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ART HISTORY 
 
 IN THE 
 
 HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 GEORGE PERROT 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE REVUE DES DEUX MONDES 
 
 BY 
 
 SARAH WOOL MOORE 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y. 
 
 C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 
 
 1900 
 
 Copyright. 1900, by C. W. Bakdeen 
 
P4- 
 
ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 BEESE 
 
 82600 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/arthistoryinhighOOperrrich 
 
f^ OF THB * 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 Art History in the High School 
 
 An article in the Eevue des Deux Mondes of 
 July 15, 1899, on this subject is worthy of atten- 
 tion. It is by M. George Perrot, founder of the 
 chair of Classical Archaeology in the French 
 Academy and, with his collaborator Chas. Chi- 
 piez, author of the well-known volumes on 
 Ancient Art. 
 
 In 1891 M. Perrot submitted to the school 
 authorities of France a scheme, forthwith 
 adopted and put into operation, by which as a 
 compensation for the withdrawal of Greek and 
 Latin from a section of the curriculum, three 
 hours weekly were to be divided between the 
 history of civilization and the history of art. 
 This applied only to the division called the First 
 Modern and not to students preparing for a 
 University course. The experiment has covered 
 eight years and in spite of many draw- backs, 
 
 (65) 
 
66 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 has been of such value that M. Perrot insists, in 
 justice to students of the so-called Classical 
 Course, that it be extended to them ; that these 
 lads destined for liberal careers and with years 
 of training before them, should not be condemned 
 to a manifest inferiority and alone in their gen- 
 eration be strangers to a whole order of senti- 
 ments and ideas now becoming familiar to their 
 more favored comrades. For the first time in 
 its history the Lycee now teaches its pupils that 
 the art of a people, in the same sense as its liter- 
 ature, is the vehicle of its profoundest feeling 
 and highest thought, and their attention is being 
 directed to masterpieces of sculpture, painting, 
 and building. 
 
 The hour seems to have arrived when argu- 
 ments should be presented in favor of making 
 Art History as much a required study in the 
 classical course as since 1891 it has been in the 
 general course of Modern Instruction; though 
 the extension should be made only under condi- 
 tion that illustrative material shall supplement 
 instruction from the chair. 
 
BOOKS GIVE ONLY PARTIAL KNOWLEDGE 67 
 
 The importance of including art history in 
 any scheme of education is strongly urged. The 
 language of form interprets intellectual concep- 
 tions and sentiments of the heart with a clearness 
 and force equal to any expression by written or 
 spoken word. The literature and history of 
 former generations give us only a partial knowl- 
 edge of any state of society which may be our 
 study. There are soul traits, soul conditions and 
 characteristics unrecorded by poet or historian, 
 though perhaps hinted at, which will forever 
 elude the grasp of those who depend only upon 
 written evidence. These conditions of soul, how- 
 ever elementary and remote, leave their sure 
 mark on the habitudes and beliefs of a people ; 
 and though unexplained by the contemporary 
 civilization are often made clear by the work of 
 the artist and builder. 
 
 One out of many examples is furnished by 
 Schliemann's discoveries, which have unearthed 
 Troy, Mycenae, and Tiryns ; have recovered from 
 oblivion a primitive Greece of which the Greeks 
 themselves had preserved only a slight recollec- 
 
68 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 tion, and have given to the Homeric epoch a back- 
 ground of several centuries. Now this Greece, 
 contemporary with the times of Tothmes and 
 Rameses and anterior to Grecian history and 
 even legend, did not know the art of writing; 
 but she did know how to quarry and dress stone, 
 how to square wood and make it into frame- 
 work, how to model and bake clay, to melt and 
 hammer lead, bronze, gold and silver, how to 
 carve ivory. Every small scrap fashioned by 
 the tools of these artisans has the value of an 
 authentic document. After what fashion society 
 was then constructed, what sort of lives men 
 led, how they understood the to-morrow of 
 death, all this is revealed by marks which the 
 hand of man has left upon objects it has touched 
 — the colossal walls of Tiryns, the majestic 
 mortuary domes of Mycene, the space arrange- 
 ment of the royal dwellings whose plans are 
 traceable upon the ground, and those of sepul- 
 chres hidden under the earth, as well as the 
 arms, instruments, vases, and jewels found 
 scattered through the rubbish of edifices, or 
 
STORIES IN WORKS OF ART 69 
 
 buried in the tombs. Thanks to these monu- 
 ments the shadowy past is illuminated with vivid 
 gleams of light, and we begin to distinguish the 
 traits which characterized this world of Achaean 
 heroes, a world whose image, transformed and 
 singularly magnified, is reflected in the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, as that of Charlemagne and his Knights 
 in our ancient heroic poems.. 
 
 From these obscure times let us transport 
 ourselves to the Greece of Pisistratus, of Pericles 
 and Alexander. Our students know what liter- 
 ary losses we have suffered here, what a mere 
 fragment has escaped the general shipwreck of 
 antiquity; should not some hint also be given 
 them of the precious supplementary information 
 which to some extent has come to fill up these 
 gaps ? There are many variations on important 
 myths which have furnished the contemporary 
 artist, especially the ceramic artist, with sub- 
 jects, and thus have acquainted us with episodes 
 and personages scarcely noticed by writers of 
 the day. We ought to have the cyclic poets — 
 they have all perished; we ought to have the 
 
70 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 lyric poets of whom Pindar has rescued a single 
 one through that ode to Bacchus which is the 
 joy of Hellenists ; we ought to have a whole lost 
 tragic literature and a whole comic literature 
 represented only by Aristophanes; we should 
 have the Old, the Middle and the New Comedy, 
 with that Menander who since the Renaissance 
 has been the eternal. regret of the discriminating; 
 but all this poetry, whether lost or preserved, 
 did not exhaust the prodigious wealth of Greek 
 imagination which produced as much in other 
 channels. 
 
