$B 273 7fiM EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS W. C. DOUB ^ i^?W A?< LlA. GIFT OF 2 Educational Questions W. C. DOUB, A. B. (Stanford University) COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA •»■>,» > PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR BY THE WHITAKER & RAY COMPANY (incorporated) San Francisco, Cal. 1900 Copyright, 1900 BY THE WHITAKER & RAY CO. «*-r V.U- ^^V- '!•• • ' • • *a m • • • • • • "«" • • ••« • • «• PREFACE. The public school system of California during the next few years is destined to pass through a period of change and transition. I recognize, at least to some extent, the vital importance of this period of transition, and I recognize further, that some of the evils in the public school system, which we now see, will not be remedied during this period, but must be postponed for final correction to some future time. With some knowledge of the limitations which the present environment necessitates, I have, in the pages which follow, discussed some of the evils of the present school system and have pointed out the remedy. Some of these remedies are based on actual experience, some are not; but they are sub- mitted with the one request that the public, the educator and the legislator give them due considera- tion. The discussions are short, sometimes even to bluntness, the object being to call the attention of the reader directly to the evil and to the remedy, and to avoid bewildering the mind with details. W. C. DOUB. Bakersfleld, Cal., March 1, 1900. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/educationalquestOOdoubrich CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE. 1. Certification of Teachers 7 2. Relation of the University to the Courses of Study in the Elementary and Secondary Schools - - - 25 3. Courses of Study in Elementary Schools - - - 35 4. Grammar by the Inductive Method - - - - 71 5. The State Text-book System • - - - -99 CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS. The position of the public school teacher is becom- ing of more and more importance. There is an in- creasing tendency in the United States to assign to the teacher duties that have heretofore been as- sumed by the parent. The mental, moral and physi- cal training of the child is being left to the teacher. This tendency may or may not be a wise one, but it exists, and the indications are that it will continue to exist. This being true, the parent and society at large are vitally interested in the character and ability of the men and women into whose hands has been placed so large a share of this responsibility. A republican state is vitally interested in the men- tal, moral and physical training and education of its young men and women. In the United States this duty has been largely assigned to the public schools. The efficiency of those schools depends more on the teacher than on all other things combined. School buildings and school apparatus are the necessary adjuncts, but the teacher is the school. His charac- ter and his qualifications should be of deeper con- cern to the parent and to the state than the school house in which the child studies and recites or the apparatus with which he works. Those who are re- sponsible for the laws which govern the issuing of teachers' certificates ought thoroughly to under- stand that they are dealing with one of the most im- 8 "' '' ' EDUdA^TIO^^AL QUESTIONS, portant questions of education. They should keep the efficiency of the teacher constantly in view. The present method of granting teachers' certifi- cates in California is as follows : 1. The County Boards of Education and City Boards of Examination may issue certificates of the primary, the grammar and the high school grade, and special certificates, to all those who successfully pass examinations prepared and conducted by said boards. County Boards of Education may also is- sue certificates on certain credentials from other states, or on certificates issued by other counties. 2. The State Board of Education may grant State Educational diplomas of either the grammar or the high school grade valid for six years, and State Life diplomas of either the grammar or the high school grade valid for life. These diplomas are granted on experience in teaching, when the applicant is recom- mended by the County Board of Education. 3. Certificates of the grammar grade must be is- sued to those who hold California State Normal School diplomas. 4. Certificates of the high school grade may be issued to graduates of the University of California and of other universities which the State Board of Education may decide are of the same rank; pro- vided, that said graduates have completed the re- quired amount of work in the department of educa- tion, and are recommended by the faculty of the university of which they are graduates. The method of granting certificates as outlined above, would seem to have proven unsatisfactory to a large number of the educators of the state, and EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 9 they have been casting about for a remedy. Some are advocating a change, because the number of school teachers in California is almost twice as large as the number of school positions to be filled. But this fact does not necessarily mean that the require- ments for securing certificates should be made more difficult. It does, however, remove the necessity of considering the question of supply when a change in the requirements for teachers' certificates is un- der consideration, which has for its object the in- creasing of the efliciency of the teaching force of the state. If the tests are to be made more difficult for those who are trying to obtain certificates entitling them to teach in the public schools of the state, the object should not be to decrease the number of teachers — though that might be desirable — but to better prepare teachers for the responsible duties which they must assume. If it be desirable to make the tests more difficult, an excessive number of teachers removes an important obstacle, because the requirements for teachers' certificates cannot be ad- vanced if said action would result in giving an un- der supply of teachers. The object of this discussion is to point out some of the defects in the present method of granting teachers' certificates and to suggest a better method, with the hope that the entire discussion may assist, to some extent, in bringing about a much needed reform in the certification of teachers. The greatest evil of the present method of grant- ing teachers' certificates is the power given to county boards of education and city boards of ex- amination to issue certificates of the primary, the 10 EDUCATIOyAL QUESTIONS. grammar and the high school grade on examinations prepared and conducted by themselves. This has resulted in creating almost as many standards of requirements as there are counties in the state, and in the certification of hundreds of teachers who are unqualified for the duties of the profession to which their certificates admit them. And this certification of unqualified applicants by these examining boards is a natural result, because the members of these boards live in an environment tending toward a low standard of requirement for the examinations. Most of them owe their positions to politics, and there is a constant and strong pressure brought to bear on them in favor of the local applicant. This means that the examinations must not be made difficult and that the local applicant must be fa- vored in every possible way. There are less than half a dozen counties in this state in which the county board of education has had the courage to re- quire of applicants for grammar grade certificates an education equal to that furnished by the average high school, and through favoritism of various kinds the examination of the local applicant is not so difficult as the questions would indicate. It fre- quently occurs that grammar school graduates after studying one or two years secure certificates at one of these examinations. Many unacquainted with school affairs will natur- ally conclude that unqualified teachers will be un- able to secure positions. As a matter of fact, how- ever, the opposite is true. A university or a normal school graduate cannot secure a position as readily as a local applicant who has succeeded in squeezing EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 11 through the local examination. Men and women of wealth, influence and ability, who use good judg- ment in most things, will go to members of city boards of education, and to district trustees, and ask them as a personal favor to elect some local teacher, without considering whether or not he is well quali- fied for the duties of the position. This local influ- ence which is brought to bear in favor of the local applicant because he needs the money, usually pre- vails. In other words, men and women who ought to know better act as though they believe that the public school exists for the purpose of supplying po- sitions for teachers simply because said teachers may be in need of financial help. The local teacher who is well qualified should always be given the preference. It too often hap- pens, however, that the local teacher, whether well qualified or not, secures a position through local in- fluence; and it is also true that county boards of education are responsible for the existence of the majority of these unqualified teachers. Another evil of the present method of issuing cer- tificates is the granting of educational and life di- plomas of the grammar and high school grades by the State Board of Education. As stated above, these certificates are issued on experience in teach- ing and are good in all parts of the State — the educa- tional diploma for six years, and the life diploma for life. The objection to these state diplomas lies not in that they are issued for six years or for life and are good all over the State. In fact, these features are points in their favor. The injury to the public school 12 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. system results from county boards of education re- newing the certificates, which they have granted to unqualified teachers, until said teachers can secure an educational or life diploma. The state diploma enables unqualified teachers to injure the school work of other counties. Before they received their state diploma they could be restricted to the county that had issued to them their certificate; after re- ceiving it, they can teach in any county in the state. From an educational standpoint, it is an excellent plan to grant grammar grade certificates to normal school graduates, provided the normal school courses of study amount to a fairly liberal education in addition to the necessary professional training. The normal schools of California do not meet these re- quirements, and the same is true of most normal schools in the United States. At the present time the normal schools are not professional schools in the true sense of that term. Most of their work is work that should be done and is done by the average high school. When a normal school graduate enters the university, he stands upon the same footing as a high school graduate — both beginning the first year's work. This condition of affairs is most unde- sirable. No one should be allowed to enter a nor- mal school devoted to the training of teachers, who is not already a graduate of a good high school or its equivalent, and the work in the normal school should be at least a two years' course, amounting to a fairly liberal education and involving special peda- gogical training. Not until we change our present policy of establishing small normal schools of com- paratively low rank can we hope to raise materially EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 13 the standard of requirement for teachers' certifi- cates. Better one or two large normal schools with"^ first-class faculties, where thorough w^ork is done, than half a dozen small and inefficient ones. The normal school should not take the place of the high school, no matter how anxious normal school teach- ers may be to increase the attendance at the normal school in which they are teaching, or however anxious the people of the city, in which the said school is located, may be to avoid the expense of maintaining a local high school or to secure the com- mercial advantage of a large normal school attend-/ ance. Another bad result of the present normal school courses of study, is the graduating of students before they are old enough to take charge of a school. With rare exceptions, twenty-one years of age is young enough for a teacher to take charge of school work, and twenty-two or twenty-three years of age is bet- ter. Under the present" arrangements, students can easily graduate from the normal schools at the age of nineteen or twenty. If a student were required to devote eight or nine years to elemntary school work, four years to secondary school work and two or three years to normal school work, he would be about twenty-one or twenty-two years of age when he se- cured admission to the profession of teaching. In other professions and in the business world gen- erally, very few men and women under this age se- cure positions as important as the teacher occupies when in charge of a school. In addition to other requirements, it requires considerable executive 14 EDUCATIO^^AL QUESTIONS. ability to manage properly a school, and boys and girls as a rule do not possess this ability. No better requirement should be demanded of an applicant for a high school certificate, than a uni- versity diploma of graduation, accompanied by a recommendation of the faculty stating that the ap- plicant has had the required professional training, and is otherwise qualified for making a successful teacher. It would be well, however, to restrict the scope of high school certificates to those subjects in which the applicant has specialized while attending the university. A high school teacher should not be permitted to attempt to teach subjects in the high school in which he has not had a liberal university training. There can be no valid objections offered to issuing certificates on credentials from other states, pro- vided said credentials are equivalent to those re- quired by the laws of this state. This matter of accrediting the credentials of other states, however, should receive careful attenton. It is better to err in favor of California requirements, than in favor of requirements of other states. In order to avoid the injurious results of the pres- ent method of certificating teachers, the method out- lined below is suggested, and the attention of all those who are interested in education is respectfully called to the same. 1. The State Board of Education should consist of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the President of the University of California, the President of the Stanford University, the professor EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 15 at the head of the Department of Education of each of the above named universities, and the Presidents of the State Normal Schools. 2. The State Board of Education should pre- scribe the minimum amount of work in university departments of education that would be accepted for high school certificates, and the minimum amount of university work in any subject that would be accepted for high school certificates. It should select those universities in the United States which are of equal rank with the University of Cali- fornia in so far as the requirements for granting high school certificates are concerned, and should select those normal schools in the United States which are of equal rank with the California state normal schools. It should also select those creden- tials upon which special certificates would be issued. 3. The State Board of Education should elect all the California state normal school teachers; pro- vided, that the presidents of the state normal schools have no voice in the selection of the president of said schools: the State Board of Education should pre- scribe the courses of study for the state norma? schools; provided, that no student should be per- mitted to enter a state normal school who is not a graduate of a good secondary school, or does not possess an equivalent education; and provided fur- ther, that the normal school courses of study be not less than two year courses. 4. There should be but three grades of teachers' certificates in California — high school grade, gram- 16 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. mar grade, and special certificates, all of which should be issued by the State Board of Education. 5. High school grade certificates should be issued only on diplomas of graduation from the University of California and from other universities in the United States of equal rank; and then only when the holders of said diplomas have successfully com- pleted the required amount of work in the university department of education, and are specifically recom- mended for the profession of teaching by the faculty of the university of which they are graduates; and provided further, that high school grade certificates authorize the holders to teach only those subjects in which they have had a thorough university training, and for the teaching of which they have been spe- cifically recommended by the faculty of the uni- versity of which they are graduates. G. Grammar grade certificates should be issued only on diplomas of graduation from California state normal schools and from other normal schools in the United States of equal rank. 7. Special certificates should be issued on creden- tials selected by the State Board of Education. These special certificates should authorize the hold- ers to teach some one or more of the following subjects : Music, drawing, polytechnic work, commercial work, or physical training. 8. All three grades of certificates should be valid in all the counties of the state, and should be perma- nent certificates unless revoked by the State Board EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 17 of Education for unprofessional conduct. When teaching, the holder of a certificate should be re- quired to have the same registered in the ofilce of the school superintendent of the county in which he is teaching. 9. A high school grade certificate should author- ize the holder to teach the subjects named in his cer- tificate in any of the secondary schools of the state, and should be accepted in lieu of a grammar grade certificate. 10. Grammar grade certificates should authorize the holder to teach in any of the kindergartens, and in any of the elementary schools of the state. 