UC-NRLF FARMING FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT. THIRD SECTION. TREE-PLANTING. FARMING FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT THIRD SECTION. Tree-Planting . For Ornamentation or Profit, suitable to every Soil and Situation. BY ARTHUR ROLAND. EDITED BY WILLIAM H. A B LETT. CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY, W, 1879. [All rights reset wd.} Q CKARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE The " Bishoppe of Lyncolne's Translation out of Frenshe into Englyshe" Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton's plan- tations near the Yarmouth Roads Plantations in Morayshire Mr. Grigor's Account Seaside Planting at the Gulf of Gascony Careless Planting Soft- wooded Trees Osiers Osiers on the Banks of the Severn and Thames Overflow of the Thames and the Embankment of the River Steamboats on the Thames Osier Plantations very durable and a Source of large Profit Action of Light upon Osiers Kinds must be selected to suit various Soils The London Clay injurious to Osiers Formation of Osier Beds Small Osiers grown in France Mending Osier Plantations The Common Osier The Spaniard The French The New Kind The Hollander The Gelster The Green-leaved Osier The Brown Rod The Bitter Ornard The Blunt-leaved Ornard Osier Plantations on the Holkham Estate ... i CHAPTER II. Trees which are most suited to damp Situations The Duke of Bedford's "SalictumWoburnense" The Goat 330275 CONTENTS. PAGE Willow Bark of the Willow astringent Embanking The White or Huntingdon Willow Russell's or the Bedford Willow Johnson's Willow Large Willow at Sion American Weeping Willow Kil- marnock Weeping Willow The Alder Wood of the Alder used in making Fish-barrels The Alder an Agent for reclaiming Land Planting The Poplar Cobbett and the Poplar Tree Prince Puckler Muskau's Opinion The Lombardy Poplar Poplars on the Continent and Poplar Fences Black Italian Poplar The Gray Poplar The White Poplar- White Egyptian Poplar The Trembling-leaved Poplar or Aspen The Balsam Poplar The Ontario Poplar The Lime or Linden Attempt to Assassi- nate the German Emperor The Horse Chestnut Scarlet-flowering Chestnut 1 8 CHAPTER III. Broad-leaved Trees Trees as Landscape Ornaments Influence of Climate Planting in the Sixteenth Century Turner's " Herbal " Gerrard's Catalogue and Physic-garden in Holborn Sir Hans Sloane's Physic-garden at Chelsea Dr. Compton, Bishop of London Planting greatly stimulated The " Hortus Kewensis" Trees introduced by Douglas The Ash The Beech Old Tree in Windsor Forest Indis- position of English Farmers to turn their Attention to Agricultural Manufactures The Birch The Elm The Mountain or Wych Elm The Huntingdon Elm Cork-barked Elm American Elm Curled- leaved Elm Variegated Elm Weeping Elm Apti- tude of the Elm to "sport," or vary from Seed The Chestnut Tree valuable as Coppice The Timber chiefly valuable when young Derivation of its Name CONTENTS. vii PAGE Grown in Spain for its Fruit Brought to Europe by the Greeks from Sardis Largest and oldest Chest- nut Tree in the World Great Chestnut of Tortworth Raising Trees from Seed Ornamental Varieties ... 39 CHAPTER IV. Broad-leaved Trees continued The Hornbeam The Locust Tree Cobbett and the Locust Tree The Oak Acorns all bear a Family Likeness The Oak suc- ceeds in various Soils Roots of the Oak penetrate the Ground deeply The Oak in exposed Situations Lammas shoots of the Oak Sowing Acorns The Site of Felled Oaks good for Coppice Larch and Oak grow well together The Parliament Oak The Mossy-cupped or Turkey Oak The Fulham Oak- Turner's Evergreen Oak The Common Evergreen Oak The Cork Tree Large Tree at Mamhead Nut Galls Red, White, and Black American Oaks The Plane Tree The Eastern Plane The Western Plane The Maple Acer Pseudo-platanus The Mock Plane or SycamoreThe Sugar Maple The Norway Maple The Striped-barked Maple The Red or Scarlet Maple The Walnut Tree Royal or Common Walnut The Black Walnut of America The Gray Walnut 67 CHAPTER V. Cone-bearing or Resinous Trees adapted for cold elevated Districts Eighty Years for a Scotch Pine to arrive at Perfection, but only forty for Larch The Pine Tree The Scotch Pine Forest of Glenmore Large Plank presented to the Duke of Gordon The Corsican viii CONTENTS. PAGE Pine The Black Pine of Austria The Cluster Pine The Weymouth Pine Dwarf Pines Gigantic or Lambert Pine Varieties of American Pine The Heavy- wooded Pine Long-leaved Indian Pine The Cembrian Pine The Lofty or Bhotan Pine The Stone Pine The Larch Parkinson and Evelyn mention the Larch Account by the Highland Society The Larch fosters the springing up of the natural Grasses Spruce Firs The Norway Spruce Douglas's Spruce Fir The Black Spruce Fir The Hemlock Spruce Fir The White American Spruce The Khutrow Spruce The Silver Fir Common Silver Fir Balm of Gilead Silver Fir The Cedar- Elliot Warburton's visit to Lebanon The Indian Cedar Appropriate Trees for various Situations Grafting Flowering Thorns 99 CHAPTER VI. Planting for Ornamentation Preparation of the Soil Trees for Shelter and Seclusion Ornamental Trees Grafting Varieties of Thorns Trees for Avenues The Hazel The Elder The Laburnum The Cherry Tree The Laurel The Sweet Bay The Portugal Laurel The Laurel Cherry The Portugal Laurel Cherry The Yew Tree The Foliage of the Yew Tree poisonous to Cattle Yew Timber very durable The Upright or Irish Yew Juniper The Common Juniper The Incense-bearing or Spanish Juniper The Vir- ginian Juniper The Common Savin The Bermudas Cedar The Spindle Tree The Common Spindle Tree The Broad-leaved Spindle Tree The Mountain Ash or Rowan Tree The Service Tree The Holly... 138 FARMING FOR PLEASURE & PROFIT. THIRD SECTION. TREE -PLANTING. TREE -PLANTING. CHAPTER I. The " Bishoppe of Lyncolne's Translation out of Frenshe into Englyshe " Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton's Plantations near the Yarmouth Roads Plantations in Morayshire Mr. Grigor's Account Sea-side Planting at the Gulf of Gascony Careless Planting Soft-wooded Trees Osiers Osiers on the Banks of the Severn and Thames Overflow of the Thames and the Embankment of the River Steam- boats on the Thames Osier Plantations very durable and a Source of large Profit Action of Light upon Osiers Kinds must be selected to suit various Soils The London Clay injurious to Osiers Formation of Osier Beds Small Osiers grown in France Mending Osier Plantations The Common Osier The Spaniard The French The New Kind The Hollander The Gelster The Green-leaved Osier The Brown Rod The Bitter Ornard The Blind-leaved Ornard Osier Plantation on the Holkham Estate. THE first work known to have been written in England upon an exclusively agricultural subject, is a small tract, " whyche Mayster Groshede, sometyme Bishoppe of Lyncolne, made and translated out of Frenshe into Englyshe." There is no date attached to it, but it is supposed to have been accurately fixed as belonging to the year 1500. It is a mere trans- lation of a work which treats chiefly upon planting and grafting ; and I mention the fact because, while works on general husbandry have been multiplied B 2 4 TREE-PLANTING. exceedingly, there are comparatively few which treat upon the planting and management of trees separately, in a popular or " handy " form. There are many very excellent works upon trees, from the time of Evelyn downwards, but they are mostly very expensive, and out of the reach of the "million;" and the subject does not appear to have received the amount of attention, at the hands of writers who are well fitted to deal with it, which its great importance deserves. Of late years, too, arboriculture has struck out for itself distinct paths, amongst the most remarkable of which, perhaps, is sea-side planting, which, fifty years or so ago, was looked upon as an eccentric fancy, not likely to become of any practical value to those who attempted it. But since the formation of the Earl of Leicester's woods, and those of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, on the northern extremity of the county of Norfolk, on the cliffs near that part known as the Yarmouth Roads, the method has become an estab- lished fact, which speaks for itself ; and upon the spot where the proprietor was once told by a successful planter, "that he might as well plant his walking- stick upon it, as anything else," plantations now boldly approach the sides of the German Ocean ; and the coastguard men of the district have their look-out from the midst of a sylvan bower, which before was bleak and desolate in the extreme. I shall treat again upon this subject as I proceed, but I wish to point out in the first place, the necessity of a correct appropriation of the various kinds or description of trees to suit certain soils, and situations. REPORT BY THE LATE MR. JOHN GRIGOR. 5 Many extensive tracts of land adjoining the sea, where the influence of the sea-spray used to prevent the profitable growth of plants, causing a great space of land to be utterly barren and unprofitable, have, by skilful treatment been rendered remunerative, by the growth of forest trees ; plantations having been formed both in England and Scotland, in soil apparently of the poorest description, which, until lately, was accounted entirely unfit for vegetation ; and are not only now of intrinsic value in themselves, but are furnishing a shelter, and consequently bestowing fertility upon adjoining lands. In a report on these plantations, by the late Mr. John Grigor, of the Norwich and Forres Nurseries, their success is chiefly attributed in the first place to careful preparation of the ground, which was trenched eighteen inches in depth ; second, to the erection of fences com- posed of furze and brushwood, as screens, six: feet in height ; third, to the plants being of the best description, two or three years of age, transplanted into nursery lines the year before they were placed in the plantation, which consequently endowed them with bushy fibrous roots, and closely planted two and a half to three feet apart ; fourth, to cleaning, by hoeing the land, for the first two years after planting, during which period root crops were produced among the young plants. The plantations embrace an area of 114 acres. The trenching cost six pounds per acre, and the fencing, plants, and planting, upwards of four pounds ; making the net cost upwards of ten pounds per acre, exclusive of the hoeing, which amounted to less than a fourth part of the value of the crops. " These plantations," says Mr. Grigor, to whom the 6 TREE-PLANTING. Highland and Agricultural Society awarded their gold medal, " were formed of several kinds of trees, among which the black sallow, or goat willow (Salix capred), and the pinaster, are strongly recommended trees which we have experienced to be very suitable for maritime situations. Within the last sixteen years a considerable extent of plantation has also been formed in the sands of Culbin. These sands occupy several thousand acres of the north-west corner of the county of Moray (N.B.), and are composed of small hills of sand, ranging from twenty to a hundred feet high, the surface of which is ever changing by the influence of the wind. Plantations on these sands were commenced by the proprietor of Kincorth, and the progress of the first larches in pure sand-drift was very remarkable. In 1840 and 1842 several hundred acres of plantations were successfully farmed by Mr. Grant, of Glenmorriston and Moy, on ground elevated from twelve, to thirty feet, above high tide mark, and one mile inland. These plantations are composed of native Scotch pines and larches. The Scotch pine generally appears the more vigorous tree ; it affords the best shelter, and has much the advantage in appearance. Its deep green contrasts beautifully with the colour of the sand, and adds to the native plant the lustre of a Himalayan. In the formation of soil, the larch is the most valuable tree. From the shedding of its leaves, it soon forms a dark stratum of vegetable matter in the surface of the sand, which fixes it, and promotes the growth of herbage. But in all similar situations, a mixture of plants is preferable to any one sort. The plants employed in these plantations were chiefly two years old, with a few one SUCCESSFUL SEA-SIDE PLANTING. 7 year transplanted plants three years old. The ground being dry, the plants were inserted in winter and early in spring, by the hand-irons, or notch-system, at the average of 9,400 per acre. " Little or no fencing was required, the plantations being bounded by a vast extent of pure undulating sand, with a surface abandoned to desolation, and bearing only the wavy ripple of the wind, except where a clump of bent grass (Ammophilla arundinacea) here and there arose. The cost of plants and plant- ing ranged from only nine to eleven shillings per imperial acre. The plants advanced vigorously, and with the exception of a few small spots where the drifting of the sand either removed or overspread the plants soon after their insertion, the plantation con- tains no vacancies. On lifting and examining the roots of some of the plants of both sorts, six years planted, occupying pure sand, where no surface herbage existed, it was found that they had furnished themselves with tap-roots, which strike to a great depth right underneath the plants ; but the greater portion of their roots run horizontally, at a depth of four inches under the surface of the sand, and extend to a distance almost incredible many of the plants of both sorts, during the six years, had acquired roots upwards of twenty feet in length, which ramified into numerous fibres ; and where the surface had remained undisturbed, the depth of the roots was very uniform. Nature thus adapts plants for emergencies. Neither on a level nor slanting surface was there any instance of a plant having perished by drought, or been removed by the wind, after it had taken root for a few years. The annual growth of both kinds of trees in these S TREE-PLANTING. woods, in the purest sand, is now upwards of fourteen inches, and contrasts favourably with that of plants in apparently better soil, more solid, but over- spread with a naked surface of the natural grasses ; thus illustrating the advantage of planting in a loose open soil, with a clear surface, whether poor or rich. These plantations being now from six to ten feet high, many parts are fit to yield a large supply of thinnings, which are well adapted for reclaiming the sands, and limiting the encroachment of sand-drift on the more valuable soil. These thinnings, or brush- wood, are valuable for the purpose of being spread over the newly-planted sands in the roughest ex- posures by overlapping, or spreading the brushwood in an imbricated position, which causes it to stick on the surface, and thus it affords shade and shelter to the young plants, in situations where they would otherwise perish." These remarks of Mr. Grigor were penned up- wards of twenty years ago, a few years after the time upon which experiments upon a large scale were made of sea-side planting, when the subject was com- paratively a new one, and naturally excited a good deal of attention. The difficulties attending the operation have been satisfactorily solved, not only in this country, but also abroad. Sea-side Planting at the Gulf of Gascony. In 1811, the commission appointed by the French government reported on the pineaster forests formed by M. Bremontier, of the Administration of Forests, who in 1789 commenced his operations at the Gulf of Gascony, where the downs offered nothing to the eye but a monotonous repetition of white wavy mountains SEA-SIDE PLANTING IN GASCONY. 9 of sand, destitute of vegetation, and agitated by the wind. This successful example of reclaiming sand-drifit, has naturally been regarded as a great triumph of arboretical skill, the commission reporting that 12,500 acres of downs had been covered with thriving plantations, by means of sowing the seeds of the pineaster, in the proportion of two pounds, mixed with four or five pounds of broom, to the acre ; and imme- diately covering with branches of pine, or other trees with the leaves on, commencing at the side next the sea, or from whence the wind usually proceeded, in narrow zones at right angles to that of the wind ; the first sown zone being protected by a line of hurdles, this zone protecting the second, the second the third, and so on. But as I before remarked I will return to the subject again, having alluded to these instances, to show under what extreme difficulties land otherwise worthless can be reclaimed, and made valuable by the judicious planting of trees. If then, the barren sea-shore can be rendered fertile and productive by means of art, what excuse is there for leaving large bare flats which are scorched up in summer, without a particle of shade for the cattle which are upon them, when not only the beauty of the landscape could be considerably improved, but a very important element of profit added to the estate ? Many person^ plant trees, but meet with no success in what they undertake, from not making choice of the right kinds to suit the situation or soil for which they are intended ; or merely shift trees from other situations, when the roots have not been io TREE-PLANTING. prepared for the change, by previous transplantation. The proper way of dealing with spruce plants, for example, is, after allowing them to stand two years in the seed-bed, to plant them in nurseries, about six inches apart, in lines about eighteen inches distant from one another, and then allow them to stand for another two years. The effect of the transplantation is, to do away with a strong tap-root, and in its place to put a bunch of fibrous roots, which take hold of the ground in those situations where they are intended finally to stand. There are many moist fields and districts throughout the country, which travellers come upon, entirely destitute of trees, where they might be grown to advantage. Sometimes attempts have been made, and failed from the wrong kinds having been chosen. Yet this class of land is the easiest of any to deal with, and makes a handsome show of results, sooner than in any other situation ; for the fast-growing, or soft-wooded trees, thrive best in moist lands, or near to water. These are, the willow, poplar, lime, alder, and horse-chestnut. All these kinds will permanently flourish in damp situations ; and in any low lands beside streams, or rivers, where the soil is moist, but not actually saturated, they will assume the highest degree of beauty of which they are capable. The weeping willow is one of the most beautiful trees, and during the latter end of March, when the goat willow (Salix caprea) throws out its handsome yellow catkins, it is decidedly an object of beauty, and on this account is well worthy of being cultivated as a standard in our nurseries. These trees, planted in sandy uplands where the VALUE OF OSIER-PLANTING. n soil has been well trenched, may grow and thrive for a few years, but after a while they give unmistakable signs of being out of their proper element, and display comparatively little vigour and comeliness, when com- pared with trees of the same kind planted in more congenial situations. Those lands near rivers which are constantly flooded by every tide, have been converted into very valuable parts of the estate upon which they are situated, by the judicious planting of osiers. On the banks of the Severn, which is noted for its high tides, osiers perhaps grow in their greatest perfection. Some of the best osiers which are grown, and which supply the London market, where there is a very large consumption for packing-baskets, are grown in Berkshire and Oxfordshire, on the banks of the Thames and Kennet But for size and bulk of crop, perhaps, there are none which exceed those which grow on the banks of the Thames between Chelsea and Richmond. The overflow of the Thames often does a great deal of damage to the houses and pro- perty of the residents near the river, and of late years, the subject has acquired much prominence, and various methods have been suggested for dealing with it ; the embankment of the river, and the removal of old London bridge having modified the action of the flowing of the tides considerably. The soil on the banks of the Thames is naturally very rich, and it is thought that the action of the steamboats keeps the water in a constantly turbid state, which leaves upon the grounds a top-dressing of rich mud every time the tide overflows them, which is now very constantly, up to Kingston and Ditton. Above this district, 12 TREE-PLANTING. extending through Staines, Shepperton, Chertsey, Windsor, as far as Maidenhead, although the osiers grown are of large size, the qualities are inferior, and they are used only for making the coarsest packing baskets. Osier plantations in favourable situations, will last seventy years, with a little occasional mending, and by good management can be made a source of large profit. In strong and rich soils, where they attain a height of ten, twelve, and thirteen feet, it is usual to plant them in rows two feet apart, and from sixteen or eighteen inches from each other in the rows. Eighteen inches is considered the best distance by practical men, on account of the shoots ripening better, for if planted too thickly on rich soils, there not being sufficient room for them to stand com- fortably together, a few of the leading ones would be drawn up very tall, and obstruct the light from acting upon the others, which would prevent their wood from ripening, and would, in consequence, become soft and pithy, and be unfit for the purpose of basket- making. It has been remarked that the action of light has a very peculiar effect upon the osiers. While in some seasons they will be of a yellowish brown their proper colour in others they will assume a dull green hue ; in cloudy seasons they become of a dull mahogany colour, while in unusually clear ones, they will turn cherry-colour, or red. But even with such a growth as osiers to deal with, it is necessary to select varieties which are the most suitable for the situation they are intended to occupy. In light soil, where there is a considerable FORMATION OF AN OSIER-BED. 13 portion of sand, the French, Goldstone, and a variety of the Spaniard, better known in Berkshire under the sobriquet of Black Jack, come to tolerable perfection ; but to insure their cultivation becoming a profitable occupation, a stronger staple is necessary, and also a compact subsoil. The Spaniard, French, and new kind, sometimes grow of fair quality upon light soils, when the subsoil is moist with springs, but the rods are smaller in size, and shorter in length, and the crop less bulky, than when grown on strong loam. The London clay, which is found in what is termed the London basin, and reaches about forty miles in some directions from London, is injurious as a subsoil to osiers, and when the roots come into contact with it, they invariably die off. I have mentioned seventy years as the duration of time a healthy osier plantation will last under favourable conditions ; but on the lighter soils, with an imperfect supply of moisture, they will only last from fifteen to twenty years, and will then require to be laid down afresh, while in river grounds they will last the period mentioned. In forming an osier bed, the ground should be trenched fifteen or sixteen inches deep. The sets should be about a foot and a half long, or a little less, and be inserted in the ground about half their length. The distance at which to plant must be regulated by the quality of the land. In light soils, where the supply of moisture is imperfect, so that the shoots come thinner, and shorter, than in the more favourable situations for their growth, it is usual to plant them in rows, a foot and a half apart, and fifteen or sixteen inches asunder. If they are planted wider apart, they 14 TREE-PLANTING. are apt to grow out crooked, and thick, and clubby next the stools, with branching twigs above, instead of drawing one another up in a slender form. For the larger sort of osiers, the sets are cut from the thick, or lower part of the rods, generally about the thickness of the little ringer, for although the sets from the small ends strike quickly, and grow well, they always throw out comparatively small shoots. On the other hand, in some parts of France, where they require small slender rods for making fine baskets, they cut the sets into small pieces, and lay them in drills a short distance apart, which causes the shoots to spring out at various points from the buried set, and an upright shoot will start from almost every eye. In mending plantations of osiers, the usual method followed is, to select the longest, and smoothest rods of the kind required, and to cut their but-ends in a slanting direction, and stick them into the ground beside the dead stool to the depth of nine inches, but not to shorten them, as in the case of making a new plantation. The reason for this method of procedure is, that if they were shortened, they would be smothered by the shoots of the older stools, before they had time to establish themselves ; but by leaving them long, they enjoy full light for a considerable part of the summer, before the others can catch them up, to shade them, but after two years they are cut back to the height of the old stools. A few of the stools die every season, so that the beds require to be constantly looked over and examined ; and in ex- ceptional seasons, when mild weather has been succeeded by very cold, in March and April, there SEASON FOR CUTTING OSIERS. 15 often occurs a great fatality amongst osiers, when it is found necessary to replant a great many ; recently formed plantations being most likely to be injured by the late spring frosts. The usual time for cutting osiers is any time between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the sap in the spring, and although some people cut them before and after this time, it is not considered advisable to do so. The Common Osier (Salix viminalis] is sometimes greenish, and sometimes of a yellowish brown colour, according to the soil upon which it is grown. It is, however, coarse, brittle, and soft, and not by any means valuable to the basket-maker. There are varieties, however, which are liked by those who understand the working of them ; one of which, called indifferently the blotched osier, the brindled osier, the speckled, and the snake osier, is the best kind of this variety. The next best variety of Salix viminalis, is the yellow-barked osier. The velvet-topped and apple-tree osier are also considered fairly good, while the long-skin is of smaller growth, and the wood heavier, firmer, and tougher, and is, indeed, a different species. TJie Spaniard, or Spaniard Rod (Salix triandrd], also has several varieties, some of which are of little value, as the horse Spaniard, which is very inferior, while the black-budded Spaniard is liked by basket- makers for bottoming and finishing the rims of baskets ; while the gray Spaniard and the brown Spaniard come in for coarse brown baskets. The French, French Rod, or Real French, which takes its name from having been imported from 16 TREE-PLANTING. France, as may readily be seen, when largely grown is an excellent kind for fine small work, and is much grown for making small baskets. The New Kind (Salix Forbyand] resembles the Spaniard in being equally strong, while it is more pliable to work. The Hollander, which may be seen in large quan- tities at the edges of the Maas by the traveller, and which owes its name in England from having been brought over here from the Dutch coast, though different in appearance to the new kind, resembles it very closely in quality. The Gelster is similar to the Spaniard in quality, but the but-end is thicker, and it grows more tapering. TJie Green-Leaved, Osier or Ornard, (Salix rubrd) is strong and tough, and considered a very good sort for the manufacture of certain kinds of baskets. The Brown Rod, Brownard, or Silver Osier (Salix Hoffmanniand), is silvery on the under side of the leaf, grows shortish, but is firm, and useful for special purposes. The Bitter Ornard (Salix purpured] grows slender, and is tough, and is well adapted for wet ground, like all the other ornards which grow in water. TJie Blunt-leaved Ornard (Salix Lambertiand), Rose Ornard (Salix helix}, and the Bastard French (Salix lanceolatd), are considered very inferior in quality on account of their brittleness, which causes a great number of snapped ends to project in their working. The kinds I have enumerated embrace the best known sorts, and the plantations on the Holkham estate, in Norfolk, were computed to produce thirty- four pounds, seventeen shilling per acre, the first crop PROFITABLE RESULT OF OSIER-GROWING. 17 in the second year after their formation, and twenty- seven pounds ten shillings annually afterwards. Of course these are important results, when it is borne in mind that they are grown upon soils which could not be made available for any other crop. There are many strips of land by the side of open ditches, by streams, and around pools, which might be often turned to profitable account, which are now frequently lamentably neglected, which would be found to come in very useful for many purposes besides basket- making upon a farm, if osiers or willows were but grown. CHAPTER II. Trees which are most suited to damp Situations The Duke of Bedford's " Salictum Woburnense "The Goat Willow Bark of the Willow astringent Embanking The White or Huntingdon Willow Russell's, or the Bedford Willow Johnson's Willow Large Willow at Sion American Weeping Willow Kilmarnock Weeping Willow The Alder Wood of the Alder used in making Fish-barrels The Alder an Agent for reclaiming Land Planting The Poplar Cobbett and the Poplar Tree Prince Piickler Muskau's Opinion The Lombardy Poplar Poplars on the Con- tinent, and Poplar Fences Black Italian Poplar The Gray Poplar The White Poplar White Egyptian Poplar The Trembling-leaved Poplar, or Aspen The Balsam Poplar The Ontario Poplar The Lime, or Linden Attempt^to assassinate the German Emperor The Horse Chestnut Scarlet Flowering Chestnut. I shall proceed to class those trees which succeed best in damp situations, the greatest variety of which, is to be found amongst the willow tribe, which is the type of the natural order Salicacecz, the genus Salix, belonging to the Dicecia diandria of Linnseus. It comprehends many diverse species and varieties, from the osiers I have just been describing, to trees fifty feet in height, there being no genus of plants in general cultivation, whose species are so much confused as that of the willow, which arises from various causes. Some of the leading kinds have become hybridised, and yielded numerous intermediate varieties; and VARIETIES OF THE WILLOW. 19 partly by reason from each species containing male and female plants, and the same differing to some extent in appearance, at certain times of the year, while the old trees wear quite a different aspect from the young ones, and that variation in the soil, and climate, is greatly apt to change the outward appear- ance of the willow, it is not to be wondered at that a certain degree of confusion prevails at times in the genus, so that the most strongly marked kinds only are, at times, recognisable by the inexperienced, several hundred species of British and foreign willows having been mentioned in recent publications. The Duke of Bedford, who published his " Salictum Woburnense " in 1829, describes 150 species, all of which existed in the Salictum at Woburn. In situations where there are steep declivities, through which a stream, or water-course runs, the banks may often be seen washed down, lying in ugly masses, producing an unsightly appearance from the gaps made in the broken banks. By judicious planting of the willow, the banks may be made firm, through the interlacing of the roots of the trees, the appearance of the landscape greatly beautified, and the value of the timber and loppings secured to their owner. Besides being serviceable in fixing the banks of rivers, and preventing any aggression from the con- tinual washing of the water, many of these make a quick return of capital, being fast-growing trees, which soon attain the size of timber-trees, and being extremely hardy, will attain a fair size in soil of almost any description, especially Salix caprea, S. alba, and 5. Russelliana. The Goat Willow, or Sallow (salix caprea) is found C 2 20 TREE-PLANTING. indigenous in waste ground, particularly in cold and marshy situations ; and with its various varieties, is among the broadest-leaved of the willow tribe. In rich wet ground, a seedling plant of two years old will occasionally produce several shoots three or four feet high, and under the most adverse circumstances, will generally ripen its growth to the very topmost bud. The healthy young shoots have a dark-brown glossy bark, and the buds being white and promi- nent present an agreeable contrast to the eye ; while the male plant throws out a profusion of catkins during the early part of the season, which gives it a handsome and striking appearance, and causes it to be highly ornamental. Upon a farm where there is a demand for sheep-fences, or similar articles, the goat willow may be grown in the form of coppice, and cut down every three or four years ; no other tree producing so great an amount of faggot wood. In situations best adapted for its growth, a healthy stock will sometimes, in one season, throw out a sheaf of straight clear shoots, measuring from eight to twelve feet in length ; many of them are three inches in circumference at a yard from the ground. When grown in the form of timber, this species frequently attains the height of forty or fifty feet, with a trunk from one and a half to two feet in diameter. In marshy districts, how often are there to be seen bare regions as flat and unbroken as the palm of one's hand, save where a deep drain intersects the land perhaps? For these the goat willow is eminently applicable, affording a valuable shelter in maritime situations, withstanding the influence of the sea better than most plants. The timber is soft, of course, like EMBANKMENTS FORMED BY WILLOWS. 21 all fast-growing trees, but that of the vS. caprea is reckoned the best of any of the willow tribe. It is easily propagated by cuttings, taking strong one-year old shoots, formed into lengths fourteen to sixteen inches long, which should be inserted in the ground to the depth of ten or twelve inches. These often strike, and grow as well as rooted plants in favourable situations, but when the ground is not particularly well-adapted for the growth of the willow, or has not been well prepared, it is best to have recourse to rooted plants. The bark and leaves of all the willows are as- tringent, and can generally be used for tanning leather. Its natural home and habitat being near to water, it can be made to render most valuable service in resisting the encroachments of streams subject to violent floods. With this view, it is customary to cut the branches between October and April, and form them into frames for embankment. The frames are made to extend from the channel of the water to the top of the flow-bank, with a gentle slope, the larger timber being blended with the smaller branches ; the whole is covered with a few inches of sand, gravel, or the ordinary soil of the banks. The branches send out a great number of fibres, which create a surface vegetation in a proper form, effectual for resisting the force of the water. By this method materials of a shifting character are made firm and consolidated, and, by being lopped every year, the willows form a permanent embankment. The White, or Huntingdon Willow (S. alba). In soils and situations favourable for its growth, this tree frequently ranges from sixty to eighty feet in 22 TREE-PLANTING. height, with a trunk two or three feet in diameter. At twenty or thirty years of age, it often attains the height of sixty and seventy feet, when its trunk often yields one cubical foot per annum every year of its growth. On this account, it is more often planted as a timber-tree than any other willow, though it makes good coppice, and is often grown as a pollard, where the annual loppings furnish a large amount of useful wood for various purposes. For osiers, however, it is not so appropriate, for though the year-old shoots are strong and tough, they are twiggy and full of laterals, which causes them to be unsuitable for the purpose of basket-making. The timber of willow is very useful for many agri- cultural purposes, for which other kinds of wood are not nearly so appropriate. Even its soft yielding nature, which causes it to be objectionable for some uses, yet makes it highly desirable for others. For lining carts and barrows, into which rough loads are flung, such as stones, the wood is very useful, as, being soft, although it may be indented, it will not splinter, and receive damage from the friction to which it may be subjected. For rake and scythe-handles, sheep-flakes or hurdles, these are best formed out of willows, and by reason of the lightness of the wood in the case of hurdles, are easily removed from place to place, while they are not damaged by their own weight when flung hastily down, being white, soft, and light. Russell's, or the Bedford Willow (S. Russelliana), is one of the best willows in cultivation. Johnson's willow at Lichfield is of this species, the trunk of which is twelve feet, or more, in circumference. There WEEPING WILLOWS. 23 used to be a tree at Sion eighty-nine feet high, with a trunk upwards of twelve feet in circumference, some years ago, but the writer is unaware whether it is yet standing, as well as other large trees in different parts of the country ; the remarkable point being, in the case of such trees, that they are useful in some form or other at every stage of their growth, from two years to fifty years of age, the latter in the shape of timber, the former as rods for basket-making. For the adornment of suburban villas and gentle- men's residences, there are some very elegant willows which have lately been introduced into Britain, one of the handsomest of which is the American weeping willow. As the plant is, however, of itself but of feeble growth, it will be found the best plan to graft upon the top of a strong stem, such as that of 6\ caprea. The graceful, drooping, long slender branches have a very elegant appearance when agitated by the wind, and it possesses the recom- mendation of being extremely hardy. 6\ Babylonica is another very ornamental willow, being a native of Asia and the north of Africa. It is very graceful in form, but somewhat tender ; and it is only during the most favourable seasons, and. on the best soil, that the twigs ripen at their extremities. Unlike most willows, too, it does not grow freely from cuttings, but needs to be propagated by layers. The ordinary weeping willow becomes a very hand- some object, where drooping over a pond or lake. The Kilmarnock weeping willow is said to be a drooping variety of the 5. caprea, which was origin- ally discovered in -the west of Scotland, and is now extensively cultivated in the nurseries of North Britain. 24 TREE-PLANTING. The Alder (Alnus glutinosd). The glutinous, or common alder, is by no means a handsome tree, and cannot be compared to the willow, and is deficient as an ornamental object. Its proper home is near to springs, and by the margin of rivers, where it will frequently attain the height of sixty feet. One tree in Norfolk is recorded as standing sixty-five feet high, its trunk, one foot from the ground, measuring twelve feet in circumference. The alder may be regarded as the most aquatic tree known to Britain, and attains its maturity when it has reached from fifty to sixty years, at which age it should be felled, when its timber is the main object sought for. The wood is some- what similar to that of the willow, and is useful for certain definite purposes, as for the making of shoe- makers' lasts, for the use of turners and cabinet- makers, where soft wood is desirable. In Scotland, the wood is much in request in those districts where fish is cured, for making fish-barrels, when trees of twenty-five years of age are sufficiently mature to be felled for this purpose. The alder has been made use of as a most valuable agent for reclaiming meadow-land, which has either been continually, or partially flooded. In order to effect this object, the soil is ridged up by the side of the watercourse in spring, upon which young trees are planted. In a few years, by the roots fixing themselves tenaciously in the soil, and the continued falling of the leaves, the bank will become hard and firm. The alder also, being a rapid-growing tree, is a useful kind to plant in bare situations, where houses have been built destitute of the natural ornament of THE POPLAR NOT A FAVOURITE. 25 trees ; and where they are quickly needed to make a show, while perhaps others of a handsomer descrip- tion are growing, and coming to maturity. In the fen districts it is valuable as a hedgerow tree, as it will accommodate itself to situations in which other trees refuse to grow, and is therefore especially useful in nursing more valuable trees which have been planted by the seaside. The alder prefers a low situation, and delights in moist meadow ground near a river. The best times for planting are November and March, by digging a hole nine inches deep, with a common garden spade. The propagation of the alder is best done by seed, though it is not worth while any private person attempting to do so, as a thousand plants a foot high may be bought for six or seven shillings, of the nurserymen who make a business of rearing large numbers of trees for planting. These sow the seeds as thick as they can lie on the surface of the ground, without touching one another, and are then trod carefully in with the feet. At the end of the first season the plants will be nine inches high, after which they are transplanted into lines. The Poplar comes next in natural order of succes- sion on a damp or moist soil, which is not so wet as those I have previously referred to. A great dif- ference of opinion exists as to the relative merit of the poplar tree, as an object of landscape adornment. Cobbett called it a great ugly tree, while Prince Piickler Muskau, who has been cited as a good authority on trees, complains of its leaves " being too fluttering." An old poplar, showing a large misshapen black-looking trunk, is certainly often an ugly object, 26 TREE-PLANTING. but on the other hand, young poplar trees are gene- rally considered good-looking, their fresh green foliage being very gay and bright, while the young wood is not by any means bad-looking. The poplar, however, is the most useful of all trees for furnishing an effect in a bare locality, being remarkable for its rapidity of growth. The genus (Populus) is of the natural order Salicacece, which produces unisexual flowers, those of the two sexes being placed on separate plants, and consists of many species, natives of all countries, very diversified in foliage and form, but all remarkable for rapidity of growth. Interspersed with other kinds they make a pleasing variety, and can at all events be cut down by those who are not partial to them, after they have performed the task for which they were designed, in furnishing shelter and em- bellishment, while the more valued and slower-growing trees were attaining a size adapted for the purpose in view. The Lomlardy Poplar, or Fastigiate (P.fastigiata), is easily recognised by its upright growth, with its lateral branches closely gathered round about its trunk, forming a taper shape. It was introduced into Britain about the middle of the eighteenth century, and soon became common in England, being easily propagated by cuttings, in the same way as the willow. Travellers on the Continent have remarked the long spectral rows of these trees along the margins of fields, and compare them unfavourably with the hedgerow timber trees of England, consisting of the elm, and the oak. The uniformity of its growth, and the straight lines in which they are planted, added to the flatness of the country, causes it to wear a monotonous appearance, THE POPLAR IN TOWNS. 27 which is wearisome to the eye. Judiciously placed in landscape gardening, it forms, however, a very elegant and striking object, when mixed with masses of round- headed forest trees, when it helps greatly to diversify the scene. As shelter the tree is unequalled. It soon attains a great height, and forms a good screen, while its shade is very harmless to crops growing near them. A few poplars planted in the neighbourhood of out- buildings very often redeem an otherwise ugly feature, and diversify the regularity of the sky line. As a town tree it is one of the best which can be selected, as it grows in a narrow space, and will stand smoke almost better than any other tree ; while growing rapidly, it soon assumes a distinct form, and attains a greater altitude than any other tree in a limited period. It will grow vigorously in any soil when young, and is therefore particularly valuable where trees are wanted to make a show in a short space of time, but to attain their fullest dimensions, the soil must be rich and deep, and water within reach of their roots. Fences are formed out of this tree on the Continent, by inserting two-year old plants, which are commonly six or seven feet in height, in a straight line, about six inches apart, connected by a horizontal rod placed at a height of about a yard from the ground, forming a fence in one season. The plants are lopped in the course of time, and eventually thinned out when they begin to attain the size of timber. Necklace-bearing, or Black Italian Poplar (P. monilifera), sometimes called the Canadian poplar. This is a very fast-growing tree, and on wild and rocky ground even, on the margins of lakes between 28 TREE-PLANTING. Canada and Virginia, it grows to the height of seventy or eighty feet, and in good soil considerably exceeds this measurement. On rich moist land it becomes a large tree in a few years, and is readily distinguished from the Lombardy poplar, by its leaves being broader, and its young shoots being serrated, parti- cularly towards the extremities, and is also of a much darker colour. Its habit is also much more spreading, its side shoots taking a wider and more horizontal range, which often tempts pruning, which is not a very safe experiment with poplars, as it often induces decay. The Gray Poplar (P. canescens) is a native of Britain, which grows rapidly, and is a large spreading tree. In April it becomes conspicuous from the pro- fusion of large catkins it throws out, which are two or three inches in length. It thrives best in moist soils, and is somewhat remarkable at an early age for throwing out strong lateral shoots nearly equal in length to the main shoot. When cut down young, it .shoots freely, but at a later period of its growth, it -springs more vigorously from the roots, and is con- sequently objectionable in some situations, as it fills the land with suckers. It is most readily propagated by layers, and after being one year transplanted, the plants are often six feet high, and fit for being finally planted out, in the situations in which they are intended to stand. It is considered a good tree to plant with oak and silver-fir, to act as nurse, as it furnishes a shelter which is adapted to the early growth of these trees, and as it becomes of a useful size in a few years, it can then be taken away, and its timber made use of, when the other trees are -established. THE ASPEN. 29 Its wood is soft and light, resembling that of willow, and is seldom profitably grown after forty years, as it generally begins then to rot in the centre of the trunk. The timber is useful for making barn doors, as it does not warp, and for similar purposes as that to which willow is applied. Planted alone in rich moist soil, it rises with a straight trunk to a considerable height in a short time, and produces a large amount of timber. The White Poplar (P. alba). The general appear- ance of this tree somewhat resembles P. canescens, though not generally so vigorous, is finer, the upper surface of the leaves being of a darker green, and the under side of a brighter white, which, when agitated by the wind, presents a very striking appearance, and has a very conspicuous effect upon the margins of lakes, upon islands, or in plantations designed for effect. It is not believed to be a native of Britain, but is generally supposed to have been brought to England at an early period from Flanders. The most beautiful variety is that known as the white Egyptian poplar, the leaves of which are the darkest green above, with the most vivid white beneath, though its growth is not nearly so vigorous as the common variety. The Trembling-leaved Poplar (P. tremuld), or Aspen, is a native of Britain, and is also indigenous in mountainous situations throughout Europe and Asia, in the Highlands of Scotland being frequently found associated with the natural birch. Unlike the tapering varieties, this is a beautiful round-headed tree, of stately and elegant appearance, tall in pro- portion to its bulk, growing very rapidly, and being 30 TREE-PLANTING. extremely hardy. It will grow luxuriously in almost any soil, and attain a considerable height while young, in a dry and sandy soil, as well as a moist one. Its roots spread on the surface of the ground, and there is one objection attending its cultivation, which is, that in many situations its tendency to produce suckers from the root, when the vigour of the young tree subsides in neglected grounds, causes it to form a jungle around the trees. This Is not so much objected to in the Highlands, and some parts of Germany and Sweden, as these young shoots are greedily eaten by sheep and cattle and so form an article of food not to be despised for stock, being used both in a green and a dry state for this purpose. This species is readily propagated by cuttings from the roots, but not cuttings from the branches, as is the case with many other kinds of poplars. Plants one or two years transplanted from layers, are generally from five to six feet high, when they should be removed and planted in nursery lines. The average growth of the aspen for the first ten years is not less than three feet annually. These trees can be made to assume a very ornamental appearance in various situations. Standing by itself on a lawn, it assumes a pendulous form. On the outskirts of plantations its foliage makes a handsome contrast to those of other trees, throughout the summer being of a beautiful glaucous green, which is changed by the first frosts of autumn into a more mellowed hue, which ultimately turns to a bright yellow, and by tasteful arrangement, it forms a valuable aid in landscape embellishment. The leaves are round and smooth, and standing in long THE POPLAR READILY PROPAGATED. 31 slender foot-stalks, they are agitated by the gentlest breeze, so that their quivering is very perceptibly heard, as well as seen, during comparatively calm weather. The Balsam Poplar (P. balsamifera) does not attain a very great height in Britain, though in North America it rises to eighty feet. It is solely adapted for ornament, and grows vigorously only for a few years while it is young. The trunk has an ash-coloured bark, the young wood being of a rich chestnut colour, while the buds are large, and encased in a glutinous balsam to which the tree owes its name. Its leaves are of a pale yellow, which diffuse a rich balsamic odour throughout the air, eventually changing to a rich dark green colour. The tree is readily propa- gated either from cuttings, or by suckers which it is in the habit of throwing out; and there are several varieties which differ in the size, shape, and colour of the leaves, also in the relative vigour of their growth, and again in the time at which they expand their foliage. All the varieties will readily grow in any description of soil, but they prefer that which is moderately sheltered, and which is soft, rich, and moist. TJte Ontario Poplar (P. candicans). This tree is almost useless as timber, for when it ceases to grow vigorously, the branches become brittle, and it is then comparatively worthless. It bears a strong family likeness to the balsam poplar, but is of a much more rapid and vigorous habit of growth. From the varieties I have named, it will be seen that the poplar is one of the most useful and most 32 TREE-PLANTING. accommodating of the deciduous trees, especially valuable for planting in bare situations. It has been remarked by a writer, that when men build mansions in flat bare situations, destitute of trees, the visions they dwell on are those of the dark forest-side, and cathedral-like vista. They desire that their dwellings should be invested with the garb of antiquity. This cannot of course be done instantaneously, yet, by a proper selection of trees, kindly treated, the change may be very much hastened. The Canadian poplar twenty years planted, will reach the height of fifty feet, and this tree does not make merely height alone, but will carry with it a great burden of branches of spray, and overshadow a space four or five yards in circumference. Poplars will make an agreeable show when even quite young, so that a belt of nice, fresh, green-looking trees may be established at once in any situation ; for all sorts of poplars will grow in any kind of ground during their infancy, if it is well trenched, even on that of a sandy description, better adapted for the growth of the fir. As I have before pointed out, when they have performed their office they may be removed, in order to give place to more valued trees. The Lime Tree, or Linden, or Teil Tree. This beautiful tree is the Tilia of botanists, and belongs to Polyandria monogynia of the Linnaean system, the principal tree of the genus, which is divided into two species, and consist of a number of distinct varieties, being the Tilia Europa, or common lime. It is unsuited for bleak situations, its chief use being to form embowering shade to an avenue. In HONEY FROM LIME-TREE BLOSSOMS. 33 towns throughout the Continent they are planted in lines along the streets and public promenades, and its blossoms expanding in July diffuse an agreeable fragrance, which is the most perceptible in hot weather, the heat reflected by pavements and buildings strengthening its odour, while the shade it affords is veiy desirable. It was beneath the shade of the lime trees at Berlin, that the would-be-assassin, Heinrich Max Hodel, made his attempt on the life of the Emperor William, while returning from a drive. When firing the first shot he stood on the footpath of Unter den Linden, and then ran to the other side of the street, where the trees are, threw himself on the ground, fired a second shot, and missing, again took to flight, firing twice more at the bystanders. It is stated by Loudon that the honey produced by the lime-tree blossoms is considered to be far superior to all other kinds, on account of its delicacy, selling at three or four times the price of common honey, and is used exclusively for medicines, and in the manufacture of liqueurs. The lime is said to be indigenous to England ; but it has been pointed out that, whether native or foreign, it does not shed its seeds and spring up in uncultivated ground, as indigenous plants invariably do, which has given rise to some doubts as to its being really a native of Britain. It is, however, a native of the north of Germany, Sweden, and Russia, and is found wild on the Alps in Switzerland, in the north of Italy, Spain, and Portugal. It requires a good climate, and a rich alluvial or loamy soil ; it being found that seeds are only D 34 TREE-PLANTING. ripened in the best seasons, and on trees most favourably situated. In favourable seasons the seeds ripen in autumn, and may be sown in winter or early spring ; the plants coming up in the ensuing summer. The lime is a vigorous, pliant, well-balanced tree, throwing out a great number of branches of a graceful lateral form, and it attains to a great size in a short period, according well with the meadows and culti- vated ground with which it is often associated, not thriving in dry poor soils. Where several kinds of lime trees stand together, and throw out their blossoms at the same time, the seeds easily become hybridised, and produce various sorts, though they may be gathered from one tree. It is seldom, how- ever, plants are raised from seed, for when they can be obtained fully ripe, which is not always, the progress of the plant is very slow when compared with that of layers, which always perpetuates the original, or parent tree, and this plan of raising plants from layers is invariably practised by nurserymen. When lopped over at the surface of the ground, the stool readily produces a number of young plants. The young shoots are then bent down into the earth to the depth of three or four inches, with their extremities placed in an upright position, which forms the young plant. The operation of laying down the shoots can be done either in winter or early spring, and the plants will become rooted and fit for removal by the November following, when the young shoots, which have been thrown out from the stool in the mean- time (the produce of the preceding summer), should be inserted in the ground like the others, to create another crop of young plants, thus laying down and LAYING DOWN THE LIME TREE. 35 removing the plants yearly. As this is a great strain upon the stool, it is desirable to furnish manure to it, and give a few inches of rich compost or vegetable mould, and when the soil is destitute of silex it will be found advisable to mix some sharp sand with it. After three years, one healthy stool will furnish about sixty plants annually, which when removed are generally about two feet high. They should then be transplanted into nursery lines, about two and a half feet asunder, the plants standing about fifteen inches apart in the rows. They will usually attain a height of six feet in two years, and are then ready for being finally planted out. They may, however, be kept in the nursery and grown to a much larger size, and afterwards be transplanted with safety, provided they are removed every second year. This removal causes the roots to assume a fibrous or bushy form, which catch hold of the soil and adapt themselves to a new situation, which a top root will not do. This is one of the chief advantages of dealing with a respectable nurseryman, from whom the true history, so to speak, of each plant may be obtained. The ordinary progress of the . growth of the lime tree in rich soil, in a sheltered situation, is about two feet per annum in height, for the first fifteen or twenty years ; after which time its progress is more manifest in making addition to the bulk of the trunk, and expanse to its lateral branches; its height in Britain attaining to sixty feet, with broad spreading branches, although there are individual instances where the tree has been known to reach a height of ninety-five feet. The timber of the lime tree is very soft and white, D i 36 TREE-PLANTING. or pale yellow colour, and is preferred to make blocks for cutting leather upon, for carving, and for the use of shoemakers, glovers, and saddlers. Not being subject to warp, and having a fine surface, it is used at foundries for forming moulds, and also in the manufacture of gunpowder in the form of charcoal. The leading varieties of the common, or European, lime tree, are the small leaved (inicropJiylld], the broad-leaved (platyphylld], the red- twigged (rubra], the cut-leaved (laciniata), the yellow-twigged (aurea), and the white-leaved (alba). The American Lime Tree (Tilia Americana], like the European species, does best on a rich, loose, deep soil, and flourishes on the borders of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The leaves are larger, of a dark green colour, cordate, acutely pointed, and are generally smooth and shining, while it is of a more robust habit than the European description. In Britain it is a month later than the common lime tree in expanding its blossoms, its twigs being of a dark brown colour, and the branches of the young trees commonly taking a wider range. On the American continent it attains the height of eighty feet. It is not very commonly met with in England. The mode of propagation and treatment are the same as that pursued in the case of the common tree. The Horse Chestnut is one of the handsomest trees we have, and is altogether a different variety to the Castanea vesca, the sweet or Spanish chestnut. It forms a beautiful avenue of trees; those at Bushey Park, when in full blossom, constituting one of the sights of London, to which thousands of people flock in fine weather. It thrives in a rich, deep, damp THE HORSE CHESTNUT. 37 soil, is generally round-topped, having a well-balanced head during its early maturity, and is altogether a very handsome tree. It is easily propagated from the nut, which bursts out of its prickly shell when ripe, and grows very quickly. In moist and undisturbed situations, these will often strike and take root when dropped from the tree, and its cultivation is very simple and easy. The horse chestnut (^Esculus hippocastanum] is supposed to have been introduced into this country from the Levant (the " Orient " of the French, the " Morgenland " of the Germans, paraphrases of the " East ") about the middle of the sixteenth century. As a lawn tree it forms a most beautiful object with its handsome blossoms. After the foliage begins to expand, the tree is remarkable for the rapidity with which it forms its whole season's growth, which it effects in three or four \veeks. The young wood being thus matured early in the season, renders the tree well adapted to endure cold and unfavourable situations, though it will only blossom abundantly in warm and sheltered positions, a high degree of temperature being necessary to expand them. The seedlings should be transplanted into nursery lines, at one or two years of age, and then removed every third year, increasing the space in which they stand. By this means the fibrous nature of the roots, after being frequently transplanted, allows it to be removed in safety when it has attained a larger size than most trees, by which means an avenue of fair sized trees could be obtained in very little time, or a handsome object planted upon a lawn, or wherever it might be required. 38 TREE-PLANTING. The horse chestnut sometimes attains to a con- siderable size. One tree in Lincolnshire is sixty feet high, possessing a circumference of foliage which measures a hundred yards. The timber is comparatively worthless, except for those purposes where wood is required that is easily worked, a cubical foot of chestnut timber weighing when dry only from thirty-five to thirty-seven pounds. The nuts, which are bitter, are refused by pigs, and all other animals excepting the deer, which eat them. In France I believe they make starch from the nuts, but to the best of my knowledge they are not put to any useful purpose in England. The Scarlet-Flowering Chestnut is a handsome tree for decorative purposes, of a more dwarf habit, which flowers at an earlier age than the common horse chestnut, which causes it to be in request on that account. There are also some interesting varieties of the yellow-flowering and smooth-fruited kinds, which are of dwarf growth, of the genus termed Pavia. These are best propagated by being engrafted on the common horse chestnut, a profusion of stocks for such a purpose being always readily accessible. The trees I have enumerated will all thrive and succeed well in moist situations, the same as I have described ; each and all being very easy to deal with in their method of cultivation ; success invariably re- warding only a very moderate amount of painstaking; in fact, in some cases, as the willow, by merely sticking a small piece of cutting into the ground in a moist situation, in the neighbourhood of water, in course of time a handsome tree will be found in its place. CHAPTER III. Broad-leaved Trees Trees as Landscape Ornaments Influence of Climate Planting in the Sixteenth Century Turner's "Herbal " Gerrard's Catalogue and Physic-garden in Holborn Sir Hans Sloane's Physic-garden at Chelsea Doctor Compton, Bishop of London Planting greatly stimulated The "Hortus Kewensis "- Trees introduced by Douglas The Ash The Beech Old Tree in Windsor Forest Indisposition of English Farmers to turn their attention to Agricultural Manufactures The Birch The Elm The Mountain or Wych Elm The Huntingdon Elm Cork- barked Elm American Elm Curled-leaved Elm Variegated Elm Weeping Elm Aptitude of the Elm to "sport," or vary from seed The Chestnut Tree Valuable as Coppice The Timber chiefly valuable when young Derivation of its Name Grown in Spain for its Fruit Brought to Europe by the Greeks from Sardis Largest and oldest Chestnut Tree in the World Great Chestnut at Tortworth Raising trees from Seed Ornamental Varieties. I WILL next speak of the varieties which are usually termed broad-leaved timber trees, which embrace the oak, elm, ash, beech, birch, plane, hornbeam, locust, sycamore, walnut, and Spanish chestnut; none of which succeed well in elevated situations, exposed to a rigorous climate, where cone-bearing, or resinous trees, succeed, such as the pine, larch, and spruce, and kindred species ; nor answer in low-lying situations, such as I have been describing, that are surcharged with moisture. As landscape ornaments, the broad-leaved timber 40 TREE-PLANTING. trees play a very important part, the umbrageous shade and canopy-like form of many studded about in park-like meadows being peculiar to Britain The pendulous masses of the ash' are gracefulness itself, when agitated by the influence of the breeze. For beauty of foliage and flower, perhaps nothing surpasses the locust, or acacia, trees. The plane is another noble tree which often excites admiration, while the birch, growing on the sides of precipitous crags, frequently redeems many an otherwise barren scene from an aspect of desolation. The oak, which has often been symbolised as a picture of sturdy strength, will, under favourable conditions for its growth, attain a height of eighty-five feet, with a trunk measuring twelve or thirteen feet in circum- ference. But look at the same tree under adverse circumstances ! Disliking extreme heat or cold, under either condition it becomes dwarfed and stunted ; and in exposed situations, where the Scotch fir would flourish, the oak becomes merely a shadow of itself when grown under conditions not favourable to its full development. Some of the American trees, such as the western plane where the summers are hotter, and the winters more severe, in its native country than in England need to be planted in a sunny sheltered spot, as much as possible guarded from the frosty winds of March and April ; for the tender buds, exposed to ungenial blasts, exhibit a scorched appearance, and sufficiently attest the difference of climate, for in their own, the hot summers cause their leaves to expand rapidly, thus maturing the young wood, so as to enable it to withstand the severity of the winter season. And in planting trees, to cause them to be PLANTATIONS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 41 successful, the influences of climate should be taken relatively into account as much as possible ; for, where one tree will not answer, another will ; and a certain amount of observation and attention will soon enable a correct estimation to be formed of the kind of trees needed for each situation, and aspect. Although as timber trees, nearly the whole of these are very valuable in individual instances, taken collectively they cannot be grown so profitably as plantations of pine, larch, or Scotch fir, for obvious reasons ; one of the principal of which is, that they would occupy valuable agricultural land, while the other kinds I have mentioned can be grown in ex- tensive plantations, which, otherwise occupied, would yield but a trifling return. This is well understood by the large planters who have made this subject a matter of study, but it is one which is comparatively unknown to those whose operations in this direction have been only on a very limited scale. During the sixteenth century plantations began to be extensively t formed in Britain, for timber and for ornamental purposes, though many of the timber trees are supposed to have been introduced into England by the Romans. Turner, who published his "Herbal" about the middle of the sixteenth century, upon different occasions notices the introduction of the evergreen cypress, the common spruce fir, the stone pine, the sweet bay, and_the walnut ; and towards the end of the sixteenth century Gerrard published the first edition of his catalogue, which includes the pine- aster, the laburnum, and a number of the smaller trees and shrubs which he had collected in his physic 42 TREE-PLANTING. garden in Holborn. The only surviving physic-garden which now remains in London, is, I believe, the one left by Sir Hans Sloane to the Apothecaries' Com- pany, which now abuts the Thames Embankment at Chelsea, which the writer had to inspect a couple of years or so back, in his capacity of grand juryman, upon the occasion of a difference between the Apothe- caries' Company and Board of Works, which was settled amicably by arrangement, and did not finally come on for trial. To the botanists and apothecaries of London we are indebted at that period for the first accounts we have of the introduction of many of the timber trees with which we are now commonly familiar. Doctor Compton, who was Bishop of London from 1675 to 1713, introduced a great number of exotic trees, chiefly from America. The Botanic Garden of Edinburgh was formed in 1680, and in 1683 the cedar of Lebanon was introduced into it. Parkinson, the apothecary to James L, a physician of London, recorded in 1629 the introduction of the larch and the horse chestnut, but who the introducers were is not stated. The writings of Linnaeus, Miller, Bradly, and others, and the consequent spread of botanical know- ledge, was the means of exciting attention to this subject, and a taste sprang up amongst the wealthiest and best educated classes for the cultivation of plants and trees, especially by some of the chief landowners in the kingdom, and large plantations were formed at Sion, Croome, Goodwood, and Claremont. It is stated that the Countess of Haddington took such an absorbing interest in improvements by plantation, STIMULUS GIVEN TO PLANTING. 43 that she sold her jewels in order to enable her to plant Binning Wood, which embraced 1,000 acres, and was formed in 1705, while a great impetus was given later on to the introduction of the tribe of Conifera by Douglas, who went to North-west America as a botanical collector. The influence of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland has given a great impetus to planting during the present century, in offering pre- miums for the introduction'bf new timber trees. From the transactions reported by that institution, it appears that the Earl of Seafield planted the enormous number of 30,000,000 of young trees upon land ex- ceeding in space 8,000 acres. The Duke of Argyle planted very largely in Scotland, and also at Whitton, near Hounslow. The Duke of Richmond planted 1,000 cedars of Lebanon at Goodwood, five years of age, a tree which ought to be much more generally planted than it is. It will grow well and flourish in elevated positions, on rocky or stony soil, amidst a loose stone formation, whence the roots from the tree can fix itself amongst their interstices. Indeed, for the purposes of timber, the wood of the cedar is harder and more durable than when grown on the richer soil of the low lands, in which it is nearly always met with in this country, being often looked upon more as an exotic than the hardy tree which it is. The Princess Dowager of Wales established the arboretum at Kew, which now occupies such a fore- most place as a school for the attainment of practical botanical knowledge, which has served as a model for the imitation of country towns, while the taste for plantations is said to have been imbibed from these 44 TREE-PLANTING. examples by the Earl of Panmure, the Duke of Athole, Sir James Naesmyth,' Sir Archibald Grant, and others in Scotland, which caused various land- owners to follow their example in North Britain. According to the " Hortus Kewensis," the most important foreign trees introduced into this country in the seventeenth century were the cedar, the larch, the silver fir, the acacia or locust tree, horse chestnut, Nonvay maple, scarlet maple, scarlet oak, American plane, weeping willow, Balm of Gilead fir, balsam proper, the black and white American spruce fir, the cork tree, as well as a great many of the minor trees and shrubs ; while in the eighteenth century, the number of species of foreign plants introduced into Britain amounted to nearly 5,000, more than half of them being natives of North America. Of these, three- fourths were shrubs, the trees consisting chiefly of pines, oaks, poplars, maples, and 'thorns, fresh varieties of trees which had been introduced before. Many of the new timber trees from North-west America, which were introduced by Douglas in the first half of the present century, from the enormous size they attain in their native country, are expected to become very valuable as timber here, but in the case of these kings of the forest, it is somewhat hard that the results cannot be judged in the case of one man's lifetime, and the introducers have to con- tent themselves with their faith in the size they will ultimately attain ; for trees are pointed out which are said to have stood from the time of the Conquest, and although there is doubtless much exaggeration in the ages of r many celebrated trees in different parts of the country, there are well authenticated instances of DETERIORATION OF THE CEDAR TREE. 45 single specimens of historical trees which have stood for hundreds of years. The cedars of Lebanon, which Solomon felled for the building of the Temple, only perfected themselves in the keen and biting air of their high position after a lapse of many ages, their nourishment being gathered from a sub-soil of hard, calcareous, whitish stones, standing at an elevation of about 9,500 feet above the sea. The timber of the cedar has so deteriorated in its quality of hardness by being planted in soils not natural to it, that those familiar with the wood grown in England, from its soft and nearly worthless nature, have come to the conclusion that it could not have been this tree which was used in the building of the palace and temple at Jerusalem ; where the loose, coarse, spongy texture of the timber evidently proceeds from the way in which the tree has been grown in the artificial manner practised with cedars, when everything is done to induce rapid and luxuriant growth, so that they bear no affinity, except in name, to the trees which were grown on the mountains of Syria. I will, however, give a full description of this interesting tree, under a different heading, and in association with kindred trees of analogous species, and will now deal in detail with those varieties which are termed the " broad-leaved." The Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The ash succeeds best in a deep hazelly loam, near the bottom of a hill, or sloping towards a river, where the soil is not too damp, for the ash does not like anything approaching a wet soil, yet likes its roots to stretch towards water 46 TREE-PLANTING. in a dry summer, and feel the influence of modified moisture. If its roots touch a wet or sour soil its progress of growth becomes arrested ; on reaching a poor subsoil the wood becomes brittle, while continuous and uninterrupted growth under the most favourable circumstances develops hard and durable timber ; the properties which mark the ash in perfection strength, toughness, and elasticity being only ob- tainable when they are the result of a free and unimpeded growth. As a hedgerow tree the ash is a very bad one to have on the land, as it makes a barren circle wherever it stands, while no deciduous tree can be made so valuable on the slopes of mountainous districts, where it can have shelter. High positions it does not object to, so that it is not exposed to bleak winds. A well-grown tree of the tall, or common, ash takes rank with the best trees near the oak ; and as a landscape decoration it is one of the handsomest trees, there being no harsh or rigid outlines to mar its symmetrical appearance, what it lacks in grandeur and imposing aspect, being amply made up in grace- fulness, bending and swaying to the breeze whenever agitated by the wind. The best times for planting the ash is in October, November, March, and April. Where the land is wet it should be drained, for no tree is so much injured by stagnant water, and the situation should be care- fully chosen, so that they rise in masses by themselves, and not be interfered with by any other tree. The ash being a loose-headed, open kind of tree, they do not interfere with one another during their early growth when planted in masses, and consequently they get THE GROWTH OF THE ASH. 47 light and air. Nurses in the form of other trees may be sometimes useful during the first fifteen years of their growth, but in their permanent character they must not be interfered with by other trees. The value'of the ash as timber varies considerably, according to the soil upon which it is grown. Ash grown on loose boggy soils is worth about tenpence per cubic foot, but the timber which has been raised on hazelly loams, and other favourable situations, fetched one' shilling and fourpence and one shilling and sixpence per cubic foot some years ago, and I doubt not but that the prices are considerably higher now. The late Earl of Leicester planted the ash very extensively at Holkham, in different soils and in various situations, and the result illustrated, in a very forcible manner, the necessity for fixing upon a site suited to the habit and nature of this tree. Some trees at fifty years old contained only thirty cubic feet, while others at the same age, and planted at the same time, contained seventy-six. The soil should always be trenched for the recep- tion of the ash, and holes made with the common garden spade, three feet apart, if the situation be high, half of them being intended to act as nurses to the others, which will take 5,000 plants per acre. In a sheltered situation, however, five feet asunder will be sufficient, or 500 nurses and 1,700 principal plants per acre. The ash is propagated by seeds, which are ripe in November, and should always be taken from the best trees. When gathered they should be lain in a pit made in a light porous soil, and left open. They 48 TREE-PLANTING. should be mixed with sand or light soil, in the pro- portion of two bushels of sand to one of seed, and allowed to remain in the pit for fifteen months, and turned over at least six times in that interval, which will bring them up to the end of February, when they should be sown in open dry weather. A writer has pointed out that Loudon in his "Arboretum Britannicum," p. 1224, directs that the seeds, which are ripe in October, should be taken to the rotting heap, where they should be turned over several times in the course of the winter, " and in February they may be removed, freed from the sand by sifting, and sown in beds of any middling soil. The plants," he continues, " may be taken up at the end of the year, and planted in nursery lines." " Now," the writer in question remarks to a nurseryman, "this error is harmless enough, because he knows at the end of the year the plants will not be in existence ; but an amateur expecting a crop as stated, concludes they are lost, and probably directs the soil to be dug up, in order that he may plant something else in their stead. The reason for allowing the seeds to lie exactly fifteen months is, that if sown earlier the tender plants would appear too soon, and suffer from frosts." In planting the seeds, the soil should be first carefully dug over, and afterwards raked, and the beds marked out to the width of four feet, with an alley one foot wide between. The beds should then be uncovered for the reception of the seed, which should lie half an inch apart from one another. The covering should then be drawn on with a rake, or a small clean spade, spreading the soil with an even hand, THE BEECH. 49 which should cover the seed to the extent of three- quarters of an inch. The plants should be allowed to remain two years in the seed-bed, and then removed into lines, eighteen inches apart, the plants standing six inches from one another. They should stand thus for another two years, when they will be ready to be transplanted into the permanent situations they are intended to occupy. In setting out ash plants, the mere digging a hole for their reception is not enough. The ground should always be trenched ; and the roots, and consequently the tree, will then make progress, for the rain and sunshine will operate upon the land, and show a most favourable contrast in results to those plants which have been merely placed in a hole. Of course there is the expense of trenching, which is somewhat considerable, but the future success of the trees will amply repay this outlay, and for hop- poles, and various other uses, a good ash plantation is often very valuable. The Beech (Fagus sylvatica}. The beech will grow on most dry soils, giving the preference to sand, light loams, and loams with chalky bottoms. It is one of the handsomest of British trees, and contributes greatly to the beauty of any area whereon it may be placed. Some very large specimens of this tree arc to be met with in many of the parks belonging to the nobility and gentry throughout the country, some of them being historical trees. One very large tree in Windsor Forest is said to have stood since the time of the Norman Conquest, but is now only a venerable ruin ; yet the beech is not accounted so long-lived a tree as many others, it E 50 TREE-PLANTING. being considered not profitable to retain it standing- longer than seventy or eighty years, for the value of its timber. It is found growing in masses in the chalky districts of Kent, Surrey, Hampshire, and Sussex, as well as on the Cotswold Hills of Glou- cestershire, in Buckinghamshire, and Hertfordshire. No tree puts on such a diversified appearance as the beech. When the rays of the sun strike upon the leaves of a beech tree which have been wetted by the gentle showers of early summer, the action of the light upon the leaves has a most beautiful effect. The buds break out into soft silky folds, covering each separate spray with a coating of light green verdure, which, as the season advances, changes into a bright dark green. It puts on its best appearance, perhaps, when planted on a sandy loam, or on the slope of hills where there is a calcareous bottom, where it assumes somewhat of the graceful appearance of the birch. The beech can be made to give a large amount of shelter, and deserves on this account to be much more generally planted than it is, where shelter is needed. Tall fences can be converted out of beech trees to stand from twenty to thirty feet high, affording shade in summer and warmth in winter; for if the soil is not naturally rich wherein the hedge of beech is planted, by manuring well, the dead leaves will be retained hanging to their stems throughout the winter. These hedges may occasionally be seen, in rare instances, close and thick, of the height of eight and ten feet where they have been regularly kept under the shears, while the topmost boughs have been allowed to take their course. In certain cases it has been TO TEST BEECH SEEDS. 51 assumed that this protection during the early months of the year has had the effect of anticipating the season one month, so far as its sheltering influence has extended. The beech is invariably propagated by its mast. The seeds ripen in October, and those which have no kernels fall first from the tree. If good and bad seeds are gathered together, they may be known, and separated, by putting them into a tub half-filled with water. The good ones will sink to the bottom, and the bad ones float on the top, when they can be poured off with the water. The good seed should be immediately taken out of the tub, and spread out to dry, and when perfectly free from damp, then put up in boxes, or bags, with twice their measurement of sand, which is the best way of disposing of them till they are wanted. The mast becomes ripe in October, and the time for sowing the seed is the end of March or beginning of April. Certain experiments have been made by planting the seeds in the autumn, but the plants are likely to be cut off by the late frosts. The seeds should be sown in beds, covered with soil an inch in depth, and lie about an inch from each other, the earth being removed for this purpose from the top, or surface of the bed, and then replaced again ; first being patted with the back of the spade to keep them in their places. The young plants do not like the knife, and are apt to become bark-bound when pruned too early, they ought not, therefore, to be cut until they have well established themselves. In the event of plants be- coming bark-bound, when they will refuse to grow, the E 2 52 TREE-PLANTING. best plan is to cut them down in April, to within four- inches of the ground, and pick out the strongest and straightest shoots to form the future tree. This is likely to occur so, if they are allowed to stand for more than two years, without being transplanted in the nursery. The beech has a tendency to throw out spreading branches, and where the ultimate object is to obtain a number of good straight timber trees, they should stand for the first few years in close proximity together, so as to discourage the growth of side spray, and not be allowed to waste themselves in spreading branches. As they advance in growth and age, greater freedom must be allowed to them. The timber of the beech is not considered very valuable, except for certain purposes as household furniture, in the form of chairs, tables, chests of drawers, and bedsteads, corn measures, etc. In the' mountainous districts of France, the sabots, or wooden shoes, are made from beech. It also answers well for all purposes and objects where timber is needed to be constantly submerged in water, as piles, flood-gates,, sluices, and the keels of vessels. In France the oily secretion of the nuts is more developed than in those produced in this climate, a considerable quantity of oil being made from them, in which a trade of some little importance is done in certain districts ; but I believe nothing of the kind has been attempted in England. Up to the present the English farmer has not turned his attention to manufactures, which could be carried out to a much larger extent than they are, in conjunction with rural occupations, which the future ENGLISH FARMERS. 53 will doubtless develop. Beet-sugar, for example, now that sugar-making machinery is so much cheaper, might be managed very easily by those disposed to go a little out of their way, in order to make the business of farming more remunerative. Even in planting, by ~a little attention, very remunerative results could be secured by growing handsome sticks for umbrellas, parasols, etc., for which there is always a large demand. I merely throw the idea out at random ; but having observed, in certain instances, curiously- marked specimens of growth, which have arisen from an ash plant having been embraced, and bound round tightly with the wild white convolvulus, which has been marked in consequence in a curious manner, it would be possible to create such marks in places or positions where they might be wanted, by tying strings around them. Pliable stems might also be trained into any shape which they might be needed to grow in. The beech is thought to be a native of Britain. The Birch. There are two varieties of the birch indigenous to this country, Betula alba, and B. a. pcn- dula, the latter being by far the most ornamental. 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With the Original Illustrations, jo vols., cloth, 12. s. d. PICKWICK PAPERS 43 Illustrns. , 2 vols. .. 16 o NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 39 2 vols. .. 16 o MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 40 2 vols. .. 16 o OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES 36 2 vols. .. 16 o BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES 36 2 vols. .. 16 o BLEAK HOUSE 40 2 vols. . . 16 o LITTLE DORRIT 40 2 vols. .. 16 o DOMBEY AND SON 38 2 vols. .. 16 o DAVID COPPERFIELD 38 2 vols. .. 16 o OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 40 2 vols. .. 16 o SKETCHES BY " BOZ " 39 i vol. . . 80 OLIVER TWIST 24 i vol. . . 80 CHRISTMAS BOOKS 17 ivol. .. So A TALE OF TWO CITIES 16 i vol. .. 80 GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 i vol. . . 80 PICTURES FROM ITALY and AMERICAN NOTES 8 i vol. . . 80 UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 8 i vol. . . 80 CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 8 i vol. . . 80 EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES 12 i vol. .. 80 CHRISTMAS STORIES from "Household Words," &c.. 14 i vol. .. 80 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By JOHN FORSTER. A New Edition. With Illustrations. Uniform with the Library Edition, post 8vo, of his Works. In one vol. los. 6d. THE " CHARLES DICKENS " EDITION. In Crown 8vo. In 21 vols., cloth, with Ilhistrations, 3 qs. 6d. s.d. PICKWICK PAPERS 8 Illustrations .. .. 36 MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 8 .... 3 6 DOMBEY AND SON 8 .. ., 36 NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 8 .. .. 36 DAVID COPPERFIELD 8 .... 3 6 BLEAK HOUSE 8 .... 3 6 LITTLE DORRIT 8 .... 3 6 OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 8 .. .. 36 BARNABY RUDGE> 8 .... 3 6 OLD CURIOSITY SHOP 8 .... 3 6 A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 4 .... 3 6 EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES .. ..8 .. .. 36 CHRISTMAS STORIES, from " Household Words " ..8 .... 3 6 TALE OF TWO CITIES 8 ....30 SKETCHES BY "BOZ" 8 ....30 AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES ..8 .. .. 30 CHRISTMAS BOOKS 8 ....30 OLIVER TWIST 8 ....30 GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 .. .. 30 HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM ITALY ..8 .... 3 o UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 4 ....30 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Uniform with this Edition, with Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. 35, 6d. each. CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 21 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS Continued. THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION. Complete in 30 Volumes. Demy 8vo t los. each; or set, ^/J. This Edition is printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and the page is of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations. No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens, which, various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever widely-increasing popularity, have never yet been worthily presented in a really handsome library form. The collection comprises all the minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish to preserve. SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshank. PICKWICK PAPERS. 2 vols. With 42 Illustrations by Phiz. OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshank. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz. 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BROOKES OF BRIDLEMERE. "BONES AND I;" or, The Skeleton at Home. " M., OR N." Similia Similibus Curantur. CONTRABAND; or, A Losing Hazard. MARKET HARBOROUGH; or, How Mr. Sawyer went to the Shires. SARCHEDON. A Legend of the Great Queen. SONGS AND VERSES. SATANELLA. A Story of Punchestown. THE TRUE CROSS. A Legend of the Church. KATERFELTO. A Story of Exmoor. SISTER LOUISE or, A Story of a Woman's Repentance. ROSINE. 26 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN & HALL'S List of Boohs, Drawing Examples, Diagrams, Models, Instruments, &c. INCLUDING THOSE ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES. BARTLEY (G. C. T.) CATALOGUE OF MODERN WORKS ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Post 8vo, sewed, is. BENSON ( IV.) PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Small 410, cloth, 155. MANUAL OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Coloured Frontispiece and Illustrations. i2mo, cloth, 25. 6d. 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FREEHAND DRAWING-BOOK. i6mo, cloth, is. 6d. LINDLEY (JOHN} SYMMETRY OF VEGETATION : Principles to be observed in the delineation of Plants. i2mo, sewed, is. MARSHALL HUMAN BODY. Text and Plates reduced from the large Diagrams. 2 vols., cloth, 1 is. NEWTON (E, TULLE Y, F.G.S.} THE TYPICAL PARTS IN THE SKELETONS OF A CAT, DUCK, AND CODFISH, being a Catalogue with Comparative De- scriptions arranged in a Tabular Form. Demy 8vo, 35. OLIVER (PROFESSOR} ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 109 Plates. Oblong 8vo, cloth. Plain, i6s. ; coloured, ,1 6&. PUCKETT (R. CAMPBELL} SCIOGRAPHY, OR RADIAL PROJECTION OF SHADOWS. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. REDGRAVE MANUAL AND CATECHISM ON COLOUR. Fifth Edition. 241110, sewed, gd. ROBSON (GEORGE} ELEMENTARY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Oblong folio, sewed, 8s. WALLIS (GEORGE} DRAWING-BOOK. Oblong, sewed, 33. 6d.; mounted, 8s. 28 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY WORNUM (R. N.} THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLES: An Intro- duction to the Study of the History of Ornamental Art. 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The following is a brief description of the models : An Obelisk composed of 2 Octagonal Slabs, 26 and 20 inches across, and each 3 inches high ; i Cube, 12 inches edge ; i Monolith (forming * Models, &c., entered as sets, cannot be supplied singly. 30 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY SOLID MODELS, be. Continued the body of the obelisk), 3 feet high ; i Pyramid, 6 inches base ; the complete object is thus nearly 5 feet high. A Market Cross composed of 3 Slabs, 24, 18, and 12 inches across, and each 3 inches high ; i Upright, 3 feet high ; 2 Cross Arms, united by mortise and tenon joints ; complete height, 3 feet 9 inches. A Step- Ladder, 23 inches high. A Kitchen Table, 14% inches high. A Chair to corre- spond. A Four-legged Stool, with projecting top and cross rails, height 14 inches. A Tub, with handles and projecting hoops, and the divisions between the staves plainly marked. A strong Trestle, 18 inches high. A Hollow Cylinder, 9 inches in diameter, and 12 inches long, divided lengthwise. A Hollow Sphere, 9 inches in diameter, divided into semi-spheres, one of which is again divided into quarters ; the semi-sphere, when placed on the cylinder, gives the form and principles of shading a Dome, whilst one of the quarters placed on half the cylinder forms a Niche. ^Davidson's Apparatus for Teaching Practical Geometry (22 models), .5. *Binn's Models for illustrating the elementary principles of orthographic projection as applied to mechanical drawing, in box, i IDS. Miller's Class Drawing Models. These Models are particularly adapted for teaching large classes ; the stand is very strong, and the universal joint will hold the Models in any position. Wood Models^. Square Prism, 12 inches side, 18 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 14 inches side, 18 inches high ;. Cube, 14 inches side ; Cylinder, 13 inches diameter, 16 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 14 inches diameter,_ 22^ inches side ; Square Pyramid, 14 inches side, 22^ inches side ; 14 inches side, 20 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 16 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Cylinder, 14 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 18 inches diameter, 24 inches high ; Square Pyramid, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Cone, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches side ; Intersecting Circles, 19 inches side ; Plain Circle, 19 inches side ; Plain Square, 19 inches side. Table, 27 inches by 21^ inches. Stand. The Set complete, 14 135. Vulcanite set square, 53. Large compasses with chalk -holder, 55. *Slip, two set squares and T square, 55. *Parkes's case of instruments, containing 6-inch compasses with pen and pencil leg, 55. *Prize instrument case, with 6-inch compasses, pen and pencil leg, 2 small compasses, pen and scale, i8s. 6-inch compasses with shifting pen and point, 45. 6d. Small compass in case, is. LARGE DIAGRAMS. ASTRONOMICAL : TWELVE SHEETS. By JOHN DREW, Ph. Dr., F.R.S.A. Prepared for the Com- mittee of Council on Education. Sheets, 2. 8s. ; on rollers and varnished, .4 45. BOTANICAL : NINE SHEETS. Illustrating a Practical Method of Teaching Botany. By Professor HENSLOW, F.L.S. 2 ; on rollers, and varnished, 3 35. CLASS. DIVISION. SECTION. DIAGRAM. Thalamifloral .. .. i Dicotyledon .. . / \ Incomplete . . . . 5 V Gymnospermous .......... 6 ( Petaloid . . . . f Superior . . . . 7 Monocotyledons ..-( (Inferior.. ... ., "-.i. 8 ( Glumaceous ............ 9 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL ORDERS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. By Professor OLIVER, F.R.S., F.L.S. 70 Imperial sheets, containing examples of dried Plants, representing the different Orders. 5 55. the set. Catalogue and Index, is. * Models, &c., entered as sets, cannot be supplied singly. CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: TEN SHEETS. By WILLIAM J. GLENNY, Professor of Drawing, King's College. In sets, ;i is. LAXTON'S EXAMPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN TWO DIVISIONS, containing 32 Imperial Plates, 2os. BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, n Sheets. as. gd. Mounted, 55. 6d. GEOLOGICAL : DIAGRAM OF BRITISH STRATA. By H. W. BRISTOW, F.R.S., F.G.S. A Sheet, 45.; on roller and varnished, 75. 6d. MECHANICAL : DIAGRAMS OF THE MECHANICAL POWERS, AND THEIR APPLI- CATIONS IN MACHINERY AND THE ARTS GENERALLY. By DR. JOHN ANDERSON. 8 Diagrams, highly coloured on stout paper, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. Sheets i per set ; mounted on rollers, 2. DIAGRAMS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By Professor GOODEVE and Professor SHELLEY. Stout paper, 40 inches by 27 inches, highly coloured. Sets of 41 Diagrams (52% Sheets), 6 6s.; varnished and mounted on rollers, 11 us. MACHINE DETAILS. By Professor UNVVIN. 16 Coloured Diagrams. Sheets, 2 2S. ; mounted on rollers and varnished, 3 145. SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MACHINES, OF IRON AND WOOD (French). BY STANISLAS PETTIT. 60 Sheets, ^3 55.; 135. per dozen. BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION. 50 Sheets, us. Mounted, 255. LESSONS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By STANISLAS PETTIT. is. per dozen ; also larger Sheets, more advanced copies, 25. per dozen. LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. By STANISLAS PETTIT. is. per dozen ; also larger Sheets, more advanced copies, 2S. per dozen. PHYSIOLOGICAL : ELEVEN SHEETS. Illustrating Human Physiology, Life size and Coloured from Nature. Prepared under the direction of JOHN MARSHALL, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., &c. Each Sheet, 125. 6d. On canvas and rollers, varnished, i is. 1. THE SKELETON AND LIGAMENTS. 2. THE MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND ANIMAL MECHANICS. 3. THE VISCERA IN POSITION.-THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS. 4 . THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 5. THE LYMPHATICS OR ABSORBENTS. 6 THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 7. THE BRAIN AND NERVES. THE ORGANS OF THE VOICE. 8. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 9. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. 10. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. 11. 'THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. HUMAN BODY, LIFE SIZE. By JOHN MARSHALL, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Each Sheet, I2S. 6d. ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, i is. Explanatory Key, is. 1. THE SKELETON, Front View. 2. THE MUSCLES, Front View. 3. THE SKELETON, Back View. 4 . THE MUSCLES, Back View. 5. THE SKELETON, Side View. 6. THE MUSCLES, Side View. 7. THE FEMALE SKELETON, Front View. ZOOLOGICAL : TEN SHEETS. Illustrating the Classification of Animals. By ROBERT PATTEI*SON, 2 ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, 3 IDS. The same, reduced in size on Royal paper, in 9 Sheets, uncoloured, 125. CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. Kdited by JOHN MORLEY, HTHE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published on the ist of every month (the issue on the I5th being suspended), and a Volume is completed every Six Months. The following are among the Contributors : SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK. PROFESSOR BAIN. PROFESSOR BEESLY. DR. BRIDGES. HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK. SIR GEORGE CAMPBELL, M.P. J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P. PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN. MONTAGUE COOKSON, Q.C. L. H. COURTNEY, M.P. G. H. DARWIN. F. W. FARRAR. PROFESSOR FAWCETT, M.P. EDWARD A. FREEMAN. MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON. M. E. GRANT DUFF, M.P. THOMAS HARE. F. HARRISON. LORD HOUGHTON. PROFESSOR HUXLEY. PROFESSOR JEVONS. EMILE DE LAVELEYE. T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE. RICH HON. R. LOWE, M.P. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, M.P. LORD LYTTON. SIR H. S. MAINE. DR. MAUDSLEY. PROFESSOR MAX MULLER. PROFESSOR HENRY MORLEY. G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C., M.P. WILLIAM MORRIS. F. W. NEWMAN. W. G. PALGRAVE. WALTER H. PATER. RT. HON. LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P. DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. 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