe bit anrft er rctrb mir irerben ityr Jterbet fte Jrerben Subj. Jterbe rcerbeft njerbe icerben reerbet werben Infinitive. Pres. (jit) rcerben (185. A and B) nwrbet tcitrben Subj. tritrbe njitrbefl murbe trurben rcurbet tritrben General Imperative irerbe id? tterbe er iverbe irerben nrir mrbet, icerben @ie fie foflen iverben Participles. Pres. reerbenb Perf. (ge)reor'fcen (178. 2. C.) Remarks respecting the Simple Forms of the 178. Verb. i. Sometimes in adding the various endings to the stem, sounds are brought together that are difficult to pronounce, in which case an e is placed between stem and ending to facilitate the pro- nunciation : j;eid;nen to sketch, draw, bit jeidjneft not jeidjnfi ; e8 recuiet (not regnt) it is raining, &c. This e, once a vital part of the word, has so lost its original force that it can thus be used to facilitate the pronunciation and dropped when it is not needed. It is also words. @etb and finb should both be written with a t instead of b : feit and ftnt. In all other verbs, as for example in ;{jt gefyt, the 2nd person pi. ends in t and should also do so here. In earlier periods of the language the 3rd pers. pi. indie, of all verbs ended in tit as also in Latin : O.H.G. farent = N.H.G. fte fafymi. The 3rd pers. pi. indie, form ftttb is the only remaining verb that still has this ending, which is, however, falsely spelled nb instead of nt. Indo-European nt (as in Latin ama/) became in prehistoric Germanic nth, which according to Verner's Law (see 40. 2. a) became Gothic nd as it followed an unaccented vowel, or as in case of jtnb was used enclitically. This nt> became in the last shifting of the consonants O.H.G. nt. It is said that the intention of the spelling feib is to distinguish it from the prep, feit, which, however, seems a weak justification. For the explanation of 1st pers. pi. form ftnb and its dialectic form see I. C. above. 1 SSBurbe is the more common form in ordinary prose, todtb is a favorite in poetry and choice prose. The plural forms tpovben and ttdtbeit occur earlier in the period : fte ifcrfcen (Luther). ag eg regent ailffg Sanb (Job xxxviii. 26). In careless pronunciation the tt is also often assimilated to the preceding consonant : ebtttt instead of ebnt. See 41. 4. b. When stems ending in b or t would stand before the ending t (and often before ft), the connecting vowel is usually placed between stem and ending, except in the 2nd and 3rd person sing, present tense of those verbs having a modification of vowel or interchange from e to i or ie, which latter classes never take the connecting vowel but the regular endings ft, t, or in case of combinations difficult to pronounce suffer contraction : teten to pray, er fcetet, bu 6et(e)fl, bu beteteft, gebetet, &c. ; but laben to load, bu Idbft, er Ictbt (If.f); fatten to hold, bit tyattft, er ^alt ; treten to step, bu trtttft, er tritt ; fecfyten to fence, bu ftcfytft, er ftcfyt, but in the pi. according to rule : i^r labet, ^altet, tretet, fecfytet. Note. In early N.H.G., and still in the language of the youthful Goethe, contraction was here common, not only in the and and 3rd person sing, of the strong verbs above mentioned, but in all verbs in any place where a b or t would be followed by a t- in the inflectional ending : (Goethe's Urfausf) angemd'fl for angentdftet, gefndt for gefnetet, Jltgeridjt for gugerid^tet. A few adjective participles still remain as survivals of this former usage : (ber) 93eamte (for Seamtete), berebt, butdjlaitdjt, erfaudjt, getrcft (for getroftet ; see 208. I. a). In early N.H.G., however, verbs which have a modification of vowel or interchange in the 2nd and 3rd pers. sing, present tense indicative may sometimes have there either an uncontracted or a contracted form, as Jjciltet (written in early N.H.G. Ijeltet) and Ija'tt, jlidjtet and ffttfyt, while to-day only the contracted form is here used in prose, the older usage continuing only in poetry. c. When stems ending in a sibilant, as f, fy, ff, , fdj, g, x, would stand before ft the connecting vowel is inserted between stem and ending except in the and pers. sing, present tense of verbs having a modification of vowel or interchange from e to i or ie, which latter classes may take the connecting vowel in choice language, but in ordinary conversation add only the regular ending ft, or in case of combinations difficult to pronounce suffer contraction : fifcfyen to fish, bu ftfdjeft ; but tcafcfyen to wash, bu njctfc^efl or irdfcfyft ; n?acf?fert to grow, bu rod cfyfeft or rodcfyft effen to eat, bu iffefi or ifjt ; lefen to read, bu Itefeft or liefi. In familiar conversation contraction is also quite common here 178. I.E. a. REGULAR CONJUGATION 259 even when there is no interchange of vowel : bu ^afiit, liefjt instead of paffefl, Itefiefr. The choice language of our time is becoming ever more unfavorable to contracted forms. d. The connecting vowel e besides serving to facilitate pro- nunciation distinguishes the subjunctive from the indicative in the present and also in the past of the strong conjugation, but the indicative and subjunctive weak are identical in form in the past tense, and in the strong conjugation the e may drop out of the past subjunctive where the modification of the vowel already dis- tinguishes the subjunctive: bu tufi (indie.), but bu tuejl (subj.) ; bu flingft (past indie, of gefyeit to go), but bu gingeft (subj.); bu ga&ft (past indie, of gefceu to give), but bu gdfc(e)fi (subj.). Verbs in =elit and =cru may in the present tense not only distinguish the subjunctive from the indicative by retaining the connecting and inflectional vowel e but also by dropping (not always, however, as it may be retained) the e of the verbal suffix : (indie.) id? fyeud^ejte, bu f)eud?eljr, er l)eud?elt, ictr t?eud?elu, ifyr fyeucfyelt, fte f?eud?eln ; (subj.) id? t)eud}(e)le, bu t;eud](e)[efr, er f?eud)(e)(e, nrir J)eud;(e)len, Ujr ljeuing burd) ein eftcfyt be3 nacbtS offenfcart (Dan. ii. 19). Usage is even to-day not entirely fixed. In the case of the following compounds fro^Iotfen to rejoice, liettfofen to caress, unflfafyren to humor a person, usage fluctuates (with preference perhaps for first mentioned form) between gefrofy'locft and frofyloctt', geliefc'f oft and lieb'gefoft, and sometimes Itebfoff, getcttt'fafjrt and retflfatyrt'. Thus the compound may be treated as a simple verb taking accent on the first syllable and prefixing ge in the participle, or the first component element of the compound may be treated as an in- separable prefix taking no accent and hence no ge= in the participle ; see also 217. b. In spite of its accent the adj. participle genaturt' (earlier in the period common, now little used except in popular language) -natured prefixes ge, after the analogy of geartet : feiner genaturt all bie au3 fettem on gefovmte 3Kenfd^eit (Musaus). B. Certain auxiliaries or auxiliary-like verbs, when in a compound tense they have an infinitive depending upon them. a. The participle has no ge* and has seemingly no other sign of the perf. part, but has to all appearances the form of the infinitive (for historical explanation see Note i) : 6r f)at eS gemufst He has been compelled to, but (r fyat eS tun imiffen He has been compelled to do it. These auxiliaries comprise the following, only, however, when simple verbs, never when compound : bittfen, founen, ntogen, mitffen, f oUen, and irotlen ; and the auxiliary-like verbs fyeipen to bid, tyelfen to help, fjoren to hear, laffen to let or cause, macfyen to make, fe^en to see, usually fcroudjen to need (to do something), sometimes fitt;len to feel, Icrnen to learn, and rarely lefyren to teach and mffcn to know, all seven- teen of which except braucfyen (185. B. I. 2. a) and ittffen (212. 2. c) take an infinitive depending upon them without ju : 3cfy ^afce es gefonnt / have been able, but 3d) tyafce e3 tun f onnen / have been able to do it. SSMe oiel traute tunben ^atte mir ber alte 99urfdjc fcereiten ^elfen! (Paul Keller's Waldwinter, xxi). SKan finite auS ben iRebeiuenbungen ^erau, baf bie 3^it bod; ityr 5Serf fletan, ba^ neue dinbriirfe bie alten Jjerrcifdjt, neue 262 v THE VERB 178.2. B. a. ejtdjter bte rinncrung an bie altcn fatten Jjerfetaffen madjen (G. Ompteda's Eysen, chap. ii). llnb rcoju I)a6t ityr e unS benn glaiiben inadjen, il)r fallen eut'? (Rosegger's Fruhling). 3d? fcatte mid? Wofj nid;t einju* mifd?m fcraudjen (or perhaps less commonly, but more correctly einmifdjen faaudjen, or ein^timifcben ge6raud?t) / simply had no need of mixing myself up in the matter. Sir fatten biefe @d?ulb aud) bann nod? auf ling laften fiit)(en (Wustmann's Sprachdummheiten, p. 60, 3rd ed.) now more commonly laflen gefiitylt. ier tritt bie 3ubitfy ivteter ein, . . . bie ben Xeufel tyat gasmen lernen (G. Keller an T. Storm, 25. Juni 1878) now more commonly gasmen gelernt [tyat]. Note I. These peculiar forms, which are outwardly infinitives but in function par- ticiples, are in fact for the most part old strong perfect participles without ge;. They must have originally been felt as participles, as we also find forms with ge; : 6ren naturally followed the example of fefien, and later anfangen, braudjen, fufilen, madjen, lefiren, lemen, ermogen, and hrijien, joined more or less frequently the group. Of these onfangen, fflegen, and t>ertnogen, have abandoned the construction entirely. There is at present a growing tendency for other of these verbs to discard this peculiar participle and use the form they have as independent verbs, regularly so in case of fufylen, lehreil, Iftnen, and tinjfen, quite often in case of braildjen, 66ren, macfyen, feben, laffen, and occasionally so in case of others : 3d) fiabe ifin mehrfadj reben gebort (Sudermann). 35et Jtonig on S^anfreicf) hat ben $apfl glauben gemadjt ^Ranke). >ie eligf eit ber 5f tube fidttefeine werftegenbe Sebensftaft nen rinnengemadjt (Jamtschek's Liel>eswunder,VlIY). 3d) fiabe ihn nod) nie fdjlafen gefefien (Auerbach). 2)u ^dtteft gew bie ^evfer fdjlagen geljolfen (Hamerling). The modal auxiliaries hold most tenaciously to the old construction, but the weak participial form with ge; seems also here to be gain- ing ground, especially in subordinate clauses with suppressed tense auxiliary and also in principal clauses where the dependent infinitive has been placed at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis : 38ir Batten eg ja nid)t beffer Ijaben gettoUt (Raabe). 9U3 ein fitenger (Ridjtet hdtte er or tfjc jlefien gewcllt (Ebner-Eschenbach). 3Benn er ifir bacon fpred)en getooflt ^atte, iDiirbe fie, &c. (Jensen). 2Benn er bodj fterben gebuvft! (G. Ompteda). ewi benfen fie hne id), iht Jtinb twrb cinmat rof3 leiften, rttras toie's nod) gar fein SWenfd) fviiljer errcid)en gefonnt (Adalbert Meinhardt). @lien l)ab' id) nid)t iel gentod)t (Schulze-Smidt). Note 2. 2eBren, lernen, Jjelfen, and fieipen may also require a jit before the dependent infinitive, as described in 185. B. I. 2. c, Note. In this case their participles usually take the regular participial form with ge* instead of that of the infinitive : tutj fd&cit fcatten iie fid) fennen lernen (or more commonly gelernt), but @r fiat fidj gu beberrfdjcn gelernt and 35u fiafl gelernt, ben SDJunb uerfdjlojfen ju fatten. S8raud)en, however, quite commonly takes the infinitive form instead of the participial, whether the dependent infinitive has a ju or is without it ; see example in a. Sometimes fieijjen : 3efl>3 hat bie Slrmut itnb bag @(cnb nie unb nirgenbs fonfewieren lt?of(en, fbnbern er fiat fie befdntvft unb JU befdm^fen fieif en (Hamack's Das Wesen des Christentums, Sechste Vorlesung). 178. 2. B.e. REGULAR CONJUGATION 263 Note 3. If the dependent infinitive has active force, the participle of tafiett may take either the participial form with ge; or that without it, but if the dependent infinitive has passive force the participle usually takes the form without Qd : 2)tf ^i utter fyat bad .RtnJ) fallen lafjen (or gelafien), but 3)ie aflutter Ijat ba3 ,Rini> taufen lajfen (not gelafjen). b. If the verb is understood, both constructions are found : 3Btr Ijafren nicfyt welter [getyen] gefonnt, or less commonly fonnen. The use of the infinitive here is strictly confined to the modal auxiliaries. c. The participle which has the form of the infinitive, usually, as in the preceding examples, stands at the end of the sentence, but it may sometimes, especially when the dependent infinitive is modified by other words, stand before the first dependent infinitive or its modifiers : 2Bir fatten un0 bod) nicfyt fotten in8 93ocf1)orn jagen laffen. For especial emphasis also, the dependent infinitive some- times stands in the emphatic position at the end of .the sentence, even when it is not modified : I) it Ijattefi fonnen fcfrirei'geit You could at least have kept still. Also for especial emphasis the auxiliary may be removed from the usual position at the end of the sentence to the exceptional and hence emphatic position before the dependent infinitive : dr tyat ba3 foflen unb mit'ffen tun He just had to do that. This position of the auxiliary before the dependent infinitive is now, in general, rather unusual and strictly confined to the above cases, but in earlier parts of the period it was quite common and not thus restricted. Popular and poetical language still frequently show here the older usage. d. In the passive, however, the past participle of the auxiliary assumes its regular participial form : SJJan f)at ben 9lrjt fommcn laffen They have sent for the doctor, but in the passive form : S)er 5lr<|t nwrbe fommen getaffen. This passive construction is not found except in case of laffen, letyren, and ^ei^en, and also there it is not used if the dependent infinitive has passive force. Thus instead of Die SBrittfe ivurbe fcaiten gelaffen we must choose some other con- struction. When used in the passive, tyeitjen and teljren, differing from laffen, require gu before the dependent infinitive, and the former usually, and the latter often, prefers as subject the word representing the thing to that representing the person, the person standing in the dat. : 3 irurbe i^m, or (r icurbe frufyjeitig gelet)rt, ott ju Dertrauen, but usually (3 ifi mit ge6eien tcorben, bieS ju tun. e. In the perfect infinitive, made up of the perf. participle of the auxiliary and the infinitive of tyaben (as for example gefonnt tyaben), the participle of the auxiliary usually assumes the form of the infinitive, when an infinitive depends upon it, or may here sometimes remain in participial form : (5t nrirb bag 23itcfy nictyt friifyer fyabru erfcfjcincn laffen to mini, or lialn-u romtni i-rfrfu-iimt laffcit He probably has not been able to have the book published before. 2)it iniipt beine autfotberung fallen gelaffen Ijafon (G. Hauptmann's Vor Sonnenaufgang, 5). The future perfect tense er irtrb gefonnt ^aten becomes er reirb Ijafcen (fc^reibcn) fonnen, the ^aben preceding the other infinitives and the fonnen either standing at the end or after l)afcen before the other infinitives, according to c. above. Note. The regular part, form, however, should be nsed instead of the infinitive 264 THE VERB 178. 2. B.*. form in a contracted clause, formed with ju and a perf. infinitive : 3dj touttfdjte, bicS fdjon geflern tun fjetwrft ju l&aben/ not ftabnt tun ju burfett, as jju can only stand before a genuine infinitive and not before a word which is in fact a parti- ciple. This rule is more frequently violated by even good authors than it is followed, apparently because the speaker or writer, not seeing clearly into the construction at the time, takes the closing part, for an infinitive : *ftut ein$ fdjmetjt tnid} : ber ebten ungtucfUdjen grew ba bruben nidjt fagen $u burfen, une tief tcfc eg nad)tvdg(tc$ beflage, ghnfdjen ifa unb ifitem itnwiirbigen atten bie OJoKe beg SWittlevs fyaben fpielett ju foollen (Spielhagen's Selbstgerecht, p. 115). @t fiif)Ue fidj ttcrftidjt, bem 9lrtat ju fagen, ba ct e3 fcfjon bereite, mit feinen SSertoanbten jtd) einen anbten ficfy einen ma^en wofien. C. When an auxiliary and not an independent verb, rcerfcen drops the ge of the past part. : (Sr tfl gelott icorbeit He has been praised, but (5r ift fronf geirorben /fg has become sick. See also E. D. A few adj. participles without ge, survivals of a period when the part, had no ge, are still found : recfytfcfyaffen upright, lit. created right; trunfeu drunk; fotan' (, i.e., fo getan) such, lit. thus fashioned, now rare ; the following participial compounds, which, however, also have a regular form with ge : oltBacfeit or altgefcarfen stale, tyauSBcicfen or f)au8ge6acfen home-baked, home-made, neuitacfen or neugefcacfen new- baked, fnfcfjfcacf en or ftifd?ge&aer ifl ein $BeIfcf)er worben (F. Dahn's Ein Kampf urn Rom, I, i). For further treatment and explanation, see 246. II. 4. a. (especially towards the end) and c. (2). VERBALS. 179. Those simple verb-forms which partake of the nature of verbs and have in addition the function and inflection of adjectives or nouns are the gerundive, participles, and infinitives. GERUNDIVE. 180. The gerundive assumes two forms, one for the predicate and one for the attributive relation. A. Predicate Gerundive. The infinitive with git assumes a peculiar force in the predicate. Though active in form, it here has passive force and expresses the necessity, possibility, or fitness of an action : (8 ifl tttel ju tun There is much that must be done. Suft ifl iifceratt ju tyafcen Air can be had everywhere. 2)ag fletyt ntdjt $11 dnbern That cannot be changed. )er @d)merj ifl faum 311 ertragen The pain can scarcely be borne. 2)iefe8 ^leifd? ifl nid)t ju effen This meat is not fit to be eaten, dr ifl gu Io6en He ought to be praised. This construction is found in the following common cases : 180. B. a. GERUNDIVE 265 a. As predicate complement of the intransitives fetn to be, Wei ten to remain, gefyen to be possible, can, ftef)en( = fetn, but not so common) to be, and sometimes fcfyeinen to seem : (3 6Iet6t afcjurcatten It remains to be seen. 9Sic nnmberlid), baft be3 einen liid; fjiemeben nur immer auf bem llnijlucf eineS cmberen aufynfcauen gefyt ! (Hans Hopfen's Stellvertreter, II, i). 6 ftefyt jit tyoffen It is to be hoped. Jtaum fd;eint eS ju glaufcen (Goethe) It seems scarcely credible. )a rear fo tneteg ju fefyen There was so much there to be seen. (3 rrar nid?t j;u ertragen It was not to be endured. SSon biefem Bin id? ju retten I can be rescued by him. In English this passive construction survives in only a few expressions: The house is to let. He is to blame. This is to eat. Now usually passive form : He is to be censured. The older construction, how- ever, is still quite common where the infinitive is used attributively : the man to blame, the thing to do, a duty to perform. The passive form is also often used here : a question to be lightly touched upon. In German the attributive phrase must be rendered by an adjective clause of which the gerundive is the predicate, or the form in B may be employed : ber SWcmn, ber gu tabeln ware ; or ber ju tabctnbe 9Kann. Note I. If the predicate verb governs the gen. or dat., the subject of the sentence is always the impersonal eg, expressed or understood : (Sinettt (SirtWtirfe iji I)ter ncd) Vorjltfommett (Lessing) There is here still one objection that must be met. Aote 2. As reflexive verbs in general cannot form a passive, they ought not to be used in this construction, but occasionally in popular language cases can be found : Sluf jebcm cffetitlicfyen Qkfte ift fid) in bee {Jteiljenfolge fcer dnje genau an bie iSanjovbnung ju fcaltcn, instead of Ijat man fid), &c. b. After ge&en in its impersonal forms, eg gifct there is, e3 ga& there was, &c. : (3 gifct nocfy fcicl gu tun There is still much to be done. c. As objective predicate, or object-complement, especially after finbcn, fyafcen, and fel)en : 3cfy fanb on ifyr bieleS augjufefcen I found in her a good deal to criticise. See 185. A. 1. 6 for fuller list of such verbs. B. Attributive Gerundive. This form is made up of the present part, with 311 prefixed and like the participle has the declension of adjectives. It is a N.H.G. formation created in order to express attributively the same idea that had already proved so convenient in its predicate form (explained in A above). It has therefore the same force as the predicate gerundive : ber ju tabelnbc duller the pupil who is to be censured ; bie ju fadenten 23dume the trees that are to be cut down; etn won bir ju cerbeffernber ??et)Ier an error that must be corrected by you ; biefe leicfyt ju Bfenbc Qlitfgafre this task that can easily be performed ; ein leicfyt ju erreicfyenbeS %id a goal that can easily be reached ; aUmdfylicf) jit leiflenbe S^Iungen payments that are to be gradually met ; etn nicfyt gn itberfefyenber llmftanb a circumstance that ought not to be overlooked. a. The attributive gerundive is avoided in case of verbs which govern the gen. or dat. : instead of ber gu gebcnfenbe 93orfa(( the incident that is to be mentioned we can say : >er 33orfal(, bcffcn man gebenfm mujj ; instead of bie ju gefyordbcnben efefce the laws which are to be obeyed we can say : 25ie efffce, bcncit matt gcfyorcfyen muf;. Or if the short gerundive expression is preferred, the verb can be changed and a synonym selected which governs the ace. and thus admits of this construction : 25er ju envafctunbe SSorfall and bie jit befclgenben efcfce. 266 THE VERB 180. B. b. b. Since the gerundive is passive in force we would not naturally expect to find it formed in intransitive verbs, but notwithstanding the oft-repeated protests of grammarians this compact construction is still frequently used by good authors with active meaning and the peculiar modal force of the gerundive : SDajj man bag efd)efycne fid) efyet gefaften lafit, ate bafj man in ein nod) j;u efd)el)enbf$ euwUligt (Goethe); bte voranjngefyenbe 33ebingung (Hegel). 2Bihtfd)e etne tedjt ftofyljufdjlafenbe (see 182. z. b} 9lad)t, &rc Slmtmann (Raabe's Odfeld, chap. viii). We have a similar construction in English : the life to come. THE PARTICIPLES. 181. Participles are so called because they participate in the nature both of the verb and of the adj. They sometimes have the force and construction of verbs, sometimes a force approaching nearer that of the adj., but they always have the inflection of the adj., except in their adverbial use (see a), and also when the adj. force is stronger than the verbal they are compared like adjectives : S)ie efatyr ift brobenb, trie broljenbe efaljjr, eine treffenbere 5Inttrort an answer more to the point, mein geliebtejler Sreunb. For points con- cerning comparison see 115. 4 and 114. 3. a. Both participles can be used as adverbs and then remain unin- flected : ftebenb Ijeif eg SBaffer boiling hot water, ein auggejeicfynet geleljr* ter 2)iann a very finely educated man. The present part, often ex- presses manner : @r lernt fyielenb He learns as easily as if it were play. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 182. The leading points concerning the use of the present part, are : i. The present participle can be used : A. As an adjective : bag ftngenbe Jttitb, bte untergetyenbe (sonne. 2ftan fanb Ujn fcfytafenb (objective predicate). 2)u Itegfi tyier trditmenb (predicate appositive). a. The present participle is not only inflected as an adjective, but also governs the same case, or takes the same construction as the verb from which it is formed. If the part, has thus a complement or adverbial modifiers, they must stand before it : ber bte Sefhtng itfcerrafcfyenbe &einb the enemy taking the fortress by storm, bte bent g-remben geljorenben (Sacfyen the things belonging to the stranger, eiit am Sluffe ftetyenbeg >au3. S^un trat SWargarete gatij fremb im ^ater^aufe, alien ein @tetn be3 Qtnfto^eg, alle Ijaffcnb, tton aflen ge|apt. Notice that in the attributive relation, as in the first three examples, the participle stands immediately before the noun, not after it as in English. The position of the participle after the noun is rare in the attributive relation except in the cases described for the adjective in 104. 2. B. a. The predicate appositive, however, as fyaffenb in the last example, is usually separated from the noun. b. The pres. part, is not used predicatively, if the verbal element becomes prominent. Thus we do not as in English say 2)er erer i]i lobenb, but )er ef)rer lofct The teacher is praising. But when it is felt as an adj. it can like any adj. stand in the predicate : >iefe3 SBtlb tft reijenb This picture is charming. 2)ie Srage ifl fcrcnnenb The question is one that is exciting interest 2)er SBerreiS ifl fcfylagenb The proof is a striking one. (r iji nocfy iinmer letbenb He is still 182. I.E. THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE 267 sickly. For the earlier use of the present participle in the predicate with verbal force see 190. i. G. c. The English present participle is here often replaced by other constructions in German : The fog came pouring in at the window >er 0}e6el fant jum frenfier tyewngejirontt. He came running (r fain getaufen. I cannot go on doing nothing 3d) fann nid)t fortfatyren, nicfytg 311 tun. I do not like him coming here so often 3d) I)a6e eg mcfct gem, bafi er fo oft fjerfommt. Who told you of your wife being there? SBer fagte 3fcnen, bap 3tyre 8rau ba war? B. As a noun to denote persons engaged at the time in question in an action, duty, or occupation, or in case of neuter substantives to denote the characteristic feature of an act, or to represent some- thing as continuing or acting : ber 9Rebenbe the speaker, cin cfdjaftS* reifenber a commercial traveller, bcr 33orftfcenbe the chairman, bte Umftefycnben the bystanders, bag S)emutigenbe bicfeg 5luftrittg the humiliat- ing nature of this scene, bag U6errafd)enbe biefeg (Jreigniffeg the surprising character of this event, atleg eienbe all that exists. S)ie er inter tear ftii tana, nnb fircng fur bid)," fagte tljr atte, brforgt auf ttyte blctcfxn SBangen bticfcnb. 35cn ganjen Jag arbeitct er'tnit ctncm altm tcnet im \na ten, fdjnci&cnb, begicfjeitb, pflanjtnb, unb {jcg'cnD (II. Seidel's Eine Sperlingsgestkichte). A participle may also sometimes denote a cause, only, however, when the cause of the act is represented as lying in the state of the mind of the subject of the leading verb, otherwise a complete subordinate clause must here be used : Ginen tltrnt fittdjtenb, fefn'ten unr nad) bcm Sanbe (shore) jumtcf, but 5)a i<^ fetne Slntlfort crljiclt, hjupte i^ nic^t, tote icfy Ijanbctn fcllte. Aside from the above-mentioned cases, the student would do better to render English participial clauses used adverbially by complete sub- 268 THE VERB 182. I.E. ordinate clauses, as in many instances the participial construction cannot be used at all : 9Hg id) in $atig tooljnte, brad)te id) viele 3t itn 2ons>re ju While living in Paris I spent much time in the Louvre. Setter Unr tie telle erttU&tett, &c. Before reaching the spot, we, &c. It should be especially noted that participial clauses of cause formed with being or having should be rendered by complete subordinate clauses: >a ft nod) nid?t auggeljen formte, tnujjte er gu aufe bleiben TVb/ being yet able to walk out, he had to stay at home. )a id) nid)tg jit tun fyatte, ging id) ing Sweater Having nothing else to do, I -went to the theatre. The adverbial expression generally speaking is translated by the perfect participle: SRein 33atet rjatte fid), allgemein gefprodjen, unter ct(ct elbftbefierrfdjung. Adjective clauses, however, are very often rendered by present par- ticiples, but then the participle must usually be inflected and stand before the noun, and' not after it as in English : 25ie ciuf meinem $utte flefienbe glafdje entfyilt ift The bottle standing or which stands upon my desk contains poison. It may also sometimes stand after the noun ; see 104. 2. B. a. 2. The pres. part, has as a rule active force. When it limits a noun, its relation thereto is such that the noun is conceived of as the subject of the action contained in the part. : ber 6liifjen.be 9Baum the blooming tree = ber SBaunt blitf)t. a. The pres. part., however, has also passive force, as seen in a few set expressions sanctioned by long usage, but in our own time reduced in number in comparison with former periods : fafyrenbe (construed also as active) Jpabe chattels = 4>at>e, bie gefabren unrb ; bie melfenbe Jtur; the cow that is milked, milch cow ; bie rtnejenben dnbe hands that are wrung ; bag betreffenbe 33ud) the book in question = bag 33ud), bag betroffen tmrb ; fein in 2Jh)tf)ifon fyabenbeg Slmt (C. F. Meyer) the (pastoral) charge in Mythikon filled by him ; fraft fetneg tragenben Sltnteg (Storm's Sohne des Senators, p. 301) by virtue of the office held by him ; fur bie Seburfntffe iinb ettcatgen (Suentualttaten 3(jreg sorfjabenbeu 2lii8Jnigeg (Spielhagen's Was will das iverden, II, 10), &c. We do not com- monly say to-day as formerly feine babet fyegenbe 9lbftd)t the intention that is cherished by him, bie in bcr >anb l)abenbe fteine rget (Goethe), the little organ that is being held in his hand, c. b. The noun in connection with the pres. part, is not always its subject, but is sometimes associated with it in a much freer way, to express a close relationship between the idea contained in the noun and the activity contained in the participle : cine fdjunnbelnbe Jpcfye a height at which one becomes dizzy ; cine U)ei)tfd)(afenbe 5Jlad)t a night favorable to sleep ; eine Iddjelnbe Slnhvcrt ; eg ifl jefct aef)n, alfo nad)tfd)Iafenbe 3eit (Fontane's Frau Jenny, chap, xii) time for everybody to be asleep ; eine fi^enbe Sebengweife a sedentary life, &c. This is a productive construction according to which from time to time new and felicitous expressions have been created, but the list is limited, and we cannot at will form kindred expressions, such as eine gittentbe Jfdlte a temperature at which one trembles with cold, &c. 3. There is a decided paucity of participles in German, there being in the active only one form the present. Hence the pres. part, is used for the past and future active as well as for the present : bie i?or Jur^ent nod; Hu^enben SBIumen = bie SBliimen, iceldje oor furjent ttitfyten ; bie jet ober fritter ober funfttg lefcenben SKenfdjen = bie SKenfcfyen, iteldje je^t leien, ober iceld)e geleit ^afcen, ober lefcen icerben. In a relative sense the present participle expresses time con- temporaneous with that of some other action, and hence it should express the same time as that of the principal verb, but the real lack of different participles leads many to use the present participle also for time preceding or following that of the main proposition : contemporaneous action : @tegenb ftatfc ber en 2,6. Cftofcer son Swd) abretfenb, langten rcir beu 6. 