 If by an evil chance Greek sculpture had also 
 perished we should be condemned to eternal 
 ignorance of certain racial aspects and modes of 
 thought. Is anything in literature of equal 
 value with the Tanagra figurines for revealing 
 to us how Greece felt and enjoyed womanly 
 beauty? Not only its serious and noble types, 
 a Pallas or an Aphrodite, but the courtesan, the 
 city dame, the work-woman of some little town 
 whose grace in the abandonment of every-day life 
 is observed and seized. Were we to judge the 
 
LESSONS FROM PORTRAIT STATUES 71 
 
 religion of Greece simply by epithets which de- 
 fine the gods and by the actions which poets 
 attribute to them we should risk a total miscon- 
 ception. We do not possess, alas ! those master- 
 works of Phidias which render men, the ancients 
 tell us, more religious, the Athene Parthenos of 
 the Acropolis and the Zeus of Olympia ; but even 
 from reproductions which have reached us one 
 may divine the master's embodiment of luminous 
 intelligence and of sovereign power in benevo- 
 lent repose. 
 
 It is to be regretted that our students do not 
 visit more frequently the galleries of the Louvre ; 
 I have seen more than one high school boy there, 
 but ordinarily these visitors are impatient to 
 reach the picture galleries of the second floor, 
 hastening by the sculpture on the first — the 
 work of the ancients. As I have watched them 
 glancing about with an indifferent eye how I 
 have wished they would linger and lend an ear. 
 If one has learned to listen, these statues ranged 
 against the walls, — the Mars which bears, it is 
 believed, the mark of Polyclete, the Diana of 
 
72 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the Chase, the Victory of Samothrace, the divine 
 Venus of Melos, may speak and in some such 
 words as these : • ' Young man, you are studying 
 Greece in Homer and in Plato, in Sophocles and 
 in Herodotus ; do not pass us by so quickly ; we 
 are also of this Greece. You need neither gram- 
 mar nor dictionary to understand and to love us. 
 You need to educate your eyes. You need to 
 learn point by point the refinements of beauty. 
 Do not fear to waste your time, especially if you 
 aspire later to become an authorized interpreter 
 of Greek works of genius. The day when by 
 long and affectionate intercourse your acquaint- 
 ance with us shall have ripened into an intimacy 
 so close that at any moment you are able to 
 summon our images before your memory, clearly 
 seen as if our forms themselves were present, 
 from that day as you read the poets your 
 thoughts will be occupied by the same images 
 which rose at the hearing of their verses to the 
 mental vision of our contemporaries, the Greeks 
 who saw us created ; and the simple effect of 
 experiencing like impressions will bring you 
 
LESSONS FROM PORTRAIT STATUES 73 
 
 near to the ancient Greeks ; you will be in their 
 nearer neighborhood and more able to think and 
 feel after their fashion than can the most subtle 
 grammarian, the most deeply lored Hellenist 
 who has never seen and closely studied us.^ 3 
 
 In the neighboring gallery where the Roman 
 emperors hold sway, their portrait statues speak 
 as clear a'word. Can lecture or book bring back 
 to life as do these statues the Rome of the 
 Caesars ? In this series of portraits embracing 
 three centuries of history, the times and the men 
 are more clearly revealed than through either 
 the narratives of ancient authors or the disserta- 
 tions of modern savans. Augustus and Tiberius, 
 Constantine and Theodosius had the same title, 
 Emperor ; they were all of them called Consuls, 
 Caesars, Augustus, fathers of their country, etc. 
 Nevertheless the character of imperial power 
 passed through a profound modification between 
 the first and the fourth centuries. Volumes 
 which have been written to explain this change 
 are not so eloquent as the simple comparison of 
 these princes as to their personal appearance. 
 
74 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 Augustus, in perhaps the most beautiful of 
 his statues, called the Prima Porta, has head, 
 arms, legs and feet bare; a cuirass covers the 
 short garment of a soldier and a military mantle 
 is thrown over that. The emperor is a war 
 chief who harangues his troops. In another 
 statue he is draped in the toga like a simple citi- 
 zen and holds in his hand a roll containing the 
 discourse he is to read the senate. These are 
 the manners, costumes, and decorations of re- 
 publican Rome. One perceives nevertheless 
 vividly portrayed the spirit and false principle 
 of this ill-defined regime which, while investing 
 one man with almost boundless power, kept up 
 during two centuries an affectation of conserving 
 the forms of ancient liberty. 
 
 On the other hand, examine the image of 
 some successor of Diocletian; let it be one of 
 the emperors who resided by preference at the 
 new capitol, Constantinople, but do not seek him 
 among those statues of pomp where the sculp- 
 tor, through routine, follows a classical expres- 
 sion ; question monuments of another kind where 
 
LESSONS FROM PORTRAIT STATUES 75 
 
 the artist holds closer to reality — the illuminated 
 manuscript, the mosaics, the ivory diptychs. 
 There you will no longer see the simple and noble 
 type borrowed from Greece by Eome, but a form 
 which by certain characteristics recalls the old 
 art of Asia, and by others announces that of 
 the Middle Ages. The head is encircled with a 
 diadem, the body and limbs are entirely con- 
 cealed by tight draperies which are at the same 
 time very long and very scanty; the stuffs 
 which form this casing are from top to bottom 
 rich with embroideries of various designs repre- 
 senting rose-work and flowers, animals and 
 personages. There can be no mistake, we are 
 no longer in Rome ; the fiction so long kept up 
 has finally vanished ; the empire has turned in- 
 to an Oriential monarchy. 
 