11. A special certificate should authorize the holder to teach the subjects named in his certificate in any of the elementary or primary schools of the state. I believe that the method of granting teachers' certificates as outlined above, while it would be a material advance over the present method, would not place the profession of teaching in California on a higher plane than it deserves. While it would re- strict the number of those who would be able to secure certificates each year, it seems reasonable to presume that the supply would continue equal to the demand. A great many who now secure certificates at county and city examinations, would continue their education through the high school and the normal school, thus increasing the number of normal school graduates, and at the same time securing much better prepared teachers. True, those who 18 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. wish to make the professon of teaching a temporary business, those who look upon it as the stepping stone to some other profession and upon children as fit subjects for experimentation, will, perhaps, offer vigorous objections to what they may be pleased to term the proposed innovations in the certification of teachers. I believe, however, that the proper educa- tion of the children who are attending the public schools is of more vital importance to the welfare of society than the success of a few individuals. Furthermore, the fact that an ambitious young man or young woman were prevented for a few years from teaching would be only a temporary check to the possible realization of his or her ambitions. One of the strong features of the proposed method of certificating teachers is placing the control and management of the educational side of the state normal schools and the issuing of teachers' certifi- cates in the hands of educators, where they right- fully belong. Not only should politics be eradicated from the control and management of the state nor- mal schools, and the granting of teachers' certifi- cates; but, if possible, it should be eradicated from the selection of teachers in all public schools. Those who are sincerely anxious to see the standard of efficiency of our teaching force raised should re- member that one of the greatest and most alarming dangers threatening the ability and qualifications of the teaching force to-day is politics. In innumer- able instances in this state at the present time the selection of a teacher depends upon his or her poli- tics. Will, or will not his selection advance the interests of this or that man for some school office? EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 1S» If the voters of this and other states do not see to it that a teacher's politics shall have nothing to do with his or her selection as a teacher, then we are in truth helpless, because men and women of ability cannot be induced to enter the profession of teach- ing if their employment is to depend upon the pre- cariousness of party politics. Any man or woman, whether republican, populist, or democrat; whether protestant, catholic, infidel, or atheist, or what not, who insists that an applicant for the position of teacher shall be questioned as to his or her politics or religion, is acting, whether he thinks so or not, in direct opposition to the best interests of our public school sj^stem. We are not agreed upon politics, we are not agreed upon religion, but our public school system is not the proper institution to advance the political or religious ideas of any man or woman. While the personality of the teacher is of para- mount importance, it cannot be certificated. Ex- perience must largely determine whether a person is naturally adapted for teaching. The requirements for teachers' certificates outlined above would, how- ever, weed out those who are plainly unfit for the prof esson of teaching. Few would be able to secure diplomas of graduation from the normal schools who did not possess qualities fairly indicative of a good teacher. The character of a student as portrayed by his daily outward life, as well as his mental ability, should be taken into consideration in the granting of diplomas on which teachers' certificates must be issued. Those whose characters plainly unfit them for teaching would very likely commit some act that would come to the attention of the 20 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. faculty of the institution which they were attending. At least, fewer undesirable characters would secure teachers' certificates under the proposed method of certificating teachers than under the present one. The moral atmosphere of the normal schools would be beneficial. Good, thorough work under teachers of ability, character and independence tends to strengthen the character of students and to impress on them the responsibility of the profession of teach- ing. The members of the normal school faculties would no longer owe their positions to politics, and this would give an upward tendency to the tone of normal school work in all its varied phases. The supervision of the normal school work, and selection of normal school teachers, would be in the hands of educators and not in the hands of politicians. While speaking of the personality of the teacher, it might be well to remind those who are advocating the extensive teaching in the elementary schools of what they are pleased to term the humane studies that the moral and humane character training which a pupil receives from his school life depends but very little on the nature of the studies which he pur- sues, but does depend to a large extent upon the character and individuality of the teacher. The actual, active, outward life, much more than the be- liefs or precepts of the teacher or the nature of the studies, is what influences the growing mind. A teacher with a strong and inspiring mental and moral individuality will leave an impress for good on the character of his pupils, no matter what sub- jects he may teach; and a teacher without these qualities will not leave an impress for good on the EDUCATIONAL QUESTION,"^. 21 character of his pupils, no matter what subjects he Diay teach. It is the individuality and character of the teacher, and not the nature of the studies, that should be taken into account when the moral and humane training of a child in the school room is under consideration. Hand in hand with the raising of the requirements for teachers' certificates there should be a united effort made, not only to check the present downward tendency of teachers' salaries, but to secure an in- crease in the teachers' compensation. The tendency to low^er teachers' salaries must be checked or it wall cripple the public schools because it strikes at the very heart of the public school system. Men and women of ability will not enter the profession of teaching if they are required to devote six or seven years of their lives after they graduate from the grammar school, in preparation, and then receive but a small compensation for their services. The vast majority of teachers teach but eight months in the year. It is almost impossible for them to obtain other employment during the other four months. Furthermore, they need several months for recreation and for improvement in their profession. Many teachers, in fact, attend a sum- mer school for one or two months each year. It makes no difference how economical a teacher may be, he will find when he begins his year's school work that he will have but little to lay aside for old age from his previous year's salary, even if he has received seventy-five dollars a month. Trustees make a vital mistake when they advocate the lowering of their teacher's salary. The children 22 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. of a district will receive more benefit from their school work if they attend school seven months in a year under a good teacher who is receiving a fair salary than if they attend for eight months under a poor teacher who is receiving a smaller salary. Better a seven month's school with an efficient teacher than an eight month's school with an ineffi- cient one. It is assumed, of course, that no teacher would underbid another in order to secure a position. Efficiency alone should invariably be the test in the employment of teachers. On the question of teachers' salaries, Henry Ward Beecher made the following remark: "There is no profession so exacting, none that breaks down so early as that of faithful teaching; and there is no economy so penurious, and no policy so intolerably mean, as that by which the custodians of public affairs screw down to the starvation point the small wages of men and women who are willing to devote their time and strength to teaching the young. In political movements thousands of dollars can be squandered, but for the teaching of the children of the people the cheapest teachers must be had, and their pay must be reduced whenever a reduction of expenses is necessary. If salaries ever should be ample, it is in the profession of school teaching. If there is one place where we ought to induce people to make their profession a life business, it is in the teaching of schools." Another condition that must be brought about in order that more men and women of ability may be induced to enter the profession of teaching is the assurance that thev will be able to retain a school EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 23 position once secured, as long as they do good, effi- cient work. So long as a teacher's position depends on the whim of a new board of trustees or on a new board of education that has some friend it wishes to accommodate, or that feels it must give away to the influential pressure brought to bear in favor of some one's else friend, so long will men and women of ability be deterred from deliberately choosing teaching as a profession. The teacher must have some assurance that he can retain a position as long as he does good work, and that he will not be com- pelled to hunt up a new position at the end of each school year. How this condition can be brought about at the present time with safety to school interests, I do not know. Greater care in the certification of teach- ers is one long step toward making this condi- tion possible. If all those who held certificates were good teachers, it would be safe to pass a law pre- venting the removal of teachers except for good cause, which cause must be duly proven. Some have suggested that the power of appointing teachers be taken away from boards of school trustees and boards of education, and given to school superin- tendents who are better qualified to judge in such matters. This would be a good and efficient plan provided school superintendents are well qualified for the duties of the position which they occupy, and will conscientiously perform their duties. This plan, however, must be pronounced unsafe until there is a high qualification required for the posi- tion of school superintendent, and the election of superintendents is removed from the domain of poli- 24 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. tics. To place the selection and removal of teachers in the hands of an upright and able superintendent, would be the best solution of the question; but the selection of the superintendent would then become a question of prime importance. The solution of the question of securing to the teacher the assurance of a permanent position as long as he does good and efficient work belongs to the future, but it must be solved before the efficiency of the public school system is placed on a secure foundation. RELATION OF THE UNIVERSITY TO THE COURSES OF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY AND SEC- ONDARY SCHOOLS.* There seems to be a growing tendency in this state to accuse those who are responsible for the present school system with having perfected a sys- tem at the expense of the school children, instead of having created a system which would assist the vast majority of boys and girls to secure the best possible preparation for their life's work, which they could reasonably expect to secure in their present circum- stances. An examination of the school system of the state, which takes into consideration the rela- tive value of many of the studies taught in the elementary and secondary schools, would seem to indicate that this accusation rests on a pretty secure foundation. The qualifications for admission to the universi- ties of the United States vary, and are determined by the authorities of each university. Formerly the faculties of the universities, in laying dovv^n the qualifications for admission, were governed, to a greater or less extent, by the qualifications of high * The discussion on this subject, with slight modification, was first issued by the author in November, 1897, under the head of • ' A Pedagogical Question. ' ' 26 EDUCATIONAL QUESTtONS. school graduates; but in recent years, the largely endowed universities of the East and the state uni- versities of the West are more and more inclined to set a standard of admission and to compel the high schools to conform to this standard. As a rule, those who have authority over the high schools lay out the high school courses with this object in view — in fact, the California state law requires them to do so. The grammar schools in turn are compelled to prescribe, or at least they do prescribe, a course of work which seems to have admission to the high school for its ultimate object. This graded system of education, extending as it does from the kindergarten to the technical schools beyond the university, is an admirable system, pro- vided the prescribed course of grammar school work which has for its main object entrance into the high school, and the prescribed course of high school work which has for its main object entrance into the university are the best courses to make good citizens of the 95 per cent, of the school children who never go beyond the high school and of the 90 per cent, who never go beyond the grammar school. But are the conditions of this proviso true? In so far as California is concerned it would seem not; and if not, then in so far as the vast majority of the school children are concerned, they exist for the public school system and it does not exist for them. The object of the public school system is to assist in the creation of good citizens and in the creation of higher and purer ideals of citizenship. It will, no doubt, be generally conceded, that a good citizen is one who, aside from the abstract knowledge which EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 27 he may obtain in the grammar school, the high schools, and the university, or by his own efforts, has, tirst, the power to make a comfortable living for himself, and in time to raise and properly sup- port a family; and second, one who is patriotic, not merely in the sense of hurrahing for the flag (which is all very good in its way), but patriotic in the sense of having an intelligent love for our institu- tions, based, as such patriotism must be, on the knowledge of their cost to the human race; and lastly, a good citizen is one who has the ability to better the economic and social conditions of society. In other words, three of the requisites of a good citi- zen consist in the power to make himself self-sup- porting, independent; in a willingness to foster our institutions; and in the ability substantially to bet- ter them when possible. In preparing a boy or a girl for citizenship the public schools are, to a greater or less extent, deficient in all of these requsites. While it will be willingly conceded that the para- mount object of education is mind training, it does not follow that so long as this is accomplished it makes little or no difference whether a student re- members much or little of what he has studied dur- ing his school life. That the school life of a boy or girl should be mostly devoted to pursuing those studies which will be of little use in after life, is not only manifestly unnecessary, but is wrong both from the standpoint of the individual and of society. Every student who completes the work in the high school should have devoted a part of his time, while in said school, to some line of work that will directly 28 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. assist him in making a living, without regard to whether or not his present circumstances indicate the necessity for so doing. Our educational system should keep this object constantly in view, and its attainment should be made as important as the logical training of the mind. Every high school should contain a good business course. The high school that does not provide facilities which will enable its students to secure a good commercial training, is not doing what it ought to do. The following, taken from an address delivered by James A. Garfield before the students of the Spencerian Business College, Washington, D. C, June 29, 1869, is directly to point: ^^But there was a reason of public policy which brought me here to-night; and it was to testify to the importance of these business colleges, and to give two or three reasons why they have been es- tablished in the United States. I wish every col- lege president in the United States could hear the first reason I proi)Ose to give. Business colleges^ my fellow-citizens, originated in this cauntry as a protest against the insufficiency of our system of education, — as a protest against the failure, the absolute failure, of our American schools and colleges to fit young men and women for the business of life. Take the great classes gradu- ated from the leading colleges of the country during this and the next month, and how many, or, rather, how few, of their members are fitted to go into the practical business of life, and transact it like sensi- ble men! These business colleges furnish their graduates with a better education for practical pur- poses than Princeton, Harvard, or Yale." EDUCATIONAL QUE8TI02<S. 29 Polytechnic work should be introduced into the high school courses of study, and pupils should be required to take up some phase of this work. Such a course would result in securing to the pupil some ability and knowledge of practical use to him in after years, and would teach him self-reliance and a respect for honest labor. On this point Professor Addicott says: ''Any earnest student of the times must see the necessity for wider knowledge, for a more varied education, for a stronger self-reliance, and for a greater power of self-help and determination than have been given by old methods of education. The inhabitants of the civilized world are increasing rapidly; competition is becoming keener and closer. There is a demand for an education that not only gives scholarship but prepares for citizenship in rela- tion to life work. We have had much trouble be- cause of workers who will not think; we may have more serious difficulty with the thinkers who will not work." In addition to the omission of manual training and polytechnic work, the secondary schools, in or- der to meet the university requirements in other sub- jects, must neglect historical and economic science. In most counties but two years are devoted to American history, and those two years are in the grammar grades and consist mainly in a mere pro- cess of memory. Except in about half a dozen secondary schools, economic science has no placo whatever in the secondary school curriculum of the state. The courses which give prominence to his- torical and economical science are not chosen by the 30 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. pupil, because other courses better meet the require- ments for admisison to the university. This defective work or rather lack of work in the secondary schools in historical and economic science is most lamentable. There is no better preparation for citizenship than a good knowledge of our politi- cal and historical institutions. A republic is safe as long as its citizens comprehend the meaning of liberty as embodied in its institutions; but to value liberty they must understand the nature and history of those institutions. The cheap politician and the demagogue will not lose their occupations until vot- ers know enough about our institutions to detect the false in their statements, and to see that their con- tentions are impractical, leading inevitably to disas- ter and ruin. When the voter is well grounded in the knowledge of the growth of our institutions, he will bring to the ballot box and force into public life generally a respect for honest labor and an intelli- gent civic virtue — ideas which he will derive from studying the lives of the men who have made our institutions what they are. A boy or girl cannot read and study the lives of such men as Jackson and Lincoln and Garfield without having his respect for labor, honesty and civic virtue increased. The boy who has for his ideal one of the great men in our history will be very apt, when he becomes a man, to spurn as an insult to his manhood the attempt of a corporation or a politician to control his vote. We should constantly direct the young mind to the lives of the men who have made this nation what it is ; to keep alive the old spirit of true Americanism — the spirit that respects honest labor and civic virtue. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 31 and detests snobbishness of all kinds. The great men of our nation have risen from the lower ranEs and they will continue to do so, because it takes opposition and struggle to bring out the best there is in a man. It will be a regretable and dangerous condition for this nation if ever our boys and our girls do not admire and honor the Lincoln who studied by the light of the fireplace, the Garfield who towed the canal boat, and the Jackson who worked for a daily wage. One phase of the social question would seem to demand for its intelligent solution some specific knowledge of economic and social science. This question in its narrowest form is the socialization of public monopolies and the suppression of trusts. That this question of socialism is a present political issue, cannot be denied; that it will yearly become of more importance, and press for a final solution, is to be expected. Whatever our personal opinions upon these social and economic questions may be, we must all agree that one of the most important duties of our public school system is to prepare the citizen for their intelligent consideration, for upon their rightful solution may depend the future of this republic. This preparation for citizenship can be accomplished, at least to some extent, by having the student pursue a course in economic and social science in the secondary schools. Good text books have been especially prepared for this work in the secondary schools, and there is no longer excuse for its neglect. If manual training, polytechnic work, and better courses in historical and economic science were 32 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. added to the curricula of secondary schools, and foreign languages and some of the higher mathe- matics, now taught, were omitted, the number of pupils in these schools would soon be largely in- creased. At the present time, when you ask the father and mother to send their boy or girl to^ the high school, you are often met by the remark that they do not see that their child will receive much benefit from the studies taught there. We cannot but admit that we always feel ourselves at a dis- advantage when called upon to answer this question. We try to explain that the value lies in the mental training that they receive. This is all very true, as far as it goes, but the father and mother demand, and justly, that the four years devoted to the high school work should be of more practical benefit to their child. Once convince parents that the high school work tends directly to qualify their child for the practical duties of life, and it is more than prob- able that within a few years the high schools will be thronged with students. There are university professors, of course, who will object to this proposed change in the high school work as an innovation calculated to dis- arrange the present connection between high schools and the university. It might be well to remind these professors that the elementary and secondary schools are supported by the taxpayers for the pur- pose of preparing the 95 per cent, of boys and girls who never go beyond the high school for the actual duties of life, and not for the purpose of preparing less than 5 per cent, for admission to the university. But there is no real conflict between practical EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 33 work in the high school, and preparation for uni- versity work. It is an imaginary conflict, having its birth in the false ideas of university authorities. University authorities maintain that high school graduates should have acquired a certain amount of knowledge of certain subjects, whereas the prime qualification that should be demanded of an appli- cant for admission to the university is mental power to do work required. In the Languages and Sciences, university work should begin at the bot- tom^ leaving the high school free to arrange a course of study that would be complete within itself and that would best prepare for their life's work the vast majority of high school students who never enter a university. Under the present system high school students are required to take the beginning of a number of subjects, which they cannot pursue far, and the smattering knowledge of which they cannot use. All grammar school courses and all high school courses should lead to complete and definite results. The vast majority of tax-payers whose y. children never enter a university have a right to de-X mand this, and the power of the university authori- ties to deny it should be abolished. To take from the university the power to dictate courses of study for the high school means not to abolish the present system of accrediting high schools, but to shift the basis upon which high schools are accredited. Instead of requiring a cer- tain amount of work in certain subjects, the uni- versities will send their professors into the high schools of the state to examine the work being done, and to decide whether said work is a sufficient 34 EDUGATIOI^^AL QUESTIONS. mental preparation for university work. If any- thing, this method would be an added stimulus for thorough work in the high school, though said work would be directed along more practical lines. There need be no lack of system between the kindergarten and the technical schools beyond the university, but that system should not sacrifice the interests of at least 95 per cent, of the school chil- dren of the state in order to prepare the few for ad- mission to the university. The best possible prepa- ration for life's work that the grammar school can give ought to be good preparation for high school work; and the best possible preparation for life's work that the high school can give ought to be good preparation for university work. If this be not true, the conditions for admission to the high school, and the conditions for admission to the university, ought to be changed. As a matter of fact, the mental dis- cipline derived from thorough work in the grammar school and from thorough work in the high school is the best preparation for university work. The power to reason and think logically, and the ability to express thoughts, orally or in writing, with force and clearness are the requisites that the university should require of all applicants for admission and not a smattering knowledge of the beginnings of some of the subjects taught in the university. COURSES OF STUDY IN THE ELEMEN TARY SCHOOLS.* Perhaps the most serious question which is pressing for a solution in connection with element- ary school work, is the congested course of study. Those who are making a close study of the ques- tion of grammar school ^'scattering" are being forced to the conclusion that there has been in the past and is at the present time a strong and unwise tendency toward crowding too many subjects into the gram- mar course of study. The result of this policy has been hopelessly to cripple the efficiency of grammar school work — it has made thoroughness in any sub- ject impossible. In treating this subject, it will, perhaps, add some- thing of clearness to separate it into three general divisions: First, Cause of Overcrowding; Second, Injurious Results; Third, The Remedy. I. CAUSE OF OVERCROWDING. For the present, at least, we shall assume the overcrowding, which is, indeed, self-evident, and pass at once to the consideration of the cause. *(Note: The course of study herein outlined was first published by the author in February, 1898, under the head of " Our Grammar School Curriculum." It was adopted by the Kern County Board of Education July 27th, 1899; is now In effect in this county, and is producing- most excellent re- sults.) 36 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. The overcrowding of our grammar school curri- culum is largely due to university and academic pro- fessors. They have devoted most of their time to the study and teaching of some special subject. They have specialized and therefore have become specialists. When one becomes a specialist, he usually unduly emphasizes his specialty, uncon- sciously making other subjects, other lines of activ- ity, assume a position subordinate. His special subject becomes the central one around which the others group themselves, and for which they exist. The mathematician becomes thoroughly convinced that mathematics is the best mental drill and that therefore the study of mathematics is the best prep- aration for life's work; the naturalist tells us that the study of nature is one of the most essential fac- tors in education, and therefore, that every boy and girl should be compelled to devote more time to the study of nature than at present; the professor of English is certain that the one great defect in our educational system is the failure to give to the study of English the importance which it deserves; while the professor of the dead languages would rather have his student alive to Greek and Latin even though dead to the sciences, whether economic, me- chanical, political, social or natural. If the specialist would restrict his efforts to mak- ing the department over which he presides as strong as possible, he would not directly afCect our gram- mar school curriculum. But being a sincere and withal a zealous man, and believing the best inter- ests of education demand that his special subject be given a more important place in the grammar and EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 37 high school curricula, he writes for the educational journals, he goes to the state normals, the state teachers' association, the county teachers' institutes, and to the county and city boards of education, and everywhere urges, in season and out of season, the pressing need and manifold advantage of greater devotion to his special subject. Being a man who holds an important position in the educational world, and one who thoroughly understands his subject, and one who is therefore able to present it in the best possible light, he makes converts not only among teachers, but among members of the county and city boards of education. The result is our present inefficient and overcrowded grammar grade course. It is interesting to observe how far some of these specialists will go when recommending changes in our grammar grade courses which they deem neces- sary and desirable from the standpoint of their spe- cial subjects. In July, 1892, at Saratoga, New York, the Na- tional Educational Association appointed a commit- tee consisting of ten members — afterwards known as the "Committee of Ten" — to formulate some plan that would bring about "uniformity in school pro grams and requirements for admission to college.'' This committee selected a sub-committee of ten for each principal subject taught in our grammar and high schools — as, for example, history, mathematics, science, etc. Of course, each member of these sub- committees was a specialist in the subject assigned him. One of the duties of each of these committees was to decide how much of the student's time in the 38 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. grammar school, and the high school, should be de- voted to the subject which that special committee had under consideration. Some of the recommenda- tions for the grammar grade work were as follows: The committee on mathematics recommended that concrete geometry and algebra be taught in the grammar grades; the one on political science, that one-eighth of the grammar school work should be devoted to that subject; the one on natural history, that one hour per week throughout the entire gram- mar school course should be devoted to natural his- tory; the one on physics and chemistry, that one period per day should be devoted to those subjects; the one on Latin, that the grammar school work should be made one year shorter so as to have one year more for Latin in the high school; and the committee on French and German has the following to say: "In the grammar grades we recommend that during the first year five recitation periods per week be given to the modern languages; during the second, at least four; and during each of the other two years, at least three." Needless to say, no city or county board of educa- tion has ever carried out all of the above recom- mendations, but some have carried them out to such an extent as to make the grammar school work a burden both to the teacher and to the pupil. Specialization is a good thing. No one will ques- tion that it is better to do one thing well than to half do a number of things. But when the specialist asks the grammar grade pupil to specialize along a number of lines at the same time — when it is ex- pected that he be a "universal specialist*' — that is EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. ^ 39 simply asking the impossible. I, for one, think it is time to turn a deaf ear to the advocates of further extension, and to revert, at least to some extent, to the sturdier though simpler ways of our forefathers. II. INJURIOUS RESULTS. At the present time in California, there are very few grammar school graduates who have a definite and thorough knowledge of any subject. This state- ment is a very severe indictment to prefer against our much lauded grammar school system and will, no doubt, meet with a ready challenge. Recogniz- ing the seriousness of the charge, I have hesitated to make it, and have been constrained to do so only after an extensive correspondence and consultation with the leading educators of this state. With scarcely an exception, these instructors declare that the large majority of the grammar school graduates have no clear, definite, or logical knowledge of the subjects which they have studied, but are often nothing more than mere machines. If any one is disposed to question the correctness of the above statement let him examine a class which has just been graduated from the grammar schools of this state. Any one that will take the trouble to do this will not be long in discovering that the average grammar school graduate is unable to analyze and correctly interpret a simple piece of English literature, to trace logically the growth of a single one of our institutions, to give a clear state- ment of the causes of any of the wars of the United States, or to explain what the duties and responsi- bilities of American citizenship mean. He will dis- 40 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. cover, moreover, that the average grammar school graduate's knowledge of his mother tongue consists in his ability to name and parse the different parts of speech and to rattle off rules, and that it does not consist in the ability to talk correctly or to reduce correctly his thoughts to writing — the tv/o sole ob- jects for which grammar is supposed to be studied. He will discover, also, that but very few of those whom he examines will be able to demonstrate that they understand the fundamental principles of mul- tiplication, division, fractions, percentage, or any of the most fundamental operations of mathematics. Most of those examined may, and probably will, be able to solve some problems similar to those which they have been accustomed to solving. A recently invented machine can do as much. But our gram- mar schools should not be machine shops; they should be imparting to the boys and girls the power and strength of mind to reason and think for them- selves, and the logical and penetrating knowledge of those subjects, institutions and principles which they must understand if they are to grapple success- fully with the new and unsolved problems which the future is sure to hold in store for them. Another Dad result of the overcrowded grammar school curriculum is its effect upon the teacher. In all the primary and grammar schools where only one or two teachers are employed, it is possible to give only a few moments to a recitation, and hence there is no time for proper explanation or elucidation of the subject in hand. This is fatal to good work, be- cause one of the most valuable functions of a teacher lies in his ability to explain and reveal the funda- EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 41 mental principles underlying the subject which he is seeking to teach. It is this thoroughness and ear- nestness of explanation on the part of the teacher that incites in the student a love for his work, makes his school life a pleasure rather than a drudgery, and implants in him an enthusiasm for study and in- vestigation that often changes, for the better, the whole current of his life. '^Blessed is the man," says Emerson, "who has a bias for some pursuit, which finds him in happiness and employment." And, surely, we may add, blessed is that school where enthusiasm holds sway. Per- haps there is no more beautiful word in the English language than the word enthusiasm, which, coming to us from the Greeks, means literally, a God within ; all reverence to the teacher or the system which shall turn the devotions of the young and active minds to the fostering worship of the "God Within." Any teacher that has the time and ability to create in his pupils an enthusiasm for their work will have very little trouble with discipline. To deprive the teacher of the proper time for this is one of the most detrimental results of the overcrowded grammar school curriculum, and means that the enthusiasm which comes from a task well done is to be an un- known experience among our students. While unqualified teachers are, to some extent, responsible for the defective results of the grammar school work, the present character of the grammar school curriculum itself is the major cause. The average curriculum in this state prescribes from six to eight subjects for all the grammar grades. The pupil is requested, or at least expected, to prepare 42 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. the requirements of a daily recitation in all of these subjects. His work for a given day will, or may, be somewhat as follows : In Arithmetic, explanation of the principles of cube root; in geometry, prove the following theorem : "Two triangles are equal, if two sides and the included angle of one are equal, re- spectively, to two sides and the included angle of the other;" in reading, several pages from the "Lady of the Lake;'- in grammar, conjugation of some verb or the writing of an essay; in physiology, anatomy of the eye; in civil government, qualification and elec- tion of senators and representatives: in book-keep- ing, copying of some exercise into the day-book. The above is the average amount of work that a pupil is supposed to accomplish in one day. That he does not accomplish this work properly goes without say- ing. If he has done any part of it well, he must have neglected some other part; or, if he has attempted to do it all, has done none well. In other words, he is requested to do something that he cannot do. The high school student is supposed to carry, on an average, four subjects, and the university student three; but the grammar school student, for some un- known reason, is supposed to be able to study and develop at the same time, eight separate and distinct lines of work. There is not one mature man or woman in ten who would be able to accomplish any- thing definite or valuable if he or she attempted to work along eight new and independent lines at the same time. We ought not to expect more mental work from boys and girls under fifteen than we do from them after they have become men and women. If we are determined to be so unreasonable as to do EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 43 SO, we must be satisfied with the inaccurate, super- ficial and smattering knowledge which our gram- mar school graduates possess of the subjects which they deem they have studied. III. THE REMEDY. The natural and only way to remedy the evil re- sults of our overcrowded elementary school course of study is to omit altogether some of the subjects taught, shorten some, and rearrange others. In con- sidering the remedy, each subject will be taken up separately, the changes which seem necessary in order to make the elementary school course of study a practical and useful one, will bft stated and some of the reasons which would seem to justify said change will be discussed. LANQUAGE.* The first thing for a child to do is to learn to read and to read well. Reading well does not mean the mere calling of words, but the power to analyze and to understand what is read. The mere ability to call off words, to raise at intervals the eyes from the book, and to employ elocutionary or stage methods of any kind, is not reading. In fact, in so far as the reader or public speaker attracts the attention of his audience to his manner of delivery, in so far he fails as a reader or a speaker. We no longer try to sway men by emotion, but by reason. The pupil * (Language as here used includes all the reading, compo- sition and grammar in the primary and grammer grades.) 