9toem&er tit 183. i.e. THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE 269 SRurnfcerg an (Goethe). 0ie6en 3J?aric tretenb, fang Qfba (Spielhagen). Subsequent action : Qtba rear in bie efeUfcfjaft ^uritcfgetreten, ben )anf berfeI6en entgegennefymenb (id.). THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 183. The leading points concerning the use of this participle are : i. The perfect participle can be used : A. Adjectively: bet ge&rocfyene taf> ift gefcrocfyen (pre- dicate). 2Wan fanb U;n eingefd^Iafen (objective predicate). (5r fod}t nut SBunben fcebedt (predicate appositive) He fought covered with wounds. In the conjugation of verbs : r ift gefommen (predicate). @t ictrb gefd)tagen (predicate). 3d) tyafce ben SSrief gefcfyriefcen (objective predicate). Note. The perf. part, is much more used in German in the predicate and appositive relation than it is in English : 3 nicfyt cmS, ntdjt etn gercufjt (Sudermann's "5 lebe das Leben, p. 27). See also 190. i. A. b. (i) and (2). 2. A. The perf. participle used adjectively and substantively expresses usually a condition or state of things resulting from previous action but at the time in question finished and completed, and hence with the exception of the case in i. B. b. above can only be used (i) with transitive verbs with passive force, and (2) with active force with intransitive verbs that are conjugated with fetn and represent a state or condition resulting from previous action. According to the very nature of this part., which expresses a condition, it cannot be used with intransitive verbs which are conjugated with tyafcen and express action, or with reflexive verbs which express action of the subject exerted upon itself. Thus we can say : er getofymte 8ru$ the foot that has been lamed and is now in a lame condition ; also ber umgefaflene SBaum the tree which has fallen and is still prostrate, for we say S)er 93cmm ift umgefatten, the auxiliary [etn expressing state; also substantively ber efanbte the ambassador, i. e. the one who has been sent, (Sncacfyfene grown people. But grammarians maintain we should not say (though very many do) bie ftattgetjatte Unterrebung the interview which has taken place, nor bag tntcfy fcetroffene Ungliicf the misfortune which has befallen me, for neither of these participles represents a condition resulting from previous action, but both express only simple action. B. The lack of a perf. part, with active force for transitives and those intransitives that are conjugated with t)o6en leads some to use the perf. part, (already described as limited to passive use with transitives and active use with such intransitives as are conjugated with fetn) with active force, or more commonly to make a special form by adding fyatenb to the perfect participle: Don feiner mit ben Safjren ^ugenommenen <>erjen8falte (Gutzkow's Sohne Pestalozzis, 2, 394). (Sin Qlugreartiger fo fyorte icf) f)a6e bag fritter bort geftanbene geraumtge, after fcerfattene e&dube in (Sr&gang ober fonfhrie errrorfccn (Storm's John Riew'). >er fcfyon jiarf gefrittyftucfte Jtantorgfofyn (Fontane's Unterm Birnbaum, xi); biefer fo fcfyon Begonnene 5l6enb(Jensen's/a SBartertya'ngcfyen tritg iifceratl bie (Spitren etne t)ier ^eftig getofet tyafcenben ^am^feg (Liliencron's Krieg und Frteden, Das Warterhauschen). In case of reflexives and transitives the reflexive pronoun or substantive object are used in connection with these two participial formations : an btefem nacfy unb nacfy ftcfy Derfcretteten e^eimniS (Goethe) ; bag ben rafen Befattene Unglitcf (id.) ; and quite commonly in case of flattgefyafct and jiattgefimben : fiattgef)afete, ftattge= funbene Sreftlicfyfetten. SSergeblid^ turnite er i^nt atte wa^renb berfelben %t\i flc^ erfyofcen ^aBenben c^Jtiertgfeiten unb 5lnftof e or ber 01afe auf (Raabe's A. T., chap, xxvii). Grammarians do not favor any of these formations, although they have been employed by good authors. Usage has found a way out of this difficulty in a number of cases ; see C. a and b. C. There are, however, to the rule as stated in A above a few 183. 2.c.d. THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE 271 exceptions or apparent exceptions which have been sanctioned by good usage : a. A number of transitive verbs and intransitives which are conjugated with f)a6en have a perfect participle with active force, which can be defended, as these participles are in reality felt as adjectives or adjective-substantives, since they denote a quality, fixed habit, or state: a&gefagt professed, open (ein afcgefagter fteinb), fcetvanbert versed, erfafjren experienced, gebicnt veteran, gelernt by trade (ein geternter (d;uf)mad;er), efcfytcorener juryman, ftubtert well-read, edu- cated, trim feu drunk(en), Uerlogen mendacious, oerfcfyrctegen taciturn, &c. b. A few reflexive verbs have a perf. participle unaccompanied by fid) : fcebart;t mindful of, tetrunfen drunk(en), 6efd;eiben modest, tier* bient (from early N.H.G. ftd) tterbienen, now replaced by ftcfy urn ettraS fcerbient madden) of merit (ein tterbienter 2ftann), oerliebt in love, enamored, erfaltet, evfyi&t, geitBt, c. Thus we can say : 2)a3 Jtinb tyat fid; erfaltet and ein erfafteteS Jlinb. Also 2)ie 33erfyiiltniffe fjafcen ftd; fcerdnbert, and btc sjeranterten 93erfyaltmffe. But the formation of perf. participles from reflexives is in present usage limited, and often to avoid ambiguity recourse must be taken to the much censured construction of placing the reflexive pronoun before the past part., or in choice language to the formation of a relative clause or some other con- struction : )er ftd; ^uritrfge^ogene or ftd; ^imtcfge^ogen tyafcenbe 6eibent)tinbler, or in choice language 2)er etbentydnbler, ber ftd; juritcfgejogeu J)at, or S)er in bcr 3utficfge$o(}en$eit lebenbe (seiben^dnbler. c. A class of trans, and intrans. verbs form a perf. part, with active force which are only apparent exceptions, as these participles comply with the general rule in that they express a condition : 3d; ritt uugeirafdjen itnb ungefritfyfturft gegen a3 a treibt'8 tljn, ben fdftltd?en $ret3 gu errcerben. )er fteinD grcingt itnS, bie Sejhmg gu fcerlaffen. (r tjatte ben ang, fietS ber SSottfommentyeit feineS eignen SCBefenS gugufireben. (r ifi geneigt gu iibertreiben. This is the original use of tu with the infinitive. Here the ju is not the mere sign of the infinitive as in 1. a. and o. above, but a real prep, used in its usual sense of direction towards. c. In the ace. relation, as the direct object of the verb : 2)aS Jtinb beginnt gu reben, rete e8 anfyebt gu benfen. 2Barum oerfaumte man mid? ju erinnern ? For exceptions see B.I. 2. a, b, c, d, e. 3. As explanatory of a preceding anticipative subject or object, which appears in the form of the indefinite eS or a pronominal adverb. In apposition with a subject : (3 gtemt | bem ebeln Sfiann, ber graiten 9Bort gu ac^ten (Goethe's Iphigenie, 5, 3). In the relation of subject the simple infinitive is also used here; see B. 1. 1. a, below. In apposition with the object of a verb : @r irunfdjt eg fefynlid), bid? nur nodj einmat nriebergufeljen. In apposition with a pronoun which is the object of a prep., but which has in German only the form of an adverb : SBir fmb fceteit bagu, bid? 311 unterftitfceu. Seber muf banad? trad?ten, fetne @eele &om 936fen rein gu er^alten. 4. Certain complete substantive and adverbial clauses (see 269. 3; 271. I. c; 272. A. d, C. g, D. c; 276. C. b; 277. 2. b; 281. b) may be contracted to infinitive clauses with gu, anftatt gu, of)ne gu, or urn gu. For examples see the references just given. The infinitive clauses can usually without changing the meaning be expanded into complete subordinate clauses, and complete sub- ordinate clauses can be contracted to the infinitive construction. It should be noted, however, that in case of the verb reiffen there is a difference of meaning between the two constructions : (Sr iretfj, baj? er feinen 2Btflen burd?fet He knows that he will get his own way, but Gr iretfj feinen SSMflen burcfygufefcett He knows how to get his own way. 5. The infinitive with or without gu is often emplo3 r ed in exclama- tions and in general in excited or vivid language, where without precise grammatical relations it becomes the bearer of the thought: 3d? modjt' eud? afle uiit etgner anb umftringen ! SGBag, fortlaufcit ! @r l?atte fetne anboott Seute mefyr ! ^ortjiilaufeit, wor etnem 2)?ann ! (Hauptmann in Lager scene in 3rd Act of Goethe's Go'tz). See also B. 1. 4, below. 6. After (an)treffen, fcefommen, er^alten, ftnDen, geben, getyen (180. A. a) to be possible, fjaben, fommen, laffen (= iibrtg laffen), mad?en (see B. I. 2. d. toward end), fd?enfen, fdjicfen, fd?Iagen, fe^en, uberlaffen, and the imperspnals e8 gtbt, e gilt, where the infinitive with gu has something of the 'force of the gerundive (see 18O. A), expressing necessity or future obligation : sStr trnfen fciete Itnorbnimgen tin aufe gu befetttgen nn We found on our arrival much disorder that had to be removed. (r befam oft iiitgen gu ^cren (= er mupte tycren). Gid n?trb fortan nid?t mefyr 185. A. II. i. a. THE INFINITIVE WITH ju 275 ju ladjen gefcen (H. Hoffmann's Rittmeister, III, p. 210) From now on there will be nothing to laugh about. 2)a fyat bie SWenge rca JH gaffen (Fulda's Talisman, 2, 12). afi be bod? rcieber iraS gu argent, <>ang (Haupt- mann's Einsame Menschen, Act i). (Sr fyat biel jit tun. fatten @ie mid) nod? rcofyin $u fdjiden ? 3d) f omme nod) auf u)n ju fyred)en I shall have occasion to speak about him later. <2ie fam nefren ifym jit ften Chance brought it about that she should sit near him. (r font itnten ju liegen. 2)a3 lafjt nod) triel $tt wunfdjen. Qlnna tyat if)r trtrftid; nid)t fctel jit fdjaffen gemad)t (Hauptmann's E. M., Act 3) (see also B. 1. 2. rf. toward end) Anna has really not caused her much trouble, work. SBeil bte grofjeren Jtofhjd'nger beS ^kflorS tfyren Sreunb babei mitunter uoer* ftflen itnb i^m ben jtopf jit Blitten fd)Iugen (Storm's Hans und Heinz Kirch, p. 12). For the construction after eg gilt see Note 2. Note i. Some of these words are used here in a certain measure as auxiliaries and not as independent verbs, and it should be remembered that they also can be used in the latter way : (r fyat (has, possesses) alte SRccfe gu Derfailfen. ffote 2. The impersonal e3 0tlt was originally construed only with the ace. of a noun : (& gilt bein turf, beitten S3e[tfe Your happiness, your possessions are at stake, lit. It will cost your happiness, your possessions. The simple infinitive has substantive force, and was used as an ace. here: Jpte gilt'6 tttt SHttjhnt Itnb bltnjltttfl flfljen (Luther, v. Abendm., 1528). In early N.H.G. the genitive of measure could also be used here as elsewhere instead of the ace. of measure (see 223. iv. 2. A. a} : 2)a gilt'g @d)U)eigen3 (Luther, v. AbenJm., 1528). Formerly the construction with lint was also used : Unb fo((t'3 bent eilfel lint tin Dfjt geltcn (Schiller's Xauber,*, 3). Later the gen. and prep, constructions disappeared, and the infinitive with in replaced in part the simple infinitive here as elsewhere, so that to-day both the infinitive with and less frequently without gu are used here : (3 gift im$ Ijeilt', i u TU^ren beS Jtontgd fteinern erj (Uhland). ^ier, too (6 SBorte funftlid) feftcn gilt (Ludwig's Makkabaer, i). 8llfo, um nns won all bent djredf gu erfiolen, gilt ts, eine antiifante S3abefaifon burd&# tttacfeen (Suttner's Die Waffen nieder ! I, p. 55). <>)}$ e3 gait ba jtrvinuenbe tlb (Ompteda's Eysen, chap. xii). 7. Quite rare is the construction of the accusative with the in- finitive, as found in Latin and in part also in English, after verbs of reporting, thinking, knowing, supposing, wishing, &c. See B. 1.5, below. II. i. Position and Repetition of%\\. The ju must stand immediately before the present infinitive, and if there are several, must be repeated before each one: (r fyofft balb gefunb ju iverben. 2>er ^etjrer gab un3 eiu ebid)t abjufdjreifcen unb augrrenbig 311 lernen. If there are several perfect infinitives, the ju is used but once, and stands between the last participle and the auxiliary, which is also used but once, being found with the last participle and understood with the others : 2)er Moroe, fagt Sidnenftein, greift cinen 3tl(enfd)eu ober ein ^icr, ba8 nidjt for i^m flie^t, nie an, ofyne fid) former tit einer (Jntfernung Uon jet;n bi jirolf un|d;e toobt gerufyt gu baben / hope you have had a good nighfs rest. Note 2. Infinitive purpose clauses or clauses of result with gu, or unt gu in order to, and infinitive clauses of manner with objte without usually require their subject to be identical with the subject of the principal proposition. If such is not the case the subjects should be made to be identical by changing the subject in the principal proposition or in the infinitive clause, or the infinitive clause should be avoided and replaced by a complete subordinate clause, or, in case the verb in the purpose clause is not modified by too many objects or adverbial modifiers, be replaced by an infinitive- substantive or a verbal noun: not 5)ie Ung(u(f(id)en ftnb fyter itntergebrad)t, cbne fur tfjre $jlege gu forgen, but Sftan bat bie Ungtucflicfjen !)ter untergebradjt, ofyne fur i^re $jlege gu forgen ; or 3)ie Ungtud;(id)en ftnb Ijier untergebradjt, ofyne ba fur ibre $jlege geforgt tt>are. (Sr gab tmr ben S3riff gum Slbfdjreiben (not ab^ufd)reiben). @r fd)t(fte feilt ud) einem Sreunb gur Surcbjldjt. This rule requiring identical subjects in the principal proposition and the infinitive clause is not always strictly followed, good usage occasionally admitting of violations : 25ie 2Kutter rief mid) b. inein, um i^r ju Ijetfen. b. The infinitive can be used when its subject is a general or indefinite one : elegenfyeit, uteS ju tun, ftnbet ftd; imnier. unfd)t gu offnen, as the translation of He wishes somebody to open the door, but @r tcunfdjt, ba geoffnet vrerbe, or bap man dffne, for the infinitive construction might mean He wishes to open the door. c. As in English, an absolute infinitive with gu is often used, the subject of which has no reference to the subject or object of the principal verb : )ie SBatyrfjeit gu fagen, e8 flnb ffyrecflicfye Scute, biefe alien (StyeriiSfer. (Klopstock). B. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT gu. I. The infinitive without gu is used in the following constructions : i. In the following independent and dependent relations : 185.B.I.I.J. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT ju 277 a. As subject of a verb, especially in short pithy sayings, also in general used here quite as correctly as the infinitive with ju, although perhaps not so frequently : >etnen ^einben oerjettyen ift ebel. 8rei atmeu macfyt bag Sefcen nicfyt attein. Ungeltefct burcfyg SeBen gefjen, ift mefjr atg STOifjgefcfyicf, eg ift irb mtr ja unfyeimlidj, ftd? breitg Safyre na, 6ig jitm breifjigften Safyre alg Commis voyageur in bcr gan^en tceiten 9Q3ett fjernmgetrie&en fyafcen unb bann gar nicfytg metyr yon ityr nnffen njoflen (Raabe's Gutmanns Reisen, chap. ii). The infinitive without to is also found in older English : To know my deed, 't were best not know myself (Macbeth, 2, 2). b. As a predicate, or to complete the meaning of the predicate after fcletBen to remain, fafyren to drive (intrans.), getyen to go, fyeifjen to signify, fontmen to come, laufen to run, legen to lay, liegen (rarely with infinitive, usually with pres. participle) to lie, retten to ride, fein to be, fcfyicfen to send, fcfyleicfyen to creep, ftd) fe|en to sit down, fyringen (see ex.) to spring, leap, fiefyen (rarely with infin., usually with pres. part.) to stand, irant>eln to walk, stroll, and the auxiliary irerben in the future, future perfect, and the conditionals : (Sr Heifct fi^en. SBtir gtngeu fpajieren. 9i5tr fu^ren fpa^ieren. 3Btr rittcn fyagieten. enua liegt fdjlafcn (Schiller's Fiesco, 2, 18). @tc^ attein lefcen |ett gar ntc^t leben To live for one's self is the same as not to live at all. interbrein i|l gut veben It is easy to talk after it is all over. )em Oimmet ift fceten itolten auc^ fceten. >ie Gutter fdjtdt bag ^inb frtjlafen. 2)fit ben Safaien ^at man micfy fpajieren gef^irft (W. Meyer- Forster's Alt-Heidelberg, 3, 7). llnfceil&areg >ied)tum bannte il^n an8 3inimer unfi gejlattete i^m ^oc^fteng, iet fdjoner SOBittcrung etn trenig in bem fleinen arten f^a^teren ju fdjletdjen (H. Seidel's Der Neuntoter). 3)te Qttte ^atte ftdj brinnen in ifyren Se^n* ftu^)t fctjlafen gefefct (Storm's Auf der Universitat, vol. ii, p. 132). 2)er ig (for ift) fctjon ^locf (for locf) ftefcen fpagteren ge^angen. 5)ag ^eipt : fpa^ieren gefprungen, in up man eigentlic^ fagen (Otto Ernst's Die Gerech- tigkeit, i, Verwandlung i). 2Bag fte^t it)r fjorcfyfit? (Schiller's Die Piccolomini, 4, 5). HnD bie SSa'ter tcanbeln rcurbeoott in bev ndc^flen Umgegenb faajteren (H. Seidel's Die Geschichle eines Tales). (5* ictrb loben. @r icurbe ftngen, icenn er ntcfyt ^etfer icare. Note, gafjten, gefjen, fomtnen, taufen, tegcn, retten, fdjirfeu, ft$ fefeen, and fpringen, cannot be freely used with the infinitive, but only occur in certain set expressions : 9lad> etn fcaar 2Bod)cn fufyr fie fdjon ioicber cine anbere SBchnuug fitd^en (H. Bahr's Theater, p. 64). @t ge^t fru^ fcfylafen He retires early, but (Ir gct)t tagli^ etne tltnte, Itm bcffer Jll fdjtafetl He takes an hour's walk every day, so that he may sktf better. (Sr geht (fommt) 5Baffer holen. @r gefjt baben, effen, etnfaufen. 3^ gelje bit er bin (Sudermann's Es lebe das Leben, p. 37). 3(;r Ijabt icofjt fticber fcie gaitje 9tad)t 8td)t gcbrannt in eurer Jfamnter ? Da^ id) end) nid)t mat bag 2td)t tregueljmett fomm' ! (Halbe's Mutter Erde, i). .Jtomm fru^fiurfcn, 2Kama (Berlepsch's Fottunats Roman, p. 15). Slber ejfen fannjl bK bed) 278 THE VERB 185. B. I. i. b. JU unS fommett (Maria Janitschek's Einer Mutter Sieg, XVIII). !Det 2Binb lauft fdjltlen (L.G. to hide) There has fallen a dead calm. u braiicfyft fclofii rcoften (in choice language, perhaps, more frequently jit ro often), Cannes {H auptmann's Einsame Menschen, Act 2). Some use the simple infinitive after fctaitcfyett even in their most careful pro- ductions : 3cfy irei, id) njeif \ >u fcraucfyfi i^r Sob nic^t ftngen (Ebner- Eschenbach's Eine Vision). 3cf> tin bie flange nid)t, ba bu or metnem Slicfe braud^tefl tefcen (Hauptmann's Der artne Heinrich, 5). Note. SBetmogen differing from tnogen requires jit ; 2)ie betriibte tobt werntag ft$ ntC^t gu troflen. Earlier in the period the gu could be omitted : 2)enn et Uermag eil(^ nidjt ertettcn con raetnet anb (2 Kings xviii. 39). b. After laffen to cause (to be done), have (something done), lead to, let, allow: 3cfy laffe ein >au3 bauen I am having a house built. 3fyr SBeneljmen Icipt micl? glaitben, ba^ id) i^)r nid)t gtetd^gultig bin Her conduct leads me to think that I am something to her. er Dfrerft liep bie olnateu jrrei tunten rufyen The colonel let the men rest two hours. (Sr. Itijjt fid) betriigen He allows himself to be deceived. c. After bebeuten to mean, blafcn (see ex.) to command by means of the bugle, ^eipen to bid, direct, tell (order), command, call, fyelfen to help, Ict)ven to teach, lernen (but cerlernen to unlearn with gn) to learn, nennen to call, name, and sometimes uergeffen (usually with gu) to forget: 5>ie ^Ba^r^eit jit fagen, ^atte i^m nid)t8 antereS beteutet, ol8 SJernuttung augframen, nut einem eitlen 5lrgtro^n ein jutraulidj aftabcbenljier,} oergiften unb feinen beflen grennb ferleumben (Hans Hopfen's Dcr Stell- vertreter, IV). 3d; nrenbe mid) gn ntetnem ^orntfien : rr 9J3eber! Qloancieren blafen ! " (Liliencron's Kriegsnovellen, Anno 1870, Unter flatternden 185.B.I.2.rf. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT jit 279 Fahnen). (r fyat i^n fd?ireigen ^eif?en. 2ftan tjief} mid? fommen I was directed to come. 2Ber f)at @te benn raud?en Jjetflen? Who told you to smoke? or What business had you to smoke? @r lel?rte mid; lefen. $)a nfnne id? fd?Iafen That is what I call a good sleep. 33ergi nur nid?t, ber Qlbelfyeibd?en guten ag fagen, ^inD (Schulze-Smidt's Denk' ich an Deutschland in der Nacht, II). Note. After lefyrcn and lernen, and sometimes after IjelfeR and Ijetfien, JU may stand before the dependent infin., especially if the infinitive is modified by a clause or a number of words : 3d) fyatte ttnebet gu tadfoert geternt (Jensen's Heimkunft, II, 3). 3d) un(l bit fjelfen jit ternen, bajj tg toeber ttornefjm nod) tncratifd? t|l, mefyt elb augjugeben a(S man cat. The ju stands regularly after the passive here ; see 178. 2. B.a fanb id? fie eincS 9)iorgfn8 nut faum nod? umflorten 3litgen auf i|ren ^iffen Itcgen (Franzos's Der Gott des alien Doktors, p. 99). @r faf nod? tange, bis ber 93?onb fd?on unter roar unb er alleS fd?lafen glauite (Storm's Ein Doppelg&nger, p, 213). @r f^urte fetne Qlugen feud?t tterben (Maria Janitschek's Einer Mutter Sieg, VII). 2)cr unten @te^enbe gcica^rte nun enblid? and? ben 3ungen icie eine ; grope fdnca^e JHait^e urn ben 93aum ^erum^dngen (Storm's Wann die Apfel reif sind). 3d? fe^e fie tanjeit I see her dancing. 9Bo er ftd? juieberum nad? ben SBrunnen ...ta^pen rod^nte (Volks-Zeitung, 26. 195. A). QBenn id? end? ba fl^en unb friercn iretf (P. Heyse's Nov., 150) When I know that you are sitting there freezing, but (r n>et fold?e <3d)iuierigfeiten gefdnrft gn lofen He knows how to solve such difficulties adroitly. @r fi'ifjrte tt;n ant Qlrnte fpajieren He took him out walking, holding him by the arm. (5v fyat ba3 elo tnt Jtaflen liegen. 5)a8 mad?te mid? laut auflad?en. s JEo warfl bu benn?" ,,aJieine orgen etreaS fpajteren tragen " (Maria Janitschek's Einer Mutter Sieg, IX). ^ab' id? bod? fd?on mand?mal ein grofjeS ^inb bamtt fd?lafen geiviegt (Goethe's Egmont, Act 3). 3)? an jeigte un8 ba3 @d)(op g^anoan BHnfen (id.). For other examples see 262. III. 2. C. We sometimes find the infinitive with 311 after t?aben and mad?en in accordance with the general trend from the simple to the prepositional infinitive : 25a3 mad?t mid? gn Iad?en (Goethe), r ^at bag elb tut ^ajlen ju Itegen. The infinitive with $u is no longer thus 280 THE VERB 185. B. 1. 2. d. found in the literary language after madden, and after fyiBen it has never been used here, although it is common in dialect. In connection, however, with a dat. of the person interested, madjeit usually requires flit before the dependent infinitive according to A. 1.6: S)a3 macfyt mir 311 fcfyaffen that gives me a good deal of work, keeps me busy. Also tyaben may be similarly used with ju; see (2) below. (1) The infinitive after the verbs in the above list is in many cases the mutilated form of the present participle, which once stood here, and which is still in case of madjen preferred in certain expressions, and in case of fefyen and erblicfen is still occasionally used, and in case of bunfen, finben, glauben, toaljnen, and geigen is used quite freely : 2)a3 mad)t ifyn rafenb. (5r madjt fein Sfttfy an bie .Krone gcttenb (formerly also getten, as in Goethe's Dichtung und Wahrheit, II, 7) He urges the validity of his claims upon the throne. 25er fyat gu $roto; M( gegebcn, bafi er ba$ 9Jlabd?en im SOlonbfdjem on ifyreS 23ater3 2>adi> ftetternb unb im SOalbe laufenb gefefyen tyabe (Raabe's Frau Salome, chap. x). 2>oum erbltcfte er son 3eit gu Beit ifyren Slrm einen Setter gured)t fcfyiebenb (Ompteda's Sylvester von Geyer, XX). <2ie ftanben auf ber Sanbflrajje, o ber JDcftor fetnen (Sinfpanncr beretts toartenb fanb (Raabe's Zum ivilden Mann, chap. x). (Sine Srau ... bie ben gefybefyanbfcfyul), iweldjen iljr ba$ tyeutige eben jeben Xag ttor bie ftufe rtirft, jebeg 9Kat ttacfet aufnimmt, unb bag 93efiere immer brei Jjanfet ober brei afjen tretterab liegenb tta^nt (id., Der Lar, p. 9). 93or jenent SBitbc^en . . . ba 0?ubinei im arten ntit feiner f^onen jungen grau an etnem Xulpenbeet orbeifpajierenb j(etgt (P. Heyse's Im Paradiese, I, chap. v). Sometimes after fttfjen : (ft ging fcttg um bad ^)aug ^erunt, in bent er {Ie tanjenb itu^te (Ludwig's Zwischen Himmel und Erde, II). In English there is a distinct shade of meaning between the participle and infinitive here. Compare 1 saw him COMING up the road and 1 saw him COME. The participle has descriptive force, while the infinitive calls attention to a completed action or a statement of fact In German no such distinction is regularly made between infinitive and participle, for in some cases the participle is rarely used or not employed at all. In some cases, however, this distinction seems to be observed: .ftatfer Dtto III. fanb ben evjien beutfd)en Jt aifer auf einem fleinevncn tufyl fi^atb, bie .Krone auf bem Jpaupt, ben {Hei$dapfel in ber Jpanb (Moltke). 3m Jlrtege finbm nnrben Jtontg jDpfer tteNjiefyen (Ranke). In earlier periods the infinitive and participle were both found with a number of these verbs. As a fixed differentiation did not develop, and the participle in careless pronunciation lost its final b and thus became identical in form with the infinitive, the latter construction in most cases became established and the possibility of making a beautiful shade of meaning was lost. (2) aben is used in a number of idiomatic expressions, of which some require no gu before the infin., while others require it : @r fyat gut reben (construed as a substantive in the ace.) It is easy for him to talk. ISr Jjat gu reben (gerundive) He has to make a speech, r Ijat I)tet ntd)t$ gn befefylen He has no right to give commands here. Gt fyat mit mir gu tun He has to do with me. See A. I. 6. (3) This use of the infinitive after ttnffen should not be confounded with the case where an infin. in an elliptical clause apparently follows imffen, but in reality is dependent upon a modal auxiliary understood : @ie Itufjte nidjt, toa3 [fte] au3 ber @ad)e mad)en [fodte] She did not know what to make out of the affair. (4) In English the simple infinitive is used after a number of these verbs in the active, while the infinitive with to is employed after the passive : / heard him say, I made him come ; but He was heard to say, He was made to come. The passive construction is not used here at all in the German. e. After tun: (i) In the common expression nicfytS tun: (r tut 185. B. I. 4. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT jit 281 nicfytS al3 ffagen He does nothing but complain. (2) For emphasis, when instead of the simple finite verb the infinitive of the desired verb is used dependent upon tun. Emphatic words are usually placed at the head of the clause or sentence, but a finite form of the verb rarely. If the verb is to be made emphatic, the infinitive, which alone contains the verbal meaning and hence the important part of the verb, now usually introduces the clause and is then followed by a finite form of the auxiliary tun, which merely marks the verbal function : ofcen tat fte nicfyt wel, fte fyielt'3 ont Ufcerflup She rarely praised anybody, as she thought it superfluous. un tue id; jet fetyr vremg, nur benfen unb etnpfmben I am acting now very little, only thinking and feeling. Jtutfdjer njitt id; rcofyl feiit unb cutf bem 23ocfe ften, after felbfl $iel)en, ba3 tuc id; nicfyt To be sure I like to be coachman and sit upon the box, but I will not myself help to draw the coach. In dialect, also in the language of children and clumsy speakers in general, tun is often used with a dependent infinitive which is not restricted to the first place in the proposition. This construction differs from the emphatic form described above in that it is a mere periphrasis for the simple verb : (r tat mid? fennen, oSrcofyl id) it)tt ntcfyt fennen tat = dr fannte mid;, obrco^I id; Hjn nid;t fannte. 2) a taten fie ftd> trennen = 5) a trenuten fte fid;. For irregular past tense in this construction see 21O. a. In older English the do-form was thus used promiscuously with the simple form of the verb without a difference of meaning, but later a differentiation took place, so that the do-form has become fixed in the emphatic, negative, and interrogative form of statement : It does matter. It doesn't matter. It doesn't matter. Does it matter? Does it matter? Doesn't it matter? Doesn't it matter? Notice that in English the do-form is always accented when the statement is emphatic, while in German the infinitive receives the stress and stands at the beginning of the proposition. The German emphatic form does not correspond closely to the English, for it is only used to emphasize the simple verb, not to emphasize the statement. (3) In dialect the past subjunctive of tun is used instead of icurbe to form the conditional ; see 190. I. E. b. Note. 3u stands with tltn in the idiom gu tot Ren tint to announce, acquaint with, let somebody know, make known. Compare we da you to wit (2 Cor. viii. i). 3. The infinitive without gu is used when it is employed to repeat an idea contained in a finite verb which has already been used, no matter what its construction in the sentence may be : efme bid; an meine 93rufl unb fdjlafe." 2)er (Slfaffer ermannte ftd; nrieber: va8 ba tun, (Sngelfe? (Fontane's Stechlin, chap, i) What in the world shall I do, Engelke ? Some- times the infinitive with jit is used : 2Bag nun $u tun Y (Grillparzer's Argonauten, 2). As the original construction has become indistinct, the simple infinitive is now used very freely, and in excited or 282 THE VERB 185. 8.1.4. vivid language without precise grammatical relations often becomes the bearer of the thought : Qlber nne Jllarfjeit bariiber gercinnen ? 3t)r fdjreiben? 2Bie ben SBrief in ityre dnbe fyielen? Itnb bann quatoofl Barren, big bic Qlntnjort fame, t>iefletcfyt fcergebtid) Barren ! (Frances's Der Gott des alien Doktors, p. 135). Sftein ganjeS SSefen bdumt ftcfy gegen bie abfcfyeulicfae $ta;ci3 auf, bie in meinem @ltern|aufe fyerrfcfyt. 25e^al)Ien immet bejafylen (Styre, 0ted)t, Siebe, afleg be$af)len 1 (Sudermann's Die Ehre, 4, 4). 5. The accusative with the infinitive, as in Latin, was common earlier in the period, and still occurs in the classics of the eighteenth century, but it has since disappeared. It is found after such verbs as adjten, benfen, glauben, fettnen, fagen, &c., more commonly without ju earlier in the period, and later with gu : id) adjte e3 bittid) fein (2 Pet. i. 13), but in revised editions id) ad)te e3 bifHg gu fein. ^>ier mbet SHartin ^autermann, tocnn man ben rufyen fagen fann, bet feinen 8ebtag nidjt3 getan (Weckherlin). In Lessing it is especially common in relative clauses : 2)tefer 9lfd)ine$, ben er tn fo elenbeg Seben gu fii^ren gtaubt. The infinitive is now replaced by some other construction, especially a sub- ordinate clause : >iefer &fd)ine3, bet, tote er gtaubt, ein fo elenbeS Ceben fufjvt. II. In the different constructions described in I, above, the infinitive stands uniformly only when it has present force. In case its force would be past, a. It assumes the form of the perf. infin. after the modal auxiliaries and the auxiliary rcerbeit : (r nrifl c3 gefefyen tyafcen He pretends to have seen it. (r unrD jegt roo^I gefcfyriefcen l^afcen He ha( probably written by this time. Note. The perf. infin. depending upon these modal auxiliaries should not be confounded with another construction having exactly the same form, but a quite different meaning namely, Ijaben in the infinitive depending upon a modal auxiliary, and having on the other hand a perf. part, with passive force depending upon itself : 3d) ttollte afleg fytftorifd) ecftart fyaben I wanted to have everything explained from a historical standpoint. More frequent and forcible than Jjaben is h)t|1ett : 9hlttta toollte feme ottfyett in tttenfdjlidjer obet tierifdjer eftatt ttorgejhdt hnffen Numa did not want to have any god represented in the form of man or beast. Also fd>en is thus used : @r woflte biefe Srage nttt tyetterer etafTen^eit be^anbelt fe^en He wanted to have this question discussed with cheerful composedness. This con- struction with Ijaben (also imffen and fetyeit) falls regularly under b, and is only given here to prevent its being confounded with the construction in a, above. b. Except often in the subject relation (see i. a, above, under I), it assumes the form of the perf. part, in all the other constructions in I, even after the verbs marked rare, and also after erfcfaeinen to appear and fcfaetnen to seem : llnoerfucfyt (subject) fcfymecf t ntcfyt You cannot tell how it tastes without first having tried it. ie fam ber @turm geflogen. In the five preceding sentences gefyen and fommen have perfective force, i. e. the attention is called, not to an activity in its entirety, but to its close, and hence the perfect 187.2. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT ju 28S participle is used, for the action which it indicates is also completed. The following sentence from Uhland seems to be constructed after the analogy of the preceding models, but the parallelism in the thought is not perfect : 5)ann geljt'3 burd; Sannenrealber inS grime $at gefprengt. )a3 fjeifjt fd)Ied;t gercorfen (predicate) That was a bad throw. 2)a3 f)etJ3t gelogen (predicate) That was what people call lying. S)a3 tyetfjt red)t ben iftagel auf ben ^opf getroffen (predicate). 2)ag ifl leic^t gefagt (predicate), ober fdjicer getan (predicate) That is easily said, but difficult to do. >ie8 ifl naturlid) jit njett gegangen (predicate) This is of course going too far, or to bring out the force of the perf. part. Here of course he went too far, 2)aS icar benn a6er bod; trot;! ettraS ju oiet tterlangt (predicate) But that was surely asking a little too much. (Sin 2Sort mad;t afleg ungefdje^en (objective pred.) One word will smooth over the unpleasant feeling (bring it about that all will be as if the unpleasantness had not happened). 5)a3 tyeifje id; gefcfylafcn (objective pred.) That was what I call a good sleep. (r fltl;lte fid; gefranft He felt hurt about it. 3d; rcttl U)n fceflraft fetyen I want to see him punished. 6r fd;eint unentfd^toffen. )ie Seute erfd)einen mir Jegt afle liefcensnntrbiger geirorben (Meinhardt), Note. The perf. part, here is in some cases, as after the verbs in I. 2. d, the original construction, while in other cases it is an elliptical perf. infin. : (Seine 2J?utter fcfyeint friilj geilorben [gu fetn]. 186. When two infinitives connected by alS depend upon one of the verbs mentioned above as not requiring ju with the dependent infinitive, they both are usually without the ju, but not infrequently the second infinitive takes 311 contrary to rule-: 2fttt ber QBelt mu niemanb lefcen, alg Jter fte fcraudjen tuitt ; ifl er BraudjBar unb flifl, (oflf er ftd; liefcer bem Seufel ergeben, al ju tun, njaS fie icitt (Goethe). Com- pare: I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness (Psalm Ixxxiv. 10). When two infinitives used as subjects are in the same manner connected by ol3, they usually both take ju or both are without it, but often contrary to rule the one takes 311 while the other is without it : 2l6er SSrticfen a^ufcredjen, ifl leister a!3 auffcaiten (Boy-Ed). The first infinitive may be without the 311 while the second one takes it. 187. The active infin, often assumes passive meaning in the following constructions : 1. After tyeifjen, fyoren, laffen, fefjen, and less commonly fitfylcn : 9Sir fetyen ben (Stein emporreinben We see the stone being drawn up. dhr Uep ben 2(rjt tyolen We had the doctor sent for. $i$ir nut jj ten bte $ur coin (d)loffer offnen laffen We had to have the door opened by a locksmith. 3d; laffe mir on bir nidjtS fccfe^Ien. We occasionally find the passive form instead of the active : Unb ba ftfceft bit nun unb ftefyfl ifyn on bem 6raoen germaniftifdjen ^infel Oon QSater unb ber ladjerlidjen &ere feiner Gutter imnter me^r tier^ogen irerben (Raabe's Der Lar, p. 158). a. Sometimes it is doubtful whether this infin. is active or passive : 3d? fyorte tt)it rttfen means / heard him calling, or heard him called by some one. b. Formerly also madjen belonged to this list : 9)Jan tat a((e$, tint ftcfy on Dem Jtonig bemevfen ju mac^en (Goethe's Dichtungund Wahrheit, II, 7). 2. After certain other verbs ; see 180. A. a, b, c. 284 THE VERB 138. THE INFINITIVE-SUBSTANTIVE. A 188. Different from the preceding infinitives, which can be used substantively either as subject or object, is the abstract neuter infinitive-substantive, which may take an article or other adj. modi- fiers before it and is declined as any noun in =en, and is written with a capital letter : 2>a8 unauff)6rltd?e ffietnen beg Jtinbeg the constant weeping of the child. 3d) Bin beg Srei&eng ntitbe. >er rfcen SBeinen ift ein fyeimlid? Sadjen (proverb). Qtuf ad?en folgt SBetnen. 2ftit SBarten rctrb nid)tg erreidjt. It is the presence of the article (or other modifying adj.) that distinguishes this substantive from the verbal infin. used as subject or object, and when these modifying words do not stand before the substantive it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them : dr lernt fdireiben. (Sr lernt md)t nur @d)reifcen unb i'efen, fonbern oud) eograpjjie unb efd)id)te. In the first sentence, fcfyrei&en expresses an activity, in the second, <2>d)reifren a branch of study* a. This substantive has still verbal nature in it, since it can take an ace. object and adverbial modifiers, which, however, are usually written as one word with the substantive : 5)a8 SKafjfjalten the faculty of keeping in bounds; bag angfamgefjen the slow movement. Notice that the objective and adverbial modifiers of these verbal substantives must as in case of verbal infinitives always precede. However, there is no regularity in the method of writing these compounds : bag 3u* age=treten (or bag ju Sage treten, or bag 3"tagetreten) ber lefcten (Sreigniffe. See also c, below, and Note thereunder. b. In the case of the formation of such substantives from reflexive verbs, it is necessary in some cases to use the reflexive, as in bag immer tiefere (Stdjoerfenfen in bag 303ort beg 4?errn The penetrating ever deeper into God's Word. In some other cases it is still usual, in accordance with older usage, to drop the reflexive : bag SSeftnben health, bag SBetragen conduct, bag 33efinneu reflecting. 2) a war etu &reuen, roenn er nrieber fam. 2)od) wag gefd?afy auf bcr erfteit ,,9Reunion," bte id) befud;te? 6in gropeg, flerWidjeg 3SerIiebm (Suttner's Die Waff en nieder! I, p. 10). c. It is not always necessary for the object to be compounded with the substantive, for it can often be placed after the substantive as a dependent objective genitive, and thus in this respect the infinitive- substantive differs from the verbal infin., as the latter requires its object to precede in the ace. (in the dat. or gen. of course, if the finite verb would require it) : >ag @ffm unreifer &riid?te ifl ungefunb, but llnreife Srudjte jit effen ift ungefunb. Note. Sometimes in early N.H.G., as quite commonly in earlier periods, the infini- tive-substantive could, like the verbal infinitive, take an object in the ace. : SBcKm tyabe id) hjot | 3lber colnbringen bag gute (now SSoflbrtngen beg uten) ffnbe id) ntd)t (Rom. vii. 18). The object in this construction partakes of the nature of the object of n verbal noun and also that of a verb. It stands after the infinitive-substantive just as the object of a verbal noun, and it is in the ace. just as the object of a verb. Thus the infinitive-substantive in this congtruction shows more substantive nature than the one described in a. The object of the infinitive-substantive is now usually in the gen., which shows that the infin. is now felt as a true noun. 190. i. A. b. FORMATION OF COMPOUND TENSES 285 189. The infinitive-substantive, which has much the same force as verbal nouns in English (as, To read is profitable, or Reading is profitable), has an abstract meaning bordering upon the abstract verbal nouns ending in *ung and those formed from the past tense of strong verbs. The relation of this infinitive-substantive to the other verbal nouns is that the former is more abstract and hence cannot usually take a plural, while more of the concrete enters into the latter, as can be seen from the following instructive sentence : 2)a Unterfd?eiben ifi nicfyt letcfyt, benit ber llnterfd}ieb jreifcben greet 2)ingen ift oft fo tterfiecft, bafj bie llnterfcbeibung beg eirten oon bem anbern faum ntdgltd? if}. This close distinction cannot always be detected so clearly as in the preceding sentence, and hence they are often confounded, and we find the infinitive-substantive instead of one of the other more correct verbal nouns, especially as the infin. is a favorite construction : bag Qlufgefjen bet (Sonne instead of ber Qlufgang ber onrte the rise of the sun ; bag Qlnferttgen beg (SargeS instead of bie 5lnfertigung be8 argeS the making of the coffin. FORMATION OF COMPOUND TENSES. 190. i. A. The present perfect, indicative and subjunctive, of transitive and most intransitive verbs is formed with the present indie, or subj. of fyaben and the perfect participle of the verb to be conjugated, but some intransitives (see 191) form this tense with the present of fein and the perfect participle: (indie.) id; fyabe gelobt, but icfy Inn gefaflen ; (subj.) id) tyabe gelobt, but id) fei gefaflen. The imperative in this tense has only two persons, the second and third. The second person is formed with the present imperative of Albeit or fern and the perfect participle, and the third person with the present subjunctive of feabm or fern and the perfect participle : &abe we umfonfl gdebt ! (Gutzkow). 3n bie Grfe, SSefeit ! JBefett ! >eit>'3 gercefen ! (Goethe's Zauberlehrling) Into the corner with you, brooms! May you soon have ceased to be water-carriers! 3n3 ($rab ! 2)te (Sdjaufeln fyer! @r fei geivefeu (Kleist's Kdthchen, 2, 8) Into the grave with him ! Bring on the shovels ! May he soon have ceased to be ! a. Another form of the pres. perf. indie, and subj. is now common even in good authors, however, with a shade of difference in meaning. To the regular pres. perf. form, gcfyabt is often added if the verb is trans., or getvefcu if the verb is intrans., to indicate that a past condition or state of things is to be represented rather than a past act: lijdj fyabe ba$ 3)u$Ianc)e wcrloren getyabt ; nun Ijabe idj e3 umber (D. Sanders). 9Zi^t auf bir laftet bie iinlb, bu fyajl bcin Jpcrj bet ?icbe nid;t verf^lcffen gc()abt (Jensen's Das Bild im IVasser, p. 433). 2)cr eintge 3Konate ucrrcifi geujefen tvar (P. Heyse's Im Parodies, 2, 347) who had been away from town several months. b. The auxiliaries Ijabm and fein in this tense are frequently omitted in the subjunctive and indicative : ( i) In subordinate clauses : 3Ran fragte, HID cr gemefm [fei], wa<5 er getrieben [^abe]. Towards the close of the seventeenth century and until the middle of the eighteenth century this dropping of the auxiliary was almost the rule. It still occurs not infrequently in prose except in sentences containing a participle with the form of the infinitive, where it is now quite rare. Often : 28cnn er biefen SBrief fclbft gefdjrteben [(;at], fo unit idj ifyn anjhlten, 286 THE VERB 190. i. A.*. but 2Benn cr biefcn S3rief fetbft fjat fdjreiben fonnen, fa hnK id) tyn anfletten. In such sentences, however, as the last Lessing still frequently omits the auxiliary. This omission of the auxiliary is a characteristic of the literary rather than the spoken language. It is by some severely condemned. Those who favor it claim that the auxiliaries are useless grammatical forms without real meaning. This tendency to use the participle alone as the bearer of the thought is also elsewhere manifest, as described in 183. I. G. This omission is most common in the past perfect tense in lively narrative : Slber ciu weitaus gtcfjerer (Rufnn ate bee alte tammbaum, fdjten itym bie atfad)t, bap fcine 2U)nen, bie etnjl jur felben 3t, *>a bie ateburger artne at ftdj'3 (= fte fid)) ubet bad ^inb g'worfen (perf. for past), unb fyat'3 fo tang niebergebrucft (perf. for past) in bie Jtifien nttt intern ganjen 2eib, big bad 3)trnb'I (= 3JJdbd)en) erftirft ift g'n?efen (instead of erfttcft tt>ar) unter ber afl (Telmann). For the use of this form in indirect discourse see 171. 2. B. e. This formation is sometimes employed in the literary language in the infinitive with the force of the past perfect, although grammarians have not generally recognized a past perfect infinitive: Subttng fd)eint fid) entfernt gu fyabcn // seems that L. has -withdrawn, or . fd)eint ftd) bamatd entfernt git fyabeit // seems that L, withdrew at that time, but fi. fd)etnt fid) entfemt gefyabt ju Ijaben (Wustmann's Sprachdummheiten, p. no, 3rd ed.) // seems that L. had withdrawn. b. A past perf. form, corresponding to the pres. perf. described in A. a, above, is now common in good authors. The participles gefyafct in case of transitives and gewefen in case of intransitives are added to the regular past perf. to form a past perf. with a slight difference of meaning. This past perf. differs from the regular one in that it expresses a state or condition of things instead of an action : 3d? fyatte ben S3rtef fdjon gefd)rieben gefyabt, als id) beine Slnfrage befam. There is quite a pronounced tendency in the colloquial speech of the classical period, and especially that of our own time, to direct attention in this manner to a state or condition of things, while in choice language the attention is directed to the act, and hence the usual past perfect form is used : 3d? fyitte ben 93orfa(( balb hnebcr ergeficn gefyabt (H. Hoff- mann). @r Ijdtte jie (biefe ntbecfung) gern ermieben geljabt (Byr) He would 190. I.E. a. FORMATION OF COMPOUND TENSES 287 gladly have prevented this discovery (would gladly have kept the matter concealed). Jtaum war jie genefen unb fiatte gelernt gefiabt, nneber ein bijjd?en 2Jlut jU faffen, al$ ba3 gvofje Ungturf gefdjaf) (Boy-Ed). There is also a tendency to use this past perfect tense form instead of the regular one, even where the reference is clearly to an act and not to a state or condition : 55a$ ,,9lbieu" fyatte fie genait in bent namlid?en Xon fyerttcrgebvadjt, ntit bent er e$ bamate an bet artenpfcrte gefprod?en unb jte brauf eroibert geijabt (Jensen's Das Bild im Wasser, p. 307). c. The auxiliaries tjaben and fein are often dropped in subordinate clauses as in the case of the pres. perf. ; see A. b. (i). C. a. The future, indie, and subj., is formed with the pres. indie, and subj. of iverben and the simple infin. : (indie.) id? irerbe lofcen, id? imfe fatten ; (subj.) id; icetbe lo&en, id; irerbe fatten. Note i. The infin. here seems to be a corrupted form of the pres. participle, which was used in earlier periods, as in the following sentence from the fourteenth century : selic (felig) sint die da reines herzens sint, wan (= benn) sie werdent (wevben) got (@ott) sehende. See G. Note 2. In M.H.G. and sometimes in early N.H.G. the future was formed by means of the auxiliaries ftoflen and foUen, just as in English to-day. The present German form of the future is a decided improvement, as it expresses the idea of futurity pure and simple, while tt)o(len and fcllett, and in English will and shall, contain a certain element of modality, implying in addition to the idea of futurity that of desire and authority. The use of ftotlen to express futurity still continues in the infin. ; see b. b. The fut. infin. is formed with the infin. of rcotten and the infin. of the verb to be conjugated : d3 fd?etnt tegnen ju vcotten It seems about to rain, orbon gab itfcrigenS bie SSerftcfyrung, eS gndbig mad?en ju rooflen (Fontane's Ce'cile, chap, vi) Gordon assured her, moreover, that he would not be too severe. SWan trennte ftd? fritf), abet bod) ntit ber 3ftd?erung, am anbmt Sage fydteftenS inn jte&en fceim 5n"it)ftitd: fein ^u woflen (id., Die Poggenpuhls, chap, xiv), D. The future perfect, indie, and subj., is formed with the present indie, or subj. of irerben and the perfect infinitive : (indie.) id? rcetbe gelobt fyaben, id? reerbe gefaflen fein ; (subj.) id? rcerbe gelobt t;a6en, id? icerbe gefatten fein. E. The present conditional is formed with the past subj. of trerben and the simple infinitive : id? irttrbe lofcen I should praise, id? iriirbe fatten I should fall. a. The infinitive here is the mutilated form of the present participle ; see G, below. The conditional is in fact the past subjunctive of the peculiar tense form described in G, below, consisting of the present tense of ttxrbm and the present participle or infinitive of the verb to be conjugated. The indicative of this past tense is lost. Before it disappeared it had become a mere periphrasis for the usual simple past tense, having lost its original meaning: MofcS aber toarb jittern (= gitterte) Acts vii. 32. 55 a ujart id) ju bent Sllten jeljett (= 35a fagte id? nu bent 9Utcn) H. Sachs. The surviving past subj. of this formation is thus a periphrasis for the simple past subj. Grammarians would limit its use to the principal proposition of conditional sentences and to indirect discourse, but in accordance with its origin it is used more widely even by good authors as a periphrasis for the simple subjunctive, as described in 169. i. A. a; 169. i.U.a; 169.2.B.a; 169.2. C. b, and E. Note$. On account of the lack of clear subjunctive forms and the general dislike for the simple forms of this mood this usage is spreading. The best usage, however, instead of thus using interchangeably the condi- tional and the simple subjunctive, inclines to differentiate them, so that the 288 THE VERB former expresses future time and the latter present time, or in subordinate clauses the same time as that of the principal verb : fflie fte taitfcn, al3 ob jie auS 3ucfer ftdren (present time) unb bte fdjtoeren, frifd)en 9?egentrovfen an ifynen lecfen unb auflofen toiirben (future time) ! (H. Bohlau's Adam und Eva, chap. i). 3 fyatte ben 9lnfd)ein, at$ lurbe (would] ftd) bie pefutation ntefyt ber ^eripfyerie ber >tabt jutoenben (future), but @3 fyatte ben 9lnfd)ein, al3 nxnbete (-were turning) fid) bie (SpeMation mef)r ber ^ertpljevte ber erter ivegen n>o((te id) nod) fagen," ntetute bag rairf)auj?t, ,,tt>enn fte I)a(t taten uergolbet nxrbcn" (id.) ' As to the seven swords, I also wanted to say,' remarked the old man, ' it would be better if they should be gilded.' F. The perfect conditional is formed with the past subj. of rcerfcen and the perfect infinitive: icE> ttiirbe gelo&t l)aben, id; iriirbe gefatten fein. G. In early N.H.G. compound tense forms consisting of the present or past tense of irerbeit in connection with the pres. part, of the verb were used to indicate the commencement of an action in the present or past : (r icirb laufenb He is beginning to run. @r icarb laufenb He began to run. In the same way the present and past tense of fein were used with the present participle to indicate the continuance of an action, just as the progressive form of the verb in English : (8 itarett aber Si'iben gu Seritfalem ironenD (Acts ii. 5). The present participle in these constructions often goes over into the infinitive form : erfyaud?enb(Hauptmann's VersunkencGlocke,Kct 5). 2. These compound tenses are often abbreviated by suppressing the non-personal part, i. e. participle and infinitive, when the sup- pressed words can easily be supplied from the context. This ab- breviation may assume two forms : a. The personal part of the verb, i. e. the auxiliary, may alone remain, accompanied by one of the pronouns ba, e3, irag, which represent the suppressed non-personal part of the preceding verb with all its modifiers, and thus stand for the whole thought ex- pressed in the preceding sentence : 5)u nwrbejl fie ja ntcfyt gejnnmcien fyabeu ? Stein, baS fcatte id? ntcfyt, or 9tein, bag luiirbe id) ntd?t You, certainly, would not have forced her, would you ? No, I would not. (afc im SWatcrfaal gab, fyatte er nut werantworteu fcnnen, ftenn cr vcrfjer bie ^afiorin son 23offjen urn ifyre ^Mining unb ifyren 9Jat angegangen roare (Raabe's Hastenbeck, chap. iv). @ie fatten fd&on imtner aHerljanb im .>albfd)laf gefyort: iiren \vierfen, bie laute Scnnerftimme beg Sktevg ; abet eg tear fte nid)tg angegangen (concerned) (H. Bohlau's Adam und Eva, chap. ii). Sag ganje !Dorf ivar id) fdjcit buvd)anbevt ou einent (Snbe jum anbevu (Paul Keller's Waldwinter, IV). 3d) bin bie 3#arf [S3canbcnbnvg] buv^^ogcn unb tyabe ite rcidjec gefunben, a(g id) ju I)offen geltagt t)atte (Fontane's Wanderungen^ i, Preface). Sec SMfdjcf SSebefinb beveute nid)t fetten gar fet)r ben ^anbel, ield)en er ntit bem Slbt Jpeinrtd) gu Sulba einge; gangen Jtar (Raabe's Die fJdmelschen Kinder, chap. iii). ^annocet (ship) ijt geftcrn Jtap ^enrt) !paffiert {Hamburgischer Correspondent, 30. Mai, 1901 ; five times with fein on one page), Sag inftinftbe (Sefuljl enter nnabtoenbbaren fiber 9tadjt Ijereinbredjenben efal)r, bag itn an jeiiem Xage $um erften 2Kale iibcrfommfn iar, atg er cn Urbang flatten erfltfyr (M. Kretzer's Meister Timpe, chap. ix). @ie tt)Ute felbji nid)t, ag fte itberfominen War (Storm's Zur Wald- und Wasserfreude, p. 188). Slnfontttten to seize, come (hard, easy, &c.) for (one), and verbs of motion, as geljen, fommen, tanfen, reiten, in composition with criiber or vcrbei (see also 259. 36), are ustially conjugated with fein, as the force of the simple verb asserts itself: Setttt eg ftar jn ein fdjrecfen anfomnten (Luke v. 9). (Saner ifl'g ntid) gcnug angefommen CAnzengruber's Schandfleck, chap. vii). ^ein efd)C^f bijl bu ttotbeigegangen (Herder). 2Btr finb fein SBirtsljang vorubergegangen, p()ite cin^ufeliren (Blatz). The transitives einfd)Iagen to take (a way, road), iibergel)'en to pass over, umfofy'rctt to drive around, utttgel)'en to walk around, are occasionally found with fein earlier in the period, but are now usually conjugated with (jaben. Verbs that take a cognate accusative (see 257. 2. A) are not real transitives, and hence usually take fein where the simple verb is conjugated with fein : 3d) bin fo iange (Sifenbaljn gefatjren, bap mid) afle Jtonbuftenre fannten. <>aben is sometimes used here to give expression to the durative idea : 3d) IjStte (perhaps under the influence of_/W couru le risque) Oefafyr aetaiifen, mid) ju erfd^na^en (Lessing). Sie clbaten I)aben gtoeimal turnt gelaufett ittiber bie 9Rauer (Sanders' WorterfacK). Present usage, however, inclines also here toward fein in accordance with the general trend of mtransitives toward fein : 3d) bin (^abe) grce efa^r getaufen (Blatz). In many other cases the ace. is an adverbial ace. and the verb is to be regarded as intransitive : 3d) bin biefen SBeg nod) nic geritten. @r ijt bie Simmer al(e bnrdjgegangen. II. ;?m is only used with intransitives : i. When the subject is thought of, not as acting, but as resting 191.II.A. THE USE OF Iwbctt AND feitt 291 in a state or condition produced by the action, or as reposing at some goal or destination that has been reached by means of the activity indicated in the verb. Examples in B and C. 2. As the resultant condition and the attained goal are not only the outcome of an activity but also often the commencement of something new, feiu often has inchoative force and points to the beginning of a state or activity: <5ctn a3 elb ijl in ber gamitte gcblieben. Note. The list was once larger. In early N.H.G., in the classical period and even later, befjarren to insist upon, bcrufien to rest upon, bcjleljen to insist upon, bangen to. hang, Uegcn to lie, jtfcen to sit, jlecfett to stick (intrans.), remain, fdjtocbcit to hover, ftefyen to stand, are still found with fein, more frequently earlier in the period, and later gradually disappearing in the language of the North : 2Bie eft bin id) Ittcfct baranf bejlanben? (Lessing's Freigeist, i, i). @o jtnfc nnr al(e in bent Unjlat gejlecft (Luther). SBcnn id} fo bei iljr gefefjen bin (Goethe). 2Benn ifyc nidjt Soities 9lrmant> im inn gelegen tvare (Gutzkow). Occasionally in our own time as a survival of this older usage, even in the North : 2Bdf)rcnb ber Sungere Stebling be3 3nfcnnatcr<3 gcujcfcn unb and) nod) nad) ben Sefyrjhmben in iftrer M ammet uber ben 93ud)ent flcfcjfen ift, I>at ber 3Utere algbalb ben S3auern unb Jlncd)ten braupen bet ber Slrbett jugefebcn (Storm's Zur Chronik von Grieshuus, p. 92). ibet ba^ Jpaud felbjl irar am 9iad)mittage, als id> bcvt locrbcigcgangen, in feinet getooljnten unwberlidjen (Sinfamfcit bageflanbcn (id., John J\iew'}. Thus in general the point of view has shifted somewhat within the present period. Luther in the sentence given above emphasized the beginning of the act, the getting into the filth, while the North and Middle Germans ol our time call attention to the continuation in the resultant condition or assumed position, and hence use tyaben. The literary language of the South still preserves the older usage : Set jnnge s ^viefht ttar auf ber dntfermmg ber SMlber befoarrt (Marriot's Dcr geistliche Tod, chap. iv). >u cett, bap id) en jefyct cinent ibcalen 3uge nadjge^angen bin (G. Keller). 33iele SWonatc war er im @pital gelcgen (Rosegger). 3d) itnbe bid> anberg, al^ bu mir in ber Grinnerung vergefdjnxbt bifl (Marriot's Seine Gottheit, chap, xxviii). 3d) bin ntd)t immer im Scben gefiecft, irie ber 33ar in feinem gel( (Ebner-Eschenbach). 5lm Jtird)()of bort bin id) gejknben (Lenau). To the above list may be added for the South : fycrfeit to sit continually in one place, pore over, fnten to kneel, flebeit to stick. cttt is also used in the North with these verbs, if the inchoative idea becomes prominent, or if there is any idea of change of place or condition : Sad 2)tng ijl brtn int Jj3a{)n gefejfen (Storm's Im Brauer-Hause, p. 103) The thing got fastened in the faucet. 31(3 ev anf ben glut juviicfgefe&vt trar, ijl er cr ber Xrcpve jlifl gejlanben (stopped), ate ntufle er and) l)ier bie tiegen ncd) hinauf (Storm's Eekenhof, p. 72). @in bufeenbmal bin id) fd)on anf bent $ unite gejlanben,_il)m bie ganje cfd)idite or bie Sujie 511 ttcrfcn unb ifjn fetnca aBcges adein gehen jn lanen (Spielhagen's Stlbstgerecht, p. 80). U 2 292 . THE VERB 191. II. A. >ann finb ju ben dnten bie anfe geftanben (= Sann Ijabcn fid) begeben) unb af(e Ijaben bie ^idlfe nad) mir geredt (Raabe's Schtidderump, chap. xiv). (go circas (i. e. baa lange .flleib) Ijatte man bei unei im 93ufdj nidjt braud)en fcnnen, ba frare man balb auf ber 9tafe gelcgen (Jensen's Heimkunft, VI). (@t ftefyt auf, recft ficfy.) 3d) bin roieber gang fteif gefeffeit (Fulda's Die -wilde Jagd, 3, 2) I have again become quite stiff from sitting. The inchoative idea becomes most prominent in compounds, where fein is quite common even in the North: 3(jr eitt tufcer jU fein in bem (scfjuffat, bent fie untevlegen War (F. Lewald). Here, however, as often elsewhere, as for instance -in C. 2. b, below, the force of the simple verb asserts itself and conjugation with Ijaben follows : !Die Sftepubliiamfdje Cartel Ijatre im SSorparlament untevtegen (Karl Biedermann's Dreifsig JaJire deulscher Geschichte, I. p. 270). Of course Ijaben should be used if the durative idea is prominent : 33et ben rein pteufjifdjeit (livik biplcmaten, toetdje ber SBirfung ntilitarifdjer 2>i3jiplin gar nidjt ober unjitrei'djenb unterlegeit fatten, Ijabe id) in bet Olegel eine gu ftarfe 9leigung jur Jtritif gefunben (Bismarck). In S.G. we often find fein in compounds even where we would naturally expect Ijaben, as the force of the simple verb asserts itself: Sie 33ud)en toaren bed) bent 3erbredjen nnberfianben (Stifter's Studien, 2, 92). It is often difficult to determine the real controlling factor in the use of Ijaben and fein. In the following sentence from the N.G. Hebbel, it cannot be determined with absolute definiteness whether fein is used because the drama plays in the year 1426, or because the scene lies in the South, or .because the author being in the South is influenced by his surroundings, or because older usage has survived here in the author's own northern dialect as in case of the sentences of Storm given above : Slug nteinen gtypen Ij^tt' id) $ern ben SSerbanb gemadjt, luenn ber SSater nidjt babei geftanben tnarc (slgties Bernauer, i,, 2). Earlier in the period fein was also conjugated with Ijaben in N.G. and M.G. : 2)arumb Ijett nie fein fyetylge fjo fune geiueft (Luther, Weim. Ausg., I, 220). B. With verbs which represent the subject as resting in a new state or condition as the result of a change brought about by the action of the verb. The idea of rest is contained in the auxiliary, that of action is contained in the verb, and that of change from or into may lie : a. In some prefix of the verb such as em away, from, transition into, er out of, into a state of, v>er to the end of, change into, jer dissolution, violent separation, a breaking to pieces, a scattering, anf up, ein into, &c. : 35a3 3JJabd)en ift errotet The girl has blushed (literally, has reddened out}. 2Me Oicfe tft erbliifyt The rose has come out into blossom. S)ic Oiofe ift crb(uf)t The blooming of the rose has come to an end. (Sr ift geftern 9lbenb entfd)(ummert He passed away in death quietly last evening, aburd) ift inet (gtreit entftanben Through that much strife has arisen. (Sr ift verarmt He has become poor. i!)ag ang ifl aufgewacr/t. >an3 ift tint gefd)(afen. eftern abenb ift einer tnt 5^ U P ertrunfen. b. In some prepositional phrase or in a predicate adjective : 5)er 3Jlcft ift ' ju (Sffig gegoren. iDer 2Bein ifl ftar gegoren. (Sr ift gan$ b(au gefroren. The meaning has such a power over the form of conjugation that some verbs which usually take fyaben are conjugated with fein when they indicate a change of condition : (), ba ntufjte ber 3unge bod) ganj au$ ber 9lrt gcfd)lagen fein \ (Raabe's Finkenrode, chap. xvi). c. In the meaning of the verb itself in the following verbs when used intransitively : attern (also with I)aben) to grow old ; arten (nad)) to take after, resemble, berften to burst, bleid)en (also with fyaben) to turn pale, white ; bred>en to break ; gebeifjen to thrive ; geliiigen to be successful, and its opposite nttjj; tingen ; gcnefen to recover from sickness ; geraten to turn out (to be so-and-so), stray into, and ntipraten to fail, turn out badly, prove a, failure', gerinnen to coagulate, congeal ; gefd)ef;en to come to pass, happen ; glucfen to prosper, succeed, and its opposite ntijsglMett ; frepieren to burst, explode, die (of animals, and in coarse language also of men) ; paffieren to happen, occur ; platen to explode; tjuetten to swell (of wood, &c.) ; reifjen to break, tear; roftcn (also with Ijaben) to grow rusty ; fdjeitern to be shipwrecked ; fdnnel^eit to melt ; fd;c((en to swell up ; fpriejjcn to sprout up ; fterben to die ; iad;fen to 191. II. c. i.fl. THE USE OF $aben AND fcitt 293 grow ; toclfen to wither, fade away ; icerben to become ; ttntrjeln (sometimes w. fyaben) to take root : SDer Xopf ift geborjlcn The pot has burst. 25 te Sttabel ijl gebrodjen The needle broke. 25a3 @d)iff ifl gefd^citert. 35te 2J?ild) tjl geronnen. <&$ ijl ifym gelungen, ben SJerfolgern tit cntfommen He has been successful in escaping his pursuers. 25ie 23acfen ftnb uber 9lad)t gefdjtodlen. 35a3 olj tjl on ber 9laffe gequoKen, Earlier in the period fyaben was used with a number of these verbs and is still found occasionally: 25te arabifd)e (Religion unb 'Jtationalfuttur fyafite btefe JBlumen (bcr 25id)tung), te(leid)t fatten fie in Ghtrepa ber Stittn and) nod) nid)t gebethet (now gebiefyen) (Herder), (S3 fyitt' if)m and) geglucft, tt?enn nid)t, c. (Wieland). 2Bte toeit if)t'$ gelungen Ijat (Schiller). 25 te uerbcrgencn. Attppett, an benen bte flclje SSermmft fdjon gefdjeitert f>at (id.). 55a^ biefe ^Jflanje brd nationalen (Ruifentum^ nur aitf 9Ko3fauer aioben gu gebetfycn ermag wnb and) nut gebtehen ^at (Gegenwart, 1887, No. 34). SUtern and bletd)cn are still conjugated with fyaben when it is desired to emphasize the durative idea rather than that of a resultant state : Dnfel ^>arre namtid) fyatte in bet le$ten Beit fo nterfltd) gealtcrt, ba fS felbfi fur itnS, bic rtt iljn faft tdgltd) fa^en,. auffallig ivar (R. Huch's Ludolf Ursleu, chap. xxi). But to call attention to a result : Cbgteicfy fie furd)tbar gcaltert ttar (Gutzkow's R., 9, 452). 3f)re Secle ttat nid)t mtt gealtevt (SchuUe-Simidt's DtnV ich an Deutschland in der Nacht, II). Note I . In using the above words, care must be taken to distinguish between the idea of transitive and intransitive, as only the latter use requires fein in the compound tenses ; see 257. i. b. Note 2. The meaning has such power over the form of conjugation that some verbs which usually take fyaben are often conjugated with fcitt in those meanings which are similar to those oi the verbs in the above list. This is especially true of einfd)lageit (after the analogy of geraten) to turn out (to be so-and-so), succeed, and fcl)lfd)lagen (after the analogy of ntiUngen) to turn out unsuccessful: @ine ^oltttfdje pefltlation tent alten preufjifdjen grtfe gegenuber til and) ntd)t fo eingefd)(agen, line ntan'$ hmnfdjte nnb verf)offte (Raabe's A. 71, chap. xiii). Slud) bte 45erfud)e felbft bte lateintfdjen Sevmini (terms) jit erbeutfd?en ftnb immer webcr fcl)(gefd)lag:n (H. Wunderlich). Here as elsewhere, however, the force of the simple verb asserts itself, and hence we sometimes also find Ijaben; ?Ule feine, Jpeffttimgen ftnb oberaud) haben ifynt fel)lgefd)tagen (J. Grimm). C. With all intransitive verbs of motion from place to place, when the subject is thought of as resting at some goal, or as starting from some point of departure or towards some end or destination. i. The idea of rest or the beginning; of the activity is in fein, that of action is contained in the verb, and that of a destination, arrival, departure may lie : a. In some prefix such as cr out of, ent away from, or in those denoting away, arrival, up, out of, thither, hither, into., upward, forth, towards, down, &c. (ab, an, auf, atte*, fu'n or bahin', her or bafycr', etn, empcr', fort, gu, nn'cter, &c.) : 9luf nteine Stage ijl feine Slnhoort erfolgt No answer has come to my question (lit. has followed out of it, i. e. the question). @r ijl bent cfdngnitf entfvnmgen He has escaped from prison. 33ei @rf)nubt$ ijl etn cd)terd)cn angcfommen A wee daughter has arrived at Schmidt's. (Sr ijl bie repve l)tnnntergcgangcn. 2)er SBtt^ ijl f)crabgcflammt. @r ijl bnrd) Unglu(ffalle ganj ^eruntergefommen Mis- fortunes have ruined him (lit. He has come down on account of misfor- tunes). Earlier in the period fyabcn could also be used here : (fr l)at niber gcfniet | vnb ftd) gelagert une etn i'ese (Gen. xlix. 9). Thus earlier in the period the durative force of the simple verb may assert itself in a compound more than the local force of the prefix, while to-day attention is uniformly directed to the point of arrival or departure. The intrans. ittnfdilagen to upset (intrans.), capsize^ change suddenly is usually conjugated with fein on account of the idea of change of location or state contained in the prefix, although the simple verb is a trans, conjugated 294 THE VERB 191. II. c. i. a. with tyabcn: ?p(i?fctid) tat nut cut tauter, tiaJjct Slitffdjm funb, bag ttermutlid) bad gefafjrbcte 23oet untgefd)fagen fci (Jensen's Heimkunft^ II. 6). >ie wunbcrooKm SKuftonen ttaren fd)tte(( in i()v egenteit nmgcfdjlagen (Raabe's A. T., chap. v). We often, however, find fyaben here, as the force of the simple verb asserts itself: $)er 2Bagen Ijatte untgcfd)(agen (Schiller). 3n beu a3olfefd?id)ten fyatte bie tmtntung grimblid) utngefdjfagm (Rosegger's Martin der Mann, p. 43). In the same manner other verbs fluctuate between fyaben and fein : 2luf bent !Mcfn>ege ... bin id? bei ntcinem 33tubcr eingefprccfyen (Lessing's Gefang., 3, z). 3d) fyabe bei ifym eingefprod)en (M. Heyne). b. In a prepositional phrase or in an adverb : S5a3 Ieid)te efafjrt iwar ntit SBatct nnb od)tcr von batmen gevcttt. @y itf fiber ben ftlitfj gefd)toommen. Set Otafen tear unlb in bie c(je gefdjoffen. 3Bir finb an ben OJanb bc3 2Balbe3 gefangt. >ie olnifd)en Slfpivaticnen iad)fen intf ttfcrtofe, fcbatb nnr bie 3RcgIidjfeit nafje gcritrft ift, baft bie SJegievung fie evfuften h)t((. 3n ^efTen ift befonber^ bee S'lotftanb 511 age getreten. (S^ ijl ba^ erfte 2J?a(, bap id) anf em berarttgeS 2>Jtpevfle^en gefioen bin. 2. These same intransitive verbs of motion are conjugated with Ijaben, and not fein : a. When the idea of duration is prominent and no goal is designated by prefix, prepositional phrase, or otherwise : Sffiir tyaben ben ganjen Slbenb getan^t, but 2Btr jtnb att3 einer @tube in bie anbere getanjt. @o I)abe id) nie geritten, nie fo to(( gejagt (Goethe). 3n feiner 3ugenb ^at cv gut geritten, but (St ift fortgeritten. 2)ie galtnen, bie auf bem injuge fo tuftig im SBtnbe geflogen fatten, but !Der 93ogel ifl in^ SfJefl geficgen. S)er 3Ba(b Ijat geraufdjt The forest has murmured, but !Der front ifi fcaljin geraufd)t The river flowed on munmiring. Even if the goal is mentioned, Ijaben may be used if the idea of duration is more prominent than that of the goal : @o fyat cr tange Satjre neben feinem -ipunbefu^vnjcrf burd) bie fDcvfer getrabt (Frenssen'sy< Uhl, chap. xi). Usage has in part become unsettled here. Such verbs as reiten, fasten, rafen to rush along, fd)wimmen, &c., which are usually used in connection with a goal, and hence are often conjugated with fein, have become so thoroughly associated with this auxiliary that they are often conjugated with it when no goal is mentioned, and even where the idea of duration is present : SLUt finb geritten o()tte Unterlajj benn bie S3erfolget tt>aren fd)ne(( (Wildenbruch's Kaiser Heinrich, 3, 9). eine uberrafd)enbe Jlenntnte fettener itnb foftfpietiger (Speifen cvflarte ftd) barau^, ba^ cr cine 3eit tang a(5 @d)if^fud)cnjunge gefafyren itar (Hoff- mann's Rohleders hohe Minne). 2)er ifl gerafl luie bo(( (N.G. = toll) (Halbe's Hans Rosenhagen, 2, p. 94). ^ettte ftnb h)ir tuditig ntavfd)ievt. Also in figura- tive use : 3d) fyabe ntid) nie nm ben 9J?orgen gefuntmert imb bin f^et^ gut babet gefafyren (Raabe's Pechlin, chap. x). Hence these words are gravitating towards the group U below, ^afyven is often used with fyabcn, not, however, as a verb denoting motion, but in the sense to perform the duties of a coachman, be a coachman, have charge of the driving, or with reference to the comfort- ableness of the vehicle : r Ijatte in SBien gcfyn Saftre gefafyren (Lessing's Minna, 3, z). 2Bir finb nad) ber tabt gcfafjren. 2Bcr ftat gefat)ren ? We rode to town. Who drove? 35er Bug Ijat fycute fd)led)t gefafyven. Earlier in the period I)abcn was common with pure verbs of motion : 23m id) nid)t bein feltn | barauff bu geritten (;ajl gu beiner 3eit (Num. xxii. 30). b. In a few cases when the verbs are used figuratively : (t J)at fortgefal)ren ju lefcn He continued to read, but (It ift fortgefafjren He has driven away. fin is also used in figurative use, as the force of the simple verb asserts itself: @r i|l in bet (Sqdfyhtng fortgefafyren (M. Heyne). 3d) I)abe in ifyn gebruttgen / have rirged him, but with fein where the local idea is more distinct, as in 0?r ift nod) nid)t in bag cfycimnis gebruttgen He has not yet penetrated into the secret. We occasionally find fein in the former case, as the literal force of the verb asserts itself: [te fagte,] Sag feien mtfclefe 2kutmu)igungen, iveSfjalb fie bettn aud) in tfyn getrungcn fet, cn fotdyen 93cred)nungen ?lb)lanb ju nel)men (Fon- tane's Stechlin, VII. p. 107). @r ^at ftd), cfjne ba id; eigentlid; in Ujn gebrungen 191. II. D. a. THE USE OF fcabctt AND fettt 295 nure, mit greyer Cffenfjeit fiber feine cfoncmifdje (Situation auSgefyrodjen (Spielhagen's Selbstgcrecht, p. 75). In tfcrfafyren to proceed, deal with, treat, act, the original idea of going is so little felt that the auxiliary Ijaben is often used : SKan I)at mit nnerfycrten refutionen uerfafyren (Goethe's Gotz, 5, 9). @ie fyaben gegen mid) line gegcn eincn (jn'buben verfaljrcn (Gutzkow). Sera toufjte bic, fonfi rtnnrbe fie cbett anbcrS ucrfafyren Ijaben (Junghans). On the other hand, fein is also used here, and is now more frequent, as the force of the very common simple verb asserts itself: Sad cfd)icf ifi nid)t fanft tnit mir crfaljrcn (Goethe). SSir finb \veljl af(e nid)t fo gang ttodfommen etjrlid) unb anfrirf)tig gcgen cr ter ift au$ bet 2i*unbe geflojfen, but 3>ie Slngen l)aben gefleffen. 2)er SBein tfl auS bent gag gelaufen, but Sag 5*5 fyatte fdjon cinige Beit gelaiifen (= gelerft), el)e id) cS bemerfte. 3>r ofjn Ijat bent Sater or bcm tRat be3 USaterg gefolgt. Jbatt' id) nur gWd) mcincm 3nftinft gefclgt! (r tyat uor ihm gefrodjen. ir ift geflraudjelt, but (Sr fyat geflvaud)elt (morally). On the other hand, except in the case of a metonymic subject, we perhaps more frequently find ffin with the above verbs also in figurative use, as the force of the verb in its literal meaning asserts itself: Serb inanb VII tout or ber raufjen 2ftad)t 91apoleon3 gefrodjen (v. Sybel). Untec biefeu Slnge^origen h?ar aud) ein dlterer Sruber on ifym, bet i^m ti^ ba^itt gattj befonbevS untiebfam begegnet ltar (Fontane's Der Tunnel uber der Spree, V). b. We find Ijaben with these verbs in certain set expressions where the original local meaning disappears and durative force becomes prominent : 3ifd)m iin^ Ijat'g fcfycn mancfyinal auf ieb itnb @tid) gegaitgcu (Otto Ernst's Jugendvon heute, i, 15) = 28ir Ijaben auf ieb unb u ^ajl naturlid) nid)t baran gebac^t, ba^ gejiern bie ^ftngftfevicn angefangen finb (Frenssen's Die drei Getreuen, chap. ii). 3d) tin Don cben angefangen, Don ber fyoijen Uf)l Fjer, I)od^ toon oben, unb bin gefunfen . . . gefunfen . . . 93on unten an; fangen, ba3 tfl a((e3 (id., Jam Uhl, chap. xxvi). Ser le^te Sdjlag iuar fdion funf 5Rinuten auggefliingen (Borne). (Seitt afd)enfavbene3 ejtd)t ein ranatjh'tcf f)at bie 93ruft ;;errif|en tfl, fed id) fo fagen, ru^tg attggeHnngen. @t ^at feine @d;merjen gefu^lt (Liliencron's Kriegsnovellen, Anno 1870, Umzingelt). 192. PARADIGM OF THE COMPOUND TENSES OF lofcen AND fatten. Present Perfect Tense. gelobt I have praised, &c. Indie. Subj. id) fyabe \ id) bu fyafl bu er tyat 1 ^ er tttr tyaben F^ reir f)aben i^r ^afct i^r l;abet fte ^aben J fte I have fallen (see 191. II. D). Indie. id) bin buftfl er tfl ivir ftnb iftr feib fte ftnb Subj. id) fet bu fei(e)fl er fet reir feien i^r feiet fie feten Perfect Infinitive. gefatlen (jti) fein 192. COMPOUND TENSES OF loben AND fallen 297 Perfect Imperative. and per. tyafce geloBt, f)afc(e)t gelobt fei gefaflen, feib gefaflen 3rd per. er tyabe gelobt er fei gefaflen, fte feien gefaflen Past Perfect Tense. I had praised, &c. I had fallen, &c. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. id? ^atte bu l;attefl er Ijatte irir fatten ifyr tyattet ' fte fatten J id? t)dtre ' bu tydtt(e)fl _ er fydtte "<, reir l)dtten iljr fydttet fie fatten J id? rear bu rearfl ^ er rear "tj reir rearen ifyr reart^ fie rearen , id? irare e bu irdr(e)fi ^ er redre ^ irir rearen ifyr redr(e)t fie rearen - Future Tense. I shall praise, c. I shall fall, &c. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. id? irerbe > bit irirfl er irirb id? irerbe bu reerbeft , S er irerbe id? irerbe bu reirfi ^ S er irirb id? irerbe ' bu irerbejl er reerbe irir irerben 2 irir irerben irir reerben _ reir irerben itjr irerbet fte irerben . ifyr irerbet fie irerben J ifyr reerbct fie irerben if)r reerbe t fie reerben , ro Future Infinitive. lofcen u irotteu fatten 311 trofleu Future Perfect Tense. I shall have praised, c, I shall have fallen, &c. Indie. Subj. Indie. Subj. id? irerbe ' bu irirfl er irirb | id? reerbe ^ bu irerbefl er irerbe 1 id? reerbe "i bu reirjl er irirb O id? irerbe ' bu irerbefl er reerbe 2- irir irerben ifjr irerbet fie reerben . o reir irerben iijr irerbet fte reerben , o irir. irerben ifyr irerbet fie reerben , Si irir irerbcn i^r irerDet fie reerben J " o o t- C5 Conditional Mood. Pres. I should fall, (would) praise, &c. Perf. I should (would) have praised, fallen, &c. Present. Perfect Present. Perfect. id? iriirbe bu reitrbefl cr irurbe irir iriirben it)r irurbet fte iriirben "s ^0 id? irurbe bu iriirbejl er irurbe irir iriirbeu if)r iriirbet fte iriirben -1 id? re it r be > bu iriirbefl er irurbe irir iriirben il)r irurbet fie iriirben , ^ id? irurbe ' bu iriirbefl er irurbe reir reiirben ifcr reitrbet fie iriirben j e S. & 298 THE VERB 193. 193. PARADIGM OF THE COMPOUND TENSES OF fein AND reerben. Present Perfect Tense. I have been, &c. I have become, &c. Indie. id) tin bu fcifl er ifl reir ftnb itjr feib fte jlnb Subj. id) fei bu fei(e)ft er fei reir feien tt)r feiet fte feien Indie, id; tin bu fcifl er ifl reir ftnb iljr fetb fie ftnb su Snbj. id) fei bit fei(e)fl er fei reir feien ifyr feiet fte feien Perfect Infinitive, gereefen (ju) fein gereorben (ju) fein. Perfect Imperative. 2nd per. fei gereefen, feib gereefen fei gereorben, feib gereorben. 3rd per. er fei gereefen, fte feien gereefen er fei gereorben, fte feien gereorben. Past Perfect Tense. I had been, &c. I had become, &c. Subj. Indie. Subj. id) rear ^ bu rearfl er rear id) reare ^ bu rea'r(e)fl ^. er reare reir rearen 2 reir rearen Ujr reart fie rearen > fte rearen . Indie. id; rear bu rearfl er rear reir rearen iljr reart fie rearen |u td) reare bu redr(e)fl er reare reir rearen ifyr redr(e)t j!e rearen ,00 t> Future Tense. I shall be, &c. I shall become, &c. Indie. i^ reerbe bu reirfl er retrb reir reerben i()r reerbet fte reerben Subj. icfj reerbe bu reerbeft er reerbe reir reerben tfyr reertet fte irerben Indie. id) reerbe bu reirfl er reirb reir reerben if)r reerbet fte reerben Subj. id) reerbe bu reerbefl er reerbe reir reerben ifyr reerbet fie reerben Future Infinitive, reerben ju reoflen. 194. I.E. THE PASSIVE VOICE 299 Future Perfect Tense. I shall have been, &c. I shall have become, &c. Subj. id; irerbe bit irerbefi Indie. id; rcerbe bit irirft er irirb irir ircrben iljr irerbet fte irerben Subj. id; irerbe bu irerbefi er irerbe irir irerben ifyr irerbet fte irerben Indie. id; irerbe bit irirft er irirb irir irerben ifyt irerbet fte irerben -CJ ^f 1 . o 00 er irerbc \ irir irerbcn f if)r irerbet fte irerben J ^U I Z OD Conditional Mood. Pres. I should (would) be, become, c. Present. id; iriirbe bit iritrbeft er iritrbe irit irurben ii;r irittbet fte witrben Perf k I should (would) have been, become, c. Perfect. Present. Perfect. id; iriirbe \ bu iriirbefl ^_ er iritrbe 1 ^T irir iritrben f ^ id; wi'trbe ' bu iriirbefi et iriirbe irir irurben id) iritrbe ' bu irittbefl ^ er irurbe irir irurben Z. N ^-J=> . ' 00 i^r iritrbet c fte iriirben J ityr iritrbet fte wi'trben ; if)r iritrbet fte irurben ) -^d' THE PASSIVE VOICE. 194. The passive voice denotes that the subject receives the action. The passive in German has, as in English, no special tense or mood forms of its own, but is made up by combining the perfect participle with different auxiliary verbs. The following forms are used in German : i. A. The usual passive is formed by combining the various moods and tenses of irerben to become with the perfect participle of the verb to be conjugated, which remains uninflected throughout : (pres. indie.) id; irerbe flelott / am being praised, bit irirft gelobt, &c. ; (past indie.) id? irurbe gelofct ; (pres. perf. indie.) id; tin gelofrt irorben ; (past perf. indie.) id; irar gelott irorben; (future indie.) id; irerbe gelorjt irerben, &c. ; (pres. subjunctive) id) irerbe gelofct, bit irerbeft gelofct, &c. The only irregularity in the conjugation is that the perf. part, of irerben is here uniformly without the ge : irorben, not geirorben. No passive idea lies in irerben, as it also, when combined with the present infinitive, forms the future active (id) irerbe lofcen), and the future perfect active when used with the perfect infinitive (id; irerbe gelofct fyafoen). UBerben retains in the passive its original meaning of /o become, and thus denotes here a passing into a state which is indicated by the perfect participle : id; irerbe gerettet I am being rescued, lit. I am becoming or am going over into the state of being rescued. B. However, irerben is not the only auxiliary employed in the passive, but fein is still, according to a usage prevailing in earlier periods, frequently used, replacing irerben often in the pres. perfect, 300 THE VERB 194. i. B. past perfect, future perfect, perfect conditional, and even regularly replacing it in the imperative, and often in the present infinitive. a. In M.H.G. the pres. perfect was formed by combining the pres. of fetn with the perfect participle of the verb to be conjugated : (indie.) ich bin gelobet. The past perfect was formed by combining the past of fein and the participle : ich war gelobet. This former usage still lingers on, though no longer recognized by grammarians : liter ben sSegrtff bet ^ilologie if* iel tyerumgeftritten (H. Paul, Paul's Grundriss, p. i, ist ed.). 2)ie SfaufHiud) con Dr. 3of)amt Sauft ifl im 3a^re 1587 in Sranffutt a. 3ft. tei (&pte gebrucft (Baumgart's Goethes Faust, p. 20). This older usage is quite common with geMren : 3dj tin am 23. 2)Jai 1844 gefcoren (Wustmann's Sprachdummheiten, p. 107, 3rd ed.). Note. In those dialects which use the pres. perfect for the past in narrative a peculiar form is used for the past perfect. The perfect part. getoefen is added to the old pres. perf. tense form: S)ie ift abet tticfct auSgcfttegm, fonbern Ijat immerju nacf) ben Smjiern sen tinfere SSorjttung raufgefef}en, o eben Sidjt angefhcft gewefen ijl (Therese in Sudennann's Die Heitnat, I, 10). b. The regular future perfect and perfect conditional forms are still avoided on account of their clumsiness t their place being often supplied by combining the future or first conditional of fein with the perfect part. : idj tcerbe gelott fein instead of icfy rcerbe gelott ivorben fein ; ic^ reurbe gelo6t fein instead of ic^ reitrbe gelofct irorben fein. c. In an earlier period of the language, fein was the passive auxiliary in the infinitive and imperative, and it has tenaciously defended these positions against irerben, as it is still frequently found in the infinitive where we might naturally expect rcerben, and is used as a rule in the imperative, both in the 2nd and 3rd person, although in the latter also imben is found. In the infinitive, fein seems to be especially common after the modal auxiliaries, par- ticularly rcoflen : SOBenn er im ager emerging, rcollte er nicfyt gegritpt fein (Ranke). @r nrifl t>on niemanb getabelt fein. 5)ie efdn'cfyte nrifl erjtifylt fein (Rosegger). 2)ie tunben njoflen ^tngefcrac^t fein 6i j?um nacbfien 2)iorgen (Junghans) We must in some way pass the time till morning. QBer barin Itefi, inoge gefegnet fein fcon meinem ^etligen SBitten (Anselm Heine's Etne Gabe, Brockendorf im Lehrerhauschen). 3Rur Don bit moc^te tct) gut genannt fein, icag bte SBelt oon mir fprtc^t, ifl mir eing (Heer's Der Konig der Bernina, XVIII). QllS eine 2)Jerfrcurbigfeit mag eritd^nt fein, bap, &c. (Wustmann's Sprachdummheiten, p. 55, 3rd ed.j. 3ftujjt' eg fo rafc^ gel;orcfyt fein ? (Schiller's Wallensttins Tod, 5, 1 1). 2) a rcir aber noc^ nic^t fo sjertraut ntit einanber ftnb, um nn3 fc^lic^tireg fceim 0iamen ju nennen unb e alfo bureaus getitelt fein muf? : fo fagen @te einfireeilen ^err ^rdftbent ju mir (F, von Saar's Der ' Exzellenzherr '). iDiefe [(Sntfcfyulbigung] tent^t ouf ber Sefurc^tung, bap icfy beletbigt fein muffe, an mein filter erinnert ju irerben (Suttner's Im Berghause, p. 93). eltett rcerben unb nici^t rcieber Iteben fonnen au^ bag, Dnfef, mup burc^gefdm^ft fein (Heer's Der Konig der Bernina, X). @3 muptc gebrocijen fetn, ober er ging an biefer tebe gu @runbe (Ertl's Walpurgd], Unb nun fefcen reir un, bie acfye fott gleic^ afcgetan fein (Goethe's Dichtung und Wahrheit, I, 3). >amtt fotl nic^t gefagt fein, bap man 194.2. THE PASSIVE VOICE 301 nid)t aitd) anberc liefcen fann (Bartel's Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, II, p. 424). immel fei' 3 geflagt (Fulda's Talisman, 2, 4). Qhtf etnen ivtct^tigen 4 ^unft fei fyter nod) bie Qlufmerffatttfeit gelenft (Brug- mann's Kurze verglcichende Grammatik, p. 289). (Scin is also used in a subordinate clause after a verb expressing will, command'. errin ; etn niter 3?ranrt? | autl, bap reenn Dftern fam tnS Sanb, | ivenn leife griutt ber ^ornenftrand) | . . . . ba bann bie erfte 9M(monbnad;t | fltegenb unt> tvicgenb fet burd)ivad)t (Sudermann's Die drei Reiherfedern, 3, 2). In the following rather rare examples ivcrben is used as auxiliary in the 3rd person : ejjetligt nrcvbe bein 9Jame (Luther). 3^r feit) on mir gefrtiteben iverb' and) mir, | >jon eitd> $n fd)ett>en, J^raft unb 9)htt Derlie^cit ! (Goethe's Tasso, 4, 2). Gicig iverbe bein gebad^t (Schiller's Sicgcsfest). 5)ie iBelt \viil betrogen iterben, fo irerbe fte benn betrogen (Ubcr Land und Mcer). The 2nd pers. imperative may be replaced by the imperative of Id jf en and a dependent infinitive : Icijj ttd) iibembm (familiar form) be persuaded, or allow yourself to be persuaded ; Iaf;t end; uberreben (pi. of familiar form); laffw te ftd) itberreten (polite form). 2. A peculiar passive construction is often found, which deserves attention. It is formed by placing the noun which denotes the objective point of the activity in the ace. as the object of the verb betommcn, erKilten, or frtegen (in popular language), and then making the real verb of the sentence an objective predicate in the form of a perfect participle : Gr fynt e3 gefagt befomnten = (?3 tfl ifym gefagt voorfen. Sebermann erfyielt 15 SBatronen ^uge^d^lt Fifteen cartridges were dealt out to each man, 3d; friege metne JVtii^e refcltd; bejii^tt I am well 302 THE VERB 194.2. paid for my trouble. The passive idea here lies in the perf. part. The object may be suppressed, and the verb befonuuen remains almost with the force of the passive auxiliary rcerben : 9lber nicfyt bod; fcafiir befomme id; ja t>on Srrditlein $foiliwri be^lt (Wildenbruch's Die Waidfrau) Don't pay me I shall be paid by Miss P. (Uen fyatte and; befd;ert befommen (Storm's Unterdem Tannenbaum,vo\. I. p. 180). ut auf einer tange getrctgen (Schiller's Tell, 1. 2915). 2)ie Sienfiboten brad^ten fletne SBa'lber in bie Dfen gefd^Ie^t (Maria Janitscheck's Einer Mutter Sieg, IX). 3ftan nat)in t^n gefangen. 3. Another passive construction is not infrequently found which is worthy of attention by reason of its pithy terseness. Instead of muffen ought (a necessity which lies in the nature of things) with a dependent passive infinitive a simple tense of gefyorcn to belong, be fit is used followed by the perfect participle of the verb to be conjugated, which serves as a predicate complement : in cntlaufen @d?af gel;6rt in feinen ie Siir nnrb jefen Slbenb uut fed?3 Utyr gefd)toffen The door is shut (i. e. some one shuts the door) every evening at six, but 5)te $i"tr ift gefcfyloffen The door is shut. 2)ie