 Between the two extremes how many fine 
 gradations may be pointed out to the pupil, the 
 best possible commentary on history. The heads 
 of the earlier Caesars, even that of Claudius, the 
 spoiled scholar, the book- worm led astray to a 
 throne, and that of Caligula, that witty and 
 
76 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 wicked fool, have all of them something aris- 
 tocratic, a nobility and proud strength in which 
 one feels the stock ; one recognizes descendants 
 of those great patrician families which at first 
 alone seemed capable of giving masters to Eome. t 
 With Vespasian, whose family, belonging to the 
 small burgher class, had pushed its way up to an 
 official position of the second order, the advent 
 of new imperial blood is perceived. Vespasian 
 has a round unbearded visage and the double 
 chin of a chief of department. Trajan has the 
 physiognomy of a soldier, one is tempted to say 
 of a soldier who has carried his knapsack and 
 passed through the inferior grades of service. 
 Hadrian, with his head bent the better to hear, 
 his eyes of a vivacity which pierces the very 
 marble, his lips parted as if to continue a con- 
 versation, offers all the characteristics of a man 
 of letters intelligent and inquisitive. One would 
 take Marcus Aurelius with his bristling hair and 
 beard for a Greek philosopher. Caracalla shows 
 a disordered mind ; his glance betrays that fan- 
 tastic and murderous delirium which seized upon 
 
LESSONS FROM PORTRAIT STATUES 77 
 
 more than one emperor, especially those who in 
 their youth found themselves exposed to the 
 temptations of absolute power. 
 
 Not only do these sculptured monuments make 
 living the great personages of history, they lend 
 the same character of sensible reality to the 
 frame and decoration of the picture, to all the 
 theatre upon which the actors play their role. 
 When I was a college student my masters ignored 
 these facts. No portrait-statue was ever men- 
 tioned in the cut and dried epitome placed in our 
 hands, and I question whether I really believed 
 that Sparta and Athens, Rome and Carthage 
 had ever existed. At least I did not know where 
 or how to place them in space. I knew nothing 
 of their situation, of the constructions of their 
 walls, their houses and their temples. They 
 were for me shades, vaguely floating between 
 heaven and earth. 
 
 If it is thus in the case of classical antiquity, 
 notwithstanding the colored and brilliant narra- 
 tions of its writers, how much more difficult is 
 it to comprehend the Middle Ages if studied 
 
78 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 only in their literary remains. French was not 
 then the language of the thinkers. The pro- 
 found thought of the middle ages will not be 
 found among the troubadours; one must look 
 for that to the savans, the philosophers, the 
 theologians and hagiographers ; but to follow 
 closely the subtileties of analysis and complexity 
 of symbolism in which that thought delights, 
 requires great effort of mind rendered yet more 
 laborious by the artificial character of an ecclesi- 
 astical Latin which no longer renewed itself at 
 the living sources of popular speech. 
 
 We are unable to see how such works, what- 
 ever may be their value for the learned, are able 
 to play any role in the education of our youth ; 
 and recently by a well-judged innovation in our 
 school programmes a considerable place was 
 made for histories and poems in the vernacular, 
 so that the Song of Roland, the names of Ville- 
 hardouin and of Joinville have been added to 
 our study topics ; these the student can only read 
 in translation, or at best in such arrangements 
 as modernize the language. The contact there- 
 
LESSONS FROM CATHEDRALS 79 
 
 fore between the chronicle and the reader's mind 
 is very imperfect. Supposing a reader capable 
 of deciphering the original text, even then the 
 formless prose and stringed couplets slowly un- 
 rolling their assonances would never give him 
 the vivid impression which a page of Tacitus or 
 a canto of Virgil offers to any one who has mas- 
 tered a little Latin ; and then in the writings of 
 the middle ages there are only occasional flashes 
 of true beauty. If the conception has grandeur 
 its expression will be feeble and dragging. 
 
 On the contrary a Eomanesque and a Gothic 
 church ar6 not less beautiful after their kind 
 than a Greek temple ; many minds regard them 
 as superior in grace and in grandeur. In any case 
 they do not accent less clearly the power of the 
 religious faith which has constructed them, and 
 by their majesty, by the height of their dimly 
 illuminated vaultings, by the thousands of figures 
 which people and animate their surfaces they de- 
 fine with singular distinctness the character of 
 this faith. As in Greece the sculptor makes 
 himself a docile and intelligent co-laborer with 
 
80 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the architect, as Phidias and Alcamenes repre- 
 sented in the pediments and friezes of their Doric 
 temples the great god and the local heroes of 
 Athens and Olympia, so also the anonymous 
 masters who decorated our cathedrals set up 
 their statues in the splayings of the doors, along 
 the traceried galleries which flank the f agade, on 
 the summits of the pinnacles wherever an unoc- 
 cupied spot could be found; these statues are dis- 
 tributed in an order prescribed by dogma and 
 tradition, images of the Saviour and of the Vir- 
 gin, of angels, saints, prophets and apostles, and 
 of personages who flit through the narratives of 
 the Gospels or legends. Many a statue at Bour- 
 ges, at Chartres, at Eheims, at Amiens and at 
 Notre Dame de Paris are marvels of severe 
 elegance, of chaste and spiritual grace, of moral 
 dignity. It is a recent discovery; but there is 
 hardly a connoisseur who would not admit a 
 comparison between the most vaunted of ancient 
 statues and the admirable " Christ teaching " of 
 the south portal of Amiens Cathedral, the statue 
 which bears the popular name of the "beau 
 
LESSONS FROM CATHEDRALS- 81 
 
 Dieu d' Amiens ". Thus, that which the middle 
 ages could not express in words- — the august mys- 
 teries of the Christian dogma, the poetry of the 
 Old and New Testaments, the triumph and death 
 of martyrs, the miracles of saints and their infinite 
 charities — all this was sculptured by a firm and 
 broad chisel which neither sought nor avoided 
 difficulties and which was sure of its form what- 
 ever material it employed. To comprehend how 
 superior this plastic is to the literary work of 
 the time it needs only to compare the Christ of 
 Amiens with word-portraits of the Son of God as 
 attempted by authors of the Mysteries. " What 
 can be flatter than these poor verses which are 
 nevertheless of the fifteenth century ? These 
 authors are betrayed by their imperfect language. 
 The sculptor of the thirteenth century, on the 
 contrary, who fully possessed the grammar of 
 this art, was able to express all he felt, and has 
 left us one of the most divine ideals of Jesus 
 Christ in the world." 
 
 The Italy of the Renaissance must be unin- 
 telligible to any who do not take into account 
 
82 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the place which art held in the pre-occupations 
 of not only her practising artists but men in all 
 conditions, princes, nobles, burghers and even 
 people in the most humble circumstances; none 
 among all these who did not feel a passionate 
 love for beauty. In this love Italy lived and of 
 it she died. She died because, giving her whole 
 life-sap to the satisfaction of this passion, she 
 became indifferent to her own dismemberment, 
 to the hard yoke of her tyrants, and to the loss 
 of her political liberty and independence. Her 
 life, absorbed in this intense passion, spent and 
 renewed itself in the very ardor with which she 
 pursued and realized her ideal under all its aspects. 
 Compared with such an infatuation, art for our 
 age is no more than the momentary and idle dis- 
 traction of the leisure classes ; and to those who 
 devote themselves to it, is often only a profes- 
 sion, like any other which one might choose for 
 the chances is offers of gain. 
 
 It is well-known how large a place in our 
 (French) classical system of education is given 
 to the history and the writers of the seventeenth 
 
THE PALACES OF LOUIS XIV 83 
 
 century. Now, neither this history reducing it 
 to a recital of battles and negotiations, nor this 
 literature, rich and varied as it is, are able, by 
 themselves, to account for the position in Europe 
 occupied by Louis XIV, admired, imitated or 
 rather aped by those even who most heartily 
 detested him, and admitted as, par excellence, the 
 type of a modern king. Have we not seen this 
 prestige after the lapse of two centuries still 
 dominating the sick mind of King Louis II of 
 Bavaria ? In his desire to copy his chosen model 
 this king utterly ruined himself by building 
 palaces. If on his death bed Louis XIV re- 
 proached himself that he had too well loved to 
 build, his edifices with their majestic amplitude 
 and opulence of decoration gave to that royal 
 * life a framing which had much to do with the 
 be-dazzlement of Europe in the presence of the 
 Boi-Soleil. If one wishes to realize something 
 of the impression this monarch made upon his 
 contemporaries one must visit Versailles, pass 
 from apartment to apartment in the Chateau, 
 and walk about the terraces and avenues of its 
 
84 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 park. To be sure all French high schools are not 
 like Condorcet, close to the Western E. E. sta- 
 tion ; but everywhere it is possible for the teacher 
 to describe Versailles, and to show by a series 
 of representations pictorial or otherwise, its prin- 
 cipal features; he will thus project upon this 
 historical figure a light much brighter than if he 
 required his pupil to memorize all the campaigns 
 of Turenne and of Conde, all the clauses of the 
 treaties of Nimegue and of Eyswick. 
 
 It is the same with the eighteenth century ; if 
 one knows nothing of its art a very incomplete 
 conception of it is inevitable. This century, to 
 which Voltaire gave the tone, seems to have 
 been lacking in a sense of poetry; everything 
 called by that name, even to Andre Chenier, is 
 only rhymed prose. Nevertheless imagination 
 did not* yield her right, but, like water which 
 changes its bed, she seemed to withdraw from 
 letters and reserved herself for the arts of de- 
 sign. There she gave proof of invention, of 
 free and sportive grace; the architects adopt 
 plans of a happy disposition, affect forms of rare 
 
THE ART OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 85 
 
 elegance both in the elements of construction and 
 in the ornaments which decorate it ; such sculp- 
 tors as Caffieri and Houdon give to portraiture a 
 marvellous intensity of life ; the terra cottas of 
 Colodion recall the antique modellers ; painters 
 like Greuze and Lancret, Nattier and Boucher, 
 make fetes for the eyes, while Watteau and 
 Fragonard create chimerical paradises of eternal 
 youth and eternal desire. The political history of 
 our kings and ministers during this period is a 
 succession of errors and blunders, of aborted plans 
 and fruitless victories. If France in spite of her 
 reverses still holds a precedence in Europe, it is 
 to her writers and to her artists that she owes it. 
 We pause to ask ourselves if too much stress 
 has not been laid upon the necessity of pleading 
 the cause of art. It may be said that our cause 
 is already gained in the consent of all the best 
 minds; and in fact, more than one indication 
 points to an awakened interest more keenly felt 
 than ever before ; it is especially noticeable in the 
 place assigned this study in higher education by 
 the creation more or less recent, of chairs devoted 
 
86 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 to it. In the greater number of our universities 
 however, art history is not yet represented, or if 
 at all is represented very inadequately ; still, the 
 principle has obtained a footing and in time re- 
 sults will appear. 
 
 In secondary instruction since the timid ex- 
 perimental step of 1891, there has been no for- 
 ward movement. Only a limited number of 
 pupils have reaped the fruit of the reform, so 
 that since the benefit has not been extended to 
 all the students of our high and collegiate 
 schools, art and its history cannot be said to 
 have conquered their legitimate share of influ- 
 ence and of activity in the collective work of 
 national education. In France the only lines of 
 study which contribute to general culture are 
 those imposed upon the student while in the 
 preparatory school. There is talk of withdraw- 
 ing the study of philosophy from the high school 
 and moving it forward to the university course. 
 Whether or not this would be a benefit, one 
 thing is certain, whenever this move is made 
 philosophy, like Sanscrit, will be studied only by 
 the curious few. 
 
PLACE OF ART IN THE CURRICULUM 87 
 
 If it is demonstrated that the mind which is 
 a stranger to all knowledge of art matters is not 
 a mind truly cultivated, the teaching which 
 alone can fill this gap should be established at 
 the high schools and as much in the classical as 
 in the so-called modern division. Without pre- 
 tending to exact from the pupils as much time 
 as does general history this study should be placed 
 on the same footing with it, should be protected 
 by the same sanctions, should claim for itself its 
 assigned hours, should be presented by instruc- 
 tors who are qualified for their tasks and who 
 have at their disposal proper illustrative material, 
 without which they can only offer their auditors 
 a sterile nomenclature of names and dates. 
 
 The hour seems to have arrived to realize this 
 progress ; and to insure the success of the reform 
 it will not be enough merely to extend over an- 
 other series of masters and pupils the scheme 
 adopted in 1891 without modifying its present 
 conditions. 
 
 Modifications are much to be desired. The in- 
 structors who have been charged with this teach- 
 
88 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 ing in the high schools have been impoverished for 
 the new need, they have had no special prepara- 
 tion and they have not been encouraged to acquire 
 it ; the time allotted has been inadequate ; it is now 
 only one hour per week. Even so the experi- 
 ment would have some chance of success if the 
 indispensable illustrative and documentary ap- 
 paratus were supplied. It is as impossible to 
 teach art history without showing its monuments 
 or reproductions of them as to teach geography 
 without the ordinary or the relief maps. A 
 form is defined by its limits or contours ; these 
 lines the mind may apprehend only through eye 
 or touch — practically through the eye. To a 
 mind already acquainted with a certain form, 
 words may suffice to recall its image ; but if that 
 form has never been perceived, words, however 
 eloquent, are powerless to describe it. 
 
 This point has never been comprehended by 
 the school administration. The administration 
 simply directs that from October 1st of each 
 year masters of the modern division shall see to 
 it that the history of art is taught. How can 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE AIDS 89 
 
 they ? What illustrative aids have they ? Be- 
 cause these questions have never been considered, 
 what has happened ? On the insistence of the 
 professor, the authorities have granted to certain 
 schools small subsidies, enough to buy a few 
 dozen photographs. Somewhere else a principal, 
 ransacking his drawers, has been able to find a 
 few leavings which he has devoted to these uses. 
 One school, that of Rheims, has the walls of 
 its great gallery- vestibule entirely covered with 
 engravings, photographs, and mouldings. It is 
 a little museum, in which all the epochs of art 
 may be found represented, as also pieces of the 
 most interesting sculptures of the thirteenth 
 century; these have been borrowed from the 
 neighboring cathedral. It is the sort of material 
 a professor is able to utilize ; but no other high 
 school is thus furnished. It happened in Rheims 
 that the headmaster was an archaeologist who had 
 employed the leisure of his youth in deciphering 
 the ancient edifices and museums of Roman 
 Gaul; later, condemned to abstain from these 
 personal researches, he undertook to awaken in 
 
90 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the pupils under his care a taste for studies whose 
 charm he had himself proved. Such favoring 
 conditions and opportunities are not the lot of 
 many masters. 
 
 ^Jn spite of these drawbacks the new course of 
 study, because it responds to a secret desire of 
 cultivated minds, has been well received ; in more 
 than one high school of both Paris and the 
 provinces students belonging to the classical 
 division have demanded and studied it with dili- 
 gence. This movement on their part, without 
 outside pressure or concert, was a sort of indi- 
 rect protest against the decision which had placed 
 them with regard to their comrades at a disad- 
 vantage. It is now proposed to put this new 
 study on a better footing where it already exists, 
 and to introduce it where until now it has been 
 neglected; it only remains to discuss the ques- 
 tion of ways and means. 
 
 The first matter to regulate is the choice of 
 masters ; measures must be adopted which will 
 make teachers equal to their task. It may be 
 best to resort to the traditional expedient of 
 
THE CHOICE OF ART TEACHERS 91 
 
 creating under the title History of Art a special 
 chair, to hold which a competitive examination 
 must be absolved; or, to offer, dependent on a 
 satisfactory examination, a certificate of qualifi- 
 cation. Nothing could be easier; candidates 
 will be seen flocking as soon as such a notice is 
 posted. But, have we not too many competi- 
 tions? There is already difficulty in finding 
 enough judges to serve on the various juries, 
 and it is an embarrassment to provide places of 
 assemblage. Besides, art will long occupy a very 
 restricted place on the curriculum and those who 
 have qualified themselves to teach will find only 
 a few hours of service demanded; further, by 
 reserving the privilege of teaching this branch 
 to holders of diplomas, shall we not deprive our- 
 selves of valuable assistance from other sources ? 
 I would propose that, using for the moment 
 the material at hand, we address ourselves espe- 
 cially to the professors of history. Their atten- 
 tion has already been called to plastic art by ref- 
 erences to it, slight as they are, in the official 
 programmes made out for the department of 
 
92 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 History ; and from the very nature of their func- 
 tion these professors are inclined, if not to read 
 more, to read books of greater variety in subject 
 than their colleagues; they of all teachers will 
 most easily adapt themselves to the new situation. 
 In the examinations of aspirants to professor- 
 ships of history, Art history heretofore has played 
 a very secondary part ; though the examiners do 
 propose an occasional question. In 1896 of the 
 four subjects assigned for theses, one was " The 
 Great Epochs of Gothic Art in France during the 
 Middle Ages ", and the following topics are from 
 lists which have come under my eye : " Egyptian 
 Monuments of the Pharaonic time", list 1892; 
 i i p r i m itive Greece according to the most recent 
 discoveries", 1893; " The Great Monuments of 
 Eome under the Empire ", " The Civilization 
 and Art of Ancient Persia ", 1894; " The Monu- 
 ments of the Athenian Acropolis ", 1894. Since 
 1894 no topics of this nature appear on the jury 
 lists, and candidates may well hope that the sub- 
 ject of art will be passed over ; but they well 
 know that proficiency in political, military, and 
 
THE CHOICE OF ART TEACHERS 93 
 
 diplomatic history will be thoroughly sounded, 
 and, quite naturally, these future professors infer 
 that the great peoples and great centuries of the 
 past may be comprehended without taking into 
 account creations of art. To make our reform 
 effective, questions on the history of art should 
 be included in every historical examination, 
 whether for license, for diploma, for advanced 
 work (degree), or to qualify for filling the chair of 
 history. 
 
 Whenever, therefore, this campaign shall open 
 the professors of history will form the bulk of 
 the army; but to this permanent and regular 
 corps auxiliary troops may with profit be added ; 
 such volunteers should be enrolled as may pres- 
 ent themselves with brilliant records, whose 
 recommendations are not a sudden examination 
 but published works, and often a whole life de- 
 voted to the study of art. Of course one may 
 be a fine connoisseur without possessing the gift 
 for teaching. It will pertain to the principals of 
 our educational establishments to discover and 
 to test these occasional assistant professors ; and 
 
94 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 to engage only those who, in one way or another, 
 shall have proved their capacity to communicate 
 what they know by word of mouth. 
 
 Above all things I would desire this instruction 
 to be made compatible with an extreme variety 
 in and a very great liberty of method. It should 
 not everywhere be entrusted to the same cate- 
 gory of instructors. Where a member of the 
 school faculty is found specially fitted for it, as 
 in a certain high school of Paris the professor of 
 rhetoric and author of one of the most beautiful 
 books ever written on the history of Christian 
 art, he should be selected to teach it. Again, 
 appeal might be made to former members of the 
 schools of Athens or Eome, to some gifted critic 
 or learned artist (there are such) who might be 
 willing to discuss the theory and history of his 
 art. All the arts of design are so closely bound 
 together that it would be easy for the adept in 
 anyone of them to speak with intelligence and 
 understanding of the others. 
 
 I would wish also — and with our passion for 
 uniformity it is asking much — that no attempt 
 
LIBERTY OF METHOD 95 
 
 should be made to develop in all the high and 
 collegiate schools of our Eepublic the full pro- 
 gramme in all its parts. It seems to me entirely 
 natural that in our southern cities, at Nimes for 
 example, the preference should be given to ancient 
 art, while at Chartres, Amiens, and Eheims stud- 
 ies of the cathedral should be made. 
 
 I would go even further; I would not require 
 that everywhere the course should have the 
 same duration. Certain hours should be reserved 
 to it in the senior and junior classes of the high 
 school in rhetoric and in philosophy; but the 
 professor should not feel obliged to devote these 
 hours exclusively to art ; he should use his judg- 
 ment and let the time depend upon what he had 
 to offer in point or new. From such a master 
 twenty lessons of superior quality would serve 
 better to awaken in the pupils a sense of art, 
 than forty or fifty from some poor devil who con- 
 tents himself with repeating phrases borrowed 
 at second hand from a book. 
 
 Under penalty of miscarrying and being a 
 mere delusion this experiment should be made 
 
96 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 supple, diverse, and always ready to avail itself 
 without pedantry of all aids from which it may 
 expect to derive any benefit; and it must adjust 
 itself to varying conditions of the centre where 
 it is to be developed. The question is to know 
 in what measure our rules and accepted customs 
 will lend themselves to the play of these mani- 
 fold arrangements and this perpetual improvisa- 
 tion. If our dream is to be realized the princi- 
 pals of our high schools will need to be less 
 dominated than at present by the central au- 
 thority ; they must have a voice in the selection 
 of their staff, and be free to modify according to 
 circumstances the interior government of the 
 school and the order of its studies. 
 
 There are certain other embarrassments to 
 provide against. School principals would will- 
 ingly urge on to success this new instruction, 
 could all its necessities — its teaching corps and 
 illustrative apparatus — be provided for at the 
 same time. The teachers may be found, al- 
 though a certain liberality of view as well as 
 much perseverance must attend the search, for 
 
MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 97 
 
 they exist both within the ranks of the teaching 
 corps and outside in a latent condition; they 
 need only to be disengaged, brought together 
 and put in motion. 
 
 As to the material equipment, that is question 
 of money, a difficulty which the voting of a sub- 
 sidy will dispose of. With a few thousand 
 francs the nucleus of a fund may be established 
 at every locality concerned ; then a slight annual 
 disbursement to each establishment will keep the 
 collection up to date and permit it to increase by 
 degrees. With proper care the cost of repairs 
 w^ould be almost nul, and that care the high 
 school master himself would bestow all the more 
 willingly if in each place the fund to purchase 
 these local collections should be at his independ- 
 ent disposal. In this as in everything let there 
 be liberty. Gaps in collections thus ordered will 
 in time be filled if only through a change of 
 masters. We do not think however that the 
 state should relinquish all control over the funds 
 it provides for this purpose, though its principal 
 role should be to furnish to all inquirers infor- 
 
98 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 mation, advice and suggestions as to expendi- 
 tures. 
 
 M. Perrot here speaks of the strange lack in 
 France of art manuals and text-books. No such 
 manuals exist as those of Kugler, Liibke, and 
 Ludwig von Sybel, or Carl Schnaase's History 
 of Art ; and of these only Llibke has been trans- 
 lated into French. In this connection he dis- 
 cusses the doubtful value of the text-book for 
 school uses. In spite of the convenience of hav- 
 ing always at hand a book in which one may be 
 sure of finding date and name, catalogue of the 
 principal works of an artist, and a reference list 
 to monographs, there are in the very merit of the 
 work and the confidence one places in it a temp- 
 tation and a danger ; the temptation of accept- 
 ing ready-made judgments, the danger of hab- 
 ituating oneself to consulting a book rather than 
 the monuments. It is less trouble to glance 
 through a book than to visit a museum, a 
 church, a ruin. Now if there is any kind of in- 
 struction which lends itself to vapid repetitions 
 and automatic recitations it is the history of art. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE 
 
 
 The most profound erudition derived solely from 
 books will never be worth the experience which 
 comes from living in intimate association with 
 the monuments, that wholly personal experience 
 which gives accent to the words of the master 
 or sets in vibration an echo of the very emotion 
 he felt before a noble edifice, a great statue, or a 
 beautiful painting. 
 
 The professor of history most anxious to im- 
 prove himself would never be able to study from 
 the original more than a limited number of 
 works of art ; and it is of course not proposed to 
 annex to each high school a gallery of antiques 
 and of the works of modern sculptors and paint- 
 ers. All we ask is that the master should be in 
 a position to place before the eyes of his pupils 
 representations of the originals about which he 
 is informing them, which may be done through 
 photographs, or better by means of the magic 
 lantern. 
 
 Lantern slides in series may be had from Ger- 
 many, if the French will not venture to produce 
 them; and in Germany may also be procured 
 
100 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 the architectural wall- charts so indispensable as 
 a complement to photography, the uses of which 
 he thus explains; photography alone is incom- 
 plete, elle sert a tout mats ne suffit a Hen ; in 
 painting, photography suppresses color; it de- 
 forms the statue, exaggerating its salient parts ; 
 it shows architecture only in perspective, giving 
 the true dimensions, height, length, width, 
 neither separately nor collectively in their mutual 
 interdependence. To comprehend these relations 
 a ground plan is the first requisite, to which ele- 
 vations and sections must be added. A photo- 
 graphic view of the ruins of the Parthenon may 
 be exhibited ; without a ground plan indicating 
 the positions once occupied by the columns and 
 walls now overthrown and in ruins, one will gain 
 but a vague conception of the arrangement of a 
 Doric peripteral temple, its three naves, its cellar 
 divided into two unequal halls. The view may 
 be well understood only by studying first the 
 ground plan, then a longitudinal and a trans- 
 verse section of the restored interior. The same 
 may be said of a Eomanesque or a Gothic church. 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE AIDS 101 
 
 These examples may indicate the sort of wall 
 charts which should be added to the material 
 equipment of a course on the history of art. 
 
 As to the buildings of antiquity this collection 
 should include ground plans of an Egyptian 
 temple, of an Assyrian and of a Persian palace, 
 those of a Greek and a Roman theatre, an am- 
 phitheatre such as the Coliseum, baths like those 
 of Oaracalla, a dwelling house from Pompeii, 
 etc., etc. — plans which should be accompanied 
 with the probable restorations drawn on a large 
 scale. And the same mode of presentation 
 should be adopted for groups of buildings such 
 as Luxor or Karnac, the terrace of Persepolis, 
 the Acropolis of Athens, the Altis of Olympia, 
 the sacred enclosure of Delphi, the Roman 
 forum, the buildings of the Palatine. 
 
 When in 1876 I had the honor of being chosen 
 to initiate the course of Classical Archaeology in 
 the Belles Lettres Academy of the Institute of 
 France, I found in a collection edited in Ger- 
 many some of the wall charts which I have just 
 enumerated ; those lacking were furnished to me 
 
102 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 in the shape of large drawings in wash by a 
 listener to my first lectures, M. Charles Chipiez, 
 the learned architect who became later my co- 
 laborer. Notwithstanding the school programme 
 of 1891, nothing of value in this kind has been 
 undertaken by any French editor. The essen- 
 tials of such a collection could easily be brought 
 together, for plates in histories of art may be 
 enlarged at will by a mechanical process ; as to 
 restorations, various archaeological works might 
 be drawn upon, as well as those to be found in 
 the library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. The 
 day when art history shall be everywhere taught 
 may perhaps see French publishers willing to 
 issue a series of such charts, and every teacher 
 will desire to acquire a copy. If these publish- 
 ers will not now venture the risk we must place 
 our orders with strangers. 
 
 As to casts it would be useless to hope that 
 each high school should be supplied when not 
 even the University of Paris has a complete 
 series placed in chronological order. Satisfac- 
 tory arrangements may however be made. Qne 
 
ILLUSTRATIVE AIDS 103 
 
 teacher may borrow from another in rotation. 
 Where a cast is too weighty to be moved, mas- 
 ters and pupils must go, as did the prophet, to 
 the mountain which would not come to him. At 
 the town museum may be seen not only casts 
 but paintings, and before these works of art the 
 master will give his best instruction. These 
 visits to the museums should be recommended 
 on the official programme and their dates should 
 be indicated on all study plans. One or two 
 afternoons of each month should be reserved 
 for these art promenades. 
 
 An outline follows of what the favored lads 
 of the Parisian high schools may enjoy in this 
 kind ; they will have afternoons at the Louvre, 
 they will see the museums of the Luxemburg 
 and Trocadero, the cabinet of prints and medals 
 at the National Library, the collections at the 
 Ecole des Beaux Arts, and that charming cours 
 du Murier which will give them a foretaste of 
 Italy ; such edifices too as Notre Dame and the 
 Sainte Chapelle, the basilica of St. Denis, and 
 the chateau of Versailles. There are few French 
 
104 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 cities even of the second or third rank which 
 have not much food for such study. 
 
 One thing more M. Perrot would desire to find 
 in this ideal master of the future — a knowledge 
 of drawing sufficient to enable him, while speak- 
 ing, to trace with the chalk the outline of a 
 ground plan, the section of a nave or the pro- 
 file of a moulding on the blackboard. Nothing 
 awakens and holds attention in a listener like 
 sketches executed under his eye, which agree- 
 ably interrupt the always somewhat monoton- 
 ous course of a continuous lecture from the 
 chair. 
 
 M. Perrot next treats of the same embarrass- 
 ment in French schools which is felt here; a 
 crowding of subjects, a danger that the pupil 
 will find no time for thought, for assimilating 
 his mental food, for origination; that he will 
 play the role of passive auditor whose only duty 
 is to listen and take abundant notes. He sees 
 however ways of meeting this objection. First, 
 the monthly or semi-monthly art-promenades, 
 being an integral part of the course, would not 
 
ABRIDGMENT OF MEMORY WORK 105 
 
 increase but' would rather relieve the strain of 
 routine work. These promenades however would 
 be worthless except as complementing instruc- 
 tion from the chair, to which an hour and a half 
 per week should be devoted. Second, only ad- 
 vanced classes of the high school should be 
 allowed to take this study ; younger children are 
 not mature enough to comprehend it. On the 
 other hand students preparing for college en- 
 trance examinations who are specially hard 
 pressed at the end of the school year might 
 restrict the art history course to the fall term ; 
 the master could thus count with more security 
 on attention and assiduity ; and some of the cor- 
 responding art-promenades might be deferred 
 until later in the year, when they would be a 
 distraction from the harrassing pre-occupations 
 of the diploma, relaxing both mind and limbs. 
 This would not entirely dispose of the difficulty 
 — that seeming impossibility of adding during 
 six months of the year yet another subject to 
 the overcrowded curriculum. But M. Perrot 
 has another happy suggestion. He appeals again 
 
106 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 to the professors of history. Could they not 
 make some abridgments in the memorizing they 
 require ? Could they not glide more rapidly 
 over certain facts of secondary importance ? 
 Eecalling his student days he counts time lost 
 which he spent in memorizing boundaries of the 
 domains which the sons of Clovis inherited at his 
 death, and the names and dates of many battles 
 in the campaigns of Frederick II and Napoleon. 
 By such abridgments perhaps a place might be 
 made for lessons devoted to art, whether in the 
 form of a special series or with their historical 
 setting — a part of the great picture of the past. 
 The reasons given by M. Perrot for such an 
 abridgment, in favor of art history, of the high 
 school course in philosophy are still more cogent 
 and worthy of attention. I do not undertake, he 
 says, to criticise this teaching, but I have often 
 heard expressions of regret from men who can- 
 not be suspected either of not understanding or 
 not loving philosophy. They regret the place 
 given, at the expense of psychology, logic, and 
 morality to questions which they regard as un- 
 
BETTER ART THAN METAPHYSICS 107 
 
 solvable. More than one master, they say, thus 
 leads young people to employ glibly terms, the 
 meaning of which has not been and cannot be 
 nicely defined, because these terms do not repre- 
 sent clear ideas. Bad habitudes result, the mind 
 accustoms itself to believe that it comprehends 
 what it does comprehend in any true sense of 
 the word; it intoxicates itself on abstractions, 
 and plays with formulas which it mistakes for 
 solutions — those hollow formulas which leave 
 behind them only uncertainties and desolation. 
 Nothing leads more surely to a skepticism dan- 
 gerous to morality than these simple affirma- 
 tions of a prcocious and rash dogmatism. 
 
 Taine was struck with this peril. The outline 
 papers of the high school course on philosophy 
 were put into his hands by a student in whom he 
 took a warm interest. He found in them many 
 theories, many discussions which seemed to him 
 beyond the capacity of reasoning faculties at 
 seventeen and eighteen. Far from gaining in 
 vigor by the effort, these faculties are thus 
 fatigued and led astray. These tendencies are 
 
108 ART HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 most apparent among candidates for admission 
 into the normal school and for the degree of 
 master of arts. Professors are dragged into 
 metaphysical speculations by the very ardor of 
 curiosity which these open-hearted young people 
 feel when for the first time they find themselves 
 facing the great problems which will always 
 torment humanity. The course in philosophy 
 could well be curtailed and thus contribute some 
 hours to the count of art history. 
 
 M. Pgrrot is an authority so respected and the 
 conditions in France, as above represented, are 
 in many respects so nearly on a parallel with 
 those in our own country, that these suggestions 
 and recommendations must carry weight and be 
 especially welcomed by all who, in the interests 
 of our schools, are sincerely trying to establish 
 a jus^propcgrtion in the relative value of studies. 
 
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„„v OH THE J.A» T DA ™ 
 -^T^cr 25 CENTS 
 
 W,UU BE t ON THE DATE DUE. ™** POU mH 
 
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 OVERDUE. 
 
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 APR 9 1933 
 
 4UI 38 1947 
 
 LD 21-50W-1,' 
 
YB 05159 
 
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