44 ED VGA TIONAL Q UES T/OA^Sf. should be taught to make clear the meaning of what he is reading, and this he cannot do unless he can explain the meaning of each word and each sentence. If he does understand what he is reading, he will read it so that those who hear him will also get the meaning. More attention should be directed to thought reading, and less attention to form reading. The teacher should not permit the pupil to take up an advance lesson in reading until he can explain the meaning of each word and each sentence in the lesson under discussion. Better understand one reading lesson per week, than to half understand a dozen. From an educational standpoint the mental discipline derived from a thorough mastery ol tne reading lesson is almost invaluable. The number of lessons which a pupil reads is of very little import- ance to him, but the power to understand, to analyze what he reads is of vital importance. Without the pov/er to get from the written page the meaning of the writer, a pupil cannot make any real advance- ment along any line of study. This being true, it follows that the first few years of a child's school life should be devoted largely to learning how to read, and reading should be made a more important part of all the elementary school work. To the pupil the ability to get from the written page the meaning of the writer is the most valuable result that he will obtain from the time devoted to reading, because it represents the power he has gained. The subject matter, however, can be made of great value to him. During the last few years it has become a fad to have the reading matter in our grammar school consist of myths, fairy stories and EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 45 a description of the animal and plant world. This is all very good and most of it is instructive; but is there not something better? The history of man is a record of what he has done in all his various lines of activity, and, aside from the power to do, a knowl- edge of that record is one of the most valuable things that a man or woman can possess. The study of history is a direct study of that record, and why not have the major part of the subject matter of the reading in the grammar school instructive in itself? Nothing is more fascinating to the child- mind than a simple story of what a great man has done. And in such a story the outline of ten years of a nation's history may often be skillfully inter- woven. The reading matter of the fourth, fifth and sixth years should be largely geographical and his- torical, thus laying the foundation for the formal study of history and geography in the seventh and eighth years, and thus securing a common sense unity of purpose to all the pupil's efforts. In the seventh and eighth years the best literature should be studied, and these two years of work should cre- ate in the pupil a love of literature for literature's sake. The ability of the pupil to get from the written page the meaning of the writer is, perhaps, the most valuable result that he will obtain from all his ele- mentary school work, because it secures to him the power to study and investigate the best that has been produced along any line of human activity. The ability to express his thoughts orally and in writing with force and clearness stands next in importance, because it gives him the power to make a practical 46 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. use of what he may have obtained from the written page, from experience, and from independent inves- tigation. To enable the pupil thus to express his thoughts orally and in writing with force and clearness is the main object of the study of grammar, and the best way to accomplish this is by practice in composition work. That practice should go hand in hand with the work in reading, because the ability of the pupil to express his own thoughts correctly and his ability to interpret another's are closely related and should be acquired together. The graduates of the elementary schools, however, will not have learned to speak and write the English language even moderately well until the present method of teaching grammar is fundamentally changed. In the public schools to-day there is a large amount of time wasted on the study of tech- nical grammar. The analytical part of grammar — that part which deals with the mechanical dissec- tion of phrases, clauses, and sentences — should be entirely omitted. Under this head will come the de- fining of phrases, clauses and sentences as to form and meaning; the analysis and diagraming of sen- tences; the parsing of the different parts of speech; declension of pronouns, and the committing of the various rules of grammar. Particular attention should be devoted to the synthetic or constructive part of grammar. Under this head will come capitalization, punctuation, verbs, pronouns, modifiers, possessives, plurals, and paragraphing. This part of grammar should be taught entirely in connection with the composition EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 47 work. When a pupil in his composition work makes a mistake, the teacher should call his attention and the attention of the class to that fact. If the mis- take involves some general rule, carefully explain that rule. Teachers who cordially carry out this method of teaching grammar will soon find that their pupils will be able to place their thoughts clearly and distinctly on paper — something that eight-ninths of the high school graduates to-day are not able to do. The fact that the main object of the study of grammar is to enable the pupil to express his thoughts orally and in writing, with force and clearness, should be kept constantly in mind. The naming and the parsing of the different parts of speech, the declension of pronouns, the conjuga- tion of verbs and the committing of the various rules of grammar do very little toward teaching the pupil to speak and write the English language correctly. As a matter of fact a man's or woman's ability to use the English language correctly has been ac- quired almost entirely by practice and not from the study of technical grammar. If more time were de- voted to composition and essay work and less to technical grammar, perhaps the majority of those who enter our universities would not fail in their entrance examination in English. It is the ability to do, that is of the greatest value to the pupil. The time devoted to the allied subjects of read- ing, composition and grammar should be much greater than at present. They should receive two- thirds of the pupil's time during the first and second years, one-half during the third and fourth years, and one-fourth during the fifth, sixth, seventh and 48 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. eighth years. Experience is proving that the fol- lowing arrangement of time and subject matter will secure good results from the time devoted to the study of Language: First Year. Pupils should read twice each day, and during the last two months should recite each day on their written work. The reading matter should be care- fully selected. Second Year. Pupils should read twice each day, and recite once each day on their written work. The reading mat- ter should be carefully selected. Third Year. Pupils should read once each day, and should re- cite once each day on their composition work. The reading matter should be carefully selected. Fourth Year. Pupils should read once each day, and should re- cite once each day on their composition work. The reading matter should be carefully selected and should contain one historical reader as, "Stories of Colonial Children.'^ Fifth Year. Pupils should read three times each week and should recite twice each w^eek on the composition EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 49 work. The reading matter should be carefully se- lected and should contain one historical reader — one dealing with Pacific Coast historj^ stories should, perhaps, be preferred. Sixth Year. Pupils should read three times each week, and should recite twice each week on the composition work. The reading matter should be carefully se- lected and should contain one historical reader — as "A First Book in American History." Seventh and Eighth Years. Pupils should read three times each week, and should recite twice each week on their composition work. The reading matter should be carefully se- lected. '^Evangeline," and one or two selections from the "Sketch Book" would make good material for the seventh year, and "The Ladv^f the Lake" for the eighth year. Quality and^jquflitity of work should be considered. * AKITHMETIC. There is, perhaps, no subject taught in the gram- mar school from which so little is derived when compared with its possibilities, as in the subject of arithmetic. The value to the individual of a logical and thorough knowledge of the principles underly- ing the fundamental operations of arithmetic is al- *Note: For a discussion on the teaching of composition and grammar see " Grammar by the Inductive Method, "p; 71^ 50 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. most invaluable. They form the basis of the mathe- matical calculations which are used in every day life, and they are the basis of all higher mathemat- ics. But, notwithstanding the importance of a thorough knowledge of these fundamental princi- ples, they are sacrificed in the attempt to cover too many arithmetical subjects. If the grammar school pupil would omit those subjects of arithmetic which are to him of compara- tively little value, and thoroughly master addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, common and decimal fractions, the practical part of compound numbers, percentage, with its practical applications, and the practical part of mensuration, he would ac- quire something really valuable and practical from his study of arithmetic; and thoroughness in those subjects would give him a far better mental drill than the half-mastery of what he is compelled to study at the present time. There is an ancestral sacredness about arithmetic that makes it very hard to eliminate any part of it from the grammar school work. The average man believes that all the subjects taught in arithmetic are equally valuable and good. In the actual duties of life, however, very few ever find it necessary to extract the square or cube root of a number; to cal- culate the latitude or longitude of a place; to use continued fractions or circulating decimals; to use half of the weights and measures they have learned in school; to find out the relative value of stocks and bonds; to use their knowledge of general average, discount, domestic and foreign exchange, and equa- tion of payments. This being true, it would seem to EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 51 follow that this ancestral sacredness has a rather insecure foundation. However this may be, those in authority who wish to eliminate the unnecessary and impractical parts of arithmetic must do so in the face of public opinion, and in this connection it is encouraging to note that some of the county boards of education in this state have the courage of their convictions. xlnother reason why the results derived from the study of arithmetic are not what they should be is lack of oral analysis at the blackboard. Teachers, as a rule, are inclined to accept, as final, the written solutions of problems which pupils hand in. The re- sults from this method of teaching arithmetic will prove unsatisfactory. When a new subject is taken up by a class, the teacher should occupy the time of the first recitation in explaining the new principles involved, and usually it is best to do this by use of the blackboard. After the principles have been ex- plained to the class, then assign examples for a reci- tation. A pupil should not be permitted to begin the solution of examples in an ordinary recitation until the teacher is convinced that said pupil can pass to the board and solve all the problems in the recitation under discussion, and give a clear and logical explanation of every step in his solution. Better solve and understand one example a week than merely solve half a dozen. It is not enough for a pupil to know that before fractions can be added or subtracted, they must be reduced to a common de- nominator; he should be able to explain why they must be reduced to a common denominator; it is not enough for him to know that in reducing fractions 52 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. to a common denominator he must multiply each term of a fraction by the same number; he should understand why he must multiply each term by the same number; it is not enough for a pupil to know that the circumference of a circle multiplied by one half the radius will give the area of the circle, he should be able to begin with the square and develop the rule and show why it is true. Instead of requir- ing the pupil to memorize rules and apply the same to the solution of certain problems, teach him to de- velop and make those rules. This process may be slow, but its value to the pupiT cannot be questioned. In arithmetic, more than in any other subject, teach the pupil to think and not merely to memorize. The teaching of arithmetic should begin with the third year and end with the eighth. Pupils in the first and second years might be taught to count so as to be able to give the number of the pages in their books, but combination work of any kind should not be attempted. The young mind is not phychologi- cally adapted to mathematics and the time devoted to arithmetic in the lower primary grades is practi- cally wasted. Better devote this time to writing, spelling and language work, — work for which the young mind is naturally adapted. The subject of fractions is one of the most diffi- cult subjects in arithmetic, and its formal study should not be attempted before the sixth year. The teacher should have his pupils understand each step, and the fundamental principle involved, before he passes to another, and each pupil should be able to make a fairly complex application of the same. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 53 HISTORY. One of the most valuable preparations for citizen- ship that a boy or girl can obtain from grammar school work is an intelligent understanding of our political and historical institutions. It is the foun- dation of all true patriotism. Patriotism based upon spasmodic hurrahing for the flag, and upon Fourth of July orations, does not embody the ele- ments of an enduring patriotism. The splendid bravery and heroism of both the northern and the southern soldier during the late civil war rest upon the fact that he was battling for his convictions, and only the enlightened have any real convictions. Each knew, or at least he thought he knew, the value to him of the institutions for which he was fighting, and he believed that he was right. The moral value of this kind of training is invaluable. ^* I would rather," said Dr. Howard, '' from a moral and patriotic standpoint, have a child of mine well grounded in the knowledge of the growth of our institutions, in the mechanism of political parties, and the value of the ballot, than to have moral pre- cepts preached to him all his life." Notwithstanding the importance of this subject, there is, perhaps, no other subject in our grammar school so conspicuously neglected as the subject of political science. One cause for this is — lack of a good text book. It is an outrage that the grammar school pupils of this state are compelled to use such an abominable.text book as the State Series History. County boards of education are justified in resorting to any subterfuge that will result in its practical abolition from the schools of their county. Any 54 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. school is justified in using some good supplementary book to the practical exclusion of the State Series History. Another cause that history is so poorly taught in our grammar schools is lack of teachers who have been adequately trained in historical science. The average teacher, however well he may be prepared to teach other subjects, is not well prepared to teach history because he has never had a chance to become well prepared. No teacher ought to teach history who has not carefully studied " Epochs of American History," by Hart, Thwaites and Wilson, in three volumes, and ^' History of the United States." bv Schouler, in five volumes, or some work equivalent to these. History, as taught by most teachers, is a mere process of memory, and consists in the stating of dates, and the relating of the events of wars, ad- ministrations, settlements — the mere skeleton of history. The history of a nation or of an institution is a growth and should be studied as such. The study of cause and effect should be substituted for the memorizing of dates and events. Until the schools in which teachers are trained give to politi- cal science the position which its importance de- mands, the teaching of history and civil government in the elementary schools must remain unsatisfac- tory. History, in conjunction with civil government, should receive at least one-fourth of the pupil's time in the seventh and eighth years. A foundation for this work should have been laid in the reading of historical sketches in the fourth, fifth and sixth years as part of the reading course. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 55 The work in the seventh year should include the history of the United States to Washington's first administration. It should embrace a brief study of the conditions favorable to the discovery of Amer- ica; a study of the period of discovery, exploration and permanent settlement in North America; a study of the Colonial period, and a sketch of the Revolution. At the close of the year's work pupils should be able to write intelligently upon such ques- tions as the following: 1. Discuss the conditions favorable to the discov- ery of America. 2. Briefly outline the political history of the En- glish, French, Dutch and Spanish colonies in North America down to the time of the Revolution. 3. In an essay of not less than five hundred words discuss the causes and results of the French and Indian War. 4. Discuss the causes which changed the English colonists from loyal subjects of the British Crown to a state of open rebellion. 5. Briefly outline the campaigns of the Revolu- tion. 6. Discuss the social, economic and intellectual life of the New England, the Middle and the South- ern Colonies at the close of the French and Indian War. 7. Discuss the social, economic and intellectual life of the New England, the Middle and the South- ern colonies at the beginning of the Revolution. 56 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 8. Discuss the events which made necessary the calling of the Constitutional Convention. 9. Discuss the three great compromises of the Convention. 10. In an essay of not less than five hundred words discuss the executive, judicial and legislative departments of the National Government. 11. Compare the three departments of the Na- tional Government with the three departments of the State Government. The eighth year's work in history should include the history of the United States from Washington's first inauguration to the present time. At the end of this year's work pupils should be able to write intelligently on such subjects as the following: 1. Discuss the struggle for neutral rights. 2. In an essay of not less than five hundred words discuss the causes and results of the war of 1812. 3. Discuss (a) Washington's idea of a republican form of government, (b) Jefferson's idea of a re- publican form of government. 4. Discuss Hamilton's financial scheme. 5. Discuss the origin of the " Spoils System." 6. In an essay of not less than one thousand words discuss the rise of the slave power in the United States. 7. Discuss the social, economic and intellectual conditions of the United States in 1840 and in 1860. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 57 8. Discuss the causes which brought about the difference in the social and economic conditions of the North and South before the Civil War. The subjects and questions above indicate what would constitute the work in history. Particular stress should be laid on the social, economic and in- tellectual life of a nation, and the growth of our in- stitutions. A careful study of the Constitution of the United States and a comparison of the depart- ments of the national government with those of the state governments should constitute the work in Civil Government. The Constitution of the United States should be studied at the close of the study on the Constitutional Convention. GEOGRAPHY. Geography, as taught at present in our grammar schools, is badly taught indeed. The teacher is not so much to blame for this as the text-book writers, who seem to think that the principal object for studying geography is to memorize names. Great stress should be placed upon the necessity of learn- ing the names of the more important rivers, cities, mountains, etc., because every person should be able to locate the more important places referred to in his reading. Entirely too much time, however, is wasted in memorizing the names of unimportant rivers, towns, bays, etc. Half of the names which a student learns from his geography he never hears of after he has left the grammar school. The study of geography as a separate study should be restricted entirely to the seventh and eighth years. A text book on geography should not be 58 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. placed in the hands of the pupil until the seventh year, and a recitation period should not be provided for this subject before that time. The study of geography, however, in connection with the reading course, and as a part of the busy work should begin with the third year. Good plain maps should al- ways be available and convenient, and every geo- graphical reference in connection with the pupil's work should be pointed out, and he should be re- quired to note the same carefully. Fourth year pu- pils, as part of their busy work, should be required to draw maps of California, locating the principal rivers, valleys, mountain ranges, bays and cities, and to name the counties and indicate approximately in what part of the State each is located. They should practice drawing these maps, until they can draw without reference to a book. Fifth year pupils, as part of their busy work, should practice drawing maps of the United States until they can draw with- out reference to a book, and locate on the same the principal rivers, valleys, mountain systems, and cities, and name the states and territories and indi- cate approximately in what part of the United States each is located. Sixth year pupils, as part of their busy work, should learn to draw, without refer- ence to a book, a map of each continent, locating the principal rivers, valleys, mountain systems, nations and cities. The pupil in the lower grades is usually compelled to devote most of the time which he has given to this subject, to a more or less detailed study of the geography of California, and to some extent of the United States. This is rather an unsatisfactory EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 59 preparation for the study of geography in the seventh and eighth years. When a pupil begins his seventh year's work he should have fixed in his mind the name and location of all the continents and oceans, and of all the larger valleys, rivers, moun- tains, nations and cities. By the method outlined above this knowledge may unconsciously be ac- quired by the pupil without taking up much of his time, or the time of the teacher. The work of the two years devoted to a formal study of this subject should consist mainly in the study of the people, their occupations, the products of the countries, their exports and imports, modes of communication, climate and soil. In other words, speaking broadly, the work in geography should consist mainly in the study of the habits and life of the people as they are affected by the physical conditions of the country in which they live, the object being not to fill the mind with a num- ber of isolated facts soon to be forgotten, but to give the pupil a philosophical understanding of the phy- sical relations of a country to its people, and what those conditions are in any given country, making the learning of the names of the more important rivers, cities, etc., incidental to this main object. SPELLING. For some reason the graduates of the public schools to-day are not as good spellers as were the graduates of the public schools thirty and forty years ago. The cause of this is the discarding of the text book and the combining of the spelling with Ihe other work. The reasons which make the com- 60 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. bination of reading and grammar desirable do not obtain in spelling. Spelling is the multiplication table of our written language, and must, aside from a few helpful rules, be learned bj rote. In theory the combination of spelling with the other work may be all right, but in practice the average teacher will obtain much better results if he will use some good text book, and insist on thorough work and drilling. In spelling, the old way is the shortest after all. It is customary in some of the counties of the state for the teacher to write the spelling on the black- board, and have the pupils copy it. This not only takes up the time of the teacher, but the young pupil will often make a mistake in copying, and the result is unsatisfactory. Every person should be able to spell correctly all the words which he may have oc- casion to use in ordinary conversation and writing. As a matter of fact a great many of the words used in our exercises of to-day are technical, and seldom used in every day life. The time which is devoted to this work should be concentrated on common words. In addition to thorough work in the speller, the teacher should give the pupil to understand that he will be held responsible for the correct spelling, meaning the pronunciation of all words which he finds in his text-books, and those used in his written work. Especially should this be insisted upon in the advanced grades. The pupil who acquires the habit of learning the correct spelling and exact meaning of all the words he uses will soon possess a large and invaluable vocabulary. The pupil studies word-analysis and spelling for the purpose of ac- EDUCATIONAL QUESTION 1^. 61 quiring a good vocabulary, and hence he should not be asked to devote much of his time to technical words that will contribute but little toward that end. Very little time should be devoted to word analy- sis and diacritical marks, and no time should be wasted in any subject by compelling pupils to take certain words and use them in the construction of a sentence. All the time that the pupil can devote to this subject should be devoted to learning how to spell words, and not wasted in attempting to fill out blank spaces in sentences. Composition work will teach the pupil the proper application and use of words. Spelling as a separate subject should end with the sixth year, but during the seventh and eighth years pupils should be required to spell correctly all the words used in their wTitten work. WRITING. Writing with pen and ink should begin with the first year and should receive careful attention throughout the entire grammar school course. No regular set exercises need be insisted upon after the sixth year, but neatness in the written work should always be made a prime condition. Let the pupil once understand that all his written work must be neat, and represent his best penmanship, and he will soon develop a neat, legible hand and a res})e(^t for order and system. €2 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. PHYSIOLOGY. No more time should be devoted to the study of physiology in the grammar school than will be nec- essary to teach the pupils some of the more general laws of health. The study of anatomy and physi- ology proper belong to the university and medical college, and not to the grammar and the high school. Every grammar school graduate, however, should understand the following: 1. Value of pure air. 2. Value of proper exercise. 3. Why bathing is conducive to health. 4. Proper care of the eye. 5. Selection and eating of food. 6. Intemperance. Some knowledge of physiology is necessary to un- derstand these general laws of health. This knowl- edge should be obtained by the pupil not through the use of text-books, but through lectures and talks on the part of the teacher. One lecture period of twenty or thirty minutes per week is sufficient for this work, and Friday afternoon is suggested as the best time. Unless the teacher has special reasons for doing otherv/ise, he should give these talks be- fore the entire school. The advanced pupils should be required to keep note books for this subject, and, when the teacher deems it necessary, should be re- quired to recite on the work covered by past lec- tures. When these lectures are given, some recita- tion period of the regular work should be omitted. The teacher should not devote any more time to this EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 63 work than is necessary to teach the pupil some of the more important laws of health. The teacher should take particular pains to im- press upon all his pupils the bad results which fol- low intemperance, but he should not forget that in- temperance in alcoholic drinks and in the use of narcotics is not the only kind of intemperance. In- temperance in eating, in pleasure and in exercise, is also injurious to the human system, though not to such an extent as excess in the use of alcoholic drinks and narcotics. In other words, the pupil has derived the most benefit from this study when he has learned that the violation of a natural law brings its natural punishment, and has learned what some of these most important laws are. BOOKKEEPING. The grammar school cannot hope to graduate pu- pils who are qualified to enter an office and keep a set of books. That training should be obtained in the Commercial Course of the high school, or in a business college. The amount of work in the grammar school in this subject should be restricted to teaching the pupils how to keep a debit and credit account, which is all that is necessary for the ordinary business of life. The pupil must be taught how to keep a debit and credit account in connection with his work in arith- metic, when the subject of accounts is reached. DRAWING. To the average man and woman the value of drawing as a permanent acquisition is not great. 64 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. Drawing, however, trains the hand and the eye, and is a source of great pleasure to the young child. For this reason it should constitute part of the busy work in the lower primary grades, but should not be allowed to encroach in the least upon other work. It should be used as a means to rest and divert the little children. The course of study for elementary schools, out- lined above is as follows: First Year. Language (Reading twice each day; during the last two months recitation on written work once each day.) Spelling. Writing. Busy work — pictorial drawing. Second Year. Language (Reading twice each day; recitation on written work once each day.) Spelling. Writing. Busy work — pictorial drawing. Third Year. Language (Reading once each day; recitation on composition once each day.) Spelling. Writing. Arithmetic. Busy work — pictorial drawing. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 65 Fourth Year. Language (Reading once each day; recitation on composition once each day.) Spelling. Writing. Arithmetic. Busy work — map drawing. Fifth Year. Language (Reading three times each week; reci- tation on composition twice each week.) Spelling. Writing. Arithmetic. Busy work — map drawing. Sixth Year. Language (Reading three times each week; reci- tation on composition twice each week.) Spelling. Writing. Arithmetic. Busy work — map drawing. Seventh Year. English (Reading three times each week; recita- tion on composition twice each week.) Arithmetic. History. Geography. 66 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. Eighth Year. English (Reading three times each week; recita- tion on composition twice each week.) Arithmetic. History. Geography. With the exception of the recitation on composi- tion during the third and fourth years, this course of study contains four subjects for each school year. This result has been secured by omitting some of the subjects taught at the present time, shortening some and rearranging others. The result of this course of study will not be to give the pupil less work than he is able to accom- plish, but to concentrate all his time on those sub- jects which will best prepare him for his life's work. The average grammar school course of study con- tains so many subjects that the pupil cannot do thor- ough work in any of them ; and, as a result, when he graduates he has only a smattering knowledge of those subjects whose fundamental principles he should have thoroughly mastered. Thoroughness demands concentration and not scattering of energy. That some of the subjects omitted are good ones cannot be questioned, but the grammar school course cannot include everything that is good; it must include only those subjects which are best — those subjects which will best prepare the grammar school graduate for citizenship. More than ninety per cent, of the grammar school pupils never enter a higher school, and therefore, the grammar school should be a finishing school. The subjects studied EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 67 should be those that will best prepare this ninety per cent, for the actual duties of life. The pupil should devote all his time to these essential subjects and not fritter away his time on non-essentials or in trying to do more than he is able. In many cases pupils are held back in order to accommodate those who are not able to do the work prescribed. This is detrimental to the pupil's high- est welfare. The course of study herein prescribed is broad enough and elastic enough to enable the teacher to keep his brightest pupil busy with inde- pendent work along lines closely allied to his regu- lar work. In all such cases teachers should take advantage of this, because independent work is the very best mental drill. This course of study is prescribed on the assump- tion that grammar school pupils never enter a high school, and on the further assumption that the pupil that is the best prepared for his life's work is the best prepared for high school work. If this latter statement be not true, then the object of the high school is not what is should be. As a matter of fact the pupil who has, not half, but thoroughly mast- ered reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, history and geography, and can express his thoughts orally and in writing, with force and clearness, has received the best preparation for citizenship and the best preparation for high school work that the grammar school can give; more than this the grammar school cannot accomplish. It is interesting to note the opinion of James A. Garfield on this same subject. In an address before the department of superintendence of the National 68 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. Educational Association, Washington, D. C, Feb- ruary 5, 1879, he gave expression to these ideas : "/n this connection I will refer to the tendency in our primary schools to overcrowd the children hy givi7ig them too many studies, and thus rendering them superficial in all The professors at West Point tell us that for more than forty years their course of examination of cadets for admission has been substantially the same, and that the questions now asked in the sev- eral branches are the same as those propounded in the same branches forty years ago. Now, these pro- fessors say that the percentage of failures to pass that preliminary examination has been increasing, especially of late, with alarming rapidity, and is very much greater than it was forty years ago. I understand that Professor Church says this fact does not arise from worse appointments, nor from lack of general information. Indeed, the young men who go there now have much more general culture than their earlier predecessors. Many of them, who have studied Latin, algebra, and physics, and other higher branches, utterly break down in spelling, penmanship, arithmetic, and grammar. In short, they know a little of many branches, but are thor- ough in none. ^^There is a limit of effort in a child; and if his culture is spread over too large a surface it will be thin every- where. The ambition of our schools to do too mucli results in doing nothing luell. Non multa sed multum is an old and safe rule. I believe, therefore, that the two great points which the educators of this country should aim at if they would succeed are, first, smaller schools and more teachers, remembering al- EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 69 ways that a teacher who is at all fit for his work is one who has the power of inspiring, who can pour his spirit into the darkness of the pupil's mind, and fill it with ^sweetness and light'; secondly, they should cut off a large number of new studies which have been forced into the earlier course, and concentrate their efforts upon the old primary branches until these are thoroughly mastered. "Now, gentlemen, you who are conducting the educational affairs of this country cannot afford to rest under this charge of failure at West Point. You must answer by disproving the charge, or removing the evil. Every conference among educators should be directed to these questions; and when they are settled, you will have rendered one of the highest services that can be rendered to this country." GRAMMAR BY THE INDUCTIVE METHOD. The main object of the study of grammar is to en- able the pupil to express his thoughts orally and in writing with force and clearness. Unless the study and teaching of grammar approach this result, there must be something defective in the method of pre- senting the subject in the elementary and in the secondary schools. That the study and teaching of grammar in the elementary and in the secondary schools do not give the pupil the power to express his thoughts orally and in writing with force and clearness will hardly be questioned by any one who has investigated the subject. If those who question the truthfulness of this statement will ask the members of the classes in the highest grades of the grammar school to write a composition on some subject with which they are familiar, or if they will examine the final examin- ation papers of the graduates of the grammar schools they will soon be convinced that they are questioning the truthfulness of a self-evident fact. Those compositions and papers will contain numer- ous mistakes in paragraphing, diction, construction, formation of possessives and plurals, and in the use of verbs, pronouns and modifiers. An investigation would seem to indicate that high school work re- sults in a very little improvement along these lines. The authorities of the University of California and 72 ED UCA TIONAL Q UES TIONS. of Stanford Universitv have found that pupils who enter those institutions from the secondary schools of this state are more deficient in the subject of com- position than in any other subject. In other words high school graduates cannot do, even fairly well, what the study of grammar is supposed to give them the ability to do, namely, to place their thoughts clearly and distinctly on paper. Stanford University requires an examination in composition and gram- mar of the graduates of every high school in the state, and the requirements in this subject by the University of California are practically the same. It is a lamentable fact that from TO per cent, to 90 per cent, of those who take these examinations fail. Teachers themselves, as a rule, are poorly pre- pared in the subject of composition and grammar. Pei^haps not more than 25 per cent, of the teachers in the elementary schools of this state or other states have the ability to write for a newspaper an ordinary communication that will approach correct- ness in grammar and construction. The boy of fif- teen in the printing office has the ability to take the communication received from the average teacher and ^'fix it up" so that its appearance in the columns of the paper will not be a disgrace to that paper. The grammar school graduate, the high school grad- uate, and the teacher may be able to quote pages of rules from the grammar; the boy in the printing office may never have looked inside of a grammar, but thousands of newspaper men in the United States know from experience that the above is a conservative statement of actual facts. The object of this discussion is to point out the EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 73 more important defects in the present method of teaching grammar and composition, and to state and explain another method that will result in giving grammar school graduates and high school gradu- ates the ability to express their thoughts orally and in writing with force and clearness. The difference between the two methods referred to above may be considered, in a loose sense, the dif- ference between the deductive and the inductive methods of teaching, which difference is well illus- trated by the two methods of teaching arithmetic. Most arithmetics contain the rules for extracting the square and cube roots of numbers. Some teachers require their pupils to memorize these rules and ap- ply the same to the solution of problems. Other teachers do not require their pupils to memorize the rules for extracting the square and cube root of numbers but do require them to read the explana- tions of principles, and then, with the assistance of blocks, develop the rules, step by step. Some teach- ers require their pupils to memorize the rule, that the percentage divided by the base equals the rate, and then have them apply it to the solution of prob- lems. Other teachers do not require their pupils to memorize, but do teach them how to make it — teach them why it is true. Those pupils who commit rules and apply them to the solution of prob- lems are studying arithmetic by the deductive method. Those pupils who begin with a few mathe- matical facts and construct rules, are studying arithmetic by the inductive method. Those who have studied arithmetic by the deductive methods will soon forget the rules and will then be unable to find 74 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. the square or cube roots of numbers or find tbe rate when the percentage and the base are given. Those who have studied arithmetic by the inductive method will always be able to find the rate when the percentage and the base are given, and will always be able to extract the square and cube roots of num- bers, because they understood the principles in- volved and can make the rules, if necessary. Most text-books on language and grammar con- tain a large number of rules. With few exceptions teachers require their pupils to memorize these rules, and county boards of education require gram- mar school graduates and applicants for teachers^ certificates to be able to write them down. Very few teachers, however, require their pupils to apply in composition work the rules which they have mem- orized, and very few county boards of education re- quire the grammar school graduates and applicants for teachers' certificates to be able to make a practi- cal application of the rules which they have memor- ized. This means, of course, that teachers do not require of pupils, and examining boards do not re- quire of applicants the ability to express their thoughts clearly and correctly on paper — do not re- quire them to apply the rules which they have mem- orized. The teaching of arithmetic by the deductive method is almost universally condemned, though it is practiced to some extent. The teaching of gram- mar by the deductive method is not only almost uni- versally practiced, but approved. Even the deduct- ive method is not given a fair trial, because pupils are not required to apply the rules which they have EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 75 learned, and are required to learn a large number of rules of which a practical application cannot be made. Under these circumstances, we should not be sur- prised that the teacher in the elementary schools and the graduates of the public schools have derived so little value from the time which they have de- voted to the study of grammar. This condition of affairs will not be changed until the inductive method of teaching grammar has been substituted for the deductive method. The inductive method of teaching grammar con- sists of omitting the analytical or impractical part of grammar, and in teaching the constructive or practical part in connection with composition work. Composition is made the basis of all the work in grammar. Rules are not memorized and the use of the text-book is practically abolished. The con- structive rules or principles are built step by step in connection with the composition work. By the inductive method pupils are taught to write by writ- ing and not by memorizing the rules. They are taught by the same method that has given the boy in the printing office the ability to correct the manu- script of teachers, with the additional advantage over him of understanding the reason for many of the rules that govern certain constructions. Capitalization, punctuation, formation of posses- sives and plurals, and the proper use of verbs, pro- nouns, and modifiers, constitute the constructive part of grammar. The remainder of this discussion will be devoted to explaining how to teach these 76 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. principles in connection with and bj means of com- position work. In teaching composition and grammar in the ele- mentary schools an observance of the following fundamental principles is necessary to success: 1. The subjects assigned for compositions should deal largely with human experiences, and above all, should be specific — so specific, in fact, that they will require a concise and specific treatment. One of the best results to be derived from composition work is the trained mind that thinks concisely and logi- cally. Broad, comprehensive, abstract, or indefinite subjects will lead to loose thinking, and hence to rambling statements and to a rambling style. 2. A pupil in any grade should never begin a composition until he has thoroughly studied the sub- ject matter about which he intends writing, and he should be required to write all compositions or writ- ten reproductions of any kind in his own language and not make them a mere copy from books. 3. There must be regular periods set aside for recitations on the composition work. There must be a mutual discussion of the compositions by the teacher and the class. These discussions should begin during the latter part of the first year and should continue without interruption throughout all the primary and grammar grade work. The mark- ing of each composition and talking with each pupil individually will not take the place of regular class discussions — they are good adjuncts to these discus- sions but will not do as substitutes. Unless the teacher understands the necessity for providing in EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 77 his program regular periods for recitations on the composition work, he will, very likely, be only par- tially successful as a teacher. 4. Except in a few of the lower primary grades, there should not be a recitation on the composition the same day on which it is written. The teacher should have a day or two in which to examine the compositions and should select those that will in- sure a discussion of the more important points. There will then be an opportunity to have selections from some of the compositions placed on the board before the recitation begins. This will often make the discussion more interesting and valuable. 5. During eomjjosition recitations, the pupil should be led to discover the mistakes, to suggest a better construction, to suggest the use of a better word, and to compliment a good construction or the use of a good word. 6. The pupil should be required to give his rea- sons for having used certain constructions or for having made certain uses of the constructive prin« ciples. He should obtain by the inductive method the ability to give reasons for all constructive rules and principles. 7. Oral language work must receive constant at- tention. Beginning Vv^ilh the first grade's work, pupils should be requested to stand and give in their own language stories read or told by the teacher, the pupil's language being carefully corrected. With each succeeding grade the oral recitation should receive increased attention, the object being 78 EDUCATIONAL QUESTION^"^. to teach the pupil to think quickly and connectedly, and to express his thoughts orally with force and clearness. This oral language work is an invalu- able adjunct to the written language work. First Year Work. Toward the end of the school term, the pupil, after he has told the story of the reading lesson, or the story read or told by the teacher, should be asked to write the same on paper without reference to the book. He should be taught to begin the first word of each sentence with a capital letter and to place a period at the end of each sentence. The rules should not be placed on the blackboard and memor- ized by the pupil. Each day there should be a reci- tation on the written reproductions of the reading lesson, or the stories read or told by the teacher. A sentence from one of these written reproductions that is not begun with a capital letter or ended with a period, should be copied on the blackboard. The members of the class should then be asked to point out the mistakes. If they are unable to do so — and of course they will be unable to find the mistakes at first — explain that each sentence must begin with a capital and end with a period. This would natur- ally lead to a talk about the sentence. At the end of the school year, pupils of the first year, who have had two months of this written work, will have learned something about the sen- tence, and will usually begin the sentence with a capital letter and end it with a period. They will have begun to learn how to place their thoughts correctly on paper. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 79 77 Oral language vrork as indicated on page ^ should receive careful attention. Some will probably think that this is asking too much of the first year pupils. As a matter of fact, however, it is not so difficult as the amount of work required by most counties in number work during the first year. Number work is not psychologically adapted to the young mind, and the time devoted to it in the lower primary grades is practically wasted. The written language work on the other hand is naturally adapted to the young mind, and is the necessary preparation to nearly all lines of advanced school work. Second Year Work. During the second year work pupils should write in their own language the story of the reading les- son, and during this year the teacher should begin the reading of stories and have the pupils immedi- ately reproduce them orally and in writing. This will gradually give to the young mind the power of concentration. Toward the end of this year's work, pupils should be asked to write short stories on sub- jects assigned. Subjects with which the children are familiar should be selected — as dogs, cats, chick- ens, flowers, favorite pets. There should be a recitation on the written work each day during the second year, and it should em- brace the discussion of capitals, paragraphing and a few of the simpler marks of punctuation. Such questions as pronouns, possessives and plurals, and agreement of subject and predicate are almost sure 80 ED UCA TIONAL Q UE8 TIONS. to come up, and some pupils may be able to do some- thing along these lines. Third Year Work. The subject matter for the written work during the third year may be obtained from the following sources : 1. Reproduction of the reading lesson without reference to the book. 2. Reproduction of the stories read or told to the class by the teacher. 3. Letter writing. Carry on an actual corres- pondence with pupils at a distance so as to necessi- tate the use of the mails. 4. Composition on subjects assigned. 5. Oral language w^ork should receive careful at- tention. Composition on subjects assigned should be made a prominent part of this year's work. Select sub- jects with which the children are familiar. Occa- sionally ask each member of the class to have some subject ready to suggest at the next recitation. Pupils will often take greater interest in the sub- jects which they have selected, and the effort itself is good training. The development of the principles of constructive grammar should receive constant attention during this year's work. A text-book of any kind on lan- guage and grammar should not be placed in the hands of pupils, but there should be a daily recita- tion on the compositions written. If these princi- EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 81 pies are developed along with the composition work, language will become alive and real to the pupil, and not a dead mass of impractical rules. The following suggestions will indicate the method by which these principles should be devel- oped in connection with the composition work: CAPITALIZATION. Explain to the pupil that a word is usually capi- talized for the purpose of calling special attention to it, either because of its nature or because of its I^osition in the sentence. The first word in a sen- tence is capitalized because it marks the beginning of a sentence, and the name word of a particular person, place or thing is capitalized to indicate that it is of particular importance as compared with the class to which it belongs. Custom has established a few exceptions to this basic principle of capitali- zation, but if the pupil once understands the real ob- ject for the use of capitals, his permanent mastery of their application will only be a question of a few years of practice. This knowledge will also tend to cause him to look upon language as a living organ- ism. The w^ork in capitalization as indicated above should receive careful attention throughout all the primary and grammar school work. PUNCTUATION. Explain to the pupil that the object for the use of the marks of punctuation is to assist in making the thought of the sentence clearer. Those who use the marks of punctuation with the best effect do not 82 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. punctuate according to rule, but according to thought. In a short sentence the thought is often made clear by separating certain parts of the sen- tence with a comma, while in a long and involved sentence similar parts of the sentence demand the semicolon, and sometimes the colon. For this rea- son pupils ought not to be required to memorize the detailed rules of punctuation, but should be taught to punctuate according to thought. Explain to the pupil the value of the different marks of punctua- tion and teach him to observe carefully where the voice naturally falls in the sentence — where there is a break in the thought — and that that should be the basis of his first punctuation — in fact, the basis of all his punctuation. After a pupil once understands the object for the use of the marks of punctuation and their relative value, i)ractice in their application secured in con- nection with the discussions on the compositions, will be all that he requires. No two writers of note use exactly the same system of punctuation, and therefore the pupil may not punctuate according to rules laid down in the text-book, but he will punctu- ate so as to make clear the thought of his written work, and by so doing will obey the general laws of punctuation. Punctuation is one of the most diffi- cult parts of mechanical construction, and efficiency can be secured only by practice that has constant regard for thought, and not for memorized rules. By and bye the pupil will not only have thoroughly mastered the more important rules of punctuation, but he will have built them step by step, and there- fore will be skilled in their use. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 83 The work in punctuation, as indicated above, should receive careful attention throughout all the primary and grammar grade work. VERBS. The teacher ought not to ask the pupil to memor- ize the definitions of the different parts of speech, but should be satisfied if he can recognize them in sentences and understand something of the nature of each. Third grade pupils will be able to do this without any special effort on the part of themselves or on the part of the teacher. Incidental discus- sions of the parts of speech from sentences copied on the board for other purposes will secure this result. The inductive method of teaching grammar does not require the formal parsing of the different parts of speech, the diagraming of sentences, the declension of pronouns, or the conjugations of verbs, and there- fore the teacher in dealing with the parts of speech need not take these subjects into consideration. Pupils of the third grade cannot go deeply into the subject of verbs, but they should make a good beginning. In connection with the discussions on the compositions, when a sentence has been copied on the board, explain to the pupil that the word talked about in the sentence is called the subject of the sentence and the word which tells something about the subject is called the predicate. During the third year work, the pupil should learn enough about the verb to understand the agreement of sub- ject and predicate. Explain to him that a subject which stands for or denotes more than one must 84 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. have an action word that denotes more than one; and a subject which stands for or denotes but one must have an action word that denotes but one. PRONOUNS. Very few grammar school graduates can use pro- nouns even fairly well. On questions directly to point in the final examinations for graduation from the elementary schools, from seventy to eighty per cent, of those who take the examination fail almost entirely. Neither do they show a much better knowledge of the pronoun in their written work gen- erally. Pupils who can decline the pronouns almost faultlessly and who can distinguish between the ob- ject and attribute complements, will often fail when asked to correct some simple examples — as. It is him who I saw yesterday; John divided the apple between he and I. Pupils in the graduating classes of the grammar school make numerous mistakes of the same nature in both their oral and their written work. This inability of the pupils to use and understand pronouns is due directly to the method of presenting the subject. The time which they have devoted to this subject has been consumed in memorizing de- clensions, defining complements and learning case forms. The pupils become lost in a wilderness of rules which often prove a positive hindrance to them in the correct use of pronouns. In fact, most of those who use pronouns readily have learned to do so in spite of the hindering rules which they may have learned. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 85 During their third year work pupils should first learn to point out the pronouns in a sentence, and should be required to tell why they are pronouns — tell what word in the sentence each stands for. This knowledge on their part should be followed by a thorough explanation of the subject, object and possessive forms of the pronouns. Explain to the pupil that a subject form is one that can always be used as a subject of a sentence, and show him how the test can easily be made. The pupil will soon apply this test with confidence, because he will see that the possessive and object forms of the pro- nouns do not sound at all natural when used as the subject of a sentence. During the recitations on the compositions a pupil might be asked to pass to the board and write sentences using all three forms as subjects. By this method the pupil will readily see that certain forms only can be used as the subject of a sentence. After a pupil understands how to determine the subject forms, then explain to him that the subject form must never be used except as the subject of a sentence, or when it stands for the subject and com- pletes the predicate. The few exceptions to this rule are unimportant and are seldom misused. Pupils who understand this principle will not hand in papers containing such expressions as, "It is me," "Between you and I," "It was them of who I was speaking." If a composition does contain an ex- pression similar to those mentioned above, ask the pupil to copy it on the board and ask him to use the pronoun that stands for the subject and completes the predicate, as the subject of another sentence. 86 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. By this method pupils will soon master the use of the subject forms of the pronoun. Mistakes are seldom made in the use of pronouns which denote possession, and if the pupil under- stands the subject forms he will have very little trouble with the object forms. Some special atten- tion might be devoted to the object forms after the subject forms have been mastered, but the constant reference to the object forms during discussion on the subject forms will, very likely, make this un- necessary. After the pupil has mastered the use of the subject, object and possessive forms of the per- sonal pronouns he might be incidentally informed that they are also called nominative, objective and possessive forms. It is useless to have a pupil define the different kinds of pronouns. If he fully understand the na- ture and use of the personal pronouns he will sel- dom misuse the other pronouns. It might be well, however, to have the members of the class discuss who and what, as mistakes are sometimes made in the use of these pronouns. It is not expected that third year pupils will learn all about pronouns, or that they will not make mis- takes in their use. By the method outlined above they will learn as much about the nature and use of pronouns as eight year pupils usually know, and by the time they have completed the sixth year they will have mastered the subject of pronouns. The work in pronouns, as indicated above, should receive careful attention throughout all the primary and grammar grade work. EDUCATIONAL QUE;^TIONi^. 87 POSSESSIVES AND PLURALS. The pupil should not be asked to memorize rules for the use of possessives and plurals, but should study the subject entirely in connection with the recitations on his compositions. In addition to dis- cussing all mistakes in the composition work, ask a pupil to pass the board and write sentences that will illustrate the general rules. As: "The girl's hat is red;" "The girls' hats are red;" "The lady's hat is brown;" "The ladies' hats are brown." The subject of possessives and plurals is not a difficult one and will be easily mastered, but until it is mastered, the teacher should give it careful atten- tion. MODIFIERS. Pupils will seldom make a mistake in the use of modifiers unless there is some question as to what word is modified. If a pupil were telling her school- mate that a certain girl was looking sweetly at an- other she would say: "Alice is looking sweetly at Frances to-day." But if she were describing a qual- ity of her face or expression, she would say: "Alice is looking sweet to-day." Mistakes on examples like these are often made by the pupil and the best way to remedy this is to explain to him that when a modifier limits or defines the subject, or the name word, it should be used as if it modified the word directly. In the sentence, "Alice is looking sweet to-day," it means the same as sweet girl. If the pupil understands and is able to apply this principle, he will seldom make a mis- take in the use of modifiers. 88 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS, PAEAGRAPHING. Paragraphing should receive careful attention during the third year. If the subject is properly presented, third year pupils will make wonderful progress in paragraphing. They will even make bet- ter progress than eighth year pupils who have not had good training in this subject. Explain to the pupil that when he begins to say something new about a subject he must begin a new paragraph. If he has been describing the appear- ance of his pet dog, and then begins to describe some of the tricks that his dog can play, he must begin a new paragraph. DICTION AND CONSTRUCTION. Pupils should be frequently asked to substitute a better word for some word in the composition under discussion. This is probably the best way to assist a pupil in securing a practical vocabulary. The construction of sentences and paragraphs should begin to receive careful attention in connec- tion with the composition work of the third year, and should receive increased attention with each succeeding year until the pupil has graduated from the high school. The mental value of this kind of work cannot be overestimated. In order to use good diction, and to construct clearly and logically, a pu- pil must reason clearly and logically. It is an easy matter to write sentences and paragraphs that are grammatically correct, but the diction and construc- tion will demand constant attention. The major part of the time devoted to the recitations on the compo- EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 89 sitions, should be devoted to diction and construc- tion. Tlie teacher, at first, after a pupil has studied a subject, should assist him to divide it into logical sub-heads. The pupil, however, should soon acquire the ability to do this without assistance. The work outlined in the constructive principles for the third year should be carefully followed throughout all the primary and grammar grade work, and the nature of the work should not be changed and its scope should not be enlarged except as regards verbs, which will be specified later. Third grade pupils will not be able to accomplish all the constructive work outlined above, but the progress which they can make along these lines is surprising. They will learn to write compositions several pages in length, paragraph neatly, understand the agree- ment of subject and predicate, and will make very few mistakes in the use of pronouns. The pupil un- derstands the "why" for all his work, begins to un- derstand the nature of constructive grammar, and is beginning to look on language as something full of life and spirit, and not as a mass of dead rules. Fourth Year. The subject matter for the written work during the fourth year may be obtained from the following sources: 1. Compositions on subjects assigned from the reading lessons. 2. Keproductions of stories told or read to the class by the teacher. 3. Letter writing. 4. Compositions on subjects assigned. 90 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 5. Oral language work should receive careful at- tention. Compositions on subjects assigned should be made a prominent part of this year's work. Select subjects with which the children are familiar, or subjects that they have the facilities for learning about. Have them write about things that make up their daily experiences. Ask the pupils to suggest subjects. As far as possible, however, the subjects assigned should necessitate the study of the subject matter along the other lines of the pupil's school work, thus giving a concentration of effort and a unity of purpose to all his work. A text-book of any kind on language or grammar should not be placed in the hands of pupils, but there should be a daily recitation on the compo- sitions written. In the recitations on the coraposi- tion work, give careful attention* to capitalization, punctuation, possessives, plurals, modifiers, para- graphing, diction, and construction as outlined un- der the third year's work. The pupil should not be asked to commit rules, but the constructive princi- ples should be developed as there indicated. As far as possible induce the pupil to note errors in the use of these principles when a composition is under dis- cussion and to suggest improvement in diction and construction. In addition to the work outlined in verbs in the third year, fourth year pupils should study verbs in relation to the time expressed. Any study or dis- cussion of the different modes should be omitted, and pupils should not be required to commit conju- gations. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS, 91 Perhaps the majority of men and women make frequent mistakes in the use of verbs when express- ing time of action, and in the use of such auxiliary verbs as, will and shall, may and can. It is one of the most difficult subjects that the pupil will be called upon to master in connection with his compo- sition work, and he should begin at the bottom and develop the subject gradually. In addition to discussing all mistakes in the com- position work, a pupil should be asked during these recitations to pass to the board and write sentences expressing action which has taken place in the past, action which is taking place at the pres- ent time, action which will take place in the future, action which was completed at or before a certain past time, action which is completed at the present time, and action which will be completed at or be- fore a certain future time. The auxiliary verbs used to express the different times of action should be carefully noted and explained. Each pupil should continue this kind of work until he can write sen- tences expressing all the different times of action without any hesitancy whatever. By the end of the fourth year pupils will begin to understand the nature of verbs and auxiliary verbs, and to feel confident in the use of the same. After the pupil has fully developed and understands the principle of verbs, he might incidentally learn the technical names applied to these principles — as tense, mode, etc. This, however, would be in the sixth year. 92 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. Fifth and Sixth Years. The subject matter for the written work during the fifth and sixth years may be obtained from the following sources: 1. Compositions on subjects assigned from the reading lessons. 2. Reproduction of stories told or read by the teacher. 3. Compositions on subjects assigned. 4. Oral language work should receive careful at- tention. The subjects assigned for compositions for these two years should require more and more independ- ent work on the part of the pupil. After the pupil has finished gathering information concerning the subject about which he intends writing, he should be required to divide it logically into sub-heads be- fore beginning his composition. Logical treatment of subjects should be given increased attention as the work in these two years progresses. The subject matter should be largely historical and geographical. Subjects should be selected that will assist along other lines of work, secure to the pupil valuable information, and lay the foundation for the geographical and historical work of the sev- enth and eighth years. Compositions on men and women who are historically noted for the part they have played in the development of this nation should receive increased attention. They should not, however, be stilted biographies of these men and wo- men, but the story of their life's work — several com- positions often being devoted to the incidents in the EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 93 life of one man, as, Boyhood of Franklin; Franklin the Printer; The Great Doctor Franklin; Young George Washington; Washington in the French War; Washington in the Revolution; Washington as President. Pupils are interested in what men do more than in what others say about them. Material for more than thirty excellent subjects along these lines will be found in "A First Book in American History" by Eggleston. In the sixth year, some subjects might be assigned dealing merely with civil government. Any good civil government can be made the basis of this work. The following may prove suggestive: Duties of City Government. Officers of Bakersfield and their Duties. Duties of County Government. Officers of Kern County and their Duties. State Senators. State Assemblymen. Duties of the State Legislature. Governor of California. Courts of California. Duties of State Courts. Necessity of Government. Pupils should be asked to write about the prod- ucts of California. Assign such subjects as, The Ap- ple, The Potato, Wheat, Gold, Silver, etc. It is best not to restrict the pupil to descriptive work, but have him learn all he can about a subject — how it is produced, how it is prepared for consumption, for what used. Better results will be secured during these two years if the pupil is permitted to tell all he knows about a subject than if he be restricted to 94 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. one phase of composition, such as narrative, descrip- tive, expositive, or argumentative. Some elemen- tary work ought to be accomplished in narrative and description in the primary grades, but syste- matic work in these subjects should be postponed until the seventh and eighth years. During the fifth and sixth years' work there should be a recitation on the composition work twice each week. No text-book of any kind on language or grammar should be placed in the hands of pupils. The work outlined for the third and fourth years should receive continued and careful consideration, but its scope should not be enlarged. By the end of the sixth year's work the pupil should have thor- oughly mastered the constructive principles of gram- mar; he should understand the nature of the con- structive rules and their application should gi\e him no trouble, practice having made their correct use almost involuntary. Seventh and Eighth Years. The subject matter for the composition work of the seventh and eighth years should consist almost entirely of subjects assigned. These subjects should deal largely with the work in English, Geography and History. If many subjects are assigned that will require the pupil to devote a considerable part of his time to lines of work not connected with his regular school work, he must, of necessity, slight such sub- jects as Arithemetic, English, History and Geog- raphy. Thoroughness demands that the pupil con- centrate his efforts upon the essential studies, and EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 95 not attempt too many independent lines of work at the same time. The following subjects are suggestive of the kind that should be assigned for these two years' work: 1. In Geography: Causes of Winds. Causes of Tides. Causes of Ocean Currents. Uses of Wool. Uses of Cotton. Rice Culture in the South. Value of Railroads to Commerce. Effects of Railroads upon the Social Life of a Nation. Effects of Railroads upon the Political Life of a Nation. Effect of Ocean Currents upon Climate. Garden Products of the South. Effect of Rivers on Land Forms. Effect of Climate on the Products of a Country. 2. In History: European Trade with the Eastern Countries prior to 1492. Why a Water Route to the Eastern Countries was Desired about 1492. United States Senate. Hamilton's Financial Scheme. Fashion of Dress for Men in 1790. Mode of Travel in 1790. Object for Two Branches in the Legislative De- partment. Spoils System. 96 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 3. In English: The selections studied will determine to a great extent the subjects assigned. The following in the "Lady of the Lake" may prove suggestive: Customs of the Scottish Highlanders. Customs of the Scottish Lowlanders. History of the Douglas Family. Relations of Scotland and England. Government in the Scottish Clans. Relations of the Highland Chiefs to the King of Scotland. Life at the Royal Court of Scotland. Scottish Scenery. Scott. Roderick. Fitz-James. Ellen. Malcolm Graeme. Loch Katrine. Rocky Isle and Ellen's Home. The Chase. In addition to the work indicated above, the pupil, during the last years of his grammar school work, should have systematic practice in narrative and de- scriptive writing. For subjects in the narrative work the pupil fihould rely to a large extent upon his personal ex- periences. An incident in the pupil's life that was important enough to impress itself upon his mem- ory is usually a worthy subject for a composition. If it was of interest to him, it will, very likely, be of interest to the members of his class. For the de- scriptive work choose such subjects as, My Home, EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 97 My Bedroom, a Successful Eabbit Trap., How to Put up a Swing, A Sunset, An Apple, A Flower, A Plant, An Animal. In describing fruits, flowers, plants and animals, the pupil should base his de- scription upon the careful examination of an actual specimen. During the seventh and eighth years there should be two recitations each week on compositions. These recitations should be devoted to a discussion of the compositions, particular attention being directed to thought, diction and construction. By the end of the sixth year, the pupil should understand the na- ture of, and should have acquired the ability to ap- ply readily, the constructive principles of grammar. The time which he devotes to composition work dur- ing the last two years of his grammar school life should be devoted, almost entirely, to the logical treatment of the subject, and to clearness, smooth- ness and conciseness of expression. The only way for him to accomplish anything definite along these lines is by practice in writing compositions and by a mutual discussion of the same under the direction of a teacher who understands composition and gram- mar and can teach these subjects to pupils. The vast majority of boys and girls must face the world with its duties and responsibilities with no other educational preparation than that provided by the grammar school. Their grammar school work should have cultivated their power to think logic- ally, and should have given them the ability to ex- press their thoughts orally and in writing in at least moderately clear, smooth and concise English. Clear thinking and a clear, smooth expression of thought 98 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. may be considered prerequisites of a successful life if said life must depend upon personal initiative. Hence the value of composition work can hardly be overestimated. Some teachers complain of composition work be- cause they are unable to achieve success in teaching it. This usually means that they do not understand composition and grammar, unless understanding composition and grammar means having at the "tongue's end hundreds of rules." It might be well to remind all those who are unable to teach com- position and grammar in the public schools so that pupils will learn to express their thoughts orally and in writing in at least moderately clear and smooth English, that they owe it, as a duty to the taxpayer and to the pupil, to stop teaching- until they are better qualified for the work. The object of the public school system is to prepare boys and girls for their life's work, and not to supply po- sitions for teachers. THE STATE TEXT-BOOK SYSTEM. Uniformity, cheapness to the pupil, and quality of subject matter are the three beneficent results that the advocates of a state series of text-books claim for the system. There is a uniform series of text- books for the elementary schools of this state, thus fulfilling the first advantage claimed; but that said books are cheap to the pupil in dollars and cents is plausibly questioned, and that the subject matter of a majority of said books is of good quality is em* phatically denied by the vast majority of the edu- cators of the state. Uniformity in the text-books of the state is good, cheapness of the text-book to the pupil is good, but good quality of subject matter in text-books is absolutely essential to good work. The schools of the state can do good work without using the same text-books. They can do good work with- out using cheap text-books, but they cannot do good work when compelled to use text-books which con- tain poor subject matter. The condemnation of the subject matter in the State Series text-books by educators who are en- gaged in elementary school work is so general and emphatic, that a discussion of the same would seem unnecessary. However, a restatement of some of the general defects will be made without attempt- ing a detailed analysis. 100 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. THE STATE ARITHMETIC. One of the main defects in the State Arithmetic is a lack of explanation of mathematical principles. The following is taken from the preface : "They [the members of the State Board of Education] feel, however, that arithmetics have been too much given to talking and not enough to doing — that a student seldom or never masters the thought in a long and minute explanation. He cannot understand it be- fore working the examples and does not need it af- terwards." In other words, the State Arithmetic has been compiled on the supposition that a pupil who can solve an example will understand the principles in- volved. This, of course, is a fallacy, and a fallacy that the teacher must constantly guard against. Those who are engaged in the supervision of gram- mar school work, know as a matter of fact, that graduates of the grammar school can often solve a problem if it is similar to those they have been ac- customed to solving, but if they are asked to solve a problem different in form from those they have been accustomed to solving, though it does involve the same principles, they are unable to proceed with the solution. Not enough time is devoted to arith- metical principles and too much is devoted to ma- chine-like drill on solutions. The State Series Arith- metic, by a woeful lack of explanation of principles involved, places a premium on this kind of work. It consists of a compilation of examples, and to the pupil it is so much dead matter. The teacher, of course, is supposed to supply the EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 101 explanation. If he has sufficient time he may be able to do this. We should remember, however, that in most of the counties of this state the majority of the children attend school in the country districts, where one teacher has charge of all the grades. Un- der such conditions, the teacher is crowded for time in all his work, and explanation must necessarily be cut short. If each new principle were properly ex- plained, the pupil would be able to study most of them unaided and thus relieve the teacher of a great deal of unnecessary work. Furthermore, the best mental discipline that a pupil will receive during his grammar school work will be derived from master- ing the principles of arithmetic unaided, except by the clear analysis of principles involved found in good text-books under the head of "explanations." Another defect in the State Series Arithmetic is the offering for solution examples beyond the men- tal capacity of the pupil. (See exercise 142). The teacher will drill his pupils on these examples until they can solve them, the pupils committing the solu- tions as they would commit a selection of prose or poetry. The arithmetical principles used in the so- lution are not understood. It is needless for pupils to attempt the solution of problems beyond their mental capacity. It would be better for them to de- vote their time to studying the principles and in making fairly complex applications of the same. When we compare the absurd methods in the State Series Number Lessons, and the skeleton-like construction of the State Series Arithmetic, with other arithmetics many of which have been written with regard to the psychological development of the 1()2 WVOATWtAL QUESTIONS. young mind, we can understand why teachers in the elementary schools, and superintendents of element- ary school work become discouraged, and why county boards of education insist on the use of supplementary arithmetics. THE STATE HISTORY. Of all the state text-books the history, perhaps, possesses the least merit. It lacks, almost entirely, the true historical spirit. The subject matter is chopped up into sections resembling the lecture notes of an academic professor. To the pupil it is lifeless. Perhaps 80 per cent of the pupils in the grammar school of this state detest the study of his- tory — whereas it should be one of the most fascinat- ing and entertaining of the grammar school sub- jects. This, of course, is often partly due to the teacher, but teacher and pupil cannot do good work without good text-books. Few teachers or pupils have anything but words of condemnation for the State History. The State History has been written on the suppo- sition that the study of history consists in the stat- ing of dates and relating the events of wars, ad- ministrations, settlements — the mere skeleton of his- tory. The history of a nation or of an institution is a growth and should be studied as such. The study of cause and effect should be substituted for the memorizing of dates and events. Any text-book on history that does not recognize this fact ought not to be used in the school room as a text-book. It is encouraging to note that in many counties of this EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 103 state, county boards of education have practically abolished the State History by encouraging the use of supplementary histories. This is, perhaps, a vio- lation of the spirit of the law but the end would seem to justify the means. STATE READERS. The State readers, extending from the first to the sixth year inclusive, are not evenly graded, and most of the subject matter in the fourth, fifth and sixth years is entirely foreign to the other work. It con- sists largely of myths and fairy stories, whereas it should consist largely of history stories — thus lay- ing a foundation for the study of history in the ad- vanced grades. Nothing is more fascinating to the child mind than the story of what a great man has done, and in such a story the outline of ten years of a nation's history can often be skilfully interwoven. There are a number of text-books on reading in which this object is kept constantly in view. STATE LANGUAGE BOOK. The little state language book called ^'Lessons in Language" defeats the object which its authors hoped it would secure; viz., freedom and fluency of expression. The constructive work consists mostly in complet- ing sentences, filling in blanks, and answering ques- tions. Those engaged in composition work know from experience that nothing blunts free expression more than following such methods. Fluency of ex- pression and application of the practical part of 104 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS, grammar can be best secured by written work. The subject matter for this written work may be repro- duction of the reading lesson in the pupil's own lan- guage without reference to the book, reproduction of stories read or told to the class by the teacher and compositions on subjects assigned. (For fuller details on grammar and composition see page 71.) STATE SPELLER. The list of words in the state speller is as good as will be found in most text-books on spelling. The time devoted to the large number of written lessons, however, is practically wasted. STATE GEOGRAPHY. The State Primary geography is the bugbear of the teacher's life. A number of counties have en- tirely abolished its use. The advanced geography is a fairly good text-book of the old school, but devotes entirely too much time to details, and not enough space to the habits and life of the people as they are effected by the physical conditions of the country in which they live. (For a fuller discussion of the sub- ject of geography see page i^.)\5~^ STATE PHYSIOLOGY AND CIVIL GOVERN- MENT. The State Civil Government is an excellent little book for grammar grade work, and so is the hy- gienic part of the State Physiology. In passing judgment on the subject matter of the state text-books, it is well to remember that the best EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 106 proof of its poor quality is the almost universal con- demnation which it receives from the teacher in the elementary schools, and from the superintendents of elementary school work. Those who work with the material are the best judges of the same. It would, perhaps, be difficult to find a disinterested educator of importance who does not consider the majority of the state text-books an imposition on the public schools of the state. It is only natural that the state text-books are of an inferior quality; it would be surprising if they were otherwise. Text-books in the United States have been improving for more than a hundred years. Each one must enter the field of competition and live, if it lives at all, on its own merits. Most of them have been written by men and women who have made their life's work the study and teaching of a certain subject. Such conditions naturally would produce and have produced good text-books on most subjects. The text-books of the California States Series are the offsprings of entirely different conditions. They do not enter the field of competition. Most of them have been written by men and women who have not made their life's work the study and teaching of the subject on which they have produced a text-book. Many, perhaps, who assisted in compiling the state text-books secured their positions through political influence. Assuming, however, that they were se- lected because of their peculiar qualifications, is it reasonable to expect that text-books written by con- tract in this young state of California, where the opportunities for research and investigation are lim- 106 EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. ited, will be as good as those written in the East, where the facilities for investigation are unlimited, and where the author knows his books must live on their merits alone? What chance would the Cali- fornia Series of text-books have in the markets of the East? It seems reasonable to presume that any investi- gator of this subject must conclude that so long as California writes her own text-books by contract she will have text-books of an inferior quality. It is, perhaps, best for her to have a uniform series of text-books, and, it is claimed, cheaper to the pupil for her to print those text-books, but it is not best for her to write them. For the solution of the text-book question in Cali- fornia, the following plan is suggested: 1. There should be a uniform series of text-books used in the elementary and secondary schools of the state. 2. All text-books should be selected, not written by contract, by the State Board of Education. Two requisites necessary to bodies authorized to choose text-books are the ability to choose the right kind of books and the ability and inclination to re- sist the monetary considerations offered by some publishing houses. In many instances during recent years, members of state and territorial boards of During the last regular session of the State Legislature, I urged Senator Smith, of Kern and San Luis Obispo Coun- ties, to prepare a constitutional amendment embodying this plan, but pressure of other business prevented him from pre- pnriag said bill. EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. 107 education have been known to accept bribes from publishing houses, and because of such considera- tions have adopted text books for use in the schools of the state, or of the territory as the case may be. The majority of the State Board of Education, as provided for in the chapter on the "Certification of Teachers," v^ill very likely consist of men who can- not be swayed in their selections of text-books by favoritism or by monetary consideration. I believe the method outlined above would satis- factorily settle the text-book question. The commit- tee would be permanent and its character would in- sure the selection of text-books on their merit alone. The committee could secure reasonable rates on books selected, or the state could buy the copyright for California. But it would be best perhaps to se- cure reasonable rates direct from the publishers be- fore finally adopting a book. Text-books on all sub- jects are constantly improving, and it might be un- wise to bind the schools of the state to use a certain text-book for a considerable length of time, and this would be necessary in order to make the purchase of a copyright a business proposition. THE Western Series of Readers EDITED BY HARR WAGNER DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR SUPPLEMENTARY WORK IN HISTORY AND NATURE STUDY IN OUR WESTERN SCHOOLS ALL FULLY AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. EACH VOLUME CONTAINS FROM EIGHTEEN TO TWENTY-SIX FULL-PAGE PICTURES. EXTENSIVELY ADOPTED AND USED IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE PACIFIC COAST VOL. I. PACIFIC HISTORY STORIES Br HARR WAQNER FOR FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES During the short time that this book has been on the market its sale has been phenomenal. It is pronounced, by all of our leading educators, to be excellently adapted to the work for which it was intended — a supplementary reader in history study in the Fourth and Fifth Grades. Fully two-thirds of the counties in California have this book on their supplemen- tary and library list. VOL. II. PACIFIC NATURE STORIES Br HARR WAQNER AND DAVID S. JORDAN AND OTHmRS FOR FOURTH AND FIFTH QRADES A companion volume to the above. It contains some eighteen most interesting and instructive sketches of our westerr ani- mal and vegetable life, all told in a delightfully flowing style and written by the greatest educators of the West. As a reading book in nature study it cannot be excelled. VOL. II NATURE STORIES OF THE NORTHWEST Br HERBERT BASHFORD STATE LIBRARIAN OF WASHINGTON FOR SIXTH AND SSVSNTH QRADES This book covers a more extended field than Volume II., and is not strictly confined to the Northwest. Among the inter- esting stories will be found those of The Black Bear, The K-^nzJisher, The Clam, The Meadowlark, The Seals, etc., all of which are of interest to any pupil in the West. The illustrations are works of art and true to nature. VOL. IV. TALES OF DISCOVERY ON THE PACIHC SLOPE BY MARQARET QRAHAM HOOD FOR THIRD AND FOURTH QRADBS The Tale of History could not be more charmingly told than it is in this volume, which is intended for the lower grades. A Third or Fourth Grade pupil will read it easily, and with interest. Its eight chapters are devoted to the early history of our great western empire, and tell of characters and events but little touched upon by the general school history. The child here acquires a taste that leads him to furthe r research. VOL. V. ^^ TALES OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS, THE PHILIPPINES Written by R» VAN berqen A Thirty-year Residentof the Orient AUTHOR OF "STORY OF JAPAN," ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY P. N, BOERINQER WAR ARTIST CORRESPONDENT AT MANILA FOR San Francisco papers FOR THE SIXTH, SEVENTH AND EIGHTH QRADBS A timely book for the young. We employed to write this vol- ume, a man v/hose thirty - ^ear residence in the Orient made him thoroughly familiar with the people and their customs. Its thirty-eight chapters, all richly illustrated by the best artist we could secure, will give the pupil an excellent idea of our new country — a knowledge which will prove of great finan- cial value to him. VOL. VI. STORIES OF OUR MOTHER EARTH BY HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS, Ph, O, ILLUSTRATED BY MARY H. WELLMAN WITH 27 FULL-PAQE ILLUSTRATIONS AN INTENSELY INTERESTINQ AND INSTRUCTIVE WOltK ON NATURE STUDY FOR THE SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADES Can the study of Geology be made interesting to the young? It certainly can when written in the style of this book. It contains some thirty-eight chapters, every one laden with knowledge but all reading like a story book. The chapters on The Yosemite Valley, The San Francisco Bay and The Colo- rado River in themselves alone warrant the purchase of the book. c- Complete Descriptive Circular, giving contents of each volume, testimonials, etc., sent on application PRICES — SCHOOL EDITION. BOUND IN BOARD. LEATHER BACK. NET 50 CP.MS LIBRARY EDITION. BOUND IN CLOTH NET 60 C KKT j PUBLISHED BY THB WHITAKER & RAY CO. 723 MARKET STREBT, SAN PiMJVC/SCO. FOUR GREAT BOOKS BY WESTERN AUTHORS PUBLISHED BY THE WHITAKER & RAY CO. 723 MARKET STRBBT, SAN FRANCISCO. JOAQUIN MILLER'S COMPLETE POEMS EIGHT VOLUMES IN ONE INCLUDING *' SONGS OF THE SIERRAS '* '* SONGS OF SUNLAND ** ** SONGS OF ITALY ^ ^ SONGS OF THE SOUL'' *' SONGS OF THE MEXICAN SEAS'' ** CLASSIC SHADES " *' OLIVE LEAVES " ^^OAQUIN" eia.L Price, Libfaf y Edition, postpaid $2.50 ** Gift Edition, Leather $4.50 BY DAVID STARR JORDAN PRESIDENT LELAND STANFORD Jr. UNIVERSITY ^CARE AND CULTURE OF MEN^' Price, Cloth, postpaid $150 " Half Levant, postpaid $3.50 ^MATKA AND KOTIK^ AN ALLEGORY OF THE FUR SEAL PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED Price, Cloth, postpaid SI,50 " Half Levant, postpaid $3.50 ^THE STORY OF THE INNUMERABLE COMPANV AND OTHER SKETCHES ILLUSTRATED Price, Cloth, postpaid $1 25 " Half Levant, postpaid $3.50 One Set of Jordan, 3 Vols, in box. Cloth, postpaid $ 4.00 One Set of Jordan, 3 Vols, in box, half Levant, postpaid . . $10.00 SEND FOR COMPLETE DISORIPTIVE PORTRAIT CIROULAR OUR WESTERN PUBLICATIONS Text, Supplementary ANo Library Books Elementary Exercises in Botany, By Prof. Volney Rattan $o 75 Key to West Coast Botany, By Prof. Volney Rattan i oo Complete Botany (above, two in one Volume) i 50 New Essentials of Bookkeeping, By Prof. C. W. Childs 90 Topical Analysis of U. S. History, By Prof. C. W. Childs i 00 Heart Culture, lycssons in Humane Elducation, By Emma E. Page . 75 Spanish in Spanish, By L,uis Duque . . - Net. i 25. Patriotic Quotations, By Harr Wagner 40 Key to State Advanced Arithmetic, By A. M. Armstrong i 00 New Manual of Shorthand, By A. J. Marsh Net. i 25 Studies in Entomology, By H. M. Bland 75 Algebraic Solutions of Equations, By Andre and Buchanan . i4>t. 80 Study of the Kindergai'ten Problem, By Fred'k I,. Burke 50 Orthoepy and Spelling, By John W. Imes, (4 parts each) 20 Toyon— A book of Holiday Selections, By Allie M. Felker Paper, 35c. Board, 6oc. Cloth, i 00 Supplement to State History, By Harr Wagner 25 Matka,a Taleof the Mist Islands,By David Starr Jordan (Schooled.) 75 MISCELLANEOUS LIBRARY BOOKS Sugar Pine Murmurings, By Eliz. S. Wilson i 00 Adventures of a Tenderfoot, By H. H. Sauber i 00 The Main Points, By Rev. C. R. Brown i 25 Life, By Hon. John R. Rogers . i 00 Lyrics of the Golden West, By Rev. W. D. Crabb i 00 SoBgs of Puget Sea, By Herbert Bashford i 00 Dr. Jones* Picnic, By Dr. S. E. Chapman i 00 A Modern Argonaut, By Leela B. Davis i 00 Percy or the Four Inseparables, By M. Lee i 00 Personal Impressions of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado .... i 50 Some Homely Little Songs, By Alfred James Waterhouse i 25 Forget-me-nots, By Lillian Leslie Page. Illuminated paper cover . 50 WESTERN SERIES OF PAPER BOOKS Songs of the Soul, By Joaquin Miller 25 Dr. Jones' Picnic, By Dr. S. E. Chapman 25 Modern Argonaut, By Leela B. Davi-J 25 How to Celebrate Holiday Occasions — Compiled 25 Patriotic Quotations , 25 WESTERN SERIES OF BOOKLETS California and the Californians, By David Starr Jordan ... 25 Love and Law, By Thos. P. Bailey 25 The Man Who Might Have Been, By Robert Whitaker . . 25 Chants for the Boer, By Joaquin Miller ...... 25 WESTERN EDUCATIONAL HELPS. Civil Government Simplified, By J. J. Duvall 25 An Aid in the Study and Teaching of Lady of the Lake, Evangeline, and Merchant of Venice, By J. W. Graham. ... 25 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. ,. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 1. No. 2. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON TOT LAST DATE ^ STAMPED BELOW OVERDUE. JILrz49ai — •snEsai. LD 21-100m-12,'43 (8796s) YB 12627 Mi£»SEl-EY LIBRARIES C03as^sb30 UNIVERSiry OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARV