UC-NRLF

FARMING

FOR

PLEASURE AND PROFIT.

THIRD SECTION.

TREE-PLANTING.

FARMING

FOR

PLEASURE AND PROFIT

THIRD SECTION.

Tree-Planting .

For Ornamentation or Profit, suitable to every Soil
and Situation.

ARTHUR ROLAND.

EDITED BY WILLIAM H. A B LETT.

CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY, W,

1879.
[All rights reset wd.}

CKARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,
CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

The " Bishoppe of Lyncolne's Translation out of Frenshe
into Englyshe" Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton's plan-
tations near the Yarmouth Roads Plantations in
Morayshire Mr. Grigor's Account Seaside Planting
at the Gulf of Gascony Careless Planting Soft-
wooded Trees Osiers Osiers on the Banks of the
Severn and Thames Overflow of the Thames and the
Embankment of the River Steamboats on the Thames
Osier Plantations very durable and a Source of
large Profit Action of Light upon Osiers Kinds must
be selected to suit various Soils The London Clay
injurious to Osiers Formation of Osier Beds Small
Osiers grown in France Mending Osier Plantations
The Common Osier The Spaniard The French
The New Kind The Hollander The Gelster The
Green-leaved Osier The Brown Rod The Bitter
Ornard The Blunt-leaved Ornard Osier Plantations
on the Holkham Estate ... i

CHAPTER II.

Trees which are most suited to damp Situations The
Duke of Bedford's "SalictumWoburnense" The Goat

330275

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Willow Bark of the Willow astringent Embanking
The White or Huntingdon Willow Russell's or
the Bedford Willow Johnson's Willow Large
Willow at Sion American Weeping Willow Kil-
marnock Weeping Willow The Alder Wood of the
Alder used in making Fish-barrels The Alder an
Agent for reclaiming Land Planting The Poplar
Cobbett and the Poplar Tree Prince Puckler
Muskau's Opinion The Lombardy Poplar Poplars
on the Continent and Poplar Fences Black Italian
Poplar The Gray Poplar The White Poplar-
White Egyptian Poplar The Trembling-leaved
Poplar or Aspen The Balsam Poplar The Ontario
Poplar The Lime or Linden Attempt to Assassi-
nate the German Emperor The Horse Chestnut
Scarlet-flowering Chestnut 1 8

CHAPTER III.

Broad-leaved Trees Trees as Landscape Ornaments
Influence of Climate Planting in the Sixteenth
Century Turner's " Herbal " Gerrard's Catalogue
and Physic-garden in Holborn Sir Hans Sloane's
Physic-garden at Chelsea Dr. Compton, Bishop of
London Planting greatly stimulated The " Hortus
Kewensis" Trees introduced by Douglas The Ash
The Beech Old Tree in Windsor Forest Indis-
position of English Farmers to turn their Attention
to Agricultural Manufactures The Birch The Elm
The Mountain or Wych Elm The Huntingdon
Elm Cork-barked Elm American Elm Curled-
leaved Elm Variegated Elm Weeping Elm Apti-
tude of the Elm to "sport," or vary from Seed The
Chestnut Tree valuable as Coppice The Timber
chiefly valuable when young Derivation of its Name

CONTENTS. vii

PAGE

Grown in Spain for its Fruit Brought to Europe
by the Greeks from Sardis Largest and oldest Chest-
nut Tree in the World Great Chestnut of Tortworth
Raising Trees from Seed Ornamental Varieties ... 39

CHAPTER IV.

Broad-leaved Trees continued The Hornbeam The
Locust Tree Cobbett and the Locust Tree The Oak
Acorns all bear a Family Likeness The Oak suc-
ceeds in various Soils Roots of the Oak penetrate
the Ground deeply The Oak in exposed Situations
Lammas shoots of the Oak Sowing Acorns The
Site of Felled Oaks good for Coppice Larch and Oak
grow well together The Parliament Oak The
Mossy-cupped or Turkey Oak The Fulham Oak-
Turner's Evergreen Oak The Common Evergreen
Oak The Cork Tree Large Tree at Mamhead
Nut Galls Red, White, and Black American Oaks
The Plane Tree The Eastern Plane The Western
Plane The Maple Acer Pseudo-platanus The
Mock Plane or SycamoreThe Sugar Maple The
Norway Maple The Striped-barked Maple The
Red or Scarlet Maple The Walnut Tree Royal or
Common Walnut The Black Walnut of America
The Gray Walnut 67

CHAPTER V.

Cone-bearing or Resinous Trees adapted for cold elevated
Districts Eighty Years for a Scotch Pine to arrive at
Perfection, but only forty for Larch The Pine Tree
The Scotch Pine Forest of Glenmore Large
Plank presented to the Duke of Gordon The Corsican

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Pine The Black Pine of Austria The Cluster Pine
The Weymouth Pine Dwarf Pines Gigantic or
Lambert Pine Varieties of American Pine The
Heavy- wooded Pine Long-leaved Indian Pine The
Cembrian Pine The Lofty or Bhotan Pine The
Stone Pine The Larch Parkinson and Evelyn
mention the Larch Account by the Highland Society
The Larch fosters the springing up of the natural
Grasses Spruce Firs The Norway Spruce
Douglas's Spruce Fir The Black Spruce Fir The
Hemlock Spruce Fir The White American Spruce
The Khutrow Spruce The Silver Fir Common
Silver Fir Balm of Gilead Silver Fir The Cedar-
Elliot Warburton's visit to Lebanon The Indian
Cedar Appropriate Trees for various Situations
Grafting Flowering Thorns 99

CHAPTER VI.

Planting for Ornamentation Preparation of the Soil
Trees for Shelter and Seclusion Ornamental Trees
Grafting Varieties of Thorns Trees for Avenues The
Hazel The Elder The Laburnum The Cherry
Tree The Laurel The Sweet Bay The Portugal
Laurel The Laurel Cherry The Portugal Laurel
Cherry The Yew Tree The Foliage of the Yew Tree
poisonous to Cattle Yew Timber very durable The
Upright or Irish Yew Juniper The Common Juniper
The Incense-bearing or Spanish Juniper The Vir-
ginian Juniper The Common Savin The Bermudas
Cedar The Spindle Tree The Common Spindle
Tree The Broad-leaved Spindle Tree The Mountain
Ash or Rowan Tree The Service Tree The Holly... 138

FARMING FOR PLEASURE & PROFIT.

THIRD SECTION.

TREE -PLANTING.

CHAPTER I.

The " Bishoppe of Lyncolne's Translation out of Frenshe into Englyshe "
Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton's Plantations near the Yarmouth
Roads Plantations in Morayshire Mr. Grigor's Account Sea-side
Planting at the Gulf of Gascony Careless Planting Soft-wooded
Trees Osiers Osiers on the Banks of the Severn and Thames
Overflow of the Thames and the Embankment of the River Steam-
boats on the Thames Osier Plantations very durable and a Source
of large Profit Action of Light upon Osiers Kinds must be
selected to suit various Soils The London Clay injurious to Osiers
Formation of Osier Beds Small Osiers grown in France
Mending Osier Plantations The Common Osier The Spaniard
The French The New Kind The Hollander The Gelster
The Green-leaved Osier The Brown Rod The Bitter Ornard
The Blind-leaved Ornard Osier Plantation on the Holkham
Estate.

THE first work known to have been written in
England upon an exclusively agricultural subject, is
a small tract, " whyche Mayster Groshede, sometyme
Bishoppe of Lyncolne, made and translated out of
Frenshe into Englyshe." There is no date attached
to it, but it is supposed to have been accurately fixed
as belonging to the year 1500. It is a mere trans-
lation of a work which treats chiefly upon planting
and grafting ; and I mention the fact because, while
works on general husbandry have been multiplied

B 2

4 TREE-PLANTING.

exceedingly, there are comparatively few which treat
upon the planting and management of trees separately,
in a popular or " handy " form.

There are many very excellent works upon trees,
from the time of Evelyn downwards, but they are
mostly very expensive, and out of the reach of the
"million;" and the subject does not appear to have
received the amount of attention, at the hands of
writers who are well fitted to deal with it, which its
great importance deserves.

Of late years, too, arboriculture has struck out for
itself distinct paths, amongst the most remarkable of
which, perhaps, is sea-side planting, which, fifty years
or so ago, was looked upon as an eccentric fancy, not
likely to become of any practical value to those who
attempted it. But since the formation of the Earl of
Leicester's woods, and those of Sir Thomas Fowell
Buxton, on the northern extremity of the county of
Norfolk, on the cliffs near that part known as the
Yarmouth Roads, the method has become an estab-
lished fact, which speaks for itself ; and upon the spot
where the proprietor was once told by a successful
planter, "that he might as well plant his walking-
stick upon it, as anything else," plantations now
boldly approach the sides of the German Ocean ; and
the coastguard men of the district have their look-out
from the midst of a sylvan bower, which before was
bleak and desolate in the extreme.

I shall treat again upon this subject as I proceed,
but I wish to point out in the first place, the
necessity of a correct appropriation of the various
kinds or description of trees to suit certain soils, and
situations.

REPORT BY THE LATE MR. JOHN GRIGOR. 5

Many extensive tracts of land adjoining the sea,
where the influence of the sea-spray used to prevent
the profitable growth of plants, causing a great space
of land to be utterly barren and unprofitable, have, by
skilful treatment been rendered remunerative, by the
growth of forest trees ; plantations having been formed
both in England and Scotland, in soil apparently of the
poorest description, which, until lately, was accounted
entirely unfit for vegetation ; and are not only now of
intrinsic value in themselves, but are furnishing a
shelter, and consequently bestowing fertility upon
adjoining lands. In a report on these plantations,
by the late Mr. John Grigor, of the Norwich and
Forres Nurseries, their success is chiefly attributed
in the first place to careful preparation of the
ground, which was trenched eighteen inches in
depth ; second, to the erection of fences com-
posed of furze and brushwood, as screens, six: feet
in height ; third, to the plants being of the best
description, two or three years of age, transplanted
into nursery lines the year before they were placed in
the plantation, which consequently endowed them
with bushy fibrous roots, and closely planted two and a
half to three feet apart ; fourth, to cleaning, by hoeing
the land, for the first two years after planting, during
which period root crops were produced among the
young plants. The plantations embrace an area of
114 acres. The trenching cost six pounds per acre,
and the fencing, plants, and planting, upwards of four
pounds ; making the net cost upwards of ten pounds
per acre, exclusive of the hoeing, which amounted to
less than a fourth part of the value of the crops.

" These plantations," says Mr. Grigor, to whom the

6 TREE-PLANTING.

Highland and Agricultural Society awarded their gold
medal, " were formed of several kinds of trees, among
which the black sallow, or goat willow (Salix capred),
and the pinaster, are strongly recommended trees
which we have experienced to be very suitable for
maritime situations. Within the last sixteen years a
considerable extent of plantation has also been
formed in the sands of Culbin. These sands occupy
several thousand acres of the north-west corner of the
county of Moray (N.B.), and are composed of small
hills of sand, ranging from twenty to a hundred feet
high, the surface of which is ever changing by the
influence of the wind. Plantations on these sands
were commenced by the proprietor of Kincorth, and
the progress of the first larches in pure sand-drift was
very remarkable. In 1840 and 1842 several hundred
acres of plantations were successfully farmed by
Mr. Grant, of Glenmorriston and Moy, on ground
elevated from twelve, to thirty feet, above high tide
mark, and one mile inland. These plantations are
composed of native Scotch pines and larches. The
Scotch pine generally appears the more vigorous tree ;
it affords the best shelter, and has much the advantage
in appearance. Its deep green contrasts beautifully
with the colour of the sand, and adds to the native
plant the lustre of a Himalayan. In the formation
of soil, the larch is the most valuable tree. From the
shedding of its leaves, it soon forms a dark stratum
of vegetable matter in the surface of the sand, which
fixes it, and promotes the growth of herbage. But in
all similar situations, a mixture of plants is preferable
to any one sort. The plants employed in these
plantations were chiefly two years old, with a few one

SUCCESSFUL SEA-SIDE PLANTING. 7

year transplanted plants three years old. The ground
being dry, the plants were inserted in winter and
early in spring, by the hand-irons, or notch-system, at
the average of 9,400 per acre.

" Little or no fencing was required, the plantations
being bounded by a vast extent of pure undulating
sand, with a surface abandoned to desolation, and
bearing only the wavy ripple of the wind, except
where a clump of bent grass (Ammophilla arundinacea)
here and there arose. The cost of plants and plant-
ing ranged from only nine to eleven shillings per
imperial acre. The plants advanced vigorously, and
with the exception of a few small spots where the
drifting of the sand either removed or overspread the
plants soon after their insertion, the plantation con-
tains no vacancies. On lifting and examining the
roots of some of the plants of both sorts, six years
planted, occupying pure sand, where no surface
herbage existed, it was found that they had furnished
themselves with tap-roots, which strike to a great
depth right underneath the plants ; but the greater
portion of their roots run horizontally, at a depth of
four inches under the surface of the sand, and extend
to a distance almost incredible many of the plants
of both sorts, during the six years, had acquired roots
upwards of twenty feet in length, which ramified into
numerous fibres ; and where the surface had remained
undisturbed, the depth of the roots was very uniform.
Nature thus adapts plants for emergencies. Neither on
a level nor slanting surface was there any instance of a
plant having perished by drought, or been removed
by the wind, after it had taken root for a few years.
The annual growth of both kinds of trees in these

S TREE-PLANTING.

woods, in the purest sand, is now upwards of fourteen
inches, and contrasts favourably with that of plants
in apparently better soil, more solid, but over-
spread with a naked surface of the natural grasses ;
thus illustrating the advantage of planting in a loose
open soil, with a clear surface, whether poor or rich.
These plantations being now from six to ten feet
high, many parts are fit to yield a large supply of
thinnings, which are well adapted for reclaiming the
sands, and limiting the encroachment of sand-drift on
the more valuable soil. These thinnings, or brush-
wood, are valuable for the purpose of being spread
over the newly-planted sands in the roughest ex-
posures by overlapping, or spreading the brushwood in
an imbricated position, which causes it to stick on the
surface, and thus it affords shade and shelter to the
young plants, in situations where they would otherwise
perish."

These remarks of Mr. Grigor were penned up-
wards of twenty years ago, a few years after the time
upon which experiments upon a large scale were
made of sea-side planting, when the subject was com-
paratively a new one, and naturally excited a good
deal of attention. The difficulties attending the
operation have been satisfactorily solved, not only in
this country, but also abroad.

Sea-side Planting at the Gulf of Gascony. In
1811, the commission appointed by the French
government reported on the pineaster forests formed
by M. Bremontier, of the Administration of Forests,
who in 1789 commenced his operations at the Gulf of
Gascony, where the downs offered nothing to the eye
but a monotonous repetition of white wavy mountains

SEA-SIDE PLANTING IN GASCONY. 9

of sand, destitute of vegetation, and agitated by the
wind.

This successful example of reclaiming sand-drifit,
has naturally been regarded as a great triumph of
arboretical skill, the commission reporting that
12,500 acres of downs had been covered with thriving
plantations, by means of sowing the seeds of the
pineaster, in the proportion of two pounds, mixed with
four or five pounds of broom, to the acre ; and imme-
diately covering with branches of pine, or other trees
with the leaves on, commencing at the side next the
sea, or from whence the wind usually proceeded, in
narrow zones at right angles to that of the wind ; the
first sown zone being protected by a line of hurdles,
this zone protecting the second, the second the third,
and so on. But as I before remarked I will return
to the subject again, having alluded to these instances,
to show under what extreme difficulties land otherwise
worthless can be reclaimed, and made valuable by the
judicious planting of trees.

If then, the barren sea-shore can be rendered
fertile and productive by means of art, what excuse
is there for leaving large bare flats which are scorched
up in summer, without a particle of shade for the
cattle which are upon them, when not only the beauty
of the landscape could be considerably improved, but
a very important element of profit added to the
estate ?

Many person^ plant trees, but meet with no
success in what they undertake, from not making
choice of the right kinds to suit the situation or soil
for which they are intended ; or merely shift trees
from other situations, when the roots have not been

io TREE-PLANTING.

prepared for the change, by previous transplantation.
The proper way of dealing with spruce plants,
for example, is, after allowing them to stand two
years in the seed-bed, to plant them in nurseries, about
six inches apart, in lines about eighteen inches distant
from one another, and then allow them to stand for
another two years. The effect of the transplantation
is, to do away with a strong tap-root, and in its
place to put a bunch of fibrous roots, which take hold
of the ground in those situations where they are
intended finally to stand.

There are many moist fields and districts
throughout the country, which travellers come upon,
entirely destitute of trees, where they might be grown
to advantage. Sometimes attempts have been made,
and failed from the wrong kinds having been chosen.
Yet this class of land is the easiest of any to deal
with, and makes a handsome show of results, sooner
than in any other situation ; for the fast-growing, or
soft-wooded trees, thrive best in moist lands, or near
to water. These are, the willow, poplar, lime, alder,
and horse-chestnut. All these kinds will permanently
flourish in damp situations ; and in any low lands
beside streams, or rivers, where the soil is moist, but
not actually saturated, they will assume the highest
degree of beauty of which they are capable. The
weeping willow is one of the most beautiful trees,
and during the latter end of March, when the goat
willow (Salix caprea) throws out its handsome yellow
catkins, it is decidedly an object of beauty, and on
this account is well worthy of being cultivated as a
standard in our nurseries.

These trees, planted in sandy uplands where the

VALUE OF OSIER-PLANTING. n

soil has been well trenched, may grow and thrive for
a few years, but after a while they give unmistakable
signs of being out of their proper element, and display
comparatively little vigour and comeliness, when com-
pared with trees of the same kind planted in more
congenial situations.

Those lands near rivers which are constantly
flooded by every tide, have been converted into very
valuable parts of the estate upon which they are
situated, by the judicious planting of osiers. On the
banks of the Severn, which is noted for its high tides,
osiers perhaps grow in their greatest perfection.
Some of the best osiers which are grown, and which
supply the London market, where there is a very
large consumption for packing-baskets, are grown
in Berkshire and Oxfordshire, on the banks of the
Thames and Kennet But for size and bulk of crop,
perhaps, there are none which exceed those which
grow on the banks of the Thames between Chelsea
and Richmond. The overflow of the Thames often
does a great deal of damage to the houses and pro-
perty of the residents near the river, and of late
years, the subject has acquired much prominence, and
various methods have been suggested for dealing with
it ; the embankment of the river, and the removal
of old London bridge having modified the action of
the flowing of the tides considerably. The soil on the
banks of the Thames is naturally very rich, and it is
thought that the action of the steamboats keeps the
water in a constantly turbid state, which leaves upon
the grounds a top-dressing of rich mud every time the
tide overflows them, which is now very constantly,
up to Kingston and Ditton. Above this district,

12 TREE-PLANTING.

extending through Staines, Shepperton, Chertsey,
Windsor, as far as Maidenhead, although the osiers
grown are of large size, the qualities are inferior, and
they are used only for making the coarsest packing
baskets.

Osier plantations in favourable situations, will last
seventy years, with a little occasional mending, and by
good management can be made a source of large
profit. In strong and rich soils, where they attain a
height of ten, twelve, and thirteen feet, it is usual to
plant them in rows two feet apart, and from sixteen
or eighteen inches from each other in the rows.
Eighteen inches is considered the best distance by
practical men, on account of the shoots ripening
better, for if planted too thickly on rich soils, there
not being sufficient room for them to stand com-
fortably together, a few of the leading ones would be
drawn up very tall, and obstruct the light from acting
upon the others, which would prevent their wood
from ripening, and would, in consequence, become soft
and pithy, and be unfit for the purpose of basket-
making.

It has been remarked that the action of light has
a very peculiar effect upon the osiers. While in some
seasons they will be of a yellowish brown their proper
colour in others they will assume a dull green hue ;
in cloudy seasons they become of a dull mahogany
colour, while in unusually clear ones, they will turn
cherry-colour, or red.

But even with such a growth as osiers to deal
with, it is necessary to select varieties which are the
most suitable for the situation they are intended to
occupy. In light soil, where there is a considerable

FORMATION OF AN OSIER-BED. 13

portion of sand, the French, Goldstone, and a variety
of the Spaniard, better known in Berkshire under the
sobriquet of Black Jack, come to tolerable perfection ;
but to insure their cultivation becoming a profitable
occupation, a stronger staple is necessary, and also a
compact subsoil. The Spaniard, French, and new
kind, sometimes grow of fair quality upon light soils,
when the subsoil is moist with springs, but the rods
are smaller in size, and shorter in length, and the crop
less bulky, than when grown on strong loam. The
London clay, which is found in what is termed the
London basin, and reaches about forty miles in some
directions from London, is injurious as a subsoil to
osiers, and when the roots come into contact with it,
they invariably die off.

I have mentioned seventy years as the duration
of time a healthy osier plantation will last under
favourable conditions ; but on the lighter soils, with an
imperfect supply of moisture, they will only last from
fifteen to twenty years, and will then require to be
laid down afresh, while in river grounds they will last
the period mentioned.

In forming an osier bed, the ground should be
trenched fifteen or sixteen inches deep. The sets
should be about a foot and a half long, or a little less,
and be inserted in the ground about half their length.
The distance at which to plant must be regulated by
the quality of the land. In light soils, where the
supply of moisture is imperfect, so that the shoots
come thinner, and shorter, than in the more favourable
situations for their growth, it is usual to plant them
in rows, a foot and a half apart, and fifteen or sixteen
inches asunder. If they are planted wider apart, they

14 TREE-PLANTING.

are apt to grow out crooked, and thick, and clubby
next the stools, with branching twigs above, instead
of drawing one another up in a slender form.

For the larger sort of osiers, the sets are cut from
the thick, or lower part of the rods, generally about
the thickness of the little ringer, for although the sets
from the small ends strike quickly, and grow well,
they always throw out comparatively small shoots.

On the other hand, in some parts of France, where
they require small slender rods for making fine
baskets, they cut the sets into small pieces, and lay
them in drills a short distance apart, which causes
the shoots to spring out at various points from the
buried set, and an upright shoot will start from almost
every eye.

In mending plantations of osiers, the usual method
followed is, to select the longest, and smoothest rods
of the kind required, and to cut their but-ends in a
slanting direction, and stick them into the ground
beside the dead stool to the depth of nine inches,
but not to shorten them, as in the case of making
a new plantation. The reason for this method of
procedure is, that if they were shortened, they would
be smothered by the shoots of the older stools, before
they had time to establish themselves ; but by leaving
them long, they enjoy full light for a considerable
part of the summer, before the others can catch them
up, to shade them, but after two years they are cut
back to the height of the old stools. A few of the
stools die every season, so that the beds require to be
constantly looked over and examined ; and in ex-
ceptional seasons, when mild weather has been
succeeded by very cold, in March and April, there

SEASON FOR CUTTING OSIERS. 15

often occurs a great fatality amongst osiers, when it is
found necessary to replant a great many ; recently
formed plantations being most likely to be injured by
the late spring frosts.

The usual time for cutting osiers is any time
between the fall of the leaf and the rising of the sap
in the spring, and although some people cut them
before and after this time, it is not considered advisable
to do so.

The Common Osier (Salix viminalis] is sometimes
greenish, and sometimes of a yellowish brown colour,
according to the soil upon which it is grown. It is,
however, coarse, brittle, and soft, and not by any
means valuable to the basket-maker. There are
varieties, however, which are liked by those who
understand the working of them ; one of which, called
indifferently the blotched osier, the brindled osier, the
speckled, and the snake osier, is the best kind of this
variety. The next best variety of Salix viminalis,
is the yellow-barked osier. The velvet-topped and
apple-tree osier are also considered fairly good, while
the long-skin is of smaller growth, and the wood
heavier, firmer, and tougher, and is, indeed, a different
species.

TJie Spaniard, or Spaniard Rod (Salix triandrd],
also has several varieties, some of which are of little
value, as the horse Spaniard, which is very inferior,
while the black-budded Spaniard is liked by basket-
makers for bottoming and finishing the rims of
baskets ; while the gray Spaniard and the brown
Spaniard come in for coarse brown baskets.

The French, French Rod, or Real French, which
takes its name from having been imported from

16 TREE-PLANTING.

France, as may readily be seen, when largely grown
is an excellent kind for fine small work, and is much
grown for making small baskets.

The New Kind (Salix Forbyand] resembles the
Spaniard in being equally strong, while it is more
pliable to work.

The Hollander, which may be seen in large quan-
tities at the edges of the Maas by the traveller, and
which owes its name in England from having been
brought over here from the Dutch coast, though
different in appearance to the new kind, resembles it
very closely in quality.

The Gelster is similar to the Spaniard in quality,
but the but-end is thicker, and it grows more tapering.

TJie Green-Leaved, Osier or Ornard, (Salix rubrd) is
strong and tough, and considered a very good sort for
the manufacture of certain kinds of baskets.

The Brown Rod, Brownard, or Silver Osier (Salix
Hoffmanniand), is silvery on the under side of the
leaf, grows shortish, but is firm, and useful for special
purposes.

The Bitter Ornard (Salix purpured] grows slender,
and is tough, and is well adapted for wet ground, like
all the other ornards which grow in water.

TJie Blunt-leaved Ornard (Salix Lambertiand), Rose
Ornard (Salix helix}, and the Bastard French (Salix
lanceolatd), are considered very inferior in quality on
account of their brittleness, which causes a great
number of snapped ends to project in their working.

The kinds I have enumerated embrace the best
known sorts, and the plantations on the Holkham
estate, in Norfolk, were computed to produce thirty-
four pounds, seventeen shilling per acre, the first crop

PROFITABLE RESULT OF OSIER-GROWING. 17

in the second year after their formation, and twenty-
seven pounds ten shillings annually afterwards. Of
course these are important results, when it is borne in
mind that they are grown upon soils which could not
be made available for any other crop. There are
many strips of land by the side of open ditches, by
streams, and around pools, which might be often
turned to profitable account, which are now frequently
lamentably neglected, which would be found to come
in very useful for many purposes besides basket-
making upon a farm, if osiers or willows were but
grown.

CHAPTER II.

Trees which are most suited to damp Situations The Duke of Bedford's
" Salictum Woburnense "The Goat Willow Bark of the Willow
astringent Embanking The White or Huntingdon Willow
Russell's, or the Bedford Willow Johnson's Willow Large
Willow at Sion American Weeping Willow Kilmarnock
Weeping Willow The Alder Wood of the Alder used in making
Fish-barrels The Alder an Agent for reclaiming Land Planting
The Poplar Cobbett and the Poplar Tree Prince Piickler
Muskau's Opinion The Lombardy Poplar Poplars on the Con-
tinent, and Poplar Fences Black Italian Poplar The Gray
Poplar The White Poplar White Egyptian Poplar The
Trembling-leaved Poplar, or Aspen The Balsam Poplar The
Ontario Poplar The Lime, or Linden Attempt^to assassinate the
German Emperor The Horse Chestnut Scarlet Flowering
Chestnut.

I shall proceed to class those trees which succeed
best in damp situations, the greatest variety of which,
is to be found amongst the willow tribe, which is the
type of the natural order Salicacecz, the genus Salix,
belonging to the Dicecia diandria of Linnseus. It
comprehends many diverse species and varieties, from
the osiers I have just been describing, to trees fifty
feet in height, there being no genus of plants in general
cultivation, whose species are so much confused as
that of the willow, which arises from various causes.
Some of the leading kinds have become hybridised,
and yielded numerous intermediate varieties; and

VARIETIES OF THE WILLOW. 19

partly by reason from each species containing male
and female plants, and the same differing to some
extent in appearance, at certain times of the year,
while the old trees wear quite a different aspect from
the young ones, and that variation in the soil, and
climate, is greatly apt to change the outward appear-
ance of the willow, it is not to be wondered at that a
certain degree of confusion prevails at times in the
genus, so that the most strongly marked kinds only
are, at times, recognisable by the inexperienced, several
hundred species of British and foreign willows having
been mentioned in recent publications. The Duke of
Bedford, who published his " Salictum Woburnense "
in 1829, describes 150 species, all of which existed in
the Salictum at Woburn.

In situations where there are steep declivities,
through which a stream, or water-course runs, the
banks may often be seen washed down, lying in ugly
masses, producing an unsightly appearance from the
gaps made in the broken banks. By judicious planting
of the willow, the banks may be made firm, through
the interlacing of the roots of the trees, the appearance
of the landscape greatly beautified, and the value of
the timber and loppings secured to their owner.

Besides being serviceable in fixing the banks of
rivers, and preventing any aggression from the con-
tinual washing of the water, many of these make a
quick return of capital, being fast-growing trees,
which soon attain the size of timber-trees, and being
extremely hardy, will attain a fair size in soil of
almost any description, especially Salix caprea,
S. alba, and 5. Russelliana.

The Goat Willow, or Sallow (salix caprea) is found

C 2

20 TREE-PLANTING.

indigenous in waste ground, particularly in cold and
marshy situations ; and with its various varieties, is
among the broadest-leaved of the willow tribe. In
rich wet ground, a seedling plant of two years old
will occasionally produce several shoots three or four
feet high, and under the most adverse circumstances,
will generally ripen its growth to the very topmost
bud. The healthy young shoots have a dark-brown
glossy bark, and the buds being white and promi-
nent present an agreeable contrast to the eye ; while
the male plant throws out a profusion of catkins
during the early part of the season, which gives it a
handsome and striking appearance, and causes it to
be highly ornamental. Upon a farm where there is
a demand for sheep-fences, or similar articles, the
goat willow may be grown in the form of coppice, and
cut down every three or four years ; no other tree
producing so great an amount of faggot wood. In
situations best adapted for its growth, a healthy stock
will sometimes, in one season, throw out a sheaf of
straight clear shoots, measuring from eight to twelve
feet in length ; many of them are three inches in
circumference at a yard from the ground. When
grown in the form of timber, this species frequently
attains the height of forty or fifty feet, with a trunk
from one and a half to two feet in diameter.

In marshy districts, how often are there to be seen
bare regions as flat and unbroken as the palm of one's
hand, save where a deep drain intersects the land
perhaps? For these the goat willow is eminently
applicable, affording a valuable shelter in maritime
situations, withstanding the influence of the sea better
than most plants. The timber is soft, of course, like

EMBANKMENTS FORMED BY WILLOWS. 21

all fast-growing trees, but that of the vS. caprea is
reckoned the best of any of the willow tribe.

It is easily propagated by cuttings, taking strong
one-year old shoots, formed into lengths fourteen to
sixteen inches long, which should be inserted in the
ground to the depth of ten or twelve inches. These
often strike, and grow as well as rooted plants in
favourable situations, but when the ground is not
particularly well-adapted for the growth of the willow,
or has not been well prepared, it is best to have
recourse to rooted plants.

The bark and leaves of all the willows are as-
tringent, and can generally be used for tanning leather.
Its natural home and habitat being near to water, it
can be made to render most valuable service in
resisting the encroachments of streams subject to
violent floods. With this view, it is customary to cut
the branches between October and April, and form
them into frames for embankment. The frames are
made to extend from the channel of the water to the
top of the flow-bank, with a gentle slope, the larger
timber being blended with the smaller branches ; the
whole is covered with a few inches of sand, gravel, or
the ordinary soil of the banks. The branches send out
a great number of fibres, which create a surface
vegetation in a proper form, effectual for resisting the
force of the water. By this method materials of a
shifting character are made firm and consolidated,
and, by being lopped every year, the willows form a
permanent embankment.

The White, or Huntingdon Willow (S. alba). In
soils and situations favourable for its growth, this
tree frequently ranges from sixty to eighty feet in

22 TREE-PLANTING.

height, with a trunk two or three feet in diameter.
At twenty or thirty years of age, it often attains the
height of sixty and seventy feet, when its trunk often
yields one cubical foot per annum every year of its
growth. On this account, it is more often planted as
a timber-tree than any other willow, though it makes
good coppice, and is often grown as a pollard, where
the annual loppings furnish a large amount of useful
wood for various purposes. For osiers, however, it is
not so appropriate, for though the year-old shoots are
strong and tough, they are twiggy and full of laterals,
which causes them to be unsuitable for the purpose of
basket-making.

The timber of willow is very useful for many agri-
cultural purposes, for which other kinds of wood are
not nearly so appropriate. Even its soft yielding
nature, which causes it to be objectionable for some
uses, yet makes it highly desirable for others. For
lining carts and barrows, into which rough loads are
flung, such as stones, the wood is very useful, as, being
soft, although it may be indented, it will not splinter,
and receive damage from the friction to which it may
be subjected.

For rake and scythe-handles, sheep-flakes or
hurdles, these are best formed out of willows, and by
reason of the lightness of the wood in the case of
hurdles, are easily removed from place to place, while
they are not damaged by their own weight when flung
hastily down, being white, soft, and light.

Russell's, or the Bedford Willow (S. Russelliana),
is one of the best willows in cultivation. Johnson's
willow at Lichfield is of this species, the trunk of
which is twelve feet, or more, in circumference. There

WEEPING WILLOWS. 23

used to be a tree at Sion eighty-nine feet high, with
a trunk upwards of twelve feet in circumference,
some years ago, but the writer is unaware whether
it is yet standing, as well as other large trees in
different parts of the country ; the remarkable point
being, in the case of such trees, that they are useful in
some form or other at every stage of their growth,
from two years to fifty years of age, the latter in the
shape of timber, the former as rods for basket-making.

For the adornment of suburban villas and gentle-
men's residences, there are some very elegant willows
which have lately been introduced into Britain, one
of the handsomest of which is the American weeping
willow. As the plant is, however, of itself but of
feeble growth, it will be found the best plan to
graft upon the top of a strong stem, such as that
of 6\ caprea. The graceful, drooping, long slender
branches have a very elegant appearance when
agitated by the wind, and it possesses the recom-
mendation of being extremely hardy.

6\ Babylonica is another very ornamental willow,
being a native of Asia and the north of Africa. It is
very graceful in form, but somewhat tender ; and it is
only during the most favourable seasons, and. on the
best soil, that the twigs ripen at their extremities.
Unlike most willows, too, it does not grow freely
from cuttings, but needs to be propagated by layers.
The ordinary weeping willow becomes a very hand-
some object, where drooping over a pond or lake.
The Kilmarnock weeping willow is said to be a
drooping variety of the 5. caprea, which was origin-
ally discovered in -the west of Scotland, and is now
extensively cultivated in the nurseries of North Britain.

24 TREE-PLANTING.

The Alder (Alnus glutinosd). The glutinous, or
common alder, is by no means a handsome tree, and
cannot be compared to the willow, and is deficient as
an ornamental object. Its proper home is near to
springs, and by the margin of rivers, where it will
frequently attain the height of sixty feet. One tree
in Norfolk is recorded as standing sixty-five feet high,
its trunk, one foot from the ground, measuring twelve
feet in circumference. The alder may be regarded as
the most aquatic tree known to Britain, and attains
its maturity when it has reached from fifty to sixty
years, at which age it should be felled, when its timber
is the main object sought for. The wood is some-
what similar to that of the willow, and is useful for
certain definite purposes, as for the making of shoe-
makers' lasts, for the use of turners and cabinet-
makers, where soft wood is desirable. In Scotland,
the wood is much in request in those districts where
fish is cured, for making fish-barrels, when trees of
twenty-five years of age are sufficiently mature to be
felled for this purpose.

The alder has been made use of as a most valuable
agent for reclaiming meadow-land, which has either
been continually, or partially flooded. In order to
effect this object, the soil is ridged up by the side of
the watercourse in spring, upon which young trees
are planted. In a few years, by the roots fixing
themselves tenaciously in the soil, and the continued
falling of the leaves, the bank will become hard and
firm.

The alder also, being a rapid-growing tree, is a
useful kind to plant in bare situations, where houses
have been built destitute of the natural ornament of

THE POPLAR NOT A FAVOURITE. 25

trees ; and where they are quickly needed to make
a show, while perhaps others of a handsomer descrip-
tion are growing, and coming to maturity. In the
fen districts it is valuable as a hedgerow tree, as it will
accommodate itself to situations in which other trees
refuse to grow, and is therefore especially useful in
nursing more valuable trees which have been planted
by the seaside.

The alder prefers a low situation, and delights in
moist meadow ground near a river. The best times
for planting are November and March, by digging a
hole nine inches deep, with a common garden spade.
The propagation of the alder is best done by seed,
though it is not worth while any private person
attempting to do so, as a thousand plants a foot high
may be bought for six or seven shillings, of the
nurserymen who make a business of rearing large
numbers of trees for planting. These sow the seeds
as thick as they can lie on the surface of the ground,
without touching one another, and are then trod
carefully in with the feet. At the end of the first
season the plants will be nine inches high, after which
they are transplanted into lines.

The Poplar comes next in natural order of succes-
sion on a damp or moist soil, which is not so wet as
those I have previously referred to. A great dif-
ference of opinion exists as to the relative merit of
the poplar tree, as an object of landscape adornment.
Cobbett called it a great ugly tree, while Prince
Piickler Muskau, who has been cited as a good
authority on trees, complains of its leaves " being too
fluttering." An old poplar, showing a large misshapen
black-looking trunk, is certainly often an ugly object,

26 TREE-PLANTING.

but on the other hand, young poplar trees are gene-
rally considered good-looking, their fresh green
foliage being very gay and bright, while the young
wood is not by any means bad-looking. The poplar,
however, is the most useful of all trees for furnishing
an effect in a bare locality, being remarkable for its
rapidity of growth. The genus (Populus) is of the
natural order Salicacece, which produces unisexual
flowers, those of the two sexes being placed on separate
plants, and consists of many species, natives of all
countries, very diversified in foliage and form, but all
remarkable for rapidity of growth. Interspersed with
other kinds they make a pleasing variety, and can at
all events be cut down by those who are not partial
to them, after they have performed the task for which
they were designed, in furnishing shelter and em-
bellishment, while the more valued and slower-growing
trees were attaining a size adapted for the purpose in
view.

The Lomlardy Poplar, or Fastigiate (P.fastigiata),
is easily recognised by its upright growth, with its
lateral branches closely gathered round about its trunk,
forming a taper shape. It was introduced into Britain
about the middle of the eighteenth century, and soon
became common in England, being easily propagated
by cuttings, in the same way as the willow. Travellers
on the Continent have remarked the long spectral
rows of these trees along the margins of fields, and
compare them unfavourably with the hedgerow timber
trees of England, consisting of the elm, and the oak.
The uniformity of its growth, and the straight lines in
which they are planted, added to the flatness of the
country, causes it to wear a monotonous appearance,

THE POPLAR IN TOWNS. 27

which is wearisome to the eye. Judiciously placed in
landscape gardening, it forms, however, a very elegant
and striking object, when mixed with masses of round-
headed forest trees, when it helps greatly to diversify
the scene. As shelter the tree is unequalled. It soon
attains a great height, and forms a good screen, while
its shade is very harmless to crops growing near them.
A few poplars planted in the neighbourhood of out-
buildings very often redeem an otherwise ugly feature,
and diversify the regularity of the sky line.

As a town tree it is one of the best which can be
selected, as it grows in a narrow space, and will stand
smoke almost better than any other tree ; while
growing rapidly, it soon assumes a distinct form, and
attains a greater altitude than any other tree in a
limited period. It will grow vigorously in any soil
when young, and is therefore particularly valuable
where trees are wanted to make a show in a short
space of time, but to attain their fullest dimensions,
the soil must be rich and deep, and water within
reach of their roots. Fences are formed out of this
tree on the Continent, by inserting two-year old plants,
which are commonly six or seven feet in height, in a
straight line, about six inches apart, connected by a
horizontal rod placed at a height of about a yard
from the ground, forming a fence in one season. The
plants are lopped in the course of time, and eventually
thinned out when they begin to attain the size of
timber.

Necklace-bearing, or Black Italian Poplar (P.
monilifera), sometimes called the Canadian poplar.
This is a very fast-growing tree, and on wild and
rocky ground even, on the margins of lakes between

28 TREE-PLANTING.

Canada and Virginia, it grows to the height of seventy
or eighty feet, and in good soil considerably exceeds
this measurement. On rich moist land it becomes a
large tree in a few years, and is readily distinguished
from the Lombardy poplar, by its leaves being
broader, and its young shoots being serrated, parti-
cularly towards the extremities, and is also of a much
darker colour. Its habit is also much more spreading,
its side shoots taking a wider and more horizontal
range, which often tempts pruning, which is not a very
safe experiment with poplars, as it often induces decay.
The Gray Poplar (P. canescens) is a native of
Britain, which grows rapidly, and is a large spreading
tree. In April it becomes conspicuous from the pro-
fusion of large catkins it throws out, which are two
or three inches in length. It thrives best in moist
soils, and is somewhat remarkable at an early age for
throwing out strong lateral shoots nearly equal in
length to the main shoot. When cut down young, it
.shoots freely, but at a later period of its growth, it
-springs more vigorously from the roots, and is con-
sequently objectionable in some situations, as it fills
the land with suckers. It is most readily propagated
by layers, and after being one year transplanted, the
plants are often six feet high, and fit for being finally
planted out, in the situations in which they are
intended to stand. It is considered a good tree to
plant with oak and silver-fir, to act as nurse, as it
furnishes a shelter which is adapted to the early
growth of these trees, and as it becomes of a useful
size in a few years, it can then be taken away, and its
timber made use of, when the other trees are
-established.

THE ASPEN. 29

Its wood is soft and light, resembling that of
willow, and is seldom profitably grown after forty
years, as it generally begins then to rot in the centre
of the trunk. The timber is useful for making
barn doors, as it does not warp, and for similar
purposes as that to which willow is applied. Planted
alone in rich moist soil, it rises with a straight trunk
to a considerable height in a short time, and produces
a large amount of timber.

The White Poplar (P. alba). The general appear-
ance of this tree somewhat resembles P. canescens,
though not generally so vigorous, is finer, the upper
surface of the leaves being of a darker green, and the
under side of a brighter white, which, when agitated
by the wind, presents a very striking appearance, and
has a very conspicuous effect upon the margins of
lakes, upon islands, or in plantations designed for
effect. It is not believed to be a native of Britain,
but is generally supposed to have been brought to
England at an early period from Flanders.

The most beautiful variety is that known as the
white Egyptian poplar, the leaves of which are the
darkest green above, with the most vivid white
beneath, though its growth is not nearly so vigorous
as the common variety.

The Trembling-leaved Poplar (P. tremuld), or
Aspen, is a native of Britain, and is also indigenous in
mountainous situations throughout Europe and Asia,
in the Highlands of Scotland being frequently found
associated with the natural birch. Unlike the
tapering varieties, this is a beautiful round-headed
tree, of stately and elegant appearance, tall in pro-
portion to its bulk, growing very rapidly, and being

30 TREE-PLANTING.

extremely hardy. It will grow luxuriously in almost
any soil, and attain a considerable height while young,
in a dry and sandy soil, as well as a moist one. Its
roots spread on the surface of the ground, and there
is one objection attending its cultivation, which is, that
in many situations its tendency to produce suckers
from the root, when the vigour of the young tree
subsides in neglected grounds, causes it to form a
jungle around the trees.

This Is not so much objected to in the Highlands,
and some parts of Germany and Sweden, as these
young shoots are greedily eaten by sheep and cattle
and so form an article of food not to be despised for
stock, being used both in a green and a dry state for
this purpose. This species is readily propagated by
cuttings from the roots, but not cuttings from the
branches, as is the case with many other kinds of
poplars. Plants one or two years transplanted from
layers, are generally from five to six feet high, when
they should be removed and planted in nursery lines.
The average growth of the aspen for the first ten
years is not less than three feet annually. These
trees can be made to assume a very ornamental
appearance in various situations. Standing by itself
on a lawn, it assumes a pendulous form. On the
outskirts of plantations its foliage makes a handsome
contrast to those of other trees, throughout the
summer being of a beautiful glaucous green, which is
changed by the first frosts of autumn into a more
mellowed hue, which ultimately turns to a bright
yellow, and by tasteful arrangement, it forms a
valuable aid in landscape embellishment. The
leaves are round and smooth, and standing in long

THE POPLAR READILY PROPAGATED. 31

slender foot-stalks, they are agitated by the gentlest
breeze, so that their quivering is very perceptibly
heard, as well as seen, during comparatively calm
weather.

The Balsam Poplar (P. balsamifera) does not
attain a very great height in Britain, though in North
America it rises to eighty feet. It is solely adapted
for ornament, and grows vigorously only for a few
years while it is young. The trunk has an ash-coloured
bark, the young wood being of a rich chestnut colour,
while the buds are large, and encased in a glutinous
balsam to which the tree owes its name. Its leaves
are of a pale yellow, which diffuse a rich balsamic
odour throughout the air, eventually changing to a
rich dark green colour. The tree is readily propa-
gated either from cuttings, or by suckers which it is
in the habit of throwing out; and there are several
varieties which differ in the size, shape, and colour of
the leaves, also in the relative vigour of their growth,
and again in the time at which they expand their
foliage. All the varieties will readily grow in any
description of soil, but they prefer that which is
moderately sheltered, and which is soft, rich, and
moist.

TJte Ontario Poplar (P. candicans). This tree is
almost useless as timber, for when it ceases to
grow vigorously, the branches become brittle, and
it is then comparatively worthless. It bears a
strong family likeness to the balsam poplar, but
is of a much more rapid and vigorous habit of
growth.

From the varieties I have named, it will be seen
that the poplar is one of the most useful and most

32 TREE-PLANTING.

accommodating of the deciduous trees, especially
valuable for planting in bare situations. It has been
remarked by a writer, that when men build mansions
in flat bare situations, destitute of trees, the visions
they dwell on are those of the dark forest-side, and
cathedral-like vista. They desire that their dwellings
should be invested with the garb of antiquity. This
cannot of course be done instantaneously, yet, by a
proper selection of trees, kindly treated, the change
may be very much hastened. The Canadian poplar
twenty years planted, will reach the height of fifty
feet, and this tree does not make merely height alone,
but will carry with it a great burden of branches of
spray, and overshadow a space four or five yards in
circumference.

Poplars will make an agreeable show when even
quite young, so that a belt of nice, fresh, green-looking
trees may be established at once in any situation ;
for all sorts of poplars will grow in any kind of
ground during their infancy, if it is well trenched,
even on that of a sandy description, better adapted
for the growth of the fir. As I have before pointed
out, when they have performed their office they may
be removed, in order to give place to more valued
trees.

The Lime Tree, or Linden, or Teil Tree. This
beautiful tree is the Tilia of botanists, and belongs to
Polyandria monogynia of the Linnaean system, the
principal tree of the genus, which is divided into two
species, and consist of a number of distinct varieties,
being the Tilia Europa, or common lime.

It is unsuited for bleak situations, its chief use
being to form embowering shade to an avenue. In

HONEY FROM LIME-TREE BLOSSOMS. 33

towns throughout the Continent they are planted in
lines along the streets and public promenades, and its
blossoms expanding in July diffuse an agreeable
fragrance, which is the most perceptible in hot
weather, the heat reflected by pavements and buildings
strengthening its odour, while the shade it affords is
veiy desirable.

It was beneath the shade of the lime trees at
Berlin, that the would-be-assassin, Heinrich Max
Hodel, made his attempt on the life of the Emperor
William, while returning from a drive. When firing
the first shot he stood on the footpath of Unter den
Linden, and then ran to the other side of the street,
where the trees are, threw himself on the ground,
fired a second shot, and missing, again took to flight,
firing twice more at the bystanders.

It is stated by Loudon that the honey produced
by the lime-tree blossoms is considered to be far
superior to all other kinds, on account of its
delicacy, selling at three or four times the price of
common honey, and is used exclusively for medicines,
and in the manufacture of liqueurs.

The lime is said to be indigenous to England ; but
it has been pointed out that, whether native or foreign,
it does not shed its seeds and spring up in uncultivated
ground, as indigenous plants invariably do, which has
given rise to some doubts as to its being really a
native of Britain. It is, however, a native of the
north of Germany, Sweden, and Russia, and is found
wild on the Alps in Switzerland, in the north of
Italy, Spain, and Portugal.

It requires a good climate, and a rich alluvial or
loamy soil ; it being found that seeds are only

34 TREE-PLANTING.

ripened in the best seasons, and on trees most
favourably situated. In favourable seasons the seeds
ripen in autumn, and may be sown in winter or early
spring ; the plants coming up in the ensuing summer.
The lime is a vigorous, pliant, well-balanced tree,
throwing out a great number of branches of a graceful
lateral form, and it attains to a great size in a short
period, according well with the meadows and culti-
vated ground with which it is often associated, not
thriving in dry poor soils. Where several kinds of
lime trees stand together, and throw out their
blossoms at the same time, the seeds easily become
hybridised, and produce various sorts, though they
may be gathered from one tree. It is seldom, how-
ever, plants are raised from seed, for when they can
be obtained fully ripe, which is not always, the
progress of the plant is very slow when compared
with that of layers, which always perpetuates the
original, or parent tree, and this plan of raising plants
from layers is invariably practised by nurserymen.
When lopped over at the surface of the ground, the
stool readily produces a number of young plants. The
young shoots are then bent down into the earth to the
depth of three or four inches, with their extremities
placed in an upright position, which forms the young
plant. The operation of laying down the shoots can
be done either in winter or early spring, and the
plants will become rooted and fit for removal by the
November following, when the young shoots, which
have been thrown out from the stool in the mean-
time (the produce of the preceding summer), should
be inserted in the ground like the others, to create
another crop of young plants, thus laying down and

LAYING DOWN THE LIME TREE. 35

removing the plants yearly. As this is a great strain
upon the stool, it is desirable to furnish manure to it,
and give a few inches of rich compost or vegetable
mould, and when the soil is destitute of silex it will be
found advisable to mix some sharp sand with it.
After three years, one healthy stool will furnish about
sixty plants annually, which when removed are
generally about two feet high. They should then be
transplanted into nursery lines, about two and a half
feet asunder, the plants standing about fifteen inches
apart in the rows. They will usually attain a height
of six feet in two years, and are then ready for being
finally planted out. They may, however, be kept in
the nursery and grown to a much larger size, and
afterwards be transplanted with safety, provided they
are removed every second year. This removal causes
the roots to assume a fibrous or bushy form, which
catch hold of the soil and adapt themselves to a new
situation, which a top root will not do. This is one
of the chief advantages of dealing with a respectable
nurseryman, from whom the true history, so to speak,
of each plant may be obtained.

The ordinary progress of the . growth of the lime
tree in rich soil, in a sheltered situation, is about two
feet per annum in height, for the first fifteen or
twenty years ; after which time its progress is more
manifest in making addition to the bulk of the trunk,
and expanse to its lateral branches; its height in
Britain attaining to sixty feet, with broad spreading
branches, although there are individual instances
where the tree has been known to reach a height of
ninety-five feet.

The timber of the lime tree is very soft and white,

D i

36 TREE-PLANTING.

or pale yellow colour, and is preferred to make blocks
for cutting leather upon, for carving, and for the use
of shoemakers, glovers, and saddlers. Not being
subject to warp, and having a fine surface, it is used
at foundries for forming moulds, and also in the
manufacture of gunpowder in the form of charcoal.

The leading varieties of the common, or European,
lime tree, are the small leaved (inicropJiylld], the
broad-leaved (platyphylld], the red- twigged (rubra],
the cut-leaved (laciniata), the yellow-twigged (aurea),
and the white-leaved (alba).

The American Lime Tree (Tilia Americana], like
the European species, does best on a rich, loose, deep
soil, and flourishes on the borders of Lake Erie and Lake
Ontario. The leaves are larger, of a dark green colour,
cordate, acutely pointed, and are generally smooth
and shining, while it is of a more robust habit than
the European description. In Britain it is a month
later than the common lime tree in expanding its
blossoms, its twigs being of a dark brown colour, and
the branches of the young trees commonly taking a
wider range. On the American continent it attains
the height of eighty feet. It is not very commonly
met with in England. The mode of propagation and
treatment are the same as that pursued in the case of
the common tree.

The Horse Chestnut is one of the handsomest trees
we have, and is altogether a different variety to the
Castanea vesca, the sweet or Spanish chestnut.

It forms a beautiful avenue of trees; those at
Bushey Park, when in full blossom, constituting one of
the sights of London, to which thousands of people
flock in fine weather. It thrives in a rich, deep, damp

THE HORSE CHESTNUT. 37

soil, is generally round-topped, having a well-balanced
head during its early maturity, and is altogether a
very handsome tree. It is easily propagated from the
nut, which bursts out of its prickly shell when ripe,
and grows very quickly. In moist and undisturbed
situations, these will often strike and take root when
dropped from the tree, and its cultivation is very
simple and easy. The horse chestnut (^Esculus
hippocastanum] is supposed to have been introduced
into this country from the Levant (the " Orient " of
the French, the " Morgenland " of the Germans,
paraphrases of the " East ") about the middle of the
sixteenth century. As a lawn tree it forms a most
beautiful object with its handsome blossoms. After
the foliage begins to expand, the tree is remarkable
for the rapidity with which it forms its whole season's
growth, which it effects in three or four \veeks. The
young wood being thus matured early in the season,
renders the tree well adapted to endure cold and
unfavourable situations, though it will only blossom
abundantly in warm and sheltered positions, a high
degree of temperature being necessary to expand
them.

The seedlings should be transplanted into nursery
lines, at one or two years of age, and then removed
every third year, increasing the space in which they
stand. By this means the fibrous nature of the roots,
after being frequently transplanted, allows it to be
removed in safety when it has attained a larger size
than most trees, by which means an avenue of fair
sized trees could be obtained in very little time, or a
handsome object planted upon a lawn, or wherever it
might be required.

38 TREE-PLANTING.

The horse chestnut sometimes attains to a con-
siderable size. One tree in Lincolnshire is sixty feet
high, possessing a circumference of foliage which
measures a hundred yards.

The timber is comparatively worthless, except for
those purposes where wood is required that is easily
worked, a cubical foot of chestnut timber weighing
when dry only from thirty-five to thirty-seven pounds.
The nuts, which are bitter, are refused by pigs, and
all other animals excepting the deer, which eat them.

In France I believe they make starch from the
nuts, but to the best of my knowledge they are not
put to any useful purpose in England.

The Scarlet-Flowering Chestnut is a handsome tree
for decorative purposes, of a more dwarf habit, which
flowers at an earlier age than the common horse
chestnut, which causes it to be in request on that
account. There are also some interesting varieties of
the yellow-flowering and smooth-fruited kinds, which
are of dwarf growth, of the genus termed Pavia.
These are best propagated by being engrafted on the
common horse chestnut, a profusion of stocks for
such a purpose being always readily accessible.

The trees I have enumerated will all thrive and
succeed well in moist situations, the same as I have
described ; each and all being very easy to deal with
in their method of cultivation ; success invariably re-
warding only a very moderate amount of painstaking;
in fact, in some cases, as the willow, by merely sticking
a small piece of cutting into the ground in a moist
situation, in the neighbourhood of water, in course of
time a handsome tree will be found in its place.

CHAPTER III.

Broad-leaved Trees Trees as Landscape Ornaments Influence of
Climate Planting in the Sixteenth Century Turner's "Herbal "
Gerrard's Catalogue and Physic-garden in Holborn Sir Hans
Sloane's Physic-garden at Chelsea Doctor Compton, Bishop of
London Planting greatly stimulated The "Hortus Kewensis "-
Trees introduced by Douglas The Ash The Beech Old Tree in
Windsor Forest Indisposition of English Farmers to turn their
attention to Agricultural Manufactures The Birch The Elm
The Mountain or Wych Elm The Huntingdon Elm Cork-
barked Elm American Elm Curled-leaved Elm Variegated
Elm Weeping Elm Aptitude of the Elm to "sport," or vary
from seed The Chestnut Tree Valuable as Coppice The Timber
chiefly valuable when young Derivation of its Name Grown in
Spain for its Fruit Brought to Europe by the Greeks from Sardis
Largest and oldest Chestnut Tree in the World Great Chestnut
at Tortworth Raising trees from Seed Ornamental Varieties.

I WILL next speak of the varieties which are usually
termed broad-leaved timber trees, which embrace the
oak, elm, ash, beech, birch, plane, hornbeam, locust,
sycamore, walnut, and Spanish chestnut; none of
which succeed well in elevated situations, exposed to a
rigorous climate, where cone-bearing, or resinous trees,
succeed, such as the pine, larch, and spruce, and
kindred species ; nor answer in low-lying situations,
such as I have been describing, that are surcharged
with moisture.

As landscape ornaments, the broad-leaved timber

40 TREE-PLANTING.

trees play a very important part, the umbrageous
shade and canopy-like form of many studded about
in park-like meadows being peculiar to Britain

The pendulous masses of the ash' are gracefulness
itself, when agitated by the influence of the breeze.
For beauty of foliage and flower, perhaps nothing
surpasses the locust, or acacia, trees. The plane is
another noble tree which often excites admiration,
while the birch, growing on the sides of precipitous
crags, frequently redeems many an otherwise barren
scene from an aspect of desolation. The oak, which
has often been symbolised as a picture of sturdy
strength, will, under favourable conditions for its
growth, attain a height of eighty-five feet, with a
trunk measuring twelve or thirteen feet in circum-
ference. But look at the same tree under adverse
circumstances ! Disliking extreme heat or cold, under
either condition it becomes dwarfed and stunted ; and
in exposed situations, where the Scotch fir would
flourish, the oak becomes merely a shadow of itself
when grown under conditions not favourable to its
full development. Some of the American trees, such
as the western plane where the summers are hotter,
and the winters more severe, in its native country than
in England need to be planted in a sunny sheltered
spot, as much as possible guarded from the frosty winds
of March and April ; for the tender buds, exposed to
ungenial blasts, exhibit a scorched appearance, and
sufficiently attest the difference of climate, for in their
own, the hot summers cause their leaves to expand
rapidly, thus maturing the young wood, so as to
enable it to withstand the severity of the winter
season. And in planting trees, to cause them to be

PLANTATIONS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 41

successful, the influences of climate should be taken
relatively into account as much as possible ; for,
where one tree will not answer, another will ; and a
certain amount of observation and attention will soon
enable a correct estimation to be formed of the kind
of trees needed for each situation, and aspect.

Although as timber trees, nearly the whole of
these are very valuable in individual instances, taken
collectively they cannot be grown so profitably as
plantations of pine, larch, or Scotch fir, for obvious
reasons ; one of the principal of which is, that they
would occupy valuable agricultural land, while the
other kinds I have mentioned can be grown in ex-
tensive plantations, which, otherwise occupied, would
yield but a trifling return.

This is well understood by the large planters who
have made this subject a matter of study, but it is one
which is comparatively unknown to those whose
operations in this direction have been only on a very
limited scale.

During the sixteenth century plantations began
to be extensively t formed in Britain, for timber and for
ornamental purposes, though many of the timber trees
are supposed to have been introduced into England
by the Romans. Turner, who published his "Herbal"
about the middle of the sixteenth century, upon
different occasions notices the introduction of the
evergreen cypress, the common spruce fir, the stone
pine, the sweet bay, and_the walnut ; and towards the
end of the sixteenth century Gerrard published the
first edition of his catalogue, which includes the pine-
aster, the laburnum, and a number of the smaller
trees and shrubs which he had collected in his physic

42 TREE-PLANTING.

garden in Holborn. The only surviving physic-garden
which now remains in London, is, I believe, the one
left by Sir Hans Sloane to the Apothecaries' Com-
pany, which now abuts the Thames Embankment at
Chelsea, which the writer had to inspect a couple of
years or so back, in his capacity of grand juryman,
upon the occasion of a difference between the Apothe-
caries' Company and Board of Works, which was
settled amicably by arrangement, and did not finally
come on for trial. To the botanists and apothecaries
of London we are indebted at that period for the
first accounts we have of the introduction of many
of the timber trees with which we are now commonly
familiar.

Doctor Compton, who was Bishop of London
from 1675 to 1713, introduced a great number of
exotic trees, chiefly from America. The Botanic
Garden of Edinburgh was formed in 1680, and in 1683
the cedar of Lebanon was introduced into it.
Parkinson, the apothecary to James L, a physician of
London, recorded in 1629 the introduction of the
larch and the horse chestnut, but who the introducers
were is not stated.

The writings of Linnaeus, Miller, Bradly, and
others, and the consequent spread of botanical know-
ledge, was the means of exciting attention to this
subject, and a taste sprang up amongst the wealthiest
and best educated classes for the cultivation of plants
and trees, especially by some of the chief landowners
in the kingdom, and large plantations were formed at
Sion, Croome, Goodwood, and Claremont. It is
stated that the Countess of Haddington took such an
absorbing interest in improvements by plantation,

STIMULUS GIVEN TO PLANTING. 43

that she sold her jewels in order to enable her to
plant Binning Wood, which embraced 1,000 acres, and
was formed in 1705, while a great impetus was given
later on to the introduction of the tribe of Conifera
by Douglas, who went to North-west America as a
botanical collector.

The influence of the Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland has given a great impetus to
planting during the present century, in offering pre-
miums for the introduction'bf new timber trees. From
the transactions reported by that institution, it appears
that the Earl of Seafield planted the enormous
number of 30,000,000 of young trees upon land ex-
ceeding in space 8,000 acres. The Duke of Argyle
planted very largely in Scotland, and also at Whitton,
near Hounslow. The Duke of Richmond planted
1,000 cedars of Lebanon at Goodwood, five years of
age, a tree which ought to be much more generally
planted than it is. It will grow well and flourish in
elevated positions, on rocky or stony soil, amidst a
loose stone formation, whence the roots from the tree
can fix itself amongst their interstices. Indeed, for the
purposes of timber, the wood of the cedar is harder
and more durable than when grown on the richer
soil of the low lands, in which it is nearly always met
with in this country, being often looked upon more
as an exotic than the hardy tree which it is.

The Princess Dowager of Wales established the
arboretum at Kew, which now occupies such a fore-
most place as a school for the attainment of practical
botanical knowledge, which has served as a model
for the imitation of country towns, while the taste for
plantations is said to have been imbibed from these

44 TREE-PLANTING.

examples by the Earl of Panmure, the Duke of
Athole, Sir James Naesmyth,' Sir Archibald Grant,
and others in Scotland, which caused various land-
owners to follow their example in North Britain.

According to the " Hortus Kewensis," the most
important foreign trees introduced into this country
in the seventeenth century were the cedar, the larch,
the silver fir, the acacia or locust tree, horse chestnut,
Nonvay maple, scarlet maple, scarlet oak, American
plane, weeping willow, Balm of Gilead fir, balsam
proper, the black and white American spruce fir, the
cork tree, as well as a great many of the minor trees and
shrubs ; while in the eighteenth century, the number
of species of foreign plants introduced into Britain
amounted to nearly 5,000, more than half of them
being natives of North America. Of these, three-
fourths were shrubs, the trees consisting chiefly of
pines, oaks, poplars, maples, and 'thorns, fresh varieties
of trees which had been introduced before.

Many of the new timber trees from North-west
America, which were introduced by Douglas in the
first half of the present century, from the enormous
size they attain in their native country, are expected
to become very valuable as timber here, but in the
case of these kings of the forest, it is somewhat hard
that the results cannot be judged in the case of
one man's lifetime, and the introducers have to con-
tent themselves with their faith in the size they will
ultimately attain ; for trees are pointed out which are
said to have stood from the time of the Conquest, and
although there is doubtless much exaggeration in the
ages of r many celebrated trees in different parts of
the country, there are well authenticated instances of

DETERIORATION OF THE CEDAR TREE. 45

single specimens of historical trees which have stood
for hundreds of years.

The cedars of Lebanon, which Solomon felled for
the building of the Temple, only perfected themselves
in the keen and biting air of their high position after
a lapse of many ages, their nourishment being gathered
from a sub-soil of hard, calcareous, whitish stones,
standing at an elevation of about 9,500 feet above the
sea.

The timber of the cedar has so deteriorated in its
quality of hardness by being planted in soils not
natural to it, that those familiar with the wood grown
in England, from its soft and nearly worthless nature,
have come to the conclusion that it could not have
been this tree which was used in the building of the
palace and temple at Jerusalem ; where the loose,
coarse, spongy texture of the timber evidently
proceeds from the way in which the tree has been
grown in the artificial manner practised with cedars,
when everything is done to induce rapid and luxuriant
growth, so that they bear no affinity, except in
name, to the trees which were grown on the mountains
of Syria.

I will, however, give a full description of this
interesting tree, under a different heading, and in
association with kindred trees of analogous species,
and will now deal in detail with those varieties which
are termed the " broad-leaved."

The Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). The ash succeeds
best in a deep hazelly loam, near the bottom of a hill,
or sloping towards a river, where the soil is not too
damp, for the ash does not like anything approaching
a wet soil, yet likes its roots to stretch towards water

46 TREE-PLANTING.

in a dry summer, and feel the influence of modified
moisture. If its roots touch a wet or sour soil its
progress of growth becomes arrested ; on reaching a
poor subsoil the wood becomes brittle, while continuous
and uninterrupted growth under the most favourable
circumstances develops hard and durable timber ;
the properties which mark the ash in perfection
strength, toughness, and elasticity being only ob-
tainable when they are the result of a free and
unimpeded growth.

As a hedgerow tree the ash is a very bad one to
have on the land, as it makes a barren circle wherever
it stands, while no deciduous tree can be made so
valuable on the slopes of mountainous districts, where
it can have shelter. High positions it does not object
to, so that it is not exposed to bleak winds.

A well-grown tree of the tall, or common, ash
takes rank with the best trees near the oak ; and as a
landscape decoration it is one of the handsomest
trees, there being no harsh or rigid outlines to mar
its symmetrical appearance, what it lacks in grandeur
and imposing aspect, being amply made up in grace-
fulness, bending and swaying to the breeze whenever
agitated by the wind.

The best times for planting the ash is in October,
November, March, and April. Where the land is wet
it should be drained, for no tree is so much injured
by stagnant water, and the situation should be care-
fully chosen, so that they rise in masses by themselves,
and not be interfered with by any other tree. The ash
being a loose-headed, open kind of tree, they do not
interfere with one another during their early growth
when planted in masses, and consequently they get

THE GROWTH OF THE ASH. 47

light and air. Nurses in the form of other trees may
be sometimes useful during the first fifteen years of
their growth, but in their permanent character they
must not be interfered with by other trees.

The value'of the ash as timber varies considerably,
according to the soil upon which it is grown. Ash
grown on loose boggy soils is worth about tenpence
per cubic foot, but the timber which has been raised
on hazelly loams, and other favourable situations,
fetched one' shilling and fourpence and one shilling
and sixpence per cubic foot some years ago, and I
doubt not but that the prices are considerably higher
now.

The late Earl of Leicester planted the ash very
extensively at Holkham, in different soils and in
various situations, and the result illustrated, in a very
forcible manner, the necessity for fixing upon a site
suited to the habit and nature of this tree. Some trees
at fifty years old contained only thirty cubic feet,
while others at the same age, and planted at the same
time, contained seventy-six.

The soil should always be trenched for the recep-
tion of the ash, and holes made with the common
garden spade, three feet apart, if the situation be
high, half of them being intended to act as nurses
to the others, which will take 5,000 plants per acre.
In a sheltered situation, however, five feet asunder
will be sufficient, or 500 nurses and 1,700 principal
plants per acre.

The ash is propagated by seeds, which are ripe in
November, and should always be taken from the best
trees. When gathered they should be lain in a pit
made in a light porous soil, and left open. They

48 TREE-PLANTING.

should be mixed with sand or light soil, in the pro-
portion of two bushels of sand to one of seed, and
allowed to remain in the pit for fifteen months, and
turned over at least six times in that interval, which
will bring them up to the end of February, when they
should be sown in open dry weather.

A writer has pointed out that Loudon in his
"Arboretum Britannicum," p. 1224, directs that the
seeds, which are ripe in October, should be taken to the
rotting heap, where they should be turned over several
times in the course of the winter, " and in February
they may be removed, freed from the sand by sifting,
and sown in beds of any middling soil. The plants,"
he continues, " may be taken up at the end of the
year, and planted in nursery lines." " Now," the writer
in question remarks to a nurseryman, "this error is
harmless enough, because he knows at the end of
the year the plants will not be in existence ; but an
amateur expecting a crop as stated, concludes they
are lost, and probably directs the soil to be dug up,
in order that he may plant something else in their
stead. The reason for allowing the seeds to lie
exactly fifteen months is, that if sown earlier the
tender plants would appear too soon, and suffer from
frosts."

In planting the seeds, the soil should be first
carefully dug over, and afterwards raked, and the
beds marked out to the width of four feet, with an
alley one foot wide between. The beds should then
be uncovered for the reception of the seed, which
should lie half an inch apart from one another. The
covering should then be drawn on with a rake, or a
small clean spade, spreading the soil with an even hand,

THE BEECH. 49

which should cover the seed to the extent of three-
quarters of an inch. The plants should be allowed to
remain two years in the seed-bed, and then removed
into lines, eighteen inches apart, the plants standing six
inches from one another. They should stand thus for
another two years, when they will be ready to be
transplanted into the permanent situations they are
intended to occupy.

In setting out ash plants, the mere digging a hole
for their reception is not enough. The ground should
always be trenched ; and the roots, and consequently
the tree, will then make progress, for the rain and
sunshine will operate upon the land, and show a most
favourable contrast in results to those plants which
have been merely placed in a hole.

Of course there is the expense of trenching, which
is somewhat considerable, but the future success of
the trees will amply repay this outlay, and for hop-
poles, and various other uses, a good ash plantation is
often very valuable.

The Beech (Fagus sylvatica}. The beech will grow
on most dry soils, giving the preference to sand, light
loams, and loams with chalky bottoms. It is one of
the handsomest of British trees, and contributes
greatly to the beauty of any area whereon it may be
placed. Some very large specimens of this tree arc
to be met with in many of the parks belonging to the
nobility and gentry throughout the country, some of
them being historical trees.

One very large tree in Windsor Forest is said to
have stood since the time of the Norman Conquest,
but is now only a venerable ruin ; yet the beech is not
accounted so long-lived a tree as many others, it

50 TREE-PLANTING.

being considered not profitable to retain it standing-
longer than seventy or eighty years, for the value of
its timber. It is found growing in masses in the
chalky districts of Kent, Surrey, Hampshire, and
Sussex, as well as on the Cotswold Hills of Glou-
cestershire, in Buckinghamshire, and Hertfordshire.

No tree puts on such a diversified appearance as
the beech. When the rays of the sun strike upon the
leaves of a beech tree which have been wetted by
the gentle showers of early summer, the action of the
light upon the leaves has a most beautiful effect.
The buds break out into soft silky folds, covering
each separate spray with a coating of light green
verdure, which, as the season advances, changes into
a bright dark green. It puts on its best appearance,
perhaps, when planted on a sandy loam, or on the
slope of hills where there is a calcareous bottom,
where it assumes somewhat of the graceful appearance
of the birch.

The beech can be made to give a large amount of
shelter, and deserves on this account to be much more
generally planted than it is, where shelter is needed.
Tall fences can be converted out of beech trees to
stand from twenty to thirty feet high, affording shade
in summer and warmth in winter; for if the soil is not
naturally rich wherein the hedge of beech is planted,
by manuring well, the dead leaves will be retained
hanging to their stems throughout the winter. These
hedges may occasionally be seen, in rare instances,
close and thick, of the height of eight and ten feet
where they have been regularly kept under the
shears, while the topmost boughs have been allowed
to take their course. In certain cases it has been

TO TEST BEECH SEEDS. 51

assumed that this protection during the early months
of the year has had the effect of anticipating the
season one month, so far as its sheltering influence
has extended.

The beech is invariably propagated by its mast.
The seeds ripen in October, and those which have
no kernels fall first from the tree. If good and bad
seeds are gathered together, they may be known, and
separated, by putting them into a tub half-filled with
water. The good ones will sink to the bottom, and
the bad ones float on the top, when they can be
poured off with the water. The good seed should be
immediately taken out of the tub, and spread out to
dry, and when perfectly free from damp, then put up
in boxes, or bags, with twice their measurement of
sand, which is the best way of disposing of them
till they are wanted. The mast becomes ripe in
October, and the time for sowing the seed is the end
of March or beginning of April. Certain experiments
have been made by planting the seeds in the autumn,
but the plants are likely to be cut off by the late
frosts.

The seeds should be sown in beds, covered with
soil an inch in depth, and lie about an inch from each
other, the earth being removed for this purpose from
the top, or surface of the bed, and then replaced
again ; first being patted with the back of the spade
to keep them in their places.

The young plants do not like the knife, and are
apt to become bark-bound when pruned too early, they
ought not, therefore, to be cut until they have well
established themselves. In the event of plants be-
coming bark-bound, when they will refuse to grow, the

E 2

52 TREE-PLANTING.

best plan is to cut them down in April, to within four-
inches of the ground, and pick out the strongest and
straightest shoots to form the future tree. This is
likely to occur so, if they are allowed to stand for
more than two years, without being transplanted in
the nursery.

The beech has a tendency to throw out spreading
branches, and where the ultimate object is to obtain
a number of good straight timber trees, they should
stand for the first few years in close proximity
together, so as to discourage the growth of side spray,
and not be allowed to waste themselves in spreading
branches. As they advance in growth and age,
greater freedom must be allowed to them.

The timber of the beech is not considered very
valuable, except for certain purposes as household
furniture, in the form of chairs, tables, chests of
drawers, and bedsteads, corn measures, etc. In the'
mountainous districts of France, the sabots, or wooden
shoes, are made from beech. It also answers well for
all purposes and objects where timber is needed to be
constantly submerged in water, as piles, flood-gates,,
sluices, and the keels of vessels. In France the oily
secretion of the nuts is more developed than in those
produced in this climate, a considerable quantity of
oil being made from them, in which a trade of some
little importance is done in certain districts ; but I
believe nothing of the kind has been attempted in
England.

Up to the present the English farmer has not
turned his attention to manufactures, which could be
carried out to a much larger extent than they are, in
conjunction with rural occupations, which the future

ENGLISH FARMERS. 53

will doubtless develop. Beet-sugar, for example, now
that sugar-making machinery is so much cheaper,
might be managed very easily by those disposed to go
a little out of their way, in order to make the business
of farming more remunerative. Even in planting, by
~a little attention, very remunerative results could be
secured by growing handsome sticks for umbrellas,
parasols, etc., for which there is always a large
demand. I merely throw the idea out at random ;
but having observed, in certain instances, curiously-
marked specimens of growth, which have arisen from
an ash plant having been embraced, and bound round
tightly with the wild white convolvulus, which has
been marked in consequence in a curious manner, it
would be possible to create such marks in places or
positions where they might be wanted, by tying
strings around them. Pliable stems might also be
trained into any shape which they might be needed
to grow in.

The beech is thought to be a native of Britain.

The Birch. There are two varieties of the birch
indigenous to this country, Betula alba, and B. a. pcn-
dula, the latter being by far the most ornamental.
The birch is generally classed and associated with the
broad-leaved trees, as rejecting on the one hand an
elevated situation, and vigorous climate, and on the
other, a very low one, where an undue degree of
moisture prevails, though in reality it is very hardy,
and only one or two other trees approach so near to
the North Pole, the fact being that it adapts itself to
a wider range of soil and situation than most oil-
plants. It often springs up and becomes the successor
<of the Scotch pine, the exnvicz of which is hostile to

54 TREE-PLANTING.

most plants, but which is favourable to the growth of
the birch, and although, at times, found in swampy
ground, few trees are so capable of resisting drought
so successfully.

The B. a. pendula has its bark covered over with
rough exudations, which causes it to be readily dis-
tinguished when a plant from the Betula alba, which is
soft to the touch. They are frequently found inter-
mixed, while in other districts each is found growing
exclusively. Its positions are often so different and
varied, that while it may be found growing in exten-
sive coppice in the remote parts of the Highlands of
Scotland, on rocky elevations, it may also be more
frequently found adorning the margins of lakes and
rivers, and in sheltered woodland glades. On the
banks of the Findhorn, near Forres, in Morayshire,
there are trees sixty feet high, with trunks six feet in
circumference, the surface stratum of the soil being
sandy peat earth, with gravel upon a sandstone
bottom. As may be supposed from these different
conditions, the tree attains its maturity at different
ages, according to the nature of the soil, and the
situation it occupies ; but it seldom increases in size
after it is seventy years old.

The common tree, where it grows wild, attains an
average height of about thirty feet, and the weeping
variety, which is much the handsomer of the two, an
altitude of about forty feet. The tree is indigenous
throughout the north, and in high situations in the
south of Europe.

Plants may be purchased at a year old, and about
six inches high, at four shillings or five shillings per
thousand. Transplanted then into nursery lines,.

DURABILITY OF BIRCH BARK. 55

where they stand for two years, and reach a height of
two or three feet, fit for finally planting out, they sell
at twenty-five shillings to thirty shillings per thousand,
which is thought a high price, when compared with
the firs which are sold by the nurserymen ; but not-
withstanding the disposition of the plant to grow wild,
and spring up spontaneously, it is generally the most
uncertain nursery crop of any hardy tree.

The seeds are ripe in September usually, when
they are collected, and thinly exposed to dry in an
airy situation, to prevent fermentation, and when they
are quite dry, are put aside till March, when they are
sown. The beds are smoothly dug over, and the
seeds spread regularly on the surface, at the rate
of one bushel of seed to each bed of thirty lineal
yards. They want no covering, but require to be
pressed closely down into the ground with the feet.

The bark of the birch is much in request for
tanning, and is especially preferred by fishermen for
preserving nets and cordage, being amongst the most
incorruptible of vegetable substances.

The Elm. There are two leading species of the
elm. The U. campestris, or English elm, the tall
variety, which figures so prominently in most English
landscapes, and the U. montana, the mountain, or
Wych, elm, the genus Ulmus being the type of the
natural order Ulmacece.

There are about twenty sorts of the U. campestris,
and botanists are unable to decide which are species
and which varieties. As it rarely produces seed in
England, it has been thought questionable whether it
is a native of this country; but if not truly indigenous,
it must have been introduced very early, and pro-

56 TREE-PLANTING.

pagated by art. In France great numbers of trees
are raised from seed, but in this country it is chiefly
propagated by layers from stools, or suckers from old
trees, the best plan being to raise from layers. This
is done by lopping over a young plant which has
become well established. During the following
summer the root produces a number of young shoots,
which are bent down, when they have completed their
growth for the season, to the depth of five or six
inches into the ground, leaving them firmly placed
there, with their extremities in an erect posi-
tion clear above ground, to form the future tree.
These take root during the ensuing summer, when
another crop of shoots are produced by the stool.
The layers should then be taken away during
open weather in winter, or early spring, so as to make
room for the next crop of young shoots, in the same
method which we have elsewhere described. The stool
yielding a number of plants annually, it is desirable
that, in order for them to become well rooted, the stool
should stand in a sandy, rich, and friable soil. The
young plants should be placed in nursery lines for
two years, previous to being finally planted out, a foot
asunder in the rows, and the lines two feet apart from
each other. The young plant forms a more bushy,
and fibrous root than most trees, which enables it to
be moved with safety when it has attained a size and
age beyond that which is common with other kinds
of trees ; but they must be moved again, or more
space allowed for them to grow in, if intended to
stand longer than usual before removal.

The elm grows freely in soils of opposite qualities,
being found in sand, as well as in strong clay, but a

THE ELM FOR HEDGEROWS. 57

rich soft soil, with a loose open bottom, is the best
adapted for its vigorous growth, and in ordinary land
its rate of progress is usually at the rate of twenty-five
feet in ten years. Its form is tall and elegant, with
an erect bole, remarkable for the uniformity of its
size throughout, with dense foliage, and clustering
Jiabit of growth, which causes it to be very ornamental.
As it is not of a spreading nature, it is frequently
made use of as a hedgerow tree, and few trees pro-
duce timber of such equal size and value in so short a
time. The wood being brown, hard, and of a fine grain,
is well adapted for articles that require lateral adhe-
sion, and in London it is used extensively for making
coffins.

The tree is remarkable for its propensity to pro-
duce seedling varieties, many of which have been
spread throughout the country, and are of very
inferior value compared with the best specimens,
some of which range from eighty to a hundred feet in
height. In Hertfordshire there is one tree which
measures forty-eight feet in girth at its base, and
contains nearly 500 cubical feet of timber. Some few
years back, elm trees were described as standing in
various parks spread throughout the country, from
125 to 150 feet in height; one at Strathfieldsaye
130 feet high; one at Milbury Park, Dorsetshire, 200
years old, 125 feet high; and at Croome Abbey, in
Warwickshire, a tree of 200 years of age measured in
the diameter of its trunk nine feet six inches,
diameter of its head seventy-four feet, standing 150
feet high, 'and was considered when the description
was written the loftiest tree of its species in England.

The elm usually reaches its maturity in seventy or

58 TREE-PLANTING.

eighty years, after which it has a tendency to become
hollow in the centre. It is this liability which pro-
duces the many gaps which are to be seen at times in
old avenues of elms leading up to stately mansions,
when, during heavy gales of wind, these unsound trees
are laid low.

The Mountain or Wych Elm (U. Montana), This
tree has a shorter bole, and is more spreading in its
habit than the tall English elm, but is more
picturesque in appearance, and of hardier constitu-
tion, being a native of Scotland. It does not yield
suckers like the English elm, but is produced from
seed, which it yields freely. The blossoms appear in
April, just before the leaves burst out, and the seeds
are usually ripe about the middle of June, when it
is customary to gather them, and sow them at once
in rich fine soil.

The seeds are very unequal in their power of
germinating, one-half perhaps not coming to anything,
which must be borne in mind by the horticulturist
who needs to raise plants, which will stand in the
first place about two inches apart. The seeds should
be covered with about half an inch depth of soil, and
in dry weather the beds should be shaded and watered.
A week after sowing the seed the plants will appear,
when they will require no further care than to be kept
free from weeds. In the following winter or early in
spring they are generally removed into nursery lines,
but this is not strictly necessary in the case of the
Wych elm, for when they do not stand too close,
which is often the case, resulting from inequality of
the seed, they are sometimes allowed to remain
two summers without being removed. Two years is

WYCH-ELM TIMBER. 59

the usual time for the plants to stand in lines, for if
allowed to remain longer the roots are apt to get
bare, so that the plant when transplanted becomes
stunted.

The tree grows rapidly, and will yield heavy
timber in a rich deep soil, preferring an open subsoil.
When lichen overspreads the bark, and its growth
becomes feeble, this result is often traced to water
stagnation near the surface. It grows slower than the
English elm, and usually attains a height of fifty feet,,
but is often found reaching a higher altitude when
interspersed with taller-growing trees. Its timber is
much in request for agricultural purposes where
strength and elasticity are required, such as naves,
shafts, rails and frames for carts and barrows, in
Scotland, and the tree is somewhat remarkable for
yielding large protuberances of gnarled wood, knotted
by an accumulation of growth, which are often highly
valued. Pruning can often be performed to advantage
with this tree, as, at from eight to fourteen years of age,
it is apt to ramify near the ground, and although this
sort of formation adorns the glen and mountain sides,
it forms a short trunk. This can be remedied by
shortening the competing shoots, and reducing the
strongest of the lateral branches with the pruning-
knife, by which means the bole will be lengthened,
and the desired shape insured.

The Huntingdon Elm (U. s. vegetal) This genus
does not date back further than the middle of the
last century, but is a very fast-growing tree, and
valuable for timber. It is propagated by layers, but
oftener perhaps by grafting upon a stock of the
Wych elm.

<6o TREE-PLANTING.

Of the Cork-barked elm (U. stiberosa), there are
several varieties, as well as the American elm, the
Curled-leaved elm, and the Variegated elm. The most
graceful of the entire genus is the Ulmus pendula, or
Weeping elm, of which \ there are several varieties,
supposed to have sprung from the Wych elm, being
begun to be cultivated in nurseries about the end of
the last century.

It seeds freely, but as plants raised from seed
are apt to lose the peculiarities of their species, it is
generally propagated by being grafted upon a stock
of the common elm. In this way it grows readily,
.and soon forms a head of considerable size, often
presenting a most striking appearance, being wild,
diversified, and rugged, in the eccentricity of its
growth sometimes sending out its branches upwards,
downwards, horizontally, or obliquely, in a manner
which is never seen in the case of any other tree. As
3, tree for the lawn, park, or pleasure ground, it is
very desirable amongst the fast-growing trees, in
-effect somewhat resembling the cedar.

A species of elm very common to Britain in some
parts is the U. glabra, being of rapid growth, and
having many varieties.

The aptitude, however, of the elm, throughout all
its varieties, to vary from seed, has rendered the
genus very confused, and it is therefore of importance
that the planter knows himself to be possessed of the
best kind adapted for the purposes intended.

The Chestnut Tree (Castanea vescd}. Linnaeus has
united the genus Castanea with Fagiis, the beech,
which has not however been done by previous bota-
nists, nor has his example been followed by many

CHESTNUT USEFUL AS COPPICE. 6r

since, deservedly high as an authority as he has
always been ranked. It has been pointed out that
the chestnut has male flowers on very long catkins,
with farinaceous 'seed, while the beech, on the con-
trary, has male flowers in globular catkins, with oily
seeds, which marks the distinctive characters of the
true genera.

Only in the warmest counties of England, such as
Devonshire, as well as some of the south-western coun-
ties, does the fruit ripen, and 'is therefore not held
in much estimation as a fruit tree in England, but is-
chiefly held in value on account of its rapid growth
and dense foliage, which well adapts it for a screen or
shelter, and is valuable as coppice. Full-grown
chestnut timber is generally brittle, and only ranks
about half in value with that of oak ; a singular
characteristic of the tree being that the wood is more
valuable when young than when it becomes old.
Full-grown chestnut timber is apt to be shaky and
brittle, the annual layers, or rings which mark- the
yearly growth of trees, having a tendency to divide
from one another, and fall into laths ; but this is only
the case at times, and when the timber has attained
perhaps the age of fifty or sixty years.

Young chestnut wood, on the other hand, soon
changes its sap, or outer wood, into heart wood ; and
hence its great value when young for posts, fences,
and any similar purposes where timber comes into
contact with the ground, where it may be alternately
exposed to wet or dry. As coppice-wood, it is
extremely valuable, as it springs freely when lopped
over, and forms capital underwood.

The name of the Sweet, or Spanish, chestnut is said:

<5 2 TREE-PLANTING.

to have been derived from Kastanea, a city in Pontus
in Asia, from whence it originally came. In Spain
it is grown chiefly for its fruit, which not only forms
a very principal item in the food of the peasantry of
that country, but is an article which is exported to
a considerable extent. At the time when a duty of
two shillings per bushel was imposed upon chestnuts,
the sum taken by the excise office, according to
McCulloch, during the three years ending 1831,
showed that the annual consumption in England
amounted to 20,948 bushels, and in 1842, 23,216
bushels, which were eaten as dessert.

The tree is called Spanish chestnut, and the fruit
sweet, because the best chestnuts sold for table use
come from Spain, and to distinguish it from the fruit
of the horse chestnut, which is exceedingly bitter.

It is said to have been brought to Europe by the
Greeks, from Sardis in Asia Minor, about 500 B.C.,
and considered most likely that it was introduced
into Britain by the Romans, who performed a good
deal in this way for our island, and who were not the
mere conquerors they are often supposed, but were
civilisers. The tree being of great duration, and
ripening its fruit in favourable situations, became a
permanent inhabitant of England.

The chestnut prefers a deep sandy loam, or rich
gravelly soil, when the subsoil is open and dry.

As a park or lawn tree, though forming an
important element for picturesque effect, it is more
tender, and does not arrive at the height or diameter
of the oak. Its leaves are broad and long, of a serrated
appearance, dark-green and glossy, which change into
a mellow hue under the ripening influences of autumn.

ANCIENT TREES. 63

While in exposed situations, and on retentive sub-
soils, it ramifies near the surface of the ground, and
seldom ripens its shoots sufficiently to resist frost.
On favourable soils in a close plantation, it rises with
a straight clean trunk to a height of from fifty to
sixty feet, and forms one of the most ornamental
of our large-growing trees.

An account has been given of what was supposed
to be the largest and oldest chestnut tree in the
world, which used to stand, if it stands there no
longer, on Mount Etna. Kircher, about the year
1670, states that a whole flock of sheep might be
enclosed in it, as in a fold. While Brydone, who
records his tour through Sicily in 1770, just a hundred
years later, says that the decayed trunk of this tree
measured 204 feet in circumference. M. Houet, in
his " Voyage en Sicile," also relates that he visited it,
and found it in a state of decay, having lost the
greater part of its branches, and its trunk being quite
hollow. A house was erected in the interior, in which
some country people were living, and they had set up
an oven, in which, according to the custom of the
country, they dried chestnuts, filberts, and other fruits
which they wanted to preserve for winter use ; and
worse than all, using for fuel, when they could find no
other, pieces of wood cut with a hatchet from the
interior of the tree. Nothing is more curious than
the different accounts given at various periods of time
as to the condition and fortunes of these hoary old
woodland patriarchs in different parts of the world
wayside inns, and houses of refreshment for the
traveller having been extemporised from out of them
in several instances.

64 TREE-PLANTING.

Evelyn describes the great chestnut of Tortworth,,
which is said to have been remarkable for its magni-
tude in the reign of King Stephen (1135), from which
it has been argued, that it may reasonably be pre-
sumed to have existed before the Conquest. It
stands in a soft loamy soil, on a north-west declivity
of a hill, in a position eminently suited for its growth.
Strutt, who describes it in his " Sylva Britannica," in
1820, gives its measurement at five feet from the
ground, as fifty-two feet in circumference, and its
cubical contents, according to the usual method of
measuring timber, to be 1,965 feet. The tree, when
described, ramified at the height of ten feet from the
ground into three limbs, one of which, at the distance
of fifty feet from the main trunk, was stated at that
time to have been twenty-eight feet in girth. The
tree has subsequently been described as of smaller
circumference (not having seen it myself) no un-
common result in the case of ancient trees, which
becoming ruins, are often carried away piecemeal.

The tree is usually propagated from seeds of
English growth, foreign seeds being frequently kiln-
dried, to adapt them for travelling in packages. They
are sometimes sown in October and November, the
plants generally coming through the ground in April,
when they need protection, as they are likely to
receive injury from frost.

In districts where late frosts prevail, the nursery-
men who are in the habit of raising chestnut trees,
preserve the seeds during winter in a dry airy place,
such as a loft floor, upon which they are spread, and
sow them early in spring, so that the plants do not
make a start above ground until the middle or end of

PLANTING CHESTNUT TREES. 65

May, when they may be supposed to be out of danger
from frosts. In sowing, it is generally customary to
prepare beds four feet wide. One bushel of seed will
plant a bed of thirty yards in length, four feet wide.
They are sometimes sown in drills sixteen or eighteen
inches apart, the seed being placed about three inches
from each other, and covered up with one inch of soil.
In very rich land the plants will continue to grow
to a late season. When this is the case, they fail to
ripen their wood before the frosts set in, which will
cause them to lose their tops, and they then will
become branchy and bushy. The plants are removed
from the seed-bed at one or two years of age, and
transplanted in lines. When they are lifted, they
should be assorted in sizes, and have the extremities
of their tap-roots cut off, so as to make the root grow
more fibrous. The lines should not stand more than
sixteen inches asunder, and the plants six inches from
one another. If a more liberal space is allowed, the
plants are apt to become crooked, and stand in need
of pruning. After having stood two years in nursery
lines, the plants will be from two to three feet high
generally speaking, which is the size and age best
adapted for forest planting. If they are wanted of a
larger size, they must be transplanted again every
second year, increasing the space between them in
which they are to grow. They can be removed any
time in open weather, between October and March.

Many writers have asserted that the chestnut tree
is a native of Britain, but it has been pointed out on
the other hand, that although the tree is remarkably
free from disease, yet all who are familiar with its
growth and cultivation, are aware that it is affected

66 TREE-PLANTING.

by unfavourable seasons to a degree which would not
be felt by any tree which was a native of this country.
There are several ornamental varieties of the
chestnut : C. variegata, variegated with yellow and
white streaks ; C. Americana, which has broader
leaves than the common tree; C. glauca ; C.glabra\
and C. asplenifolia. . Those cultivated in France for
the sake of their fruit are styled les marrous, which
when roasted emit an aromatic odour.

CHAPTER IV.

Broad-leaved Trees continued The Hornbeam The Locust Tree
Cobbett and the Locust Tree The Oak Acorns all bear a Family
Likeness The Oak succeeds in various Soils Roots of the Oak
penetrate the Ground deeply The Oak in exposed Situations
Lammas Shoots of the Oak Sowing Acorns The Site of Felled
Oaks good for Coppice Larch and Oak grow well together The
Parliament Oak The Mossy-cupped or Turkey Oak The Fulham
Oak Turner's Evergreen Oak The common Evergreen Oak
The Cork Tree Large Tree at Mamhead Nut Galls Red,
White, and Black American Oaks The Plane Tree The Eastern
Plane The Western Plane The Maple, Acer Pseudo-platanus
The Mock Plane or Sycamore The Sugar Maple The Norway
Maple The Striped-barked Maple The Red or Scarlet Maple
The Walnut Tree Royal or Common Walnut The Black Walnut
of America The Gray Walnut.

THE HORNBEAM (Carpinus). The Hornbeam is less
cultivated, perhaps, than any other timber tree suited
to the climate of Great Britain, though in a few places
they are to be met with in considerable numbers. It
is most useful as a hedge plant, as it will grow in con-
fined spaces, will stand almost any amount of pruning,
and is less subject than most trees to atmospheric
influence and disease when confined within a narrow
compass. The tree belongs to the natural order
Corylacece. The genus includes only about four
species, which are all deciduous trees. The flowers of
the tree are unisexual, being in distinct catkins on

F 2

68 TREE-PLANTING.

the same plant. The common Hornbeam, which is
the principal tree in this small division C. Bettila, is
met with in England, Ireland, the south of Scotland,
and in many parts of central Europe, avoiding
climates which are either extremely hot or very cold,
being indigenous to the countries I have named.

In appearance it bears a strong family likeness to
the beech, but its leaves are not so bright and shining
as those of the latter tree. It does not attain a large
size, and is neither valuable as an ornamental tree
nor for timber, standing between the birch and the
elm as regards size. It grows close and twiggy,
retaining its leaves a long while, like the beech, the
qualities which mark it rendering it undesirable as a
timber tree, causing it to be most useful as a screen,
or protection, when planted thickly round a home-
stead or garden ; or to shelter exposed fields, as it
will not be injured in exposed situations, and will
stand the effect of rough winds well. As a hedge
plant it is better than beech in some respects, for its
roots deriving nourishment at a greater depth from
the surface of the soil, it is less injurious to neighbour-
ing growing crops. Although it readily springs when
lopped over at the surface, or at any height from the
root, it does not form so compact and bushy a hedge
as the beech perhaps, though it attains a greater
height during the first six or eight years of its growth,
its leaves do not hang so uniformly throughout the
winter as do those of the beech a very important
consideration when shelter is needed, especially in the
form of a hedge. These are its leading features,
which may be weighed and balanced, pro and con.
Abutting a lane or highroad, in the shape of a hedge,

WOOD OF THE HORNBEAM. 69

the beech perhaps is to be preferred, but when the
hedge is placed in the centre of fertile land, which is
continually being cropped, the hornbeam perhaps
would be considered most desirable.

Its wood has special qualities, Linnaeus describing
it as being harder than hawthorn, and capable of
supporting great weights, while Loudon in testing the
relative strength of wood, records that, a piece of
quartering, two inches square and seven feet eight
inches long of hornbeam, supported a weight of 228
pounds, while a similar piece of ash broke under a
pressure of 200 pounds, the same of birch under 190
pounds, of oak under 185 pounds, of beech under
165 pounds, and of other woods which were made
trial of at the same time, at a less weight. The
experiment showed the hornbeam to be possessed
but of comparatively little flexibility, bending before
it broke only ten degrees, while ash bent twenty-one
degrees, birch nineteen degrees, and oak twelve
degrees.

Being white, tough, and durable, the wood of the
hornbeam is well adapted for handles and stocks of
tools, wheelwright's work, milk-vessels, yokes for
cattle and other agricultural purposes. Evelyn says,
" that for milk vessels it excels either yew or crab,"
but since Evelyn's day, the form of vessels used in
the dairy has changed considerably, earthenware,
glass, and metal milk-pans, or skimming dishes, being
most commonly met with, to the loss perhaps of the
appearance of certain dairy utensils, which used to
present such a handsome and taking aspect when
composed of well-scoured white wood, bound with
s'hining bands of metal, which glistened like silver.

70 TREE-PLANTING.

It makes good firewood, throwing out great heat, and
burning brightly, and its charcoal is considered the
best for cooking purposes when charcoal needs to
be used, and is also used in the manufacture of
gunpowder.

The seeds are usually ripe at the end of autumn,
and are contained in a small nut. Upon being sown
immediately they attain ripeness, they spring up in
an irregular manner, a few coming up during the first
spring, but the principal part of the crop in the
second year. It is therefore the usual custom to sow
the seeds in the spring, at the rate of one bushel of
seed to a bed fifty yards long and four feet wide,
covering them over with earth half an inch deep.
The seeds give no sign the first year after being sown,
but vegetate in the succeeding spring. They are
allowed to remain in the seed-bed till they are two
years old, if they do not stand too thickly. If they
are too crowded they are transplanted at a year old.
At two years of age they should be lifted, and the
extremities of their roots taken off, and then planted
out into nursery lines, sixteen inches asunder, the
plants four or five inches from each other. After
standing two years in lines, the plants are fit for
hedges, but if they are allowed to stand longer, and a
larger space is left for them to grow in, they are likely
to become tall and bare near the surface, which
renders them unfit for hedge plants, until they are
made bushy by being cut close down to the ground.
The plant is hardy and only requires to be kept clear
of weeds.

Although in extreme instances the hornbeam has
been known to attain a height of eighty or ninety

YOUNG SHOOTS OF LOCUST-TREE. 71

feet, yet fifty feet is considered a tali tree in average
situations, the trunk being often of a flat and irregular
figure, not by any means ornamental.

The Locust Tree (Robinia Pseud-acacia). The
common Robinia, or False acacia. In this country
the tree does not thrive, unless planted in the earliest
and best sheltered situations. A leguminous tree, it
belongs to Diadelphia decandria in the Linnaean
system. Although it grows rapidly, and becomes a
tree of considerable height in its native country
(North America), when in rich, dry, well-sheltered
situations, as an ornament in this country it is very
precarious, being much influenced by the seasons, and
seldom blooming abundantly for a few years in suc-
cession. It is generally late in coming into leaf, and
wears a bare appearance when other trees are decked
out with leaves of verdant green.

It is usually ranked with trees of low stature,
though Loudon speaks of one, the first plant of the
species that was brought to Europe, and planted in
the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, in 1635, which still
existed two centuries later, namely, in 1835, when it
had attained a height of seventy-eight feet.

It produces shoots of great vigour during its early
life, but it is only in the best situations most favour-
able for its development that its branches, which are
thrown out luxuriantly, will ripen sufficiently to stand
the frost, it being not an uncommon circumstance for
from a third to a half of the extremities of the branches
of young trees to be cut off. In after-life the tree
acquires a more spreading habit, when its growth is
less prolific, and better calculated to stand the winter
in consequence, although as it continues to grow late in

72 TREE-PLANTING.

the year, a longer summer than we get in Britain
is required for the most favourable conditions of its
growth.

No tree perhaps has been so much praised by
certain authors, Cobbett especially, and as they grow
very rapidly during their infancy, they have frequently
raised the belief that they would outstrip every other
timber tree, but this early promise is not kept up, two-
year old plants being often from five to six feet in
height.

The tree can be raised from cuttings of the roots,
but it is usually produced from seeds, which get ripe
about the end of October. It is generally customary
to steep the seeds in water, and sow them in early
spring. A light, pliable, well-drained soil is necessary,
in an open situation where plenty of sunshine is to be
obtained, and the seeds sown about two inches apart.
The best seeds are procured from America. They
should be covered with about half an inch of soil,
when the plants will make their appearance early
in the summer, and growing quickly, will attain a
height of one and a half to two feet during the first
season. If they exceed this rate of growth they
seldom ripen their tops sufficiently. The soil should
be well drained, and only when the climate is of the
best and most suitable description should it be made
rich for seedling plants, which grow very rapidly
without being stimulated, and they should be trans-
planted when one year old, into nursery lines two feet
apart, the plants standing about a foot asunder in the
rows. Sometimes in one year after this, and some-
times in two years, according to soil and situation,
the plants will commonly attain a height of from five

FRAGRANCE OF LOCUST TREE. 73

to eight feet high, and can be removed to the places
where they are intended to stand. Those who raise
the common Robinia, sometimes thin out the one-
year old seedling plants, leaving the remainder
standing in the seed-bed six or eight inches apart till
they become two years old. In this period they often
attain an altitude of five or six feet, and are fit for
being permanently planted out without being pre-
viously transplanted into nursery lines. Its rapid
growth during infancy, as I have before stated, often
leads to erroneous calculations as to its after-growth
as a timber tree, the young branches being cut off by
frosts reduces its scale of annual growth very often to
that of most ordinary trees. This circumstance tends
to make the plant branchy, yet nevertheless it still
retains its natural inclination to grow erect. As it
grows older it assumes a more spreading habit, and
growing , less vigorously, is better adapted to endure
the winter, and it is after the tree has attained the age
of ten or twelve years that it wears its most beautiful
form, throwing out handsome white and yellowish
racemes, which possess great fragrance, though it
seldom blooms abundantly for successive seasons.

As timber trees, the trunk has a tendency to get
hollow, like all other trees which have an inclination
to spread their roots near the surface of the ground.

At Claremont there is a tree nearly seventy feet
high, the top having a diameter of fifty feet.

In France it is grown extensively as coppice as
well as in the form of pollards, the wood being in
demand as props for vineyards, but in England in the
form of coppice it does not thrive as underwood,
where it cannot receive the full influence of the sun,

74 TREE-PLANTING.

air, and light ; nor is it adapted to situations of great
exposure, as its branches being brittle are apt to
be broken by the wind. Its timber is remarkably
durable, being especially valuable as posts, bearing a
high reputation for strength and solidity, possessing a
great power in resisting fracture, which is said to
exceed that of the oak, being extensively manufac-
tured into tree-nails in America, where it is used for
ship-building.

Cobbett was the means of giving a great impetus
to the cultivation of this tree in England, which he
^praised extravagantly, describing the timber as being
" absolutely indestructible by the power of earth, air,
and water, so the time will come when the locust tree
will be more common in England than the oak." The
locust tree being the popular name in America, many
bought it under the impression they were obtaining
something different in the form of a recent importa-
tion, but in reality it was one of the first American
trees which was introduced into Britain, and was
not thought to be identical with the Robinia Psettd-
acacia.

It is never now planted for the sake of its timber,
which Cobbett said would one day supersede the oak
in this country.

The Oak (Quercus}. There are about one hundred
and fifty different species of oak indigenous to the
temperate portions of the northern hemisphere, and
about a hundred of them have been introduced into
Britain, the leading varieties of which it will be only
necessary for us to name. The oak has been classed
as belonging to the genus Quercus of Moncecia poly an-
dria in the Linnsean system, and to Corylacece or

OAK TREE IN A POT. 7$

Ciipidiferce in the Natural order of plants. The hun-
dred species or so known in this country branch into
an endless number of varieties, most of which are
trees of large size, while certain varieties only attain
medium dimensions, and others are quite of a dwarf
kind, some being evergreen, others sub-evergreen, but
mostly being of the deciduous order. However much
the various kinds differ in outward appearance they
are all alike in producing the well-known acorn, which
is remarkable for its uniformity of size and shape
upon every kind of oak tree. London has recorded
that upon one occasion he saw a plant of Quercus
lanata, a native of Nepaul, growing in a pot, which
was three or four years old only, bearing acorns ; but
several kinds do not have fruit till they attain the age
of twenty years.

The timber of the oak is very valuable, but the
common deciduous kind of oak, as well, makes excellent
coppice, springing up freely after it has been cut down.
The most widely known oak is the variety Q. robur.
which is indigenous to this country and to most
countries of Europe. There are two distinct varieties,
which some botanists rank as species, Q. r.pedimcu-
lata y which yields acorns on fruit stalks, and Q. r.
sessiliflom, in the case of the latter the acorns being
sessile, yielding flowers and acorns close to the branches
without fruit-stalks. The best timber is produced
from the first named, that from the latter resembling
the Spanish chestnut more in its characteristics. The
tree, too, is more apt to retain its withered leaves on
its branches during the winter, and its greatest recom-
mendation is, that it grows more freely in indifferent
soils and situations when young.

76 TREE-PLANTING.

The oak frequently succeeds well on soils that
would often not be considered appropriate for it, did
it not furnish proof to the contrary at times, being
often found to luxuriate on soil of opposite qualities,
which is too poor to produce good specimens of elm
or ash. This, doubtless, arises from the fact that its
roots penetrate into the ground to a greater depth
than those of almost any other tree, finding its pabulum,
or food, in under stratifications of the soil.

It is generally supposed to affect a strong deep
soil, free from the presence of any stagnant water, but
it attains to a good size very often in sandy or gravelly
ground, particularly when there is clay mixed with it.
It is however in rich sheltered valleys, when asso-
ciated with other trees, that the oak succeeds best,
assuming a lofty altitude, with a tall trunk, when the
same variety would become stunted and dwarfed in
an exposed situation. When the oak is planted in
bleak spots, it is necessary to find a shelter for the
young plantation in other trees of faster growth, as
Scotch-fir, larch, beech, or spruce-fir ; it being usual
in bleak situations, for those who understand what
they are doing, to have firs planted a few years pre-
viously, which have attained a height of three or four
feet at the time the oak plants are inserted in the
ground.

The young oak soon takes a firm grip of the soil,
and being very tenacious of life is rarely smothered, or
killed by confinement. This shelter is very necessary,
for although it expands into leaf at a comparatively
late period of the season, the slightest touch of frost
has a very visible effect upon its foliage. After being
closely sheltered, and then relieved, it often advances

GROWTH OF THE OAK. 77

with rapidity, and frequently produces summer and
autumn shoots these Lammas growths, as they are
called, are peculiar to the oak and a few other trees
when young and vigorous.

During its infancy, in plantations, the oak is-
generally erect and pliant, but as it grows older its
character becomes altered. Its roots may be seen
forming a basis on the surface of the ground, while
the form of the tree becomes developed into grander
outline, throwing out ponderous horizontal limbs,,
which, sometimes gnarled, display an elegance in
their twisted shapes which is often much admired.

The acorns generally become ripe, and drop from
the tree, at the end of autumn, and they can be sown
any time after that up till the beginning of March.
Care should be taken to use none but seed of the first
quality, chosen from the best and most approved tree.
They Will strike in any kind of soil, but a light friable
soil is the best to rear oak plants in. The smallest
acorns produce the smallest and weakest plants,,
which are of feebler growth during the first few years-
of their lives than plants which spring from the
largest acorns. This fact is so well known to planters,
that a sieve or riddle is used, through which the
smallest acorns drop.

Nurserymen usually sow the acorns in beds four
feet wide, in the proportion of one bushel of good
sound acorns to a bed twenty-five yards long of that
width. The soil is taken off the top of the beds, and
the seed fixed in it by rolling, or by being beaten
down with the back of a spade. The soil should then
be cast on roughly, but taking care that all the
acorns be properly hid, or covered to the depth of half

78 TREE-PLANTING.

an inch in heavy soil, and one inch in light land, and
allowed to remain in this rough condition till April
comes round, when the surface of the beds should be
raked, and made smooth and equal. The object of
this method of proceeding is to expose the covering
to the pulverising influences of the winter's frost. The
seeds of weeds will have vegetated, which can be
removed in the process of raking, and the surface of
the soil will be made soft, through which the young
oaks can force their way early in May.

Being at this period of their infant growth very
tender, as they are sometimes injured by late frosts,
a slight covering of evergreens, leaves, or any light
covering, is found a useful protection till May is past.
After that, all that is wanted is to keep the beds clear
of weeds.

The seedling plants are removed into nursery
lines sometimes at one year old, but more commonly
at two years of age, during the winter or spring. The
ends of their tap-roots should be cut off, and they
should be placed in lines sixteen or eighteen inches
asunder, and the plants six inches apart. In lifting
them from the seed-bed, care should be taken not to
injure or break off the lateral fibres of the roots
breaking off the end of the tap-root is of no con-
sequence. After standing two years in the nursery
lines they will generally attain two or three feet high,
when they are fit to be placed out and become
denizens of the forest. The rule however I have
laid down before must be observed, if larger plants
are required, of transplanting into a wider space,
where they may remain two or three years longer,
according to the circumstances of their growth and

DURATION OF OAK FOREST. 79

general progress. For a hedgerow, plants of a more
mature kind, like the latter, are needed, as the smaller
and the younger oak plants frequently suffer from
vermin. The oak sending its tap-root deep down
into the ground, if it is not transplanted, but allowed
to stand in the same situation for more than two
years, that bushiness of root is not created which is
necessary ; for though they may appear strong and
healthy, they will be of very little use for planting out.
Although the oak in its infancy does not
advance so rapidly as many other trees, it is by no
means an unprofitable one to grow. Being usually
planted with other trees, which act as nurses,
and cause it to assume form and shape, these
generally have acquired a certain value when it
becomes necessary to remove them, and when the
oak gets to twenty years old, it will grow as fast
as most hard-wooded trees. Also, when the timber of
an oak plantation is felled, the roots rapidly spring
again, and for ten years generally grow twice as fast
as plantations newly formed, an advantage which
must also be favourably compared against the difficulty
there frequently is of establishing another plantation
upon any site which has recently produced timber ;
though there is a striking instance to the contrary in
that of birch following fir. Oak coppice has indeed
been found more profitable than growing timber in
some situations, the bark of which there is always
a market for. Where large oak trees are grown, and
the heaviest felled for certain purposes, the vacancies
thus occasioned soon disappear, and by constant
succession an oak forest may be said to be never
exhausted. Larch grows well with the oak ; for while

8o TREE-PLANTING.

the latter sends its roots deep down into the earth in
search of sustenance, the roots of the larch ramify, and
draw their provision chiefly from the surface soil. On
this account the two trees do not interfere with each
other, as is the case with many other kinds.

Almost every county in England has its historical
oak of large size, several of which have stood for
many hundreds of years, such as the Parliament
Oak in Clipston Park, the property of the Duke of
Portland, which takes its name from the fact of a
Parliament having been held under its umbrageous
shade, by Edward I., in 1290.

It has been recorded of an oak forest in Scotland
that of Darn away in Morayshire that between the
years 1830 and 1840, the sales of timber and bark
averaged from ,4,000 to ^"5,000 per annum. The
oak timber usually sold from two shillings, to
three shillings per cubical foot, its age varying from
thirty to eighty years. After paying every expense
during the growth of the timber, the revenue of the
forest per acre amounted to double that of the finest
arable land in the county.

The Mossy-cupped or Turkey Oak (Q. cerris).
The seed of this species is remarkable for producing
a great number of different varieties, which vary con-
siderably in the size and shape of their leaves, being
much inclined to hybridise with the evergreen oak, so
that frequently, in a seed-bed of young oak plants of
this description, a considerable number of sub-ever-
green specimens may be selected. The leaves are of a
glossy green above, inclining to a whitish hue beneath ;
being lobed and serrated. They die in autumn,
but, like those of the young beech, they hang on

VARIETIES OF THE FULHAM OAK. Si

to the tree during the winter. The tree is said to have
been introduced into Britain in 1735, being a native
of the middle and south of Europe, and the west of
Asia. It is of elegant appearance, and as hardy as
the common oak, growing vigorously in even poor
soil. In good land the tree attains a height of forty
feet in twenty years, its girth being in proportion, but
its more common altitude is about thirty feet in that
period. It is destitute of the grandeur of outline
and ramification of branches peculiar to the British
oak, generally growing with a straight trunk, like the
larch, large in proportion to its lateral branches. Its
timber is less durable than that of the common oak,
but it is beautifully veined, and takes a good polish.

Its acorns ripen like those of the British oak, and
the mode of propagation is the same. As the Turkey
oak seedlings, however, are generally taller than the
other, it is the better course to transplant them at one
year of age, rather than to allow them to remain two
years in the seed-bed.

The Fulham Oak. This tree is commonly supposed
to be a hybrid between the Turkey oak and the cork
tree, having been first grown in a nursery ground at Ful-
ham, from whence it derives its name. It was described
some years back as standing eighty feet high, with a
girth of trunk, a foot from the ground, of thirteen feet.
It has been freely grafted on stocks of the common, or
Turkey, oak, while the acorns of the original tree have
produced many interesting varieties, so that seedlings
from the original tree cannot be depended upon as
being the true Fulham oak. Grafting is therefore the
method of propagation resorted to, and as they spring
freely on stocks which are vigorous, they frequently

82 TREE-PLANTING.

attain a height of three or four feet during the first
summer.

Turner's Evergreen Oak. This is a hybrid, between
the common British oak and the evergreen oak, origi-
nally raised by a person named Turner, at the end
of the last century. It is one of the fastest-growing
broad-leaved evergreen trees we have, which, like
other hybrids, is propagated by grafting. Inserted in
healthy stocks of the common species, they attain the
height of four or five feet in two years, and afterwards
make equal progress with the common oak. In sum-
mer the tree has very much the appearance of the
common British oak, but in autumn its foliage appears
more massive, darker green, and glossier. It is con-
sidered a better evergreen than any other hybrid, and
healthy specimens are found to retain the leaves of
the former year throughout the summer, its hand-
some foliage recommending it as a tree of highly
ornamental appearance.

The Common Evergreen Oak (Q. ilex). This is the
commonest evergreen tree to be met with in the
neighbourhood of Rome and Florence ; the ilex trees
in the celebrated gardens near Rome being considered
extremely beautiful. It has an abundant foliage of a
rich dark-green colour, the leaves having a fine polish,
with a downy tinge beneath. This species bears sea
exposure better than any other kind of European oak,
while, as it is not injured by a smoky atmosphere,
it is more suited for the embellishment of large towns
and cities than most other kinds of evergreen trees.
It commonly rises to the height of forty feet, but
trees of this description, favourably placed for the de-
velopment of their growth, have been known to attain

THE EVERGREEN OAK. 83

a height of eighty feet. The tree is a slow grower,
but it is of great duration. Although tender while
young, when it is once firmly established in the soil
it stands the severest weather without injury, provided
the land be well drained. Its strong tap-root has
doubtless much to do with this result ; and as when a
seedling plant its tendency is to form a bare tap-root,
which renders transplantation difficult to perform with
safety, this species of oak is generally grown by
nurserymen in pots. An acorn is put into a small
flowerpot first, and then changed into a larger pot,
according to its growth. Thus treated, they take to
the ground naturally upon being planted out, and
grow freely wherever they are placed, in almost any
kind of common soil. They are benefited by a slight
protection from frost during the first four winters of
their lives.

The tree forms a very handsome evergreen, and
blossoms in May and June. Its male flowers or cat-
kins, which are produced on the shoots of the former
year, are from one to two inches long, while the
female flowers, on the contrary, are produced on the
newly-formed twigs, the acorns coming to maturity
during the second year.

There is no tree perhaps which differs so much in
its growth and progress in different situations ; soil
and position, without doubt, have much to do with this ;
but a good deal also depends upon variety, for some
kinds are known to vary as much in luxuriance of
growth as they do in the appearance of the foliage,
and all the varieties are not equally hardy.

When space enough is allowed to the tree it com-
monly forms a gigantic trunk, which it conceals with

G 2

84 TREE-PLANTING.

foliage down to the surface of the ground. It is said
this species will retain its vigour for a thousand years,
and it is not subject to disease. Its timber is tough,
strong, and heavy. Trees of the evergreen oak have
been recorded standing in Britain in the one case,
eighty-five feet in height, and eleven feet in circum-
ference, another fifty-five feet high and twenty-two feet
round ; while in another instance the tree measured
forty-five feet high with a trunk upwards of thirteen
feet in circumference. It is a native of the south of
Europe and the north of Africa.

The Cork Tree (Q. suber). A native of the same
countries as the common evergreen oak, it is not so
hardy where it abounds on hilly and dry situations,
seldom attaining a height above forty feet. Loudon,
describing what he considers may probably be the
largest cork tree in the world, at Mamhead in Devon-
shire, says : " The head of the tree is oval and
compact, and its grand massive branches, each of
which would form a tree of noble dimensions, are
covered with ragged corky bark, resembling richly-
chased frosted silver, which is finely contrasted with
the dark-green luxuriant foliage ; " the tree being
about sixty feet high with a trunk twelve feet in
circumference from the swell of the roots, standing
alone in a soil of fine, rich, red loam, on a sub-stratum
of red-stone conglomerate, 1 50 feet above the level of
the sea.

It is propagated exactly in the same way in this
country as the evergreen oak, the outer bark of the
tree being the cork of commerce, which is by far its
most important product. The cork is obtained in the
following manner : When the tree is young the trunk

CORK-OAK GALLS. 85

is cleared of its branches to the height of eight or ten
feet, and when it is from twenty to thirty years of age
its bark, or outer coating, is a formation of coarse
porous cork, mixed with woody matter. This cork is
of very inferior quality to that produced subsequently,
and is generally stripped off in July or August. Eight
or ten years is then allowed to elapse before the cork
is stripped off again, which is found of superior quality
to the first ; it is not, however, till another eight years
has expired, that the cork is found in its proper purity,
which is only relied upon in the third disbarking,
the operation being constantly repeated at the same
interval of time. Strange to say, this treatment
by no means impedes the growth of the tree, but
rather has a contrary effect, the older the tree grows
the cork is said to improve in quality, and the tree
will stand for centuries. Care must be taken in
stripping off the cork, not to cut into the inner bark
or wood of the tree.

In concluding this brief notice of the oak, I must
make mention of the oak galls, which are sometimes
produced in great profusion on the common British
oak, which it is said, detracts from the growth of the
tree. In medicine they form the most powerful
astringents, and are much used in the manufacture
of ink, and in dyeing ; their chief products being
tannic and gallic acid. The galls of commerce grow
in the Quercus infectoria, a dwarf oak indigenous to
Persia, Syria, and Asia Minor, a shrubby plant, which
sheds its leaves, and seldom exceeds the height of six
feet. Galls are produced in various species of the
oak, by insects of the genus Cynipidce. The flies
puncture the tender leaves, or shoots, and deposit

86 TREE-PLANTING.

their eggs, around which the gall accumulates, the
most remarkable being those formed in the male
blossoms of the English oak. These ordinarily drop
from the tree in June, but if they have been fastened
on by the insects while in a growing state, and prema-
ture, they remain attached to the tree until the galls
are perfected.

The red, white, and black American oaks each com-
prehends several species, some of which become large
spreading trees, but they are not profitably cultivated
for timber, the wood being generally soft and porous.
The red kinds are exceedingly ornamental, Q. coccinea,
or scarlet oak, being especially so. It is a native of
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Georgia, and was intro-
duced into Britain about the end of the seventeenth
century, and grows very often quicker than the com-
mon oak in certain situations. The treatment of these
varieties is similar to that of other oaks, a principal
point to be borne in mind, being that the tree
has a tendency to make a strong main tap-root,
which occasions a stunted growth when removed,
unless counteracting precautions are taken ; these con-
sisting in removing them early into nursery lines, and
planting them in their ultimate situations, before the
roots, which have a tendency to get bare, acquire
great strength. The leaves are oblong, deeply sinuated,
and of a beautiful shining green, varying very much
in size and shape on different trees, and even on the
same tree, at different stages of its growth. They are
all produced on long leaf-stalks, and are remarkably
handsome, some luxuriant trees yielding leaves of a
foot in length, and six inches broad, which the first
frost of autumn or winter mostly changes into yellow

THE PLANE TREE. 87

or red, which, as the season advances, assumes a
crimson or scarlet hue of the brightest intensity.
These dotted about in ornamental shrubberies have a
very beautiful effect.

The Plane Tree (Platanus), of the Natural order
Platanacea, and of Monceciapolyandria of the Linnaean
system. This is quite a different tree to the great
maple or sycamore, which is commonly termed the
plane tree in Scotland, of which I shall speak in a
few pages following. The genus includes only two
species, the Eastern and Western plane, which are
considered the most ornamental of all the broad-
leaved trees which are grown in England. The seeds
are contained in round balls, suspended by slender
threads from the branches of the tree, where they
hang all the year round, and which give a certain air
of individuality to the species, while perhaps there is
no tree which possesses more beautiful foliage. Our
English summers are, unfortunately, too brief to allow
of the young wood being matured, so as to stand the
frosts of winter ; the great objection to their more
general cultivation being the changeability of the
weather, which, when severe at the commencement
of the season, is apt to destroy the leaves after their
expansion from the buds, and they only do well when
the soil is warm and the situation early. Both species
attain to a very great size in their native countries,
and in the most favourable spots suited to their growth
in this country, no tree can surpass them in magnitude,
or beauty.

The Eastern Plane (P. orientalis) is said to have
been introduced into England about the middle of
die sixteenth century, being a native of the east of

88 TREE-PLANTING.

Europe and west of Asia, the area where it is found
extending southward as far as Cashmere, being found
on the margins of Grecian streams or rivulets, many of
which appear to be now fast drying up, and on the
coast of Asia Minor. Herodotus sings its praises in
Grecian history, and it was invariably planted near
the public buildings Plato delivering his discourses
in the groves of Academus, which were formed of the
plane tree.

The tree blossoms in May, and in favourable
seasons its seed ripens in October. The branches of
the tree are wide-spreading, bearing leaves which are
five-lobed, palmate, with the divisions lanceolate. On
strong, young, vigorous shoots these are frequently
upwards of a foot broad and ten inches long, but in
old trees only attain about half these dimensions.
The round balls containing the seeds should be
broken, and the seeds sifted, in order to separate
them from the cottony substance with which they are
mixed, and sown in March. They require only the
very slightest covering of soil, but should be pressed
into the ground, so as to be kept firmly in their places,
and kept moist, the ground being covered with boughs
of trees. The surest and most speedy method of pro-
pagating is, however, by layers, in the same way which
has been recommended before. The young plants
grow very rapidly, being frequently four or five feet
high, when only one year old, transplanted from layers;
when they can be planted out ; or kept another year,,
and then removed as occasion demands. It must
have a deep rich soil, and in those cases where the
tree has attained to a very large size, it is found the
case that the roots r have access to water. It must n.ot

TtiE WESTERN PLANE. 89

be confined by other trees, but does best in alluvial
valleys, near the margins of streams. Its timber when
young is of a yellowish-white colour, but when old it
assumes a brownish hue, with a fine grain which takes
a high polish, and is thus esteemed for certain purposes
in cabinet-making.

The tree frequently attains a height of from
seventy, to ninety feet in favourable situations, and
grows rapidly.

TJie Western Plane (P. occidentalis). This tree
also grows to a great height and makes rapid progress,
a tree of this species in the garden of Lambeth Palace
being recorded to have grown where it was placed
near a pond, to the height of eighty feet in twenty
years ; while one has been described situated in Chelsea
Hospital Gardens, extending its roots towards the
Thames, whose height was 1 1 5 feet, and girth, a foot
from the ground, fifteen feet.

It is a. native of North America, being found on
the banks of the great rivers of Virginia, and Pennsyl-
vania, and the Ohio and its tributaries, having been
introduced into Britain about the year 1630. It
readily grows from cuttings, but is best propagated by
layers, the treatment being the same as previously
recommended. It resembles very much the appear-
ance of the Eastern plane, the leaves being large, thin,
angled, and lobed, but the fruit balls are smaller than
those of the other species. Its shoots also grow in.
the same manner, and they are equally affected by
cold weather, wearing a scathed or scorched look
when pinched by frost or cold, which it loses as the
summer advances, and becomes clothed in richest
green. It grows with greater rapidity than P. orientalis,

90 TREE-PLANTING.

but is even less hardy, seldom maturing its vigo-
rous shoots to their extremities, so that they com-
monly die back a certain distance from the effects
of frost. The finest specimens of the plane to be
seen in Britain are, however, of this species, and of
the broad-leaved deciduous trees which succeed in
this climate the plane must be reckoned amongst the
handsomest, the motion of its large leaves when
agitated by a breeze, producing that flickering light
and shade during sunshine which is so much admired.

The Maple (Natural order Aceracece). There are
about twenty hardy species of this tree cultivated in
Britain, comprising natives of Europe, America, and
India, besides many others which are too tender to be
reared successfully in this country.

The largest and most common kind, though it is
far from being the most ornamental, is the Acer
fseudo-platanus, the Mock plane tree, or sycamore.
In Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Italy, it is
found associated with other trees in hilly situations,
and few deciduous trees are found better adapted to
stand singly in rough and exposed situations. It
generally carries a large well-balanced head, and is
well suited to stand the injurious effects of sea-spray.
It is regardless of rough winds, and from affording a
deep shade, it has been recommended to be planted
on the south sides of dairies, in order to temper the
heats of summer, and it affords good shelter for cattle.
It is said to have been introduced into Britain about
three centuries or more ago, and became one of our
earliest cultivated timber trees, when tree cultivation
first began to be taken up on a large scale.

It blossoms in spring, and the seeds become ripe

LEAVES OF THE SYCAMORE. 91

-early in the following autumn, when they are collected
and mixed up with sand, and put into a pit, and kept
till the following spring, when they are sown. If
planted in autumn when the seeds are gathered, the
young plants make their appearance so early that
they seldom escape being cut off by the frost. The
ground should be well pulverised for the reception of
the seed, but it must not be too rich, so as to stimulate
the growth of the young plants unduly, for if grown
too quickly they do not mature their wood sufficiently
to stand the effects of frost, which is likely to prove
injurious to them. One bushel of seed is considered
sufficient to sow a bed four feet wide and twenty-four
yards long. The seeds should be covered with about
half an inch depth of soil. After standing in the seed-
bed a year, the young plants should be placed out in
nursery lines two feet asunder, the plants standing
six or eight inches from each other. In two years
they will generally attain a height of from four to six
feet, and are ready for planting out.

The sycamore will succeed in soils of very opposite
qualities, but a dry soil, which is soft and deep, is the
most congenial for its development, where it will
attain a height of twenty feet in ten years, and forty
feet sometimes in less than twenty years.

Although it comes into leaf early in the season,
presenting a bright green appearance, which is very
attractive in the early spring, there is one great draw-
back to it, in its leaves exuding a gummy kind of
substance, to which dust and all the roving impurities
of the atmosphere adhere, so that the foliage soon
becomes dingy, and loses its look of freshness. For this
reason it is a bad tree to plant near a dusty road,

9 2 TREE-PLANTING.

when decorative appearance is a principal object in
view.

There are other species of the maple, Avhich are
very distinct and interesting varieties, some attaining;
the full size of timber trees ; while others range down
to the stature of shrubs only. Some of these flower
very early, and grow,' rapidly in almost any kind of
soil, throwing out fine, green, smooth shoots, with
elegantly-lobed leaves of the finest texture, which in
autumn change into varied tints of yellow and scarlet,
which cause them to be highly appreciated in orna-
mental plantations, the whole genus being remarkably
handsome.

The Siigar Maple (A saccharinuvi). This tree
seldom attains a height of more than forty feet in
Britain, where it has been cultivated for about
130 years, though in its native districts it grows to
sixty or seventy feet, forming extensive forests in
some parts of North America, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia, and some parts of Canada, though the
diameter of the trunk is but small, seldom exceeding
a foot and a half, and often less. It is ornamental in
appearance, its leaves being of a whitish hue under-
neath, and in autumn they assume a rosy tint, which
adds considerably to the beauty of any sylvan scene
wherein they may be placed.

In its native country, the tree when pierced yields
a copious flow of sap, which is easily converted into
sugar, and although this has been done in Britain, it
has never been cultivated for this purpose beyond
mere experimentalising.

It is generally propagated by imported seeds,
which are treated in the same way as those of the

VARIETIES OF MAPLE. 93

sycamore, but the plant is much more tender, and
requires a drier and more sheltered situation.

The Norway Maple (A. platanoides). This is a
capital hardy tree, and when young grows very
rapidly, exceeding in its rate of progress that of the
sycamore, though it ultimately does not attain to the
large size of that tree. It thrives best in a deep well-
drained soil, producing foliage of fine form and
texture, bearing a glossy polish, which retains its
lively green throughout the summer. When autumn
approaches its leaves assume various tints, in which
yellow predominates. It is propagated in the same
way as the sycamore also. This species includes
several distinct varieties, foremost amongst which is
the Cut-leaved or Eagle's-claw maple, which is of
a highly ornamental description, readily propagated,
by grafts or buds, on the common sycamore stock.

The Striped-barked or Snake-barked Maple (A.
striatum). This is a somewhat peculiar species,
though very ornamental at all seasons, the bark
being longitudinally marked with black and white
stripes. It is indigenous to North America, its
height being generally twenty to thirty feet. It is
mostly grafted on a stock of the common sycamore,
but sometimes is raised from imported seeds.

The Large-leaved Maple (A. macrophyllum). This
is a hardy tree of rapid growth, which attains to a
great size, and is a native of North America. It was
only introduced into Britain in 1812, and is not yet
widely known or cultivated as a timber tree. Its
appearance is highly ornamental, and the timber is
handsomely veined, and valuable for cabinet-making
purposes. It is easily propagated by layers.

94 TREE-PLANTING.

Another recently introduced maple comes from
Oregon (A. circinatuin) , where it forms impenetrable
thickets, rising to the height of from twenty to forty
feet, having pendulous branches, whose leaves in
autumn surpass the brilliancy of the finest scarlet
oaks.

The Red or Scarlet Maple (A. rubruui}. This
tree takes its name from the ornamental development
of red blossoms which it throws out late in spring, or
early in summer. It is a native of North America, a
low-growing tree in its habit, luxuriating in a rich
soil, and standing excess of moisture better than any
other species. It is commonly propagated by layers,
as it is very difficult to raise it from seed. When old
it sometimes produces very valuable timber, owing to
its curled and undulating fibre, being handsomely
shaded. Another hardy maple (A. vil/osum) has been
introduced from the Himalayas, where it is said to
attain a great size, very much excelling the sycamore
in appearance.

There are also other species of this genus of a
smaller growth, and new specimens are constantly
being introduced, and it is said that there are many
other kinds yet to come, which flourish on the lofty
mountains of India, Japan, and China.

The Walnut Tree (Juglans). I shall conclude this
division of my subject, that of broad-leaved timber
trees, with the walnut, which, though in one sense a
fruit tree, and a capital one too, yet must be ranked
with the timber-producing species, as it attains to a
great size in Britain, and its wood is very much in
request by the cabinet-maker ; as it neither cracks
nor warps, and is reckoned the most ornamental of

THE WALNUT AS A HEDGE TREE. 95

European timber, much used for gun-stocks and other
purposes. When young the wood of the common
walnut is white and soft, but as it advances in age
it alters, and is darker and more solid ; ultimately
getting shaded, and veined, of a light brown and black
colour. The most ornamental portions are generally
found towards the root. The roots of the tree by
boiling yield a valuable dark brown dye, which be-
comes fixed in wool, hair, or wood, without the aid
of alum.

The walnut tree belongs to Moncccia polyandria in
the Linnsean system, and to Juglandacece in the Na-
tural order of plants. The flowers of the genus are
unisexual, both sexes being produced by one plant.

The Royal or Common Walnut (J. regia). The
walnut was first introduced into England from Persia,
about the middle of the sixteenth century. It is much
esteemed on account both of its fruit and timber,
forming a large, spreading, handsome tree. It blossoms
in May, and its fruit ripens during the succeeding
autumn.

It is, when well grown, a handsome object in park-
like meadows, and attains to a large size when grown
in sufficient space. It lives to a great age, when it
presents even then a picturesque and elegant form,
somewhat resembling the growth of an oak. It likes
a deep sandy loam, but it is necessary to rear the
young trees in a dry early soil, otherwise they will
not mature their roots sufficiently to stand the frost.
As it sends its roots deep down into the ground, it
may more often be seen as a hedge fruit tree, than
any other upon the Continent, as they do not obstruct
the cultivation of the fields, or interfere with their

96 TREE-PLANTING.

productiveness, the same as many other sorts of
trees do.

It is propagated by the nuts, or seed, which sepa-
rate from the outer husk on becoming ripe and
falling from the tree. They may be sown in winter
or early spring, and vegetate during the first season.
It is usual to plant in drills a few inches asunder, and
then cover with soil to the depth of two inches. As
the slightest frost injures the young plants after they
appear above the surface of the ground, the drills
should be protected by a covering of spruce -fir
branches, or those of the silver fir, or some such cover.
A dry sandy soil is more preferable to rear young trees
in than soils of a more fertile description ; for though
the latter will produce the most vigorous and strongest
looking plants, the first winter in all probability will
deprive them of their tips, while in a dry early soil
they will mature what shoots they make better, and
are so able to withstand the frost.

I have pointed out the necessity of transplanta-
tion to promote bushiness of root fibres ; in the
case of the walnut also, the seedling plants form
strong tap-roots, and to adapt them for removal it is
necessary to lift them at one year old, or at most two,
and to prune the extremities of their tap-roots, and
promote the growth of fibrous roots. Transplantation
should be continued every second or third year, in-
creasing the space each time in which the plants are
to stand, according to their size, till they are finally
placed out in the situations they are destined to
occupy.

In a good climate, with a dry deep soil, the tree
grows rapidly during its youth. It will attain the

SOILS FOR THE WALNUT. 97

height of twenty feet in twelve years, if its progress is
not checked by transplantation. It is all the better,
however, for the production of fruit, that they be
transplanted, for trees that have never been removed
seldom ripen their fruit so early in the season as
those whose growth has been checked by transplan-
tation, which has been attributed by some to result
from the roots of the moved trees ranging nearer the
surface of the ground, and so getting the benefit of
showers and sunshine. At twelve years of age the
walnut tree generally begins to bear fruit, when its
branches begin to ramify, and its upward growth is
more slow.

There are some kinds of soil for which the walnut
tree is eminently fitted. Those with poor surface
soils, but where there is a subsoil of good quality,
suit the walnut better than almost any other tree.
Its strong tap-root dives deep down into the ground,
its propensity in this way even exceeding that of the
oak, and it thus finds nutriment for the maintenance
of its growth in situations where other trees would be
unable to procure it. In the roughest situations it
maintains a well-balanced head, and when raised
from seed, and not transplanted, it is less likely to be
uprooted by the wind than any other tree. Old trees
in a late climate ripen their fruit better than young
trees in the same situation.

There are many varieties of the common walnut
which are cultivated for certain qualitie's which dis-
tinguish them specially, as early maturity, size of the
tree, thinness of shell, or some other quality peculiar
to the fruit, which in a green state is frequently
pickled.

98 TREE-PLANTING.

All the species of American hickory bear a close
affinity to the walnut, and are included in the same
Natural order.

The Black Walnut of America (J. nigrd]. In its
native country this tree is found attaining a great
altitude, a hundred feet being no uncommon height,
with a trunk of proportionate size. It was introduced
into England about the middle of the seventeenth
century, the tree, being of robust growth, exceeding
that of the common species. Its leaves are about
twice as long as those of the Royal walnut, and are
composed of six or eight pairs of opposite leaflets,
with a single or terminal leaflet ; which emit, as in
the case of the common kind, a strong aromatic
odour.

It is readily raised from seed, which is mostly
imported for the purpose, and its method of culti-
vation is the same as that pursued in the instance of
the ordinary species. The fruit however is of inferior
quality to the common species, and is so much later
in ripening that it is only adapted for being grown
as a timber tree in this country, being particularly
well suited for a lawn, or the adornment of park-like
grounds, where it can stand singly, where it assumes
a very commanding appearance, and becomes a large
spreading tree of great beauty.

The Gray Walnut Tree (J. cinered). This tree is
also a native of America, and bears a strong likeness
to the preceding, but is less often met with, being
propagated in the same manner as the other species.

CHAPTER V.

Cone-bearing or Resinous Trees, adapted for cold and elevated Dis-
tricts Eighty Years for a Scotch Pine to arrive at Perfection, but
only forty for Larch The Pine Tree The Scotch Pine Forest
of Glenmore Large Plank presented to the Duke of Gordon
The Corsican Pine The Black Pine of Austria The Cluster Pine
The Weymouth Pine Dwarf Pines Gigantic or Lambert
Pine Varieties of American Pine The Heavy-wooded Pine
Long-leaved Indian Pine The Cembrian Pine The Lofty or
Bhotan Pine The Stone Pine The Larch Parkinson and Evelyn
mention the Larch Account by the Highland Society Foster's
Larch The springing up of the natural Grasses Spruce Firs
The Norway Spruce Douglas's Spruce Fir The Black Spruce
Fir The Hemlock Spruce Fir The White American Spruce
The Khutrow Spruce The Silver Fir Common Silver Fir Balm
of Gilead Silver Fir The Cedar Elliot Warburton's visit to
Lebanon The Indian Cedar Appropriate Trees for various
Situations Grafting Flowering Thorns.

CONTINUING the system of arrangement I have
hitherto pursued, I shall now treat upon the cone-
bearing or resinous trees, adapted for cold and
elevated districts, where the soil is thin and poor.

It will be in this section where planting for profit
can be carried out upon a large scale, and which in
some instances has been done of late years, to the vast
improvement of what were previously poor estates,
that yielded only the most trifling annual rental.
This has been especially the case with certain districts
in Scotland ; but upon what formerly were sandy

H 2

ioo TREE-PLANTING.

wastes in Surrey even, there are now growing
flourishing fir plantations, which have greatly added to
the beauty of certain localities, as well as bestowing a
great additional value to the estates upon which they
have been planted. A very large trade is carried on
in pine timber, and in ship-building the Scotch pine
and larch occupy a very important position, the tree
which produces the longest masts being the Scotch
pine, to which MacCulloch in his "Dictionary of Com-
merce," refers. Speaking of the mast trade, he says :
" The burghers of Riga send persons who are called
mast-brokers into the provinces to mark the trees,
which are purchased standing. They grow mostly in
the districts which border on the Dnieper, and are
sent up that river to a landing-place, whence they are
transported thirty versts (about twenty-three English
miles), to the Dwina ; where being formed into rafts
of from fifty to a hundred pieces each, they descend
the stream to Riga. The tree which produces the
longest masts is the Scotch pine. The pieces, which are
from eighteen to twenty-five inches in diameter, are
called masts ; and those under these dimensions,
spars, or in England, Norway masts, because Norway
exports no trees of more than eighteen inches in
diameter. Great skill is required in distinguishing
those masts which are sound from those which are
in the least internally decayed. They are usually
from seventy feet to eighty feet in height."

The species of trees suited to poor soils in elevated
districts are the Scotch pine, pineaster, larch, spruce,
silver fir, and cedar.

In Britain the Scotch pine and larch are considered
first in rank, after which follows spruce, and then sue-

TIMBER AND SOILS. 101

ceed in rotation silver fir, pineaster, and cedar. The
latter tree is not valued in Britain as a timber tree,
chiefly perhaps owing to the reason ^that it is not
generally grown in those situations where its wood
becomes hard, which used to be the case when cedar
was worked by the ancient Greeks, and those which
Solomon used to grow in Mount Lebanon, the growth
of the cedar being too much stimulated by modern
methods of planting and treatment, when in old times
the trees were of much greater age, and the timber
much harder and more durable.

In the trees I have named a great difference
exists as to the time each takes to arrive at perfection,
and while a period of eighty years is necessary for
the Scotch pine to arrive at its full maturity, the larch
can be advantageously used at half that age. This
arises from the fact that the larch while young has
little or no sap-wood, while the other when young
is nearly entirely composed of it. Spruce makes
inferior timber to larch, while that of the pineaster
and silver fir will vary very much in quality according
to the nature of the soil upon which they are grown.

As adornments to a wild and exposed situation,
the trees I have mentioned play a very important
part, as well as afford shelter to other trees, which
without their aid could not be grown, while they
exercise a most useful influence both as shelter for
live stock, and for tempering the severity of the
climate, and thus improving the quality of grain
where it is grown in their neighbourhood, and which
enjoys their protection.

The Pine Tree (Pimis). This genus, the most
important of any belonging to the order Conifera,

102 TREE-PLANTING.

consists of evergreens, natives of Europe, Asia, and
America, almost all producing large timber abounding
in resin. In a natural state they are mostly found
growing in great masses, to the exclusion of other
trees, but they are made subservient by art, and used
as forerunners to broad-leaved varieties of trees, which
without their aid, in the first instance, could not be
raised in exposed and elevated situations.

Pines generally flower in May and June, the male
and female flowers being on the same tree, the cones
ripening at the end of the second year, or eighteen
months after the time of flowering.

The Scotch Pine (P. sylvestris}. The Scotch pine
springs naturally in a healthy open soil, grassy or
close herbage being opposed to the growth of the
young tree, but in moorland with only a short heathy
cover the seeds readily vegetate, and establish them-
selves firmly in the ground, being seen in their greatest
perfection in native forests in the Highlands of Scot-
land. Extensive pine forests also abound in a wild
state in Russia, Poland, Sweden and Norway, and
Germany. There is a striking uniformity in the
quality of the timber grown in native forests, it being
universally red, hard, and resinous. As no tree has
however been transplanted so often to various soils
and situations, it has been made to assume a variety
of forms and foliage, while the timber has become
greatly deteriorated, and is inferior to that found
in the best indigenous forests, which in Scotland are
considered to be those on the Spey, or Braemar on the
Dee, and in Glenmore, Duthil, Rothiemurchus, and
along the slopes of the Cairngorm mountains. In
these districts trees of great circumference will run up

THE OLD FOREST OF GLENMORE. 103

as straight as possible for forty feet, being extremely
valuable, so much so that it is said the timber of
Rothiemurchus often yielded a revenue of over
;i 8,000 per annum.

A singular record is preserved of the old forest
of Glenmore, which was almost wholly felled at the
end of the last and beginning of the present century.

The forest was purchased by William Osbourne
of Hull, of the Duke of Gordon. When it had been
entirely cut down, he presented the duke with a plank
cut from the largest tree produced in the forest, which
now stands (or used to stand) in the entrance-hall
of Gordon Castle. It is about six feet long, and
measures five feet five inches broad, having a brass
plate affixed to it, on which is inscribed : " In the year
1783 William Osbourne, Esquire, Merchant of Hull,
purchased of the Duke of Gordon the forest of Glen-
more, the whole of which he cut down in the space of
twenty-two years, and built during that time, at the
mouth of the river Spey, where never vessel was built
before, forty-seven sail of ships, of upwards of 19,000
tons burden. The largest of them, of 1,050 tons, and
three others little inferior in size, are now in the ser-
vice of His Majesty and the Honourable East India
Company. This undertaking was completed at the
expense (of labour only) of about ,70,000. To His
Grace the Duke of Gordon this plank is offered, as a
specimen of the growth of one of the trees in the
above forest, by His Grace's most obedient servant^
William Osbourne. 1806."

In England the seeds of the Scotch pine are usually
sown about the middle of April, and in Scotland some-
what later, about the end of the month or beginning

104 TREE-PLANTING.

of May. A dry and sandy soil well pulverised, but
one which will not harden on its surface through the
alternate operation of rain and drought, is the best in
which to plant the seed. When well dug and smoothly
raked, beds should be formed four feet wide, and the
soil removed from the top, which is usually raked into
alleys formed between the beds for the purpose, which
is afterwards replaced to cover the seeds. One pound
of good seed is generally thought sufficient for sowing
a bed a dozen yards long, of the width mentioned,
which should be covered with a quarter or half an inch
of soil, the less quantity if the soil is somewhat heavy ?
and the larger if it is quite light and sandy. Care
should be taken to protect the springing plants from
the ravages of birds, which are very destructive to
them. They stand in these seed-beds for two years,
and need no attention beyond keeping the ground
clear of weeds. At the end of two years the seedlings
are fit to be planted out into moorland or heath.
The stems of the heath are a sufficient protection for
the young plants, while open enough to prevent them
dropping off through confinement.

If however the plants are needed to stand in a
situation where they will have to contend with a rank
surface vegetation, or any other kind of herbage than
heath, they will require to be transplanted from the
seed-beds into nursery lines, about nine inches asunder,
the plants three inches apart from one another, if
intended to stand for one year only ; but twice that
distance for two years, which is the longest limit at
which the Scotch pine ought to be removed. If a
bare, barren, exposed situation, such as a hilltop,
is desired to be covered with a plantation, Scotch

SOILS FOR THE PINE. 105

pine plants which have stood but one year in a seed-
bed, and one year again in nursery lines, are the
best adapted for this particular end in view, for
though rarely used, they are the most tenacious of
life.

There is no other tree which grows so quickly and
produces such valuable timber on poor soils as the
Scotch pine. It succeeds on dry and gravelly heath-
covered moors, while even amongst fissures and debris
of rocks, its roots will penetrate recesses, and find food
to sustain it in health and vigour. It cannot however
put up with stagnant water, though it will do very
well on top soils which have water beneath at a fair
depth, as its roots generally spread near the surface
of the ground. Of all waste lands, pine bog is the
most uncongenial to its growth, for, although it may
sometimes be found tenacious of its life even under
the most adverse circumstances, and is seen to live in
soil composed almost exclusively of this vegetable
amalgam, it will not grow to be a timber tree. In
obtaining the seed, care should be taken that only the
very best is used, that of the true Pinus sylvestris,
which has been collected from the finest trees.

The Corsican Pine (P. laricio). This tree in the
island of Corsica is often met with 140 feet high, but
does not affect poor soils. It was introduced into
England about the middle of the eighteenth century,
but has never been largely cultivated except for
ornamental purposes. It is a native of various
countries of the south of Europe, and also the west
and north of Asia. There are many varieties of the
species, eight or ten being classed by nurserymen
who rear the different kinds, which is chiefly appre-

106 TREE-PLANTING.

elated on account of its rapid growth, which causes
the timber to be soft and easily worked.

The Black Pine of Austria (P.L.Austnaca).This
species produces strong resinous timber of good
quality, and grows rapidly in soft soils, attaining the
height of 100 feet in its native country. The seedlings
of this variety should be taken from the seed-bed
when a year old, and transplanted into nursery lines,
to stand one or two years, according to circumstances
and the soil in which they are intended to be planted.

The Cluster Pine (P. pineaster). This is one of
the trees which was introduced into England by
Gerrard in the sixteenth century, and is indigenous
throughout the south of Europe, and those countries
which border on the shores of the Mediterranean,
embracing a somewhat wide geographical range. On
sands in the vicinity of the sea, it is found to answer
well ; a deep, dry, sandy soil being indispensable for
its growth, for in a rich or wet soil it does not stand
the frosts of winter. It has been very successfully
cultivated on poor sandy soils in various parts of the
country, particularly in Norfolk, where no other
species of trees would become timber. It has also
been extensively used in France on drifting sands,
to which I have made previous reference, in the
creation of thriving forests where once only sandy
wastes existed.

In raising the pineaster from seed, the same
plan of procedure should be adopted as that re-
commended to be followed in the case of the Scotch
fir, covering them over with but half an inch of soil,
but removing it early to its final destination, or else
transplanting it frequently in the nursery. In a loose

THE WEYMOUTH PINE. 107

as open sand it strikes its roots to a great depth below
the surface, and growing rapidly, often attains a height
of twenty feet in thirty years. It takes its name
from the way in which it produces its* cones, which
generally grow in groups, pointing outwards in a
star-like form, hence its title of "pineaster," or star
pine.

The Weymouth Pine (P. strobus}. This tree takes
its name from having been largely cultivated by Lord
Weymouth, on his estate in Wiltshire, where it
succeeded remarkably well and grew vigorously. The
tree is a native of America, and may be seen on the
hillsides along the route from Canada to Virginia,
arriving at its most complete development in the
State of Vermont, where it is often met with mea-
suring from three to five feet in diameter, and upwards
of 150 feet in height. Its timber is white and soft,
being in fact the white American pinewood of com-
merce, which is largely imported into Britain ; its
chief characteristics being that it is remarkable for
smoothness of surface, being clean and free from
knots, which allows of its being worked with ease, and
is consequently in request for inner doors, boardings,
mouldings, and house carpentry for the finishing
of interiors, etc.

It is propagated in the same manner as the Scotch
pine, but grows in a rich soft soil well, provided it is
sheltered by hardier trees, or grown in masses, when
it attains a large size. Its appearance is soft and
delicate, and its growth somewhat formal, the foliage
being silky looking. The tree when young will throw
out top shoots of two feet in length during the course
of one summer, and its general average rate of growth

io8 TREE-PLANTING.

in England for fifty or sixty years, may be estimated
at one foot.

Dwarf Pines. There are some interesting spe-
cimens of dwarf trees which bear a family likeness to
each other and the Scotch pine, P. sylvestris pumilio ;
P. S. Mugho, and P. s. uncinata, which are natives of
high mountains, and are found on the Alps and
Pyrenees in cold and exposed situations where their
growth is contracted into the compass of hardy shrubs
merely, but with a little more shelter they attain the
size of low bushy trees. Their foliage is thickly set,
and of a dark green colour, being broad and spreading
in habit, making only small annual shoots, which well
adapts them for cold windy situations.

It is supposed that this habit has been acquired
after ages of exposure in repeated generations, for in
an opposite direction, and in the spirit of progress,
some of these dwarf pines when cultivated in low and
rich ground, have been known to produce female
blossoms at the age of three years, and infertile cones
at their fourth. These having been frequently grown
in nurseries for ornamental purposes, have made a
new departure at times, and by repeated propagation
of seed raised in a low situation have shot up upon
occasions into trees of considerable altitude, which
could scarcely be distinguished from the Scotch pine.

In their native condition they all produce wood
which is red, hard, and durable, and being very
inflammable is often used for torches by the inhabi-
tants of the districts in which the trees are grown.

The direct opposite to these trees is the Gigantic
or Lambert pine (P. L amber tiana), so far as mere size
is concerned, some of the imported cones measuring

GIGANTIC CONES. 109

a foot and a half in length. It is a native of the
north-west coast of North America, being introduced
into England by Douglas in the year 1827, who,
describing one which had been blown down by the
wind, by no means the largest tree amongst many,
found that it measured 215 feet in length, or height,
while its enormous trunk, at three feet from the ground,
measured fifty-seven feet nine inches, and at 134 feet
from the ground, seventeen feet five inches, the trunk
being unusually straight and destitute of branches.
Large districts in North America, about a hundred
miles from the sea, in latitude 43 degrees north, and
extending as far to the south as 40 degrees, are
covered by this tree, which is often found growing in
sand which appears incapable of sustaining vegeta-
tion. In this poor soil it attains its greatest size, and
perfects its fruit in the most complete abundance.

The plant is perfectly hardy, and resists the
severest seasons, but it is difficult to procure the
seeds, which makes it very scarce and expensive.
When only one-year old seedlings, they will sustain
without injury the influence of the sharpest winters.
The plant has an elegant appearance whilst growing"
in its earlier stages, its leaves being of a bright grassy
green, four inches long, and five in a sheath. Its
annual shoots are considerably shorter than those of
the Weymouth pine, rarely exceeding twelve inches
in length ; but as they become ripened before winter,
the plant makes good progress, and when quite young
is remarkable for its great girth in proportion to its
height.

There are many other American pines, possess-
ing distinguishing qualities, as Banksiana, Pungens,

I io TREE-PLANTING.

Resinosa, Rigida, and Sabiniana. The latter, though
a small tree in this country, is said to attain a height
of 100 feet in North-west America. It has only been
imported into Britain within the last fifty years, and
the other four kinds I have mentioned, although of
great beauty, are too feeble in growth to be cultivated
as timber trees.

The Heavy-wooded Pine (P. ponderosa). This
is a very vigorous-growing tree, producing leading
shoots which are actually an inch in diameter when
only a few years old, and about two feet in length, its
leaves being thickly set, and measuring from nine to
twelve inches. It was first introduced into England
in 1826, and is a hardy tree, but likely to receive injury
from the wind.

The Long-leaved Indian Pine (P. longifolia}.
This is perhaps the most beautiful of all the species,,
but it is too tender for the climate of this country,
and can only be reared under glass. This is not the
case with a native of Nepaul (P. gerardiand], which
will endure the climate of Britain, though it cannot
be coaxed into growing into a timber tree. Its seeds,
which are eatable, are nearly an inch in length.

The Cembrian Pine (P. cembrd], This tree also
produces edible seeds, which are consumed largely as
an article of food by the peasantry of Switzerland in
those districts to which the tree is indigenous. It is
often found growing with the dwarf varieties of
P. sylvestris, being a native of the Alps, Siberia, Italy,
and Switzerland. It is a hardy tree, and there are
several varieties, but the seeds do not vegetate until
the second spring, the plants themselves also being
remarkable for their slow growth. When two years

VARIETIES OF PINES. in

of age the seedling plants should be transplanted into
nursery lines. The tree was introduced into this
country over a hundred years ago, by the Duke of
Argyle. Although growing very slowly at first, when
young, yet, as it grows older, it makes more rapid
progress, being the exact opposite in this respect to
other trees I have described. It retains its lateral
branches down to the surface of the ground, in a very
marked manner, the trunk growing erect, with a
smooth bark, its leaves being of a fine bright green
-colour and silvery appearance. The timber has a
fragrant perfume, and the tree has been known to
-attain the height of forty-five feet in thirty years.

The Lofty or BJwtan Pine (P. excelsa). This is
also a very ornamental and hardy tree, young trees at
ten years of age being generally twelve feet high. It
bears a strong resemblance to the Weymouth pine,
but is stouter and of a more robust habit of growth,
its branches assuming a more drooping form, while its
leaves are considerably longer. It is a native of the
Himalayan mountains, where it grows from eighty to a
hundred feet high, and grows readily in this country
from imported seed. It was introduced in 1827.

The Stone Pine (P. pined], The Stone pine
was introduced into England early in the sixteenth
century, but is grown solely as an ornamental plant,
being too tender to be reared successfully as a forest
tree. It grows best in a dry sandy soil, near to the
sea, but it needs shelter without confinement. If
crowded up it does not flourish. In Italy it forms the
most ornamental tree commonly met with in most
landscapes, yielding seeds of a larger size than those
of any other European pine, which are collected and

1 1 2 TREE-PLANTING.

sold as an edible fruit, being very nutritious) and of a
sweet and agreeable flavour. The seeds of the
common kind are contained in a stout shell, but there
is another variety, P. /. fragilis, which has a thin
shell, easily broken, which is cultivated in Naples
entirely on account of its fruit.

The resinous productions of pine trees are put to
various uses, and in some instances form no incon-
siderable items of commerce. From the Scotch pine
and pineaster are yielded tar, pitch, and lamp-black.
Spruce fir produces Burgundy pitch and the best
yellow resin. From the silver fir is extracted Stras-
burg turpentine, the only extract from the fir and
pine tribes which are used in the preparation of the
best varnishes. From the larch we get Venice tur-
pentine, which is greatly in request by veterinary
surgeons for the treatment of bruises, ulcers, and old
wounds, and of this tree I will now speak in detail.

The Larch (Larix Europcea). The common larch
was introduced into England during the early part of
the seventeenth century, the account of its introduction
having been given by Parkinson, an apothecary of
London, who wrote in 1629. Evelyn also mentions a
larch tree of ample size and flourishing habit, in 1664,
which was growing at Chelmsford in Essex. No tree
suffers so much for want of sufficient space whilst
growing as the larch. Its leaves are tender and minute,
presenting only a small surface to the influence of
the sun, light, air, and moisture ; and therefore in a
crowded plantation, composed of trees of the same
height on a level, the leaves fail to elaborate the sap
necessary for the formation of timber, and the trunk
becomes bark-bound, bare, and stunted.

BEAUTY OF THE LARCH. 113

Close planting is however necessary in rearing
timber in bleak and exposed situations. On moun-
tainous situations, where there is an inequality of
surface the tree does better, as well as in those cases
where forests of larch are indigenous, the trees being
unequal in size and age.

The larch is the only genus of the Natural order
Conifera, or cone-bearing tribe, that is composed of
deciduous trees, and when young is of quicker growth
than any of the others, and for that reason it is the
best adapted for extirpating furze and rank herbage.
For this purpose two-year transplanted plants are
employed, which ought to be placed in the ground
immediately after the furze has been cut down. When
planted somewhat closely together, say three to four
feet apart, they in most cases overtop the furze and
smother it, and thus as it were clear the ground for
themselves.

The common larch is the only tree that is really
worth cultivating for timber, the other species being,
in comparison with it, feeble and ungainly.

It is a beautiful tree in appearance, possessing an
elegant conical form, which in favourable situations
assumes the greatest regularity of outline at all stages
of its growth. It has a straight trunk, which becomes
massive when sufficient space is allotted to it to grow
in, throwing out horizontal branches which assume a
pendent figure as the tree advances in age, with sub-
sidiary branches which spring from the main ones and
assume a drooping habit of growth. The leaves, which
are of bright green, are brought forth in the form of
bundles, except on the young shoots, where they grow
individually. The tree brings forth its male and

U4 TREE-PLANTING.

female flowers in April and May, and when arrayed
in its full dress of leaves, presents a very engaging
appearance.

In the seventh edition of " Miller's Dictionary,"
published in 1759, it is stated that the larch had
become plentiful in England, being commonly found
in most English nurseries, and that great numbers
had been planted, with the singular result, as it then
appeared, that the trees established in the worst soils
and situations had turned out the best. From this
time the nature of the tree became better known, and
it was seen that, fertile plains were not calculated for
its full development, and that it did best upon an
elevated open subsoil, from whence moisture- was
easily discharged, and where it could receive the
benefits of a clear and open atmosphere.

It was thus planted in England about a hundred
years before the tree was introduced into Scotland^
where it succeeds better on the whole than in England,
except in elevated situations and in suitable soils. It
is a native of the Alps of France and Switzerland, of
the Apennines in Italy, and is indigenous in all the
rocky and elevated situations in the Tyrol, and in
mountain districts in Germany. .

The Transactions of the Highland Society give an
account of the first larches which were planted by the
late Duke of Athol's trustees, which were brought
from London by Mr. Menzies of Migeny, in 1/38.
Five plants were left at Dunkeld, and eleven at Blair
Athole, presents to the Duke of Athole. The five
were planted in the lawn at Dunkeld in alluvial
gravelly soil, composed in a great measure of round
stones, in a sheltered situation, elevated forty feet

SOILS FOR THE LARCH. 115

above the Tay, and 130 above the level of the sea.
Three out of the five were cut down, two of which
were felled in 1809; one measured 147 cubical feet,
and the other 168 cubical feet. The last was sold on
the spot to a ship-building company at Leith for three
shillings a foot, or ^25 45-. the tree. The other two
larches at the time the account was written were of
immense size, and still continued to grow on the
lawn at Dunkeld.

The larch flourishes in soils of very opposite
qualities, from dry and sandy to that which is wet and
clayey, but when near to springs it is necessary for its
health and growth that the water have free exit. But
it is on the slopes of ravines and declivities, and on
shattered debris, that the tree luxuriates in the greatest
vigour, in cool situations, where there is a free circula-
tion of air. No degree of cold injures the larch during
the winter, but its foliage is sensible to the least touch
of frost, the leaves being remarkably fine and tender,
which causes it to be unfit for planting on southern
exposures, along the warm slopes of steep mountains ;
for the warmth which is frequently brought by the
months of March and April stimulates the growth of
the leaves, which are blighted by a succeeding frost,
which, if it does not kill the trees, inflicts so much
damage that they are long in recovering from it.

In Aberdeenshire there are many very fine speci-
mens of the larch to be seen, especially on the banks
of the Don.

In planting larches, the distance at which the trees
are to stand must be regulated by the situation. In
bleak and exposed moorland in the Highlands of
Scotland it is usual to allow 4,000 plants to the

I 2

1 1 6 TREE-PLANTING.

imperial acre, but in low sheltered situations 3,000 are
accounted sufficient, and Scotch pine are mostly
planted with them.

The seeds of the larch are usually sown in the
southern counties of England about the middle of
April, and in the more northern ones, and in Scotland
about the end of that month. The seeds grow best
upon ground that has been made rich for a previous
crop, but if newly prepared, well rotted, old seasoned
manure should be used, decayed leaves, or vegetable
mould. The ground should be well pulverised and
made very fine by raking, and beds marked out four
feet wide. One pound of seed is generally considered
sufficient for a bed of four lineal yards, the seeds
merely covered to the depth of a quarter of an inch
with soil. In a fortnight or three weeks, according
to the weather, the plants generally make their
appearance. Both the birds and the grub-worm are
persistent enemies to the young larch plants, which
should be guarded against them as effectually as
possible, and the beds require to be carefully weeded
throughout the season. The young plants complete
their first year's growth by the end of September,
and will stand from four to seven inches high. If
there is a good crop and they stand thickly in the
ground, the plants should be loosened with a fork ;
and thinned out during winter or spring. Those
which have been thinned out should then be trans-
planted into lines about a foot and a half apart, or
rather less, the plants standing in rows a few inches
asunder ; they stand thus for one year, when they
become, with the others which have remained undis-
turbed in their bed, two-year old seedlings, and

EXTIRPATION OF HERBAGE. 117

are then fit for being planted in moorland. They
should never be allowed to remain more than two
years in their seed-bed.

If stronger plants are required to subdue a cover
of furze, or to extirpate any other rank herbage, they
should be allowed to stand two years in nursery lines.
As the plant ought not to be allowed to remain for a
longer term than two years in the seed-bed, the same
with the transplanted plants, which must not be kept
in nursery lines longer than two years additional,
when they will generally stand from two to two and a
half feet high, and will be strong enough for the roughest
kind of forest ground. If two-year old seedlings are
put into nursery lines and allowed to stand for two
years they will generally reach three feet. As before
stated, although the larch is deciduous, no tree is so
useful in annihilating rough herbage, and on this
account it is a most valuable tree.

In the best situations adapted to its growth, the
larch has been known to attain a height of forty feet in
twenty years, but thirty feet is about the average which
must be counted upon for that period in most cases.

The larch is very subject to attacks from insects,
the most obnoxious of which is the Coccus laricis,
which infests it mostly in low-lying situations, being
least injurious where there is a free circulation of the
atmosphere, and also when the plantation does not
consist entirely of larch trees.

It is also occasionally attacked by atmospheric
blight, which occurs at different stages when the tree is
in leaf, which shows its effects in the following summer
by a want of foliage, and the presence of numerous
dead twigs throughout the tree.

1 1 8 TREE-PLANTING.

It is also subject to a disease which is called
" pumping," in which case the trunk becomes hollow,
and is believed to commence at the root and rise
upwards, which has been found to prevail most upon
land which has previously yielded timber, the fungus
which accompanies decaying roots being injurious to
most sorts of forest trees.

Larch is frequently planted after Scotch fir, and in
those cases the timber is often found to be unsound,
but it performs a very useful office in creating herbage,
produced eventually, from the richness of its foliage,
which it sheds annually, the deposit in a healthy
plantation being very great, the leaves forming a sort
of rich top-dressing, which is consumed where they
drop, and is the means of causing some of the finer
natural grasses to spring up, which forms choice food
for dairy cattle that can be turned into it, when it has
had sufficient time to be produced.

Spruce Firs (Abies}. This genus consists of several
species of evergreen firs, natives of Europe, Asia, and
America, and belongs to Moncecia monadelpJda in the
Linnsean system, and to Couifercs in the Natural order
of plants.

The Norway Spruce (A. excelsd). This is the tree
most commonly cultivated throughout Britain of this
genus, which is well known for its great beauty of
form and uniform growth of a conical shape. It is
considered to be the loftiest tree indigenous to Europe,
in its native countries having been known to reach an
altitude of 180 feet. It abounds in Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Lapland, and the north of Germany, and is
thought to have been introduced into Britain about
the middle of the sixteenth century. In a congenial

SPRUCE FIRS. 119

soil it retains even in an advanced age its branches
and luxuriant foliage, almost down to the surface of
the ground. The tree blossoms in May and June,
and the cones become ripe in the following winter.

The seeds are planted in the same way as directed
for other fir trees, and when they have stood for two
years in the seed-bed the plants are generally from seven
to nine inches high, when they are fit to be transplanted
into nursery lines. If however they are weak and stand
thin, they may be allowed to stand for a third summer,
and then transplanted, no other species of the Coniferce
admitting so well of being kept three years in the
seed-bed, which is due to its roots being naturally
more fibrous than any others, which better adapts it
for removal. The space at which the plants stand in
the lines must be regulated by the intention of their
future disposal. If they are to be removed after being
only one year transplanted, they can stand much
thicker on the ground than when intended to remain
for two years in lines. In the former case, eight inches
apart in the lines, and the plants a couple of inches
asunder is enough, but in the latter case the lines
should be a foot from each other, and the plants four
inches distant from one another. A common practice,
and a very good one, adopted by some nurserymen, is
to place the lines thickly as mentioned, and then lift
the plants from every other one. From their naturally
fibrous roots, they can stand in lines with impunity for
three years without being disturbed, the tree admitting
of being removed at a greater size, without injury, than
any other tree of the same order.

It derives its nourishment chiefly from the surface
of the ground, and prefers a soil that is cool and moist,

120 TREE-PLANTING.

and so is one of the few trees which will grow, and
thrive, where the subsoil is wet and retentive, a fruit-
ful source of injury and want of success in the case of
many trees. In dry sandy soils it grows well when
young, and is often found of great value as a shelter
or nurse to other trees, but it will not attain to the
importance of a timber tree in such a soil, but assumes
a sickly aspect, with scanty foliage, and compares very
unfavourably with those specimens which are seen at
their best, and flourishing luxuriantly in cool soil in a
sheltered situation ; for although so hardy as never to
be affected by any degree of frost during winter, it
never attains to a great size in an exposed situation.

The most vigorous spruce trees are those which
have always enjoyed sufficient shelter, and yet have
not been confined, which grow on a soft soil rich in
alluvial deposit. In growing the spruce for ornament,
it is necessary that it should have shelter, but at the
same time it must not be crowded up, its growth
being uniformly conical ; the foliage of a good speci-
men is very luxuriant, and extends down to the surface
of the ground ; but in the growth of the tree in
plantations it is not necessary that the lateral branches
should be preserved when the production of timber is
the object aimed at, in which case it is better attained
by the trees pressing close upon one another, as the
branches nearest the ground become enfeebled and
drop off.

Plantations of spruce are generally considered fit
to be felled at the age of seventy or eighty years.
Pruning should never be resorted to with this species,
which advance rapidly after being established for a
few years in suitable situations. Its yearly top shoots

REMAINS OF LARGE SPRUCE TREE. 121

are two feet long, between the ages of fifteen and thirty
years, in a healthy plantation which enjoys moderate
shelter, and trees often attain a height of sixty feet in
forty years.

The resinous production of the tree forms the
Burgundy pitch of commerce, which is the congealed
sap, melted and clarified by boiling it in water. Its
timber is white and soft, and inferior in value to Scotch
pine timber, and only free from knots when grown in
a close plantation.

Douglass Spruce Fir (A. Douglasii). This tree,
which bears the name of Douglas, the celebrated
Scotch collector of American trees, is found on the
banks of the Columbia river, in North-west America,
and is a fast-growing magnificent tree. Its foliage is of
the richest description, and bears a striking resemblance
to that of a vigorous yew tree, and like other spruces
does best in ground that is not dried up by the heat
of summer. When in favourable situations, it fre-
quently forms leading shoots three feet in length in
one season, and generally assumes a bushy form in
proportion to its height. There are some fine speci-
mens of this tree now growing in England, the first
plants of which were produced from seed in 1827.

Douglas describes the trunks of these trees as
varying in their native forests from two feet to ten
feet in diameter, and from 100 to 180 feet in height.
He mentions a stump of this tree near Fort St. George,
on the Columbia river, which measured, at three feet
from the ground, forty-eight feet in circumference. But
there has been scarcely time enough to arrive at a
correct conclusion on many points of interest con-
nected with these important trees from the north-

122 TREE-PLANTING.

west continent of America, rather over half a century
not being regarded as any great epoch of time when
taken relatively in conjunction with the life of trees,

The Black Spruce Fir (A. nigrd). This tree is
said to have been introduced into Britain by Bishop
Compton in the end of the seventeenth century, and
is also a native of North America. It is highly
esteemed as a tree for decorative purposes, presenting
a very ornamental appearance on account of the rich-
ness and denseness of its foliage. It is a hardy tree,
thriving best in a moist soil, and has the peculiarity in
favourable circumstances of its lateral branches often
striking root into the ground, so forming a circle of
young plants around the parent tree.

It generally attains a height of fifty feet or more
in England, there being several specimens in various
parts of the country even much higher, sixty and
seventy feet having been reached, which is not
exceeded in its native districts.

It is raised from seed in the same way as the
Norway spruce, but is of much slower growth.

The Hemlock Spruce Fir (A. Canadensis). This is
but a slow-growing tree, a native of Canada, which is
not thought worthy of cultivation for the sake of its
timber, but is a highly ornamental tree, of pendulous
habit, which, as before said, grows very slowly.

The White American Spruce Fir (A. alba). This
is another of the trees introduced by Bishop Compton
in the seventeenth century, indigenous to North
America, and although somewhat similar in appear-
ance, is yet very inferior in every respect to the black
spruce fir, not being nearly so ornamental in appearance,
and of much slower growth.

THE SILVER FIR. 123

The Khutrow or Morinda (A. Smithiand). This
tree possesses great beauty when in a condition of
health, and has often been admired as a handsome
plant, but it generally becomes diseased as it advances
in age, and approaches the size of a timber tree.

Another tree also which has been introduced from
the Himalayas, A. bruoniana, with pendent branches
and silvery foliage, is a very ornamental plant, bearing
a strong likeness to the hemlock spruce, but its growth
is too feeble to cause it to be of any value as a timber
tree.

Taking the whole range of spruce trees into con-
sideration, there is none so worthy of being grown,
under ordinary conditions and circumstances, as the
Norway spruce.

The Silver Fir. This is the Abies, or spruce fir
of the ancients, but of the genus Picea of Linnaeus.
It bears a striking resemblance to the spruce fir, but
the leaves are less numerous, and lie flatter on each
side of the small branches, and thus, as it were, form
two ranks, and the cones stand erect on the branches,
in contradistinction to those of the spruce fir, which
are pendent.

It is one of the most ornamental trees of the
Coniferous order, and embraces several species, natives
of Europe, Asia, and America, some of which have
only been recently introduced into Britain.

Common Silver Fir (Picea pectinatd). This tree is
indigenous to Central Europe, being found in France,
Germany, Spain, and Italy, on the slopes of mountains
and in glens, as well as being found in the north of
Africa. On the Alps and the Carpathian range it
is sometimes found at an elevation between 3,000 and

124 TREE-PLANTING.

4,000 feet, and may perhaps be seen at its best in the
narrow valleys of Germany, between the mountains of
Switzerland and the Black Forest, where it attains the
height of 150 feet, with a trunk from sixteen to twenty
feet in girth, the soil being rich friable loam.

It is said to have been introduced from this district
into England by Sergeant Newdigate, who planted
two two-year old seedlings at his residence at Hare-
field Park in the year 1603. Evelyn describes these
trees as having become " goodly masts " in 1679, the
larger being eighty-one feet high and thirteen feet in
circumference.

The tree has chiefly been employed for ornamental
effect, seldom having been planted in masses by itself,
but where this has been done, the result has shown
that they admit of being stood thickly together, which
tends to produce tall clean wood of a fine grain ; and
notwithstanding their close proximity, which causes
most trees to run up in a slender form, the trunks
attain a great girth, and yield valuable timber, which
is seldom equalled in amount by any other tree.
Several instances are recorded of single trees pro-
ducing upwards of 300 cubical feet of timber.

When young, it is one of the most tender plants
which grow in Britain, and it grows but slowly during
the first ten or fifteen years of its life ; but after it has
got well established in a suitable soil, and has reached
a height of eight or ten feet, it grows rapidly both in
bulk and stature, and is seldom distanced by any
other tree of the species of Conifera.

The best soil for producing silver fir timber is a
rich deep loam, which is cool and moist, rather than
dry, which is often found along the slopes of moor-

THE SILVER FIR AND FROST. 125

land, in valleys, and in ravines. It will also thrive in
heavy clay, but not in land that is absolutely wet,
being found growing in soils of various and opposite
qualities, so that they are not affected by severe
drought It is a capital tree to plant amongst other
timber which it is the intention shortly to remove, as
the excess of shelter in such situations, which is often
found fatal to many kinds of young trees, promotes
the growth of the silver fir and shields it from the
effect of the late spring frosts, to which it is extremely
sensitive. On this account it is altogether unfit for
the bare and exposed situations upon which the Scotch
pine and the larch flourish. The yearly growths of the
young trees are always very short, and are peculiarly
exposed to injury from frosts, owing to the circum-
stance of the buds of the top shoots being unfolded at
the same time as those of the lateral branches, which
are remarkably tender and soon get nipped ; and it is
subject to this casualty till it gets ten or fifteen feet
high, and assumes a more robust and vigorous habit,
when the buds on the lower branches get first
developed, leaving those on the top to shoot at a
later period, by which they generally manage to
escape injury.

The seeds of the silver fir should be sown in April,
and the soil of the beds well pulverised and made fine.
The fertility of the seeds varies considerably, but a
distance of one inch to one inch and a half is enough
for the young seedlings to stand in, and when the
young plants appear above ground, it is expedient to
protect them from the frost, as the least touch destroys
them. The branches of evergreen trees are good for
this purpose, or broom stuck up on end in small boughs

126 TREE-PLANTING.

close enough to protect the plants, and yet not too
close to admit the air, is a very good method of
affording them protection. The seed-beds also are a
great attraction to birds until May, when the plants
appear. A covering of straight drawn straw is some-
times spread over the beds for the double purpose ol
keeping off the birds and frost immediately after they
are sown. This furnishes a complete protection, and
can be regulated with respect to openness or closeness,
so as to suit the exigences of the plant at any time.
The seed should be covered over with soil to the depth
of half an inch, and the same method of treatment is
followed as that described for the pine.

The young plants are also extremely liable to injury
during their stay in the nursery, as the least frost
destroys the newly-expanded foliage and young growth
when the effects of the same frost cannot be seen on
other young trees. It is therefore found the best and
safest plan to furnish protection to the young tops by
supplying boughs of evergreens till the frosts are over.

After the second year they are moved into nursery
lines, but should they have suffered from the frost they
had better be allowed to remain a third year in the
seed-bed, in order to give them the opportunity of
forming tops, which they will do more readily before
than after they have been disturbed. Choice should
be made of a sheltered situation when they are placed
out into nursery lines, a shaded position being better
adapted to produce strong young trees than even an
open sunny exposure. The lines should be a foot
asunder, and the plants placed at a distance of a few
inches from one another.

After standing in the nursery lines for two summers

GROWTH OF YOUNG SILVER FIR. 127

they should be carefully lifted, and planted out in the
situations in which they are intended to stand, or
replaced in lines standing at a wider distance, if they
are required to be of larger size before being
planted out.

Their slowness of growth is so remarkable when
compared with the quicker growing species, that plants
of the age of six years seldom exceed a foot in height,
though their roots will be found to be large and bulky
compared with the size of their tops, and their stems
are also thick in proportion to their diminutive height,
which has been a cause of disappointment very often
to those who have raised them for the first time from
seed, and have taken all necessary precautions during
the period of their early growth. As, however, before
stated, when they have once become established in
favourable situations their growth becomes quick and
regular.

Like most of the other species, it is very pro-
ductive of resin, and yields the Strasburg turpentine,
which takes its name from the forest contiguous to
that place, where an extensive trade is carried on in it.
Essential oil of turpentine is the production of this
tree, which is resorted to for sprains and bruises, and
its turpentine is also used in the preparation of clear
varnishes, and artists' colours.

Balm of Gilead Silver Fir (P. balsamed). This is
a hardier tree than the preceding when young, and of
much more rapid growth, grown in the same manner,
and yielding its cones abundantly when at maturity.
This tree also owes its introduction to Bishop Compton,
who imported it from America at the close of the
seventeenth century. Its growth is so much quicker

128 TREE-PLANTING.

than the common silver fir, that at the age of five or six
years it is usually twice its height at the same age, and
at eight or ten years perhaps three times its height, but
then its vigour ceases, and it often stops growing
before it attains twenty years of age. At its best, and
in soil most congenial to its growth and nature, it
seldom lives beyond thirty or forty years, liking land
which is deep, moist, and well sheltered, and it is con-
sidered a fine specimen which reaches forty feet in
height. Its chief use, therefore, consists in its rapid
growth and ornamental appearance, its foliage being
closer and more dense than the silver fir, the leaves
being of a brilliant dark green with a silvery hue
underneath. It grows in a pyramidal form, and confers
both shelter and ornament to newly-formed planta-
tions, especially in shrubberies and belts of trees, in
which trees of longer duration are being established.
It will not endure in a light gravelly soil, being unable
to stand drought The bark, buds, and cones are
often literally saturated in turpentine, the resinous
extract, which exudes freely upon the slightest
excision, being known as Balm of Gilead, or Canadian
balsam, in its native country, which is highly odori-
ferous and of a penetrating taste, and said to be of
efficacy in cases of consumption. Its tendency to
early decay has been attributed to this excess of
resinous fluid.

The Cedar (Abies cedrus or Cednis Libani}. In
England the cedar is commonly reckoned the least
valuable of the Conifers, or cone-bearing tribe, so far
as its timber is concerned, that which is grown in
Britain being open in the grain and soft, falling far
short of the ancient reputation which cedar used to

THE CEDARS OF LEBANON. 129

bear for strength and durability. This result is
doubtless owing to the manner in which the trees are
raised in this country, where everything is done to
induce rapid growth, being naturally a slow-growing
tree, extracting its nourishment from hard and cal-
careous formations, upon mountains of great elevation,
while from the treatment they receive here they
partake more of the nature of exotics than the hardy
trees they are. It is a common practice in nurseries
to sow the seeds in heat under glass, and pot off the
young plants in June, when their cotyledons only are
full grown, while others remove the plants when a
year old into pots, and change them into larger ones
as their growth advances.

It was in the keen biting air, after centuries
of exposure, that the cedar trees of biblical and
classical history perfected themselves ; the continued
howlings of the storms, which appear to have their
birthplace in the mountains of Syria, giving rise to the
description of " the violence of Lebanon," one of the
most forcible illustrations which are used in the Bible.

The summit of Lebanon being nearly 10,000 feet
high, many of the loftiest peaks are covered with snow,
and it has been pointed out that the prophet Ezekiel,
evidently a close observer of nature, had doubtless
noticed that the trees were sustained by the melting
snows in hot weather, and rose to a height and
magnificence not attained by others differently
situated, when he says : " Thus was he fair in his
greatness, in the length of his branches, for his roots
were by the great waters ;" it being at the bottom of
the highest peaks, at an altitude of nearly 8,000 feet,
that the cedars are found.

130 TREE-PLANTING.

Many modern travellers have recorded their visits
to Lebanon, and the number left of the old trees has
been the occasion of a difference of opinion. Elliot
Warburton, in his entertaining book " The Crescent
and the Cross," thus describes his visit to the cedars
of Lebanon : " To the right lay a black amphitheatre
of naked mountains, and in the recess that they
surrounded stood a grove of dark trees these were
the cedars of Lebanon. I was at first disappointed in
the appearance of these trees ; I had expected to
have seen them scattered over the mountain that they
consecrated, each standing like a vegetable cathedral ;
but here was a snug compact little brotherhood,
gathered together in the most formal group. No other
tree was visible for many a mile around.

"When, however, I reached the forest after two
hours' steep and difficult descent, I found my largest
expectations realised, and confessed that it was the
most magnificent specimen of forestry that I had ever
seen. I was delighted to pass out of the glowing
fiery sunshine, into the cool refreshing gloom of those
wide flaky branches that vast cedar shade, whose
gnarled old stems stood round like massive pillars
supporting their ponderous domes of foliage.

"One of the greatest charms of this secluded
forest must have been its deep solitude ; but that,
alas ! is gone forever : some monks obtained the
ground for building, and an unsightly chapel was just
being raised upon this sacred spot. I must confess it
seemed to me like a desecration ; the place already
was ' holy ground ' to all the world, and these ignorant
monks had come to monopolise and claim it for the
tawdry and tinselled image which they had s just

ANCIENT TREES OF LEBANON. 131

* set up.' The churls had even pulled down one of the
oldest trees to light their pipes and boil their rice
with. I fear it was with a very bad grace that I gave
a few gold pieces to their begging importunities for
the erection of this sectarian chapel, and it was with a
very bad grace that they received them.

" There are twelve old trees, or saints as they are
called, being supposed to be coeval with those that
furnished timber for Solomon's temple yes, twelve,
I will maintain it, notwithstanding all the different
computations on the subject are there standing now.
It is natural that there should be a diversity of opinion,
perhaps, as the forest consists of about one thousand
trees, among which is a succession of all ages ; never-
theless there is the apostolic number, first-rate in
size and venerable appearance. The largest of these
is forty-five feet in circumference, the second is forty-
four. Many of them are scarred with travellers'
names, among which are those of Laborde, Irby,
Mangles, Lamartine, etc. I should have thought as
soon of carving my name on the skin of the venerable
Sheikh of Eden, who soon arrived to pay his respects
to the stranger.

" That night's encampment was one to be remem-
bered. My tent was pitched on a carpet of soft green
sward, under the wide-spread arms of one of the old
saints. At a little distance the watch-fire blazed up
against a pale gray cliff, its red gleam playing on the
branches beneath, and the silvery moon shining on
them from above produced a beautiful effect as they
trembled in the night breeze, and their dark green
leaves seemed shot alternately with crimson and with
silver ; then the groupings of the servants, and the

K 2

132 TREE-PLANTING.

mountaineers in their vivid dresses, and the sombre
priests assembled round the fire, and the horses
feeding in the background.

" Gradually the chattering ceased ; one by one
the inhabitants retired to their distant village ; the
salaams died away, and I was left alone, but for the
sleeping servants. All was in fine harmony to sight
and sound around me ; all nature seemed in pro-
foundest rest, yet palpitating with a quiet pleasure :
the stars thrilled with intense lustre in the azure sky ;
the watch-fire now and then gleamed through the
heavy foliage its fragrance, for it was of cedar wood,
stole gratefully over the tranced senses

And not a breath crept through the rosy air,

And yet the forest leaves seemed stirred with prayer.

"The next morning before sunrise I broke up
my encampment with regret These are the most
interesting trees in the world, except perhaps those
of Gethsemane ; they were the favourite metaphor of
the ' sweet singers of Israel, and of the prophets,' and
thus it comes that these few trees standing on this
lonely and distant mountain are known all over the
world."

The different accounts given by travellers as to
the number of the old cedar trees now standing is
very perplexing. In the case of the earliest travellers
this is not surprising, for obvious reasons, but it is
very much so in the case of recent visitors to Mount
Lebanon. Thus Lamartine, who visited the cedars
in 1832, says there were only seven at that time, while
M. Laura, an officer of the French navy, who visited
the mountain in company with the Prince de Joinville

DIFFERENT ACCOUNTS OF TRAVELLERS. 133

in September, 1836, states they found fifteen out of
the sixteen old trees mentioned by Maundrell. Belon,
who was perhaps the first recorded visitor (his visit
having been made in 1550), says the trees are sup-
posed to amount to twenty-eight in number, it being
difficult to count them correctly.

The cedar seldom produces cones until it is forty
years old, and sometimes not until it attains a
hundred years, it is said, no tree in a state of nature
being so limited in its means for reproduction.

Seed should be sown in April, in ground that has
been made fine, placed about an inch apart. In six
weeks the young plants will appear, thick sowing
helping them to break the ground. The same treat-
ment followed in the case of the Scotch pine and
larch is appropriate to the cedar, allowing them to
stand one or two years in nursery lines, and then
removing them in order to give additional fibres to
the roots, which is essential for their successful
removal. Although making somewhat slow progress
at first, judiciously treated, they can be reared in a
satisfactory manner. The tree does not like the knife
applied to it either root or branch. If its top is cut
off it, becomes a grand rugged bush. When planted
thickly together the tree rises, like other species of
Conifercz, with a straight bare trunk, differing very
slightly from the larch in appearance, save in being
evergreen. When planted by itself it commonly
assumes a broad conical figure till it has attained its
height, when its lateral branches begin to extend
when the full-grown tree presents a head with a
broad flat surface. About two feet yearly is its rate
of growth until it reaches its full height.

134 TREE-PLANTING.

The Indian Cedar (C. deodar a}. This tree was
first introduced into Britain in 1822, and is found
growing on lofty elevations in Cashmere, Nepaul,
Kamaon, and other districts. In the Himalayas it
attains a height of 150 feet, and being accounted
sacred by the Hindoos, is frequently met with in the
neighbourhood of their ancient temples.

It bears a strong family likeness to the cedar of
Lebanon, and is well adapted for a lawn tree, as it will
rise in a majestic and grand form, where ample space
is allotted to it. The seeds should be sown in April,
and the seedlings managed in the same way as those
of the cedar of Lebanon (growing more freely than
the latter), the diameter of the space occupied by its
spreading branches being generally equal to that of
its height. The seeds lose their vitality soon, and
the young plants fetch comparatively a high price, of
which they are well worthy, and it will doubtless be
ungrudgingly paid by those desirous of possessing
this beautiful tree.

From what I have written the reader will be
enabled to gather which are the most appropriate
trees for different soils and situations, but it will be as
well perhaps again to give a slight summary of the
various kinds best adapted to particular positions.

In rich swampy ground, too wet for the ordinary
timber trees, the large growing species of poplar, and
the tree-willow will be found to answer. A loose
deep earth will grow trees of any description.
A clayey soil, or a deep clayey gravel, is suited for
the oak, which it is found profitable to plant in con-
junction with larch, for, as I have before stated, the
oak derives its nourishment from a great depth, while

TREES AND PARTICULAR SITUATIONS. 135

the larch obtains it more from the top surface. In
low alluvial soils, which are moist, the silver fir will
flourish, and these should have as nurses faster-growing
trees for shelter, as willows or larch, the silver fir being
better for being shaded during the first eight or ten
years of its life. In dry, poor, gravelly, or chalky soils,
the beech, birch, and the pine succeed best. Beech
being more profitably grown alone than when mixed
with other trees. In oak plantations, on the contrary,
pines are planted for shelter, and are found very
valuable in bare exposed ground. Ash and Scotch
elm (or wych elm) grow well together, both being
good hardy trees, but need deep loose soil, the ash
preferring that which is inclined to be moist.

For forming plantations in elevated positions the
goat willow, Scotch elm, birch, ash, alder, service tree,
and mountain ash will be found to succeed. Deep-
rooting trees require a soil more elevated above
water than surface rooting kinds, such as the
pine, etc.

In pit planting, when trees of a certain size are to
be established, it is usual to excavate a space eighteen
inches wide and fifteen inches deep ; and where the
soil, is hard, to loosen the bottom of the hole with a
pick, so that it can be made quite soft, and larger pits
must be made when plants of greater age than two-
year old transplanted trees are employed ; that is,
trees which have stood in nursery lines for two years.
It is better that these pits be formed in summer, and
half filled up again, a spadeful or two of the earth
taken out at the time of planting, which is generally
performed by a man and a boy, the latter holding the
tree in the position it has to stand, while the man

136 TREE-PLANTING.

carefully fills in the earth, which sJiould be made very
fine, no coarse clods being shovelled in, the roots of
the tree being carefully spread in the pit (this method
being termed " pit-planting "), so that each fibre is
perfectly covered with soil. Most of the leading tree
planters have recommended that while this operation
is being performed the boy ought to move or shake
the plant as the man fills in the hole, but with this I
do not agree, as the roots are apt to get twisted and
lie out of place, and even occasionally to be broken, by
this being done. The earth should then be pressed
down with the feet, the tree standing about an inch
deeper in the soil than it formerly stood in the nursery,
and when the earth is dry it is expedient not to pile
the soil up in the shape of a little hillock, which is
frequently done, round the stem of the tree, but to
adopt the opposite method, and have a concavity
round it which will hold rain and moisture, and tend
to establish the tree in its new position. On hillsides
this should especially be attended to, by forming the
outer edge of the pit high enough to intercept the
rain, which would otherwise run down the hillside,
and the tree thus lose the benefit which it would
derive from the supply of moisture. I shall, how-
ever, now take leave of this part of my subject, and
proceed to that of ornamental planting.

Persons requiring only a few trees for the adorn-
ment of their gardens and dwellings can seldom afford
the time to raise them for themselves from seed, from
layers, or cuttings, but will find it the more satisfactory
course to obtain what they require from some respec-
table nurseryman upon whom they can depend.
Much however may be done by judiciously grafting

GRAFTING FLOWERING TREES. 137

some of the most handsome and attractive flowering
plants, such as many varieties of the thorn, much
admired in the seasons of blossoms and fruit, upon
common stems of strong hawthorn or quick.

CHAPTER VI.

Planting for Ornamentation Preparation of the Soil Trees for Shelter
and Seclusion Ornamental Trees Grafting varieties of Thorns
Trees for Avenues The Hazel The Elder The Laburnum The
Cherry Tree The Laurel The Sweet Bay The Portugal Laurel
The Laurel Cherry The Portugal Laurel Cherry The Yew
Tree The Foliage of the Yew Tree poisonous to Cattle Yew
Timber very durable The Upright or Irish Yew Juniper The
Common Juniper The Incense-bearing or Spanish Juniper The
Virginian Juniper The Common Savin The Bermudas Cedar
The Spindle Tree The Common Spindle Tree The Broad-
leaved Spindle Tree The Mountain Ash or Rowan Tree The
Service Tree The Holly.

PLANTING FOR ORNAMENTATION. It is commonly
supposed by unpractised people that merely digging a
deep hole in which the roots of a tree can be safely
deposited is enough to insure its future growth and
health, and that is all which is necessary to be done.

The land, however, requires as much preparation
for the reception of trees as for any other crop, if they
are required to do well. The ground should always
be thoroughly trenched to begin with, especially in
those cases where a quick growth is looked for and
desired.

It is generally considered that the growth of trees
in six years, in trenched ground, will equal that of ten

MOVING SHRUBS AND EVERGREENS. 139

years in untrenched soil. The time of planting is
another important point, a great difference of opinion
having been expressed on this head by writers, when
there are various conditions which need to be taken
into account. Some of the most practical arboricul-
turists think September the best time for moving
shrubs and evergreens, for the reason that the plant
is not then quite in a dormant state ; and if steps are
taken to prevent the exposure of the roots to drought
when holly or other evergreens are moved at this
season, they then begin to throw out a profusion of
small rootlets, which are at once fitted to establish
the plant in its new situation, or to render it fit for
removal into another one during the ensuing winter
or spring.

The most ornamental trees of a hardy description
among evergreens, which are preferred on account of
the shelter and seclusion they afford especially in the
form of narrow belts, or clumps to block out an
unsightly object too near to be agreeable, and which
requires to be permanently blinded are laurel, holly,
yew, evergreen oak, arborvitae, juniper, rhododendron,
and cedar. When needed to be placed under the
shade of other trees as underwood, the best kinds for
this purpose are commonly found to be the holly, yew,
box, common juniper, and the privet. The latter
stands the smoke of towns and cities well, and is
specially useful on this account.

Amongst the deciduous trees of low growth best
adapted for ornamental planting, the laburnum and
lilac harmonise well together, the opposite colours of
the blossoms making a beautiful change and variety,
ordinarily very much admired, and usually esteemed

140 TREE-PLANTING.

as favourites. The almond tree when in blossom is
another beautiful object, and the hazel, willow, cherry,
service tree, maple, etc., can all be tastefully arranged
so as to produce the happiest effect, and as I
mentioned at the conclusion of the last chapter, the
varieties of thorns, such as the scarlet and double red,
can be easily grafted upon strong stems of the common
hawthorn, which can be readily trained to a considerable
height, the kinds generally preferred being Cratoegus
macracantha, C. prunifolia, C. aroma, C. coccinea,
C. punctata, C. glandulosa, the scarlet horse-chestnut,
looking very handsome amongst its other neighbours.

For park scenery, or on capacious lawns, where
they will not be crowded, and their effect destroyed
by the too close proximity of other trees, the cedar of
Lebanon, Indian cedar, British and scarlet American
oaks, various kinds of the plane tree, the horse
chestnut, common and purple beech, lime tree or
linden, and various spreading elms, all carry with
them a bold and imposing appearance, and each
variety forms a handsome tree which will assume
shape of itself.

In some situations, where from bareness of the
ground, or from exposure, there is great difficulty in
establishing trees, the common and scarlet elder are
capital for shelter ; Scotch pine, mountain ash, service
tree, sycamore, and horse chestnut will be found useful ;
but climate differs, and some kinds succeed in certain
situations better than others, and in this respect the
would-be planter ought to exercise a certain amount
of observation for himself, always bearing in mind
that the success of what he does will mainly depend
upon the appropriateness of soil and often shelter.

THE HAZEL. 141

Again, as I have repeatedly pointed out in the fore-
going in respect to all trees, no large shrubs or plants
will ever become fine specimens of their kind, unless
they have been repeatedly transplanted while in the
nursery ground.

For the formation of avenues, as an approach to a
residence or otherwise, the horse chestnut is perhaps
one of the handsomest trees that can be fixed on. It
is also a variety which under proper management will
bear transplantation when it has attained a consider-
able size, so that an imposing line of shade may soon
be formed. The lime tree, with its full well-balanced
head, and delightful fragrance, proceeding from its
sweetly-scented blossoms, is very difficult to excel ;
while beech, plane, Scotch or wych elm, and the
Spanish chestnut, being all of a spreading habit, cause
them to be well adapted for this purpose.

The Hazel (Corylus avellana). The hazel is pro-
fitably cultivated as coppice, when lopped springing
up vigorously, throwing up shoots five or six feet long
in a season, and the tree is most useful for the
arrangement of narrow belts or dumpings, imparting
closeness and seclusion. Few trees retain their leaves
so ,long after having become affected by frost, which
turns them to a yellow colour, and remain thus orna-
mental a long time before the leaves are shed. The
catkins too, which continue in bloom in winter and
spring, have a very pretty effect.

The hazel succeeds best in a dry soil, with a sand-
stone or chalk subsoil, and is readily propagated by
nuts, the size and vigour of the seedlings generally
corresponding with the fine sample, or otherwise, of the
seed used. They should be sown in winter or early

142 TREE-PLANTING.

spring, in light and sandy soil, covered one inch. The
young plants spring up towards the end of May, when
the ground should be kept clear of weeds ; during the
following summer, and when the seedlings are a year
old, they should be planted out into nursery lines,
those which are weakly being left behind in the seed-
bed for another year.

The common hazel embraces a great variety,
many of which are cultivated entirely for the sake of
their fruit, especially nuts or filberts, as C. a. tubulosa,
C. a. crispa, C. a, tenuis. In rearing a filbert tree for
fruit it should have but a single stem about a foot high,
and all suckers removed as soon as they make their
appearance ; six branches should form the head, and
the side shoots from them should be spurred like red
currants. As this work however does not profess to
treat upon fruit trees, I merely mention this to mark
the distinction which must result in the treatment of
a tree destined for the production of fruit, and not for
shade or shelter.

The Elder. The elder belongs to the genus
Sambucus, Natural order Caprifoliacecz y and to Petan-
dria trigynia of the Linnaean system. The common
black-berried elder, . nigra or bourtree, is not
nearly so ornamental as vS. racemosa, generally known
as the scarlet-berried elder, which, when in full fruit,
in point of beauty, has no rival amongst deciduous
plants. Its panicles of fruit resemble somewhat small
clusters of grapes, of a bright scarlet colour, which
attain the height of their brilliancy early in autumn,
but it is shy in producing its fruit, though it constantly
blossoms, and it does best in those situations where
from lateness of season the blossom is delayed. It is

ODOUR OF ELDER TREE. 143

a native of the south and middle of Europe, and of
the mountains of Siberia, where it assumes a low form.
The prominent buds of its young shoots are very
ornamental, the young wood yielding racemes of
flowers which open with the expanding leaf in spring,
the foliage being of bright green, pinnate and deeply
serrated.

The common black-berried elder is a native of
Europe, the north of Africa, and some of the colder
districts of Asia.

It is not a favourite tree, the blossoms and foliage,
when grown extensively, emitting a sickening odour,
which is believed to be unwholesome in hot weather.
The plant has long been used medicinally, the inner
bark of the tree being an active cathartic, while the
flowers are used for fomentations and cooling oint-
ments. These and similar applications were doubt-
less held in greater favour at a time when domestic
medicines were more largely resorted to than in the
present day.

As a screen in bleak exposures and maritime
situations, the tree is however very useful, and it
generally rises under the most adverse circumstances
with a vigour that is seldom equalled by any other
plant. On the other hand, it is apt to get bare at the
bottom when used as a fence, and its roots, from the
long range they take, impoverish the neighbouring
crops.

It is easily propagated from young shoots, the
buds or joints of which are usually from six to ten
inches apart, and each cutting should have a joint
close to its lower extremity, from which the roots will
spring. These will readily take root when inserted

144 TREE-PLANTING.

into the ground half the length of the slips used,
which should be from eight to twelve inches. The
best time for planting them is from the beginning of
November till the end of March.

The Laburnum. Two kinds of laburnum are
commonly met with, Cytisus laburnum, the common
or English, and C. I. alpinus, the Alpine or Scotch
laburnum. It grows vigorously during the first few
years of its age, and luxuriates in almost every
description of ground, which causes it to be very
suitable as shelter for many other young ornamental
trees. It has always been highly esteemed as an
embellishment along the margins of plantations, its
beautiful pendulous blossoms displaying rich masses
of colour in May and June. The seeds, which become
ripe in the beginning of winter, and are poisonous,
should be sown in light friable soil, in spring, two or
three inches apart, and covered over to the depth of
about one inch. One-year old seedlings are generally
about a foot high, when theyshould be transplanted into
lines two feet asunder, and the plants a foot from each
other. After standing two years in nursery lines they
are fit for planting out. They may stand, if desired,
in lines for three years, and by frequent transplanta-
tion, and allowing additional space for them to stand
in, they may be grown to a large size, and yet be fit
for removal to any place which they may be required
to decorate, which is a most useful feature in connec-
tion with this really capital tree.

The Cherry Tree. The genus Cerasus embraces
several varieties of the wild cherry, which differ con-
siderably in the size and shape of their leaves, rapidity
of growth, and ultimate bulk, C. sylvestris attaining

THE WILD CHERRY TREE. 145

to the size of a timber tree. The tree will grow in
any description of soil if it be dry, and not pure clay ;
that which it prefers being a sandy loam, or an open
subsoil. It is hardy, and will grow in elevated
situations, but attains a large size only on low
sheltered ground.

Nothing hardly excels the purity and richness of
its blossoms in early spring, while its foliage assumes
gorgeous hues in autumn ; and it is a matter of
surprise that this tree is not more used for decorative
arboricultural purposes than it is.

The tree is raised, like the garden cherry, from the
stones of its fruit, and the plants require to be moved
from the seed-bed when one year old, and trans-
planted into nursery lines two feet asunder, and the
plants six or eight inches from each other. After
being two years transplanted, they are commonly five
or six feet high.

The stock is commonly used by nurserymen on
which to engraft the varieties of double-blossomed
cherries, and the kinds cultivated for the sake of their
fruit. The other varieties best known are C. pardus,
the bird cherry, C. scrotina, the late flowering, or
American bird cherry, and C. Virginiana, the Vir-
ginian bird cherry. These thrive best also on dry
ground, and are considered especially fit as under-
wood, all being very ornamental, in their different
seasons, for flowers and fruit. Those who like to
encourage singing birds near their dwellings, as the
blackbird and thrush, will find these varieties yield an
abundant supply of fruit for them, and they can be
propagated either by seed or layers.

The variety C. mahaleb, or perfumed cherry, is

146 TREE-PLANTING.

indigenous to France, and the south of Germany ; its
wood being brown and hard emits a pleasant
fragrance, the kernels of the fruit being employed by
perfumers to scent soap. It is a very hardy plant, and
will grow either in a bleak exposure, or as an under-
wood in any soil, however poor, if it be only dry.

The Laurel. No tree perhaps is so generally
useful for ornamental planting as the different varieties
of the laurel. The Lauren* nobilis, the noble laurel,
or sweet bay, is the type of the Natural order Lauracece,
that embraces hardy evergreens, which attain the
stature of small trees in their native countries, as well
as a few kinds of hardy deciduous trees, amongst
which the sassafras of North America is conspicuous,
on account of its medicinal properties.

The Sweet Bay is a native of the south of Europe
and north of Africa, and is a beautiful evergreen with
handsome leaves of a firm texture, remarkable for
their aromatic taste and agreeable fragrance.

To succeed and flourish vigorously, it must have
an open well-drained soil, to enable its young wood to
stand the severity of frost. It produces numerous
suckers from the roots, and can be easily propagated,
either by dividing the roots or from layers. The
cook finds the leaves of the sweet bay useful for
flavouring custards or blancmanges, and for placing
in the dish with soused mackerel, etc.

The Portugal Laurel, one of our most beautiful
evergreens, does not belong to this order, which is
often commonly supposed to be the case, but to that
of Cerasus, or cherry.

The Laurel Cherry. Cerasus, Lauro-cerasus, or
common laurel, grows wild in woody and subalpine

LAURELS. 147

regions, in the mountains of Persia, and west of Asia,
and is considered one of our finest evergreens. It
succeeds at its best in a rich, deep, free soil, in a
sheltered situation, as it affects the shade, and forms
a highly ornamental underwood. If planted in a wet,
hard, or retentive soil, it becomes unsightly, and
yields only a scanty crop of leaves, with bare twigs.
It can be propagated either by berries, cuttings, or
layers. The berries become ripe in Autumn, when
they should be cleared from their pulp and imme-
diately sown. Cuttings however are the simplest
method to resort to for its propagation. These
should be planted in September, in sandy soil par-
tially shaded, in lengths a foot long, inserted in
the ground to half their length. They should be of
the same season's growth, with about an inch of the
previous year's wood attached to them, from which
the roots will spring in the following summer. When
the plants become close to one another, they should
be transplanted out into nursery lines, wide enough
asunder to allow them to become bushy ; after
standing thus for a year or two, they will be fit either
for the shrubbery, or as underwood in beltings of
other trees ; or to be planted out by the borders of
drives in the forest, where its berries form a favourite
food for pheasants. As a hedge, or ornamental
screen-fence, the laurel is very desirable. The prin-
cipal varieties are the variegated and the narrow
leaved.

The Portugal Laurel Cherry, or common Portugal
laurel, is one of the best evergreens adapted to our
climate, for although not growing so fast as the
common laurel, it is more hardy, and succeeds on soils

L 2

148 TREE-PLANTING.

of very opposite quality. The flower-spikes appear
early in June, and the blossoms are succeeded by
oval-shaped berries, which change from green to a
deep purple, by the end of autumn. Seeds sown in
autumn generally spring up during the following
March, when they are liable to suffer from the late
frosts which sometimes prevail. It can be grown from
cuttings in the same way as the common laurel, but
the handsomest plants are those which have been
produced from seeds. If the seedlings stand close in
the bed, they should be transplanted at the end of the
first season's growth, but if they have plenty of room
they may be allowed to stand for another year, and
then be transplanted into nursery lines, where room
enough should be given them, so that their foliage
does not touch that of each other in the progress of their
growth. After standing for two years in the nursery
lines, they are then fit for being planted out in the
situations they are destined to occupy.

The Portugal laurel admits of pruning, and can be
trimmed into any desired shape, and forms a compact
ornamental hedge suitable for the boundary of a
parterre. Under favourable conditions it arrives at
the height of from twenty to thirty feet, and when
pruned early can be made to attain the dimensions of
a dwarf tree.

The Rhododendron is another capital evergreen,
extremely hardy and appropriate for decorative pur-
poses, but, belonging more to the class of flowering
shrubs, scarcely comes within the province of this
work to describe.

The Yew Tree (Taxus baccata), the common or
English yew. This is a very useful tree as underwood,

THE YEW IN A COLD CLIMATE. 149

in those situations where by reason of too much cover
trees are apt to become feeble, and have but scanty
foliage, doing well amongst deciduous trees, if it can
only have a cool moist soil. It can be trimmed and
cut into any shape, hedges being formed by it of such
impenetrable thickness that small birds even cannot
pass readily through it.

As an ornamental tree for a lawn in a cold climate,
the yew is possessed of several advantages, as it is
not injured by the wind, or by frosts in winter, while
its rich dark foliage offers a bold contrast to that of
other trees.

The yew is remarkable for its slow growth, plants
of five years of age generally not averaging more than
a foot in height, while at ten years of age they seldom
exceed three feet, though it will ultimately attain the
dimensions of a timber tree, and range from forty
to fifty feet in height.

It is found indigenous throughout Britain and in
most parts of Europe, the practice of planting them
in churchyards being one of great antiquity. It is
propagated by its berries, that become ripe in
autumn, which it is customary to wash, and clean
from the pulp surrounding them. They are then
mixed with three times their bulk of sand for a year
or fourteen months, according to the time of sowing,
and planted in winter or early spring. A rich loamy
soil is necessary, but one which will not cake and
become hard on its surface. The seed should be
covered with about half an inch depth of soil, and
sown of a thickness to insure the plants standing
about two inches apart from each other, the crop
coming up very irregularly. As the seedlings suffer

ISO TREE-PLANTING.

from frost, it is best to give them some kind of cover,
such as fir twigs, or evergreen branches. After two or
three years the seedlings should be moved into
nursery lines, and afterwards transplanted again every
third year, allowing them sufficient space upon each
occasion to grow without crowding one another.
From its naturally fibrous roots, the yew will bear
transplanting when of a large size, and can so be
reckoned upon to produce an immediate ornamental
effect. Rather than receiving injury, it grows best
when somewhat darkened by other trees, and its
upward progress is assisted by them ; when otherwise
it would be inclined to branch outwards in its more
natural form.

The tree is of a very poisonous nature, and fatal
accidents frequently happen to horses and cattle
which have eaten yew clippings, or have obtained
access to the trees, off which they have browsed. The
wood of the yew is more durable than that of any other
European timber, while the tree itself attains to a vast
age, and the venerable remains of some ancient yew
trees are supposed to take their date from the Roman
occupation of Britain.

The Upright or Irish Yew (T. fastigiatd). This
is a handsome plant, which from a single stem at the
surface of the ground throws out a number of tapering
branches, clothed with foliage of the darkest green
colour, assuming a shape broad at top and narrow at
the bottom ; being considered one of the handsomest
and hardiest evergreens we have, which is striking on
account of its peculiarity of shape.

It is propagated by cuttings taken in August and
September, which are struck in sand, or other silicious

VARIETIES OF JUNIPER. 151

soil, covered with a hand-glass and shaded from the
rays of the sun.

Juniper. There are about twenty species of
Juniper, which merge into a great number of varieties,
and belong to the Natural order Coniferce.

The Common Juniper (J. communis\ will flourish
on soils of very opposite qualities, but prefers a deep,
dry, loamy situation, which is partially shaded by
other trees. In a favourable situation it rises to the
dimensions of a dwarf tree, but on poor gravel, and
in wet situations, it only becomes a low spreading
shrub, and in this form makes excellent shelter for
game, its cover being the favourite resort of
woodcock.

The plants are propagated by the berries, which
lie dormant in the ground for a year, and sometimes
for two years, before they vegetate. The berries
themselves remain on the plant for two years, being
mostly found on the shrub in different stages of
maturity, so that while some of the fruit is ripe a
younger crop is coming forward.

The Incense-bearing or Spanish Juniper (J. thu-
riferci). This variety forms a beautiful, low, ever-
green tree, yielding large berries, which when ripe
become black, and form a striking contrast to its
foliage of vivid green. As a tree for the lawn, or as
an addition to the shelter and variety of the foliage
of a shrubbery, it is very desirable, being extremely
ornamental. It was introduced into this country
about a hundred and thirty years ago, and is now in
general cultivation.

The Virginian Juniper (/. Virginiana). This is
commonly termed the red American cedar, and on

152 TREE-PLANTING.

the American continent attains a height of sixty feet,
being the tallest hardy tree of the genus.

It flourishes best in a deep rich soil, and will
endure plenty of moisture, assuming a conical form,
and expanding into a broad spreading tree, affording
a great amount of shelter. Being very hardy, it is
highly appreciated in the shrubbery as a nurse for
more tender plants. It is propagated from seed, and
during the first four or five years of its growth, its
progress will be as fast as that of the Scotch pine ;
while no plant is more apt to produce greater seedling
varieties, differing in the size and shape of their
foliage, all of which are invariably handsome. The
young plants should be transplanted from the seed-
bed when one year, or at most two years old, into
nursery lines, and transplanted again every second
year, until finally planted out.

The Common Savin (J. sabina). This is one of
the least ornamental of the species, and when dis-
turbed, or trod upon, emits a disagreeable odour. It
is a low spreading, evergreen shrub, which is indi-
genous to Spain, France, and Italy, and consists of
several varieties which readily take root by fixing the
prostrate branches in the earth. It is said to produce
abortion when eaten by pregnant domestic animals,
its foliage being used in medicine as a diuretic.

The Bermudas Cedar (J. Bermudiand). The
wood of this tree is that employed in the manufacture
of blacklead pencils, being esteemed on account of its
fragrance. It is however too tender to be reared
successfully in Britain generally, and in the most
favoured situations seldom exceeds the stature of a
shrub, and is not therefore much cultivated, except

THE SPINDLE TREE. 153

by those who form specific collections of trees, though
it has now been introduced for over two centuries
into this country.

The Spindle Tree, once highly esteemed for
spindles, from which it takes its name. It belongs to
Tetra-hexandria Monogynia of the Linnaean system,
and to Celastracece in the Natural order of plants. As
the blossoms of the tree are produced in the beginning
of the summer, and resemble the colour of the leaves,
they are by no means attractive, but in autumn the
seed-vessels appear in great profusion, of the most
delicate shades of colour, generally pink or white, and
when ripe they expand, and show the seeds of rich
yellow.

The Common Spindle Tree (E. Europceus). This
is a hardy tree, very tenacious of life, and grows in
soils of various qualities, but flourishes best in a deep
rich soil, moderately sheltered, when it will attain a
height of from twenty to thirty feet ; though the range
of the leading species of the genus may be said to
occupy an intermediate station between shrubs and
trees ; varying from ten to thirty feet in height ;
producing a mass of white fibrous roots, it will stand
removing well, when comparatively of large size.
It is propagated freely either from layers or seed.

The Broad-leaved Spindle Tree (E. latifolia). The
leaves of this tree are broad and shining, its fruit being
also highly ornamental, the plant seldom exceeding
twelve or fifteen feet in height, and is perhaps the
handsomest tree of the genus. There are also several
species of dwarf evergreen shrubs which belong to
this genus.

The Mountain Ash or Rowan Tree (Pyrus aucu-

154 TREE-PLANTING.

parid). This beautiful deciduous tree produces
numerous fragrant white blossoms during the months
of May and June, which change into a profusion of
scarlet berries in October. The tree is perhaps seen
to its greatest perfection in the Highlands of Scotland,
with its terminal shoots bending beneath the weight
of scarlet berries. Being very hardy it grows freely in
cool soils at a great altitude, the exposure of which
would kill many more tender trees. It grows rapidly
during the first eight or ten years of its life, though it
never reaches a large size. As a hedgerow tree it is
highly ornamental, rising with a shapely head which
is never disfigured by the wind.

It is propagated from the berries, which ripen in
autumn, and are then collected and put into a pit,
mixed with sand or light earth, and allowed to remain
until the second winter, or early in the second spring,
when they are sown, and so disposed that they strike
two inches asunder. At two years they require trans-
planting into nursery lines, where they may remain
another two years, and will then be ready to plant out
permanently, or to be replanted in a greater space to
become larger trees, so as to produce a more imme-
diate effect when placed in their destined stations at a
future time.

There are several varieties, one of the most beau-
tiful of which is the weeping mountain ash, which
when grafted upon an ordinary stock forms an elegant
pendent tree. Peculiar kinds can only be accurately
reproduced by grafting, which is the course recom-
mended when the object in view is to secure some
special variety.

The Service Tree (Pyrus aria). This species is

THE HOLLY. 155

now included by botanists in the same variety, in
every respect resembling the mountain ash, excepting
that its leaves are entire, light green above and downy
underneath, which when agitated by the wind imparts
to it a very striking appearance. There are many
interesting varieties, its treatment and method of
propagation being the same as that adopted for the
mountain ash.

The Holly (Rex aquifolium) . The holly is found
indigenous throughout Britain, mostly in dry soils,
but of various qualities, and is one of the most useful
evergreen trees we have. As it will grow vigorously
under shade, and stand the drip of other trees, it has
no equal in this respect if we except perhaps the yew.
When grown in a congenial soil, the dark polish of its
evergreen prickly leaves and the closeness of its habit
causes it to be highly ornamental, especially during
autumn and winter, when the brilliancy of its scarlet
berries forms such a handsome contrast to its dark
green foliage. In a wild state it will attain a height
of twenty or thirty feet, but rises to a loftier altitude
when cultivated. It does not succeed when grown at
too great an elevation.

The holly is usually propagated by seed, the berries
being collected in winter, and mixed up with double
their bulk of sand and turned over every month, and
sown during the following winter in beds of rich dry
soil of open texture, partially shaded, the seeds being
covered with about half an inch depth of soil. The
seeds will sometimes lie dormant for sixteen or
eighteen months after the time of sowing, and if the
soil is of a clayey nature, the surface becomes caked
and hard, and they will perish. On this account a

156 TREE-PLANTING.

close soil is objectionable to sow seeds in, as the young
plants cannot force their way through. After two
summers' growth, the seedlings should be transplanted
into nursery lines ; the best time for performing this
operation being September, during moist weather,
and afterwards transplanted again every second or
third year.

There are many varieties of holly, particularly of
the gold and silver variegated sorts, which differ in the
breadth and structure of their leaves and prickles.
These are known under the popular names of gold-
edged, silver-edged, gold-blotched, silver-blotched,
laurel-leaved, hedgehog, etc. etc., which are mostly
grafted on stocks of the common holly.

The laurel-leaved yield smooth massive foliage of
dark glossy green, and are exceedingly handsome
plants. The progress of the holly is fastest when
partially shaded.

While there are many residences situated in
various parts of the country almost destitute of the
natural ornamentation which flowering shrubs or trees
confer, there are also a great number which may be
described as being partially decorated, that could
be considerably improved by the judicious addition
of a suitable tree here or there ; and I fear the
hygienic value of trees is not taken sufficiently into
account by those who reside in situations which are
not considered quite so healthy as they might be.

In districts where malaria has abounded for many
years to such a dangerous degree that human life
could not be long sustained when exposed to its
effects, the Eucalyptus globulus has been planted with
such success that abandoned dwellings, especially in

ORNAMENTAL TREES. 157

the Roman Campagna, have become re-inhabited,
and are now perfectly healthy.

There are many damp nooks and corners in
England which could be rendered much more
healthy by the judicious planting of trees to absorb
those gases which, injurious to human, are yet
eminently favourable to plant life ; while at the
same time, a considerable gain might be insured
in picturesque effect

THE END.

CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS. CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

1 93 j PICCADILLY, LONDON, W
AUGUST, 1879.

Chapman aitb

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS.

INCLUDING

DRAWING EXAMPLES, DIAGRAMS, MODELS,
INSTRUMENTS, ETC.

ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF

THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT,
SOUTH KENSINGTON,

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES.

CHARLES DICKENS'S WORKS.

NOW PUBLISHING.

THE POPULAR LIBRARY EDITION

OF THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS.

Large Crown 8vo, price 3-r. 6d. each Volume.

This Edition is printed on good paper, and contains Illustrations that have
appeared in the Household Edition, printed on Plate Paper. Each Volume
consists of about 450 pages of Letterpress and 16 full-page Illustrations. The
following Volumes are ready

OLIVER TWIST.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS.
DAVID COPPERFIELD.

MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 Vols.

SKETCHES BY " BOZ."
PICKWICK. 2 Vols.
DOMBEY AND SON. 2 Vols.

2Vols ' MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT.

2 Vols. (in the press).

THE "ST. JAMES'S LIBRARY."

Messrs. CHAPMAN & HALL beg to announce that it is their intention to
issue a Selection of the Novels, Travels, and Books of General Interest
published by them under the above heading.

None but Works that have received a special stamp of popular approval -will
appear in the Series. The price of each Volume will be Six Shillings.

The following Volumes of the " ST. JAMES'S LIBRARY" now ready
BLACK BUT COMELY. By Major G. J. WHYTE-MELVILLE.

Crown 8vo, 6s.

ROY'S WIFE. By Major G. J. WHYTE-MELVILLE. Crown

8vo. 6s.

AN EYE FOR AN EYE. By ANTHONY TROLLOPE. Crown

8vo, 6s.

THE PRODIGAL DAUGHTER. By MARK HOPE.
BLUE AND GREEN. By Sir HENRY POTTINGER, Bart.
ON THE FRONTIER. By Major CAMPION.
RIDING RECOLLECTIONS. By WHYTE-MELVILLE.

&c. &c.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

BOOKS

PUBLISHED BY

CHAPMAN AND HALL.

ABBOTT (EDWIN) Formerly Head-Master of the Philological School

A CONCORDANCE OF THE ORIGINAL POETICAL

WORKS OF ALEXANDER POPE. With an Introduction on the English of
Pope, by EDWIN A. ABBOTT, D.D., Author of "A Shakespearian Grammar,"
&c. &c. Medium 8vo, price ,1 is.

ABBOTT (SAMUEL}

ARDENMOHR : AMONG THE HILLS. A Record of

Scenery and Sport in the Highlands of Scotland. With Sketches and Etching by
the Author. Demy 8vo, 125. 6d.

BARTLEY (G. C. T.}

A HANDY BOOK FOR GUARDIANS OF THE POOR:

being a Complete Manual of the Duties of the Office, the Treatment of Typical
Cases, with Practical Examples, &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, 35.

THE PARISH NET: HOW IT'S DRAGGED AND

WHAT IT CATCHES. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7 s. 6d.

THE SEVEN AGES OF A VILLAGE PAUPER. Crown

8vo, cloth, 55.

BEESLY(ED WARD SPENCER} Professor of History in University College,
London

CATILINE, CLODIUS, AND TIBERIUS. Large crown

8vo, 6s.
BENNETT (W. C.)

SEA SONGS. Crown 8vo, 45.

BENSON ( W.)

MANUAL OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Coloured

Frontispiece and Illustrations. 12010, cloth, as. 6d.

PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Small

4to, cloth, 153.
BIDDLECOMBE (SIR GEORGE} C.B., Captain R.N.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SIR GEORGE BIDDLE-

COMBE, C.B., Captain R.N. Large crown 8vo, 8s.
BLAKE (EDITH OSBORNE)

TWELVE MONTHS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE. With

Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 145.
BLYTH (COLONEL}

THE WHIST-PLAYER. With Coloured Plates of " Hands."

Third Edition. Imp. i6mo, cloth, 55.

A 2

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

BRADLE V ( THOMAS} of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich

ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. In Two

Parts, with Sixty Plates. Oblong folio, half-bound, each Part i6s.

Selection (from the above) of Twenty Plates for the use of

the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Oblong folio, half-bound, i6s.
BUCKLAND (FRANK}

LOG-BOOK OF A FISHERMAN AND ZOOLOGIST.

Second Edition. With numerous Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, 125.
BURCHETT (R.}

DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRY. New Edition. 2 4 mo,

cloth, sd.

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE, for the Use of Schools of Art.

Twenty-first Thousand. With Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth, 75.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY : The Course of Construction

of Plane Geometrical Figures. With 137 Diagrams. Eighteenth Edition. Post
8vo, cloth, 55.

CADDY (MRS.}

HOUSEHOLD ORGANIZATION. Crown Svo, 4 s.

CAITHNESS (COUNTESS}

OLD TRUTHS IN A NEW LIGHT: or, an Earnest

Endeavour to Reconcile Material Science with Spiritual Science and Scripture
Demy Svo, 153.

CAMPION (J. S.), late Major, Staff, ist Br. C.N.G., U.S.A.

ON THE FRONTIER. Reminiscences of Wild Sport,

Personal Adventures, and Strange Scenes. With Illustrations. Demy Svo, i6s.
Second Edition.

ON FOOT IN SPAIN. With Illustrations. Demy8vo,i6s.

Second Edition.
CARLYLE (DR.}

DANTE'S DIVINE COMEDY. Literal Prose Transla-

tion of THE INFERNO, with Text and Notes. Second Edition. Post Svo, 145.
CARLYLE (THOMAS} See pages 17 and 18.
CLINTON (R. H.}

A COMPENDIUM OF ENGLISH HISTORY, from the

Earliest Times to A.D. 1872. With Copious Quotations on the Leading Events and
the Constitutional History, together with Appendices. Post Svo, 75. fid.

CRAIK (GEORGE LILLIE}

ENGLISH OF SHAKESPEARE. Illustrated in a Philo-

logical Commentary on his Julius Caesar. Fifth Edition, Post Svo, cloth, 55.

OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE. Ninth Edition. Post Svo, cloth, 25. 6d.
DASENT (SIR G. W.}

JEST AND EARNEST. A Collection of Reviews and

Essays. 2 vols. Post Svo, cloth, ^i is.

TALES FROM THE FJELD. A Second Series of

Popular Tales from the Norse of P. Ch. Asbjornsen. Small Svo, cloth, zos. 6d.

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

DAUBOURG (E.)

INTERIOR ARCHITECTURE. Doors, Vestibules, Stair-

cases, Anterooms, Drawing, Dining, and Bed Rooms, Libraries, Bank and News-
paper Offices, Shop Fronts and Interiors. With detailed Plans, Sections, and
Elevations. A purely practical work, intended for Architects, Joiners, Cabinet
Makers, Marble Workers, Decorators ; as well as for the owners of houses who
wish to have them ornamented by artisans of their own choice. Half-imperial,
cloth, >z las. 6d.

DAVIDSON (ELLIS A.)

PRETTY ARTS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF

LEISURE HOURS. A Book for Ladies. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 6s.

THE AMATEUR HOUSE CARPENTER : a Guide in

Building, Making, and Repairing. With numerous Illustrations, drawn on Wood
by the Author. Royal 8vo, xos. 6d.

D AVI SON (THE MISSES)

TRIQUETI MARBLES IN THE ALBERT MEMORIAL

CHAPEL, WINDSOR. A Series of Photographs. Dedicated by express per-
mission to Her Majesty the Queen. The Work consists of 117 Photographs, with
descriptive Letterpress, mounted on 49 sheets of cardboard, half-imperial. Price

;lO IOS.

DE COIN (COLONEL ROBERT L.)

HISTORY AND CULTIVATION OF COTTON AND

TOBACCO. Post 8vo, cloth, gs.
DE KONINCK (L. L.) and DIETZ (E.)

PRACTICAL MANUAL OF CHEMICAL ASSAYING,

as applied to the Manufacture of Iron from, its Ores, and to Cast Iron, Wrought
Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. Edited, with notes, by ROBERT MALLET.
Post 8vo, cloth, 6s.

DE POMAR (THE DUKE}

FASHION AND PASSION ; or, Life in Mayfair. New

Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

THE HEIR TO THE CROWN. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d.

DE WORMS (BARON HENR Y)

ENGLAND'S POLICY IN THE EAST. An Account of

the Policy and Interest of England in the Eastern Question, as compared with
those of the other European Powers. Sixth Edition. To this Edition has been
added the Tripartite Treaty of 1856, and the Black Sea Treaty of 1871.
Sixth Edition. Demy 8vo, 55.

DE WORMS (BARON HENRY) Continued

THE AUSTRO - HUNGARIAN EMPIRE : A Poli-

tical Sketch of Men and Events since 1868. Revised and Corrected, with an
Additional Chapter on the Present Crisis in the East. With Maps. Second
Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth, 95.
DICKENS (CHARLES) See pages 1922.

DYCE'S COLLECTION. A Catalogue of Printed Books and

Manuscripts bequeathed by the REV. ALEXANDER DYCE to the South Kensington
Museum. 2 vols. Royal 8vo, half-morocco, 145.

A Collection of Paintings, Miniatures, Drawings, Engravings,

Rings, and Miscellaneous Objects, bequeathed by the REV. ALEXANDER DYCE
to the South Kensington Museum. Royal 8vo, half-morocco, 75.
DICKENS (CHARLES) Conducted by

ALL THE YEAR ROUND. First Series. 20 vols.

Royal 8vo, cloth, 55. 6d. each.

New Series. Vols. i to 22. Royal 8vo ? cloth, 55. 6d. each.

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

DIXON (W. HEP WORTH}

BRITISH CYPRUS. Demy Svo, with Frontispiece, 155.
THE HOLY LAND. Fourth Edition. With 2 Steel and

12 Wood Engravings. Post Svo, IDS. 6d.
DRAY SON (LIEUT. -COL. A. W.}

THE CAUSE OF THE SUPPOSED PROPER MOTION

OF THE FIXED STARS, with other Geometrical Problems in Astronomy hitherto
unsolved. Demy Svo, cloth, IDS.

THE CAUSE, DATE, AND DURATION OF THE

LAST GLACIAL EPOCH OF GEOLOGY, with an Investigation of a New
Movement of the Earth. Demy Svo, cloth, IDS.

PRACTICAL MILITARY SURVEYING AND

SKETCHING. Fifth Edition. Post Svo, cloth, 45. 6d.
DYCE (WILLIAM], R.A.

DRAWING-BOOK OF THE GOVERNMENT SCHOOL

OF DESIGN ; OR, ELEMENTARY OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT. Fifty
selected Plates. Folio, sewed, 55. ; mounted, i8s.

Text to Ditto. Sewed, 6d.
ELLIOT (FRANCES}

OLD COURT LIFE IN FRANCE. Third Edition.

Demy Svo, cloth, IDS. 6d.

THE DIARY OF AN IDLE WOMAN IN ITALY.

Second Edition. Post Svo, cloth, 6s.

PICTURES OF OLD ROME. New Edition. Post Svo,

cloth, 6s.
EN GEL (CARL}

A DESCRIPTIVE AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE

OF THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS in the SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM, preceded by an Essay on the History of Musical Instruments. Second
Edition. Royal Svo, half-morocco, 125.

E SCOTT (T. H. S.}

PILLARS OF THE EMPIRE: Short Biographical

Sketches. Demy Svo, IDS. 6d.
EWALD (ALEXANDER CHARLES}, F.S.A.

THE LIFE AND TIMES OF PRINCE CHARLES

STUART, COUNT OF ALBANY, commonly called The Young Pretender.
From the State Papers and other Sources. Author of "The Life and Times of
Algernon Sydney," "The Crown and its Advisers," &c. 2 vols. Demy Svo, i 8s.

SIR ROBERT WALPOLE. A Political Biography,

1676 1745. Demy Svo, i8s.
FALLOUX (COUNT DE}, of the French Academy

AUGUSTIN COCHIN. Translated from the French by

AUGUSTUS CRAVEN. Large crown Svo, 95.
FANE (VIOLET}

DENZIL PLACE : a Story in Verse. Crown Svo, cloth, Ss.
QUEEN OF THE FAIRIES (A Village Story), and other

Poems. By the Author of " Denzil Place." Crown Svo, 6s.

ANTHONY BABINGTON : a Drama. By the Author of

"Denzil Place," "The Queen of the Fairies," &c. Crown Svo, 6s.

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

FEARNLEY (W.), late Principal of the Edinburgh Veterinary College; Aiithor
of " Lectures on the Examination of Horses as to Soundness "

LESSONS IN HORSE JUDGING, AND THE SUM-
MERING OF HUNTERS. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 45.
FITZ-PATRICK (W. J.)

LIFE OF CHARLES LEVER. 2 vols., demy 8vo. 303.

FLEMING (GEORGE], F.R.C.S.

ANIMAL PLAGUES: THEIR HISTORY, NATURE,

AND PREVENTION. 8vo, cloth, 155.

HORSES AND HORSE-SHOEING : their Origin, History,

Uses, and Abuses. 210 Engravings. 8vo, cloth, .1 is.

PRACTICAL HORSE-SHOEING : With 37 Illustrations.

Second Edition, enlarged. 8vo, sewed, 25.

RABIES AND HYDROPHOBIA: THEIR HISTORY,

NATURE, CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND PREVENTION. With 8 Illustra-
tions. 8vo, cloth, 155.

A MANUAL OF VETERINARY SANITARY SCIENCE

AND POLICE. With 33 Illustrations. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 365.
FORSTER (JOHN)

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Uniform with

the "C. D." Edition of his Works. With Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. ys.

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. A New Edition,

uniform with the Library Edition, i vol. Post 8vo, ics. 6d,

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. With Portraits

arid other Illustrations, isth Thousand. 3 vols. 8vo, cloth, 2 25.

A New Edition in 2 vols. Demy 8vo, uniform with the

Illustrated Edition of Dickens's Works. * 8s.

SIR JOHN ELIOT : a Biography. With Portraits. New

and cheaper Edition. 2 vols. Post 8vo, cloth, 143.

OLIVER GOLDSMITH : a Biography. Cheap Edition in

one volume. Small 8vo, cloth, 6s.

WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR : a Biography, 1775-1864.

With Portraits and Vignettes. A New and Revised Edition, in i vol. Demy 8vo, 145.
FORTNUM (C. D. E.)

A DESCRIPTIVE AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE

OF THE BRONZES OF EUROPEAN ORIGIN in the SOUTH KEN-
SINGTON MUSEUM, with an Introductory Notice. Royal 8vo, half-morocco,

A DESCRIPTIVE AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE

OF MAIOLICA, HISPANO-MORESCO, PERSIAN, DAMASCUS, AND
RHODIAN WARES in the SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. Royal
8vo, half-morocco, 2.

FRANCATELLI (C. E.)

ROYAL CONFECTIONER: English and Foreign. A

Practical Treatise. With Coloured Illustrations. 3rd Edition. Post 8vo, cloth, 75. 6d.
GILLMORE (PARKER)

PRAIRIE AND FOREST : a Description of the Game of

North America, with personal Adventures in their pursuit. With numerous Illus-
trations. 8vo, cloth, i2S.

8 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

HALL (SIDNEY}

A TRAVELLING ATLAS OF THE ENGLISH COUN-

TIES. Fifty Maps, coloured. New Edition, including the Railways, corrected
up to the present date. Demy 8vo, in roan tuck, IDS. 6d.

HANCOCK (E. CAMPBELL}

THE AMATEUR POTTERY AND GLASS PAINTER.

With Directions for Gilding, Chasing, Burnishing, Bronzing, and Ground Laying.
Illustrated. Including Fac-similes from the Sketch-Book of N. H. J. WESTLAKE,
F.S.A. With an Appendix. Demy 8vo, 55.

HILL (MISS G.}

THE PLEASURES AND PROFITS OF OUR LITTLE

POULTRY FARM. Small crown 8vo, 3 s.
HITCHMAN (FRANCIS}

THE PUBLIC LIFE OF THE EARL OF BEACONS-
FIELD. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 325.

HOLBEIN

TWELVE HEADS AFTER HOLBEIN. Selected from

Drawings in Her Majesty's Collection at Windsor. Reproduced in Autotype, in
portfolio. 365.

HOVELACQUE (ABEL}

THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE: LINGUISTICS,

PHILOLOGY, AND ETYMOLOGY. With Maps. Large crown 8vo, cloth, 55.
Being the first volume of "The Library of Contemporary Science."
(For list of otJier Works of the same Series, see page 24.)

HUMPHRIS (H. D.}

PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE. Illustrated in a

Series of Examples. Oblong folio, half-bound, and Text 8vo, cloth, ,1 is.
JAGOR (F.}

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, THE. With numerous Illus-

trations and a Map. Demy 8vo, i6s.
JARRY (GENERAL}

NAPIER (MAJ.-GEN. W. C. E.) OUTPOST DUTY.

Translated, with TREATISES ON MILITARY RECONNAISSANCE AND
ON ROAD-MAKING. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 55.

KELLEY, M.D. (E. G.}

THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENCE. The Reality and

Romance of Histories. Demy 8vo, i6s.
KEMPIS (THOMAS A}

OF THE IMITATION OF CHRIST. Four Books.

Beautifully Illustrated Edition. Demy 8vo, i6s.
KLACZKO (M. JULIAN}

TWO CHANCELLORS : PRINCE GORTCHAKOF and

PRINCE BISMARCK. Translated by Mrs. Tail. New and cheaper edition, 6s.
LEFEVRE (ANDRE)

PHILOSOPHY, Historical and Critical. Translated, with

an Introduction, by A. W. KEANE, B.A. Large crown 8vo, 75. 6d.

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

LEGGE (ALFRED OWEN)

PIUS IX. The Story of his Life to the Restoration in

1850, with Glimpses of the National Movement in Italy. Author of "The Growth
of the Temporal Power in Italy." 2 vols. Demy 8vo, ^i 125.

LENNOX (LORD WILLIAM)

FASHION THEN AND NOW. 2 vols. Demy 8vo, 285.

LETOURNEAU (DR. CHARLES)

BIOLOGY. Translated by William MacCall. With Illustra-

tions. Large crown 8vo, 6s.
LUCAS (CAPTAIN)

THE ZULUS AND THE BRITISH FRONTIER.

Demy 8vo, i6s.

CAMP LIFE AND SPORT IN SOUTH AFRICA.

With Episodes in Kaffir Warfare. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 125.
LYTTON (ROBERT, LORD)

POETICAL WORKS COLLECTED EDITION. Com-

plete in 5 vols.

FABLES IN SONG. 2 vols. Fcap. 8vo, 125.

LUCILE. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.

THE WANDERER. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.

POEMS, HISTORICAL AND CHARACTERISTIC. Fcap. 6s.

MALLET (DR. J. W.)

COTTON: THE CHEMICAL, &c., CONDITIONS OF

ITS SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION. Post 8vo, cloth, 7 s. 6d.
MALLET (ROBERT)

GREAT NEAPOLITAN EARTHQUAKE OF 1857.

First Principles of Observational Seismology, as developed in the Report to the
Royal Society of London, of the Expedition made into the Interior of the Kingdom
of Naples, to investigate the circumstances of the great Earthquake of December,
1857. Maps and numerous Illustrations. 2 vols. Royal 8vo, cloth, ^3 33.

MASKELL ( WILLIAM)

A DESCRIPTION OF THE IVORIES, ANCIENT AND

MEDIEVAL, in the SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, with a Preface.
With numerous Photographs and Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, half-morocco, i is.

MAXSE (FITZ.H-)

PRINCE BISMARCK'S LETTERS. Translated from

the German. Second Edition. Small crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.
MAZADE (CHARLES DE)

THE LIFE OF COUNT CAVOUR. Translated from

the French. Demy 8vo, i6s.
McCOAN (J. CARLILE)

OUR NEW PROTECTORATE. TURKEY IN ASIA: ITS

GEOGRAPHY, RACES, RESOURCES, AND GOVERNMENT. With a Map showing
the Existing and Projected Public Works. 2 vols. large crown 8vo, 245.

MELVILLE (G. J. WHYTE-)

BLACK BUT COMELY; or, The Adventures of Jane Lee.

New and cheap Edition, in One Volume. Crown 8vo, 6s.

RIDING RECOLLECTIONS. With Illustrations by

EDGAR GIBERNE. Large crown 8vo. Sixth Edition. 125.

io BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

MELVILLE (G. J. WHYTE-} Continued.

ROSINE. With Illustrations. Demy Svo. Uniform with

" Katerfelto," i6s.

ROY'S WIFE. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown Svo, 6s.
SISTER LOUISE ; or, The Story of a Woman's Repentance.

With Illustrations by MIRIAM KERNS. Demy 8vo, i6s.

KATERFELTO : A Story of Exmoor. With 12 Illustrations

by COLONEL H. HOPE CREALOCKE. Fourth Edition. Large crown, 8s.

{For Cheap Editions of other Works, see page 25.)
MEREDITH (GEORGE}

MODERN LOVE, AND POEMS OF THE ENGLISH

ROADSIDE, with Poems and Ballads. Fcap. Svo, cloth, 6s.
MOLES WORTH (W. NASSAU}

HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE YEAR 1830

TO THE RESIGNATION OF THE GLADSTONE MINISTRY.

A Cheap Edition, carefully revised, and carried up to March, 1874. 3 vols.
crown Svo, i8s.

A School Edition. Post Svo, 75. 6d.

MONTAGU (THE RIGHT HON. LORD ROBERT, M.P.}

FOREIGN POLICY : ENGLAND AND THE EASTERN

QUESTION. Second Edition. Demy Svo, 145.
MORLEY (HENRY}

ENGLISH WRITERS. Vol. I. Part I. THE CELTS

AND ANGLO-SAXONS. With an Introductory Sketch of the Four Periods of
English Literature. Part II. FROM THE CONQUEST TO CHAUCER.
(Making 2 vols.) Svo, cloth, 1 as.

*** Each Part is indexed separately. The Two Parts complete the account of
English Literature during the Period of the Formation of the Language, or of
THE WRITERS BEFORE CHAUCER.

Vol. II. Part I. FROM CHAUCER TO DUNBAR.

Svo, cloth, las.

TABLES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Containing

20 Charts. Second Edition, with Index. Royal 410, cloth, 125.

In Three Parts. Parts I. and II., containing Three Charts, each is. 6d.
Part III., containing 14 Charts, 75. Part III. also kept in Sections, i, 2, and 5,
is. 6d. each; 3 and 4 together, 35. \* The Charts sold separately.

MORLEY (JOHN}

DIDEROT AND THE ENCYCLOPEDISTS. 2 Vols.

demy Svo, 265.

CRITICAL MISCELLANIES. Second Series. France

in the Eighteenth Century Robespierre Turgot Death of Mr. Mill Mr. Mill
on Religion On Popular Culture Macaulay. Demy Svo, cloth, 145.

CRITICAL MISCELLANIES. First Series. Demy Svo, 145.

NEW UNIFORM EDITION.
VOLTAIRE. Large crown Svo, 6s.
ROUSSEAU. Large crown Svo, 95.
CRITICAL MISCELLANIES. First Series. Large crown

8vo, 6s.

CHAPMAN &> HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

MORLE Y (JOHN ) Continued.

CRITICAL MISCELLANIES. Second Series. \
DIDEROT AND THE ENCYCLOPAEDISTS. Large

crown 8vo. \_Nearly ready.

ON COMPROMISE. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 33. 6d.
STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION. Third

Edition. 8vo, cloth, 35.

MORRIS (M. O'CONNOR)

HIBERNICA VENATICA. With Portraits of the Mar-

chioness of Waterford, the Marchioness of Ormonde, Lady Randolph Churchill,
Hon. Mrs. Malone, Miss Persse (of Moyode Castle), Mrs. Stewart Duckett, and
Miss Myra Watson. Large crown 8vo, i8s.

TRIVIATA ; or, Cross Road Chronicles of Passages in

Irish Hunting History during the season of 1875-76. With Illustrations. Large
crown 8vo, i6s.

MURPHY (J. M.)

RAMBLES IN NORTH-WEST AMERICA. With

Frontispiece and Map. i6s.

NEWTON (E. TULLE Y, F.G.S.} Assistant-Naturalist H.M. Geological
Survey

THE TYPICAL PARTS IN THE SKELETONS OF

A CAT, DUCK, AND CODFISH, being a Catalogue with Comparative De-
scriptions arranged in a Tabular Form. Demy 8vo, cloth, 35.

O'CONNELL (MRS. MORGAN JOHN)

CHARLES BIANCONI. A Biography. 1786-1875.

By his Daughter. With Illustrations. Demy 8vo, xos. 6d.
OLIVER (PROFESSOR), F.R.S., &c.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL

ORDERS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, PREPARED FOR THE
SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON. Oblong
8vo, with 109 Plates. Price, plain, i6s. ; coloured, 1 6s.

OZANNE (I. IV.)

THREE YEARS IN ROUMANIA. Large crown 8vo,

75. 6d.
PIERCE ( GILBER T A . )

THE DICKENS DICTIONARY : a Key to the Characters

and Principal Incidents in the Tales of Charles Dickens. With Additions by
WILLIAM A. WHEELER. Large crown 8vo, ios.6d.

PIM (D.) and SEEM AN (B.)

DOTTINGS ON THE ROADSIDE IN PANAMA,

NICARAGUA, AND MOSQUITO. With Plates and Maps. 8vo, cloth, i8s.
POLLEN (J. H.)

ANCIENT AND MODERN FURNITURE AND

WOODWORK IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With an
Introduction, and Illustrated with numerous Coloured Photographs and Woodcuts.
Royal 8vo, half-morocco, ^i is

12 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

POLLOK (LIEUT. -COLON EL]

SPORT IN BRITISH BURMAH, ASSAM, AND THE

CASSYAH AND JYNTIAH HILLS. With Notes of Sport in the Hilly Dis-
tricts of the Northern Division, Madras Presidency. ~ vols. Demy 8vo, with
Illustrations and 2 Maps. 245.

POYNTER (E. y.), R.A.

TEN LECTURES ON ART. Large crown 8vo. 93.

PRINSEP (VAL), A.R.A.

IMPERIAL INDIA. Containing numerous Illustrations

and Maps made during a Tour to the Courts of the Principal Rajahs and Princes
of India. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, 2is.

PUCKETT (R. CAMPBELL} Head-Master of the Bath School of Art

SCIOGRAPHY; or, Radial Projection of Shadows. New

Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.
RANKEN (W. H. L.)

THE DOMINION OF AUSTRALIA. An Account of

its Foundations. Post 8vo, cloth, 123.
REDGRAVE (RICHARD)

MANUAL AND CATECHISM ON COLOUR. 241110,

cloth, qd.
REDGRAVE (SAMUEL)

A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE HIS-
TORICAL COLLECTION OF WATER-COLOUR PAINTINGS IN THE
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. With an Introductory Notice by SAMUEL
REDGRAVE. With numerous Chromo-lithographs and other Illustrations. Published
for the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education.
Royal 8vo, .1 is.

RIDGE (DR. BENJAMIN)

OURSELVES, OUR FOOD, AND OUR PHYSIC.

Twelfth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, is. 6d.
ROBINSON (C. E.)

THE CRUISE OF THE WIDGEON: 700 Miles in

a Ten-Ton Yawl, from Swanage to Hamburg, through the Dutch Canals and the
Zuyder Zee, German Ocean, and the River Elbe. With 4 Illustrations, drawn on
Wood, by the Author. Second Edition. Large crown 8vo, 95.

ROBINSON (J. CO-
ITALIAN SCULPTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

AND PERIOD OF THE REVIVAL OF ART. A descriptive Catalogue of
that Section of the South Kensington Museum comprising an Account of the
Acquisitions from the Gigli and Campana Collections. With 20 Engravings. Royal
8vo, cloth, 75. 6d.

ROBSON (GEORGE)

ELEMENTARY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Illus-

trated by a Design for an Entrance, Lodge, and Gate. 15 Plates. Oblong folio,
sewed, 8s.

ROBSON (REV. J. H., M.A., LL.M.}late Foundation Scholar of Downing
College, Cambridge

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON ALGEBRA.

Poet 8vo, 6s.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

ROCK (THE VERY REV. CANON, D.D.}

ON TEXTILE FABRICS. A Descriptive and Illustrated

Catalogue of the Collection of Church Vestments, Dresses, Silk Stuffs, Needlework,
and Tapestries in the South Kensington Museum. Royal 8vo, half-morocco,
;i us. 6d.

ROWLAND (ARTHUR}

FARMING FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT. DAIRY

FARMING, MANAGEMENT OF COWS, &c. Edited by WILLIAM ABLETT.
Large crown 8vo, 6s.

SALUSBURY (PHILIP H. B.} Lieut, rst Royal Cheshire Light Infantry

TWO MONTHS WITH TCHERNAIEFF IN SERVIA.

Large crown 8vo, qs.
SCHMID (HERMAN} and- STIELER (KARL}

BAVARIAN HIGHLANDS (THE) AND THE SALZ-

KAMMERGUT. Profusely illustrated by G. GLOSS, W T . DIEZ, A. VON RAMBERG,
K. RAUP, J. G. STEFFAN, F. VOLTY, J. WATTEK, and others. With an Account
of the Habits and Manners of the Hunters, Poachers, and Peasantry of these
Districts. Super-royal 410, cloth, ,1 55.

SHIRREFF (EMILY}

A SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF FRIEDRICH

FROBEL, together with a Notice of MADAME VON MARENHOLTZ BULOW'S
Personal Recollections of F. FROBEL. Crown 8vo, sewn, is.

SHUTE (ANNA CLARA}

POSTHUMOUS POEMS. Crown 8vo, cloth, 8s.

SKERTCHLY (J. A.}

DAHOMEY AS IT IS: being a Narrative of Eight

Months' Residence in that Country, with a Full Account of the Notorious Annual
Customs, and the Social and Religious Institutions of the Ffons. With Illustra-
tions. 8vo, cloth, .1 is.

SMITH (GOLD WIN}

THE POLITICAL DESTINY OF CANADA. Crown

8vo, ss.

SMITHARD (MARIAN} First-Class Diplomee from National Training
School, South Kensington

COOKERY FOR THE ARTIZAN AND OTHERS:

being a Selection of over Two Hundred Useful Receipts. Sewed, is.
SPALDING (CAPTAIN}

KHIVA AND TURKESTAN, translated from the Russian,

with Map. Large crown 8vo, 95.
5 T. CLAIR (S. G. B. , Captain late yist Fusiliers} and CHARLES A. BROPHY

TWELVE YEARS' RESIDENCE IN BULGARIA.

Revised Edition. Demy 8vo, 95.
STORY (W. W.}

ROBA DI ROMA. Seventh Edition, with Additions and

Portrait. Post 8vo, cloth, IDS. 6d.

THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN FRAME,

ACCORDING TO A NEW CANON. With Plates. Royal 8vo, cloth, IDS.

CASTLE ST. ANGELO. Uniform with "Roba di Roma."

With Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, xos. 6d.

T 4 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

STREETER (E. W.}

GOLD; OR, LEGAL REGULATIONS FOR THIS

METAL IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. Crown 8vo,
cloth, 35. 6d.

STUART-GLENNIE (JOHN STUART) M.A., Barrister-at-Law

EUROPE AND ASIA : DISCUSSIONS OF THE

EASTERN QUESTION. In Travels through Independent, Turkish, and
Austrian Illyria. With a Politico-Ethnographical Map. Demy 8vo, 145.

TOP1NARD (DR. PAUL}

ANTHROPOLOGY. With a Preface by Professor PAUL

BROCA, Secretary of the Spciete d'Anthropologie, and Translated by ROBERT
J. H. BARTLETT, M.D. With numerous Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, 75. 6d.

TROLLOPE (ANTHONY)

THE CHRONICLES OF BARSETSHIRE. A Uniform

Edition, consisting of 8 vols., large crown 8vo, handsomely printed, each vol.
containing Frontispiece.

THE WARDEN.
BARCHESTER TOWERS.
DR. THORNE.
FRAMLEY PARSONAGE.

THE SMALL HOUSE AT
ALLINGTON. 2 vols.

LAST CHRONICLE OF
BARSET. 2 vols.

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. A Cheap Edition

with Maps. 2 vols. Small 8vo, cloth, 73. 6d.

HUNTING SKETCHES. Cloth, 3 s. 6d.
TRAVELLING SKETCHES. Cloth, 35. 6d.
CLERGYMEN OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

3 s. 6d.

SOUTH AFRICA. 2 vols. Large crown 8vo, with Maps.

Fourth Edition. i IDS.

SOUTH AFRICA, i vol. Crown 8vo, 6s.

(For Cheap Editions of other Works, see page 25.)
VERON (EUGENE}

AESTHETICS. Translated by W. H. ARMSTRONG. Large

crown 8vo, 73. 6d.
W ALMS LEY (HUGH MULLENEUX}

THE LIFE OF SIR JOSHUA WALMSLEY. With

Portrait, demy 8vo, 143.
WESTWOOD (J. O.), M.A., F.L.S., &c. &<:.

A DESCRIPTIVE AND ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE

OF THE FICTILE IVORIES IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM. With an Account of the Continental Collections of Classical and
Mediaeval Ivories. Royal 8vo, half-morocco, ;i 43.

WHEELER (G. P.}

VISIT OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. A Chronicle of

H.R.H.'s Journeyings in India, Ceylon, Spain, and Portugal. Large crown 8vo, iss

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

WHITE (WALTER}

HOLIDAYS IN TYROL: Kufstein, Klobenstein, and

Paneveggio. Large crown 8vo, 145.

MONTH IN YORKSHIRE. Post 8vo. With a Map.

Fifth edition. 45.

LONDONER'S WALK TO THE LAND'S END, AND

A TRIP TO THE SCILLY ISLES. Post 8vo. With 4 Maps. Third Edition. 4 s.

WORNUM (R. N.}~

HOLBEIN (HANS) LIFE. With Portrait and Illustra-

tions. Imperial 8vo, cloth, ;i us. 6d.

THE EPOCHS OF PAINTING. A Biographical and

Critical Essay on Painting and Painters of all Times and many Places. With
numerous Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth, i.

ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENT: THE CHARACTER-
ISTICS OF STYLES. An Introduction to the Study of the History of Ornamental
Art. With many Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Royal Svo, cloth, 8s.

WYON (F. W.}

HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN DURING THE

REIGN OF QUEEN ANNE. 2 vols. Demy Svo, i 125.
YOUNGE (C. D.}

PARALLEL LIVES OF ANCIENT AND MODERN

HEROES. New Edition. i2mo, cloth, 45. 6d.

AUSTRALIAN MEAT : RECIPES FOR COOKING AUS-
TRALIAN MEAT, with Directions for Preparing Sauces suitable for the same.
By a Cook. i2mo, sewed, gd.

OFFICIAL HANDBOOK FOR THE NATIONAL TRAIN-
ING SCHOOL FOR COOKERY. Containing Lessons on Cookery ; forming
the Course of Instruction in the School. With List of Utensils Necessary, and
Lessons on Cleaning Utensils. Compiled by "R. O. C." Large crown Svo-
Third Edition, 8s.

CEYLON : being a General Description of the Island, Historical,

Physical, Statistical. Containing the most Recent Information. With Map. By
an Officer, late of the Ceylon Rifles. 2 vols. Demy Svo, ,1 8s.

COLONIAL EXPERIENCES ; or, Incidents and Reminiscences

of Thirty-four Years in New Zealand. By an Old Colonist. With a Map.
Crown Svo, 8s.

ELEMENTARY; DRAWING-BOOK. Directions for intro-

during the First Steps of Elementary Drawing in Schools and among Workmen.
Small 410, cloth, 43. 6d.

FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. First Series, May, 1865, to Dec.

1866. 6 vols. Cloth, 135. each.

New Series, 1867 to 1872. In Half-yearly Volumes. Cloth,

135. each.

From January, 1873, to June 30, 1879, in Half-yearly

Volumes. Cloth, i6s. each.

1 6 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

HOME LIFE. A Handbook and Elementary Instruction,

containing Practical Suggestions addressed to Managers and Teachers of
Schools, intended to show how the underlying principles of Home Duties or
Domestic Economy may be the basis of National Primary Instruction. Crown
8vo, 35.

PAST DAYS IN INDIA ; or, Sporting Reminiscences of the

Valley of the Saone and the Basin of Singrowlee. By a late CUSTOMS OFFICER,
N.W. Provinces, India. Post 8vo, ics. 6d.

SHOOTING ADVENTURES, CANINE LORE, AND SEA-

FISHING TRIPS. By " WILDFOWLER," " SNAPSHOT." 2 vols. Large crown
8vo, sis.

SHOOTING, YACHTING, AND SEA-FISHING TRIPS,

at Home and on the Continent. Second Series. By "WILDFOWLER," "SNAP-
SHOT." 2 vols., crown 8vo, ,T. is.

SHOOTING AND FISHING TRIPS IN ENGLAND,

FRANCE, ALSACE, BELGIUM, HOLLAND, AND BAVARIA. By "WILD-
FOWLER," " SNAPSHOT." New Edition, with Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, 8s.

UNIVERSAL CATALOGUE OF BOOKS ON ART. Com-

piled for the use of the National Art Library, and the Schools of Art in the United
Kingdom. In 2 vols. Crown 410, half-morocco, z 25.

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE AND ART
HANDBOOKS.

Published for the Committee of Council on Education.

THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS IN SPAIN. By JUAN F. RIANO.

Illustrated. Large crown 8vo, 45.

GLASS. By ALEXANDER NESBITT. Illustrated. Large crown

8vo, 2s. 6d.

GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS' WORK. By JOHN HUNGER-

FORD POLLEN. With numerous Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

TAPESTRY. By ALFRED CHAMPEAUX. With Woodcuts. 25. 6d.
BRONZES. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With numerous

Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 25. 6d.

PLAIN WORDS ABOUT WATER. By A. H. CHURCH, M. A.,

Oxon. Large crown 8vo, sewed, 6d.

ANIMAL PRODUCTS : their Preparation, Commercial "Uses

and .Value. By T. L. SIMMONDS. Large crown 8vo, 75. 6d.

FOOD : A Short Account of the Sources, Constituents, and

Uses of Food ; intended chiefly as a Guide to the Food Collection in the Bethnal
Green Museum. By A. H. CHURCH, M.A., Oxon. Large crown 8vo, 35.

SCIENCE CONFERENCES. Delivered at the South Ken-

sington Museum. Crown 8vo, 2 vols., 6s. each.
VOL. I. Physics and Mechanics.

VOL. II. Chemistry, Biology, Physical Geography, Geology, Mineralogy, and
Meteorology.

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. By ANDREW MURRAY, F.L.S.,

APTERA. With numerous Illustrations. Large crown 8vo, ys. 6d.

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM SCIENCE & ART HANDBOOKS-C*tf*/.

HANDBOOK TO THE SPECIAL LOAN COLLECTION

of Scientific Apparatus. Large crown 8vo, 35.

THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS : Historical Sketches. With 242

Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 75. 6d.

TEXTILE FABRICS. By the Very Rev. DANIEL ROCK, D.D.

With numerous Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 25. 6d.

IVORIES : ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL. By WILLIAM

MASKELL. With numerous Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 25. 6d.

ANCIENT & MODERN FURNITURE & WOODWORK.

By JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN. With numerous Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo,

MAIOLICA. By C. DRURY E. FORTNUM, F.S.A. With

numerous Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 23. 6d.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. By CARL ENGEL. With numerous

Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, zs. 6d.

MANUAL OF DESIGN, compiled from the Writings and

Addresses of RICHARD REDGRAVE, R~.A. By GILBERT R. REDGRAVE. With
Woodcuts. Large crown 8vo, 25. 6d.

PERSIAN ART. By MAJOR R. MURDOCK SMITH, R.E. With

Additional Illustrations. [/ the Press.

FREE EVENING LECTURES. Delivered in connection with

the Special Loan Collection of Scientific Apparatus, 1876. Large crown 8vo, 8s.

CARLYLE'S (THOMAS) WORKS.

LIBRARY EDITION COMPLETE.
Handsomely printed, in 34 vols. Demy 8vo, cloth, 15.

SARTOR RESARTUS. The Life and Opinions of Herr

Teufelsdrockh. With a Portrait, 75. 6d.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. A History. 3 vols., each 9 s.
LIFE OF FREDERICK SCHILLER AND EXAMINATION

OF HIS WORKS. With Supplement of 1872. Portrait and Plates, gs. The Supple-
ment separately, 25.

CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS. With Portrait.

6 vols., each gs.

ON HEROES, HERO WORSHIP, AND THE HEROIC

IN HISTORY. 7 s. 6d.

PAST AND PRESENT. 9 s.

OLIVER CROMWELL'S LETTERS AND SPEECHES. With

Portraits. 5 vols., each 95.

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

CARLYLE'S (THOMAS) WORKS Continued.

LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS. 93.

LIFE OF JOHN STERLING. With Portrait, 93.

HISTORY OF FREDERICK THE SECOND. 10 vols.,

each 95.

TRANSLATIONS FROM THE GERMAN. 3 vols., each 95.

8vo,

GENERAL INDEX TO THE LIBRARY EDITION.

cloth, 6s.

EARLY KINGS OF NORWAY : also AN ESSAY ON THE

PORTRAITS OF JOHN KNOX. Crown 8vo, with Portrait Illustrations, 7 s. 6d.

CHEAP AND UNIFORM EDITION.

In 23 vols., Crown 8vo, cloth, j $s.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION :

A History. 2 vols., 125.

OLIVER CROMWELL'S LET-
TERS AND SPEECHES, with Eluci-
dations, &c. 3 vols., 1 8s.

LIVES OF SCHILLER AND
JOHN STERLING, i vol., 6s.

CRITICAL AND MISCELLA-
NEOUS ESSAYS. 4 vols., 1 4 s.

SARTOR RESARTUS AND
LECTURES ON HEROES, ivol., 6s.

LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS.

i vol., 6s.

CHARTISM AND PAST AND

PRESENT, i vol., 6s.

TRANSLATIONS FROM THE

GERMAN OF MUS^EUS, TIECK,
AND RICHTER. i vol., 6s.

WILHELM MEISTER, by Gothe.

A Translation. 2 vols., 125.

HISTORY OF FRIEDRICH THE

SECOND, called Frederick the Great.
Vols. I. and II., containing Part I.
" Friedrich till his Accession." 143.
Vols. III. and IV., containing Part II.
"The First Two Silesian Wars." 145.
Vols. V., VI., VII., completing the
Work, 1 is.

PEOPLE'S EDITION.

In 3"j vols., small Crown 8vo. Price 2s. each vol., bound in cloth; or in sets of
3J vols. in 18, cloth gilt, for 3 145.

SARTOR RESARTUS.
FRENCH REVOLUTION. 3 vols.
LIFE OF JOHN STERLING.

OLIVER CROMWELL'S LET-
TERS AND SPEECHES. 5 vols.

ON HEROES AND HERO

WORSHIP.
PAST AND PRESENT.

CRITICAL AND MISCELLA-
NEOUS ESSAYS. 7 vols.

LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS.

LIFE OF SCHILLER.

FREDERICK THE GREAT. 10

vols.

WILHELM MEISTER. 3 vols.

TRANSLATIONS FROM MU-
S/EUS, TIECK, AND RICHTER.

2 Vols.

THE EARLY KINGS OF NOR-
WAY ; also an Essay on the Portraits
of John Knox, with Illustrations. Small
crown 8vo. Bound up with the
Index and uniform with the "People's
Edition."

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 19

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS.

ORIGINAL KDITIONS.

In Demy 8vo.

THE MYSTERY OF EDWIN DROOD. With Illustrations

by S. L. Fildes, and a Portrait engraved by Baker. Cloth, 75. 6d.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With Forty Illustrations by Marcus

Stone. Cloth, ^i is.

THE PICKWICK PAPERS. With Forty-three Illustrations

by Seymour and Phiz. Cloth, i is.

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, i is.

SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With Forty Illustrations by George

Cruikshank. Cloth, i is.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, i is.

DOMBEY AND SON. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, i is.

DAVID COPPERFIELD. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz.

Cloth, ;i is.

BLEAK HOUSE. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth,

1 is.

LITTLE DORRIT. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth,
ji is.

THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With Seventy-nve Illus-

trations by George Cattermole and H. K. Browne. A New Edition. Uniform with
- the other volumes, i is.

BARNABY RUDGE : a Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty. With

Seventy-eight Illustrations by G. Cattermole and H. K. Browne. Uniform with the
other volumes, i is.

CHRISTMAS BOOKS : Containing The Christmas Carol ;

The Cricket on the Hearth ; The Chimes ; The Battle of Life ; The Haunted House.
With aU the original Illustrations. Cloth, 125.

OLIVER TWIST and TALE OF TWO CITIES. In one

volume. Cloth, \ is.

OLIVER TWIST. Separately. With Twenty-four Illustrations

by George Cruikshank.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES. Separately. With Sixteen Illus-

trations by Phiz. Cloth, gs.

V* The remainder of Dickens' s Works were not originally printed in Demy 8vo.

B 2

20 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS Continued.

LIBRARY EDITION.

In Post 8vo. With the Original Illustrations, jo vols., cloth, 12.

s. d.

PICKWICK PAPERS 43 Illustrns. , 2 vols. .. 16 o

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 39 2 vols. .. 16 o

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 40 2 vols. .. 16 o

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES 36 2 vols. .. 16 o

BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES 36 2 vols. .. 16 o

BLEAK HOUSE 40 2 vols. . . 16 o

LITTLE DORRIT 40 2 vols. .. 16 o

DOMBEY AND SON 38 2 vols. .. 16 o

DAVID COPPERFIELD 38 2 vols. .. 16 o

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 40 2 vols. .. 16 o

SKETCHES BY " BOZ " 39 i vol. . . 80

OLIVER TWIST 24 i vol. . . 80

CHRISTMAS BOOKS 17 ivol. .. So

A TALE OF TWO CITIES 16 i vol. .. 80

GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 i vol. . . 80

PICTURES FROM ITALY and AMERICAN NOTES 8 i vol. . . 80

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 8 i vol. . . 80

CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 8 i vol. . . 80

EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES 12 i vol. .. 80

CHRISTMAS STORIES from "Household Words," &c.. 14 i vol. .. 80

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By JOHN FORSTER. A New Edition. With

Illustrations. Uniform with the Library Edition, post 8vo, of his Works. In one vol. los. 6d.

THE " CHARLES DICKENS " EDITION.

In Crown 8vo. In 21 vols., cloth, with Ilhistrations, 3 qs. 6d.

s.d.

PICKWICK PAPERS 8 Illustrations .. .. 36

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 8 .... 3 6

DOMBEY AND SON 8 .. ., 36

NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 8 .. .. 36

DAVID COPPERFIELD 8 .... 3 6

BLEAK HOUSE 8 .... 3 6

LITTLE DORRIT 8 .... 3 6

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 8 .. .. 36

BARNABY RUDGE> 8 .... 3 6

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP 8 .... 3 6

A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 4 .... 3 6

EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES .. ..8 .. .. 36

CHRISTMAS STORIES, from " Household Words " ..8 .... 3 6

TALE OF TWO CITIES 8 ....30

SKETCHES BY "BOZ" 8 ....30

AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES ..8 .. .. 30

CHRISTMAS BOOKS 8 ....30

OLIVER TWIST 8 ....30

GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 .. .. 30

HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM ITALY ..8 .... 3 o

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 4 ....30

THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Uniform with this Edition, with Numerous
Illustrations. 2 vols. 35, 6d. each.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 21

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS Continued.

THE ILLUSTRATED LIBRARY EDITION.

Complete in 30 Volumes. Demy 8vo t los. each; or set, ^/J.

This Edition is printed on a finer paper and in a larger type than has been
employed in any previous edition. The type has been cast especially for it, and
the page is of a size to admit of the introduction of all the original illustrations.

No such attractive issue has been made of the writings of Mr. Dickens,
which, various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands
of an ever widely-increasing popularity, have never yet been worthily presented
in a really handsome library form.

The collection comprises all the minor writings it was Mr. Dickens's wish
to preserve.

SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With 40 Illustrations by George Cruikshank.
PICKWICK PAPERS. 2 vols. With 42 Illustrations by Phiz.
OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshank.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.

OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. With Illustrations by
Cattermole, &c.

BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES. 2 vols. With Illustrations by Cattermole, &c.

MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.

AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM ITALY, i vol. With 8 Illustrations.

DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.

DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.

BLEAK HOUSE. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.

LITTLE DORRIT. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Phiz.

A TALE OF TWO CITIES. With 16 Illustrations by Phiz.

THE UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

GREAT EXPECTATIONS. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. With 40 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 17 Illustrations by Sir Edwin Landseer, R.A., Maclise,
R.A., &c. &c.

HISTORY OF ENGLAND. With 8 Illustrations by Marcus Stone.

CHRISTMAS STORIES. (From " Household Words " and "All the Year Round.") With
14 Illustrations.

EDWIN DROOD AND OTHER STORIES. With 12 Illustrations by S. L. Fildes.

22 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS Continued

HOUSEHOLD EDITION.

In Crown 4to vols,
21 Volumes completed.

OLIVER TWIST, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 25. 6d. ; paper, is. gd.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 4 s. ; paper, 3 s.
DAVID COPPERFIELD, with 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.
BLEAK HOUSE, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.
LITTLE DORRIT, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.
PICKWICK PAPERS, with 56 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.
BARNABY RUDGE, with 46 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.
A TALE OF TWO CITIES, with 25 Illustrations, cloth, 25. 6d. ; paper, is. gd.
OUR MUTUAL FRIEND, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 3 s.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 33.
GREAT EXPECTATIONS, with 26 Illustrations, cloth, as. 6<L ; paper, is. 9 d.
OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 39 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.
SKETCHES BY " BOZ," with 36 Illustrations, cloth, 25. 6d. ; paper, is. gd.
HARD TIMES, with 20 Illustrations, cloth, 25. ; paper, is. 6d.
DOMBEY AND SON, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.

UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER, with 26 Illustrations, cloth, as. 6d.; paper, is. gd.
CHRISTMAS BOOKS, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 25. 6d. ; sewed, is. gd.
THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, with 15 Illustrations, cloth, 25. 6d. ; paper, is. gd.

AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM ITALY, with 18 New Illustrations, cloth,
2S. 6d. ; paper, is. gd.

EDWIN DROOD ; REPRINTED PIECES ; and other STORIES, with 30 Illustrations,
cloth, 45. ; paper, 35.

CHRISTMAS STORIES, with 23 Illustrations, cloth, 45. ; paper 35.
THE LIFE OF DICKENS. By JOHN FORSTER. Now p-ublishing.

Messrs. CHAPMAN & HALL trust that by this Edition they will be enabled
to place the works of the most popular British Author of the present day in
the hands of all English readers.

PEOPLE'S EDITION.

PICKWICK PAPERS. In Boards. Illustrated, as.
SKETCHES BY BOZ. In Boards. Illustrated. 25.
OLIVER TWIST. In Boards. Illustrated. 25.
NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. In Boards. Illustrated, as.
MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. In Boards. Illustrated. 25.
DOMBEY AND SON. In Boards. Illustrated, as.

MR. DICKENS'S READINGS.

Fcap. 8vo, sewed.

CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE, is. i STORY OF LITTLE DOMBEY. is.
CRICKET ON THE HEARTH. POOR TRAVELLER, BOOTS AT THE

CHIMES : A GOBLIN STORY.

HOLLY-TREE INN, and MRS.
GAMP. is.

A CHRISTMAS CAROL, with the Original Coloured Plates ;

being a reprint of the Original Edition. Small 8vo, red cloth, gilt edges, 55.

CHAPMAN <& HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 23

THE LIBRARY

CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE.

Some degree of truth has been admitted in the charge not unfrequently
brought against the English, that they are assiduous rather than solid readers.
They give themselves too much to the lighter forms of literature. Technical
Science is almost exclusively restricted to its professed votaries, and, but for
some of the Quarterlies and Monthlies, very little solid matter would come
within the reach of the general public.

But the circulation enjoyed by many of these very periodicals, and the
increase of the scientific journals, may be taken for sufficient proof that a taste
for more serious subjects of study is now growing. Indeed there is good reason
to believe that if strictly scientific subjects are not more universally cultivated,
it is mainly because they are not rendered more accessible to the people. Such
themes are treated either too elaborately, or in too forbidding a style, or else
brought out in too costly a form to be easily available to all classes.

With the view of remedying this manifold and increasing inconvenience,
we are glad to be able to take advantage of a comprehensive project recently
set on foot in France, emphatically the land of Popular Science. The well-
known publishers MM. Reinwald and Co., have made satisfactory arrange-
ments with some of the leading savants of that country to supply an exhaustive
series of works on each and all of the sciences of the day, treated in a style at
once lucid, popular, and strictly methodic.

The names of MM. P. Broca, Secretary of the Societe d'Anthropologie ;
Ch. Martins, Montpellier University ; C. Vogt, University of Geneva ; G. de
Mortillet, Museum of Saint Germain; A. Guillemin, author of "Ciel"and
"Phenomenes de la Physique;" A. Hovelacque, editor of the "Revue de
Linguistique ; " Dr. Dally, Dr. Letourneau, and many others, whose co-
operation has already been secured, are a guarantee that their respective
subjects will receive thorough treatment, and will in all cases be written up to
the very latest discoveries, and kept in every respect fully abreast of the times.
We have, on our part, been fortunate in making such further arrangements
with some of the best writers and recognised authorities here, as will enable us
to present the series in a thoroughly English dress to the reading public of this
country. In so doing we feel convinced that we are taking the best means of
supplying a want that has long been deeply felt.

[OVER.

BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE Continued

The volumes in actual course of execution, or contemplated, will embrace
such subjects as :

SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. {.Published, j PHYSICAL AND COMMERCIAL
ii

BIOLOGY.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

.ESTHETICS.

PHILOSOPHY.

COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY.

ASTRONOMY.

PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY.

ETHNOGRAPHY.

GEOLOGY.

HYGIENE.

POLITICAL ECONOMY.

PHYSICAL AND
GEOGRAPHY.
ARCHITECTURE.
CHEMISTRY.
EDUCATION.
GENERAL ANATOMY.
ZOOLOGY.
BOTANY.
METEOROLOGY.
HISTORY.
FINANCE.
MECHANICS.
STATISTICS, &c. &c.

All the volumes, while complete and so far independent in themselves, will
be of uniform appearance, slightly varying, according to the nature of the
subject, in bulk and in price.

When finished they will form a Complete Collection of Standard Works of
Reference on all the physical and mental sciences, thus fully justifying the
general title chosen for the series "LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE."

LEVER'S (CHARLES) WORKS.

THE ORIGINAL EDITION with THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

In 1 7 vols. Demy 8va. Cloth, 6s. each.

CHEAP EDITION.

Fancy boards, 2s. 6d.

CHARLES O'MALLEY.
TOM BURKE.

THE KNIGHT OF GWYNNE.
MARTINS OF CROMARTIN.

THE DALTONS.
ROLAND CASHEL.
DAVENPORT DUNN.
DODD FAMILY.

Fancy boards, 2s.

THE O'DONOGHUE.
FORTUNES OF GLENCORE.
HARRY LORREQUER.
ONE OF THEM.
A DAY'S RIDE.
JACK HINTON.
BARRINGTON.
TONY BUTLER.
MAURICE TIERNAY.
SIR BROOKE FOSBROOKE.
BRAMLEIGHS OF BISHOFS
FOLLY.

LORD KILGOBBIN.

LUTTRELL OF ARRAN.

RENT IN THE CLOUD and ST.

PATRICK'S EVE.
CON CREGAN.
ARTHUR O'LEARY.
THAT BOY OF NORCOTT'S.
CORNELIUS O'DOWD.
SIR JASPER CAREW.
NUTS AND NUT-CRACKERS

Also in sets, 27 vols., cloth, for

CHAPMAN dr HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

TROLLOPE'S (ANTHONY) WORKS.

CHEAP EDITION.

Boards, 2s. 6d. ; cloth, 3^. 6d.

THE PRIME MINISTER.
PHINEAS FINN.
ORLEY FARM.
CAN YOU FORGIVE HER?

VICAR OF BULLHAMPTON.
RALPH THE HEIR.
THE BERTRAMS.
KELLYS AND O'KELLYS.
McDERMOT OF BALLYCLORAN.
CASTLE RICHMOND.
BELTON ESTATE.
MISS MACKENSIE.
LADY ANNA.

PHINEAS REDUX.

HE KNEW HE WAS RIGHT.

EUSTACE DIAMONDS.

Boards, 2s. ; doth, 3-r.

HARRY HOTSPUR.

RACHEL RAY.

TALES OF ALL COUNTRIES

MARY GRESLEY.

LOTTA SCHMIDT.

LA VENDEE.

DOCTOR THORNE

IS HE POPENJOY?

WHYTE-MELVILLE'S WORKS.

CHEAP EDITION.
Crown Svff, fancy boards, 2s. each, or 2s. >d. in doth.

UNCLE JOHN.

THE WHITE ROSE.

CERISE. A Tale of the Last Century.

BROOKES OF BRIDLEMERE.

"BONES AND I;" or, The Skeleton at Home.

" M., OR N." Similia Similibus Curantur.

CONTRABAND; or, A Losing Hazard.

MARKET HARBOROUGH; or, How Mr. Sawyer went to

the Shires.

SARCHEDON. A Legend of the Great Queen.

SONGS AND VERSES.

SATANELLA. A Story of Punchestown.

THE TRUE CROSS. A Legend of the Church.

KATERFELTO. A Story of Exmoor.

SISTER LOUISE or, A Story of a Woman's Repentance.

ROSINE.

26 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

CHAPMAN & HALL'S

List of Boohs, Drawing Examples, Diagrams, Models,
Instruments, &c.

INCLUDING

THOSE ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE
AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE
USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES.

BARTLEY (G. C. T.)

CATALOGUE OF MODERN WORKS ON SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY. Post 8vo, sewed, is.
BENSON ( IV.)

PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR.

Small 410, cloth, 155.

MANUAL OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Coloured

Frontispiece and Illustrations. i2mo, cloth, 25. 6d.
BRADLEY (THOMAS] of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich

ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. In Two

Parts, with 60 Plates. Oblong folio, half-bound, each part i6s.

Selections (from the above) of 20 Plates, for the use of the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich. Oblong folio, half-bound, i6s.

BUR CHE TT

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. With Illustrations. Post 8vo,

cloth, 75.

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Post 8vo, cloth, 53.
DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRY. Third Edition. 24mo,

sewed, $d.
CARROLL (JOHN]

FREEHAND DRAWING LESSONS FOR THE BLACK

BOARD. 6s.
CUBLEY (W. H.}

A SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY DRAWING. With

Illustrations and Examples. Imperial 4to, sewed, 8s.
D AVI SON (ELLIS A.}

DRAWING FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Post

8vo, cloth, 35.

MODEL DRAWING. i2mo, cloth, 33.

THE AMATEUR HOUSE CARPENTER: A Guide in

Building, Making, and Repairing. With numerous Illustrations, drawn on Wood
by the Author. Demy 8vo, ics. 6d.

DELAMOTTE (P. H.}

PROGRESSIVE DRAWING-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS.

izmo, 35. 6d.
DICK'S EE (J. R.}

SCHOOL PERSPECTIVE. 8vo, cloth, 55.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 27

DYCE

DRAWING-BOOK OF THE GOVERNMENT SCHOOL

OF DESIGN : ELEMENTARY OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT. 50 Plates.
Small folio, sewed, 55. ; mounted, i8s.

INTRODUCTION TO DITTO. Fcap. 8vo, 6d.

FOSTER (VERE}

DRAWING-BOOKS :

(a) Forty-two Numbers, at id. each.

(l>) Forty-six Numbers, at 3d. each. The set b includes the subjects in a.

DRAWING-CARDS :

Freehand Drawing : First Grade, Sets L, II., III., price is. each ; in cloth cases,

is. 6d. each.
Second Grade, Set I., price 25. ; in cloth case, 35.

HEN SLOW (PROFESSOR}

ILLUSTRATIONS TO BE EMPLOYED IN THE

PRACTICAL LESSONS ON BOTANY. Prepared for South Kensington
Museum. Post 8vo, sewed, 6d.

JACOBSTHAL (E.}

GRAMMATIK DER ORNAMENTE, in 7 Parts of 20

Plates each. Price, unmounted, ,3 133. 6d. ; mounted on cardboard, .11 45.
The Parts can be had separately.

JE WITT

HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. iSmo,

cloth, is. 6d.
KENNEDY (JOHN}

FIRST GRADE PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 121110, 6d.
FREEHAND DRAWING-BOOK. i6mo, cloth, is. 6d.

LINDLEY (JOHN}

SYMMETRY OF VEGETATION : Principles to be

observed in the delineation of Plants. i2mo, sewed, is.
MARSHALL

HUMAN BODY. Text and Plates reduced from the large

Diagrams. 2 vols., cloth, 1 is.
NEWTON (E, TULLE Y, F.G.S.}

THE TYPICAL PARTS IN THE SKELETONS OF A

CAT, DUCK, AND CODFISH, being a Catalogue with Comparative De-
scriptions arranged in a Tabular Form. Demy 8vo, 35.

OLIVER (PROFESSOR}

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

109 Plates. Oblong 8vo, cloth. Plain, i6s. ; coloured, ,1 6&.
PUCKETT (R. CAMPBELL}

SCIOGRAPHY, OR RADIAL PROJECTION OF

SHADOWS. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.
REDGRAVE

MANUAL AND CATECHISM ON COLOUR. Fifth

Edition. 241110, sewed, gd.
ROBSON (GEORGE}

ELEMENTARY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Oblong

folio, sewed, 8s.
WALLIS (GEORGE}

DRAWING-BOOK. Oblong, sewed, 33. 6d.; mounted, 8s.

28 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

WORNUM (R. N.}

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLES: An Intro-

duction to the Study of the History of Ornamental Art. Royal 8vo, cloth, 8s.

DIRECTIONS FOR INTRODUCING ELEMENTARY

DRAWING IN SCHOOLS AND AMONG WORKMEN. Published at the
Request of the Society of Arts. Small 410, cloth, 45. 6d.

DRAWING FOR YOUNG CHILDREN. Containing 150

Copies. i6mo, cloth, 35. 6d.

EDUCATIONAL DIVISION OF SOUTH KENSINGTON

MUSEUM : CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE OF. Ninth Edition. 8vo, 7 s.

ELEMENTARY DRAWING COPY-BOOKS, for the use of

Children from four years old and upwards, in Schools and Families. Compiled by
a Student certificated by the Science and Art Department as an Art Teacher.
Seven Books in 410, sewed :

Book I. Letters, 8d.
II. Ditto, 8d.

,, III. Geometrical and Ornamental
Forms, 8d.

Book IV. Objects, 8d.

V. Leaves, 8d.

VI. Birds, Animals, &c., 8d.

VII. Leaves, Flowers, and Sprays, 8d.

Or in Sets of Seven Books, 45. 6d.

ENGINEER AND MACHINIST DRAWING-BOOK, 16 Parts,

71 Plates. Folio, i 125. ; mounted, 3 45.

PRINCIPLES OF DECORATIVE ART. Folio, sewed, is.
DIAGRAM OF THE COLOURS OF THE SPECTRUM,

with Explanatory Letterpress, on roller, zos. 6d.

COPIES FOR OUTLINE DRAWING:

DYCE'S ELEMENTARY OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT, 50 Selected Plates,
mounted back and front, i8s.; unmounted, sewed, 55.

WEITBRICHT'S OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT, reproduced by Herman, 12
Plates, mounted back and front, 8s. 6d.; unmounted, 25.

MORGHEN'S OUTLINES OF THE HUMAN FIGURE reproduced by Herman,
20 Plates, mounted back and front, 155.; unmounted, 35. 4d.

ONE SET OF FOUR PLATES, Outlines of Tarsia, from Gruner, mounted, 35. 6d.;
unmounted, 7 d.

ALBERTOLLI'S FOLIAGE, one set of Four Plates, mounted, 35. 6d.; unmounted, $d.

OUTLINE OF TRAJAN FRIEZE, mounted, is.

WALLIS'S DRAWING-BOOK, mounted, 8s.; unmounted, 35. 6d.

OUTLINE DRAWINGS OF FLOWERS, Eight Sheets, mounted, 3 s. 6d.; un-
mounted, 8d.

COPIES FOR SHADED DRAWING:

COURSE OF DESIGN. By CH. BARGUE (French), 20 Selected Sheets, n at 23., and

9 at 35. each. 2 gs.

RENAISSANCE ROSETTE, mounted, gd.
SHADED ORNAMENT, mounted, is. ad.
PART OF A PILASTER FROM THE ALTAR OF ST. BIAGIO AT PISA,

mounted, 25.

GOTHIC PATERA, mounted, is.

RENAISSANCE SCROLL, Tomb in S. M. Dei Frari, Venice, mounted, is. 4 d.
MOULDING OF SCULPTURED FOLIAGE, decorated, mounted, is. 4 d.
ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES. By J. B. TRIPON. 10 Plates, 1.

CHAPMAN 6- HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

COPIES FOR SHADED DRAWING Continued

MECHANICAL STUDIES. By J. B. TRIPON. 155. per dozen.

FOLIATED SCROLL FROM THE VATICAN, unmounted, sd.; mounted, is. 3d.

TWELVE HEADS after Holbein, selected from his drawings in Her Majesty's

Collection at Windsor. Reproduced in Autotype. Half-imperial, 365.
LESSONS IN SEPIA, gs. per dozen, or is. each.
SMALL SEPIA DRAWING COPIES, gs. per dozen, or is. each.

COLOURED EXAMPLES:

A SMALL DIAGRAM OF COLOUR, mounted, is. 6d.; unmounted, gd.

TWO PLATES OF ELEMENTARY DESIGN, unmounted, is.; mounted, 3 s. gd.

PETUNIA, mounted, 33. gd. ; unmounted, 23. gd.

PELARGONIUM, mounted, 35. gd.; unmounted, 23. gd.

CAMELLIA, mounted, 33. gd. ; unmounted, 23. gd.

NASTURTIUM, mounted, 35. gd.; unmounted, 2s. gd.

OLEANDER, mounted, 35. gd.; unmounted, 23. gd.

TORRENIA ASIATICA. Mounted, 3 s. gd.; unmounted, 25. gd.

PYNE'S LANDSCAPES IN CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY (6), each, mounted,

js. 6d. ; or the set, 2 55.
COTMAN'S PENCIL LANDSCAPES (set of g), mounted, 153.

SEPIA DRAWINGS (set of 5), mounted, i.
ALLONGE'S LANDSCAPES IN CHARCOAL (6), at 4 s. each, or the set, i 4 s.

4017. BOUQUET OF FLOWERS, LARGE ROSES, &c., 4 s. 6d.

4018. , ROSES AND HEARTSEASE, 33. 6d.

POPPIES, &c., 33. 6d.

CHRYSANTHEMUMS, 45. 6d.

LARGE CAMELLIAS, 45. 6d.

LILAC AND GERANIUM, 35. 6d.

CAMELLIA AND ROSE, 3 s. 6d.

LARGE DAHLIAS, 43. 6d.

ROSES AND LILIES, 45. 6d.

ROSES AND SWEET PEAS, 33. 6d.

LARGE ROSES AND HEARTSEASE, 43.

4 i8o. , LARGE BOUQUET OF LILAC, 6s. 6d.

4190. , DAHLIAS AND FUCHSIAS, 6s. 6d.

4020.

4039-
4040.
4077.
4080.
4082.
4083.
4090.

SOLID MODELS, &c. :

*Box of Models, i 45.

A Stand with a universal joint, to show the solid models, &c., i i8s.
*One wire quadrangle, with a circle and cross within it, and one straight wire. One solid
cube. One skeleton wire cube. One sphere. One cone. One cylinder. One
hexagonal prism. 2 25.
Skeleton cube in wood, 35. 6d.
i8-inch skeleton cube in wood, 125
*Three objects ofjform in Pottery :
Indian Jar, )
Celadon Jar, > i8s. 6d.
Bottle, J

*Five selected Vases in Majolica Ware, 2 us.
*Three selected Vases in Earthenware, i8s.

Imperial Deal Frames, glazed, without sunk rings, IDS. each.
*Davidson's Smaller Solid Models, in Box, 2, containing

2 Square Slabs.

9 Oblong Blocks (steps).

2 Cubes.

4 Square Blocks.

Octagon Prism.
Cylinder.
Cone.
Jointed Cross.

Triangular Prism.
Pyramid, Equilateral.
Pyramid, Isosceles.
Square Block.

* Davidson's Advanced Drawing Models, g. The following is a brief description
of the models : An Obelisk composed of 2 Octagonal Slabs, 26 and 20 inches
across, and each 3 inches high ; i Cube, 12 inches edge ; i Monolith (forming

* Models, &c., entered as sets, cannot be supplied singly.

30 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY

SOLID MODELS, be. Continued

the body of the obelisk), 3 feet high ; i Pyramid, 6 inches base ; the complete
object is thus nearly 5 feet high. A Market Cross composed of 3 Slabs, 24, 18,
and 12 inches across, and each 3 inches high ; i Upright, 3 feet high ; 2 Cross Arms,
united by mortise and tenon joints ; complete height, 3 feet 9 inches. A Step-
Ladder, 23 inches high. A Kitchen Table, 14% inches high. A Chair to corre-
spond. A Four-legged Stool, with projecting top and cross rails, height 14 inches.
A Tub, with handles and projecting hoops, and the divisions between the staves
plainly marked. A strong Trestle, 18 inches high. A Hollow Cylinder, 9 inches
in diameter, and 12 inches long, divided lengthwise. A Hollow Sphere, 9 inches
in diameter, divided into semi-spheres, one of which is again divided into quarters ;
the semi-sphere, when placed on the cylinder, gives the form and principles of
shading a Dome, whilst one of the quarters placed on half the cylinder forms a
Niche.

^Davidson's Apparatus for Teaching Practical Geometry (22 models), .5.

*Binn's Models for illustrating the elementary principles of orthographic projection as

applied to mechanical drawing, in box, i IDS.

Miller's Class Drawing Models. These Models are particularly adapted for teaching
large classes ; the stand is very strong, and the universal joint will hold the
Models in any position. Wood Models^. Square Prism, 12 inches side, 18 inches
high ; Hexagonal Prism, 14 inches side, 18 inches high ;. Cube, 14 inches side ;
Cylinder, 13 inches diameter, 16 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 14 inches
diameter,_ 22^ inches side ; Square Pyramid, 14 inches side, 22^ inches side ;

14 inches side, 20 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 16 inches diameter, 21 inches
high ; Cylinder, 14 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 18 inches
diameter, 24 inches high ; Square Pyramid, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Cone,
17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches side ; Intersecting Circles,
19 inches side ; Plain Circle, 19 inches side ; Plain Square, 19 inches side. Table,
27 inches by 21^ inches. Stand. The Set complete, 14 135.
Vulcanite set square, 53.
Large compasses with chalk -holder, 55.
*Slip, two set squares and T square, 55.

*Parkes's case of instruments, containing 6-inch compasses with pen and pencil leg, 55.
*Prize instrument case, with 6-inch compasses, pen and pencil leg, 2 small compasses,

pen and scale, i8s.

6-inch compasses with shifting pen and point, 45. 6d.
Small compass in case, is.

LARGE DIAGRAMS.

ASTRONOMICAL :

TWELVE SHEETS. By JOHN DREW, Ph. Dr., F.R.S.A. Prepared for the Com-
mittee of Council on Education. Sheets, 2. 8s. ; on rollers and varnished, .4 45.

BOTANICAL :

NINE SHEETS. Illustrating a Practical Method of Teaching Botany. By Professor
HENSLOW, F.L.S. 2 ; on rollers, and varnished, 3 35.

CLASS. DIVISION. SECTION. DIAGRAM.

Thalamifloral .. .. i

Dicotyledon .. .

/ \ Incomplete . . . . 5

V Gymnospermous .......... 6

( Petaloid . . . . f Superior . . . . 7

Monocotyledons ..-( (Inferior.. ... ., "-.i. 8

( Glumaceous ............ 9

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL ORDERS OF THE
VEGETABLE KINGDOM. By Professor OLIVER, F.R.S., F.L.S. 70 Imperial
sheets, containing examples of dried Plants, representing the different Orders.
5 55. the set.

Catalogue and Index, is.

* Models, &c., entered as sets, cannot be supplied singly.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:

TEN SHEETS. By WILLIAM J. GLENNY, Professor of Drawing, King's College.

In sets, ;i is.
LAXTON'S EXAMPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN TWO

DIVISIONS, containing 32 Imperial Plates, 2os.
BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, n Sheets.

as. gd. Mounted, 55. 6d.

GEOLOGICAL :

DIAGRAM OF BRITISH STRATA. By H. W. BRISTOW, F.R.S., F.G.S. A
Sheet, 45.; on roller and varnished, 75. 6d.

MECHANICAL :

DIAGRAMS OF THE MECHANICAL POWERS, AND THEIR APPLI-
CATIONS IN MACHINERY AND THE ARTS GENERALLY. By
DR. JOHN ANDERSON.

8 Diagrams, highly coloured on stout paper, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches.
Sheets i per set ; mounted on rollers, 2.

DIAGRAMS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By Professor GOODEVE and Professor

SHELLEY. Stout paper, 40 inches by 27 inches, highly coloured.

Sets of 41 Diagrams (52% Sheets), 6 6s.; varnished and mounted on rollers,

11 us.
MACHINE DETAILS. By Professor UNVVIN. 16 Coloured Diagrams. Sheets,

2 2S. ; mounted on rollers and varnished, 3 145.
SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MACHINES, OF IRON AND WOOD (French).

BY STANISLAS PETTIT. 60 Sheets, ^3 55.; 135. per dozen.
BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION. 50 Sheets, us.

Mounted, 255.
LESSONS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. By STANISLAS PETTIT. is. per

dozen ; also larger Sheets, more advanced copies, 25. per dozen.
LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING. By STANISLAS PETTIT. is. per

dozen ; also larger Sheets, more advanced copies, 2S. per dozen.

PHYSIOLOGICAL :

ELEVEN SHEETS. Illustrating Human Physiology, Life size and Coloured from
Nature. Prepared under the direction of JOHN MARSHALL, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., &c.
Each Sheet, 125. 6d. On canvas and rollers, varnished, i is.

1. THE SKELETON AND LIGAMENTS.

2. THE MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND ANIMAL MECHANICS.

3. THE VISCERA IN POSITION.-THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS.

4 . THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.

5. THE LYMPHATICS OR ABSORBENTS.
6 THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION.

7. THE BRAIN AND NERVES. THE ORGANS OF THE VOICE.

8. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES.

9. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES.

10. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS.

11. 'THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS.

HUMAN BODY, LIFE SIZE. By JOHN MARSHALL, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Each
Sheet, I2S. 6d. ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, i is. Explanatory Key, is.

1. THE SKELETON, Front View.

2. THE MUSCLES, Front View.

3. THE SKELETON, Back View.

4 . THE MUSCLES, Back View.

5. THE SKELETON, Side View.

6. THE MUSCLES, Side View.

7. THE FEMALE SKELETON,

Front View.

ZOOLOGICAL :

TEN SHEETS. Illustrating the Classification of Animals. By ROBERT PATTEI*SON,

2 ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, 3 IDS.
The same, reduced in size on Royal paper, in 9 Sheets, uncoloured, 125.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW.

Kdited by JOHN MORLEY,

HTHE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published on the ist of

every month (the issue on the I5th being suspended), and a Volume is
completed every Six Months.

The following are among the Contributors :

SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK.
PROFESSOR BAIN.
PROFESSOR BEESLY.
DR. BRIDGES.

HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK.
SIR GEORGE CAMPBELL, M.P.
J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P.
PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN.
MONTAGUE COOKSON, Q.C.
L. H. COURTNEY, M.P.
G. H. DARWIN.
F. W. FARRAR.
PROFESSOR FAWCETT, M.P.
EDWARD A. FREEMAN.
MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON.
M. E. GRANT DUFF, M.P.
THOMAS HARE.
F. HARRISON.
LORD HOUGHTON.
PROFESSOR HUXLEY.
PROFESSOR JEVONS.
EMILE DE LAVELEYE.
T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE.
RICH HON. R. LOWE, M.P.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, M.P.

LORD LYTTON.

SIR H. S. MAINE.

DR. MAUDSLEY.

PROFESSOR MAX MULLER.

PROFESSOR HENRY MORLEY.

G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C., M.P.

WILLIAM MORRIS.

F. W. NEWMAN.

W. G. PALGRAVE.

WALTER H. PATER.

RT. HON. LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P.

DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI.

HERBERT SPENCER.

HON. E. L. STANLEY.

SIR J. FITZJAMES STEPHEN, Q.C.

LESLIE STEPHEN.

J. HUTCHISON STIRLING

A. C. SWINBURNE.

DR. VON SYBEL.

J. A. SYMONDS.

W. T. THORNTON.

HON. LIONEL A. TOLLEMACHE.

ANTHONY TROLLOPS.

PROFESSOR TYNDALL. '

THE EDITOR.

&c. &c. &c.

THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published at 2s. 6d.

CHAPMAN & HALL, 193, PICCADILLY.

CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,]

[CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

UNIVEKSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY,
BERKELEY

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of
50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing
to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in
demand may be renewed if application is made before
expiration of loan period.

330275

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY